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THE BIRTHLAND OF ST. PAUL
CILICIA:
ITS FORMER HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE,
WITH AN ACCOUNT OF
THE IDOLATROUS WORSHIP PREYAILING THERE PREVIOUS TO
THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY.
;WM. BURCKHARDT BARKER, M.R.A.S.,
MANT TEARS RESIDEfTT AT TARSUS IN AN OFFICIAI, CAPACITV.
EDITED BT
WM. FRANCIS AINSWORTH, F.R.G.S., F.G.S.,
Corresponding Member of the Geogr.-vphical Society of P.iris.
Illustrateb b» nitmrroug (Engravings from tristmg lirmains.
' I am a man which am a .Tew of Tarsus, a city in Cilicia, a citizen of no mean city."
St. Paui,, Acts xxl. 39.
LONDON AND GLASGOW:
RICHARD GRIFFIN AND COMPANY.
PtTBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASOOTT.
CONTENTS.
PAGB
Introductory Preface 1
CILIOIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
CHAPTER I.
Early period of Cilician history. Scriptural mention of Tarsus. An-
cient religion. Notice of the Cilicians by Herodotus. Cilicia under
the Assyrians. Burial-place of Sardanapalus. Dominion of the
Medes. Cilicia overrun by Scythian hordes. The Prophet Daniel's
tomb. Croesus, king of Lydia. Persian satraps. Invasion of Greece
by the Persians. Syennesis, king of Cilicia. Treaty of Antalcidas.
Alexander the Great in Cilicia. Battle of Issus 11
CHAPTER II.
Plistarchus. Battle of Ipsus. Ptolemy Evergetes. Antiochus the
Great. Zeno and Chrysippus. Cilicia under the Seleucidis. In-
vaded by Tigranes. Reduced to a Roman province by Pompey.
Cicero's campaign in Cilicia. Marc Antony and Cleopatra at Tar-
sus. Cilicia invaded by the Parthians under Labienus. Atheno-
dorus. Vonones slain in Cilicia. St. Paul. Insurrection of the
Cliteans. Cossuatianus Papito govei-nor. Polemon, king of Cilicia,
marries Berenice. Cilicia declared a Roman province in Vespasian's
time. Fate of the Roman empire decided on the plain of Issus. . 23
CHAPTER III.
Legend of the Seven Sleepers. Sapor invades Cilicia. Zeuobia's con-
quests. Cilicia oveiTun by the Alani. Maximiauus dies at Tarsus.
Death of Couotuntius at Mopsuestia in Cilicia. St. George, patron
saint of England, born at Epiphanea. The Emperor JuUan buried
at Tarsus. Invasions of the Huns. Belisarius in Cilicia. Cam-
paigns of Heraclius and of Chosroes (Kusru Anushiiiwan). . . 36
a
VI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
PAGE
Rise of the Saracens. Cilicia overrun by Harun al Rashid. Al Mamun
dies in Cilicia. Exchange of prisoners at Il-Lamas. Sack of Mop-
suestia by the Khalif Mutassim. Mopsuestia retaken by Nicephorus
Phocas and John Zimisces. Rise of the Turkmans. Alp Arslan
and Roraanus Diogenes. Turkman dynasty at Nicjea. Persecu-
tion of the Christians. First Crusade. Tancred and Baldwin in
Cilicia. Alexius annexes Cilicia to the Greek empire. . . 45
CHAPTER V.
The Emperor John Comnenus killed in a wild boar hunt in Cilicia.
Description of Anazarba. The second Crusade. Third Crusade.
Death of Frederick I. (Barbarossa) in Cilicia. Fourth Crusade.
Cilicia under John Ducas Vataces. Devastations of Yanghiz or
Genghiz Khan. .......... 54
CHAPTER VI.
Rise of the Osmanlis or Usmanlis. Victories of Bayazid. Invasions of
the Moguls. Capture of Constantinople by jMuhammad II. Bay-
azid II. Annexes Cilicia to the Ottoman empire. Campaigns of
Sulaiman the Magnificent. Amurad IV. invades Cilicia. His house
at Adana. Reforms of Mahmud II. Abd'ul Masjid. ... 65
CHAPTER VII.
Modern histoiy of Cilicia. Rise of Kutchuk Ali I^glu. His means of
revenue. Acts of cruelty. Bayas. Mode of life and character-
istics. Seizes the master of an English vessel. Captures a French
merchantman. Bribes the Turks who are sent against him. Puts
his friend the Dutch Consul of Aleppo into prison. Forces a cara-
van of merchants to ransom him. A characteristic anecdote. . 73
CHAPTER VIII.
Dada Bey, son of Kutchuk Ali Fglu. His piratical expeditions. Re-
pels the attacks of tlic Tin-ks. Is taken by sti-atagem. Is be-
headed and l)urnt. History of Mustafa Pasha. Kil-Aga killed
by Haji Ali ]}oy. Dervisii Ilaniid. Story related of Haji Ali Bey.
Conquests of Ibrahim Pasha. Mustuk Bey placed in power. Com-
parison between the Egyptian and Turkish governments. . . 84
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IX.
Muhammad Izzet Pasha. A pretender to the Turkish throne . His
strange history and rare accomplishments. Disappears at Kuniyah .
Ahmed Izzet Pasha. Grants permission to Mustuk Bey to murder
his nephew. Sulaiman Pasha. Durwisli Ahmed's expedition against
Mustuk Bey. His chief officers taken and stripped. Bayas captured
and sacked. ........... 92
CHAPTER X.
Anecdotes of Sulaiman Pasha. Gin-Jusif, rebel of Kara-Tash. Arif
Pasha. Murder of a pasha. Hasan Pasha. Anecdotes of the
council. Christian members of council. Employes of the Porte.
Toll at Kulak Bughaz. Hati Sheriff. Courts of justice. . . 101
CHAPTER XI.
Geography of Cilicia. Tarsus and Adana. Missis (Mopsuestia) . Sis
(Pindenissus). Bayas and the coast. Pylae Ciliciae. Population
of Cilicia. Europeans and their influence destroyed. Consuls and
their authority. English consuls allowed to trade. Climate.
Stagnant lake (Rhegma). Marsh of Alexandretta. Country-
houses. Nimrud. Sea-ports. Kaisanli. Mursina and its road-
stead 110
CHAPTER XII.
Advantages and disadvantages of Tarsus in a commercial point of view.
Tables of navigation. Tabular view of the trade of the interior of
Asia Minor. Table of exports. Table of imports. State of agri-
culture in Cilicia. Produce of the country. Cotton. Wheat.
Barley. Linseed. Wax. Fruit-trees. Silk. Olive-trees. Pay
of a day-labourer. Pasture of land. Tenure of land. Timber and
woods. Geology and mineralogy. Extracts from Mr. Ainsworth's
work. Plain of Tarsus. Falls of the Cydnus. First, second, third,
and fourth range of hills. IMines of iron and lead. Argentiferous
Galena. Revenue of the Pashalik 117
CHAPTER XIII.
II Lamas (Lamum). Kui'kass (Corycus). Aski Shahir. Soli, after-
wards Pompeiopolis. Great Mausoleum at Tarsus. Strabo's de-
scription of the coast of Cilicia. His account of Tarsus and neigh-
bouring towns. . . . . . . . . . .128
viii CONTENTS.
LARES AND PENATES.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Introductory 145
CHAPTER IT.
Discovery of the terra-cottas. Lares and Penates of Cilicia. Evidences
of promiscuous worship. Apollo of Tarsus. Perseus, Bellerophon,
and Pegasus. Radiated Apollo. Identity of physiognomy. Ugly
faces. Deification of children. Deification of princes. Deification
of ladies. Character of Cilician art. Progress of Christianity.
Destruction of the Lares and Penates. Atys. Apollo, the Syrian
Baal. Cybele, Ceres, and Isis. Eleusinian mysteries. Cybele and
Atys, T sis and Osiris, Venus and Adonis. The cat, dog, and horse.
Harpocrates and Florus. Isis and the Nelumbium. Sacred bulls.
Egyptian art. Morpheus 152
CHAPTER III.
Apollo. Apollo Belvedere. Caricatures of Midas. Apollo of Tarsus.
Senator in the clavus latus. Lion attacking a bull. Telephus
or Mercury (?). Ceres. Victory. Date of destruction of the Lares.
Metamorphosis of Actaeon into a stag. Remarks of Mr. Birch. . 184
CHAPTER IV.
ON CERTAIN PORTRAITS OF HUNS, AND THEIR IDENTITY WITH THE
EXTINCT RACES OP AMERICA.
Monstrous head in a conical cap. Portrait of a Hun (?). Identity
with American sculptures. Emigrations of Asiatic nations to
America. Testimonies from Stephens, Schomburgk, Humboldt.
Analogies of language. Evidences from Klaproth and d'Herbelot. 203
CHAPTER V.
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBJECT OF THE HUNS CONTINUED.
" The ugly heads" of the collection. Standard of beauty. Monu-
ments of Central America. Parallel case in Hayti. The Hittites
of Scripture. Reference to Egj'ptian sculpture. Effects of the
Egyptian invasion of Cilicia. 208
COiNTENTg.
CHAPTER VI.
ADDITIONAL WORKS OF ART. GODS, DEMIGODS, AND HEROES.
FAGE
Apollo. Mercury. Hercules. Bacchus. Silenus. Fauns and Satyrs.
Pan. Minerva. Venus. Cupid. Europa. Marsyas. Leander.
Laocoon. ^sculapius. Fortune. Caius Caligula (?). Priapus.
Harpy. Marsyas. Abrerig or Nergal (?). Summary . . . 21 3
CHAPTER VII.
SIBYLS AND DOLPHINS AND THEIR RIDERS.
Sibyls. An African sibyl. Head-dress of the virgin-prophetesses. A
matron sibyl (?). Dolphins and their riders. Apotheosis of de-
ceased childi-en. Story of Arion. Radiated heads. The Bulla. . 228
CHAPTER VIII.
Magi and Monks 232
CHAPTER IX.
Monsters and Idiots 237
CHAPTER X.
HUMAN FIGURES.
Bards. Priests. Miscellaneous. Female figures. Deified children.
Undetermined. 243
CHAPTER XI.
ANIMALS.
Dogs. Oxen. Bulls. Buffalo. Horses. Lions. Panther. Wolf.
Boar. Ape. Hippopotamus (?). Cat. Goats. Rams and Sheep.
Crocodile. Snake. Eagle. Swan. Ostrich. Cocks. . . . 249
CHAPTER XII.
DOMESTIC AND RELIGIOUS ART.
Chariots. Vases. Bowls and dishes. Wine-jars and drinking-vessels.
Lamps. Handles. Table and chair. Ring and glass. Round
disc of pottery. Net. Butter-print (?) 253
CHAPTER XIII.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Lyres. Syrinx 259
X CONTEXTS.
CHAPTER XIV.
PAGE
COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY.
Arsus (Rhesus). Myriandrus. Iskandrun or Alexandretta (Alexandria
ad Isson). Godfrey de Bouillon's fort. Baylan (Pictanus, Erana ?).
Primitive Christian church. Castles of Ibn Daub and of Baylan
Bustandah. Altars of Alexander. Castle of Markatz. River Ker-
sus. Gates of Cilicia and Syria. Bayas (Baiae). Issus. Nicopo-
lis. Kara Kaya (Castabala). Epiphauea. Matakh. Tamir Kapu
(Iron Gates, Ammanian Gates). Ayas (Ageae). Ammodes. Kara
Tash(MallusandMegarsus). Aleian plain. Pyramus. Mopsuestia.
Castles on the plain. Sari Capita. Rhegma of the Cydnus. Yanifa
Kishla. Mazarlik. Castle of Kalak Bughaz. Kara Sis. Anabad
andDunkalah • • .262
CHAPTER XV.
ANTIOCH AND SELETJCIA.
The Bay of Antioch. Village of Suwaidiyah. Grotto of Nymphseus.
Island of Meliboea. Ruins of Seleucia Pieria. Projected re-open-
ing of the port of Seleucia. Mount St. Simon. Mount Casius.
Temple of Ham 267
CHAPTER XVI.
NATURAL HISTORY — ZOOLOGY.
The ounce. The lynx. Bears. Hyenas, wolves, and jackals. The
Fox. Hares. Fallow-deer. White gazelle (ghazal). Greyhounds.
Gh'aik, or ibex 276
CHAPTER XVII.
GAME BIRDS.
Game birds. Manner of taking quails. Manner of taking francolin
and partridges. Capture of wild doves. 281
CHAPTER XVIII.
Falconry 284
CHAPTER XIX,
Medicinal Plants 299
CONTENTS. XI
APPENDIX.
PAGE
Nan-ative of Nadir Bey, written from his own dictation (in French) . 301
Translation 310
Petition of Nadir Bey (in Italian) 320
Translation 325
Historical Documents : Copy of a Buynrdi from Muhammed Izzet
Pasha. Insurrection of Lattakiyah in 1804. State of North Syria
in 1805 and in 1814. Petition from the Chief of the Trades to
Mr. John Barker, 1841. Notice of Badir Khan Bey, the extir-
minator of the Nestorian Christians. Story of Fahel, chief of the
Arabs of the Zor, or forest district on the Euphrates. . . . 328
Burckhai'dt's Account of Cilicia 355
Commercial Tables : I. Commerce of Kaisariyah with the chief
towns of Asia Minor. II. Summary of the Commerce of Kaisariyah
one year with another. III. Exports of the Pashalik of Adanaand
Tarsus. IV. Imports of the same Pashalik. V. Prospectus of the
Navigation of Mursina, roadstead of Tarsus, 1844. VI. Table of
Duties paid at Constantinople 372
INDEX 387
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
View of Sis ....
Mausoleum at Eleusa
Map of Cilicia
Sarcophagus at Seleucia Pieria
Ruin at Anazarba .
Saccal Tutan ....
Plain of Antioch — Overflow of the
distance ....
Missis .....
View of Alexandretta
Alexandretta and Cape Khanzir
Sarcophagus at Seleucia Pieria
Ground-plan of Mausoleum at Tarsus
Tomb at Eleusa
Ruins of an Aqueduct at Anazarba
Valley of the Orontes
Sculptured Rocks at Anazarba
GOS-HAWK AND FaLCON
Gesril Hadeed, in the Plains of Antioch
Betias : Summer Residence of Mr. Barker
Mr. Barker's Villa in the Valley of Suedia
Orontes — Mount Amanus
Frontispiece
10
11
35
64
91
109
110
113
116
131
133
•242, 258
275
275
283
295
298
300
360
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TO LARES AND PENATES.
page
Actseon 189
Adonis as Apollo 178
Apollo . 157,161,162,164,178,195
Apis 182
Ariadne 216
Atys, young 174,227
Bacchante 200
Bacchus 195, 216
Bard playing 243
Boy and Dolphin 230
Caius Caligula 223
Captive, kneeling 211
XIV
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS.
Ceres 176
Chronos 193
Commodus 167
Cupid and Swan . . . . 21.0, SiO
Cybele 192
Davus 198
Diana 156,284
Eros 166, 194
Gladiator 244
Harpocrates 181
Head, tutulated 192
Heads, monstrous .... 203, 204
Hercules 169
Hero 193
Horse, leg of 175
„ head of 180
Idiot head , 268
Incense- burner 155
Iris 177
Isis l.qi
Juno 157, 1()7, 177
Jupiter 157
Lady, head of 168,188
Lamp 156
Leander swimming the Hellespont 222
Lion attacking a Ball . . . . 187
Macrocephalus, a 238
Magus 232
Man riding a Bear .... 226
Mask, comic 177, 178
Mercury 158
^lessalina 158
Midas 185
Monster, head of a 236
Musical Instruments .... 260
Osiris 14, 161
Pallas
Pan
Perseus
Phree (the Egyptian Sun)
Phrygian Head ....
Priest with attributes of Apollo
Priestess
169
155
197
252
197
164
199
Saturn J 93
Senator 186
Serapis 14
Sibyl, African 228
Silenus 218
Somnus 183
Tartarus 248
Venus 170, 193
Victoria Aleta 189
— i*<> :» > a > »g ^K—
INTEODUCTOEY PEEFACE
BY THE EDITOR.
The author of this little volume, and the first to bring to hght the Lares
and Penates of the ancient and interesting city of Tarsus — Mr. William
Burckhardt Barker — is the son of John Barker, Esq., who died at
Suedia, or Suwaidiyah, near Antioch, on the fifth of October, 1850, in
his seventy-nmth year. He is also the godson of the eminent traveller
and Oriental scholar Louis Biu'ckhardt, Avhose footsteps he has most
worthily followed, having prosecuted the study of the Oriental languages
from his early boyhood, and being now as familiar -with Ai'abic, Tui'kish,
and Persian, and the many dialects which emanate from these languages,
as he is with the chief languages of Europe. He lately made an ex-
tended tour in Persia, whither he went to perfect himself in the language
of that country before his final return to England.
Mr. W. Burckhardt Barker is further akeady known in this country
by an account of the sources of the river Orontes, of which no previous
description had been published, and which appeared in the 7tli volume
of the Journal of the Eoyal Geographical Society.
The father of our author for a long period occupied posts of honour-
able trust under the British government. He was appointed Consul
and Agent to the East Lidia Company at Aleppo in 1799, where he
exercised his functions and practised a generous hospitality to his coun-
trymen and to strangers till 1826, when he was promoted to the post
B
2 INTIiODUCTOrvY TREFACE.
of liis Majesty's Consul- General in Egypt. Here lie remained till 1834,
Avhen lie became entitled to liis retirement from public service. He
then fixed his residence in the beautiful valley of Suedia, ancient Se-
leucia Pieria, on the banks of the Orontes, and about fifteen miles
from Antioch. Here he built a commodious house, and planted his
grounds with the choicest flowers, shrubs, and fmit-trees of Europe and
Asia. At a subsequent period he added to this general residence a
summer-house at the village of Betias, on a commanding eminence of
jNIount Rhosus, where there was an abundant supply of water, the air
was always refreshing and cool, and the prospect magnificent; and here
his mortal remains Avere consigned to the tomb.
The presence of an Englishman of a liberal and benevolent mind
had a great influence upon the native population, who looked up to him
and his family with sentiments of love and respect. This feeling was
shared as well by the Muhammadan inhabitants as by the Christian.
His services to Eastern travellers have in numberless instances been
called into action, and have been gratefully recorded in many published
works of those who partook of his hospitality.
IMr. Barker's family came from Bakewell, in Derbyshire, where
they have long been estabUshed. He married Miss Hays at Aleppo
in 1800, who survives him. This lady's mother was a daughter of
Mr. Thomas Vernon, a Levant merchant of Aleppo, when that city was
the grand emporium of the commerce of India. He was of the family
of the Yernons of Hilton, in Cheshire, and a near kinsman of Admiral
8ir Edward Vernon, of Porto Bello celebrity. By this lady, who was a
remarkable linguist, for it is stated she spoke five languages fluently
when only six years old, ^Ir. Barker had three sons and two daughters,
r-aU of whom possessed a great facility for acquiring languages, and be-
came proficient Orientalists.
Mr. Barker's latter years were much occupied in procuring from all
parts of Asia the best kinds of fruits, which he cultivated in his gar-
dens at Suedia with a view to prove their merits, and afterwards of
transferring them to liis native country, so as to improve upon the
varieties grown there. His attention was especially directed to the
peach, nectarine, and apricot ; and from specimens that have already
been produced from his stock, there is but little doubt that in a few
INTRODUCTORY PREFACE. 6
years a very superior order of what we denouiinate w'all-lruits will be ia
conamon cultivation in England. Some hundreds of Mr. Barker's trees
are now under culture in the garden of an eminent nurseryman in
Devonshire, and are destined to be spread over the country. They
all possess the peculiar property of having sweet kernels, in contra-
distinction to those common in Europe, which have bitter kernels : this
imparts a greatly improved flavoiu' to the fruit. The famous Stanwick
nectarine, declared by Dr. Lindley to be incomparably superior to any
thing we have, Avas introduced by Mr. Barker into this country through
the assistance of his Grace the present Duke of Northumberland. In
this gentle and humanising pursuit Mr. Barker spared neither exertions
nor expense. He was in the habit for many years past of sending
agents into distant coimtries of the East, including Bokhara, Samar-
kand, Kandahar, and Shiraz, to procure for him scions of all such trees
as bore the best fruits.
He was, indeed, enthusiastic in the pursuit of whatever he thought
would benefit mankind. Thus in 1848, when the cholera committed
great devastation in the north of Syria, a remedy is stated to have been
discovered by which many persons were cured even in the advanced
stages of the disease. Mr. Barker verified the efficiency of the proposed
remedy by personal observation ; and once he was satisfied, he spared no
pains or expense to spread the knowledge of what he deemed an impor-
tant discovery to all parts of the world.
During a residence of fifty years in Syria and Egypt, Mr. Barker
never lost an opportunity of obliging in his private capacity all persons
who came within his reach ; and such was the reputation he had acquired
by his general hospitality, that often a letter of introduction from him to
any of the chiefs around was of more real value than the best passport
from the government authorities. During the campaign of the French
in Syria he also rendered good service to our old ally the Porte, from
whom, imder Sultan Selim, he received a gold medal and a snuiF-box
set with diamonds, which were sent to him through his friend Sir Syd-
ney Smith.
Mr. Barker had a final opportunity of being usefid to his country
by forwarding the objects of the Euphrates expedition, which landed at
the mouth of the Orontes in 1835, and of extending his characteristic
4 IMTRODUCTOKY PRErACE.
hospitality to Colonel Chesney and the officers and men of the ex-
pedition.
This true-hearted Englishman, indeed, spent all his income in
keeping up to the last the honour and respectability of the British
name.
As a farther proof of what has been here stated, I have been in-
duced, with the kind permission of the publishers, to introduce into the
work a brief notice of Mr. Barker, with some account of his residence
at Suwaidiyah and of the immediate neighbourhood, from Mr. Neale's
work, recently published by iSIessrs. Colburn and Co., Eight Tears in
Syria and Palestine, ij-c.
The interest of the present work will be foiuid upon perusal to be
much greater than might be expected from its more or less local cha-
racter. Cilicia, properly so called, is not less remarkable for its phy-
sical configiu'ation, than it is as the scene of varied historical events,
many of which have by their importance infliienced the destiny of the
world.
Physically'speaking, the alluvial deposit of the Cydnus and the Sarus,
the Pyramus and the Pinarus, all rivers of ancient renown, the great
Aleian plain, the lower and wooded ranges of the Taurus and of the
Amanus, the snow-clad summits of which gird this province like a wall
of rock, and the narrow slip of land forming the shores of the Issic Gulf,
constitute the whole of the country of Cilicia Proper.*
But politically and historically Cilicia derived its importance from
being the highway between the nations of the East and the West.
When the Persians, under their powerful monarch Xerxes, advanced
against the first scat of European civilisation, or when the Greeks in
their turn marched in the train of a Persian satrap to the plains of
Babylonia, Cilicia was alike put under contributions by both parties.
Wlien the already aged civilisation of the East and tlie young civilisa-
tion of the West had in Alexander the Great's time become more balan-
ced, the fate of the two was decided half-way on the plains of Cilicia.
Petty chieftains, like the successors of Alexander, made of it a continuous
field of strife ; and so warlike had the experience of the past made its
* Strabo divided Cilicia into Cilicia Aspera and Cilicia Canipostris ; the latter i<
called by Ptolemy, Cilicia Proper.
INTRODUCTORY TREFACE, 5
inhabitants, that it required a Pompej, a Cicero, and a Mark Antony
in the palmy days of Rome to bring the same rock and sea-girt province
into subjection.
Even the short-lived powers of Zenobia affected Cilicia; and in the long
struggle for domination that took place between the Emperor of Byzantium
and the Sassanian Kings, Cilicia still continued to be the field of oft- re-
peated and sanguinary conflicts. This was still more the case upon the
rise of Muhammadanism ; and in the times of the early khalifs, -when the
population of the country appears to have attained its maximum, its soil
was more than ever stained by the blood of victims to men's lust for
power and dominion.
The Saracens were succeeded by Turkman races, which have ever
since held most tenaciously by a country which they have found pe-
culiarly adapted to their habits and mode of life. Three times the
Chi'istians of the West, as they Avere rising into power upon the past
civilisation of Greece and Eome, advanced to battle for the empire of the
Cross through Cilicia; and fatal experience ultimately taught them to
take other routes. For a time, as under the wily Alexixis or the less
fortunate John Comnenus, Cilicia was once more a Greek province: biit
the dread power of the Osmanlis Avas already on the ascendant; and
with the exception of the temporary sway of the Mamluks, and of the
devasting inroads of a Janghiz Khan or a Timur-lang, which w^ere as
evanescent as they were sweeping, and of a brief Egyptian domination
in the time of Ibrahim Pasha, Cilicia has ever since remained vmder
the control of the Osmanlis, or of their more or less dependent vassals,
the Turkman chieftains of the country.
The peculiar position of this sea-and-mountain-girt province has
always influenced the character of the inhabitants. The father of history
tells us that the Cilicians were among the few nations in Lesser Asia
whom Crasus could not bring into subjection. Mr. Barker notices the
bad character for piracy and unfaithfulness that Artemisia, queen of
Halicarnassus, gave of the Cilicians ; so familiar indeed Avere these fea-
tures in the character of these isolated people of antiquity, that CUix
hand facile verum dicit became a proverbial saying.
From the same mountains Avhere Cicero found the " Avicked and
audacious Tibarani," and Avhere dwelt the rebel Clitn?ans, Armenians (not
6 IXTRODUCTORY PREFACE.
always very warlike in other countries) descended to ravage tlie plains
or harass the Crusaders ; and what is more curious, as shewing the per-
sistency of character among tribes similarly situated, the Aushir and
Kusan Uglu tribes of Turkmans, scarcely subjected by Ibrahim Pasha,
are in the present day merely nominal vassals of the Sultan.
A ciu'ious feature also belongs to Cilicia, which is its fatahty to
crowned heads. It is doubtful if Sardanapalus, notwithstanding certain
not very authentic statements to the contrary, did not die in this pro-
vince ; the river Cydnus, which had nearly proved fatal to Alexander,
was certainly so, nearly a thousand years afterwards, to the Emperor
Frederic, surnamed Barbarossa; Seleucus VI. was burned to death in a
palace at Mopsuesiia ; Labienus and Yonones were slain in the same
province ; Pescennius Niger was killed on the ever-memorable battle-
field of Issus ; Trajan died at Selinus ; Florianus was killed by his troops
at Tarsus ; Maximianus died in agonies at the same city ; Constantius
perished at Mopsuestia, and Julian the Apostate was buried at Tarsus ;
the best and wisest of the khalifs, Almaamun, died in Cilicia; and the
pride of the Comneni, Kalo Joannes, lost his life in a boar-hunt at
Anazarba.
Three times the fate of the world was decided on the plain of Issus.
First, when the Greeks and Persians met there; secondly, when Severus
and Pescennius Niger engaged there in a life-struggle for dominion; and
thirdly, when Heraclius and Chosroes contested there for the superiority
of the West over the East. There also, in the time of Bayazid II., the
Osnianlis contested with the Mamluk dynasty of Syria the emj^ire of
the East. Yet in the present day it is ditlicult to determine, in a truly
positive manner, the exact site of this famous battle-field, to which so
melancholy and so sad an interest attaches itself
The modern history of this remarkable country, as detailed by Mr.
Barker, possesses all the interest of a romance. It could scarcely be
imagined that, within almost our own times, the high-road between the
East and the "West Avas held almost independent during the whole life-
time of one bandit-chief, Kuchuk Ali Uglu, and during a portion of that
of his son, both of whom levied tribute on all wayfarers, imprisoned or
murdered inofiensive travellers, and committed all kinds of excesses, even
to capturing English and French merchantmen and imprisoning a Dutch
INTRODUCTORY PREFACE. 7
Consul, without any effective interference having taken place on the part
of Europe or the Turkish government! Happily those days are gone by,
— it is to be hoped for ever.
The history of the five pashas who succeeded to the Egyptians is
replete with curious matter, highly instructive to those who wish to be
truly informed as to the mode of administration in Tm-kish provinces.
The commercial details, more complete and satisfactory than any hi-
therto presented to the public, will also prove interesting to a large
commxmity.
In regard to that part of Mr. Barker's woi'k which illustrates the
political and administrative affairs of Cilicia, it must, however, be under-
stood that the condition of that province is very exceptional, and in one
peculiarity anomalous. The population is mixed, the majority being
Turkmans ; next in number, but at a far-off distance, come the Fallahs,
or agricultui'al peasants, mostly Ansayiii and deists ; after these the
Christians, chiefly Armenians; next come the Kurds, dwelling at Kars
and other places in the mountains; and lastly, the Turks or Osmanlis,
chiefly emploi/e's of the Porte, police, &c. The Turkman tribes of Taurus
are as independent as the Miriditi, Sagori, and other mountain tribes of
Turkey in Europe ; and the Ayans, or Turkman nobles of the tribes in-
habiting both plains and mountains, constitute the council, and thus hold
the provincial, more especially the financial, administration of the dis-
trict so entirely under their control, as to put insuperable impediments
in the way of reforms projected at Constantinople being as yet bi'ought
into operation in a district so remote, so peculiarly circumstanced phy-
sically, and having a population of its own — not precisely ill-affected
towards the Sultan of the Osmanlis, but having no feeling or tie of
nationality.
The antiquities of Cilicia are the monuments of its past glory ; the
more interesting and sug'^estive from comparison with the actual fallen
condition of this once prosperous, populous, and powerful country.
Towns that could boast of their 200,000 inhabitants, like Mopsuestia,
now scarcely contain 200 ! Anazarba, the home cf Dioscorides and
Oppianus, is now level with the ground ; and Epiphanea, which gave
birth to St. George of Cappadocia and of England, is an untenanted,
desolate, black ruin. The city dignified by the birth of the great
8 IXTRODUCTORY TIIEFACE.
Apostle to the Gentiles remains, but alas how fallen ! The dominion of
the Greeks and Romans has, however, left its traces in a few noble monu-
ments of olden time. The public edifices of Soli or Pompeiopolis, the ruins
of Anazarba, the tombs at Sebaste or Eleusa (for an illustration of which
I have been indebted to the distinguished traveller Dr. Layard), the
Amanian gates, and the presumed altars of Alexander, still attest the
taste and magnificence of bygone times; above all, a new interest has
been imparted to Cilician archceology by Mr. Barker's important disco-
very of terra -cotta illustrations of the Lares and Penates of the Cilicians
of old. Epiphania is stiU a great ruin ; Sis and Arsus are remarkable
sites of early Christianity ; and hills and mountains are stiU dotted with
the castles of Saracens, Venetians, Genoese, and Crusaders. Almost all
that has been done by the Muhammadans still exists; and Bayas, on
the site of the Baia^ of the Romans, is for its size the most complete
epitome of an Oriental town that I ever met with.
Much has been done in recent times to illustrate the comparative
geography of Cilicia. It was impossible that, in the absence of cui'reut
topograpliical information, former commentators on the old geographers
could throw more light upon the subject than existed in the days of
Pliny, Strabo, or Ptolemy. Take, for example, the commentaries of
the distinguished classical editors Gronovius and Yossius upon Pompo-
nius Mela: Issus is identified with Laissa, Ammodes with Amanoides,
Tarsus with Tarso, c^c. Cellarius, in his admirable Compendium of
Ancient Geography, wisely refrains from identification with actual sites.
The beginning of a new era in respect to a more intimate acquain-
tance with the geography of Cilicia dates from the publication of Captain
(now Admiral) Sir Francis Beaufort's Karamania, and Colonel Leake's
Journal of a Tour, &c. The surve^-s of the Euplirates Expedition com-
pleted what Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort had left undone, and enabled
the editor to publish a first detailed notice of the comparative geography
of the Cilician and Syrian gates in the fourth volume of the Journal of
the Royal Geographical Society, and which has been amplified and cor-
rected in subsequent publications.
Mucli, however, still remains to be done by future traveller^. The
site of INfyriandrus has never been positively determined; Cicero's cam-
paign in Amanus is by no means thorougldy understood.
INTIIODUCTORY PREFACE. 9
The route given in the Antouine Itinerary as leading from Nicopolis
to Zeugma on the Euphrates appears to be the same as the pass through
Amauus by which Darius advanced in the rear of the Macedonians ; but
the details of this road are wanted. The sites of Aliaria and Gerbidissus
are imknowu; and the total distance of seventy- two Roman miles from
the Euphrates to the shores of Cilicia is unsatisfactory. No traces have
been met Avith of the Serropolis of Ptolemy, supposed to be the same as
the Cassipolis of Pliny. Cadra and Davara, the strongholds of rebels at
the period of Tarsus's greatest glory, are also unknown sites.
IMr. Barker has not omitted the consideration of the produce and
agriculture of this rich and fertile country. His notice also of the natural
history of Cilicia, if not scientific, is still replete with curious and original
infoi'mation. Gazelles and other small deer, as also their natural enemies
the feline tribe, abovmd in Cilicia. The Amanus is spoken of in the Song
of Solomon as the mountain of leopards. The natui'alist ^lian, and the
poet of the Argonauts, Valerius Flaccus, speak of the tigers and of the
deer of the same district. The editor has seen six panthers while hunt-
ing in one small valley ; and Mr. Barker describes Abdallah il Eushdi
as leaving Adana, after a short residence there, with forty-two panther-
skins in his possession.
The plains of Cilicia abound in game. It is scarcely possible to ride
across these fertile grassy expanses, dotted here and there on the western
side with the evergreen carob-tree — the locust-tree of Scripture — with-
out seeing herds of gazelles browsing in the distance. The large bustard
stalks along the same plains, and the smaller bustard is seen at certain
seasons soaring in flocks of myriads. Wherever there is cover, the beau-
tiful //-awcoZm — the prototype of our pheasant — abounds. The marshes
teem with wild fowl. The sea swarms with fish, which may often be
seen parading its depths from over the ship's side. Turtles are so
abundant, that Mr. Barker tells us that hundreds may be taken in a
day. This is truly a country as favoured by nature as it is neglected
by man.
But by these very peculiarities it gains in human interest. Its re-
markable configuration and physical features, its mountains, forests, and
wild animals, its natxiral resources and produce, its history and vicissi-
tudes, its associations and existing monuments, its prostrate and oppres-
10
INTRODUCTORY PREFACE.
sed population, and above all its commercial capabilities, and its claims
upon the sympathy of a wide- embracing humanity, entitle it as a coimtry
to a moment's attention, and as a population of various origin and creeds
'to a thought of kindness from English readers.
MAUSOLEUM AT ELEUSA. FROM A SKETCH OF DR. LAYAKD.
CILICIA AND ITS GOYEUXOES
BEIXG AX
INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY
OP
THE LARES AND PENATES.
CHAPTER I.
EARLY PERIOD OF CILICIAN HISTORY SCRIPTURAL MENTION OF TARSUS
ANCIENT RELIGION NOTICE OF THE CILICIANS BY HERODOTUS CILICIA
UNDER THE ASSYRIANS BURIAL-PLACE OF SARDANAPALUS DOMINION OF
THE MEDES CILICIA OVERRUN BY SCYTHIAN HORDES THE PROPHET
DANIEL'S TOMB — CRCESUS, KING OF LYDIA PERSIAN SATRAPS — INVASION
OF GREECE BY THE PERSIANS — SYENNESIS, KING OF CILICIA TREATY OF
ANTALCIDAS ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN CILICIA BATTLE OF ISSUS.
The early history of Cilicia, a country replete •with interesting associa-
tions, as having been the theatre of many great events, is unfortunately,
like that of most ancient nations, involved in obscurity; and it is ex-
tremely difficult to construct, out of the scanty materials Avhich have
reached our times, a chain of narrative so complete and satisfactory as
to connect, without the absence of some essential links, the history of its
past grandeur Avith its actual condition. It has been my main, endea-
vour, the more effectually to dispel the cloud which hangs over the
ancient portion of its history, to select from such writers'as have given
this country a place in tlieir pages what may be considered most worthy
of insertion, in order to form a connected and complete history. But
the gleams of light which, from time to time, break through the mist
are partial, leading only to conjecture; and they do not sufficiently fill
up the gaps which the ignorance of some and the unwillingness of
others have left us to regret in this inquiry.
There is, however, the best reason to believe that those passes or
natural defiles which break the barriers that Nature has placed betAveen
the elevated plains of Asia Minor and those large tracts situated east of
the Mediterranean, were considered by the nations of antiquity of so much
12 CILIGIA AND ITS GOYERXOES.
importance that they were made an object of the particular attention of
mouai'chs ; and hence CiHcia became, from its position, the scene of strife
between contending empires. Connecting, as it were, the eastern and
western world, it was also, at a very early date, the first to benefit by
the continual influx of strangers ; and civilisation, consequent on the in-
tercourse of man with man, was an early feature of its character ; while
Avealth, flowing rapidly on its precursors, civilisation and trade, laid a
foundation for that opulence which, in after times, attracted the cupidity
of the Romans, and reduced it finally to a Roman province. Hence we
find Cilicia mentioned by several historians as the first commercial power
which made any figure in this part of the world.
But it is not only the fables of Pagan theology that bear witness to
the high antiquity and power of this country, by informing us that
Tarsus was built by Perseus, son of Jupiter by Danae; but Scrijjture
historians also afiirm that the sons of Tarshish, the great-grandson of
Noah, who were settled on this coast, had made themselves famous for
their navigation and commerce; so that "the ships of Tarshish" had
become a common appellation for all vessels of trade, and " to go to
Tarshish" a proverbial expression for setting out to sea in such vessels.
In Isaiah xxiii. 10, Tyre is called "the daughter of Tarshish," which
would lead us to infer that the nautical celebrity to which the Tyrians
subsequently attained had its rise in Cilicia, and that a colony from this
country settled on the Syrian coast and laid the foundation for Phoijni-
cian grandeiu- and fame.*
* There are few questions in sacred geography that are involved in gi-cater diffi-
culties than the position and extent of Tarshish, or of the several Tarshishes men-
tioned in the Scriptures. Some have argued that the word itself appUed to the sea
general!}'. One of the latest authorities, the Rev. J. R. Beard, D.D., has attempted
in a similar manner to cut the gordian knot, by arguing that all the scriptural pas-
sages in which the name occm's agree in fixing Tarsliish somewhere in or near Spain.
(Ct/iloiicedia, of Biblical Literature, edited by J. Kitto, D.D., art. "Tarshish.") Hceren
(Ideen, &c. ii. 64) goes so far as to translate (Ezek. xx\-ii. 25) the ships of Tai-sliish,
&c. bj' "Spanish ships." And Bochart, in his Geoyraphia Sacra {Phaleg, iii. 7), is
imdecidcd as to the superior claims of Carteia or Cadiz, or the Tartcssus of Aristotle,
Rti'abo, Pausanias, Arrian, and Avienus, which was between the two mouths of the
Baitis or Guadahiuiver, and wliich is the most Ukely site of the Spanish Tai-shish, being
of Phflcnician orgin.
But there was another Tai-shish in Ophir or Arabia ; for in 2 Cliron. xx. 36 it Is
recorded that Jchoshaphat king of Judah joined himself with Ahaziah king of Israel
to make shijis to go to Tarsliish ; and they made tl>e ships iu Ezion-gchcr — that is, en
the Elanitic Gulf, on the eastern arm of the Red Sea. And in the parallel passage,
foimd in 1 Kings xxii. 49, these vessels arc described as " ships of Tarehish," which
were intended to go to Ophir.
So also theic ajipeare much probability that there was a Tarshish nearer to .Judica.
An important testimony to this effect occurs in Ezek. xxx\-iii. 13 : "Sheba and Dedan,
and the merchants of Tai-shish, with all the young lions thereof." Now, here Tarshish
is mentioned in conjunction with two castcra sites ; and we shall have occasion to shew
pctyIptural mention op tarsus. 13
Strabo says of the nations of Tarsus, that tliey did not, like other
nations, stay at home, but, in order to complete their education, went
abroad ; and many of them, when this was accomplished, became at-
tached to their residences in foreign countries, and never returned. To
this roving disposition we must attribute the circumstance of their having
factories at Dedan and Sheba on the Euphrates, with which places they
trafficked in silver, gold, &c., as we are told by Ezekiel (xxxviii. 10) ;*
and it confirms the assertion of Tacitus, that Thamiras the Cilician was
the first who introduced the science of divination into Cyprus during the
reign of Cinyras, as far back as 2000 years B.C., and that the priesthood
continued to be hereditary in his family for many generations, until, for
want of male heirs, the sacerdotal functions merged into the descendants
of the king. Here we find an enlightened Cilician quitting his native
country, and bearing with him the riches of superior knowledge, which
he imparts to a less civilised nation, establishing for himself and for his
posterity an imperishable monument of fame.
What that knowledge was, or to what particular worship it related,
that the Amaniis was ui ancient times as renowned for its lions as Cilicia is to the
present clay distinguished by the number of its panthers, while it does not appear that
there were Uons in Andalusia.
Again, when Jonah (i. 3 ; iv. 2) wished to avoid the duty imposed upon him to go
raid i)ro2ihesy against Nineveh, he took ship at Joppa and fled to Tarshish. It is not
likely that he fled as far as Spain ; but it is not unlikely that he fled from Judjea, and
took refuge in Tarsus.
The transit of the Phoenicians from Cyprus to CiUcia was easy. ApoUodoiiis relates,
that Celendris, now Chahndrah, was founded by Sandocus, ?'. e. Sadoc, father of CinjTa.
It was afterwards a colony of Samians. The name of the country itself is said to have
been derived from Cilix, the brother of Cadmus. According to Bochart, Coiycus, on
the same coast, dei'ived its name from the celebrity of its crocuses or safii'on, — carcom
in the Hebrew, and corcam in the Syriac (Solomon's Song iv. 14). It is not certain
if the Amanus is meant in the 8th verso of the same canticle, " look from the top of
Amana," because the momitain so called is mentioned in connexion with the Lebanon.
The allusion to "the hons' dens" — "the mountains of the leopards" — makes it, how-
ever, extremely improbable that it is the Cilician Amanus that is referred to. Bochart,
in his Phcenices in Cilicia {Phaleg, i. 4), entertains no doubt of the commercial rela-
tions of Tarsus and Tyre: "Nee clesunt," he adds, " quibus Tarsus Cilicim metropolis,
Pauli Apostoli ortu nohilis, videtur esse Tarshish et Cetis" (Cetliim). — W. F. A.
* Very little is known as to the locality peopled by the descendants of the Cushite
Dedan. It is supposed that they settled in southern Arabia, near the Persian Gulf;
but the existence in that quarter of a place called Dadan or Dadena is the chief gi-oimd
for this conclusion. The Rev. Charles Forster has, however, shewn in his Historical
Geography of Arabia, that con-elative testimony is given of this opinion by the juxta-
position of kindred names (vol. i. pp. 38, 63). With regard to the descendants of the
Cushite Sheba, there seems no reason to doubt that their ultimate settlement was in
Ethiopia ; while the descendants of Sheba, son of Joktan, peopled Yemen in Arabia.
Hence the distinction between the African Sabseans and Arabian Sabasans ; but there
were also Badwin or "wandering" Shebans (Job i. 15) and Chaldean Sabseans, or,
more properly, Tsabians, particularly described by Mr. Rich and the Rev. Mr. Wolff. —
W. F. A.
14
CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
the learned historian does not proceed to say ; but in another passage we
learn from hini that the Egyptians, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadel-
phns, B.C. 284, obtained the statue of the god Serapis
from Sinope in Pontus ; and although the epoch when
\vr^i:i<i ^^^^ image was introduced and placed in the quarter
"^.O'l of the city of Alexandria called Ehacotis is compara-
Tjtc^Jl tively of modern date, the circumstance may go far
to establish that this god was worshipped in Asia
!Minor ; and if we are to believe Herodotus, who says
the Eg}q:>tian priests attributed the origin of their
nation to the Phi-ijgicms, close neighbours of the Cili-
cians, we may conclude that a great similarity existed
in the worship and religious ceremonies of the tAvo
countries. This siibject is more particularly illus-
trated in that part of the work which refers to the
newly- discovered tei'ra-cottas, among which have been
found heads of Horus and other deities of the Egyptian pantheon, as also
the god Osiris, represented under the form of an ox, and of which we
giA-e an illustration here. The two accompanying woodcuts of Serapis
and Osiris are taken from some terra-cotta antiques found at Tarsus, and
of whicli the reader will find a more circumstantial account further on.
We are told by Herodotus that the original
inhabitants of Cilicia were called Ihjpachcans, and
that it was not tmtil the arrival of Cilex, the son
of jlgetior l\mg of Phoenicia, that they obtained the
appellation of Cilicians. Cilex, it is related, set
out in search of his sister Europa, Avho had been
carried away by pirates ; and after seeking her in
many countries by sea and land, disgusted and
worn out by his want of success, and attracted by
the fertility of the soil, he settled down on the
coast of Asia Minor, and gave his name to the
(.^uiis. country which forms the subject of this liistory,
about 1552 B.C.*
Tarsus in Cilicia is said to have been founded, according to heathen
mythology, B.C. 132G, by Perseus son of Jupiter and Danae, while on his
expedition against the Gorgons ; but other historians attribute its origin
to a colony of Argives.
* According to others (ApolloJonis, iii. c. li), Cilex was son of Ciiiyras, and brother
of Cadmiis, wliich Cin^Tas fii-st colonised tliesc countries from Phoenicia, and built the
town of C'clendrx or Cclendris, afterwards a colony of Saniians. Bochart (Chanaan,
i. 5) ar;^ucs that the countrj- derived its name from the abundance of chalk and lime-
stone, — iladhk or duMak of the Hebrews, and x»\t^ of the Greeks. — W. F. A.
CILICIA UNDER THE ASSYRIANS. 15
However that may be, this city became famous for its maritime
commerce as early as the days of Iving David, b.c. 1055 (Ps. xlviii. 7),
and from that circmnstance gave its name to that part of the Mediterra-
nean contiguous to Cilicia, which was thence called the Sea of Tarshish.
Pamphylia was also colonised from the same district.
But under what government Cilicia existed, or whether it rose to
fame in a state of independence, is a matter of great vmcertainty. It
would appear probable that this country paid tribute to the Assyrian
monarchs, because the Cilicians are not mentioned by Homer in his
catalogue as having sent subsidies to Priam at the siege of Troy, B.C.
1184, -with the rest of their neighbours, the different states on the coast
of Asia Minor. Certain it is that the kings of Assyria subdued the
principal petty nations of Asia ; and as the Taiirus formed the natural
boundary of Mesopotamia, Cilicia must have been the first to fall under
the yoke of the successors of Nimrod.
But we are precluded from learning at what precise date this coun-
try was oveiTun by the Assyrians, because from the death of Ninias, the
son of Ninus and Semiramis, B.C. 1600, down to the revolt of the Medes
against Sardanapalus, during a period of eight hundred years, there is a
chasm in the history of Babylon to be filled up. The fables of Berosus
in reference to this subject are not worthy of credit, as the work which
passes under his name is evidently a fabrication. But that it was sub-
dued and formed a part of that kingdom previous to the time of its disso-
lution is an historical fact, as we find Sardanapalus made it his favourite
residence ; and we are informed by some historians that the ports of this
country were considered of great importance by that dynasty, as being
their chief maritime station in the Mediterranean.
Grecian historians have attribiited to Sardanapalus, the last king of
the Assyrian monarchy, the foundation of the city of Tarsus, B.C. 820 ;
but as it is also reported that he was buried at Anchiale* by his par-
* Anchiale may have begain even m the time of SardanaiDakis to be a necessary
port to the commerce of Tarsus, in consequence of the increasing aUuvium brought
down by the river Cydnus, and which is always filling uj) the lake^ that formerly
served as a harbour (called by Sti'abo Rhegma, and which he saj's presented some
remains of its naval arsenal). This Rhegma resembled a lake by its extensive and
shallow bed, and conLI no longer admit of large vessels, because earth, stones, and
rubbish wore continually brought down into it from the heights of Mount Tam-us bj' the
winds and torrents. It is now a stagnant marsh, with four or five feet water, and no
longer communicates either with the sea or the river Cydnixs, although not more dis-
tant in some places than a thousand yards from either. The original beds of the canals,
which served as a means of communication with the sea, are filled up by earth and
sand ; but the traces of them exist, and could with no great difficulty be cleared, and
made to serve as au exit for the water. The whole of the surrounding country, with
16 C'lLICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
ticiilar desire, wo may infer that lie was more probably the founder of
this latter place, and the embellisher only of Tarsus. On the site of
Anchiale is a ruin to be seen which may have been the foundation of
the tomb ; but no vestige remains of the celebrated statue mentioned
by Arrian of this ill-fated monarch, or of the inscription in the As-
syrian language commemorating the intemperance and dissipation that
distinguished his life, which so provoked the satire of Ai-istotle. The
fact that Sardanapalus was really buried on this spot would seem to
contradict the accounts of other writers of celebrity, who assert that he
burned himself in his palace in the city of Nineveh, with all his house-
hold and treasure; or, at all events, the two statements can only be
reconciled by supposing that his body was carried by some faithful
sxiTviving attendants, by whom, we hear, he was deified, to repose in
the city of his predilection, which owed its origin to his choice.* Dif-
ferent accounts of the same event occur frequently in ancient authors,
and cause us to regret how much this question is involved in obscui'ity.f
On the dismemberment of the Assyrian empire, Cilicia fell into the
the bed of the lake itself, ha\-ing risen considerably bj* alluvial dej)osits — a ch'cunistanco
universal wherever rivers flow into large 2>lains, and particularly in the \'icinity of such
a liigh range of mountains as the Taurus — Anchiale was for centuries the depot of Tar-
sus, and received siich vessels as could not by their size enter the lake ; and it con-
tinued to serve as the port of Tarsus in after ages until modern times, when Kaisanli
was chosen for its proximity ; and lately JIarsmah has been preferred to either for the
safety of its roadstead, and is rising into the notice of the commercial world.
* The partiality that Sardanapalus seems to have evinced to Anchiale was natural
enough ; it was to him, with its wide expanse of sea, what the Indian Ocean would
have been to Alexandei-, — the fin-thest point of his conquest: for in the Bay of Issus
the land may be seen on the other side ; while at Anchiale the Eastern monarch might
have considered himself as having reached the farthest bounds of his Western World.
From this place, which he prided himself on ha%-ing built in one day, he could look on
the broad blue sea, and ordain that his tomb should there be foi-mcd, where it might
remain as a monument of his grandeur, washed by the waves that alone impeded his
conquest. There is a ruin at Karadoghar which may be supposed to foi-m a part of
this monument ; and the whole coast is lined with buildings that are now broken down
and covered with sand by the sea, which has retired full a himdrcd yards : these must
have served for quays, and greatly facilitated the landing of goods, which now have to
wait the calming of the wind and sea. When we see the gigantic works of the ancients,
wherein they si)ared no trouble for the smallest good, wo cannot but wonder at the
vastness of population which enabled them to carry out such undei-takings. Wc might
well take a lesson of perseverance from theii- example.
f Professor Grotefenu states, that after Shalmancser king of Assyria had reigned
twenty-five yeare, he extended his conquests over Asia Minor, and took up his abode
in the city of Taniikan, a strong place in Etlak, by which perhaps Tarsus in Cilicia is
meant, of the building of which by Sennacherib a fabulous account is given V>y Alex-
ander Polyhistor and Abydcnus in the Armenian version of Eusebius. After he had
introduced into that place the worship of Assarde (Astarte) or NLsroch, and received
gold and silver, com, sheep, and oxen as a tribute, he reduced the neighbouring pro-
THE PROPHET DAXIEL'S TOMB. 17
liands of the 3Iedes, and so continued until the reign of Cyaxares, B.C. 624,
■when the barbarous hordes of Scythians overran all Central Asia, and
overturned the government. After remaining twenty-eight years in
possession, the Scythians Avere in their turn driven out, their chiefs be-
ing murdered by Cyaxares at a feast. The Medes then recovered that
power which the invaders had lost by their licentiousness and ignorance
of civil administration.
As Daniel the Prophet flourished about this time (550 B.C.), I take
the opportunity here of stating a remarkable circumstance connected
with an Armenian tradition in the country. The Turks hold in great
veneration a tomb which they believe contains the bones of this prophet,
situated in an ancient Christian church, converted into a mosque, in the
centre of the modern town of Tarsus. The sarcophagus is said to be
shont forty feet below the surface of the present soil, in consequence of the
accumulation of earth and stones ; and over which a stream flows from
the Cydnus river, of comparatively modern date. Over this stream, at
the particular spot where the sarcophagus was (before the canal was
cut and the waters went over it), stands the ancient church above men-
tioned ; and to mark the exact spot of the tomb below, a wooden monu-
ment has been erected in the Turkish style.* The waters of this ri\T.ilet
are turned off" every year in the summer, in order to clear the bed of the
canal; and if ever this country falls into the hands of a civilised nation,
it will not be difiicult to verify the authenticity of this tradition, which
the fanaticism of the Turks now prevents us from doing. HoAvever
extraordinary this may appear, and difficult as it may be to establish
the identity of this sarcophagus as containing the relics of the jvophet,
without the assistance of history or inscription, little doubt can be enter-
tained of the existence of a tomb oi some holf/ personage, or of one whose-
memory was held sacred, from the Avell-known permanence of oral tra-
dition in the East ; and it is a remarkable instance of the tenacity by
which events are rescued from oblivion, and the power of tradition to
record the exact locality, at so great a depth under the accumulated
ruins of so many years. f
%'inces to subjcctiou, and appointed Akliarrizadon or Assarhaddon as king over them.
Tlds is one of the triumphs supposed to be alluded to in the celebrated obelisk of Nim-
rud or Athiu-. — W. F. A.
* This monument is covered with an embroidered cloth, and stands in a special
apartment built for it, from the iron -grated windows of which it may occasionally be
seen when the Armenians take occasion to make their secret devotions ; but generally
a curtain is dropped to hide it from %-ulgar ^iew, and add by exclusion to the sanctity
of the place.
+ The bm-ial-place of the prophet Daniel is not historically known. Epiphanius says
C
18 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
It is a curious coincidence that the supposed tomb of Daniel the Pro-
phet at Susa is said to be, Hke the one above described, iinder a running
stream. Tliis Avould prove the great increase of alluvial deposits in the
East. (Vide Journal of the Rojal Geofjraplncal Society, vol. ix. ; article
by Colonel Eawlinson.)
Diu'ing the anarchy attendant on the wars of the Medes with their
neighbours the Babylonians and Persians, CiUcia became independent;
for we are informed by Herodotus that (B.C. 548) Croesus king of
Lydia subjected almost all the nations which are situated on this side
the river Halys. The CiUcians and Lycians alone were not brought
under his yoke; and Ave find them again (b.c. 50-1) governed by their
own kings and increasing in maritime power, but subject to pay tribute
to Darius Hystaspes, third king of the Persian monarchy, who divided
his dominions into satrapies, of Avhich Cilicia was the foruth. The
CiUcians were obliged to furnish 3G0 white horses and 500 talents of
silver annually: of these, 140 were appointed for the payment of the
cavalry who formed the guard of the country; the remaining 360 talents
were received by Darius. On the resolution taken by Darius (b.c. 490)
to invade Greece, Datis and Artaphernes his nephews were ordered to
man a fleet and collect an army for the purpose. Accordingly they
proceeded to Aleium in Cihcia, a plain at the mouth of the river
Pyramus* and near the port of INIallos (Kara-Tash), where they col-
lected a large body of infantry ; here they were soon joined by a numer-
ous reinforcement of marines, agreeably to the orders which had been
given ; and soon after, the vessels Avhich the preceding year Darius had
commanded his tributaries to supply having ai-rived, the cavalry and
troops embarked and j^roceeded to Ionia, in a fleet of six hundred tri-
remes, or three-oared galleys.
that he died at Babylon ; and he is followed in this by the generality of historians.
Monumentally and traditionally, however, the tomb designated as that of Daniyali
Akbar, "the gi-eatcr Daniel," at Sus, ancient Susa, in Siisiaua, records the btirial-
place of " God is my judge." The gi-eat Saracenic building 'which adorns the site at
the present day in Sus or Shush, is represented in the Baron de Bode's Travels iu
LuHstan and Arahistan (vol. ii. p. 188). It is also described by Major Rawlinson in
the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (vol. ix. p. 83). The JIajor s^joke of
sacred fish being also preserved at the spot. Layard (ibid. vol. s.vi. p. 61) says that
the small stream which washes the tomb certainly contains fish, but he docs not believe
that they are generally esteemed sacred. A black stone or aerolite, such as played so
consiiicuoiis a part in the early religions of the Semitic nations, is preserved there.
Great suspicion as to the intentions of Europeans towards this sacred stone is imfor-
tunately entertained by the guardians of the monument. — W. F. A.
* The Aleian Plain has always stood prominent in the histoiy of Cilicia. Pliny
calls it Campus Aleius. Strabo relates that Plulotas led the cavalry attached to the
Macedonian army under Ale.\ander the Great, 'A\>;ioi' ndiov, "over the Alciun Plain."
INVASION OF GREECE BY THE PERSIANS. 19
Xerxes, son of Darius, on undertaking (b.c. 484) his great expedi-
tion against Greece, exacted one hundred ships from the Cilicians, at
which epoch Herodotus says they wore helmets peculiar to their coun-
try, and small bucklers made of the untanned hides of oxen ; they had
also tunics of avooI, and each man had two spears and a sword, not un-
like those of Egypt. At a council called by Xerxes before the battle
of Salamis, Artemisia, ciueen of Halicarnassus, spoke very disparagingly
of the Cilicians, as a people addicted to piracy and not to be trusted,
and on whom no reliance could be placed. Whatever may have been the
character of many of the Greek colonies of the coast, it is certain that
the inhal)itants of Tarsus maintained a fair reputation in their com-
mercial transactions, and which Avas absolutely necessary to them in
their intercourse with foreigners.
At the death of Xerxes (b.c. 410), Cilicia remained under the
government of its own kings, but tributary to his successors Artaxerxes,
Darius Nothus, and Artaxerxes, against Avhom Cyrus the younger
revolted. Having been appointed governor of Lydia by his brother
Artaxerxes, he assembled an army (a part of which was composed of
the ten thousand Greeks whose courage and endurance have been im-
mortalised by Xenophon), and entering Cilicia, arrived at Tarsus. The
inhabitants of this city, with their king Syennesis, fled to a fastness in
the mountains, now called Nimnid ; but those of Soli and Issus, who
were near the sea, did not follow their example.
Cyrus sent for Syennesis ; but the latter replied, that he had never
put himself in the power of a superior, and would not do so now. His
wife Epyaxa, who had previously visited Cyrus in Phrygia, whither
she had been sent on a diplomatic mission to meet the conqueror, dis-
mayed by the reports regarding his formidable army, prevailed on her
husbandjo change his resolution, and the two princes met on friendly
terms. Syennesis gave Cyrus large sums of money to carry on the
war, and received in return suitable presents, with the restitution of
Arrian describes Pliilotas as leading the cavalry across the Plain to the river Pyramios.
This is important in a geographical point of ^-iew. Dionysiiis of Corinth alludes to
this Plain in the 872d verse of his poetical geography :
KcTSi b- TO Tttblov TO 'A\i;ioi/'
which_A^■ienns has rendered
"Hie cespes laieproducit Aleius arva."
It was^also on this beautiful and expansive Plain that Bellerophou wandered after his
faU from Pegasus at Tarsus :
'•' Forsook by heaven, forsaking human kind,
Wide o'er th' Aleim field he chose to st; ay,
A long, forlorn, uncomfoitalile way." W. F. A.
20 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERXOHS.
the prisoners taken by Cyrus. lie -was confirmed in las authority at
Tarsus.
We may presume that the Cilician kings during the next twenty
years sided with the Grecian colonies in the "war carried on by the
Spartans against Artaxerxes, and lost their independence; for we find,
by the " treaty of Antalcidas," that Tarsus was included among the
other cities and possessions in Asia IMinor that were ceded to the Pei'sian
monarchs.
When Alexander had carried his victorious arms into Asia (b.c. 333)^
in his march against Darius after the battle of the Granicus, he ad-
vanced to the Pylai Cilicia) (Kulak Bughaz) ; and fearing an ambiiscade,
he ordered the light- armed Thracians to advance and reconnoitre that
narrow pass, •where only a few men abreast can be admitted at a time.
He was astonished, and rejoiced at his good fortune, in finding that the
Persians had not availed themselves of the advantages afforded them by
the natural features of the pass to make an effectual stand at this im-
portant post, which a handful of men could defend, and hurl destruction
on the invaders by throwing stones and other missiles from the heights
above. This neglect on their part surprised him, but it was nothing
more than Avhat was to be expected; for the few Persian soldiers left
there as a guard by Arsanes on his retreat, after laying waste the
country, had fled in consternation at the approach of the formidable in-
vader ; and the Cilicians were so ready to throw oft' the Persian yoke,
and to hail the Greeks their fellow-countrymen, that they never thought
of offering any opposition. From this place the Macedonian hero marched
his whole army to Tarsus, and arrited just in time to save it from de-
struction, as the Persians had set fire to the city, to prevent his becom-
ing master of the treasures it contained.
It was here that Alexander nearly lost his life by bathing in the cold
waters of the Cyduus, a river which passes by this town, and which i)i sum-
mer is nearly all of melted snow, flowing from the neighbouring lieights
of Mount Taurus ; and here it was he gave an instance of that magnani-
mity of spirit which fonned so distinguishing a feature in his chai-acter,
by shewing perfect confidence in his physician Philip, and drinking off' the
medicine he administered, in utter disregard of the insimuitions made to
influence him against a faithful servant, and which accused the i)hysi-
cian of having been bribed by Darius to poison him.
From this place, having sent liis cavalry imdcr Philotas across the
Alcian i)lain to the banks of the Pyramus, where he ordered a bridge to
be prepared, he proceeded to Soli, where he laid the inhabitants tinder
a contribution of 200 talents, and evinced in what contempt he held the
ALEXANDEU THE GREAT— ISSUS. 21
'barbarians, by entertaining his followers with games in honour of J^scu-
lapius and Minerva; he then proceeded along the coast to jMcgarsns, and
from thence to IMallos.
This latter place, situated on a height according to Strabo, " was
founded by Amphilocus and jMopsus, who having slain one another in
single combat, were buried so that the tomb of the one should not be
visible from that of the other." He next proceeded to Issus, the scene
of the memorable battle which decided the fate of the Persian empire ;
for soon after, by the battle of Arbela (b.c. 330), Darius Avas dethroned,
and with him terminated the line of Assyrian and Persian kings, Avhich
had lasted two hundred and nine years from Cyrus.*
* According to Plutarch, Daiius was encouraged by Alexander's long stay in Cilicia,
— wliick he regarded as the efiect of his fears, instead of tracing it to its true cause,
sickness, — to march across the mountains into C'ihcia in quest of his adversarj-. " But
happening to miss each other in the night, they both turned back ; Alexander re-
joicing in his good fortune, and hastening to meet Darius in the straits, while Darius
was eiideavom-ing to disengage liimself and recover his former camp." This descrip-
tion of the two armies passing one another in the night intlicates that Dai-ius had
eflected the passage before Alexander had reached the Sjaian Gates, and that the
armies passed one another in the i-egion of Urzin, and where are now the supposed
ruins of Epiphanea ; the Macedonians keeping the coast, the Persians occupying the
interior. Calisthencs says, in the fragments of Polybius (lib. xii. cap. 8), that Alex-
ander liad reached the straits which are called the Cihcian Gates, when Darius arrived
with his army at the Amanian Gates. The philosopher of Oljmthus evidently meant
the CUician and Spian Gates of Xenophon (Markaz Kalasi), and not the Cilician
Gates (Kulak Bughaz). Quintus Curtius (lib. iii. cap. 8) saj-s, " The same night
that Alexander arrived at the straits by which Syria is ajiproached, Darius arrived at
that place which is called the Amanian Gates." Arrian (Ub. ii. p. 94) also says,
" Darius having crossed the mountain irheve are the Amanian Gates, advanced to-
wards Issus ; Alexander having impiiidently left him in his rear." Most scholars have
read tu kuti'j xat n^Xar 'A/ianKti? as " near to the Amanian Gates ;" but others have
argued that i^aru with the accxisative establishes identity, as in Kara tJ/i/ x^'P"-" eKtivnv
(Luc. XV. 14), " in that region," as well as "near to."
Thus, according to one version, the pass of Darius over the Amanus is identified
with the road given in the Antoame Itlnerart] as leading from Nicopolis to Zeugma
on the Euphrates, and is called the Amanian Gates : according to the other, the road
i-emains the same, but Darius is made to descend near to the " Amanian Gates," now
called Tamir Kapu, or Iron Gates. Arrian relates that Darius having advanced to
Issus, he took that city and slew whatever Macedonians had remained behind, and
the next day he advanced to the river Pinarus. Having heard that Alexander was
about to retrace his steps and give the Persians battle, he sent fifty thousand horsemen
across the river to keep the Macedonians at bay till the remainder of the army could
take up its position. According to Plutarch, Alexander, whose army was small in
comparison with that of Darius, took care to cb-aw it up so as to prevent its being
sm-roundcd, by stretching out his right wing beyond the enemy's left. In that wing
lie acted in person, and fighting in the foremost ranks, put the barbarians to flight.
Cicero (lib. v. ad Attic, epist. 20) speaks of a castle that Alexander occupied in the
same neighbourhood. " We held for some days," he says, " a castle, the very same
that Alexander held against Darius near to Issus."
Thi-ee streams descend from the Amanus in the regions here alluded to, The most
22 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
nortlierly is called the Dali Chai, mad or swift livcr ; the central, Kui Chai, river of
the \Tllage ; and the southerly, Yiislah Chai, from a \-illage of that name : all unite to
form the ancient Pinarus before reaching the sea. The -village of Yuslah has been iden-
tified by some w-ith Issus, from a remote analogy of name ; but it is certain fi-om the
description of the movements of Darius as above given from Arrian, that Issus was north
of the Pinai-us. Strabo also says, " After iEg:e comes Issus, and then the Pinaiais."
In the %-illages north of the Pinarus there are to the present daj' plenty of remains of
antiqvutj', — hewn stones, fragments of columns and jiilasters, Mezes, &c., especially in
the Muhammadan cemeteries, — to indicate the site of a city which was poijulous and
opulent in the times of Xenophon, and once gave its name to the gulf of Alexandretta,
but -which was succeeded m the time of tlie Romans by Epijihanea, Baia;, and other
towns and stations, and in modern times by Iskandnin — Alexander's favoui-ite little
site. The distances given by Xenophon are satisfactory so far as regards the posi-
tioning of Issus. The army of Cyi-us marched in two days fifteen parasangs, or thirty-
five geographical miles, from the PjTamus to Issus ; and from Issus, in one march, five
parasangs, or fifteen geographical miles, to the gates of CUicia and Sjnia. These
distances would place Issus a little northward of the Dali Chai. The coui-se of this river
has, liowever, been explored by the annotator from Yuslah to where it issues from the
mountains, without any trace being discovered of the altars said by Quintus Cm-tiiis to
have been erected by Alexander on the banks of the Pinanis. It is more likely that
these were erected at the spot which Alexander had i-eached before he turned back to
engage ^vith the enemy ; and that they are represented by the massive marble ruin
called Sakal Tutan by the Tiu-ks, Jonas's Pillars by English sailors, and Bomitte or
altars by Pliny. Mr. W. B. Barker has in the present work identified Issus with
Bayas, the Baiae of the Romans (Bais, Antonine Itinerartj), sixteen Roman miles from
Alexandria. The details above given will explain the various reasons for which we dif-
fer from him on this point. It must not bo omitted here that INIr. Edward B. B. Barker,
her Britannic Majesty's Vice-Consid at Suwaidiyah, informs me that he has traversed
the Amanus in the du-cction which Darius took to arrive in the rear of the Macedo-
nians ; that it is a hUly, rough, and exceedingly stony country, the road being rendered
especially difficvdt by rounded stones, but that it is not all mountainous. This accords
with the impressions received by contemplating the Amanus from the acclivities of
the Taurus above Adana. The mountainous character of the range ceases abruptly
beyond the parallel of the most north-easterly extent of the Gulf of Alexandretta.
The position of the various " gates" or mountain passes will be best understood by
reference to the map ; but to facilitate the reader's comprehension, they are as follow,
proceeding from Asia Minor :
The Ctlician Gates. Pass of Tauras, Kulak Bughaz.
The Amanian Gates. Tamir Kapn, or Iron Gate of the Turks : a Cyclopean arch,
where the hills come down to the sea-side at the head of the gulf.
The Cappadociap, Gates. The pass descrilx;d by Strabo and explored by the Eu-
phrates Expedition, leading through Taunis to Marash, ancient Germanicia.
Darius's Pass. Across the Amanus, north of Issus and near to (kutc'c) the Amanian
Gates; probably the same road which is given in the Antonine Itinerary as
leading from Castibala to the Euphrates by Nicopolis, Aliaria, and Gerbidisson.
Gates of CUicia and >Si/ria of Xenojihon. Ruins near Markaz Kalasi, and at
Sakal Tutan (Jonas's Pillars of some writci-s, Bomita; or altars of Pliny).
Gates of ,Si/ria. I'ass of Bailan, Pictanus of the Jerusalem Itinerary, Erana of
Cicero.— W. F. A.
CHAPTER II.
PLISTARCHUS — BATTLE OF IPSUS PTOLEMY EVERGETES AKTIOCHUS THE
GREAT ZENO AND CHRYSIPPUS CILICIA UNDER THE SELEUCID^ IN-
VADED BY TIGRANES REDUCED TO A ROMAN PROVINCE BY POMPEY
CICERO's CAMPAIGN IN CILICIA — MARC ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA AT TARSUS
CILICIA INVADED BY THE PARTHIANS UNDER LABIENUS — ATHENODORUS
— VONONES SLAIN IN CILICIA ST. PAUL INSURRECTION OF THE CLI-
TEANS COSSUATIANUS PAPITO GOVERNOR — POLEMON, KING OF CILICIA,
MARRIES BERENICE CILICIA DECLARED A ROMAN PROVINCE IN VESPASIAN's
TIME FATE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE DECIDED ON THE PLAIN OF ISSUS.
After the death of Alexander, in the struggles for power carried on by
his successors, Cilicia, like the other countries of Asia Minor, was over-
run by the armies which they levied to oppose one another, and was the
scene of war and bloodshed for several years, till it fell into the hands of
Plistarchus brother of Cassander, and Demetrius son of Antigonus, and
who ruled there until Antigonus, who had made himself master of all
Syria, was killed by the forces under Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and
Seleucus Nicator, at the battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia. Cilicia then fell to
the share of this last-mentioned general, and formed part of the empire
founded by him, and known in history as that of the Seleucida?.
Ptolemy Evergetes, the third of that name king of Egypt, invaded
Syria and Cilicia (b.c. 245), and wrested the government from Antiochus
Theos, grandson of Seleucus, in revenge for the ill-treatment of Berenice
his sister, whom he had married ; and this country remained tributary to
the Egyptian dynasty during the reigns of the two siicceeding kings of
Syria, Seleucus Callinicus and Seleucus Ceracenos.
Antiochus, surnamed the great, their successor (in the year B.C. 233),
not only re-established the power of the Seleucidte in Syria and Cilicia,
but also colonised the whole coast of Asia Minor (of doubtful fidelity) with
Jews from Babylon and Palestine, from whom Avere descended the multi-
tudes of Israelites scattered through those regions at the first preaching
of the gospel, and among whom none more illustrious than the Apostle
of the Gentiles ; and thus Antiochus was an instrumen tin the hand of
divine Providence in laying the foundation of the Seven Churches which
take so prominent a part in the history of early Christianity.
24 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERXOES.
About tLis date (e.c. 207) floiirislied Zeno, a philosopher of Tarsus,
and Chrysippus, a native of Soli, an adjoining town,* who was a disci-
ple of " Zeno the Stoic," and Cleanthus his successor; but being of a
sophistical turn, he departed from some of the principles of these philo-
sophers. He was nevertheless considered the most conspicuous ornament
and the most zealous and able defender of the Stoics, so much so that
"Xisi Clirysippiis ftiisset, Porticus non esset/'
passed into a proverb. Some accuse him of incongruity, and say that he
contradicted himself, as he did not act according to the evil maxims he
inculcated. He wrote upwards of 300 books, on such various subjects
that he appears, like Voltaire, to have aspired to be considered a universal
genius. He admitted the possibility of a resurrection of the body, and
maintained the mutability of the gods : even Jupiter Avas not to be ex-
empted at the destiTiction of the universe. He died in the 81st year of
his age, laughing at an ass eating figs out of a silver plate.
During the reign of Antiochi^s Epiphanes, son of Antiochus the
Great (b.c. 175), the Cilicians revolted, and the king went in person to
quell the insurrection; which when he had accomplished, he returned to
Antioch, then become the seat of empire.
In the civil wars which disgraced the reigns of the succeeding kings,
and the bloody contests they maintained from time to time with the
Ptolemies of Egypt, we find little of note occurring in Cilicia luitil the
* Soli was, according to Strabo, a city next in renown to Issus, founded by the
Acheans and Lindians of Rhodes. Polyliius also speaks of the ambassadoi-s from
Rhodes and from the city of Soli in Cilicia coming together to the senate, as theu*
interests were the same. When Pomi^ey subjected the pirates of the coast, he ap-
pointed this city as their chief dwelling-place, and changed its name to Pompciopolis.
Ptolemy says (hb. v. cap. 8) noyuTrcjoiTroXir /) Kal 36\oi, Pompeiopolis, formerly Soli.
The Latins often preserved the Greek diphthong : tlius Pomponius Mela says nunc
Poinpeiopoliit, tunc Sola; PUny also, Salic Cilicii, huhc Pompeiojxjlis. Tacitus (An-
nal. ii. cap. 58) speaks of Vonones Uiking up his quarters there ; and Dion Cassius
(lib. xxxvi. p. IS) relates that the same city was devastated by Tigi-ancs. Strabo
makes Soli tlie fii-st city (from the westward) of CiUcia Campestris ; but Ptolemy seems
more correct in naming Corycus. Livy and Plinj' speak of Soli as a colony of Argives
as well as Khodians. The word "solecism," o-oXoikkt/hoc, solcecismus, adopted in our
language from the Greek or Roman, took its origin, according to Strabo, from the
barbarian dialect of this city.
The site of Soli, now called Mazatlu, is distinguished at the present day l\v many
interesting remains of antiijuity. Among these especially is the beautiful harbour or
basin, with i)arallel sides and circular ends, entirely artificial, and minutely described
by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort in his work on Koramania. There are also remains
of a most noble jiortico ojioning to a double row of two hundred columns, once imited
by arches, forty- four of which are now standing; an elevated theatre, city- walls
strengthened l>y numerous towers, an aqueduct, and other detached ruins, tombs, and
sarcojihagi. — W. F. A.
INVASION OF TIGIiANES — rOMTEY. 2.5
reign of Seleucus the sixth. This monarch fled from Antiochus Pius,
and took refuge at INEopsuestia in CiHcia; where endeavouring to levy
money from the people, he Avas burnt together Avith his followers in his
palace by the revolted populace, who were excited to so severe an act of
vengeance hy his tyranny. IMopsuestia is now a small village called
Missis on the banks of the Saihun (Pyramus), and on the high road
from Constantinople to Antioch.*
Tigranes, king of Armenia (c.c. G9), son-in-law of INIithridates, dur-
ing the latter part of these civil wars had laid waste Cilicia, and carried
away the inhabitants of Soli, with many others, to colonise and people
Tigranocerta, a city he had founded in Armenia and made his capital,
and Avhich Lucullus, the Roman general, took with great difficulty, and
found there 8000 talents in ready money.|
B.C. 68. The vast body of pirates who had infested the Avhole of the
Mediterranean during the war with Carthage had become formidable to
the Romans, by intercepting the vessels laden with wheat and other
provisions into Rome, and committing many great excesses. They pos-
sessed a thousand galleys and 400 cities in different parts of the Medi-
terranean, and hired themselves as subsidiaries to Mithridates, king of
Pontus, with Avhom the Romans were then at war. Pompey was sent
with the fullest powers that were ever given to a Roman citizen against
them, and set out in a fleet of 500 ships and with 120,000 inen. He
divided his forces into thirteen squadrons, which he sent to different
parts of the Mediterranean, and followed them iip into Cilicia, Avhich they
had made their chief place of resort, and where they had fortified many
places which they considered impregnable. After various engagements
* Mopsuestia, more correctly wi-itten by Strabo Mopsi Hestia, the house or abode
of Mopsus the poet and soothsayer, was a holy city and an asylum, and became froe
tinder the Romans, bj' whom it was enlarged and embellished in the time of Hadrian.
It was also, as we learn from Procopius, remarkable for its magnitude and splendour
in the middle ages ; and Abu-al-fada relates that 200,000 Moslems were devoted to
death or slaverj- in this city by Nicephoras Phocas and John Ximisces. A gi-eat
many misrepresentations, regarding both the situation of this city and its name, exist
in the Byzantine writers, and are also propagated by Gibbon. It is now a mere A-illage
of about a himdred houses, known as Missisah, vid(/o Missis, situate on the right bank
of the river, connected with a mass of ruined dwelling-houses and a caravansarai on
the other, by a bridge constructed in part of old materials, and from among which
I copied a Greek inscription now in Colonel Chesney's possession, and possibly the
same as that given by Gruter (p. 255, num. 4). There is also a large ancient mound
or timaulus that might be worth excavatmg. — W. F. A.
f A careful consideration of all the circumstances connected with the details of the
campaign of Lucullus against Tigranes have led me to identify Tigranocerta with the
Amida of the Byzantines, now Dyar-Bakir. {Travels and lieseairhes in, Asia Minor,
<i'c., vol. ii. p. 362.) St. Martin .says that all the Annenian writers consider Tigrano-
certa the same as Amida, also called Dorbeta by Ptolemy. — W. F. A.
