> z > M^ f 1 i: S O *1M*GJ11Y"> iO 9 Sn S" yc TH£ UNWEaSITY & >■ < I < - £ 3 r 5 >.#MTA tAIBAKA Z 1 S J <^ c PV^Ti^/i THE BIRTHLAND OF ST. PAUL CILICIA: ITS FORMER HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE, WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE IDOLATROUS WORSHIP PREYAILING THERE PREVIOUS TO THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY. ;WM. BURCKHARDT BARKER, M.R.A.S., MANT TEARS RESIDEfTT AT TARSUS IN AN OFFICIAI, CAPACITV. EDITED BT WM. FRANCIS AINSWORTH, F.R.G.S., F.G.S., Corresponding Member of the Geogr.-vphical Society of P.iris. Illustrateb b» nitmrroug (Engravings from tristmg lirmains. ' I am a man which am a .Tew of Tarsus, a city in Cilicia, a citizen of no mean city." St. Paui,, Acts xxl. 39. LONDON AND GLASGOW: RICHARD GRIFFIN AND COMPANY. PtTBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASOOTT. CONTENTS. PAGB Introductory Preface 1 CILIOIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. CHAPTER I. Early period of Cilician history. Scriptural mention of Tarsus. An- cient religion. Notice of the Cilicians by Herodotus. Cilicia under the Assyrians. Burial-place of Sardanapalus. Dominion of the Medes. Cilicia overrun by Scythian hordes. The Prophet Daniel's tomb. Croesus, king of Lydia. Persian satraps. Invasion of Greece by the Persians. Syennesis, king of Cilicia. Treaty of Antalcidas. Alexander the Great in Cilicia. Battle of Issus 11 CHAPTER II. Plistarchus. Battle of Ipsus. Ptolemy Evergetes. Antiochus the Great. Zeno and Chrysippus. Cilicia under the Seleucidis. In- vaded by Tigranes. Reduced to a Roman province by Pompey. Cicero's campaign in Cilicia. Marc Antony and Cleopatra at Tar- sus. Cilicia invaded by the Parthians under Labienus. Atheno- dorus. Vonones slain in Cilicia. St. Paul. Insurrection of the Cliteans. Cossuatianus Papito govei-nor. Polemon, king of Cilicia, marries Berenice. Cilicia declared a Roman province in Vespasian's time. Fate of the Roman empire decided on the plain of Issus. . 23 CHAPTER III. Legend of the Seven Sleepers. Sapor invades Cilicia. Zeuobia's con- quests. Cilicia oveiTun by the Alani. Maximiauus dies at Tarsus. Death of Couotuntius at Mopsuestia in Cilicia. St. George, patron saint of England, born at Epiphanea. The Emperor JuUan buried at Tarsus. Invasions of the Huns. Belisarius in Cilicia. Cam- paigns of Heraclius and of Chosroes (Kusru Anushiiiwan). . . 36 a VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. PAGE Rise of the Saracens. Cilicia overrun by Harun al Rashid. Al Mamun dies in Cilicia. Exchange of prisoners at Il-Lamas. Sack of Mop- suestia by the Khalif Mutassim. Mopsuestia retaken by Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces. Rise of the Turkmans. Alp Arslan and Roraanus Diogenes. Turkman dynasty at Nicjea. Persecu- tion of the Christians. First Crusade. Tancred and Baldwin in Cilicia. Alexius annexes Cilicia to the Greek empire. . . 45 CHAPTER V. The Emperor John Comnenus killed in a wild boar hunt in Cilicia. Description of Anazarba. The second Crusade. Third Crusade. Death of Frederick I. (Barbarossa) in Cilicia. Fourth Crusade. Cilicia under John Ducas Vataces. Devastations of Yanghiz or Genghiz Khan. .......... 54 CHAPTER VI. Rise of the Osmanlis or Usmanlis. Victories of Bayazid. Invasions of the Moguls. Capture of Constantinople by jMuhammad II. Bay- azid II. Annexes Cilicia to the Ottoman empire. Campaigns of Sulaiman the Magnificent. Amurad IV. invades Cilicia. His house at Adana. Reforms of Mahmud II. Abd'ul Masjid. ... 65 CHAPTER VII. Modern histoiy of Cilicia. Rise of Kutchuk Ali I^glu. His means of revenue. Acts of cruelty. Bayas. Mode of life and character- istics. Seizes the master of an English vessel. Captures a French merchantman. Bribes the Turks who are sent against him. Puts his friend the Dutch Consul of Aleppo into prison. Forces a cara- van of merchants to ransom him. A characteristic anecdote. . 73 CHAPTER VIII. Dada Bey, son of Kutchuk Ali Fglu. His piratical expeditions. Re- pels the attacks of tlic Tin-ks. Is taken by sti-atagem. Is be- headed and l)urnt. History of Mustafa Pasha. Kil-Aga killed by Haji Ali ]}oy. Dervisii Ilaniid. Story related of Haji Ali Bey. Conquests of Ibrahim Pasha. Mustuk Bey placed in power. Com- parison between the Egyptian and Turkish governments. . . 84 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. Muhammad Izzet Pasha. A pretender to the Turkish throne . His strange history and rare accomplishments. Disappears at Kuniyah . Ahmed Izzet Pasha. Grants permission to Mustuk Bey to murder his nephew. Sulaiman Pasha. Durwisli Ahmed's expedition against Mustuk Bey. His chief officers taken and stripped. Bayas captured and sacked. ........... 92 CHAPTER X. Anecdotes of Sulaiman Pasha. Gin-Jusif, rebel of Kara-Tash. Arif Pasha. Murder of a pasha. Hasan Pasha. Anecdotes of the council. Christian members of council. Employes of the Porte. Toll at Kulak Bughaz. Hati Sheriff. Courts of justice. . . 101 CHAPTER XI. Geography of Cilicia. Tarsus and Adana. Missis (Mopsuestia) . Sis (Pindenissus). Bayas and the coast. Pylae Ciliciae. Population of Cilicia. Europeans and their influence destroyed. Consuls and their authority. English consuls allowed to trade. Climate. Stagnant lake (Rhegma). Marsh of Alexandretta. Country- houses. Nimrud. Sea-ports. Kaisanli. Mursina and its road- stead 110 CHAPTER XII. Advantages and disadvantages of Tarsus in a commercial point of view. Tables of navigation. Tabular view of the trade of the interior of Asia Minor. Table of exports. Table of imports. State of agri- culture in Cilicia. Produce of the country. Cotton. Wheat. Barley. Linseed. Wax. Fruit-trees. Silk. Olive-trees. Pay of a day-labourer. Pasture of land. Tenure of land. Timber and woods. Geology and mineralogy. Extracts from Mr. Ainsworth's work. Plain of Tarsus. Falls of the Cydnus. First, second, third, and fourth range of hills. IMines of iron and lead. Argentiferous Galena. Revenue of the Pashalik 117 CHAPTER XIII. II Lamas (Lamum). Kui'kass (Corycus). Aski Shahir. Soli, after- wards Pompeiopolis. Great Mausoleum at Tarsus. Strabo's de- scription of the coast of Cilicia. His account of Tarsus and neigh- bouring towns. . . . . . . . . . .128 viii CONTENTS. LARES AND PENATES. CHAPTER I. PAGE Introductory 145 CHAPTER IT. Discovery of the terra-cottas. Lares and Penates of Cilicia. Evidences of promiscuous worship. Apollo of Tarsus. Perseus, Bellerophon, and Pegasus. Radiated Apollo. Identity of physiognomy. Ugly faces. Deification of children. Deification of princes. Deification of ladies. Character of Cilician art. Progress of Christianity. Destruction of the Lares and Penates. Atys. Apollo, the Syrian Baal. Cybele, Ceres, and Isis. Eleusinian mysteries. Cybele and Atys, T sis and Osiris, Venus and Adonis. The cat, dog, and horse. Harpocrates and Florus. Isis and the Nelumbium. Sacred bulls. Egyptian art. Morpheus 152 CHAPTER III. Apollo. Apollo Belvedere. Caricatures of Midas. Apollo of Tarsus. Senator in the clavus latus. Lion attacking a bull. Telephus or Mercury (?). Ceres. Victory. Date of destruction of the Lares. Metamorphosis of Actaeon into a stag. Remarks of Mr. Birch. . 184 CHAPTER IV. ON CERTAIN PORTRAITS OF HUNS, AND THEIR IDENTITY WITH THE EXTINCT RACES OP AMERICA. Monstrous head in a conical cap. Portrait of a Hun (?). Identity with American sculptures. Emigrations of Asiatic nations to America. Testimonies from Stephens, Schomburgk, Humboldt. Analogies of language. Evidences from Klaproth and d'Herbelot. 203 CHAPTER V. ETHNOLOGICAL SUBJECT OF THE HUNS CONTINUED. " The ugly heads" of the collection. Standard of beauty. Monu- ments of Central America. Parallel case in Hayti. The Hittites of Scripture. Reference to Egj'ptian sculpture. Effects of the Egyptian invasion of Cilicia. 208 COiNTENTg. CHAPTER VI. ADDITIONAL WORKS OF ART. GODS, DEMIGODS, AND HEROES. FAGE Apollo. Mercury. Hercules. Bacchus. Silenus. Fauns and Satyrs. Pan. Minerva. Venus. Cupid. Europa. Marsyas. Leander. Laocoon. ^sculapius. Fortune. Caius Caligula (?). Priapus. Harpy. Marsyas. Abrerig or Nergal (?). Summary . . . 21 3 CHAPTER VII. SIBYLS AND DOLPHINS AND THEIR RIDERS. Sibyls. An African sibyl. Head-dress of the virgin-prophetesses. A matron sibyl (?). Dolphins and their riders. Apotheosis of de- ceased childi-en. Story of Arion. Radiated heads. The Bulla. . 228 CHAPTER VIII. Magi and Monks 232 CHAPTER IX. Monsters and Idiots 237 CHAPTER X. HUMAN FIGURES. Bards. Priests. Miscellaneous. Female figures. Deified children. Undetermined. 243 CHAPTER XI. ANIMALS. Dogs. Oxen. Bulls. Buffalo. Horses. Lions. Panther. Wolf. Boar. Ape. Hippopotamus (?). Cat. Goats. Rams and Sheep. Crocodile. Snake. Eagle. Swan. Ostrich. Cocks. . . . 249 CHAPTER XII. DOMESTIC AND RELIGIOUS ART. Chariots. Vases. Bowls and dishes. Wine-jars and drinking-vessels. Lamps. Handles. Table and chair. Ring and glass. Round disc of pottery. Net. Butter-print (?) 253 CHAPTER XIII. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. Lyres. Syrinx 259 X CONTEXTS. CHAPTER XIV. PAGE COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY. Arsus (Rhesus). Myriandrus. Iskandrun or Alexandretta (Alexandria ad Isson). Godfrey de Bouillon's fort. Baylan (Pictanus, Erana ?). Primitive Christian church. Castles of Ibn Daub and of Baylan Bustandah. Altars of Alexander. Castle of Markatz. River Ker- sus. Gates of Cilicia and Syria. Bayas (Baiae). Issus. Nicopo- lis. Kara Kaya (Castabala). Epiphauea. Matakh. Tamir Kapu (Iron Gates, Ammanian Gates). Ayas (Ageae). Ammodes. Kara Tash(MallusandMegarsus). Aleian plain. Pyramus. Mopsuestia. Castles on the plain. Sari Capita. Rhegma of the Cydnus. Yanifa Kishla. Mazarlik. Castle of Kalak Bughaz. Kara Sis. Anabad andDunkalah • • .262 CHAPTER XV. ANTIOCH AND SELETJCIA. The Bay of Antioch. Village of Suwaidiyah. Grotto of Nymphseus. Island of Meliboea. Ruins of Seleucia Pieria. Projected re-open- ing of the port of Seleucia. Mount St. Simon. Mount Casius. Temple of Ham 267 CHAPTER XVI. NATURAL HISTORY — ZOOLOGY. The ounce. The lynx. Bears. Hyenas, wolves, and jackals. The Fox. Hares. Fallow-deer. White gazelle (ghazal). Greyhounds. Gh'aik, or ibex 276 CHAPTER XVII. GAME BIRDS. Game birds. Manner of taking quails. Manner of taking francolin and partridges. Capture of wild doves. 281 CHAPTER XVIII. Falconry 284 CHAPTER XIX, Medicinal Plants 299 CONTENTS. XI APPENDIX. PAGE Nan-ative of Nadir Bey, written from his own dictation (in French) . 301 Translation 310 Petition of Nadir Bey (in Italian) 320 Translation 325 Historical Documents : Copy of a Buynrdi from Muhammed Izzet Pasha. Insurrection of Lattakiyah in 1804. State of North Syria in 1805 and in 1814. Petition from the Chief of the Trades to Mr. John Barker, 1841. Notice of Badir Khan Bey, the extir- minator of the Nestorian Christians. Story of Fahel, chief of the Arabs of the Zor, or forest district on the Euphrates. . . . 328 Burckhai'dt's Account of Cilicia 355 Commercial Tables : I. Commerce of Kaisariyah with the chief towns of Asia Minor. II. Summary of the Commerce of Kaisariyah one year with another. III. Exports of the Pashalik of Adanaand Tarsus. IV. Imports of the same Pashalik. V. Prospectus of the Navigation of Mursina, roadstead of Tarsus, 1844. VI. Table of Duties paid at Constantinople 372 INDEX 387 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. View of Sis .... Mausoleum at Eleusa Map of Cilicia Sarcophagus at Seleucia Pieria Ruin at Anazarba . Saccal Tutan .... Plain of Antioch — Overflow of the distance .... Missis ..... View of Alexandretta Alexandretta and Cape Khanzir Sarcophagus at Seleucia Pieria Ground-plan of Mausoleum at Tarsus Tomb at Eleusa Ruins of an Aqueduct at Anazarba Valley of the Orontes Sculptured Rocks at Anazarba GOS-HAWK AND FaLCON Gesril Hadeed, in the Plains of Antioch Betias : Summer Residence of Mr. Barker Mr. Barker's Villa in the Valley of Suedia Orontes — Mount Amanus Frontispiece 10 11 35 64 91 109 110 113 116 131 133 •242, 258 275 275 283 295 298 300 360 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TO LARES AND PENATES. page Actseon 189 Adonis as Apollo 178 Apollo . 157,161,162,164,178,195 Apis 182 Ariadne 216 Atys, young 174,227 Bacchante 200 Bacchus 195, 216 Bard playing 243 Boy and Dolphin 230 Caius Caligula 223 Captive, kneeling 211 XIV LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. Ceres 176 Chronos 193 Commodus 167 Cupid and Swan . . . . 21.0, SiO Cybele 192 Davus 198 Diana 156,284 Eros 166, 194 Gladiator 244 Harpocrates 181 Head, tutulated 192 Heads, monstrous .... 203, 204 Hercules 169 Hero 193 Horse, leg of 175 „ head of 180 Idiot head , 268 Incense- burner 155 Iris 177 Isis l.qi Juno 157, 1()7, 177 Jupiter 157 Lady, head of 168,188 Lamp 156 Leander swimming the Hellespont 222 Lion attacking a Ball . . . . 187 Macrocephalus, a 238 Magus 232 Man riding a Bear .... 226 Mask, comic 177, 178 Mercury 158 ^lessalina 158 Midas 185 Monster, head of a 236 Musical Instruments .... 260 Osiris 14, 161 Pallas Pan Perseus Phree (the Egyptian Sun) Phrygian Head .... Priest with attributes of Apollo Priestess 169 155 197 252 197 164 199 Saturn J 93 Senator 186 Serapis 14 Sibyl, African 228 Silenus 218 Somnus 183 Tartarus 248 Venus 170, 193 Victoria Aleta 189 — i*<> :» > a > »g ^K— INTEODUCTOEY PEEFACE BY THE EDITOR. The author of this little volume, and the first to bring to hght the Lares and Penates of the ancient and interesting city of Tarsus — Mr. William Burckhardt Barker — is the son of John Barker, Esq., who died at Suedia, or Suwaidiyah, near Antioch, on the fifth of October, 1850, in his seventy-nmth year. He is also the godson of the eminent traveller and Oriental scholar Louis Biu'ckhardt, Avhose footsteps he has most worthily followed, having prosecuted the study of the Oriental languages from his early boyhood, and being now as familiar -with Ai'abic, Tui'kish, and Persian, and the many dialects which emanate from these languages, as he is with the chief languages of Europe. He lately made an ex- tended tour in Persia, whither he went to perfect himself in the language of that country before his final return to England. Mr. W. Burckhardt Barker is further akeady known in this country by an account of the sources of the river Orontes, of which no previous description had been published, and which appeared in the 7tli volume of the Journal of the Eoyal Geographical Society. The father of our author for a long period occupied posts of honour- able trust under the British government. He was appointed Consul and Agent to the East Lidia Company at Aleppo in 1799, where he exercised his functions and practised a generous hospitality to his coun- trymen and to strangers till 1826, when he was promoted to the post B 2 INTIiODUCTOrvY TREFACE. of liis Majesty's Consul- General in Egypt. Here lie remained till 1834, Avhen lie became entitled to liis retirement from public service. He then fixed his residence in the beautiful valley of Suedia, ancient Se- leucia Pieria, on the banks of the Orontes, and about fifteen miles from Antioch. Here he built a commodious house, and planted his grounds with the choicest flowers, shrubs, and fmit-trees of Europe and Asia. At a subsequent period he added to this general residence a summer-house at the village of Betias, on a commanding eminence of jNIount Rhosus, where there was an abundant supply of water, the air was always refreshing and cool, and the prospect magnificent; and here his mortal remains Avere consigned to the tomb. The presence of an Englishman of a liberal and benevolent mind had a great influence upon the native population, who looked up to him and his family with sentiments of love and respect. This feeling was shared as well by the Muhammadan inhabitants as by the Christian. His services to Eastern travellers have in numberless instances been called into action, and have been gratefully recorded in many published works of those who partook of his hospitality. IMr. Barker's family came from Bakewell, in Derbyshire, where they have long been estabUshed. He married Miss Hays at Aleppo in 1800, who survives him. This lady's mother was a daughter of Mr. Thomas Vernon, a Levant merchant of Aleppo, when that city was the grand emporium of the commerce of India. He was of the family of the Yernons of Hilton, in Cheshire, and a near kinsman of Admiral 8ir Edward Vernon, of Porto Bello celebrity. By this lady, who was a remarkable linguist, for it is stated she spoke five languages fluently when only six years old, ^Ir. Barker had three sons and two daughters, r-aU of whom possessed a great facility for acquiring languages, and be- came proficient Orientalists. Mr. Barker's latter years were much occupied in procuring from all parts of Asia the best kinds of fruits, which he cultivated in his gar- dens at Suedia with a view to prove their merits, and afterwards of transferring them to liis native country, so as to improve upon the varieties grown there. His attention was especially directed to the peach, nectarine, and apricot ; and from specimens that have already been produced from his stock, there is but little doubt that in a few INTRODUCTORY PREFACE. 6 years a very superior order of what we denouiinate w'all-lruits will be ia conamon cultivation in England. Some hundreds of Mr. Barker's trees are now under culture in the garden of an eminent nurseryman in Devonshire, and are destined to be spread over the country. They all possess the peculiar property of having sweet kernels, in contra- distinction to those common in Europe, which have bitter kernels : this imparts a greatly improved flavoiu' to the fruit. The famous Stanwick nectarine, declared by Dr. Lindley to be incomparably superior to any thing we have, Avas introduced by Mr. Barker into this country through the assistance of his Grace the present Duke of Northumberland. In this gentle and humanising pursuit Mr. Barker spared neither exertions nor expense. He was in the habit for many years past of sending agents into distant coimtries of the East, including Bokhara, Samar- kand, Kandahar, and Shiraz, to procure for him scions of all such trees as bore the best fruits. He was, indeed, enthusiastic in the pursuit of whatever he thought would benefit mankind. Thus in 1848, when the cholera committed great devastation in the north of Syria, a remedy is stated to have been discovered by which many persons were cured even in the advanced stages of the disease. Mr. Barker verified the efficiency of the proposed remedy by personal observation ; and once he was satisfied, he spared no pains or expense to spread the knowledge of what he deemed an impor- tant discovery to all parts of the world. During a residence of fifty years in Syria and Egypt, Mr. Barker never lost an opportunity of obliging in his private capacity all persons who came within his reach ; and such was the reputation he had acquired by his general hospitality, that often a letter of introduction from him to any of the chiefs around was of more real value than the best passport from the government authorities. During the campaign of the French in Syria he also rendered good service to our old ally the Porte, from whom, imder Sultan Selim, he received a gold medal and a snuiF-box set with diamonds, which were sent to him through his friend Sir Syd- ney Smith. Mr. Barker had a final opportunity of being usefid to his country by forwarding the objects of the Euphrates expedition, which landed at the mouth of the Orontes in 1835, and of extending his characteristic 4 IMTRODUCTOKY PRErACE. hospitality to Colonel Chesney and the officers and men of the ex- pedition. This true-hearted Englishman, indeed, spent all his income in keeping up to the last the honour and respectability of the British name. As a farther proof of what has been here stated, I have been in- duced, with the kind permission of the publishers, to introduce into the work a brief notice of Mr. Barker, with some account of his residence at Suwaidiyah and of the immediate neighbourhood, from Mr. Neale's work, recently published by iSIessrs. Colburn and Co., Eight Tears in Syria and Palestine, ij-c. The interest of the present work will be foiuid upon perusal to be much greater than might be expected from its more or less local cha- racter. Cilicia, properly so called, is not less remarkable for its phy- sical configiu'ation, than it is as the scene of varied historical events, many of which have by their importance infliienced the destiny of the world. Physically'speaking, the alluvial deposit of the Cydnus and the Sarus, the Pyramus and the Pinarus, all rivers of ancient renown, the great Aleian plain, the lower and wooded ranges of the Taurus and of the Amanus, the snow-clad summits of which gird this province like a wall of rock, and the narrow slip of land forming the shores of the Issic Gulf, constitute the whole of the country of Cilicia Proper.* But politically and historically Cilicia derived its importance from being the highway between the nations of the East and the West. When the Persians, under their powerful monarch Xerxes, advanced against the first scat of European civilisation, or when the Greeks in their turn marched in the train of a Persian satrap to the plains of Babylonia, Cilicia was alike put under contributions by both parties. Wlien the already aged civilisation of the East and tlie young civilisa- tion of the West had in Alexander the Great's time become more balan- ced, the fate of the two was decided half-way on the plains of Cilicia. Petty chieftains, like the successors of Alexander, made of it a continuous field of strife ; and so warlike had the experience of the past made its * Strabo divided Cilicia into Cilicia Aspera and Cilicia Canipostris ; the latter i< called by Ptolemy, Cilicia Proper. INTRODUCTORY TREFACE, 5 inhabitants, that it required a Pompej, a Cicero, and a Mark Antony in the palmy days of Rome to bring the same rock and sea-girt province into subjection. Even the short-lived powers of Zenobia affected Cilicia; and in the long struggle for domination that took place between the Emperor of Byzantium and the Sassanian Kings, Cilicia still continued to be the field of oft- re- peated and sanguinary conflicts. This was still more the case upon the rise of Muhammadanism ; and in the times of the early khalifs, -when the population of the country appears to have attained its maximum, its soil was more than ever stained by the blood of victims to men's lust for power and dominion. The Saracens were succeeded by Turkman races, which have ever since held most tenaciously by a country which they have found pe- culiarly adapted to their habits and mode of life. Three times the Chi'istians of the West, as they Avere rising into power upon the past civilisation of Greece and Eome, advanced to battle for the empire of the Cross through Cilicia; and fatal experience ultimately taught them to take other routes. For a time, as under the wily Alexixis or the less fortunate John Comnenus, Cilicia was once more a Greek province: biit the dread power of the Osmanlis Avas already on the ascendant; and with the exception of the temporary sway of the Mamluks, and of the devasting inroads of a Janghiz Khan or a Timur-lang, which w^ere as evanescent as they were sweeping, and of a brief Egyptian domination in the time of Ibrahim Pasha, Cilicia has ever since remained vmder the control of the Osmanlis, or of their more or less dependent vassals, the Turkman chieftains of the country. The peculiar position of this sea-and-mountain-girt province has always influenced the character of the inhabitants. The father of history tells us that the Cilicians were among the few nations in Lesser Asia whom Crasus could not bring into subjection. Mr. Barker notices the bad character for piracy and unfaithfulness that Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus, gave of the Cilicians ; so familiar indeed Avere these fea- tures in the character of these isolated people of antiquity, that CUix hand facile verum dicit became a proverbial saying. From the same mountains Avhere Cicero found the " Avicked and audacious Tibarani," and Avhere dwelt the rebel Clitn?ans, Armenians (not 6 IXTRODUCTORY PREFACE. always very warlike in other countries) descended to ravage tlie plains or harass the Crusaders ; and what is more curious, as shewing the per- sistency of character among tribes similarly situated, the Aushir and Kusan Uglu tribes of Turkmans, scarcely subjected by Ibrahim Pasha, are in the present day merely nominal vassals of the Sultan. A ciu'ious feature also belongs to Cilicia, which is its fatahty to crowned heads. It is doubtful if Sardanapalus, notwithstanding certain not very authentic statements to the contrary, did not die in this pro- vince ; the river Cydnus, which had nearly proved fatal to Alexander, was certainly so, nearly a thousand years afterwards, to the Emperor Frederic, surnamed Barbarossa; Seleucus VI. was burned to death in a palace at Mopsuesiia ; Labienus and Yonones were slain in the same province ; Pescennius Niger was killed on the ever-memorable battle- field of Issus ; Trajan died at Selinus ; Florianus was killed by his troops at Tarsus ; Maximianus died in agonies at the same city ; Constantius perished at Mopsuestia, and Julian the Apostate was buried at Tarsus ; the best and wisest of the khalifs, Almaamun, died in Cilicia; and the pride of the Comneni, Kalo Joannes, lost his life in a boar-hunt at Anazarba. Three times the fate of the world was decided on the plain of Issus. First, when the Greeks and Persians met there; secondly, when Severus and Pescennius Niger engaged there in a life-struggle for dominion; and thirdly, when Heraclius and Chosroes contested there for the superiority of the West over the East. There also, in the time of Bayazid II., the Osnianlis contested with the Mamluk dynasty of Syria the emj^ire of the East. Yet in the present day it is ditlicult to determine, in a truly positive manner, the exact site of this famous battle-field, to which so melancholy and so sad an interest attaches itself The modern history of this remarkable country, as detailed by Mr. Barker, possesses all the interest of a romance. It could scarcely be imagined that, within almost our own times, the high-road between the East and the "West Avas held almost independent during the whole life- time of one bandit-chief, Kuchuk Ali Uglu, and during a portion of that of his son, both of whom levied tribute on all wayfarers, imprisoned or murdered inofiensive travellers, and committed all kinds of excesses, even to capturing English and French merchantmen and imprisoning a Dutch INTRODUCTORY PREFACE. 7 Consul, without any effective interference having taken place on the part of Europe or the Turkish government! Happily those days are gone by, — it is to be hoped for ever. The history of the five pashas who succeeded to the Egyptians is replete with curious matter, highly instructive to those who wish to be truly informed as to the mode of administration in Tm-kish provinces. The commercial details, more complete and satisfactory than any hi- therto presented to the public, will also prove interesting to a large commxmity. In regard to that part of Mr. Barker's woi'k which illustrates the political and administrative affairs of Cilicia, it must, however, be under- stood that the condition of that province is very exceptional, and in one peculiarity anomalous. The population is mixed, the majority being Turkmans ; next in number, but at a far-off distance, come the Fallahs, or agricultui'al peasants, mostly Ansayiii and deists ; after these the Christians, chiefly Armenians; next come the Kurds, dwelling at Kars and other places in the mountains; and lastly, the Turks or Osmanlis, chiefly emploi/e's of the Porte, police, &c. The Turkman tribes of Taurus are as independent as the Miriditi, Sagori, and other mountain tribes of Turkey in Europe ; and the Ayans, or Turkman nobles of the tribes in- habiting both plains and mountains, constitute the council, and thus hold the provincial, more especially the financial, administration of the dis- trict so entirely under their control, as to put insuperable impediments in the way of reforms projected at Constantinople being as yet bi'ought into operation in a district so remote, so peculiarly circumstanced phy- sically, and having a population of its own — not precisely ill-affected towards the Sultan of the Osmanlis, but having no feeling or tie of nationality. The antiquities of Cilicia are the monuments of its past glory ; the more interesting and sug'^estive from comparison with the actual fallen condition of this once prosperous, populous, and powerful country. Towns that could boast of their 200,000 inhabitants, like Mopsuestia, now scarcely contain 200 ! Anazarba, the home cf Dioscorides and Oppianus, is now level with the ground ; and Epiphanea, which gave birth to St. George of Cappadocia and of England, is an untenanted, desolate, black ruin. The city dignified by the birth of the great 8 IXTRODUCTORY TIIEFACE. Apostle to the Gentiles remains, but alas how fallen ! The dominion of the Greeks and Romans has, however, left its traces in a few noble monu- ments of olden time. The public edifices of Soli or Pompeiopolis, the ruins of Anazarba, the tombs at Sebaste or Eleusa (for an illustration of which I have been indebted to the distinguished traveller Dr. Layard), the Amanian gates, and the presumed altars of Alexander, still attest the taste and magnificence of bygone times; above all, a new interest has been imparted to Cilician archceology by Mr. Barker's important disco- very of terra -cotta illustrations of the Lares and Penates of the Cilicians of old. Epiphania is stiU a great ruin ; Sis and Arsus are remarkable sites of early Christianity ; and hills and mountains are stiU dotted with the castles of Saracens, Venetians, Genoese, and Crusaders. Almost all that has been done by the Muhammadans still exists; and Bayas, on the site of the Baia^ of the Romans, is for its size the most complete epitome of an Oriental town that I ever met with. Much has been done in recent times to illustrate the comparative geography of Cilicia. It was impossible that, in the absence of cui'reut topograpliical information, former commentators on the old geographers could throw more light upon the subject than existed in the days of Pliny, Strabo, or Ptolemy. Take, for example, the commentaries of the distinguished classical editors Gronovius and Yossius upon Pompo- nius Mela: Issus is identified with Laissa, Ammodes with Amanoides, Tarsus with Tarso, c^c. Cellarius, in his admirable Compendium of Ancient Geography, wisely refrains from identification with actual sites. The beginning of a new era in respect to a more intimate acquain- tance with the geography of Cilicia dates from the publication of Captain (now Admiral) Sir Francis Beaufort's Karamania, and Colonel Leake's Journal of a Tour, &c. The surve^-s of the Euplirates Expedition com- pleted what Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort had left undone, and enabled the editor to publish a first detailed notice of the comparative geography of the Cilician and Syrian gates in the fourth volume of the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, and which has been amplified and cor- rected in subsequent publications. Mucli, however, still remains to be done by future traveller^. The site of INfyriandrus has never been positively determined; Cicero's cam- paign in Amanus is by no means thorougldy understood. INTIIODUCTORY PREFACE. 9 The route given in the Antouine Itinerary as leading from Nicopolis to Zeugma on the Euphrates appears to be the same as the pass through Amauus by which Darius advanced in the rear of the Macedonians ; but the details of this road are wanted. The sites of Aliaria and Gerbidissus are imknowu; and the total distance of seventy- two Roman miles from the Euphrates to the shores of Cilicia is unsatisfactory. No traces have been met Avith of the Serropolis of Ptolemy, supposed to be the same as the Cassipolis of Pliny. Cadra and Davara, the strongholds of rebels at the period of Tarsus's greatest glory, are also unknown sites. IMr. Barker has not omitted the consideration of the produce and agriculture of this rich and fertile country. His notice also of the natural history of Cilicia, if not scientific, is still replete with curious and original infoi'mation. Gazelles and other small deer, as also their natural enemies the feline tribe, abovmd in Cilicia. The Amanus is spoken of in the Song of Solomon as the mountain of leopards. The natui'alist ^lian, and the poet of the Argonauts, Valerius Flaccus, speak of the tigers and of the deer of the same district. The editor has seen six panthers while hunt- ing in one small valley ; and Mr. Barker describes Abdallah il Eushdi as leaving Adana, after a short residence there, with forty-two panther- skins in his possession. The plains of Cilicia abound in game. It is scarcely possible to ride across these fertile grassy expanses, dotted here and there on the western side with the evergreen carob-tree — the locust-tree of Scripture — with- out seeing herds of gazelles browsing in the distance. The large bustard stalks along the same plains, and the smaller bustard is seen at certain seasons soaring in flocks of myriads. Wherever there is cover, the beau- tiful //-awcoZm — the prototype of our pheasant — abounds. The marshes teem with wild fowl. The sea swarms with fish, which may often be seen parading its depths from over the ship's side. Turtles are so abundant, that Mr. Barker tells us that hundreds may be taken in a day. This is truly a country as favoured by nature as it is neglected by man. But by these very peculiarities it gains in human interest. Its re- markable configuration and physical features, its mountains, forests, and wild animals, its natxiral resources and produce, its history and vicissi- tudes, its associations and existing monuments, its prostrate and oppres- 10 INTRODUCTORY PREFACE. sed population, and above all its commercial capabilities, and its claims upon the sympathy of a wide- embracing humanity, entitle it as a coimtry to a moment's attention, and as a population of various origin and creeds 'to a thought of kindness from English readers. MAUSOLEUM AT ELEUSA. FROM A SKETCH OF DR. LAYAKD. CILICIA AND ITS GOYEUXOES BEIXG AX INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OP THE LARES AND PENATES. CHAPTER I. EARLY PERIOD OF CILICIAN HISTORY SCRIPTURAL MENTION OF TARSUS ANCIENT RELIGION NOTICE OF THE CILICIANS BY HERODOTUS CILICIA UNDER THE ASSYRIANS BURIAL-PLACE OF SARDANAPALUS DOMINION OF THE MEDES CILICIA OVERRUN BY SCYTHIAN HORDES THE PROPHET DANIEL'S TOMB — CRCESUS, KING OF LYDIA PERSIAN SATRAPS — INVASION OF GREECE BY THE PERSIANS — SYENNESIS, KING OF CILICIA TREATY OF ANTALCIDAS ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN CILICIA BATTLE OF ISSUS. The early history of Cilicia, a country replete •with interesting associa- tions, as having been the theatre of many great events, is unfortunately, like that of most ancient nations, involved in obscurity; and it is ex- tremely difficult to construct, out of the scanty materials Avhich have reached our times, a chain of narrative so complete and satisfactory as to connect, without the absence of some essential links, the history of its past grandeur Avith its actual condition. It has been my main, endea- vour, the more effectually to dispel the cloud which hangs over the ancient portion of its history, to select from such writers'as have given this country a place in tlieir pages what may be considered most worthy of insertion, in order to form a connected and complete history. But the gleams of light which, from time to time, break through the mist are partial, leading only to conjecture; and they do not sufficiently fill up the gaps which the ignorance of some and the unwillingness of others have left us to regret in this inquiry. There is, however, the best reason to believe that those passes or natural defiles which break the barriers that Nature has placed betAveen the elevated plains of Asia Minor and those large tracts situated east of the Mediterranean, were considered by the nations of antiquity of so much 12 CILIGIA AND ITS GOYERXOES. importance that they were made an object of the particular attention of mouai'chs ; and hence CiHcia became, from its position, the scene of strife between contending empires. Connecting, as it were, the eastern and western world, it was also, at a very early date, the first to benefit by the continual influx of strangers ; and civilisation, consequent on the in- tercourse of man with man, was an early feature of its character ; while Avealth, flowing rapidly on its precursors, civilisation and trade, laid a foundation for that opulence which, in after times, attracted the cupidity of the Romans, and reduced it finally to a Roman province. Hence we find Cilicia mentioned by several historians as the first commercial power which made any figure in this part of the world. But it is not only the fables of Pagan theology that bear witness to the high antiquity and power of this country, by informing us that Tarsus was built by Perseus, son of Jupiter by Danae; but Scrijjture historians also afiirm that the sons of Tarshish, the great-grandson of Noah, who were settled on this coast, had made themselves famous for their navigation and commerce; so that "the ships of Tarshish" had become a common appellation for all vessels of trade, and " to go to Tarshish" a proverbial expression for setting out to sea in such vessels. In Isaiah xxiii. 10, Tyre is called "the daughter of Tarshish," which would lead us to infer that the nautical celebrity to which the Tyrians subsequently attained had its rise in Cilicia, and that a colony from this country settled on the Syrian coast and laid the foundation for Phoijni- cian grandeiu- and fame.* * There are few questions in sacred geography that are involved in gi-cater diffi- culties than the position and extent of Tarshish, or of the several Tarshishes men- tioned in the Scriptures. Some have argued that the word itself appUed to the sea general!}'. One of the latest authorities, the Rev. J. R. Beard, D.D., has attempted in a similar manner to cut the gordian knot, by arguing that all the scriptural pas- sages in which the name occm's agree in fixing Tarsliish somewhere in or near Spain. (Ct/iloiicedia, of Biblical Literature, edited by J. Kitto, D.D., art. "Tarshish.") Hceren (Ideen, &c. ii. 64) goes so far as to translate (Ezek. xx\-ii. 25) the ships of Tai-sliish, &c. bj' "Spanish ships." And Bochart, in his Geoyraphia Sacra {Phaleg, iii. 7), is imdecidcd as to the superior claims of Carteia or Cadiz, or the Tartcssus of Aristotle, Rti'abo, Pausanias, Arrian, and Avienus, which was between the two mouths of the Baitis or Guadahiuiver, and wliich is the most Ukely site of the Spanish Tai-shish, being of Phflcnician orgin. But there was another Tai-shish in Ophir or Arabia ; for in 2 Cliron. xx. 36 it Is recorded that Jchoshaphat king of Judah joined himself with Ahaziah king of Israel to make shijis to go to Tarsliish ; and they made tl>e ships iu Ezion-gchcr — that is, en the Elanitic Gulf, on the eastern arm of the Red Sea. And in the parallel passage, foimd in 1 Kings xxii. 49, these vessels arc described as " ships of Tarehish," which were intended to go to Ophir. So also theic ajipeare much probability that there was a Tarshish nearer to .Judica. An important testimony to this effect occurs in Ezek. xxx\-iii. 13 : "Sheba and Dedan, and the merchants of Tai-shish, with all the young lions thereof." Now, here Tarshish is mentioned in conjunction with two castcra sites ; and we shall have occasion to shew pctyIptural mention op tarsus. 13 Strabo says of the nations of Tarsus, that tliey did not, like other nations, stay at home, but, in order to complete their education, went abroad ; and many of them, when this was accomplished, became at- tached to their residences in foreign countries, and never returned. To this roving disposition we must attribute the circumstance of their having factories at Dedan and Sheba on the Euphrates, with which places they trafficked in silver, gold, &c., as we are told by Ezekiel (xxxviii. 10) ;* and it confirms the assertion of Tacitus, that Thamiras the Cilician was the first who introduced the science of divination into Cyprus during the reign of Cinyras, as far back as 2000 years B.C., and that the priesthood continued to be hereditary in his family for many generations, until, for want of male heirs, the sacerdotal functions merged into the descendants of the king. Here we find an enlightened Cilician quitting his native country, and bearing with him the riches of superior knowledge, which he imparts to a less civilised nation, establishing for himself and for his posterity an imperishable monument of fame. What that knowledge was, or to what particular worship it related, that the Amaniis was ui ancient times as renowned for its lions as Cilicia is to the present clay distinguished by the number of its panthers, while it does not appear that there were Uons in Andalusia. Again, when Jonah (i. 3 ; iv. 2) wished to avoid the duty imposed upon him to go raid i)ro2ihesy against Nineveh, he took ship at Joppa and fled to Tarshish. It is not likely that he fled as far as Spain ; but it is not unlikely that he fled from Judjea, and took refuge in Tarsus. The transit of the Phoenicians from Cyprus to CiUcia was easy. ApoUodoiiis relates, that Celendris, now Chahndrah, was founded by Sandocus, ?'. e. Sadoc, father of CinjTa. It was afterwards a colony of Samians. The name of the country itself is said to have been derived from Cilix, the brother of Cadmus. According to Bochart, Coiycus, on the same coast, dei'ived its name from the celebrity of its crocuses or safii'on, — carcom in the Hebrew, and corcam in the Syriac (Solomon's Song iv. 14). It is not certain if the Amanus is meant in the 8th verso of the same canticle, " look from the top of Amana," because the momitain so called is mentioned in connexion with the Lebanon. The allusion to "the hons' dens" — "the mountains of the leopards" — makes it, how- ever, extremely improbable that it is the Cilician Amanus that is referred to. Bochart, in his Phcenices in Cilicia {Phaleg, i. 4), entertains no doubt of the commercial rela- tions of Tarsus and Tyre: "Nee clesunt," he adds, " quibus Tarsus Cilicim metropolis, Pauli Apostoli ortu nohilis, videtur esse Tarshish et Cetis" (Cetliim). — W. F. A. * Very little is known as to the locality peopled by the descendants of the Cushite Dedan. It is supposed that they settled in southern Arabia, near the Persian Gulf; but the existence in that quarter of a place called Dadan or Dadena is the chief gi-oimd for this conclusion. The Rev. Charles Forster has, however, shewn in his Historical Geography of Arabia, that con-elative testimony is given of this opinion by the juxta- position of kindred names (vol. i. pp. 38, 63). With regard to the descendants of the Cushite Sheba, there seems no reason to doubt that their ultimate settlement was in Ethiopia ; while the descendants of Sheba, son of Joktan, peopled Yemen in Arabia. Hence the distinction between the African Sabseans and Arabian Sabasans ; but there were also Badwin or "wandering" Shebans (Job i. 15) and Chaldean Sabseans, or, more properly, Tsabians, particularly described by Mr. Rich and the Rev. Mr. Wolff. — W. F. A. 14 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. the learned historian does not proceed to say ; but in another passage we learn from hini that the Egyptians, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadel- phns, B.C. 284, obtained the statue of the god Serapis from Sinope in Pontus ; and although the epoch when \vr^i:itian priests attributed the origin of their nation to the Phi-ijgicms, close neighbours of the Cili- cians, we may conclude that a great similarity existed in the worship and religious ceremonies of the tAvo countries. This siibject is more particularly illus- trated in that part of the work which refers to the newly- discovered tei'ra-cottas, among which have been found heads of Horus and other deities of the Egyptian pantheon, as also the god Osiris, represented under the form of an ox, and of which we giA-e an illustration here. The two accompanying woodcuts of Serapis and Osiris are taken from some terra-cotta antiques found at Tarsus, and of whicli the reader will find a more circumstantial account further on. We are told by Herodotus that the original inhabitants of Cilicia were called Ihjpachcans, and that it was not tmtil the arrival of Cilex, the son of jlgetior l\mg of Phoenicia, that they obtained the appellation of Cilicians. Cilex, it is related, set out in search of his sister Europa, Avho had been carried away by pirates ; and after seeking her in many countries by sea and land, disgusted and worn out by his want of success, and attracted by the fertility of the soil, he settled down on the coast of Asia Minor, and gave his name to the (.^uiis. country which forms the subject of this liistory, about 1552 B.C.* Tarsus in Cilicia is said to have been founded, according to heathen mythology, B.C. 132G, by Perseus son of Jupiter and Danae, while on his expedition against the Gorgons ; but other historians attribute its origin to a colony of Argives. * According to others (ApolloJonis, iii. c. li), Cilex was son of Ciiiyras, and brother of Cadmiis, wliich Cin^Tas fii-st colonised tliesc countries from Phoenicia, and built the town of C'clendrx or Cclendris, afterwards a colony of Saniians. Bochart (Chanaan, i. 5) ar;^ucs that the countrj- derived its name from the abundance of chalk and lime- stone, — iladhk or duMak of the Hebrews, and x»\t^ of the Greeks. — W. F. A. CILICIA UNDER THE ASSYRIANS. 15 However that may be, this city became famous for its maritime commerce as early as the days of Iving David, b.c. 1055 (Ps. xlviii. 