26 CILICIA AND ITS OOYERNORS.
carried on for three months, Pompey overthrew the pirates in a pitched
battle, by sea and land, at Coracesium, noAv Kui'kass,* and took ninety
men-of-war and 20,000 prisoners. This multitude of men he compelled
to relinquish their roving and desperate life, and caused them to settle
and people the cities which had l^een laid Avaste by Tigranes in Cilicia,
particularly Soli, which was rebuilt by him and to which he gave his
name, and which was afterwards called " Pompeiopolis" on that ac-
count.f
B.C. 65. The kingdom of Syria had been restored by Lucullus to
Antiochus Asiaticus on the expulsion of Tigranes, king of Armenia;
but four years after, Pompey, who was called upon to settle the intestine
broils and foctions of the royal family, dethroned Antiochus, on pretence
that he, who had concealed himself while an ustirper sat upon his throne,
was not worthy of being a king. Syria and Cilicia, with their depen-
dencies, were then constituted Roman provinces ; and with this last scion
of royalty terminated the dynasty of the Seleucidae, which had lasted
257 years. Occasionally the governors named by the senate were, how-
over, allowed to retain the title of kings, as we shall see later.
Cicero Avas named proconsul of the province of Cilicia B.C. 50, and
set sail from Rome with 12,000 foot and 2600 horse ; and by prudence
and good government he effected the reduction of Cappadocia to the
authority of Artobazanes. Cicero's administration was remarkable for
the moderation and integrity he displayed; for, although " he drove out
the thieves which infested mount Amanus," avc do not find any brilliant
action recorded; and on his return he refused the triumph which the
senate wished to decree him, saying he preferred to see differences set-
tled and parties reconciled to each other.!
* Coracesium was, according to Strabo, the first town of Cilicia Asj^era; and the
baiTcn ridges of Mount Taurus, which come down to the shore, sufficiently indicate the
beginninf^ of that nigged coast. Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort identifies Coracesium
with the town and promontory of Alaya, where he found the remains of a Cyclopean
wall, a few broken columns (the remains of Christian churches), and other fragments
of antiiiuity. Sir Francis Beaufort says, in allusion to this last stand made at Corace-
sium by the pirates against the Romans, that certainly no place in the whole coast was
so well calculated to arrest the march of a conqueror, or to bid defiance to a fleet, a.^
this commanding and almost insulated rock. — W. F. A.
f Apj)ian (Mithridates, p. 394) also mentions Mallus, Adana, and Epiphanea, as
cities which the pirates wore made to colonise. — W. F. A.
X The movements of Cicero in Cilicia require much careful study. The gi*eater
number of sites mentioned by the then proconsul are even now unknown. In his 20tli
Epistle (lib. v. ad Attic.) he describes himself as proceeding from Tarsus to that por-
tion of Amanus which divides the waters between Cilicia and Syria. This would ap-
parently coincide with the actual Gawiu- Tagh. This is furtlier demonstrated by his
occxipying there a castle (which was foiTnerly hold by Alexander) near Issus, and
ilARC ANTHONY AND CLEOPATRA AT TARSUS. 27
B.C. 41. We must not omit, in thus hastily recapitulating the prin-
cipal events which took place in Cilicia, to notice the visit of Cleopatra
to Tarsus, whither she went to meet jMarc Anthony, and which meeting
has been commemorated by the immortal bard of Avon. The Egyptian
queen arrived and sailed up the Cydnus in a galley, the prow of which
was inlaid Avith gold, the sails of purple silk, and the oars of silver, and
the latter were made to beat time to the music of flutes and oboes.
Under a canopy of cloth- of-gold curiously embroidered, Cleopatra was
seen reposing, dressed as Vemis is generally represented, with beautiful
little boys like cupids around her, who fanned her, while her maids
habited as sea-nymphs were employed, some steering the rudder, some
working the ship, at the same time that perfumes exhaled from the
vessel, and wafted by the breezes diffused themselves along the. shore.
Fancy can alone portray to the imagination the glowing descriptions
given of this pageant, which attracted such crowds of all classes that
Anthony was left on his throne alone,
" Whistling to the air, which but for vacancy
Had gone to gaze on Cleopatra too.
And made a gap in nature."
Her entertainments, rendered particularly remarkable by an ingenious
display of brilliant lights, so tar exceeded any thing of the kind even in
that luxurious age, that Anthony was astonished, and avowed himself
outdone. He was subsequently induced by her artifices to make her a
grant of the fine pasture-lands in Upper Cilicia, " the noble cedar-woods
against the Persians. From thence the proconsul ascended into Amanus and devas-
tated the countr}'. In the 4th Epistle to Cato, book xv., he says, that having pacified
Amanus, he simulated leaving the momitain, and removed the distance of a day's march
to a castle near Epiphanea. Tliis would therefore api^ear to correspond to the castel-
lated ruin which is seen about two miles south of the ruins of Epiphanea. Erana cor-
responds to Baylan. The sites called Sepyra, Commorin, and Pomtino, all in Ama-
nus, are unknown. The subjection of this portion of the Amanus having been effected
by the destruction and bm-ning of these strongholds, Cicero proceeded to Pindenissus,
which he says was in Eleutherocilicum, and inhabited by the Eleutherocilieians, a people
who were never subject to kings (15 ad Fam. Epis. iv. and v. ad Att. 20). Pindenissus
has been identified by Mr. Barker with Sis ; and as it is described as situated on so
lofty and well-fortified a site, this is very probably a correct identification. Colonel
Chesney and the annotator visited the ruins of two ancient castles north of Sis in the inte-
rior of the mountains, one of which was called Kara Sis, or the Black Sis, and the other
Andal Kalah, and one of which probably represents the i"la\-iada placed in the Itinerary
from Cscsarea in Cappadocia to Anazarba, eighteen Roman miles north of the latter.
This is an interesting and unexplored route, on which the sites of Przetorium, Badinum,
Laranda, and Cocuso remain to be discovered. The Flaviada of the Itinerary is called
Flaviopolis by Ptolemy, Flavias by Hierocles and by Callistus, who says (lib. xiv.
cap. xxxix. p. 529), <i>\"/3(ac etniv vTTo Ti;i''Ai'ut<<p/Jr)9 ^fiTpojroXii/, as if it was bclow or south
of the metropolis of Anazarba. — W. F. A.
28 CILICIA AXD ITS GOYERyORS.
above Syedra,"* the iron-mines of Amaxia, and adjacent harbour for a
fleet, in short all the mountainous part of Cilicia except Seleucia (Selef-
keh), famed for its admirable police.
On the departure of Anthony for Egypt (b.c. 39), Labienus, a Roman
officer Avho had enlisted in the Parthian service, and Mas chosen com-
mander of the Parthian forces lander Pacorus, the youthful son of their
king Orodes, took advantage of the dissolute manner of life Anthony
was leading at Alexandria, and the disorder and discontent in the pro-
vinces, to march with a large army into Cilicia, and from thence to
Caria, reducing all the Asiatic towns one after another, and making him-
self master of all Asia Minor, except Stratonicia, a Macedonian colony
defended by its impregnable situation. Yentidius, Anthony's lieutenant-
general, was sent against this formidable force, and he surprised La-
bienus in Cilicia, Avhere a battle was fought, though not a decisive one ;
but Labienus was killed by a skirmishing party in the moimtains,
whither he had fled. The Parthians, under Barzaphernes, the next in
command, rallied and seized a narrow pass betAA'een the meeting ridges
of Mount Amanus and the Taurus (now on the road to Mar'asli from
Adana), where the passage is so narrow that a Avail was built across,
and gates put up to impede the further progress of Yentidius, but unsuc-
cessfully, that general having overcome this obstacle and obtained a
brilliant A-^ictory. Barzaphernes Avas killed, his Avhole army cut to pieces,
and the victor passed on to meet Pacorus, who had assembled a large
army and crossed the Euphrates: a complete rout of the Parthian forces
and the death of Pacorus Avere the result. The Romans recoA'ered the
possession of Syria and Cicilia, and carried the terror of their anns, under
Sosius and Canidius, two of Anthony's generals, over the whole country,
and even to Mount Caucasus.
At the battle of Actium (c.c. 31), among the other tributary kings
Avho supported Anthony against Augustus Avas Tarchondemus, king of
Cilicia, Avho contributed to his assistance principally by a fleet of ships ;
and this leads me to notice the fcAV remaining kings avIio, luider the
* Tvip!;, or Sydra, of Strabo, and Sicipa, or Syedra, of Ptolemy ; next to\vn on tlio
shore cast of Coracesium, and identified by Sir Francis Beaiifort with ruins of a some-
what imposing appearance seen on the summit of a steep hill, whose ragged ascent from
the sea-shore deten-cd the na\igator from visiting it. Amaxia or Hamaxia comes next
in order in Strabo to Syedra, but in Ptolemy it is lotape. Sir Francis Beaufort found
plenty of rained sites in this neighbourhood, but no inscriptions to identify them. It
would be well worth some modern traveller's time to give us better descriptions, with
drawings, of this part of the coast, so replete with antiquarian interest, and which
abounds in relics of past times. — W. F. A.
From tliis i)lace a great ileal of timber is now yearly exported to Egj^jt.
ATIIENODORUS THE rniLOSoniER. 29
Roman protectorate, were permitted to rule the coimtry, paying tri-
bvite to the mihtary governor of Syria. Subseqiiently we lind that
Augustus deposed Philopater, son of Tarchondemus, and placed his
younger brother, who bore the same name as his father, in autho-
rity (B.C. 4).
Augustus, victorious over all his enemies, shut the gates of the
temple of Janus; mankind enjoyed a respite from anarchy and strife;
and the eventful period arrived to which so many prophecies referred;
— the long-looked-for and now anxiously expected Messiah was ushered
into the Avorld, Throughout the whole globe the sound of war ceased
to be heard, and the emperor swayed the sceptre of that vast empire,
to which so many nations Avere tributary, Avith moderation and justice.
I must here notice Athenodorus (Sandon), preceptor of Augustus, na-
tive of Tarsus, and one of the wisest philosophers and best men of the age,
to whom virtue gave that dignity and Aveight which alloAved of his taking
liberties Avith his illustrious pupil. Athenodorus had often Avarned him,
not only of the infamy, but also of the danger attendant on his dissolute
life. Finding his expostulations useless, he resolved on carrying his
reproofs home, and speaking directly to his senses. AVith this vicAv
he put himself into a litter and caused himself to be carried into the
emperor's apartment, at the hour appointed for the reception of one of
his fair visitors. Augustus lifted up the curtain, Avhen, of a siidden,
the philosopher sprang out Avith a draAvn SAVord in his hand, Avhich he
pointed at his piipil's throat. The emperor fell back in consternation,
Avhen Athenodorus exclaimed, " Noav, Cassar, are you not afraid that
this stratagem, of Avhich I make an innocent use, may be used by some
other person to take aAvay your life ? " The remedy was a bold one, but
adapted to the evil, and had its effect, at the same time that it increased
the esteem and confidence of the pupil in his master.* On retiring in his
old age from the court, Athenodorus left Aiigustus, at his request, as the
best legacy, the admirable advice, " When you find anger rising Avithin
you, repeat the tAventy-four letters of the alphabet before you speak or
act." There was another Athenodorus of Cilicia, an older man, of
the Stoic school, and preceptor to M. Cato, son of Cato the censor.
* Dion Cassius, Zonaras, and Zozimus attribute to Athenodorus (surnamed Cana-
nites, from Cana in Cilicia, a site I am unacquainted with, the bii-thplace of liis father,
whose name was Sandon, but himself a native of Tarsus) these freedoms with Octa-
vianus, as also the expulsion from Tarsus of Bocthus, a favourite of Antonius. Tlio
memory of Athenodorus was, according to Strabo and Lucian, honom-ed by an annual
festival and sacrifice. There was also an Athenodorus surnamed Cordylio, a Stoic phi-
losopher, born at Tarsus, but who dwelt at Poi'gamus and Kome ; and an Athenodorus
of Soh, a disciple of Zenon. — W. F. A.
30 CILICIA AXD ITS GOVERNOllS.
About tills time also flourislied Atlienajus, a peripatetic philosopher of
Cilicia.
Vonones, son of Phraotes, king of the Parthians, fled (a.d. 19) to
Creticus Silanixs, governor of Syria, driven out by an insurrection of his
subjects, in hopes of the support of the Roman republic, "which had
been promised him Avhen placed on the throne by Caius Cfesar a short
time before. Silanus at first favoured his claims, but afterwards thought
jjroper to secure his person, and left him, under a strong guard, to enjoy
the title of king and the parade of royalty. He was sent, by order of
Germanicus, to Soli or Pompeiopolis, whence he attempted to escape into
Scythia, with the hopes of obtaining assistance from the reigning king, his
near relation. With this intent he went on a hunting party, and having
Avatched his opportunity he betook himself to flight, and turning ofif
from the sea-coast he struck into the woods,* and rode at full speed
towards the river Pyramus. The inhabitants on the first alarm demo-
lished the bridges. The river Avas not fordable; and Vonones, found
wandering along the banks, was, by order of Yibius Fronto, the com-
mander of the cavalry, loaded Avith fetters. He did not long sundve;
for Eemnius, a veteran avIio had been entrusted Avith the custody of his
person, in a sudden transport of pretended passion, drew his SAvord
and ran the unhappy prince through the body. It Avould seem that
this man had been bribed to favour the king's escape, and rather than
be detected as an accomplice preferred to be an assassin.
In the next year (a.d. 20), Cneius Piso, after having poisoned Ger-
manicus by means of his agents, afraid to face his accusers at Rome,
Avhither he had been summoned by Cneius Sentius, fled to Cilicia, and
by circular letters demanded siiccour from the petty kings of the neigh-
bouring provinces. With a body of deserters and these auxiliaries he
seized the castle of Celendris, a stronghold on the coast of Cihcia (noAV
* Tacitus here speaks of trees in Cilicia. In the country traA-ersed by Vonones
there are now but a few trees here and there, wliich scn'c to screen from the noonday
sun the labourers who collect the abundant harvest of the plain, which might, however,
be cultivated to an iulinitely greater extent. In tliis plain of Adana and Tai-sus I have
obsen-ed the remains of ancient roads, so consti-ucted as to be much /< (V/Zu)- than the
level of the land, which bear witness to the high degree of ci\llisation to which this
country was brought. It is a stupendous work to raise roads in this way ; and they are
very numerous, crossing each other in every direction. Although they have been
allowed to go to iiiin, they are still of the gi-eatest importance, as wthout them
there would be no possibility of crossing the plains in the spring, when the heaA-y
rains that have fallen duiing the winter on the alluvial deposits, render the surface of
the coimtry so muddy that no animal can pass, and gazelles are often caught l>y the
hand of man when suiiiriscd by sudden rains into a little island surrounded by a.
marshy swamji of a ploughed field.
TARSUS — ST. PAUL. 31
Kilindriyah),* ■where lie was besieged by Sentius at the head of the
Roman legions. An engagement followed, but the victory Avas not long
in suspense, for after the Romans had forced the ascent of the hill, the
Cilicians were routed and driven back to the fortifications ; the walls
were then scaled after a vigorous resistance, and Piso desired to capi-
tulate. He offered to lay down his arms on condition that he should
remain in the castle till the Emperor Tiberius's pleasure should be
finally declared. The proposition was rejected ; but Sentius allowed
him a safe-conduct to Italy, where he met the reward due to his crimes.
About this epoch (a.d. 30) flourished Antipater of Tarsus, Avho
lived in the reign of Tiberius, and was preceptor to the philosopher
Blossius, to whom he dedicated his philosophical lectures.f
Tarsus had now become the rival of Athens and Alexandria; niunerous
schools were established there, and numbers flocked from all quarters
to profit by the lessons of the philosophers, and to study the liberal arts
and sciences. But in the numbers of the learned who have, by the
lustre of their reputation, reflected a glory over Tarsus as having been
the place of their nativity, St. Paul is the most illustrious. Born of a
good family of the sect of the Pharisees, he was early led to study elo-
quence and rhetoric, and thus laid a foiuidation for the taste and elegance
which distinguish his writings. Initiated into the arts of Grecian dis-
putation, he was well able to perform the difficult task of refuting the
sophistry of the numerous sects, and to aid in the extension of the true
doctrines he was chosen to preach ; while being enrolled a free citizen
of Rome, he b-ccame thereby a fit instrument in the hands of Providence,
from the respectability attached to that title. St. Paul chose Cilicia
as the first scene of his labours, being anxious that his townsmeii and
kinsfolk should be the first to hear the glad tidings he had to announce ;
and for several years we find him making this province of Asia Minor
the field he loved most to toil in.
* KeXt'i/^epir of Sti'abo and Ptolemy. Apolloclorus says (lib. iii. cap. xiv. iiixm. 3)
that Celenderis was biiilt bj' Sandocus, son of Astjmous. Pomponius Mela and Tacitus
write Celendris. Pliny speaks of the district of Celendritis with a town. It is generally
spoken of as a colony of Samians, with a harbom- strongly fortified and well j^rovided.
Admu-al Sir Francis Beaufort speaks of Chelindreh, or KUindriyah, the modern Celen-
deris, as a snug but very small port, from whence the coiu-iers from Constantinople to
Cyi^ms embark. Among the ruins of a fortress is a hexagonal tower, that has been rent
down the middle as if by an earthquake. There are also arched vaidts, sepulchral
houses, and sarcophagi, and near the sea-shore a cenotaph, with a single arch on each
side, supporting a pjTamidal i-oof of large stones. — W. F. A.
+ Antipater of Tarsvis was the disciple and successor of Diogenes, and the teacher of
PansBtius, B.C. 144 nearly. Plutarch speaks of him, ^Nith Zeno, Cleanthes, and C'hrysip-
pus, as one of the pi-incipal Stoic philosophers ; and Cicero mentions him as remarkable
Jfor acuteness {De Stoic, licpu^/nant. p. 144 ; Ckero de Divin. i. 3 ; de Off. iii. 12).— W. F. A.
32 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
About this time (a.d. 30), the Cliteans, a bold tribe of moun-
taineers in Cilicia, impatient of being taxed according to the system
newly practised in the Roman provinces, retreated to the heights of
Mount Tam-us; and being possessed of inaccessible fastnesses, they were
enabled to defend themselves against their sovereign and his luiwarlike
troops. To quell the insurgents, Vitellius, who was then governor of
Syria, despatched ]\[arcns Trebellins at the head of 4000 legionary
soldiers, and a select detachment of auxiliaries. The barbarians had
taken their post on two hills; the lesser was called Cadra, and the other
Davara. Trebellius enclosed both with lines of circumvallation, and all
who dared to sally out were put to the sword, and the rest were reduced
by thirst and famine.*
Sixteen years had scarcely elapsed, when, in a.d. 52, the same pre-
datory hordes, accustomed to plunder and trained to civil commotions,
assembled under Trosobor, a warlike chief, and pitched their camp
on the summit of a mountain, steep, craggy, and almost inaccessible.
From this flistness they rushed upon the plain, and stretching along
the coast, attacked the neighbouring cities. They plundered the people
and the merchants, and utterly niined the navigation and commerce
of the environs. They laid siege to the city of Anemurium, and dis-
l^ersed a body of horse, sent from Syria under Curtius Severus to the
relief of the place. These freebooters were even bold enough to hazard
a battle with the Romans; and the ground being rugged and disadvan-
tageous to cavalry and convenient only to foot-soldiers, the Romans were
totally routed. At length, Antiochus, the reigning king of the country,
gained the good-Avill of the Cliteans, and j)roccedcd by stratagem against
their leader, the confederates having been excited to disunion among
themselves. Trosobor, with his principal adherents, was put to death,
* In reference to tliis little episixlo in the history of Cilicia, it is worth while notic-
ing, for the benefit of future explorers, that the mountain strongholds of Cadrr. and
Davara have not been made out, at least to my knowledge. Admiral Sir Francis Beau-
fort saj's of the AKiiorp-.ov iiKpa, or promontoiy of Anemm-ium of Strabo, that it was
difficult, from the inflexions of the coast, to select a point for identification ; but he
identifies the city of Anemurium with the ruins at Aski Anamur. There is, however —
excepting Strabo's statement of the distance of the confines of Pamiihylia to Anemurium
820 stadia, and from Anemurium to Soli 500 stadia, and which Sir Francis himself
thinks ou'dit to be transposed — no authority for such a disUmcc existing between the city
and cape. Scylax speaks of Anemurium as a town and promontory ; Pomponius Mela
(lib. i. cap. 115) and Livy (hb. xxxiii. cap. 20) as a promontory ; Ptolemy and Phny
as a city. There is therefore every reason to believe that C'ai)c Anamur, the most
southerly extremity of Asia Minor, is the same as the Anemurian i)romontory, the
more especially as the city is close by, as the name is preserved, and as Sir Francis
Beaufort coiUd find no trace of a promontory at the point given by Strabo's figures.—
W, F. A.
CILIGIA DECLARED A ROMAN PROVINCE. 33
and by conciliatoiy measures the rest were brought to a sense of their
duty, and returned to their several homes.
In the year a.d. 56, Cossuatianus Papito Avas governor of the province
of Cilicia. He was a man of abandoned character, who at Rome had
set the laws at defiance, and who thought that he might commit the
same excesses and extortions in the government of his province. The
Cilicians sent deputies to complain of his conduct to the senate ; and the
prosecution Avas carried on with such unremitting vigour, that Cossua-
tianus was obliged to abandon his defence. Being couAdcted of exaction,
he was condemned to make restitution.
Poleuiun, king of Cilicia, a.d. GO, who had been previously confirmed
on his father's throne by Claudius, was persuaded by Berenice, widow
of Herod king of Chalcis* (and sister of the Agrippa before whom Paul
had pleaded), to marry her, in the hope by the marriage to suppress
the report of the criminality with which Paul had charged her brother
Agrippa. Polemon was at the same time prevailed upon to adopt the
Jewish religion; but Berenice abandoned him soon after, and he re-
turned to his Pagan worship.
Vespasian proceeding to carry on the Jewish war, a.d. 74, saw the
inexpediency of permitting the existence in his rear of a number of
petty princes, who, although tributary to Rome, ever excited revolts
and commotions. He therefore rediiced them entirely to subjection;
and Cilicia, and several other kingdoms, were finally declared provinces
of the Roman empire. In the fourth year of his reign, a.d. 78, Cecenius
Petus, president of Syria, bearing an enmity to Antiochus king of
Comagena, a country north-east of Cilicia, wrote to Vespasian that
Antiochus had leagued with the Parthians in rebellion against the
Romans. Petus received from the emperor full powers to j)roceed
against Antiochus ; he fell at once upon Comagena, before the king
could have any notice of his intention. Antiochus did not choose to
make any opposition, and in order to evince his unwillingness to with-
stand the Romans, retired to a plain, and pitched his camp not far from
the city of Samosata, his capital ;f but his sons Epiphanes and Callini-
cus collected their forces, and made a firm stand against the Roman
legions. They were, however, defeated, and obliged to disperse in dif-
ferent directions; some taking refuge in Parthia, and some in Cilicia.
Antiochus, with his wdfe and daughters, repaired to Tarsus, where Petus
seized his person, and forwarded him as a prisoner of Avar to Rome.
* See Josei^hns.
t Now Somei'sat, on the Euphrates. {Journal of Ployed Georircqjlilo.d Society, vol.
vii. 1), 422; and vol. x. p. 321 and 333.)
d
34 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNOKS.
Wlien Vespasian was iuformed of the arrival of Antioclius as a
prisoner in chains, he remembered the friendship that had formerly
existed between them. He ordered the fetters of Antiochus to be struck
off, and appointed Laceda?mon for his residence. In the meantime,
Epiphanes his son having reached Eome, he also made interest for his
father; and during Vespasian's reign they remained at Eome, and were
in favoiu' Avith the emperor.
From the reign of Vespasian to that of Trajan, a.d. 117, nothing of
any note occurred in Cilicia. This last-mentioned emperor, it is well
IcnoAvn, marched a large army to the shores of the Persian Gulf, re-
gretting " that he had not the youth and strength of Alexander, that lie
might add unexplored kingdoms to the Roman empire." On his return,
he was taken iU in Cilicia, at Selinus (afterwards called Trajanopolis),
where he died; but his ashes Avere conveyed to Eome, and deposited
under the famous column which still exists^ to perpetuate his name and
celebrate his exploits.*
Hadrian, his successor,''passed through Cilicia a.d. 129, with a large
army, on his way to Syria and Egj^t; but no monument remains in
this province to record his magnificence, or even the fact of his having
passed through it.f
After Severus had made himself master of the Roman empire by
the death of Didius Julianus, a.d. 194, he marched his veteran legions
* Admiral Sii- Francis Beaufort describes many remnants of antiquity as still
existing at Selinty, or Salinti, the ancient Selinvis, afterwards Trajanopolis. Among
the most remarkable of these is a low massive edifice of seventy feet by fiftj% com-
posed of large well-cnt blocks of stone, and containing a single vault. A flight of
narrow steps, parallel to the wall, leads to the flat top, on which nothing now remains,
though there is every reason to suppose that this building was formerly the basement-
story of some splendid superstructm-e ; but the columns, which either sm-mounted or
sun-ounded it, have all disappeared, except a few fraginents of some large fluted
pilasters of fine workmanship. This edifice stands in the centre of a quadrangle,
along each side of which there was a single row of thirty' small columns : but they
have been all broken off close to the gi-oimd and earned away : the quadrangle is
about 240 feet in diameter. A similar sepulchi-al building, but of later date, has
been joined to this greater mausolevmi. "I cannot find," says Sb- Francis Beaufort,
" what honom-s were paid to his (the Emperor Trajan's) memon- by the Cihcians ; but
it seems highly probable that a mausoleum should have been erected in the city where
the decease of so accomplished and so populai- an emperor took place ; and if so, it is
c<|ually probable that this building was designed for that puiiiose." — W. F. A.
t The reign of Hadrian was more particularly distinguished by labours of pacifica-
tion. With the exception of the revolt of the Jews imder Barchochab (132-135), the
East enjoyed profoimd j^eace dming the reign of this wise i^rince. Towards the end
of his reign the cmiicror visited almost all the Roman pro^^nces with the \iew to the
establishment of order. Cilicia profited by these judicious travels. Coins are extant
which commemorate Tarsus as aaimanhc tapcoy MiiTPonoAuic.
Mo2isuestia was especially favom-ed and embellished by the emperor, and even
BATTLE OX THE I'LAINS OF ISSUS.
35
to oppose Pescenuius Niger, Avho had put liimsclf at the head of the
Eastern army, and had usurped the name and ensigns of Augustus.
After some skirmishing on both sides in Lesser Asia, a decisive battle
was fought on the plains of Issus, tlie same plains which more than five
centuries previously had been covered with the blood of the Persian
soldiers of Darius, and which had also been the scene of Alexander's
victory. Pescennius Niger was totally routed, with the loss of 20,000
men and of his own life. Ilis head was sent to Rome as a trophy; and
the troops of Europe again asserted their usual ascendency over the
effeminate natives of Asia.
assumed his name. The citizens are called on coins of Antoninus Pius aapinaun
MosKExaN, Hadrianoiimi Mopseatarum. Gmter also records an inscrij)tion found
at Missis, which he translates, " Everr/etce ac servatori Hadriance Mojysuestice Ci-
licice sacrw, liberce et asyli, suis legibus viventis, et faderaUe ac socice Romanorum. —
W. F. A.
SARCOPUAGUS AT SELEUCIA PIEEIA, OPENED BY MK. BARKER.
CHAPTER III.
LEGENT) OF THE SEVEN SLEEPERS SAPOR IMVADES CILICU ZENOBIA S CON-
QUESTS — CILICIA OVERRUN BY THE ALANI >LVX]MLVNUS DIES AT TARSUS
DEATH OF CONSTANTIUS AT MOPSUESTIA IN CILICU. ST. GEORGE, PATRON
SAINT OF ENGLAND, BORN AT EPIPHANEA THE EMPEROR JLT^L^N BURIED
AT T.UISUS INVASIONS OF THE HUNS BELISARIUS IN CILICIA CA>I-
PAIGNS OF HERACLIU3 AND OF CHOSROES (kUSRU ANUSHIRIWAN).
During a long period, while tlie Eoman Empire was subject to the rule
of many iniquitous emperors, and while the capital was the scene of
miu'der and dissension, Cilicia enjoyed comparative tranquillity. We
may except the persecution which the Christians underwent in all parts
of the empire, and which Avas particidarly severe in the East, where the
Jews have ever laboured under a public prejudice to theu- disfavour.
The legend of the Seven Sleepers, who are said by Christian tradition to
have fallen asleep in the reign of the Emperor Dccius during the seventh
persecution of the followers of Christ, and to haA-e slept for 187 years in
a cave near Ephesus, has been adopted and embellished by Mohammed.*
The Arabian prophet casts a veil of mystery over this tale ;f but some
* Mohammed or Mahomet. The first orthographj' is adopted, as being that which
is now most generally accepted, after the manner in wliich the name of the Arabian
projihet is generally pronomiced. The correct orthograi)hy is, however, Muhanamad.
— W. F. A.
f Mohammed has invented and added to tliis fable the dog (Al Rakim) of the Seven
Sleepers ; the respect shewn by the sun, wliieli, in order not to shine into the cave, daily
altered its course, and the eare God himself took of the sleepers to preserve their bodies
from putrefaction by making them turn to the right and left. He says in the Koran :
"And tliou mightest have seen the sun, when it had risen, decline from then- cave
towards the right hand ; and when it went down, leave them on the left hand. And
they were in the spacious part of the cave. This was one of the signs of God. Whom-
soever God shall direct, ho shall bo rightly directed ; and whomsoever He shall cause
to err, thou shalt not find any to defend or to direct. And thou wouldst have judged
them to have been awake while they were sleeping ; and He caused them to turn them-
selves to the right hand and to the left. And their dog stretched forth his fore-legs in
the mouth of the cave. If thou hadst come suddenly upon them, verily thoti wouldst
liavc turned thy Viack and fled fi-om them, and thou woiddst liave been filled with fear
nt the sight of them. And so Ho awakened tliem out of their sleep, that they might
ask questions of one another. One of them spake and said, How long have ye tarried
SAPOR INVADES CILICIA. 37
of his commentators have imagined that the site where this miraculous
event occurred was not Epliesiis, but a cave about ten miles north-west
of Tarsus. Every Muhanimadan who arrives at this place conceives
himself boimd to visit the spot, and thinks a pilgrimage thither obliga-
tory from the countenance given to this fable by the prophet. Num-
bers flock there in parties of ten and more, on which occasions a sheep
is killed and roasted, part of v^'hich is eaten, and the rest given to the
poor.*
The kingdom of Parthia had been overturned by Artaxerxes Babe-
gan, first of the Persian dynasty of the Sassanidte, in a.d. 226; and the
Persian carried his arms to the frontiers of Syria, declaring war on
the grounds that Cyrus had conquered, and that his successors had for
a long time possessed, the whole of Asia as far as the Proj)ontis and
the yEgean Sea, and that all Egypt had also acknowledged the Persian
sovereignty. Artaxerxes, at his death, bequeathed his new empire and
his ambitious designs to his son Sapor, who took the town of Antioch
[a.d. 259], then capital of Syria, and marched into Cilicia, ravaging the
whole country, and treating his prisoners Avith wanton and unrelenting
crvielty. He devastated the city of Tarsus and many other towns of
Cilicia, and proceeded to lay siege to Ca^sarea (Kaisariyah), capital of
Cappadocia, after having crossed the Taurus at the Pylaj Ciliciaj. At
this point no opposition was made to his progress by the Eomau garrison,
although he might have been lield in check by a handful of men. Sapor
hero? Tliey answered^ We have tarried a day, or part of a day. The other said.
Your Lord best kuoweth the time ye have tarried."
After fLirther reference to the other parts of the legend, he again leaves the jirin-
cipal fact iu uncertainty, concluding :
"Some say the sleej^ers were three, and their dog was the fourth; and others say
they were five, and their dog was the sixth, guessing at a secret matter ; and others
say they were seven, and their dog was the eighth. Say my Lord best knoweth their
number ; none shall know them except a few. Wlierefore dispute not concerning them
imless with a clear disputation, according to what has been revealed unto thee ; and
ask not any of the Christians concerning them. Say not of any matter, I will surely do
this to-morrow, unless thou add. If God please (Inshallah)."
* The story of the Seven Sleepers is attached tracUtionally to many other places in
the East, besides Ephesus and the cave near Tarsus. (See D'Herbelot m Ashab-i-
Ivahaf, and Assemanni, i. 336.) Shah-Abad or JuncU Shajiur, m Khusistan, is, accord-
ing to the Taskarati-Shusteriyah, believed to represent the city of the Seven Sleeisers.
Colonel Rawlinson says that wherever the tradition prevails in the East, it may be re-
ceived as an e^•idence of antiquity. The tradition probably existed anterior to Chris-
tianity or to Muhammadanism. Mohammed's dog is a kmd of antithesis to Ovid's
cavernous abode of sleep, near which no cock or dog, or any animal accustomed to rouse
men from then- slumbers, was permitted to approach. (Met. xi. 592. See also Gibbon,
525; and Gregory de Tours, Dc glorid Martyrum in Max. Bibiioihecd Fatruiii, torn.
xi. p. 850.)— W. F. A.
38 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERXORS.
seems, however, to have despaired of making any permanent estabhsh-
ment in the country, and sought only to leave behind him a "wasted
desert, -whilst he transported into Persia the people and the treasui-es
of the provinces.
Odenathus, prince of Palmyra, attacked Sapor, pursued him into
the very heart of his kingdom, and delivered all the provinces of Asia
Minor from his tyranny, leaving to his wife Zenobia the splendid but
doubtful title of " Queen of the East." But the power of Zenobia Avas
not of long duration. Aurelian marched a large army into Asia a.d.
273, reducing the provinces, and annexing them again to the Roman
empire. He took Zenobia prisoner on the banks of the Euphrates,
about sixty miles from Palmyra;* and thus terminated the glorious
but short career of this Eastern power. Aurelian, preparing for his
Persian expedition, had induced the Alani, a Scythian people who
pitched their tents in the neighbourhood of the sea of Azof, to assist
him as auxiliaries with a large body of light cavalry. These barbarians
arriving on the IJoman frontier at the moment of the death of the em-
peror, and finding the war suspended, overran the provinces of Pontus,
Cappadocia, Cilicia, and Galatia (a.d. 275). Tacitus, the successor of
Aurelian, and grandson of the historian, marched to oppose them with
the veteran legions. Great numbers of the Alani, appeased by the
punctual discharge of the engagements entered into by Aurelian and
confirmed by his successor, relinquished their booty and captives, and
qriietly retreated to their o-\\m deserts beyond the Phasis. Against the
remainder, who refused to listen to his remonstrances, the Eoman em-
peror waged in person a successful war, and delivered the provinces of
Asia from the terror of the Scythian invasion.
The fatigues of a campaign at his advanced age were fatal to the
health of Tacitus, and ho expired soon after at Tyana in Cappadocia,
A.D. 270. His bi'other Florianus instantly usurped the pixrple, without
waiting for the approbation of the senate. Probus, the general who
commanded in Syria, declared himself the avenger of the offended senate;
and fortune was propitious to him, in spite of his having to contend
against the European legions assembled at Tarsus, with the eftcminate
troops of Egypt and Syria, The hardy veterans of the north sickened
and died in the sultry heats of Cilicia. Their numbers were also dimi-
* I have elsewlicro explained the events of the decisive battle of Imma, as occuiTing
on the inai-shy plain of the lake of Antioch, now called Al Umk ; and there is every
reason to believe that Aiirolian's light hoi-so ovei-took the imfortunate Queen of Palmyra,
after tftc battle of Emosa, at her own favourite summer residence, the marble city at
the pass of the Euphrates, the niins of which still exist, and are called to the jjresent
day Zilibah, or Zenobia, — W. F. A.
DEFEAT AND DEATH OF MAXIMIN. 39
nislied by desertion, thvoiigli the undefended passes of the Taurus,
Tarsus opened its gates to receive Probus ; while Florianus fell a sacri-
fice to the rage and contempt of a soldiery disgusted with him, and
unwilling to protract the civil war.
During the reign of the prudent but artful Dioclesian, Cilicia enjoyed
a respite of twenty-one years from war and bloodshed, although during
that time two armies passed through the province on their way to carry
on tlie Persian war. On the resignation of this emperor, Maximin,
the nephew of Galerius, who had been created general of the Eastern
army, and emperor in conjunction with Severus Constantiue and Lici-
nius, committed the greatest excesses in persecixting the Christians;
and unhappy Cilicia became again the scene of pillage and confusion.
Maximin, ambitious of supreme authority, collected all his forces and
marched to attack Licinius his colleague, who met him with 30,000
men under the walls of Heraclea Perinthus, soon after he had crossed
the Hellespont and possessed himself of Byzantium, a.d. 313. The
result of the engagement was a decisive victory in favou.r of Licinius.
Maximin fled so precipitately, that he reached in twenty-four hours
Nicomedia in Asia Minor, one hvmdred and sixty miles distant from the
scene of his defeat. His victorious enemy pursued him, and he retreated
again beyond the Taurus to Tarsus, where he died in the greatest agonies
of a dreadful disease, which ecclesiastical writers describe as a visitation
of Heaven for his barbarities in the persecution of the Christians, and the
horrid blasphemies which he had uttered.
By the death of Maximin, a.d. 331, Christianity was relieved from
her last enemy. Constantine the Great, after his accession, ordered all
the heathen temples to be destroyed ; and by founding the new kingdom
at Byzantium, he brought the seat of empire nearer to Cilicia, The rich
plains of Cappadocia, and the plains as far as the banks of the Sarus,
near Adana, were remarkable for a fine breed of horses,* which tempted
the monarch to appropriate these choice pastures to his own use. With
this view ho foimded j^rivate estates independent of the public revenue,
regidarly administered by a count or treastu;er, and officers of inferior
rank. These were stationed in all parts of the province, and had spe-
cial bands of soldiers imder them for this particular service, and were
not subordinate to the authority of the provincial magistrate.
Constantius, the son of Constantine, was at Antioch a.d. 360, when
* The Ausliar horse is to this daj' much prized by the OsmanU. He has not the
superior excellence of the Arab in resisting fatigue, but he is a much more showy ani»
mal. He is almost as broad as he is long, and larger than the Arab horse, and his
walk is miequalled by any breed in the world.
40 CILICIA AXD ITS GOVERNORS.
his nepliGW Julian was declared Emperor of the West, and he naarched
against him at the head of his Eastern army. A slight ferer which he
caiio-ht in Cilicia on his way to oppose Julian, and which was increased
by the fatigues of the journey and the agitation of his spirits, obUged
him to halt at the httle town of Mopsucrene,* " twelve miles" from Tarsus,
where he expired after a short illness, in the forty-fifth year of his age
and the twenty-foru-th of his reign.
It is not very generally kno-wn that Cilicia is the native country of
the renoAvned St. George, the patron saint of England, who was born at
Epij)hanea,'\ a small town near the Amanian gates, in a fuller's shop.
From this obscure origin he raised himself to the archbishopric of Alex-
andria, Avhere, in the year a.d. 361, he was massacred by the fiuy of the
populace. Although his remains were thrown into the sea in order that
his party might not have an opportunity of revering them as the rehcs
of a martyr, the manner of his death helped to obhterate the atrocities
of his life, and he was canonised about a century afterwards, a.d. 494.
In the next reign, that of Juhan, a.c. 3G3, Cilicia saw the return of
another army on its way to attack the Persians. The apostate emperor
* Mopsucrcnc or JNIopsi fons, tlic fountain of Mojjsus, ajipcars to have been in Tau-
iiis, near Tarsus. — W. F. A.
+ There is considerable difficulty in detemiining the position of Epiphanea. The
numbers given in Ptolemy would aiiproximatc to the site of Nicopolis ; while the tables
of Agathodiumon — the designer of the maps which accomi>any Ptolemj- — place the
two at some distance from one another. Yet nothmg can be more certain than that it
was not situate far from Issus ; for Cicero exjiressly relates (lib. xv. epist. 4), that to
deceive the hostile mountaineers of Amanus, he pretended to depart from the momi-
tain and to go to other jiarts of Cilicia, and that he re23aii-ed in one day's march to
the castle that is near Epiphanea. On returning from that part of Amanus which
Cicero reached in one day from Epiphanea, as he afterwards relates, he repaired to a
castle at the roots of Amanus, near the altars of Alexander. Quintus Cm"tii;s says
tliese altars were on the banks of the Pinanis ; but we sought for traces of them there
in vain, and have been consequently inclined to identify them \vith the Bomita>, or
altare, of Pliny, Sakal Tutan of the Tm-ks, and near which there is still a castle called
Markaz Kalahsi ; and this identification would be strengthened by Cicero's expression,
" at the roots of Amanus."
Epiphanea might then bo near Issus ; and there are, besides the ruins on the Piuanis,
other and inore extensive niins near Urziu, at the head of the Gulf of Issus.
Besides the walls of the city, which are still standing in part, and the ruins of
numerous dwelling-houses, there are also niins of a temple and of an acropolis situated
on a mound in a central and commanding situation. Outside of the town there are
also niins of an aqueduct with a double row of arche-s, ninning E.S.E. and W.S.W,
All these buildings being constructed of basalt, and the iiiins and ennrons being
totally iminhabitcd, give to the place a very sombre and gloomy a-spect. They are
situated on a plain at the foot of some low basaltic liQls, only a few miles from the
N.E. extremity of the Gulf of Aloxandretta. Epiphanea is recorded as an episcoi^acy
in the Ecclesiastical Xodces of the Lover Empire.
iStcphaniis and Aman, it may be observed, identify Nicopolis with Issus. — W. F. A.
INVASIONS OF THE HUNS. 41
was obliged to winter the ti'oops at Antioch preparatory to his expedi-
tion ; but he was so vexed and annoyed at the conduct of the Christian
party there, who lampooned him, that he declared he Avould pass the
next winter in Tarsus : but it was decreed otherwise, for he died a few
months after of a wound he received from a javelin whilst animating
his troops to battle on the other side of the Tigris. His body was em-
balmed and brought back by the army to Tarsus, where he was btiried.
A stately tomb was erected over his remains on the banks of the " cold
Cydnus," in the city he had a few months before appointed to be his
residence, and which Avas now destined to contain only his ashes, —
another instance of the vanity of human projects.
Julian was succeeded by Jovian, a.d. 384. The latter was suc-
ceeded by Valens, during whose reign the king of Persia made many
inroads into the Roman provinces, and particularly tiu-ned his victorious
arms against Armenia — a coimtry under the protection of the empire.
Para, the king, fled to the Roman camp ; but the general Trajan, acting
under the direction of the Emperor Valens, meditated his destruction,
and, under the semblance of friendship and the specious pretence of
consulting with the emperor, enticed him into his power. The king of
Armenia was received with due honours by the governors of the pro-
vinces through which he passed ; but when he arrived at Tarsus, his
progress was arrested, his motions Avatched, and he gradually found
himself a prisoner in the hands of the Romans. He, however, managed
to effect his escape with three hundred faithful followers, and succeeded
in crossing the Euphrates and eluding the vigilance of the troops sent
in pursuit. He thus reached his native country, but was soon after in-
duced to come to a banquet prepared by the Roman general, where he
was inhumanly murdered, in defiance of the sacred rites of hosj)itality.
During the succeeding reigns of Theodosius Arcadius and Theodosius
the younger, bands of adventurous Huns, Avho had overrun the north
of Europe and Asia, ravaged the provinces of the East, from whence
they brought away rich spoils and innumerable captives. They ad-
■vanced along the shores of the Caspian Sea, traversed the snoAvy moun-
tains of Armenia, passed the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Halys,
recruited their cavalry Avith the fine breed of horses, and occupied the
hilly coimtry of Cilicia. Here they came in contact and clashed Avitli
the Isaurians, a saA'age horde who had possessed for several centuries
the fastnesses of Mount Taurus, and Avho from time to time made
predatory inroads on the sea-coast.
These bold mountaineers had maintained for 230 years a life of
plimder and independence, and seriously disturbed at several epochs the
42 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
tranquillity of Asia Minor, althougli sometimes soothed -with gifts, and
sometimes restrained by terror. When their countryman Zeno as-
cended the throne at Constantinople (succeeding Theodosius Marci-
anus, Leo I. and Leo IL), he invited a large and fonuidable band of
Isaurians to surround him as a body-guard, and rewarded them by an
annual payment of five thousand pounds of gold. After the death of
Zeno, his successor Anastasius al^olished their pension and banished
them from the empire. In I'evenge for this treatment, they placed a
brother of the late emperor at their head and marched towards the
capital, it is said to the number of 150,000 men (including auxiliaries),
Avhose standard was for the first time sanctified by the presence of a
fighting Christian bishop. The valour and discipline of the Goths, who
were sent against these Isaurian rebels, sufficed to drive them back to
their fortresses, which were after six years' warfare successively be-
sieged. All their bravest leaders were killed, numbers of those made
prisoners were transported to Thrace, and the remnant submitted to
Anastasius. Some generations, however, passed before they were com-
pletely reduced to the same level of slavery as the rest of the subjects
of the empire, for we find from time to time that the Counts of Isauria,
the Prajtors of Lycaonia and Pisidia, were invested with full military
jDower to restrain their licentious practices of rapine and assassination.*
No event of any moment occurred during the nine years' reign of
Justin L (a.d. 537); but his successor Justinian, in along reign of thirty-
eight years, saw his supremacy established in every part of the Roman
empire in the East, by his victorious general Belisarius, and gained
battles as brilliant as those which had rendered the ancient Romans so
distinguished in the time of their republic. On preparing for the African
campaign, the mountains of Cilicia contributed their quota of infantry,
and the sea-ports furnished their complement of transports and sailors,
to make up the number of five hundred vessels and twenty thousand
mariners with which Belisarius set out from Constantinople (a.d. 541).
Four years afterwards Justinian undertook the defence of the East,
Avhich had been invaded by Nushirwan, king of Persia. Nushirwan
had destroyed Antioch, and carried away the inhabitants captives to
colonise the new city he had founded at Ctesiphon ; but Belisarius
* The general system of policy, rendered necessary by tlie weakness of the suc-
ceeding governments, and which we shall see particidarlj' exemplified as we proceed in
our modem history of these countries. — W. B. B.
Mr. William J. Hamilton was the first to bring to light in modern times tho
city of Isaura, the stronghold of the Isaiu-ians ; and he has given a peculiarly interest-
ing descrijition of the existing ruins in his Researches in Asia Minor, Pontas, d:c.
vol. ii. p. 331.— W. F, A.
HERACLIUS — DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS. 43
compelled him to retreat with precipitation^ and in a subsequent cam-
paign (a.d. 543) repossessed himself of all the cities taken by the Per-
sian king in Cilicia. He, at the same time, so strengthened the de-
fences of the country, that no further inroads -were made on that part
of the kingdom for many years.
After the death of Justinian (a.d. 590), and during the reigns of
his successors Justin II., Tiberius II., and Maurice, the Persian wars
continued without any decided advantage on either side, the Persians
never having been able to retain any conqiiest beyond the Euphrates.
But in the lifetime of the latter prince, Chosroes, the grandson of
Xushirwan, on the revolt of his subjects and the deposition and death
of his father Hormuz, fled to the Roman emperor for support. He
was ultimately reinstated on the throne of his ancestors, after two bat-
tles against the usurper had been fought, in which the Roman troops
were the victors. Chosroes Avas grateful for this signal service; and
until the death of Maurice peace between the two empires was faith-
fully maintained.
But the disorders introduced by the tyrant Phocas, who succeeded
IMaurice (a. p. Gll-GIG), afforded a pretext to Chosroes to invade Syria
and Asia Minor. The j)retence was to revenge the death of his friend
and benefactor ; and the first intelligence from the East which Herachus,
the successor of Phocas, received, was the taking of Antioch. In five
years the armies of Chosroes had overrun all Asia Minor, Syria, Pales-
tine, Egypt, and Lybia as far as Tripoli, and the Bosphorus; and a
Persian camp maintained its position for some time in sight of Con-
stantinople.
The emperor Heraclius (a.d. G22), roused at length by such extraor-
dinary successes, pjrepared to attack the Persians. He embarked his
forces on board a fleet of transports, and landed near the Syrian gates
(^larkaz Kalahsi) in the Gulf of Alexandretta, within the confines of
Cilicia. The natural fortifications of that coimtry protected and con-
cealed the camp of Heraclius, which was pitched nearlssus, on the same
ground where Alexander had defeated Darius. CiHcia was soon encom-
passed by the Persian army, who Avere astonished to find the enemy had
taken up a position in their rear. Their cavalry hesitated for some
time to enter the defiles of Moimt Taurus; but by superior manoeuver-
ing, Heraclius drew them into general action on the plain ; and having
defeated and routed them, the emperor w'as enabled to cross the moun-
tains, and winter his army in the province of Cappadocia on the banks
of the river Halys.
In the next year (a.d. C23) Heraclius sailed by the Black Sea to Tre-
44 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
bizond, passed the mountains of Armenia, and penetrated into Persia
as far as Tabriz, which, with several other cities, he took and sacked,
destroying all the temples and images, and retaliating on the Persians
the horrors committed on the Christians at the destruction of Jerusalem
nine years previously by Chosroes.
Heraclius next penetrated into the heart of Persia (a.d. C24), and by
a well-concerted succession of marches, retreats, and successful actions,
drove the enemy from the field into the fortified cities of ISIedia and
Assyria. In the spring of the next year, after crossing the Tigris and
Euphrates, he returned laden with spoils to the banks of the Sarus, in
Cilicia, to maintain that important position. lie found the banks of the
river lined with barbarian archers; and after a bloody conflict, which
continued till the evening, on the bridge of Adana, he dislodged and dis-
persed the enemy, a Persian of gigantic size being slain and thrown
into the river by the emperor himself.
In his fourth campaign (a.d. 627-G28) Heraclius marched into Persia,
obtained a complete victory on the plains of IsineA'eh over Chosroes
(who fell and was put to death by his son Siroes), recovered three hun-
dred Eoman standards, delivered ntimerous captive Christians, and re-
turned to Constantinople in triumph, after concluding an advantageous
peace with the Persians. But these signal successes were not attended
with any lasting benefit to the empire, for a very few years afterwards
the followers of Mohammed possessed themselves of the same provinces
which Heraclius had recovered with so much labour and bloodshed
from the Persians ; and even the kingdom of Persia itself, in less than
thirty years from this date, was brought under the yoke, civil and re-
ligious, of the Arabian khalifs.
i
CHAPTER IV.
I^ISE OF THE SAUACENS — CILICIA OVERRUN BY HARUN AL RASHID AL MAMUN
DIES IN CILICIA EXCHANGE OF PRISONERS AT IL-LA3IAS — SACK OF MOP-
SUESTIA BY THE KHALIF MUTASSDI MOPSUESTIA RETAKEN BY NICEPHORUS
PIIOCAS AND JOHN ZDHSCES RISE OF THE TURKMANS ALP ARSLAN AND
RO>LVNUS DIOGENES TURIOIAN DYNASTY AT NIC.EA PERSECUTION OF
THE CHRISTIANS FIRST CRUSADE TANCRED AND BALDWIN IN C1LICL\
ALEXIUS ANNEXES CILICIA TO THE GREEK EMPIRE.
The Saracens, wlio (a.d. 039) had just sprung up in a corner of Arabia,
impelled by religious fanaticism, were carrying, under Kbaled tlieir chief,
surnamed the Sword of God, all before them in Persia, Syria, and
Palestine. Pursuing their progress to the north, they reduced Cilicia,
with its capital Tarsus, to obedience. Passing on, they crossed Mount
Taurus, and spread the flames of war as far as the environs of Trebi-
zond. These conquests were soon followed by the siege of Constan-
tinople (a.d. G77), by Sufiyan, general of the khalif Muawiyah, Avhen
30,000 IMoslems perished, and the Arabs were obliged to retreat and
conclude a peace of thirty years with the Emperor Constantino IV.
They also agreed to pay a tribute of three thousand pieces of gold,
fifty horses, and fifty slaves ; and the feeble hand of the declining em-
pire was once more extended over unfortunate Cilicia.
A second attempt was made by the Saracens (a.d. 717), when they,
to the number of 120,000, marched again through the provinces of Asia
IMinor, under Muslimah. Crossing the Hellespont at Abydos, they laid
siege to Constantinople on the European side; but after some months of
fruitless warfare, theii' fleet was burnt by the renowned Greek fire, and
they were glad to retreat throxigh Asia Minor, di-eadfuUy dispirited and
diminished in numbers. Five galleys only of their fleet of 1800 ships
returning to Alexandria.
In the reign of Irene the Great (a.d. 781), Harun al Eashid im-aded
the Greek provinces at the head of 95,000 men, and the Christians sub-
scribed to an ignominious treaty and an annual tribute of 70,000 dinars
of gold, which bought the khalifs clemency. The payment of this
tribute was delayed after he retiu-ned; but at eight different times the
46 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
Greeks were taught to feel that a month of devastation was more costly
than a year of submission.
On the accession of Nicephorus (a.d. 800), open war was declared,
and Haruu al Eashid crossed the Amanus and Taurus in the depth of
winter, ravaged Cilicia and Asia INIinor, and sacked Heraclea, on the
Black Sea. The famous statue of Hercules, with the attributes of the
club, the bow, and the quiver, and the lion's hide of massive gold, was
demolished by him. Nicephorus was compelled to recognise the right
of lordship which Harun assumed ; and the coin of the tribute, in servile
obedience to the conqueror, was stamped with the image and super-
scription of the khalif and his three sons.
Al Mamun, the son of Harun al Rashid, undertook (a.d. 829) an ex-
pedition into Asia Minor, Avhen he advanced as far as Tarsus, and took
fifteen towns of Cilicia. On his way back he encamped on the banks of
a little stream in Cilicia, which the Arabs call Bazizun, not far from
Tarsus. Here he stayed to enjoy the shade of the trees and coolness of
the stream, and expressed a wish to have some dates from Azad, which
he said were alone wanting to make his felicity perfect. By an extra-
ordinary coincidence, a caravan of mules happened to be just passing,
and two baskets of dates, fresh from Bagdad, were set before him. Of
these he eat so heartily, drinking at the same time so copiously of the
cold waters in the adjacent rivulet, that he was seized with fever, of
which he died. His body Avas transported to Tarsus, and there interred,
but no trace now exists of his tomb.
Al Mamun* was a great encourager of science and literature.
During his reign mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry were intro-
duced among the Arabs ; and the first library Avas established at Bagdad,
to Avhich all nations and sects Avere invited to contribute copies of their
works.
The Emperor Theophilus, the son of IMichael the Stammerer, marched
in person (a.d. 838) five times through Asia Minor in his Avars Avith the
* An cxtraortlinary tale is told by an Arabian writer of the birth of Al Mamun,
His father, Hanin al Rasliid, having won at chess from the celebrated and admired
Sit Zibaidah (Zobaide of the Arabian Xn/htu), liis wife and consin, the pri\'ilcgo of dic-
tating to her any caprice which struck his fancy, compelled her to walk barefoot across
the centre of the bath, over the hot stones, measuring the whole distance bj' putting
one foot in succession before the other. This she was obliged to do ; but she resolved
to take signal vengeance for tliis unfeeling frolic on the first opportmiity which pre-
sented itself after her recovery. She challenged him to i-enew the game for the same
stakes ; and being this time the victor, she chose the ugliest female black slave in the
harim, and obliged him to take her to wife. Al Mamun was the fniit of this union,
born about the same time as Aniiu the son of Sit Zibaidah, and he grew up as clever
as his lirothor was stujjid.
SIEGE OF AMOmUM. 47
Saracens; and in liis last campaign lie destroyed the small town of
Zabatra in Syria, in spite of the soUcitations and remonstrances of the
Khalif Mutassim,* third son of Harun al Kashid, whose casual birthplace
it happened to be.
Mutassim levied a large army to resent the aftront. The troops of
Persia, Syria, and Egypt were collected together in the plains of Cilicia
at Tarsus, and moved on over Mount Taurus to Amoriu.m in Phrygia,
the birthplace of the father of Theophilus. The emperor hastened the
defence of what appears to have been at that time a most flourishing
city, but to no purpose ; for although 70,000 Moslems had perished in
this war, Mutassim persisted in the siege, and totally ruined the town,
slaughtering 30,000 Christians, and carrying oflP an equal number of
captives to Tarsus, Syria, ond Persia. These were treated with great
cruelty ; for although an exchange or ransom of prisoners was sometimes
allov^edj in the national and religious conflicts of these two parties,
quarter was seldom given in the field, and those who escaped the edge
of the sword were condemned to hopeless servitude or the most cruel
torture.
The Emperor Constantiue Porphyrogenitus relates with visible satis-
faction the execution of the Saracens of Candia, wdio were flayed alive
or plunged into caldrons of burning oil. Gibbon, in speaking of the
taking of Amorium, makes the following observation: " To a point of
honour Mutassim had sacrificed a flourishing city, two hundred thousand
lives, and the property of millions. The same khalif descended from his
horse and dirtied his robe to relieve the distress of a decrepit old man,
who with his laden ass had tumbled into a ditch. On which of these
two actions did he reflect with most pleasiu-e when he Avas summoned by
the angel of death?"
* Mutassim was the first khalif, according to an Arabian writer (Ibn Shuhny or
Shuh-na), who added the name of the Almighty to his own — a practice continued by
his successors, as if mamtaining their right by di\'ine authority. Thus we have epithets
oi Billah, Biamr-illah, Lidia-allah; as we should say, By tJie grace of God, &c. &c.,
Pro])liet of the Faith, &c.
•\- There is reason to believe that Zabatra corresponds with the place now called
Rum-Kalah, or "Castle of the Romans," on the Euphrates ; but there is gi-eat difficulty
in determining this point satisfactoiily, as the site is only mentioned bj' the mediajval
writers. — W. F. A.
X Abu-1-faraj relates one of these singular and characteristic exchanges as hanng
taken place ou the bridge of the Lamas (now II- Lamas), in CUicia, the boimdary of the
two empires, and one day's jom-ney westward of Tarsus, where, 4160 Moslems, 800 women
and children, with 100 allies, were exchanged for an equal number of Greeks. They
passed each other in the middle of the bridge ; and when they reached their resijective
friends, they shouted "Allah Akhar!" and " Ki/rie Ehison!" No doubt many o)
these were prisoners of Amorium ; but the most illustrious of them {theforti/ marti/rs
had been the same year beheaded by order of the khalif.
48 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
Arabicau wi'iters also mention a victory gained by Mntassim over the
Greeks at Mopsuestia, called by them Mamuriyah, and state that 30,000
of the enemy were left on the field of battle. This engagement must have
preceded the taking of Amorium, for from this date Cilicia came under
the dominion of the khalifs ; and Tarsus became a capital city of great
importance, from its vicinity to the frontiers of the Muliammadan domi-
nions.
During the whole of the next century the khalifs of Bagdad, the suc-
cessors ofMutassim, retained possession ofCiHcia; and the hostilities car-
ried on between this Arabian dynasty and the Greeks were confined to some
trifling inroads by sea and land, the fruits of their close vicinity and inde-
lible hatred. But towards the middle of the tenth century the intestine
broils and revolutions which convulsed the throne of the Abbassides, and
reduced the khalifs to the j^osition of royal prisoners, encouraged the
Greek emperors Nicephorus -Phocas and John Zimisces to make a last
effort (a.d. 9G3) to obtain possession of the fine provinces which their prede-
cessors had lost. The twelve years of their military command form the most
sjolendid period of the Byzantine annals. An immense army laid siege
to Adana (erroneously called Mopsuestia by Gibbon*), which double
city, divided into two by the Sams, was surrounded and taken by assault,
and two hundred thousand Moslems were led to death and slavery. I
* Sec Colonel Leake's learned work on the Ancient and Modern Geography of Asia
Minor. 1824.
It woiild appear, however, that Gibbon was in the right as far as regards the
city in question being Mopsuestia. The mistake of sayuig that Mopsuestia was cut in
two by the river Saiais originated with Zonaras and Cedrenus : it should be by tlio
PjTamus. Adana does not ajiipear to have been ever di^•ided into two to^vns by the
river Sams, but Mopsuestia always was by the PjTamus ; hence Colonel Leake ap-
pears to increase the confusion by changing the town to meet the error in the name
of the river. Mopsuestia was also an important city in the middle ages ; Adana did
not rise into notice till after the time of the Khahfs : nor is it likely that two such
excessive popidations as those of Adana and Tarsus could have existed so close to one
another.
It may be remarked also, that Abu-1-fada describes this butcherj^ of Moslems — so
much exaggerated as far as numbei'S are concerned — to have taken place at Mopsu-
estia, not Adana.
Sii- Francis Beaufort, in his Karamania, remarks that Anna Comnena has made
the same mistake, when she describes (Alexiad. lib. xii.) part of Tancrcd's army as
proceeding up the Sarus to invest Mopsuestia. — W. F. A,
+ " A sm-prising degree of population," says Gibbon, "which must at least include
the inhabitants of the dependent districts." And yet there is more probabUity of this
number being less exaggerated than that ascribed to Seleucia, near Antioch, computed
to have had upwards of 300,000 ; as the environs of Adana arc verj' extensive and fer-
tile, and well calculated to aftbrd sustenance for an infinitely large number, whereas
the position of Seleucia is circinnscribeil within very narrow limits by the sea on one
side, and the rocky ilount lihossus on the other, which could never have fm-nished
sufficient food for such multitudes ; pai-ticxUarly in the vicinity of so vast a metropolis
THE TURKMANS. 49
The city of Tarsus was reduced by the slow progress of famine. Tlie
Saracens capitulated on honourable terms, and were dismissed with a safe-
conduct to the confines of Syria. " A part of the old Christians had
quietly lived under their dominion, and the vacant habitations were re-
plenished by a new colony ; but the mosque was converted into a stable^
the pulpit was delivered to the flames, and many rich crosses of gold and
gems, the spoils of Asiatic churches, were made a grateful offering to
the piety and avarice of the em^^eror ; and the gates of Adana and Tarsus
were transported to Constantinople, and fixed in the wall there, a lasting
monument of victory." Antioch was recovered, and subsequently all Syria
(except Acre), and many cities on the other side of the Euphrates were
overrun and despoiled. The Emperor Zimisces returned to Constan-
tinople laden with Oriental spoils, and displayed in his triumph the silk,
the aromatics of the East, and three hundred myriads of gold and silver.
But this transient hurricane, the last efforts of a declining storm, blew
over, and left few traces of its effects ; for shortly afterwards, being unable
to maintain their conquests, the Greeks evacuated the Asiatic towns, and
the Saracens again purified their mosques, and overturned the idols of
the saints and martyrs, the Nestorian and Jacobite Christians preferring
their Saracen riders to their heretical brethren. Antioch, with the
cities of Cilicia and the island of Cyprus, Avere the only possessions re-
tained by the Greek Emperor, and the sole advantages of this bloody
struggle.
The Turkmans, wandering hordes of Scythians who liad come from
the north and overrun all China and Central Asia, had been invited
some years previously (a.d. 1000) by the khalifs into Persia, to prop
up by their military energy a feeble and tottering power, opposed by re-
bellious and refractory vassals. Converted to INIuhammadanism by their
new connexion with the Saracen Arabs, they seized upon the monarchify
but suftered the monarch to exist ; they declared themselves the lieu-
tenants of the Khalifs, and distributed their numerous clans over the
whole of the countries between Bagdad and India, which they divided
among themselves: hence the different dynasties of Sanimanides, Gazna-
vides, SidJuJcians, Karizndans^ &c., and at length Ottomans or Osmanlis,
which last became the most celebrated from the duration and extent
of their power, and which they have had the good fortune to retain
to the present day. The Turkmans of the court and city have beeu
refined by the business and intercourse of social life, and softened by
luxury and effeminacy ; but the greater number of their brethren still
as Autiocli, which was said to contain 600,000 souls. Commerce alone might have
been e>;Lual to the suppoi-t of such numbers.
50 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERXOES.
contimie to dwell in the teuts of their ancestors, and lead the same wan-
dering life which they led eight centuries ago.
During the life of Tugrul Bay (a.d. 1050), one of the Suljukiau
family, many parties of Turkman horse invaded the provinces of the
Greek Empire, and overran a frontier of GOO miles, shedding the blood
of 130,000 Christians. But these incursions did not make a lasting
impression on the Greek Empire, which still extended to Autioch and
the boundaries of Armenia. The torrent rolled away in the open
country, obscure hostilities were continued or suspended with various
vicissitudes of good and bad fortune, and the bravery of the Mace-
donian legions renewed the fame of the successors of Alexander. The
Turkmans, however, had the advantages of a new and poor people over
an ancient and corrupt government, and were besides continually re-
cruited by fresh hordes of their companions, impelled by the tliu-st of
rapine, and the necessity of forming new settlements.
A.D. 1068. Tugrul Bay left to his nephew and successor. Alp
Arslan (become, by the overthrow of the Gaznavide dynasty, the most
powerful head of the. numerous clans, and Avho had assumed the title of
Suldan), the care of prosecuting the war against the Christians, and he
invaded Asia Minor with a large army headed by his Amirs or generals.
Laden with spoils, which they seized indiscriminately, and careless of
discipline, these troops were, in the security of conquest, scattered in
numerous detachments all over the provinces. The Greek emperor,
Romanus Diogenes, who had been invested by the Empress Eudocia
Avith the purple for the pm-posc of defending the state against these
barbarians, surprised and defeated them sej)arately, and drove them
beyond tlie Euplirates in three laborious campaigns.
On the report of these losses, Alp Arslan flew to the scene of action
(a.d. 1072) at the head of 40,000 horse, and overcame and captured
Eomanus Diogenes. He accepted, however, a ransom of a million
of gold pieces, and sent him back on promise of paying a tribute of
360,000 pieces. But in the treaty of peace it does not appear that he
extorted any province or city from the captive emperor, and his reven
Avas satisfied with the trophies of his Adctories and the spoils of Anatoh;.,
from Antioch to the Black Sea.
Sulaiman, the son of Kutulmish, a relative of Arslan, and of the
family of the Suljukians, invaded Asia jMinor two years after (a.d. 1074),
and declared himself in favour of Nicephorus Botoniates, in opposition
to his rival Bryennius, and materially contributed to the success of the
former, whom he settled on the throne of Constantinople. 2000 Turks
were at this time transported into Europe, the first of that nation who
TURKMAN DYNASTY AT NICJIA. 51
crossed the Hellespont, — a fatal precedent, for the Turks took the op-
portunity of fortitying themselves in the country ; and the elevation of
a tyrant, who was soon deposed and pvit to death, was purchased by the
sacrifice of many of the finest provinces of the empire ; and from this
date the Turks could no longer be expelled from Asia Minor, the whole
of which they soon subdued, except Trebizond, which held out to the
Greeks.
Sulaimau foUowiug up his successes, completed (a.d. 1084) the con-
quest of AnatoHa, and established the new kingdom of the Suljukians of
Roiim, At Nica3a, the metropolis ofBithynia, 100 miles distant from
Constantinople, " on the very spot where the first general council or
synod of the Christians was held, the divinity of Christ was denied
and derided; and the Kiu-an was preached in the same temple Avhich
had witnessed the assemblage of the heads of the Christian Church, now
converted into a mosque. The Cadis judged according to the laws of
the Kiiran, the Turkish manners and language prevailed over the cities,
and Turkman camps were scattered over the plains and mountains of
Asia Minor. On the hard conditions of tribute and servitude, the Greek
Chx'istians were permitted to enjoy the exercise of their religion; but
their holy churches were profaned, their priests and bishops insulted ;
they were compelled to suffer the triumphs of the Pagans and the apos-
tacy of their brethren, and many thousand captives were devoted to the
service or pleasures of their masters." Here I pause to observe how well
adapted to the present state of the country is this picture di'awn by
Gibbon, from contemporary writers, of the degraded state of the Chris-
tians in those times, and which has continued to the 25i"esent day with
little or no alteration or diminution. In consequence of this tyranny,
they have, in self-defence, been induced to resort to that cunning and
deceit which are now their leading characteristics, and which alone are
the features that distinguish them from their oppressors, for they have
in every other respect adopted the manners and prejudices of the IVIu-
hammadans. None of their churches have been restored to them that
were converted into mosques ; but they are permitted, on payment of
large sums, to build new chiu'ches, on heaps of ruins where it is im-
possible to say what edifice had stood, whether theatre, bath, or Pagan
temple. Under the late Sultan some of the restrictions on Christian
worship have been diminished, and firmans are to be obtained with less
difiiculty and comparatively moderate fees; and this they owe to the
progress of civilisation, consequent on the march of intellect which
produced in Sultan IMahmud an enlightened monarch and a man of
genius.
52 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
On the establishment of a Turkman dynasty at jS'iccea (a.d. 1095),
Avhich lasted 220 years, the provinces of Asia Minor came under its
subjection, and -were the scene of slaughter and rapine ; -while the pil-
grims from every part of Europe, who began to flock to Jerusalem, en-
countered innumerable perils ere they were permitted to salute the Holy
Sepulchre. A spirit of zeal, engendered by the exclusiveness ofMuham-
madanism, prompted these hordes to insidt the clergy of every other sect.
The Patriarch of Jerusalem, we are informed, was dragged by the hair
along the pavement and cast into a dungeon, to extort a ransom from
his flock ; and the divine worship in the Church of the Eesiirrection was
often disturbed by the rudeness of its masters. Peter the Hermit roused
the martial nations of Eui'ope to avenge their wrongs ; and the Crusades
were undertaken by our ancestors in a spirit of enthusiasm to peril
their lives in the defence and rescue of their co-religionists — a feeling
which seems to haA'e been entirely extinguished in the hearts of their
descendants.
Kilitch Arslan, the son of Sidaiman, was king of Nica?a (a.d. 1097)
when the army of the first Crusaders besieged that city on its way to
the Holy Land, and took it after a siege of seven months. The Turk-
man sultan, no Avay dismayed by the loss of his capital, retreated to
Dorylajum in Phrygia, and assembling there all the forces he had in the
province, resolutely attacked the Latins, and eventually engaged them
in a pitched battle. But victory declared for the Crusaders ; and
Kihtch Arslan was compelled to retreat, and implore the aid, by
kindling the resentment, of his eastern brethren, which he did, laying
waste the countries he traversed. The Crusaders proceeded to Koniyah,
Arakli, and Marash, and thence over jNIount Taurus to Kucusus, now
Kursun, a town remarkable as having formerly been the place of exile
of St. Chrysostom. Two of the chiefs, Tancred and BaldAvin, the brother
of Godfrey of Bouillon, were here detached from the main army, with
their respective sipiadrons of 500 and 700 knights. They overran in
rapid career the hills and sea-coast of Cilicia, from the mountainous
country to the Syrian gates, and planted the Norman standard on the
walls of Tarsus and Malmistra (IMopsucstia). The foi'mcr of these cities
Baldwin, excited by jealousy and ambition, obliged Tancred to deliver
into his hands ; and he had the barbarity to refuse admission to 000
of the soldiers of Tancred, who were consequently obliged to pass the
night outside the walls, where they were cut to pieces by a strong party
of Saracen Turks. But Tancred by his moderation had gained the
affection of the soldiers, and Baldwin was soon obliged to return to
the camp, to endure the reproaches of the Latin chiefs. Tancred for-
CILICIA ANNEXED TO THE GREEK EilPIRE. 53
tifiecl and garrisoned the towns he had taken, and these Avere the most
lasting possessions of all that the Crusades acquired.
A.D. 1118. While the brave Tancred and his warlike associates were
winning laurels before the walls of Jerusalem and Antioch, the wily
Alexius, Emperor of Constantinople, improved the opportunity afforded
by the victories of the Crusaders, and recovered the provinces previously
taken from the Greeks by the Suljukian Turkmans, by following in
their steps, and taking possession of and fortifying all the towns on the
coast, including the islands of Cyprus and Ehodes. The seat of power
of the Turkmans was thus confined to the districts of Koniyah, where
the dynasty of Alp Arslan fixed their debilitated throne. Their power
eventually became nominal ; for in spite of the high titles they assumed,
the last of their race were happy to be considered as generals of the
Great ]\Iogul, and owe their sway to his bounty, until they were finally
destroyed by Gazan in 1298, the year 706 of the Hegira. In the mean-
while the ambitious but pru.dent Alexius had resolved to annex Cilicia
to his empire, and that the Syrian gates should be the boundary of his
possessions : for this purpose he made war on Tancred and Bohemond,
now tranquil masters of their conquests. Bohemond, unable to cope
with this new enemy, left Tancred to govern at Antioch, and returning
to Europe, levied an army of 5000 horse and 40,000 foot, with which he
returned to punish the faithless Greek. But the sudden death of Bohe-
mond happened about this time ; added to which, the venal arts of
Alexius, by which he won over his confederates, compelled Tancred to
sign a treaty of peace, whereby all Cilicia Avas restored to the Byzantine
empire. Thus the towns of Tarsus and INIalmistra (or Mopsuestia),''so
bravely won by Tancred, fell under the government of the Greeks.
-0^«3iC!5X£^-^
CHAPTER V.
THE EMPEROR JOHN COMKENUS KILLED IN A AMLD-EOAR HUNT IN CILICIA
DESCRIPTION OF ANAZARBA THE SECOND CRUSADE — THIRD CRUSADE
DEATH OF FREDERICK I. (bARBAROSSa) IN CILICIA FOURTH CRUSADE
CILICIA UNDER JOHN DUCAS VATACES DEVASTATIONS OF YANGHIZ OR
GENGHIZ KHAN.
The crafty Alexius was succeeded (a.d. 1143) in the throne of Con-
stantinople by his son John Comnenus, surnanied Kalo Joannes or John
the Handsome, a prince whose reign of twenty-five years was marked by
vii-tues rarely met with in such degenerate and guilty times. He intro-
duced a gradual reformation in the manners of his capital, without as-
suming the tyrannic office of a censor. The only check on the public
felicity was love of military glory, — the ruhng passion of the emperor.
But the frequent expeditions he undertook may be justified in some
measure by the necessity of repelling the Turks and repressing their in-
roads. The Sultan of Karamania was confined to his capital, the barba-
rians were driven to their mountains, and the maritime provinces of Asia
enjoyed a tranquillity which was highly appreciated.
John Comnenus repeatedly marched at the head of his victorious armies
from Constantinople to Antioch and Aleppo; the whole coast of Anatolia
to the north and south was subjected to his power, and in the sieges and
battles of the Holy War his Latin allies were astonished at the superior
spirit and prowess of a Greek. But while the Greek king began to in-
dulge the hope of restoring the ancient limits of the empire, the decrees
of Providence Avere about to frustrate his plans ; and the thread of his
life and of the public happiness was broken by an unfortunate and rather
singular accident. While hunting a wild boar in Cilicia, near the town of
Anazarba, he had fixed his javelin in the body of the furious animal, and
in the struggle to recover himself a poisoned arrow dropped from his
quiver, and a slight wound in his hand produced mortification and proved
fatal to him.*
* La Cilicie tU'pendait des rois Selcucides ; mais Tigi-ancs roi trArmunio aj-ant de-
trond CO prince, la Cilicie, du moins la partie qu'on appcllait Campcstris, obt'it an i-oi
d'Arnu'nie jiisqu'Jl Van 688 do Rome, dans laquellc Tigrancs fut vaincu par Pomjit-c.
Cctto partie resta soumise aiix Remains. Jtilcs-Cesar confirma Ic titre de Mctropole a
la villo do Tursvs. L'Empereur Augiisto lui coiifVra de nouvelles graces, ct die joiiit
SECOND dlUSADE. 55
The second Crusade, under Conrad III. Emperor of Germany and
Louis VII. (a.d.1147), experienced tlie same disasters that befel the first
expedition. Misled by the guides in the pay of the perfidious Greek
Emperor ^Manuel, who succeeded Kalo Joannes, and who was secretly
leagued with the Saracens, the unfortunate Conrad and Louis were be-
trayed ; and unable to penetrate farther tlian the Taiirus and the confines
du titre et des iir^^ininences de mefcropole jusqu'au cinqoieme siecle de Jesus-Christ.
Les villes d'Anazarba iVEyes (Ayash) ct Mullus (Kara Tash), et autres, liii <5taient
soumiscs. La \ille d'Anazarba, decorije du titre de C^saree, ^tait illustro ; elle <-prouva
les plus grands malheurs ; elle fut renvers^e par un tremblement de terre, et I'Em-
pereur Aerva la fit bientot retablii-. Cette %'ille resta dans un ^tat flem-issant pendant
plusieiu-s siecles ; un autre tremblement de terre la ruiua solis le regne de Justin ou
Justinian. Elle se releva encore du milieu do ses ruines par la munificence des princes,
et I'avantat/e de la situation et la fertilite de son territoire ftu-ent cause qu'elle fi.it
bientot ri/tablie. Anazarba riche, iJeupk-e, et dans une position avantageuse, jDar ime
rivalite aloi-s commun entreles grandes villss d'uue meme proAdnce, ambitionna le titre
de mtitropole, et elle le prit suivant VaiUant sous le regne d'Elagabule ; mais elle I'avait
obtenu auparavant : sm- un ni^daillo frappe'e on I'honneur de Caracalla I'an baz 232
de I'ere de la viUe, 966 de Rome, 214 de J^sus-Christ, quatrieme du regne de ce prince,
eUe prcnd le titre de MHTi'onOAEas, mtjtropole, qu'elle couserva sous les emperem-s
.suivant; mais ce titre ^tait simplemant honorifique, sans donner aucune jurisdiction
dans la province; U donnoit la presence apres Tarsus, dans les as3embl{5es g<$n^rales
Pareils honnem-s fiu'ent accordes aux villes do Nicee en Bj'thinie, de Laodic^e en Syrie,
et de Sidon en Phenicie.