7), and from that circmnstance gave its name to that part of the Mediterra- nean contiguous to Cilicia, which was thence called the Sea of Tarshish. Pamphylia was also colonised from the same district. But under what government Cilicia existed, or whether it rose to fame in a state of independence, is a matter of great vmcertainty. It would appear probable that this country paid tribute to the Assyrian monarchs, because the Cilicians are not mentioned by Homer in his catalogue as having sent subsidies to Priam at the siege of Troy, B.C. 1184, -with the rest of their neighbours, the different states on the coast of Asia Minor. Certain it is that the kings of Assyria subdued the principal petty nations of Asia ; and as the Taiirus formed the natural boundary of Mesopotamia, Cilicia must have been the first to fall under the yoke of the successors of Nimrod. But we are precluded from learning at what precise date this coun- try was oveiTun by the Assyrians, because from the death of Ninias, the son of Ninus and Semiramis, B.C. 1600, down to the revolt of the Medes against Sardanapalus, during a period of eight hundred years, there is a chasm in the history of Babylon to be filled up. The fables of Berosus in reference to this subject are not worthy of credit, as the work which passes under his name is evidently a fabrication. But that it was sub- dued and formed a part of that kingdom previous to the time of its disso- lution is an historical fact, as we find Sardanapalus made it his favourite residence ; and we are informed by some historians that the ports of this country were considered of great importance by that dynasty, as being their chief maritime station in the Mediterranean. Grecian historians have attribiited to Sardanapalus, the last king of the Assyrian monarchy, the foundation of the city of Tarsus, B.C. 820 ; but as it is also reported that he was buried at Anchiale* by his par- * Anchiale may have begain even m the time of SardanaiDakis to be a necessary port to the commerce of Tarsus, in consequence of the increasing aUuvium brought down by the river Cydnus, and which is always filling uj) the lake^ that formerly served as a harbour (called by Sti'abo Rhegma, and which he saj's presented some remains of its naval arsenal). This Rhegma resembled a lake by its extensive and shallow bed, and conLI no longer admit of large vessels, because earth, stones, and rubbish wore continually brought down into it from the heights of Mount Tam-us bj' the winds and torrents. It is now a stagnant marsh, with four or five feet water, and no longer communicates either with the sea or the river Cydnixs, although not more dis- tant in some places than a thousand yards from either. The original beds of the canals, which served as a means of communication with the sea, are filled up by earth and sand ; but the traces of them exist, and could with no great difficulty be cleared, and made to serve as au exit for the water. The whole of the surrounding country, with 16 C'lLICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. ticiilar desire, wo may infer that lie was more probably the founder of this latter place, and the embellisher only of Tarsus. On the site of Anchiale is a ruin to be seen which may have been the foundation of the tomb ; but no vestige remains of the celebrated statue mentioned by Arrian of this ill-fated monarch, or of the inscription in the As- syrian language commemorating the intemperance and dissipation that distinguished his life, which so provoked the satire of Ai-istotle. The fact that Sardanapalus was really buried on this spot would seem to contradict the accounts of other writers of celebrity, who assert that he burned himself in his palace in the city of Nineveh, with all his house- hold and treasure; or, at all events, the two statements can only be reconciled by supposing that his body was carried by some faithful sxiTviving attendants, by whom, we hear, he was deified, to repose in the city of his predilection, which owed its origin to his choice.* Dif- ferent accounts of the same event occur frequently in ancient authors, and cause us to regret how much this question is involved in obscui'ity.f On the dismemberment of the Assyrian empire, Cilicia fell into the the bed of the lake itself, ha\-ing risen considerably bj* alluvial dej)osits — a ch'cunistanco universal wherever rivers flow into large 2>lains, and particularly in the \'icinity of such a liigh range of mountains as the Taurus — Anchiale was for centuries the depot of Tar- sus, and received siich vessels as could not by their size enter the lake ; and it con- tinued to serve as the port of Tarsus in after ages until modern times, when Kaisanli was chosen for its proximity ; and lately JIarsmah has been preferred to either for the safety of its roadstead, and is rising into the notice of the commercial world. * The partiality that Sardanapalus seems to have evinced to Anchiale was natural enough ; it was to him, with its wide expanse of sea, what the Indian Ocean would have been to Alexandei-, — the fin-thest point of his conquest: for in the Bay of Issus the land may be seen on the other side ; while at Anchiale the Eastern monarch might have considered himself as having reached the farthest bounds of his Western World. From this place, which he prided himself on ha%-ing built in one day, he could look on the broad blue sea, and ordain that his tomb should there be foi-mcd, where it might remain as a monument of his grandeur, washed by the waves that alone impeded his conquest. There is a ruin at Karadoghar which may be supposed to foi-m a part of this monument ; and the whole coast is lined with buildings that are now broken down and covered with sand by the sea, which has retired full a himdrcd yards : these must have served for quays, and greatly facilitated the landing of goods, which now have to wait the calming of the wind and sea. When we see the gigantic works of the ancients, wherein they si)ared no trouble for the smallest good, wo cannot but wonder at the vastness of population which enabled them to carry out such undei-takings. Wc might well take a lesson of perseverance from theii- example. f Professor Grotefenu states, that after Shalmancser king of Assyria had reigned twenty-five yeare, he extended his conquests over Asia Minor, and took up his abode in the city of Taniikan, a strong place in Etlak, by which perhaps Tarsus in Cilicia is meant, of the building of which by Sennacherib a fabulous account is given V>y Alex- ander Polyhistor and Abydcnus in the Armenian version of Eusebius. After he had introduced into that place the worship of Assarde (Astarte) or NLsroch, and received gold and silver, com, sheep, and oxen as a tribute, he reduced the neighbouring pro- THE PROPHET DAXIEL'S TOMB. 17 liands of the 3Iedes, and so continued until the reign of Cyaxares, B.C. 624, ■when the barbarous hordes of Scythians overran all Central Asia, and overturned the government. After remaining twenty-eight years in possession, the Scythians Avere in their turn driven out, their chiefs be- ing murdered by Cyaxares at a feast. The Medes then recovered that power which the invaders had lost by their licentiousness and ignorance of civil administration. As Daniel the Prophet flourished about this time (550 B.C.), I take the opportunity here of stating a remarkable circumstance connected with an Armenian tradition in the country. The Turks hold in great veneration a tomb which they believe contains the bones of this prophet, situated in an ancient Christian church, converted into a mosque, in the centre of the modern town of Tarsus. The sarcophagus is said to be shont forty feet below the surface of the present soil, in consequence of the accumulation of earth and stones ; and over which a stream flows from the Cydnus river, of comparatively modern date. Over this stream, at the particular spot where the sarcophagus was (before the canal was cut and the waters went over it), stands the ancient church above men- tioned ; and to mark the exact spot of the tomb below, a wooden monu- ment has been erected in the Turkish style.* The waters of this ri\T.ilet are turned off" every year in the summer, in order to clear the bed of the canal; and if ever this country falls into the hands of a civilised nation, it will not be difiicult to verify the authenticity of this tradition, which the fanaticism of the Turks now prevents us from doing. HoAvever extraordinary this may appear, and difficult as it may be to establish the identity of this sarcophagus as containing the relics of the jvophet, without the assistance of history or inscription, little doubt can be enter- tained of the existence of a tomb oi some holf/ personage, or of one whose- memory was held sacred, from the Avell-known permanence of oral tra- dition in the East ; and it is a remarkable instance of the tenacity by which events are rescued from oblivion, and the power of tradition to record the exact locality, at so great a depth under the accumulated ruins of so many years. f %'inces to subjcctiou, and appointed Akliarrizadon or Assarhaddon as king over them. Tlds is one of the triumphs supposed to be alluded to in the celebrated obelisk of Nim- rud or Athiu-. — W. F. A. * This monument is covered with an embroidered cloth, and stands in a special apartment built for it, from the iron -grated windows of which it may occasionally be seen when the Armenians take occasion to make their secret devotions ; but generally a curtain is dropped to hide it from %-ulgar ^iew, and add by exclusion to the sanctity of the place. + The bm-ial-place of the prophet Daniel is not historically known. Epiphanius says C 18 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. It is a curious coincidence that the supposed tomb of Daniel the Pro- phet at Susa is said to be, Hke the one above described, iinder a running stream. Tliis Avould prove the great increase of alluvial deposits in the East. (Vide Journal of the Rojal Geofjraplncal Society, vol. ix. ; article by Colonel Eawlinson.) Diu'ing the anarchy attendant on the wars of the Medes with their neighbours the Babylonians and Persians, CiUcia became independent; for we are informed by Herodotus that (B.C. 548) Croesus king of Lydia subjected almost all the nations which are situated on this side the river Halys. The CiUcians and Lycians alone were not brought under his yoke; and Ave find them again (b.c. 50-1) governed by their own kings and increasing in maritime power, but subject to pay tribute to Darius Hystaspes, third king of the Persian monarchy, who divided his dominions into satrapies, of Avhich Cilicia was the foruth. The CiUcians were obliged to furnish 3G0 white horses and 500 talents of silver annually: of these, 140 were appointed for the payment of the cavalry who formed the guard of the country; the remaining 360 talents were received by Darius. On the resolution taken by Darius (b.c. 490) to invade Greece, Datis and Artaphernes his nephews were ordered to man a fleet and collect an army for the purpose. Accordingly they proceeded to Aleium in Cihcia, a plain at the mouth of the river Pyramus* and near the port of INIallos (Kara-Tash), where they col- lected a large body of infantry ; here they were soon joined by a numer- ous reinforcement of marines, agreeably to the orders which had been given ; and soon after, the vessels Avhich the preceding year Darius had commanded his tributaries to supply having ai-rived, the cavalry and troops embarked and j^roceeded to Ionia, in a fleet of six hundred tri- remes, or three-oared galleys. that he died at Babylon ; and he is followed in this by the generality of historians. Monumentally and traditionally, however, the tomb designated as that of Daniyali Akbar, "the gi-eatcr Daniel," at Sus, ancient Susa, in Siisiaua, records the btirial- place of " God is my judge." The gi-eat Saracenic building 'which adorns the site at the present day in Sus or Shush, is represented in the Baron de Bode's Travels iu LuHstan and Arahistan (vol. ii. p. 188). It is also described by Major Rawlinson in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (vol. ix. p. 83). The JIajor s^joke of sacred fish being also preserved at the spot. Layard (ibid. vol. s.vi. p. 61) says that the small stream which washes the tomb certainly contains fish, but he docs not believe that they are generally esteemed sacred. A black stone or aerolite, such as played so consiiicuoiis a part in the early religions of the Semitic nations, is preserved there. Great suspicion as to the intentions of Europeans towards this sacred stone is imfor- tunately entertained by the guardians of the monument. — W. F. A. * The Aleian Plain has always stood prominent in the histoiy of Cilicia. Pliny calls it Campus Aleius. Strabo relates that Plulotas led the cavalry attached to the Macedonian army under Ale.\ander the Great, 'A\>;ioi' ndiov, "over the Alciun Plain." INVASION OF GREECE BY THE PERSIANS. 19 Xerxes, son of Darius, on undertaking (b.c. 484) his great expedi- tion against Greece, exacted one hundred ships from the Cilicians, at which epoch Herodotus says they wore helmets peculiar to their coun- try, and small bucklers made of the untanned hides of oxen ; they had also tunics of avooI, and each man had two spears and a sword, not un- like those of Egypt. At a council called by Xerxes before the battle of Salamis, Artemisia, ciueen of Halicarnassus, spoke very disparagingly of the Cilicians, as a people addicted to piracy and not to be trusted, and on whom no reliance could be placed. Whatever may have been the character of many of the Greek colonies of the coast, it is certain that the inhal)itants of Tarsus maintained a fair reputation in their com- mercial transactions, and which Avas absolutely necessary to them in their intercourse with foreigners. At the death of Xerxes (b.c. 410), Cilicia remained under the government of its own kings, but tributary to his successors Artaxerxes, Darius Nothus, and Artaxerxes, against Avhom Cyrus the younger revolted. Having been appointed governor of Lydia by his brother Artaxerxes, he assembled an army (a part of which was composed of the ten thousand Greeks whose courage and endurance have been im- mortalised by Xenophon), and entering Cilicia, arrived at Tarsus. The inhabitants of this city, with their king Syennesis, fled to a fastness in the mountains, now called Nimnid ; but those of Soli and Issus, who were near the sea, did not follow their example. Cyrus sent for Syennesis ; but the latter replied, that he had never put himself in the power of a superior, and would not do so now. His wife Epyaxa, who had previously visited Cyrus in Phrygia, whither she had been sent on a diplomatic mission to meet the conqueror, dis- mayed by the reports regarding his formidable army, prevailed on her husbandjo change his resolution, and the two princes met on friendly terms. Syennesis gave Cyrus large sums of money to carry on the war, and received in return suitable presents, with the restitution of Arrian describes Pliilotas as leading the cavalry across the Plain to the river Pyramios. This is important in a geographical point of ^-iew. Dionysiiis of Corinth alludes to this Plain in the 872d verse of his poetical geography : KcTSi b- TO Tttblov TO 'A\i;ioi/' which_A^■ienns has rendered "Hie cespes laieproducit Aleius arva." It was^also on this beautiful and expansive Plain that Bellerophou wandered after his faU from Pegasus at Tarsus : '•' Forsook by heaven, forsaking human kind, Wide o'er th' Aleim field he chose to st; ay, A long, forlorn, uncomfoitalile way." W. F. A. 20 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERXOHS. the prisoners taken by Cyrus. lie -was confirmed in las authority at Tarsus. We may presume that the Cilician kings during the next twenty years sided with the Grecian colonies in the "war carried on by the Spartans against Artaxerxes, and lost their independence; for we find, by the " treaty of Antalcidas," that Tarsus was included among the other cities and possessions in Asia IMinor that were ceded to the Pei'sian monarchs. When Alexander had carried his victorious arms into Asia (b.c. 333)^ in his march against Darius after the battle of the Granicus, he ad- vanced to the Pylai Cilicia) (Kulak Bughaz) ; and fearing an ambiiscade, he ordered the light- armed Thracians to advance and reconnoitre that narrow pass, •where only a few men abreast can be admitted at a time. He was astonished, and rejoiced at his good fortune, in finding that the Persians had not availed themselves of the advantages afforded them by the natural features of the pass to make an effectual stand at this im- portant post, which a handful of men could defend, and hurl destruction on the invaders by throwing stones and other missiles from the heights above. This neglect on their part surprised him, but it was nothing more than Avhat was to be expected; for the few Persian soldiers left there as a guard by Arsanes on his retreat, after laying waste the country, had fled in consternation at the approach of the formidable in- vader ; and the Cilicians were so ready to throw oft' the Persian yoke, and to hail the Greeks their fellow-countrymen, that they never thought of offering any opposition. From this place the Macedonian hero marched his whole army to Tarsus, and arrited just in time to save it from de- struction, as the Persians had set fire to the city, to prevent his becom- ing master of the treasures it contained. It was here that Alexander nearly lost his life by bathing in the cold waters of the Cyduus, a river which passes by this town, and which i)i sum- mer is nearly all of melted snow, flowing from the neighbouring lieights of Mount Taurus ; and here it was he gave an instance of that magnani- mity of spirit which fonned so distinguishing a feature in his chai-acter, by shewing perfect confidence in his physician Philip, and drinking off' the medicine he administered, in utter disregard of the insimuitions made to influence him against a faithful servant, and which accused the i)hysi- cian of having been bribed by Darius to poison him. From this place, having sent liis cavalry imdcr Philotas across the Alcian i)lain to the banks of the Pyramus, where he ordered a bridge to be prepared, he proceeded to Soli, where he laid the inhabitants tinder a contribution of 200 talents, and evinced in what contempt he held the ALEXANDEU THE GREAT— ISSUS. 21 'barbarians, by entertaining his followers with games in honour of J^scu- lapius and Minerva; he then proceeded along the coast to jMcgarsns, and from thence to IMallos. This latter place, situated on a height according to Strabo, " was founded by Amphilocus and jMopsus, who having slain one another in single combat, were buried so that the tomb of the one should not be visible from that of the other." He next proceeded to Issus, the scene of the memorable battle which decided the fate of the Persian empire ; for soon after, by the battle of Arbela (b.c. 330), Darius Avas dethroned, and with him terminated the line of Assyrian and Persian kings, Avhich had lasted two hundred and nine years from Cyrus.* * According to Plutarch, Daiius was encouraged by Alexander's long stay in Cilicia, — wliick he regarded as the efiect of his fears, instead of tracing it to its true cause, sickness, — to march across the mountains into C'ihcia in quest of his adversarj-. " But happening to miss each other in the night, they both turned back ; Alexander re- joicing in his good fortune, and hastening to meet Darius in the straits, while Darius was eiideavom-ing to disengage liimself and recover his former camp." This descrip- tion of the two armies passing one another in the night intlicates that Dai-ius had eflected the passage before Alexander had reached the Sjaian Gates, and that the armies passed one another in the i-egion of Urzin, and where are now the supposed ruins of Epiphanea ; the Macedonians keeping the coast, the Persians occupying the interior. Calisthencs says, in the fragments of Polybius (lib. xii. cap. 8), that Alex- ander liad reached the straits which are called the Cihcian Gates, when Darius arrived with his army at the Amanian Gates. The philosopher of Oljmthus evidently meant the CUician and Spian Gates of Xenophon (Markaz Kalasi), and not the Cilician Gates (Kulak Bughaz). Quintus Curtius (lib. iii. cap. 8) saj-s, " The same night that Alexander arrived at the straits by which Syria is ajiproached, Darius arrived at that place which is called the Amanian Gates." Arrian (Ub. ii. p. 94) also says, " Darius having crossed the mountain irheve are the Amanian Gates, advanced to- wards Issus ; Alexander having impiiidently left him in his rear." Most scholars have read tu kuti'j xat n^Xar 'A/ianKti? as " near to the Amanian Gates ;" but others have argued that i^aru with the accxisative establishes identity, as in Kara tJ/i/ x^'P"-" eKtivnv (Luc. XV. 14), " in that region," as well as "near to." Thus, according to one version, the pass of Darius over the Amanus is identified with the road given in the Antoame Itlnerart] as leading from Nicopolis to Zeugma on the Euphrates, and is called the Amanian Gates : according to the other, the road i-emains the same, but Darius is made to descend near to the " Amanian Gates," now called Tamir Kapu, or Iron Gates. Arrian relates that Darius having advanced to Issus, he took that city and slew whatever Macedonians had remained behind, and the next day he advanced to the river Pinarus. Having heard that Alexander was about to retrace his steps and give the Persians battle, he sent fifty thousand horsemen across the river to keep the Macedonians at bay till the remainder of the army could take up its position. According to Plutarch, Alexander, whose army was small in comparison with that of Darius, took care to cb-aw it up so as to prevent its being sm-roundcd, by stretching out his right wing beyond the enemy's left. In that wing lie acted in person, and fighting in the foremost ranks, put the barbarians to flight. Cicero (lib. v. ad Attic, epist. 20) speaks of a castle that Alexander occupied in the same neighbourhood. " We held for some days," he says, " a castle, the very same that Alexander held against Darius near to Issus." Thi-ee streams descend from the Amanus in the regions here alluded to, The most 22 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. nortlierly is called the Dali Chai, mad or swift livcr ; the central, Kui Chai, river of the \Tllage ; and the southerly, Yiislah Chai, from a \-illage of that name : all unite to form the ancient Pinarus before reaching the sea. The -village of Yuslah has been iden- tified by some w-ith Issus, from a remote analogy of name ; but it is certain fi-om the description of the movements of Darius as above given from Arrian, that Issus was north of the Pinai-us. Strabo also says, " After iEg:e comes Issus, and then the Pinaiais." In the %-illages north of the Pinarus there are to the present daj' plenty of remains of antiqvutj', — hewn stones, fragments of columns and jiilasters, Mezes, &c., especially in the Muhammadan cemeteries, — to indicate the site of a city which was poijulous and opulent in the times of Xenophon, and once gave its name to the gulf of Alexandretta, but -which was succeeded m the time of tlie Romans by Epijihanea, Baia;, and other towns and stations, and in modern times by Iskandnin — Alexander's favoui-ite little site. The distances given by Xenophon are satisfactory so far as regards the posi- tioning of Issus. The army of Cyi-us marched in two days fifteen parasangs, or thirty- five geographical miles, from the PjTamus to Issus ; and from Issus, in one march, five parasangs, or fifteen geographical miles, to the gates of CUicia and Sjnia. These distances would place Issus a little northward of the Dali Chai. The coui-se of this river has, liowever, been explored by the annotator from Yuslah to where it issues from the mountains, without any trace being discovered of the altars said by Quintus Cm-tiiis to have been erected by Alexander on the banks of the Pinanis. It is more likely that these were erected at the spot which Alexander had i-eached before he turned back to engage ^vith the enemy ; and that they are represented by the massive marble ruin called Sakal Tutan by the Tiu-ks, Jonas's Pillars by English sailors, and Bomitte or altars by Pliny. Mr. W. B. Barker has in the present work identified Issus with Bayas, the Baiae of the Romans (Bais, Antonine Itinerartj), sixteen Roman miles from Alexandria. The details above given will explain the various reasons for which we dif- fer from him on this point. It must not bo omitted here that INIr. Edward B. B. Barker, her Britannic Majesty's Vice-Consid at Suwaidiyah, informs me that he has traversed the Amanus in the du-cction which Darius took to arrive in the rear of the Macedo- nians ; that it is a hUly, rough, and exceedingly stony country, the road being rendered especially difficvdt by rounded stones, but that it is not all mountainous. This accords with the impressions received by contemplating the Amanus from the acclivities of the Taurus above Adana. The mountainous character of the range ceases abruptly beyond the parallel of the most north-easterly extent of the Gulf of Alexandretta. The position of the various " gates" or mountain passes will be best understood by reference to the map ; but to facilitate the reader's comprehension, they are as follow, proceeding from Asia Minor : The Ctlician Gates. Pass of Tauras, Kulak Bughaz. The Amanian Gates. Tamir Kapn, or Iron Gate of the Turks : a Cyclopean arch, where the hills come down to the sea-side at the head of the gulf. The Cappadociap, Gates. The pass descrilx;d by Strabo and explored by the Eu- phrates Expedition, leading through Taunis to Marash, ancient Germanicia. Darius's Pass. Across the Amanus, north of Issus and near to (kutc'c) the Amanian Gates; probably the same road which is given in the Antonine Itinerary as leading from Castibala to the Euphrates by Nicopolis, Aliaria, and Gerbidisson. Gates of CUicia and >Si/ria of Xenojihon. Ruins near Markaz Kalasi, and at Sakal Tutan (Jonas's Pillars of some writci-s, Bomita; or altars of Pliny). Gates of ,Si/ria. I'ass of Bailan, Pictanus of the Jerusalem Itinerary, Erana of Cicero.— W. F. A. CHAPTER II. PLISTARCHUS — BATTLE OF IPSUS PTOLEMY EVERGETES AKTIOCHUS THE GREAT ZENO AND CHRYSIPPUS CILICIA UNDER THE SELEUCID^ IN- VADED BY TIGRANES REDUCED TO A ROMAN PROVINCE BY POMPEY CICERO's CAMPAIGN IN CILICIA — MARC ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA AT TARSUS CILICIA INVADED BY THE PARTHIANS UNDER LABIENUS — ATHENODORUS — VONONES SLAIN IN CILICIA ST. PAUL INSURRECTION OF THE CLI- TEANS COSSUATIANUS PAPITO GOVERNOR — POLEMON, KING OF CILICIA, MARRIES BERENICE CILICIA DECLARED A ROMAN PROVINCE IN VESPASIAN's TIME FATE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE DECIDED ON THE PLAIN OF ISSUS. After the death of Alexander, in the struggles for power carried on by his successors, Cilicia, like the other countries of Asia Minor, was over- run by the armies which they levied to oppose one another, and was the scene of war and bloodshed for several years, till it fell into the hands of Plistarchus brother of Cassander, and Demetrius son of Antigonus, and who ruled there until Antigonus, who had made himself master of all Syria, was killed by the forces under Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus Nicator, at the battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia. Cilicia then fell to the share of this last-mentioned general, and formed part of the empire founded by him, and known in history as that of the Seleucida?. Ptolemy Evergetes, the third of that name king of Egypt, invaded Syria and Cilicia (b.c. 245), and wrested the government from Antiochus Theos, grandson of Seleucus, in revenge for the ill-treatment of Berenice his sister, whom he had married ; and this country remained tributary to the Egyptian dynasty during the reigns of the two siicceeding kings of Syria, Seleucus Callinicus and Seleucus Ceracenos. Antiochus, surnamed the great, their successor (in the year B.C. 233), not only re-established the power of the Seleucidte in Syria and Cilicia, but also colonised the whole coast of Asia Minor (of doubtful fidelity) with Jews from Babylon and Palestine, from whom Avere descended the multi- tudes of Israelites scattered through those regions at the first preaching of the gospel, and among whom none more illustrious than the Apostle of the Gentiles ; and thus Antiochus was an instrumen tin the hand of divine Providence in laying the foundation of the Seven Churches which take so prominent a part in the history of early Christianity. 24 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERXOES. About tLis date (e.c. 207) floiirislied Zeno, a philosopher of Tarsus, and Chrysippus, a native of Soli, an adjoining town,* who was a disci- ple of " Zeno the Stoic," and Cleanthus his successor; but being of a sophistical turn, he departed from some of the principles of these philo- sophers. He was nevertheless considered the most conspicuous ornament and the most zealous and able defender of the Stoics, so much so that "Xisi Clirysippiis ftiisset, Porticus non esset/' passed into a proverb. Some accuse him of incongruity, and say that he contradicted himself, as he did not act according to the evil maxims he inculcated. He wrote upwards of 300 books, on such various subjects that he appears, like Voltaire, to have aspired to be considered a universal genius. He admitted the possibility of a resurrection of the body, and maintained the mutability of the gods : even Jupiter Avas not to be ex- empted at the destiTiction of the universe. He died in the 81st year of his age, laughing at an ass eating figs out of a silver plate. During the reign of Antiochi^s Epiphanes, son of Antiochus the Great (b.c. 175), the Cilicians revolted, and the king went in person to quell the insurrection; which when he had accomplished, he returned to Antioch, then become the seat of empire. In the civil wars which disgraced the reigns of the succeeding kings, and the bloody contests they maintained from time to time with the Ptolemies of Egypt, we find little of note occurring in Cilicia luitil the * Soli was, according to Strabo, a city next in renown to Issus, founded by the Acheans and Lindians of Rhodes. Polyliius also speaks of the ambassadoi-s from Rhodes and from the city of Soli in Cilicia coming together to the senate, as theu* interests were the same. When Pomi^ey subjected the pirates of the coast, he ap- pointed this city as their chief dwelling-place, and changed its name to Pompciopolis. Ptolemy says (hb. v. cap. 8) noyuTrcjoiTroXir /) Kal 36\oi, Pompeiopolis, formerly Soli. The Latins often preserved the Greek diphthong : tlius Pomponius Mela says nunc Poinpeiopoliit, tunc Sola; PUny also, Salic Cilicii, huhc Pompeiojxjlis. Tacitus (An- nal. ii. cap. 58) speaks of Vonones Uiking up his quarters there ; and Dion Cassius (lib. xxxvi. p. IS) relates that the same city was devastated by Tigi-ancs. Strabo makes Soli tlie fii-st city (from the westward) of CiUcia Campestris ; but Ptolemy seems more correct in naming Corycus. Livy and Plinj' speak of Soli as a colony of Argives as well as Khodians. The word "solecism," o-oXoikkt/hoc, solcecismus, adopted in our language from the Greek or Roman, took its origin, according to Strabo, from the barbarian dialect of this city. The site of Soli, now called Mazatlu, is distinguished at the present day l\v many interesting remains of antiijuity. Among these especially is the beautiful harbour or basin, with i)arallel sides and circular ends, entirely artificial, and minutely described by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort in his work on Koramania. There are also remains of a most noble jiortico ojioning to a double row of two hundred columns, once imited by arches, forty- four of which are now standing; an elevated theatre, city- walls strengthened l>y numerous towers, an aqueduct, and other detached ruins, tombs, and sarcojihagi. — W. F. A. INVASION OF TIGIiANES — rOMTEY. 2.5 reign of Seleucus the sixth. This monarch fled from Antiochus Pius, and took refuge at INEopsuestia in CiHcia; where endeavouring to levy money from the people, he Avas burnt together Avith his followers in his palace by the revolted populace, who were excited to so severe an act of vengeance hy his tyranny. IMopsuestia is now a small village called Missis on the banks of the Saihun (Pyramus), and on the high road from Constantinople to Antioch.* Tigranes, king of Armenia (c.c. G9), son-in-law of INIithridates, dur- ing the latter part of these civil wars had laid waste Cilicia, and carried away the inhabitants of Soli, with many others, to colonise and people Tigranocerta, a city he had founded in Armenia and made his capital, and Avhich Lucullus, the Roman general, took with great difficulty, and found there 8000 talents in ready money.| B.C. 68. The vast body of pirates who had infested the Avhole of the Mediterranean during the war with Carthage had become formidable to the Romans, by intercepting the vessels laden with wheat and other provisions into Rome, and committing many great excesses. They pos- sessed a thousand galleys and 400 cities in different parts of the Medi- terranean, and hired themselves as subsidiaries to Mithridates, king of Pontus, with Avhom the Romans were then at war. Pompey was sent with the fullest powers that were ever given to a Roman citizen against them, and set out in a fleet of 500 ships and with 120,000 inen. He divided his forces into thirteen squadrons, which he sent to different parts of the Mediterranean, and followed them iip into Cilicia, Avhich they had made their chief place of resort, and where they had fortified many places which they considered impregnable. After various engagements * Mopsuestia, more correctly wi-itten by Strabo Mopsi Hestia, the house or abode of Mopsus the poet and soothsayer, was a holy city and an asylum, and became froe tinder the Romans, bj' whom it was enlarged and embellished in the time of Hadrian. It was also, as we learn from Procopius, remarkable for its magnitude and splendour in the middle ages ; and Abu-al-fada relates that 200,000 Moslems were devoted to death or slaverj- in this city by Nicephoras Phocas and John Ximisces. A gi-eat many misrepresentations, regarding both the situation of this city and its name, exist in the Byzantine writers, and are also propagated by Gibbon. It is now a mere A-illage of about a himdred houses, known as Missisah, vid(/o Missis, situate on the right bank of the river, connected with a mass of ruined dwelling-houses and a caravansarai on the other, by a bridge constructed in part of old materials, and from among which I copied a Greek inscription now in Colonel Chesney's possession, and possibly the same as that given by Gruter (p. 255, num. 4). There is also a large ancient mound or timaulus that might be worth excavatmg. — W. F. A. f A careful consideration of all the circumstances connected with the details of the campaign of Lucullus against Tigranes have led me to identify Tigranocerta with the Amida of the Byzantines, now Dyar-Bakir. {Travels and lieseairhes in, Asia Minor, \"/3(ac etniv vTTo Ti;i''Ai'ut<

y the hand of man when suiiiriscd by sudden rains into a little island surrounded by a. marshy swamji of a ploughed field. TARSUS — ST. PAUL. 31 Kilindriyah),* ■where lie was besieged by Sentius at the head of the Roman legions. An engagement followed, but the victory Avas not long in suspense, for after the Romans had forced the ascent of the hill, the Cilicians were routed and driven back to the fortifications ; the walls were then scaled after a vigorous resistance, and Piso desired to capi- tulate. He offered to lay down his arms on condition that he should remain in the castle till the Emperor Tiberius's pleasure should be finally declared. The proposition was rejected ; but Sentius allowed him a safe-conduct to Italy, where he met the reward due to his crimes. About this epoch (a.d. 30) flourished Antipater of Tarsus, Avho lived in the reign of Tiberius, and was preceptor to the philosopher Blossius, to whom he dedicated his philosophical lectures.f Tarsus had now become the rival of Athens and Alexandria; niunerous schools were established there, and numbers flocked from all quarters to profit by the lessons of the philosophers, and to study the liberal arts and sciences. But in the numbers of the learned who have, by the lustre of their reputation, reflected a glory over Tarsus as having been the place of their nativity, St. Paul is the most illustrious. Born of a good family of the sect of the Pharisees, he was early led to study elo- quence and rhetoric, and thus laid a foiuidation for the taste and elegance which distinguish his writings. Initiated into the arts of Grecian dis- putation, he was well able to perform the difficult task of refuting the sophistry of the numerous sects, and to aid in the extension of the true doctrines he was chosen to preach ; while being enrolled a free citizen of Rome, he b-ccame thereby a fit instrument in the hands of Providence, from the respectability attached to that title. St. Paul chose Cilicia as the first scene of his labours, being anxious that his townsmeii and kinsfolk should be the first to hear the glad tidings he had to announce ; and for several years we find him making this province of Asia Minor the field he loved most to toil in. * KeXt'i/^epir of Sti'abo and Ptolemy. Apolloclorus says (lib. iii. cap. xiv. iiixm. 3) that Celenderis was biiilt bj' Sandocus, son of Astjmous. Pomponius Mela and Tacitus write Celendris. Pliny speaks of the district of Celendritis with a town. It is generally spoken of as a colony of Samians, with a harbom- strongly fortified and well j^rovided. Admu-al Sir Francis Beaufort speaks of Chelindreh, or KUindriyah, the modern Celen- deris, as a snug but very small port, from whence the coiu-iers from Constantinople to Cyi^ms embark. Among the ruins of a fortress is a hexagonal tower, that has been rent down the middle as if by an earthquake. There are also arched vaidts, sepulchral houses, and sarcophagi, and near the sea-shore a cenotaph, with a single arch on each side, supporting a pjTamidal i-oof of large stones. — W. F. A. + Antipater of Tarsvis was the disciple and successor of Diogenes, and the teacher of PansBtius, B.C. 144 nearly. Plutarch speaks of him, ^Nith Zeno, Cleanthes, and C'hrysip- pus, as one of the pi-incipal Stoic philosophers ; and Cicero mentions him as remarkable Jfor acuteness {De Stoic, licpu^/nant. p. 144 ; Ckero de Divin. i. 3 ; de Off. iii. 12).— W. F. A. 32 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. About this time (a.d. 30), the Cliteans, a bold tribe of moun- taineers in Cilicia, impatient of being taxed according to the system newly practised in the Roman provinces, retreated to the heights of Mount Tam-us; and being possessed of inaccessible fastnesses, they were enabled to defend themselves against their sovereign and his luiwarlike troops. To quell the insurgents, Vitellius, who was then governor of Syria, despatched ]\[arcns Trebellins at the head of 4000 legionary soldiers, and a select detachment of auxiliaries. The barbarians had taken their post on two hills; the lesser was called Cadra, and the other Davara. Trebellius enclosed both with lines of circumvallation, and all who dared to sally out were put to the sword, and the rest were reduced by thirst and famine.* Sixteen years had scarcely elapsed, when, in a.d. 52, the same pre- datory hordes, accustomed to plunder and trained to civil commotions, assembled under Trosobor, a warlike chief, and pitched their camp on the summit of a mountain, steep, craggy, and almost inaccessible. From this flistness they rushed upon the plain, and stretching along the coast, attacked the neighbouring cities. They plundered the people and the merchants, and utterly niined the navigation and commerce of the environs. They laid siege to the city of Anemurium, and dis- l^ersed a body of horse, sent from Syria under Curtius Severus to the relief of the place. These freebooters were even bold enough to hazard a battle with the Romans; and the ground being rugged and disadvan- tageous to cavalry and convenient only to foot-soldiers, the Romans were totally routed. At length, Antiochus, the reigning king of the country, gained the good-Avill of the Cliteans, and j)roccedcd by stratagem against their leader, the confederates having been excited to disunion among themselves. Trosobor, with his principal adherents, was put to death, * In reference to tliis little episixlo in the history of Cilicia, it is worth while notic- ing, for the benefit of future explorers, that the mountain strongholds of Cadrr. and Davara have not been made out, at least to my knowledge. Admiral Sir Francis Beau- fort saj's of the AKiiorp-.ov iiKpa, or promontoiy of Anemm-ium of Strabo, that it was difficult, from the inflexions of the coast, to select a point for identification ; but he identifies the city of Anemurium with the ruins at Aski Anamur. There is, however — excepting Strabo's statement of the distance of the confines of Pamiihylia to Anemurium 820 stadia, and from Anemurium to Soli 500 stadia, and which Sir Francis himself thinks ou'dit to be transposed — no authority for such a disUmcc existing between the city and cape. Scylax speaks of Anemurium as a town and promontory ; Pomponius Mela (lib. i. cap. 115) and Livy (hb. xxxiii. cap. 20) as a promontory ; Ptolemy and Phny as a city. There is therefore every reason to believe that C'ai)c Anamur, the most southerly extremity of Asia Minor, is the same as the Anemurian i)romontory, the more especially as the city is close by, as the name is preserved, and as Sir Francis Beaufort coiUd find no trace of a promontory at the point given by Strabo's figures.— W, F. A. CILIGIA DECLARED A ROMAN PROVINCE. 33 and by conciliatoiy measures the rest were brought to a sense of their duty, and returned to their several homes. In the year a.d. 56, Cossuatianus Papito Avas governor of the province of Cilicia. He was a man of abandoned character, who at Rome had set the laws at defiance, and who thought that he might commit the same excesses and extortions in the government of his province. The Cilicians sent deputies to complain of his conduct to the senate ; and the prosecution Avas carried on with such unremitting vigour, that Cossua- tianus was obliged to abandon his defence. Being couAdcted of exaction, he was condemned to make restitution. Poleuiun, king of Cilicia, a.d. GO, who had been previously confirmed on his father's throne by Claudius, was persuaded by Berenice, widow of Herod king of Chalcis* (and sister of the Agrippa before whom Paul had pleaded), to marry her, in the hope by the marriage to suppress the report of the criminality with which Paul had charged her brother Agrippa. Polemon was at the same time prevailed upon to adopt the Jewish religion; but Berenice abandoned him soon after, and he re- turned to his Pagan worship. Vespasian proceeding to carry on the Jewish war, a.d. 74, saw the inexpediency of permitting the existence in his rear of a number of petty princes, who, although tributary to Rome, ever excited revolts and commotions. He therefore rediiced them entirely to subjection; and Cilicia, and several other kingdoms, were finally declared provinces of the Roman empire. In the fourth year of his reign, a.d. 78, Cecenius Petus, president of Syria, bearing an enmity to Antiochus king of Comagena, a country north-east of Cilicia, wrote to Vespasian that Antiochus had leagued with the Parthians in rebellion against the Romans. Petus received from the emperor full powers to j)roceed against Antiochus ; he fell at once upon Comagena, before the king could have any notice of his intention. Antiochus did not choose to make any opposition, and in order to evince his unwillingness to with- stand the Romans, retired to a plain, and pitched his camp not far from the city of Samosata, his capital ;f but his sons Epiphanes and Callini- cus collected their forces, and made a firm stand against the Roman legions. They were, however, defeated, and obliged to disperse in dif- ferent directions; some taking refuge in Parthia, and some in Cilicia. Antiochus, with his wdfe and daughters, repaired to Tarsus, where Petus seized his person, and forwarded him as a prisoner of Avar to Rome. * See Josei^hns. t Now Somei'sat, on the Euphrates. {Journal of Ployed Georircqjlilo.d Society, vol. vii. 1), 422; and vol. x. p. 321 and 333.) d 34 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNOKS. Wlien Vespasian was iuformed of the arrival of Antioclius as a prisoner in chains, he remembered the friendship that had formerly existed between them. He ordered the fetters of Antiochus to be struck off, and appointed Laceda?mon for his residence. In the meantime, Epiphanes his son having reached Eome, he also made interest for his father; and during Vespasian's reign they remained at Eome, and were in favoiu' Avith the emperor. From the reign of Vespasian to that of Trajan, a.d. 117, nothing of any note occurred in Cilicia. This last-mentioned emperor, it is well IcnoAvn, marched a large army to the shores of the Persian Gulf, re- gretting " that he had not the youth and strength of Alexander, that lie might add unexplored kingdoms to the Roman empire." On his return, he was taken iU in Cilicia, at Selinus (afterwards called Trajanopolis), where he died; but his ashes Avere conveyed to Eome, and deposited under the famous column which still exists^ to perpetuate his name and celebrate his exploits.* Hadrian, his successor,''passed through Cilicia a.d. 129, with a large army, on his way to Syria and Egj^t; but no monument remains in this province to record his magnificence, or even the fact of his having passed through it.f After Severus had made himself master of the Roman empire by the death of Didius Julianus, a.d. 194, he marched his veteran legions * Admiral Sii- Francis Beaufort describes many remnants of antiquity as still existing at Selinty, or Salinti, the ancient Selinvis, afterwards Trajanopolis. Among the most remarkable of these is a low massive edifice of seventy feet by fiftj% com- posed of large well-cnt blocks of stone, and containing a single vault. A flight of narrow steps, parallel to the wall, leads to the flat top, on which nothing now remains, though there is every reason to suppose that this building was formerly the basement- story of some splendid superstructm-e ; but the columns, which either sm-mounted or sun-ounded it, have all disappeared, except a few fraginents of some large fluted pilasters of fine workmanship. This edifice stands in the centre of a quadrangle, along each side of which there was a single row of thirty' small columns : but they have been all broken off close to the gi-oimd and earned away : the quadrangle is about 240 feet in diameter. A similar sepulchi-al building, but of later date, has been joined to this greater mausolevmi. "I cannot find," says Sb- Francis Beaufort, " what honom-s were paid to his (the Emperor Trajan's) memon- by the Cihcians ; but it seems highly probable that a mausoleum should have been erected in the city where the decease of so accomplished and so populai- an emperor took place ; and if so, it is c<|ually probable that this building was designed for that puiiiose." — W. F. A. t The reign of Hadrian was more particularly distinguished by labours of pacifica- tion. With the exception of the revolt of the Jews imder Barchochab (132-135), the East enjoyed profoimd j^eace dming the reign of this wise i^rince. Towards the end of his reign the cmiicror visited almost all the Roman pro^^nces with the \iew to the establishment of order. Cilicia profited by these judicious travels. Coins are extant which commemorate Tarsus as aaimanhc tapcoy MiiTPonoAuic. Mo2isuestia was especially favom-ed and embellished by the emperor, and even BATTLE OX THE I'LAINS OF ISSUS. 35 to oppose Pescenuius Niger, Avho had put liimsclf at the head of the Eastern army, and had usurped the name and ensigns of Augustus. After some skirmishing on both sides in Lesser Asia, a decisive battle was fought on the plains of Issus, tlie same plains which more than five centuries previously had been covered with the blood of the Persian soldiers of Darius, and which had also been the scene of Alexander's victory. Pescennius Niger was totally routed, with the loss of 20,000 men and of his own life. Ilis head was sent to Rome as a trophy; and the troops of Europe again asserted their usual ascendency over the effeminate natives of Asia. assumed his name. The citizens are called on coins of Antoninus Pius aapinaun MosKExaN, Hadrianoiimi Mopseatarum. Gmter also records an inscrij)tion found at Missis, which he translates, " Everr/etce ac servatori Hadriance Mojysuestice Ci- licice sacrw, liberce et asyli, suis legibus viventis, et faderaUe ac socice Romanorum. — W. F. A. SARCOPUAGUS AT SELEUCIA PIEEIA, OPENED BY MK. BARKER. CHAPTER III. LEGENT) OF THE SEVEN SLEEPERS SAPOR IMVADES CILICU ZENOBIA S CON- QUESTS — CILICIA OVERRUN BY THE ALANI >LVX]MLVNUS DIES AT TARSUS DEATH OF CONSTANTIUS AT MOPSUESTIA IN CILICU. ST. GEORGE, PATRON SAINT OF ENGLAND, BORN AT EPIPHANEA THE EMPEROR JLT^L^N BURIED AT T.UISUS INVASIONS OF THE HUNS BELISARIUS IN CILICIA CA>I- PAIGNS OF HERACLIU3 AND OF CHOSROES (kUSRU ANUSHIRIWAN). During a long period, while tlie Eoman Empire was subject to the rule of many iniquitous emperors, and while the capital was the scene of miu'der and dissension, Cilicia enjoyed comparative tranquillity. We may except the persecution which the Christians underwent in all parts of the empire, and which Avas particidarly severe in the East, where the Jews have ever laboured under a public prejudice to theu- disfavour. The legend of the Seven Sleepers, who are said by Christian tradition to have fallen asleep in the reign of the Emperor Dccius during the seventh persecution of the followers of Christ, and to haA-e slept for 187 years in a cave near Ephesus, has been adopted and embellished by Mohammed.* The Arabian prophet casts a veil of mystery over this tale ;f but some * Mohammed or Mahomet. The first orthographj' is adopted, as being that which is now most generally accepted, after the manner in wliich the name of the Arabian projihet is generally pronomiced. The correct orthograi)hy is, however, Muhanamad. — W. F. A. f Mohammed has invented and added to tliis fable the dog (Al Rakim) of the Seven Sleepers ; the respect shewn by the sun, wliieli, in order not to shine into the cave, daily altered its course, and the eare God himself took of the sleepers to preserve their bodies from putrefaction by making them turn to the right and left. He says in the Koran : "And tliou mightest have seen the sun, when it had risen, decline from then- cave towards the right hand ; and when it went down, leave them on the left hand. And they were in the spacious part of the cave. This was one of the signs of God. Whom- soever God shall direct, ho shall bo rightly directed ; and whomsoever He shall cause to err, thou shalt not find any to defend or to direct. And thou wouldst have judged them to have been awake while they were sleeping ; and He caused them to turn them- selves to the right hand and to the left. And their dog stretched forth his fore-legs in the mouth of the cave. If thou hadst come suddenly upon them, verily thoti wouldst liavc turned thy Viack and fled fi-om them, and thou woiddst liave been filled with fear nt the sight of them. And so Ho awakened tliem out of their sleep, that they might ask questions of one another. One of them spake and said, How long have ye tarried SAPOR INVADES CILICIA. 37 of his commentators have imagined that the site where this miraculous event occurred was not Epliesiis, but a cave about ten miles north-west of Tarsus. Every Muhanimadan who arrives at this place conceives himself boimd to visit the spot, and thinks a pilgrimage thither obliga- tory from the countenance given to this fable by the prophet. Num- bers flock there in parties of ten and more, on which occasions a sheep is killed and roasted, part of v^'hich is eaten, and the rest given to the poor.* The kingdom of Parthia had been overturned by Artaxerxes Babe- gan, first of the Persian dynasty of the Sassanidte, in a.d. 226; and the Persian carried his arms to the frontiers of Syria, declaring war on the grounds that Cyrus had conquered, and that his successors had for a long time possessed, the whole of Asia as far as the Proj)ontis and the yEgean Sea, and that all Egypt had also acknowledged the Persian sovereignty. Artaxerxes, at his death, bequeathed his new empire and his ambitious designs to his son Sapor, who took the town of Antioch [a.d. 259], then capital of Syria, and marched into Cilicia, ravaging the whole country, and treating his prisoners Avith wanton and unrelenting crvielty. He devastated the city of Tarsus and many other towns of Cilicia, and proceeded to lay siege to Ca^sarea (Kaisariyah), capital of Cappadocia, after having crossed the Taurus at the Pylaj Ciliciaj. At this point no opposition was made to his progress by the Eomau garrison, although he might have been lield in check by a handful of men. Sapor hero? Tliey answered^ We have tarried a day, or part of a day. The other said. Your Lord best kuoweth the time ye have tarried." After fLirther reference to the other parts of the legend, he again leaves the jirin- cipal fact iu uncertainty, concluding : "Some say the sleej^ers were three, and their dog was the fourth; and others say they were five, and their dog was the sixth, guessing at a secret matter ; and others say they were seven, and their dog was the eighth. Say my Lord best knoweth their number ; none shall know them except a few. Wlierefore dispute not concerning them imless with a clear disputation, according to what has been revealed unto thee ; and ask not any of the Christians concerning them. Say not of any matter, I will surely do this to-morrow, unless thou add. If God please (Inshallah)." * The story of the Seven Sleepers is attached tracUtionally to many other places in the East, besides Ephesus and the cave near Tarsus. (See D'Herbelot m Ashab-i- Ivahaf, and Assemanni, i. 336.) Shah-Abad or JuncU Shajiur, m Khusistan, is, accord- ing to the Taskarati-Shusteriyah, believed to represent the city of the Seven Sleeisers. Colonel Rawlinson says that wherever the tradition prevails in the East, it may be re- ceived as an e^•idence of antiquity. The tradition probably existed anterior to Chris- tianity or to Muhammadanism. Mohammed's dog is a kmd of antithesis to Ovid's cavernous abode of sleep, near which no cock or dog, or any animal accustomed to rouse men from then- slumbers, was permitted to approach. (Met. xi. 592. See also Gibbon, 525; and Gregory de Tours, Dc glorid Martyrum in Max. Bibiioihecd Fatruiii, torn. xi. p. 850.)— W. F. A. 38 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERXORS. seems, however, to have despaired of making any permanent estabhsh- ment in the country, and sought only to leave behind him a "wasted desert, -whilst he transported into Persia the people and the treasui-es of the provinces. Odenathus, prince of Palmyra, attacked Sapor, pursued him into the very heart of his kingdom, and delivered all the provinces of Asia Minor from his tyranny, leaving to his wife Zenobia the splendid but doubtful title of " Queen of the East." But the power of Zenobia Avas not of long duration. Aurelian marched a large army into Asia a.d. 273, reducing the provinces, and annexing them again to the Roman empire. He took Zenobia prisoner on the banks of the Euphrates, about sixty miles from Palmyra;* and thus terminated the glorious but short career of this Eastern power. Aurelian, preparing for his Persian expedition, had induced the Alani, a Scythian people who pitched their tents in the neighbourhood of the sea of Azof, to assist him as auxiliaries with a large body of light cavalry. These barbarians arriving on the IJoman frontier at the moment of the death of the em- peror, and finding the war suspended, overran the provinces of Pontus, Cappadocia, Cilicia, and Galatia (a.d. 275). Tacitus, the successor of Aurelian, and grandson of the historian, marched to oppose them with the veteran legions. Great numbers of the Alani, appeased by the punctual discharge of the engagements entered into by Aurelian and confirmed by his successor, relinquished their booty and captives, and qriietly retreated to their o-\\m deserts beyond the Phasis. Against the remainder, who refused to listen to his remonstrances, the Eoman em- peror waged in person a successful war, and delivered the provinces of Asia from the terror of the Scythian invasion. The fatigues of a campaign at his advanced age were fatal to the health of Tacitus, and ho expired soon after at Tyana in Cappadocia, A.D. 270. His bi'other Florianus instantly usurped the pixrple, without waiting for the approbation of the senate. Probus, the general who commanded in Syria, declared himself the avenger of the offended senate; and fortune was propitious to him, in spite of his having to contend against the European legions assembled at Tarsus, with the eftcminate troops of Egypt and Syria, The hardy veterans of the north sickened and died in the sultry heats of Cilicia. Their numbers were also dimi- * I have elsewlicro explained the events of the decisive battle of Imma, as occuiTing on the inai-shy plain of the lake of Antioch, now called Al Umk ; and there is every reason to believe that Aiirolian's light hoi-so ovei-took the imfortunate Queen of Palmyra, after tftc battle of Emosa, at her own favourite summer residence, the marble city at the pass of the Euphrates, the niins of which still exist, and are called to the jjresent day Zilibah, or Zenobia, — W. F. A. DEFEAT AND DEATH OF MAXIMIN. 39 nislied by desertion, thvoiigli the undefended passes of the Taurus, Tarsus opened its gates to receive Probus ; while Florianus fell a sacri- fice to the rage and contempt of a soldiery disgusted with him, and unwilling to protract the civil war. During the reign of the prudent but artful Dioclesian, Cilicia enjoyed a respite of twenty-one years from war and bloodshed, although during that time two armies passed through the province on their way to carry on tlie Persian war. On the resignation of this emperor, Maximin, the nephew of Galerius, who had been created general of the Eastern army, and emperor in conjunction with Severus Constantiue and Lici- nius, committed the greatest excesses in persecixting the Christians; and unhappy Cilicia became again the scene of pillage and confusion. Maximin, ambitious of supreme authority, collected all his forces and marched to attack Licinius his colleague, who met him with 30,000 men under the walls of Heraclea Perinthus, soon after he had crossed the Hellespont and possessed himself of Byzantium, a.d. 313. The result of the engagement was a decisive victory in favou.r of Licinius. Maximin fled so precipitately, that he reached in twenty-four hours Nicomedia in Asia Minor, one hvmdred and sixty miles distant from the scene of his defeat. His victorious enemy pursued him, and he retreated again beyond the Taurus to Tarsus, where he died in the greatest agonies of a dreadful disease, which ecclesiastical writers describe as a visitation of Heaven for his barbarities in the persecution of the Christians, and the horrid blasphemies which he had uttered. By the death of Maximin, a.d. 331, Christianity was relieved from her last enemy. Constantine the Great, after his accession, ordered all the heathen temples to be destroyed ; and by founding the new kingdom at Byzantium, he brought the seat of empire nearer to Cilicia, The rich plains of Cappadocia, and the plains as far as the banks of the Sarus, near Adana, were remarkable for a fine breed of horses,* which tempted the monarch to appropriate these choice pastures to his own use. With this view ho foimded j^rivate estates independent of the public revenue, regidarly administered by a count or treastu;er, and officers of inferior rank. These were stationed in all parts of the province, and had spe- cial bands of soldiers imder them for this particular service, and were not subordinate to the authority of the provincial magistrate. Constantius, the son of Constantine, was at Antioch a.d. 360, when * The Ausliar horse is to this daj' much prized by the OsmanU. He has not the superior excellence of the Arab in resisting fatigue, but he is a much more showy ani» mal. He is almost as broad as he is long, and larger than the Arab horse, and his walk is miequalled by any breed in the world. 40 CILICIA AXD ITS GOVERNORS. his nepliGW Julian was declared Emperor of the West, and he naarched against him at the head of his Eastern army. A slight ferer which he caiio-ht in Cilicia on his way to oppose Julian, and which was increased by the fatigues of the journey and the agitation of his spirits, obUged him to halt at the httle town of Mopsucrene,* " twelve miles" from Tarsus, where he expired after a short illness, in the forty-fifth year of his age and the twenty-foru-th of his reign. It is not very generally kno-wn that Cilicia is the native country of the renoAvned St. George, the patron saint of England, who was born at Epij)hanea,'\ a small town near the Amanian gates, in a fuller's shop. From this obscure origin he raised himself to the archbishopric of Alex- andria, Avhere, in the year a.d. 361, he was massacred by the fiuy of the populace. Although his remains were thrown into the sea in order that his party might not have an opportunity of revering them as the rehcs of a martyr, the manner of his death helped to obhterate the atrocities of his life, and he was canonised about a century afterwards, a.d. 494. In the next reign, that of Juhan, a.c. 3G3, Cilicia saw the return of another army on its way to attack the Persians. The apostate emperor * Mopsucrcnc or JNIopsi fons, tlic fountain of Mojjsus, ajipcars to have been in Tau- iiis, near Tarsus. — W. F. A. + There is considerable difficulty in detemiining the position of Epiphanea. The numbers given in Ptolemy would aiiproximatc to the site of Nicopolis ; while the tables of Agathodiumon — the designer of the maps which accomi>any Ptolemj- — place the two at some distance from one another. Yet nothmg can be more certain than that it was not situate far from Issus ; for Cicero exjiressly relates (lib. xv. epist. 4), that to deceive the hostile mountaineers of Amanus, he pretended to depart from the momi- tain and to go to other jiarts of Cilicia, and that he re23aii-ed in one day's march to the castle that is near Epiphanea. On returning from that part of Amanus which Cicero reached in one day from Epiphanea, as he afterwards relates, he repaired to a castle at the roots of Amanus, near the altars of Alexander. Quintus Cm"tii;s says tliese altars were on the banks of the Pinanis ; but we sought for traces of them there in vain, and have been consequently inclined to identify them \vith the Bomita>, or altare, of Pliny, Sakal Tutan of the Tm-ks, and near which there is still a castle called Markaz Kalahsi ; and this identification would be strengthened by Cicero's expression, " at the roots of Amanus." Epiphanea might then bo near Issus ; and there are, besides the ruins on the Piuanis, other and inore extensive niins near Urziu, at the head of the Gulf of Issus. Besides the walls of the city, which are still standing in part, and the ruins of numerous dwelling-houses, there are also niins of a temple and of an acropolis situated on a mound in a central and commanding situation. Outside of the town there are also niins of an aqueduct with a double row of arche-s, ninning E.S.E. and W.S.W, All these buildings being constructed of basalt, and the iiiins and ennrons being totally iminhabitcd, give to the place a very sombre and gloomy a-spect. They are situated on a plain at the foot of some low basaltic liQls, only a few miles from the N.E. extremity of the Gulf of Aloxandretta. Epiphanea is recorded as an episcoi^acy in the Ecclesiastical Xodces of the Lover Empire. iStcphaniis and Aman, it may be observed, identify Nicopolis with Issus. — W. F. A. INVASIONS OF THE HUNS. 41 was obliged to winter the ti'oops at Antioch preparatory to his expedi- tion ; but he was so vexed and annoyed at the conduct of the Christian party there, who lampooned him, that he declared he Avould pass the next winter in Tarsus : but it was decreed otherwise, for he died a few months after of a wound he received from a javelin whilst animating his troops to battle on the other side of the Tigris. His body was em- balmed and brought back by the army to Tarsus, where he was btiried. A stately tomb was erected over his remains on the banks of the " cold Cydnus," in the city he had a few months before appointed to be his residence, and which Avas now destined to contain only his ashes, — another instance of the vanity of human projects. Julian was succeeded by Jovian, a.d. 384. The latter was suc- ceeded by Valens, during whose reign the king of Persia made many inroads into the Roman provinces, and particularly tiu-ned his victorious arms against Armenia — a coimtry under the protection of the empire. Para, the king, fled to the Roman camp ; but the general Trajan, acting under the direction of the Emperor Valens, meditated his destruction, and, under the semblance of friendship and the specious pretence of consulting with the emperor, enticed him into his power. The king of Armenia was received with due honours by the governors of the pro- vinces through which he passed ; but when he arrived at Tarsus, his progress was arrested, his motions Avatched, and he gradually found himself a prisoner in the hands of the Romans. He, however, managed to effect his escape with three hundred faithful followers, and succeeded in crossing the Euphrates and eluding the vigilance of the troops sent in pursuit. He thus reached his native country, but was soon after in- duced to come to a banquet prepared by the Roman general, where he was inhumanly murdered, in defiance of the sacred rites of hosj)itality. During the succeeding reigns of Theodosius Arcadius and Theodosius the younger, bands of adventurous Huns, Avho had overrun the north of Europe and Asia, ravaged the provinces of the East, from whence they brought away rich spoils and innumerable captives. They ad- ■vanced along the shores of the Caspian Sea, traversed the snoAvy moun- tains of Armenia, passed the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Halys, recruited their cavalry Avith the fine breed of horses, and occupied the hilly coimtry of Cilicia. Here they came in contact and clashed Avitli the Isaurians, a saA'age horde who had possessed for several centuries the fastnesses of Mount Taurus, and Avho from time to time made predatory inroads on the sea-coast. These bold mountaineers had maintained for 230 years a life of plimder and independence, and seriously disturbed at several epochs the 42 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. tranquillity of Asia Minor, althougli sometimes soothed -with gifts, and sometimes restrained by terror. When their countryman Zeno as- cended the throne at Constantinople (succeeding Theodosius Marci- anus, Leo I. and Leo IL), he invited a large and fonuidable band of Isaurians to surround him as a body-guard, and rewarded them by an annual payment of five thousand pounds of gold. After the death of Zeno, his successor Anastasius al^olished their pension and banished them from the empire. In I'evenge for this treatment, they placed a brother of the late emperor at their head and marched towards the capital, it is said to the number of 150,000 men (including auxiliaries), Avhose standard was for the first time sanctified by the presence of a fighting Christian bishop. The valour and discipline of the Goths, who were sent against these Isaurian rebels, sufficed to drive them back to their fortresses, which were after six years' warfare successively be- sieged. All their bravest leaders were killed, numbers of those made prisoners were transported to Thrace, and the remnant submitted to Anastasius. Some generations, however, passed before they were com- pletely reduced to the same level of slavery as the rest of the subjects of the empire, for we find from time to time that the Counts of Isauria, the Prajtors of Lycaonia and Pisidia, were invested with full military jDower to restrain their licentious practices of rapine and assassination.* No event of any moment occurred during the nine years' reign of Justin L (a.d. 537); but his successor Justinian, in along reign of thirty- eight years, saw his supremacy established in every part of the Roman empire in the East, by his victorious general Belisarius, and gained battles as brilliant as those which had rendered the ancient Romans so distinguished in the time of their republic. On preparing for the African campaign, the mountains of Cilicia contributed their quota of infantry, and the sea-ports furnished their complement of transports and sailors, to make up the number of five hundred vessels and twenty thousand mariners with which Belisarius set out from Constantinople (a.d. 541). Four years afterwards Justinian undertook the defence of the East, Avhich had been invaded by Nushirwan, king of Persia. Nushirwan had destroyed Antioch, and carried away the inhabitants captives to colonise the new city he had founded at Ctesiphon ; but Belisarius * The general system of policy, rendered necessary by tlie weakness of the suc- ceeding governments, and which we shall see particidarlj' exemplified as we proceed in our modem history of these countries. — W. B. B. Mr. William J. Hamilton was the first to bring to light in modern times tho city of Isaura, the stronghold of the Isaiu-ians ; and he has given a peculiarly interest- ing descrijition of the existing ruins in his Researches in Asia Minor, Pontas, d:c. vol. ii. p. 331.— W. F, A. HERACLIUS — DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS. 43 compelled him to retreat with precipitation^ and in a subsequent cam- paign (a.d. 543) repossessed himself of all the cities taken by the Per- sian king in Cilicia. He, at the same time, so strengthened the de- fences of the country, that no further inroads -were made on that part of the kingdom for many years. After the death of Justinian (a.d. 590), and during the reigns of his successors Justin II., Tiberius II., and Maurice, the Persian wars continued without any decided advantage on either side, the Persians never having been able to retain any conqiiest beyond the Euphrates. But in the lifetime of the latter prince, Chosroes, the grandson of Xushirwan, on the revolt of his subjects and the deposition and death of his father Hormuz, fled to the Roman emperor for support. He was ultimately reinstated on the throne of his ancestors, after two bat- tles against the usurper had been fought, in which the Roman troops were the victors. Chosroes Avas grateful for this signal service; and until the death of Maurice peace between the two empires was faith- fully maintained. But the disorders introduced by the tyrant Phocas, who succeeded IMaurice (a. p. Gll-GIG), afforded a pretext to Chosroes to invade Syria and Asia Minor. The j)retence was to revenge the death of his friend and benefactor ; and the first intelligence from the East which Herachus, the successor of Phocas, received, was the taking of Antioch. In five years the armies of Chosroes had overrun all Asia Minor, Syria, Pales- tine, Egypt, and Lybia as far as Tripoli, and the Bosphorus; and a Persian camp maintained its position for some time in sight of Con- stantinople. The emperor Heraclius (a.d. G22), roused at length by such extraor- dinary successes, pjrepared to attack the Persians. He embarked his forces on board a fleet of transports, and landed near the Syrian gates (^larkaz Kalahsi) in the Gulf of Alexandretta, within the confines of Cilicia. The natural fortifications of that coimtry protected and con- cealed the camp of Heraclius, which was pitched nearlssus, on the same ground where Alexander had defeated Darius. CiHcia was soon encom- passed by the Persian army, who Avere astonished to find the enemy had taken up a position in their rear. Their cavalry hesitated for some time to enter the defiles of Moimt Taurus; but by superior manoeuver- ing, Heraclius drew them into general action on the plain ; and having defeated and routed them, the emperor w'as enabled to cross the moun- tains, and winter his army in the province of Cappadocia on the banks of the river Halys. In the next year (a.d. C23) Heraclius sailed by the Black Sea to Tre- 44 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. bizond, passed the mountains of Armenia, and penetrated into Persia as far as Tabriz, which, with several other cities, he took and sacked, destroying all the temples and images, and retaliating on the Persians the horrors committed on the Christians at the destruction of Jerusalem nine years previously by Chosroes. Heraclius next penetrated into the heart of Persia (a.d. C24), and by a well-concerted succession of marches, retreats, and successful actions, drove the enemy from the field into the fortified cities of ISIedia and Assyria. In the spring of the next year, after crossing the Tigris and Euphrates, he returned laden with spoils to the banks of the Sarus, in Cilicia, to maintain that important position. lie found the banks of the river lined with barbarian archers; and after a bloody conflict, which continued till the evening, on the bridge of Adana, he dislodged and dis- persed the enemy, a Persian of gigantic size being slain and thrown into the river by the emperor himself. In his fourth campaign (a.d. 627-G28) Heraclius marched into Persia, obtained a complete victory on the plains of IsineA'eh over Chosroes (who fell and was put to death by his son Siroes), recovered three hun- dred Eoman standards, delivered ntimerous captive Christians, and re- turned to Constantinople in triumph, after concluding an advantageous peace with the Persians. But these signal successes were not attended with any lasting benefit to the empire, for a very few years afterwards the followers of Mohammed possessed themselves of the same provinces which Heraclius had recovered with so much labour and bloodshed from the Persians ; and even the kingdom of Persia itself, in less than thirty years from this date, was brought under the yoke, civil and re- ligious, of the Arabian khalifs. i CHAPTER IV. I^ISE OF THE SAUACENS — CILICIA OVERRUN BY HARUN AL RASHID AL MAMUN DIES IN CILICIA EXCHANGE OF PRISONERS AT IL-LA3IAS — SACK OF MOP- SUESTIA BY THE KHALIF MUTASSDI MOPSUESTIA RETAKEN BY NICEPHORUS PIIOCAS AND JOHN ZDHSCES RISE OF THE TURKMANS ALP ARSLAN AND RO>LVNUS DIOGENES TURIOIAN DYNASTY AT NIC.EA PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS FIRST CRUSADE TANCRED AND BALDWIN IN C1LICL\ ALEXIUS ANNEXES CILICIA TO THE GREEK EMPIRE. The Saracens, wlio (a.d. 039) had just sprung up in a corner of Arabia, impelled by religious fanaticism, were carrying, under Kbaled tlieir chief, surnamed the Sword of God, all before them in Persia, Syria, and Palestine. Pursuing their progress to the north, they reduced Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus, to obedience. Passing on, they crossed Mount Taurus, and spread the flames of war as far as the environs of Trebi- zond. These conquests were soon followed by the siege of Constan- tinople (a.d. G77), by Sufiyan, general of the khalif Muawiyah, Avhen 30,000 IMoslems perished, and the Arabs were obliged to retreat and conclude a peace of thirty years with the Emperor Constantino IV. They also agreed to pay a tribute of three thousand pieces of gold, fifty horses, and fifty slaves ; and the feeble hand of the declining em- pire was once more extended over unfortunate Cilicia. A second attempt was made by the Saracens (a.d. 717), when they, to the number of 120,000, marched again through the provinces of Asia IMinor, under Muslimah. Crossing the Hellespont at Abydos, they laid siege to Constantinople on the European side; but after some months of fruitless warfare, theii' fleet was burnt by the renowned Greek fire, and they were glad to retreat throxigh Asia Minor, di-eadfuUy dispirited and diminished in numbers. Five galleys only of their fleet of 1800 ships returning to Alexandria. In the reign of Irene the Great (a.d. 781), Harun al Eashid im-aded the Greek provinces at the head of 95,000 men, and the Christians sub- scribed to an ignominious treaty and an annual tribute of 70,000 dinars of gold, which bought the khalifs clemency. The payment of this tribute was delayed after he retiu-ned; but at eight different times the 46 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Greeks were taught to feel that a month of devastation was more costly than a year of submission. On the accession of Nicephorus (a.d. 800), open war was declared, and Haruu al Eashid crossed the Amanus and Taurus in the depth of winter, ravaged Cilicia and Asia INIinor, and sacked Heraclea, on the Black Sea. The famous statue of Hercules, with the attributes of the club, the bow, and the quiver, and the lion's hide of massive gold, was demolished by him. Nicephorus was compelled to recognise the right of lordship which Harun assumed ; and the coin of the tribute, in servile obedience to the conqueror, was stamped with the image and super- scription of the khalif and his three sons. Al Mamun, the son of Harun al Rashid, undertook (a.d. 829) an ex- pedition into Asia Minor, Avhen he advanced as far as Tarsus, and took fifteen towns of Cilicia. On his way back he encamped on the banks of a little stream in Cilicia, which the Arabs call Bazizun, not far from Tarsus. Here he stayed to enjoy the shade of the trees and coolness of the stream, and expressed a wish to have some dates from Azad, which he said were alone wanting to make his felicity perfect. By an extra- ordinary coincidence, a caravan of mules happened to be just passing, and two baskets of dates, fresh from Bagdad, were set before him. Of these he eat so heartily, drinking at the same time so copiously of the cold waters in the adjacent rivulet, that he was seized with fever, of which he died. His body Avas transported to Tarsus, and there interred, but no trace now exists of his tomb. Al Mamun* was a great encourager of science and literature. During his reign mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry were intro- duced among the Arabs ; and the first library Avas established at Bagdad, to Avhich all nations and sects Avere invited to contribute copies of their works. The Emperor Theophilus, the son of IMichael the Stammerer, marched in person (a.d. 838) five times through Asia Minor in his Avars Avith the * An cxtraortlinary tale is told by an Arabian writer of the birth of Al Mamun, His father, Hanin al Rasliid, having won at chess from the celebrated and admired Sit Zibaidah (Zobaide of the Arabian Xn/htu), liis wife and consin, the pri\'ilcgo of dic- tating to her any caprice which struck his fancy, compelled her to walk barefoot across the centre of the bath, over the hot stones, measuring the whole distance bj' putting one foot in succession before the other. This she was obliged to do ; but she resolved to take signal vengeance for tliis unfeeling frolic on the first opportmiity which pre- sented itself after her recovery. She challenged him to i-enew the game for the same stakes ; and being this time the victor, she chose the ugliest female black slave in the harim, and obliged him to take her to wife. Al Mamun was the fniit of this union, born about the same time as Aniiu the son of Sit Zibaidah, and he grew up as clever as his lirothor was stujjid. SIEGE OF AMOmUM. 47 Saracens; and in liis last campaign lie destroyed the small town of Zabatra in Syria, in spite of the soUcitations and remonstrances of the Khalif Mutassim,* third son of Harun al Kashid, whose casual birthplace it happened to be. Mutassim levied a large army to resent the aftront. The troops of Persia, Syria, and Egypt were collected together in the plains of Cilicia at Tarsus, and moved on over Mount Taurus to Amoriu.m in Phrygia, the birthplace of the father of Theophilus. The emperor hastened the defence of what appears to have been at that time a most flourishing city, but to no purpose ; for although 70,000 Moslems had perished in this war, Mutassim persisted in the siege, and totally ruined the town, slaughtering 30,000 Christians, and carrying oflP an equal number of captives to Tarsus, Syria, ond Persia. These were treated with great cruelty ; for although an exchange or ransom of prisoners was sometimes allov^edj in the national and religious conflicts of these two parties, quarter was seldom given in the field, and those who escaped the edge of the sword were condemned to hopeless servitude or the most cruel torture. The Emperor Constantiue Porphyrogenitus relates with visible satis- faction the execution of the Saracens of Candia, wdio were flayed alive or plunged into caldrons of burning oil. Gibbon, in speaking of the taking of Amorium, makes the following observation: " To a point of honour Mutassim had sacrificed a flourishing city, two hundred thousand lives, and the property of millions. The same khalif descended from his horse and dirtied his robe to relieve the distress of a decrepit old man, who with his laden ass had tumbled into a ditch. On which of these two actions did he reflect with most pleasiu-e when he Avas summoned by the angel of death?" * Mutassim was the first khalif, according to an Arabian writer (Ibn Shuhny or Shuh-na), who added the name of the Almighty to his own — a practice continued by his successors, as if mamtaining their right by di\'ine authority. Thus we have epithets oi Billah, Biamr-illah, Lidia-allah; as we should say, By tJie grace of God, &c. &c., Pro])liet of the Faith, &c. •\- There is reason to believe that Zabatra corresponds with the place now called Rum-Kalah, or "Castle of the Romans," on the Euphrates ; but there is gi-eat difficulty in determining this point satisfactoiily, as the site is only mentioned bj' the mediajval writers. — W. F. A. X Abu-1-faraj relates one of these singular and characteristic exchanges as hanng taken place ou the bridge of the Lamas (now II- Lamas), in CUicia, the boimdary of the two empires, and one day's jom-ney westward of Tarsus, where, 4160 Moslems, 800 women and children, with 100 allies, were exchanged for an equal number of Greeks. They passed each other in the middle of the bridge ; and when they reached their resijective friends, they shouted "Allah Akhar!" and " Ki/rie Ehison!" No doubt many o) these were prisoners of Amorium ; but the most illustrious of them {theforti/ marti/rs had been the same year beheaded by order of the khalif. 48 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Arabicau wi'iters also mention a victory gained by Mntassim over the Greeks at Mopsuestia, called by them Mamuriyah, and state that 30,000 of the enemy were left on the field of battle. This engagement must have preceded the taking of Amorium, for from this date Cilicia came under the dominion of the khalifs ; and Tarsus became a capital city of great importance, from its vicinity to the frontiers of the Muliammadan domi- nions. During the whole of the next century the khalifs of Bagdad, the suc- cessors ofMutassim, retained possession ofCiHcia; and the hostilities car- ried on between this Arabian dynasty and the Greeks were confined to some trifling inroads by sea and land, the fruits of their close vicinity and inde- lible hatred. But towards the middle of the tenth century the intestine broils and revolutions which convulsed the throne of the Abbassides, and reduced the khalifs to the j^osition of royal prisoners, encouraged the Greek emperors Nicephorus -Phocas and John Zimisces to make a last effort (a.d. 9G3) to obtain possession of the fine provinces which their prede- cessors had lost. The twelve years of their military command form the most sjolendid period of the Byzantine annals. An immense army laid siege to Adana (erroneously called Mopsuestia by Gibbon*), which double city, divided into two by the Sams, was surrounded and taken by assault, and two hundred thousand Moslems were led to death and slavery. I * Sec Colonel Leake's learned work on the Ancient and Modern Geography of Asia Minor. 1824. It woiild appear, however, that Gibbon was in the right as far as regards the city in question being Mopsuestia. The mistake of sayuig that Mopsuestia was cut in two by the river Saiais originated with Zonaras and Cedrenus : it should be by tlio PjTamus. Adana does not ajiipear to have been ever di^•ided into two to^vns by the river Sams, but Mopsuestia always was by the PjTamus ; hence Colonel Leake ap- pears to increase the confusion by changing the town to meet the error in the name of the river. Mopsuestia was also an important city in the middle ages ; Adana did not rise into notice till after the time of the Khahfs : nor is it likely that two such excessive popidations as those of Adana and Tarsus could have existed so close to one another. It may be remarked also, that Abu-1-fada describes this butcherj^ of Moslems — so much exaggerated as far as numbei'S are concerned — to have taken place at Mopsu- estia, not Adana. Sii- Francis Beaufort, in his Karamania, remarks that Anna Comnena has made the same mistake, when she describes (Alexiad. lib. xii.) part of Tancrcd's army as proceeding up the Sarus to invest Mopsuestia. — W. F. A, + " A sm-prising degree of population," says Gibbon, "which must at least include the inhabitants of the dependent districts." And yet there is more probabUity of this number being less exaggerated than that ascribed to Seleucia, near Antioch, computed to have had upwards of 300,000 ; as the environs of Adana arc verj' extensive and fer- tile, and well calculated to aftbrd sustenance for an infinitely large number, whereas the position of Seleucia is circinnscribeil within very narrow limits by the sea on one side, and the rocky ilount lihossus on the other, which could never have fm-nished sufficient food for such multitudes ; pai-ticxUarly in the vicinity of so vast a metropolis THE TURKMANS. 49 The city of Tarsus was reduced by the slow progress of famine. Tlie Saracens capitulated on honourable terms, and were dismissed with a safe- conduct to the confines of Syria. " A part of the old Christians had quietly lived under their dominion, and the vacant habitations were re- plenished by a new colony ; but the mosque was converted into a stable^ the pulpit was delivered to the flames, and many rich crosses of gold and gems, the spoils of Asiatic churches, were made a grateful offering to the piety and avarice of the em^^eror ; and the gates of Adana and Tarsus were transported to Constantinople, and fixed in the wall there, a lasting monument of victory." Antioch was recovered, and subsequently all Syria (except Acre), and many cities on the other side of the Euphrates were overrun and despoiled. The Emperor Zimisces returned to Constan- tinople laden with Oriental spoils, and displayed in his triumph the silk, the aromatics of the East, and three hundred myriads of gold and silver. But this transient hurricane, the last efforts of a declining storm, blew over, and left few traces of its effects ; for shortly afterwards, being unable to maintain their conquests, the Greeks evacuated the Asiatic towns, and the Saracens again purified their mosques, and overturned the idols of the saints and martyrs, the Nestorian and Jacobite Christians preferring their Saracen riders to their heretical brethren. Antioch, with the cities of Cilicia and the island of Cyprus, Avere the only possessions re- tained by the Greek Emperor, and the sole advantages of this bloody struggle. The Turkmans, wandering hordes of Scythians who liad come from the north and overrun all China and Central Asia, had been invited some years previously (a.d. 1000) by the khalifs into Persia, to prop up by their military energy a feeble and tottering power, opposed by re- bellious and refractory vassals. Converted to INIuhammadanism by their new connexion with the Saracen Arabs, they seized upon the monarchify but suftered the monarch to exist ; they declared themselves the lieu- tenants of the Khalifs, and distributed their numerous clans over the whole of the countries between Bagdad and India, which they divided among themselves: hence the different dynasties of Sanimanides, Gazna- vides, SidJuJcians, Karizndans^ &c., and at length Ottomans or Osmanlis, which last became the most celebrated from the duration and extent of their power, and which they have had the good fortune to retain to the present day. The Turkmans of the court and city have beeu refined by the business and intercourse of social life, and softened by luxury and effeminacy ; but the greater number of their brethren still as Autiocli, which was said to contain 600,000 souls. Commerce alone might have been e>;Lual to the suppoi-t of such numbers. 50 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERXOES. contimie to dwell in the teuts of their ancestors, and lead the same wan- dering life which they led eight centuries ago. During the life of Tugrul Bay (a.d. 1050), one of the Suljukiau family, many parties of Turkman horse invaded the provinces of the Greek Empire, and overran a frontier of GOO miles, shedding the blood of 130,000 Christians. But these incursions did not make a lasting impression on the Greek Empire, which still extended to Autioch and the boundaries of Armenia. The torrent rolled away in the open country, obscure hostilities were continued or suspended with various vicissitudes of good and bad fortune, and the bravery of the Mace- donian legions renewed the fame of the successors of Alexander. The Turkmans, however, had the advantages of a new and poor people over an ancient and corrupt government, and were besides continually re- cruited by fresh hordes of their companions, impelled by the tliu-st of rapine, and the necessity of forming new settlements. A.D. 1068. Tugrul Bay left to his nephew and successor. Alp Arslan (become, by the overthrow of the Gaznavide dynasty, the most powerful head of the. numerous clans, and Avho had assumed the title of Suldan), the care of prosecuting the war against the Christians, and he invaded Asia Minor with a large army headed by his Amirs or generals. Laden with spoils, which they seized indiscriminately, and careless of discipline, these troops were, in the security of conquest, scattered in numerous detachments all over the provinces. The Greek emperor, Romanus Diogenes, who had been invested by the Empress Eudocia Avith the purple for the pm-posc of defending the state against these barbarians, surprised and defeated them sej)arately, and drove them beyond tlie Euplirates in three laborious campaigns. On the report of these losses, Alp Arslan flew to the scene of action (a.d. 1072) at the head of 40,000 horse, and overcame and captured Eomanus Diogenes. He accepted, however, a ransom of a million of gold pieces, and sent him back on promise of paying a tribute of 360,000 pieces. But in the treaty of peace it does not appear that he extorted any province or city from the captive emperor, and his reven Avas satisfied with the trophies of his Adctories and the spoils of Anatoh;., from Antioch to the Black Sea. Sulaiman, the son of Kutulmish, a relative of Arslan, and of the family of the Suljukians, invaded Asia jMinor two years after (a.d. 1074), and declared himself in favour of Nicephorus Botoniates, in opposition to his rival Bryennius, and materially contributed to the success of the former, whom he settled on the throne of Constantinople. 2000 Turks were at this time transported into Europe, the first of that nation who TURKMAN DYNASTY AT NICJIA. 51 crossed the Hellespont, — a fatal precedent, for the Turks took the op- portunity of fortitying themselves in the country ; and the elevation of a tyrant, who was soon deposed and pvit to death, was purchased by the sacrifice of many of the finest provinces of the empire ; and from this date the Turks could no longer be expelled from Asia Minor, the whole of which they soon subdued, except Trebizond, which held out to the Greeks. Sulaimau foUowiug up his successes, completed (a.d. 1084) the con- quest of AnatoHa, and established the new kingdom of the Suljukians of Roiim, At Nica3a, the metropolis ofBithynia, 100 miles distant from Constantinople, " on the very spot where the first general council or synod of the Christians was held, the divinity of Christ was denied and derided; and the Kiu-an was preached in the same temple Avhich had witnessed the assemblage of the heads of the Christian Church, now converted into a mosque. The Cadis judged according to the laws of the Kiiran, the Turkish manners and language prevailed over the cities, and Turkman camps were scattered over the plains and mountains of Asia Minor. On the hard conditions of tribute and servitude, the Greek Chx'istians were permitted to enjoy the exercise of their religion; but their holy churches were profaned, their priests and bishops insulted ; they were compelled to suffer the triumphs of the Pagans and the apos- tacy of their brethren, and many thousand captives were devoted to the service or pleasures of their masters." Here I pause to observe how well adapted to the present state of the country is this picture di'awn by Gibbon, from contemporary writers, of the degraded state of the Chris- tians in those times, and which has continued to the 25i"esent day with little or no alteration or diminution. In consequence of this tyranny, they have, in self-defence, been induced to resort to that cunning and deceit which are now their leading characteristics, and which alone are the features that distinguish them from their oppressors, for they have in every other respect adopted the manners and prejudices of the IVIu- hammadans. None of their churches have been restored to them that were converted into mosques ; but they are permitted, on payment of large sums, to build new chiu'ches, on heaps of ruins where it is im- possible to say what edifice had stood, whether theatre, bath, or Pagan temple. Under the late Sultan some of the restrictions on Christian worship have been diminished, and firmans are to be obtained with less difiiculty and comparatively moderate fees; and this they owe to the progress of civilisation, consequent on the march of intellect which produced in Sultan IMahmud an enlightened monarch and a man of genius. 52 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. On the establishment of a Turkman dynasty at jS'iccea (a.d. 1095), Avhich lasted 220 years, the provinces of Asia Minor came under its subjection, and -were the scene of slaughter and rapine ; -while the pil- grims from every part of Europe, who began to flock to Jerusalem, en- countered innumerable perils ere they were permitted to salute the Holy Sepulchre. A spirit of zeal, engendered by the exclusiveness ofMuham- madanism, prompted these hordes to insidt the clergy of every other sect. The Patriarch of Jerusalem, we are informed, was dragged by the hair along the pavement and cast into a dungeon, to extort a ransom from his flock ; and the divine worship in the Church of the Eesiirrection was often disturbed by the rudeness of its masters. Peter the Hermit roused the martial nations of Eui'ope to avenge their wrongs ; and the Crusades were undertaken by our ancestors in a spirit of enthusiasm to peril their lives in the defence and rescue of their co-religionists — a feeling which seems to haA'e been entirely extinguished in the hearts of their descendants. Kilitch Arslan, the son of Sidaiman, was king of Nica?a (a.d. 1097) when the army of the first Crusaders besieged that city on its way to the Holy Land, and took it after a siege of seven months. The Turk- man sultan, no Avay dismayed by the loss of his capital, retreated to Dorylajum in Phrygia, and assembling there all the forces he had in the province, resolutely attacked the Latins, and eventually engaged them in a pitched battle. But victory declared for the Crusaders ; and Kihtch Arslan was compelled to retreat, and implore the aid, by kindling the resentment, of his eastern brethren, which he did, laying waste the countries he traversed. The Crusaders proceeded to Koniyah, Arakli, and Marash, and thence over jNIount Taurus to Kucusus, now Kursun, a town remarkable as having formerly been the place of exile of St. Chrysostom. Two of the chiefs, Tancred and BaldAvin, the brother of Godfrey of Bouillon, were here detached from the main army, with their respective sipiadrons of 500 and 700 knights. They overran in rapid career the hills and sea-coast of Cilicia, from the mountainous country to the Syrian gates, and planted the Norman standard on the walls of Tarsus and Malmistra (IMopsucstia). The foi'mcr of these cities Baldwin, excited by jealousy and ambition, obliged Tancred to deliver into his hands ; and he had the barbarity to refuse admission to 000 of the soldiers of Tancred, who were consequently obliged to pass the night outside the walls, where they were cut to pieces by a strong party of Saracen Turks. But Tancred by his moderation had gained the affection of the soldiers, and Baldwin was soon obliged to return to the camp, to endure the reproaches of the Latin chiefs. Tancred for- CILICIA ANNEXED TO THE GREEK EilPIRE. 