La ville d'Anazarba ne se contenta pas du titre de m^tropole; elle y ajouta I'cpi-
thete Cl il lustre, ENAOHOYMHTPonoAiiOc, qu'elle fit graver sm- plusieiu-sde ses monnaies.
Elle conservait encore ce titre sous le regne de Diocletian. On lit dans les Actes des
Martyrs publiees par Don Ruinart, que Taraque, Androniqiie, et Probus fiu-ent mis a
mort povu" la religion Chretienne I'an 304 de Jc^sus-Christ tn 'Ai-aJup/SM ->; en^oftu/iiiTpo-
TToXei, a Anazarha illustre Metroiyole. — Dissertation sur I'Ere d'Anatarha ^yar I'Ahhe
Belley, iii the Memoires de V Academie, vol.50, p. 350. Vide Journal, Jan. 18, 1848.
Tarsus imder the reign of L.Verus had inscribed on its medals n M K, which has
puzzled antiquai-ies ; the Abb^ says it means Trpo-rif /itiTpoTroXeajr KiXiKias. Anazaiba had
the same engi-aved on its medals, out of opjiosition.
Under the reign of Arcadius, C'ilicia was di\'ided into first and second provinces,
of which Tarsus and Anazarba became the chief metropohtan towns.
Anazarba, midcr the Emperor Conimodus, obtained the pri\'ilege of being avTcuoiio?,
by which it had the i-ight of choosing its own magistrates, and of being governed by
its own laws. — W. B. B.
Anazarba, which appears to have been erroneously called Ain-zarbeh,— the name
being merely corrupted by the natives to Anawarzah, — figured for a short period as
one of the most flomisliing cities of C'ilicia. Ptolemy calls it Cssarea ad A nazarhv.m ;
Pliny, Anazarheni qui nunc Ccesarea; Hierocles calls it MetropoUs; and it is enume-
rated among the Christian episcoj^acies in the Ecclesiastical Xoticcs of the Low Empire.
It was the countiy of Dioscorides, who is called by Smdas the physician of Anazarba,
and of Oppian, the poet of the Cynegeticus. Carolus Stephanus, in his historical dic-
tionary, says that this \vi-iter of elegant verses died of plagaic at his birthplace, which
he calls Zerhus. This splendid tovm was destroyed by a fearful earthquake m the
reign of Justinian. This is nan-ated by Procopius and by Cedrenus.
Little was known of the actual condition of this place till it was visited by a party
from the Euphi-ates expedition. The -v^-alls still remain, but m a rmnous condition.
t
.56 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERXOKS.
of Cilicia, tliey were obliged to embark wdth a few retainers only in
Greek vessels for the coast of Syria, the one from the Hellespont, and
the other from Satalia. The greatest part of their miserable and mis-
giiided followers, to the number of several thousands, were abandoned to
tlieir fate and exposed to the cruelty of the Saracens at the foot of the
Pamphylian hills, and in the forests of ]\Iount Taiu'us.
Audronicus, grandson of Alexius and cousin of ^lanuel, was twice
sent during the lifetime of this emperor to govern the important pro-
vince of Cilicia. His romantic adventures and hair-breadth escapes
would fill a volume ; I can but refer to the most striking passages
in his life. In his first campaign he pressed the siege of INIopsuestia,
which had been seized by the Armenians. By day his boldness was
equal to his success ; but the nights were devoted to the song and
dance, and a band of Greek comedians formed the choicest of his
retinue. One evening he was surprised by a sally of the vigilant foe;
but while his troops fled in disorder, his invincible lance transpierced
the thickest ranks of the Armenians. In his second command of the
Cilieian frontier, some years afterwards, the Armenians again exercised
his courage and exposed his negligence, while he wasted his time at
Antioch in balls and toiu'naments. Among three princesses whom he
seduced Avas the Queen of Jerusalem, whose shame was more public and
scandalous than that of either of her predecessors. He remained twelve
years in prison, took the Cross as a Crusader, wandered as an outlaw to
Bagdad and Persia, settled among the Turks in Asia Minor, became a
robber of Christians and the terror of the kingdom of Trebizond, usurped
the throne of Constantinople, and after a bloody reign of three years was
put to death in a cruel and ignominious manner by the enraged populace.
The third Crusade, under the conduct of Frederic I. Emperor of
Germany, surnamed Barbarossa (a.d. 11 83), did not eventually meet with
much more success than the last. After passing the Hellespont, his army
was harassed by innumeral)le hordes of Turkmans during twenty days
that he was traversing the dense forests of Bithynia; but he overcame all
obstacles to his progress, and attacked and stormed the capital of the Turk-
mans, and compelled the Sultan of Koniyah to sue for pence. But the
veteran warrior reaped no harvest i'rona his exertions; he was not iated
Few public buildings exist, however, within the walls, beyond an extensive castle of
various ages, built upon the top of a rocky hill, and many of the rooms of which are in
perfect keejiing, — but these appear to belong to the Muhammadan era. A great num-
ber of beautifully scidptm-cd and highly oniamented tombs and sarcophagi still attest,
however, to the opulence and civilisation of this former metropolis of Cilicia. Nor
must we omit to mention the niins of an aqueduct, which brought water direct li-om
tlio mountains, a distance of many miles. — W. F. A.
DEATH OF FREDERIC I. — JOHN DUCAS VATACES. 57
to tread the soil of the Holy Land, nor to terminate the triumphs which
he had begun. He was drowned Avhile crossing a river in Cilicia, which
had been swollen by the tropical rains, — the C^d/ius according to some
writers, and who have taken this occasion to draw a comparison between
him and Alexander, to whom this river had nearly proved fatal above a
thousand years previously. But I am unwilling to give credit to this story,
as it seems unaccountable that a general at the head of his army should
be lost in fording a river which is nowhere more than six feet deep ; and
I think it more probable that he was attacked by the malignant fever of
the country. However this may be, his troops were decimated by sick-
ness and lamine, and his son, who had contrived to reach the Holy Land
ivith a few remaining followers, expired at the siege of Acre. These
losses led succeeding Crusaders, grown wiser by the fate of their prede-
cessors, to abandon the overland route, and Cilicia Avas no longer trampled
tinder foot by the zealous but little disciplined liosts.
The fourth Crusade, undertaken by the Venetians and French
(a.d. 1204), was diverted from the coast of Syria, to which it was origi-
nally directed, by the enticing shores of the Bosjihorus ; where, on pre-
tence of revenging the death of Alexius, who with his father Isaac had
been murdered by Murzufli, the Latins made themselves masters of
Constantinople, sacked and burnt the best part of the capital, and elected
Baldwin Count of Flanders Emperor of the East. The successors of this
monarch maintained themselves in the capital diiring a period of fifty-
seven years. But Theodore Lascaris, the son-in-law and relation of
Alexius, having fled, he set up the standard of the Greeks at Nica?a,
and with the alliance of the Turkish sultan he saved a remnant of the
falling empire. During a reign of eighteen years, this emperor extended,
1 >y his military talents, the small principality of Nicfea to the magnitude
of a kingdom, in which Cilicia was included.
Theodore Lascaris was succeeded at his death (a.d. 1222) by John
Ducas Vataces, his son-in-law, who fixed the throne on a more sohd
basis, and in a long reign of thirty-three years displayed both the
virtues of peace and the energy of war. In the long administration of
this prince, the provinces of Asia Minor, and among them Cilicia, en-
joyed the blessings of a good government. The lands were sown yviih
corn or planted with olives and vines ; the pastures were filled Avith
cattle and horses ; the education of youth and the revival of learning
Avere also serious objects of his care, and both by his precepts and
practice, simplicity of manners and domestic industry AA^ere encouraged.
It was somcAvhere about this period that the Venetians and Genoese
founded commercial emporia on the coasts of Asia Minor, in Cilicia,
58 CILICIA AXD ITS GOTERXOES.
and in Syria, somewhat after tlie principle adopted by the early Hel-
lenic colonists, fortifying themselves in their positions by adequate
defences, and often by castles to command the passes of the interior, or
to keep the surrounding populations in awe. Few records of the era of
the foimdation of these emporia exist, and equally few are to be met
■which record their history, their prosperity, or their adverses, and their
final extinction.
Upon this subject the able historian Sismundi says, " The chronicles of
the maritime cities of Italy thro'sv very little light upon the colonies which
their citizens founded in the towns of the East, or even at Constantinople.
These colonies governed themselves, they named their own authorities,
and did not receive them from the metropolis ; and whatever their popu-
lation or their wealth, they could not be considered as belonging to the
state. Hence it is that the national historians have attached but little
importance to the debates of a number of Venetian and Pisan individuals
at the other extremity of Europe, although the results brought about by
them still astonish us in the present day ; while, on the other hand, the
continual wars of the Pisans and the Genoese, which appear to us in the
light of freaks of pirates, captivated their whole attention."
There are, however, a few fragments referring to these conquests
which it may be interesting to record here.
The earhest fleet of the Venetian republic that accompanied the first
Crusade, a.d. 1099, was composed of 200 ships, and commanded by the
son of the new doge, Vital Michieh. They fought off Ehodes a bloody
battle against the fleet of the republic of Pisa, each forgetting that they
were Christians and crusaders. The Venetian fleet took Smyrna at a later
period, and assisted the land troops of the crusaders in taking Jaffa.*
The Genoese republic sent, in August 1100, tAventy-eight galleys
and six larger vessels into the East. The historian Caffaro was of the
expedition. Another fleet was despatched about this time by the republic
of Pisa under the Archbishop Daimbert, Avho became afterwards Patriarch
of Jemsalem. The combined fleets passed the Avinter at Lattakiya ; and
when the death of Godfrey de Bouillon had endangered his new king-
dom, they kej)t the maritime provinces, including Cilicia, in subjection
to the Latins.
The troops of the two republics undertook the siege of Ca?sarea,
A.V). 1101. Caput Malio, the Genoese consul, was the first to climb the
ramparts, on simple maritime scaling-ladders, and the toAvn was taken
from the Musulmans and consigned to pillage. One -fifteenth of the booty
was given to the sailors that remained on board the fleet,
* Andrea Danduli Chron. 1. ix. c. 10, p. 256.
VENETIANS, GENOESE, AND PISANS. 59
Constantinople was retaken by the Greeks under Stratigoptilas from
the Venetians, a.d. 1261 ; and Michael Paleologus, whose troops had
been assisted by the Genoese, granted privileges to the latter which he
had promised them beforehand, but established them at Galata, out of
the city. The Venetians and Pisaus formed each a separate quarter,
and the three were governed by a separate magistrate, which their re-
spective to^vns sent to them ; and here were formed three small republics,
which maintained their liberty and independence, in a city the emperor
of which was still at war with the Latins. The latter ceded the island
of Scio to the Genoese, which was the largest held by them (till 1556),
the jealousy of the Greeks having induced them to look with favour
upon the occujjation of the island by the IMusulmans.
The Jinal conquest, by Melek Seraf, of St. Jean d' Acre, when 30,000
Christians were massacred, occurred a.d. 1291 ; and the taking of Tripoli
of Barbary by the Genoese admiral Philip Doria, in a.d. 1355.
The Genoese of Pera attempted in the year 1376 to take the island
of Tcnedos, ceded to them by Andronicus, Avho had been half blinded
by his father, John Paleologos. They were prevented by the gOA^ernor
of the island, who remained faithful to the deposed en:peror, and called
the Venetians to his assistance, thus defeating the objects of the Genoese.
Nicotia was taken June 16th, 1373, by Catani (Genoese admiral of
some galleys sent by the Genoese to revenge the massacre), and seventy
captive virgins dedicated to Venus were restored to their parents.
Famagosta was taken October 3d by Petre di Campo Fregoso,
brother of the Doge of Genoa, at the head of thirty-six galleys and
14,000 men. Petro Lusignau, the young king, and son of the deceased
king of the same name, was taken prisoner on that occasion, and the
island siibjugated to the Genoese. The young king, however, attacked
the Genoese in Famagosta in 1378, assisted by the Venetian galleys ;
bu.t he was repulsed, and forced to quit not only the island, but the
seas of Cyprus.
Sinope (Samsun), Trebizonde, and Cerasus were taken by Moham-
med II. A.D. 1462.
Pope Pius II. died in 1464, and thus the hopes of assistance enter-
tained by the Christians of the Levant were destroyed.
Pope Paul 11. endeavoured in vain to revive an interest in the
Christians of the Levant, and the fleet that had assembled at Ancona
(a.d. 1465) to proceed to the assistance of the Christians, was sent by the
Venetian senate to attack and plunder the island of Ehodes, under the
Great Master of the order of St. John of Jerusalem.
Petro Mocenigo, after ravaging, with eighty-eight galleys, the north
60 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNORS.
of Asia Minor, attacked, a.d. 1472, Attalia, or Satali, a rich town of
Pampliilia, whicli furnished Egypt and Syria ^Yith provisions, devastated
the environs, and then returned to Ehodes. He also ravaged Ionia,
opposite 8cio, and Smyrna, -without making any distinction between
the Christian churches and the Muhammadan mosques.
Mocenigo received from Venice, a.d. 1473, the order to put him-
self in communication with Ozun Hassan, to whom the republic sent
Josaphat Barbaro (a person advanced in age, speaking the Persian
fluently, and of gi-eat talent and perspicuity), three galleys laden with
presents and a great quantity of artillery, together with 100 artizans
whom the republic oiFered to the service of the sovereign of Persia. It
was through Cilicia that they had decided on passing into Persia to accom-
pany the Persian ambassador. The latter was on his return to his master
after having been received at Venice, to negotiate that mutual assistance
should be given by the Latins and Persians against their common enemy
Mohammed II. The princes of Ivaramania, two brothers, who had been
despoiled by the iMuhammadans of great part of their possessions, but
Avho still defended themselves bravely in the remainder,* Avere awaiting
them. One of these was besieging Seleucia (Sulufsky), which it seems
was a place still of some importance even at so late a period.
Mocenigo, with forty-five galleys, two from the Knights of Rhodes
and four from the king of Cyprus, proceeded to their assistance. Land-
ing first at Cyprus, he had a meeting with Hassan Bay, the younger
brother (the eldest, Pyramet,f being in the Persian camp), near Suluf-
sky, whez'e his envoy, Victor Seranzo, was informed by the young
bay that the Muhammadans kept the people of Ivaramania, who Avere
devoted to the Christian prince, under subjection by means of three
fortresses, Sichcsii, Seleucia, and Coryco (Sikin, Sulufsky, and Kurkus),
Avhich they could not take for Avant of artillery. IMocenigo forced the
Muhammadan troops occupying these three places to capitulate, and
made them over to Hassan Bay.|
These were the first attempts made to o-^on a communication Avith
the Persians; and they are of an interesting character, not only as re-
garding the country Ave are noAV engaged upon, but also as pointing out
* JI. Antonio Sabellico, dcca. iii. 1. ix. f. 215 verso. Coriol. Cepio, 1. ii. p. 361.
f Many of the names used by Mr. Barker in this portion of his narrative are do-
rived, as will be seen from the foot-notes, from lUilian writers of the middle ages, and
they arc exceedingly coniiptcd. Pyramet, for example, conld not be a Tm-kish name.
— W. F. A. It is a corniption of Pyr and Ahmed, which conjointly mean old Ahmed,
or the (7u</ Ahmed.— W. B. B.
+ M. Ant. Sabellico, deca. iii. 1. ix. f. 216 vo. Callimachus Experiens de Venetis
contra Tiu-cos, f. 409. Coriolan Cej^io, 1. ii. p. ;j52.
ULTIMATE DEFEAT OF THE rERSIANS. Gl
the progress of the human mind. They opened unknown regions to
the observations of western nations ; they brought together people that
had been long separated ; they threw the first dawn of hght on geo-
graphy, till then so confused ; and they inaugurated the period in
which w-e are now living, a period the most remarkable character of
which consists in the communication established between all the nations
of the globe.
After the taking of Sulufsky by Mocenigo, finding it impossible to
penetrate into Persia with his suite, Josaphat Barbaro left in Crete the
presents with Avhich he was charged, and proceeded with the Persian
ambassador to cross these barbarous lands, accompanied only by a few
servants. He started from Tarsus through " Little Armenia," no doubt
following the usual route that leads by Anazarba and Sis through a
passage made in the mountains by the river Pyramus ; thence he
crossed Kurdistan, a country that has remained to this day as wild
as its inhabitants are intractable. Here he w^as attacked by robbers ;
his companion, the Persian ambassador, was killed, as were also his
secretary and two of their foUo'wers. Barbaro himself was severely
wounded and despoiled of every thing ; he did not, however, lose courage,
but proceeded to join Ozun Hassan at Tabriz, Avith whom he remained
five years, and received from that sovereigii great marks of kindness
and favour. In 1488 he returned to Venice by way of Aleppo.
Mocenigo in the mean time proceeded to attack different places on
the coast of Asia Minor. He took IMyra, having defeated and killed
Arasa Bay, the governor of the province, who had come to the rescue.
He then disembarked near Phygas in Caria, where he received a mes-
sage from Catherino Zeno, who Avas accredited l^y the republic of Venice
at the Persian camp, to come to Cilicia, in order to be able to afford any
assistance in his power to the Persians, who were then advancing west-
ward. On his arrival at Kiirkus he receiA-ed another messenger from
Zeno announcing the defeat of the Persians, after their partial success,
and their retreat into Armenia.
About this time we find that the Genoese still possessed some strong
places in Cyprus ; — among others, Famagosta. It would be beyond our
limits to enter into the details of the wars between Charlotte, daughter
of Janus III., the fourteenth king of Cyprus, and her natiu'al brother
Jacques, the Venetians siding with Janus, and the Genoese with the
legitimate princess ; suffice it to say, that in 1444 Famagosta opened its
gates to Jacques de Lusignan, after three years' siege.
Mocenigo continued up to the year 1473 to make descents on
the coast of Lycia, Caria, and Cilicia ; but his attention seems to
G2 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
have been principally taken up with subduing the island of Cyprus
to the adopted daughter of St, Mark, the niece of Marc Cornaro, a
Venetian gentleman established in Cyprus, and Avho had been an exile
from his country. This is the lady whom Jacques de Lusignan married,
in order to contract an alliance Avhich should quahfy him as " son-in-law
of the republic."*
The Genoese, up to the year 1475, possessed a colony in Caffa in the
Crimea, anciently called Theodosia ; it had been more than two cen-
turies in the hands of these people, and had acquired riches and a
population almost equal to its mother city. It was the centre of com-
mimication between Eiu^ope and the East, by means of the Genoese, who
received the spices of India, and the stuffs of silk and cotton manu-
factured in Persia, by way of Astrakan.f
Caffa was taken by Hamid, a commander of Mohammed II. (a.d.
1475). He conducted the Frank inhabitants to Pera, selecting there-
from 1500 youths to be brought up among the Janissaries at Constan-
tinople; and thus was destroyed the dominion of the Genoese in the
Black Sea.
An army of 80,000 men was sent by Bayazid II. (a.d. 1488) to
attack Kayit Bay, the sovereign of Eg}-pt, in whose hands, at this time,
was Syria and Cilicia. This army, after having taken Adana and Tarsus,
was defeated by the Mamluks at Issus, at the foot of Mount Amanus.
The Ottoman fleet Avas dispersed and partly destroyed by a tempest, and
the Turks renounced the invasion of Egypt.J
Jam or Zezim, son of Mohammed II,, and brother of Bayazid II.,
aspired (a.d, 1489) to the throne of his father, under the plea that he
was " Porphyrogenetus," that is, born when Mohammed II. had become
sultan, whereas his elder brother was born during the earlier period of
their father's life, before he had reached to the height of empire. He
was A'anquished, however, in his endea^'ours to bring about a revo-
lution in his favour in Asia INIinor, and he took refuge in Cilicia, which
which Avas then imder the dominion (as we have just seen) of the Sultan
of Egypt, From this he embarked for Rhodes, to solicit the assistance
of the Knights of St. John.§
It would seem that the latter did not dare to keep him on the
* Marin Saniito Vitc du Duchi, f. 1185, vol. x. p. 339. Andrea Navazicro Stor.
Vcncziana, f. 1127-1131. Annal. Ecclesiast. 147, § 17, f. 229.
+ Ubertus follata Genuens Hist, 1. xi. p. C26.
J And. Navaziero Stor. Venez. p. 1197, and Raynaldi An. Ecc. 1488, § 9, p, 389,
Sismondi, vol, ii. p. 321.
§ Raynaldi Annal, Eccles, 1482, § 35, f, 312, Turco Grrocia Hist. Politica, 1, i, p.
30, Demetrius Centimii', 1, iii, chap, ii, § 7 and 8, p. 128.
MOGULS AND TARTARS UNDER GENGHIZ KHAN. 63
frontiers of a state that had become so powerful ; they therefore sent
him to France, from whence he passed into the hands of Pope Inno-
cent VIII. (a.d. 1489), who detained him in honourable confinement by
the bribery of Bayazid, who paid the pope 40,000 ducats yearly for the
*' pension" of his brother !
In the year 1566 the Genoese lost the island of Scio, which was
taken from the family of the Giustinianis by Sultan Sulaimau. They
were on the point also of losing Corsica, which had been invaded by the
French in 1553, had revolted in 1564, and continued to repel the op-
pressive yoke of this republic until 1568, when it was again brought
into subjection.
The Venetians signed a treaty (20th October, 1540) by which they
ceded to Sulaiman all the islands of the Archipelago already conquered
by the Tiu'ks.
In 1570 the Turks attacked Cy|:)rus, which was defended until
1573 by an immense sacrifice of men and money, tiU the inhabitants
were forced to sign a treaty of peace, and abandon the island to its new
•masters.
To resume, however, the thread of oiu' history, in and about
A.D. 1255.
The three years of the reign of Theodore, son of John Ducas, were
marked by cruelty and evil passions ; and although he thrice led an
army against the Bulgarians in Europe, he obtained no signal advan-
tage. He left at his death the crown to his son John Lascaris, a boy
eight years of age, who Avas soon set aside and blinded by Michael
PaljEologus (a.d. 1259), one of his relations, who seated himself firmly
on the throne of Constantinople two years afterwards, by which event
the Latin dynasty Avas superseded, and the Greek emperors triumphantly
entered the metropolis, after a banishment of fifty-seven years (a.d. 1261).
But the removal of the seat of empire from Niccea to Constantinople
was fiital to the Greeks, as the countries on the Asiatic side of the Helles-
pont were left exposed to the Turkish invaders, and the barrier which had
been effectual for so many years against their inroads was removed farther
north. The attention of Michael Pala3oiogiis Avas also almost totally
absorbed in propitiating the Roman pontiff, in order, by artful and hypo-
critical means, to avert the Avestern storm Avhich Avas hanging over
his head, so that the eastern part of the empire Avas neglected and
left to its fate. While the Greeks and Latins AA^ere engaged in disputes
on trifling points of religion, a colossal and irresistible poAver had over-
turned all the Asiatic kingdoms ; and even those of Europe Avere shaken
to their foundation. The Avhole of Central Asia, China, Persia, part
G4
CILICIA A\D ITS GOVERNORS.
of India and Eussia, -were overrun by the Moguls and Tartars, "wlio
about the year a.d, 120G, under Yanghiz or Genghiz Khan and his
followers, rendered themselves masters, dui'ing sixty-eight years of
unparalleled success, of the greater part of Asia. The sultans of the
Suljukian dynasty at Koniyah in vain attempted to stop the torrent in
its course ; they were swept away by the victorious arms of the Moguls,
and Azzaddin fled to Europe, taking refuge in Thrace. The whole of
Asia Minor felt the iron sway of the conquerors ; and Hulagu Khan,
grandson of Yanghiz Khan, laid the whole country waste with fire and
sword.
But as these shepherd-kings soon returned to their own country
with their spoils and captives, the destructive inundation ceased to flow
after a Avhile, and Cilicia once more formed a part of the Greek emj)ire.
Michael Pala^ologus was succeeded by his son Andi'onicus, (a.d.
1282,) whose long reign of nearly fifty years was disgraced by super-
stition and weakened by the disputes of the Greek Church, and this at
the very time that a new power, destined to subvert his own, was rising
on the ruins of the Suljukian dynasty.
RUIN AT ANAZARBA. — (From a Sketch by Edward B. B. Barker, Esq.)
CHAPTER VI.
RISE OF THE OSMAXLIS On USJLVNLIS VICTORIES OF BAYAZID — INVASIONS OF
THE MOGULS CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY JIUHAJDLID II. BAYAZID II.
ANNEXES CILICIA TO THE OTTO.MAN EMPIRE — CAJIPMGNS OF SULAIMAN THE
5L-VGNIFICENT AMURAD IV. INVADES CILICLA HIS HOUSE AT ADANA
REFOPJiIS OF >L\.HMUD II. .UBD'uL MASJID.
Othman, sou of Ortliogrul,* a Turkman chief of a tribe of four liundred
families "wlio had settled in Lesser Armenia on the banks of the Eu-
phrates, after his fathei''s death enlisted in the service of Ala-addin,
one of the last sultans of Karamania. Becoming emir or lieutenant of
the feeble monarch, he founded a kingdom, the seat of which was first
established at Brusa, then at Adrianople, and lastly at Constantinople.
The founder of the Osmanli dynasty first invaded the territory of
Nicomedia, a.d. 1299, and during twenty-seven years he made repeated
incursions on the Greek empire. At last, when oppressed by age and
infirmities, he received the news in his camp of the taking of Brusa by
his son Orchan, which then became the capital of the new dynasty.
Orchan afterwards subjected all the countries of Asia Minor, almost
without resistance ; but it appears that he allowed his brother-generals
to divide the spoil, for Ave see that the emirs of Gharmain and Karamania
(iu the latter of which Cilicia was included) are said to have been in a
condition to bring each an army of 40,000 men into the field. From
these proceeded the vast tribes of Turkmans established all over Cilicia
and Karamania, who maintain their original way of living to this day,
and who are a sej)arate race from the wandering tribes to the north, — of
those, for example, iu the districts of Kaisariyah. The latter are mostly
of Kurd origin, and speak a perfectly difierent language.
Orchan, profiting by the civil wars of the elder Andronicus and his
grandson, caused his emirs to build a fleet and pillage the adjacent
islands, and even the sea-coasts of Europe.
* It is proper in names so long accepted as Osman or Othman^ Ortliogrul, and
Osmanlis or Ottomans, to retain the accei>ted orthographies ; otherwise, as there is
no in the original, a more correct orthography would be 'Usman, 'Usmauli, 'Urthu-
grul, &e.
F
QQ CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
John Cantacuzeuc, -who, in conjunction with John Pala^ologus, son of
the younger Andronicus, had become emperor, basely invited to his aid
(a.d. 1346) the pubUc enemies of his religion and country; and Orchan
■was induced to come to his assistance by the stijDulated condition that
the daughter of Cantacuzene should be given him in marriage. Parental
tenderness was in this case silenced by the dictates of ambition, and the
Greek princess Avas delivered over to her Asiatic lord without the rites
of the Church. The Tiu'ks were thus introduced into Europe; and in
the very first step they made they trod down with contempt one of the
first and most sacred rites of the Christians, by taking the daughter of
their emperor as a concubine in their Iiarims ! Sulaiman, the son of
Orchan, marched at the head of ten thousand warriors into Europe to
support the wavering power of his ally. In the civil Avars of Romania
he performed a small degree of service and a greater degree of mischief.
By degrees the Chersonesus was insensibly filled with a Turkish colony,
Avhile the Byzantine court solicited in vain the restitution of the fortresses
of Thrace. The walls of Galipoli, the key of the Hellespont, had been
thrown down by an earthquake ; they Avere rebuilt and fortified by the
policy of Sulaiman, and Constantinople Avould have next fallen a prey
to the ambition of the Turks, had the Tui'kish chief not died by a
fall from his horse, and the death of his father soon after fortunately
intervened to stay for a little Avhile the shock of the impending
storm.
A.D. 1360. Amurad I., second son of Orchan, succeeded to the
throne, Avhich he removed from Brusa to Adrianople. During a reign
of nearly thirty years he subdued Avithout resistance the proAdnces of
Eomania and Tlirace, from Momit Ila^mus to the suburbs of Constanti-
nople ; and John Palteologus, almost a prisoner in his palace, was obliged,
with his four sons, to follow the court and camp of the Ottoman prince.
The Bulgarians, Servians, Bosnians, and Albanians Avere all made tribu-
tary, and brought by a famous institution to be, by their bravery,
the supporters of Ottoman greatness. The redoubtable corps of the
** Janissaries" (Yani-chari), chosen from among the stoutest and most
beautifi.ll Christian youths, became the terror of nations, and in later
times of the sultans themselves.
It Avas reserATd to Amurad's son Bayazid, Avho succeeded him,
A.D. 1389, to extend the conqxiest begun by his grandfather to the bound-
aries of the Greek empire in the East. All the countries from the
Hellespont to the Euphrates acknoAvledged his SAvay ; while on the
other side, Avhatcver yet adliered to the Greek empire in Thrace, Mace-
donia, and Thessaly, submitted to Turkish masters. Bayazid stationed
TniUR-LANG. 67
a fleet of galleys at Galipoli to command the Hellespont. At Nicopolis
he defeated a confederate army of 100,000 Franks under John Count
of Nevers, whom he made prisoner.
At length (a.d. 1395) his attention was directed to the conquest of
Constantinople; and the dreaded catastrophe was only averted by the
consent of Manuel, successor of John Palteologus, to pay an annual tri-
bute of 30,000 croAvns of gold.
But this respite Avas of short duration ; the truce was soon violated
by the restless sultan, and an army of Ottomans again threatened the
devoted capital. Manuel in his distress implored the assistance of his
Latin '* brethren," and a reinforcement of troops from this quarter (a
forlorn-hope) protracted the siege until Timur-lang, known in Eiu-ope
by the name of Tamerlane, the Mogul conqueror, diverted the attention
of Bayazid by invading his Eastern possessions. Thus the fall of Con-
stantinople was deferred for some fifty years longer.
A.D. 1402. Timur-lang, surnamed the lame, although a descendant
of Yanghiz Khan in the female line, rose from the state of a shepherd-
lad to the possession of an empu-e more extensive than that of Alex-
ander. His first conquest was Sogdiana; from thence he advanced to
the conquest of Persia, took Bagdad, penetrated to the farthest part of
India, and on his return from thence he fell upon Syria and Asia Minor.
His aid Avas solicited by the Muhammadan princes whom Bayazid had
deposed, as also by the brother of the absent Greek emperor.
Timur summoned the Tiu-kish sidtan to raise the siege, and the two
formidable enemies met on the plains of Ancyra (Angora) in Galatiii.
After one of the most fiuious battles ever recorded in history, Bayazid
Avas defeated and taken prisoner, and piit into an iron cage, according
to the vulgar tale.* Thus the Moguls became masters of all Asia ; and,
if they had been possessed of ships they might have overrun Eiu'ope.
But the invasion of these hordes led to no permanent conquests ; Timur
had no troops to leave behind him to maintain his poAver, and the popu-
lations Avere abandoned to anarchy. f
* Local tradition records the exact locality of this great engagement to have been
the plain of Chibuk-Abad, north of Angora, now Ang-uri. — W. F. A.
•f The Tm-ks tell a characteristic story regarding the spirit of discord j)revalent in
Cilicia, which is not equalled in any part of the world. Each inhabitant would, if he
could, drink the blood of his neighbom-.
They say that Timur-lang used to carry with liim forty eases containing his trea-
sure, and that he had eighty slaves, to whom ho confided the guard of his person and
these cases, half of whom by turns watched while the other half reposed. Arrived
before Adana on his way back, he overheard his guards concerting among each other
to kill him, and tUvide the spoU between them ; and he understood them to say that
they would wait tUl their comjjauions awoke, to be all agreed. Upon this Timur-lang-,
68 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNOEB.
Of the five sons of Bayazid avIio after his death contended for the
sovereignty, Muhammad I. was the most conspicuous, and obtained the
ascendency. He employed the eight years of his reign in eradicating
the vices produced by civil discord, and in establishing the Ottoman
power over Cihcia and the other provinces of Asia IMinor on a firmer
basis.
His son Amurad H. besieged Constantinople, a.d. 1422, with an
army of 200,000 Tm-ks and Asiatic volunteers; but after a siege of two
months he was called away to Brusa to quell a domestic revolt excited
by his brother. The effete empii-e was allowed a respite of thirty
3^ears, during which Manuel sank into the grave, and his son John Pa-
lajologus H. was permitted to reign in consideration of a tribiite which
he paid to the Turks of 300,000 aspres, and the renunciation and aban-
donment of all the territory without the walls of Constantinople. Amu-
rad was much taken up with the Hungarian war, and twice abdicated
the throne, preferring the prayers and religious practices of the society
of the dervishes to the cares of royalty.
John PakTologus was succeeded by his brother Constantine (a.d,
1443), a youth of fair promise, and who defended his country bravely
for a time. But it Avas ordained that the last of the Greek emperors
should bear the same name as the first and founder of Constantinople.
On the 20th of May, a.d. 1438, the ill-fated city fell into the hands
of Muhammad H., the son of Amm-ad, who took it after a siege of fifty-
three days. Thus was sealed the fiite of the Christian government in
the East, at the same time that the Turkish government was finally es-
tablished in Europe.
JMuhammad II. marched a large army into Asia ]Minor against Uzzuni
Hassan, a powerful Turkman chief, and obtained a complete victory
over him on the plain of Gialdaran in Upper Armenia.
Bayazid II. succeeded his father a.d. 1481, and inherited his mar-
tial character, but did not meet with all his success in mililary afftiirs.
During the long wars which his father had carried on in Evirope the
eastern provinces had been neglected, and the sultan of Egypt, taking ad-
vantage of this supinencss, had made himself master of all Syria, Cihcia,
and part of Anatolia. Bayazid undertook a great expedition into Asia
Minor to recover these provinces, and two battles were fought by the
rival sultans in Cihcia, and the cities of Adana and Tarsus were taken
pretending to awake, ordercil the whole army in motion, saying that there must bo
.something treacherous in the very gi-ound whereon they were encamped, which could
make the select of his followers so faithless. And that is the reason, saj' th« Tiu-ks,
why he did not take Adana.
eULAOIAX, SELIM, AXD AMURAD. G9
and retaken by both parties witla alternate success. At lengtli Bayazid,
altliongli vanquished, had the tact to conckide an advantageous peace,
by which all Cilicia was ceded to him as far as the Syrian gates (a.d.
1492). lie then returned to prosecute the wars against the Venetians in
the IMorea; in which expeditions he caused all the dust from his shoes
to be collected, in order that the same being put into his coffin, might
witness in his favour at the day of judgment, of his having carried on
the Avar against the infidels Avith unremitting Adgilance.
Bayazid was succeeded, a.d. 1512, by his son Sulaiman I., who be-
gan his reign by poisoning his father and putting his two brothers to
death. His next step was to make war on Shah Ismail Sufi of Persia,
w^hom he defeated in the plain of Gialdaran in Upper Armenia (which
had before been the scene of Muhammad II.'s victory), and obliged him
to retreat to the southern part of his dominions. The city of Tabriz fell
into Sulaiman's hands, and he at first resolved on wintering there, but
was dissuaded by his officers on account of the intense cold; and he re-
turned to Amasiyah, and soon after to Constantinople, to prepare for a
greater expedition. A very formidable array Avas again levied, at the
head of Avhich he marched into Syria and Egypt, carrying every thing
before him, and completely subduing both countries, the military sove-
reigns of Avhicli Avere both slain, and he led in triumph to Constantinople
the last khahf of the second dynasty of the Abbassides.
Sulaiman II., surnamed the Magnificent, a.d. 1520, succeeded his
father Selim. He is looked upon as the greatest of the Turkish em-
perors, for, independent of his great victories, he Avas the friend of litera-
ture and art, as Avell as a just prince. He took Belgrade, and also the
island of Rhodes, after a gallant resistance, and Avon the famous battle
of Mohatz (a.d. 1526). In the folloAving year Biida fell into his hands.
In his Avar Avith Austria he was not so fortunate; for after having made
tAventy assaults on Vienna, he Avas obliged to raise the siege and return,
to Constantinople. Unable to remain inactive, he set out on an expe-
dition against Shah Tamasp of Persia, besieged and took Bagdad, and
through the zeal of his lieutenants carried his arms into Africa. Many
cities on the coast of Barbary Avere added to the empire dui'ing his long
and victorious reign of forty-six years.
The short reign of Selim II., Avho ascended the throne in a.d. 1566,
Avas distinguished by no remarkable event except the taking of the
island of Cyprus and the loss of the battle of Lepanto in the Morea, in
which it is said that 32,000 Turks perished.
Amixrad III., son of Selim, began his reign (a.d. 1574) by strang-
ling fiA^e of his brothers. The Shah of Persia having invaded his eastern
70 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
provinces, he marched to attack him, and retook the city of Tabriz,
which the Persians had seized diu'ing the last reign.
Mnliammad 111. , one of the greatest monsters that ever disgraced the
annals of history, succeeded the weak Amurad a.d. 1594. He began
his reign by strangling nineteen of his brothers, and causing ten of his
father's wives to be thro-\vn into the Bosphorus, in the fear that they
might prove pregnant. His reign of nine years was marked throughout
by cruelty and treachery, and just before his death he executed his own
son and his son's mother on suspicion of treason.
Alimed I., second son of Aluhammad HI., succeeded to the throne
A.D. 1604, at the age of fifteen; and after a reign of twelve years he was
succeeded by his brother,
Mustafa L (a.d. 1617), who made himself so odious by his savage
disposition, that he was deposed by the Janissaries after a reign of three
months, and his nepliCAV
Osman H. was placed on the throne ; and after a brief reign of four
years and four months he also was deposed, and Mustafa I. was once
more elevated to the throne by the intrigues of the Janissaries. These
were at this time a real Prcctorian body, and very soon after put the
sovereign of their choice to death.
Amurad IV., son of Ahmed I., succeeded (a.d. 1622), and proved
as sanguinary a tyrant as his grandfather Muhammad III. had been;
for he perpetrated aU sorts of excesses, some of which seem to be
scarcely credible, — such, for example, as amusing himself by shooting
his subjects from a balcony. The Pasha of Erzerum having thrown
off his allegiance, and united Avith the Shah of Persia to devastate some
of the Turkish provinces in Asia, Amurad marched at the head of
200,000 men to stop their progress. With this immense force he
entered Cilicia, and laid waste the Taurus and other countries. Hav-
ing reduced Trebizond and Erzerum, he marched into Syria, with the
intention of proceeding on a pilgrimage to !Mecca ; but it appears that
he did not go beyond Damascus, and returned to Constantiuojile in
1635. Three years afterwards he undertook the conquest of Persia;
but after taking Bagdad he was persuaded to sign a treaty of peace, and
he again returned to Constantinople, to execute a project he had long
been revolving in his mind, whicli was no less than the utter destruc-
tion of the Ottoman race. Death, however, put an end to his design.
The house which this sultan inhabited at Adana is still to be seen,
but in a dilapidated condition. The door leading to the upper story is
waUed up, as, according to traditionary report, it is unlawful for any
one to occupy the seat of the monarch, to prevent Avhich this precau-
SULTANS PROM 1640 TO 1807. 71
tion was taken ; or perhaps, we might also conclude, in superstitions
horror of his character and crimes.
Ibrahim I., the brother of Amurad, succeeded him a.d. 1640. This
prince fitted out an expedition against Candia. The siege is remarkable
in history for the horrible murders and atrocities perpetrated during its
progress ; but this island, the pride of the Archipelago, was not an-
nexed to the Ottoman dominions till the reign of his successor.
Ibrahim I. was strangled by the Janissaries a.d. 1648, and his son
Muhammad IV., a boy seven years old, was placed on the throne. In
the early part of the reign of this prince the siege of Candia was pushed
with vigour, and terminated favourably for the Turks. In the latter
part of Ibrahim's life the reverses he had met with in Himgary so
enraged him, that he swore he would feed his horse on the altar of St.
Peter at Kome. For this purpose he prepared a large army, with Avhich
he besieged Vienna in 1683, but Avas completely foiled and compelled to
raise the siege by the bravery of the celebrated Sobieski. After a long
reign of nearly forty years he was siicceeded, a.d. 1687, by
Sulaiman III. his brother, who only reigned three years.
Ahmed II., brother of Sulaiman, sxicceeded in a.d. 1690, and reigned
four years.
Mustafa II., a nephew of the two former sultans, was elected by the
Janissaries a.d. 1605, and, after a reign of eight years, was deposed in
favour of his brother,
Ahmed III., who, after an inglorious reign of twenty-seven years,
was obliged to abdicate in favour of his nephew
Muhammad V., who, raised to the throne a.d. 1730, reigned twenty-
four years, and was then succeeded, in a.d. 1754, by his brother,
Osman III., who reigned only two years, and was then succeeded by
his nephew (a.d. 1757),
Mustafa III., son of Muhammad V., during whose reign the wars
with Russia began. Mustafa III. was succeeded (a.d. 1776) by his
brother,
Abd'ul Hamid I., who was not more fortunate in repelling the en-
croachments of the Russians on his territory than his brother had been ;
at his death the throne was filled (a.d. 1789) by
Selim III., the only son of Mustafa III. This ill-f\xted prince sus-
tained repeated losses in his wars with Russia, in spite of the reforms in
the army and navy which he introduced, and the adoption of European
customs and improvements, and which proved so displeasing to the
Janissaries that they deposed him, and soon after put him to death.
Mustafii v., cousin of Selim III., was proclaimed sultan a.d. 1807 ;
72 CILICIA AXD ITS GOVERNORS.
but he reigned only one year, -when lie was also murdered. Of the pre-
tended son of this prince, Nadir Bey, I shall have occasion to speak
further on.
Mahmud 11., the brother of Mustafa V., and the only surviving male
of the Ottoman line, was raised to the throne a.d. 1808 by the Janissa-
ries, and he proved himself superior to any of his predecessors in poli-
tical courage and sagacity. He temporised and cajoled the Janissaries,
until he could seize a fitting opportunity, which occurred on the 14th
June, A.D. 1826, when he caused them all to be put to death, and
restored tranquillity to the empire. His name will ever be memo-
rable by the reforms he began, and which have since been slowly but
steadily carried out by his son, Abd'ul Masjid, the present sultan, who
ascended the throne on the 11th July, 1839, and a few months after
gave to the world the before unheard-of spectacle of a despotic monarch
granting voluntarily a constitution to his people, by the well-known
Haiti Sherif of Gulhanah.*
* As this document is quite imique in Eastern histoiy, we give a few extracts :
" These new institutions should have three objects in view : — first, to guarantee to
our subjects perfect security of life, honour, and jiroperty ; secondly, the regular levy-
ing and assessing of taxes ; and thirdly, a regiilar system for the raising of troops, and
fixing the time of their sei-vicc.
" For, in tmth, are not life and honour the most precious of all blessings ? What
man, however averse his disposition to violent means, can withhold having recoui-sc to
them, and thereby injure both the government and his country, when both liis life and
honour are in jeopardy ? If, on the contrary, ho enjoys in tliis respect full security, ho
wOl not stray ii-om the paths of loyalty, and all his actions wiU tend to increase the
prosperity of the goverament and his 'countrymen. If there be absence of security of
propertj', every one remains callous to the voice of liis prince and countrj'. No one
cares about the progress of the public good, absorbed as ono remains with the inse-
curity of his own position. If, on the other hand, the citizen looks upon his property
as s-cure^ of whatever nature it be, then, full of ardour for his interests, of which for
his ov\Ti contentment he endeavours to enlarge the sphere, thereby to extend that of
his enjoyments, he feels every day in his heart the attachment for his prince and for
his country grow stronger, as well as his dcvotedness to their cause. These senti-
ments in him become the som-ce of the most praiseworthy actions."
-M>@^'32:-4^'=?'=< — ■
CHAPTER YII.
MODERN HISTORY OF CILICIA RISE OF KUTCHUK ALI UGLU — HIS 3IEANS OF RE-
VENUE — ACTS OF CRUELTr — BATAS MODE OF LIFE AND CHARACTERISTICS
SEIZES THE 5IASTER OF AN ENGLISH VESSEL CAPTURES A FRENCH IIER-
CHANT>r-\N BRIBES THE TURKS WHO ARE SENT AGAINST HDI PUTS HIS
FRIEND THE DUTCH CONSUL OF ALEPPO INTO PRISON FORCES A CARAVAN
OF MERCHANTS TO RANSOM HIM — A CHARACTERISTIC ^US^ECDOTE.
The history* of the Ottoman Emj^ire during the last two centiuies, till
we come to the epochs of IMahmud 11. and of his son Abd'ul Masjid,
fiu'nishes little or no pleasing retrospect; but is on the whole a dark
picture of tyranny, ci-uelty, and barbarism. The sultans, no longer
permitted to be at the head of their armies, were buried in the
etteminacy of the seraglio and the mazes of an intriguing court. They
gave up the administration of affairs to their officers, who sold the
government of the provinces to the highest bidder, Avhile the purchasers
were permitted to indemnify themselves by the plunder of the towns
and villages. The population, oppressed by repeated acts of injustice,
were glad to screen themselves behind a lesser evil, and submit to the
usurped rule of factious chiefs who became rebels to the authority of
the Porte, and erected de facto petty independent kingdoms, which
they left at their deaths either to their children or to the most in-
triguing, brave, or impudent of their followers. The weakness of
a government enfeebled by venality, and no longer maintained or
held together by those principles which called it into existence, pre-
vented the adoption of vigorous measures to punish rebellion, and sub-
due those chiefs who had availed themselves of the general discontent
* If a blank occurs in the history of Cilicia for the last two hunch-ed years, the
reason is, that no archives are kept in the provinces as at Constantinople, as each
succeeding governor carries away with him in a bag the small bimdle of official docu-
ments ; and that for two reasons : first, because he is afraid to leave behind him any
traces of his misnilc, which might be employed subseriuently by his enemies against
I him ; and secondly, from the summai-y way in which business is transacted, — mostly
I byword of mouth, — very few pajsers are necessaiy, and the small stock can be trans-
[ ported with great facilitj', the whole object and aim of these governoi's being to
i make monej' as quickly as they can before the order for their recall is obtained by
I theu' enemies.
74 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
to flatter their followers Avith the hope of impunity, and who were thus
enabled to depose or set aside the pashas sent to execute the orders of tlie
Porte ; and the ministers at Constantinople, tmable to carry on the busi-
ness of the government (or even to maintain themselves in their posts,)
from the exhausted state of the treasury, drained by increasing luxury
and extravagance, were induced to compound with a power they had not
the means to destroy.
From these causes may be traced the circumstance that, for a long
series of years, many of the provinces, particularly those of Asia Minor,
were -wrested from the Porte, or merely held in nominal allegiance to it,
by the strength of successive chieftains of powerful Turkman tribes,
called " Darah Beys," vidgo Darah Begs, among whom the famous
family of Kara Osman Uglu, " son of the black Osman," hold a dis-
tinguished place. Cilicia has been in the same position, torn by con-
tending factions of cliiefs among the Turkman tribes which have in
succession contended for the supreme authority; and I think it not
irrelevant to my subject to follow up the history of some of these
chieftains during the last forty-six years, which may perhaps expose
in a clearer point of view the state to which the country has been
reduced hy the defective system of government above alluded to, and
explain the effects of such a system on the provinces, better than a more
studied or elaborate account.
One of these Darah Beys, Khalil Bey, better known by the name
of Kutchuk AH Uglu,* was in 1800 a Turkman chief of the mountains
in the vicinity of Bayas (near the ancient Issus), Avhich is now almost
deserted,! but in his time was a populous aiid floiu-ishing Xovai, that
carried on a considerable trade with Egypt, and produced annually ten
* A sketch of the life of Khahl Bej- (or Bay, the a pronounced as in naj-, say, may,
bay-tree, &c.), commonly called Kutchuk Ali Uglu, has been published by Messrs.
Mangles and Irby, and still more lately by Mr. Ncale, in both cases from statements
or documents obtained from my father, Mr. John Barker ; but as the real facts of the
case have been much mutilated at second-hand, and as I shall have to give the life of
the chieftain's two sons, which are intimately connected with the liistory of Cilicia, a
more con-ect and detailed history will not perhaps be unwelcome to the reader, and
will servo as an introduction to events in later times.
-|- There are in the present daj- a group of very handsome buildings at Bayas. A
spacious stone bazar, or more properly speaking, bazastain, solidly arched over, and
approached by noble portals, opens at the centre, to the east, into a khan with a large
paved yard, having a fountain in the centre, and the usual stables ^vith galleried apart-
ments above.
To the west, another passage, after leading by some massive domed btiildings which
constituted the pubUc Hammam or bath, opens into a court-j-ard, at one end of wliich
is a pretty little mosque (masjid) with a graceful minaret (minar), and at the other the
entrance to a polygonal castle of considerable strength and dimensions. This is in-
deed the most complete and compact thing of its kind to be met with iierhajjs in the
KUTCHUK ALL 75
thousand pounds of silk. Kutchuk AH laid the foundation of his power
by making nocturnal excursions from the mountains to rob the gardens
of Bayas. Some gardeners, "with a view to purchase exemption from
his depredations, stipulated to pay him a trifling yearly tribute, or black-
mail. Their example was followed by others, who were petty merchants,
glad to secure the mass of their property by entering into similar
engagements; and from a rotolo* of coffee, or a few rotolos of rice, the
whole town became at length compelled to furnish a stated contri-
bution.
This fund enabled Kutcbuk All to support himself at the head of a
band of forty or fifty robbers; and he then aspired to render himself
master of the place. He began by waylaying the heads of the principal
families ; and in the course of a few years he succeeded in exterminating
every individual of such as possessed any weight or influence at Bayas
or in its territory. The last member of the most influential of these
families, whose adherents he could neither subdue by open force nor
corrupt by bribery, successfully contended for some time Avith him for
the supreme authority, till at length Kutchuk All, having lulled his
suspicions by giving him his daughter in marriage, murdered him with
his o\n\ hands ; and he has often been heard to Avarn his own children
against a male infant the offspring of that maiTiage ; advising them to
crush the crocodile in the egg, lest he should one day revenge on them
his father s blood.j With a very inconsiderable number of dependents,
who often did not exceed 200 in number, Kutchuk Ali succeeded in
impressing with terror and dismay the minds of the people by a system
of cruelty, continued for many years; and he occasioned much trouble
to the Porte, between whom and the rebel there existed, however, a
East. Every thing that is essential to the nucleus of an oriental city is gathered into
the smallest j^ossible compass, and is in excellent preservation.
These sti-uctm-es are attributed in the Mecca Itinerary to Ibrahani Khan-Zadah,
better kno-«\Ti as Sakali Muhammad Pasha, or the " bearded pasha Muhammad," who
was -wTjzir to Sultan Sulaiman II.
The river of Bayas flows past these buildings on the south side ; and at the port,
distant about a mile and a half, is a castle with a square bawn and a small village.
The modem village of Bayas, where the governor resides, is about two and a half
miles north, upon another and lesser rivulet ; and between the two is the village of
Kuratas. There is also a small village of SjTians of the Greek Church on the river,
a little above the castle and khan of Bayas. This, as the site also of the antique Bai^
or baths, was certainly one of the most charming spots on thecoast of SjTia. — W. F. A.
* A rotolo is a Turkish weight, varying in diiferent parts of the empire ; in Cilicia
it is equal to five and a half pounds.
+ Kutchuk Ali Uglu's second sou, Mustuk Bey, as we shall see by the sequel,
mindful of his father's injimctions, actually put them in practice, and murdered this
unfortunate indiridual.
76 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
reciprocal desire to be on a footing of friendship, founded on mutual
advantage, and Avhicli prevented their continuing long on terms of either
real or ostensible hostility.
Kutchuk All's territorial government "was, it may naturally be
imagined, such as to afford him but very slender means of dranving
■wealth from the impoverished inhabitants of Bayas and its environs.
His revenue, therefore, in a great measure, "vvas deri-\'ed from the casual
passage of travellers and caravans through his territory, and whom he
laid under such contributions as he thought they would bear, rather than
be obliged, by going another way, to make a very inconvenient joui'ney.
Sometimes his rapacity and naturally brutal inclinations impelled him
to overstep the bounds he meant to prescribe to his owm extortions, and
then the Porte testified its displeasui'e by prohibiting travellers from
passing thi'ough Bayas. As soon as the rebel fou.nd his coffers in need
of fresh supplies, the Porte succeeded in forcing him to sue for pardon,
Avhich was seldom long withheld, on account of the necessity of pi'ocuring
a safe passage for the annual grand caravan of pilgrims from Constanti-
nople to Mecca, which was obliged either to pass through his territory
or to make a circuitous and fatiguing journey through the mountains
of Cappadocia. AVhen the caravan of pilgrims came into Kutchuk AH's
dominions, it yielded him a very considerable revenue; for he taxed
every individual according to his own caprice, but always, however,
with an eye to the rule above mentioned. On the approach of this
caravan to Bayas, Kutchuk AU sent some of his household to compli-
ment on his arrival the chief of the caravan — a personage of great dis-
tinction, who dismissed the rebel's emissaries with rich presents for him.
On such occasions, the horses it was customary to present to Kutchuk
Ali would be returned, with a hint that they woxdd be preferred com-
pletely accoutred in the usual gilt and silver trappings. Much time
was invariably lost in negotiating and stipulating the precise tribute
required, but as invariably the measiu-e of his rapacity was filled, the
caravan was permitted to proceed.
In order the better to dispose the pilgi-ims to submit to his extor-
tions, Kutchuk AJi was always careful to exhibit, as proofs both of his
power and his cnielty, the spectacle of two bodies impaled at the gate of
Bayas. It happened on one of these occasions, Avhen the caravan was
approaching, that his prisons were empty, and he had no victims that
he could impale. He imj^arted his embarrassment to a convivial com-
panion. " The caravan," said he, " will be here to-morrow, and we
have not yet prepared the customary exectition. Look ye, pick me out
two from among my servants." His friend expostulated ; and while he
KUTCHUK ALL 77
was endeavouring to induce him to abandon his design by the assurance
that every thing -would proceed in due order without the execution in
question, Kutchuk AU, still revolving the matter in his mind, and stroking
his beard, exclaimed, " I have it: go fetch me Yakub the Christian; he
has been foiu- months in bed sick of a fever, and can never recover."
The poor wretch Avas forthwith dragged out of his bed, strangled, impaled,
and hung up! When it is considered that the forces of this monster did
not exceed two hundred armed men, it becomes a matter of surprise,
even to those who are well aware of the once existing weakness and in-
difference of the Sultan's government, that such a bandit could have been
so long allowed to brave the authority of the Porte. But it was at that
time rendered almost powerless by evils and abuses that have since, to a
great extent, been remedied and corrected,
Kutchuk Ali was well aware that his usurped power rested on the
tottering foundation of public opinion, and the little arts he put in
practice Avith a view to conceal his weakness are characteristic and
cui'ious. Whenever an individual of distinction came into his terri-
tory (which was only to be a2:)proached through dense woods), in order
to deceive the new comer by an ostentatious disjalay of his forces, he dis-
posed his men in the thickets, so as to pass and repass at several points
before the traveller like soldiers on a stage; thus the reports even of
an ocular Avitness became fallacious, and the power of Kutchuk Ali
was extolled and exaggerated all over the Tiu-kish dominions. He also
erected numerous tall towers, which he scattered along the eminences of
his mountains, and which from afar appeared like the tiu'rets of so many
impregnable castles. They were, however, in reality nothing more than
rude edifices composed of mud and straw, and Avhite-washed with lime,
which a night's heavy rain frequently damaged.
Kutchidv Ali also occupied the narrow passage known in history,
more especially in the Anabasis, as the Cilician and Syrian gates, as
Avell as the castle of Bayas. It was at this latter spot that Heraclius
in his first campaign disembarked, choosing it as the most secure spot
in which to strengthen himself and concentrate his forces against the
Saracens.
Cicero also apparently Avrites to his friend from this place : " Castra
habemus ea ipsa quaa contra Darium habuerat apud Issum Alexander
Imperator, hand paulo melior quam tu aut ego."
Its modern name is derived perhaps from the Turkish Avord haijaz
(Avhite), descriptive of the snoAv that for a great part of the year is seen
on the summit of its grey mountainous cliffs, Avhich descend abruptly
78 CILICIA ASD ITS GOVERXOES.
towards the sea, leaving a narrow tract between its precipices and tlie
sea.*
Kutchuk Ali was short in stature, and in 1800 appeared to be about
sixty years of age ; his body was thick-set and muscular, and his head
disproportionably large. His face was round, bluff, and flat, and it was
rendered apparently flatter by a chronic disorder which had earned
away the bones of his nose, and caused him to snuffle as he arti-
culated ; and it is remarkable that his son, Mustuk Bey, speaks much
in the same way, although he is quite free from any infirmity. But
this is a fashionable tone prevalent among the Turks, and Avhich tbey
ape from one another, doubtless considering it very impressive and
sonorous. Kutchuk Ali had nevertheless a very insinuating address, and
often deceived by his mild and courteous demeanour those who did not
discriminate his real character in the tiger-like glances of his restless eye.
When he was raised to the liigli rank of a Pasha of three tails, he altered
nothing from the rude simplicity of his way of life when only a Turkman
freebooter. As an instance of this he had two wives, who so far from
being secluded and guarded by eimuchs (yunuks) in splendid apart-
ments, were in noway distinguished from the other women of his family.
They made bread and fetched water from the spring unveiled, having
only one distinction, that of occupying exclusively two separate rooms,
which were divided by a slight wooden partition, instead of the curtain
which sei'ved the same purpose in the tents of his forefathers. When-
ever he intended to honour one of his consorts with his company,
he sent to bid her prepare for the occasion; and the thought being
always suggested when he was wholly or partially intoxicated, the
poor woman had generally to watch in vain for his appearance, while
he gradually sank down on his carpet in forgetfulness of everything
in this world. But however deep might have been his noctui-nal po-
tations, he always rose at the first dawn of day to call his men to their
daily labours, and in all seasons and in all weathei-s accompanied
them to the field of their toils. He sat Anthout mat or carpet on the
ground to superintend their operations, which were not, as might be
supposed, in the chief industry of the country (midberry-plantations for
silkworms), nor in the useful labours of rearing garden fruits and vege-
tables, of which he knew not the want. His hal jitual occupations were
* Between Bayas ami Alcxandretta is the river Markatz (ancient Kersus), with
village antPcastlc (Markatz Kalahsi) on its banks, and niins towards the sea-shore;
while l)oyond is the Macedonian relic now called Sakal Tutan, — the Bomita; or altare
of Pliny,— all comprised within the CiUcian and SjTian Gates. — W. F. A.
KUTCHUK ALL 79
in pulling down, rebuilding, and changing tlie form of the white-washed
turrets and sham battlements before described, with the view, no doubt,
of preventing revolt among his followers by keeping them constantly
employed in hard labour.
He prided himself on the discipline he maintained. " I am not," he
would say, " as other Darah Beys are,* fellows without faith, who allow
their men to stop travellers on the king's highway; — I am content with
what God sends me. I await his good -pleasMre, and, Allmmdlillah (God
be praised), he never leaves me long in want of any thing."
Upon Kutchuk All's attaining the rank of Pasha it was thought in-
dispensable that he should exchange the Turkman sash and turban for
the kciuk, a head-dress of distinction. A Tartar accidentally passing
through Bayas was commissioned to bring him one, but it proved to be
too small for his head: he wrote for another, but it again fell short of the
proper dimensions. Disgusted at his ill-success, he gave up the attempt,
coining to the conclusion, as he said, that if hdulcs could not be made
for heads, his head could not be made expressly for them.
In 1798, Mr. Fowls, master of an Enghsli vessel iu the harbour of
Alexandretta, went with four of his men to water at the Markatz Chai,
a river in the territory of Bayas, at a place before alluded to, and called
by sailors Jonas' Pillars. Here they were seized by Kutchuk Ali Uglu,
and thrown into prison, and a large sum was demanded for their release.
Before the necessary arrangements coidd be made for its payment, the
master was driven by despair to put a period to his existence by pre-
cipitating himself from a high tower in which he was confined; and all
the others perished soon after, except a boy twelve years old, named
Charles Edwards, who Avas sent by Kutchuk Ali as a present to his
friend Mr. Masseyk, Dutch consul at Aleppo. It is not known exactly
what measures were taken by the mission at Constantinople to obtain
the necessary satisfaction for this act of violence, but it is certain that
none was ever given by the savage perpetrator.
Two years after this event (in 1800) a French ship from Marseilles,
richly laden with merchandise for Aleppo, was, by the captain's igno-
rance of the locality, taken under the walls of Bayas, when the master,
with a part of the crew, supposing that they had anchored at Alexan-
dretta, landed in search of the consular establishment, and were con-
ducted to the governor, ^vho received them Avith every mark of hospi-
* Chiefs of Turkman tribes, and self-appointed governors of districts in Tm-kej',
wliora the Poi-te used to find it necessarj- to coufii-ni in their posts, and even to load
with presents and raise to various dignities, in order to obtam through theh* meanB
a portion of the contributions which they levy, — having no better means to enforce
obedience. ,. .^^
80 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
tality; but while lie was entertaining them with a sumptuous repast, his
men were occupied in taking possession of the vessels. This accomphshed,
he immediately unloaded and sunk the ship, sending the crew by land
to the French consul at Alexandretta. Remonstrances were made to
him on this act of violence by all the consular authorities at Aleppo,
and in particular by his intimate friend the Dutch consul, to whom he
replied in these terms :
" 3Iy dear friend, — You know very well that consistently with the
friendship subsisting between us, property and life itself are indifferent
matters. Nay, I swear by God, that for your sake I would sacrifice my
son Dada Bey ; but I entreat you not to dri^^-e me to the extremity of
denying you what it is impossible for me to grant. My dear friend,
place yourself in my position. I am in disgrace with my so^'ercign,
without having given him any just cause for this displeasure ; I am
threatened with attacks from the four quarters of the earth ; I am with-
out money, I am Avithoxit means ; and the ever-watchfid providence of
the Almighty sends me a vessel laden with merchandise ! Say, Avould
you in my place lay hold of it or not ? I knoAv very well the Franks
will claim restitution of tlie property from the Subhme Porte, and that
is precisely what I want, because an opportunity will then be offered to
me of negotiating my pardon."
On the receipt of this letter all hopes of recovering any thing by ami-
cable means Avere given up in despair, and the French consul made ap-
plication to his superior at Constantinople, and obtained several imperial
commands on the subject. Three Turkish caravallas (ships of war)
were sent to Bayas to enforce obedience to the orders of the Porte.
Kutchuk Ali retired to his motmtains. The caravallas fired a few guns
against empty houses and dilapidated fortresses, and in a very short
time, having consumed their stock of provisions, the ofiicers and men
on board were glad to accept such as were liberally tendered them by
Kutchuk Ali, who soon obtained, through the customary means of brib-
ing with French watches and fine French broadcloth, the good -H-ill of
all the commanders of the ships sent against him. So great was their
astonishment and satisfaction at the rebel's princely magnificence, that
they contracted Avith him solemn engagements of private friendship, and
promised him their intercession in his behalf with the Porte on their
return to Constantinople. The dignity of an additional tail was ob-
tained for him on this occasion, with an imperial firman j^ro forma,
ordering restitution of the property. In compliance with this order,
Kutchuk Ali addressed a letter to the French consul at Aleppo to au-
noiuice that he was ready to obey the commands of the sultan, but the
ARHEST OF THE DUTCH CONSUL. 81
cargo of tlie ship in question having been conveHed to use, lie offered as
an equivalent to make over to the proprietors of the goods sundry plan-
tations belonging to him in the territory of Bayas. The merchants of
Aleppo rejected with scorn the proposal, as adding insult to injustice ;
particularly as they considered that the environs of Bayas are unhealthy,
and their agents would be liable to take the malignant fever of the place
whilst directing such an arduous enterprise as the cultivation of land.
The neighbourhood was also reputed dangerous ; and the poverty of the
inhabitants was supposed to render it impossible for them to sell any
produce for a quarter of its value. Yet the merchants could not obtain
any other redress.*
In the beginning of 1801, Mr. John Masseyk, Dutch Consul-general
in Aleppo, was arrested by Kutchuk Ali Uglu, as he Avas retiirning from
Constantinople, although fui'nished Avith an imperial firman for the ex-
ercise of his official functions, at a period when the Porte was at jjeace
with Holland. The proceedings of Kutchuk Ali on this occasion will
serve to elucidate his character, which will be exhibited in a curious
light when it is considered that there had for many years previous to
the detention of the Dutch consul existed between him and the pasha,
as has already been observed, habits of the most cordial friendship and
interchange of gifts, according to oriental custom.
On the arrival of the consul at Bayas he was immediately thrown
into prison, bound with chains, and stripped of everything except the
apparel he wore. But the pasha, with great circumspection, avoided all
opportunities of being thrown in contact Avith his prisoner ; for it is a
jDeculiarity worthy of remai'k, that this tyrant, whenever he ordered a
bad action to be committed, kept himself personally aloof from the scene
of its perpetration, from an idea that it Avould lower his importance to
assume the office of executioner to his OAvn orders, or perhaps in this in-
stance from very shame for thus ill-treating an old friend. The sum
fixed for the consul's ransom Avas 25,000 piastres of those days (about
2000/.); but being unable to produce more than 7500, Mr. Masseyk
underwent during the period of eight months every species of ill-usage.
Every means Avas tried to force him to embrace the Muhammadau re-
ligion, and to extort from him the money required for his ransom ; to
which end they would at one time confine him in a damp dungeon Avith-
* No doubt, fevers pi-evail at Bayas at certain seasons of the year, as in other parts
of the coast of SjTia ; but the sitviation is open and dry, the soil gravelly yet fertile,
and well supplied with cleai- and rapid streams. The climate is mild and serene ; there
is no marshy ground except at Markatz, which could be easily drained. Altogether
Bayas is differently circumstanced to Alexaudretta, and wouJd appear to be as healthy,
■as fertile, and ought to bo as wealthy, as any si^ot on the coast of Sp-ia. — W. F. A.
G
82 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERXOIIS.
out light, and often without sustenance for twenty-four hours. At an-
other they would threaten him -with immediate death ; and once, in order
to shew that their menaces were not wholly nugatory, two innocent
wretches, who had been arrested under similar circumstances with him-
self, were impaled before him, for having delayed, as he was informed,
to procure the money for their ransom.
T^Hien the news spread abroad that Kutchuk Ali had entrapped an
European, the mountaineers descended in crowds to see how much
humanity the tyrant exhibited; and Mr. Masseyk used to relate that
being one day engaged in writing, a man who had thrust his head
through the bars of his prison-window, after contemplating his person
and occupation for some time, exclaimed -v^-ith reproachfid indignation,
" \Vliat, is it possible the wretch is so lost to all sense of shame as to hold coi
effendi (a clerk) in captivity? " referring evidently to the Avell-known rights
and immunities enjoyed by the learned, as well in this barbarous region as
in Europe. This picture indeed resembles more the state of society in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries than that of the nineteenth ; and to those
who are unacquainted with Oriental ideas and customs, which have un-
dergone so few changes for centuries past, might appear unfaithful to
nature, were it not for what histoiy has related of those dark ages.
Although Kutchuk Ali persisted in refusing to admit his prisoner to
his presence, he more than once sent to him his lieutenant with consoling
messages to assure him of his sympathy. " Tell him," said he, " that un-
fortunately my coffers were empty when his fate brought him into this
territory; but let him not despair, God is great and mindful of us. Such
vicissitudes of fortune are inseparable from the fate of men of renown,
and from tlie lot of all born to fill high stations. Bid him be of good
cheer; a similar doom has twice been mine, and once during nine months
in the condemned cell of Abd'ul Rahman Pasha: but I never despaired
of God's mercy, and all came right at last, — Alia karim (God is
bountiful)."
At length, fortunately for this poor man, the arrival at Bayas of a
caravan from Smyrna proceeding to Aleppo afforded Kutchuk Ali Uglu
an excuse for extorting his ransom from the travelling merchants by
obliging them to advance the money on the bond of his prisoner, whom
he delivered into their liands as a slave sold to them for 17,500 piastres.
This was a debt beyond ]\Ir. Masseyk's means of discharging at once,
but he paid it off by instalments, not without the hope that the
Dutch RepubUc would come to his assistance. This it did in part, but
he never recovered the whole amount. The restriction placed on his
person proved, however, beneficial to the consul in one respect, inasmuch
AN EFFECTUAL CURE FOR THE GOUT. 83
as he was by means of the rigid prison fare entirely cured of the gout, to
which he had been mucli subjected previous to liis incarceration; and he
has frequently remarked to his friends, that Kutchuk Ali had in this
respect unwittingly conferred on him an almost priceless favour, and had
proved himself a better physician than friend.
The Porte at different times sent several pashas Avith considerable
forces against this rebel ; but whether owing to the natural defences that
abound in the precipitous mountains, covered with forests into which he
retreated, or to the system of compromise already described, the Sultan
was never able to subdue him during forty years' existence in open de-
fiance of his authority.*
Such is the individual whom Mr. John Barker, then British Con-
sul at Aleppo, to whom I am mainly indebted for the foregoing facts,
had the address to propitiate, in order to facilitate the transmission of
despatches from the East India Company, which passed through his
hands ; and his influence with the rebel was so great, that he once in-
duced him to give up goods to the amount of 6G00^., belonging to British
merchants, which he had seized along with other property.
* My readers will perhaps be startled on hearing that, in the beginning of the pre-
sent century, there was so little personal security even in the vicinity of a woll-frc-
quented harbour like that of Alexandretta, that the crews of two European vessels
could have been subjected to such treatment, or that such an affront as the incarcera-
tion of a public officer could have been suffered to pass without redress of any kind
having been obtained from the Porte. Let us hope, however, that as time has wrought
many changes in Turkey since the establishment of the Nizam, or regular troops, by
Sultan Mahmud, by which some of the chief rebels have boon crushed and piracy pub
dovvn in the Mediterranean, that a nevf turn to this state of things has been now defi-
nitively brought about, and that the light which is dawning even in the benighted
East wUl prevent the recm-reuco of such scenes.
t./::=xj:^>r^jJ»^Xi>'==^^
CHAPTER YIII.
DADA BET, SON OF KUTCHUK ALI UGLU ^HIS PIRATICAL EXPEDITIONS — REPELS
THE ATTACKS OF THE TURKS IS TAKEN Br STRATAGEM IS BEHEADED
AND BURNT HISTORT OF MUSTAFA PASHA KEL-AGA KILLED BY IIAJI ALI
BEY DER^^SH H-OIID STORY RELATED OF HAJI ALI BEY CONQUESTS OF
IBRAHIM PASILV .MUSTUK BEY PLACED IN PO^^'ER— COMPARISON BETAVEEN
THE EGYPTL\N AND TURKISH GOVERNMENTS.
f
In 1808 Kutcluik Ali Uglu died, and was succeeded by liis son
Dada Bey. Mr. Masseyk, while in prison, having gained the goodwill
of Dada Bey, conceived the hope that he might be induced to make
him some reparation for the ill-treatment he had met with at his Other's
hands ; and he Avrote him a letter of condolence on his recent bereave-
ment, in which he took occasion to remind him of the reprobation he
had always expressed of his late parent's cruelty, and in a particular
manner of his injustice to himself. Dada Bey received Mr. INIasseyk's
application with the usual tokens of sympathy and affection, but replied,
" My dearest friend, you know very well that were I called upon to
make restitution of all the money my late father (God have mercy on
his soul !) unjustly acquired during a long life, aU the stones of the
mountains of Bayas converted into gold would not suffice."
Dada Bey was of large stature, and had an expressive countenance
and a fine fuU black beard : he was about thirty years old when he suc-
ceeded to his father. He had not, however, the same tact and cunning,
as he evinced in the circumstance of his being unable to keep out of the
grasp of his enemies for more than nine years ; and during this period
he encouraged his people in all kinds of piracy, and his boats infested
tlie coast, attacking vessels at anchor off Alexandretta, and among others
a large ship belonging to AbdaUa Bey, son of Abd'ul Rahman, Pasha of
Baylan.
An individual still living, Avho formed one of an expedition under-
taken to carry off some ships at Kaisauli, the roadstead of Tarsus,
related to me the follo\nng fact :
" We were twenty-two in number, and started one night from Kara-
Tash (Black Rock, ancient !Mallus and ]\Iegarsus,) in a small boat. AVe
found eleven small brigs of the country moored at Kaisanli, loading and
ATTACK ON DADA BEY. 8o
unloading. "We attacked them one by one with as little noise as possi-
ble. As they were not armed, and were taken by surprise, we had no
difficulty in binding such of the crew as made any resistance ; and having
cut the cables, we made use of the lads on board to manoeiivre the ves-
sels, which we brought safely to Bayas, where they were detained till
their proprietors sent large sums to ransom them."
Amin Pasha Chiapan Uglu, Avho governed at Uzgat, received an
order from the Porte to send the head of Dada Bey to Constantinople.
The Turkman chief of Uzgat sent 2000 irregular troops of those days to
accompany an expedition which he ordered to be assembled from among
the various Turkman tribes in the district of Tarsus and Adana : Kur-
mud-uglu Ali Bey, Kalaga, Bashaga, Tur-uglu, and Takal-uglu, from
the territory of the former ; and Osman Bey Jarid (son of Hussain
Pasha), Malamangi-uglu, Kara Hajili, Karagiya, and Hamid Bey,
father of Haji Ali Bey, from that of the latter. These chiefs collected
about twelve or fifteen thousand men, and encamped on the sea-shore
near Bayas for many days, without being able to make up their minds
what plan to adopt in attacking the lion in his den ; at last they agreed
with Abd'ul Rahman Pasha of Baylan, and Chulak-uglu of Mar'ash, to
fall upon him on all sides at the same time.
Dada Bey, who had more friends than enemies in this motley band,
composed of all his neighbours, being informed by his spies of the position
of the tent which contained the ammimition of the troops, sent a boat
in the night, Avith two cannons of wood filled with powder and old nails.
These were disembarked by some of his men, who having succeeded in
placing them near the tent, set fire to the match and retreated to the boat.
Only one exploded, and it had no other effect than that of awakening
the astounded chiefs, who the next morning gave orders for a general
attack. Dada Bey wished for nothing so much as to try the mettle of
his men against a multitude of peasants, who he knew were assembled
against their inclination to make war on a person whom they considered
invincible. He posted Jin Yusuf of Karatash and a few men in the fort,
with strict orders not to fire till the enemy arrived so close that every shot
might tell, and to wait the signal of a discharge of two cannons from the
turret above. He himself, with about 100 picked horsemen, fell on the
troops in the rear ; while Jin Yusuf, on the first volley, killed forty men ;
and the roaring of the cannon from above, the shot of which came over
the heads of the dismayed Turkmans, sufficed to inspire all the terror
he could desire. In half an hour there was no one to oppose him in
the field, from which the soldiers retreated to Adana, and the Turkmans
dispersed to their respective homes. Thus it constantly happened be-
86 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
fore the institution of the Nizam, that when any of the Turkman chiefs
revolted, the Porte had no effectual means of compelling them to obe-
dience, but was obliged to have recourse to the neighbouring tribes, who
■were imwilling to excite a lasting feud among their relatives (as tliey all
intermarry), and only made a feint of attacking them. Thus the govern-
ment Avas obliged to conform to their desires by coming to a compromise,
wherein the outward dignity of the Porle was only consulted, whilst all
the interests of these petty rebels were attended to, inasmuch as they
■were only submissive as long as it suited their purpose.
That which could not be effected by open violence was, however,
effected by treachery. Mustafa Pasha, son of Abd'ul Rahman, Pasha of
Baylan, Dada Bey's neighbour and personal enemy, seized on an ac-
cidental opportunity of destroying him. During four years that Mustafa
had been pasha at Adana, he had endeavoured, by influence and in-
trigues at Constantinople, to obtain from the government an order that
the whole of the country as far as Baylan, his native town, should be
placed under his orders. Having accomplished this object, the first
thing he did Avas to summon Dada Bey to submit to his authority,
Avhich of course the latter refused to do. Whereupon Mustafa Pasha
sent his brother Ismail Bey, with four or five thousand men, to Bayas.
Dada Bey, liappening to pass alone at this time through a village close
by, was betrayed by an old woman into the hands of a Baylanli named
Tal-uglu, who chanced to be there. This man, with the assistance of a
few others, succeeded in taking Dada Bey by surpi-ise, when they bound
him and. took him prisoner to Adana. The people of the country had
such an instinctive dread of Dada Bey, that it is reported that even the
pasha refused to see him till he had been heavily chained. Dada Bey
retorted upon his exulting enemy in terms of indignation all the insults
he had received, and expressed infinite contempt for " a wretch who
could so abuse the power which chance had given hiiu over a fallen
lion." His head was nevertheless cut off and sent to Constantinople, and
liis body was biu"nt in the coui't-yard under the windows of the palace,
and the ashes scattered to the winds. Such was the insatiable feud that
existed ])etween these families !
Mustafa Pasha had in earlier years killed his brother Mulla Bey,
in order to become master of Baylan ; but another brother, Abdullah
Bey, raised the populace against him and drove hini away. He pro-
ceeded to Constantinople, where he obtained the pashalik of Adana,
which he held seven years ; he was then sent to Erzerum, and after-
wards to Aleppo, where he remained two years. From this place he
went to Acre, to attack Al)dullah I^isha of that place; and he acted as
MUSTUK BEY. 87
lieutenant to Dunvish or Dervish Pasha, commander-in-chief of the
troops. He then returned to Aleppo for another year and a half, and
was thence removed to the governorship of Damascus; and -when at
that place, he laid Jerusalem under heavy contributions. He was after-
wards transferred to Bosna and Kurk-Kilisa, and subsequently he ob-
tained the command of some troops, with whom he treacherously at-
tacked the Russians in time of a truce or peace. On the Russian mission
representing this perfidy to the Porte, he was, in outward appearance,
disgraced and sent to Brusa, where he was lately living, as a private
individual, in the enjoyment of his ill-acquired wealth, the reward of
his crimes and cruelties. Few such adventurers, however, meet with
siich good fortune. They rarely escape the intrigvies entered into against
them, and generally return to the same state of obscurity as that from
which they emerged, unless possessed of extraordinary ability, or of
means to bribe their way to other employments as lucrative, by large
sums which they have had time to amass during theii- stewardship.
When well supported, they frequently secure the pecuniary assistance of
their Armenian bankers {sarraffs), which they repay with an interest of
50 per cent.
People may have read in the newspapers published at Constantinople
of such an effendi, to whom every virtue is attributed, having been pro-
moted for his 2^(iti'iotic conduct to a post of distinction, and might have
been led to imagine these men to be something above the common order
of Turks ; Avhereas those who, like myself, have had opportunities of
knowing the truth, are aware that they were generally chosen from
among the servants of older pashas.
On the death of Dada Bey, a.d. 1817, his brother Mustuk Bey,
then twelve years old, took refuge in Maraash with Kalandar Pasha,
and with whom he remained for some years, till after the departure of
Mustafa Pasha ; and during his minority of ten years, his uncle Zaitun-
iiglu governed for him.
On his return to Bayas in 1827, Mustuk Bey was attacked by Haji
Ali Bey;* at the same time that a certain Kel-Aga, chief of the Tiu:-k-
man tribe of Kugiuli, whose residence was in the mountains to the
* This man had constituted himself master of Adana and independent of the Porte's
authority, and he had driven Muhammad Pasha (who had bought the post of governor
of this provincej and was on his way to take possession of his government) back from
Kulak Bughaz. Muhammad Pasha was by this flagrant act of rebellion reduced to
the necessity of returning to the capital, where he complained of his having been sent
to occupy a post, which had cost him a large sum, of which he could not take quiet
possession ; and the pashalik of Erzerum was assigned to him to compensate him for
his loss. After the usual delays in nominations of this kind, he was installed governor
of that district.
88 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
north-westward of Tauinis, and who had become absokite master of
tlxis last-mentioned town, thinking this a favourable moment to take
Adana, had proceeded against that town with a large body of followers.
Ilaji Ah Bey, hearing of this movement, made peace unmediately with
the young Mustuk Bey, and by a forced retrograde march reached
Adana; and coming suddenly upon the encampment of Kel-Aga at
night, and in the outskirts of the to'WTi, he siu'prised the cliief/ who Avas
foimd dead drunk, and had his head cut off on the spot.
The father and grandfather of Kel-Aga both lost their heads in
rebellion, the one by means of the bands of Tur-uglu, and the other
by Sadik Aga; and Dui'wish Ahmed, son of Kel-Aga, is not an un-
worthy descendant of such ancestors. As a young man, Ahmed held
the government of all the villages to the -westward of Tarsus, in which
Mursina and Kaisanli are included. Being related to most of the in-
fluential famihes of the country, he did what he pleased with impunity,
abandoning himself to all and every imaginable excess. A dozen
horsemen accompanied him wherever he went, and were made the
ministers of his pleasures and vices by dragging instantly to his pre-
sence any woman or child he might call for in his drunken fits. The
inhabitants of the villages in his district were obliged to submit to his
heavy impositions, and to furnish the sum requisite to complete the
taxes due from nearly a thousand persons whom he exempted from all
contributions, because he shared with them the produce of their lands.
This system of "pi'otection," as it is termed, used to be very general in
the Ottoman dominions; the ayans or nobles of all the large cities
appropriating to themselves a large tract of country by sharing the
produce with the proprietors, who give up a third or fourth of theu*
income for the advantage of being exempted from paying the dues to
government. This cxemj)tion the nobles were enabled to afford them,
being members of the council of the city, to whom all political afiaii-s
were referred in conjunction with the pasha. The pasha himself was
generally, if not invariably, won over to their party, for without their
participation he coidd not hope to carry on public business. Thus they
contrivi'd to protect each other's interests, and the whole weight of taxa-
tion fell on the poorer classes and those who had not the advantage of
an "ayan's support." This system resembled in some respect the feudal,
and took its origin when the country Avas ruled by rebel chiefs, whose
partisans were respected by their independent colleagues in return for
the sanxe courtesy mutually shewn to one another.
Intrigue and the love of power perpetuated this state of things after
the cause which had given rise to it had vanished, and it was carried
CAPTUEE OF HAJI ALI BEY. 89
on in miniature in all tlie villages, each elder having his jyrotccted.
Dui'wish Ahmed had led this dissipated life for some time after his
father's death, when his cousin, Mustafa Aga, was induced to bribe the
governor of Tarsus with 15,000 piastres to appoint him instead of
Ahmed; and he was accordingly summoned to Tarsus, where he agreed
to appear at the governor's house, on the guarantee of his father-in-law
and chief of the Zaims (Tuikish irregular troops). On this occasion,
an accoimt of the revenue that had passed through his hands was
demanded of him, and he was brought in a debtor to the government
of 95,000 piastres. Ahmed evaded paying any portion of this by
privately bribing the governor with a sum foj^ himself of 30,000 pi-
astres; and he might, probably, have been re-established in his post,
had not the governor been shortly afterwards recalled.
But to return to Haji AH Bey. A year after the death of Kel-Aga,
(a.d. 1828,) Hussain Pasha, general-in-chief of the army sent into Syria
against Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt, arrived in Cilicia at the head of his
troops. Haji Ali Bey, unable to resist so overwhelming a force, was
compelled to dissimulate; and therefore, putting on the semblance of
perfect submission, he went as far as Kulak Bughaz to meet the com-
mander-in-chief, and busied himself in procuring means of transport for
the army, at the same time furnishing the troops "\\ath provisions of all
kinds. Hussain Pasha, acting under the orders, doubtless, of the Porte,
was glad of an opportunity of destroying a Darah Bey who had become
so formidable and independent as to have refused to receive a pasha
sent by the Sultan to his district, and who might cause some uneasiness
by tampering with the Egj-ptians. He accordingly resolved to manage
matters so as to induce him to go to Constantinople; and in order to
lull his suspicions, treated the Turkman chief with marked distinction
imtil the army had passed the formidable pass of the Cilician gates,
when the pasha having no fiurther need of his services, he exhibited
a firman he p)retended to have just received, but which he had had long
by him, wherein Haji Ali Bey was ordered to proceed to Constantinople,
and promised that there he should be preferred to great honours for his
late services. The Turkman chief fell into the snare, and on his ai'rival
at Constantinople he was put under arrest, and soon afterwards dis-
appeared, in the same way as many others have done before him.
As the head of Haji Ali Bey was exacted from his keeper, that of
some other man, who may have died about that time, was procured;
and the escape of the Haji having at the same time been connived at,
he found his way from a Turkish bath, disguised in a Frank dress, on
board a vessel then setting sail for Italy. The bribes requisite for this
90 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNOIIS.
manceiivi'e had completely stripped liim of every thing of any value,
and he was maintained by the government of the Pope, as a convert
to the Catholic religion, under the name of Signor Giovanni, on an
allowance of a dollar a day.
Plis family, hearing of his escape, sent an old Christian servant who
had brought him up to see and identify him, and if possible to persuade
him to return. The man came back with assurances that Haji Ali Bey
Avas really alive, and jiassing under the assumed character of a Christian
in Eiu'ope ; but that he refused to return to his country imtil his great
enemy old Khusru Pasha should be no more. It was further reported
that Haji Ali Bey, during the long period of his exile, had once visited
the province in European costume, and that a Turk who saw him at the
French consulate in Tarsus was observed to say, " That Frank, sir, is so
like Haji Ali Bey, that were it not for his being in this dress, and his
ignorance of Turkish, I shoxdd have no doubt it was he, in spite of his
being reported dead."
When the army of the sultan was routed by Ibrahim Pasha in 1832,
jMustukBey did not fail to conciliate the favour of the conqueror by pillag-
ing the vanquished, and he was confirmed in his government of Bayas,
Avhich he kept for several years ; but he could not bear the restraint of
the regular and strict discipline of the Egyptian soldier, and he retired to
the territory of Marash. Ibrahim Pasha, however, finding it difficult to
maintain order among the turbulent factions of the Turkmans, who Avere
continually in revolt and committing all kinds of disorders, and his time
being too much taken up with more important matters to admit of par-
ticular attention to the mountain of Bayas (over Avliich he was obliged,
however, to lead his forces twice in person, to reduce the turbulent
moiuitaineers both of Amanus and Taurus to obedience), he thought it
expedient to invite IMustuk Bey to return, and resume the direction of
the thirty Darahs of whom he is the chief, and over whom he has much
influence.
"When the Egyptian army evacuated Cilicia, Mustiik Bey did all he
could to restrain his peojile from i)Iuuder until the troops had passed
the strait of J^ayas, in order that the army might not be provoked in
its passage to lay Avaste a country Avhich he felt was more ^particularly
returning under his OAvn immediate control ; but as soon as the army
had passed his own domain he fell on its rear, robbing all the loiterers
and runaAvays.
It is but justice to Ibrahim Pasha to say here, that the affairs of
the province of Cilicia were ably and efficiently administered in his
time by Selim Pasha and Hamid ]\Iinikli. These Avorthy individuals
GOVERNMENT OF IBRAHIM PASHA.
91
did an immense deal of good in being the first to introduce the adminis-
tration of justice into the jn-ovince; and they are still much regretted,
although the people suffered considerably in their time from military
conscriptions.
Ibrahim Pasha is said to have maintained at one time as many as
20,000 men in this province out of its own revenues, and yet to have
saved money. He re- opened the long-closed mines in the Tauiiis ; he
exported to Egypt vast quantities of timber from Mounts Rhosus, Ama-
nus and Taurus ; he introduced the sugar-cane, and favoured agricul-
tural pursuits; and he founded in the gates of Cilicia, at Kidek Boghaz,
a line of defences which were constructed with great engineering skill,
but which -were blown up by the army previous to their retreat.
SACCAL TUTAX.
A ruin at a place near Alexandretta, knoi\-n by sailors as " Jonas's Pillars," and
supposed to be the gates mentioned by Xenophon, and called by him the gates of Sj-ria
and Cilicia ; they are on the battle-field of Issus, and from the top of these Alexander
may be supposed to have witnessed the retreat of Darius's army before his bravo
troops.
CHAPTEE IX.
MUH-VMilAD IZZET PASHA A PRETENDER TO THE TCRKISH THRONE HIS STRANGE
HISTORY AND RARE ACCOMPLISHMENTS DISAPPEARS AT KUNIYAH AHMED
IZZET PASHA — GRANTS PERMISSION TO MUSTUK BEY TO MURDER HIS NE-
PHEAV SULAIMAN PASHA — DURAMSH AHMED's EXPEDITION AGAINST MUS-
TUK BEY — HIS CHIEF OFFICERS TAKEN AND STRIPPED BAYAS CAPTURED
AND SACKED.
I NOW proceed to the history of the last five pashas who have succes-
sively governed the province of Cilicia since the evacuation of the
Eg}']:)tians in 1840, and to narrate the various facts of note that have
taken place since that epoch.
Muhammad Izzet was the first appointed by the Porte to preside over
this province. He is one of the emphnjcs of the Porte that I have known
who most deserves well of his country. This worthy man filled his post
with dignity and honour, and combined much of the munificence of the
"old school" with the simplicity of the new. This good man fell into
disgrace without meriting it, and remained some time neglected, until he
obtained, through the greatest pecuniary sacrifices, the post of governor
at Uzgat, where he died. He was so much beloved, that on his leaving
Adana the people actually wept at the loss they wei'e about to sustain ;
and this is a fact for which I can vouch as an eye-witness. But per-
haps, although 1 would not detract from his merit, this mildness of temper
was owing in a great measure to the times he lived in as governor of
Cilicia ; because as he was the first appointed after the evacuation of
the Egyptians, he would no doubt have had particular instructions to
be extremely lenient.
It was during the administration of I\Iuhammad Izzet Pasha that an
event occurred in Cilicia which I must pause to relate, for the facts are
as extraordinary as they are inexplicable.
In February 1843, an individual calling himself Nadir Bey, accom-
panied by an amiable young Englishman of good family and education,
whose parents live in London, arrived at Tarsus. The former (Nadir
Bey) appeared to be little past thirty, of a very prepossessing cast of
NADIR BEY AND IIIS TRETENSIONS. 93
countenance and engaging manners, highly accomplished, and acquainted
■with fourteen languages, -which lie aj^j^eared to know as well as a native
of the countries whose language he spoke.
He had been in the service of Ibrahim Pasha, under the assumed
name of Murali Mahandas (Grecian engineer), and was well known to
tlie inhabitants of Tarsus and Adana. Indeed, he seemed to know every-
body all over the Levant. It was remarked that on his former visit to
Tarsus, while in the Egyptian service, he used to gamble a good deal,
and often lost of an evening all he had about him, frequently large sums,
ujiwards of 20,000 piastres (200Z.) ; and the next day his purse would be
replenished as iisual. He had, however, maintained his incognito ge-
nerally, and only confided to a few of his private friends his real history,
which Avas that " being the sou of Sultan Mustafa, and the elder brother
of IMahmud, he was the rightflil heir to the throne." His knowledge
of English was perfect, and he sang Italian music like a vocalist of that
couutr}^ ; and I have since been informed by his companion that he had
at Palermo a palace filled with a large collection of first-rate paintings of
the old masters, chosen by himself, and " a live portrait" of a young
and beaiitiful Circassian whom he looked upon as his wife. He had
passed in all the courts of Europe under an assumed Italian name, Count
Eicchi of Corfu, and was much respected and beloved by all who knew
him. Indeed, his companion has since assured me, that one day having
called unexpectedly on the brother of the King of Naples, who was at
dinner, that prince rose from table to receive him with more eiiipresse-
ment than even the greatest courtesy could exact or court etiquette allow.
As I cannot doubt the veracity of my friend the young Englishman, who
has since informed me that he belieA'ed Nadir Bey was allowed 5000/. a
year by the Emperor of INTorocco, I am at a loss how to proceed in
my history, as I have to state that these two gentlemen arrived in Tarsus
without any jiecuniary means whatever, and on the wildest of all imagi-
nary schemes !
Nadir Bey applied to a friend in Tarsus for a small sum in order to
obtain a suit of Turkish clothes, as he was dressed in the European
costume. Having obtained what he desired, he departed for Adana the
third day of his arrival, leaving his friend in Tarsus ; and the latter
has repeatedly declared that he was only his travelling companion, and
had no idea of the rash step Nadir Bey was about to take, or he cer-
tainly would not have allowed him to go, as he was very much attached
to him.
Nadir Bey had two private interviews with the former goA'crnor of
the city, who had been Mutsillim, or town-governor, in the time of
94 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
Ibrahim Pasha, and who it seems knew liiiii well. Tliey agreed to go
to the Mufti's; and tlie next day, on presenting themselves there, whilst
smoking the first pipe, and before they could enter on the subject of
I^adir Bey's views, the Tufankji Bashi, or chief officer of pohce, sum-
moned them to appear before the pasha in council, where they found
all the ayans (nobles) assembled.
When Nadir Bey entered, he proceeded to take his seat next to
the pasha, and began a discoiu'se in Turkish, saying that he felt it a
duty he owed his country to take the present step, inasmuch as his
heart bled to see it suft'ering under the present tyranny, and that if
they would rise and declare him sultan, he Avould make them all his
ministers; " for," said lie, " you must know that I am the rightful heir
to the throne, being the son of Mustafa V., the elder brother of the
late Sultan Mahmud. On the murder of my father, my mother
escaped on board a Kussian vessel, and I was born a few mouths after
her escape to her family in Georgia." lie had subsequently been sent
to Russia, where he was educated. To support his claims, he shewed
them a letter addressed to him by Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt,
wherein he is styled " Effendim Sultanim," and recognised as the lawful
heir to the throne.* The pasha observed that his proposed enterprise
could only be undertaken with a large body of men, and much money
would be requisite. To this he replied, that if they would only promise
to rise, he would engage that early in the spring there should arrive
25,000 men on the coast, and that pecuniary means should not be wanting.
The Nakib then observed, " Our pashalik is small, and we think you
had better go to Kuniyah and have a conference with the pasha of that
place, whose district is much more extensive. Yes," said the pasha,
"that is the best place; so you had better retire to the coiFee-room"
(where the principal attendants of the pasha remain in waiting, and
■which often serves for a more honourable confinement to a person
of distinction than a public prison), " until two Tufankjis (military
police) can be got ready to accompany you."
* I cannot suppose this letter authentic, bocaiisa I must also noto that lie had last
come from Egypt, which country he and his companion had been obliged to leave so
suddenly on board an Egyptian frigate bound for Tarsus, that the latter had not time
to apprise his friends of his destination, and he had to wait some time before he could
hoar from them and receive remittances. The officers of this Egyptian man-of-w;u-
have often asked me very anxiously concerning him, and acknowledged that he had
confided his secret to them during the passage. They appeared to idolise his memory,
for he contrived to engage the affections of every one wherever ho went ; but I cannot
help thinking that his sudden departure from Alexandria was in consequence of Mu-
hammad All's determination not to bo compromisod personally, though he allowed him
to try bia luck, or rather risk his life, iu attempting to raise the people elsewhere.
ARREST OF NADIR BEY. 95
Nadir Bey remained twenty-four hours under tliis arrest, weeping,
and vouching for the truth of what he advanced, and saying that
now his life would be the forfeit of his patriotism. " Yes," he ex-
claimed, " I am a sacrifice for my poor people ; still my rights shall be
recognised." He then would cheer up with the delightful prospect
with which his madness deceived him, that he would obtain justice
eventually, and then again he would relapse into despair.
Mounted on a bad horse, he set off the 4th of March, 1843, under
the escort of two armed men, to Kuniyah. Before leaving the town, he
called at the house of a French resident at Adana, and without being
allowed to dismount, asked him for a little money and a cloak to screen
him from the inclemencies of the season. Having obtained the latter,
he then begged him earnestly to send a portfolio he had taken the pre-
caution to confide to his care previous to his entering on this mad enter-
prise, to the English consul at Tarsus, with a request that he should
take notice of the papers contained therein, and immediately inform the
British embassy of his position, " that, if necessary, the ambassador
may intercede to save his life, as he had already done once before."
This is in allusion to a statement which is also current, that Nadir
Bey had been a great favourite with Sultan Mahmud, who entrusted
him with the government of a province in Europe, where he tried to
excite a conspiracy, and being brought to Constantinople would have
lost his life but for the humane intercession of his excellency.
I have seen the contents of this portfolio, wherein there is no paper
of any consetjuence except a very urgent one from the Emperor of
IMorocco to the late Sultan IMahmud, recommending Nadir Bey very
strongly to his kindness, as " his nephew and own flesh and blood."
This letter I have perused with great attention, and have no doubt of
its authenticity ; but I have not heard how or by what means of per-
suasion it was obtained.
Plere I should mention, that when Nadir Bey was seized by the
pasha, the British consular agent at Adana thought it his duty to claim
him as a person furnished with a passj)ort, and consequently vuider his
jurisdiction; but the pasha smiled and said, "No, no, wc know this man
well ; his name is Ahmed, and we have all along been on the look-out
for him." Nadir Bey reached Kuniyah in safety, and a Eurojjean, who
had been apprised by letter of his coming, immediately went to the
palace of the governor to inquire after him. He was informed that
such an individual had arrived, and had prosecuted his journey to Con-
stantinople.
The people of the country, who all took interest in his fate, said
96 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
that at Kimiyali he had been recognised by the ISIxillah Khunkar, or
chief of the dervishes, on whom devolves the duty of buckHng on the
sword of every newly-elected sultan, and that he was presented with a
good mule, and furnished with money and servants to proceed to the
capital as became his rank. Be this as it may, nothing more has ever
been heard of this mysterious young man. Two or three months after
this event, the British vice-consul at Samsiui, who had been informed
of what had occurred in Cilicia, taking a ride, saw a horseman who
answered the description given of Nadir Bey. He was in Egyptian
clothes,* and was whistling as he rode before him into town an Italian
air Avith the greatest correctness. The resemblance of this man to what
he had heard of Nadir Bey did not at the time strike Mr. C ; but
he had scarcely reached his home before the thought occurred to his
mind that this might be the same individual, and he immediately sent
people to all the jDublic khans and coflee-houses, and to every place
where he could suppose it possible he could go, to find him out; but
although the town is small (not containing 6000 inhabitants), he Avas
not able to discover any person agreeing to the description he gave of
the individual he had met that afternoon ! This is all I have been aljle
to ascertain and collect regarding this extraordinary character, who
has interested me exceedingly, and the more so as I found that he was
universally beloved and esteemed by all who have known him per-
sonally. I regret that I did not see him (being at the time confined to
my room by fever), to be enabled to give a more particular description
of his person. There appeared, some days later, an article in one of the
Constantinople papers saying that an impostor had been seized in Tarsus
who pi'eteuded to the throne, and that he had been sent to Constan-
tinople, where he Avas daily expected; but his arrival there Avas never
announced.
But the circumstance of his appearing in Cilicia as a claimant to the
throne of Constantinople alone and Avithout funds, to create a revolt in
a country Avhere he Avas Avell aAvare the natural feeUngs of patriotism
are unknoAvn, and Avhere the inhabitants are driven like sheep by the
strongest or by those Avho pay them, at the best, can only be reconciled
to common sense by supposing that he must have lost his senses be-
fore entering on his project : for Avhat reasonable hope could there be
of exciting a sympathy or enthusiasm in a population reduced by
poverty to the last stage of indifference, and that too in the character
of a man who had passed the greater part of his life among infidt-ls, the
* Like those pui-chasod by Nailir Bey at Tarsus, i^revious to proceeding to Adana
on his inexplicable undertaking.
QUARRELS AND INTRIGUES OF TURKISH OFFICIALS, 97
enemies of their religion and nation, himself tainted by the odium of
having been allied to the hated Jawurs, and hence unfitted for the sacred
office of defender of the faithful, — a prejudice impossible to eradicate
from the minds of those who aspire to be strict Mussulmans, and who
form by far the great majority of the population? Politically speaking,
the attempt was madness; and we are lost in a maze of conjecture when
we reflect on the infatuation of this individual, who was well acquainted
with the country and people, and who in all other respects excited the
astonishment while he captivated the hearts of all who knew him.*
The second pasha who was appointed (12th May, 1843) to govern
Cilicia after the evacuation of the Egyptians, was Ahmed Izzet Pasha,|
son-in-law of old Ali Pasha of Bagdad. Ahmed' was jealous of the
influence which the Muhassil (financial agent of "the Porte) Abdullah
Eushdi exercised, and by which he could appropriate to himself all the
emoluments arising from bribes. He therefore persuaded Mustuk Bey
to quarrel with the Muhassil, in order to frighten him out of his post.
The pasha hoped thus to get a more complaisant Muhassil, who Avoidd
allow him to take into his own hands the advantage of directing through
him the financial government of the Porte in the country. Mustuk Bey
accordingly seized the earliest opportunity of quarrelling with the
Muhassil, and which presented itself as they were seated during Ramadan
at the door of a large caravansarai, enjoying the coolest place they could
find in that sultry town. Mustuk Bey began by threatening to take
away the Muhassil's life, and made a shew of drawing his pistols for that
purpose. But the Muhassil, so fir from being intimidated, wrote to
Constantinople, and had, it appears, sufficient influence to get the pasha
dismissed. •
In the meanwhile, however, before an answer could come from Con-
stantinople, and it could be known which influence would ultimately
prevail, Mustuk Bey had nothing to fear from the resentment of the
Muhassil; but as family matters called him to Bayas, he took his leave
of the pasha at Adana and returned home, whilst the latter set off in a
contrary direction for Tarsus, " to make hay while the sun shone," that
* I mast also add, for the satisfaction of the reader, that his friend and companion,
before lea\'ing Tarsus, did not fail to pay whatever debts Nadu- Bey had incm-red
during his passage through Tarsus. See Appendix.
t The Porte had been for some time uneasy about old Ali Pasha of Bagdad, not
kno%ving whether he would submit or throw off his allegiance. This man undertook
to persuade Ali to be faithful to the Sultan, and proceeded to Bagdad, where he ingi-a-
tiated himself so completely in the old'man's good graces that he gave him liis dauo'hter
in marriage, and, as a proof of his obedience to the Porte, agreed to give up his post
and accept the pashalik of Damascus, in order to spare the bloodshed of the faithftil
consequent on civil war amongst Muhammadans.
H
98 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
is, to profit by his position and make a tour among tlie Turkman tribes,
from eacli of whom it was customary that every new pasha should receive
one or more liorses, valued at from 10/. to 201. sterling, tlae number of
which in this province generally amounted to a hundred given to each pasha.
These horses were aftenvards taken away to be sold, in the interior or at
Constantinople, by the pasha when he was recalled, and thus the coun-
try was drained of all its best steeds. The money to purchase these horses
was raised by contribution from the inhabitants of the district the pasha
"vdsited, and they were charged by their cliiefs at twice their value!*
Ahmed Izzet Pasha had just arrived at Tarsus, when he was aston-
ished to see Mustuk Bey make his appearance there, at a time when he
thought liim at Bayas. I happened accidentally to be present at their
meeting, and witnessed the embarrassment of the pasha, who was per-
suaded that something very serious could alone have brought him thus
suddenly to Tarsus. He was soon, however, relieved from liis anxiety
to know the cause of this stidden visit, by Mustuk Bey's informing him
privately, that he was come to obtain his sanction to make away with
his own relation, who had conspired against him during his absence from
Bayas, whilst paying his court to the pasha at Adana. Mustuk Bey ob-
tained the permission he had come to solicit and returned home, where,
the better to cloak his design, he soon after made peace with his nephew
Hassan Aga Zaitun Uglu, the very individual against whom his father
had warned his children, and whose father, as has already been stated,
Kutchuk Ali Uglu had murdered. Mustuk Bey accepted from his
nephew a dinner of reconciUation, and went Avith his followers to visit
him. Soon after dinner Mustuk rose to depart, and ordered his nephew's
followers to escort him, leaving his own to finish their meal; and when
the master of the house, who is required by the etiquette of the East
to be the last to rise from the table, had just got up, and was in the
act of washing his hands, his cousin Osman Aga shot him with a pis-
tol, and the rest despatched him with their swords, after which they
mounted their horses to follow their master. The dying man is said
to have exclaimed, "Is such treachery possible?" referring to the
maxim common to all nations, that there sliould be " honoui' among
thieves."
Mustuk Bey resembled his father; his face was large and flat, with
rather a scanty beard, becoming grey. He also spoke through his nose
* When a new paslia an-ived, all the local officers employed by his predecessor were
expected to make him a i)resont of greater or less value, according to the importance
of their office, in order to be continued in their posts, which was generally done till the
pasha had had time to look alxmt him, when ho took occasion to tui-u them out, and
place In sumo of his de2)ondcnts.
GOVERNMENT OP SULAIMAN PxiSHA. 99
like liis fatlier. His conversation was pleasing, liis manners very polislied,
and he treated all travel lei's who visited him, particularly the English,
very kindly, and with much respect. He occupied a little palace above
Bayas, which his predecessor Rustam Bey, the governor appointed by Ibra-
him Pasha, had embellished after the Turkish fashion.* His great gene-
rosity reduced him to be often in want of the necessaries of life ; and the
debts he contracted towards the government by reason of his munificence
afforded an oj^portunity to his enemies wherewith to work his ruin.
The moment Ahmed Izzet Pasha had lost his post through the
superior influence of the ]\Iuhassil Rushdi Effendi's friends and sup-
joorters at Constantinople, the latter availed himself of his poAver to bring
Mustuk Bey into disgrace.
Sulaiman Pasha, who succeeded Ahmed Izzet Pasha in the month of
November 1843, was, under the advice of the Muhassil, induced to sum-
mon Mustuk Bey to appear in Adana. Pie replied, that he was ready to
obey as soon as the Muhassil should be recalled, or else to enter the city
with a suite of 500 horsemen; whereupon the Muhassil took secret mea-
sures to induce the Porte to believe that Mustuk Bey refused to pay the
tribute he owed to the government, the greatest of all crimes in the
estimation of the ministry.
In order further to excite the government against his enemy, the
Muhassil gave private orders to the Tartar bearer of letters from Da-
mascus to Constantinople not to pass through Bayas, but to take a boat
and go across the (rulf of Alexandi'etta to Kara-Tash. The post having
thus been delayed in its progress, the Muhassil had a pretext for accus-
ing Mustuk Bey of interrupting public communication, although caravans
and passengers were never in the least molested, and although that very
week two Hajjis arrived from Syria, after having been treated on their
way by Mustuk Bey with his usual hospitality.
The Porte, giving ear to these insinuations, issued an order to attack
Mustuk Bey. Two conscripts, one on foot, the other on horseback, were
exacted from every village; and such, of course, were sent as could best
be spared from agricultural labours. These were therefore boorish
shepherds, many of whom had never used any other arms than those
given them by nature, unless it were a club or stone against the
wolves that attacked their sheep, and were equally unacquainted with
riding. Each man was also furnished by the village to which he be-
* He was in great favour with the first two pashas after the evacuation of the
Egji^tians, and was honoin-cd with a Nishau Iftichar, and the title of Kapitohi Bashi,
by the Sultan, — an honorary grade given to governors of towns and chiefs of Turkman
tribes who render themselves useful to the Porte.
100 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
longed -witli a hundred piastres for his expenses during the campaign, a
pound of powder, and four leaden bullets. In this manner five or six
thousand men were collected outside the gates of Adana, where biscuit
and barley were the only things provided by the government for the use
of their levies. On the other hand, 1800 cartridges were discovered in
the corner of some magazine, and were broken open in order to distribute
the powder therein contained to the Turkmans by the handful. No chief
would at first condescend to lead such a rabble; and this honour was
finally reserv^ed for Durwish Ahmed, son of Kil-Aga, who was the only
man who had the courage to march against the redoubtable Mustuk Bey.
For more than a month the conscripts were still assembling, and the
encampment had been transferred to Kurt-Kulak, twelve hours' ride from
Adana.
In the meanwhile the caravan of jNIecca was approaching ; and the
Tufankji Bashi and Oda Bashi, or chamberlain, resolved to advance
with about sixty followers, with the impudent boast of their doing so in
order to protect the caravan. Mustuk Bey received their valiant on-
slaught with a handful of his followers, took them all prisoners, and
ignominiously stripped them of their clothes, sending them back with a
message to the effect that he woidd not make them pay with their lives
the insult they had ofiered him, and that the only thing he would retain
would be their horses, in part payment for a herd of cattle which the
enemy had a few days previously carried off. These fellows, ashamed and
disgusted, returned to Adana. The caravan passed with all due hon-
ours, and the chief imdertook to intercede at Constantinople for Mustuk
Bey, and to explain the exact state of things. Mustuk accordingly,
satisfied with the hopes Avhich the promises of the Suramini had inspired,
and unwilling to be the cause of the effusion of " Midiammadan blood,"
as also not to implicate himself still further, retired to his mountains,
aUhough he could, as the people expressed it, '■'■have eaten them iij) all at
once!"
As soon as Durwish Ahmed heard of IMustuk's retreat, he fell on
Bayas, and pillaged and burnt every thing that came in his way, even
to the wood for building belonging to merchants of Adana that happened
to be on the sea-shore ready for embarkation. Neither the sex nor the
rank of one of Mustuk Bey's harim, who remained behind, saved her
from being stripped and ill-treated — an act unprecedented in the annals of
the East, as women are always respected by the most barbarous. Mus-
tuk Bey went to Mar'ash and afterwards to Aleppo, where he was liospi-
tably received by the pasha, who took him with him to Beyrut, and
thence to Constantinople.
CHAPTER X.
AXECDOTES OF SULADIAN PASHA — GIN-JUSIF, REBEL OF KARA-TASH ARIF
PASHA — MURDER OF A PASHA — HASAN PASHA — ANECDOTES OF THE COUNCU.
— CHRISTIAN MEMBERS OF COUNCIL EMPLOYES OF THE PORTE — TOLL AT
KULAK BUGHAZ HATI SHERIFF — COURTS OF JUSTICE.
During this period, as I have already stated, Sulaiman Pasha governed
Adaua. This old mau was of all pashas the most stupid, except in
matters relating to money, the sound of which alone could awaken his
attention. During his government, an oke of sugar as a bribe would
not be refused by him or his officers when nothing more valuable could
be had.
On his arrival to take the reins of government, this pasha told me
that he had been named for his peaceable disposition, in opposition to
that of his predecessor ; and in this the Porte really shewed great discri-
mination. He was rich, although he maintained a whole troop of
women servants, together with a wife. On the landing of the latter at
Mursina, the wife of the doctor of quarantine called to pay her respects.
To excuse her very ordinary apparel, and the tattered garments of her
children, she said, " Pray do not look at these clothes; I have some with
four fingers' width of gold lace on them." But this was not likely, as,
contrary to our customs, the people of the East always travel in their
finest and newest apparel.
Wlien Sulaiman Pasha first arrived at Mursina from Constantinople,
he was also met on the sea- shore by the director of the quarantine, who
caused a sheep to be slaughtered in honour of his disembarkation, lodged
his excellency with all his suite for the night, giving up to him his own
apartment, and standing before him all the while to serve him, &c. The
next day he accompanied him to Tarsus, to swell the number of his
cortege. After remaining twenty-four hours in attendance, as the pasha
was to proceed to Adana, he came forward to take his leave ; and kneel-
ing down, kissed the hem of his garment, requesting permission to
return. Will it be believed, that the pasha actually asked him who
he was ?
102 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
The power of the Porte Avas much shaken in Kara-Tash about this
time. Yusuf, son of the man whom we have seen defending the castle
of Bayas under Dada Bey, had killed his brother and usurped his post.
This man was a peasant of the Ansairi tribe, but he had no particular
religious belief. His domestic establishment Avas composed of seven
women, among whom were the sister and mother of his wife ! He col-
lected all the rogues he could, by screening them from the pursuit of
justice ; and Kara-Tash was fast passing from under the jurisdiction of
the pasha, when Jin Yusuf was enticed to Adana and put into prison.
But as the government thought he might one day be required for the
purpose of setting him against his other brother Mustafa, his life was
spared. Tired of such restraint, Jin Yusuf sent one of his followers to
shoot Mustafa, knowing that he would then be necessary to govern-
ment at Kara-Tash. It turned out as he expected: IMustafa died of the
wound he received from a bullet, and the pasha being about to quit
Adana in disgrace, was glad to take 10,000 piastres (equal to about
90/.), which Jin Yusuf paid him for his release, and which sum he soon
after recovered, levying it by contributions on the villagers in his district
of Kara-Tash ; and Jin Yusuf is at this moment the right-hand man of
one of the ayans of Adana, and the pasha, in a letter to me, styles him
kiz-agafi{, a title equivalent to lord-lieutenant of a county.
Old Sulaiman Pasha having been a sufficient time at his post to
make up more than the sum he had defrayed to obtain it, he was re-
called .\.D. 1844, and Arif Pasha was named to succeed him ; but the
pride of this man soon led to his downfall.
Kuzan Uglu, chief of the Turkman tribes that dwell near Sis, and
a friend of Mustuk Bey, had been simimoned to Adana; but he refused
to appear, suspecting Abdullah al Rushdi, the muhassil, of treachery.
On the guarantee of the Armenian patriarcli, he ultimately consented to
answer the summons; biit on his ariival he was treacherously put luider
arrest. The mountaineers hearing of this breach of faith, prepared to
attack the city, and would certainly have pillaged it, had not the pasha
invested Kuzan Uglu with a pelisse of honour, and sent him back to
quell the insurrection. The Turkman tribe of Kuzan Uglu has al-
ways been, to a certain extent, independent alike of Ibraliim Pasha and
of the Porte.
Shortly after this, a pasha of Mar' ash (a young man whose name I
have forgotten) was killed by some of the Aitshir tribes, neighbours of
Kuzan Uglu; for having gone among them to levy tribute, and with a
dozen of his followers he fell a victim to his imprudence. Arif Pasha,
in consequence, made some demonstration of his intention to invade
TnOROUGH CHANGE OP GOVERNMENT. 103
tlie Kuzan Tagh, which constitutes a portion of the Taurus mountains;
but the demonstration came to nothing.
The unsettled state of the country was indeed at its height during
Arif s government. He actually refused to convict a thief without com-
petent witnesses, although some of the stolen property was found upon
him, because this individual had powerful friends, and bribed the cadi
with 500 piastres.
AbduUa Rushdi at last fell into disgrace ; but he contrived to leave
Adana with upwards of a hundred horses and forty-two panther-skins,
together with several thousand purses (of 5/. each) wherewith to in-
trigue for new honours. He was succeeded by another intriguer, who
had united with the chiefs of the country to get Arif Pasha dismissed.
In 1846 the Porte, having been repeatedly petitioned by these peo-
jile, and worn out by their importunities, as well as tired of their com-
plaints, determined to make a complete change in the officers of the
pashalik of Adana ; and Hassan Pasha was deputed, with a suite of fresh-
imported employes, to fill up the various vacancies.
This fat illiterate man was one of the Janissaries of old, who had,
in the time of the reformation of Sultan Mahmud, willingly submitted
to the new discipline called Nizam, and was consequently spared the fate
of his companions in arms. His stupid, coarse manners corresponded
with his appearance.*
Mastuk Bey, who had been to Constantinople with his patron Waji
Pasha, availed himself of the change of ministry at Adana to retvirn,
and he accompanied Hassan Pasha in the Turkish steamer. On their
arrival I took occasion to recommend Mustuk Bey to him, on the ground
of his being the only man who could keep the Turkmans in order ; for
the roads had been infested with robbers during his absence, which was
never the case when he was at the head of his tribe.
Hassan Pasha contemptuously answered, " that neither Mustuk Bey
nor any one else, not even himself, could presume to consider that he
was indispensable to the Daulat il Aliyah (Sublime Porte), whose breath
* An Arabic story is told of a governor, who surj^assed his father and grandfather
in tyranny, going out in disguise one day to hear what people said of him. He was
surijrised to find that an old woman alone, out of all his subjects, prayed God to
prolong his life, — " Alia yitawall amru." He accosted her, and entering into familiar
conversation, desired to be told why she prayed for the prosperity of a tjTant hated
by every body. She informed him that "the grandfather of Effendina was tyrannical^
his father still more so, and Eft'endina was worse than both ; should God Almighty,
therefore, in his vengeance deprive us of him, he coidd at this rate send us none other
than Eblis (Satan) himself 'Azlam,' more just than Effendina (our lord), whom God
preserve : and that is why I pray for the long life of Effendina, as we can only change
for the worse."
104 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNORg.
alone supports or exterminates all men !" I could not help smiling at
this assumption of grandeur, having been witness of the little power
of the government he so much lauded only a few days previously,
when the Turkmans had carried off Avith impimity between two and
three hundred head of cattle within half an hour's ride of Adana. Arif
Pasha, with a spy-glass in his hand, had actually seen from his window
some travellers stripped on th€ other side of the river, und dared not
afford them assistance ; nor could th-e post evtr pass without an escort
of Dali Bashis (" mad heads," irregular cavalry).
But the weakness of the Cilician governors is in some degree ex-
cusable when we consider that they are thrown in a strange land with-
out sufficient means to enforce their authority, being scarcely allowed
the pay of fifty saimans (irregular troops). They are thus placed at the
mercy of the chiefs of the country, who offer them the option, viz. on
one side the opportunity of becoming rich, and on the other, opposition
in every thing, which would completely cripple their power; and they
are induced, by want ■ of principle, to choose that which is most con-
ducive to their private advantage.
It sometimes happens that, in consequence of the mutual jealousies
of the members of the council, they submit to receive a Mutsallim, or
governor, among them: but this man, as well as his master the pasha,
with whom he shares his profits, becomes a tool in their hands ; and as
soon as one of the members contrives to get the ascendant of the rest,
the Mutsallim is set aside without any scruple or ceremony. This is
perhaps the case in this province more than in any other, the members
of the council being chiefs of Turkman tribes supported by 2000 or
more followers, who are encamped within call at a few hours' ride from
the towns.* Thus we see that this pashalik is governed only nominally
by the envoyes from the Sublime Porte, and that the real authority is
in the hands of the ayans, who retain the power of levying the Suliyaiiy^
an arbitrary tax originally paid by the people for the purpose of de-
fraying the travelling expenses of Pashas, Kapitchi Bashis, and other
officers of the Porte, while resident in the towns, and which has con-
tinued in force, although since the financial reforms of the sultan it has
been fixed on more regular principles, and the reasons for its exaction
have long ago been cancelled. This tax is levied twice a year, and
from the uncertain nature of the sum, holds out a wide field for pecu-
lation. It is divided into so many portions, generally double the sum
required by the Porte, and it is exacted from the chiefs of the several
* Some of the tribes are much more powerful. Mahimanji Uglu could unite from
800 to 120U tjima.
TAXATION IN CILICIA. 105
districts, villages, or departments, who in their turn also speculate on its
advantages to their own profit; so that the poor villagers have to pay
three times what the Porte receives, and they are also the greatest
sufferers, as the ayaus contrive to exempt their own people ; and this
tyranny falls so heavily on the villagers, that they often find no other
chance of escaping the exactions of the ayans than emigration, which
takes place to a gi-eat extent,* although a husbandman is not allowed
by law to quit his district ; so that when unable to pay the dues fixed
upon them at the capricious option of the chiefs, they wander about from
place to place, and leave their children to the mercy of strangers.^
This system is also put in practice in its several ramifications by
the sheiks of the villages, who mimic their superiors in the council;
and they enjoy the same immunity from punishment. Nothing can
be more detrimental to the public weal than this combination of six or
ten persons who act in concert. The more individuals in power, the
more channels of extortion, and the more subjects exempt from taxation
to the prejudice of the rest of the community.
This council, presided over by the Pasha and Muhassil, is composed
of the Mufti, Cadi, Nakib, and some of the chiefs of the Turkman tribes,
who, by the venal means above alluded to, have contrived to establish
an influence indispensable (without regular troops) to the collecting of
the taxes. These keep up a good understanding among themselves as
to what regai'ds their individual interests, and cede by turns to each
other every advantage they can avail themselves of to monopolise and
* Karadughar (Anchiale) and Kaisanli, formerly two flourisliing villages, were in
1847 nearly deserted, in consequence of the heavy exactions of the government-people,
who, seeing a populous \-illage, fixed a sum to be paid in SaUyan far beyond the
means of the poor inhabitants, who, having been reduced to sell every thing
they had to satisfy the extortions of their petty tyrants, and their lands proving bar-
ren in consequence of the want of rain, were all dispersed, each seeking refuge in some
distant place, — some going to Cyprus, and others to Syria, whUe those who had any
relations in the country were too hapjiy to become their servants in the ciUtiire of the
ground, to obtain food for themselves and their distressed families. Happy it is that
such a state of things is rapidly going by !
Out of some forty families in Karadughar, only six families remained ; and these
being required to pay 18,200 piastres of the Saliyan of the village when it was populous,
tried to run away to Syria by embarking in a small boat at night. The number of
the families at Kaisanli was seventy, and they were reduced by desertion to a dozen,
in the same state as those of Karadughar ; and many other \aLlages, such as Kara-
jillas, Nisani, &c., were reduced to the same condition. AU these villages were peopled
with Ansairi peasants, a quiet and laborious race of men.
+ This is certainly a remains of the feudal system ; and I have repeatedly heard of
two neighbouring chiefs quarrelling, and reclaiming from each other the taxes due by
their several serfs, who had taken refuge and been received by another chief from his
neighbour's territory : and often these individuals are compelled to return to their for-
mer place, and submit to the still greater exactions, of their exasperated chief.
106 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNOHS.
extort, allowing to the Pasha and Muhassil a fair portion of the booty
for their co-operation.
The introduction of Christians into the coimcils, as ordained by the
Porte, has not in Cilicia as yet gone beyond the summoning of some
illiterate follower of the Messiah, who sits on his knees near the
door, and never opens his mouth but with low obeisances to confirm
their nefarious decrees. He is generally a servant of the Mufti, and
officiates as SarrafF or banker of the government, a lucrative employ-
ment, which throws much floating capital into his hands. He is sup-
posed to be the most respectable of his co-religionists ; but the Turks
pay little regard to the rank he holds as representative of the Christians
and member of the council^ for he often gets the bastinado to qiucken his
accounts.*
In this council all the " appaltos" (monopolies) of the government,
winch have not been abolished, are sold yearly, although in the treaty
with England a heavy duty of twelve per cent is established by
the last tarifl^ on condition of their being set aside ; and here I may
notice, that from time immemorial it has been observed that in Turkey
a new tax very seldom cancels old ones, but is added to them, in spite
of all arrangements to the contrary. The Pasha and Muhassil buy in
the name of their servants the most profitable monopolies, without any
one outbidding them, as they distribute to each of the members a suffi-
cient number of such " appaltos" as regards their various districts.
Last year a present or bribe of 25,000 piastres (250/.) was offered to
the Muhassil to allow the monopoly of tobacco to be sold freely, but he
preferred keeping it to himself This dignitary, by this one fraud alone,
collected yearly several thousand pounds sterling. I perfectly recollect
the first arrival of Abdalla Rushdi Effendi in Mursina, where he had
occasion to accept of my hospitality. The first question he asked was,
whether there were any dresses to be had readij-made at Adana ! He
had actually arrived at his post without a change of clothes; and yet
on dismounting from his horse at Adana he found a house furnished
for him with such magnificence, that he was enabled to treat those who
called upon him with pipes and coflfee in cups set with diamonds, and
* A rcmarkablo instance of this took place on the amval of Arif Pasha, who, on
inspecting,' the public records, found a deficit of about 300/. to 400/., and required its
iiniiiediato payment. The money was not owed by the sarrafF of Tarsus, but by the
cft'cnilis of the council, who had each taken what they required ; and yet the sairaff
was afraid to explain this knotty point, and at first received .'jOO bastinados, and was
afterwards obligerl to disburse the money out of his own purse. He had even to pre-
tend that the money was due by different Christians, friends of his, who acknowledged
the debt, which was j);iid by the sarraff, in order to conceal the tricks of the ayans, who
are always trifling with the public rcvonuo.
CnARACTER OP TAX-GATHERERS. 107
■which had been prepared for him by the officious ayans. We have
seen how he left Adana after three years' residence there. The Cadi
of 1844, on his arrival to take possession of his post in Adana, had not
wherewith to pay his horse-hire from Mursina to Tarsus !
Very large salaries have of late been paid to all the employes by the
Porte, in the hope that this may induce them to give up their habits of
venality; but unfortunately the instability of their appointments, at least
in Cilicia, renders them anxious to profit by the opportunities aiForded
them, in order to be enabled by their ill-gotten wealth to bribe in their
turn their superiors at Constantinople when they are recalled, — an event
which takes place every few months, in consequence of the many com-
plaints that reach Constantinople of their venal practices, and which is
generally brought about by one intriguing against the other. By this
constant change of oppressors, the people are always falling into fresh
hungry hands, which must be satisfied, lodged, and maintained ; and
although very strict commands are issued from time to time by the Porte
to prevent these irregularities, in distant provinces like Cilicia little or no
attention is paid to the wishes and good intentions of the government.*
But the great source of local mal- administration is the influence
of the members of the council, whose whole energy is directed to the
support of its members and dependents at the expense of the Porte
and people. An useless, unprincipled, and in most cases an igno-
rant oligarchy, ruinous to the country and to the treasury of the
Sultan; and until some very effective mea:-ures are taken to crush the
power it has usurped, no hope can be entertained of any amelioration in
the legislature. Individual despotism is always to be deplored; but an
oppressive oligarchy is the perfection of tyranny.
It had been agreed upon between the Porte and the European powers,
that there should be no more monopolies; still these exist in full force:
and the Bage or toll levied at Kulak Bughaz is not one of the least
* At Antioch the tax-gatherers used to exact the tithes in money; and as they
fixed a larger sum than even the produce of the land, the villagers found it so ruinous^
that they preferred leaving a great portion of their grounds uncultivated, and actually
cut down their trees. This came to the cognisance of the Porte, and a fii-man was
issued to forbid such abuses ; and it was therein clearly specified that the tithes should
be alwaj'S collected in Jdud: and each of the Ayans of Antioch, who are not, like
those of Cilicia, supported by Turkman tribes (not belonging to any), was himself com-
pelled to read in his district this firman before the assembled people, for the purpose
of gi\'ing due publicity to the intentions of the Porte. That year some attention was
paid to this order ; but they soon returned to their original mal-i:)raetices ; and the
tithes are now actually paid in cash at a price double the value of what the produce
could be sold for in Antioch. But great changes are taking place for the better every
year even in these remote districts ; none more important than the abolition of the
Saliyan in 1846, which has not been renewed since that period.
108 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
onerous. Three piastres per load, and one oke* in kind, is exacted in
soap, coffee, tumbac, &c., which makes the road-tax amount to more than
12 per cent. The Muhassil, who has the chief interest in this oppres-
sive toll, gives it his energetic support, and has not allowed it to be sup-
pressed, in spite of many orders from the Porte obtained by the French
and English ambassadors for that purpose.
Although the Porte had declared that personal taxation should be
abohshed, and a tax on property be estabUshed in Heu thereof, this
has not taken place, at least in Cilicia, where the members of the council
being almost the sole landed proprietors, they would have been the chief
sufferers; and as the executive power is in their hands, they have not
allowed such an innovation to come into foi'ce.
Nor have many advantages accrued to this province as yet by the
Tanzimat Khairvjah, or Hatti Sheriff of Gulhana, so deservedly applauded
as a charter granted by the Sultan to his subjects. The people, at least in
Cilicia, are under the same tyrannical subjection, and are exposed to the
same rapacity of their governors as ever they were ; the latter never fail
to avail themselves of the slightest excuse that can be found to put them
in prison, whence they are never freed, however innocent, before they have
paid a sum in proportion to their means, which imposition they call ex-
penses of the jjrison, and which is fixed at the arbitrary caprice of the
Tufankji Bashi. The Cadi also takes advantage of his position to carry
on measures of intrigue very foreign to his station and profession. The
great license allowed by the Turkish law, the facility of procviring false
witnesses, and the difficulty of appealing to Constantinople for redress,
enable him to carry through, by the connivance of the council, any mea-
sure, however detrimental to the public weal. Indeed, the whole ad-
ministration of justice, if such it can be called, may be summed up in
the great facility of procuring false witnesses, and the extraordinary
article in the Turkish code of condemning individuals sued against, how-
ever false the accusation, to pay the costs. Innumerable instances may
be brought forward of innocent persons prosecuted solely from motives of
ill-will on the slightest pretences, to oblige them to pay the costs ; and the
officers of law, to whose profit this system accrues, give naturally en-
couragement to such mal-pnictices. These abuses, and many more, are
adopted by the pasha and officers of police, in order to make up for the
loss of the privilege they formerly enjoyed, of imprisoning a man known
to be rich, for the avowed purpose of making him pay an arbitrai-y tax
for the private use of the pasha's kitchen. In order to render the pre-
sent plan as lucrative as the old one, it is in too many instances made
* Two pounds und three-quarters English.
MAL-ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
109
as general as possible, by encouraging the population to complain one
against the other; and although a person is falsely accused, the accuser
is not punished, nor do the costs of the suit, as I have already observed,
fall upon liim, as they should do. If any sum is recovered, the creditor
pays seven to ten per cent, besides what is given to the constable for his
trouble by the latter, and what is secretly paid by the creditor to the
judge, generally about a third of the sum.
I trusted to be able to conclude the present chapter with more con-
solatory words of hope to the friends of Turkey, of which, notwithstand-
ing its faults, and the difficulties the Porte has to fight against, I may
truly say that I rank as one, and indeed as a most zealous well-wdsher.
It has been my endeavour throughout these pages to lay before my
readers only simple facts which speak for themselves, to enable them
to judge of the actual state of a province so remote and so peculiarly
circumstanced as Cilicia. Nearer to Constantinople, the Turkish go-
vernment is enabled to carry into more effective operation the many
excellent regulations that are daily issued at the Porte for the benefit of
the people.
PLillN OF ANTIOCH— OVERFLOW OF THE ORONTES ; MOUNT AMANUS IN THE DISTANCE.
(From a Sketch by C. F. Barker, Esq.)
(From a Sketch by Edward B. B. Barker, Esc^.)
CHAPTER XL
GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA — TARSUS AND ADANA MISSIS (mOPSUESTIA) — SIS (PIN-
DENISSUS) BAYAS AND THE COAST PYLi^E CILICIJE POPULATION OF
CILICIA EUROPEANS AND THEIR INFLUENCE DESTROYED — CONSULS AND
THEIR AUTHORITY ENGLISH CONSULS ALLOWED TO TRADE — CLIMATE
STAGNANT LAKE (rHEGMa) — MARSH OF ALEXANDRETTA COUNTRY-HOUSES
NIMRUD SEA-PORTS — KAISANLI MURSINA AND ITS ROADSTEAD.
Having traced the history of Cilicia clown to the present day, I pro-
pose noAV to say a few words on its geograjiliical position, statistics, com-
mercial resources, natural productions, and antiquities. The so-called
pashalik of Adana, which corresponds pretty nearly to ancient Cilicia
Campestris, is comprehended in a plain that extends from Sulufska
(Seleucia,) to Ma' rash, in a north-easterly direction, about 120 miles
between the Taurus and Jawur or Giaour Tagh, which last, running
north and south, forms Avith the sea a triangle in which the province
is composed, and which is called by the Tui'ks Chukui* Uvah, and
GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA. Ill
corresponds to the Aleian plain of old. Tarsus is situated on this jilain,
at the foot of Mount Taurus, about twelve miles from the sea, and a
branch of the river Cjdnus passes through the city, taking its rise in the
adjoining chain of mountains, and emptying itself into the sea about
twelve miles from Tarsus. Adana, fabled by Stephanus to have been
founded by Adam (vide Ainswoi'tli' s Reti'eat of the 10,000 Greeks), stands
to the north-east, and is also on the plain at the foot of the Taurus range,
and about thirty miles from the sea. It has another and larger river,
Saihun, ancient Sarus, passing by it, which, running parallel to the
Cydnus, empties itself near the mouth of the latter.
Missis, anciently called Mopsuestia, is said to have been founded by
Mopsus, a celebrated prophet, son of Manto and Apollo, during the
Trojan war; \\v. had three daughters, ^/lOcZa, Meliade, and Pamphylia.
It is now a ruined A'illage about twenty-five miles north-east of Adana,
and through it flows the Jaihim (Pyramus), a river still larger than the
two last mentioned. The Pyramus springs from the other side of
]\Ia'rash, whence it passes winding along the plain to Sis and Missis, and
finishes its course in the Bay of Ayass (^gte), which is opposite Alex-
andretta.*
Sis (Pindenissus) is to the north of Missis, about sixty miles dis-
tance, at the foot of Taiu^us, which the people of the country call at that
point Kusan Tagh, after the name of the tribe of Tiu'kmans who inhabit
the district. At this place is a monastery of great antiquity, the
residence of an Armenian patriarch, who has some influence in the
country, but who, notwithstanding his high rank, when he comes to
Adana to visit the pasha, is as obsequious to the Turks as the rest of
the oppressed Christian subjects of the Porte. A view of Sis, with the
Armenian patriarch in the foreground surrounded by his bishops, is
given in the frontispiece.
Bayas (Issus) is on the gulf of that name, sixty miles to the south-
east of Missis. Alexandretta is sixteen miles more to the south-east, at
the foot of the Jawnir Tagh, which rises almost perpendicularly behind
it, constituting the farthest limits of the pashalik at Bailan (Pylffi Syriaj),
Avhere the confines of Syria begin in a very tortuous and difficult pass.
Arsus (Ehossus) is to the» south of this town ; it has the sea on one
* This place, that is, Ayass, is remarkable for its extraordinary number of sea-
turtle, which are very easily caught as they come out ou the sea-shore in the night to
lay their eggs in the sand. Fish is also very abimdant ; but when taking it with a
seine or draw-net the turtle till up the sack ; so that before it can reach the shore the
fishermen have to go into the sea, which is not deep near the beach, to take them out,
two or three times successively. On one occasion (May 1812) the crew of H.M.'s steamer
Hecate, Captain Ward, took more than 150 tm-tles in less than twenty-four houi-s.
112 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
side and !Mount Rhossiis towering above it on the other.* The latter
projects into the sea, and forms Cape Khanzir, or Wild-boar Cape,
(Scopulus Rhossicus), so formidable to sailors in leaving the Bay of
Alexandretta. Karatash is a village opposite Arsus, on the extreme side
of the gulf, and has a little harbour affording a precarious shelter to small
boats of the country, and is about sixty miles east by south of Tarsus.
At Kulak Bughaz (Pylae Cilicige) is the pass into this province to the
north-west from Anatolia, which is the most convenient road for beasts
of burden, and was that principally used in all the military expeditions
of the ancients. It was repaired by the Romans so as to admit of their
chariots passing, but being neglected, has fallen to rviin, and in the narrow
part you have now to pass through a stream two or three feet deep for
more than a hundred yards. But I must, for a more minute description
of this celebrated pass, refer to Mr. Ainsworth's work entitled Travels
and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and Armenia. It
was here that Ibrahim Pasha caused to be conveyed to the crest of the
pass some very fine pieces of artillery of such a size that the present
government have not been able to bring them down, and have been
obliged to content themselves with twenty- eight small pieces of brass
artillery, which they sent to Constantinople to be melted down into
bishlics (five-piastre pieces of the country), worth something less than
a shilling. At the same time six vessels of 250 tons Avere laden for
Constantinople with powder and military stores, which had remained and
been overlooked by the Egyptian army at the moment of departure,
although by order of Ahmed Minikli Pasha some of the magazines M-ere
blown up. This shipment was made, not only to turn to account the
leavings of the Egj'ptian army, which would have been useless in Adana,
but also to keep such dangerous articles out of the people's reach.
Ibrahim Pasha had had constructed at Kulak Bughaz by a clever Polish
* Arsiis is now a small village built on the site of ancient Rhesus ; and in the vicinity
are many fi-agments of walls, arches, and some remains of a temple with Corinthian
cohnnns. The most remarkable niin in the neighbourhood is, however, an extensive
aqueduct carried on arches, and which formerly brought water direct from the moun-
tains to the town, although a rivulet of clear water flows through it.
Nothing indicates that this town, whither, according to Plutarch, Demetrius re-
paired from Seleucia Picria, was ever an extensive site. It is, however, a spot stiU
much frequented by SjTian Christians, with whom its church is in great sanctity ; thus
preserving, to a certain extent, the ecclesiastical importance which belonged to it in
the middle ages, and which enabled it to send its mitred rej)resentatives to the Chris-
tian Synods of the East. Eusebius, it is true, only notices Rhosus as a parish ; but
Socrates (iii. 25) mentions Antipatrum as Bishop of Rhosus ; and it is also noticed as
an episcopacy in the Acts nf the Synod. The name is variously rendered Rhosus, or
Rossiis, by the Greeks and Latins; the AcU of the Spwd have it Khosopolis, and the
Theodosian Tablet Rhosus. \V. F. A.
PYL^ CILlCIiE. 113
engineer, Colonel Sliutz, fortifications which were intended to repel an
invader, and at the same time serve as a model to instruct officera
in every branch of fortification. These works were executed by the
Colonel, but they wei'e in great part destroyed by the Egyptians on their
retreat, before they were completely finished, after having cost immense
sums of money and eight years' constant labour of 10,000 men.
The population of this pashalik amounts to about 300,000 souls ; but it
is not easy to make an exact calculation, as the reports of the Turkmans
are either false or exaggerated. Adana contains 18,000 inhabitants ;
Tarsus, 6000: of this one-third are Mussulmans, more than a third An-
sayrii or Ansarians, generally Deists, and the rest Ai'menians and Greeks.
There are more than 300 villages on the plain, which average 200 souls
each, and the inhabitants of which are for the most part Ansayrii, and a
few Muhammadans. At Sis the population is almost entirely Armenian,
and numbers about 2000. Missis and Bayas contain 200 to 300 in-
habitants altogether, and Alexandretta and Ai-sus as many.
The Turkman tribes^ who dispersed in the plains, valleys, and moun-
tains of this province, feed their flocks in the pasturages of the Jaihun,
Saihun, and their tributarieSj in winter, and repair to the uplands of
Taurus in summer, make up the sum of the rest of the population,
as above stated. There are at Tarsus a few families from Cyprus,
who lead the same monotonous existence to which they are accustomed
in their native town of Larnika. The few Eiiropeans who inhabit Tarsus
live a Hfe of great privation, devoid of all intellectual society ; they ap-
pear to exist only in the hope that some day or another the relative
commercial advantages of the place will at length be fully appreciated
and settled ; they will then be the first to profit thereby.
There are English, French, Russian, Dutch, and Neapolitan consul-
ates established in Tarsus. The English system of allowing a consul to
trade is very disadvantageous to commercial interests, and frustrates the
very intention for which he is appointed — that of encouraging British
commerce. It brings him into constant personal collision with the local
government, and detracts from his respectability and authority. Besides,
his position gives him such an advantage over other merchants, that few
Englishmen can settle in any place where such is the case ; and therefore, as
I have just observed, the desire and interest of England to extend her
commerce is thus counteracted for the saving of a few hundred pounds a
year of salary. This is particularly the case in Tarsus ; and indeed we
may observe, that in few places in the Levant where a British consul
is allowed to trade have we any commercial houses, and this fact speaks
for itself: although consuls have been appointed in those places for
I
114 CILICIA AND ITS GOTERNORS.
many years, and although a good deal of real business might be carried
on by the means of English houses of commerce, were their interests
properly supported by disinterested individuals.
The climate of Cilicia is not more ruiliealthy than the rest of Asia
IMinor, but the air of Tarsus is very much so, particularly during the
months of July and August, when the town and its environs are subject
to exhalations productive of putrid and intermittent fevers. The prin-
cipal cause of this evil is a stagnant lake about thirty miles in circum-
ference, now a few miles from Tarsus, which formerly communicated
with the sea, but which is now separated from it by a sand-bank. This
is the harboiu" mentioned by Strabo, which he says was the port of
Tarsus (and that there were in his time the remains of the arsenal).
Indeed, its position leads us to infer that the sea once came up to
Tarsus ; but as the alluvium of the river has raised the ground con-
siderably, it would be easy to dry this lake by drains, which would not
cost more than 200/., and the deleterious state of the atmosphere would
be permanently obviated; and not only would many diseases be pre-
vented, but the ground would become well adapted to the cultivation of
sesam, cotton, and wheat, and its incomparable fertility the first year
woidd no doubt repay a thousand-fold all expenses.* This lake lies
between Tarsus and the sea, and thus its pittrid exhalations are con-
veyed to the town by the sea-breezes. It is the opinion of medical men,
that the pores of the skin being opened by the great heats of the day,
are much influenced by the damp aiid cold vnnd of the mountain at
night; and this combined with the malaria above mentioned occasions
congestions of the brain, and hence bilious and gastric fevers, which, if
not properly treated by bleeding and other active remedies, will carry
off the patient -in three or four days, as the fever soon ceases to be inter-
mittent and assumes a malignant type.
Ibrahim Pasha caused the small lake of Alexandretta to be drained
at the suggestion of M. Martinelli, as also subsequently of Mr. Hays,
her Majesty's consuls there, and for two or three years afterwards no
deaths took place, whereas previously there were accidents occurring
every few months. The canal for carrying off the water has, however,
since unfortunately been allowed to fill up, and Alexandretta is now the
tomb of all who inhabit it for any length of time without change of
air.
* A few years ago, in consequence of a great dearth, part of this lake having dried
up, the pcojile of the adjoining \'illage sowed and reaped melons twice in one season,
the seed of the second crop being from that of the first, and the quaUty produced was
niost excellent.
VILLAGES NEAR TARSUS. 115
The inhabitants of Tarsus and Adana go to the moiuitains to pass
the summer, at a place called Nimrud, sixty miles distant, where there
is a castle which they attribute to Nimrod and call it after his name.
There are evident traces of its having been built at three different
periods, and it was at one time in the possession of the Crusaders. It is
built on the summit of a hill, which I should calculate to be certainly
3000 feet above the level of the sea, and it is not commanded by any
of the adjoining heights. It was probably here that Syennesis first re-
tired on the approach of Cyrus to Tarsus, b.c. 401 (vide Ainsworth's
Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Ch^eehs). The country around
Nimrud is arid, with scarcely any running water ; but the water of the
wells is not bad and is abundant, and the air is fine. Each habitation
stands in a little vineyard, and this extends the cultivation of the moun-
tain for many miles ; and the luxuriance with which the vine, cherry, and
walnut-trees grow is very remarkable. All who come up here lead a
life of perfect indolence, and the poor man will sell any thing he may
possess rather than fail to take his family to the mountain during the
summer months. This constant shifting of residence prevents the in-
habitants from building good houses' either in Tarsus or in the Yaila, as
they call their summer quarters. The merchants of Tarsus and Adana
are chiefly strangers, and during the hot season they visit their families
in Kaisariyah, and in the other towns in the interior of Asia Minor,
whence they return in the months of September and October,
Kaisanli is a village containing about a hundred families, estabhshed
in the point of the bay nearest to Tarsus (about twelve miles distant).
It is in this place that Arab lombards come from Syria to load and un-
load; but on the slightest appearance of bad weather they are obliged
to take shelter at Mursina (Zephyrium), more to the westward of the
bay, about eight miles further, where the roadstead is excellent, and,
according to some captains, is preferable as a safe anchorage to that of
Alexandretta or any other on the coast of Syria.* Two French vessels
and some Arabs have been driven on shore ; but in every case the
fault has been from their chains or cables breaking, and not from bad
bottom in the anchorage, English vessels, at the same time and in the
same storm, sustaining no damage whatever. The only inconvenience
they experienced was that their crew were prevented from communi-
cating with the sea-shore for three days till the storm had subsided ;
but this is of very rare occurrence, and generally speaking, morning
and evening the business of embarking and disembarking is not inter-
* The sea-breeze is stronger here than any where else on the coast ; hence its an-
cient name perhaps. I had a beautiful brass medal struck here, which I have mislaid.
116
CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
nipted. About midday there is a little swell, and the want of a small
pier alone prevents the working of merchant-ships' boats all the year
round. This could be easily made for the trifling sum of 501. ; but the
governors of the country, although in landing to take possession of their
posts they have often got wet, always talk of having one made ; as soon
as they reach Adana, their head-quarters, they forget entirely that such
a place as Mursina exists. Mursina is a name compiled from the Greek,
fivpffiyri, myrtle, because formerly immense bushes of that plant were
the only characteristics of the place.
When I first went to Tarsus, in ] 838, there was only a small
magazine and a few miserable huts at this place, and the bales of
cotton were left out under the rain until French vessels came to ship
them for Marseilles. In the hope of drawing the commerce of the inte-
rior and rendering this a place of transit for such produce as is usually
conveyed overland to Smyrna, I built large magazines capable of hold-
ing the cargoes of fifteen vessels at one time. As I had anticipated,
this convenience, so much wanted pre\iously, induced people to avail
themselves of them, and deposit therein goods which were shipped to
Europe and Smyrna. Commerce taking a new course, three other
magazines were built, and other persons settled there.
ALKXANDEETTA AND CAPE khanzir'.— (From a Sketch by C. F. Barker, Esq.)
CHAPTER XII.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TARSUS IN A COMMERCIAL POINT OF
VIEW TABLES OF NAVIGATION TABULAR VIEW OF THE TRADE OF THE
INTERIOR OF ASIA MNOR TABLE OF EXPORTS TABLE OF IMPORTS— STATE
OF AGRICULTURE IN CILICLV. — PRODUCE OF THE COUNTRY COTTON
WHEAT BARLEY LINSEED WAX FRUIT-TREES SILK OLIVE-TREES
PAY OF A DAY-LABOURER PASTURE OF LAND TENURE OF LAND
TIMBER AND WOODS GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGT EXTRACTS FROM MR.
AINSWORTh'S work : plain of tarsus FALLS OF THE CYDNUS FIRST,
SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH RANGE OF HILLS MINES OF IRON AND LEAD
ARGENTIFEROUS GALENA REVENUE OF THE PASHALIK.
Tarsus being tlie nearest port to the several large towns of Asia Minor,
— Adana, Maraash, Nighdah, Kaisariyali, and others, — it would seem to
be the best adapted to embark goods from ; but the inhabitants of the
interior have long been accustomed to go to Smyrna and Constantinople
by land (five times further off), where they have the advantage of find-
ing more buyers who are ready to compete with each other in the
purchase of their merchandise, whereas in Tarsus the competition is
trifling, as there are few if any merchants; and these only acting as
factors, they cannot make large purchases without consulting their
principals, who are too far oiF to allow of any activity in their opera-
tions. For these reasons Tarsus will remain for many years in the
background: but attention to the causes of malaria would soon eradi-
cate the greatest evil, and then many respectable merchants with their
families would be induced to reside in Tarsus, otherwise not a disa-
greeable residence, and one of the most fertile spots in the world; and
they would profit by the advantage of its vicinity to the interior of Asia
Minor, inasmuch as goods can be shipped twenty per cent cheaper here
than by taking them overland to Smyrna, where the produce of the
country now chiefly goes for want of a nearer mai't, and to reach which
place on camels' backs, avooI and madder-roots are deteriorated in qua-
lity by being exposed to rain on the road ; but the merchants of Anatolia
do not mind that, as the weight is thereby increased !
Albertus Aquensis, according to Cellarius, talks of 3000 ships sail-
118 CILICIA AXD ITS GOVERNORS.
ing from the port of Tarsus at one time (vide Ainsworth's Asia Minor,
p. 83). At present its commerce, although increasing within the last
eight years, is confined to twenty or thirty Arab vessels, that come siic-
cessively to load here for Syria, bringing a little soap, coffee, and English
manufactures for the consumption of the pashalik. About twelve
French vessels also load sesam and wool for Marseilles yearly : one or
two Austrian and Sardinian. An English vessel may visit this road-
stead in the course of the year to take up a pai^t of her cargo for Leg-
horn or Smyrna, which they get in Alexandretta. A few Greeks also
from Cyprus keep up a traffic in the products of their country, taking
wheat in exchange. Steamers have been put on this route from Smyrna
two or three times ; bixt in consequence of the irregularity of theu* ar-
rivals and departures no dependence could be placed on them, and
nothing was done satisfactorily. (See the accompanying Table on the
Trade and Navigation of Tarsus, No. 1.) Tarsus might, at least for the
present, serve as a convenient depot for the produce of the interior,
were the agents there more to be depended on ; but what man would
live there who could gain his bread elsewhere, particularly as the
means of business are less than any where else, and the disadvantages
of ill-health and difficulties of getting and executing orders greater than
any where else ? But in order to give some idea of the impulse that
might be given to the trade of Asia Minor through Tarsus were the
difficulties alluded to removed, I shall accompany this notice with a
report or table of the trade of Anatolia as regards Kaisariyah and the
towns of Asia Minor, Avhich I drew up from researches on the spot and
upon the best authority. (Vide Table in the Appendix.)
The principal exports, a table of which I also adjoin in the Appendix,
consist in cotton, wool, wheat, barley, wax, sesam-seed, and linseed from
the interior, from whence might be brought Caraman madder-roots in
great quantities, Persian yellow-berries from Kaisariyah, buffalo-hides
and cow-hides, and all the minor produce of the country.
All kinds of imports, such as English manufactures, sugar, coffee,
indigo, cochineal, soap, and Persian tobacco, are brought from Syria ;
but the want of cash in the country renders the sale precarious. The
seller is compelled to wait months for payment, and frequently money
is lost by the failure of the buyers, who are as insolent as they are
needy. The import trade is very discouraging; but in exports some-
times a good profit is to be obtained, particularly in wheat, which is
remarkably cheap : often it may be had at a price that enables the
buyer to deposit it in the London Docks at 20s. the English quarter.
During Ibraliim Pasha's administration, the government was put to the
COMMERCE OP TARSUS. 119
deplorable necessity of pressing the population into military service, by
seizing the strong and able-bodied, in order to recruit his troops in
Syria. As he could not well do this in the border territories, from an
apprehension of their deserting, he made the latter labour at public
works, and this interrupted the course of agriculture. Grain was in
consequence dear, but since the departure of the Egyptians the people
do not suffer from this grievance, and being more at leisure, have ap-
plied themselves to the culture of the land, which is extremely fertile;
and were it not for the fatahty which seems to be attached to this ill-
fated province, brought on from mal-administration, this might be the
happiest instead of the most miserable district of the Ottoman dominions.
Its chief produce is cotton, of which 20,000 cantars, of 180 okes,
are annually produced, and sent chiefly to Tarabuzun (Trebizond) and
Erzerum by caravans. It is inferior to Egyptian cotton, and not well
cleaned. The cotton costs about three piastres, or 7^d. the oke (of 2|-
lbs.). In 1845 the crop failed entirely for want of rain.
More than 400,000 quarters of wheat are produced annually, half
of which is exported to Syria ; the current price is sixty to eighty piastres
per quarter, which the people call kilu or kaily, equal to eight measures
of Constantinople. A soft kind of wheat comes from Karamania, the
flour of which is whiter, and is sold at 100 piastres the kilo, same mea-
sure as barley.
More than 150,000 quarters of barley are grown yearly, which
barely suffice for the consumption of the country, many making bread
of it when the price of wheat rises, which it invariably does toward
the end of the season. The current price is from 40 to 60 piastres,
same measure, weighing 130 okes.
Of sesam are annually produced 15 to 20 m. kilos, of 130 okes
weight, of which the current price is 200 piastres. The quantity pro-
duced is yearly increasing, as people find it gives better returns than
any other agricultural product, and it obtains the readiest sale, as-
merchants make advances for several months to obtain it.
Of linseed, about 40 m. okes are produced. I was the first person
who introduced this seed on trial; but as it was sown by the farmers
too late in the season, the plant was burnt up by the heat of the sun,
two years successively, before it all came to maturity, and the farmers
were discouraged from attending to it : price cm*rent, 40 paras or 1
piastre the oke.
Of wax, scarcely more than 8 to 10 m. okes are produced; but the
quality is good and the price moderate: 18 piastres the oke.
I also introduced the best kind of Muscatel grapes, peaches, and
120 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNOES.
apricots with a sweet kernel, and the finest cherries ; as also the tomato
or love-apple, the French bean, and the artichoke, which were pre-
viously unknown to the inhabitants. Generally speaking, I found the
gardeners prefer not having any superior kind of produce to distinguish
their gardens, because it attracts the attention of the ayans (nobles),
who are then induced to visit them daily, and with their horses and
servants commit depredations, for which they never think of making
any remuneration to the proprietor. There are a great many magnificent
mulberry-trees, which serve as trellises to support a kind of gi'ape which
does not ripen till Christmas ; but very few silk-worms are brought up,
becaiise the heats come on too soon, and kill the worm before it begins
to spin. The people of the country wind it off with their hands, using
small pebbles to prevent it entangUng, and it comes out very coarse,
which they like, as they work it out in pieces for silk shirts.
The sloping sides of most of the hills in the province are planted with
olive-trees, which no doubt were universally cultivated by the ancients,
especially between Tarsus and Sulufka, along the shore, for a distance
of 120 miles in length and several miles in breadth. All these trees
were in full bearing in the time that the Genoese Avere masters of the
country, but having since been neglected, they are overgro-vATi with
brush-wood, and in many instances lost in a forest of pines. Many old
trees were also cut dowm, but new branches have sprung up from their
roots, which now bear a small wild olive used by the Tiu-kmans. In
some places there are as many as several thousand trees upon each acre
of land, and it would be extremely easy and profitable to restore them
to their pristine state ; but the want of hands is one of the many draw-
backs in the East to improvement, A laboiu-er in the harvest-time is
paid 25. a day, besides his food ; and people often come from Cyprus and
Syria to avail themselves of such high wages for a season, returning
to their homes to restore their health, which is invariably impaired by
hard labour in the great heats.
The Turkmans who gather the cotton take one -tenth for their
trouble ; the man who separates the cotton from tlie seed takes another
tenth ; the government takes also a tenth ; added to which is a very
heavy duty of 27 piastres on its value, which goes under the head of
customs !