53 tifiecl and garrisoned the towns he had taken, and these Avere the most lasting possessions of all that the Crusades acquired. A.D. 1118. While the brave Tancred and his warlike associates were winning laurels before the walls of Jerusalem and Antioch, the wily Alexius, Emperor of Constantinople, improved the opportunity afforded by the victories of the Crusaders, and recovered the provinces previously taken from the Greeks by the Suljukian Turkmans, by following in their steps, and taking possession of and fortifying all the towns on the coast, including the islands of Cyprus and Ehodes. The seat of power of the Turkmans was thus confined to the districts of Koniyah, where the dynasty of Alp Arslan fixed their debilitated throne. Their power eventually became nominal ; for in spite of the high titles they assumed, the last of their race were happy to be considered as generals of the Great ]\Iogul, and owe their sway to his bounty, until they were finally destroyed by Gazan in 1298, the year 706 of the Hegira. In the mean- while the ambitious but pru.dent Alexius had resolved to annex Cilicia to his empire, and that the Syrian gates should be the boundary of his possessions : for this purpose he made war on Tancred and Bohemond, now tranquil masters of their conquests. Bohemond, unable to cope with this new enemy, left Tancred to govern at Antioch, and returning to Europe, levied an army of 5000 horse and 40,000 foot, with which he returned to punish the faithless Greek. But the sudden death of Bohe- mond happened about this time ; added to which, the venal arts of Alexius, by which he won over his confederates, compelled Tancred to sign a treaty of peace, whereby all Cilicia Avas restored to the Byzantine empire. Thus the towns of Tarsus and INIalmistra (or Mopsuestia),''so bravely won by Tancred, fell under the government of the Greeks. -0^«3iC!5X£^-^ CHAPTER V. THE EMPEROR JOHN COMKENUS KILLED IN A AMLD-EOAR HUNT IN CILICIA DESCRIPTION OF ANAZARBA THE SECOND CRUSADE — THIRD CRUSADE DEATH OF FREDERICK I. (bARBAROSSa) IN CILICIA FOURTH CRUSADE CILICIA UNDER JOHN DUCAS VATACES DEVASTATIONS OF YANGHIZ OR GENGHIZ KHAN. The crafty Alexius was succeeded (a.d. 1143) in the throne of Con- stantinople by his son John Comnenus, surnanied Kalo Joannes or John the Handsome, a prince whose reign of twenty-five years was marked by vii-tues rarely met with in such degenerate and guilty times. He intro- duced a gradual reformation in the manners of his capital, without as- suming the tyrannic office of a censor. The only check on the public felicity was love of military glory, — the ruhng passion of the emperor. But the frequent expeditions he undertook may be justified in some measure by the necessity of repelling the Turks and repressing their in- roads. The Sultan of Karamania was confined to his capital, the barba- rians were driven to their mountains, and the maritime provinces of Asia enjoyed a tranquillity which was highly appreciated. John Comnenus repeatedly marched at the head of his victorious armies from Constantinople to Antioch and Aleppo; the whole coast of Anatolia to the north and south was subjected to his power, and in the sieges and battles of the Holy War his Latin allies were astonished at the superior spirit and prowess of a Greek. But while the Greek king began to in- dulge the hope of restoring the ancient limits of the empire, the decrees of Providence Avere about to frustrate his plans ; and the thread of his life and of the public happiness was broken by an unfortunate and rather singular accident. While hunting a wild boar in Cilicia, near the town of Anazarba, he had fixed his javelin in the body of the furious animal, and in the struggle to recover himself a poisoned arrow dropped from his quiver, and a slight wound in his hand produced mortification and proved fatal to him.* * La Cilicie tU'pendait des rois Selcucides ; mais Tigi-ancs roi trArmunio aj-ant de- trond CO prince, la Cilicie, du moins la partie qu'on appcllait Campcstris, obt'it an i-oi d'Arnu'nie jiisqu'Jl Van 688 do Rome, dans laquellc Tigrancs fut vaincu par Pomjit-c. Cctto partie resta soumise aiix Remains. Jtilcs-Cesar confirma Ic titre de Mctropole a la villo do Tursvs. L'Empereur Augiisto lui coiifVra de nouvelles graces, ct die joiiit SECOND dlUSADE. 55 The second Crusade, under Conrad III. Emperor of Germany and Louis VII. (a.d.1147), experienced tlie same disasters that befel the first expedition. Misled by the guides in the pay of the perfidious Greek Emperor ^Manuel, who succeeded Kalo Joannes, and who was secretly leagued with the Saracens, the unfortunate Conrad and Louis were be- trayed ; and unable to penetrate farther tlian the Taiirus and the confines du titre et des iir^^ininences de mefcropole jusqu'au cinqoieme siecle de Jesus-Christ. Les villes d'Anazarba iVEyes (Ayash) ct Mullus (Kara Tash), et autres, liii <5taient soumiscs. La \ille d'Anazarba, decorije du titre de C^saree, ^tait illustro ; elle <-prouva les plus grands malheurs ; elle fut renvers^e par un tremblement de terre, et I'Em- pereur Aerva la fit bientot retablii-. Cette %'ille resta dans un ^tat flem-issant pendant plusieiu-s siecles ; un autre tremblement de terre la ruiua solis le regne de Justin ou Justinian. Elle se releva encore du milieu do ses ruines par la munificence des princes, et I'avantat/e de la situation et la fertilite de son territoire ftu-ent cause qu'elle fi.it bientot ri/tablie. Anazarba riche, iJeupk-e, et dans une position avantageuse, jDar ime rivalite aloi-s commun entreles grandes villss d'uue meme proAdnce, ambitionna le titre de mtitropole, et elle le prit suivant VaiUant sous le regne d'Elagabule ; mais elle I'avait obtenu auparavant : sm- un ni^daillo frappe'e on I'honneur de Caracalla I'an baz 232 de I'ere de la viUe, 966 de Rome, 214 de J^sus-Christ, quatrieme du regne de ce prince, eUe prcnd le titre de MHTi'onOAEas, mtjtropole, qu'elle couserva sous les emperem-s .suivant; mais ce titre ^tait simplemant honorifique, sans donner aucune jurisdiction dans la province; U donnoit la presence apres Tarsus, dans les as3embl{5es g<$n^rales Pareils honnem-s fiu'ent accordes aux villes do Nicee en Bj'thinie, de Laodic^e en Syrie, et de Sidon en Phenicie. La ville d'Anazarba ne se contenta pas du titre de m^tropole; elle y ajouta I'cpi- thete Cl il lustre, ENAOHOYMHTPonoAiiOc, qu'elle fit graver sm- plusieiu-sde ses monnaies. Elle conservait encore ce titre sous le regne de Diocletian. On lit dans les Actes des Martyrs publiees par Don Ruinart, que Taraque, Androniqiie, et Probus fiu-ent mis a mort povu" la religion Chretienne I'an 304 de Jc^sus-Christ tn 'Ai-aJup/SM ->; en^oftu/iiiTpo- TToXei, a Anazarha illustre Metroiyole. — Dissertation sur I'Ere d'Anatarha ^yar I'Ahhe Belley, iii the Memoires de V Academie, vol.50, p. 350. Vide Journal, Jan. 18, 1848. Tarsus imder the reign of L.Verus had inscribed on its medals n M K, which has puzzled antiquai-ies ; the Abb^ says it means Trpo-rif /itiTpoTroXeajr KiXiKias. Anazaiba had the same engi-aved on its medals, out of opjiosition. Under the reign of Arcadius, C'ilicia was di\'ided into first and second provinces, of which Tarsus and Anazarba became the chief metropohtan towns. Anazarba, midcr the Emperor Conimodus, obtained the pri\'ilege of being avTcuoiio?, by which it had the i-ight of choosing its own magistrates, and of being governed by its own laws. — W. B. B. Anazarba, which appears to have been erroneously called Ain-zarbeh,— the name being merely corrupted by the natives to Anawarzah, — figured for a short period as one of the most flomisliing cities of C'ilicia. Ptolemy calls it Cssarea ad A nazarhv.m ; Pliny, Anazarheni qui nunc Ccesarea; Hierocles calls it MetropoUs; and it is enume- rated among the Christian episcoj^acies in the Ecclesiastical Xoticcs of the Low Empire. It was the countiy of Dioscorides, who is called by Smdas the physician of Anazarba, and of Oppian, the poet of the Cynegeticus. Carolus Stephanus, in his historical dic- tionary, says that this \vi-iter of elegant verses died of plagaic at his birthplace, which he calls Zerhus. This splendid tovm was destroyed by a fearful earthquake m the reign of Justinian. This is nan-ated by Procopius and by Cedrenus. Little was known of the actual condition of this place till it was visited by a party from the Euphi-ates expedition. The -v^-alls still remain, but m a rmnous condition. t .56 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERXOKS. of Cilicia, tliey were obliged to embark wdth a few retainers only in Greek vessels for the coast of Syria, the one from the Hellespont, and the other from Satalia. The greatest part of their miserable and mis- giiided followers, to the number of several thousands, were abandoned to tlieir fate and exposed to the cruelty of the Saracens at the foot of the Pamphylian hills, and in the forests of ]\Iount Taiu'us. Audronicus, grandson of Alexius and cousin of ^lanuel, was twice sent during the lifetime of this emperor to govern the important pro- vince of Cilicia. His romantic adventures and hair-breadth escapes would fill a volume ; I can but refer to the most striking passages in his life. In his first campaign he pressed the siege of INIopsuestia, which had been seized by the Armenians. By day his boldness was equal to his success ; but the nights were devoted to the song and dance, and a band of Greek comedians formed the choicest of his retinue. One evening he was surprised by a sally of the vigilant foe; but while his troops fled in disorder, his invincible lance transpierced the thickest ranks of the Armenians. In his second command of the Cilieian frontier, some years afterwards, the Armenians again exercised his courage and exposed his negligence, while he wasted his time at Antioch in balls and toiu'naments. Among three princesses whom he seduced Avas the Queen of Jerusalem, whose shame was more public and scandalous than that of either of her predecessors. He remained twelve years in prison, took the Cross as a Crusader, wandered as an outlaw to Bagdad and Persia, settled among the Turks in Asia Minor, became a robber of Christians and the terror of the kingdom of Trebizond, usurped the throne of Constantinople, and after a bloody reign of three years was put to death in a cruel and ignominious manner by the enraged populace. The third Crusade, under the conduct of Frederic I. Emperor of Germany, surnamed Barbarossa (a.d. 11 83), did not eventually meet with much more success than the last. After passing the Hellespont, his army was harassed by innumeral)le hordes of Turkmans during twenty days that he was traversing the dense forests of Bithynia; but he overcame all obstacles to his progress, and attacked and stormed the capital of the Turk- mans, and compelled the Sultan of Koniyah to sue for pence. But the veteran warrior reaped no harvest i'rona his exertions; he was not iated Few public buildings exist, however, within the walls, beyond an extensive castle of various ages, built upon the top of a rocky hill, and many of the rooms of which are in perfect keejiing, — but these appear to belong to the Muhammadan era. A great num- ber of beautifully scidptm-cd and highly oniamented tombs and sarcophagi still attest, however, to the opulence and civilisation of this former metropolis of Cilicia. Nor must we omit to mention the niins of an aqueduct, which brought water direct li-om tlio mountains, a distance of many miles. — W. F. A. DEATH OF FREDERIC I. — JOHN DUCAS VATACES. 57 to tread the soil of the Holy Land, nor to terminate the triumphs which he had begun. He was drowned Avhile crossing a river in Cilicia, which had been swollen by the tropical rains, — the C^d/ius according to some writers, and who have taken this occasion to draw a comparison between him and Alexander, to whom this river had nearly proved fatal above a thousand years previously. But I am unwilling to give credit to this story, as it seems unaccountable that a general at the head of his army should be lost in fording a river which is nowhere more than six feet deep ; and I think it more probable that he was attacked by the malignant fever of the country. However this may be, his troops were decimated by sick- ness and lamine, and his son, who had contrived to reach the Holy Land ivith a few remaining followers, expired at the siege of Acre. These losses led succeeding Crusaders, grown wiser by the fate of their prede- cessors, to abandon the overland route, and Cilicia Avas no longer trampled tinder foot by the zealous but little disciplined liosts. The fourth Crusade, undertaken by the Venetians and French (a.d. 1204), was diverted from the coast of Syria, to which it was origi- nally directed, by the enticing shores of the Bosjihorus ; where, on pre- tence of revenging the death of Alexius, who with his father Isaac had been murdered by Murzufli, the Latins made themselves masters of Constantinople, sacked and burnt the best part of the capital, and elected Baldwin Count of Flanders Emperor of the East. The successors of this monarch maintained themselves in the capital diiring a period of fifty- seven years. But Theodore Lascaris, the son-in-law and relation of Alexius, having fled, he set up the standard of the Greeks at Nica?a, and with the alliance of the Turkish sultan he saved a remnant of the falling empire. During a reign of eighteen years, this emperor extended, 1 >y his military talents, the small principality of Nicfea to the magnitude of a kingdom, in which Cilicia was included. Theodore Lascaris was succeeded at his death (a.d. 1222) by John Ducas Vataces, his son-in-law, who fixed the throne on a more sohd basis, and in a long reign of thirty-three years displayed both the virtues of peace and the energy of war. In the long administration of this prince, the provinces of Asia Minor, and among them Cilicia, en- joyed the blessings of a good government. The lands were sown yviih corn or planted with olives and vines ; the pastures were filled Avith cattle and horses ; the education of youth and the revival of learning Avere also serious objects of his care, and both by his precepts and practice, simplicity of manners and domestic industry AA^ere encouraged. It was somcAvhere about this period that the Venetians and Genoese founded commercial emporia on the coasts of Asia Minor, in Cilicia, 58 CILICIA AXD ITS GOTERXOES. and in Syria, somewhat after tlie principle adopted by the early Hel- lenic colonists, fortifying themselves in their positions by adequate defences, and often by castles to command the passes of the interior, or to keep the surrounding populations in awe. Few records of the era of the foimdation of these emporia exist, and equally few are to be met ■which record their history, their prosperity, or their adverses, and their final extinction. Upon this subject the able historian Sismundi says, " The chronicles of the maritime cities of Italy thro'sv very little light upon the colonies which their citizens founded in the towns of the East, or even at Constantinople. These colonies governed themselves, they named their own authorities, and did not receive them from the metropolis ; and whatever their popu- lation or their wealth, they could not be considered as belonging to the state. Hence it is that the national historians have attached but little importance to the debates of a number of Venetian and Pisan individuals at the other extremity of Europe, although the results brought about by them still astonish us in the present day ; while, on the other hand, the continual wars of the Pisans and the Genoese, which appear to us in the light of freaks of pirates, captivated their whole attention." There are, however, a few fragments referring to these conquests which it may be interesting to record here. The earhest fleet of the Venetian republic that accompanied the first Crusade, a.d. 1099, was composed of 200 ships, and commanded by the son of the new doge, Vital Michieh. They fought off Ehodes a bloody battle against the fleet of the republic of Pisa, each forgetting that they were Christians and crusaders. The Venetian fleet took Smyrna at a later period, and assisted the land troops of the crusaders in taking Jaffa.* The Genoese republic sent, in August 1100, tAventy-eight galleys and six larger vessels into the East. The historian Caffaro was of the expedition. Another fleet was despatched about this time by the republic of Pisa under the Archbishop Daimbert, Avho became afterwards Patriarch of Jemsalem. The combined fleets passed the Avinter at Lattakiya ; and when the death of Godfrey de Bouillon had endangered his new king- dom, they kej)t the maritime provinces, including Cilicia, in subjection to the Latins. The troops of the two republics undertook the siege of Ca?sarea, A.V). 1101. Caput Malio, the Genoese consul, was the first to climb the ramparts, on simple maritime scaling-ladders, and the toAvn was taken from the Musulmans and consigned to pillage. One -fifteenth of the booty was given to the sailors that remained on board the fleet, * Andrea Danduli Chron. 1. ix. c. 10, p. 256. VENETIANS, GENOESE, AND PISANS. 59 Constantinople was retaken by the Greeks under Stratigoptilas from the Venetians, a.d. 1261 ; and Michael Paleologus, whose troops had been assisted by the Genoese, granted privileges to the latter which he had promised them beforehand, but established them at Galata, out of the city. The Venetians and Pisaus formed each a separate quarter, and the three were governed by a separate magistrate, which their re- spective to^vns sent to them ; and here were formed three small republics, which maintained their liberty and independence, in a city the emperor of which was still at war with the Latins. The latter ceded the island of Scio to the Genoese, which was the largest held by them (till 1556), the jealousy of the Greeks having induced them to look with favour upon the occujjation of the island by the IMusulmans. The Jinal conquest, by Melek Seraf, of St. Jean d' Acre, when 30,000 Christians were massacred, occurred a.d. 1291 ; and the taking of Tripoli of Barbary by the Genoese admiral Philip Doria, in a.d. 1355. The Genoese of Pera attempted in the year 1376 to take the island of Tcnedos, ceded to them by Andronicus, Avho had been half blinded by his father, John Paleologos. They were prevented by the gOA^ernor of the island, who remained faithful to the deposed en:peror, and called the Venetians to his assistance, thus defeating the objects of the Genoese. Nicotia was taken June 16th, 1373, by Catani (Genoese admiral of some galleys sent by the Genoese to revenge the massacre), and seventy captive virgins dedicated to Venus were restored to their parents. Famagosta was taken October 3d by Petre di Campo Fregoso, brother of the Doge of Genoa, at the head of thirty-six galleys and 14,000 men. Petro Lusignau, the young king, and son of the deceased king of the same name, was taken prisoner on that occasion, and the island siibjugated to the Genoese. The young king, however, attacked the Genoese in Famagosta in 1378, assisted by the Venetian galleys ; bu.t he was repulsed, and forced to quit not only the island, but the seas of Cyprus. Sinope (Samsun), Trebizonde, and Cerasus were taken by Moham- med II. A.D. 1462. Pope Pius II. died in 1464, and thus the hopes of assistance enter- tained by the Christians of the Levant were destroyed. Pope Paul 11. endeavoured in vain to revive an interest in the Christians of the Levant, and the fleet that had assembled at Ancona (a.d. 1465) to proceed to the assistance of the Christians, was sent by the Venetian senate to attack and plunder the island of Ehodes, under the Great Master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem. Petro Mocenigo, after ravaging, with eighty-eight galleys, the north 60 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNORS. of Asia Minor, attacked, a.d. 1472, Attalia, or Satali, a rich town of Pampliilia, whicli furnished Egypt and Syria ^Yith provisions, devastated the environs, and then returned to Ehodes. He also ravaged Ionia, opposite 8cio, and Smyrna, -without making any distinction between the Christian churches and the Muhammadan mosques. Mocenigo received from Venice, a.d. 1473, the order to put him- self in communication with Ozun Hassan, to whom the republic sent Josaphat Barbaro (a person advanced in age, speaking the Persian fluently, and of gi-eat talent and perspicuity), three galleys laden with presents and a great quantity of artillery, together with 100 artizans whom the republic oiFered to the service of the sovereign of Persia. It was through Cilicia that they had decided on passing into Persia to accom- pany the Persian ambassador. The latter was on his return to his master after having been received at Venice, to negotiate that mutual assistance should be given by the Latins and Persians against their common enemy Mohammed II. The princes of Ivaramania, two brothers, who had been despoiled by the iMuhammadans of great part of their possessions, but Avho still defended themselves bravely in the remainder,* Avere awaiting them. One of these was besieging Seleucia (Sulufsky), which it seems was a place still of some importance even at so late a period. Mocenigo, with forty-five galleys, two from the Knights of Rhodes and four from the king of Cyprus, proceeded to their assistance. Land- ing first at Cyprus, he had a meeting with Hassan Bay, the younger brother (the eldest, Pyramet,f being in the Persian camp), near Suluf- sky, whez'e his envoy, Victor Seranzo, was informed by the young bay that the Muhammadans kept the people of Ivaramania, who Avere devoted to the Christian prince, under subjection by means of three fortresses, Sichcsii, Seleucia, and Coryco (Sikin, Sulufsky, and Kurkus), Avhich they could not take for Avant of artillery. IMocenigo forced the Muhammadan troops occupying these three places to capitulate, and made them over to Hassan Bay.| These were the first attempts made to o-^on a communication Avith the Persians; and they are of an interesting character, not only as re- garding the country Ave are noAV engaged upon, but also as pointing out * JI. Antonio Sabellico, dcca. iii. 1. ix. f. 215 verso. Coriol. Cepio, 1. ii. p. 361. f Many of the names used by Mr. Barker in this portion of his narrative are do- rived, as will be seen from the foot-notes, from lUilian writers of the middle ages, and they arc exceedingly coniiptcd. Pyramet, for example, conld not be a Tm-kish name. — W. F. A. It is a corniption of Pyr and Ahmed, which conjointly mean old Ahmed, or the (7uL\.HMUD II. .UBD'uL MASJID. Othman, sou of Ortliogrul,* a Turkman chief of a tribe of four liundred families "wlio had settled in Lesser Armenia on the banks of the Eu- phrates, after his fathei''s death enlisted in the service of Ala-addin, one of the last sultans of Karamania. Becoming emir or lieutenant of the feeble monarch, he founded a kingdom, the seat of which was first established at Brusa, then at Adrianople, and lastly at Constantinople. The founder of the Osmanli dynasty first invaded the territory of Nicomedia, a.d. 1299, and during twenty-seven years he made repeated incursions on the Greek empire. At last, when oppressed by age and infirmities, he received the news in his camp of the taking of Brusa by his son Orchan, which then became the capital of the new dynasty. Orchan afterwards subjected all the countries of Asia Minor, almost without resistance ; but it appears that he allowed his brother-generals to divide the spoil, for Ave see that the emirs of Gharmain and Karamania (iu the latter of which Cilicia was included) are said to have been in a condition to bring each an army of 40,000 men into the field. From these proceeded the vast tribes of Turkmans established all over Cilicia and Karamania, who maintain their original way of living to this day, and who are a sej)arate race from the wandering tribes to the north, — of those, for example, iu the districts of Kaisariyah. The latter are mostly of Kurd origin, and speak a perfectly difierent language. Orchan, profiting by the civil wars of the elder Andronicus and his grandson, caused his emirs to build a fleet and pillage the adjacent islands, and even the sea-coasts of Europe. * It is proper in names so long accepted as Osman or Othman^ Ortliogrul, and Osmanlis or Ottomans, to retain the accei>ted orthographies ; otherwise, as there is no in the original, a more correct orthography would be 'Usman, 'Usmauli, 'Urthu- grul, &e. F QQ CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. John Cantacuzeuc, -who, in conjunction with John Pala^ologus, son of the younger Andronicus, had become emperor, basely invited to his aid (a.d. 1346) the pubUc enemies of his religion and country; and Orchan ■was induced to come to his assistance by the stijDulated condition that the daughter of Cantacuzene should be given him in marriage. Parental tenderness was in this case silenced by the dictates of ambition, and the Greek princess Avas delivered over to her Asiatic lord without the rites of the Church. The Tiu'ks were thus introduced into Europe; and in the very first step they made they trod down with contempt one of the first and most sacred rites of the Christians, by taking the daughter of their emperor as a concubine in their Iiarims ! Sulaiman, the son of Orchan, marched at the head of ten thousand warriors into Europe to support the wavering power of his ally. In the civil Avars of Romania he performed a small degree of service and a greater degree of mischief. By degrees the Chersonesus was insensibly filled with a Turkish colony, Avhile the Byzantine court solicited in vain the restitution of the fortresses of Thrace. The walls of Galipoli, the key of the Hellespont, had been thrown down by an earthquake ; they Avere rebuilt and fortified by the policy of Sulaiman, and Constantinople Avould have next fallen a prey to the ambition of the Turks, had the Tui'kish chief not died by a fall from his horse, and the death of his father soon after fortunately intervened to stay for a little Avhile the shock of the impending storm. A.D. 1360. Amurad I., second son of Orchan, succeeded to the throne, Avhich he removed from Brusa to Adrianople. During a reign of nearly thirty years he subdued Avithout resistance the proAdnces of Eomania and Tlirace, from Momit Ila^mus to the suburbs of Constanti- nople ; and John Palteologus, almost a prisoner in his palace, was obliged, with his four sons, to follow the court and camp of the Ottoman prince. The Bulgarians, Servians, Bosnians, and Albanians Avere all made tribu- tary, and brought by a famous institution to be, by their bravery, the supporters of Ottoman greatness. The redoubtable corps of the ** Janissaries" (Yani-chari), chosen from among the stoutest and most beautifi.ll Christian youths, became the terror of nations, and in later times of the sultans themselves. It Avas reserATd to Amurad's son Bayazid, Avho succeeded him, A.D. 1389, to extend the conqxiest begun by his grandfather to the bound- aries of the Greek empire in the East. All the countries from the Hellespont to the Euphrates acknoAvledged his SAvay ; while on the other side, Avhatcver yet adliered to the Greek empire in Thrace, Mace- donia, and Thessaly, submitted to Turkish masters. Bayazid stationed TniUR-LANG. 67 a fleet of galleys at Galipoli to command the Hellespont. At Nicopolis he defeated a confederate army of 100,000 Franks under John Count of Nevers, whom he made prisoner. At length (a.d. 1395) his attention was directed to the conquest of Constantinople; and the dreaded catastrophe was only averted by the consent of Manuel, successor of John Palteologus, to pay an annual tri- bute of 30,000 croAvns of gold. But this respite Avas of short duration ; the truce was soon violated by the restless sultan, and an army of Ottomans again threatened the devoted capital. Manuel in his distress implored the assistance of his Latin '* brethren," and a reinforcement of troops from this quarter (a forlorn-hope) protracted the siege until Timur-lang, known in Eiu-ope by the name of Tamerlane, the Mogul conqueror, diverted the attention of Bayazid by invading his Eastern possessions. Thus the fall of Con- stantinople was deferred for some fifty years longer. A.D. 1402. Timur-lang, surnamed the lame, although a descendant of Yanghiz Khan in the female line, rose from the state of a shepherd- lad to the possession of an empu-e more extensive than that of Alex- ander. His first conquest was Sogdiana; from thence he advanced to the conquest of Persia, took Bagdad, penetrated to the farthest part of India, and on his return from thence he fell upon Syria and Asia Minor. His aid Avas solicited by the Muhammadan princes whom Bayazid had deposed, as also by the brother of the absent Greek emperor. Timur summoned the Tiu-kish sidtan to raise the siege, and the two formidable enemies met on the plains of Ancyra (Angora) in Galatiii. After one of the most fiuious battles ever recorded in history, Bayazid Avas defeated and taken prisoner, and piit into an iron cage, according to the vulgar tale.* Thus the Moguls became masters of all Asia ; and, if they had been possessed of ships they might have overrun Eiu'ope. But the invasion of these hordes led to no permanent conquests ; Timur had no troops to leave behind him to maintain his poAver, and the popu- lations Avere abandoned to anarchy. f * Local tradition records the exact locality of this great engagement to have been the plain of Chibuk-Abad, north of Angora, now Ang-uri. — W. F. A. •f The Tm-ks tell a characteristic story regarding the spirit of discord j)revalent in Cilicia, which is not equalled in any part of the world. Each inhabitant would, if he could, drink the blood of his neighbom-. They say that Timur-lang used to carry with liim forty eases containing his trea- sure, and that he had eighty slaves, to whom ho confided the guard of his person and these cases, half of whom by turns watched while the other half reposed. Arrived before Adana on his way back, he overheard his guards concerting among each other to kill him, and tUvide the spoU between them ; and he understood them to say that they would wait tUl their comjjauions awoke, to be all agreed. Upon this Timur-lang-, 68 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNOEB. Of the five sons of Bayazid avIio after his death contended for the sovereignty, Muhammad I. was the most conspicuous, and obtained the ascendency. He employed the eight years of his reign in eradicating the vices produced by civil discord, and in establishing the Ottoman power over Cihcia and the other provinces of Asia IMinor on a firmer basis. His son Amurad H. besieged Constantinople, a.d. 1422, with an army of 200,000 Tm-ks and Asiatic volunteers; but after a siege of two months he was called away to Brusa to quell a domestic revolt excited by his brother. The effete empii-e was allowed a respite of thirty 3^ears, during which Manuel sank into the grave, and his son John Pa- lajologus H. was permitted to reign in consideration of a tribiite which he paid to the Turks of 300,000 aspres, and the renunciation and aban- donment of all the territory without the walls of Constantinople. Amu- rad was much taken up with the Hungarian war, and twice abdicated the throne, preferring the prayers and religious practices of the society of the dervishes to the cares of royalty. John PakTologus was succeeded by his brother Constantine (a.d, 1443), a youth of fair promise, and who defended his country bravely for a time. But it Avas ordained that the last of the Greek emperors should bear the same name as the first and founder of Constantinople. On the 20th of May, a.d. 1438, the ill-fated city fell into the hands of Muhammad H., the son of Amm-ad, who took it after a siege of fifty- three days. Thus was sealed the fiite of the Christian government in the East, at the same time that the Turkish government was finally es- tablished in Europe. JMuhammad II. marched a large army into Asia ]Minor against Uzzuni Hassan, a powerful Turkman chief, and obtained a complete victory over him on the plain of Gialdaran in Upper Armenia. Bayazid II. succeeded his father a.d. 1481, and inherited his mar- tial character, but did not meet with all his success in mililary afftiirs. During the long wars which his father had carried on in Evirope the eastern provinces had been neglected, and the sultan of Egypt, taking ad- vantage of this supinencss, had made himself master of all Syria, Cihcia, and part of Anatolia. Bayazid undertook a great expedition into Asia Minor to recover these provinces, and two battles were fought by the rival sultans in Cihcia, and the cities of Adana and Tarsus were taken pretending to awake, ordercil the whole army in motion, saying that there must bo .something treacherous in the very gi-ound whereon they were encamped, which could make the select of his followers so faithless. And that is the reason, saj' th« Tiu-ks, why he did not take Adana. eULAOIAX, SELIM, AXD AMURAD. G9 and retaken by both parties witla alternate success. At lengtli Bayazid, altliongli vanquished, had the tact to conckide an advantageous peace, by which all Cilicia was ceded to him as far as the Syrian gates (a.d. 1492). lie then returned to prosecute the wars against the Venetians in the IMorea; in which expeditions he caused all the dust from his shoes to be collected, in order that the same being put into his coffin, might witness in his favour at the day of judgment, of his having carried on the Avar against the infidels Avith unremitting Adgilance. Bayazid was succeeded, a.d. 1512, by his son Sulaiman I., who be- gan his reign by poisoning his father and putting his two brothers to death. His next step was to make war on Shah Ismail Sufi of Persia, w^hom he defeated in the plain of Gialdaran in Upper Armenia (which had before been the scene of Muhammad II.'s victory), and obliged him to retreat to the southern part of his dominions. The city of Tabriz fell into Sulaiman's hands, and he at first resolved on wintering there, but was dissuaded by his officers on account of the intense cold; and he re- turned to Amasiyah, and soon after to Constantinople, to prepare for a greater expedition. A very formidable array Avas again levied, at the head of Avhich he marched into Syria and Egypt, carrying every thing before him, and completely subduing both countries, the military sove- reigns of Avhicli Avere both slain, and he led in triumph to Constantinople the last khahf of the second dynasty of the Abbassides. Sulaiman II., surnamed the Magnificent, a.d. 1520, succeeded his father Selim. He is looked upon as the greatest of the Turkish em- perors, for, independent of his great victories, he Avas the friend of litera- ture and art, as Avell as a just prince. He took Belgrade, and also the island of Rhodes, after a gallant resistance, and Avon the famous battle of Mohatz (a.d. 1526). In the folloAving year Biida fell into his hands. In his Avar Avith Austria he was not so fortunate; for after having made tAventy assaults on Vienna, he Avas obliged to raise the siege and return, to Constantinople. Unable to remain inactive, he set out on an expe- dition against Shah Tamasp of Persia, besieged and took Bagdad, and through the zeal of his lieutenants carried his arms into Africa. Many cities on the coast of Barbary Avere added to the empire dui'ing his long and victorious reign of forty-six years. The short reign of Selim II., Avho ascended the throne in a.d. 1566, Avas distinguished by no remarkable event except the taking of the island of Cyprus and the loss of the battle of Lepanto in the Morea, in which it is said that 32,000 Turks perished. Amixrad III., son of Selim, began his reign (a.d. 1574) by strang- ling fiA^e of his brothers. The Shah of Persia having invaded his eastern 70 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. provinces, he marched to attack him, and retook the city of Tabriz, which the Persians had seized diu'ing the last reign. Mnliammad 111. , one of the greatest monsters that ever disgraced the annals of history, succeeded the weak Amurad a.d. 1594. He began his reign by strangling nineteen of his brothers, and causing ten of his father's wives to be thro-\vn into the Bosphorus, in the fear that they might prove pregnant. His reign of nine years was marked throughout by cruelty and treachery, and just before his death he executed his own son and his son's mother on suspicion of treason. Alimed I., second son of Aluhammad HI., succeeded to the throne A.D. 1604, at the age of fifteen; and after a reign of twelve years he was succeeded by his brother, Mustafa L (a.d. 1617), who made himself so odious by his savage disposition, that he was deposed by the Janissaries after a reign of three months, and his nepliCAV Osman H. was placed on the throne ; and after a brief reign of four years and four months he also was deposed, and Mustafa I. was once more elevated to the throne by the intrigues of the Janissaries. These were at this time a real Prcctorian body, and very soon after put the sovereign of their choice to death. Amurad IV., son of Ahmed I., succeeded (a.d. 1622), and proved as sanguinary a tyrant as his grandfather Muhammad III. had been; for he perpetrated aU sorts of excesses, some of which seem to be scarcely credible, — such, for example, as amusing himself by shooting his subjects from a balcony. The Pasha of Erzerum having thrown off his allegiance, and united Avith the Shah of Persia to devastate some of the Turkish provinces in Asia, Amurad marched at the head of 200,000 men to stop their progress. With this immense force he entered Cilicia, and laid waste the Taurus and other countries. Hav- ing reduced Trebizond and Erzerum, he marched into Syria, with the intention of proceeding on a pilgrimage to !Mecca ; but it appears that he did not go beyond Damascus, and returned to Constantiuojile in 1635. Three years afterwards he undertook the conquest of Persia; but after taking Bagdad he was persuaded to sign a treaty of peace, and he again returned to Constantinople, to execute a project he had long been revolving in his mind, whicli was no less than the utter destruc- tion of the Ottoman race. Death, however, put an end to his design. The house which this sultan inhabited at Adana is still to be seen, but in a dilapidated condition. The door leading to the upper story is waUed up, as, according to traditionary report, it is unlawful for any one to occupy the seat of the monarch, to prevent Avhich this precau- SULTANS PROM 1640 TO 1807. 71 tion was taken ; or perhaps, we might also conclude, in superstitions horror of his character and crimes. Ibrahim I., the brother of Amurad, succeeded him a.d. 1640. This prince fitted out an expedition against Candia. The siege is remarkable in history for the horrible murders and atrocities perpetrated during its progress ; but this island, the pride of the Archipelago, was not an- nexed to the Ottoman dominions till the reign of his successor. Ibrahim I. was strangled by the Janissaries a.d. 1648, and his son Muhammad IV., a boy seven years old, was placed on the throne. In the early part of the reign of this prince the siege of Candia was pushed with vigour, and terminated favourably for the Turks. In the latter part of Ibrahim's life the reverses he had met with in Himgary so enraged him, that he swore he would feed his horse on the altar of St. Peter at Kome. For this purpose he prepared a large army, with Avhich he besieged Vienna in 1683, but Avas completely foiled and compelled to raise the siege by the bravery of the celebrated Sobieski. After a long reign of nearly forty years he was siicceeded, a.d. 1687, by Sulaiman III. his brother, who only reigned three years. Ahmed II., brother of Sulaiman, sxicceeded in a.d. 1690, and reigned four years. Mustafa II., a nephew of the two former sultans, was elected by the Janissaries a.d. 1605, and, after a reign of eight years, was deposed in favour of his brother, Ahmed III., who, after an inglorious reign of twenty-seven years, was obliged to abdicate in favour of his nephew Muhammad V., who, raised to the throne a.d. 1730, reigned twenty- four years, and was then succeeded, in a.d. 1754, by his brother, Osman III., who reigned only two years, and was then succeeded by his nephew (a.d. 1757), Mustafa III., son of Muhammad V., during whose reign the wars with Russia began. Mustafa III. was succeeded (a.d. 1776) by his brother, Abd'ul Hamid I., who was not more fortunate in repelling the en- croachments of the Russians on his territory than his brother had been ; at his death the throne was filled (a.d. 1789) by Selim III., the only son of Mustafa III. This ill-f\xted prince sus- tained repeated losses in his wars with Russia, in spite of the reforms in the army and navy which he introduced, and the adoption of European customs and improvements, and which proved so displeasing to the Janissaries that they deposed him, and soon after put him to death. Mustafii v., cousin of Selim III., was proclaimed sultan a.d. 1807 ; 72 CILICIA AXD ITS GOVERNORS. but he reigned only one year, -when lie was also murdered. Of the pre- tended son of this prince, Nadir Bey, I shall have occasion to speak further on. Mahmud 11., the brother of Mustafa V., and the only surviving male of the Ottoman line, was raised to the throne a.d. 1808 by the Janissa- ries, and he proved himself superior to any of his predecessors in poli- tical courage and sagacity. He temporised and cajoled the Janissaries, until he could seize a fitting opportunity, which occurred on the 14th June, A.D. 1826, when he caused them all to be put to death, and restored tranquillity to the empire. His name will ever be memo- rable by the reforms he began, and which have since been slowly but steadily carried out by his son, Abd'ul Masjid, the present sultan, who ascended the throne on the 11th July, 1839, and a few months after gave to the world the before unheard-of spectacle of a despotic monarch granting voluntarily a constitution to his people, by the well-known Haiti Sherif of Gulhanah.* * As this document is quite imique in Eastern histoiy, we give a few extracts : " These new institutions should have three objects in view : — first, to guarantee to our subjects perfect security of life, honour, and jiroperty ; secondly, the regular levy- ing and assessing of taxes ; and thirdly, a regiilar system for the raising of troops, and fixing the time of their sei-vicc. " For, in tmth, are not life and honour the most precious of all blessings ? What man, however averse his disposition to violent means, can withhold having recoui-sc to them, and thereby injure both the government and his country, when both liis life and honour are in jeopardy ? If, on the contrary, ho enjoys in tliis respect full security, ho wOl not stray ii-om the paths of loyalty, and all his actions wiU tend to increase the prosperity of the goverament and his 'countrymen. If there be absence of security of propertj', every one remains callous to the voice of liis prince and countrj'. No one cares about the progress of the public good, absorbed as ono remains with the inse- curity of his own position. If, on the other hand, the citizen looks upon his property as s-cure^ of whatever nature it be, then, full of ardour for his interests, of which for his ov\Ti contentment he endeavours to enlarge the sphere, thereby to extend that of his enjoyments, he feels every day in his heart the attachment for his prince and for his country grow stronger, as well as his dcvotedness to their cause. These senti- ments in him become the som-ce of the most praiseworthy actions." -M>@^'32:-4^'=?'=< — ■ CHAPTER YII. MODERN HISTORY OF CILICIA RISE OF KUTCHUK ALI UGLU — HIS 3IEANS OF RE- VENUE — ACTS OF CRUELTr — BATAS MODE OF LIFE AND CHARACTERISTICS SEIZES THE 5IASTER OF AN ENGLISH VESSEL CAPTURES A FRENCH IIER- CHANT>r-\N BRIBES THE TURKS WHO ARE SENT AGAINST HDI PUTS HIS FRIEND THE DUTCH CONSUL OF ALEPPO INTO PRISON FORCES A CARAVAN OF MERCHANTS TO RANSOM HIM — A CHARACTERISTIC ^US^ECDOTE. The history* of the Ottoman Emj^ire during the last two centiuies, till we come to the epochs of IMahmud 11. and of his son Abd'ul Masjid, fiu'nishes little or no pleasing retrospect; but is on the whole a dark picture of tyranny, ci-uelty, and barbarism. The sultans, no longer permitted to be at the head of their armies, were buried in the etteminacy of the seraglio and the mazes of an intriguing court. They gave up the administration of affairs to their officers, who sold the government of the provinces to the highest bidder, Avhile the purchasers were permitted to indemnify themselves by the plunder of the towns and villages. The population, oppressed by repeated acts of injustice, were glad to screen themselves behind a lesser evil, and submit to the usurped rule of factious chiefs who became rebels to the authority of the Porte, and erected de facto petty independent kingdoms, which they left at their deaths either to their children or to the most in- triguing, brave, or impudent of their followers. The weakness of a government enfeebled by venality, and no longer maintained or held together by those principles which called it into existence, pre- vented the adoption of vigorous measures to punish rebellion, and sub- due those chiefs who had availed themselves of the general discontent * If a blank occurs in the history of Cilicia for the last two hunch-ed years, the reason is, that no archives are kept in the provinces as at Constantinople, as each succeeding governor carries away with him in a bag the small bimdle of official docu- ments ; and that for two reasons : first, because he is afraid to leave behind him any traces of his misnilc, which might be employed subseriuently by his enemies against I him ; and secondly, from the summai-y way in which business is transacted, — mostly I byword of mouth, — very few pajsers are necessaiy, and the small stock can be trans- [ ported with great facilitj', the whole object and aim of these governoi's being to i make monej' as quickly as they can before the order for their recall is obtained by I theu' enemies. 