The occupation which attracts more particularly the attention of
Turkmans is the pasture of their cattle, inasmuch as it is the easiest
kind of work. The produce of their dairy is excellent and abundant,
although their animals are remarkably small, except their sheep, which
are magnificent, and have extraordinary large tails, all fat, and which,
CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. 121
when melted down, is used instead of butter in cooking. The wool
produced yearly in this province amounts to from 600 to 1000 can tars,
of 180 okes each cantar, of which one-third is white and two-thirds
black or grey. The texture is fine, but it is generally very dirty, and
if washed would lose forty per cent in weight.
Europeans find no difficulty in buying land, as they can legally
piu'chase it in the name of females, either really appearing or repre-
sented by proxy, all women born in the country being regarded as
Rayas in the eye of the law ; or rather I should say, that the property
of the harim is considered so sacred, that any European stating that
such property belonged to his wife, no questions would be asked
of what nation she were, or if she even existed at all. Title-deeds
thus obtained in the name of any female of the country are then made
over to the purchaser, in token of a bond for a supposed debt, and
this effectually secures to the European purchaser every right to the
property.
The land may be cultivated by taking into service farmers of the
country, whom it is usual to interest by granting a quarter, or a third
share, or a half, according as the case or agreement may be. On my
arrival in this country, I had purchased some land advantageously
situated near the sea ; and I caused it to be cultivated by the villagers
whom I estabUshed on the estate; and I induced them to turn their
attention principally to the produce of vegetables and fruits for the use
of the shipping. I also erected in the magazine a machine for pressing
wool and cotton, and I omitted nothing that could assist in facilitating
commercial operations ; but the extreme apathy of the people renders it
very difficult to change the course of things, or to introduce any innova-
tions in the habits they have had handed down to them from their fore-
fathers. In this province remarkably fine timber for building pur-
poses is produced, chiefly fir. The oak is also very common near Arsus.
Timber is cut of aU sizes, and exported from Alexandretta, Bayas, and
Arsus to Egypt. Ibrahim Pasha used to have more than 10,000 mag-
nificent trees cut every year, which he sent to Alexandria for the use of
the arsenal. To the north-west of Mursina a smaller kind is cut, which
serves for the building of Arab bombards in Tripoli, on the coast of
Syria. The people also trade in boards, which the Turkmans bring
from the mountains, and which are sawn by their women. These are
sent to Syria, and cost on the average one piastre and a half per board,
and are of all sizes and thickness. The smell of turpentine contained
in the pine-wood is supposed to be an antidote to bugs ; in Tarsus
they are seldom seen, except when imported from Cyprus, and even then
122 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
they speedily disappear, being destroyed by tlie obnoxious smell of the
turpentine.*
Mount Taurus presents a rich field for the researches of the mineralo-
gist. Three hundred specimens of stones and minerals were collected by
the mineralogists appointed to work the lead-mines by Ibrahim Pasha,
some of which were very beautiful, and some very interesting. I have
by me some specimens of metals which I procured at Kulak Maaden.
Here I cannot do better than quote from Mr. Ainsworth's work before
mentioned."}"
'■'■Plain of Tarsus. — From within three miles of Adana to beyond
Tarsus, in a westerly direction, the plain is composed of humus and
alluvia, which have an average depth of from twenty to thirty feet, and
repose upon rubbly limestone. These plains are mostly cultivated, and
villages are numerous.
^'^ Falls of the Cydnus. — The country to the north of Tarsus rises
gradually up towards the Alpine region of Cilician Taurus, remarkable
at this point for its bold precipices and rugged grandeur of scenery.
The falls of the Cydnus and the grotto of the Seven Sleepers are in an
out-lying range of supra-cretaceous limestone and limestone conglomerate.
" The river issues through deep ravines, with perpendicular walls of
limestone, and on entering the plain falls over a ledge of rocks of lime-
stone breccia, about forty feet in Avidth and eighteen in height.
* The forests of the Cilician mountains consist chiefly of pines (Pinus maritinuts and
IIalej)ensis) and Balanea or Valonia oaks (Quercus hallota, vegilops, and infectoria).
The mountain-peaks are clad with the gloomy foliage of the cedar-Juniper (Juniperus
excelsior). In the yailaks, or mountain-pastui-eSj we find thickets of dwarf hollj^-oak
(Quercus cocci/era), berberry, and yellow jasmine. The low hiUs are covered -nith
myrtle, arbutus. Daphne, Phlomis, Stj-rax, Cistus, and Lentisk. The Eleagnus, the
oleander, the chaste-tree, and colutea, are the most conspicuous shnibs on the borders
of the plains. Christ -thorn (Paliurus) aboimds in steiile places, especially in the
rock of Anazarba. The waste ground is studded with bushes of juniper {Juniperus
Pkcenicea), spiny bumet (Pvterium spuwsum), spiny cichory (Cichorium spiiiosiun), and
Lithospermum hispidulum. On the sands of the sea-shore, the Tamarisk attains almost
the port and bearing of a tree, and great bushes of trcc-spurge (Euphorbia dendroides)
are mingled with more huml)le, but more gaily-flowering, j)h;enogamous plants.
In the highlands of Cilicia there are plantations of walnut-trees, apples, apricots,
cherry-trees, Lombardy-i)oplars, and pollard-willows. The Oriental planes are not so
common or so large in Cilicia as in other parts of Asia Minor ; but the number of carob-
trees in the jjliiin of Adana Ls remarkable. The dark cj-press not only adorns the
cemeteries of the Mussulman, but also grows wUd in the ravines. The almond and
manna-ash also grow wild among the rocks, and the bay and Judas-tree in the ravines.
Mr. Barker has alluded to the fine groves of oranges, lemons, and pomegranates.
The palm-tree also adorns the gardens of Adana ; and a few specimens of this tree,
probably the refuse of gardens, are also met with on the shore near the Cilician and
Syrian gates. W. F. A.
t Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea, p. 327.
GEOLOGY OF TAKSUS. 123
"First loicest range of lulls. — Proceeding to the north-east, the out-
l}ing and lowest range of hills is composed of marles and gypsum in the
lower beds ; and superimposed upon these are beds of brecciated rocks.
The gjpsum is snow-white, granular, or lamellar. This range is divided
from the second by level, low, and often marshy plains.
" Second range of hills. — The upper beds are composed of coralline
limestone — grey, friable, fracture uneven — almost entirely composed
of stony polypiferous masses with stelliform lamellae, or waved laminar
furrows.
" The lower beds consist of green marles and gieenish-white calcareous
marles ; the first are argillo-calcareous, earthy, friable, greenish, brownish-
green, and yellow; the second are compact, even, non-fossiliferous.
" This second range consists of low hills, rounded or of a conical form,
frequently cultivated, vnth little wood, but often villages on the summits.
" Third range of hills. — The upper beds consist of osti'acite sandstones,
compact, earthy, friable, frequently divided on the surface into polygonal
and rhombic masses, like a tessellated jaavement. Ostraceae (ostreas and
avicul^) are very abundant. An ostrea, probably not different from
ostrea gigantea, attains sometimes from a foot to eighteen inches in length.
" The lower beds are composed of ferruginous sands, yellow and
red, and sometimes of pink-coloured sandstones.
" Beneath these are argillaceous limestones, alternating with marles
(valley of Yani Kushlak) and with slaty beds (hill of village of Yuruks).
" Fourth range of hills. — The upper beds consist of blue anthracitous
limestones, compact, fine granular, glistening fracture, blue and dark-
blue coloiu". The lower beds are white limestones, compact, fine granu-
lar, or more cretaceous, with chalk fossils. Both beds appear to belong
to the chalk formation.
" Mica schist with limestone (CipoHn of Alex. Brongniart). — On the
summit of this range, not far from an ancient Eoman arch, and by
an antique causeway, a formation is met with of mica and argillo-cal-
careous schist, sometimes forming a solid schistous rock.
" The limestones after this begin to form a truly Alpine country, some-
times towering up in lofty and perpendicular precipices upwards of 1000
feet in height ; at others forming lower and rounded hills, covered, when
not lofty, with shrubbery and forest-trees, but when lofty, with oak and
pine alone. Sometimes the cliffs are tomb-excavated, as at Mizar-lik ;
at other times, isolated knolls of limestone bear castellated ruins.
" Kulak Bughaz. — The formation downwards, from Kulak Bughaz
to the plain of Adana, presents pretty nearly a similar succession of
deposits as above Tarsus.
124 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
" Tertiary deposits. — At Klian Katlah Uglu, a travertine formation
covers a marley and limestone deposit.
" At the village of Durak, granular gypsum occurs in ferruginous
sand and common clay. The sand and clay alternate beyond the sand-
stones, slaty, ferruginous, coarse-grained, in thin strata, and very deter-
minate rhombic cleavage.
" Polypiferous or coralline limestone succeeds to the rhombic or
ostracite sandstone, the Utture polypi occurring in groups, or at other
times forming the whole mass of rock. The formation also contains
botryoidal haematites.
" The coralline limestone, or coral rag, alternates in its lower part
with dark-coloured clays, which are replete with biv;dve shells belong-
ing to the genera tillina and lucina.
" At Khan Kusan Uglu, ferruginous sandstones and sandstone con-
glomerate underlie the clays and polypiferous limestones. Below Khan
Sarashi, cirithia and conide limestone succeeds to the central chalk for-
mation, and between the two formations is a deposit of limestone, breccia,
and argillaceous shale.
" In the valley of Khan Kiisan Uglu, the conide limestone descends
in precipitous cliffs to the south-east, which cliff's are deeply fissured,
and wrought into fantastic forms.
" To the north, the limestone is capped by ferruginous sandstones,
above Avhich again are coralline limestones; while to the south, beneath
the coral rag and sandstones, are sandstone conglomerates. The friable
nature of the last three formations has given rise to many curious
effects of denudation ; tall columns and masses, in various fantastic forms,
rising up in picturesque confusion.
" The chalk formation of the central chain is almost every where
the same, a hax-d and compact limestone containing few organic remains,
and rising up in bold precipitous rocks, Avith castles on their summits ;
or sweeping circularly, as if to block up the road with their gigantic
gates, called those of Taurus or Cilicia."*
Mines. — Above Adana, in that part of the Taurus which is occupied
by the tribe named Karasauti-Uglu, there are iron mines, which are
* The formations here described evidently correspond to our Eocene formations :
chalk or new Alpine limestones ; plastic clay, sandstones, with lignite ; London clay
and calcaire gi-ossior ; siliceous limestones, gji^sums (in largo beds at foot of Mount
Casius), and niarles. Those are the Ixjds in which large and thick oysters occur in
wondrous abimdance ; some weigh at least twenty pounds. Sandstones and sands
above the gypsum, fresh-water deposits, coralline rag, &c. These bods are full of
organic remains, and would furnish a rich harvest to a geologist who had time and
opportunity to explore the country, especially between Tarsus and Kulak liughaz,
leisurely and carefully. W. F. A.
REVENUE OP PASHALIK.
125
worked by the people of the cotmtry on their own account, and with
very little difficulty. The quality is more esteemed than Russian iron,
being softer and more malleable ; it is sold at two piastres the oke.
Near Kulak Bughaz there are lead mines, which are worked for
account of government. The samples I possess of this mineral in its
pristine state are extremely rich. It has lately been discovered by an
Italian mineralogist, M. Boriani, that together with this lead there is a
good deal of silver, and he extracted a small quantity in proof thereof.
The local government is not aware of this, and very possibly regular veins
might be easily discovered. Towards Sis there are also many mines
of great value; but the Turkmans there used to hide them, in order not
to be interfered with by the local authorities.*
The revenue of this pashalik exceeds 10,000,000 piastres, and is
collected in the following manner :
SaUyan 3,500,000
Kharaj (personal tax on Christians only) . . . . 5,000,000
Spinji (ditto ditto, 3 piastres per head) ..... 4,000
Miri of the FaUahs (AnsajTiis) 5,000
Customs (lately increased to li millions of piastres) . . 1,200,000
Monopoly of tobacco 68,000
„ „ snuff 30,000
,, ,, spirits of wine ....... 30,000
„ ,, the manufacture of candles .... 2,000
„ ,, the biuning of coffee 3,000
„ „ auctions 17,000
„ „ salt 15,000
„ „ dues exacted at Kulak Bughaz, 5 piastres per
head (tvorth much more than) . . . 70,000
„ ,, tax levied on the Turkmans that come down to
the plains in the winter .... 5,000
10,024,000
The exiDenses of the Government are for the Pasha alone . 600,000
„ „ for the Muhassil . 144,000
„ „ for the Governor of
Tarsus . . . 60,000
„ „ for the foui-teen mem-
bers of Coimcil . 140,000
„ „ for the chiefs of the
Turkmans . . 100,000
„ „ for the subalterns . 100,000
1,144.000
* At the time that the Euphi-ates Expedition was at Suwaidiyah, an Englishman
arrived, who had been invited to the country by Ibrahim Pasha to work the mines of
argentiferous galena, near Sis. The unfortunate man, however, soon fell a victim to
the climate. W, F. A.
12G CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNOIIS.
Besides, no doubt, a large sum wliich the pasha contrives to pass in his
account for the maintenance of troops that never existed.
The rate of twelve per cent duty to be paid to custom-houses
was calculated in Constantinople on merchandise of first-rate qua-
lity ; but although the produce of the provinces often only costs half
the price of that quality in the capital, still the same fixed duty is
exacted ; so that the merchant of the intei"ior, paying a duty calculated
by the same tariff, actually pays often as high as twenty-five per cent
instead of twelve per cent as intended. This has considerably retarded
the activity of commercial interests and relations, as no article can pro-
perly bear such a high duty. The better to illustrate this subject, I shall
add a table, wherein the value of each article, and the per-centage duty
to be paid is noted; and from which it will be seen how much the com-
merce of these countries lies imder a disadvantage by being obliged to
pay so much per cent duty more than what merchants in Constantinople
pay. This was a mistake of such as had the establishing of the rates of
the tariff, and who fixed each quota according to what the article was
worth in their market, and not by an average value of the whole, which
would have facilitated commercial operations.
It is impossible to impress the people of the East with a conviction
of the salutary effects of a quarantine establishment : they cannot divest
themselves of the idea that it is only a pretext of the government to
enable it to pry into private relations and interfere with the personal
liberty of the subject, at the same time that it is another excuse for
raising money. They are the more readily led to this conclusion by
the shameless conduct of the employes, who exact all manner of presents
to exempt the donors from vai'ious kinds of restraint, such as being con-
fined in the most JUthy holes, and to be eaten up by vermin of all sorts.
When a man desires to perform the spoglio (which is done by passing
through water and putting on uncontaminated clothes), he gives secretly
a suit of clothes to the chief " guardian.'''' The next morning this man
brings the bundle, and cries out, " Mr. A. or B., your friend sends you
this packet of clothes : come and perform the spor/lio." Generally speak-
ing, an oke or two of every article that enters the quarantine maga-
zine is abstracted, and the merchants in vain call for redress. I have
seen notes made out by the merchants wherein their sacks of soap,
coffee, &c., had been specified as found wanting ten per cent in the
weight by going through the hands of the quarantine ; and when bales
of goods are opened, generally a piece or two of stufis disappear.
One of the magazines built at Mursina serves for a quarantine es-
tablishment, although in the centre of the place. But the pilgrims com-
QUAEANTINE LAWS. 127
ing overland, are obliged to perform quarantine in tents at Adana,
exposed to all the inconveniences of the weather; but to that they are
accustomed.
If two persons present themselves at the gate of Adana, the one with
a teskere or passport from Aleppo, and the other from Alexandretta or
Bayas, as an inhabitant of the latter places, the former is put in quar-
antine for fifteen days, while the latter is admitted to free " pratique,"
although they have been journeying on together for the last three or
four days, and been in constant communication. What are the people
of the country to think of such a quarantine ?
128 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
CHAPTER XIII.
IL L.UIAS (lAMUM)— KURKASS (CORYCUs) ASKI SHAHIR SOLI, AFTERWAEDS
POMPEIOPOLIS GREAT MAUSOLEUM AT TARSUS STRABO's DESCRIPTION
OF THE COAST OF CILICIA HIS ACCOUNT OF TARSUS AND NEIGHBOURING
TOWNS.
Antiquities. — As this province was on the high road between the great
contending powers of ancient times, the Greek, Eoman, and Persian
empires, it has passed and repassed into many hands ; and this may
account for the very few perfect remains of art which are to be met
with, the country having suffered greatly by the inroads of troops with
almost every successive genera '-on.
There are several castles built on eminences by the Persians, Sara-
cens, Crusaders, and Genoese; but although the Turkmans continued
for some time to make use of them, they have gradually fallen into
ruin, as doubtless the jealousy of the Porte does not care to alloAv such
faciUties of defence to exist among people always disposed to rebel.
Il Lamas. — At II Lamas there is an aqueduct of some extent, which
conveyed water from a distance of eight or ten miles through hills and
across valleys to Kurkass Castle, which is on the coast between Selef-
keh and Mursina. This castle is built on a rock in the sea, and is of a
very ordinary style of architecture, as are all the ruins that are to be
seen on the coast. The aqueduct is now dry, and in some places im-
passable, as the damp of the moimtain above oozes, and forms, drop by
drop, as it were, icicles of ])ctrified water (travertine). The waters that
formerly ran through it are now lost in a little stream wliich runs into
the sea at a short distance from their source, where Admiral Sir Francis
Beaufort's boat took in water. Near the entrance of the aqueduct are
still to be seen the remains of a Saracenic tower, which no doubt was
built to defend it from invasions of pirates.
Above the aqueduct at II Lamas, and at a distance of three miles
inland, a rocky mountain rises perpendicularly to the height of about
3000 feet. In the centre of this precipice, half-way up, may be observed,
out of the reach of man, two cannons in bronze, that sparkle in the
KALAHT KURKASS. 129
morning sun, deriding for centuries past the vain efforts of the Turks to
bring them down ; and the marks of many bullets may be seen, fired at
them by Arnaut troops as they have passed the spot. They are in a
port-hole, as it were, the one almost erect, but in an oblique position, and
the other protruding horizontally. They appear to be about sixteen
feet long; the bore, perhaps, a foot in diameter. They were probably
placed there to defend the aqueduct; and it is very likely that there is
behind them an excavation in the mountain th served for military
stores. A part of the mountain having fallen do'w^n, the ancient roa,d
to them is thus cut off, and they have remained isolated and inacces-
sible to any one using ordinary means.
A road might be cut to them with very little expense, or a person
might be let down from above ; but the latter would be a dangerous
experiment, as the rock projects above, and ifr would be requisite to
swing the rope backwards and forwards till the person hanging at the
end could catch at the port hole and enter. This place unfortunately
was not visited by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort, otherwise the jolly tars
of old England would certainly have I -ought them down.
Strabo says of Coracesium (prest c Kalaht Kurkass), that it is
situated on a rock close to a small bay, which forms a small harbour
for boats of the country, having an entrance on each side of the castle ;
and he adds, that Diodorus, surnamed Tryphon, made use of it as a
place of defence, and a depository for arms, when he detached Syi'ia
from the power of the Selevicians. He was so formidable as to pretend
to the throne of Syria, and maintained himself with various success,
drawing his resources from Apamea and its surrounding towns, such as
Larissa Cassiana (his native place), Megorus and ApoUonia, until Antio-
chus, son. of Demetrius, compelled him to take refuge in a fort, where
he killed himself* It was this same Tryphon who first gave the Cili-
cians the idea of organising a company of pirates, in order to take ad-
vantage of the weakness of the different princes who reigned in succession
at this epoch over Syria and Cilicia ; being the first to rebel, and with
so much success, that others followed his example. As to the ruling
princes, says Strabo, " we may remark, that discord having broken up
the union in which brothers ought to have lived, placed the country at
the mercy of any one who chose to attack it." But what principally
encouraged crime and plunder, were the great profits that accrued in the
sale of persons reduced to slavery. Independently of the facility of
making slaves, the robbers had the advantage ofbeing near a place of
* Vide Appian de rebus SjTiae, cap. 67, C8, and Justin, lib xsxvi. cap. 1.
K
130 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNORS.
commerce of some importance, viz. tlie island of Delos, Avhicli was rich
enough to receive and send off to various places several thousand slaves
per day; and this had suggested the proverb, "Merchants anchor and
discharge, for all is ab'eady sold," referring to the facility of meeting
with a good market in this island. The Eomans also contributed to
these lawless deeds by the encouragement they gave in the purchase of
slaves, who had become a matter of necessity to them; the destruc-
tion of Carthage and Corinth having rendered them so rich, that they
accustomed themselves to be served by a great number of slaves ; and
the pirates profiting by this opportunity of administering to their luxury,
wandered boldly forth to pillage and seize all whom they met.
The kings of Cyprus and Egypt also contributed to the encoiu'age-
ment of these pii-ates, by reason of the hatred they had of the Syrian
princes; and the inhabitants of Ehodes, a maritime power that could
have suppressed these lawless brigands, being jealous of the Syrians, did
not choose to come to their assistance. Add to this, that the Romans at
this time did not care much for the coimtries on the other side of the
Taurus. It is true that Scipio ^mihus, and after him other oificers
were sent to visit these countries ; and they soon discovered that the
cause of these robberies j)roceeded from the cowardice of the successors
of Seleucus Nicator ; but they did not choose to interfere with them, or
deprive them of a government which they had themselves guaranteed to
the family of this prince. The weakness of these kings, says Strabo,
was the cause that Syria fell under the domination of the Parthians, who
became masters of the country beyond the Euphrates, and after them
the Armenians pushed their conquest beyond the Taurus as far as Phoe-
nicia, exterminated the kings and their race, and left the sea open to
the depredations of the Cilicians.
The Romans, who had not at jlrst taken energetic measures to stop
the progress of the Cilicians in their lawless conduct, Avere obliged to
have recourse to armies of considerable force, in order to destroy the
power of the pirates. But Strabo excuses the Eomans by saying, that
they had at home so many things of greater interest to look to, that it is
not to be wondered at if they neglected what was passing at a distance
from the metropolis.
PoMPEiOPOLis* (Sou). — On the coast, five miles to the westward of
Mursina, are the ruins of Pompeiopolis. They are in a dehghtful situa-
* See Dr. Holt Yates's description and plan of the ancient ruins, from Captain
FiTssick's report, which will illastrate my remarks ; Modern History and Condition of
Eijy2>t, Ax. (.Smith aud Ehlcr). Wo have already quoted Aduiind Sir Francis Beau-
fort's admirable account of these ruins fi-om hia Karamania, pp. 249, 259 et seq.
RUINS OF rOMTEIOPOLIS.
131
tion, but at present deserted. Here aad there a little plot of ground is
cultivated; the rest is overgrown with pines and brushwood. The only
public buildings that can be distinguished out of such a heap of ruins
are, 1st, the ^^lace of the amphitheatre, which was built of white
marble, and had at the top all round a cornice with wreaths in alto
rehevo, between each of which was sculptured a tragic mask. In this
place was found the centre part of a Venus of full size, in white marble.
2dly, Some hundred columns, forty- two of which are still standing:
they are composed of several pieces, and are about thirty feet high.
Their capital above is ornamented with sculptured heads of Venus,
Hercules, &c. There are six fluted columns, which stand out beyond
the others. The whole are of very inferior work and taste. It is sup-
posed that these columns served for an aqueduct, because it is difficult
to explain exactly for what other object they were erected. Sir Francis
Beaufort states that possibly the whole colonnade was once a covered
street. The people of the country call Pompeiopolis Asld Shahiv, "the
old town:" Mazatli is a village higher up inland. There is a tradition
that Soli was built by " Hahniin" a Jew, who erected for his daughter
" HincV a castle two miles above the town, which is still standing
on the banks of the river, but in ruins, and appears to be of Saracenic
origin. 3dly, and that which attracts the attention of the antiquary
above all other remains, are some tombs which have certainly a very
ancient origin. One that is out of the town to the eastward, near
the river, in a field, has been opened. It contained two large sarcophagi,
more than twelve feet long; one is overturned, and the other still in its
place. They are of marble, without any ornament, not having been
SARCOFHAGUS AT SELEUCIA riERLV, OPENED BY ME, W. B, BARKER.
intended to be seen, but to be completely buried in the masonry. They
have been originally covered all over by a composition formed of
pebbles, sand, quick-lime, and pieces of brick, which has become petri-
fied. Some inquisitive persons have succeeded in detaching this com-
132 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
position from the sarcophagi Avhen opening the tomb, and they are now
quite empty.*
Another tomb, Avhich has not been opened, lies in the town to the
west of the amphitheatre towards the sea, and is overgrown with brush-
wood. It appears to be eight times the size of the last described. The
French consul some years back tried to force it open; but although he
cut the monument nearly half through at the centre, as he did not hap-
pen to light upon either of the sarcophagi, they have remained enveloped
in their pristine mass of mortar.
Judging from what we see here, I conclude that the great monument
at Tarsus, which so highly deserves the antiquary's attention, and which
has frustrated every historical inquiry as to its origin, contains similar
sarcophagi. It is of the s<xme epoch and liomposition as the last men-
tioned in Pompeiopolis, but at least one hundred times larger. It has
two parallelograms that may be about 80 feet square each ; they are at
a distance from one another of about 200 paces, surrounded by a wall
of the same composition, which is 30 feet high and 22 broad. To the
north are two similar walls j'^^^'^^l to the monuments ; and a third
that was begun and remained unfinished, because (I suppose) it was not
required to contain any more sarcophagi.
1. Here a large hole has been made, but nothing found.
2. Vain attempts at an opening.
8. Here a tunnel was made sideways in the monument at the base
till it reached the centre, and then the French consul dug down perpen-
dicularly till he came to water, without finding any thing in this conglo-
merated mass of lime and pebbles, except the first and second fingers of
a man in marble, of gigantic size, joined together, but not as if they
had belonged to the hand of a statue, but a finished work in itself.
4. Here are holes in the wall made to support beams, which must
• Here I maj' mention having opened two similar sarcophagi of vcrj- massive stone
at the ancient Scleucia I'ieria near Suwaldiyah, or Suedia, a few years back. There
was this difference, that these sarcophagi were of a yellow stone, and had ii bas-relief
ornament in the shai)e of a garland of ordinary work on their side and on the lids, for
they were at first intended to be exposed to view, and not buiicd in any mortar what-
ever. The cover or lid was so large, that although it had been broken in several pieces,
it required some trouble to move the fragments. Both these sarcophagi were found
empty for about a foot, beyond which there was a layer of clay three inches deep ;
then below this were several large stones regularly built in, like the building of a wall ;
and where the right ear should be, we found a small jar of very ordinary tcrra-cotta
work in each. The only difference between these two sarcoj)hagi was, that in one the
ashes of the dead were collected in the little jar ; but in the other the jar was empty,
and the ashes were strewn l>etwoen each layer of the stone masonry built in the
sarcophagus. On one were the remains of a Greek inscription quite illegible. See the
sarcophagus in the preceding page, as well as the one in page 35.
ANCIENT TOMB.
133
have been placed against it to form shelter for some Turkish cavalry in
modern times. The whole of what is now standing is, as it were, only
the interior of a wall, the facing, composed of large fine marble stones
WALL UNFINLSIIED.
"
I
WALL 30 FT HIGH
22
BROAD
L
WALL 30 FT HIGH
22
BROAD j
1
L _...
rrv
\r ■
;
A
I
j 1
GKOUND-PLAN OF THE GREAT MAUSOLEUM AT TARSUS.
has all been taken away and used elsewhere. I imagine that these walls
also contain sarcophagi of some branch of the family of an ancient king,
and that they were laid in the walls and filled up and covered with the
mortar as the persons died ; for the last wall to the north has remained
134 CILICIA AND ITS GOYERNORS.
unfimsliecl for want of teuants. In the centre tliere was space reserved,
as it is said, for Sardanapahis himself, who, however, could not have
required this mausoleum, having destroyed himself by fire in his palace
at Ninus. Some assert that he was buried in a similar monument at
Auchiale on the coast, and that, in conformity to his desire, an inscrip-
tion was erected over it commemorating his having built Tarsus and
Anchiale in one day, as a trophy of his greatness and power. Wliere
Anchiale stood, there are now the remains of such a monument ; but it
is insignificant compared Avith this one. IMany vain attempts have been
made to ojjen this monument ; and it remains a question worthy the
attention of antiquaries, inasmtich as it has hitherto frustrated the in-
vestigation of the learned ; and all hypotheses formed upon its pristine
object and the date of its construction are as vague as any proposed
concerning the pyramids.*
Strabo, remarking upon this portion of the coast, says, that Cape
Anamour (Anemurium) is the nearest point of the land to Cyprus,
being 350 stadia ; and he calls the distance from the frontiers of
Pamphilia to this cape 820 stadia along the coast of Cilicia. " The
rest of the coast, of aboirt 500 stadia, terminates at Soli." Strabo
further observes, that some persons considered Cilicia to begin at
Celenderis (Kihndriya), and not at Coracesium (Kurkass); but this is
no doubt in reference to those who divide Cilicia into two, Campestris
and Trachea; Celenderis belonging to the latter, and Kurkass to the
former.
Strabo mentions two philosophers among the illustrious men bom
in Seleucia, Athena^us and Xenarchus. The former, he says, was friend
of INIurcia, who had revolted against Augustus, and fell into disgrace,
having been taken prisoner Avith his friend; but having proved his
innocence, was set at liberty by order of this prince. On his return
to Eome, being cross-questioned by some persons who met him, he
replied, desirous of avoiding any political discussions, " I liave just
* The people of the country call it Dunce Dash — Pierre renversee — and foolishly
imagine that it is a temple tnmcd upside down, with its foimdations upwards ! W.B.B.
Wo have seen in a note upon Selin\is, afterwards Trajanopolis, that Admiral Sir
Francis Beaufort identified a low massy edifice of seventy feet by fifty, composed of
large well-cut blocks of stone, and containing a single vaidt, with the tomb or mauso-
leum of Trajan. Mr. Barker describes similar remains at Soli or PompciopoHs. These
appear to be the massive mausolea in which the sarcoph.agi of the great were imbedded
before and at the early part of the Christian era. May not the great mausoleum at
Tarsus be the tomb of Julian, with which others have been afterwards connected?
A mausoleum of similar characters, but of later date, has been joined to that of Trajan,
on one side of which is a sepulchral inscription to Chrcstion, the son of Rhacstus. The
existence of more than one mausoleum within the precincts of Julian's tomb would not
thusniilitate against the validity of the identification. W. F. A,
MOUNTAINS AND FORTIFICATIONS. 135
left the residence of the dead, and been freed from the gates of the
lower regions." He was killed by the fall, during the night, of a house
which he inhabited. Xenarchus passed his life chiefly in Alexandria
and Athens, and the latter part in Eome. He enjoyed the friendship
of Areus,* and afterwards the good will of Augustus ; and was much
respected to the last, dying in an advanced age, after having lost the
use of his sight. Strabo does not omit to say that he had been one of
his disciples, " and folloxoed his lessons."
Strabo says that at the extremity of the Taurus ridge, high up,
was ]\Iount Olympus, called, no doubt, after the Olympus of classical
celebrity, whereon was a castle of the same name, and from whence
you might see Lycia, Pamphilia, and Pisidia, and which served as the
stronghold of the pirate Zenicetus. This must be a way of speaking
allegorically to express the great height of the Taurus near the sea at
this place ; for Strabo could not, had he ever been there, make this
assertion, as the mountains to the north of Sulufska, and which run
along the coast, intervene between the eye and Lycia. The ridge is
here sufficiently high to see therefrom the island of Cyprus, or some
sixty miles off; but it cannot overtop the mountains that intervene
between it and Lycia.
This country was much fortified, as may be seen by the many
remains of old castles all along the coast, many of which have been
repaired by the Genoese, and adapted to resist the attacks of modern
warfare. Strabo says, that the Romans considered it too unsettled and
too much exposed to be attacked both by sea and land, to undertake
to govern it themselves by means of officers or proconsuls, and that
they preferred it should be governed by kings, who might be always
present to suppress any insurrection or incursion of pirates ; and they
" gave Cilicia Trachea to Archelaus, who already possessed Cappadocia."
The pirate Zenicetus, Strabo tells us, burnt himself and his whole
family in his castle, when Publius Servilius, surnamed Isauricus, became
master of the mountain. He was at the time also " master of the Cape
Corycus, and of the town of Phaselis and other places in Pamphilia,
which were all taken by the general previous to Pompey's occupation
of the country" (year of Rome 674, c. 679). j"
Next to Lamus (the present Illamus) comes Soli, whence begins
Cilicia Proper (Campestris). It was founded by the Acheans and
the people of Rhodes, from the town of Lindus; and when Pompey
subdued the pirates, as the number of inhabitants was much reduced,
he established therein such of those whom he had conquered as he
* See Plutarch in Anton. § 81. t Vide Eutrop. lib. vi. cap. 3,
136 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
deemed worthy of pardon, and changed the name of the town, calling
it Pompeiopolis, after himself.
The illustrious men of Soli enumerated by Strabo are, Chrysippiis,
a Stoic philosopher, son of an inhabitant of Tarsus who had settled in
Soli; Philemon, a comic poet, and Aratus, author of a poem entitled
The Phenomena.
There were two capes that bore the name of Zephyiimn, one near
the Calycadnus river of Sulufska, and the other in sight of Anchiale.
Near this latter is the present village of Mursina ; at its extremity are
the ruins of an ancient building, which the people of the country have
dubbed with the title of Church of St, George ; and the Christians
repair thither once a-y«ar and pay their devotions under a large tree,
which they have consecrated in their minds. The whole of the hill at
this cape was covered with the foundations of ancient buildings, most
of which I caused to be excavated, to build therewith a large maga-
zine and house, which commands the finest prospect on the coast, and
are both a kind of landmark to vessels approaching the roadstead of
Mursina. The people of the country not being allowed the use of bells,
which only Europeans may have or ring, there being a IMahomedan
prejudice against them, arising from a notion that the idol worship of
Baal is attached to them, I recollect one day being specially requested
to allow my dinner-bell (which was a large ship's bell) to be sounded
in order to inspire extra devotional feelings in those Avho had assembled
near my house to pay their devotions to St. George on the day set apart
for that saint according to the Armenian calculation.
At Anchiale (the present Karadnjar), says Strabo, citing Aristo-
bulus, was the tomb of Sardanapalus, and a statue of stone representing
him snapping his fingers, with this inscription below it: " Sardanapalus,
the son of Anacyndaraxes, caused the town of Anchiale to be built in
one day, and also that of Tarsus. Passer-by, cat, drink, and divert
thyself; for every thing else is not worth tJiat" (meaning a snap of the
fingers). The poet Chajribus mentions also this inscription, which is no
longer in existence. But there is an old ruin, the mortar of which is
petiifwid, and which may stand for the supposed tomb above mentioned.
To the north of Anchiale was a fort, called by Strabo Cymda, where
he says that " the kings of Macedonia deposited their treasure,* and
which Eumenes carried off when he rebelled against Antigonus."
Forming a triangle with this fort and Soli, at the foot of the Taurus
* Strabo, it appears, IcMiked iii')on the fjenorals of Alexander of Macedon as Mace-
donians, and therefore gives to Antigouus thus UtlOj although he was master chiefly of
Asia Minor as far as Syria,
RIVER CYDXUS AND LAKE RHEGMA. 137
was Olhus. This town had a temple to Jupiter, founded by Ajax, son
of Teuca; and the priests of this temple, says Strabo, were formerly
masters of Cilicia Trachea, which is very expressive of the influence
of the priests in those times, considering the difficulties of the road, and
the distance from their temple into another province so much separated
by nature as Cilicia Trachea and Campestris. Later, continues Strabo,
the country was taken possession of by marauders, and converted into
a stronghold for brigands. When they were destroyed, " which took
place in oiu' time," this province took the title of Principality of Teucer,
and even " Priesthood of Teucer ;" and the greater part of the priests
of the temple bore the name of Teucer or Ajax. " Alba, daughter of
Zeuophanus, having married one of the Teucer family, took possession
of this province, which had been under the regency of her father. She
was confirmed in her ride by Antony and Cleopatra ; but aiterwards,
at a later period, she was dethroned, and the government restored to
the family."
"Next to Anchiale," says Strabo, "is the mouth of the Cydnus, at
the place called Rhegma, which is a lake, and where you may still see
the remains of stocks for building of ships. Into this lake the Cydnus
falls." The river at present circumvents the lake, which is a marsh
of about thirty miles in circumference. The modern Tarsus is watered
by a canal from the Cydnus, and this, after passing through the town,
used to fliU into the marshes; but the Mufti, at my suggestion, caused
a road to be cut for it to return into the river, in hopes that the waters
of the marsh would diminish, and, in case there was no spring in the
lake, that it might eventually be dried up, which would make the resi-
dence much more salubrious. At present, the exhalations from the
marsh, which are blown over the town by the sea-breeze, render the
place most unhealthy; and the fevers that are engendered thereby are
of the most pernicious kind, often carrying off the persons attacked by
them in three days.
As I have observed in another part of this work, the lake had been
at one time drained, and the remains of a canal to carry off' the waters
and turn them into the C}diuis may be seen close along the shore at
the mouth of the river. I also believe that this lake was once a port,
and communicated with the sea through a passage which is now but
slightly blocked up by the sand. Strabo confirms this idea by adding:
" This river has its source in that part of the Taurus which is above
Tarsus, and it traverses this town (the ancient Tarsus, on part of which
only the present town stands) belbre reaching the lake ; so that this
lattei" serves as a port to the town"
138 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
Strabo tells lis that " Tarsus was founded by Trijotolemtis (a priest
of Argos) in his search after lo;" and there were at Tarsus and An-
tioch monuments to prove that lo had been in their neighbourlaood, and
that they were colonies of Argos.*
Strabo further says, that as the sources of the Cydnus are not far
from the town Avhich it traverses, directly after leaving a deep valley,
its waters are cold, and the current strong. " These," he adds, " are
considered good for persons or animals suffering from sprains or in-
flamed limbs ;" as if the good effects of the cold water, which we fancy
to be a discovery of modern times, were known and had recoiu'se to in
his time.
Strabo proceeds to say, that the inhabitants of Tarsus had distin-
guished themselves so much by their application to philosophy and
literature, that this city in that point surpassed Athens, Alexandria,
or even any other town where schools and colleges Avere to be met
with directed by philosophers and learned men. " The only difference
is, that at Tarsus those who apply themselves to literature are all
Tarsiots, and that it is visited by few strangers ; even those who are
born there do not remain in this town, but leave it to go and perfect
themselves elsewhere ; and they remain away from home ■willingly,
except a small number, who return to their country. This is quite
the contrary in the other to\vns that I have referred to above (except
Alexandria): many strangers go there to study, and fix themselves in
them, whilst few of their inhabitants leave their town out of love of
science, or seek to instruct themselves at home — two things that take
place in Alexandria, whose inhabitants receive many strangers in their
schools, and send a great many of their young men to the schools of
other towns." — " Tarsus possesses schools for every kind of instniction.
It is furthermore populous and poAverful, and must be regarded as a
capital."
Of the illustrious men whom this city has produced, Strabo men-
tions Antipater, Archimedes, and Nestor, Stoic philosophers, and the
two Athenodori. Antipater was disciple and successor of Diogenes, the
Babylonian (not the cynic of Sinopi, but the disciple of Chrysippus),
about 80 B.C. according to Lempriere; but Smith places him 144 B.C.
Feeling his deficiency in the powers of disputing verbally with his
opponent and contemporary, Carncades, he confined himself to writing,
whence he was called KnJamohoas. Cicero praises his acuteness, and
Plutarch speaks of him with Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus, as one
of the principal Stoic philosophers.
* Vide Smith's Die. of Greek and Rom. Biog. and Mv-th.
STOIC PHILOSOPHEES. 139
I find no partlcvrlar mention of Arcliimedes and Nestor in Smith's
Biography ; but of the Athenodori we find that the first was called
Cananites, from a town in Cilicia, although he Avas a native of Tarsus ;
and Cicero calls him Athenodorus Cahiis. He was in great favour
with Augustus, whose government became milder in consequence of
his attending to his advice, and the young Claudius was instructed by
him. He retired to Tarsus, where he died at the age of 82, much
beloved and respected in his own native city, of which he has written
an account, as well as other works.*
The other Athenodorus, surnamed Cordylia, was also a native of
Tarsus, and a Stoic philosopher. He was keeper of the library at
Pergamus ; and in his anxiety to preserve the docti'ines of his sect in
their original piu'ity, used to cut out from the works of the Stoic writers
such parts as appeared to him erroneous or inconsistent. He removed
from Pei'gamus to Rome, and lived with M. Cato, at whose house he
died.f Strabo enters into a long account of the first-mentioned Atheno-
dorus, how, on his return to Tarsus, finding Boethus and his faction
intractable, he availed himself of the power confided to him by Augustus,
and banished them. This same Boethus, Strabo tells us, was as bad
a citizen as a poet, and maintained himself in power over his fellow
townsmen by flattering Antony, Avhom he compared to Achilles, Aga-
memnon, and Ulysses, in his verses, which he had the impudence to
insinuate were like those of Homer.
" These philosophers," says Strabo, " whom I have mentioned, were
Stoics ; but the sect of the Academicians has furnished us in our days
with one other distinguished man, Nestor, who was preceptor to Mar-
cellus, son of Octavia, sister of Augustus. This philosopher Avas at the
head of affairs in Cilicia, after Athenodorus, whom he succeeded, and
he enjoyed to the end of his days the esteem of the governors (sent
from Eome) and that of his fellow-coimtrymen."
As to the other philosophers " icJwm I hioio and specify by their
names,'''' says Strabo, quoting this line of Homer, " there are two, Plu-
tiades and Diogenes, both among those who pass from city to city, to
shine in society by making their talents api:)reciated. Diogenes pos-
sessed, moreover, the power of improvising, like a man inspired, on all
kinds of subjects — poems, for the greater part, of a tragic turn. "J
This Diogenes mentioned here is not, I should suppose, the Diogenes
Laertius, the historian of philosophers, although it is remarkable that
* Vide Hoffman Dissert, de Atben. Tarsensi, Lips. 1732 ; Sevin, in the Memoires de
I'Acad. des Inscr. xix. 14.
f Vide Smith's Myth. J Vide Laertius, lib. iv. sigm. 58.
140 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERNORS.
he is also one of the celebrated men of whom Cilicia can boast, aa he
received his surname from being a native of the town of Laerte in
Cihcia.
Of Plutiades I found no mention elsewhere, except that Smith seems
1,0 think him to be the same as Plution, who was a celebrated teacher of
rhetoric; and Westerman places him in the period between Augustus
and Hadrian.
" The grammarians that came from Tarsus," says Strabo, " are
Artemidorus and Diodorus. This town also produced Dionysides, an
excellent tragic poet, and one of the seven who composed what is called
the Pleiad." This Artemidorus is svipposed to be the same as the gram-
marian of that name surnamed Aristophanius, from his being a disciple
of the celebrated grammarian Aristophanes of Byzantium, at Alex-
andria, who had also another disciple named Diodorus^ and who may
be, perhaps, the person above referred to by Strabo.
There was in the time of the Emperor Valens a person of this name,
who was appointed Bishop of Tarsus (a.d. 378) by IVIelitus, the Bishop
of Antioch. Diodorus attended the Council of Constantinople (a.d. 381),
at which the general superintendence of the Eastern churches was eu-
ti-usted to him and Pelagius of L. odiceia.
Of Dionysides nothing i'urther is known than what Strabo says
above, that he was one of the best of the composeis of the Tnujk Pleiad
of the Alexandrian grammarians, and I'egarding whom historians are
not so well agreed as regarding their number. Hephajstion the scholiast
makes them contemporary with Ptolemy Philadelphus, and calls them
Homer (not the author of the Iliad), Sositheus, Lycophron, Alexander
(cited by Sti'abo in more places than one), OEantides, Sosiphanes, and
Philiscus. Others place Aratus, Apollonius, Nicander, and Theocritus at
the head of the list, although none of these poets wrote any tragedies.
" It is particularly in Rome," continues Strabo, " that we may
procure information regarding the great number of men of letters pro-
duced by Tarsus ; ibr it is full of learned men from that city, as well
as from Alexandria. But" he concludes, " this is enough regarding
Tarsus."
From this Strabo passes on to the Pyramiis, which, he says, comes
from Cataouia, and he refers to his account of this river, where he de-
scribes the country whence it takes its rise, alluding at the same time
to the deposits of mud which this stream makes, and which, he says,
gave rise to an oracle, which declared " that the time would come when
posterity would see the Pyrannis reach the island of Cyi)rus, by means
of its deposits on the continent ;" and, indeed, the sea is rather shallow
FABLES MENTIONED BY STRABO. 141
at the month of the Pyrumiis: when the drag-nets are thrown, the men
have to wade in the water fur a quarter of a mile, as ropes of a general
length are too short to reach the shore ; and what is remarkable is,
that such is the abundance of turtle on this coast, that they fill the
sack of the net, and have to be extracted therefrom three times before
the net can reach the shore, by which time, however, it is generally
found abundantly provided with fish.
The mention of the mouth of the Pyramus naturally leads Strabo
to notice Mallos, now a little ruin, and which, he tells us, was fovmded
by Amphilochus and Mopsus. The latter, however, remaining master of
the place on Amphilocus's voyage to Argos, refused to admit him to
share in his authority on his return; on which a mortal combat ensued,
whereni both perished; and they were buried at a distance from each
other, so that the tomb of the one could not be discerned from that
of the other, " in order that their enmity should cease after death."
Strabo also mentions two fables regarding the death of Calchas, the
greatest of the Grtcian soothsajers at Troy. "Hesiod," says he, "ar-
ranges this fable in the following manner. Calchas proposed to Mopsus
this enigma: 'I am astonished at the quantity of fi'gs on this wild fig-
tree; could you guess the number of them?' Mopsus replied, 'There
are ten thousand of them, Avhich make a medim measure, and there
remains one over; and this you are not capable of understanding.' Thus
spoke Mopsus ; and the measure having been found complete (or cor-
rect), the sleep of death closed the eyes of Calchas.
" But," continues Strabo "according to Pherecydes, the subject of
the enigma was a sow with young. Calchas asked Mopsus how many
pigs it bore. Mopsus replied three, and one of which a female. Cal-
chas, finding Mopsus righf, died of grief Others say that he proposed
the enigma of the sow. and that Mopsus in his turn proposed that of
the fig-tree; and that Calchas, not having been able to guess rightly,
died of vexation, as it had been j^redicted to him by an oracle. So-
phocles, in his ' Vindication of Helen,' says that the oracle had de-
clared to Calchas that he was destined to die as soon as he met with
a soothsayer cleverer than him. This same poet places this dispute
and death of Calchas in Cilicia. But this is enough," says Strabo, " of
these ancient fables."
" Mallos" (or Mallus), says Strabo, " was the birth-place of the
grammarian Crates, of whom Pano3tius tells us he was a disciple." This
Crates was son of Simocrates, and lived in the reign of Ptolemy Philo-
meter, and was contemporary with Aristarchus. This would give us
some clue to the epoch iu which his disciple Uved, and regarding whom
142 CILICIA AND ITS GOVERXORS.
there is some iinccrtainty as to the year of his birth or death.* Crates
was brought up at Tarsus, and afterwards removed to Pergamus, where
he founded a school about the year 157 B.C. He was sent by Attakis
ambassador to Rome, where, having by accident broken his leg, he was
compelled to lead a sedentary life, and this eiiabled him to find time to
hold frequent grammatical lectures. This, says our historian, is all that
is known of the life of Crates.
"We are told by Strabo that, whilst Philotas conducted the cavalry
of Alexander through the Aleian plains — taking, no doubt, the route
which is the high road of the present day through Adana and Missis —
the latter conducted the infantry from Soli along the coast to Issus. He
must, of course, have passed by Mallos; and Strabo says that it was
reported that Alexander offered libations on the tomb of Amphilochus,
in consideration of theu' common origin from the city of Argos.-j-
After mentioning different places on the coast, such as ^geus (Ayas),
the Pylaj Amanidte, Issus, Rhosus (Arsus), and the Pyla3 Syrite, he says
that the first Syrian town on leaving the latter is Seleucia Pieria, the
Suedia described in this work, " near which the Orontes river dis-
charges its waters. From this to^\^l to Soli the navigation in a straight
line is about 1000 stadia."J He then concludes with the foUoAvirig
passage regarding the origin of the Cilicians :
" As the CiHcians of Troy whom Homer mentions § are very far
from the CiHcians of Mount Taurus, some people pretend that the latter
issued from the first ; and they shew places bearing the same name as
tliose of Trojan Cilicia, such as Thebes and Lernassus in PamphiUa.
Others, on the contrary, consider the Cihciaus of Troy to be descended
from those beyond the Taurus, and equally point out among them a
plain which is called Aleium (after that in which is Tarsus)."
• Vide Smith's Myth. + Vide Arrian de Exped. Alexand. lib. ii. cap. 5.
J I have crossed it by a sixteen hours' sail in an open boat.
§ Iliad, lib. vi. vers. 395-397.
— H^^>|>3ii&l^<=CN—
LARES AND PENATES;
HOUSEHOLD GODS OF CILICIA.
LARES AND PENATES.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
Lares and Penates were the names of the household gods of the an-
cients. Many derivations have been found for both : the Lares from
their descent from Lara; but the most likely is that given by Apuleiiis
(De Deo Socrcdis), from ^ar, familiaris. The Penates appear to be essen-
tially of Eastern origin, and the etymology of the word, it has been
said, must be sought in the Phrygian ; although Cicero and others have
given it a Latin origin, quod penitus insident, or again, quia coluntur in
penetralihus^ " because they are worshipped in the innermost recesses of
the house."
A mythology or pantheism of this kind dates from the most remote
antiquity ; it is probably one of the first soothing fictions by which the
great Deity was brought into immediate contact with persons and
actions. The Egyptians had their four gods, for example, who presided
over the birth of children — Genius, Fortune, Love, and Necessity.
These were subsequently called Pr^stites,
li" Quod praestaut oculis omnia tiita sxiis" — OviD. Fast;
and were supposed to take care of particular houses and families. "We
trace the same faith lingering in poetic rather than admitted notions of
angehc and saintly interference in our own times.
The Penates were divinities, or household gods, who were believed
to be the creators or dispensers of all the well-being and gifts of for-
tune enjoyed by a family, as well as an entire community. It is not
clear whether all or which of the gods were venerated as Penates ; for
L
14G LARES AND PENATES.
many are mentioned of botli sexes, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Vesta, Nep-
tune, Apollo, &c. ; but every family worshipped one or more of these,
whose images were kept in the inner part of the house, the tablinwn,
situated beyond the atrium. They are represented in various ways
on coins and medals. Mr. Rich gives an example in his Illustrated
Companion to the Latin Dictionary/ and Greek Lexicon, from the Vatican
Virgil, in which they appear as old men, with their heads veiled like
priests officiating at a sacrifice. The occurrence of such an illustra-
tion would tend to throw some light on the bearded and hooded figures
met with in the Tarsus collection, and the origin of which will be after-
wards discussed under various points of view.
The Lares, as tutelary spirits, were also sometimes confounded with
the souls of deceased persons. Thus Apuleius tells us that the private
or domestic Lares were no more than the souls of departed persons who
had lived well and discharged the duties of their station ; whereas
those who had done otherwise were A^agabond, wandering about and
frightening people under the name of Larvte and Lemures. The Lares
were supposed to exercise a protecting influence over the interior of
every man's household, himself, his family, and property ; and yet they
were not regarded as divinities like the Penates, but simply as guardian
spirits, whose place was the chimney-piece, and whose altar was the
domestic hearth (focus) in the atriiun, and where each individual made
offerings of incense to them in his own home. Many illustrations ol'
these descriptions of private or domestic Lares occur in the Tarsus col-
lection.
According to Ovid there were but two Lares; and these, like the
Penates, were worshipped in the form of little figures or images of wax,
earthenware, or term cotta, and of metal, more especially silver. They
were dressed in short habits, to shew their readiness to serve, and they
held a sort of cornucopia} in their hands, as the emblem of hosjiitality and
good house-keeping. Rich says they are constantly represented in
works of art as yoimg men crowned with a chaplet of laurel leaves, in
a short tunic,* and holding up a drinking-horn (corny, not the cornv-
copia;,) above their heads ; and he gives an example from a bas-relief
in the Vatican, under which is the inscription, " Laribus Augustis."-j-
Exampks are met with in the Tarsus collection.
• Succinctis Laribus. Pers. v. 31.
+ The Lares were also represejited as yoiuig boj's, with dog-skins about tb( ir
sbouldcrs, aud with their lieads covered, which was a sign of that freedom and libuil \
wliich men ought to enjoy in their own houses; their symbol was a dog, todencii
their fidelity, and the service that annual docs to man in i)resor\iug and watching o\ < r
DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LARES. 147
The accessory of the drinking-horn h;is induced many antiquaries
to take these figures for cup-bearers (pocillatores) ; but the inscription
just mentioned is sufficient evidence of their real character, and they
are repeatedly seen on the walls of the Pompeian houses, in kitchens,
bakehouses, and over street-doors, standing in pairs, one on each side
of an altar, in the same attitude and drapery. Great houses and per-
sons of wealth had their Lararia, a sort of shrine, small chapel, or apart-
ment, where the statues of the Lares, as well as of other sanctified or
deified personages, were placed and worshipped.* Tatius, king of the
Sabines, is said to have built a temple to the Lares.
Plutarch distinguishes the Lares, like the Genii, into good and evil ;
and there were also public and private Lares. The public Lares were
sometimes called Compitalis, from compitum, a cross-way ; and Viales, from
via, a way, or public road, as being placed at the intersection of roads
and in the highways, and esteemed the patrons and protectors of tra-
vellers. The Romans also gave the name Urbani, that is, Lares of the
cities, to those who had cities under their care ; and Hostilii, to those
who were to keep off their enemies. There were also Lares of the
country, called Ewales, as appears from several ancient inscriptions ;
and also Lares called Permarini, who, it is probable, were the Lares of
ships ; nor is it unreasonable to suppose that these floating houses should
have their tutelar deities as well as others. They had even their grunt-
ing Lares ; the Lares called Grundiles having, according to tradition,
been instituted by Romulus, in honour of a sow that brought forth at
one time thirty pigs. The name Grundiles was given to them a gTun-
nitu, from grunting.
When the Roman youths laid aside the bull (a golden ornament
shaped hke a heart, but hollow, which they constantly wore till foui'-
teen years of age), they consecrated or hung it up to the Lares. Slaves
likewise, when they obtained their freedom, hung up their chains to
these deities.
The Romans at first offered young people in sacrifice both to the
the places allotted to their charge, on which account the clog was particularly conse-
crated to them. The number of heads, and other portions of " deified boys," in the
Tarsus collection, is quite remarkable, and would tend to shew that the intention
of these figures was the same in Cicilia as it was at Rome. Figiu-es of dog-s are not
so common, but several instances occur, sufficient indeed to lead us to believe that
the same tradition witk regard to these faithful domestic animals as obtained among
the Romans was also accepted by the Cicilians. They appear to have been the
hoarders up of the mythological traditions of almost all the countries by which they
were s'orrounded, or by which they were successively conquered.
* Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 29, 31.
148 LARES AND PENATES.
Lares and Penates; but those barbarous rites were ultimately super-
seded by more harmless offerings, — hogs in pubKc, and vdne, incense,
heads of poppies, bandages of wool, and images of straw in private ;
they also crowned them with flowers, particularly with the violet,
myrtle, and rosemary.
The term Lares, according to Mr. Bryant's mythological theory, was
formed from laren, an ancient word by which the ark Avas represented ;
and he supposes that the Lares and Manes were the same domestic
deities under different names, and that by these terms the Hetrurians
and Latins denote the Dii Arkitfe, who were no other than their Arkite
ancestors, or the persons preser\'ed in the laren or ark, the genius of
which was Isis, the reputed parent of the world. He observes fiu-ther
that they are described as daemons and genii, who once lived on earth,
and were gifted with immortality. Arnobius styles them, Lares qnosdam
genios et functorum animas ; and he says that, according to Varro, they
were the children of Mania. Flutius* adds, that Mania had also the
name of Laranda, and she is styled the mother of the daemons. By
some she is called Lara, and was supposed to preside over families ; and
children were offered at her altar in order to procure her favour. In
lieu of these they in after-times offered the heads of poppies and pods
of garlic.
This accoimts somewhat for the discrepancy of the ancients as to
their origin. For example, Varro and iNIacrobius say that they were
the children of Mania ; Ovid makes them the issue of Mercury and Lara
or Larunda; Apuleius assures us that they were the posterity of the
Lemures; Nigridius, according to Arnobius, made them sometimes the
guardians and protectors of houses, and sometimes the same with the
Curetes of Samo-Thracia, which the Greeks call Jdcci dactyli. Nor was
Varro more consistent in his own opinions, sometimes making them the
manes of heroes, and sometimes gods of the air. In Cilicia we have a
faint tracing of the admixture of Egyptian and Samo-Thracian mysteries
in the national Pantheism, in the existence of a terra-cotta crocodile,
a crocodile river, Kersus of Xenophon, Andricus of Pliny, and a " Mons
crocodilus."
With respect to the Penates, they were of three classes: those who
presided over empires and states, those who had the protection of cities,
and those who took the care or guardianship of private families ; the
last were called the lesser Penates. According ta others, there were
four classes: the celestial, the sea-gods, the gods of hell, and all such
heroes as had received divine honours after death.
• Demonst. prop. iv. p. 139.
PENATES OF ROME. 149
Authors are not agreed about the origin of the Dii Penates, which
are generally admitted to have come originally from Asia, and were
known as the tutelary gods of the Trojans. Dionysius Halicarnassus
tells us that ^Eneas first lodged these gods in the city of Lavinium, and
that his son Ascanius, upon building the city of Alba, translated them
thither, but that they returned twice miraculously to Lavinium. The
same author adds, that in Rome there was still seen a dark temple,
shaded by the adjacent buildings, wherein were the images of the
Trojan gods, with the inscription " Denas," which signifies Penates.
These images represented two young men sitting, each of which held
a lance. I have seen, says Dionysius, several other statues of the same
gods in ancient temples, who all appear like young men dressed in the
habit of war. Varro brings the Penates from Samothrace to Phrygia,
to be afterwards transported by ^ueas into Italy.
It is a popular question among the learned, who were the Penates
of Rome ? Some say Vesta, others Neptune and Apollo ; Vives says
Castor and Pollux, with whom agrees Vossius, who adds, that the reason
of their choosing Castor and Pollux in the quality of Penates might be
the important service they rendered the Romans in some of their wars.
When Macrobius says that Jupiter, Juuo, and ]Minerva were the Penates
of the Romans, it does not follow from that that they were the Penates
of Rome. It seems, indeed, to have been in the option of every master
of a family to choose his Penates ; and hence it was that Jupiter and
some of the superior gods were often invoked as patrons of domestic
affairs.
The positive domestic and pubUc deities selected by a country or
province and its inhabitants were, perhaps, never before so fully illus-
trated as in the instance of the remarkable collection now brought to
light, discovered also in a country of great antiquity, and Avhich per-
haps, more than any other in the East, forms the connecting link
between Assyrian and Greek mythology, and with Lycia between As-
syrian and Greek art. The light they may yet be made to throw
upon these relations will, in all probability, be found to be very
considerable, and to present a field of investigation as yet almost un-
touched.
The Assyrians of old recognised in the stars of heaven golden chariots
of heavenly hosts.* Zeus or Baal, as the most perfect leader of the most
perfect chariot, was drawn by the finest and largest horses of Asia ; while
the god of the sun had only one single Nisa;an horse, or was represented
* Grotefend on tlio Mi/tholo<jy of the Assyrians, according to the Sculptures of the
Palace at Nimrud.
150 LARES AND PENATES.
upon a -ndnged horse, whose image Layard* found embroidered upon the
garment of the king.f
Like the tradition of Bellerophon and Perseus, whom, according to
Herodotus,! the Persians declared to be an Assyrian, the designation of
this horse by the name of Pegasus seems to be of Assyrian origin, espe-
cially since Tarsus, whose inhabitants, according to Dio Chrysostomus,§
worshipped Perseus, together with Hercules or Sandon,|| and the tri-
dented Apollo, is said to have been built by an Assyrian king.^
"We have here, then, at once acciu'ate legendary information as to
the Penates of Tarsus, and tolerably satisfactory testimony as to the
Assyrian origin of some of them. Perseus himself has been recognised
in this collection; and it has beeji ingeniously suggested that Tarsus
winged, feathered, pinioned, may have reference to the conqueror of the
Gorgon. Reasons have been elsewhere given for a preference to an
etymology which brings Tarsus more into connexion with the story of
Bellerophon, and the frequent fragments of horses' feet have been sug-
gested to have some reference to Pegasus ; while the circumstance of
the Apollo of Tarsus being Avinged might be made to bear reference
to either or both of these local traditions. We may observe that Apollo
was the chief object of superstitious worship at Tarsus; that his image
was no doubt in every house; that his remains are more numerous than
the other objects of heathen idolatry; and that he is represented in many
various ways.
"We have also a head of a horse which, it has been suggested, may be
one of the horses of the sun ; a surmise which is further said to be sup-
• Vol. ii. p. 461, fig. 84.
■f- Grotefend describes, from Layard, a slab at Nimrud upon which is sculptured a
flying horseman, who bore a helmet with curved crest. The Persians themselves,
Layard remarks, vol. i. p. 443, may have recognised the Assyrian source of their reli-
gion, when they declared Perseus, the founder of their race, to have been an Assyrian.
Herodotus, i. vi. c. .54. The head of Perseus occurs on two of the Babylonian cylinders
engraved hy Mr. C'ullimore for the SjTO-Egyptian Society.
Some traditions made this Perseus a great astronomer, who instructed men in the
knowledge of the stare. nep<r€i'c 6 HXim, Perseus is the sun, says the scholiast in
Lycophr. v. 18. According to some, he married Astarte, the daughter of Belus. All
these traditions point to his Assyrian origin.
I only find in Layard, vol. i. p. 376, mention of a horseman wearing a helmet with
a curved crest, pui-sued by two Assyrian warriors ; but in vol, ii. p. 461, is figured the
winged horse, " so closely," says Layard, " resembling the Pegasus of the Greeks,
that we can scarcely doubt the identity."
X Herodotus, vi. 54.
§ Orat. xxxiii. init. and p. 407, ed. Mon.
II Compare Raoul Kochcttc, Memoire sur Vllercule Assyrien, p. 489 et seq.
^ Ammianus MarcelUnus writes of Tarsus, xiv. 8, Hand condidisse Perseus memo-
raiur, vel certv ex A iichi{al)o pro/ectus Sandoii quidem nomine, vir opulentus et nobilig.
THE TARSUS COLLECTION. 151
ported by another fragment existing in the collection which shews the
head of a second horse coupled to it as if attached to a chariot, and also
by the many votive memorials of horses' limbs before alluded to.
We have in the collection several heads of Hercules, one of which is
radiated, and figures of Hercules with the mace. The Assyrian Hercules,
Sandps, Sandon, or Sandok,* but more properly Dayyad the Hunter, was
represented on a colossal winged figure holding a mace, and also as bear-
ing a stag on one arm, and a flower with filve blossoms in the right hand.
It does not appear that this latter form of the divinity was accepted by
the Tarsians.
It is sufficient, however, that we certainly find traces of Assyrian
mythology interwoven into a compound worship — the Egyptian, Syrian,
Grecian, and Eoman characters of which are elsewhere developed, — and
which combination has been justly pointed out to have arisen from the
local position of Tarsus and its commercial connexions. " I believe,"
remarks Mr. Abington, " that there has never before been presented to
this world so striking a proof of the easy plastic character of the old
mythology as we find in this precious collection of antiquities." A
further development even to this view of the matter is given when we
add an Assyrian origin to the most characteristic of the Tarsus divini-
ties, and to the before-mentioned Egyptian, Syrian, Grecian, and Roman
combinations.
It need only be added, that some further curious and remarkable
illustrations of the same affinity — that is, of Cilician and Assyrian
mythology — will be found in the chapter devoted to the description of
certain gods, demi-gods, and heroes represented in the Tarsus terra-
cottas, and which arrived in this country, and were described, at a
period subsequent to the examination of the first portions of the col-
lection.
* Tacitus, An. xii. 13.
«i-^^O^x<!!5Xi>^ -
CHAPTER II.
DISCOVERY OF THE TERRA-COTTAS LARES AND PENATES OF CILICIA EVI-
DENCES OF PROMISCUOUS WORSHIP APOLLO OF TARSUS PERSEUS, BELLE-
EOPHON, AND PEGASUS — RADL\TED APOLLO IDENTITY OF PHYSIOGNOMY
UGLY FACES DEIFICATION OF CHILDREN — DEIFICATION OF PRINCES
DEIFICATION OF LADIES CHARACTER OF CILICIAN ART PROGRESS OF
CHRISTIANHTY DESTRUCTION OF THE LARES AND PENATES — ATYS
APOLLO, THE SYRIAN BAAL — CYBELE, CERES, AND ISIS ELEUSINEAN JfTSTE-
RIES CYBELE AND ATYS, ISIS AND OSIRIS, VENUS AND ADONIS THE CAT,
DOG, AND HORSE HARPOCRATES AND FLORUS ISIS ANTD THE NELU3IBIUM
SACRED BULLS EGYPTL\N ART — MORPHEUS.
" The incarnations, which form the principal subjects of sculpture in the temples of
idolatry, are above all others calculated to caU forth the ideal perfections of the art,
by expanding and exalting the imagination of the artist, and inciting his ambition
to sm-pass the simple imitation of ordinary forms, in order to produce a model of
excellence worthy to be the corporeal habitation of the Deity ; but this no nation
of the earth, except the Greeks, and those who copied them, ever attempted. Let
the precious WTecks and frag-ments, therefore, of the art and genius of that wonder-
ful people be collected with care, and preserved with reverence, as examples of
what man is capable of vmder peculiar circumstances, which, as they have never
occurred but once, may never occur again." — E. P. Knight on the Symbolical
Lan(jua<je of Mythology.
It has been my good fortune to discover such remains as are above
alluded to in the extract from Mr. R. P. Knight's learned and interestino-
•work. During a residence of eight years in Cilicia, I was, in the year
1845, at diiferent intervals, presented -with one or two of these terra-
cotta heads by an Armenian, who passed a great part of the day rum-
maging among old ruins, which is frequently the case with lazy lellows,
who pass for moral men or " saints" of the modern Eastern population,
and -who have an ulterior object besides that of seclusion : the desire of
discovering hidden treasures, or of imposing on the credulity of their
countrymen, by pretending to supernatural knowledge in the secret of
finding the same. I had in vain questioned him regarding the jjlace
DISCOVERY OP THE COLLECTION. 153
where he had found these objects. He had naturally an interest in
avoiding to satisfy my curiosity, as I paid him handsomely for every thing
he brought me ; and he pretended that he used to write magical words
on pieces of paper, which he would throw up in the air, and then
he would dig in those places whereon they fell ! Such is the kind of
nonsense which he no doubt endeavoured to impose on his credulous
neighbours.
One day a friend observed the Armenian scratching the earth on the
slope of a hill at no great distance from my residence. He suspected
what the man was looking for, and on informing me of the circumstance,
I proceeded to the spot, where I discovered the rich mine from which
I have di-awn the Avhole of my collection. Having set workmen to
clear away the rubbish, I collected all I could get, and these are the
objects of which I now offer sketches to the public. These drawings I
have taken care should be done as correctly as possible; yet such is the
artistic merit of the originals, that no one can do them sufficient jus-
tice. Still I have endeavoured to give such an accurate delineation of
these objects as shall bear the closest critical inspection.
On the ancient wall of Tarsus a hill leaned (if I may be allowed the
expression), which must have been many centuries there, inasmuch as
on its summit, and towards its base, there exists a fabric, the founda-
tions of which are of Roman cement, which was used for the interior of
walls, and which, petrifying, becomes a conglomeration of mortar, sand,
and pebbles, of different sizes, and harder to break up than the rock
itself. The inhabitants of the present town do not trouble themselves
to go to the mountains to cut thence the stones they may require for
their buildings ; they prefer using such as those who lived in the same
spot before have left them ; and they carry away, wherever they find
them, all the large square stones they require. After using up all that
they could find on the surface of the ground, they dug up the founda-
tion of the old city of Tarsus. This foundation is' now as low down
as forty feet under ground, such being the speed with which alluvial
deposits accumulate in a country so near to the high ridges of the
Taurus, and in a city on which several towns have been built in suc-
cession. In the course of time the wall on which the hill leaned was
thus carried away stone by stone, and a secant of the hill left exposed to
view. In the centre of this secant it was that I first discovered these
precious objects; and by beatmg the earth down the hill, I had it well
examined, and carried ofi\, as I imagined, every thing worthy of notice,
until no more objects were exposed to view by working in the hill.
The curiosity excited by this discovery was natui'ally great, and it was
154 LARES AND TEXaTES.
impossible to prevent the inhabitants from crowding to the spot. They
were all much pleased with the lamps found among the rubbish, all of
which were more or less perfect, and in a state ready for use ; these
I could not prevent them carrying off:' but as they took no interest in
any thing else (heads being perfectly useless to them), and as they
were aware that I would have purchased all that were presented to
me, I have every reason to believe that nothing of any consequence
escaped me except these lamps, of which, however, I secured a great
many, rejecting such as were of common workmanship, or devoid of
interest, from their having no basso relievo or inscription to recommend
them to notice.
It was thus that I obtained this unique collection of ancient Cera-
mic art.
At first I imagined that I had lighted upon the site of a Ceramicus,
and that the mound might have been formed of the waste of a manufac-
tory, or what is technically called " sherdwreck," many of which are
now accumulating, and will disclose their secrets to some future genera-
tion. But on further inspection of the articles themselves, I have no
doubt that Mr. Abington's* suggestion will be found correct, that these
precious vestiges are the Penates of the ancient Cilicians, and conse-
quently of a much more interesting character, inasmuch as they bear
witness and testify to the triumphs of Christianity over the superstitions
of the Gentiles. The following are some of the reasons that lead to this
conclusion.
1st. None of the articles appear to have been rejected by the maker
on account of defective workmanship ; though the work of some of them
is very slight, yet even these have evidently been in use ; they had been
sent out by the manufacturer as finished ; had been applied to the pui'-
poses intended, and subsequently broken, either by design or accident ;
" and if they had been used," Mr. Birch observed, before he had seen
* Here I am happy in an opportunity of expressing' publicly my great obligation
to Mr. Leonard J. Abington, of Hanley Potteries, Staffordshire, for the valuable infor-
mation he has furnished me with ; indeed, without hiui, I question if I should have been
able to bring these valuable remains of anti(iuity into notice. He not only mounted
each piece on a pedestal adapted to it, and thereby presented the object in the most
advantageous position to be viewed, but he addressed to me a series of remarks doubly
interesting : first, as coming from a person who seems at home ou every subject, ancient
and modern ; and second, as emanating from one who could speak artisticallj' as
well as scientifically, he being connected with one of the largest estahlishmente of
China pottery in England. These observations are incorporated in the following re-
marks, and form the basis of what I would turn the attention of the reader to, lea\nng
(as I have already observed) to others to work upon the subject, which is of great in-
terest, and affords matter for many volumes by more able pens.
TEXATES OP THE CILICIANS.
155
NO. 1. — HEAD OF PAN.
the objects, " they would have been covered with lime, and painted
in fresco, traces of which must be sought upon them." Now they have
all been painted ; indeed, some of them
have been painted more than once : see
the head of Pan, No. 1, which had been
painted blue, and afterwards with a
thick coat of red ; many were painted
in party-colour — the flesh and the gar-
ments different. In a mounted headless
bust of Apollo Belvidere there are two
or three spots of the colour remaining ;
the body was red, and the garments
green ; and a careful examination of
many of the pieces, after breathing
upon them, will discover traces of co-
loiu' which would not be suspected on a cursory view. The rays upon
deified figures are generally painted blue, and sometimes the eyes are of
the same colour. The head of Pan, No. 1, was not thrown aside because
of any defect making it unsaleable; except a little damage to the ed^e of
the garland with which it is crowned, it is as perfect as when the maker
sold it. The mortar, which still remains, by which it was fixed upon
the stile which supported it, proves that
it had been put up in the place which
superstition had assigned to it, and from
which it was afterwards deposed and
cast out. This remaining mortar or
cement proves further, that it had been
applied to the purpose for which the
heads of Pan and Bacchus usually were,
in woods, pastures, and vineyards : it
escaped the destruction which came upon
its fellows by reason of its solid and al-
most spherical form.
2dly. The Incense-Burner, No. 2,
has not been rejected by the maker on
account of any failure in the workmanship,
tory, and been in use in the worship of some household idol ; this
is certain, by the carbonaceous stain still remaining in the bottom of
the crater. This piece, therefore, after having been consecrated to
religious use, was afterwards broken and thrown out, either by accident
or design.
NO. 2. — INCENSE-BURNER.
It had left the manufjic-
156
LARES AND PENATES.
3dly. The same argument may be drawn from the Lamp, No. 3,
which had been long m use. The stag upon it suggests the thought
NO. 3.— LAMP.
NO. 4. — HEAD AND STATUE OP DIANA.
that it has been used to biu'n before an image of Diana, Avhose head
we have, No. 4, and who was honovu'ed in Lesser Asia.
Another Lamp is entire, and fit for service; and it was not Ukely to
have been thrown away as rubbish. The symbols upon it indicate that
it has been used for religious purposes. Such articles would certainly
be rejected, as contaminated by the use for idol-Avorship, on the owners
embracing the " glorious Gos2)el of the blessed God." The circular
axched form of the lamps would enable them to bear considerable vio-
lence without breaking, and would account for such a number having
been found whole and perfect, although subjected to the same inten-
tional destruction which the rest of the pieces of the collection have ex-
perienced.
JUPITEK, JUNO, AND APOLLO.
lo7
4thly. Some of the fragments are votive
offerings, consecrated to the honour of the gods,
and attesting their condescension to suffer-
ing humanity, and their power to help. To
damage or remove such would have been con-
sidered the highest act of desecration. The
most wicked man would have been shocked at
such a crime. Wliat, then, could have caused
such a sweeping act of sacrilege ? Here he the
prized memorials of relief obtained from the
gods in time of trouble, and the very gods
themselves lying in the same indiscriminate
ruin. There lies the Olympic Thunderer with
his jaw broken. No. 5, and the head of his
saucy wife for a companion, in the dirt.
No, 6. His wmgs could not save the patron, No. 7, a winged Apollo,
HE^VD OF JUFITER.
NO. 6. — JUNO.
NO. 7. — APOLLO WINGED.
the honoured of Tarsus, from the general break-up ; nor even the
honesty of little Mercury, No. 8, exempt him from the common lot.
158
LARES AND PENATES.
There is no fact in history to account for this sacrilegious devastation,
but the resistless progress of the Gospel in apostohc times.
NO. 8. — JIERCUUY.
NO. 9.
-HEAD OF MESSALINA, THE FIFTH WIFE
OF THE EMPEROU CLAUDIAN.
5thly. The age to which we must attribute the production of these
works of art coincides with this svipposition. Additional confirmation
of this is afforded by some coins Ibund with them, and Avhich are known
to date no further back than a century and a half to two centuries B.C.
The fashion of the hair in the head No. 9 will admit of our fixing the
date of the destruction of these objects in the first century. I am not
aware that we have any account of the introduction of the Gospel,
or of its triumphs at Tarsus; but it is not unlikely that this rejec-
tion of the objects of superstitious reverence might have taken place
before the close of the first century: and doubtless St. Paul -would have
been anxious for the conversion of his immediate friends and re'ations;
and if he could not have suj)erintended it in jierson, he would have
early sent his most able and clficieut disciples to carry on this work of
grace.
This question now meets us, "Was this casting away of idols the act
of private individuals, clearing their hal)itations of these abominations,
at the risk of persecution from the authorities, and burying them outside
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES FOUND. 159
the gates ? or was it a general cleansing of the city by the force of public
opinion, such as is described in Acts xix. 18-20 ? In either case we find
here accumulated every variety of idol, including the compound worship
(which had been carried on for years) of Assyrian, Egyptian, Syrian, Gre-
cian, and Roman mythology, — this combination no doubt arising from
the local position of Tarsus and its commercial connexions ; and if some
person competent to the study would take up the subject, I feel per-
suaded that much might be elucidated of further interest to the archa30-
logist and to the divine, which would bring us to the firm persuasion,
that their being purposely mutilated and thrown away was to be attri-
buted to the influence of apostolic missionaries of the Christian faith in
the first century of our Lord.
A proof of the promiscuous worship of the people of Tarsus, and a
picture of their religious superstition, before the establishment of Chris-
tianity, is afforded by the accompanying list of some of the figures found,
which will shew how comprehensive their religious faith must have
been : here we have
Apollo.
Adonis.
Isis.
Atys.
Venus.
Bacchus.
Jupiter.
Pan.
Serapis.
Horus.
Mercury.
Apis.
Diana.
Anubis (the Egj-ptian
Juno.
Mercury).
Pallas.
Typhon.
Pluto.
Iris.
Eros.
^sculapius.
Fortune — Victory.
Phre — (the Hawk, the Egj^tian
Hercules.
Sun).
and a multitude of deified men, women, and children, to Avhom it is
impossible even to assign names.
The religious system, therefore, prevailing at Tarsus must have
been a compound of all the creeds existing at that epoch. Such a
combination was perhaps common to the cities of Asia Minor ; but
was more likely to be found at Tarsus, it being a place of resort
from all the surrounding countries, on account of its schools, as well
as of its commerce. It has been before remarked, that there has
never been presented to the world so striking a proof of the easy,
plastic character of the old mythology as we find in this precious col-
lection of antiquities. Unlike Christianity, which treads alone in all
the rigid inflexibility of eternal truth, and will not amalgamate with
any thing earthly or of man's device, we find ready adoption of any
160 LARES AND PENATES.
thing or every thing likely to fascinate the people, and to bring traffic
to the temples.
In order to read these vestiges intelligibly, it will not be uninterest-
ing that we shoiild review the pecuharities of the place of their disco-
very. Tarsus was " no mean city;" its foundation was in the earliest
antiquity; and Avhen it came under the power of the Romans it was
made a metropolis, as appears on its coins ; its schools rivalled those
of Athens and Alexandria, to which it often furnished professors in
eloquence and philosophy. One of the supposed derivations of its
name may have been from the Greek. The most fanciful derivations
were certainly sometimes represented in works of art. Have the wings
any thing to do -with Perseus, who has a great place in Tarsian my-
thology ? Tarsus, says Mr. Birch, is an old name, certainly as old
as the twentieth Egyptian dynasty, or fourteen centuries e.g. " Tar-
sus" signifies winged — feathered — ^pinioned, which the follomng obser-
vation on one of these relics, a sketch of which is given under No. 7,
elucidates, and affords a solution to a great mystery.*
* Tapo-os- is used by the writers of old not only to express a wing, but also the palm
of the foot and hand. In anatomy tarsus is distinguished as belonging to the foot,
carpus to the hand. Dionysins, surnamed Periegetes, from his poem of Periegesis, or
" Sm-vey of the World," refers the name of the city of Tarsus to Pegasiis having
landed Bellerophon there, leaving the mark of his hoof, or foot, in the ground. The
passage nms as follows :
Kt'dvou re o-xoXioio fiiatjv 6ui Tapaov \6vT0f,
Tapaov eiJKTifievj^Vy oOi &ij ttotc n»;7a<ro? (TTTTOf
Tapffov d<pei^f X<»*py XiVev ovvo^a, t^juo? d(p* 'iTrnov
E9 Aiof lifievOf Ttiaev riptor ^iXKtf,o(j>6vtr\i.
There are here three Tarsuses, a play upon words, which may be freely rendered :
" Tortuous Cydnus, through Tarsus' centre flowing,
Well-built Tarsus ; where once most truly Pegasus
Placed its foot : leaving it thus a name. There 'twas
That Jupiter caused the fall of Bellerophon."
Avienus, who is distinguished for his ingenuity displayed in varung the expression
of the constantly recurring ideas of the Alexandrian, thus records the same mj-th :
" Cydnus item medisc discemit mania Tarsi.
Pegasus hoc olim suspendit cespite sese,
ImpressaDque solo liquit vestigia calcis :
Esset ut insignis revoluta in ssecula semper
Nomen humo. Clari post ultima Bellerophontis
Hie cespes late producit Aleius arva."
The fall of Bellerophon here alluded to is not contained in Apollodorus, nor in all
the versions of the legend ; but it is in Pindar, with the variation of Pegasus being
stimg by a gad-fly, and hinted at by Horace :
' ' Et exemplum grave prwbet ales
Pegasus, terrcnum equitem gravatus
Bellerophon tern ."
APOLLO.
101
The figure is rayed, and probably crowned with the symbol of fecun-
dity, which would give it an Egyptian character; but what gives this
piece its singular interest is the fact of its being " ivinged." Apollo
was the tutelar god of the place ; here, then, we have him in character
as the Apollo of Tarsus, " the winged." A coin of Tarsus has Apollo
standing on the back of a lion; he holds a lamp in his hand (the lamp
of science ?), and has wings to his shoulders.
These attributes had never been sufficiently
explained ; but the accompanying figure now
renders their signification evident. There
is also another symbol confirmatory of this
view. There hangs upon the wing a cluster
of grapes ; grapes were used in the decoration
of the great temple of Baalbec, and on the
images of Baal (the Sun) grapes are hung
round the neck. The grapes, therefore, shew
the Syrian cast of the mythology of Tarsus,
and identify its Apollo with Baal, as No. 22
connects him with the Osiris of Egypt. The
fluted chalice in which this head terminates was probably inteuded
NO. 22. — Ai ULLO AS OSIRIS.
(With tlie Ntlumbium.)
Homer also repi'esents Belleroplion as wandering over the Aleian plain on which
Tarsus stands : —
" Forsook by heaven, forsaking human kind,
Wide o'er the Aleian field he chose to stray,
A long, forlorn, uncomfortable way!"
Stephanus, speaking of Tarsus, also says that it was so called utto rric rov BeXXepo-
^OVTOV TrToJo-eur, from the fall of Bellerophon ; adding, xr/t eKtivouxuXeiar I'Tro/ui'tTMa'r'""''^'^'"'"'
rZv upxa/cof, in reference to the lameness produced by the faU, and which is alluded to
in Pindar's version of the fable. Cellarius also says, " A Pegasi, ungida quam ibi auoi-
serit, nomen m-bis fingunt, quia Tupo-of ethsixo. pl< : nta 'joedis est."
Scenes of the story of Bellerophon, it has been justly remarked by Dr. Leonard
Schmitz, were frequently represented in ancient works of art. His contest with the
Chimsera was seen in the throne of Amycl«, and in the vestibule of the Delphic
temple. On coins, gems, and vases, he is often seen fighting against the Chimsera,
taking leave of Proetus, taming Pegasus, or giving him to drink, or falling from hun.
But until the recent discoveries in Lycia by Sir Charles Fellows, no representation of
Bellerophon in any important work of art was known ; in Lycian sculptures, however,
he is seen riding on Pegasus and conquering the Chimcura. The several pieces of
Cilician art in this important collection made by Mr. W. Burckhardt Barker, wiU
suggest a reference to this same story with many ; and it is not a little singular that
among these works of art a great numlser of single horses' feet were found, which
upon this fabulous origin of the name of Tareus, as hero given, being communicated by
me to Mr. W. Bvu-ckhardt Barker, that gentleman ingeniously suggested might not
impossibly have reference to the very point in question. The more ancient fable of
Bellerophon's fall from Pegasus at that spot may just as well have been represented in
Cilician works of art as that which refers to Perseus. W. F. A.
M
162
LAKES AND PENATES.
to contain incense or lustral water, Mr. Birch calls this the head
of Isis ; but whether it be Isis or Apollo, it still proves the existence
of Egyptian worship in Cilicia.
Here I must refer to another head, No. 23, which Mr. Birch has
( This is mentioned by Mr. Birch as
Apollo represented on the Co los-
sus at Rhodes.)
NO. 23. — HEAD OF APOLLO RADIATED.
recognised as the same as that upon the gold and silver coins of Ehodes.
He says it is the Apollo (Helios), or the Sun, and is a copy of the Colos-
sus at Rhodes. It is radiated. This radiation was not usual with the
Romans and Greeks ; but in the present case it admits of an easy expla-
nation. Tarsus, bordering iipon Phosnicia, and having ready access to
Egypt, would have its mythology tinctured with that of its neighbours.
Baal of the PhcBnicians, Osiris of Egypt, and Apollo of the Greeks, all
embody the myths originating in the worship of the sim. This pecu-
liarity in the figui'e before us quite accords with the locality where it
was found. Tliere is a coin of Tarsus on which Apollo is seated upon
a mount, with a lyre in his hand, indicating the presiding influence of
that deity at the schools. It is believed that Apollo had an oracle in
that place. Of this god the collection offers many specimens, all more
or less diversiiied by some peculiarity or other.
A large portion of these terra-cottas are of a sacred character, but
they are not of a magnitude or material to make us suppose that they
could have had a place in the public temples. They must have been
for use in domestic lararia or cluqiclsy or rather oratories* It is likely
• Lares, the presiders over housokeeping affairs, occupied a place in the house by
the fire-places and chimney-corners. Penates were the protectors of masters of families,
wives, and children. Lares had .short habits and cornucopias in their hands, symbols
of servitude and hospitality. Ovid says, " two Lares witli a dog at their feet." Plu-
tarch, " good and evil Lares, or Genii, also public and pHvaie lares." Apuleius says
DEIFYING MEN. 163
that the owners did not restrict the honour of a place there to one or
two deities, but that people of opulence had a collection of such as had
been duly consecrated by the priest, which were all honoured in turn>
or as their special help was required.
Alexander Severus is said to have preserved the images of all the
great men who had been raised to the rank of the gods, and rendered
divine honours to them in the same manner as to the most holy souls.
Among these he had Apollonius Tyaueus, Jesus Christ, Abraham, Or-
pheus, Virgil, Cicero, &c. &c.
The lararia of private persons could not have been so well furnished,
and the common people must have been content with still less.
Before these idols it was the custom to light lamps, to burn incense,
to offer floAvers, fruits, meat, and wine; also votive memorials of benefits
received were consecrated to them : many such small ex votos we have in
this collection. See No. 32, p. 175, which is selected out of a great many,
and which I imagine to be of this description, and devoted to Apollo.
The custom of canonising or deifying men seems to have arisen from
the idea that all which made them eminent for their talents or actions
proceeded by emanation from the Divine Essence. Hence the simple
rites which express veneration for the dead grew into direct and explicit
acts of worship to the shades of renowned men : these splendid qualities,
dazzling the minds of inferior men, soon obtained for them divine
honours, as having exhibited and exercised the attributes of the gods
upon earth. These deifications multiplied greatly under the Macedo-
nian and Roman empires ; and many worthless tyrants were by their
own preposterous pride, or the abject serviHty of their subjects, exalted
into gods, Nero himself not forming an exception.
The most usual mode of expressing this deification was by repre-
senting the figm-e naked, or with the simple chlamys, or cloak, as often
given to the gods. The head, too, was generally radiated, and the bust
placed upon a square inverted obeUsk. The cornucojna was often given
as a symbol to the statue.
The loose and indeterminate system of ancient mythology presented
the Lares represented the souls of departed persons who had Uved vrell and done good .
Lares are also called Penates, images of silver, wax, and earthenware. Public Lares
were called Compitales, from compitum, a cross-way ; and also Viales, from via, a way
or road. These public Lares were placed at meetings of roads, as protectors and patrons
of travellers. There were also Urbani, i.e. Lares of cities, as well as the coimtiy. The
Lares were also genial gods, having the care of children from their birth. Bryant holds
the Lares of Eg\-pt and Rome to have been the same. Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines,
built a temple to the Lares. The custom was observed of burial in the highways ; a hog
was offered in sacrifice. Lara was the mother of the demons ; children were offered in
sacrifice to her.
164
LARES AND PENATES.
very feeble barriers to the innovations and mutations Avliicli were con-
stantly taking place, through intercourse with nations following different
practices and other fables.* This collection affords ample proof of this
plastic character of the mythology of Tarsus, and of the medley of
Grecian, Syrian, and Egyptian worship which went to form it. Every
man felt himself at liberty to honour those whom he loved with his
adorations and offerings, without waiting for a public decree of canoni-
sation. The object of his admiration, gratitude, or esteem might receive
any rehgious rites, provided they did not disturb others, or do any thing
in violation of the established forms of religious worship. This conse-
cration, however, .was not properly a deification, but what the Eomish
Church still practises imder the title of canonisation, the object of it
being considered rather a saint than a god ; wherefore a deified Eoman
emperor was not called deus, but divus.
These facts will explain many of those difficulties which present
themselves on a view of this collection ; such as heads which have no
trace of the orthodox form or ideal beauty of the deities whose attri-
butes and symbols they bear; but which, on the contrary, are unques-
tionably portraits of mortal men and women, and give us illustrations of
the practice of conferring divine honours upon magistrates, philosophers,
priests, and relatives, as the feelings of respect or affection might suggest.
To exemplify this remark we have nineteen heads bearing the same
expression of face, but with different
attributes. Most of these heads have
■striking resemblance; they all have
the hair knotted in the orthodox
fashion distinguishing the figures
of Apollo. But this deity is almost
always characterised by unearthly
ideal beauty of form : these are re-
markable forgross sensuality. Such
overfed, bloated faces, with an ex-
pression of merriment and cunning,
would, with tonsure and cowl, have
made excellent monks.
It seems that it was no unusual
thing to make tlie gods in the like-
ness of mortals. The empei'ors, la-
dies of high rank, and priests of the chief order, were thus complimented.
Is not No. 24 a chief priest, thus in divine character ? and it has the
* See quotation from 11. P. Knight, prefixed to this chapter.
NO. 24. — PRIEST WITH ATTUIBUTES OF APOLLO.
DEIFICATION OP ROMAN EMTERORS. 105
attributes of Apollo more fully preserved. Here is the wing, the torch,
the painting, &c. ; but the leering of the eyes and the elevation of the
corners of the cunning and merry mouth are any thing but divine,
and as fur removed from that calm repose by which the ancients always
sought to characterise their gods as it is possible to conceive. Whether
this was done during the life of the priest, or whether it was only a
compliment ^^^lid to him after his death, we have not at present the
means of knowing.
In Josephus* we find a story which shews the depravity of the
priests of Isis at Rome, and which caused Tiberius to destroy both them
and their temple. May we not imagine that we see these rogues in
some of these heads? — 3i family likeness, no doubt.
Several other heads are of this family, and are worthy of careful
study; they all represent the same individual, though they have been
wrought by different hands. Some are a piratical copy of the others.
Such a piracy indicates that the demand for the figure must have been
great. The hair is knotted on the top of the head, in the mode peciiliar
to Apollo, and shews that the pei'son had been deified; yet there is no-
thing mythological in the face, which is that of a bloated senstialist. As
such, it would do well for Vitellius ; but I do not think that he had the
honour of apotheosis, though he was rather popular in Asia Minor. The
men of Tarsus were very prone to flatter the Roman emperors, and
often changed the name of their city in compliment to their imperial
masters. After the great earthquake, a.d. 17, Tiberius gave relief to
the unfortunate cities of the province of Lesser Asia, for which their
gratitude would be due. Wlien Tiberius died, he was raised to the
rank of the gods; and that these heads represent a deified emperor thei'e
is no doubt. If it is Tiberius, it must be his likeness after his mode of
life and debauchery in the island of Capri, and not as he appears upon
the medals struck of him. As such medals of him in his deified cha-
racter would not be made until after his death, such a difference in the
likeness might be expected.
Or we may take another view of the question. It was not unusual
to pay divine honoiu's to the images of the emperors which were erected
in the cities of the empire during their lifetime. The city of Tarsus
may have honoured one of its masters by an image in which he was
flattered by being invested with the attributes of Apollo, their tutelar
deity, before he was dead; and in that case we may imagine these to
be cheap copies for the use of the million. Every way they are of much
interest ; and it would be desirable to liave the opinion of more compe-
* Antiquities of the Jews, book xviii. chap. 3.
166
LARES AND PENATES.
tent jixdges in the investigation, Avhich, by publishing drawings of some
of these, and others in this collection, I hope to afford persons the
opportunity of making, -who may not be able to see the objects them-
selves.
It was usual at the birth of a child to name it after some divine
personage, who was supposed to receive it under his care ; but this
name was not retained beyond infancy, when the bulla was given up ;
after which a name was given expressive of some quality or peculiarity
of body or mind, or after its kindred. If the child died in infancy,
parental affection would indulge itself in the worship of the idol of the
heart, under the character of that god to whom it had been consecrated:
the image would be formed with rays, &c., the sign of its exalted state,
and honoured accordingly; nor is it imlikely that parental fondness
might in some cases be carried as far, even before death. With this
view I lay before the reader Nos. 25 and 26. Here we have a beaiiti-
NO. 25. — EROS \V[NGED.
NO. 26. — HEAD OF A CmLD.
ful head of a boy (Eros), Avith the arm turned over it. Does not this
indicate heavenly repose? And the fact of similar other figures being
rayed, would go to prove the supposition of deification haA-ing been
added to the endearing epithets of the departed spirit. People very
commonly worshipped the manes of their ancestors, supposing them to
have influence in heaven, and cognisance of human affairs.
The devices which were stamped upon the coins of ancient nations
were of a religious character, and held so strictly sacred, that the most
proud and powerful monarchs never ventured to put their own portraits
upon them, until the practice of deifying them, and giving them the title
of divine, was begun. Till after the time of Alexander the Great, nei-
ther the Kings of Persia, Macedonia, nor Epirus, nor even the tyrants
of Sicily, ever took this liberty ; the first portraits which Ave find upon
money being those of the princes of the Macedonian dynasties, whom the
flattery of their followers (in imitation of Eastern pomp) raised to divine
FIGURES OF KINGS ON COINS.
167
honours. The artists had, indeed, before this, found a way of gratify-
ing the vanity of their patrons without offending their piety; which
was by blending their features with those of the deity whose image was
to be impressed on the coin. This artifice was practised on the coins
previous to the custom of putting portraits upon them. The coins of
Archelaus, Amyntas, Alexander, Philip, and Seleucus I., &c., all have
different heads of Hercules, which seem to represent those of the respec-
tive princes. The earliest instances of this practice are found in Egypt,
in sculptured representations of the divine Triad, Amun, Maut, and
Chons, or Osiris, Isis, and Horus, found in the temples; which were
sometimes made so as to immortalise the Pharaoh by whom the temple
Avas built. The countenance and figure of the king were given to the
supreme god, that of the queen to the divine female, and the likeness of
their son and heir to the third of the Triad. This practice was carried
by the Romans to the greatest lengths ; so that private families indulged
in this feeling of personal ambition, by employing modellers to form
their visages in the character of the gods ; and these facts will doubtless
go far to explain the very evident mixture of human and divine expres-
sion in many of these heads, especially those which are of a Roman
character, both male and female.
We find, in the first place, the head of one of the Eoman emperors.
No. 27 (perhaps Commodus), represented as Hercules, crowned with a
NO. 27.
-HEAD OF COMMODUS AS
HERCULES.
NO. 28. — HEAD OF A LADY WITH ALL
THE ATTRIBUTES OF JUNO.
wreath of laurel. It bears, by the way, a remarkable resemblance to
the head of Napoleon Bonaparte.
In the second case, we have No. 28, the head of a lady, with all the
108 LAKES AND TENATES.
attributes of Juno ; and I possess more, all of equal interest, and charac-
teristic of the above peculiarity, which would prove that the ancients
represented the goddesses by the features of the empress, or of some
favourite lady of the day, out of compliment to them, jiist as we might
represent the goddess of song by the personification of a Jenny Lind
or a Grisi. Although they have different features, they are all adorned
with the veil and the symbols of Juno, either in the diadem or other-
wise.
No. 29 is decidedly of a Eoman character, and probably represents
some lady high in station — perhaps the wife of an
emperor who had bestowed favoiu's upon the city of
Tarsus, or was popular in the empire. Some person
acquainted Avith Roman antiquities may probably
suj^ply the name. This head is well modelled.
Referring back to No. 6, Ave have another beau-
tiful representation of the goddess Juno, with the
diadem and veil, but with diiferent featiu'es. This is
one of the fine pieces of the collection, and would
appear, from its perfect state, to be more modern,
were it not for the great beauty of its execution.
NO. 29.— HEAD (re- When persons of high rank were invested with
DUCED) OF A LADY, (Jiyine houoiu-s, thc cornucopia was placed in the
TEMP. EMP. CLAtJDiAN. ' ^ ^
hand, as in No. 28.
" Reviewing the whole collection," says Mr. Abington, " there is a
strange incongruity of high artistic excellence and bad workmanship,
such as we find in the plaster images of the Italians, which are moulded
from good originals, but made by men of very inferior skill. The trade
of figure-making was chiefly in the hands of the Greeks, and the magis-
trates permitted them to take casts of statues of the gods, which were
puljlic property, in order to promote domestic religion, by giving a
plentiful supply of copies. There Avas a figure of INIerciu-y in the
Ceramicus at Athens, Avhich had been so often moulded, that it Avas
saturated, and shone with the oil used in the operation. The practice
was so general, that the Greek figure-makers pirated the works of all the
great artists Avherever they could get access to them, and got Avealthy
by their impositions upon tlie rich Romans, Avho Avished to make a dis-
play of taste in their mansions, but Avere unable to discriminate between
an original and a base copy.
" The greater part of the moulds, however, Averc of clay. The fi'ag-
ments of lamps in some instances Avere made by casting, i.e.hy pouring
clay iu a thin fluid state ; the plaster-mould absorbs the Avater, and gives
MAKING CASTS.
1C9
a more regular thickness of clay than is seen in those articles which
were made by pressing clay into the mould with the fingers. I might
add other remarks upon this subject, but they would be of no interest
to any but a ^^otter.
" On comjiaring these remains with modern figures, we see what
benefit the arts derived from the use of plaster, of which moidds are
now made, which being rim in a fliud state, sets hard like a stone,
giving an accui'ate counterpart of the model, with joints or seams which
fit perfectly close. The ancients generally made their models of clay,
which woidd be difficult to press up to the recesses of the moidd, and
could never give close joinings, and woidd certainly be distorted in pidl-
ing off. Clay moidds would also shrink greatly in bm-ning ; this woidd
occasion a rapid reduction in the size of images which were copied from
one another, and bring down a life-size to a miniature very soon.
"Apply these remarks to No. 15. This Hercules is a copy of a
well-known but much larger figure. The beauty of the original is seen
NO. 15.— HERCULES.
NO. 12. — PALLAS.
even through the disguise which bad workmanship has thrown around
it: the same may be said of No. 12, and many others.
" But when the modeller at Tarsus had to produce an Apollo in
character, as the tutelar deity of that city, he was thrown upon his
own resources; and the result is, that No. 7 is far inferior to No. 23,
which was a piracy from the work of a superior artist, but to which
rays were added to adapt it to the traditional form worshipped in Asia
Minor.
170 LARES AND PENATES.
" The defectiveness of the mould caused very thick and ugly seams
where the two sides of the mould are brought together.* These have
not been taken off, as they would be by an artist, and indicates that they
were sold at a low price.
" These specimens also shew that the ancient potters were unac-
quainted with the use of sponge in their operations. You may per-
ceive, on the back sides, the impress of the Avorkmen's fingers in forc-
ing the clay into the moulds ; if they had beaten the clay in with a
ball of sponge, the noses, lips, and eyelids would have been perfect. "We
receive this indispensable article (sponge) from the Levant, where it grew
almost at the doors of these terra-cotta image-makers, without their
being aware of its value."
That the ancients were well acquainted, however, with the art of
making fluid plaster, and images of the same material, there is no doubt.
This is confirmed by what Pliny says,"]" whereby it would appear that
in his time the art was of great antiquity, more so than brass-founding.
He says:
" Hominis autem imaginem gypso e facie ipsa primus omnium ex-
pressit ceraque in eam formam gypsi infusa emendare instituit Lysis-
tratus Sicyonius, frater Lysippi, de quo diximus. Hie et similitudinem
reddere instituit; cum antequam pulcherrimas facere studebant. Idem
et de signis effigiem exprimere invenit, crevitque res in tantum, ut nulla
signa statuajve sine argilla fierunt. Quo apparet antiquiorem hanc
fuisse scientiam quam fundendi seris." But plaster is so prone to absorb
moisture and to return to powder, that it is not to be wondered at if we
had no practical demonstration of the knowledge of this art, until the
four specimens in this collection were first dis-
covered. Of these I give one drawing (No. 30),
which doubtless represents the head of Venus. Mr.
Abington says : " I am persuaded of the value of
these heads, and look upon them as objects not to
be matched by any collection. The heads are hol-
low, proving that they were cast in a mould, in the
same manner as practised by the Italians.
" The ancients used gypsum or alabaster, the
NO. 30. — PLiVSTER stone from which plaster is prepared for purposes
OF vENus! ^^ sculpture and ornament; but I have never before
met Avith any evidence of their having prepared it
by calcination for the casting of figures. These specimens, however,
* Which may best be seen on examination of the objects themselves.
+ Natural History, lib. xxxv. 153.
CILICIAN POTTERS. 171
render the fact indubitable." However numerous their works in plas-
ter may have been, it is not surprising that such poor remains as these
should be unique, for no material is so destructible. Water dissolves
it rapidly; frost also destroys it. In a European climate such remains
must have perished utterly ; and their preservation can only be accounted
for by the dryness of the place in which they were entombed, and
which I have described as above the present level of the ground, and
about sixty feet above that of the ancient city of Tarsus, on the sides of
a hill that covered these monuments for some thirty moi'e feet with
dry sandy rubbish.
" They do not seem to have been very skilful," continues Mr. Abing-
ton, " in the management of this plaster: the moulds, which the potter
made of plaster, were such as I would not tolerate in a manufactory.
The plaster was run upon the model to make the mould in such an
unskilful way that the air was shut in the deep parts of the work, form-
ing bubbles in the mould. This, when the clay is pressed in the mould,
occasions those bead-like protuberances Avhich disfigure the work, and
prove that the mould was plaster, and not burnt clay.
" These specimens may now be considered of much interest, inas-
much as they appear to be the unique remains of an art evidently well
known to the ancients, but of which only an account has come down to
us in history. The Assyrians and others carved gypsum in its natural
state ; but the art of calcining and grinding, and then restoring it to a
stony state, by renewing the water of crystallisation, is a very different
thing ; and it would appear further, from a part of a wainscot ornament
executed in calcined gypsum, that it was the habit of the plasterers of
those days to use this ingredient as in later times — that is, to form the
ornament in a mould, and then to fix it in the place intended."
With regard to the date to which we should attribute these interest-
ing remains, I must remark, that as the coins found with them were
struck from 150 to 200 years B.a, and as we see from No. 29, where
the female figure bears the hair dressed in the fashion of the Augustan
age, we must conclude that they existed between these two epochs, and
may therefore give a diflference in date of upwards of three centuries
between some of these various fragments. In No. 29, the very artificial
and elaborate manner in which the hair is dressed shews that it was pro-
bably of the Claudian period. Messalina, the fifth wife of this emperor,
is represented with her hair in this same fashion. The great ampux or
frontal, with which the head is cro^vned, is characteristic of the same
age. It is rather the effigy of some great lady of the empire than a
divinity — possibly an empress who might have rendered the province
172 LARES AND PENATES.
some service, or was a native of it. It is plaited in the elaborate man-
ner practised by the Roman ladies, and which is censured by the Apostle
Paul and by the Roman satirist, on account of the sacrifice of time which
it occasioned. It may represent the head of Juno, and be the resem-
blance of the favourite female of the day, as has already been remarked.
In order to form an approximate idea of the time when these Penates
were destroyed, I must now (|Uote from Neander's Church History., as
elucidative of the supposed introduction of Christianity into CiUcia, of
which we have no positive mention in general history: " The easy means
of communication Avithin the vast Roman empire ; the close relation be-
tween the Jews dispersed through all lands and those of Jerusalem ; the
manner in which all parts of the empire were linked Avith the great capital
of the world ; the connexion of the provinces with their metropolitan
town, were all circumstances favourable to the diffusion of Christianity.
These cities, such as Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesiis, Corinth, were centres
of commercial, political, and literary correspondence ; and hence became
also the principal seats chosen for the propagation of the gospel, where
the first preachers tarried longest.
"As a general thing, Christianity at first made progress in the cities,
for it was needful above all to gain fixed seats for the propagation of the
gospel ; the first preachers, passing rapidly over the country, had to pro-
pose their message first in the cities, whence it might be afterwards more
easily diffused by native teachers.
" In the New Testament we find accounts of the dissemination of Chris-
tianity in Syria, in Cilicia, probably also in the Parthian Empu'e, at that
time so widely extended ; in Arabia, in the Lesser Asia, and the coimtries
adjacent, &c. But we are greatly deficient in further and credible ac-
coimts on this subject ; the later traditions, growing out of the eager-
ness to trace each national chiu'ch to an apostoUc origin, desen'e no
examination."
It is certain that Christianity was early diffused in Cilicia, though it
is not until a.d. 160 or 170 that we find indications that the king was a
Christian.* He forbade the mutilation connected with the worship of
Cybele; and it is on the coins of this prince that the usual symbols
of Baal worship of this country are for the first time found wanting,
and tlie sign of the cross appears in their place. In the year 202 the
• Abgar- Bar-man. Thero is another king of the same name, said by the Arme-
nians to have sent persons to Clirist to ask for his jiortrait, which the Saviour granted
him by placing a handkerchief on his face that bore miraculously the impress of his
features; and this is why the Armenians admit of paintings in their chm'ches, while
sculpture is excluded^ sis in the Greek Chvu-ch.
INTRODUCTION OP CHRISTIANITY INTO CILICIA. 173
Christians had already a church buiU, as it seems, after the model of
the Temple of Jerusalem.
The theory of these fragments of household gods having been throMTi
out of the city in consequence of the introduction of Christianity, we
may regard as admitted and settled. But the problem now is, when this
took place. The last extract from Neander would seem to suggest an
examination of the coins of Tarsus, and to see when they ceased to bear
the symbols, &c. of heathen worship. But this examination of the
coins of that city would not decide the question, as it might have done
if Tarsus had been an independent kingdom ; but being a provincial
city, its imperial masters woidd continue the fashion of the coinage long
after the acceptance of the gospel by the inhabitants of this distant city.
We know that, in many cases, the inhabitants of cities renounced the
worship of idols, and suffered persecution for it, long before their gover-
nors followed their example. The learned author of the life of St. Paul
has not been able to find any thing decisive upon this question. We may
therefore conclude that there is nothing remarkable in the records of
history relating to it. His conjectiu-es are very reasonable and well-
founded, no doubt ; still they are but conjectures.
The qviestion, therefore, must be left open. Were these remains —
these mutilated, dishonoured images — once the objects of religious regard,
thro"wn out of the city in consequence of a movement produced by the
missionary visit of Paul and Silas ?
The authors of the life of St. Paid seem incHned to this solution of
the query. The act appears to have been sudden. The clearance of
the lararia of a few famiHes of respectability would furnish all that
have been foimd. Such a movement would be analogous to the sacri-
fice of valuable books made in consequence of the preaching of the
apostles. Such a rejection of idols Avas, in many instances, followed
by persecution ; and this conflict was severe in many parts of the empire
before Christianity was finally established. It may, therefore, be ad-
mitted as possible, that these memorials indicate the earliest triumphs of
the religion of the cross, and the suggestion already made be confirmed,
that they need not be considered of later date than the close of the first
century, or beginning of the second.
In Bulwer's Rise and Fall of Athens, in the chapter on the Eehgion
of the Greeks, after speaking of various theorists, who refer the origin of
the Greek mythology to Northern Thrace or Phoenicia, or the Hebrews,
or India, or Eg^-pt, he says, " Accept common sense as our guide, and
tlie mystery is less obscure.
*' In a deity essentially Gi'eek, a Phoenician colonist may discover
174
LARES AND PENATES.
something familiar, and claim an ancestral god. He imparts to tlie
native deity some Phoenician features ; an Egyptian or an Asiatic suc-
ceeds him, discovers similar likeness, and introduces similar innovations.
The lively Greek receives, amalgamates, appropriates all ; but the ab-
ori"-inal deity is not the less Greek. Each speculator may be equally
ricfht in establishing a partial resemblance, precisely because all specu-
lators are wrong in asserting a perfect identity.
" It follows as a corollary from the above reasoning, that the
religion of Greece was much less uniform than is popularly ima-
gined.
" 1st. Because each separate state, or canton, had its own peculiar
deity.
" 2dly. Because in the foreign communication of new gods, each
stranger Avould especially import the deity that at home he had more
especially adored. Hence, to every state its tutelary god, the founder
of its greatness, the guardian of its renown. Even each tribe, inde-
pendent of the public worship, liad its peculiar deities honoured by
peculiar rites.
" The Grecian mythology differed in many details in the different
states ; but under the development of a general intercourse, assisted by
a common language, the plastic and tolerant genius of the people har-
monised all discords. I think it miglit be abundantly shewn that the
Phoenician influences upon the early mythology of the Greeks were far
greater than the Egyptian, though by degrees, and long after the heroic
age, the latter became more eagerly adopted, and more superficially
apparent."
These observations are written as if
the present collection of terra-cottas were
before the learned writer. The amalga-
mation of the Phoenician Baal with the
Grecian Apollo, and the other mixtures
which have already been referred to and
brought to light, have in the above quo-
tation a commentary prepared for them
and written before their resurrection
from their tomb !
In exemphfication of this, I wUl
now cite such as most conduce to the
confirmation of this reasoning, and then
proceed, as far as the limits of the pre-
[so. 31. YOUNG ATYs. seut work will admit, with an accoimt
MYTHOLOGICAL ANALOGIES.
175
of such of the remaining pieces of the collection as may appear to merit
special notice.
No. 31. These two fragments, when reunited, give us a very fine
model of a boy. Mr. Birch thinks it was intended to represent Atys, a
celebrated shepherd, of whom Cybele was enamoured, and who after-
wards became her high priest: after his death, Atys received divine
honours, and temples were raised to his memory, particiilarly at Dymaj,
a town of Achaia, Others have thought this represented Mercury in his
youth.
He would thus appear in his character of a herdsman, vvdth a
hooded cloak and the pedum, or crooked stick, in allusion to his ex-
ploit in stealing the flock of King Admetus, when intrusted with it by
Apollo.
This is a beautiful piece of modelling ; the soft folds of the drapery
are admirable, and the reason for giving it precedence to all the others is
— first, because I consider it one of the choice pieces of the collection ;
and secondly, because, as it has a cap not unlike the Phrygian cap, it
might be considered also as representing some of the deities of this
nation, and thus form a connecting link between the Egyptian and
Cilician mythology: as the Phoenicians must have carried into Greece,
with their learning, the mythology imported from the Egyptians ; and
Phrygia was colonised by the Greeks, receiving its name from the
Bryges, a nation of Thrace and Macedonia, who came to settle there.
In confirmation of Mr. Birch's observation, I will remark that Cybele
was the chief deity of the country, and her festivals were observed with
great solemnity by these people, who, residing on the same peninsula
imparted their religious creeds to their neigh-
bours, the Cilicians, who must have also had fre-
quent communications with them by sea.
No. 32. These two fragments, which, like the
rest, appear to have been purposely broken by the
new converts to Christianity, as having been con-
taminated by being in juxtaposition with idol-wor-
ship, have now been united after a separation of
nearly eighteen centuries. They give us the leg of
a horse ; the truncated part of the thigh shews that
it is complete in itself, and that it never formed
part of an entire figure. Apollo, as worshipped at
Tarsus, partaking of the attributes of the Syrian
Baal, was the patron of horses, and horses were ^^" 3—— leg of a
_' / ... . HORS]'', (VOTIVE
sacrificed to him. This is most likely a votive offering).
176
LARES AND PENATES.
memorial of a cure obtained for a liorse from some lameness or disease
of the leg, and whicli "was presented to the deity to record the gratitude
of the owner.
The mysteries of Cybele certainly originated among the Egyptian
priesthood, although in later ages the Phrygians seem to have intro-
duced the worship of this deity. Mater Dei et hominujn, on the continent
of Asia ; hence we see in this collection many pieces in commemoration
of this goddess: one of the finest specimens is the head, No. 33. This
beautiful head is crowned with corn, as
Ceres is sometimes represented. The
features are not in such high relief as
the rest of the specimens, in conse-
quence of the workman not having
pressed the clay close into the mould;
but even with this defect, it is an in-
teresting head. Cybele was generally
represented as a robust woman, far
advanced in pregnancy, to intimate
the fecundity of the earth. Here at
Tarsus she is identified with Ceres, who
is the same as the Isis of the Egyptians,
whose worship was first brought into
Greece by Erechtheus. The Eleusinian
mysteries, which descended from the
Egyptian secrets of initiation, have left
their traces in Asia Minor; and to this
day we have several tribes who live
quite distinct from the others, in separate villages chiefly, and to whom
are falsely attributed all the vile practices of which their forefathers
were accused, in consequence of their persisting in keeping secret their
religious rites. Among these stand pre-eminent the Fellahins of Syria,
the Yezidi of Asia Minor, and the Ali lllahi of Persia, — all three
sects closely connected, and who still keep up a kind of freemasonry,
which affords certain privileges to the initiated descendants oi Ansar,
their chief I have lived much among these people, and will bear
witness to their morality and the chastity of their women. Their
religion, from all I could learn, was a kind of Deism, which enabled
them to distinguish the errors of their neighbours, and kept them, by
their horror of idolatry and superstition, from amalgamating with the
many tribes who have vanquished them, without subduing their judg-
ment; and on the whole, I consider their morals superior to those of their
NO. 33, — HEAD OF CERES.
WORSHIP OF ISIS.
177
neighbours, even the benighted erring Christians of the East, who have,
alas, but a faint glimpse of true Christianity.
Mr. R. Payne Knight observes, that Isis is frequently confounded
with the personification of Fortune and Victory, each having the crown
or chaplet of immortality. I have many specimens in this collection
which may bear on this subject, and represent Fortune.
No. 34 has both the radiation and the diadem, with which Juno
is often represented; but as there is no
sign of any veil, I do not imagine that this
goddess was intended to be represented
by this beautifid fragment, although we
may evidently trace on the top of the
sceptre, which the figure held in its right
hand, and leaning over its shoulder, a
crown often forming the acme of this en-
sign of royalty.
The Greeks and Eomans, who adopted
the worship of Isis, varied these figures
very much from the original Egyptian type,
introducing difterent symbols to signify the various attributes of univer-
sal nature. In this character Isis is confounded with the personification
of Fortune or Victory, which in reality is no other than Providence. The
modius upon the head is also found on the head of Pluto, Serapis, and
Venus. All the heads with the modius are probably intended for Isis, in
those modifications of figure, and also of worship, above referred to.
The bow, which seems to form an arch over the head of No. 20, and of
which there are only two specimens in this collection might sviggest the
NO. 34. — HEAD WITH THE
ATTRIBUTES OF JUNO.
NO. 20.— IHIS.
NO. 35. — COMIC MASK.
178
LAHES and PENATES.
idea that they were intended to represent Iris ; and as the figui'es of
this goddess were gaudily painted, it might have been done in water-
colours, which have disappeared through age, whereas those that were
painted in fresco, with a layer of lime, still retain strong marks both of
the lime and the body-colours used. See particularly No. 35, which is
a fragment of a large comic mask that seems to have been fixed to a wall
at a considerable height, as the eyes are looking downwards. The ear
is bored, probably for the purpose of fixing it more firmly. It was
perhaps part of a decoration of a theatre, and was covered with a
thick coat of paint, and must have been rejected as an image connected
uith idoJatry, by those who condemned it to take place with the rest of the
pieces of this collection, and been cast out from the temples and private
residences of the Cilicians on their conversion. It is natural to suppose
that all figures would share the same fate, by reason of the zeal of the
new converts to a, faith that as yet could scarcely be expected to be
sufficiently understood, to admit a distinction being made between a
mask and an image of a deity. This is, doubtless, why we find it here,
as well as No. 36, which is remarkable for being radiated, — why, it
■>"0. 36, — COJtlC MASK (SMALI>).
NO. 16. — ADONIS AS APOLLO WITH
THE CLOAK AND BKOOCH.
would be diflScult lo guess, unless we may trace out an idea from its
resemblance to Silenm, who, as the preceptor of Bacchus, stands as a
demigod, and who received after his death divine honours, and had a
temple at Ells, the present Belvedere, which was a large and populous
city in the time of Demosthenes, though it did not exist in the age of
Homer.
Adonis (No. 16) is also represented by the Greek artists as andro-
gynous. He was especially honoured in Syria, the supposed scene of
his death by the wild boax^ and being a special favourite of Apollo,
ADONIS. 179
who was so particularly revered at Tarsus (in which latter conclusion
we are confirmed by the great many representations we find this god
to possess in this collection of the Cilician Penates), it is not astonishing
to find him here in company with the other objects of worship : we
may observe that he has a cloak and brooch, with which his patron,
the Apollo de Belvedere, was represented. He is the Tammuz of
Ezekiel, viii. 14. In Egypt, the tales of the loves and misfortunes of
Isis and Osiris are the counterpart of those of Venus and Adonis.
Adonis or Adonai was an oriental title of the Sun, signifying Lord ; and
the boar, which was supposed to have killed him, was the emblem of
Winter. After his death, he passed six months with Proserpine, six
with Venus ; signifying the increase and decrease of solar influence
(will this connect him in identity with Apollo ?). Byblus in Syria was
the chief scene of his rites ; there the women annually mourned his
death, and celebrated his renovation. These mysteries were held by
the uninitiated in the same estimation as those of Ceres and Bacchus
at Eleusis (already referred to), and Isis and Osiris in Egypt. The
Phrygian tales of Cybele and Atys seem to be another version of this
same fable. One specimen has been painted with a ground-colour of
blue, and then red, or probably flesh-colour, and has the stamp of
Grecian art.
Mr. Abington remarks of this piece, and several others similar in
the collection : — " They are all of high art ; it is not too much to say
that, as sculptures, they are of great value." No. 1 6 exhibits the hu-
man form in the very perfection of human symmetry — no wonder that
Venus fell in love at first sight. The artist has done his part well in
this beautiful conception of the adored Adonis. The ivy chaplet shews
the relation there was between the rites of Adonis and those of Bacchus;
both embodied the same mystic signs, and out of compliment to Apollo.
Among the animals that denote the link in the remains of Egyptian
worship, we have the representation of a cat, symbol of the Moon, on
account of its faculty of seeing in the dark, or rather by night. The
Egyptians worshipped the Moon under this figure, which denotes fecun-
dity; and their reverence for cats is peculiarly demonstrated by the
many thousands of their mummies which are found preserved with the
same care they bestowed on the bodies of their nearest and dearest
relations, and on the ibis, a bird sacred to the goddess Isis.
We have also representations of a dog, the patient expression of
which is very characteristic : the animal seems as if he were waiting for
his master to take him out. It is a symbol of Hermes, Mercury, and
the Anubis of the Egyptians. When Osiris went on his expedition into
180
LARES AND PENATES.
India, Anubis accompanied him and clothed himself in a sheep's skin.
In this collection we find him represented as a dog of the woolly
species. Some make him the brother of Osiris, some his son by
Nepthys. We must not therefore wonder at seeing him in such com-
pany. This piece had a hole below the right ear, probably to hang it
by. For what purpose these two pieces, representing dog and cat, were
used, it is difficult to guess, but it was most probably connected with
some religious rite.
There is also a head of a horse, sculptured very rudely in tufa lime-
stone, and painted with a colour which has penetrated and given a very
hard surface to the stone. There is a cavity in the lower jaw — a mor-
tice, to receive a support, upon which it was elevated. The horse was
one of the Roman ensigns. They were carried upon poles, which
branched in some instances like a Y or Y at the top, to support the
horse, boar, &c.
If this was the symbol of Eoman power, it must be very ancient, as
quadrupeds were laid aside in the consulship of Marius (b.c. 104), and
the eagle alone retained.
But if admitted to be the symbol of Roman dominion, we cannot
suppose that it was carried with the army, but was, perhaps, erected
over the entrance of some public place, court, or head- quarters of the
garrison ; and, being considered as an image forbidden by the Christian
religion, shared the same fate as those which had been really objects
of worship. The same observations may be applied to No. 37, which
demonstrates a knowledge of anatomy that woidd
do credit to any epoch.
The city of Tarsus owed a debt of gratitude to
Alexander for having delivered it from the Per-
sians at the moment they were going to burn it.
A city was built by Alexander in honour of his
favourite horse : has this fragment any relation
to this place ? or is it not natural to conclude, irom
the many remains of horses we find in this collec-
tion, that the inhabitants of Tarsus regarded Bu-
cephalus with a lavourable eye as the bearer of
his master in their salvation from thraldom ? Or
another guess may be allowed : Is this one of
the horses of the Sun, connected witli the worship
of Baal or Apollo ? Such a surmise is supported
by another fragment existing in this collection, which shews the head of
a second horse coupled to it, as if attached to a chariot, and also by the
NO. 37. — HEAD OF A
HORSE.
HARPOCRATES.
181
many votive memorials of horses' limbs. The horse is a device found
on the medals of many Greek cities.
We have also the snout of a hippopotamus. The Egyptians repre-
sented Typhoa by this animal ; and upon his back they put a hawk
fighting with a serpent. This is one of the many proofs of the pre-
valence of Egyptian superstitions at Tarsus, owing to the intercourse
between the learned men of the schools at Tarsus and those of the
schools at Alexandria.
Out of many beautiful specimens, I have selected one (No. 38),
which Mr. Birch has denominated Har-
pocrates, who was the same as Horus
(of the Egyptians), son of Isis. By
the Romans he is represented as hold-
ing one of his fingers to his mouth, in-
timating that the mysteries of religion
and philosophy ought never to be re-
vealed to the people.
As a further illustration of the
spread of Egyptian worship, I will ob-
serve, that I jiossess a small brass image
of this god, which was found in the
plain of Babylon, and which I bought
on the spot from one of those who,
after a heavy shower, scour the ruins,
in order to pick up what cylinders and
other curiosities the rain may have ex-
posed to view by washing off the dust.
I was there in February, and witnessed
the interest taken by the inhabitants
of the villages in the environs of the
ruins of this celebrated city, which has
for years yielded up, and still continues
to furnish, on such occasions, many a
valuable remnant in confirmation of
the wonderful accounts of its ancient
splendour. I must here add, that some
of these heads have been considered by
connoisseurs to represent Isis herself,
the face being more like that of a female,
and bearing the Nelumbium* on the head: whereas others have more the
HARPOCRATES.
* The sacred Egj-ptian bean is the fruit of the Nelumhium speciosum, which gi-ows
182 LARES AND PENATES.
features of a youtli, and may be supposed to represent her son ; but on
this I will presume to form no decision. Indeed, it would be impos-
sible to do more than throw out such hints as may lead the learned
to express opinions based on more scientific reasons and further re-
search, which I am far from being prepared or competent to do.
In further confirmation of an undoubted fact of the Egyptian my-
thology having been cultivated at Tarsus, we have many heads of bulls
representing either Mnevis, the celebrated bull, sacred to the sun, in tlie
town of Heliopolis, and regarded as the emblem of Osiris, or else Apis,
No. 19, and into which the soul of Osiris was
supposed to have passed. The hole in the fore-
head might have been for the purpose of fas-
tening a disc of some other material, probably
gold. The head was painted red. The mildness
of the expression Avould induce us to identify it
with the Grecian /o, which was but a modifica-
tion of the Egyptian myth.* If we prefer the
idea that No. 19 may be Jupiter in the form as-
sumed for the rape of Europa, it suits the poet's
NQ. 19.— APIS. , . . ^ ,,
description very well :
" Large rolls of fat about liis shoulders slung.
And from his neck the double dewlap hung ;
Small shining horns on his curled forehead stand.
As turned and polished by the workman's hand ;
His eyeballs rolled, not formidably bright,
But gazed and languished, with a gentle light."
There are several beautiful specimens, representing the ox, in basso-
relievo, among which is one on a lamp, where may be seen portrayed
a sacrifice to Apis, the sacred bull of Egypt. The bull has the sun
between his horns. The priest has the lotus ornament on his head, and
holds in his right hand a basket : a festoon is suspended over his head.
The altar has a fire burning : the scene is a temple.
Further, we have part of a vase, round which were represented, in
relievo, heads of an ox, surrounded by a festoon of llowcrs which divided
in the waters of the Nile. Linnaeus calls it Nynyphaa Nelumho; a common name ap-
plied to it is Lotus, or Egyptian water-lily : it is the see<l-vos3el which is used in
mythology. The fruit of the plant contains a number of seeds, which are not shed
when ripe, but germinate in their cells, the parent fruit affording them nutriment
imtil they are of a magnitude to burst their way out, when they release themselves and
sink to the bottom, where they take root, and become independent plants. It was
therefore chosen as a symbol of the reproductive power of natm-o. The Hindoos,
Chinese, Tartars, Japanese, &c., all use it to express the sjime idea. Their deities arc
seated on a lotua flower. * See Ovid. i.
NEPTUNE AND MORPHEUS. 183
each head. This vessel was doubtless used in some of the libations
during the ceremonies of the priests, or carried in honour of Apis.
I will conclude these remarks, which have been suggested by the
inspection of such pieces as I thought implied the close analogy of the
Egyptian worship with that of the Cilicians, by referring to another
piece, which seems to be of totally different manufacture from any of the
others, and was not improbably brought from Egypt, and found its way
to the outer gates of the city, from having been in company with the other
objects of worship.* It is crowned with the lotus, and round the full
head of hair there appears to be a chaplet of ivy. It is a young face,
and of an Egyptian cast altogether. I have set it down as Horus, the
son of Osiris and Isis.
I can only discover a few specimens which would indicate that the
worship of Neptime was not entirely neglected. This is remarkable, as
I shoidd have expected to have seen many more signs of this god ; the
CiUcians having been decidedly a maritime nation, they would certainly
have propitiated in their favour the god of the sea. In the first, we have
an interesting piece of pottery. " It is," says Mr. Abington, " a frag-
ment of a shallow bowl or dish, five and three quarter inches in dia-
meter, made for the service of Neptime or some sea-god. If the centre
had been left, it would have contained some symbol which would have
decided this. The edge is worked into waves, and the cavity of the
bowl is impressed with lines forming fish-scales. This kind of ornament
could not be continued to the centre, as it would have converged into
confusion ; there must have been a central panel or compartment. It
is made of coarse clay, and, after it was turned on the wheel, it was
dipped into a slip of white clay, containing a large portion of lime, to
make it stiU whiter. The scales were then
impressed, and ornamented by a pencil dipped
in a thin ochreous clay, which gives the red-
dish-brown stains. It was then burnt."
In another, we have the tail of a fish, pro-
bably half-man.!
The only sign of Morpheus, the god of sleep,
that I have discovered, is No. 39, the head of
a lad half asleep ; it is of beautiful workman-
ship, and would prove that they were not a
sleepy nation who could model such a het^d !
* On a closer examination of this collection, it wUl be found that many Indian gods
bearing the features of the Budists and Bramins had accumulated in Tarsus before the
introduction of Christianity.
f See the tale of Ovid, " Mariners transformed to Dolphins."
CHAPTER III.
APOLLO APOLLO BELVEDERE — CARICATURES OF SHDAS — APOLLO OF TARSUS
SENATOR IN THE CLAVUS LATUS LION ATTACKING A BULL TELEPHUS
OR MERCURY? CERES VICTORY — DATE OF DESTRUCTION OF THE LARES
METAMORPHOSIS OF ACTJEON INTO A STAG — REMARKS OF MR. BIRCH.
I WILL now proceed to note some observations regarding Apollo, who
appears to have been the god most in favour among the Cilicians. We
have copies of the admirable statue of the Apollo Belvedere, so called from
having been placed in the Belvedere of the Vatican by Pope Jidius II. ;
it w^as found in the ruins of Antium, in Italy, in the hiteenth cen-
tury. It is supposed to have been executed by an Ephesian artist, for
one of the Roman emperors — some think Nero. These miniature copies,
found in a distant province, shew how popular that beautiful figure must
have become immediately after it« production. One of these, which is
better executed than the others, shews traces of the painting — a speck of
red on the flesh, and the cloak has some remains of green, and much of
the red paint remains on another. There are a great many fragments
representing Apollo in various ways, and we must conclude this idol was
the chief object of superstitious worship at Tarsus ; his image was no
doubt in every house : for this reason his remains are more numerous
than the other objects of heathen idolatry. There is one of good Grecian
work, which appears to have been diademed. It has very much the ex-
pression of the Apollo Belvedere, though the hair is not knotted. The
dignified repose, and the scornful look of the mouth, seem to identify it
with the slayer of the Python. But one of the most certain of the identi-
fications of Apollo is where»he is represented with a cro"\\Ti of rays on
his head, being often taken for the Sun, Phccbus, and Hyperion.
As this god was so much in repute tit Tarsus, we should expect that
out of compliment to him caricatures of Midas, with lengthened ears.
BEAUTY OF THE SPECIMENS. 185
would abound ; hence we find several, among which I have singled
out No. 40. It is remarkable for another singularity ; the head
never belonged to any statue, but was detached, standing upon special
pedestals, one of which was found, and although it did not actually
belong to No. 40, I have adopted it in
order to exemplify a singular peculiarity.
These were not intended as Lares, but pro-
bably, on the contrary, made to be scoffed
at ; and we perceive that the heads of Pan,
the rival of Apollo in the art of music,
in this collection, are in the same shape.
Other heads there are with only a bust,
as, for instance, one representing a young ^^ ^q _mid vs
woman in a tunic, well modelled, with a
jewelled necklace, such as we see in the British Museum.
Hitherto I have endeavoiu'ed to bring to the reader's notice such
pieces as I thought might best explain the nature and intention of the
whole collection. I have also endeavoured to afford an idea of the very
great variety of the objects ; but here I must confess that I begin to
despair of being able to convey an adequate idea of the whole, unless
a drawing of almost every piece should be made, which is beyond the
limits of the present publication. I have by no means chosen the most
beautiful pieces ; indeed, some of the choicest remain to be described :
and I fear the artist will despair of being able to delineate their beauty
with sufficient acciu-acy. Mr. Waldon tried to express the beauties of
one piece (the head emblematical of the city of Tarsus, see vignette
in title-page), in coloui'ed lithography ; and although he exerted every
possible faculty of the artist and the Hthographer, he has confessed
that he came far short of the original, the beauty and grace of which
are inimitable, and apparent in spite of the destroying hand of tim^.
Mr. Abington says of this piece : " It has suffered more from age than
many of the others, in consequence of its having been btrt imperfectly
bm-nt by the potter. Enough of its excellence remains to make us
■wish that more of a figure in such good drawing could be obtained.
Every position in which you view this fragment calls forth our admira-
tion." Alas, I found no duphcate of this gem !
But setting aside the beauty of many of the pieces which deserve to
stand forth as perfect gems, I will now proceed to note a few more, on
which certain observations have been suggested, which, although un-
connected, I think will afford sufficient interest to the reader to require
no further apology for my introducing them without any other ulterior
186
LAKES AND PENATES.
NO. 41. — IMAGE OF A SE-
NATOK WITH THE CLA-
VUS LATUS.
object. Indeed, the whole nature of the collection is such, that I question
if any possibility of identification of each piece could be arrived at ; and
nothing more than suggestions can be expected, at least not without a
much deeper study than I am prepared, or even competent to give to
the subject.
With these remarks I proceed, first, with No. 41, which is one of
the most precious pieces, inasmuch as it gives
a clear solution of a question which has been
hitherto undecided. The image is that of a
senator or magistrate of high rank : he wears
the toga, and over it a kind of belt or scarf,
fringed at the ends and embroidered, which is
unquestionably the clavus latus, — an article
Avhich has given rise to much difference of
opinion among modern writers. Ferrarius sup-
posed it to be a band thrown over the shoulders,
the ends hanging down in front, as in fact it is.
Others say that it was a round loop or buckle,
resembling the head of a nail, fastened to the
dress in trout of the chest. Others, again, that
it was an ornamented hem sewn on to, or woven
in the dress, or that it was figuring upon the dress itself. Dr. Smith, or
rather Anthony Rich, B.A., who supplied the article in Smith's Dictionanj
of Antiquities, 1842, says: " it is a remarkable circumstance that no
one of the ancient statues representing persons of senatorian, consular,
or equestrian rank, contain the slightest trace in their draperies of any
thing like the accessories above referred to ; some indications of which
would not have been constantly omitted if the cla^-us latus had been a
thing of substance." He therefore comes to the conclusion that it was
merely a baud of purple colour upon the garment, which the painter
could depict, but which for want of substance could not be shewn in
sculpture. This shews how erroneous theories may sometimes bear the
appearance of truth, and carry conviction almost against the actual de-
monstration. This fragment affords conclusive evidence, and supplies
what has hitherto been sought for in vain. The clavus is a separate
article (as the band of the Order of the Bath), worn over the toga, and
exhibited with some satisfaction by the wearer, as seems by the hand-
ling of it by the figure before us. The clavus was introduced at Home
by Tullus Hostilius ; and iti s certainly remarkable that Rome, >vith
its rich stoies of sculpture, should not furnish one example of such a
valued and coveted mark of distinction ; but that the doubts concerning
LION AND BULL. ' 187
it should be cleared by a terra-cotta fragment found in a distant province
of the empire.
No. 42. A Lion attacking a Bull, unique in the collection. This is
' NO. 42. — LION ATTACKING A BULL.
(Subject of a reverse on a Cilician silver coin.)
one of the most interesting and valuable fragments in the collection : it
is a work of high art, from the hands of a first-rate artist ; the rage of
the assailant and the agony of the victim are brought out of the material
■with wonderful effect. The tale which it tells is more historical than
mythological. A country symbolised by a bull is conquered by an-
other power represented by the lion. The same symbols are found
sculptured at Persepolis ; and in Conybeare and Howson's Life of St.
Paul, now publishing, we have (p. 24) a coin of Tarsus with the head of
the Emperor Hadrian on one side, and on the reverse is this very sym-
bol, in the same draAving, as if it had been designed by the same artist.
The author says, " This coin was struck under Hadrian, and is preserved
in the British Museum : the same figures of the lion and the bull ap-
pear on a series of silver coins assigned to the period between Xerxes
and Alexander." The symbol therefore commemorates the conquest by
the Persians of the country bounded by Mount Taurus, and when Persia
was subjugated by Alexander, he adopted it, and it was used by his
successors ; hence we find it on the coins of Macedonia, though the
drawing is quite different. After the Komans, in their turn, had sub-
dued Greece and Asia Minor, Hadrian having rebuilt Tarsus, issued a
new college for it, with the old mythological types. " I consider this
fragment," says Mr. Abington, " as the most choice morsel in the col-
lection ; its artistic excellence is equal to any thing among the terra-
cottas in the British Museum, and it affords the finest example of the
heraldry of anticjuity that can be conceived."
Before we proceed further, it is requisite to refer back to another
188 LARES AND PENATES.
exquisite " morsel " given in this work under No. 8. Mr. Birch calls
it 1 elephus the son of Hercules and Auge the daughter of Aleus, who,
dreading the anger of her father, exposed him at his birth on Mount
Parthenius ; but his hfe was preserved by some shepherds, who caused
a goat to suckle him, and hence his dress as a shepherd- boy. Mr. Birch
adds, that if it be young Hermes, it is probably from a terminal figure
wrapped up in his chlamys. Mr. Abington remarks on this piece,
" This is a very clever miniature figure of the boy Mercury (Hermes
being the Grecian appellation). To appreciate the merit of this choice
morsel, we must look at the character of this divinity, whose counterpart
we may find in every house of correction. Mercury is represented
under several different characters ; as the boy he is wrapped in a close
cloak, tied or held fast under the chin ; he is often represented without
feet, as in this case, to shew that the power of speech can effect its pur-
poses without Umbs for its assistance. As soon as he was born he began
to indulge his craft and acquisitiveness, and his cloak enabled him to
carry off the plunder. He stole sheep the day after he was born : he
stole Neptune's trident, the girdle of Venus, the sword of Mars, Vulcan's
tools, and Jupiter's sceptre. The subtle innocence of the little thief is
admirably expressed by the artist, though there is not much finish in
the model. It should be prized as a gem. Mercury, as the god of
speech and eloquence, was honoured in such a city, remarkable for
learning, though I cannot refer to any evidence of the fact."
This, like No. 43, is one of the pieces in
the collection of which there is no duplicate.
Mercury was the patron of travellers and shep-
herds ; and Cilicia being on the high road between
the eastern and western nations, it is remarkable
that no more images of this god should have been
met with.
No. 43. A beautiful and simple head of a lady,
not unlike the one representing Ceres : it was
probably intended to represent the same person
NO. 43.— HEAD OF A . , • x -^ i" J 1-i. i • ^
lauy. ^"^ '^^^ private capacity oi a daughter or a bride.
iVIr. Al)ington says of this piece, " The artist has
represented nature with the most perfect truth in the front viMv and in
the profile. It was made out of a plaster mould, as may be seen by
the bleb in the corner of the mouth ; but the joining of the mould was
very imperfect, as shewn by the thick clumsy seam."
Looking to No, 14, which is a figure of Victory, with the palm
and crown, and of which we have a great many representations in
VICTORY AND ACTION.
189
this collection, by different masters, I must note, that there was a
great battle fought in Asia Minor between Septimus Severus and his
rival Piscennius Niger, in which the inhabitants of that province took
great interest. If these figures could be proved to refer to the triumph
NO. 14. — VICTORIA ALETA.
NO. 44. — ACTiEON.
of Severus, it would bring the time in which these valuable remains were
destroyed to the close of the second century, and as some of the pieces
must have existed at least one century B.C., they must have remained
stored up in the houses of the people who set a value on them, as Lares
and Penates, beyond that of common sculptures.
No. 44. From the great variety of lamps in all kinds of shapes, and
all offering, in basso-relievo, subjects of much interest, I have singled
out No. 44, which represents the metamorphosis of Actteon into a stag,
as is seen by the horns branching off from his head.
" The man began to disajjpear
By slow degrees, and ended in a deer :
A rising horn on either brow he wears,
And stretches out his neck, and pricks his ears."
Here we see him attacked by his dog, without apparentlij being able to
offer any resistance, and thus he was devoui'ed by his own hounds for
190 LARES AND PENATES.
his presumptuous curiosity in prying at Diana and her attendants while
bathing at Gargaphia.
I must here beg leave to insert ]\Ir. Birch's able and succinct ac-
count of these monuments of antiquity, to illustrate which it has been
deemed expedient to introduce only some woodcuts, as it wovdd be im-
possible to have cuts of all the pieces referred to by him.
" An examination which I have recently made of a large collection
of terra-cotta figures, consisting of above 1000 pieces, found on the site
of the ancient Tarsus by 'Mr. Barker in 1845, is so instructive to the
history of that city — celebrated for its connexion with the Assyrian
Sardanapalus, the Apostle Paul, and the apostate Julian — that I think
it important to place my observations upon record. As in the case o
the collection from the island of Calymna,* the mere inspection of sc
large a number of pieces leads to a correcter knowledge of the employ-
ment of terra-cottas, of those types which prevailed on the spot, and
of the time at which they Avere made. Hence the collection of Mr.
Barker, although containing several rej^etitions of the same figures, and
almost all in a mutilated condition,! is a most instructive comment on
the local history of the city. In style of art, too, many are of exquisite
taste and feeling, — some the most charming fragments of terra-cotta
which I have seen. These objects were found in the midst of an ancient
mound or rubbish-heap, one of the moiiti iestacei, as they are called
at Rome, which leaned on the old city-walls, the stones of which,
having been carried away by the modern inhabitants, exposed a section
of the hill : in the centre were the terra-cottas. The whole collection
had been anciently thrown away as rubbish, all tlie figxires being found,
not only broken but incomplete ; while proof existed of the former use
of the utensils, such as the lamps and vases. The figm-es also had cer-
tainly been prepared for sale, as many exhibited traces of the colours with
wliich they had been painted; consequently they could not have been
the sherd-WTCck or refuse of a potter's establishment. Mr. Barker is
disposed to think that their destruction was caxised by the progress of
Christianity, the new converts having destroyed and mutilated their
former penates and idols; but it is evident that terra-cotta must have
been constantly destroyed by accident, and conveyed to the rubbish-
mounds. In the temples, the great acciunulation of votive figures was
* See Arch. Zeit. 1848, p. 277.
+ Since Mr. Birch saw these pieces they have been restored by a first-rate sculptor,
who has done great justice to them, and renewed to life the dead and departed spirit
of the Lares, who now stand forth in all their pristine elegance and beauty.
REMARKS OF MR. BIRCH.
191
perhaps cleared out, and the fragments thrown away. I shall proceed
to describe them in the following order: — I. Figures. II. Vases.
III. Miscellaneous objects.
I. Figures. These objects, chiefly the irriXivoi deoi of the Greeks,
and sigillaria of the Romans, are principally figures of deities. They
liave all been broken, especially the heads, of which a great number
are in the collection. They are made of a remarkably fine clay, either of
a pale straw or of a red colour, the difference of which is owing to the
degree of heat to Avhich they were subject. AU of them were made in
moulds, tijpi, and hence their name of ecti/pa, or sigillaria. Mr. Abing-
ton, himself a potter, remarks, that their technical defects are owing to the
use of moidds of clay, which shrunk in the baking, distorted the original
figure, and reduced it in size. Owing also to their not joining accu-
rately, large seams, which were not pared away, were left in the places
where the moulds united. The figures also, on accoiint of the ancient
potters not using the sponge, which presses the clay into all the finer
parts, are not so sharp as they should be. The marks of the potter's
fingers are still discernible in many specimens. They were probably
retouched, as in the ^sopian fable (cccix. Kepafievg tiq tirXaTre TroXXac
oprig kv rw epyaaTrjpiu)) the potter is described as modelling birds.* The
figures were then coloured with a fresco, having first been washed aU
over wdth a white ground of lime. The crowns and rays of some figures
were blue ; the faces and bodies red, and the garments green ; the eyes
sometimes blue. The figiu-es, when complete, were represented standing
upon oval or circular pedestals, sometimes with a moulding; and one
bust was on a round motdded pedestal, very like those of marble. From
this it is evident, that many were ruder
copies of statues, probably of those in the
temples. Some few heads, grotesques, or
caricatures, have holes for plugs to fit them
to some other material ; these were probably
toys. Few of the figures exceed the height
of nine or ten inches; but part of the crowns,
and the imitated pschent of the Greek
figures of Harpocrates, were found, which
shew that some of them must have reached
between two and three feet. The first subject
of remark, indeed, is the prevalence of the Isiac
Avorship. Busts of Serapis, with the modius,
others perhaps intended for Isis (No. 11), no. 11.— isis.
* See also Lucian, Prometheus, s. 2.
192
LARES AND PENATES.
and distinct busts of Harpocrates (No. 38), as he appears at the time of
the Roman Empire, wearing on his head the crown called pschent and a
laurel wi-eath, holding the index finger of his right hand raised to his
mouth, and holding in his left hand a cornucopia, often occur repeated,
although no one figm-e is complete. Once he was represented leaning
against a colmnn. Considerable respect appears to have been paid to
this exotic cultus, which divided with that of the Ephesian Diana, the
Samian Juno, and the Phrygian Cybele, the Pantheism of Asia Minor,
and even Rome itself. Of these two other cultus no traces occur ; but
several busts from figures, which either represent the turreted head of
Cybele, or of the city of Tarsus, as it appears on the silver auton}Tiious
HEAD OF CYBELE.
NO. 45. — TUTULATED HEAD.
currency,* are among them ; and one or two of At}'s wearing the
cidaris, draped in the full garment, and holding in his left hand the
pedum. In connexion with these are several tutiUated heads (No. 45),
from figures which, when com})lete, appear to have been winged, and to
have held a cornucopia, a wreath ami palm-branches, and probably
represent the Tyche or Fortune of the state.
Li connexion with these are also several female heads, wearing
the stephane, or sphendone, and veiled, and part of a more perfect
figure, holding in the left hand a cornucopia, consequently also a form
either of Ilestia or Cybele (No. 28). Some of these are fine and
spirited, and may have composed parts of the figures of Venus, portions
• See C'oombe, Mus. Hunt.
SATURN AND VENUS.
193
of -vvliose form are in the collection. Of the usual
Hellenic divinities of Olym^Dus, and of the secondary
gods of Greece, several examples are found, but
always mider their later types. Thus a veiled head
of Chronos or Saturn (No. 46) ; one or two busts of
Zeus ; others possibly of Hero (No. 47) ; and several
of Athene wearing a Corinthian helmet. Of this
latter goddess one remarkable type occiu-s thrice.
The goddess is standing armed with the usual Corin-
thian helmet, her whole form is en^vrapped in the
peplos, her face only partially revealed. Torsos and parts of figures o f
Mercuiy, wearing the chlamys, are comparatively rare. Those of Venus,
NO. 46. — CHRONOS
OR SATURN.
NO. 47. — HERO.
NO. 48. — VENDS AT THE BATH.
whose worship was universally diffused in Asia Minor, are more abundant ;
and several types of this goddess, representing her as draped, and holding
a pigeon in her left hand, like her figure* in the old hieratic form, or as she
appears upon the coin of Cos, naked and at the bath (No. 48), her right
* Gerhard, iiber die Venusidole, Taf, iii. 4.
194
LARES AND TENATES.
NO. 13. — EEOS.
hand concealing lier nakedness, her left hand placed upon some draperjj
which covers an unguent vase — the sentiment
repeated in the Capitoline Venixs — probably the
goddess bathing prior to revealing her charms
to Paris. Another figure with the same motive
had the left hand placed imder the breasts, the
right conceahng her nakedness, and at her
side a vase ; another wearing the stephane,
naked, her right hand upon her breast. Pro-
bably certain figures of a female wearing a
stephane, and covered with a peplos, which she
unveils, are intended for the same goddess.
The Erotes, or Cupids, whose midtiplied forms
became so Pantheistic at the time of the Roman
Empire, appear to have been abimdant at
Tarsus, although few of their figures are perfect. Either he holds up
fruit, like Priapus or one of the Seasons ; or is on horseback, or holding
by both hands a conch-shell, as he appears at the Bath of Venus ; or hold-
ing the dove, or throwing his hand OA'er his head, in the same gesture
as the Bacchante of Scopas. Almost indistiugiiishable from the Erotes,
are the fragments of boyish figiu-es, of fat proportions, which may be
intended for the youthful Dionysos, especially those which wear an in-
fibulated chlamys, or have
suspended round the neck the
Eoman bulla, or where the
boy, like Telesphoros or the
yoiuig Hermes, is enveloped in
a cloak (Xo. 8, p. 158). Several
heads of other figures of this
god, either "\\dth the hair di-
vided at the forehead, or else
wearing a wreath, as in the
head of Cupid or Eros (No.
49) ; and others with the lock plaited on the head, or even plain, were
found.
Of the Delian deities, Apollo and Diana, few, if any, specimens
occur. Some heads crowned A\-ith laurel-wreaths, and some legs crossed,
from figures in that attitude, may possibly represent the Apollo (No. 10),
Citharcedus or Lycius. One head only can be assigned to Diana. The
Apollo, Phffibus, or Helios, as he appeared on the celebrated Colossus
at Rhodes, is, however, among the collection; his head suiTounded with
NO. 49. — HE.U> OF CVPW OR EROS.
FIGURES OF APOLLO AT RHODES.
195
rays, which are placed upon a nimbus, or disk, in bas-relief. This
head bears a remarkable likeness to that of the god as he is seen
upon the coins of Rhodes, and on the handles of the Rhodian amphora3;*
and the appearance of this god at Tarsus may be accounted for by the
universal diffusion of Rhodian commerce, and the increasing respect paid
to the god Helios in the days of the Ptolemies and luider the Roman
Empire. In the collection is a perfect figure of that god, of singidar
type: the head is in the radiated crown; the body is naked; the arms
and legs have never been complete, the one terminating at the thighs,
the other in the thick of the arm, and in them are holes, which do no
go tlirough the substance of the figure, for fitting on the fore-arms, and
feet, and legs in some other material, like the neurospasts or dolls, or
the acrolithic statues. The whole of the figure was coloiu-ed yellow,
in allusion to the golden shower which fell in Rhodes — the great
NO. 10. — PART OF A STATUE OF APOLLO.
NO. 18.— BACCHUS.
encomium of the city.f Few figures of the Muses, which are of such
frequent occurrence in terra-cotta collections, are found in this.
* Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, New, Series, vol. iii. VI. L
+ See Rhetores G-rseci. 8vo.
196 LARES AND PENATES.
female amply draped, lier head laureat, and leaning her elbow on a
square pilaster, resembling the supposed Polyh}innia, was perhaps one
of the Pierian quire. From the great gods, of which the cycle is so
incomjjlete, it is necessary now to pass to the demigods, the first of
whom, in rank and power, is Dionysos, whose worship in Greece was
universal at almost all periods, and whose companions, the Sileni and
the Nymphs, presented such a field for the plastic art — so many capricij
for the imagination emancipated from the hieratic style. In some cases,
the artist chose the youthfid infantine form, or else the naked youthful
god, holding the thyi-sus in his raised right hand, while his cloak is
thro'wn across his left arm, in the hand of which he holds the cantharus
by one handle (No. 18), or else his head bo^md with the credemnon,
while the nebris is thrown over his form. Some heads and fragments of
Sileni, one of remarkably fine expression (No. 1, p. 155), crowned with
a wreath of the leaves and flowers of the ivy, are complete hi them-
selves, but Avith holes for plugs beneath to insert them to the figiu'e.
Scarcely more than traces of Bacchantes exist, and those only shovm
by some uncertain heads and parts of one or two figiu-es, the attitudes
of which recall the ^ifxcupo(j)6yoQ, or goat-slayer of Scopas. A few
figures of Hercules, whose worship did not enjoy that early local pre-
ference which that of Bacchus had, as appears from the early coins
of the city, were found. There are some heads, one from a group in
which the hero as the Callinicos was crowned by victory, or else
crowned with the poplar (No. 27, p. 167), referring to the branch of the
silver poplar which he brought from Hades, Avhich was afterwards the
emblem of the Olympic victor,* or in laiu'el-wreaths ; besides which
are torsos and other parts of his form, with the club, and the hon's skin
thrown over his left arm (No. 15, p. 169). One fragment of a figure
of iEsculapius standing upon a pedestal, with part of his drapery, and
the serpent coiled round the staff at his feet, was found. There are
several figures of Victory, which were probably made and sold at the
time of the different Roman cimquests. The goddess is either advancing
forwards, hohling a crown and palm-branch (No. 14, p. 189) ; or else with
a palm-tree behind her, alhidiug to the conqiiest of Juda;a, or holding in
each hand a palm-branch, both of which meeting, form an arch or festoon
above her head (No. 20, p. 177). In all examples her hair is parted,
and rises up in a double curl at the centre of the forehead; in one in-
stance, like Tycho orFortuna, she holds a cornucopia. To Somnus may
be attributed the head of a sleeping boy, with his eyes closed, broken off
from a figure (No. 39, p. 183); and to one of the Seasons a child holding
• Theocrit. Idyll, ii. v, 121. SchoL ad eund.
PERSEUS.
197
grapes. Of heroes tliere are Perseus* killing Medusa, and the head of
the Medusa, from a group ; a heroic head in a pilos (No. 50) ; and the
naked torso of a female, possibly VeniLs. More imcertain are the head
of a youth wearing a wreath ; a Phrygian bearded head in a cidaris
(No. 51); and an old Phrygian, bearded, carrjdug a lamb; a female
NO. 50. — PERSEUS.
NO. 51. — PHRYGIAN HEAD.
head with dripping locks, perhaps of a Nereiad or Naiad ; a hand hold-
ing an apple, detached and perfect ; part of a figiu'e holding an inverted
torch ; a hand holding a lyre, placed upon a Corinthian capital ; and a
draped figxu'e, holding over the left hand and arm a narrow fringed
* We have, it appears from Mr. Abington's researches, several representations of
Perseus among the Oriental cylinders published by the Syro-Egj'ptian Society. In
one he is represented capturing Pegasus. He is altogether Bab3donian ; his bushy
hair and beard trimmed and dressed in a stj'le worthy of the son of Jupiter. His wings,
and breastplate, and falchion, all agree with the character, only differing fi-om later
sculptures in its quaintness and great antiquity. On another cyUnder we have a four-
winged figure dressed like persons of royal rank in the Assyrian sculptm-es, except the
breastplate, which seems to be jewelled, and consists of twelve compartments, like the
breastplate of the Jewish high-priest. He is very closely girded with a close belt
round the loins, and altogether like the Assyrian figures, except in the want of a beard,
which fact, together with his wings, marks him as a divine person, or a demi-god. He
has captured two ostriches ; and Mr. Abington very ingeniously and plausibly suggests
that this may refer to the great exploit of Perseus— the taking off Medusa's head,
which is fabled to have occmred in the Libyan desert, which the ostrich might well
represent. On another cylinder we have the representation of a figiu-e seated on a
throne, holding a symbol of authority in his hand. He is addressing a man (Perseus ?)
who has his back turned to him, as if going on some mission, for which he has re-
ceived his orders. A bird is following him, having a remarkably long neck, appa-
rently an ostrich, and indicating beforehand the country to which he is rejiairing.
Mr. Abington also thinks that a representation of a man with four wings contending
with two gTji>hons, on another cylinder, refers to the same hero of mythology. The
deciphering of the inscriptions on the cylinders wiU one day assist materially in deter-
mining the Oriental origin of a great number of these classic stories, giving to them
their true parentage, their real country^ and their original meaning.
198
LARES AND PENATES.
sash, the supposed clarus latus ; a hand holding a tympanum ; a
hand holding a rhyton, terminating in a male head; the arm of a boxer,
the hand loaded with leads ; a hand holding a basket ; and a large wing.
Several heads bore distinct proof of being portraits of jicrsons Hving at the
time of the Roman Empire, from the time of the Flavii to the Antonines.
Among them were a head resembling that of Otho or of Titus ; others
of ladies who wore the head-attire seen on the coins
of Julia, the sister of Titus and Domitia (Nos. 9,
p. 158, and 29, p. 168); another lavu-eated head
resembling Domitian, Three other little heads of
exqiiisite finish, also of the same time, represented
personages living under the Roman Empire. Other
subjects were taken from the circus, such as a
horseman, and the head of another ; the same,
holding a palm ; from the bath, as the head of a
slave; or from the theatre, as a comic actor, the
da\Tis seated on a cube, with his hands folded (No.
52) ; and another of the Satyric cast, like the
figures represented in the New Comedy, which ap-
pear from the vases of later date to have approached
the broadest style of caricature.* Several heads
only, with pointed ears, and j)lug-holes beneath,
_T to adapt them to l)odies of some other material,
KO. i)2. — DAVUS. ^ _ '
and one "with a helmet apparently also comic, and
supposed to have been a lamp, were also either taken from the stage or
from those obscene dwarfs and moriones, which are so often found re-
presented in bronze at the Roman period. AYith this list closes the torso
of a figure wearing the paludamentum, probably from the figure of an
emperor. A considerable number of animals were found, and among them
a spirited group of a lion attacking a bull, iipon which he has sprung (No.