74 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. to flatter their followers Avith the hope of impunity, and who were thus enabled to depose or set aside the pashas sent to execute the orders of tlie Porte ; and the ministers at Constantinople, tmable to carry on the busi- ness of the government (or even to maintain themselves in their posts,) from the exhausted state of the treasury, drained by increasing luxury and extravagance, were induced to compound with a power they had not the means to destroy. From these causes may be traced the circumstance that, for a long series of years, many of the provinces, particularly those of Asia Minor, were -wrested from the Porte, or merely held in nominal allegiance to it, by the strength of successive chieftains of powerful Turkman tribes, called " Darah Beys," vidgo Darah Begs, among whom the famous family of Kara Osman Uglu, " son of the black Osman," hold a dis- tinguished place. Cilicia has been in the same position, torn by con- tending factions of cliiefs among the Turkman tribes which have in succession contended for the supreme authority; and I think it not irrelevant to my subject to follow up the history of some of these chieftains during the last forty-six years, which may perhaps expose in a clearer point of view the state to which the country has been reduced hy the defective system of government above alluded to, and explain the effects of such a system on the provinces, better than a more studied or elaborate account. One of these Darah Beys, Khalil Bey, better known by the name of Kutchuk AH Uglu,* was in 1800 a Turkman chief of the mountains in the vicinity of Bayas (near the ancient Issus), Avhich is now almost deserted,! but in his time was a populous aiid floiu-ishing Xovai, that carried on a considerable trade with Egypt, and produced annually ten * A sketch of the life of Khahl Bej- (or Bay, the a pronounced as in naj-, say, may, bay-tree, &c.), commonly called Kutchuk Ali Uglu, has been published by Messrs. Mangles and Irby, and still more lately by Mr. Ncale, in both cases from statements or documents obtained from my father, Mr. John Barker ; but as the real facts of the case have been much mutilated at second-hand, and as I shall have to give the life of the chieftain's two sons, which are intimately connected with the liistory of Cilicia, a more con-ect and detailed history will not perhaps be unwelcome to the reader, and will servo as an introduction to events in later times. -|- There are in the present daj- a group of very handsome buildings at Bayas. A spacious stone bazar, or more properly speaking, bazastain, solidly arched over, and approached by noble portals, opens at the centre, to the east, into a khan with a large paved yard, having a fountain in the centre, and the usual stables ^vith galleried apart- ments above. To the west, another passage, after leading by some massive domed btiildings which constituted the pubUc Hammam or bath, opens into a court-j-ard, at one end of wliich is a pretty little mosque (masjid) with a graceful minaret (minar), and at the other the entrance to a polygonal castle of considerable strength and dimensions. This is in- deed the most complete and compact thing of its kind to be met with iierhajjs in the KUTCHUK ALL 75 thousand pounds of silk. Kutchuk AH laid the foundation of his power by making nocturnal excursions from the mountains to rob the gardens of Bayas. Some gardeners, "with a view to purchase exemption from his depredations, stipulated to pay him a trifling yearly tribute, or black- mail. Their example was followed by others, who were petty merchants, glad to secure the mass of their property by entering into similar engagements; and from a rotolo* of coffee, or a few rotolos of rice, the whole town became at length compelled to furnish a stated contri- bution. This fund enabled Kutcbuk All to support himself at the head of a band of forty or fifty robbers; and he then aspired to render himself master of the place. He began by waylaying the heads of the principal families ; and in the course of a few years he succeeded in exterminating every individual of such as possessed any weight or influence at Bayas or in its territory. The last member of the most influential of these families, whose adherents he could neither subdue by open force nor corrupt by bribery, successfully contended for some time Avith him for the supreme authority, till at length Kutchuk All, having lulled his suspicions by giving him his daughter in marriage, murdered him with his o\n\ hands ; and he has often been heard to Avarn his own children against a male infant the offspring of that maiTiage ; advising them to crush the crocodile in the egg, lest he should one day revenge on them his father s blood.j With a very inconsiderable number of dependents, who often did not exceed 200 in number, Kutchuk Ali succeeded in impressing with terror and dismay the minds of the people by a system of cruelty, continued for many years; and he occasioned much trouble to the Porte, between whom and the rebel there existed, however, a East. Every thing that is essential to the nucleus of an oriental city is gathered into the smallest j^ossible compass, and is in excellent preservation. These sti-uctm-es are attributed in the Mecca Itinerary to Ibrahani Khan-Zadah, better kno-«\Ti as Sakali Muhammad Pasha, or the " bearded pasha Muhammad," who was -wTjzir to Sultan Sulaiman II. The river of Bayas flows past these buildings on the south side ; and at the port, distant about a mile and a half, is a castle with a square bawn and a small village. The modem village of Bayas, where the governor resides, is about two and a half miles north, upon another and lesser rivulet ; and between the two is the village of Kuratas. There is also a small village of SjTians of the Greek Church on the river, a little above the castle and khan of Bayas. This, as the site also of the antique Bai^ or baths, was certainly one of the most charming spots on thecoast of SjTia. — W. F. A. * A rotolo is a Turkish weight, varying in diiferent parts of the empire ; in Cilicia it is equal to five and a half pounds. + Kutchuk Ali Uglu's second sou, Mustuk Bey, as we shall see by the sequel, mindful of his father's injimctions, actually put them in practice, and murdered this unfortunate indiridual. 76 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. reciprocal desire to be on a footing of friendship, founded on mutual advantage, and Avhicli prevented their continuing long on terms of either real or ostensible hostility. Kutchuk All's territorial government "was, it may naturally be imagined, such as to afford him but very slender means of dranving ■wealth from the impoverished inhabitants of Bayas and its environs. His revenue, therefore, in a great measure, "vvas deri-\'ed from the casual passage of travellers and caravans through his territory, and whom he laid under such contributions as he thought they would bear, rather than be obliged, by going another way, to make a very inconvenient joui'ney. Sometimes his rapacity and naturally brutal inclinations impelled him to overstep the bounds he meant to prescribe to his owm extortions, and then the Porte testified its displeasui'e by prohibiting travellers from passing thi'ough Bayas. As soon as the rebel fou.nd his coffers in need of fresh supplies, the Porte succeeded in forcing him to sue for pardon, Avhich was seldom long withheld, on account of the necessity of pi'ocuring a safe passage for the annual grand caravan of pilgrims from Constanti- nople to Mecca, which was obliged either to pass through his territory or to make a circuitous and fatiguing journey through the mountains of Cappadocia. AVhen the caravan of pilgrims came into Kutchuk AH's dominions, it yielded him a very considerable revenue; for he taxed every individual according to his own caprice, but always, however, with an eye to the rule above mentioned. On the approach of this caravan to Bayas, Kutchuk AU sent some of his household to compli- ment on his arrival the chief of the caravan — a personage of great dis- tinction, who dismissed the rebel's emissaries with rich presents for him. On such occasions, the horses it was customary to present to Kutchuk Ali would be returned, with a hint that they woxdd be preferred com- pletely accoutred in the usual gilt and silver trappings. Much time was invariably lost in negotiating and stipulating the precise tribute required, but as invariably the measiu-e of his rapacity was filled, the caravan was permitted to proceed. In order the better to dispose the pilgi-ims to submit to his extor- tions, Kutchuk AJi was always careful to exhibit, as proofs both of his power and his cnielty, the spectacle of two bodies impaled at the gate of Bayas. It happened on one of these occasions, Avhen the caravan was approaching, that his prisons were empty, and he had no victims that he could impale. He imj^arted his embarrassment to a convivial com- panion. " The caravan," said he, " will be here to-morrow, and we have not yet prepared the customary exectition. Look ye, pick me out two from among my servants." His friend expostulated ; and while he KUTCHUK ALL 77 was endeavouring to induce him to abandon his design by the assurance that every thing -would proceed in due order without the execution in question, Kutchuk AU, still revolving the matter in his mind, and stroking his beard, exclaimed, " I have it: go fetch me Yakub the Christian; he has been foiu- months in bed sick of a fever, and can never recover." The poor wretch Avas forthwith dragged out of his bed, strangled, impaled, and hung up! When it is considered that the forces of this monster did not exceed two hundred armed men, it becomes a matter of surprise, even to those who are well aware of the once existing weakness and in- difference of the Sultan's government, that such a bandit could have been so long allowed to brave the authority of the Porte. But it was at that time rendered almost powerless by evils and abuses that have since, to a great extent, been remedied and corrected, Kutchuk Ali was well aware that his usurped power rested on the tottering foundation of public opinion, and the little arts he put in practice Avith a view to conceal his weakness are characteristic and cui'ious. Whenever an individual of distinction came into his terri- tory (which was only to be a2:)proached through dense woods), in order to deceive the new comer by an ostentatious disjalay of his forces, he dis- posed his men in the thickets, so as to pass and repass at several points before the traveller like soldiers on a stage; thus the reports even of an ocular Avitness became fallacious, and the power of Kutchuk Ali was extolled and exaggerated all over the Tiu-kish dominions. He also erected numerous tall towers, which he scattered along the eminences of his mountains, and which from afar appeared like the tiu'rets of so many impregnable castles. They were, however, in reality nothing more than rude edifices composed of mud and straw, and Avhite-washed with lime, which a night's heavy rain frequently damaged. Kutchidv Ali also occupied the narrow passage known in history, more especially in the Anabasis, as the Cilician and Syrian gates, as Avell as the castle of Bayas. It was at this latter spot that Heraclius in his first campaign disembarked, choosing it as the most secure spot in which to strengthen himself and concentrate his forces against the Saracens. Cicero also apparently Avrites to his friend from this place : " Castra habemus ea ipsa quaa contra Darium habuerat apud Issum Alexander Imperator, hand paulo melior quam tu aut ego." Its modern name is derived perhaps from the Turkish Avord haijaz (Avhite), descriptive of the snoAv that for a great part of the year is seen on the summit of its grey mountainous cliffs, Avhich descend abruptly 78 CILICIA ASD ITS GOVERXOES. towards the sea, leaving a narrow tract between its precipices and tlie sea.* Kutchuk Ali was short in stature, and in 1800 appeared to be about sixty years of age ; his body was thick-set and muscular, and his head disproportionably large. His face was round, bluff, and flat, and it was rendered apparently flatter by a chronic disorder which had earned away the bones of his nose, and caused him to snuffle as he arti- culated ; and it is remarkable that his son, Mustuk Bey, speaks much in the same way, although he is quite free from any infirmity. But this is a fashionable tone prevalent among the Turks, and Avhich tbey ape from one another, doubtless considering it very impressive and sonorous. Kutchuk Ali had nevertheless a very insinuating address, and often deceived by his mild and courteous demeanour those who did not discriminate his real character in the tiger-like glances of his restless eye. When he was raised to the liigli rank of a Pasha of three tails, he altered nothing from the rude simplicity of his way of life when only a Turkman freebooter. As an instance of this he had two wives, who so far from being secluded and guarded by eimuchs (yunuks) in splendid apart- ments, were in noway distinguished from the other women of his family. They made bread and fetched water from the spring unveiled, having only one distinction, that of occupying exclusively two separate rooms, which were divided by a slight wooden partition, instead of the curtain which sei'ved the same purpose in the tents of his forefathers. When- ever he intended to honour one of his consorts with his company, he sent to bid her prepare for the occasion; and the thought being always suggested when he was wholly or partially intoxicated, the poor woman had generally to watch in vain for his appearance, while he gradually sank down on his carpet in forgetfulness of everything in this world. But however deep might have been his noctui-nal po- tations, he always rose at the first dawn of day to call his men to their daily labours, and in all seasons and in all weathei-s accompanied them to the field of their toils. He sat Anthout mat or carpet on the ground to superintend their operations, which were not, as might be supposed, in the chief industry of the country (midberry-plantations for silkworms), nor in the useful labours of rearing garden fruits and vege- tables, of which he knew not the want. His hal jitual occupations were * Between Bayas ami Alcxandretta is the river Markatz (ancient Kersus), with village antPcastlc (Markatz Kalahsi) on its banks, and niins towards the sea-shore; while l)oyond is the Macedonian relic now called Sakal Tutan, — the Bomita; or altare of Pliny,— all comprised within the CiUcian and SjTian Gates. — W. F. A. KUTCHUK ALL 79 in pulling down, rebuilding, and changing tlie form of the white-washed turrets and sham battlements before described, with the view, no doubt, of preventing revolt among his followers by keeping them constantly employed in hard labour. He prided himself on the discipline he maintained. " I am not," he would say, " as other Darah Beys are,* fellows without faith, who allow their men to stop travellers on the king's highway; — I am content with what God sends me. I await his good -pleasMre, and, Allmmdlillah (God be praised), he never leaves me long in want of any thing." Upon Kutchuk All's attaining the rank of Pasha it was thought in- dispensable that he should exchange the Turkman sash and turban for the kciuk, a head-dress of distinction. A Tartar accidentally passing through Bayas was commissioned to bring him one, but it proved to be too small for his head: he wrote for another, but it again fell short of the proper dimensions. Disgusted at his ill-success, he gave up the attempt, coining to the conclusion, as he said, that if hdulcs could not be made for heads, his head could not be made expressly for them. In 1798, Mr. Fowls, master of an Enghsli vessel iu the harbour of Alexandretta, went with four of his men to water at the Markatz Chai, a river in the territory of Bayas, at a place before alluded to, and called by sailors Jonas' Pillars. Here they were seized by Kutchuk Ali Uglu, and thrown into prison, and a large sum was demanded for their release. Before the necessary arrangements coidd be made for its payment, the master was driven by despair to put a period to his existence by pre- cipitating himself from a high tower in which he was confined; and all the others perished soon after, except a boy twelve years old, named Charles Edwards, who Avas sent by Kutchuk Ali as a present to his friend Mr. Masseyk, Dutch consul at Aleppo. It is not known exactly what measures were taken by the mission at Constantinople to obtain the necessary satisfaction for this act of violence, but it is certain that none was ever given by the savage perpetrator. Two years after this event (in 1800) a French ship from Marseilles, richly laden with merchandise for Aleppo, was, by the captain's igno- rance of the locality, taken under the walls of Bayas, when the master, with a part of the crew, supposing that they had anchored at Alexan- dretta, landed in search of the consular establishment, and were con- ducted to the governor, ^vho received them Avith every mark of hospi- * Chiefs of Turkman tribes, and self-appointed governors of districts in Tm-kej', wliora the Poi-te used to find it necessarj- to coufii-ni in their posts, and even to load with presents and raise to various dignities, in order to obtam through theh* meanB a portion of the contributions which they levy, — having no better means to enforce obedience. ,. .^^ 80 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. tality; but while lie was entertaining them with a sumptuous repast, his men were occupied in taking possession of the vessels. This accomphshed, he immediately unloaded and sunk the ship, sending the crew by land to the French consul at Alexandretta. Remonstrances were made to him on this act of violence by all the consular authorities at Aleppo, and in particular by his intimate friend the Dutch consul, to whom he replied in these terms : " 3Iy dear friend, — You know very well that consistently with the friendship subsisting between us, property and life itself are indifferent matters. Nay, I swear by God, that for your sake I would sacrifice my son Dada Bey ; but I entreat you not to dri^^-e me to the extremity of denying you what it is impossible for me to grant. My dear friend, place yourself in my position. I am in disgrace with my so^'ercign, without having given him any just cause for this displeasure ; I am threatened with attacks from the four quarters of the earth ; I am with- out money, I am Avithoxit means ; and the ever-watchfid providence of the Almighty sends me a vessel laden with merchandise ! Say, Avould you in my place lay hold of it or not ? I knoAv very well the Franks will claim restitution of tlie property from the Subhme Porte, and that is precisely what I want, because an opportunity will then be offered to me of negotiating my pardon." On the receipt of this letter all hopes of recovering any thing by ami- cable means Avere given up in despair, and the French consul made ap- plication to his superior at Constantinople, and obtained several imperial commands on the subject. Three Turkish caravallas (ships of war) were sent to Bayas to enforce obedience to the orders of the Porte. Kutchuk Ali retired to his motmtains. The caravallas fired a few guns against empty houses and dilapidated fortresses, and in a very short time, having consumed their stock of provisions, the ofiicers and men on board were glad to accept such as were liberally tendered them by Kutchuk Ali, who soon obtained, through the customary means of brib- ing with French watches and fine French broadcloth, the good -H-ill of all the commanders of the ships sent against him. So great was their astonishment and satisfaction at the rebel's princely magnificence, that they contracted Avith him solemn engagements of private friendship, and promised him their intercession in his behalf with the Porte on their return to Constantinople. The dignity of an additional tail was ob- tained for him on this occasion, with an imperial firman j^ro forma, ordering restitution of the property. In compliance with this order, Kutchuk Ali addressed a letter to the French consul at Aleppo to au- noiuice that he was ready to obey the commands of the sultan, but the ARHEST OF THE DUTCH CONSUL. 81 cargo of tlie ship in question having been conveHed to use, lie offered as an equivalent to make over to the proprietors of the goods sundry plan- tations belonging to him in the territory of Bayas. The merchants of Aleppo rejected with scorn the proposal, as adding insult to injustice ; particularly as they considered that the environs of Bayas are unhealthy, and their agents would be liable to take the malignant fever of the place whilst directing such an arduous enterprise as the cultivation of land. The neighbourhood was also reputed dangerous ; and the poverty of the inhabitants was supposed to render it impossible for them to sell any produce for a quarter of its value. Yet the merchants could not obtain any other redress.* In the beginning of 1801, Mr. John Masseyk, Dutch Consul-general in Aleppo, was arrested by Kutchuk Ali Uglu, as he Avas retiirning from Constantinople, although fui'nished Avith an imperial firman for the ex- ercise of his official functions, at a period when the Porte was at jjeace with Holland. The proceedings of Kutchuk Ali on this occasion will serve to elucidate his character, which will be exhibited in a curious light when it is considered that there had for many years previous to the detention of the Dutch consul existed between him and the pasha, as has already been observed, habits of the most cordial friendship and interchange of gifts, according to oriental custom. On the arrival of the consul at Bayas he was immediately thrown into prison, bound with chains, and stripped of everything except the apparel he wore. But the pasha, with great circumspection, avoided all opportunities of being thrown in contact Avith his prisoner ; for it is a jDeculiarity worthy of remai'k, that this tyrant, whenever he ordered a bad action to be committed, kept himself personally aloof from the scene of its perpetration, from an idea that it Avould lower his importance to assume the office of executioner to his OAvn orders, or perhaps in this in- stance from very shame for thus ill-treating an old friend. The sum fixed for the consul's ransom Avas 25,000 piastres of those days (about 2000/.); but being unable to produce more than 7500, Mr. Masseyk underwent during the period of eight months every species of ill-usage. Every means Avas tried to force him to embrace the Muhammadau re- ligion, and to extort from him the money required for his ransom ; to which end they would at one time confine him in a damp dungeon Avith- * No doubt, fevers pi-evail at Bayas at certain seasons of the year, as in other parts of the coast of SjTia ; but the sitviation is open and dry, the soil gravelly yet fertile, and well supplied with cleai- and rapid streams. The climate is mild and serene ; there is no marshy ground except at Markatz, which could be easily drained. Altogether Bayas is differently circumstanced to Alexaudretta, and wouJd appear to be as healthy, ■as fertile, and ought to bo as wealthy, as any si^ot on the coast of Sp-ia. — W. F. A. G 82 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERXOIIS. out light, and often without sustenance for twenty-four hours. At an- other they would threaten him -with immediate death ; and once, in order to shew that their menaces were not wholly nugatory, two innocent wretches, who had been arrested under similar circumstances with him- self, were impaled before him, for having delayed, as he was informed, to procure the money for their ransom. T^Hien the news spread abroad that Kutchuk Ali had entrapped an European, the mountaineers descended in crowds to see how much humanity the tyrant exhibited; and Mr. Masseyk used to relate that being one day engaged in writing, a man who had thrust his head through the bars of his prison-window, after contemplating his person and occupation for some time, exclaimed -v^-ith reproachfid indignation, " \Vliat, is it possible the wretch is so lost to all sense of shame as to hold coi effendi (a clerk) in captivity? " referring evidently to the Avell-known rights and immunities enjoyed by the learned, as well in this barbarous region as in Europe. This picture indeed resembles more the state of society in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries than that of the nineteenth ; and to those who are unacquainted with Oriental ideas and customs, which have un- dergone so few changes for centuries past, might appear unfaithful to nature, were it not for what histoiy has related of those dark ages. Although Kutchuk Ali persisted in refusing to admit his prisoner to his presence, he more than once sent to him his lieutenant with consoling messages to assure him of his sympathy. " Tell him," said he, " that un- fortunately my coffers were empty when his fate brought him into this territory; but let him not despair, God is great and mindful of us. Such vicissitudes of fortune are inseparable from the fate of men of renown, and from tlie lot of all born to fill high stations. Bid him be of good cheer; a similar doom has twice been mine, and once during nine months in the condemned cell of Abd'ul Rahman Pasha: but I never despaired of God's mercy, and all came right at last, — Alia karim (God is bountiful)." At length, fortunately for this poor man, the arrival at Bayas of a caravan from Smyrna proceeding to Aleppo afforded Kutchuk Ali Uglu an excuse for extorting his ransom from the travelling merchants by obliging them to advance the money on the bond of his prisoner, whom he delivered into their liands as a slave sold to them for 17,500 piastres. This was a debt beyond ]\Ir. Masseyk's means of discharging at once, but he paid it off by instalments, not without the hope that the Dutch RepubUc would come to his assistance. This it did in part, but he never recovered the whole amount. The restriction placed on his person proved, however, beneficial to the consul in one respect, inasmuch AN EFFECTUAL CURE FOR THE GOUT. 83 as he was by means of the rigid prison fare entirely cured of the gout, to which he had been mucli subjected previous to liis incarceration; and he has frequently remarked to his friends, that Kutchuk Ali had in this respect unwittingly conferred on him an almost priceless favour, and had proved himself a better physician than friend. The Porte at different times sent several pashas Avith considerable forces against this rebel ; but whether owing to the natural defences that abound in the precipitous mountains, covered with forests into which he retreated, or to the system of compromise already described, the Sultan was never able to subdue him during forty years' existence in open de- fiance of his authority.* Such is the individual whom Mr. John Barker, then British Con- sul at Aleppo, to whom I am mainly indebted for the foregoing facts, had the address to propitiate, in order to facilitate the transmission of despatches from the East India Company, which passed through his hands ; and his influence with the rebel was so great, that he once in- duced him to give up goods to the amount of 6G00^., belonging to British merchants, which he had seized along with other property. * My readers will perhaps be startled on hearing that, in the beginning of the pre- sent century, there was so little personal security even in the vicinity of a woll-frc- quented harbour like that of Alexandretta, that the crews of two European vessels could have been subjected to such treatment, or that such an affront as the incarcera- tion of a public officer could have been suffered to pass without redress of any kind having been obtained from the Porte. Let us hope, however, that as time has wrought many changes in Turkey since the establishment of the Nizam, or regular troops, by Sultan Mahmud, by which some of the chief rebels have boon crushed and piracy pub dovvn in the Mediterranean, that a nevf turn to this state of things has been now defi- nitively brought about, and that the light which is dawning even in the benighted East wUl prevent the recm-reuco of such scenes. t./::=xj:^>r^jJ»^Xi>'==^^ CHAPTER YIII. DADA BET, SON OF KUTCHUK ALI UGLU ^HIS PIRATICAL EXPEDITIONS — REPELS THE ATTACKS OF THE TURKS IS TAKEN Br STRATAGEM IS BEHEADED AND BURNT HISTORT OF MUSTAFA PASHA KEL-AGA KILLED BY IIAJI ALI BEY DER^^SH H-OIID STORY RELATED OF HAJI ALI BEY CONQUESTS OF IBRAHIM PASILV .MUSTUK BEY PLACED IN PO^^'ER— COMPARISON BETAVEEN THE EGYPTL\N AND TURKISH GOVERNMENTS. f In 1808 Kutcluik Ali Uglu died, and was succeeded by liis son Dada Bey. Mr. Masseyk, while in prison, having gained the goodwill of Dada Bey, conceived the hope that he might be induced to make him some reparation for the ill-treatment he had met with at his Other's hands ; and he Avrote him a letter of condolence on his recent bereave- ment, in which he took occasion to remind him of the reprobation he had always expressed of his late parent's cruelty, and in a particular manner of his injustice to himself. Dada Bey received Mr. INIasseyk's application with the usual tokens of sympathy and affection, but replied, " My dearest friend, you know very well that were I called upon to make restitution of all the money my late father (God have mercy on his soul !) unjustly acquired during a long life, aU the stones of the mountains of Bayas converted into gold would not suffice." Dada Bey was of large stature, and had an expressive countenance and a fine fuU black beard : he was about thirty years old when he suc- ceeded to his father. He had not, however, the same tact and cunning, as he evinced in the circumstance of his being unable to keep out of the grasp of his enemies for more than nine years ; and during this period he encouraged his people in all kinds of piracy, and his boats infested tlie coast, attacking vessels at anchor off Alexandretta, and among others a large ship belonging to AbdaUa Bey, son of Abd'ul Rahman, Pasha of Baylan. An individual still living, Avho formed one of an expedition under- taken to carry off some ships at Kaisauli, the roadstead of Tarsus, related to me the follo\nng fact : " We were twenty-two in number, and started one night from Kara- Tash (Black Rock, ancient !Mallus and ]\Iegarsus,) in a small boat. AVe found eleven small brigs of the country moored at Kaisanli, loading and ATTACK ON DADA BEY. 8o unloading. "We attacked them one by one with as little noise as possi- ble. As they were not armed, and were taken by surprise, we had no difficulty in binding such of the crew as made any resistance ; and having cut the cables, we made use of the lads on board to manoeiivre the ves- sels, which we brought safely to Bayas, where they were detained till their proprietors sent large sums to ransom them." Amin Pasha Chiapan Uglu, Avho governed at Uzgat, received an order from the Porte to send the head of Dada Bey to Constantinople. The Turkman chief of Uzgat sent 2000 irregular troops of those days to accompany an expedition which he ordered to be assembled from among the various Turkman tribes in the district of Tarsus and Adana : Kur- mud-uglu Ali Bey, Kalaga, Bashaga, Tur-uglu, and Takal-uglu, from the territory of the former ; and Osman Bey Jarid (son of Hussain Pasha), Malamangi-uglu, Kara Hajili, Karagiya, and Hamid Bey, father of Haji Ali Bey, from that of the latter. These chiefs collected about twelve or fifteen thousand men, and encamped on the sea-shore near Bayas for many days, without being able to make up their minds what plan to adopt in attacking the lion in his den ; at last they agreed with Abd'ul Rahman Pasha of Baylan, and Chulak-uglu of Mar'ash, to fall upon him on all sides at the same time. Dada Bey, who had more friends than enemies in this motley band, composed of all his neighbours, being informed by his spies of the position of the tent which contained the ammimition of the troops, sent a boat in the night, Avith two cannons of wood filled with powder and old nails. These were disembarked by some of his men, who having succeeded in placing them near the tent, set fire to the match and retreated to the boat. Only one exploded, and it had no other effect than that of awakening the astounded chiefs, who the next morning gave orders for a general attack. Dada Bey wished for nothing so much as to try the mettle of his men against a multitude of peasants, who he knew were assembled against their inclination to make war on a person whom they considered invincible. He posted Jin Yusuf of Karatash and a few men in the fort, with strict orders not to fire till the enemy arrived so close that every shot might tell, and to wait the signal of a discharge of two cannons from the turret above. He himself, with about 100 picked horsemen, fell on the troops in the rear ; while Jin Yusuf, on the first volley, killed forty men ; and the roaring of the cannon from above, the shot of which came over the heads of the dismayed Turkmans, sufficed to inspire all the terror he could desire. In half an hour there was no one to oppose him in the field, from which the soldiers retreated to Adana, and the Turkmans dispersed to their respective homes. Thus it constantly happened be- 86 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. fore the institution of the Nizam, that when any of the Turkman chiefs revolted, the Porte had no effectual means of compelling them to obe- dience, but was obliged to have recourse to the neighbouring tribes, who ■were imwilling to excite a lasting feud among their relatives (as tliey all intermarry), and only made a feint of attacking them. Thus the govern- ment Avas obliged to conform to their desires by coming to a compromise, wherein the outward dignity of the Porle was only consulted, whilst all the interests of these petty rebels were attended to, inasmuch as they ■were only submissive as long as it suited their purpose. That which could not be effected by open violence was, however, effected by treachery. Mustafa Pasha, son of Abd'ul Rahman, Pasha of Baylan, Dada Bey's neighbour and personal enemy, seized on an ac- cidental opportunity of destroying him. During four years that Mustafa had been pasha at Adana, he had endeavoured, by influence and in- trigues at Constantinople, to obtain from the government an order that the whole of the country as far as Baylan, his native town, should be placed under his orders. Having accomplished this object, the first thing he did Avas to summon Dada Bey to submit to his authority, Avhich of course the latter refused to do. Whereupon Mustafa Pasha sent his brother Ismail Bey, with four or five thousand men, to Bayas. Dada Bey, liappening to pass alone at this time through a village close by, was betrayed by an old woman into the hands of a Baylanli named Tal-uglu, who chanced to be there. This man, with the assistance of a few others, succeeded in taking Dada Bey by surpi-ise, when they bound him and. took him prisoner to Adana. The people of the country had such an instinctive dread of Dada Bey, that it is reported that even the pasha refused to see him till he had been heavily chained. Dada Bey retorted upon his exulting enemy in terms of indignation all the insults he had received, and expressed infinite contempt for " a wretch who could so abuse the power which chance had given hiiu over a fallen lion." His head was nevertheless cut off and sent to Constantinople, and liis body was biu"nt in the coui't-yard under the windows of the palace, and the ashes scattered to the winds. Such was the insatiable feud that existed ])etween these families ! Mustafa Pasha had in earlier years killed his brother Mulla Bey, in order to become master of Baylan ; but another brother, Abdullah Bey, raised the populace against him and drove hini away. He pro- ceeded to Constantinople, where he obtained the pashalik of Adana, which he held seven years ; he was then sent to Erzerum, and after- wards to Aleppo, where he remained two years. From this place he went to Acre, to attack Al)dullah I^isha of that place; and he acted as MUSTUK BEY. 87 lieutenant to Dunvish or Dervish Pasha, commander-in-chief of the troops. He then returned to Aleppo for another year and a half, and was thence removed to the governorship of Damascus; and -when at that place, he laid Jerusalem under heavy contributions. He was after- wards transferred to Bosna and Kurk-Kilisa, and subsequently he ob- tained the command of some troops, with whom he treacherously at- tacked the Russians in time of a truce or peace. On the Russian mission representing this perfidy to the Porte, he was, in outward appearance, disgraced and sent to Brusa, where he was lately living, as a private individual, in the enjoyment of his ill-acquired wealth, the reward of his crimes and cruelties. Few such adventurers, however, meet with siich good fortune. They rarely escape the intrigvies entered into against them, and generally return to the same state of obscurity as that from which they emerged, unless possessed of extraordinary ability, or of means to bribe their way to other employments as lucrative, by large sums which they have had time to amass during theii- stewardship. When well supported, they frequently secure the pecuniary assistance of their Armenian bankers {sarraffs), which they repay with an interest of 50 per cent. People may have read in the newspapers published at Constantinople of such an effendi, to whom every virtue is attributed, having been pro- moted for his 2^(iti'iotic conduct to a post of distinction, and might have been led to imagine these men to be something above the common order of Turks ; Avhereas those who, like myself, have had opportunities of knowing the truth, are aware that they were generally chosen from among the servants of older pashas. On the death of Dada Bey, a.d. 1817, his brother Mustuk Bey, then twelve years old, took refuge in Maraash with Kalandar Pasha, and with whom he remained for some years, till after the departure of Mustafa Pasha ; and during his minority of ten years, his uncle Zaitun- iiglu governed for him. On his return to Bayas in 1827, Mustuk Bey was attacked by Haji Ali Bey;* at the same time that a certain Kel-Aga, chief of the Tiu:-k- man tribe of Kugiuli, whose residence was in the mountains to the * This man had constituted himself master of Adana and independent of the Porte's authority, and he had driven Muhammad Pasha (who had bought the post of governor of this provincej and was on his way to take possession of his government) back from Kulak Bughaz. Muhammad Pasha was by this flagrant act of rebellion reduced to the necessity of returning to the capital, where he complained of his having been sent to occupy a post, which had cost him a large sum, of which he could not take quiet possession ; and the pashalik of Erzerum was assigned to him to compensate him for his loss. After the usual delays in nominations of this kind, he was installed governor of that district. 88 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. north-westward of Tauinis, and who had become absokite master of tlxis last-mentioned town, thinking this a favourable moment to take Adana, had proceeded against that town with a large body of followers. Ilaji Ah Bey, hearing of this movement, made peace unmediately with the young Mustuk Bey, and by a forced retrograde march reached Adana; and coming suddenly upon the encampment of Kel-Aga at night, and in the outskirts of the to'WTi, he siu'prised the cliief/ who Avas foimd dead drunk, and had his head cut off on the spot. The father and grandfather of Kel-Aga both lost their heads in rebellion, the one by means of the bands of Tur-uglu, and the other by Sadik Aga; and Dui'wish Ahmed, son of Kel-Aga, is not an un- worthy descendant of such ancestors. As a young man, Ahmed held the government of all the villages to the -westward of Tarsus, in which Mursina and Kaisanli are included. Being related to most of the in- fluential famihes of the country, he did what he pleased with impunity, abandoning himself to all and every imaginable excess. A dozen horsemen accompanied him wherever he went, and were made the ministers of his pleasures and vices by dragging instantly to his pre- sence any woman or child he might call for in his drunken fits. The inhabitants of the villages in his district were obliged to submit to his heavy impositions, and to furnish the sum requisite to complete the taxes due from nearly a thousand persons whom he exempted from all contributions, because he shared with them the produce of their lands. This system of "pi'otection," as it is termed, used to be very general in the Ottoman dominions; the ayans or nobles of all the large cities appropriating to themselves a large tract of country by sharing the produce with the proprietors, who give up a third or fourth of theu* income for the advantage of being exempted from paying the dues to government. This cxemj)tion the nobles were enabled to afford them, being members of the council of the city, to whom all political afiaii-s were referred in conjunction with the pasha. The pasha himself was generally, if not invariably, won over to their party, for without their participation he coidd not hope to carry on public business. Thus they contrivi'd to protect each other's interests, and the whole weight of taxa- tion fell on the poorer classes and those who had not the advantage of an "ayan's support." This system resembled in some respect the feudal, and took its origin when the country Avas ruled by rebel chiefs, whose partisans were respected by their independent colleagues in return for the sanxe courtesy mutually shewn to one another. Intrigue and the love of power perpetuated this state of things after the cause which had given rise to it had vanished, and it was carried CAPTUEE OF HAJI ALI BEY. 89 on in miniature in all tlie villages, each elder having his jyrotccted. Dui'wish Ahmed had led this dissipated life for some time after his father's death, when his cousin, Mustafa Aga, was induced to bribe the governor of Tarsus with 15,000 piastres to appoint him instead of Ahmed; and he was accordingly summoned to Tarsus, where he agreed to appear at the governor's house, on the guarantee of his father-in-law and chief of the Zaims (Tuikish irregular troops). On this occasion, an accoimt of the revenue that had passed through his hands was demanded of him, and he was brought in a debtor to the government of 95,000 piastres. Ahmed evaded paying any portion of this by privately bribing the governor with a sum foj^ himself of 30,000 pi- astres; and he might, probably, have been re-established in his post, had not the governor been shortly afterwards recalled. But to return to Haji AH Bey. A year after the death of Kel-Aga, (a.d. 1828,) Hussain Pasha, general-in-chief of the army sent into Syria against Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, arrived in Cilicia at the head of his troops. Haji Ali Bey, unable to resist so overwhelming a force, was compelled to dissimulate; and therefore, putting on the semblance of perfect submission, he went as far as Kulak Bughaz to meet the com- mander-in-chief, and busied himself in procuring means of transport for the army, at the same time furnishing the troops "\\ath provisions of all kinds. Hussain Pasha, acting under the orders, doubtless, of the Porte, was glad of an opportunity of destroying a Darah Bey who had become so formidable and independent as to have refused to receive a pasha sent by the Sultan to his district, and who might cause some uneasiness by tampering with the Egj-ptians. He accordingly resolved to manage matters so as to induce him to go to Constantinople; and in order to lull his suspicions, treated the Turkman chief with marked distinction imtil the army had passed the formidable pass of the Cilician gates, when the pasha having no fiurther need of his services, he exhibited a firman he p)retended to have just received, but which he had had long by him, wherein Haji Ali Bey was ordered to proceed to Constantinople, and promised that there he should be preferred to great honours for his late services. The Turkman chief fell into the snare, and on his ai'rival at Constantinople he was put under arrest, and soon afterwards dis- appeared, in the same way as many others have done before him. As the head of Haji Ali Bey was exacted from his keeper, that of some other man, who may have died about that time, was procured; and the escape of the Haji having at the same time been connived at, he found his way from a Turkish bath, disguised in a Frank dress, on board a vessel then setting sail for Italy. The bribes requisite for this 90 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNOIIS. manceiivi'e had completely stripped liim of every thing of any value, and he was maintained by the government of the Pope, as a convert to the Catholic religion, under the name of Signor Giovanni, on an allowance of a dollar a day. Plis family, hearing of his escape, sent an old Christian servant who had brought him up to see and identify him, and if possible to persuade him to return. The man came back with assurances that Haji Ali Bey Avas really alive, and jiassing under the assumed character of a Christian in Eiu'ope ; but that he refused to return to his country imtil his great enemy old Khusru Pasha should be no more. It was further reported that Haji Ali Bey, during the long period of his exile, had once visited the province in European costume, and that a Turk who saw him at the French consulate in Tarsus was observed to say, " That Frank, sir, is so like Haji Ali Bey, that were it not for his being in this dress, and his ignorance of Turkish, I shoxdd have no doubt it was he, in spite of his being reported dead." When the army of the sultan was routed by Ibrahim Pasha in 1832, jMustukBey did not fail to conciliate the favour of the conqueror by pillag- ing the vanquished, and he was confirmed in his government of Bayas, Avhich he kept for several years ; but he could not bear the restraint of the regular and strict discipline of the Egyptian soldier, and he retired to the territory of Marash. Ibrahim Pasha, however, finding it difficult to maintain order among the turbulent factions of the Turkmans, who Avere continually in revolt and committing all kinds of disorders, and his time being too much taken up with more important matters to admit of par- ticular attention to the mountain of Bayas (over Avliich he was obliged, however, to lead his forces twice in person, to reduce the turbulent moiuitaineers both of Amanus and Taurus to obedience), he thought it expedient to invite IMustuk Bey to return, and resume the direction of the thirty Darahs of whom he is the chief, and over whom he has much influence. "When the Egyptian army evacuated Cilicia, Mustiik Bey did all he could to restrain his peojile from i)Iuuder until the troops had passed the strait of J^ayas, in order that the army might not be provoked in its passage to lay Avaste a country Avhich he felt was more ^particularly returning under his OAvn immediate control ; but as soon as the army had passed his own domain he fell on its rear, robbing all the loiterers and runaAvays. It is but justice to Ibrahim Pasha to say here, that the affairs of the province of Cilicia were ably and efficiently administered in his time by Selim Pasha and Hamid ]\Iinikli. These Avorthy individuals GOVERNMENT OF IBRAHIM PASHA. 91 did an immense deal of good in being the first to introduce the adminis- tration of justice into the jn-ovince; and they are still much regretted, although the people suffered considerably in their time from military conscriptions. Ibrahim Pasha is said to have maintained at one time as many as 20,000 men in this province out of its own revenues, and yet to have saved money. He re- opened the long-closed mines in the Tauiiis ; he exported to Egypt vast quantities of timber from Mounts Rhosus, Ama- nus and Taurus ; he introduced the sugar-cane, and favoured agricul- tural pursuits; and he founded in the gates of Cilicia, at Kidek Boghaz, a line of defences which were constructed with great engineering skill, but which -were blown up by the army previous to their retreat. SACCAL TUTAX. A ruin at a place near Alexandretta, knoi\-n by sailors as " Jonas's Pillars," and supposed to be the gates mentioned by Xenophon, and called by him the gates of Sj-ria and Cilicia ; they are on the battle-field of Issus, and from the top of these Alexander may be supposed to have witnessed the retreat of Darius's army before his bravo troops. CHAPTEE IX. MUH-VMilAD IZZET PASHA A PRETENDER TO THE TCRKISH THRONE HIS STRANGE HISTORY AND RARE ACCOMPLISHMENTS DISAPPEARS AT KUNIYAH AHMED IZZET PASHA — GRANTS PERMISSION TO MUSTUK BEY TO MURDER HIS NE- PHEAV SULAIMAN PASHA — DURAMSH AHMED's EXPEDITION AGAINST MUS- TUK BEY — HIS CHIEF OFFICERS TAKEN AND STRIPPED BAYAS CAPTURED AND SACKED. I NOW proceed to the history of the last five pashas who have succes- sively governed the province of Cilicia since the evacuation of the Eg}']:)tians in 1840, and to narrate the various facts of note that have taken place since that epoch. Muhammad Izzet was the first appointed by the Porte to preside over this province. He is one of the emphnjcs of the Porte that I have known who most deserves well of his country. This worthy man filled his post with dignity and honour, and combined much of the munificence of the "old school" with the simplicity of the new. This good man fell into disgrace without meriting it, and remained some time neglected, until he obtained, through the greatest pecuniary sacrifices, the post of governor at Uzgat, where he died. He was so much beloved, that on his leaving Adana the people actually wept at the loss they wei'e about to sustain ; and this is a fact for which I can vouch as an eye-witness. But per- haps, although 1 would not detract from his merit, this mildness of temper was owing in a great measure to the times he lived in as governor of Cilicia ; because as he was the first appointed after the evacuation of the Egyptians, he would no doubt have had particular instructions to be extremely lenient. It was during the administration of I\Iuhammad Izzet Pasha that an event occurred in Cilicia which I must pause to relate, for the facts are as extraordinary as they are inexplicable. In February 1843, an individual calling himself Nadir Bey, accom- panied by an amiable young Englishman of good family and education, whose parents live in London, arrived at Tarsus. The former (Nadir Bey) appeared to be little past thirty, of a very prepossessing cast of NADIR BEY AND IIIS TRETENSIONS. 