42, p. 187), a subject found on the coins of Cilicia.j" A panther, several
fragments of horses, some caparisoned or votive ; parts of bulls, probably
dedicated for the preservation of cattle; a dog, emblematic of Hecate;
and a small cat, having a cord tied round its neck, from which is
pendent an inverted crescent, shewing that the animal had been sacred
to the moon, recalling the collar placed round the neck of the stag of
Mount Cercynitis. Among them was also the skin of an animal tied
up like an askos.if
• Wieselcr, Theatergebiiude. Getting. 1851, Taf. ix. 9.
+ Due de LujTies, Suppl. PI. iv. Gaos.
^ It k kuowQ that tiio wator is carried ia skins. Mr. Bonomi lias engraved in
VASES.
199
This closes the list of sigillaria, which forms the most important
portion of this collection, and Avhich throw considerable light on the
state of the arts in Tarsus, certainly not inferior to those in Italy.
Many of the heads, although of small size, have a wonderful power and
expression, and the arts were generally in a high state at the period.
This seems to have been towards the close of the Caesars, to which period
the female head-di-esses point.
n. Utensils. Few vases were found. The most remarkable of
these was an oenochoe, quite plain. Several pieces of red glazed Roman
ware, not the supposed Samian, but of the class called the false Samian
by the English and French antiquaries, distinguished by not being of an
KG. 53. — A BASSO-RELIEVO GEM WITH A WREATH : PRIESTESS EXAMINING THE
OPENING OF A FLOWER.
equal colour throughout, and not stamped with the names of potters
inside. On the bottom outside of one cup is the letter T, in bas-relief,
but not stamped, as the usual potters' sigillum. Two pieces of cups in
his excellent work, Nhieveh and its Palaces, p. 182, from the monuments discovered
by M. Botta at Khursabad, the figure of a sack or rather skin, and water-bearer with
a leather helmet on his head, and also of a clasp by which his outer garment was fas-
tened — a peculiarity of costume that leads to the siu'mise, he adds, that these peoplo
are from the coast of Cilicia, and may be called Milj'ie, who, Herodotus tells us, wore
helmets of leather, and who had their vests confined with clasps. It is not a little
curious, and corroborative of the fact, that the Assyrian water-beai'ors were strangers,
possibly some con(pered people from Cilicia or the neighbouring Taurus, that the
water-bearers in large towns are generally a pecidiar people : thus the Sakkas of Con-
stantinojjle are Armenians from Armenia Proper and Kurdistan — not Armenians of
Constantinople ; and the water-bearers of Paris are Auvergnats,
200 LARES AND PENATES.
this collection I consider the finest of any which I hare yet seen. One
(No. 53), part of a cylindrical cup of fine "ware, of a pale straw colour,
has, in delicately raised relief, the bust of a draped female figui'e,
apparently Venus, in a talaric tunic, placed between two festoons of
^^Teaths, a subject which has been repeated round the cup. The other,
from a bowl of a remarkably fine light-red clay (No. 54), has, in a
shght bas-reUef, as if impressed from the mould of a fine gem or cameo,
the bust of a Bacchante, her head bound with a wreath of ivy, her form
clad in a nebris, and a thyrsus thrown over her shoulder — a subject
already known from some gems. Of inferior workmanship are parts
of a cup, ■\^^.th Avreaths and bucranea. One piece alone, ornamented \\T.th
feathered ornaments on a maroon ground, belongs to painted vases. Nei-
ther of these pieces Avere of glazed or poHshed Avare ; but half of a
patera had in the inside, in bas-relief, a female hand, placed amidst
KO 54. — BASSO-RELIEVO GEM, A BACCHANTE.
foliage resembling that of the ivy ; and several vases Avith a small handle,
in shape of a rude antifixal or helix ornament, Avith scoral handles made
separately, and ready to attach to others, Avere foimd; AA-ith them Avas
part of a cantharus, or cup, of late black polished Avare, the side orna-
mented Avith iA^-leaves [hederata), completely resembling similar canthari
found in France and England. The number of lamps Avhich were found,
according to IVIr. Barker, amounted to upAvards of 3000 ; and of these he
selected for his collection only the most important, alloAAdng the country
people to carry aAvay those Avhich were not ornamented Avith subjects in
LAMPS. 201
bas-relief. This find may be compared ■\vitli that mentioned by Avolio in
his Argille, p. 117. The lamps found at Tarsus were very different from
those from Italy or Greece. They are of a fine straw colour, of small
size, circular, and with one nozzle, and generally -without handles. One
lamp, which is only ornamented A\ath an egg and tongue moulding, has
the remains of the wooden candelabrum still adheiing to it below. None
of these lamps have the names of makers, one alone being impressed
below with a thunderbolt and cross. The nozzle of many had been
burnt, shewing that they had been used. Many are perfect, and by no
means worn out. Their subjects are, a goat, emblem of Dionysos and
Priapus ; a ^vild boar ; Selene in a car drawn by two buffaloes, holding
in each hand a torch ; Isis, whose worship has been already traced in
the city, holding a situla, on her head the usual ornament, before her
Apis as a buffalo, having on his head a star, advancing to a lighted altar
behind a temple; Acta^on attacked by one of his dogs (No. 44, p. 189);
a Nereid traversing the sea upon a hippocampus ; a hare ; a gryphon ;
Cupid riding tipon a lion; two Cupids, one leaping over a Hon; a dol-
phin; a bunch of grapes and vine-leaves; a crater or cantharus; an
instrument ; a crown, altar, and laurel-branch ; a bunch of grapes, leaf,
and wreath of laurel on the base AO ; a river-god, probably the Cydnus,
reclining, holding a reed in the left hand, a cornucopia in the right, at
his elbow an urn. Victory hovering in the air, and cro^wTiing him ; head
of Minerva, fall face, with the triple crest to the helmet ;* a dolphin ;
head of the Medusa, the mythos of whom was intimately connected
with the city founded by Perseus ; a stag advancing to the right. A
small lamp ; one fragment of a circular lamp of a hollow band, Avhich
had held four wicks, closed this list. Distinct from these, and pro-
bably of an earlier age, are two shoe- shaped lamps with handles, of
coarser red ware, one entirely plain, the other having the oriental sub-
ject of a goddess holding up two lions by their tails.
III. Miscellaneous Objects. The nmnber of miscellaneous objects
of terra-cotta was by no means great ; and what is the most startling
is the total absence of all architectural fragments, which generally form
an important portion of similar collections. The few objects of this
nature Avhich Avere found were chiefly models, such as a Corinthian
column quite detached. Some lion's claws, with mertaises apparently
for a throne of a small figure. Several oscillse or masks, Avith
hollow eyes, which appear ft-om the miu-al paintings at Pompeii to
have been suspended by cords between the intercolumniations of the
* Due de LuyneSj Essai sui- la Numismatiquo des Satrapes. Suppl. 4to. Paris,
1846. PI. xi.
202 LARES AND PENATES.
columns, were found, either scenic masks, either tragic or comic ;
the head of a bull. Besides these are fragments of a kind of calathus
in open work, a pecten shell, a stud, a cylindrical object excised
at one end Z H, resembling those found at the Polledrara of Vulci,
and apparently bobliquets, or curling-pins for the hair. Some hollow
altars, supposed by Mr. Barker to be censers, with evident marks of
burning ; an object in shape of a cubical seat or altar, \\ith a slit
above, supposed to be one of the boxes for money Avhich the gladiators
carried round ;* and two large disks or medals about three inches
diameter, with a hole to suspend them, on one an A, on the other
a B ; and last, although not least, a plain flat disk of terra-cotta
on which is incised in cursive characters, the name AttoKXwq ; this
is a remarkable name, being that of the Alexandrian coadjutor of
St. Paul.-j- The inscription is written like a memorandmn on the
disk. Few objects not of terra-cotta were found ; but among these
were a bust placed upon a table with four legs, the head broken
off, Avhicli had been used as a knife-handle of dark steatite, and three
flat circidar stones, which are supposed to have been used for polishing
vessels placed on a lathe, or tools. The most interesting, however, of
these objects are parts of some figures cast in plaster of Paris or of a
coarse gypsum burnt,;]: and which recal to mind the architectui"al
mouldings of a tomb found at Ivertch, and now in the British ]\Iu-
seum. Those in Mr. Barker's collection are a female head wearing a
sphendone, having the hair gathered up at the sides ; a head of Har-
pocrates, the face coloured red ; a head of Herciiles in the lion's skin ;
an eagle ; and two architectural mouldings.
* See Seroux d'Agincourt Recucil, and Caylus Recueil.
+ Acts xviii. 24, xix. 1 ; 1 Coriuth. iii. 6, 22, iv. 6. Suida3 voce.
t Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxv. 153.
CHAPTER IV.
ON CERTAIN PORTRAITS OF HUNS, AND THEIR IDENTITY WITH
THE EXTINCT RACES OF AMERICA.
MONSTROUS HEAD IN A CONICAL CAP — PORTRAIT OF A HUN (?) IDENTITY WITH
AMERICAN SCULPTURES — EIHGRATIONS OF ASIATIC NATIONS TO AMERICA
TESTIMONIES FROM STEPHENS, SCHOMBUROK, HUMBOLDT ANALOGIES OF
LANGUAGE EVIDENCES FROM KLAPROTH AND d'hERBELOT.
Mr. Abington's observations ou tliis piece (No. 55),
a head of most monstrovis form, in a conical cap,
are of so remarkable a nature that I must be per-
mitted to publish them here, and I "will add what
I have had time to collect from Humboldt and others
in confirmation.
Mr. Abington says: " This is the most extra-
ordinary thing in all the collection. On the first
view, I was struck with the identity of its strange
profile Avith the figiu-es sculptured upon the monu-
ments and edifices of an extinct people in Central
America.* Many of Stephens's engravings represent
the same faces exactly.
" But what possible connexion could there be between the people of
Asia Minor and that far-distant race? This is a question for the Eth-
nographical Society, and I hope you will lay it before them.
" In the meantime, I vdU venture a thought upon the subject. Is
it not a faithfid and correct portrait of a Hun? Humboldt, on the
authority of Klaproth, I believe, says that the Hiongnu belonged to the
Turkish, and the Hvms to the Finnish or Uralian race. "We know that
NO. 55.1
See Stephens's Incidents of Travel in Central America and Yucutau.
204
LARES AND PENATES.
the latter were driven by the former, who had been repulsed from the
walls of China and roamed westward, upon their neighbours, with whom
they are mixed in the relations of their inroads on the south of Europe.*
By Huns I do not mean the modern Magyar race, which is of other
blood, but the iigly. race, whose inhuman faces and horse-like heads,
terrified the inhabitants of southern countries, when that Sc}i;hian flood
rolled in upon them.
" One division of their tribes Avent eastward, sweeping all before them
as far as China ; and the great wall was built to keep them out of that
kingdom. It is ascertained that some bodies of the Mongol, Kalmuck,
and other Tartar tribes crossed to America.f
" Hitherto the sculptures of Central America have only been won-
dered at, but not explained. Does not this head of yours identify them
■wdth the Huns, and thereby let light in upon a dark mystery? It is a
subject I should like to folloAv up, if I had the means within reach. I
can only indicate the direction in which others may follow the matter;
and I am very much mistaken if it does not richly reward them. Dr.
Pritchard would have been the man to submit it to ; but he is, alas, no
more. For an accoimt of the migiation of the Huns, and their policy in
levying a tribute of beautiful women in all the conquered countries, by
Avhich their own iiglmess was rapidly mitigated, see Gibbon's Decline
and Fall.
" The following sketches of the sculptures in Central America, taken
from Stephens's plates and the Quarterhj Journal, Avill shew that my
notion of the matter is not a mere fancy.
" Heads so very unusual, not to say unnatural, though found in such
distant places, must surely have come from the same stock.
* The ODvKM are firat noticed by Dionysius Pericgctes in the time of Augustus ;
find Ptolemy writes the word XoSm/, strongly aspirated, which may be found again
in the geographical name of CUunigard.
+ Seo Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. iii. 1828 ; Dr. Banking's paper.
THE HUNS AND AMERICANS. 205
" We liave written descriptions of the inliuman appearance of tlie
Huns who devastated the nation; but I never met with any representa-
tion of them either pictorial or sculptural. Perhaps you have the
gratification of first bringing before the Avorld a true and exact repre-
sentation of that once terrible but now forgotten race, and that too by
an illustration probably unique; also of removing the veil which has
hitherto concealed the mysterious origin of the men who have left the
memorials of their peculiar conformation upon the sculj^tured stones of
America, but who have been long extinct."
Sir Eobert Schomburgk, in a letter he addressed to Humboldt, says,
" The hieroglyphical figures are more widely extended than you had
perhaps supposed They extend, as ascertained by actual observa-
tions, from 7° 10' to 1° 40' north latitude, and from 57° 30' to 66° 30'
west longitude. Thus the zone of pictui-ed rocks extends, so far as it
has been at present examined, over a space of 192,000 square geogra-
phical miles ; comprising the basin of the Corentyn, the Essequibo, and
the Ormoco ; a circumstance from which we may form some inference
respecting the former amount of population in this part of the con-
tinent."
I find confirmation of Mr. Abington's idea in Humboldt's Aspects of
Nature, and will proceed to quote his remarks that bear the most on this
subject in his Annotations, p. 176. He says, " I regard the existence of
ancient connexions between the inhabitants of Western America and
Eastern Asia as more than probable ; but by what routes, or with what
Asiatic nations the communications took place, cannot at present be
decided. Our knowledge of the languages of America is still too limited,
considering their great variety, for us as yet entirely to relinquish the hope
of some day discovering an idiom which may be spoken, with certain
modifications, at once in the interior of South America and in that of
Asia; or which may at least indicate an ancient affinity. Such a dis-
covery would be one of the most brilliant which can be expected in re-
ference to the history of mankind."
I am aware that the analogy of one langiiage to another must be
sought in the organic structui-e, and the grammatical forms resulting
from the workings of the human intellect and character. Still, when
we have no opportunity of following up such research, as in the case of
the Americo-Indian languages, it is interesting to trace the similarity
of sound in the words which are handed over to us.* For instance, I
* I have a catalogue of many words that resemble each other in different languages.
I found, however, so many in the German and EngUsli having evidently the same
origin, that I forbore collecting them, as they would form a little volume in them-
206 LARES AND PENATES.
find itz-cuin-tepotzotli to signify a humped-backed dog. Noav itz I
trace to eet^ the Tartaric appellation of a dog ; cuin is the Tui'k-
ish for a sheep ; therefore itz- cuin would be a sheep-dog, or shepherd's
dog: tepotzotU I take to be the same as tepp>eh^ the Turkish for a hill;
and the terminative particle li or lu is quite Tartaric, and always used
to express a property or possession: thus, topal, lame; topalli herif, a
lame man; cor, blind of one eye; corli arret, a one-eyed woman. I
find, moreover, that, some miles from the Encaramada, there rises
in the middle of the Savana the rock Tepu-Mereme, or "painted
rock." Obsei-ve here the similarity of tepu to teppe, and the construc-
tion so Semitic, having the substantive first ; here is still greater affinity ;
for the " me " may be the same as the " mu" in Arabic ; and be the
form used to express the adjective. You Avould in Arabic, using the
word naksh, paint, say jebel munaccash, a rock painted. But what
I find contradictory is, that the construction of this word is more Semi-
tic than Hindo-Gei-manic ; for we find the siibstantive to precede the
adjective, and we have dog-shepherd; humped-back, and not liumped-
hacked shepherd-dog. The Arabic form woidd be kelbun rayee-un ahdah,
precisely hke the Americo-Indian. Would this lead us to trace an
affinity between the two, and to suppose that a Semitic tribe traversing
through Asia on its way eastward, adopted words from the people with
whom it came in contact, and which it afterwards perpetuated in
America, preserving, however, its original Semitic construction ?
I find further, that some etymologists have thought they recognised
in the American word camosi, the sun, a similarity to camosh, the name
of the sun in one of the Phoenician dialects, and to Apollo, Chomeas, or
Balphegor.
Humboldt's further remarks are most interesting, and bear on this
ethnological subject. He says: "In looking at Peruvian carvings, I have
never remarked any figiires of the large-nosed race of men so frequently
represented in the bas-reliefs of Palinque in Guatemala, and in the
Aztec paintings. Klaproth remembered having seen individuals with
similar large noses among the Chalcas, a northern Mogul tribe. It is
weU known that many tribes of the North American red or copper-
selves. The resemblance between many words of the German and Tartaric language
was more interesting ; and I have a hst which would in itself alone prove the connexion
between the Alemagni and the tribes in the cast, were such proof requisite, or were the
fact at all doubted. But what astonishes Tue is to find a great many words in German
that appear certainly to possess a Semitic origin. These words must have been
adopted in consequence of the communion between the wandering tribes in earlier
times, who, it will be observed, kept to their own construction, although they borrowed
the use of words or sounds.
SPECULATIONS ABOUT THE HUNS. 207
coloured Indians have fine aquiline noses, and that this is an essential
physiognomic distinction between them and the present inhabitants of
Mexico, New Granada, Quito, and Peru. Are the large-eyed, compara-
tively fair-complexioned people spoken of by Marchand as having been
seen in 54° and 58° lat. on the north-west coast of America, descended
from an Alano-Gothic race, the Usiini of the interior of Asia ?"
It is very interesting to read the above question in connexion with
what we now have in hand. Following up this idea, I find further, that
" the southern Huns or Hajatelah (called by the Byzantines Euthalites
or Nepthalites, and dwelling along the eastern shore of the Caspian),
had a fair complexion. They cultivated the ground, and possessed
towns. They are often called the white or fair Huns ; and D'Herbelot
even declares them to be Indo-Scythians. For an account of Panu, the
leader or taiyu of the Hims, and of the great drought and famine which,
about 46 A.D., caused a part of the nation to migrate northwards, see
Deguignes' Histoire Gen. des Huns, des Turcs, cjr. 1756 , t. i. pt. i. p. 217;
pt. ii. pp. Ill, 125, 223, 447. All the accounts of the Huns taken from
the above-mentioned celebrated work have been subjected to a learned
and strict examination by Klaproth. According to the result of this
research, the Hiongnu belong to the widely-diffused Tui'kish races
of the Altai and Taugnu Mountains. The name Hiongnu, even in
the third century before the Christian era, was a general name
for the Ti, Tukui, or Turks, in the north and north-west of China.
The southern Hiongnu overcame the Chinese, and in conjunction with
them destroyed the empire of the northern Hiongnu: these latter fled
to the west, and this flight seems to have given the first impulse to the
migration of nations in Middle Asia." Might not some families of these
tribes have embarked in some fishing-boats, and been cast on the western
coast of North America, in the inhospitable climate of from 55° to 65°;
and civilisation thus introduced, like the general movement of population
in America, have proceeded successively from theNoith to the Soiith?*
* Humboldt, Relation Historique, t. iii. pp. 155-160. At Weston-super-Mare, in
Somersetshire, have lately been found, outside a Roman camp, the bodies of three
men of rather a large size by persons excavating. The heads seemed to have been
forced in between two ricks, and to have sustained some injury from violence. The
crania were examined and compared with Mr. Lawrence's work on the species of man,
and no similarity could be traced between them and any of the crania described in
that work, except to the head of the Caribbean Indian. It is supposed that these
must be the remains of some of the tribes of the Huns that found their way into
Britain, as they had done into Rome, marking their progress by acts of cruelty, and
causing, by then- extreme ughness, horror to those they vanquished.
CHAPTER V.
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBJECT OE THE HUNS CONTINUED.
" THE UGLY heads" OF THE COLLECTION ST.VNDARD OF BEAUTY MONU-
MENTS OF CENTRAL A3IERICA PARALLEL CASE IN HAYTI THE HITTITES
OF SCRIPTURE REFERENCE TO EGYPTIAN SCULPTUP^ EFFECTS OF THE
EGYPTIAN INVASION OF CILICL\.
On a first examination of a feAV of the ugly, monstrous heads of the
collection, I had imagined that they represented Midas. Apollo being a
great favourite at Tarsus, it was natural to conclude that INIidas would
be there jeered at and caricatured. But, at a later period, when Mr.
Abington had pointed out the extraordinary resemblance he had traced
between No. 55, p. 203, and the heads sculptured on the rocks in Central
America, I was led to look closer into the subject; and by setting apart
all the heads of that kind, I found a family likeness to prevail through
the whole lot, which consists of ixpwards of fifty heads, that justifies me
in coming to the conclusion that they are the representatives of a nation
or tribe, if not of a single family, such is the likeness that prevails
among them.
These heads have, for the most part, been radiated. The female
heads bear the same form of head-dress as that given by the Cilicians
to heads representing persons they deified; as if the chiefs of the con-
quering tribes, hearing that it was customary in the country to have
such a compliment paid to the rulers of the land, and to include their
ladies, insisted on their being represented by the same eifigy. That this
was done may be ascertained by an examination of the other heads in
the collection, wherein the Junos are represented Avith the features of
the favoiu-ite empress of the day ; or, to reverse the case, the features of
the ladies of that period may be seen bearing the attributes of Juno,
Venus, Cybele, Ceres, &c. And on many of these heads may be traced
the head-dress of Apollo, with the hair knotted in front, — of Jupiter,
DEIFICATION OF UGLINESS. 209
with the radiation, &c. Now it is not at all likelj that any of the
monsters of Grecian mythology would have that compliment paid them;
and certainly Midas, who would rather be an object of derision, could
never be thus represented.
Now it would seem that when the power of these la'ibes passed away,
the artists, as if ashamed of their subserviency to the people who had
ejected them, carefully cut off all the rays on the heads ; and only one
male and two females have remained perfect enough to tell the tale
of their fellows, who are only mutilated about the forehead.
Let not their extreme ugliness be considered a reason why they
should not have been deified by the Cilieians or by the people of
America. What shall be imagined to be the standard of beauty which
shall be acknowledged by all people ? The negro is shocked at the
first sight of a Eiu'opean. The thin lips, the narrow lengthened nose,
oval face, and long hair, are so far from all his notions of beauty as to
be ugliness unmitigated. The ugly fellows, Avhose likenesses we now
possess in this collection, would not be ashamed of their peculiarities,
nor take offence at their true effigies, any more than the Chinese would
be offended at being represented with their ugly cheek-bones, obliqiie
pig-eyes, and Tartar noses, even a little exaggerated. One of these,
now in London, is so monstrously ugly, that it would be difficult for a
modeller to shew him up worse than he is. How hideous are the heads
and faces of many of the holy fakirs of India in the present day ! And
I have no doubt but that we might find rivals to the ugliest of these
heads among many people both in the East and in the West.
Further, the monuments of Central America must be looked upon
as bearing a mythological character, and representing objects of adora-
tion — persons who conferred benefits on their feUow- creatures by the
introduction of civilisation ; holy men, priests, and priestesses, whom
the sculptor would not wantonly degrade by giving them features to
cause them to be treated with derision ; yet we find them character-
ised by ugliness of tlie superlative degree. We must not, therefore,
be surprised at finding such features radiated with the same glory
which is applied to Apollo, the perfection of the Circassian type of
beauty. If men of one tiibe were eligible for divine honours, others of
tribes less favoured in physical beauty were equally so. The deification
was for other qualities than personal beauty, and that too judged of
by an arbitrary standard. These priests, conquerors, or chiefs of the
people — call them what you please — pretended no doubt to be versed in
the doctrines of astrology, divination, mesmeric arts, and wonders; their
ugly countenances would serve to increase the distance between theni.
B
210 LARES AND PENATES.
and the people; there would be nothing to prevent the modeller from
even exaggerating this difference ; and the priesthood would never take
offence at it, if it tended to make the deluded multitude stand in awe of
them as beings of another and higher order.
We have a case in point to refer to, in modern times, which bears
on this question. The Emperor Soulouque of Hayti has caused Corradi
to take portraits of himself and all his family and government, civil and
military. However desirous the artist might be to flatter his imperial
highness, the latter would not be pleased or accept of his likeness, if he
were represented with Grecian features, but Avoidd rather insist on the
delineations being as nearly like to nature as possible. He might con-
sider himself and family a great deal handsomer than the Eiu'opean; and
an exaggeration of his ideal beauty, although a monstrosity in our sight,
might only be complimentary to him.*
As yet I have called the people represented by these heads Huns,
to use an appellation known to all; but I believe that their original
name was Khita — perhaps the Hittites of the Scriptures, — a people
who were aborigines of Asia Minor, if not of the province of Cilicia
itself, and whose chiefs were taken into captivity by Rameses HI.
In Rossalini's great work on Egyptian Antiquities there are repre-
sented four bodies kneeling, with their arms tied behind them ; each
has a line of hieroglyphics stating who he is. The first says, " Tliis
is the vile slave from Tarsus of the Sea ;" its features are unfortu-
nately disfigured, but alongside there is another captive whose fea-
tures are complete. The hieroglyphic writing of this says, " Phoor
khasi em Khita en Sacca enk," — " The chief of the Khita as a living
captive." Now the fact of these two figures having stood in such
propinquity on the monuments in Egypt, erected doubtless to com-
memorate the conquests of the Egyptian king over the nations of the
north of Syria, and the coincidence of the heads fovind in Tarsus re-
sembling so much the second as to identify them with the same race at
least, if not the same individual, would lead to the conclusion that if the
Khita Avere not the inhabitants of this city, they were some of its imme-
diate neighbours, and that it was their chief who had been carried into
bondage by the Egyptian conquerors of the country.
I will leave this point to be disciissed and settled by more competent
judges ; and will only add, in support of my conclusion, that directly I
exhibited the head. No. 55, to INIr. Birch, he exclaimed at once, and
• Thcso portraits h.ivc been published in a liandsomc lithot^aithcd album, and a
full account of thcni will bo found in an extract from the Aeic Yurk Herald, in the
Tmaof Oct. 14, 1852.
CONNEXION WITH EGYPT.
211
without hesitation, " I will tell you what people this head represents ;"
and he turned immediately to the plate in KossaUni's work before-
mentioned.
Indeed, if we admit similarity of features as a guide in discerning
the difference of races, there can be little doubt on the subject. It
might be imagined that these two heads (No. 55, p. 203), and the one
copied out of Eossaliui's work herewith introduced, not only represented
the same race of men, but were even intended to portray the same
A KNEELING CAPTIVE — FROM EOSSALINI.
individual, with some twenty years' difference in age, only such as he
would be at forty and at sixty.
Kameses III. was of the 18th dynasty, and must have effected his
conquest 1200 or 1500 years B.C. : my Lares and Penates have been
proved to have been destroyed about the year 70 of the Christian era ;
so that if these heads represent the Kliita, as I have no doubt they do,*
* Mr. Layard discovered in the moiind of Nabbi Yuuus, or of the Prophet Jonah,
near Mosul, a head carved in a yellow sjlex (Eisen Kiesel ?) with singularly grotes(iue
features, which he considers to belong to the later Assyrian period, and an imitation
212 LARES AND PENATES.
thev had been accumulating in Tarsus, together with many other gods
and idols of all nations from the East and West, which were found with
them, upwards of 1200 years.
How interesting is this fact ! and what light may not these monuments
throw on ancient history, on times of which we have now no wi'itten
records ; on times when sculpture formed the basis of the means for
perpetuating historical events ; and how precious will be such memorials
— how usefvil in the hands of the learned archaeologist, who coidd find
leisure to devote a little attention to a closer scrutiny of them !
The Cilicians at a later period became a mixed race, and lost their
resemblance to these horrid faces, who, as I have already observed, were
possibly tribes that conquered them ; but if these were the aborigines
of Cilicia or Asia Minor, what was the effect of the Egyptian invasion
and conquest ? Did it disperse them ? TTere they the stock from
which the ancient Scythians descended ? Or were they all from one
common origin ? How did these wandering tribes, who fought and
conquered the West, find their way eastward to America ? Can we infer
that the American monuments are of a higher antiquity than heretofore
supposed ? These are all questions to which, at present, we are obliged
to " pause for a reply."
of the head of the Egj-ptian deity, which some believe to represent death. (Layard's
Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 214 ; Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, plate 41, vol. iv.)
This head is now in the British Museum. It has an inscription in cuneifoiin lottei-s
in the crown and hack ; it might otherwise, Mr. Layard says, be mistaken for a Mexi-
can relic ! Mr. Birch suggests that, as a similar head is fi-equently represented on
Eg>iitian monuments, on vases brought as tribute by an Asiatic people ; and is, more-
over, foimd on the Phoenician coins of Abusus, as that of the deity ; it may be the
Semitic Baal or Tj-phon.
There is a representation on one of the Babylonian cyUnders, engraved by the Syro-
Egyjitian Society, of a female di\"inity of horrid aspect, and very slightly clothed : she
stands upon a dragon, and holds three articles in her hands, which, if keys, Mr. Abing-
ton remarks, would mark her as the Cybele of the Babylonians, There is something
round her cap, which, if intended for oak -leaves, would also distinguish her as that
goddess.
-?<i*=8sp<eife&.jc>^ -
CHAPTER VI.
ADDITIONAL WORKS OF ART. GODS, DEMIGODS, AND HEROES.
APOLLO MERCURY HERCULES BACCHUS — SILENUS — FAUNS AND SATYRS
PAN — JUNERVA VENUS CUPID EUROPA MARSYAS LEANDER LaO-
COON ^SCULAPIUS — FORTUNE CAIUS CALIGULA ? — PRIAPUS HARPIES
MARSYAS ABRERIG OR NERGAL ? SUMMARY.
We find from the discoveries of Layard and Botta, that the god of the
sun was represented by the Assyrians as an eagle-headed or vulture-
headed human figure. It is one of the most prominent sacred types in
the earlier Assyi'ian monuments, and was, according to Dr. Grotefend,
the tutelar divinity of the nation. " This figure may also," says Layard
(vol. ii. p. 459), " be identified with the god Nisroch, in whose temple
Sennacherib was slain by his sons (2 Kings xix. 37); for the word Nisr
signifies, in all the Semitic languages, an eagle."
Josephus* calls this image Arascus; Isaiah, Asarak or Nisroch
(xxxvii. 38); Jeremiah (vii. 18), Nit; the Septuagint, Mecropax- It was
also written Asarax, Esorac, Nasarac, and Mesarac. The distinguished
French archaeologist, Lajard, has traced the Mithra of the Persian sys-
tem, the same as the Nisroch of the Assyrians, through its various trans-
formations to the AttoXXw/' of the Greeks, and Apollo of the Komans.
We have the authority of Herodotus, and other of the ancient histo-
rians, for the identity of Apollo and the Egyptian Elorus ; and we have
seen in the course of this work that Apollo was not only the favourite
deity of the Cilicians, but, as Tarsus the winged, he was in fact the
tutelary divinity of the city. It appears from additional terra-cottas
obtained since Mr. Bii'ch's descriptions were penned, and which have
been described by Mr. Abington with his usual taste and discrimination,
that we have representations of the same deity in other forms among
these truly interesting relics.
* Antiq. Jud. i. c. L
214 LARES AND PENATES.
One of tliese formed part of a basso-relievo of bold projection : the
brooch by which his pallium is buckled in front has been made by the
impress of a punch much too large for the purpose.
There is also a very finely modelled face of apparently the same
divinity. In this face the eyes are remarkably expressive, and the
mouth diminished so as to give a good example of the sublimated or
ideal beauty Avhich the Greeks aimed at. The hair is bound by a fillet
into a knot on the top of the head, in the style usually given to Apollo.
There is also in the collection a little figure of Horus or Harpocrates,
with its finger to its lips, excessively slight and rude.
Also a head, trunk, and right thigh of Harpocrates (No. 38). The
youthful rotundity and fleshiness of the body and thigh are well ex-
pressed. The head has the hair knotted on the top, is radiated, and sur-
mounted Avith the sacred Egj'ptian emblem, and the finger on the lip places,
]\Ir. Abington remarks, the designation of the figure beyond dispute.
The left arm supports a horn of plenty filled with fruits.
" It is to be regretted that this figure came so late, as it affords a
correct key to very many fragments Avhich we have had before by piece-
meal. It is most valuable in every point of view. We have many
youthful heads with the same Egyptian symbol of the Neliunbium on the
top: are they aU to be refen-ed to Hai-pocrates? If so, he must have
been the most popular of the divinities at Tarsus, if we may judge from
the number.
" I have before noticed the identity of Assarac, Horus, and Harpocrates,
as the incarnation of deity through a female divinity, Isis. It may be asked,
when the Roman empire began to resound with the testimony of the Apos-
tles, that the long-expected Messiah of the Jews was incarnate, did the
priests of the old mythology bring out more fully to popular notice, and
in opposition to the Christians, their ancient mystery of the incarnation
of the son of Isis? If this policy was resorted to — and it would seem
under the circiimstances very natural — it would explain the fact of the
representation of Horus being so multiplied at that period.
"It would be their policy to persuade the people that the wonderful
tales respecting the birth of the Messiah were but stolen from the sys-
tem of religion maintained by them and their fathers, and therefore an
innovation to be rejected."
Another small head in the collection, similar to the foregoing, has a
circlet of flowers as a crown, with the sacred bean in front.
Another larger head has a diadem of floAvers similar to the preced-
ing, but surmounted by a radiation, with the Egyptian symbol in front.
Another head similar to the one Avith the hair knotted on the top,
MERCURY. 215
but Avitliout any radiation; behind it rises a kind of shell-work or
plaiting.
The origin of Mercury, known as the Hermes and Cyllenius of the
Greeks, the Anubis of the Egyptians, the Theutates of the Gauls, and
Woden of the Saxons, has been sought for in Phoenicia; the image of
this god being the S}aaibolical figm*e of the ancestor and fomider of the
kingdom. This, however, is mere speculation, and further research
will no doubt shew that some of the many forms of this many-sym-
bolled god were as common to the Assyi'ian and Hindu forms of idolatry
as to the Egyptian and Phoenician.
Among the different forms in which this deity is represented in the
Cilician terra-cottas, is one which Mr. Abington calls the ancient Pelas-
gian Mercury, in which he is usually represented terminating in an in-
verted obelisk, cloaked, and with a phallus. Several examples of the
same kind are met with in the British Museum.
Hermes, under various forms, seems to have been much honoured
in Cilicia. Among the terra-cottas is a head with a cap, which seems
to be intended to represent a young Mercury. The expression of the
features is very pleasing, both in front and profile. There is also an-
other, Avith a curly head, more plump and infantine than the preceding.
There is also among the terra-cottas another bonneted head of the
same character. It is of childish age, but bears a strong family likeness
to some heads of Apollo, &c., modelled from the countenances of priests,
or persons of rank ; very fat and luxurious-looking. It will be curious
if this should be a youth of the same family, who sat to the artist for a
study of young Hermes.
Also, a Avinged boy in the act of flying ; he has the hair knotted over
the forehead, a Phrygian bonnet, and loose drapery, fastened by a fibula
on the bi'east, but flying open in front. It is a very good figure.
Mercury, as the messenger of the gods, is most usually represented
with a Avinged cap, and Avings to his ankles ; but in this case the Avings
are fixed to the shoLilders. Apollo, as sculptured by the Greeks and
Romans, has no wings, but at Tarsus he Avas winged! So that it does not
appear that AA'e can urge this fact of his being Avinged against the idea
of its being the young postman of Olympus. We knoAV that there Avere
so many different legends concerning these deities, and so many different
tales of their origin, descent, &c,, that they are quite confusing. There are
no fewer than six or eight different Mercurys, concerning AAdiom Ave have
accounts. The early traditions Avould vary in the various lines through
which they Avere transmitted; and priests and poets, by the exercise of
216 LARES AND PENATES.
;i liberty which Avas nm-estrained by any real reverence for such objects,
have added to the confusion.
There is also among the teiTa-cottas a face and neck of a very good
figure, gimilar to those just described. It is the plump, healthy coiui-
tenance which we cannot look upon but Avith pleasure.
The legends of this hero were well knoAvn to the Phoenicians, and
also to the Far East. His labours are engraved on some of the Baby-
lonian cylinders. The tales handed down to us by the Greeks were
drawTi by them from the tradition of the East. This, independently of
the Assyrian origin of the deity, would account for such numerous frag-
ments of this demi-god being found at Tarsus.
Among these is a restored figure of the hero, nearly complete, except
the head. It is of good execution.
In another head and bust, the breadth of shoulders and fulness of
muscle at once declare it to be Hercules. The radiation of the head
also shews that it is one honoured by apotheosis.
There is also a head of plaster, which appears to represent the same
demi-god.
Also a terminal figure of an old man dressed in a lion's skin. Is
this an oriental form ofHercides? We know from the cylinders that
the Babylonians had their Hercules.
Also, a left hand of a Hercules holding his club ; the lion's skin fall-
ing over it. The Assyrian Hercules was also represented holding a
mace in his hand.
It is remarkable, however, that among the many and various repre-
sentations that occur of Hercules among the Cilician terra-cottas, we do
not find any of the representations pre-
cisely identical with that of the Assyrian
Hercules, Sandon or Sandok, also called
Dayyad " the himter."
One head of Hercules is radiated :
it is a magniticent head, and the profile
is like the finest figures of that deity
whicli have come down to our times ; nor
will it suffer by comparison with any of
them, making allowance for the material.
Among the Cilician terra-cottas are
NO. 56.— HEADS OF ARIADNE AND two heads iu tlic act of kissing; the
BACCHUS. female seems to be crowned with ivy,
the crown of the other is obliterated. These may not improbably re-
THE FIR-CONE. 217
present Bacchus and Ariadne. The ivy forbids us calling it Cupid and
Psyche.
There is also a fragment of a vessel worked into the head of the In-
dian Bacchus. Also a remarkable fragment of a figiu-e in bold relief:
a naked, old, fat, ugly man, bald-headed, bearing a thyrsus and a wine-
cup, which he seems to have been making free use of.
It will be remembered that Bacchus brought his thyrsus, sur-
moimted by the pine or fir-cone, from the East, when he returned from
his Indian expedition ; and this is probably an Indian, or, at aU events,
an Oriental Bacchus.
M, Lajard has shewn in an elaborate essay* the connexion between
the cone of the cypress and the worship of Venus in the religious sys-
tems of the East.
Layard hesitates to identify the object held by the winged figures of
the Assyrian monuments, and evidently, from their constant occurrence,
most important objects in the religious ceremonies of the Assyrians of
old, with the fruit of the fir or cypress; and he adds, " Any attempt to
explain their use, or their typical meaning, can, at present, be little
better than an ingenious speculation." (See vol. ii. p. 471.) The
handing down of the same tradition through long spaces of time, its
diffusion over vast spaces geographically distant, and the permanence
of forms in art, possess, however, an interest of their own, both artistic
and psychological, independent of tlie true or corrupted meaning of
the thing.
It is not impossible that the origin of the veneration for the fir-
cone has been its aphrodisiacal properties. In the celebrated Bishop
Berkeley's work called Siris, a trecUise on Tar- Water, the learned author
argues, that as the elemental fire, which he identifies with animal spirits
and natural life (paragraph 277), may not inconsistently with the no-
tions of that philosophy which ascribes much of generation to celestial
influence, be supposed to impregnate animals and plants ; so the benign
spirit of the native balsam of pines and firs may, by invigorating the
said elemental fire, increase the power of fecimdation. The Hera of the
Assyrians, who, like her prototypes Isis, Astarta, Mylitta, and Venus,
presided over generation, is, we see, represented bearing the cone, as are
also her priests and priestesses.f The infamous law which, according
to Herodotus, marked the rites of the goddess at Babylon, is generally
known, and deservedly condemned in the apocryphal book of Jeremy.
* Nouvellas Annalcs de I'lnstitut Arch^ologique, vol. xix.
f Although unseemly symbols are rare in the Assyrian monuments, still enough
exists, as Layard has shewn, to attest that such a worship did exist even vmder its
most degrading forms.
218 LARES AND PENATES.
What could be a more fitting accompaniment of Bacclius than the same
emblem which he carries on his thyrsus ?
Bishop Berkeley famishes in his pages abundant proof that the
virtues of the pine and fir were known to the ancients. Pliny tells us
that wines in the time of the old Romans were medicated with pitch and
resin; wherefore but for their aphrodisiac qualities? Pliny also re-
cords that it was customary for the ancients to hold fleeces of wool over
steam of boiling tar, and squeeze the moisture from them, which watery
substance was called pissinum. Eay vviU have this to be the same as the
pisselcewn of the ancients ; but Hardouin, in his notes on Phny, thinks
\\\Q pisselcpvm to have been produced from the cones of cedars. No doubt
the effect of both was the same. Bishop Berkeley acknowledged that
he was ignorant what use the ancients made of these liquors, but the
whole evidence can suggest only one conclusion. It was used as an
aphrodisiac ; and so powerful is this property, that Jonstonus, in his
Dendographia, observes that it is wholesome to walk in groves of pine-
trees, which impregnate the air with balsamic particles. The Eleusinian
and Axio-Kersian mysteries appear to have peculiarly affected pine-
groves ; and satyrs and fauns, that dwelt in woods, were notorious for
their libidinous propensities.
The drunken follower of Bacchus,
Silenus (No. 57), is represented in a
very fine fragment of his head, in which
only the middle part of the face re-
mains ; but quite enough to make us
regret that there is not more. There
is also in the collection part of a bold
relief figure of the same rollicking
demi-god.
Ko. 57.— HEAD OF SILENUS. -A-S illustrativc of other followers
of Bacchus we have the head of a
young faun or Avood demon, Avith the wattles under his throat hke a
goat. It is a good thing, and worthy of care. The top of a satyr's head,
large size, and the lower part of a faun's head, with a characteristic
sensual grin.
Among the terra-cottas is also a head of Pan, or of a satyr, Avith a
croAvn of fir-leaves and cones. It is a work of high art, and exhibits a
freedom and facility of touch which could only come from the hand of a
first-rate artist. The expression of the lower half of the flice is admi-
rable, and the sensuality of the mouth, &c. etc., is wonderfully charac-
teristic. It is seen to great advantage on the tliree-quarter face, with
MINERVA AND CUPID. 219
the right cheek presented to the spectator. There is also the base of a
figure of Pan ; all that remains is the end of his crook. Also a very
excellent head, the expression of the mouth shewing it to be a Pan or
wood demon. There are also the lower part of the face of Pan, and a
small head of the same character.
We have among the Cilician terra-cottas a figure of Minerva as
Pallas, in white clay ; a work of art in which there is much graceful ease,
though the facial angle is remarkably round. And it may be remarked
here, in connexion with the Lares and Penates of cities, that as Pallas
was essentially the city guardian and protector, so the Palladium, an
image of Minerva, which gave security to those cities in which it was
placed, was emblematic of the great fact that those kingdoms and
cities flourish and prosper where wisdom presides. Also a figure of the
same goddess, holding a ram; the ram was sometimes represented on
her helmet, together with the sp>hynx. There is also another head with
the fore part of a helmet remaining, apparently the same deity. The
workmanship is tolerably good.
Among the terra-cottas is a fragment of a female figure, only the
thigh and left fore-arm remaining. She has taken Cupid captive, who
is struggling to escape. It does not appear certain whether this was a
figure of Venus or of a Nymph, who, having captured Cupid, is scourg-
ing him. The portion of drapery remaining is stiff and formal.
Among the numerous figures of Cupid that are met with in the
Tarsus collection is one winged, bearing the club of Hercules. This
was a not uncommon form among the Egyptians, where Horus was
in like manner represented, according to the custom of the Neomenia,
with different attributes, some-
times with the wings of the Ete-
sian wind ; at others with the
club of Hercules and arrows of
Apollo ; and at others riding on
a lion, driving a bull, or tying
a ram. The powerful child,
celebrated for disarming both
gods and men, is often repre-
sented with some trophy of this
character, such as the helmet
of Mars, &c. &c., to denote the
trivunphs of love over the
strongest of men. ^°- 58.-cupid and swan.
Another Cupid (No. 58) occurs, caressing a swan ; the head is radiated.
220 LARES AND PENATES.
It is a pleasing group : the association of Cupid and the swan was very
common. It is altogether a sweet little piece, both in composition and
execvition ; but the neck appears to be too short to represent a SAvan's,
and what corroborates the doubts entertained on this subject is, that Mr.
Major, of St. John's AVood (Abbey Road), possesses a dozen terra-cotta
images, found in Italy, of great beauty, among which there is a similar
form of a bird, the neck of which is quite as short, and of which Mr.
Major has kindly allowed a copy to be taken. It is of very superior
finish, and must be of the time when the Romans had arrived at their
highest degree of perfection in the art of sculpture. Here we have the
neck quite as short, although most graceful, and it certainly seems to be
intended to represent a more ignoble bird than the swan.
We have in the same collection a fragment which represents Europa
riding upon Jupiter in the form of a bull. A portion of the bull's head
remains ; he is turning and rubbing his neck against her foot. Several
fragments of bulls appear also to have formed parts of illustrations of
the same popular fable.
The well-known fable of INIarsyas was not passed over by the Cili-
cians. Several illustrations of this strange and ungodlike story are
met with. In one of these Marsyas is represented bound to the tree and
flayed alive. This favourite subject was never better expressed than
in this particular fragment. The anatomy is perfect, and must have
been carefully studied from nature ; and the agony of the face, as the
MARSYAS FLAYED ALIVE. 221
head sinks lapon the right shoulder, shewing the approach of death, is
most impressive. This fragment must take its place in the first class
for excellence : —
" The satyr's fate, whom angry Phoebus slew,
Who, raised with high conceit, and pufl'ed with pride
At his own pipe, the skilfid god defied.
Why do you tear me from myself ? he cries.
Ah, cruel ! must my skin be made the prize ?
This for a silly pipe, he roaring said ;
Meanwhile his skin from off his limbs was flaj^d
All bare and raw, one large continued woimd.
With streams of blood his body bathed the ground.
The blueish veins their trembling pulse disclosed,
The stringy nerves lay naked and exposed.
His guts appeared, distinctly each express'd ;
And every shining fibre of his breast."
Ovid. Met. vi.
Upon another very remarkable anatomical figiu-e of IMarsyas being
flayed ahve and holding something, possibly his flute, in the hands,
which it clasps to the breast, Mr. Abington remarks, that " it is but a
sketch with very little finish, but of the highest merit. The marking of
the bones, though not exactly correct, is very striking : the brim of the
pelvis and the trochanters of the thigh-bones are very well displayed.
The head and right breast form a very bold relief. The skin is flayed
off" the face and turned back over the scalp, and its cut edges are seen
covering the hair. The expression of agony is so intense as to make it
a model for study: the staring eyeballs, the swollen corrugations of the
eyebrows, and the distressing spasmodic action of the muscles of ex-
pression on the face, strike us with horror, while they so fascinate by
the interest felt in so much suffering, that we can hardly turn away
from the sight." Another fragment of a very stout athletic figure, bound
by the middle and kneeling, is supposed by Mr. Abington to represent
Marsyas supplicating Apollo previous to his being flayed. Four other
fragments are described by the same distinguished artist and antiquary
as belonging to the same subject.
In the same collection is a remarkable fragment representing a man
swimming on his back ; he is in the act of drawing his legs up to strike,
or tread the water from him, while he is dashing the water ojien with
his hands. Only one-half the figure is left ; the head and hands are
wanting. Also the right arm and part of the body of a man swim-
ming. He is in the act of scooping the water back with his arm. It is
slight, but very expressive. There are other fragments relating to the
222
LARES AND PENATES.
same subject. It Avould appear, from joining some of these pieces toge-
ther, that the subject is Leander swimming the Hellespont.
NO. 59. — LEANDER SWI.M.MINCi TliE HELLESPONT.
" Alone at night his wat'ry way he took ;
About him and above the billows l)roke ;
The sluices of the sky were open spreafl,
And rolling thunder rattled o'er his head."
Another interesting fragment represents the body of Leander th^o^vn
up by the billows upon the shore. The Avave which lias cast him on
the land is retreating in a volume from the dead body, leaving
" His floating carcass on the Sestian shore." — ViRGIL.
We have also in the Tarsus collection the lower part of a figure of
Laocoon, or of one of his sons; and also a very beautiful figure of Escu-
lapius. The dignified ease -of the attitude agreeing so well with the
CAIUS CALIGULA.
223
repose of the foce, is much to be admired; the softness of the drapery
is well expressed.
Also the foot of a figure of Fortune standing upon an orb. And
then, again, the fragment of a mnged figure ; only the right arm re-
mains, and drapery faUs from the shoulder. The feathering is remark-
ably bold ; which woiild also seem to belong to the same subject. Also
the left arm of winged Fortune holding up a wi-eath. The figures of Isis
we have seen, however, have often been confounded \nth those of Fortune.
Among the terra-cottas are also fragments of bodies clothed in the
lorica or corselet of scale-
armour as worn by generals
and superior officers, both
Greeks and Romans, sub-
sequently to the Homeric
period, and more or less or-
namented. Now, it is not
a little remarkable that the
Emperor Caius Caligula,
when he had reigned Avith
moderation for about two
years, took a fancy for ho-
nours of a higher kind, and
ordered his statue to be
erected in all the cities of
the empire. Josephus gives
a full account of the in-
flexible resistance of the
Jews, and of the dangers
incurred by it, and of their
happy deliverance by the
death of the tyrant. The commander who was entrusted Avith the
carrying out of this edict came from Syria, and it is not likely that
he would find the priests of Antioch and Cihcia quite so scrupidous
upon the subject.
Images of Caligula must have been in great demand during the
short-lived divine honours which w^ere universally paid to him through-
out the provinces of the enslaved empire. And it is not totally impos-
sible that these figures of a deified person in Roman armour, or, at all
events, of a Roman armed chief, admitted among the Lares and Penates
of Tarsus, may have some reference to the canonisation of Caius
CaHsula.
KO.
-BUST OV CAIUS CALIGULA WITH THE
LQIUCA.
224 LARES AND PENATES.
We come now to a more delicate subject, but one which is so inti-
mately interwoven with all the ancient religious systems of the East,
that a mere mawkish regard for modern prudery should not exclude its
consideration ffom our pages. It is part of the great philosophy of
nature, and reappears in a hundred different forms in the Pantheons of
Assyria, Babylonia, India, and Egypt, and at all the first cradles of
thought, sentiment, and worship. In the Cilician forms we find the
rudest representation of the mysterious principle of fecundity mixed up
with that of the well-known fish-god of the East — the Dagon of the
Philistines, of Ashdod, and the Annedoti of the Babylonians, which
Layard found as a man-god (Oannes ?) at Khorsabad, and the Avorship
of which was afterwards associated in one common form of icthyolatry
in Derceto or Atergates. To the present day we see fish venerated in
the East, just as the crocodile was for similar reasons in Egj-pt and
elsewhere, and familiar examples of which occur at Urfah, ancient Ur,
and Edessa ; at Tashun, in Luristan, and at other places.
Among the Cilician terra-cottas there is a phallus broken from a
figure with which it w^as connected, the body of which formed into a
fish. This combination was very common, and not unfrequently the
fish alone was used to express the same idea of fecundity. There is
also in the same collection the lower portion of a female figure in fiill
drapery, the left hand of which holds the symbol of the fish and phallus.
In the Bacchanalian orgies the women carried this symbol in their
processions. Such facts illustrate St. Paul's testimony in the epistle to
the Romans, 1st chap. v. 18-32, and in Ephesians, v. 12: " It is a shame
even to speak of the things which are done of them in secret."
The most extraordinary work of art, however, that conies under
this strange category is the head and upper half of a figure closely
draped ; tlie head at first view seems to be covered A\atli a helmet
draAvn over the face. But the extraordinary character of this sj-nibolical
figure appears on further examination, and is apparently unique. The
head is a phallus !
Layard, it may be observed, discovered at Nimrud (ancient Atliur)
a broken earthen vase, on wliich were represented two Priapean human
figures with the wangs and claws of a bird, the breast of a woman, and
tJie tail of a scorpion, or some similar reptile. (See vol. i. p. 128.)
There is also among the Cilician terra-cottas the figure of a naked
man bearing a huge shell on his shoulder ; he has a wild expression ;
and we have before remarked upon the shell being appropriated to
Priapus. There occurs also in the collection the following fragments,
having reference to the same worship : the middle part of a female
HARPIES. 225
carrying the phallus ; she lias two large bosses on her shoulders.
Another also bearing the phallus. A phallus, simply and bond fide
such; as also another, with the body of a fish, — a very common way of
bearing it. Further, part of a Priapean figiu-e bearing a pitcher ; and
lastly, a mask representing a female head of monstrous features, sur-
mounted by a phallus. Here also we have the two bosses at the side of
the head, such as we find on the foreheads of certain priests, to be here-
after described, and which identify them as connected ^nth the same
obscene rites.
The Harpies appear to have had their original in Egypt. That
country being very subject, during the months of April, May, and June,
to vicissitudes of weather and the A'isitations of noxious insects, the
Egyptians of old gave to their emblematic figures of these months a
female face, with the bodies and claws of birds. The strange forms that
the poetic and artistic mythology of Greece and Eome attached to these
imaginary demons or genii were as numerous as they were fantastic.
Among the Cilician terra-cottas we find a harpy, the lower part of
the body of which is vulture-shaped, with wings, the extremities of
which are Avanting. The face is very expressive of the horrid nature
of these fabled beings. It seems in the very act of uttering its cry.
Another fragment represents the head and wings of a harpy, which
seems to have formed the angle of an altar of incense, or some such
article. The head bears a sort of capital, which probably supported the
moulding forming the summit.
On a fragment of a A^essel in the shape of a trough or shallow laver,
in the same collection, and the sides of which are formed of rows of leaves,
the end is supported by a harpy. There are also in the same collection
a harpy in relief, and a harjiy which has been the handle to some
hollow vessel.
In describing this portion of the collection, it may perhaps also be
noticed, tliat the ancient Assyrians, according to Dr. Grotefend, recog--
nised in the stars of heaven golden chariots of heavenly hosts. They
imagined a supreme ruler dwelling in the centre of all the revolutions
of the stars ; the most perfect leader of the most perfect chariot. The
seven bright stars in the north (the Great Bear) were compared to a
four-wheeled chariot, drawn by three fiery horses, upon which the
Creator was riding in eternal rotation.
We apparently see a trace of the same tradition in the Cilician terra-
cottas in the figure of a man in the act of riding a bear. He has the
dress of a charioteer, his loins girded with straps ; his right hand seems
to hold a whip, with which he is urging the animal forward ; the left.
Q.
226 LARES AND PENATES.
hand holds a rein connected with a collar round the neck of the beast.
As Baal or Zeus rode the pole-star, this must have been an inferior
deity. Possibly Abrerig, Nerig, or Nergal, the shining Bar, god of the
starry skies and tutelar deity of the Assyrian monarchs.
NO. 61. — MAN RIDING A BEAK.
We find from this examination of a second gi'oup of the Lares and
Penates of Tarsus, that although in early times an Assyrian city, the
Assyrian character is very little preserved, and that only in a partial
degree. There is no member of the Assyrian Pantheon, in the -whole
collection, simple and undefiled by more modern traditions and more
recent art innovation. The reason of this is well explained by the fact
before debated upon, as to their having been blended with others or mo-
llified in form by their transition with respect to place and time. In the
Babylonian cylinders we have Hercules in the earliest representation
of that hero Avhich the world perhaps possesses. We have also the
thyrsus of the Indian Bacchus as preserved in the hands of the winged
figures of Assyria ; the mythological figiu'e of a charioteer riding the
bear ; the female figure with conical cap, like the Diana of Assyria ;
the worship of the fish-god ; the lion of Khea ; the winged horse, the
Pegasus of the Greeks, Avhich we have seen so identified with the story
of Tarsus, and which is also found among the emblematical forms and
types of Assyria.
We have also illustrations of the story of Perseus. According to
Herodotus (hb. vi. c. 54), a great astronomer who instructed men in the
knowledge of the stars, and according to the scholiiist in Lycophron,
MYTHOLOGY OF TARSUB.
227
V. 18, the same as the sun, and all the traditions connected with whom,
more especially his reputed marriage with Astarte the daughter of
Belus, Lajard points out (vol. ii. p. 443) to have reference to his As-
syrian origin. We have Asarac or Nisroch, the same as Horus and
Harpocrates, viewed as the incarnation of a deity through a female divi-
nity— Mylitta or Isis— one of the oldest and most important traditions of
tlie East, viewed in all its bearings. We have also the Ras Majusi, or
head magi of the Persians, transmitting an original Babylonian and
Assyrian form, just as Mithra effects the transition of Nergal to Apollo;
and Layard has shewn that the Assyrians knew also the obscene rites
of PriajHis.
The collection, taken in all its parts, truly shews that the mythology
of Tarsus was (as indeed might have been anticipated from what is
'known of its history— its boasted Assyrian origin— its mercantile re-
nown — its connexion with Greece and Rome, and its celebrity as a
school of philosophy and religion) of such a mingled character, Assyrian,
Egyptian, Indian, Syi-ian, Greek, and Roman, that it will always be dif-
ficult to unravel it. Yet in this very ftict consists in a great measure
the value, the interest, and the great peculiarity of this remarkable
collection.
62. — ATYS.
63.— ANOTHEU RErRESENTATION OF ATYS.
CHAPTER VII.
SIBYLS AND DOLPHINS AND THEIR RIDERS.
SIBYLS — AN AFRICAN SIBYL HEAD-DRESS OF THE VIRGIN PROPHETESSES A
MATRON SIBYL (?) DOLPHINS AND THEIR RIDERS APOTHEOSIS OF DE-
CEASED CHILDREN STORY OF ARION EADL\TED HEADS THE BULLA.
It is not surprising that the Cilician terra-cottas, which, we have seen,
embrace so large a field of Oriental, Egyptian, Greek, and Eoman my-
thology, should also contain illustrations of oracular beings and virLiiu
prophetesses, who played an important part in the rise of Christianity ;
whose books were largely used by the ancient fathers of the Church, ms
Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, Tertullian, Lact:in-
tius, Eusebius, St. Jerome, St. Austin, and others, against the Pagans,
and whose prophecies did not fall before the light of a new religion for
nearly four centuries after the advent of Jesus.
Among the various female heads, for
example, which adorn this interesting
collection, is one (No. 64) with African
features, broad nose, and projecting
jaws. It is a female of rank. 11 le
hair is well dressed, and formed into a
circle or crown of plait on the top.
Of this head Mr. Abington re-
marks : " It is remarkable as being uno
of a class of heads of which there ;iie
several examples, having a hole in th^
basis of the cranium to receive an axis
for its support. There is no appearance
of their having been in any way con-
nected wifli a body, unless it was in the manner in which the Chinese
heads upon their figures of ^landarins, &c., which are centred upon an
axle, to which is appended a balance to counterpoise the head. By this
the head has the free motion which makes it nod and bow to a spectator
on the slightest agitation being communicated to the image. The head
XO. 64. — AFIUCAX SIBYL.
SIBYLS. 229
in question miglit be some priestess or sibyl of African origin and of
celebrity; and it remains a matter of conjecture if such heads were not
used, as above described, for purposes of divination."
The same remarks apply to a female head chiefly differing from the
former in the prolongation of the nose. It is crowned with a kind of
cap made of plaited work, with an arch or bow on the top. Such a
face, pretending to the possession of sibylline foresight, would have great
influence with the multitude.
The following also possibly come under the same category: 1st, a
female head, with the hair in great profusion, worked into plaits, which
are doubled and crossed on the top of the head, so as to form a noble
tiara. The face is pleasing from its tranquillity, though not of the first
order as a work of art. Another female head, with the locks of hair
twisted and carried back, so as to be bound together behind the head.
This style of twisting, instead of plaiting, is partly seen in the preceding
head. Also, another head of a lady crowned with a very graceful head-
di'ess or turban, which is formed of materials folded and bound together.
It is a very pleasing face, though much damaged. Again, the head of
a lady in fine red clay ; the ears are ornamented with large pendants, and
the head covered with hair-work, which may probably be artificial,
finishing with a rosette on the top : altogether it is a very pleasing
figure. We have also other heads and busts of ladies, who cannot but
be classed in the category of sibyls. In one of them the hair is dressed
so as to spread very fully round the face, and gathered into a knot
behind ; over the forehead is a jewel which supports what appears to
be a further expansion of the hair. The ears are decorated with large
spherical pendants, probably pearls. In another the hair is elaborately
dressed in front and plaited behind. The bust is beautifullj modelled,
and the head gracefully set. Jewels adorn the ears. It is a well-pro-
portioned and pleasing figure. Also the bust and right arm of a female
in relief. She is holding some object in her right hand, which she is
looking at with earnestness and complacency. Her hair is plaited, and
a jewel in the ear; but there is not enough of the subject to found more
than a conjecture. Also, the head of a lady with a tiara, and her hair
full dressed; there are jewels in the ears. The right side is in the best
preservation, and gives a very pleasing expression. There is also another
female head of the same family likeness in the nose and mouth. She
wears a bonnet or small cap much ornamented. Fui'ther, a woman's
head with a high cap, conical in the front, and flattened at the sides.
The round masses with which it is decorated are perfectly plain, as if
they were globular buttons ; but not a touch of the tool to givp them
230
LARES AND PENATES.
the expression of roses or any other flower, nor is there the least bond
of connexion between them to give the idea of " chaplets." Lastly, we
have a small female head -with a tiara, the hair turned back in the st^-lc
of the figures of Pallas. It is much polished, as if it had been moiddi d
fi'om. And the face and bust of a matron, fiill- faced and plump,
crcwned Avith a tiara, the hair arranged in curled rolls, different from
any Ave have yet seen. The ears have jewels pendent from them ; a
robe is draAvn closely over the shoulders. Cotdd a sibyl have been a
matron ?
Avery interesting illustrated work on the varioxis modes of dressinu:
the hair, as practised by the ladies of old time, might be Avritten from
the Tarsus collection of CiUcian sibyls, and the other female heads in tli'
collection.
We also find in the Tarsus collection a remarkable number of ill i
trations of dolphins and their riders, which, as in the instance of otlh r
works of art, are studied to the
greatest advantage, taken, not sin;j! \ ,
but in an order of connexion Aviili
each other.
This grorip comprises nearly
thirty pieces, among Avhich are no
feAver than fiA'e heads of dolphins, all
of them most effectively modello'l ;
two parts of the bodies and two tails.
One, the posterior end of a dul-
phin, having the tail perfect, has al^^o
connected Avith it the right arm i>f
a boy riding the fish and holding
a ship's rudder. Another, the tail
end of a dolphin, has the riglit
thigh of a youth riding it. A thiil,
the middle part of a dolphin, Aviih
the right leg and thigh of the nak< d
young rider. A fourth, the same > >\i
a smaller scale. On a fifth, the h-^
only of the rider remains. A sixth
is the tail of a dolphin held by the
right liand of the rider; but iuAvhat
attitude he Avas placed it is difficult to imagine. A seventh, the head
of a dolphin Avith a boy liding. He has a rein in the fish's mouth, Avhirlv
he holds tightly. Only the leg and forearms of the rider remain. Tli-
I
NO. 65. — BOT AND DOLPHIN.
BOYS ON DOLPHINS. 231
appears to have been a lamp, the snout of the dolphin being formed into
a sjjont to carry a wick. Lastly, the body and arm of a boy (No. 65),
"with part of the head of a dolphin, to which he holds on as he rides.
Nine other examples have been previously described.
In the whole of this series of figures mounted on dolphins, all the
riders, it is to be observed, are children ; and the placing of figures
ujwn a fish, especially the dolphin, was a sign of apotheosis, or that
consecration of deceased children which prevailed in Cilicia, to which
Ave have so often had our attention called. There are in the collec-
tion a nrmiber of these deified little ones, which, from their attitude
and the position of their arms, appear to have been riding the doljihin.
Several of them wear the bulla round the neck, and all are radiated. We
should not have suspected their having been connected with the symbol
of the dolphin but for the clue afforded by the preceding fragments.
Another fragment presents the right arm and part of a figure in
drapery, with the hands resting upon the head of a dolphin. In this
interesting work of art, the arm seems to be that of an adult and not of
a child; the di'apery is also in a different style from all the rest. It
does not seem to sit on the fish upon whose head the hand rests. It is
possibly a fragment of the beautiful story of Arion, who, after having
charmed the dolphins by his music, leaped into the sea to escape from
his murderers, and was conveyed by them safe to land.
In the same group is the head and bust of a chubby boy, wearing
the bulla, and in the same attitxide as the rest ; but instead of the head
being radiated, it is cro^vned -with the Stephanos, which was worn by
persons engaged in sacrifice. Little boys were employed to hold the
incense-box, and the crowns and garlands used at saci'ifices; the same
as children are employed for similar duties at the Mass in Romish
churches. This head is that of a deceased boy who had been so offici-
ally employed, probably the son of a priest ; his attitude indicates that,
like the rest, he was riding, and, from the analogies, it may be jDresumed
that it was on a dolphin.
The figure of another radiated boy differs from the others by having
a broad girdle or belt round his middle. It is not certain if this figure
was not mounted on a horse, as there is some appearance of a mane
before him ; but the work of that part is too defective to be read intel-
ligibly. It also differs from the others in the attitude, the face looking
back over the right shoulder. We shall describe other examples ot
deified children in the chapte» devoted to the description and general
illustration of human fi";ures.
CHAPTER VIII.
MAGI AND MONKS.
Among tlie more remarkable relics Avhicli assist in illustrating the
transition of Oi'iental systems into Greek and Roman mythology are the
evidence, in the existence of t\vo miniature figures of Magi (No. 6G), of
the "wise men of the East having formed part of the Cilician Pantheon.
These figures are bearded, and dressed iu
close round cloaks, with a hood or mitre, all
in one piece, which must have been put on
like a blouse.
The Chaldean magi enjoyed a long period
of prosperity at Babylon. A pontiff ap-
pointed by the soA'^reign ruled over a col-
lege of seventy-two hiei'ophants. They were
also established at Memphis and at Tibet,
where the costume is preserved by the priests
to this day; they also extended their in-
fluence and doctrines into Etruria. AVhen
the Medes and Persians overtlirew the reign-
ing power at Babylon, they jjut down tlie
old mythology, and set up their own re-
ligion. The Chaldeans, to recover their lost
influence, brought in one of their own num-
ber, Smerdis the magian, as king ; but the
imposture was detected, and he was slain.
After this they revolted in the absence of the Persian king, and set
up a Babylonian of their own choice; but Xerxes returned, the city was
taken and sacked, and the people slaughtered (b.c. 487). The defeated
Chaldeans fled to Asia Minor, and fixed their central college at Per-
gamos, and took the palladium of Baliylon, the cubic stone, with them.
NO. 66. — A WAGUS.
MAGI AND MONKS. 233
Hei-e, independent of state control, they carried on the rites of their re-
ligion, and plotted against the peace of the Persian empire, caballing
with the Greeks for that purpose. They brought forward Alexander as
a divine incarnation, and by their craft did as much as the Greeks by
their prowess to overthrow the Persian power.
These figures will render good service in the study of the mythology
of Tarsus, and will account for the mixture of Eastern superstitions
with those of the West.
These suggestions are, however, only thrown out for the right use
of them ; but there is every reason to believe that these two little
figures will be found to be keys to a rich store of treasures of thought
and of discovery.
The words magi and magii, it may be added, no doubt, originally
carried with them a very innocent, nay laudable meaning ; being used
purely to signify the study of wisdom and the more subhme parts of
knowledge. But in regard as the ancient magi engaged themselves in
astrology, divination, and sorcery, so, apart from the consideration that
the vulgar looked upon the knowledge of the most skilful mathemati-
cians and philosophers of the age as siipernatural, they were also, by
their very arts, entitled to be looked upon from a very early period more
or less in the light of necromancers and practisers of occult science.
The Egyptians, as well as the Chaldeans and Assyrians, believed in
magii and in daemons; and these superstitious notions, which had spread
all over the East, the Jews imbibed during their captivity in Babylon.
Hence we find them in the writings of the New Testament attributing
almost every disease to which they were incident to the immediate
agency of devils. Many of the same impious superstitions were brought
from Egypt and Chaldea by Pythagoras, and transmitted by him and his
followers to the Platonists in Greece. This was at the time that magic
still cherished its mysteries in the caverns of Dakki, Akmin, and Duni-
daniel, or shadowed forth its secrets in the mysteries of Isis, the prac-
tices condemned by the Jewish prophets, the Samo-Thracian orgies, and
those in vogue at Delphi, and in almost every pagan temple throughout
the world. Modern mesmerists or magicians would have us believe that
" the powers with which the early race of man was endowed seem never
to have been entirely lost." (See Warburton's Crescent and the Cross,
vol. i. pp. 148-50.) Such is also the basis of the doctrine of apostolic
inheritance.
" Oh ! never rudely will I blame his faith
In the might of stars and angels : 'tis not merely
The human being's pride that peojjles space
With life and mystical predominance." — Schiller.
234 LARES AND TEXATES.
It -would be curious to know in which light, that of learned and
pious teachers, or that of practisers of occult arts, the Cilicians admitted
the magi among their Lares and Penates. Their dress would seem to
indicate a foreshadoAnng of that system of monasticism which both in
Europe and Asia, under Christianity and Buddhism alike, has always
been something exclusive and mischievous, — something that cloaked
and hooded itself, and has ever shunned the light of day.
In connexion with the subject of monasticism, it may be remarked
on another perplexing head among the Cilician terra- cottas, that we have
the head and shoulders of a man exactly like one of the bonzes of
Japan; his head plucked clean of all its hairs, Tartar features, with
long moustaches hanging from his upper lip, and his shoulders covered
by a robe. The question arises, how came such a figure at Tarsus ?
This cannot be very satisfactorily answered; but a few thoughts may
be ventured on the subject. It is now pretty Avell understood that at
Babylon, the cradle of superstition, all the idolatries of the world had
their origin. There was a pontiff, orders of men boimd to celibacy,
and devoted to a religious life. The divinity was represented as a
Triad: the eternal fether, Mylitta the female, and Assarac the incar-
nate son. Mylitta we have in Syria as Astarte, in Egypt Isis, in Greece
Aphrodite, and Assarac as Horus and Harpocrates. We have this Triad
all through the East, under other names ; and it is to be apprehended
that the more this is studied, the more clearly it will appear that all the
diversified forms of superstition are from one soiu-ce. All have the
same monkish orders, set apart for the benefit of the rest. Wliether we
know them as bonzes, lamas, talapoins, fakirs, dexwises, monks, or
friars, all are found to bear the same character, and came from the
same common source.
"When the Medes and Persians introduced another religion into the
great empire of the East, this rascality was after many plottings driven
out, and foimd a refuge in Asia Minor, which became their head-quar-
ters. Their holy brethren in all quarters would keep up correspondence
Avith them, and cause a strange mixture of heads. It is also not a little
curious to observe that these heads are shaven, just like the other
monkish orders, with the exception of the Christian monks, who afTect
to retain a memorial of the crown of thorns, by leaving a circle of hair.
It is not unlikely that at the time these figures were made, there was a
closer community of feeling and of interest among all the diversified
orders of holy men than we are aware of; and the seat of their autlm-
rity being shifted from Babylon to Pergamos would cause a great resort
of them to Asia Minor.
MAGI, BONZES, AND EAKIRS. 235
The problem is — " why do we find bonzes, fakirs, &c. &c.at Tarsus,"
and why they should seem to be objects of reUgious respect?
Tliat in their dispersion they found refuge and a safe asylum in Asia
Minor is an historical fact, and that they brought their own mythology
with them is equally clear. This mythology was essentially the same
as that of Egypt,' Baal for Osiris, Mylitta for Isis or Aphrodite, Assarac
for Horus or Harpocrates. The priests of Isis were a profligate, sen-
sual lot, notwithstanding their shaven crowns and vows of celibacy. It
Avould appear that many of the bare-heads in the Tarsus collection re-
present these priests of Isis; and that they were not natives of the
country, but men of the east, preferred for their sanctity and great
powers. Such men were proficient in many occult arts, and strange
things were done by them in that day. Versed in the doctrines of
astrology, divination, mesmeric arts and wonders, their ugly counte-
nances would serve to increase the distance between them and the
people. There would be nothing, as I have already observed in chap-
ter v., to prevent the modeller from even exaggerating this diflference,
and the priesthood Avould never take offence at it, if it tended to make
the deluded multitude stand in awe of them as beings of another and a
higher order.
We have in the Tarsus collection what appears to be a perfect head
of a Biiddhist bonze. It might have been recently broiight from
Japan ! As also numerous heads of religious devotees, such as are to
be seen daily in India by the road-sides. For this unexpected and per-
plexing enigma we want a solution. The only one which can well be
imagined is, that though there is now a great gulf of separation between
those people and the western countries, there was at, or before the
Christian era, a wide- spread diffusion of these monkish fellows through
aU the heathen countries; but that, through the influence of Christianity,
their occupation was gone, and they disappeared, or made their exit
from a stage no longer suited to their action. May these very tribes
not be represented by our gypsies as their descendants, who practise
similar arts as far as the manners of the age permit, and are of unques-
tionable antiquity, and of Oriental descent ; many of their words being
known to be pure Sanscrit?
" In Antioch, the Oriental element of superstition and imposture
•was active. The Chaldean astrologers found their most credulous dis-
ciples in Antioch. Jewish impostors, sufficiently common throughout
the East, found their best opportimities here. It is probable that no
populations have ever been more abandoned than those of the Oriental
(irreek cities under the Roman empire; and of these cities, Antioch was
236 LARES AND PENATES.
the greatest and the worst Juvenal traces the superstitions of
heathen Rome to Antioch."*
This quotation is given here as bearing upon the matter of our in-
quiry ; for w^hatever may be said of Antioch may be applied to Tarsus.
In an account of Pococke's India in Greece, given in Blackwood's
Magazine, it is said, " By an original method of interpretation, applied to
documents existing in the Greek and Sanscrit languages, the author has
discovered important facts, illustrative of the most obscui'e periods in
ancient universal history. The interpretations introduced consecutively
into this work, and accompanied by the true Sanscrit text in lieu of the
corrupt Greek version, produce abundant and interesting results, espe-
cially in relation to early Grecian history, of which results the following
is a brief summary.
"In the great conflict between the Brahminical and Buddhistic sects
in India, the latter being defeated, emigrated in large bands, and colo-
nised other countries. It is demonstrated in this work that the princi-
pal locality from which this emigration took place was AfFghanistan and
North-western India; that the Indian tribes proceeding thence, colo-
nised Greece, Egypt, Palestine, and Italy ; that they also produced the
great Scandinavian families, the early Britons inclusive; and that they
carried with them to their new settlements the evidences of their civih-
sation, their arts, institutions, and religion."
Surely this goes to confirm the fact of a connexion between the East
and West in old time, and to support tlie opinion as to the great value
of the Cilician or Tarsus collection, as containing some hidden mysteries
in history, which Avill be opened in due time by some one competent to
the work.
The contest between Brahma's disciples and the followers of Buddha
is a dark page in history, but the issue of it in the dispei'sion of the lat-
ter is a known fact. If we must go to the Sanscrit for the solution of
these things, we shall find a new field opening before us, the results of a
thorough exploration of which it would be ditiicult to anticipate.
* Conybeare and Uowsou, Lilb of St. Paul, 135.
CHAPTER IX.
MONSTERS AND IDIOTS.
Among what may tnily be termed tlie curiosities of tlie Tarsus collec-
tion are many heads of monsters and idiots, among the first of which we
may describe a small head (No. 67), much damaged, but still retaining all
the horrible expression of its original state. The brows are enormously
swollen, and the eyes seem starting from
their sockets ; the mouth is in keeping with
all the other ugly features. It has a chaplet
round the head, binding two large round tufts
to it for ornament ; but what they were
formed of, or intended to represent, we can-
not distinguish, as they are only marked by
the impress of a small square punch. Is
this, it might fairly be inquired, luale or
female, human or divine ? It is horrible
enough for Typhon himself, or one of his
ministers. Then, again, we have the aqui-
line nose and hairy upper lip of a monstrous
face ; the view of the left side shews the
strange outline most strikingly. There is a
work called the Magus, or Celestial Intelligencer, in which are heads of
spirits, one of which has a nose and lip just like this.
In the same category is a fragment of the lower part of a nose Avith
the upper jaw. The nose is turned up, as if by the expression of scorn
and hatred; the lip rises in harmony with that feeling, laying bare the
teeth. It is made of red clay, and the teeth have been painted white.
Also, more or less associable with the same order of ideas, and yet
in another category, is a head with strongly -marked features, having a
kind of cap upon it. It is loose, having, like others, a hole for an axle.
It is of the same class with many others as to beauty. The expanded
NO. 67. — HEAD OF A
MOKSTER.
238
LARES AND PEXATES.
NO. G8. — A MACKOCEI'HALUS.
ears, long nose, and slavering moutli, give it mucli of the expression
of an idiot, Avhicli also agrees -with the miserablj-contracted cranium.
AVas this image sarcastic ? or Avere idots, as in modern times in the East,
looked upon as sacred or mysterious beings ; beings labouring i;nder
an occult dispensation, and more particularly taken under divine pro-
tection ? However bad superstition may generally be, whoever first
promulgated this, although in some instances public nuisances are
entailed, secured kind treatment among a semi-barbarous people to an
aflSicted humanity.
Among the same group is a very remarkable head (No. 68) "with Afri-
can features, and large thick ears;
the cranium is of an extraordinary
length from front to back. This ap-
pears to be a head of the INIacroce-
phali, a tribe of Asia Minor, Avho
took liberties in shaping the heads
of their children as the Chinese do
with their ladies' feet.