93 countenance and engaging manners, highly accomplished, and acquainted ■with fourteen languages, -which lie aj^j^eared to know as well as a native of the countries whose language he spoke. He had been in the service of Ibrahim Pasha, under the assumed name of Murali Mahandas (Grecian engineer), and was well known to tlie inhabitants of Tarsus and Adana. Indeed, he seemed to know every- body all over the Levant. It was remarked that on his former visit to Tarsus, while in the Egyptian service, he used to gamble a good deal, and often lost of an evening all he had about him, frequently large sums, ujiwards of 20,000 piastres (200Z.) ; and the next day his purse would be replenished as iisual. He had, however, maintained his incognito ge- nerally, and only confided to a few of his private friends his real history, which Avas that " being the sou of Sultan Mustafa, and the elder brother of IMahmud, he was the rightflil heir to the throne." His knowledge of English was perfect, and he sang Italian music like a vocalist of that couutr}^ ; and I have since been informed by his companion that he had at Palermo a palace filled with a large collection of first-rate paintings of the old masters, chosen by himself, and " a live portrait" of a young and beaiitiful Circassian whom he looked upon as his wife. He had passed in all the courts of Europe under an assumed Italian name, Count Eicchi of Corfu, and was much respected and beloved by all who knew him. Indeed, his companion has since assured me, that one day having called unexpectedly on the brother of the King of Naples, who was at dinner, that prince rose from table to receive him with more eiiipresse- ment than even the greatest courtesy could exact or court etiquette allow. As I cannot doubt the veracity of my friend the young Englishman, who has since informed me that he belieA'ed Nadir Bey was allowed 5000/. a year by the Emperor of INTorocco, I am at a loss how to proceed in my history, as I have to state that these two gentlemen arrived in Tarsus without any jiecuniary means whatever, and on the wildest of all imagi- nary schemes ! Nadir Bey applied to a friend in Tarsus for a small sum in order to obtain a suit of Turkish clothes, as he was dressed in the European costume. Having obtained what he desired, he departed for Adana the third day of his arrival, leaving his friend in Tarsus ; and the latter has repeatedly declared that he was only his travelling companion, and had no idea of the rash step Nadir Bey was about to take, or he cer- tainly would not have allowed him to go, as he was very much attached to him. Nadir Bey had two private interviews with the former goA'crnor of the city, who had been Mutsillim, or town-governor, in the time of 94 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Ibrahim Pasha, and who it seems knew liiiii well. Tliey agreed to go to the Mufti's; and tlie next day, on presenting themselves there, whilst smoking the first pipe, and before they could enter on the subject of I^adir Bey's views, the Tufankji Bashi, or chief officer of pohce, sum- moned them to appear before the pasha in council, where they found all the ayans (nobles) assembled. When Nadir Bey entered, he proceeded to take his seat next to the pasha, and began a discoiu'se in Turkish, saying that he felt it a duty he owed his country to take the present step, inasmuch as his heart bled to see it suft'ering under the present tyranny, and that if they would rise and declare him sultan, he Avould make them all his ministers; " for," said lie, " you must know that I am the rightful heir to the throne, being the son of Mustafa V., the elder brother of the late Sultan Mahmud. On the murder of my father, my mother escaped on board a Kussian vessel, and I was born a few mouths after her escape to her family in Georgia." lie had subsequently been sent to Russia, where he was educated. To support his claims, he shewed them a letter addressed to him by Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt, wherein he is styled " Effendim Sultanim," and recognised as the lawful heir to the throne.* The pasha observed that his proposed enterprise could only be undertaken with a large body of men, and much money would be requisite. To this he replied, that if they would only promise to rise, he would engage that early in the spring there should arrive 25,000 men on the coast, and that pecuniary means should not be wanting. The Nakib then observed, " Our pashalik is small, and we think you had better go to Kuniyah and have a conference with the pasha of that place, whose district is much more extensive. Yes," said the pasha, "that is the best place; so you had better retire to the coiFee-room" (where the principal attendants of the pasha remain in waiting, and ■which often serves for a more honourable confinement to a person of distinction than a public prison), " until two Tufankjis (military police) can be got ready to accompany you." * I cannot suppose this letter authentic, bocaiisa I must also noto that lie had last come from Egypt, which country he and his companion had been obliged to leave so suddenly on board an Egyptian frigate bound for Tarsus, that the latter had not time to apprise his friends of his destination, and he had to wait some time before he could hoar from them and receive remittances. The officers of this Egyptian man-of-w;u- have often asked me very anxiously concerning him, and acknowledged that he had confided his secret to them during the passage. They appeared to idolise his memory, for he contrived to engage the affections of every one wherever ho went ; but I cannot help thinking that his sudden departure from Alexandria was in consequence of Mu- hammad All's determination not to bo compromisod personally, though he allowed him to try bia luck, or rather risk his life, iu attempting to raise the people elsewhere. ARREST OF NADIR BEY. 95 Nadir Bey remained twenty-four hours under tliis arrest, weeping, and vouching for the truth of what he advanced, and saying that now his life would be the forfeit of his patriotism. " Yes," he ex- claimed, " I am a sacrifice for my poor people ; still my rights shall be recognised." He then would cheer up with the delightful prospect with which his madness deceived him, that he would obtain justice eventually, and then again he would relapse into despair. Mounted on a bad horse, he set off the 4th of March, 1843, under the escort of two armed men, to Kuniyah. Before leaving the town, he called at the house of a French resident at Adana, and without being allowed to dismount, asked him for a little money and a cloak to screen him from the inclemencies of the season. Having obtained the latter, he then begged him earnestly to send a portfolio he had taken the pre- caution to confide to his care previous to his entering on this mad enter- prise, to the English consul at Tarsus, with a request that he should take notice of the papers contained therein, and immediately inform the British embassy of his position, " that, if necessary, the ambassador may intercede to save his life, as he had already done once before." This is in allusion to a statement which is also current, that Nadir Bey had been a great favourite with Sultan Mahmud, who entrusted him with the government of a province in Europe, where he tried to excite a conspiracy, and being brought to Constantinople would have lost his life but for the humane intercession of his excellency. I have seen the contents of this portfolio, wherein there is no paper of any consetjuence except a very urgent one from the Emperor of IMorocco to the late Sultan IMahmud, recommending Nadir Bey very strongly to his kindness, as " his nephew and own flesh and blood." This letter I have perused with great attention, and have no doubt of its authenticity ; but I have not heard how or by what means of per- suasion it was obtained. Plere I should mention, that when Nadir Bey was seized by the pasha, the British consular agent at Adana thought it his duty to claim him as a person furnished with a passj)ort, and consequently vuider his jurisdiction; but the pasha smiled and said, "No, no, wc know this man well ; his name is Ahmed, and we have all along been on the look-out for him." Nadir Bey reached Kuniyah in safety, and a Eurojjean, who had been apprised by letter of his coming, immediately went to the palace of the governor to inquire after him. He was informed that such an individual had arrived, and had prosecuted his journey to Con- stantinople. The people of the country, who all took interest in his fate, said 96 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. that at Kimiyali he had been recognised by the ISIxillah Khunkar, or chief of the dervishes, on whom devolves the duty of buckHng on the sword of every newly-elected sultan, and that he was presented with a good mule, and furnished with money and servants to proceed to the capital as became his rank. Be this as it may, nothing more has ever been heard of this mysterious young man. Two or three months after this event, the British vice-consul at Samsiui, who had been informed of what had occurred in Cilicia, taking a ride, saw a horseman who answered the description given of Nadir Bey. He was in Egyptian clothes,* and was whistling as he rode before him into town an Italian air Avith the greatest correctness. The resemblance of this man to what he had heard of Nadir Bey did not at the time strike Mr. C ; but he had scarcely reached his home before the thought occurred to his mind that this might be the same individual, and he immediately sent people to all the jDublic khans and coflee-houses, and to every place where he could suppose it possible he could go, to find him out; but although the town is small (not containing 6000 inhabitants), he Avas not able to discover any person agreeing to the description he gave of the individual he had met that afternoon ! This is all I have been aljle to ascertain and collect regarding this extraordinary character, who has interested me exceedingly, and the more so as I found that he was universally beloved and esteemed by all who have known him per- sonally. I regret that I did not see him (being at the time confined to my room by fever), to be enabled to give a more particular description of his person. There appeared, some days later, an article in one of the Constantinople papers saying that an impostor had been seized in Tarsus who pi'eteuded to the throne, and that he had been sent to Constan- tinople, where he Avas daily expected; but his arrival there Avas never announced. But the circumstance of his appearing in Cilicia as a claimant to the throne of Constantinople alone and Avithout funds, to create a revolt in a country Avhere he Avas Avell aAvare the natural feeUngs of patriotism are unknoAvn, and Avhere the inhabitants are driven like sheep by the strongest or by those Avho pay them, at the best, can only be reconciled to common sense by supposing that he must have lost his senses be- fore entering on his project : for Avhat reasonable hope could there be of exciting a sympathy or enthusiasm in a population reduced by poverty to the last stage of indifference, and that too in the character of a man who had passed the greater part of his life among infidt-ls, the * Like those pui-chasod by Nailir Bey at Tarsus, i^revious to proceeding to Adana on his inexplicable undertaking. QUARRELS AND INTRIGUES OF TURKISH OFFICIALS, 97 enemies of their religion and nation, himself tainted by the odium of having been allied to the hated Jawurs, and hence unfitted for the sacred office of defender of the faithful, — a prejudice impossible to eradicate from the minds of those who aspire to be strict Mussulmans, and who form by far the great majority of the population? Politically speaking, the attempt was madness; and we are lost in a maze of conjecture when we reflect on the infatuation of this individual, who was well acquainted with the country and people, and who in all other respects excited the astonishment while he captivated the hearts of all who knew him.* The second pasha who was appointed (12th May, 1843) to govern Cilicia after the evacuation of the Egyptians, was Ahmed Izzet Pasha,| son-in-law of old Ali Pasha of Bagdad. Ahmed' was jealous of the influence which the Muhassil (financial agent of "the Porte) Abdullah Eushdi exercised, and by which he could appropriate to himself all the emoluments arising from bribes. He therefore persuaded Mustuk Bey to quarrel with the Muhassil, in order to frighten him out of his post. The pasha hoped thus to get a more complaisant Muhassil, who Avoidd allow him to take into his own hands the advantage of directing through him the financial government of the Porte in the country. Mustuk Bey accordingly seized the earliest opportunity of quarrelling with the Muhassil, and which presented itself as they were seated during Ramadan at the door of a large caravansarai, enjoying the coolest place they could find in that sultry town. Mustuk Bey began by threatening to take away the Muhassil's life, and made a shew of drawing his pistols for that purpose. But the Muhassil, so fir from being intimidated, wrote to Constantinople, and had, it appears, sufficient influence to get the pasha dismissed. • In the meanwhile, however, before an answer could come from Con- stantinople, and it could be known which influence would ultimately prevail, Mustuk Bey had nothing to fear from the resentment of the Muhassil; but as family matters called him to Bayas, he took his leave of the pasha at Adana and returned home, whilst the latter set off in a contrary direction for Tarsus, " to make hay while the sun shone," that * I mast also add, for the satisfaction of the reader, that his friend and companion, before lea\'ing Tarsus, did not fail to pay whatever debts Nadu- Bey had incm-red during his passage through Tarsus. See Appendix. t The Porte had been for some time uneasy about old Ali Pasha of Bagdad, not kno%ving whether he would submit or throw off his allegiance. This man undertook to persuade Ali to be faithful to the Sultan, and proceeded to Bagdad, where he ingi-a- tiated himself so completely in the old'man's good graces that he gave him liis dauo'hter in marriage, and, as a proof of his obedience to the Porte, agreed to give up his post and accept the pashalik of Damascus, in order to spare the bloodshed of the faithftil consequent on civil war amongst Muhammadans. H 98 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. is, to profit by his position and make a tour among tlie Turkman tribes, from eacli of whom it was customary that every new pasha should receive one or more liorses, valued at from 10/. to 201. sterling, tlae number of which in this province generally amounted to a hundred given to each pasha. These horses were aftenvards taken away to be sold, in the interior or at Constantinople, by the pasha when he was recalled, and thus the coun- try was drained of all its best steeds. The money to purchase these horses was raised by contribution from the inhabitants of the district the pasha "vdsited, and they were charged by their cliiefs at twice their value!* Ahmed Izzet Pasha had just arrived at Tarsus, when he was aston- ished to see Mustuk Bey make his appearance there, at a time when he thought liim at Bayas. I happened accidentally to be present at their meeting, and witnessed the embarrassment of the pasha, who was per- suaded that something very serious could alone have brought him thus suddenly to Tarsus. He was soon, however, relieved from liis anxiety to know the cause of this stidden visit, by Mustuk Bey's informing him privately, that he was come to obtain his sanction to make away with his own relation, who had conspired against him during his absence from Bayas, whilst paying his court to the pasha at Adana. Mustuk Bey ob- tained the permission he had come to solicit and returned home, where, the better to cloak his design, he soon after made peace with his nephew Hassan Aga Zaitun Uglu, the very individual against whom his father had warned his children, and whose father, as has already been stated, Kutchuk Ali Uglu had murdered. Mustuk Bey accepted from his nephew a dinner of reconciUation, and went Avith his followers to visit him. Soon after dinner Mustuk rose to depart, and ordered his nephew's followers to escort him, leaving his own to finish their meal; and when the master of the house, who is required by the etiquette of the East to be the last to rise from the table, had just got up, and was in the act of washing his hands, his cousin Osman Aga shot him with a pis- tol, and the rest despatched him with their swords, after which they mounted their horses to follow their master. The dying man is said to have exclaimed, "Is such treachery possible?" referring to the maxim common to all nations, that there sliould be " honoui' among thieves." Mustuk Bey resembled his father; his face was large and flat, with rather a scanty beard, becoming grey. He also spoke through his nose * When a new paslia an-ived, all the local officers employed by his predecessor were expected to make him a i)resont of greater or less value, according to the importance of their office, in order to be continued in their posts, which was generally done till the pasha had had time to look alxmt him, when ho took occasion to tui-u them out, and place In sumo of his de2)ondcnts. GOVERNMENT OP SULAIMAN PxiSHA. 99 like liis fatlier. His conversation was pleasing, liis manners very polislied, and he treated all travel lei's who visited him, particularly the English, very kindly, and with much respect. He occupied a little palace above Bayas, which his predecessor Rustam Bey, the governor appointed by Ibra- him Pasha, had embellished after the Turkish fashion.* His great gene- rosity reduced him to be often in want of the necessaries of life ; and the debts he contracted towards the government by reason of his munificence afforded an oj^portunity to his enemies wherewith to work his ruin. The moment Ahmed Izzet Pasha had lost his post through the superior influence of the ]\Iuhassil Rushdi Effendi's friends and sup- joorters at Constantinople, the latter availed himself of his poAver to bring Mustuk Bey into disgrace. Sulaiman Pasha, who succeeded Ahmed Izzet Pasha in the month of November 1843, was, under the advice of the Muhassil, induced to sum- mon Mustuk Bey to appear in Adana. Pie replied, that he was ready to obey as soon as the Muhassil should be recalled, or else to enter the city with a suite of 500 horsemen; whereupon the Muhassil took secret mea- sures to induce the Porte to believe that Mustuk Bey refused to pay the tribute he owed to the government, the greatest of all crimes in the estimation of the ministry. In order further to excite the government against his enemy, the Muhassil gave private orders to the Tartar bearer of letters from Da- mascus to Constantinople not to pass through Bayas, but to take a boat and go across the (rulf of Alexandi'etta to Kara-Tash. The post having thus been delayed in its progress, the Muhassil had a pretext for accus- ing Mustuk Bey of interrupting public communication, although caravans and passengers were never in the least molested, and although that very week two Hajjis arrived from Syria, after having been treated on their way by Mustuk Bey with his usual hospitality. The Porte, giving ear to these insinuations, issued an order to attack Mustuk Bey. Two conscripts, one on foot, the other on horseback, were exacted from every village; and such, of course, were sent as could best be spared from agricultural labours. These were therefore boorish shepherds, many of whom had never used any other arms than those given them by nature, unless it were a club or stone against the wolves that attacked their sheep, and were equally unacquainted with riding. Each man was also furnished by the village to which he be- * He was in great favour with the first two pashas after the evacuation of the Egji^tians, and was honoin-cd with a Nishau Iftichar, and the title of Kapitohi Bashi, by the Sultan, — an honorary grade given to governors of towns and chiefs of Turkman tribes who render themselves useful to the Porte. 100 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. longed -witli a hundred piastres for his expenses during the campaign, a pound of powder, and four leaden bullets. In this manner five or six thousand men were collected outside the gates of Adana, where biscuit and barley were the only things provided by the government for the use of their levies. On the other hand, 1800 cartridges were discovered in the corner of some magazine, and were broken open in order to distribute the powder therein contained to the Turkmans by the handful. No chief would at first condescend to lead such a rabble; and this honour was finally reserv^ed for Durwish Ahmed, son of Kil-Aga, who was the only man who had the courage to march against the redoubtable Mustuk Bey. For more than a month the conscripts were still assembling, and the encampment had been transferred to Kurt-Kulak, twelve hours' ride from Adana. In the meanwhile the caravan of jNIecca was approaching ; and the Tufankji Bashi and Oda Bashi, or chamberlain, resolved to advance with about sixty followers, with the impudent boast of their doing so in order to protect the caravan. Mustuk Bey received their valiant on- slaught with a handful of his followers, took them all prisoners, and ignominiously stripped them of their clothes, sending them back with a message to the effect that he woidd not make them pay with their lives the insult they had ofiered him, and that the only thing he would retain would be their horses, in part payment for a herd of cattle which the enemy had a few days previously carried off. These fellows, ashamed and disgusted, returned to Adana. The caravan passed with all due hon- ours, and the chief imdertook to intercede at Constantinople for Mustuk Bey, and to explain the exact state of things. Mustuk accordingly, satisfied with the hopes Avhich the promises of the Suramini had inspired, and unwilling to be the cause of the effusion of " Midiammadan blood," as also not to implicate himself still further, retired to his mountains, aUhough he could, as the people expressed it, '■'■have eaten them iij) all at once!" As soon as Durwish Ahmed heard of IMustuk's retreat, he fell on Bayas, and pillaged and burnt every thing that came in his way, even to the wood for building belonging to merchants of Adana that happened to be on the sea-shore ready for embarkation. Neither the sex nor the rank of one of Mustuk Bey's harim, who remained behind, saved her from being stripped and ill-treated — an act unprecedented in the annals of the East, as women are always respected by the most barbarous. Mus- tuk Bey went to Mar'ash and afterwards to Aleppo, where he was liospi- tably received by the pasha, who took him with him to Beyrut, and thence to Constantinople. CHAPTER X. AXECDOTES OF SULADIAN PASHA — GIN-JUSIF, REBEL OF KARA-TASH ARIF PASHA — MURDER OF A PASHA — HASAN PASHA — ANECDOTES OF THE COUNCU. — CHRISTIAN MEMBERS OF COUNCIL EMPLOYES OF THE PORTE — TOLL AT KULAK BUGHAZ HATI SHERIFF — COURTS OF JUSTICE. During this period, as I have already stated, Sulaiman Pasha governed Adaua. This old mau was of all pashas the most stupid, except in matters relating to money, the sound of which alone could awaken his attention. During his government, an oke of sugar as a bribe would not be refused by him or his officers when nothing more valuable could be had. On his arrival to take the reins of government, this pasha told me that he had been named for his peaceable disposition, in opposition to that of his predecessor ; and in this the Porte really shewed great discri- mination. He was rich, although he maintained a whole troop of women servants, together with a wife. On the landing of the latter at Mursina, the wife of the doctor of quarantine called to pay her respects. To excuse her very ordinary apparel, and the tattered garments of her children, she said, " Pray do not look at these clothes; I have some with four fingers' width of gold lace on them." But this was not likely, as, contrary to our customs, the people of the East always travel in their finest and newest apparel. Wlien Sulaiman Pasha first arrived at Mursina from Constantinople, he was also met on the sea- shore by the director of the quarantine, who caused a sheep to be slaughtered in honour of his disembarkation, lodged his excellency with all his suite for the night, giving up to him his own apartment, and standing before him all the while to serve him, &c. The next day he accompanied him to Tarsus, to swell the number of his cortege. After remaining twenty-four hours in attendance, as the pasha was to proceed to Adana, he came forward to take his leave ; and kneel- ing down, kissed the hem of his garment, requesting permission to return. Will it be believed, that the pasha actually asked him who he was ? 102 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. The power of the Porte Avas much shaken in Kara-Tash about this time. Yusuf, son of the man whom we have seen defending the castle of Bayas under Dada Bey, had killed his brother and usurped his post. This man was a peasant of the Ansairi tribe, but he had no particular religious belief. His domestic establishment Avas composed of seven women, among whom were the sister and mother of his wife ! He col- lected all the rogues he could, by screening them from the pursuit of justice ; and Kara-Tash was fast passing from under the jurisdiction of the pasha, when Jin Yusuf was enticed to Adana and put into prison. But as the government thought he might one day be required for the purpose of setting him against his other brother Mustafa, his life was spared. Tired of such restraint, Jin Yusuf sent one of his followers to shoot Mustafa, knowing that he would then be necessary to govern- ment at Kara-Tash. It turned out as he expected: IMustafa died of the wound he received from a bullet, and the pasha being about to quit Adana in disgrace, was glad to take 10,000 piastres (equal to about 90/.), which Jin Yusuf paid him for his release, and which sum he soon after recovered, levying it by contributions on the villagers in his district of Kara-Tash ; and Jin Yusuf is at this moment the right-hand man of one of the ayans of Adana, and the pasha, in a letter to me, styles him kiz-agafi{, a title equivalent to lord-lieutenant of a county. Old Sulaiman Pasha having been a sufficient time at his post to make up more than the sum he had defrayed to obtain it, he was re- called .\.D. 1844, and Arif Pasha was named to succeed him ; but the pride of this man soon led to his downfall. Kuzan Uglu, chief of the Turkman tribes that dwell near Sis, and a friend of Mustuk Bey, had been simimoned to Adana; but he refused to appear, suspecting Abdullah al Rushdi, the muhassil, of treachery. On the guarantee of the Armenian patriarcli, he ultimately consented to answer the summons; biit on his ariival he was treacherously put luider arrest. The mountaineers hearing of this breach of faith, prepared to attack the city, and would certainly have pillaged it, had not the pasha invested Kuzan Uglu with a pelisse of honour, and sent him back to quell the insurrection. The Turkman tribe of Kuzan Uglu has al- ways been, to a certain extent, independent alike of Ibraliim Pasha and of the Porte. Shortly after this, a pasha of Mar' ash (a young man whose name I have forgotten) was killed by some of the Aitshir tribes, neighbours of Kuzan Uglu; for having gone among them to levy tribute, and with a dozen of his followers he fell a victim to his imprudence. Arif Pasha, in consequence, made some demonstration of his intention to invade TnOROUGH CHANGE OP GOVERNMENT. 103 tlie Kuzan Tagh, which constitutes a portion of the Taurus mountains; but the demonstration came to nothing. The unsettled state of the country was indeed at its height during Arif s government. He actually refused to convict a thief without com- petent witnesses, although some of the stolen property was found upon him, because this individual had powerful friends, and bribed the cadi with 500 piastres. AbduUa Rushdi at last fell into disgrace ; but he contrived to leave Adana with upwards of a hundred horses and forty-two panther-skins, together with several thousand purses (of 5/. each) wherewith to in- trigue for new honours. He was succeeded by another intriguer, who had united with the chiefs of the country to get Arif Pasha dismissed. In 1846 the Porte, having been repeatedly petitioned by these peo- jile, and worn out by their importunities, as well as tired of their com- plaints, determined to make a complete change in the officers of the pashalik of Adana ; and Hassan Pasha was deputed, with a suite of fresh- imported employes, to fill up the various vacancies. This fat illiterate man was one of the Janissaries of old, who had, in the time of the reformation of Sultan Mahmud, willingly submitted to the new discipline called Nizam, and was consequently spared the fate of his companions in arms. His stupid, coarse manners corresponded with his appearance.* Mastuk Bey, who had been to Constantinople with his patron Waji Pasha, availed himself of the change of ministry at Adana to retvirn, and he accompanied Hassan Pasha in the Turkish steamer. On their arrival I took occasion to recommend Mustuk Bey to him, on the ground of his being the only man who could keep the Turkmans in order ; for the roads had been infested with robbers during his absence, which was never the case when he was at the head of his tribe. Hassan Pasha contemptuously answered, " that neither Mustuk Bey nor any one else, not even himself, could presume to consider that he was indispensable to the Daulat il Aliyah (Sublime Porte), whose breath * An Arabic story is told of a governor, who surj^assed his father and grandfather in tyranny, going out in disguise one day to hear what people said of him. He was surijrised to find that an old woman alone, out of all his subjects, prayed God to prolong his life, — " Alia yitawall amru." He accosted her, and entering into familiar conversation, desired to be told why she prayed for the prosperity of a tjTant hated by every body. She informed him that "the grandfather of Effendina was tyrannical^ his father still more so, and Eft'endina was worse than both ; should God Almighty, therefore, in his vengeance deprive us of him, he coidd at this rate send us none other than Eblis (Satan) himself 'Azlam,' more just than Effendina (our lord), whom God preserve : and that is why I pray for the long life of Effendina, as we can only change for the worse." 104 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNORg. alone supports or exterminates all men !" I could not help smiling at this assumption of grandeur, having been witness of the little power of the government he so much lauded only a few days previously, when the Turkmans had carried off Avith impimity between two and three hundred head of cattle within half an hour's ride of Adana. Arif Pasha, with a spy-glass in his hand, had actually seen from his window some travellers stripped on th€ other side of the river, und dared not afford them assistance ; nor could th-e post evtr pass without an escort of Dali Bashis (" mad heads," irregular cavalry). But the weakness of the Cilician governors is in some degree ex- cusable when we consider that they are thrown in a strange land with- out sufficient means to enforce their authority, being scarcely allowed the pay of fifty saimans (irregular troops). They are thus placed at the mercy of the chiefs of the country, who offer them the option, viz. on one side the opportunity of becoming rich, and on the other, opposition in every thing, which would completely cripple their power; and they are induced, by want ■ of principle, to choose that which is most con- ducive to their private advantage. It sometimes happens that, in consequence of the mutual jealousies of the members of the council, they submit to receive a Mutsallim, or governor, among them: but this man, as well as his master the pasha, with whom he shares his profits, becomes a tool in their hands ; and as soon as one of the members contrives to get the ascendant of the rest, the Mutsallim is set aside without any scruple or ceremony. This is perhaps the case in this province more than in any other, the members of the council being chiefs of Turkman tribes supported by 2000 or more followers, who are encamped within call at a few hours' ride from the towns.* Thus we see that this pashalik is governed only nominally by the envoyes from the Sublime Porte, and that the real authority is in the hands of the ayans, who retain the power of levying the Suliyaiiy^ an arbitrary tax originally paid by the people for the purpose of de- fraying the travelling expenses of Pashas, Kapitchi Bashis, and other officers of the Porte, while resident in the towns, and which has con- tinued in force, although since the financial reforms of the sultan it has been fixed on more regular principles, and the reasons for its exaction have long ago been cancelled. This tax is levied twice a year, and from the uncertain nature of the sum, holds out a wide field for pecu- lation. It is divided into so many portions, generally double the sum required by the Porte, and it is exacted from the chiefs of the several * Some of the tribes are much more powerful. Mahimanji Uglu could unite from 800 to 120U tjima. TAXATION IN CILICIA. 105 districts, villages, or departments, who in their turn also speculate on its advantages to their own profit; so that the poor villagers have to pay three times what the Porte receives, and they are also the greatest sufferers, as the ayaus contrive to exempt their own people ; and this tyranny falls so heavily on the villagers, that they often find no other chance of escaping the exactions of the ayans than emigration, which takes place to a gi-eat extent,* although a husbandman is not allowed by law to quit his district ; so that when unable to pay the dues fixed upon them at the capricious option of the chiefs, they wander about from place to place, and leave their children to the mercy of strangers.^ This system is also put in practice in its several ramifications by the sheiks of the villages, who mimic their superiors in the council; and they enjoy the same immunity from punishment. Nothing can be more detrimental to the public weal than this combination of six or ten persons who act in concert. The more individuals in power, the more channels of extortion, and the more subjects exempt from taxation to the prejudice of the rest of the community. This council, presided over by the Pasha and Muhassil, is composed of the Mufti, Cadi, Nakib, and some of the chiefs of the Turkman tribes, who, by the venal means above alluded to, have contrived to establish an influence indispensable (without regular troops) to the collecting of the taxes. These keep up a good understanding among themselves as to what regai'ds their individual interests, and cede by turns to each other every advantage they can avail themselves of to monopolise and * Karadughar (Anchiale) and Kaisanli, formerly two flourisliing villages, were in 1847 nearly deserted, in consequence of the heavy exactions of the government-people, who, seeing a populous \-illage, fixed a sum to be paid in SaUyan far beyond the means of the poor inhabitants, who, having been reduced to sell every thing they had to satisfy the extortions of their petty tyrants, and their lands proving bar- ren in consequence of the want of rain, were all dispersed, each seeking refuge in some distant place, — some going to Cyprus, and others to Syria, whUe those who had any relations in the country were too hapjiy to become their servants in the ciUtiire of the ground, to obtain food for themselves and their distressed families. Happy it is that such a state of things is rapidly going by ! Out of some forty families in Karadughar, only six families remained ; and these being required to pay 18,200 piastres of the Saliyan of the village when it was populous, tried to run away to Syria by embarking in a small boat at night. The number of the families at Kaisanli was seventy, and they were reduced by desertion to a dozen, in the same state as those of Karadughar ; and many other \aLlages, such as Kara- jillas, Nisani, &c., were reduced to the same condition. AU these villages were peopled with Ansairi peasants, a quiet and laborious race of men. + This is certainly a remains of the feudal system ; and I have repeatedly heard of two neighbouring chiefs quarrelling, and reclaiming from each other the taxes due by their several serfs, who had taken refuge and been received by another chief from his neighbour's territory : and often these individuals are compelled to return to their for- mer place, and submit to the still greater exactions, of their exasperated chief. 106 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNOHS. extort, allowing to the Pasha and Muhassil a fair portion of the booty for their co-operation. The introduction of Christians into the coimcils, as ordained by the Porte, has not in Cilicia as yet gone beyond the summoning of some illiterate follower of the Messiah, who sits on his knees near the door, and never opens his mouth but with low obeisances to confirm their nefarious decrees. He is generally a servant of the Mufti, and officiates as SarrafF or banker of the government, a lucrative employ- ment, which throws much floating capital into his hands. He is sup- posed to be the most respectable of his co-religionists ; but the Turks pay little regard to the rank he holds as representative of the Christians and member of the council^ for he often gets the bastinado to qiucken his accounts.* In this council all the " appaltos" (monopolies) of the government, winch have not been abolished, are sold yearly, although in the treaty with England a heavy duty of twelve per cent is established by the last tarifl^ on condition of their being set aside ; and here I may notice, that from time immemorial it has been observed that in Turkey a new tax very seldom cancels old ones, but is added to them, in spite of all arrangements to the contrary. The Pasha and Muhassil buy in the name of their servants the most profitable monopolies, without any one outbidding them, as they distribute to each of the members a suffi- cient number of such " appaltos" as regards their various districts. Last year a present or bribe of 25,000 piastres (250/.) was offered to the Muhassil to allow the monopoly of tobacco to be sold freely, but he preferred keeping it to himself This dignitary, by this one fraud alone, collected yearly several thousand pounds sterling. I perfectly recollect the first arrival of Abdalla Rushdi Effendi in Mursina, where he had occasion to accept of my hospitality. The first question he asked was, whether there were any dresses to be had readij-made at Adana ! He had actually arrived at his post without a change of clothes; and yet on dismounting from his horse at Adana he found a house furnished for him with such magnificence, that he was enabled to treat those who called upon him with pipes and coflfee in cups set with diamonds, and * A rcmarkablo instance of this took place on the amval of Arif Pasha, who, on inspecting,' the public records, found a deficit of about 300/. to 400/., and required its iiniiiediato payment. The money was not owed by the sarrafF of Tarsus, but by the cft'cnilis of the council, who had each taken what they required ; and yet the sairaff was afraid to explain this knotty point, and at first received .'jOO bastinados, and was afterwards obligerl to disburse the money out of his own purse. He had even to pre- tend that the money was due by different Christians, friends of his, who acknowledged the debt, which was j);iid by the sarraff, in order to conceal the tricks of the ayans, who are always trifling with the public rcvonuo. CnARACTER OP TAX-GATHERERS. 107 ■which had been prepared for him by the officious ayans. We have seen how he left Adana after three years' residence there. The Cadi of 1844, on his arrival to take possession of his post in Adana, had not wherewith to pay his horse-hire from Mursina to Tarsus ! Very large salaries have of late been paid to all the employes by the Porte, in the hope that this may induce them to give up their habits of venality; but unfortunately the instability of their appointments, at least in Cilicia, renders them anxious to profit by the opportunities aiForded them, in order to be enabled by their ill-gotten wealth to bribe in their turn their superiors at Constantinople when they are recalled, — an event which takes place every few months, in consequence of the many com- plaints that reach Constantinople of their venal practices, and which is generally brought about by one intriguing against the other. By this constant change of oppressors, the people are always falling into fresh hungry hands, which must be satisfied, lodged, and maintained ; and although very strict commands are issued from time to time by the Porte to prevent these irregularities, in distant provinces like Cilicia little or no attention is paid to the wishes and good intentions of the government.* But the great source of local mal- administration is the influence of the members of the council, whose whole energy is directed to the support of its members and dependents at the expense of the Porte and people. An useless, unprincipled, and in most cases an igno- rant oligarchy, ruinous to the country and to the treasury of the Sultan; and until some very effective mea:-ures are taken to crush the power it has usurped, no hope can be entertained of any amelioration in the legislature. Individual despotism is always to be deplored; but an oppressive oligarchy is the perfection of tyranny. It had been agreed upon between the Porte and the European powers, that there should be no more monopolies; still these exist in full force: and the Bage or toll levied at Kulak Bughaz is not one of the least * At Antioch the tax-gatherers used to exact the tithes in money; and as they fixed a larger sum than even the produce of the land, the villagers found it so ruinous^ that they preferred leaving a great portion of their grounds uncultivated, and actually cut down their trees. This came to the cognisance of the Porte, and a fii-man was issued to forbid such abuses ; and it was therein clearly specified that the tithes should be alwaj'S collected in Jdud: and each of the Ayans of Antioch, who are not, like those of Cilicia, supported by Turkman tribes (not belonging to any), was himself com- pelled to read in his district this firman before the assembled people, for the purpose of gi\'ing due publicity to the intentions of the Porte. That year some attention was paid to this order ; but they soon returned to their original mal-i:)raetices ; and the tithes are now actually paid in cash at a price double the value of what the produce could be sold for in Antioch. But great changes are taking place for the better every year even in these remote districts ; none more important than the abolition of the Saliyan in 1846, which has not been renewed since that period. 108 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. onerous. Three piastres per load, and one oke* in kind, is exacted in soap, coffee, tumbac, &c., which makes the road-tax amount to more than 12 per cent. The Muhassil, who has the chief interest in this oppres- sive toll, gives it his energetic support, and has not allowed it to be sup- pressed, in spite of many orders from the Porte obtained by the French and English ambassadors for that purpose. Although the Porte had declared that personal taxation should be abohshed, and a tax on property be estabUshed in Heu thereof, this has not taken place, at least in Cilicia, where the members of the council being almost the sole landed proprietors, they would have been the chief sufferers; and as the executive power is in their hands, they have not allowed such an innovation to come into foi'ce. Nor have many advantages accrued to this province as yet by the Tanzimat Khairvjah, or Hatti Sheriff of Gulhana, so deservedly applauded as a charter granted by the Sultan to his subjects. The people, at least in Cilicia, are under the same tyrannical subjection, and are exposed to the same rapacity of their governors as ever they were ; the latter never fail to avail themselves of the slightest excuse that can be found to put them in prison, whence they are never freed, however innocent, before they have paid a sum in proportion to their means, which imposition they call ex- penses of the jjrison, and which is fixed at the arbitrary caprice of the Tufankji Bashi. The Cadi also takes advantage of his position to carry on measures of intrigue very foreign to his station and profession. The great license allowed by the Turkish law, the facility of procviring false witnesses, and the difficulty of appealing to Constantinople for redress, enable him to carry through, by the connivance of the council, any mea- sure, however detrimental to the public weal. Indeed, the whole ad- ministration of justice, if such it can be called, may be summed up in the great facility of procuring false witnesses, and the extraordinary article in the Turkish code of condemning individuals sued against, how- ever false the accusation, to pay the costs. Innumerable instances may be brought forward of innocent persons prosecuted solely from motives of ill-will on the slightest pretences, to oblige them to pay the costs ; and the officers of law, to whose profit this system accrues, give naturally en- couragement to such mal-pnictices. These abuses, and many more, are adopted by the pasha and officers of police, in order to make up for the loss of the privilege they formerly enjoyed, of imprisoning a man known to be rich, for the avowed purpose of making him pay an arbitrai-y tax for the private use of the pasha's kitchen. In order to render the pre- sent plan as lucrative as the old one, it is in too many instances made * Two pounds und three-quarters English. MAL-ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 109 as general as possible, by encouraging the population to complain one against the other; and although a person is falsely accused, the accuser is not punished, nor do the costs of the suit, as I have already observed, fall upon liim, as they should do. If any sum is recovered, the creditor pays seven to ten per cent, besides what is given to the constable for his trouble by the latter, and what is secretly paid by the creditor to the judge, generally about a third of the sum. I trusted to be able to conclude the present chapter with more con- solatory words of hope to the friends of Turkey, of which, notwithstand- ing its faults, and the difficulties the Porte has to fight against, I may truly say that I rank as one, and indeed as a most zealous well-wdsher. It has been my endeavour throughout these pages to lay before my readers only simple facts which speak for themselves, to enable them to judge of the actual state of a province so remote and so peculiarly circumstanced as Cilicia. Nearer to Constantinople, the Turkish go- vernment is enabled to carry into more effective operation the many excellent regulations that are daily issued at the Porte for the benefit of the people. PLillN OF ANTIOCH— OVERFLOW OF THE ORONTES ; MOUNT AMANUS IN THE DISTANCE. (From a Sketch by C. F. Barker, Esq.) (From a Sketch by Edward B. B. Barker, Esc^.) CHAPTER XL GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA — TARSUS AND ADANA MISSIS (mOPSUESTIA) — SIS (PIN- DENISSUS) BAYAS AND THE COAST PYLi^E CILICIJE POPULATION OF CILICIA EUROPEANS AND THEIR INFLUENCE DESTROYED — CONSULS AND THEIR AUTHORITY ENGLISH CONSULS ALLOWED TO TRADE — CLIMATE STAGNANT LAKE (rHEGMa) — MARSH OF ALEXANDRETTA COUNTRY-HOUSES NIMRUD SEA-PORTS — KAISANLI MURSINA AND ITS ROADSTEAD. Having traced the history of Cilicia clown to the present day, I pro- pose noAV to say a few words on its geograjiliical position, statistics, com- mercial resources, natural productions, and antiquities. The so-called pashalik of Adana, which corresponds pretty nearly to ancient Cilicia Campestris, is comprehended in a plain that extends from Sulufska (Seleucia,) to Ma' rash, in a north-easterly direction, about 120 miles between the Taurus and Jawur or Giaour Tagh, which last, running north and south, forms Avith the sea a triangle in which the province is composed, and which is called by the Tui'ks Chukui* Uvah, and GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA. Ill corresponds to the Aleian plain of old. Tarsus is situated on this jilain, at the foot of Mount Taurus, about twelve miles from the sea, and a branch of the river Cjdnus passes through the city, taking its rise in the adjoining chain of mountains, and emptying itself into the sea about twelve miles from Tarsus. Adana, fabled by Stephanus to have been founded by Adam (vide Ainswoi'tli' s Reti'eat of the 10,000 Greeks), stands to the north-east, and is also on the plain at the foot of the Taurus range, and about thirty miles from the sea. It has another and larger river, Saihun, ancient Sarus, passing by it, which, running parallel to the Cydnus, empties itself near the mouth of the latter. Missis, anciently called Mopsuestia, is said to have been founded by Mopsus, a celebrated prophet, son of Manto and Apollo, during the Trojan war; \\v. had three daughters, ^/lOcZa, Meliade, and Pamphylia. It is now a ruined A'illage about twenty-five miles north-east of Adana, and through it flows the Jaihim (Pyramus), a river still larger than the two last mentioned. The Pyramus springs from the other side of ]\Ia'rash, whence it passes winding along the plain to Sis and Missis, and finishes its course in the Bay of Ayass (^gte), which is opposite Alex- andretta.* Sis (Pindenissus) is to the north of Missis, about sixty miles dis- tance, at the foot of Taiu^us, which the people of the country call at that point Kusan Tagh, after the name of the tribe of Tiu'kmans who inhabit the district. At this place is a monastery of great antiquity, the residence of an Armenian patriarch, who has some influence in the country, but who, notwithstanding his high rank, when he comes to Adana to visit the pasha, is as obsequious to the Turks as the rest of the oppressed Christian subjects of the Porte. A view of Sis, with the Armenian patriarch in the foreground surrounded by his bishops, is given in the frontispiece. Bayas (Issus) is on the gulf of that name, sixty miles to the south- east of Missis. Alexandretta is sixteen miles more to the south-east, at the foot of the Jawnir Tagh, which rises almost perpendicularly behind it, constituting the farthest limits of the pashalik at Bailan (Pylffi Syriaj), Avhere the confines of Syria begin in a very tortuous and difficult pass. Arsus (Ehossus) is to the» south of this town ; it has the sea on one * This place, that is, Ayass, is remarkable for its extraordinary number of sea- turtle, which are very easily caught as they come out ou the sea-shore in the night to lay their eggs in the sand. Fish is also very abimdant ; but when taking it with a seine or draw-net the turtle till up the sack ; so that before it can reach the shore the fishermen have to go into the sea, which is not deep near the beach, to take them out, two or three times successively. On one occasion (May 1812) the crew of H.M.'s steamer Hecate, Captain Ward, took more than 150 tm-tles in less than twenty-four houi-s. 112 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. side and !Mount Rhossiis towering above it on the other.* The latter projects into the sea, and forms Cape Khanzir, or Wild-boar Cape, (Scopulus Rhossicus), so formidable to sailors in leaving the Bay of Alexandretta. Karatash is a village opposite Arsus, on the extreme side of the gulf, and has a little harbour affording a precarious shelter to small boats of the country, and is about sixty miles east by south of Tarsus. At Kulak Bughaz (Pylae Cilicige) is the pass into this province to the north-west from Anatolia, which is the most convenient road for beasts of burden, and was that principally used in all the military expeditions of the ancients. It was repaired by the Romans so as to admit of their chariots passing, but being neglected, has fallen to rviin, and in the narrow part you have now to pass through a stream two or three feet deep for more than a hundred yards. But I must, for a more minute description of this celebrated pass, refer to Mr. Ainsworth's work entitled Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and Armenia. It was here that Ibrahim Pasha caused to be conveyed to the crest of the pass some very fine pieces of artillery of such a size that the present government have not been able to bring them down, and have been obliged to content themselves with twenty- eight small pieces of brass artillery, which they sent to Constantinople to be melted down into bishlics (five-piastre pieces of the country), worth something less than a shilling. At the same time six vessels of 250 tons Avere laden for Constantinople with powder and military stores, which had remained and been overlooked by the Egyptian army at the moment of departure, although by order of Ahmed Minikli Pasha some of the magazines M-ere blown up. This shipment was made, not only to turn to account the leavings of the Egj'ptian army, which would have been useless in Adana, but also to keep such dangerous articles out of the people's reach. Ibrahim Pasha had had constructed at Kulak Bughaz by a clever Polish * Arsiis is now a small village built on the site of ancient Rhesus ; and in the vicinity are many fi-agments of walls, arches, and some remains of a temple with Corinthian cohnnns. The most remarkable niin in the neighbourhood is, however, an extensive aqueduct carried on arches, and which formerly brought water direct from the moun- tains to the town, although a rivulet of clear water flows through it. Nothing indicates that this town, whither, according to Plutarch, Demetrius re- paired from Seleucia Picria, was ever an extensive site. It is, however, a spot stiU much frequented by SjTian Christians, with whom its church is in great sanctity ; thus preserving, to a certain extent, the ecclesiastical importance which belonged to it in the middle ages, and which enabled it to send its mitred rej)resentatives to the Chris- tian Synods of the East. Eusebius, it is true, only notices Rhosus as a parish ; but Socrates (iii. 25) mentions Antipatrum as Bishop of Rhosus ; and it is also noticed as an episcopacy in the Acts nf the Synod. The name is variously rendered Rhosus, or Rossiis, by the Greeks and Latins; the AcU of the Spwd have it Khosopolis, and the Theodosian Tablet Rhosus. \V. F. A. PYL^ CILlCIiE. 113 engineer, Colonel Sliutz, fortifications which were intended to repel an invader, and at the same time serve as a model to instruct officera in every branch of fortification. These works were executed by the Colonel, but they wei'e in great part destroyed by the Egyptians on their retreat, before they were completely finished, after having cost immense sums of money and eight years' constant labour of 10,000 men. The population of this pashalik amounts to about 300,000 souls ; but it is not easy to make an exact calculation, as the reports of the Turkmans are either false or exaggerated. Adana contains 18,000 inhabitants ; Tarsus, 6000: of this one-third are Mussulmans, more than a third An- sayrii or Ansarians, generally Deists, and the rest Ai'menians and Greeks. There are more than 300 villages on the plain, which average 200 souls each, and the inhabitants of which are for the most part Ansayrii, and a few Muhammadans. At Sis the population is almost entirely Armenian, and numbers about 2000. Missis and Bayas contain 200 to 300 in- habitants altogether, and Alexandretta and Ai-sus as many. The Turkman tribes^ who dispersed in the plains, valleys, and moun- tains of this province, feed their flocks in the pasturages of the Jaihun, Saihun, and their tributarieSj in winter, and repair to the uplands of Taurus in summer, make up the sum of the rest of the population, as above stated. There are at Tarsus a few families from Cyprus, who lead the same monotonous existence to which they are accustomed in their native town of Larnika. The few Eiiropeans who inhabit Tarsus live a Hfe of great privation, devoid of all intellectual society ; they ap- pear to exist only in the hope that some day or another the relative commercial advantages of the place will at length be fully appreciated and settled ; they will then be the first to profit thereby. There are English, French, Russian, Dutch, and Neapolitan consul- ates established in Tarsus. The English system of allowing a consul to trade is very disadvantageous to commercial interests, and frustrates the very intention for which he is appointed — that of encouraging British commerce. It brings him into constant personal collision with the local government, and detracts from his respectability and authority. Besides, his position gives him such an advantage over other merchants, that few Englishmen can settle in any place where such is the case ; and therefore, as I have just observed, the desire and interest of England to extend her commerce is thus counteracted for the saving of a few hundred pounds a year of salary. This is particularly the case in Tarsus ; and indeed we may observe, that in few places in the Levant where a British consul is allowed to trade have we any commercial houses, and this fact speaks for itself: although consuls have been appointed in those places for I 114 CILICIA AND ITS GOTERNORS. many years, and although a good deal of real business might be carried on by the means of English houses of commerce, were their interests properly supported by disinterested individuals. The climate of Cilicia is not more ruiliealthy than the rest of Asia IMinor, but the air of Tarsus is very much so, particularly during the months of July and August, when the town and its environs are subject to exhalations productive of putrid and intermittent fevers. The prin- cipal cause of this evil is a stagnant lake about thirty miles in circum- ference, now a few miles from Tarsus, which formerly communicated with the sea, but which is now separated from it by a sand-bank. This is the harboiu" mentioned by Strabo, which he says was the port of Tarsus (and that there were in his time the remains of the arsenal). Indeed, its position leads us to infer that the sea once came up to Tarsus ; but as the alluvium of the river has raised the ground con- siderably, it would be easy to dry this lake by drains, which would not cost more than 200/., and the deleterious state of the atmosphere would be permanently obviated; and not only would many diseases be pre- vented, but the ground would become well adapted to the cultivation of sesam, cotton, and wheat, and its incomparable fertility the first year woidd no doubt repay a thousand-fold all expenses.* This lake lies between Tarsus and the sea, and thus its pittrid exhalations are con- veyed to the town by the sea-breezes. It is the opinion of medical men, that the pores of the skin being opened by the great heats of the day, are much influenced by the damp aiid cold vnnd of the mountain at night; and this combined with the malaria above mentioned occasions congestions of the brain, and hence bilious and gastric fevers, which, if not properly treated by bleeding and other active remedies, will carry off the patient -in three or four days, as the fever soon ceases to be inter- mittent and assumes a malignant type. Ibrahim Pasha caused the small lake of Alexandretta to be drained at the suggestion of M. Martinelli, as also subsequently of Mr. Hays, her Majesty's consuls there, and for two or three years afterwards no deaths took place, whereas previously there were accidents occurring every few months. The canal for carrying off the water has, however, since unfortunately been allowed to fill up, and Alexandretta is now the tomb of all who inhabit it for any length of time without change of air. * A few years ago, in consequence of a great dearth, part of this lake having dried up, the pcojile of the adjoining \'illage sowed and reaped melons twice in one season, the seed of the second crop being from that of the first, and the quaUty produced was niost excellent. VILLAGES NEAR TARSUS. 115 The inhabitants of Tarsus and Adana go to the moiuitains to pass the summer, at a place called Nimrud, sixty miles distant, where there is a castle which they attribute to Nimrod and call it after his name. There are evident traces of its having been built at three different periods, and it was at one time in the possession of the Crusaders. It is built on the summit of a hill, which I should calculate to be certainly 3000 feet above the level of the sea, and it is not commanded by any of the adjoining heights. It was probably here that Syennesis first re- tired on the approach of Cyrus to Tarsus, b.c. 401 (vide Ainsworth's Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Ch^eehs). The country around Nimrud is arid, with scarcely any running water ; but the water of the wells is not bad and is abundant, and the air is fine. Each habitation stands in a little vineyard, and this extends the cultivation of the moun- tain for many miles ; and the luxuriance with which the vine, cherry, and walnut-trees grow is very remarkable. All who come up here lead a life of perfect indolence, and the poor man will sell any thing he may possess rather than fail to take his family to the mountain during the summer months. This constant shifting of residence prevents the in- habitants from building good houses' either in Tarsus or in the Yaila, as they call their summer quarters. The merchants of Tarsus and Adana are chiefly strangers, and during the hot season they visit their families in Kaisariyah, and in the other towns in the interior of Asia Minor, whence they return in the months of September and October, Kaisanli is a village containing about a hundred families, estabhshed in the point of the bay nearest to Tarsus (about twelve miles distant). It is in this place that Arab lombards come from Syria to load and un- load; but on the slightest appearance of bad weather they are obliged to take shelter at Mursina (Zephyrium), more to the westward of the bay, about eight miles further, where the roadstead is excellent, and, according to some captains, is preferable as a safe anchorage to that of Alexandretta or any other on the coast of Syria.* Two French vessels and some Arabs have been driven on shore ; but in every case the fault has been from their chains or cables breaking, and not from bad bottom in the anchorage, English vessels, at the same time and in the same storm, sustaining no damage whatever. The only inconvenience they experienced was that their crew were prevented from communi- cating with the sea-shore for three days till the storm had subsided ; but this is of very rare occurrence, and generally speaking, morning and evening the business of embarking and disembarking is not inter- * The sea-breeze is stronger here than any where else on the coast ; hence its an- cient name perhaps. I had a beautiful brass medal struck here, which I have mislaid. 116 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. nipted. About midday there is a little swell, and the want of a small pier alone prevents the working of merchant-ships' boats all the year round. This could be easily made for the trifling sum of 501. ; but the governors of the country, although in landing to take possession of their posts they have often got wet, always talk of having one made ; as soon as they reach Adana, their head-quarters, they forget entirely that such a place as Mursina exists. Mursina is a name compiled from the Greek, fivpffiyri, myrtle, because formerly immense bushes of that plant were the only characteristics of the place. When I first went to Tarsus, in ] 838, there was only a small magazine and a few miserable huts at this place, and the bales of cotton were left out under the rain until French vessels came to ship them for Marseilles. In the hope of drawing the commerce of the inte- rior and rendering this a place of transit for such produce as is usually conveyed overland to Smyrna, I built large magazines capable of hold- ing the cargoes of fifteen vessels at one time. As I had anticipated, this convenience, so much wanted pre\iously, induced people to avail themselves of them, and deposit therein goods which were shipped to Europe and Smyrna. Commerce taking a new course, three other magazines were built, and other persons settled there. ALKXANDEETTA AND CAPE khanzir'.— (From a Sketch by C. F. Barker, Esq.) CHAPTER XII. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TARSUS IN A COMMERCIAL POINT OF VIEW TABLES OF NAVIGATION TABULAR VIEW OF THE TRADE OF THE INTERIOR OF ASIA MNOR TABLE OF EXPORTS TABLE OF IMPORTS— STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN CILICLV. — PRODUCE OF THE COUNTRY COTTON WHEAT BARLEY LINSEED WAX FRUIT-TREES SILK OLIVE-TREES PAY OF A DAY-LABOURER PASTURE OF LAND TENURE OF LAND TIMBER AND WOODS GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGT EXTRACTS FROM MR. AINSWORTh'S work : plain of tarsus FALLS OF THE CYDNUS FIRST, SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH RANGE OF HILLS MINES OF IRON AND LEAD ARGENTIFEROUS GALENA REVENUE OF THE PASHALIK. Tarsus being tlie nearest port to the several large towns of Asia Minor, — Adana, Maraash, Nighdah, Kaisariyali, and others, — it would seem to be the best adapted to embark goods from ; but the inhabitants of the interior have long been accustomed to go to Smyrna and Constantinople by land (five times further off), where they have the advantage of find- ing more buyers who are ready to compete with each other in the purchase of their merchandise, whereas in Tarsus the competition is trifling, as there are few if any merchants; and these only acting as factors, they cannot make large purchases without consulting their principals, who are too far oiF to allow of any activity in their opera- tions. For these reasons Tarsus will remain for many years in the background: but attention to the causes of malaria would soon eradi- cate the greatest evil, and then many respectable merchants with their families would be induced to reside in Tarsus, otherwise not a disa- greeable residence, and one of the most fertile spots in the world; and they would profit by the advantage of its vicinity to the interior of Asia Minor, inasmuch as goods can be shipped twenty per cent cheaper here than by taking them overland to Smyrna, where the produce of the country now chiefly goes for want of a nearer mai't, and to reach which place on camels' backs, avooI and madder-roots are deteriorated in qua- lity by being exposed to rain on the road ; but the merchants of Anatolia do not mind that, as the weight is thereby increased ! Albertus Aquensis, according to Cellarius, talks of 3000 ships sail- 118 CILICIA AXD ITS GOVERNORS. ing from the port of Tarsus at one time (vide Ainsworth's Asia Minor, p. 83). At present its commerce, although increasing within the last eight years, is confined to twenty or thirty Arab vessels, that come siic- cessively to load here for Syria, bringing a little soap, coffee, and English manufactures for the consumption of the pashalik. About twelve French vessels also load sesam and wool for Marseilles yearly : one or two Austrian and Sardinian. An English vessel may visit this road- stead in the course of the year to take up a pai^t of her cargo for Leg- horn or Smyrna, which they get in Alexandretta. A few Greeks also from Cyprus keep up a traffic in the products of their country, taking wheat in exchange. Steamers have been put on this route from Smyrna two or three times ; bixt in consequence of the irregularity of theu* ar- rivals and departures no dependence could be placed on them, and nothing was done satisfactorily. (See the accompanying Table on the Trade and Navigation of Tarsus, No. 1.) Tarsus might, at least for the present, serve as a convenient depot for the produce of the interior, were the agents there more to be depended on ; but what man would live there who could gain his bread elsewhere, particularly as the means of business are less than any where else, and the disadvantages of ill-health and difficulties of getting and executing orders greater than any where else ? But in order to give some idea of the impulse that might be given to the trade of Asia Minor through Tarsus were the difficulties alluded to removed, I shall accompany this notice with a report or table of the trade of Anatolia as regards Kaisariyah and the towns of Asia Minor, Avhich I drew up from researches on the spot and upon the best authority. (Vide Table in the Appendix.) The principal exports, a table of which I also adjoin in the Appendix, consist in cotton, wool, wheat, barley, wax, sesam-seed, and linseed from the interior, from whence might be brought Caraman madder-roots in great quantities, Persian yellow-berries from Kaisariyah, buffalo-hides and cow-hides, and all the minor produce of the country. All kinds of imports, such as English manufactures, sugar, coffee, indigo, cochineal, soap, and Persian tobacco, are brought from Syria ; but the want of cash in the country renders the sale precarious. The seller is compelled to wait months for payment, and frequently money is lost by the failure of the buyers, who are as insolent as they are needy. The import trade is very discouraging; but in exports some- times a good profit is to be obtained, particularly in wheat, which is remarkably cheap : often it may be had at a price that enables the buyer to deposit it in the London Docks at 20s. the English quarter. During Ibraliim Pasha's administration, the government was put to the COMMERCE OP TARSUS. 119 deplorable necessity of pressing the population into military service, by seizing the strong and able-bodied, in order to recruit his troops in Syria. As he could not well do this in the border territories, from an apprehension of their deserting, he made the latter labour at public works, and this interrupted the course of agriculture. Grain was in consequence dear, but since the departure of the Egyptians the people do not suffer from this grievance, and being more at leisure, have ap- plied themselves to the culture of the land, which is extremely fertile; and were it not for the fatahty which seems to be attached to this ill- fated province, brought on from mal-administration, this might be the happiest instead of the most miserable district of the Ottoman dominions. Its chief produce is cotton, of which 20,000 cantars, of 180 okes, are annually produced, and sent chiefly to Tarabuzun (Trebizond) and Erzerum by caravans. It is inferior to Egyptian cotton, and not well cleaned. The cotton costs about three piastres, or 7^d. the oke (of 2|- lbs.). In 1845 the crop failed entirely for want of rain. More than 400,000 quarters of wheat are produced annually, half of which is exported to Syria ; the current price is sixty to eighty piastres per quarter, which the people call kilu or kaily, equal to eight measures of Constantinople. A soft kind of wheat comes from Karamania, the flour of which is whiter, and is sold at 100 piastres the kilo, same mea- sure as barley. More than 150,000 quarters of barley are grown yearly, which barely suffice for the consumption of the country, many making bread of it when the price of wheat rises, which it invariably does toward the end of the season. The current price is from 40 to 60 piastres, same measure, weighing 130 okes. Of sesam are annually produced 15 to 20 m. kilos, of 130 okes weight, of which the current price is 200 piastres. The quantity pro- duced is yearly increasing, as people find it gives better returns than any other agricultural product, and it obtains the readiest sale, as- merchants make advances for several months to obtain it. Of linseed, about 40 m. okes are produced. I was the first person who introduced this seed on trial; but as it was sown by the farmers too late in the season, the plant was burnt up by the heat of the sun, two years successively, before it all came to maturity, and the farmers were discouraged from attending to it : price cm*rent, 40 paras or 1 piastre the oke. Of wax, scarcely more than 8 to 10 m. okes are produced; but the quality is good and the price moderate: 18 piastres the oke. I also introduced the best kind of Muscatel grapes, peaches, and 120 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNOES. apricots with a sweet kernel, and the finest cherries ; as also the tomato or love-apple, the French bean, and the artichoke, which were pre- viously unknown to the inhabitants. Generally speaking, I found the gardeners prefer not having any superior kind of produce to distinguish their gardens, because it attracts the attention of the ayans (nobles), who are then induced to visit them daily, and with their horses and servants commit depredations, for which they never think of making any remuneration to the proprietor. There are a great many magnificent mulberry-trees, which serve as trellises to support a kind of gi'ape which does not ripen till Christmas ; but very few silk-worms are brought up, becaiise the heats come on too soon, and kill the worm before it begins to spin. The people of the country wind it off with their hands, using small pebbles to prevent it entangUng, and it comes out very coarse, which they like, as they work it out in pieces for silk shirts. The sloping sides of most of the hills in the province are planted with olive-trees, which no doubt were universally cultivated by the ancients, especially between Tarsus and Sulufka, along the shore, for a distance of 120 miles in length and several miles in breadth. All these trees were in full bearing in the time that the Genoese Avere masters of the country, but having since been neglected, they are overgro-vATi with brush-wood, and in many instances lost in a forest of pines. Many old trees were also cut dowm, but new branches have sprung up from their roots, which now bear a small wild olive used by the Tiu-kmans. In some places there are as many as several thousand trees upon each acre of land, and it would be extremely easy and profitable to restore them to their pristine state ; but the want of hands is one of the many draw- backs in the East to improvement, A laboiu-er in the harvest-time is paid 25. a day, besides his food ; and people often come from Cyprus and Syria to avail themselves of such high wages for a season, returning to their homes to restore their health, which is invariably impaired by hard labour in the great heats. The Turkmans who gather the cotton take one -tenth for their trouble ; the man who separates the cotton from tlie seed takes another tenth ; the government takes also a tenth ; added to which is a very heavy duty of 27 piastres on its value, which goes under the head of customs ! The occupation which attracts more particularly the attention of Turkmans is the pasture of their cattle, inasmuch as it is the easiest kind of work. The produce of their dairy is excellent and abundant, although their animals are remarkably small, except their sheep, which are magnificent, and have extraordinary large tails, all fat, and which, CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. 121 when melted down, is used instead of butter in cooking. The wool produced yearly in this province amounts to from 600 to 1000 can tars, of 180 okes each cantar, of which one-third is white and two-thirds black or grey. The texture is fine, but it is generally very dirty, and if washed would lose forty per cent in weight. Europeans find no difficulty in buying land, as they can legally piu'chase it in the name of females, either really appearing or repre- sented by proxy, all women born in the country being regarded as Rayas in the eye of the law ; or rather I should say, that the property of the harim is considered so sacred, that any European stating that such property belonged to his wife, no questions would be asked of what nation she were, or if she even existed at all. Title-deeds thus obtained in the name of any female of the country are then made over to the purchaser, in token of a bond for a supposed debt, and this effectually secures to the European purchaser every right to the property. The land may be cultivated by taking into service farmers of the country, whom it is usual to interest by granting a quarter, or a third share, or a half, according as the case or agreement may be. On my arrival in this country, I had purchased some land advantageously situated near the sea ; and I caused it to be cultivated by the villagers whom I estabUshed on the estate; and I induced them to turn their attention principally to the produce of vegetables and fruits for the use of the shipping. I also erected in the magazine a machine for pressing wool and cotton, and I omitted nothing that could assist in facilitating commercial operations ; but the extreme apathy of the people renders it very difficult to change the course of things, or to introduce any innova- tions in the habits they have had handed down to them from their fore- fathers. In this province remarkably fine timber for building pur- poses is produced, chiefly fir. The oak is also very common near Arsus. Timber is cut of aU sizes, and exported from Alexandretta, Bayas, and Arsus to Egypt. Ibrahim Pasha used to have more than 10,000 mag- nificent trees cut every year, which he sent to Alexandria for the use of the arsenal. To the north-west of Mursina a smaller kind is cut, which serves for the building of Arab bombards in Tripoli, on the coast of Syria. The people also trade in boards, which the Turkmans bring from the mountains, and which are sawn by their women. These are sent to Syria, and cost on the average one piastre and a half per board, and are of all sizes and thickness. The smell of turpentine contained in the pine-wood is supposed to be an antidote to bugs ; in Tarsus they are seldom seen, except when imported from Cyprus, and even then 122 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. they speedily disappear, being destroyed by tlie obnoxious smell of the turpentine.* Mount Taurus presents a rich field for the researches of the mineralo- gist. Three hundred specimens of stones and minerals were collected by the mineralogists appointed to work the lead-mines by Ibrahim Pasha, some of which were very beautiful, and some very interesting. I have by me some specimens of metals which I procured at Kulak Maaden. Here I cannot do better than quote from Mr. Ainsworth's work before mentioned."}" '■'■Plain of Tarsus. — From within three miles of Adana to beyond Tarsus, in a westerly direction, the plain is composed of humus and alluvia, which have an average depth of from twenty to thirty feet, and repose upon rubbly limestone. These plains are mostly cultivated, and villages are numerous. ^'^ Falls of the Cydnus. — The country to the north of Tarsus rises gradually up towards the Alpine region of Cilician Taurus, remarkable at this point for its bold precipices and rugged grandeur of scenery. The falls of the Cydnus and the grotto of the Seven Sleepers are in an out-lying range of supra-cretaceous limestone and limestone conglomerate. " The river issues through deep ravines, with perpendicular walls of limestone, and on entering the plain falls over a ledge of rocks of lime- stone breccia, about forty feet in Avidth and eighteen in height. * The forests of the Cilician mountains consist chiefly of pines (Pinus maritinuts and IIalej)ensis) and Balanea or Valonia oaks (Quercus hallota, vegilops, and infectoria). The mountain-peaks are clad with the gloomy foliage of the cedar-Juniper (Juniperus excelsior). In the yailaks, or mountain-pastui-eSj we find thickets of dwarf hollj^-oak (Quercus cocci/era), berberry, and yellow jasmine. The low hiUs are covered -nith myrtle, arbutus. Daphne, Phlomis, Stj-rax, Cistus, and Lentisk. The Eleagnus, the oleander, the chaste-tree, and colutea, are the most conspicuous shnibs on the borders of the plains. Christ -thorn (Paliurus) aboimds in steiile places, especially in the rock of Anazarba. The waste ground is studded with bushes of juniper {Juniperus Pkcenicea), spiny bumet (Pvterium spuwsum), spiny cichory (Cichorium spiiiosiun), and Lithospermum hispidulum. On the sands of the sea-shore, the Tamarisk attains almost the port and bearing of a tree, and great bushes of trcc-spurge (Euphorbia dendroides) are mingled with more huml)le, but more gaily-flowering, j)h;enogamous plants. In the highlands of Cilicia there are plantations of walnut-trees, apples, apricots, cherry-trees, Lombardy-i)oplars, and pollard-willows. The Oriental planes are not so common or so large in Cilicia as in other parts of Asia Minor ; but the number of carob- trees in the jjliiin of Adana Ls remarkable. The dark cj-press not only adorns the cemeteries of the Mussulman, but also grows wUd in the ravines. The almond and manna-ash also grow wild among the rocks, and the bay and Judas-tree in the ravines. Mr. Barker has alluded to the fine groves of oranges, lemons, and pomegranates. The palm-tree also adorns the gardens of Adana ; and a few specimens of this tree, probably the refuse of gardens, are also met with on the shore near the Cilician and Syrian gates. W. F. A. t Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea, p. 327. GEOLOGY OF TAKSUS. 123 "First loicest range of lulls. — Proceeding to the north-east, the out- l}ing and lowest range of hills is composed of marles and gypsum in the lower beds ; and superimposed upon these are beds of brecciated rocks. The gjpsum is snow-white, granular, or lamellar. This range is divided from the second by level, low, and often marshy plains. " Second range of hills. — The upper beds are composed of coralline limestone — grey, friable, fracture uneven — almost entirely composed of stony polypiferous masses with stelliform lamellae, or waved laminar furrows. " The lower beds consist of green marles and gieenish-white calcareous marles ; the first are argillo-calcareous, earthy, friable, greenish, brownish- green, and yellow; the second are compact, even, non-fossiliferous. " This second range consists of low hills, rounded or of a conical form, frequently cultivated, vnth little wood, but often villages on the summits. " Third range of hills. — The upper beds consist of osti'acite sandstones, compact, earthy, friable, frequently divided on the surface into polygonal and rhombic masses, like a tessellated jaavement. Ostraceae (ostreas and avicul^) are very abundant. An ostrea, probably not different from ostrea gigantea, attains sometimes from a foot to eighteen inches in length. " The lower beds are composed of ferruginous sands, yellow and red, and sometimes of pink-coloured sandstones. " Beneath these are argillaceous limestones, alternating with marles (valley of Yani Kushlak) and with slaty beds (hill of village of Yuruks). " Fourth range of hills. — The upper beds consist of blue anthracitous limestones, compact, fine granular, glistening fracture, blue and dark- blue coloiu". The lower beds are white limestones, compact, fine granu- lar, or more cretaceous, with chalk fossils. Both beds appear to belong to the chalk formation. " Mica schist with limestone (CipoHn of Alex. Brongniart). — On the summit of this range, not far from an ancient Eoman arch, and by an antique causeway, a formation is met with of mica and argillo-cal- careous schist, sometimes forming a solid schistous rock. " The limestones after this begin to form a truly Alpine country, some- times towering up in lofty and perpendicular precipices upwards of 1000 feet in height ; at others forming lower and rounded hills, covered, when not lofty, with shrubbery and forest-trees, but when lofty, with oak and pine alone. Sometimes the cliffs are tomb-excavated, as at Mizar-lik ; at other times, isolated knolls of limestone bear castellated ruins. " Kulak Bughaz. — The formation downwards, from Kulak Bughaz to the plain of Adana, presents pretty nearly a similar succession of deposits as above Tarsus. 124 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. " Tertiary deposits. — At Klian Katlah Uglu, a travertine formation covers a marley and limestone deposit. " At the village of Durak, granular gypsum occurs in ferruginous sand and common clay. The sand and clay alternate beyond the sand- stones, slaty, ferruginous, coarse-grained, in thin strata, and very deter- minate rhombic cleavage. " Polypiferous or coralline limestone succeeds to the rhombic or ostracite sandstone, the Utture polypi occurring in groups, or at other times forming the whole mass of rock. The formation also contains botryoidal haematites. " The coralline limestone, or coral rag, alternates in its lower part with dark-coloured clays, which are replete with biv;dve shells belong- ing to the genera tillina and lucina. " At Khan Kusan Uglu, ferruginous sandstones and sandstone con- glomerate underlie the clays and polypiferous limestones. Below Khan Sarashi, cirithia and conide limestone succeeds to the central chalk for- mation, and between the two formations is a deposit of limestone, breccia, and argillaceous shale. " In the valley of Khan Kiisan Uglu, the conide limestone descends in precipitous cliffs to the south-east, which cliff's are deeply fissured, and wrought into fantastic forms. " To the north, the limestone is capped by ferruginous sandstones, above Avhich again are coralline limestones; while to the south, beneath the coral rag and sandstones, are sandstone conglomerates. The friable nature of the last three formations has given rise to many curious effects of denudation ; tall columns and masses, in various fantastic forms, rising up in picturesque confusion. " The chalk formation of the central chain is almost every where the same, a hax-d and compact limestone containing few organic remains, and rising up in bold precipitous rocks, Avith castles on their summits ; or sweeping circularly, as if to block up the road with their gigantic gates, called those of Taurus or Cilicia."* Mines. — Above Adana, in that part of the Taurus which is occupied by the tribe named Karasauti-Uglu, there are iron mines, which are * The formations here described evidently correspond to our Eocene formations : chalk or new Alpine limestones ; plastic clay, sandstones, with lignite ; London clay and calcaire gi-ossior ; siliceous limestones, gji^sums (in largo beds at foot of Mount Casius), and niarles. Those are the Ixjds in which large and thick oysters occur in wondrous abimdance ; some weigh at least twenty pounds. Sandstones and sands above the gypsum, fresh-water deposits, coralline rag, &c. These bods are full of organic remains, and would furnish a rich harvest to a geologist who had time and opportunity to explore the country, especially between Tarsus and Kulak liughaz, leisurely and carefully. W. F. A. REVENUE OP PASHALIK. 125 worked by the people of the cotmtry on their own account, and with very little difficulty. The quality is more esteemed than Russian iron, being softer and more malleable ; it is sold at two piastres the oke. Near Kulak Bughaz there are lead mines, which are worked for account of government. The samples I possess of this mineral in its pristine state are extremely rich. It has lately been discovered by an Italian mineralogist, M. Boriani, that together with this lead there is a good deal of silver, and he extracted a small quantity in proof thereof. The local government is not aware of this, and very possibly regular veins might be easily discovered. Towards Sis there are also many mines of great value; but the Turkmans there used to hide them, in order not to be interfered with by the local authorities.* The revenue of this pashalik exceeds 10,000,000 piastres, and is collected in the following manner : SaUyan 3,500,000 Kharaj (personal tax on Christians only) . . . . 5,000,000 Spinji (ditto ditto, 3 piastres per head) ..... 4,000 Miri of the FaUahs (AnsajTiis) 5,000 Customs (lately increased to li millions of piastres) . . 1,200,000 Monopoly of tobacco 68,000 „ „ snuff 30,000 ,, ,, spirits of wine ....... 30,000 „ ,, the manufacture of candles .... 2,000 „ ,, the biuning of coffee 3,000 „ „ auctions 17,000 „ „ salt 15,000 „ „ dues exacted at Kulak Bughaz, 5 piastres per head (tvorth much more than) . . . 70,000 „ ,, tax levied on the Turkmans that come down to the plains in the winter .... 5,000 10,024,000 The exiDenses of the Government are for the Pasha alone . 600,000 „ „ for the Muhassil . 144,000 „ „ for the Governor of Tarsus . . . 60,000 „ „ for the foui-teen mem- bers of Coimcil . 140,000 „ „ for the chiefs of the Turkmans . . 100,000 „ „ for the subalterns . 100,000 1,144.000 * At the time that the Euphi-ates Expedition was at Suwaidiyah, an Englishman arrived, who had been invited to the country by Ibrahim Pasha to work the mines of argentiferous galena, near Sis. The unfortunate man, however, soon fell a victim to the climate. W, F. A. 12G CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNOIIS. Besides, no doubt, a large sum wliich the pasha contrives to pass in his account for the maintenance of troops that never existed. The rate of twelve per cent duty to be paid to custom-houses was calculated in Constantinople on merchandise of first-rate qua- lity ; but although the produce of the provinces often only costs half the price of that quality in the capital, still the same fixed duty is exacted ; so that the merchant of the intei"ior, paying a duty calculated by the same tariff, actually pays often as high as twenty-five per cent instead of twelve per cent as intended. This has considerably retarded the activity of commercial interests and relations, as no article can pro- perly bear such a high duty. The better to illustrate this subject, I shall add a table, wherein the value of each article, and the per-centage duty to be paid is noted; and from which it will be seen how much the com- merce of these countries lies imder a disadvantage by being obliged to pay so much per cent duty more than what merchants in Constantinople pay. This was a mistake of such as had the establishing of the rates of the tariff, and who fixed each quota according to what the article was worth in their market, and not by an average value of the whole, which would have facilitated commercial operations. It is impossible to impress the people of the East with a conviction of the salutary effects of a quarantine establishment : they cannot divest themselves of the idea that it is only a pretext of the government to enable it to pry into private relations and interfere with the personal liberty of the subject, at the same time that it is another excuse for raising money. They are the more readily led to this conclusion by the shameless conduct of the employes, who exact all manner of presents to exempt the donors from vai'ious kinds of restraint, such as being con- fined in the most JUthy holes, and to be eaten up by vermin of all sorts. When a man desires to perform the spoglio (which is done by passing through water and putting on uncontaminated clothes), he gives secretly a suit of clothes to the chief " guardian.'''' The next morning this man brings the bundle, and cries out, " Mr. A. or B., your friend sends you this packet of clothes : come and perform the spor/lio." Generally speak- ing, an oke or two of every article that enters the quarantine maga- zine is abstracted, and the merchants in vain call for redress. I have seen notes made out by the merchants wherein their sacks of soap, coffee, &c., had been specified as found wanting ten per cent in the weight by going through the hands of the quarantine ; and when bales of goods are opened, generally a piece or two of stufis disappear. One of the magazines built at Mursina serves for a quarantine es- tablishment, although in the centre of the place. But the pilgrims com- QUAEANTINE LAWS. 127 ing overland, are obliged to perform quarantine in tents at Adana, exposed to all the inconveniences of the weather; but to that they are accustomed. If two persons present themselves at the gate of Adana, the one with a teskere or passport from Aleppo, and the other from Alexandretta or Bayas, as an inhabitant of the latter places, the former is put in quar- antine for fifteen days, while the latter is admitted to free " pratique," although they have been journeying on together for the last three or four days, and been in constant communication. What are the people of the country to think of such a quarantine ? 128 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. CHAPTER XIII. IL L.UIAS (lAMUM)— KURKASS (CORYCUs) ASKI SHAHIR SOLI, AFTERWAEDS POMPEIOPOLIS GREAT MAUSOLEUM AT TARSUS STRABO's DESCRIPTION OF THE COAST OF CILICIA HIS ACCOUNT OF TARSUS AND NEIGHBOURING TOWNS. Antiquities. — As this province was on the high road between the great contending powers of ancient times, the Greek, Eoman, and Persian empires, it has passed and repassed into many hands ; and this may account for the very few perfect remains of art which are to be met with, the country having suffered greatly by the inroads of troops with almost every successive genera '-on. There are several castles built on eminences by the Persians, Sara- cens, Crusaders, and Genoese; but although the Turkmans continued for some time to make use of them, they have gradually fallen into ruin, as doubtless the jealousy of the Porte does not care to alloAv such faciUties of defence to exist among people always disposed to rebel. Il Lamas. — At II Lamas there is an aqueduct of some extent, which conveyed water from a distance of eight or ten miles through hills and across valleys to Kurkass Castle, which is on the coast between Selef- keh and Mursina. This castle is built on a rock in the sea, and is of a very ordinary style of architecture, as are all the ruins that are to be seen on the coast. The aqueduct is now dry, and in some places im- passable, as the damp of the moimtain above oozes, and forms, drop by drop, as it were, icicles of ])ctrified water (travertine). The waters that formerly ran through it are now lost in a little stream wliich runs into the sea at a short distance from their source, where Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort's boat took in water. Near the entrance of the aqueduct are still to be seen the remains of a Saracenic tower, which no doubt was built to defend it from invasions of pirates. Above the aqueduct at II Lamas, and at a distance of three miles inland, a rocky mountain rises perpendicularly to the height of about 3000 feet. In the centre of this precipice, half-way up, may be observed, out of the reach of man, two cannons in bronze, that sparkle in the KALAHT KURKASS. 129 morning sun, deriding for centuries past the vain efforts of the Turks to bring them down ; and the marks of many bullets may be seen, fired at them by Arnaut troops as they have passed the spot. They are in a port-hole, as it were, the one almost erect, but in an oblique position, and the other protruding horizontally. They appear to be about sixteen feet long; the bore, perhaps, a foot in diameter. They were probably placed there to defend the aqueduct; and it is very likely that there is behind them an excavation in the mountain th served for military stores. A part of the mountain having fallen do'w^n, the ancient roa,d to them is thus cut off, and they have remained isolated and inacces- sible to any one using ordinary means. A road might be cut to them with very little expense, or a person might be let down from above ; but the latter would be a dangerous experiment, as the rock projects above, and ifr would be requisite to swing the rope backwards and forwards till the person hanging at the end could catch at the port hole and enter. This place unfortunately was not visited by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort, otherwise the jolly tars of old England would certainly have I -ought them down. Strabo says of Coracesium (prest c Kalaht Kurkass), that it is situated on a rock close to a small bay, which forms a small harbour for boats of the country, having an entrance on each side of the castle ; and he adds, that Diodorus, surnamed Tryphon, made use of it as a place of defence, and a depository for arms, when he detached Syi'ia from the power of the Selevicians. He was so formidable as to pretend to the throne of Syria, and maintained himself with various success, drawing his resources from Apamea and its surrounding towns, such as Larissa Cassiana (his native place), Megorus and ApoUonia, until Antio- chus, son. of Demetrius, compelled him to take refuge in a fort, where he killed himself* It was this same Tryphon who first gave the Cili- cians the idea of organising a company of pirates, in order to take ad- vantage of the weakness of the different princes who reigned in succession at this epoch over Syria and Cilicia ; being the first to rebel, and with so much success, that others followed his example. As to the ruling princes, says Strabo, " we may remark, that discord having broken up the union in which brothers ought to have lived, placed the country at the mercy of any one who chose to attack it." But what principally encouraged crime and plunder, were the great profits that accrued in the sale of persons reduced to slavery. Independently of the facility of making slaves, the robbers had the advantage ofbeing near a place of * Vide Appian de rebus SjTiae, cap. 67, C8, and Justin, lib xsxvi. cap. 1. K 130 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNORS. commerce of some importance, viz. tlie island of Delos, Avhicli was rich enough to receive and send off to various places several thousand slaves per day; and this had suggested the proverb, "Merchants anchor and discharge, for all is ab'eady sold," referring to the facility of meeting with a good market in this island. The Eomans also contributed to these lawless deeds by the encouragement they gave in the purchase of slaves, who had become a matter of necessity to them; the destruc- tion of Carthage and Corinth having rendered them so rich, that they accustomed themselves to be served by a great number of slaves ; and the pirates profiting by this opportunity of administering to their luxury, wandered boldly forth to pillage and seize all whom they met. The kings of Cyprus and Egypt also contributed to the encoiu'age- ment of these pii-ates, by reason of the hatred they had of the Syrian princes; and the inhabitants of Ehodes, a maritime power that could have suppressed these lawless brigands, being jealous of the Syrians, did not choose to come to their assistance. Add to this, that the Romans at this time did not care much for the coimtries on the other side of the Taurus. It is true that Scipio ^mihus, and after him other oificers were sent to visit these countries ; and they soon discovered that the cause of these robberies j)roceeded from the cowardice of the successors of Seleucus Nicator ; but they did not choose to interfere with them, or deprive them of a government which they had themselves guaranteed to the family of this prince. The weakness of these kings, says Strabo, was the cause that Syria fell under the domination of the Parthians, who became masters of the country beyond the Euphrates, and after them the Armenians pushed their conquest beyond the Taurus as far as Phoe- nicia, exterminated the kings and their race, and left the sea open to the depredations of the Cilicians. The Romans, who had not at jlrst taken energetic measures to stop the progress of the Cilicians in their lawless conduct, Avere obliged to have recourse to armies of considerable force, in order to destroy the power of the pirates. But Strabo excuses the Eomans by saying, that they had at home so many things of greater interest to look to, that it is not to be wondered at if they neglected what was passing at a distance from the metropolis. PoMPEiOPOLis* (Sou). — On the coast, five miles to the westward of Mursina, are the ruins of Pompeiopolis. They are in a dehghtful situa- * See Dr. Holt Yates's description and plan of the ancient ruins, from Captain FiTssick's report, which will illastrate my remarks ; Modern History and Condition of Eijy2>t, Ax. (.Smith aud Ehlcr). Wo have already quoted Aduiind Sir Francis Beau- fort's admirable account of these ruins fi-om hia Karamania, pp. 249, 259 et seq. RUINS OF rOMTEIOPOLIS. 131 tion, but at present deserted. Here aad there a little plot of ground is cultivated; the rest is overgrown with pines and brushwood. The only public buildings that can be distinguished out of such a heap of ruins are, 1st, the ^^lace of the amphitheatre, which was built of white marble, and had at the top all round a cornice with wreaths in alto rehevo, between each of which was sculptured a tragic mask. In this place was found the centre part of a Venus of full size, in white marble. 2dly, Some hundred columns, forty- two of which are still standing: they are composed of several pieces, and are about thirty feet high. Their capital above is ornamented with sculptured heads of Venus, Hercules, &c. There are six fluted columns, which stand out beyond the others. The whole are of very inferior work and taste. It is sup- posed that these columns served for an aqueduct, because it is difficult to explain exactly for what other object they were erected. Sir Francis Beaufort states that possibly the whole colonnade was once a covered street. The people of the country call Pompeiopolis Asld Shahiv, "the old town:" Mazatli is a village higher up inland. There is a tradition that Soli was built by " Hahniin" a Jew, who erected for his daughter " HincV a castle two miles above the town, which is still standing on the banks of the river, but in ruins, and appears to be of Saracenic origin. 3dly, and that which attracts the attention of the antiquary above all other remains, are some tombs which have certainly a very ancient origin. One that is out of the town to the eastward, near the river, in a field, has been opened. It contained two large sarcophagi, more than twelve feet long; one is overturned, and the other still in its place. They are of marble, without any ornament, not having been SARCOFHAGUS AT SELEUCIA riERLV, OPENED BY ME, W. B, BARKER. intended to be seen, but to be completely buried in the masonry. They have been originally covered all over by a composition formed of pebbles, sand, quick-lime, and pieces of brick, which has become petri- fied. Some inquisitive persons have succeeded in detaching this com- 132 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. position from the sarcophagi Avhen opening the tomb, and they are now quite empty.* Another tomb, Avhich has not been opened, lies in the town to the west of the amphitheatre towards the sea, and is overgrown with brush- wood. It appears to be eight times the size of the last described. The French consul some years back tried to force it open; but although he cut the monument nearly half through at the centre, as he did not hap- pen to light upon either of the sarcophagi, they have remained enveloped in their pristine mass of mortar. Judging from what we see here, I conclude that the great monument at Tarsus, which so highly deserves the antiquary's attention, and which has frustrated every historical inquiry as to its origin, contains similar sarcophagi. It is of the setwoen each layer of the stone masonry built in the sarcophagus. On one were the remains of a Greek inscription quite illegible. See the sarcophagus in the preceding page, as well as the one in page 35. ANCIENT TOMB. 133 have been placed against it to form shelter for some Turkish cavalry in modern times. The whole of what is now standing is, as it were, only the interior of a wall, the facing, composed of large fine marble stones WALL UNFINLSIIED. " I WALL 30 FT HIGH 22 BROAD L WALL 30 FT HIGH 22 BROAD j 1 L _... rrv \r ■ ; A I j 1 GKOUND-PLAN OF THE GREAT MAUSOLEUM AT TARSUS. has all been taken away and used elsewhere. I imagine that these walls also contain sarcophagi of some branch of the family of an ancient king, and that they were laid in the walls and filled up and covered with the mortar as the persons died ; for the last wall to the north has remained 134 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNORS. unfimsliecl for want of teuants. In the centre tliere was space reserved, as it is said, for Sardanapahis himself, who, however, could not have required this mausoleum, having destroyed himself by fire in his palace at Ninus. Some assert that he was buried in a similar monument at Auchiale on the coast, and that, in conformity to his desire, an inscrip- tion was erected over it commemorating his having built Tarsus and Anchiale in one day, as a trophy of his greatness and power. Wliere Anchiale stood, there are now the remains of such a monument ; but it is insignificant compared Avith this one. IMany vain attempts have been made to ojjen this monument ; and it remains a question worthy the attention of antiquaries, inasmtich as it has hitherto frustrated the in- vestigation of the learned ; and all hypotheses formed upon its pristine object and the date of its construction are as vague as any proposed concerning the pyramids.* Strabo, remarking upon this portion of the coast, says, that Cape Anamour (Anemurium) is the nearest point of the land to Cyprus, being 350 stadia ; and he calls the distance from the frontiers of Pamphilia to this cape 820 stadia along the coast of Cilicia. " The rest of the coast, of aboirt 500 stadia, terminates at Soli." Strabo further observes, that some persons considered Cilicia to begin at Celenderis (Kihndriya), and not at Coracesium (Kurkass); but this is no doubt in reference to those who divide Cilicia into two, Campestris and Trachea; Celenderis belonging to the latter, and Kurkass to the former. Strabo mentions two philosophers among the illustrious men bom in Seleucia, Athena^us and Xenarchus. The former, he says, was friend of INIurcia, who had revolted against Augustus, and fell into disgrace, having been taken prisoner Avith his friend; but having proved his innocence, was set at liberty by order of this prince. On his return to Eome, being cross-questioned by some persons who met him, he replied, desirous of avoiding any political discussions, " I liave just * The people of the country call it Dunce Dash — Pierre renversee — and foolishly imagine that it is a temple tnmcd upside down, with its foimdations upwards ! W.B.B. Wo have seen in a note upon Selin\is, afterwards Trajanopolis, that Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort identified a low massy edifice of seventy feet by fifty, composed of large well-cut blocks of stone, and containing a single vaidt, with the tomb or mauso- leum of Trajan. Mr. Barker describes similar remains at Soli or PompciopoHs. These appear to be the massive mausolea in which the sarcoph.agi of the great were imbedded before and at the early part of the Christian era. May not the great mausoleum at Tarsus be the tomb of Julian, with which others have been afterwards connected? A mausoleum of similar characters, but of later date, has been joined to that of Trajan, on one side of which is a sepulchral inscription to Chrcstion, the son of Rhacstus. The existence of more than one mausoleum within the precincts of Julian's tomb would not thusniilitate against the validity of the identification. W. F. A, MOUNTAINS AND FORTIFICATIONS. 135 left the residence of the dead, and been freed from the gates of the lower regions." He was killed by the fall, during the night, of a house which he inhabited. Xenarchus passed his life chiefly in Alexandria and Athens, and the latter part in Eome. He enjoyed the friendship of Areus,* and afterwards the good will of Augustus ; and was much respected to the last, dying in an advanced age, after having lost the use of his sight. Strabo does not omit to say that he had been one of his disciples, " and folloxoed his lessons." Strabo says that at the extremity of the Taurus ridge, high up, was ]\Iount Olympus, called, no doubt, after the Olympus of classical celebrity, whereon was a castle of the same name, and from whence you might see Lycia, Pamphilia, and Pisidia, and which served as the stronghold of the pirate Zenicetus. This must be a way of speaking allegorically to express the great height of the Taurus near the sea at this place ; for Strabo could not, had he ever been there, make this assertion, as the mountains to the north of Sulufska, and which run along the coast, intervene between the eye and Lycia. The ridge is here sufficiently high to see therefrom the island of Cyprus, or some sixty miles off; but it cannot overtop the mountains that intervene between it and Lycia. This country was much fortified, as may be seen by the many remains of old castles all along the coast, many of which have been repaired by the Genoese, and adapted to resist the attacks of modern warfare. Strabo says, that the Romans considered it too unsettled and too much exposed to be attacked both by sea and land, to undertake to govern it themselves by means of officers or proconsuls, and that they preferred it should be governed by kings, who might be always present to suppress any insurrection or incursion of pirates ; and they " gave Cilicia Trachea to Archelaus, who already possessed Cappadocia." The pirate Zenicetus, Strabo tells us, burnt himself and his whole family in his castle, when Publius Servilius, surnamed Isauricus, became master of the mountain. He was at the time also " master of the Cape Corycus, and of the town of Phaselis and other places in Pamphilia, which were all taken by the general previous to Pompey's occupation of the country" (year of Rome 674, c. 679). j" Next to Lamus (the present Illamus) comes Soli, whence begins Cilicia Proper (Campestris). It was founded by the Acheans and the people of Rhodes, from the town of Lindus; and when Pompey subdued the pirates, as the number of inhabitants was much reduced, he established therein such of those whom he had conquered as he * See Plutarch in Anton. § 81. t Vide Eutrop. lib. vi. cap. 3, 136 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. deemed worthy of pardon, and changed the name of the town, calling it Pompeiopolis, after himself. The illustrious men of Soli enumerated by Strabo are, Chrysippiis, a Stoic philosopher, son of an inhabitant of Tarsus who had settled in Soli; Philemon, a comic poet, and Aratus, author of a poem entitled The Phenomena. There were two capes that bore the name of Zephyiimn, one near the Calycadnus river of Sulufska, and the other in sight of Anchiale. Near this latter is the present village of Mursina ; at its extremity are the ruins of an ancient building, which the people of the country have dubbed with the title of Church of St, George ; and the Christians repair thither once a-y«ar and pay their devotions under a large tree, which they have consecrated in their minds. The whole of the hill at this cape was covered with the foundations of ancient buildings, most of which I caused to be excavated, to build therewith a large maga- zine and house, which commands the finest prospect on the coast, and are both a kind of landmark to vessels approaching the roadstead of Mursina. The people of the country not being allowed the use of bells, which only Europeans may have or ring, there being a IMahomedan prejudice against them, arising from a notion that the idol worship of Baal is attached to them, I recollect one day being specially requested to allow my dinner-bell (which was a large ship's bell) to be sounded in order to inspire extra devotional feelings in those Avho had assembled near my house to pay their devotions to St. George on the day set apart for that saint according to the Armenian calculation. At Anchiale (the present Karadnjar), says Strabo, citing Aristo- bulus, was the tomb of Sardanapalus, and a statue of stone representing him snapping his fingers, with this inscription below it: " Sardanapalus, the son of Anacyndaraxes, caused the town of Anchiale to be built in one day, and also that of Tarsus. Passer-by, cat, drink, and divert thyself; for every thing else is not worth tJiat" (meaning a snap of the fingers). The poet Chajribus mentions also this inscription, which is no longer in existence. But there is an old ruin, the mortar of which is petiifwid, and which may stand for the supposed tomb above mentioned. To the north of Anchiale was a fort, called by Strabo Cymda, where he says that " the kings of Macedonia deposited their treasure,* and which Eumenes carried off when he rebelled against Antigonus." Forming a triangle with this fort and Soli, at the foot of the Taurus * Strabo, it appears, IcMiked iii')on the fjenorals of Alexander of Macedon as Mace- donians, and therefore gives to Antigouus thus UtlOj although he was master chiefly of Asia Minor as far as Syria, RIVER CYDXUS AND LAKE RHEGMA. 137 was Olhus. This town had a temple to Jupiter, founded by Ajax, son of Teuca; and the priests of this temple, says Strabo, were formerly masters of Cilicia Trachea, which is very expressive of the influence of the priests in those times, considering the difficulties of the road, and the distance from their temple into another province so much separated by nature as Cilicia Trachea and Campestris. Later, continues Strabo, the country was taken possession of by marauders, and converted into a stronghold for brigands. When they were destroyed, " which took place in oiu' time," this province took the title of Principality of Teucer, and even " Priesthood of Teucer ;" and the greater part of the priests of the temple bore the name of Teucer or Ajax. " Alba, daughter of Zeuophanus, having married one of the Teucer family, took possession of this province, which had been under the regency of her father. She was confirmed in her ride by Antony and Cleopatra ; but aiterwards, at a later period, she was dethroned, and the government restored to the family." "Next to Anchiale," says Strabo, "is the mouth of the Cydnus, at the place called Rhegma, which is a lake, and where you may still see the remains of stocks for building of ships. Into this lake the Cydnus falls." The river at present circumvents the lake, which is a marsh of about thirty miles in circumference. The modern Tarsus is watered by a canal from the Cydnus, and this, after passing through the town, used to fliU into the marshes; but the Mufti, at my suggestion, caused a road to be cut for it to return into the river, in hopes that the waters of the marsh would diminish, and, in case there was no spring in the lake, that it might eventually be dried up, which would make the resi- dence much more salubrious. At present, the exhalations from the marsh, which are blown over the town by the sea-breeze, render the place most unhealthy; and the fevers that are engendered thereby are of the most pernicious kind, often carrying off the persons attacked by them in three days. As I have observed in another part of this work, the lake had been at one time drained, and the remains of a canal to carry off' the waters and turn them into the C}diuis may be seen close along the shore at the mouth of the river. I also believe that this lake was once a port, and communicated with the sea through a passage which is now but slightly blocked up by the sand. Strabo confirms this idea by adding: " This river has its source in that part of the Taurus which is above Tarsus, and it traverses this town (the ancient Tarsus, on part of which only the present town stands) belbre reaching the lake ; so that this lattei" serves as a port to the town" 138 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. Strabo tells lis that " Tarsus was founded by Trijotolemtis (a priest of Argos) in his search after lo;" and there were at Tarsus and An- tioch monuments to prove that lo had been in their neighbourlaood, and that they were colonies of Argos.* Strabo further says, that as the sources of the Cydnus are not far from the town Avhich it traverses, directly after leaving a deep valley, its waters are cold, and the current strong. " These," he adds, " are considered good for persons or animals suffering from sprains or in- flamed limbs ;" as if the good effects of the cold water, which we fancy to be a discovery of modern times, were known and had recoiu'se to in his time. Strabo proceeds to say, that the inhabitants of Tarsus had distin- guished themselves so much by their application to philosophy and literature, that this city in that point surpassed Athens, Alexandria, or even any other town where schools and colleges Avere to be met with directed by philosophers and learned men. " The only difference is, that at Tarsus those who apply themselves to literature are all Tarsiots, and that it is visited by few strangers ; even those who are born there do not remain in this town, but leave it to go and perfect themselves elsewhere ; and they remain away from home ■willingly, except a small number, who return to their country. This is quite the contrary in the other to\vns that I have referred to above (except Alexandria): many strangers go there to study, and fix themselves in them, whilst few of their inhabitants leave their town out of love of science, or seek to instruct themselves at home — two things that take place in Alexandria, whose inhabitants receive many strangers in their schools, and send a great many of their young men to the schools of other towns." — " Tarsus possesses schools for every kind of instniction. It is furthermore populous and poAverful, and must be regarded as a capital." Of the illustrious men whom this city has produced, Strabo men- tions Antipater, Archimedes, and Nestor, Stoic philosophers, and the two Athenodori. Antipater was disciple and successor of Diogenes, the Babylonian (not the cynic of Sinopi, but the disciple of Chrysippus), about 80 B.C. according to Lempriere; but Smith places him 144 B.C. Feeling his deficiency in the powers of disputing verbally with his opponent and contemporary, Carncades, he confined himself to writing, whence he was called KnJamohoas. Cicero praises his acuteness, and Plutarch speaks of him with Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus, as one of the principal Stoic philosophers. * Vide Smith's Die. of Greek and Rom. Biog. and Mv-th. STOIC PHILOSOPHEES. 139 I find no partlcvrlar mention of Arcliimedes and Nestor in Smith's Biography ; but of the Athenodori we find that the first was called Cananites, from a town in Cilicia, although he Avas a native of Tarsus ; and Cicero calls him Athenodorus Cahiis. He was in great favour with Augustus, whose government became milder in consequence of his attending to his advice, and the young Claudius was instructed by him. He retired to Tarsus, where he died at the age of 82, much beloved and respected in his own native city, of which he has written an account, as well as other works.* The other Athenodorus, surnamed Cordylia, was also a native of Tarsus, and a Stoic philosopher. He was keeper of the library at Pergamus ; and in his anxiety to preserve the docti'ines of his sect in their original piu'ity, used to cut out from the works of the Stoic writers such parts as appeared to him erroneous or inconsistent. He removed from Pei'gamus to Rome, and lived with M. Cato, at whose house he died.f Strabo enters into a long account of the first-mentioned Atheno- dorus, how, on his return to Tarsus, finding Boethus and his faction intractable, he availed himself of the power confided to him by Augustus, and banished them. This same Boethus, Strabo tells us, was as bad a citizen as a poet, and maintained himself in power over his fellow townsmen by flattering Antony, Avhom he compared to Achilles, Aga- memnon, and Ulysses, in his verses, which he had the impudence to insinuate were like those of Homer. " These philosophers," says Strabo, " whom I have mentioned, were Stoics ; but the sect of the Academicians has furnished us in our days with one other distinguished man, Nestor, who was preceptor to Mar- cellus, son of Octavia, sister of Augustus. This philosopher Avas at the head of affairs in Cilicia, after Athenodorus, whom he succeeded, and he enjoyed to the end of his days the esteem of the governors (sent from Eome) and that of his fellow-coimtrymen." As to the other philosophers " icJwm I hioio and specify by their names,'''' says Strabo, quoting this line of Homer, " there are two, Plu- tiades and Diogenes, both among those who pass from city to city, to shine in society by making their talents api:)reciated. Diogenes pos- sessed, moreover, the power of improvising, like a man inspired, on all kinds of subjects — poems, for the greater part, of a tragic turn. "J This Diogenes mentioned here is not, I should suppose, the Diogenes Laertius, the historian of philosophers, although it is remarkable that * Vide Hoffman Dissert, de Atben. Tarsensi, Lips. 1732 ; Sevin, in the Memoires de I'Acad. des Inscr. xix. 14. f Vide Smith's Myth. J Vide Laertius, lib. iv. sigm. 58. 140 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS. he is also one of the celebrated men of whom Cilicia can boast, aa he received his surname from being a native of the town of Laerte in Cihcia. Of Plutiades I found no mention elsewhere, except that Smith seems 1,0 think him to be the same as Plution, who was a celebrated teacher of rhetoric; and Westerman places him in the period between Augustus and Hadrian. " The grammarians that came from Tarsus," says Strabo, " are Artemidorus and Diodorus. This town also produced Dionysides, an excellent tragic poet, and one of the seven who composed what is called the Pleiad." This Artemidorus is svipposed to be the same as the gram- marian of that name surnamed Aristophanius, from his being a disciple of the celebrated grammarian Aristophanes of Byzantium, at Alex- andria, who had also another disciple named Diodorus^ and who may be, perhaps, the person above referred to by Strabo. There was in the time of the Emperor Valens a person of this name, who was appointed Bishop of Tarsus (a.d. 378) by IVIelitus, the Bishop of Antioch. Diodorus attended the Council of Constantinople (a.d. 381), at which the general superintendence of the Eastern churches was eu- ti-usted to him and Pelagius of L. odiceia. Of Dionysides nothing i'urther is known than what Strabo says above, that he was one of the best of the composeis of the Tnujk Pleiad of the Alexandrian grammarians, and I'egarding whom historians are not so well agreed as regarding their number. Hephajstion the scholiast makes them contemporary with Ptolemy Philadelphus, and calls them Homer (not the author of the Iliad), Sositheus, Lycophron, Alexander (cited by Sti'abo in more places than one), OEantides, Sosiphanes, and Philiscus. Others place Aratus, Apollonius, Nicander, and Theocritus at the head of the list, although none of these poets wrote any tragedies. " It is particularly in Rome," continues Strabo, " that we may procure information regarding the great number of men of letters pro- duced by Tarsus ; ibr it is full of learned men from that city, as well as from Alexandria. But" he concludes, " this is enough regarding Tarsus." From this Strabo passes on to the Pyramiis, which, he says, comes from Cataouia, and he refers to his account of this river, where he de- scribes the country whence it takes its rise, alluding at the same time to the deposits of mud which this stream makes, and which, he says, gave rise to an oracle, which declared " that the time would come when posterity would see the Pyrannis reach the island of Cyi)rus, by means of its deposits on the continent ;" and, indeed, the sea is rather shallow FABLES MENTIONED BY STRABO. 141 at the month of the Pyrumiis: when the drag-nets are thrown, the men have to wade in the water fur a quarter of a mile, as ropes of a general length are too short to reach the shore ; and what is remarkable is, that such is the abundance of turtle on this coast, that they fill the sack of the net, and have to be extracted therefrom three times before the net can reach the shore, by which time, however, it is generally found abundantly provided with fish. The mention of the mouth of the Pyramus naturally leads Strabo to notice Mallos, now a little ruin, and which, he tells us, was fovmded by Amphilochus and Mopsus. The latter, however, remaining master of the place on Amphilocus's voyage to Argos, refused to admit him to share in his authority on his return; on which a mortal combat ensued, whereni both perished; and they were buried at a distance from each other, so that the tomb of the one could not be discerned from that of the other, " in order that their enmity should cease after death." Strabo also mentions two fables regarding the death of Calchas, the greatest of the Grtcian soothsajers at Troy. "Hesiod," says he, "ar- ranges this fable in the following manner. Calchas proposed to Mopsus this enigma: 'I am astonished at the quantity of fi'gs on this wild fig- tree; could you guess the number of them?' Mopsus replied, 'There are ten thousand of them, Avhich make a medim measure, and there remains one over; and this you are not capable of understanding.' Thus spoke Mopsus ; and the measure having been found complete (or cor- rect), the sleep of death closed the eyes of Calchas. " But," continues Strabo "according to Pherecydes, the subject of the enigma was a sow with young. Calchas asked Mopsus how many pigs it bore. Mopsus replied three, and one of which a female. Cal- chas, finding Mopsus righf, died of grief Others say that he proposed the enigma of the sow. and that Mopsus in his turn proposed that of the fig-tree; and that Calchas, not having been able to guess rightly, died of vexation, as it had been j^redicted to him by an oracle. So- phocles, in his ' Vindication of Helen,' says that the oracle had de- clared to Calchas that he was destined to die as soon as he met with a soothsayer cleverer than him. This same poet places this dispute and death of Calchas in Cilicia. But this is enough," says Strabo, " of these ancient fables." " Mallos" (or Mallus), says Strabo, " was the birth-place of the grammarian Crates, of whom Pano3tius tells us he was a disciple." This Crates was son of Simocrates, and lived in the reign of Ptolemy Philo- meter, and was contemporary with Aristarchus. This would give us some clue to the epoch iu which his disciple Uved, and regarding whom 142 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERXORS. there is some iinccrtainty as to the year of his birth or death.* Crates was brought up at Tarsus, and afterwards removed to Pergamus, where he founded a school about the year 157 B.C. He was sent by Attakis ambassador to Rome, where, having by accident broken his leg, he was compelled to lead a sedentary life, and this eiiabled him to find time to hold frequent grammatical lectures. This, says our historian, is all that is known of the life of Crates. "We are told by Strabo that, whilst Philotas conducted the cavalry of Alexander through the Aleian plains — taking, no doubt, the route which is the high road of the present day through Adana and Missis — the latter conducted the infantry from Soli along the coast to Issus. He must, of course, have passed by Mallos; and Strabo says that it was reported that Alexander offered libations on the tomb of Amphilochus, in consideration of theu' common origin from the city of Argos.-j- After mentioning different places on the coast, such as ^geus (Ayas), the Pylaj Amanidte, Issus, Rhosus (Arsus), and the Pyla3 Syrite, he says that the first Syrian town on leaving the latter is Seleucia Pieria, the Suedia described in this work, " near which the Orontes river dis- charges its waters. From this to^\^l to Soli the navigation in a straight line is about 1000 stadia."J He then concludes with the foUoAvirig passage regarding the origin of the Cilicians : " As the CiHcians of Troy whom Homer mentions § are very far from the CiHcians of Mount Taurus, some people pretend that the latter issued from the first ; and they shew places bearing the same name as tliose of Trojan Cilicia, such as Thebes and Lernassus in PamphiUa. Others, on the contrary, consider the Cihciaus of Troy to be descended from those beyond the Taurus, and equally point out among them a plain which is called Aleium (after that in which is Tarsus)." • Vide Smith's Myth. + Vide Arrian de Exped. Alexand. lib. ii. cap. 5. J I have crossed it by a sixteen hours' sail in an open boat. § Iliad, lib. vi. vers. 395-397. — H^^>|>3ii&l^<=CN— LARES AND PENATES; HOUSEHOLD GODS OF CILICIA. LARES AND PENATES. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. Lares and Penates were the names of the household gods of the an- cients. Many derivations have been found for both : the Lares from their descent from Lara; but the most likely is that given by Apuleiiis (De Deo Socrcdis), from ^ar, familiaris. The Penates appear to be essen- tially of Eastern origin, and the etymology of the word, it has been said, must be sought in the Phrygian ; although Cicero and others have given it a Latin origin, quod penitus insident, or again, quia coluntur in penetralihus^ " because they are worshipped in the innermost recesses of the house." A mythology or pantheism of this kind dates from the most remote antiquity ; it is probably one of the first soothing fictions by which the great Deity was brought into immediate contact with persons and actions. The Egyptians had their four gods, for example, who presided over the birth of children — Genius, Fortune, Love, and Necessity. These were subsequently called Pr^stites, li" Quod praestaut oculis omnia tiita sxiis" — OviD. Fast; and were supposed to take care of particular houses and families. "We trace the same faith lingering in poetic rather than admitted notions of angehc and saintly interference in our own times. The Penates were divinities, or household gods, who were believed to be the creators or dispensers of all the well-being and gifts of for- tune enjoyed by a family, as well as an entire community. It is not clear whether all or which of the gods were venerated as Penates ; for L 14G LARES AND PENATES. many are mentioned of botli sexes, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Vesta, Nep- tune, Apollo, &c. ; but every family worshipped one or more of these, whose images were kept in the inner part of the house, the tablinwn, situated beyond the atrium. They are represented in various ways on coins and medals. Mr. Rich gives an example in his Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary/ and Greek Lexicon, from the Vatican Virgil, in which they appear as old men, with their heads veiled like priests officiating at a sacrifice. The occurrence of such an illustra- tion would tend to throw some light on the bearded and hooded figures met with in the Tarsus collection, and the origin of which will be after- wards discussed under various points of view. The Lares, as tutelary spirits, were also sometimes confounded with the souls of deceased persons. Thus Apuleius tells us that the private or domestic Lares were no more than the souls of departed persons who had lived well and discharged the duties of their station ; whereas those who had done otherwise were A^agabond, wandering about and frightening people under the name of Larvte and Lemures. The Lares were supposed to exercise a protecting influence over the interior of every man's household, himself, his family, and property ; and yet they were not regarded as divinities like the Penates, but simply as guardian spirits, whose place was the chimney-piece, and whose altar was the domestic hearth (focus) in the atriiun, and where each individual made offerings of incense to them in his own home. Many illustrations ol' these descriptions of private or domestic Lares occur in the Tarsus col- lection. According to Ovid there were but two Lares; and these, like the Penates, were worshipped in the form of little figures or images of wax, earthenware, or term cotta, and of metal, more especially silver. They were dressed in short habits, to shew their readiness to serve, and they held a sort of cornucopia} in their hands, as the emblem of hosjiitality and good house-keeping. Rich says they are constantly represented in works of art as yoimg men crowned with a chaplet of laurel leaves, in a short tunic,* and holding up a drinking-horn (corny, not the cornv- copia;,) above their heads ; and he gives an example from a bas-relief in the Vatican, under which is the inscription, " Laribus Augustis."-j- Exampks are met with in the Tarsus collection. • Succinctis Laribus. Pers. v. 31. + The Lares were also represejited as yoiuig boj's, with dog-skins about tb( ir sbouldcrs, aud with their lieads covered, which was a sign of that freedom and libuil \ wliich men ought to enjoy in their own houses; their symbol was a dog, todencii their fidelity, and the service that annual docs to man in i)resor\iug and watching o\ < r DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LARES. 147 The accessory of the drinking-horn h;is induced many antiquaries to take these figures for cup-bearers (pocillatores) ; but the inscription just mentioned is sufficient evidence of their real character, and they are repeatedly seen on the walls of the Pompeian houses, in kitchens, bakehouses, and over street-doors, standing in pairs, one on each side of an altar, in the same attitude and drapery. Great houses and per- sons of wealth had their Lararia, a sort of shrine, small chapel, or apart- ment, where the statues of the Lares, as well as of other sanctified or deified personages, were placed and worshipped.* Tatius, king of the Sabines, is said to have built a temple to the Lares. Plutarch distinguishes the Lares, like the Genii, into good and evil ; and there were also public and private Lares. The public Lares were sometimes called Compitalis, from compitum, a cross-way ; and Viales, from via, a way, or public road, as being placed at the intersection of roads and in the highways, and esteemed the patrons and protectors of tra- vellers. The Romans also gave the name Urbani, that is, Lares of the cities, to those who had cities under their care ; and Hostilii, to those who were to keep off their enemies. There were also Lares of the country, called Ewales, as appears from several ancient inscriptions ; and also Lares called Permarini, who, it is probable, were the Lares of ships ; nor is it unreasonable to suppose that these floating houses should have their tutelar deities as well as others. They had even their grunt- ing Lares ; the Lares called Grundiles having, according to tradition, been instituted by Romulus, in honour of a sow that brought forth at one time thirty pigs. The name Grundiles was given to them a gTun- nitu, from grunting. When the Roman youths laid aside the bull (a golden ornament shaped hke a heart, but hollow, which they constantly wore till foui'- teen years of age), they consecrated or hung it up to the Lares. Slaves likewise, when they obtained their freedom, hung up their chains to these deities. The Romans at first offered young people in sacrifice both to the the places allotted to their charge, on which account the clog was particularly conse- crated to them. The number of heads, and other portions of " deified boys," in the Tarsus collection, is quite remarkable, and would tend to shew that the intention of these figures was the same in Cicilia as it was at Rome. Figiu-es of dog-s are not so common, but several instances occur, sufficient indeed to lead us to believe that the same tradition witk regard to these faithful domestic animals as obtained among the Romans was also accepted by the Cicilians. They appear to have been the hoarders up of the mythological traditions of almost all the countries by which they were s'orrounded, or by which they were successively conquered. * Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 29, 31. 148 LARES AND PENATES. Lares and Penates; but those barbarous rites were ultimately super- seded by more harmless offerings, — hogs in pubKc, and vdne, incense, heads of poppies, bandages of wool, and images of straw in private ; they also crowned them with flowers, particularly with the violet, myrtle, and rosemary. The term Lares, according to Mr. Bryant's mythological theory, was formed from laren, an ancient word by which the ark Avas represented ; and he supposes that the Lares and Manes were the same domestic deities under different names, and that by these terms the Hetrurians and Latins denote the Dii Arkitfe, who were no other than their Arkite ancestors, or the persons preser\'ed in the laren or ark, the genius of which was Isis, the reputed parent of the world. He observes fiu-ther that they are described as daemons and genii, who once lived on earth, and were gifted with immortality. Arnobius styles them, Lares qnosdam genios et functorum animas ; and he says that, according to Varro, they were the children of Mania. Flutius* adds, that Mania had also the name of Laranda, and she is styled the mother of the daemons. By some she is called Lara, and was supposed to preside over families ; and children were offered at her altar in order to procure her favour. In lieu of these they in after-times offered the heads of poppies and pods of garlic. This accoimts somewhat for the discrepancy of the ancients as to their origin. For example, Varro and iNIacrobius say that they were the children of Mania ; Ovid makes them the issue of Mercury and Lara or Larunda; Apuleius assures us that they were the posterity of the Lemures; Nigridius, according to Arnobius, made them sometimes the guardians and protectors of houses, and sometimes the same with the Curetes of Samo-Thracia, which the Greeks call Jdcci dactyli. Nor was Varro more consistent in his own opinions, sometimes making them the manes of heroes, and sometimes gods of the air. In Cilicia we have a faint tracing of the admixture of Egyptian and Samo-Thracian mysteries in the national Pantheism, in the existence of a terra-cotta crocodile, a crocodile river, Kersus of Xenophon, Andricus of Pliny, and a " Mons crocodilus." With respect to the Penates, they were of three classes: those who presided over empires and states, those who had the protection of cities, and those who took the care or guardianship of private families ; the last were called the lesser Penates. According ta others, there were four classes: the celestial, the sea-gods, the gods of hell, and all such heroes as had received divine honours after death. • Demonst. prop. iv. p. 139. PENATES OF ROME. 149 Authors are not agreed about the origin of the Dii Penates, which are generally admitted to have come originally from Asia, and were known as the tutelary gods of the Trojans. Dionysius Halicarnassus tells us that ^Eneas first lodged these gods in the city of Lavinium, and that his son Ascanius, upon building the city of Alba, translated them thither, but that they returned twice miraculously to Lavinium. The same author adds, that in Rome there was still seen a dark temple, shaded by the adjacent buildings, wherein were the images of the Trojan gods, with the inscription " Denas," which signifies Penates. These images represented two young men sitting, each of which held a lance. I have seen, says Dionysius, several other statues of the same gods in ancient temples, who all appear like young men dressed in the habit of war. Varro brings the Penates from Samothrace to Phrygia, to be afterwards transported by ^ueas into Italy. It is a popular question among the learned, who were the Penates of Rome ? Some say Vesta, others Neptune and Apollo ; Vives says Castor and Pollux, with whom agrees Vossius, who adds, that the reason of their choosing Castor and Pollux in the quality of Penates might be the important service they rendered the Romans in some of their wars. When Macrobius says that Jupiter, Juuo, and ]Minerva were the Penates of the Romans, it does not follow from that that they were the Penates of Rome. It seems, indeed, to have been in the option of every master of a family to choose his Penates ; and hence it was that Jupiter and some of the superior gods were often invoked as patrons of domestic affairs. The positive domestic and pubUc deities selected by a country or province and its inhabitants were, perhaps, never before so fully illus- trated as in the instance of the remarkable collection now brought to light, discovered also in a country of great antiquity, and Avhich per- haps, more than any other in the East, forms the connecting link between Assyrian and Greek mythology, and with Lycia between As- syrian and Greek art. The light they may yet be made to throw upon these relations will, in all probability, be found to be very considerable, and to present a field of investigation as yet almost un- touched. The Assyrians of old recognised in the stars of heaven golden chariots of heavenly hosts.* Zeus or Baal, as the most perfect leader of the most perfect chariot, was drawn by the finest and largest horses of Asia ; while the god of the sun had only one single Nisa;an horse, or was represented * Grotefend on tlio Mi/tholo^ - CHAPTER II. DISCOVERY OF THE TERRA-COTTAS LARES AND PENATES OF CILICIA EVI- DENCES OF PROMISCUOUS WORSHIP APOLLO OF TARSUS PERSEUS, BELLE- EOPHON, AND PEGASUS — RADL\TED APOLLO IDENTITY OF PHYSIOGNOMY UGLY FACES DEIFICATION OF CHILDREN — DEIFICATION OF PRINCES DEIFICATION OF LADIES CHARACTER OF CILICIAN ART PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANHTY DESTRUCTION OF THE LARES AND PENATES — ATYS APOLLO, THE SYRIAN BAAL — CYBELE, CERES, AND ISIS ELEUSINEAN JfTSTE- RIES CYBELE AND ATYS, ISIS AND OSIRIS, VENUS AND ADONIS THE CAT, DOG, AND HORSE HARPOCRATES AND FLORUS ISIS ANTD THE NELU3IBIUM SACRED BULLS EGYPTL\N ART — MORPHEUS. " The incarnations, which form the principal subjects of sculpture in the temples of idolatry, are above all others calculated to caU forth the ideal perfections of the art, by expanding and exalting the imagination of the artist, and inciting his ambition to sm-pass the simple imitation of ordinary forms, in order to produce a model of excellence worthy to be the corporeal habitation of the Deity ; but this no nation of the earth, except the Greeks, and those who copied them, ever attempted. Let the precious WTecks and frag-ments, therefore, of the art and genius of that wonder- ful people be collected with care, and preserved with reverence, as examples of what man is capable of vmder peculiar circumstances, which, as they have never occurred but once, may never occur again." — E. P. Knight on the Symbolical Lan(jua