There are also in the collection
two other heads of Macrocephali ;
one is remarkable for a bump above the organ of firmness ; his mouth,
however, seems to indicate much bodily pain, as if he were roaring.
Among the other monstrous heads is one with horrid teeth, yet it
Avould seem to be a lady by the dress ; the
malignity of the eyes is most repulsive.
Another monstrosity (No. 69) is the repre-
sentation of a man's head "\\dth no brains,
the tongue projecting from his slavering
mouth ; the ears project like a dog's. The
expression is that of animdi pain.
It would seem to be as dangerous to
draw ethnological deductions from the
monstrous productions of the Cilician ar-
tists, as it would for some Australian of
the year 4000 to discuss our national pe-
culiarities from the grotesque heads that adorn many of the old religious
buildings, supposed, in some cases, to illustrate the spite and antagon-
ism of rival monastic orders.
Among the heads of a more particularly idiotic character is one
with a face with projecting chin and ])iig-nose, giving a very straight
facial line. The mouth is monstrous, and the expression maUgnant.
NO. 69.— HEAD OF AN IDIOT.
IDIOTS, FOOLS, AND DWARFS. 239
Another idiot face lias tlie skull shelving back where the brains
ought to lie. Yet it is radiated ! Was it a portrait of such a character
deceased ? Possibly so. We have before remarked that idiots are still
looked upon in the East as beings under a mysterious dispensation and
divinely protected.
Another cvirious head is that of a merry fool, who has been painted
white and red, like Joe Grimaldi. He looks as if he could keep a regi-
ment in good humour, in spite of iiis ugly face. In another, again, the
revei-se, or extreme bodily pain, is well expressed. It is almost enough
to give one the tooth-ache to look at it. It would recpiire a spoonful
of magic embrocation to make him smile. Poor fellow! it is no sham.
There is also another ox-eyed head rejDresented as in a Avoful plight.
It is very rudely sketched, but tells its tale.
There is also in the collection the head and right shoulder of a
figure which, like some others, indicates the lowest degree of mental
debasement. He turns to look over his shoulder without any particular
expression of pain or pleasure, but as if he were giving utterance to some
unmeaning sound. The hair is woolly like a negro's.
Among the same group are two monstrous heads with caps, which,
unnatural as they are, are doubtless correct representatives of persons
then existing. Fools, dwarfs — out of the very sport of nature — were
formerly kept in the establishments of great people and in king's courts.
Negro servants Avere much employed in this country, and dressed fan-
tastically, a century ago. IMight not monstrous productions be sought
out and retained about the temples ?
We have also half the face of another of the same kind, and the
lower face of another, but the mouth and chin of better mould. An-
other, again, with the chin almost 7iil; and another with a better chin.
It Avould seem as if there had been wens uj)on the bottom of the cheeks,
which have been broken off. If it is so, these goitres would confirm the
preceding suggestions, and prove that they were cretins. It does not
appear, however, that such have as yet been met with in the mountain-
ous districts of Asia Minor. It does not follow, hoAvever, that they do
not exist in the secluded and little-frequented valleys of Taurus; per-
haps near to Tarsus.
Among heads and faces of a similar character is part of one, the
broAvs of Avhich are contorted and indicative of much suffering, Avhich
the eyes also express ; and another Avhich is almost all face, the cra-
nium excessively small. This, like some of the others, is thoroughly
idiotic.
What were the superstitious (it may Avell be inquired on vicAving
240 LARES AND PENATES.
such deified heads,) of that age respecting idiots ? Were they not
thought to be in more immediate connexion with the gods ? If so, these
may be portraits of some such unhappy beings. In the same strange
category we may also place another unnatural head, with huge project-
ing ears, and a pinched narrow forehead, and the face utterly unintel-
lectual. Two heads in slave's caps, not quite so monstrous as the last,
but most intolerably ugly ; another head of the same class, but with a
sly sinister expression about the eyes, yet low intellectual faculties for
Avant of brain ; a small head of the same breed as the preceding, but
somewhat better, except the chin, Avith a cap on painted blue ; also
two other heads of the same parentage ; large eyes, heavy noses, thick
bullock mouths, and enormous ears. One of them seems in pain ; but it
looks like mere brute suffering. Another, again, is a fragment of a head ;
the nose and mouth monstrous. It is a fact, that a small receding chin,
and an open mouth with relaxed lips, as if never used but to take in
food, is always accompanied by defective intellect. Look at the chins of
George Washington and Napoleon, and the close grip of their lips, and
contrast the chin of George III. and the mouth of the late Charles X. of
France.
Another has an enormous goitre hanging on the throat ; and the
little of the face which remains is in keeping with it. There can be no
doubt from this that some of these idiots were true cretins.
Of another there is not much left, but enough to exhibit the ma-
niac — the demoniac — in whom dwelt a god ! Then again we have
two other fragments of heads of the same description, perfect idiots. In
another the cheek is hairy, and the nose and mouth extravagantly out
of proportion.
Monstrous features and forms of head, or countenances of idiotic ex-
pression, are not confined to men. There is in the collection the frag-
ment of a female head in which the nose is monstrous, the mouth, tlie
chin, and the forehead idiotic. The hair in this figure is plaited and
carried l^ack. We have also a female head, the hair of which is dressed
and the ears jewelled ; but the mouth and chin identifying it with the
same class.
It may be remarked upon these strange works of art, that if such
characters were held in superstitious veneration, it is likely that they j
were supported l)y the temples, and used by the priests for the pro-
motion of their own objects. The female head having a high cap
or bonnet, ornamented with orbicular masses, like buttons, all over
its surface, suggests curious thoughts. If she is of that class of un-
happy beings referred to, may not the round projecting objects on her
IDIOT HEADS. 241
cap be spherical hells ? They are all of one size, and have as great a
projection as the potter's mould would allow. Such a belled cap was
worn by the fools and jesters of kings, popes, and nobles in the middle
ages. It is not less probable that this head may give us the only re-
maining memorial of the ancient and original fool's cap and bells. In
this view the head is perhaps unique.
There is more disagreeably suggestive matter connected with the
subject of the deification of idiots, contained in the following letter.
It is, however, borne out by the well-known fact, that at the present
day Egyptian fellah women will assemble and veil with their bodies,
as it were, an idiot engaged in the indulgence of his disgusting sensual
propensities.
Mr. Abington writes, under date of August 10, 1852 : " I have
thought much on the subject of the idiot {cretin) heads, so numerous;
and having read some papers on matters of a similar character by
a learned but anonymous writer, I obtained his address, and informed
him in general terms of your valuable collection ; of the articles it
comprises, especially of these heads. I asked whether such unhappy
beings were not supposed to be in more inmiediate connexion with
the gods ? Whether it is likely that they might be kept and fed at
the expense of the temples ; being used by the priests for their super-
stitious purposes, and generally for the promotion of their craft. I
pointed out also the occurrence of figures similar to the Buddhist priests
and the fakirs ot India.
" He replies : ' I do not recollect that they were permanently at-
tached to the temples ; but I take it that reverence was paid them as
being preternaturally endowed with sensual propensities. I believe
that cretins are much given this way. Fakirs, we all ki: j -a', are won-
derfully so given, inasnuich that no notice or resentment is ever shewn
at any insult by them to a female, even in open daylight, or even by a
husband. A military friend of mine in India, who had wandered shoot-
ing into a village about forty miles fi-om Nypore, which no European had
entered before, came suddenly upon a rehgious festival, at which all the
maidens of the neighbourhood were assembled to wait upon and feast a
set of naked fakirs, who were sitting in a circle with fool's caps upon
their heads ; their carcasses were painted like harlequins. He Avas at
once requested to withdraw ; but expresses his behef that the old rites
of Astarte Avere about to follow.'
" All this so fully agrees A\dth my own sm-mises respecting these
creatiu'es being associated Avith the figures of the gods, that I could not
forbear sending it to you. I believe that the same remarks Avill apply
B
242
LARES AND PENATES.
to both sexes, where you find the cranium faithfully represented as
formed almost entirely of animal propensities, without any adequate
proportion of the sentiments to balance them. Certainly nothing can
be imagined too gross and beastly for them to have embodied in their
religion, when we recollect the free use of th-e obscene phallus in their
public rites. But it is an unpleasant subject to dilate upon."
ffOMB AT ELEU6A, FROM A SKETCH BY JIK. LAYAKD.
CHAPTER X.
HUMAN FIGURES.
BARDS PRIESTS MISCELLANEOUS FEMALE FIGURES DEIFIED CHILDEEX
IIXDETER5UXED.
Ajiong the fragments of human figures which do not belong to any of
the categoi-ies before described, may be enumerated, in the first place,
that of a bard reciting his verses.
This figure is far more ancient
than any other piece in the
collection ; he is playing on an
instrument that is maknown, but
of which there are two other
pieces that will throw some light
on this subject. These will
be referred to in a subsequent
chapter, where mention is made
of a boy playing on a pan-pipe
and of a syrinx. Next, two
figures of priests bearing a bas-
ket or some vessel on their
heads, to which their hands are
applied for support. These
figures are altogether of an ori-
ental character. There are two
bosses, or balls, on the head-
dress, which help to identify
them as to their occupation,
which was undoubtedly in the
temple or rites of Priapus.
There is also a figm-e of another
bearded man, which resembles
the preceding, but has no chap-
1 ^ ^1111 11 ^'t>- 67.--ANCIENT BAKD PLAYING ON
let on the head, though the unknown iNSTRUiiENi.
SOME
244
LARES AXD PEXATES.
hands are elevated to support a burden under wliich he seems to bend.
Another figure represents a priest of the same order, but standing at
ease ; he bears in his hand something -which appears like the links of
a chain folded up. AV^as it for inflicting penance ? We know that self-
mortification was carried to great lengths by some orders of the ancient
heathen priests, the same as is now practised in India. These figures
go to confirm the previous suggestions made with regard to the con-
nexion of the mythology of Cilicia with Buddhism.
Besides the above heads of bards and priests, we have also a man's
head, probably a portrait, from its peculiar expression; the ears are
remarkably long. Also a cloaked figure, the head of which is well-
modelled and interesting; the hair is very ample and ciu'ly.
Then, again, we have a head painted white. There is another such
on a lamp; it has a helmet; the twist of the nose and mouth in a con-
trary direction gives it a ludicrous appearance. This was probably a
likeness of some well-known character employed about a temple. There
is also the bald head of a man. It has a well-developed cranium, over
which a cloth is thrown. It was connected with something on the back,
which is too scanty to give any idea of what it was. One of the heads
in the same group is more of a grotesque character, and from its pecu-
liarity and natural propor-
tions, a portion of one who
was " no fool."
In the same collection we
have the upper part of the
body of a conquered gladia-
tor; a relic of art so full of
expression, so eloquent in its
mute agony, that we have
introduced it here.
Then again we have the
middle part of a figure bear-
ing a wine-sack, as if pouring
it out. Part of a figure which
has the thigh extended, as if
sitting on a horse; the mor-
tar by which it was fastened
to the seat remains. Also
the left side of a man, half
coNyuEiiED ..i.AMATon. ^^^^^^ ^^.^j^ modelled. The
left hand of a bearded figure, holding up something which is broken off.
FRAGMENTS OF FIGURES. 245
Then part of the body of a man, having a cloak over his shoulders in
the style of Apollo. Then an old man's head with a cap, very expres-
sive ; his bushy eyebrows give great force and character to it.
We have also the upper face of a man with his head bound up, as
if he was sick ; his eyes and brows seem to indicate the same. It is
well modelled. Also a fragment of a head -with a very bushy brow ; there
is a wen on the forehead. And lastly, the lower face of a man with a
full-developed chin: indicating that he could both raise and enjoy a
laugh ; but the lips are gone.
The above are male: there are also fragments of female figiu'es, as
exemplified in the left arm and drapery of a female reclining. The
lower limbs of a female; they are crossed, while drapery painted red
falls down behind her. It has been a graceful figure, well drawn. Also
a sitting figure of a naked female. The head is wanting. It has been
found lately and proved that she represented a sibyl on her seat of in-
spiration. It was used as a fountain ; the base is formed into a pipe,
through which the water or wine would ascend; and the seat on which
she is placed inclines downward, to give a free flow to the fluid.
Among miscellaneous fragments, we have an arm holding up a
tripod, possibly part of a priestess of Apollo. Also part of a female
and child. Then, again, the right half and head of a female with a
tiara and veil ; possibly a Venus. Also a female bust in relief, the left
breast and shoulder naked; stiff and inferior. Another fragment repre-
sents the upper half of a female figure, having all the character of a
divinity ; but the right hand of a man is placed on her right shoulder.
And another is the head of a dignified lady, the hair full dressed, stand-
ing on a pediment.
Among other fragments we have part of a circular medallion, con-
taining a female in relief; the hand and part of the body remain,
sufficient to shew that it refers to the rites or honours of Cybele. It
was probably votive. Then, again, we have part of an elegant figure of
a female bearing a veil, which floats in the wind. Also another pleasmg
head, little, but good, of a lady in full dress, with jewels in her ears.
Another pretty head in a close dress, the veil hanging down full behind,
and shewing the gathering of the hair at the back of the head. Again,
a female divinity, with the hair knotted, and the drapery flowing. Then
the bust of a female carrying a bird. Also the head of an old woman ;
she wears a cap most unique, ornamented with buttons or other round
objects. And the lower part of a head, which is female, from the ringlet
hanging on the cheek. Lastly, we have the upper part of a figure of a
woman dressed in a garment which is wrapped close round her, and is
246 LARES AND PENATES.
drawn over her head; in her left arm she bears a naked boy. It has
been painted. It would do for a Madonna, but must be of a date long
prior to any such representations of Mary and her child. There are
two of these, and they both appear to be far more ancient than the
generality of the pieces, if we may judge from their style of sculpture,
and from the blackness of the terra-cotta.
In the same category may be classed the following interesting works
of art, being chiefly figures of deified children.
1. A fragment representing a child with wings, and in close drapery;
the hair of the head is knotted on the top. There is connected with it
an ornamented ring, apparently to hang it by. " It is possibly a me-
morial," says Mr. Abington, " of a deceased and deified child."
2. A boy with wings and a radiated croAvn, reposing, with his right
arm over an object covered by a cloth or skin, which hangs in folds
over it, and which has been painted blue. The crown also was painted
the same colour, and the hair red. The figure appears to be slumbering.
0. The bust of a deified child, with the head radiated, and the right
hand elevated in valediction.
4. A little fragment, having a winged infant, in relief.
5. Plead of a deified child, bearing a vase, probably to receive liba-
tions.
There are also the following pieces. A fragment of a Bacchanalian
group of boys, in high relief; one kneeling, Avith an armful of grapes.
There appears something like a bow by the side; but it may be the
trunk of a vine. Another fragment of a well-executed figure of a boy
reminds us of Flamingo's models. An excellent figm-e of a boy looking
upward. The balancing of the body is well managed ; while it seems
bent out of the perpendicular, it stands firm. A bust of a deified child.
Upper portion of a boy ; another is holding him by the chin ; his eyes
are shut. A boy in a tunic, as if ascending upward on Avings: a me-
morial of the dead. Part of a boy holding a sickle, with Avhich he is
gathering grapes. A naked boy with a cock ; on his left shoulder there
is a foot like that of an eagle. This is possibly a Ganymede. Another
winged boy, not improbably Eros. A boy closely cloaked, very imper-
fect, and a young child, led by a female. The head of a youth, with
the left hand elevated with much energy. A boy carrying a basket
of grapes on his back ; he looks as if he was conscious of having stolen
them. An imperfect fragment of a youth : good, but much decayed.
A young student ; a good study for the historical painter ; it is com-
plete except the feet. The hands of a boy carrying a goose. A
youth's hands crossed in front, as if standing in the presence of his
fhagmexts 01 figures. 247
superiors. A fragment of two boys ; they seem engaged in drawing a
carriage of some kind. A boy's head, with the hair disposed in ring-
lets, in the style of theatrical masks. A small chaplet is placed on
the crown, to whicl> were attached large bunches of ivy-berries ; it is
surrounded by a copious radiation of ivy-leaves. The expression is
peculiar, though quite juvenile. Still more interesting is a very beau-
tiful boy's h^ad, the hair thin and scanty, radiated. The more this is
studied, the more it must be adiuired. Flamingo or Cipriana might
have been proud of the production of it. And lastly, a trunk of a boy,
naked, except a cloak, flistened by a fibula on the right shoulder; he
carries in the cloak a variety of fruits, among which grapes and the pine
are the most conspicuous.
There are several fragments in the collection, the character and
gender of which it is not so easy to determine. Among these are,
part of a figure bearing a square vessel or chest, covered with drapery.
A left hand, belonging to a figure in drapery holding something like
a modern book. The lower portion of a closely clothed figure, with
shoes on the feet. It is remarkable that the legs are cut free behind,
and the back drapery worked. It was sitting. Also three fragments
of sitting Egyptian figures, apparently connected with the worship of
Isis. And lastly, a number of detached arms and hands, not requiring
any individual description.
Among the Cilician terra-cottas, the true character of which has not
been as yet satisflictorily determined, may also be noticed a fragment
of a figure in a sitting posture; only the lap and legs remain. It is
closely clothed, and the left hand rests on the thigh, holding >\'ith the
fingers and thumb a remarkable portion of the dress,- consisting of two
tablets hanging from the girdle. The style is altogether Egyptian, and
if not a deity, it has been some sacerdotal officer.
Also part of a figure formed into a cup at the top, probably for
the purpose of holding perfume. The head only remains, which is
bonneted; the features are youthful, with curled locks, and the right
hand is elevated, to hold the cup which rises out of the figure. Again,
a fragment of a relief, Avhich shews the left arm of a slave carrying fish,
which are suspended in a bundle at the end of a pole. There is also
another similar fragment ; but instead of fish, a basket or net hangs at
the end of a pole. The contents are so slightly modelled, that it is
difficult to say what is intended.
We may pei'haps be permitted to include in this chapter a notice of
the following, among the strange fragments contained in the Tarsus
collection, vizv several images of the lower human jaw, one with, the
248
LARES AND PENATES.
symphysis marked very deep, a row of incisor teeth, and the left canine
teeth. Another, with the teeth still more strongly marked, the canine
tooth being much cum'ed ; and others with slight variations. All these
remnants are portions of flat, circular medallions or reliefs ; and all have
the ground within the jaws, modelled to represent flames, and have been
painted red.
Among the works of our early painters of Church legends, and of
the temptations of saints, &c., we often find representations of heaven
and hell. The latter is generally depicted as the wide yawning jaws
of a great monster with enormous teeth, and belching out fire and
flames. Do not these fragments shew us that such a mode of repre-
senting a fiery infernal region was but traditionari/f Are they not
personifications of the Tartarus of the ancients ? If so, was the fiict
ever kno-\\Ti before ?
BEPRESENTATION OF TARTARUS.
Lastly, several masks occur in the same collection. Among these
is the half of the mask of a bald-headed man. Also a very expressive
tragic mask. Again, a figui-e in a mask, excessively rude and imperfect
in every point. In another part of a mask the hair is in short curls,
and is dressed to a great height. A pair of wings ornamonted the front
of it. It has been painted. Is it Perseus ? The variety of masks, both
tragic and comic, is too numerous to be entered upon here, and they
would require more illustrations than the nature of this work permits.
CHAPTER XI.
ANIMALS.
DOGS OXEN BULLS BUFFALO HORSES LIOKS — PANTHER — WOLF BOAR
— APE HIPPOPOT Alius (?) CAT — GOATS RAMS AND SHEEP — CROCODILE
SNAKE — EAGLE — SWAN OSTRICH — COCKS.
Both wild and domestic animals have their illustrations among the
Tarsus terra-cottas ; some with a mythological meaning, as in the in-
stance of the Hon, the ape, the cock, and others. The meaning of
Others is more difficult to detect, unless as accompaniments to figures
and personages wanting in the work to make it complete.
Among such is the hind half of a dog in relief, which seems to have
been the top of a lump ; also the hind legs of a dog in relief, behind
which is a b isket.
Also, a dog sitting by the side of a figure, the foot of which only
remains. This may have been Diana and a hound, as it forms the
plinth of a statue.
Further, the rump of a shaggy dog in the act of running; and a dog
whole length appears to be climbing; and lastly, a hound's head at full
speed — good. There are also several hind-quarters of dogs, which do
not require particularising.
Among these zoological fragments are also a very fine head of a
young ox, and the forehead of a bull, with the hole in front by which
the golden disk was fastened, shewing it to have been divine. Also, a
good bull's head, one horn wanting ; the expression is admirable. An-
other bull's head, probably a fragment of a group, with a lion on his
back. Again, a head which appears to have belonged to an Indian
buffalo.
The buffalo, it may be remarked, is a common animal in the marshes
of Asia-Minor and Syria; and the Tudiau buffalo is met with on the
Eujihrates and Tigris. The bull may be partly illustrative of Egyp-
tian, or also of Greek and Eoman mythology.
Besides the numerous fragments of horses attached to chariots or
250 LARES AND TENATES.
Otherwise, and the still more numerous horses' feet, the meaning of which
has been previously discussed, fragments of horses and of equestrian
figures are common in the Tarsus collection. Among these, we may
notice as deserving of separate mention :
A boy riding a horse, of which the hind half only remains. Part of
a horse with a saddle, and naked leg of a boy-rider. Also, the thigh
and leg of an equestrian figure, who, by the bend of his body, would
seem to be at fall speed. Also, the upper part of a horseman: his
loins are belted, and he seems to be racing. And then, again, part of a
group of horses — the bridled head of one, and the shoulder and neck ol'
the other harnessed. We have also, in part of a circular tablet in ba.'^-
relief, the fore-leg of a horse, and the booted leg of a man running 1 }•
the side of him. By putting all these and other pieces before him, the
sciilptor has been enabled to restore several complete figiu'es that are
most interesting.
Among animal relics of another order, we have a small head of a
lion; when viewed on the left side, the effect is admirable. It was
attached to some other object on the right side, which is therefore un-
finished, not being intended to be seen. Also, the head and paw of a
lion's skin, hanging by the side of a throne — only one leg of which re-
mains : it is formed of a chimera head and lion's paw. Also, a detached
lion's head, and a lion's skin, from the figiu'e of Hercules. As also a
lion with a figure riding upon it. The lefl arm and drinking-cup re-
mains. And the same subject, but only the head of the lion is left.
Then, again, we have a panther, probably part of a bacchanalian
group, in high rehef The head of a wolf, and the fore part of a boar
wanting the snout. The figured face of an ape is a solitary instance of
the kind: it has a cap on the head: this animal is rarely found in Greek
sculptures, but it was a sacred animal among the Egyptians. Isis is
sometimes represented riding upon a monkey. It was in some such
association that this figure was used. Also, the fore part of an animal,
thick, clumsy, and short-legged, Avhich might be taken for a fragment of
an hippopotamus, sacred to T}q)hon ; and in the collection there exists
the snout of this intelligent animal,
Amonff fiffures of other familiar creatures are the head of the long-
eared Syrian goat ; another goat's head ; a fragment of the same, and
a fragment of a boy riding a goat. Also, the top of the head of a ram ;
a ram's horn, and part of a sheep kneeling on a plinth. The ram had
mostly reference to the rites of Minerva.
Among the same rehcs we find the mutilated or imperfect repre-
sentation of the crocodile. We have had occasion to remark elsewhere,
CROCODILE AND BIRDS, 251
that there exists in Cilicia, a river called Andricus by Pliny, as also a
mons crocodilus, and that both are connected geographically as well as
by name. This river, now called Markatz Su, and remarkable as flow-
ing between the walls of the antique Syro-Cilician gates, is of too small
a size ever to have been frequented by so remarkable a saurian. But
the same river is called Kersiis by Xenophon — a word derived from a
Coptic and Syriac idiom, and which refers to the ancient crocodile wor-
ship, being met with in the Axio-Kersus of the Samo-Thracian mys-
teries, and is explained by Soega and Miinter, as the great principle of
fecundation ; and hence it was expressed by Pliny by the word Andri-
cus, whilst the mons crocodilus rose iip above it.
It is to be observed that the crocodile Avorshipped by the Syrians
was also called Succoth ; but the able commentators of Pancoucke's
Pliny suggest an identity between the Syriac Kersus and the Egyptian
Kamses, the name of a ferocious crocodile, which has been ascertained
to be a difFeient species from the sucko or succoth.
In this same class we have also a snake winding round a staff, the
symbol of ^sculapius, and probably part of his statue.
There are also several fragments of figures of birds ; and to take the
most noble birds first among fragments of this description, there is a
foot of an eagle ; the ground has been painted blue. It was of great
size, and probably connected with a figure of Jupiter. Also the full
figure of an eagle, which has been connected with some object at the
side, most likely the thi-one of Jupiter, to whom the eagle would then be
looking up. Then, again, we have the figure of an ostrich, with a loop
behind for suspension ; as also of a swan, the head of which is supported
by a human hand. The crane is also here represented and the dove.
Among the other ornithological fragments may be noticed three cocks,
probably relating to ^sculapius; as also two cocks' heads.
Nergal, the Assyrian Abrerig, god of the starry sky, and the tutelar
deity of the king, was also, it is to be observed, conjectured, according
to the presumed Semitic or Indo-European origin of the name, to have
reference to a fire-worship, or to that of the sun under the form of a
cock.*
* See Layard, vol. ii. p. 459. It is worth mentioning, however, that being at the
mines of Ishik Tagh, near Angora, in the year 1839, we were surprised one day to find
a cock, in the midst of great scarcity, newly killed, yet not eaten, in front of the houses.
Upon inquir}', we ascertained that the miners, who were Christians by name, of the
Greek Church, had killed it in order to propitiate some genius of the mines, and that a
sacrifice must not be eaten. This was evidently a remnant of the old superstition of
cocks being sacrificed to Pluto for the same objects. See Travels and Researches in
Asia Minor, &c. vol. i. p. 131. — W. F. A.
Qd'2
LARES AND PENATES.
We have also in the collection the figure of the hawk — a bird, like
the eagle, of quite as great importance in the Ass}Tian pantheism as the
Egyptian ; and of which we introduce an illustration.
rnUEE, THE EGYITIAN SUN.
CHAPTER XII.
DOMESTIC AND RELIGIOUS ART.
CHARIOTS VASES BOWLS AND DISHES WINE-JARS AND DRINKING- VESSELS
LAMPS HANDLES TABLE AND CHAIR RING AND GLASS — ROUND DISC
OF POTTERY NET — BUTTER-PRINT (?).
Objects of domestic and religious art are not so numerous in the
Tarsus collection as might a priori be imagined. Among these are
fragments of the wheel of a chariot, with the hind leg of the lion which
is draAving it. It was painted red. The lion was connected with the
worship of Cybele ; and the goddess Ehea, with her lions, as described
by Diodorus, may be recognised with similar accompaniments in the
Assyrian sculptures ; so also Hera, the Assyrian Venus, stands erect
on a lion in the rock tablets of Pterium and those of Assyria.*
Also, of a more or less similar character, a chariot driven by a naked
boy ; the wheel is partly covered by what appears to be the tail of the
animal drawing. Also the hand of a boy, holding the reins and driv-
ing a chariot ; and the two hands of a boy in the same action. He
holds the reins with much apparent skill and energy. And lastly, a
chariot, in which sits the lower half of a boy, with a portion of drapery
thrown across him. If they are horses' legs immediately before the
wheel, they are very stiff and out of place. Add to which, a boy's
hands grasping reins, and several detached chariot-wheels, two of which
are bored as if placed free in their axles.
In the same collection are several fragments of vases, of greater or
less interest both in an artistic and an archgeological point of view. One is
ornamented with vine-leaves and annular handles. The foot is wanting.
Only one side of it is wrought, shewing that it was fixed against a wall.
The cavity is shallow. It was, perhaps, used for libations to Bacchus,
and was possibly placed on the head of a figure.
Another is somewhat like the preceding, but not ornamented. This
* See Layard, vol. ii. p. 456.
254 LARES AND PENATES.
appears to have been borne on the head of a figure, and supported by
the right hand.
Another part of a vase is of very elegant design, but slight work-
manship. It is a portion of the foot only ; the pUnth part is ornamented
■with festoons of fruit, supported on ox-heads, and on the shoulders of
•winged boys. The cove I'ising to the leg of the vase is very gracefiiUy
fluted.
There is also part of a cup or vase in the Egyptian style. It is
formed of two rows of lotus-leaves representing a flower, and very like
the capitals of some columns of Egyptian temples. Eound the bottom
there is a row of animals, such as are seen on some cornices in the
British Museum ; but whether they are hooded snakes cannot well be
made out.
There is also, among fragments of a similar character, one that pre-
sents a very graceful design for the suj^port of a vase, or for an incense
altar. It is formed of three leaves, giving it a tripod character. The
intervals between the leaves are occupied by swans couching, with their
pinions advanced over their breasts. This would indicate its application
to the rites of Pan or Venus.
Another fragment seems to have been intended as a leg or support
for some article. We have a round biise, upon which is a well-formed
lion's paw, Avhich passes into the figure of a crouching man, who grasps
the two handles of a drinking vase. It lias very much the aspect of a
Babylonian work.
Lastly, Ave have two vases, one between two animals. There is a
hole in it, and the vase being in the shape of an amphora, indicates
that it was part of a vessel to hold wine. And another Avith drapery
thrown over it, in modern funereal style.
Among the minor objects of art having a similar tendency, and illus-
trative both of art and feehug, are a portion of the side of a drinking
bowl in red clay (No. 54). It bears a bas-relief of the head of a Bac-
chante, crowned with ivy and bearing a thyrsus, that is, a long pole,
with an ornamental head, formed by a fir-cone, or by ivy or vine-
leaves, which was carried by Bacchus and his votaries at the celebration
of their rites. The back of the Bacchante is turned toward the eye, and
her face is looking over the left shoulder, from which the tunic is sliding
off" : nothing could be better conceived ; it must have come from the
hand of an artist of the first order, though it has somewhat degenerated
in the hand of the potter. Altogether this is a precious fragment, and
will bear comparison with any thing which has hitherto been discovered
of ancient ceramic art.
DRINKING-VESSELS. 255
Among objects of a similar character are a fragment of a Bacchana-
lian bowl ; it has a moixlding of beads and buttons round the top, under
which is a border of vine-leaves and grapes. On the body is a mask,
and a nymph, slightly draped, beating upon an instrument like a drum
or gong. This vessel was painted red, and by its curvature must have
been seven and a quarter inches in diameter.
Also a portion of a bowl of a different shape from the preceding.
It was of a beautiful shape, though the ornamentation is very rude and
slight. The leaves, &c. were pressed on with a die after the bowl had
been thrown by hand upon the Avheel. It is also red ; the diameter
is about five inches and three eighths.
Eeclining on a large wine-jar or amphora is the figiu'e of a come-
dian performing his part in a play. H-e is in the attitude of one at a
banquet, has the comic mask on, and sandals (baxea) on his feet. The
baxa, or baxea, worn on the comic stage,* and by philosophers who
affected simplicity of dress, t are, it may be observed, sometimes indi-
cated on the feet of Egyptian statues, and many originals have been
discovered in the Egyptian tombs ; some made with close sides and
upper leather, like a shoe ; others with a leaf, forming a mere strap,
like a clog, across the instep ; and others with a band across the instep,
and another smaller leaf on the fore part of the sole, intended to pass
the great toe through.
We have next to notice a fragment in yellow clay (No. 53), part of a
cylindrical drinking-vessel, three inches in diameter, similar to our modern
mugs. A relief has been made out of a plaster-mould, and laid iipon
it ; but the body of the vessel was thrown vipon the potter's wheel. The
subject is a female, slightly clothed, holding in her hand a branch of
sesamvmi, which she is attentively watching to observe the opening of
the seed-capsules, a mode of divination often resorted to for the solution
of love-questions. The modelling is very good, except the breasts, which
are out of place. The back part of the vessel was decorated with ivy.
This vessel might, it may also be observed, possibly, have been an oil-
jar ; and the female contemplating the common oil plant (sum-sum of
the .4rabs) be poetically emblematic of the uses of the vase. "The piece,"
says Mr. Abington, " is interesting to a potter, as it shews that the an-
cients laid reliefs upon their works in the same manner as is practised
now ; but the workmanship on the part of the ancient potter was un-
worthy of the beautiful models supplied to hiiu by the artist, and would
not be tolerated in a modern pot-work."
Among the minor objects of art in the additional collection are many
* Plaut. Men. ii. 3, 40. f Apul. Met. xi. p. 244.
256 LARES AND PENATES.
fragments of lamps -well desen'ing of mention. Among these are the
upper portion of one with a bas-relief of a centaur bearing a wine-vase
upon his back, and about to drink from a bowl. The modelling of this
beautiful fragment is triply admirable. Another fragment of the top of
a lamp has a relief representing Vulcan occupied in his workshop. He
sits with one foot upon his anvil, and upon his raised knee is a shield,
which he is fashioning into shape with a finishing hammer. His pincers,
or tongs, are lying xipon the ground. This is one of the pleasing deifi-
cations of the most humble art, ennobled in this case by the object in
which the artist is engaged, and a tribute to the imaginary inventor of
forges, and the first teacher of the malleability and polishing of metals.
Another part of the top of a lamp is adorned with the figure of a Roman
herald, bearing his staff and an ensign. This fragment is painted red,
and is of inferior merit as a work of art. Lastly, another has the head
of a satyr on the top, and is like the former of rude workmanship.
The designs for handles found among the Tarsus terra-cottas are
sometimes very elegant. Among them may be paaticularly noticed a
most elegant handle of a lamp : it is formed of a horse's head of first-rate
execution, emerging from foliage most gracefiilly drawn. Also a lamp-
handle very plain, but the lines graceful and well drawn ; as well as the
handle of a lamp with a slight relief of the conventional honeysuckle,
in pure Greek style, on the triangular face of the top. There are figures
©f such in many works of antiquity. Well worthy of notice also is the
handle of a lamp in the form of the prow of a ship; there is the figure
of a bird upon it. This piece was biu-ued so hard in the fire as to be
vitrified in the sui"face. Also a very primitive handle of a lamp ; the
ornamentation is siich as is attempted by men in their earliest efforts.
The handle of a vase, with a head, the tragic Muse. A ring-handle,
with a fragment of the vessel with which it was connected, very perfect;
and then, again, a portion of a handle, with a human head upon it.
This is remarkable for having a glazing upon it of vitrified lead. Part
of a good handle terminating in a chinitcra head, with a ft-ill of leaves
beliind it. Also the handle of a lamp, with chimaira head. A vine- •
leaf, forming the handle of a bowl or disli ; and lastly, parts of two
snakes, probably connected as handles to a vessel; and a harpy's head,
which served as a handle.
We have next to notice the handle of a flat dish or tazza, the orna-
ment of which, though rude, is comjilex, and appears to have a mytho-
logical meaning. It has a circular altar or short column in the centre
supporting a basket; on each side of which a humped buffalo or Indian
bull is couching; over those are two human heads, apparently female.
HOUSEHOLD ARTICLES. 257
and behind these, fishes: there are others below the fishes, the character
of which is not easily determined. Tlie bulls, the fishes, and the female
heads have a mythological meaning in harmony with the purpose to which
the vessel was appropriated, which was religious. The dish was large, the
diameter being nearly 14^ inches, and coated with a red varnish. Also
another handle from the same mould, with a small portion of the bowl-
part of the dish ; this fragment shews the ornamentation was all on the
under side, and would be unseen when the dish was in use ; when out
of use, it would be reversed, the concave part would be unseen, and the
decorated bottom exposed to view ; the very opposite to the construction
and use of our dishes. Does not this illustrate a passage in the Bible ?
2 Kings, chap. xxi. 13, "I ■will wipe Jerusalem as a man mpeth a dish,
turning it upside down." Next, a small fragment of a red dish, with a
part of the handle, having a flower, the syrinx of Pan, and a figvire like
a running dog. It is on the same plan as the preceding. And in the
same category may be placed a very good head of Medusa, in relievo,
painted red. It had been applied as an ornament to some vessel, from
which it is detached, leaving part of its hair behind. The head of
]\Iedusa, it is well known, is sometimes depicted as one of the most beau-
tiful, and at others as one of the most shocking objects in the world;
the noble head in the Strozzi collection at Rome is an example of the
former. Lastly, a fragment of a beautiful bowl, the outside of which has
been ornamented with leaves impressed on it by a punch or die. The
handle or lip projected from the rim, and was decorated with scrolls.
In the department of furnitui'e, we find a fragment of a reUef, repre-
senting a tripod table, with chimaera legs, and some provisions lying
upon it ; also the side of a chair of state, with a well-formed chimaera
in the front. Both these objects aj^pear to have belonged to temples,
most probably dedicated to Apollo.
Among the same objects, also, we may notice a ring of glass.
It was coated with an enamel made of oxide of silver, and consequently
of a yellow or amber colour; but the maker of it did not use silex
enough in the composition of the enamel to make it permanent.
The article being buried so long in the earth, and thereby exposed to
moisture, the enamel has been decomposed, the alkali in it has been
carried off, and the oxide of silver, losing its oxygen, has returned to the
metallic state, now forming a coat of pure silver upon the glass. The
silver being in an imperfect state of crystallisation, causes the spangled
appearance. There are several such silver enamels in the British
Museum which have not suffered decomposition, having been preserved
in dry tombs, &c. As to the purpose for which this ring was used
S
258
LARES AND TENATES.
when covered -with a smooth coating of enamel, it is more fit to be
guessed than described. It was connected with rites which could not
stand before the purifying influence of the Christian religion.
In the same collection Ave find a round disc of pottery, having a hole
to hang it by. The panel in front has the character INI upon it. It is
probably a numeral of the Greeks representing 40. We manufacture
similar labels for the purpose of hanging in wine-cellars to distinguish
difierent lots ; this was probably used for some like purpose.
Among more miscellaneous objects may be briefly described, an
ornamented net containing flowers, and something like our butter-prints ;
but the subject is in cameo.
TOMB AT ELEOSA, FROM A SKETCH BY MK. LA YARD.
CHAPTEE XIII.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
LYRES SYRINX,
There are several fragments of lyres in the collection, one of them
painted red ; another with a hand resting upon it, and which formed
part of a Muse. These fragments do not tlirow any hght upon the oft-
discussed questions as to the original inventor of the lyre and the num-
ber of its strings. It is more interesting to us to remember that the
Abyssinians have a tradition that this instrument was brought from
Egypt into Ethiopia by Thot in the very first ages of the world ; and
even Greek and Eoman authorities will be found to bear out the opinion,
that the invention of the primitive lyre with three strings was due to
the Egyptian Mercury, Hermes.
Layard found only one musical instrument depicted by the As-
syrians, and that was a triangular lyre, the strings of which were
nine or ten in number. The god, says Layard, which Mr. Birch now
conjectures to be Baal, is represented at Talmis playing on a triangular
lyre.*
These last discoveries may well be considered as disposing of the
story of ]\Iercury's first afiixing thongs to a tortoise-shell; of Chora;bus,
the son of Atys, adding a fifth string ; Hyagnis, a sixth ; Terpander, a
seventh; and according to some, Pythagoras, or according to others,
Lychaon of Samos, an eighth string, by which the octave, which con-
sisted of two disjoint tetrachords, was produced; and which discoveries
are seriously discussed by Mr. Spence, Dr. Biuiiey, and others, and
which may be now fairly consigned to the same fabulous repositories
as Mercury's peace-offering to Apollo, ApoUo's vindictive jealousy of
Marsyas, the rage of the Theban women against Orpheus, and the
building of the seven gates of Thebes to the seven strings of Amphiou's
lyre.
In this department of the collection may be classed the upper
* Eossellini, M.C, Teste, torn. iii. p. 19, tav. ann. Layard, vol. ii. p. 412.
260
LARES AND PENATES.
portion of a youth playing the syi'inx or Pandean organ, the fabled
origin of which, from the conversion of a beautiful naiad pursued by
Pan into a tuft of miisical reeds, is so well known. The instrument
appears to be suspended by a band to his neck, and he regulates it -wnith
his right hand, while the left seems to have been free. The pipes are
more numerous, and those in the bass part of the instrument much
longer than is usually represented. The player seems quite satisfied
with his performance.
There is also another fragment giving the middle portion of another
figure playing upon a red instrument of a more perfect form. There
seems to be little doubt that our modern complicated organs are to be
traced to Pan's pipes as their origin. In Hawkins' History of Music is
an engraving of an ancient monument at Rome, in which is the repre-
sentation of a primitive organ. It is a small chest placed on a table;
in the front is a female playing on keys, and on the other side is a man
INSTRUMENT CONNECTING THE PAN-PIPE
WITH THE ORGAN.
NO. 69. — YOUTH PIAYING THE SYHINX.
blowing into the box with a pair of bellows. This, I believe, is the
only known link connecting the organ with the Pandean syrinx. But
does not this fragment supply another link in the chain of improvement,
and take its place between the simple reeds of Pan and the rude organ
just described ? It may be unique, and of value in its bearing on the
history of music.
Let us look at it again. The instrument consists of a vertical row
of pipes, the length unknown, as the lower portion is wanting; they are
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 261
inserted into a small air-cliest, whicli appears inflated in the middle
part. The right hand is operating upon it with a kind of cushion or
compress, by which he forces the air into the pipes, and which he seems
to apply to different parts at will. There appears to have been a pro-
longation of the central part of the instrument across the left arm : the
loss of this is much to be lamented, as that would have shewn us more
of its construction, and also how the left hand was employed in playing
it. It is firmly fixed to the body ; but the upper ends of the reeds are
too low for the performer to blow into them with his mouth. The
openings in the tops of the reeds are all perfect, nothing is deficient at
that end. This may be looked upon as the very first application of a
pneumatic chest to the Pandean organ, which still retains its place on.
the breast of the player, though he no longer operates upon it with his
mouth. It is most desirable to restore this figure ; we should then see
whether the left hand or the foot was employed to blow the air into the
machine.
In the same collection we have also the representation of a syrinx
detached from some figure : there is a fracture on the front, marking the
place from which the hand that held it was broken ofi". The reeds
are bound together by a broad ornamented band. Part of the top of
the instrument is perfect, and likewise the lower ends of the five treble
pipes, but the bass is broken.
CHAPTER XIV.
COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY.
ARSUS (rHOSUs) ISITRIANDRUS ISK.VXDRUN OR ALEXANDRETTA (ALEXAN-
DRIA AD ISSON) GODFREY DE BOUILLON'S FORT BATLAN (PICTANUS,
ERANA ?) PRIMITIVE CHRISTI.YN CHURCH — CASTLES OF IBN DAUD AND OF
BAYL.^N BUSTANDAH ALTARS OF ALEXANDER — CASTLE OF JLVRKATZ
RIVER KERSUS GATES OF CILICLA AND SYRIA — BAYAS (bALE) — ISSUS
NICOPOLIS KARA KAYA (cASTABALA) EPIPHANEA MATAKH — TAMIR
KAPU (iron GATES, AM.\NIAN GATEs) AYAS (aGE^) AMMODES — K^VRA
TASH (iLALLUS AND ILEGARSUS) ALEIAN PLAIN PYRAMUS — MOPSUESTLA
CASTLES ON THE PLAIN SARI CAPITA RHEGiLA OF THE CYDNUS YANLFA
KISHLA MAZARLIK CASTLE OF KALAK BUGHAZ— KARA SIS ANAB.VD AND
DUNKALAH.
This chapter has reference to the sites of ancient towns or cities in
Cilicia, which ought not to be passed over in silence in a general
account of the antiquities of the country.
Commencing at the south-easterly extremity of the province, the
olden episcopacy of Rhosus or Rhosopolis, now Arsus, we have seen
still presents some interesting remains of olden time. There are re-
mains of a Christian church with Corinthian columns, and of an exten-
sive aqueduct, besides other fragments of art. The existing Greek
church also presents many features of archaeological interest.
According to the distances given by Xenophon of five parasangs
from the gates of Cilicia and Syria, the site of Myriandrus (which still
remains to be discovered) ought to be on the way from Markatz to
Arsus, unless, as is not improbably the case, it was situated at the foot
of the Baylan pass, or within the pass itself.
At Alexandi'ctta are the ruins of the Levantine factory, and a little
to the southward is a polygonal fort of massive masonry, the construc-
tion of which is traditionally attributed to the crusaders under Godfrey
de Bouillon ; beyond this, again, are fragmentary laiins at a spring
BAYLAN — JONAS' PILLARS. 263
called Jacob's Spring by some, but Joseph's Well by Pococke, and
which has been supposed by Kcnnell and others to be the site of
Myi'iandrus.
Baylan is a remarkable town on the crest of the gorge forming the
Syrian gates, and it corresponds to the Pictanus of the Jerusalem
Itinerary, which was nine miles from Alexandi-ia and eight from Pan-
grios (Pagrte). It appears also to represent the Pinara of Pliny and
Ptolemy, placed by both in the neighbourhood of Pagras or Pagras, as
also, by corruption, the Erana of Cicero, which is described as being in
the mountain above the region in which the altars of Alexander are
situated.
The mosque of Baylan was built, according to the Mecca Itinerary,
by Sultan SeUm, and the Khan by Sultan Stilaiman the Magnificent.
There are also remains of a causeway, of an aqueduct, and of a bridge,
appertaining to the time of the Romans.
Higher up in the mountains, and a few miles north ^vards of Baylan,
are the remains of a well- constructed Christian chiu'ch of the earhest
form after the Basilica ; being an oblong area, mth colonnades at the
sides, supporting an arched or vaulted roof ; and at the end opposite the
entrance, a semicircular space sui-mouuted by a half cupola. Dr. Po-
cocke, it is also to be observed, met with several Christian sites in the
district between Mount Rhosus and Coryphfeus.
On the Syrian side of the Baylan pass, we have, to the south, the
ruins of a Saracenic castle called that of Ibn Abi Daud, at the site of
the ancient Pagras or Pangrios ; to the east, the ruins of Khan Karamut ;
and to the north, within the hiUs, is the castle called Baylan Bustandah,
one of the apartments of which is u.sed as a sepidchral chamber, and
within which are preserved many arrows — reminiscences of medieval
warfare.
To return to Alexandi'etta : the colossal marble fragment known as
Jonas's Pillars is famiUar to all travellers. There is much reason to
believe, as we have before pointed out, that these are the remains of
the altars erected by Alexander to commemorate his victory over the
Persians. It was in vain that the traces of such were sought for on the
Pinarus. Quintus Curtius may have been in error when he stated
that this commemorative monument was erected on the banks of that
river. Pliny says that the " Bomita," or altars, were between Amanus
and Rhosus ; and the monument or gateway in question belongs ap-
parently to the Macedonian era. Beyond Jonas's Pillars (Sakal Tutan
of the INIecca Itinerary), and to the right on the acchvity of the hills,
is a Saracenic castle, called Markatz Kalahsi. Beyond this, again, the
264 GEOGRAPHY UP t'lLICIA.
Markatz Su, the Kersus of Xenoplion and Andi'icus of Pliny, close by
Mount Crocodile. The way in which the Kersus of Xenophon came to
be called Andricus by Pliny is ciu'ious, and exempHfies the great ditfi-
culty which the comparative geographer sometimes experiences in arriv-
ing at a correct identification. There would seem to be at first no sort
of relation between Kersus and Andricus. But the Markatz Su, called
by Pliny the Andiiciis, was called by Ptolemy Xepaiag. Phny has also
a Mons Crocodilus on the Andricus, evidently the precipitous rock that
rises up above the villages of Markatz, and the site of the Syrian and
Cihcian gates. The word Kersus, derived from a Coptic and Syriac
idiom, refers to the ancient crocodile worship, and is met -with in the
Axio-Kersus of the Samo-Thracian mysteries. It is explained by Zoega
and Munter as the great principle of fecundation ; and hence it was ex-
plained by Phny by the word Andricus, which term becomes identified
with Kersus. It is to be observed that the crocodile worshipped by the
Syi'ians was also called succoth ; but the able commentators of Pan-
coucke's Pliny suggest an identity between the Syriac Kersus and the
Egyptian Kamses, the name of a ferocioxis crocodile which has been as-
certained to be of a different species from the sucko or succoth. It has
been seen before that we have the crocodile preserved in the terra-
cottas of Tarsus.
The ruins of a wall can be traced north of the southerly branch of
the Markatz Su, from the precipitous rocks to the sea-side, where it
terminates in a toAver ; and to the north of this are also ruins of a tower
on the shore, marking the extremities of the other wall, which were
three stadia apart. These are the remains of the gates of CiUcia and
Syria, to gain which both Cyras and Alexander despatched a fleet of
boats in advance of their respective armies. It is not improbable that
it was because the Macedonian hero had gained this point, and attained
the heights of the Sakal Tutan, which command the whole Issic Gulf,
before he returned to give battle to Darius, that he afterwards erected
his altar of thanksgiving at that point.
Bayas has been described in a note to the text ; so also Avith regard
to the supposed site of Issus. We liave only the authority of Stephanus
of Byzantium, that Issus was called Nicopolis after the great victory
won there by the Macedonians ; but what city in Cilicia is there so
worthy of the name ? The fact, however, of Strabo and Ptolemy
noticing Nicopolis as distinct from Issus renders the identification very
doubtful.
The remarkable and extensive ruins of Epijtlianea have also been
described ; and by the distances given of twenty-six Roman miles from
ANTIQUITIES. 265
Mgss, and sixteen miles from Bais (Baiaj), there can be little doubt but
that the castle and ruins of Kara Kaya, " the Black Eock," represent
the Catabolon of the Antonine Itinerary and the Castabala of writers,
as also the castle near Epiphanea, to which Cicero repaired.
There are remains of a Roman causeway and of arches leading from
Epiphanea across the Bui'nuz Su to the mounds and niins at Matakh,
and the Amanian gates, near to the Cyclopean arch, called the Tamir
Kapu or iron gates. At Kurt-KuJak there is a fine but niinous old
khan. The castle of Ayas, ancient Mgess, is a dilapidated structiue of
various ages, the walls and towers at the angles alone remaining. To
the westward is a rotuid tower with an Arabic inscription; and Admiral
Sir Francis Beaufort's party copied a Greek inscription at the same
place, which will always possess a melancholy interest as the spot where
the much- esteemed hydrographer received a severe woimd, and a yoting
midshipman of the Frederikssteen was killed. This is the site also of
a plaintive story related by Gibbon, of Mai-ia, the Christian maiden of
Carthage.
The Ammodes, or sandy cape, noticed by INIela Pomponius as being
between the Pyramus and the Cydnus, and now so celebrated for its
numerous turtle, leads the way to Kara Tash, a promontory of rock
with a port for boats, a village and caravanserai, a iiiinous castle like
that of Ayas, of various ages, and other fragments of ruins aromid. A
variety of cimoiis considerations, Avhich it is needless to enter iipon now,
led me at one time to identify Mallus with that portion of ]\Iopsuestia
which was on the east or fiu'ther side of the Pyramus ; but a further
stvidy of all the details of the question has induced me to return to the
views entertained by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort and by Colonel
Leake, and to identify the site of the city of Amphilochus and of the
fane of IMinerva (Megarsus), as Avell as of the tombs built out of sight
the one of the other, with the iniins at Kara Tash, which are minutely
described in Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort's work.
North of Kara Tash is the great Aleian plain, now called Tchukur
Uvah ; and up the existing bed of the river Pyramus ( Jaihun Sii) are the
ruins of Mopsuestia ;* to the east, terminating the rocky ridge called
the Jibal al Nur or " Mountain of Light," and overlooking the vast ex-
panse of plain beyond, is the ruinous castle designated as Shah Maran
Kalahsi (Jihan Numa, p. 603), or the Castle of the King of the Serpents.
Beyond this again, on rocky knolls rising out of the plain, are Tum
Kalahsi and Saliyath Kalahsi, which we did not explore ; and beyond
that again, at the junction of a tributary flowing from the Kuzan Tagh
* See page 110.
266 GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA.
with the Pyramus, are the riiius of Anazarba, before noticed, and
crowned by a similar rock isolated castle.
Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort has so ably discussed the positions
along the coast of the Sari Capita of Pliny, of the second promontory
called Zephyrium by Strabo, and of the twice historically united and
twice separated waters of the Sarus and the Pyramus, that it is im-
necessary to allude to these here. His work contains also a detailed
description, with a neatly engraved plan, of the ruins of Soli and Pom-
peiopolis, which, with the description given of the ruins at Karaduvar
(Anchiale?) are more perfect than any that we yet possess of other
Cilician cities.
From the extensive ruins at Parshandy to Korghos, ancient Corycus,
and thence to Ayash (Sebaste and Eleusa), and for several miles east-
ward of the latter, the same authority describes the shore as presenting
*' a continued scene of ruins, all of which being white, and relieved by
the dark-wooded hills behind them, give to the country an appearance
of splendour and populousness, that serves only, on a nearer approach,
to heighten the contrast A\dth its real poverty and degradation."
To return inland, or into Avhat the olden geographers called Medi-
terranean Cihcia: on our way from Tarsus to the renowned Cilician
gates (Kulak Bughaz) are traces of a Eoman causeway, with an arch ;
a ruinous castle called Yanifa Kishla ; and a ravine, Avith sepulchral
grottoes and an inscription, noAV called INIasarlik or " the Place of Graves."
A castellated building also crowns the crest of the i-ugged rocks at the
narrowest portion of the pass, whei'e the work of the chisel to widen the
road is very manifest. We are indebted to Mr. Barker for the first
notice of a castle in the same neighboiu'hood, called after Nimrod, a
name Avhich Avould give evidence of great antiquity, and to which he
supposes Syennesis to have retreated.
The country of perpetual rebels, of the lawless Tibareni, of the
Cliteans, of the predatory Armenians, and of the unconquered Aushir
and Kusan Ughlu tribes, contains, in the present day, the old castles of
Kara Sis, and of Andal Kalah, Avhich may coiTespond to the Cadi-a and
Davara of the Chteans ; and the pass of the Pyramus through Taurus
into Cilicia, the bridle-way to INIarash, so minutely described by Strabo,
is also characterised by its defensive stiiicturcs, among which the castles
of Anabad and Dun Kalah are the most remarkable.
CHAPTER XV.
ANTIOCH AND SELEUCIA.
THE BAY OF ANTIOCH — VILLAGE OF SUWAIDIYAH GROTTO OF NYMPH^US —
ISLAND OF MELIBCEA ^RUINS OF SELEUCIA PIERL\ PROJECTED RE -OPENING
OF THE PORT OF SELEUCL\ MOUNT ST. SIMON MOUNT CASIUS TEMPLE
OF H.UI.
The bay of Antiocli extends from Eas al Khanzir, or Cape Boar, on tlie
north, to Eas Pussit (Ancient Posideum), on tlie south, a distance of
about thirty miles. Hemmed in by Mount Casius — Jibal Akrab, or
bald mountain (so called from its summit being covered with snow the
greater part of the year), and Anti-Casius to the south; it is bounded to
the north by Mount Moses (Jibal Musa), above which again rise the lof-
tier peaks of Jibal Akma, in ancient Ehosus, which attain an elevation
of 5,550 feet; and these two ranges are united by low, wood-clad hills in
the back-ground, to Mount Saint Simon, a hill that stands in advance
of Mount Casius, from which it is separated by a narrow and precipi-
tous but wooded and picturesque ravine, through whose shady depths the
river Orontes (Al Asi, " the rebel") forces its way, flowing onwards by
the ruins of a monastery, church, and khan — all that remains of the
old port of St. Simon — and then by a hamlet or two, constituting the
modern port, into the sea.
The modern village of Suwaidiyah, or Suedia, as Seleucia is orien-
tahsed, or as it is more commonly called Zaitunli, "the place of olives,"
embosomed in luximant groves of mulberry, olive, grape-vine, pome-
granate, and apricot trees, occupies the range of the lower hills ; aiid
there are also several large villages in the mountains to the north and
south, and on the south bank of the Orontes. Close by the latter is a
small grotto, with a spring of clear water ; connected with which are
many large hewn stones and other fragments of antiquity. The site
appears, from a variety of circumstances, to correspond to that of
ni/mphceum cum specu of Strabo, situated between the mouth of the
Orontes and Mount Casius.
268 GEOGRAPHY OP CILICIA.
If ever Meliboea, of poetical celebrity, Avas an island at the moutli of
the Orontes, it must be noAv joined to the mainland, which is not at all
an improbable circumstance. "We have the explicit authority of Op-
pianus* in favour of the first fact; and the fabled lover of Orontes, and
the nymph of Meliboea, would bear out the latter, as well as the physi-
cal features of the soil, the alluvium slowly but steadily adding to the
extent of the coast.
On the other hand, we have the combined testimonies of Virgil,
" Victor! chlamydem am-atam, quam plurima circum
Pui-pm-a Maeanclro duplici Meliboea cucurrit." — iENELD, v. 251.
and of Lucretius,
" Jam tibi barbaricae vestes, Melibceaque fulgens
Purpm-a Thessalico concharuiu tincta colore." — Lib. i. v. 499.
that Mehboea was a Thessalian island ; bvit this would only shew, ■what
is frequently the case, that there were two of the same name.f
The Hne of coast from the Orontes northwards is low and sandy on
the shore, but pastoral or marshy in the interior to the foot of the hills.
Nearly half way to the mins of Seleucia Pieria is the neatly white-
washed tomb of a holy JNIohammedan, which being a ziyarat, or place
of pilgrimage, has some ruinous buildings attached to it. Close by is a
well of fresh water.
The rviins of the city and port of the Seleucidae are beyond this at
the foot of the rocky range of Jibal Musa, formerly called Ilttpta, or Pierius,
when Seleucia of Antioch was distingidshed from other cities bearing the
same name, by the epithet Seleucia Pieria. Strabo calls Mount Pierius
a continuation ofAmanus; but it is rather an outlpng range of Rhosus,
or Rhossus. The bare cliffs of Mount Pierius rise at this point abruptly
from the low level plain below, and advance in rude promontories into
the sea on the other, and the ruins of the once strong, populous, and
well-frequented port are still indicated by the now filled-up basin or
* C'yneget. vers. 115 to 120.
+ There is at the mouth of the Orontes a piece of ground of about a hundred acres,
which the Orontes forms (by winding round it) into a peninsula, and which the people
of the covmtry call " Gezu-^," the island, because it is evident that the neck of land
has also been traversed by the river at no rei-y distant period. This piece of land be-
longs to Mr. Barker's garden at Suedia, it being customary there to have a piece of
land for each garden, in order that the people who rear the silkwonns may have
a place on which to cultivate the wheat and barley they reqiure for their immediate
use. Without such land it is difficult, almost impossible, to get any one to take
charge of a garden. The most delicioiLs melons grow on this peninsida, and the crops
are very fertile in consequeueo of the propinquity of the water in that warm climate.
The two vessels which afterwards navigated the river Euphrates were landed at this
point, which was called by Colonel C'hesney, in his despatches, Amelia Depot.
SELEUCIA PIERIA. 209
dock, the crumbling gates and ramparts, tiimbled-doAvn buildings and
houses, mimerous sarcophagi, and still more interesting sepulchral grot-
toes, and the remarkable extensive hollow way or excavation cut through
the mountain, and attesting in so singular a manner to every successive
visitor the industry and perseverance, as well as the skill and ingenuity,
of the older inhabitants of this free port.
The walls of the city appear to have been quadrangular, and they
had a double line of defence; the northern extremity abutting on the
hill, whose siuumit was cro-\vned by the acropolis. There were also
walls of a suburb, triangularly disposed, and reaching down to the
mole, traces of which are still extant. A gate led from the suburb to-
wards the sea, and on the opposite side another opened towards Antioch,
Avhich was adorned with pilasters, and defended by handsome towers.
The space occupied -svithin the walls had a circumference of about four
miles, and is filled -with the ruins of houses.
The basin is 2000 feet long by 1200 feet wide, occupying an area
of 47 acres, and was in fact as large as the export and import basins of
the East and West India Docks together. The inner port is entirely
excavated, and its canal is 1000 feet long; the area of the outer port is
about 18,000 feet square, and it affords good shelter, but is obstructed
by sand. There are two moles, 240 paces apart, constructed of enor-
mous stones, and a pier called that of St. Paulas, which runs west 80
paces, and then turns N.W.
Colonel Chesney proposed some years back to open this port* to
modern commerce. Since that time, Captain WiUiam Allen, K.N., who
so distinguished himself in exploring the river Niger, has surveyed and
carefully mapped this interesting basin ; and his calcidations of the ex-
pense of clearing the port of mud, and opening it to navigation, chiefly
by the nat\u-al means formerly used by the inhabitants of letting down
the winter floods by the ravine, which is their natural channel, instead
of tiu'uing them off into the excavated and artificial channel, corresponds
almost precisely to that made by Colonel Chesney (30,000Z.).
Dr. Holt Yates, who has erected a handsome house in the neigh-
bourhood, near the Orontes, has also entered warmly into a project
which promises to be of so much benefit to commerce and to the im-
mediate neighboiu-hood, and has read a paper on the subject to the
S}TO-Egyptian Society. The great advantages to be gained by opening
this port are, that it is nearer at hand than that of Iskandrun or Alex-
andretta; that it avoids the difficult navigation of the Gulf of Issus ;
* Description of Seleucia Pieria, in Journal of Royal Geographical Society, vol. viii.
p. 228.
270 GEOGRAPHY OP CILICIA.
that, whereas Alexandretta is infamous as one of the most unhealthy
spots on the coast of Syria, and hence few can be induced to reside
there, Seleucia is a comparatively healthy spot, and would, if opened
to commerce, soon become in all probabihty a flourishing town ; that
the road from Seleucia to Antioch, Aleppo, and the Euphrates, is com-
paratively open, while that from Alexandretta has to cross the for-
midable Syrian gates — the mountain pass of Baylan (ancient Erana),
between Amanus and Rhosus ; and lastly, that while CiUcia is con-
stantly disturbed by local dissensions and the rebellion of races, the
neighbourhood of Seleucia, chiefly tenanted by peaceful Christians, is re-
markable for its tranquillity and security ; and lastly, Seleucia Avould con-
stitute the safest harbour (especially for steamers), on the whole coast of
Syria, and would, from that circumstance, and from its greater proximity
to Antioch and Aleppo, entirely supersede the ports of Bayrut or Beirut,
of Tripoli, and Latakiyah. The same circumstances that have existed
from the period of Mr. John Barker's settling here, and Avhich induced
Colonel Chesney to adopt it as the site for landing the steam-boats and
equipments of the Etiphrates expedition, still exist ; and at a very mode-
rate outlay, Seleucia might be again rendered what it once was, the
most capable, the most flourishing, the most fertile, the most populous,
the most wealthy, the most beautifrd, and the most healthy port of Syria.
As to the effect which the opening of such a port Avoidd have upon the
commerce of the interior, the promises it holds out as the key to North
Syria, the Euphrates, Mesopotamia, the Tigris, Kurdistan, and Persia,
and the line of communication that could be opened, as originally pro-
posed by Colonel Chesney, by this route to India, such subjects are of too
great a magnitude to be entered upon here ; but once the port opened,
they would force themselves upon the Turkish authorities, the Anglo-
Indian government, and all concerned or interested in the amelioration
of the countries in question, in the progress of commerce, and the
general advance in civilisation.
On the side of the city opposite to the harbour are the ruins of two
temples, and of an amphitheatre partly cut out of the rock, as is so fre-
quently the case ; and here also commence the numerous sepulchral
excavations, which extend nearly two miles along the face and up the
ravines of the mountain, and in front of which many hundreds of sarco-
phagi, some of which ]\Ir. W. B. Barker opened, are scattered. One
portion of the excavations, called the Tomb of the Kings, has a facade
entrance, and suites of apartments, with columns and staircases leading
to a set of chambers above. In some of the grottoes were traces of
paintings, with remarkably bright coloiirs ; in general, however, they
PORT AND RUINS OF SELEUCIA. 271
were ordinary excavations, devoid of arcliitectural ornaments, and many
appear to have been used subsequently as broglodyte dwellings. They
are now, however, only tenanted by foxes, jackals, and porcupines.
But the most remarkable feature in the ruins of Seleucia is the
great cut or hollow way before noticed, and by Avhich the inhabited
and tomb-dotted portion of the mountain is separated from the heights
above. This extraordinary work takes its origin from an open valley
in Pieria, which is prolonged in a north-easterly direction to beyond
the city, upon which it opens to the south-west, above the inner ex-
tremity of the harbour. This opening being artificially dammed up, the
cutting led the waters away through the mountain to the sea, or to the
mouth of the harbour to the north of the city. It is altogether 3074
feet in length, and attains in places an elevation of 120 feet, averaging
a width of 22 feet, and it terminates abruptly over the sea. This great
excavation is divided into portions, the greater part being an open, hol-
low way; interrupted, however, by two tunnelled portions or covered
ways, the one 102, and the other 293 feet long. The cut is also crossed
in its eastern part by an aqueduct supported by a single arch, and its
western extremity by another arch, bearing a mutilated inscription of
the time of the Ccesars. A recess, with sepulchral grottoes, occiu's in
another portion.
Water was carried along this hollow way, in addition to what may
have flowed along its base, by a little channel hewn in the face of the
rock, 18 inches in width; and in one part a narrow staircase leads down
to within about 14 feet of the base, and which Colonel Chesney thinks
was the ordinary level of the waters. The waters of the valley before
mentioned, although no longer artificially dammed up from their natural
coiirse, appear still to flow at times along the bed of the hollow Avay,
which they seem to have deepened, for the line of demarcation be-
tween the hewn portion and that which has been since excavated by the
waters is very distinct, and these waters have forced a passage for them-
selves through the south-western sides of the excavation leading down
to the mouth of the harbour ; and hence, according to some, used to
keep that mouth open. But the excavation can be traced beyond this
opening towards the sea, although the traces of rumiing waters are no
longer discernible in that direction.
Appian relates in his Syriacs (p. 202), that Seleucia was founded in
obedience to an intimation to that effect, obtained from the thunder.
Hence it was dedicated to the thunder-god, as may be seen on a coin
recorded by Spanheimus, " Jupiter fulminans Seleucensium," and this
thunder-god was identified by the Eomans with Jupiter Casius.
272 GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA.
Seleucia was embellished and strengthened by Seleucus Nicator, who
gave the place his own name. It was so strongly fortified, that Strabo
designates it an impregnable city; and it Avas made a free port after the
conquest of Syria by the Romans under Pompey, as is recorded on coins
belonging to the times of Cains Caesar, Trajan, and Caracalla. It Avas
one of the four most distinguished cities of the INIacedonian dj-nasty of
the Seleucidae, and which, including Antioch, Apamea (Kalah Mudik),
and Laodicea(Latakiyah), were called sisters, on accotmt of the concord
which existed between them.
Moimt St. Simon, so called from the tomb of that well-knoA\-n
Syrian ascetic, but also denominated Bin Kilisa, or " the thousand
churches," from its extensive remains of ecclesiastical structiu'es be-
longing to an early Christianity, has been described by Mr. Barker, and
it need only be added here, that the memory of this fanatic, whose feats
of penance have been misrepresented by Lucian, and justly derided, and
that Avithout any indecent allusions, by Gibbon, is as much venerated
by the Muhammedans as by the Christians of the country; and the
Mecca Itinerary contains especial injunctions to pilgrims, on their aiTi-
A'-al at Antioch, to pay their respects to the tomb of Hazrat Simun — the
holy, or beloved Simon. This Avill not appear at all extraordinary to
those who are aware how much of the legendary and historical por-
tion of the Kuran is borrowed from Avhat had been long before adopted
by Syi'ian monks and priests, and their followers, the Byzantine chro-
nographers. Indeed this use of Christian-Syrian materials is made
evident by a comparison of the narratiA^e of the Prophet of the Islamites
with the writings of Ephrem Syrus — the Euphrates of the Church, as
he has been called by his admirers ; yet Avho Avas one of the earliest
propounders of those systems of scriptural astronomy and geography,
for refuting Avhich Galileo Avas throAvn into a dungeon ; as also Avith the
Avorks of Syncellus, and the Paschal Chronicle.*
Mount Casius attains an elevation of 5318 feet above the sea. This
Avas determined by angles taken from the tAvo extremities of a base,
measui'ed on the plain below, and by the simultancoiis comparison of
two barometers, one at the top of the mountain, the otlier at its base.
* The founder of the sect of the Stylitcs, the fanatical pillar-saint, Simeon Sisanites,
the son of a Syrian herdsman, is said to have passed thirty-seven years in religious
contemplation on the summits of five successive pillars, each higher than the pre-
ceding. The last j)illar was forty ells high. He died in tlie year 461. For seven
hundred years there continued to bo men who imitated this manner of life, and were
called " Sancti columnares" (pillar-saints). Even in Germany, in the diocese of
Treves, it was proposed to erect such aerial cloisters ; but the bishops opposed the
undertaking. (Mosheim, Institut. Hist. Eccles. 1755, p. 215.)
MOUNT CASIUS. S73
The foot of the mountaiiu is mahily mjrtle-clad, at an elevation of
1500 feet; this is succeeded by oak, and the oaks are again succeeded
by gloonay pine-forests, which, at an elevation of 3500 feet, are them-
selves succeeded by open glades of birch, and occasional wild pear, apple,
quince, and medlar trees. Vegetation is both luxuriant and beautiful,
and in April the patches of gaudy scarlet peonies alternate, and are re-
lieved by patches of yellow asphodel, not flxr from the snow-clad sum-
mit, where violets and pansies are succeeded by dark-green femiel. The
extreme summit is composed of naked limestone rock.
Mount Casius is, with the exception of Mount Lebanon, INIount
Sinai, and a few hills in Palestine rendered more familiar from frequent
Scriptural references, the most celebrated in Syria.* Sacrifices to the
Thunderer were offered on its summit from the most remote antiquity,
and they were said to have originated with the descendants of Tripto-
lemus, settled at Seleucia, and whom Seleucus Nicator invited to An-
tioch. These sacrifices were kept up by the Ctesars, who dedicated
them to Jupiter Casius. Julian the Apostate, discomfited at Daphne,
cheered himself mth a hecatomb on Mount Casius ; and Pliny relates
that Jupiter, yieldhig to prayers addressed to him on Mount Casius,
sent the birds called Seleucida;, the roseate thrush {Turdus roseus)., to
destroy the scoiu'ge of the country — the locusts.
But the most curious tradition connected with the mountain, which
the Emperors Hadi'ian and Julian went especially to Avitness, and which
is described at length by Aristotle (3/eieor, i. 16) and by Pliny (v. 18),
is, that at the fourth watch, or at the second crow of the cock, as Am-
miauus relates it, day and night are, by the walk round of a few paces,
seen at the same time. The elevation of the mountain we have before
observed, is 5318 feet above the sea. Now, the rising of the sun com-
mences about one minute sooner at an elevation of 1000 feet than at
the level of the sea. Hence the woi'ld below is, in these countries, where
there is little tmlight, wrapped in darkness for five minutes after it is
day on the summit of Mount Casius.
* Bochart (Phaleg, p. 333) derives Casius (as more particularly applied to the
Phoenician Casius, which was on the boundaries of Syria and Eg-yi)t) from the Hebrew
sig-nifying a boundary. Another Hebrew origin might bo found in Kas, " straw or
stubble," as used in Psalm Ixxxiii. 14, and Jer. xiii. 'li. Homer (Iliad, v. -199) uses
Achno in the same sense ; and PUuy says of an island of Rhodes, " Casus ohm Achne."
A'more hkely origin may, however, bo found in the Syriac and Chaldean Kas, "shin-
ing," in reference to its bald summit, whence its actual Arabic name, Jibal Akrab,
Mount Bald." Tin, and also lead, according to Mela and Pliny, were probably
called by the Greeks Kasiteros, from their lustre. Tin (in Numbers xxxi. 22) is read
Kastira by Jonathan ; and in Arabic, Kasdir. This was the origin also of the British
Cassiterides.
T
A^/4 GEOGRAPHY OF CILICIA.
On the acclivity of the same mountain, to the eastward, are the
ruins of a very pretty temple or church, now embosomed among -woods.
It was constructed in the foiTn of the Basilicum, but not so simply so
as some of the early Christian churches. The oblong area mthin the
walls is divided into nave and aisles by a handsome row of colvmms
supporting a vaulted roof, and the semicircular space opposite the en-
trance is supported by a half cupola. This little remnant of early times,
placed in so remarkable a position, has been identified by Colonel Ches-
ney with the site of the Pagan temple described by Sanchoniatho (see
Cory's Ancient Fragments^ p. 11) as having been consecrated to Cronus
or Hamon on Moimt Casius by the descendants of the Dioscuri. It is also
noticed by Strabo (xvi. 750) and by Ammianus ISIarccUinns (xxii. 14).
We cannot do better than close this chapter with an extract from
Strabo,* premising that tetrapole, a. title given to Antioch, means a city
consisting of four parts, each fortified separately, and the foiu* collectively
forming one city.
'* Seleucus Nicator also gathered together at this place the descendants
of Triptolemus, of whom I have spoken before. This is why the inha-
bitants of Antioch render to Triptolemus heroic honours, and celebrate
a feast in honour of him at jVIount Casius near Seleucia. It is said that
this hero, sent by tlie Argives in search of lo, Avho had for some time
past disappeared from Tyre, and was wandering in Cilicia, was in that j
country abandoned by some of the Argives who accompanied him, and
they founded the city of Tarsus. The rest continued to follow him
along the shores of the sea, but despairing of succeeding in the object
of tlieir search, they established themselves with Triptolemus on the
plains watered by the Orontes. Gordys, the son of Triptolemus, went
and founded a colony in Gordia3US f (Fopcala), with a portion of those
who had followed his father, tlie others remained in the country; and it-
was the descendants of these people that Seleucus united to the inhabi-
tants of Antioch. Forty stadia further on is Daphne, an inconsiderable
suburb. An extended and dense wood is met Avith there, which is
watered by live springs ; and in the centre there is a sacred enclc
sure which serves as an asylum, as also a temple of Apollo and ol~~
Diana. The people of Antioch and of the neighbourhood are in th€
habit of assembling there to celebrate festivals. The circiunferenc^
of the wood is eighty stadia. The Orontes floM'S near the city. Thid
river, which lias its sources in Coelo-Syria, passes under ground, th<
* Vol. V. p. 202. British Museum.
+ Gordi.-cus was the most southerly p;irt of Assyria, or of the present Kurdistan
near Lake Van. The inhabitants of Gordiwus have also borne the name of Cardrich
whence the modem name Kurd.
RIYEB ORONTES.
27o
sliews itself again, to flow through the tei-ritorj of Apamea and water
that of Antioch ; and after having passed near the town, it enters the sea
near Seleucia. This river, called Orontes, from the name of the person
who built a bridge over it, was first called after Typhon ; and according
to fal)lc, it was in this place that the adventures of Typhon and Arimes
(Inarimes) took place. It is said that Typhon, struck by lightning, fled,
seeking refuge ; this dragon in his flight furrowed the ground so deeply
as to cause the source of this river to sj)ring up, and he gave to it his
name. The sea is to the west, and is above the territory of Antioch
on the side of Seleucia. It is near this latter city, situated forty stadia
from the sea and one hundred and twenty stadia from Antioch, that the
Orontes flows into the sea. The ascent from the mouth of the river to
Antioch can be effected in a day."
K ' ij jji
RUINS OF AN AQUEDUCT AT ANAZARBA : FROM A SKETCH BY MR. E. B. B. BARKER.
CHAPTER XVI.
NATURAL HISTORY — ZOOLOGY.
THE OUXCE THE LYKX — BEARS — HYENAS, WOLVES, AND JACKALS THE FOX
HAKES — FALLOW DEER — WHITE GAZELLE (gHAZAl) — GREYHOUNDS —
GH'aIK, OR IBEX.
There are different species of wild animals in the moiintaiiis of Cilicia,
among which we may note the ounce, the skin of which is much esteemed
by the Tiirks, who use it chiefly to cover their saddles.* I saw a lynx
Avhich had been caught in Mount Taurus, but it died after a few months
of an inveterate mange, which communicated itself to all the domestic
animals in the mansion, and was so virulent that even the fowls died of
it. This malady in this incurable state seems to be as indigenous to
Tarsus as the fever of the place, which I consider worse than any other:
inasmuch as, firstly, it carries off the patient in three days (unless copious
bleeding is had recourse to) ; and secondly, that it is almost impossible
to eradicate it out of the system even for years afterwards. The mo^t
effective relief I have found to be following up the cold-water system ;
this seems to possess the best means of alleviating, if not of entirely cur-
ing, the evil effects of continued attacks of fever. But with regard to
the mange in dogs I will relate one instance that is remarkable.
I liad been requested to procure Count Pourtalles two brace of
greyhounds, of which the Turkmans possess a very fine breed. One
of these greyhounds had liad the mange, but was considered cured by
a preparation of gunpowder and oil ; and as he was quite a champion,
and celebrated for his feats, I was tempted to send him among the num-
ber; and I have since been informed by the ('ount, Avhom I had the
honoiu- of visiting when ambassador for Prussia at Constantinople, that
* Tho largest animal of tho feline tribe seen by our party in Cilicia was rather a
leopard or panther than an ounce. It was called Nimar by the natives, and was pro-
bably the same animal that is called Kaplan in Lycia. A smaller species, apparently
corresponding to the Foils jtardina of Oken and Temminck, was very common. A
lynx with black cars (kara kulak) was also met with. — W. F. A.
BEARS AND PORCUPINES. 277
tlie malady broke out again and communicated itself to the other dogs,
and that they all four died in spite of every exertion to cure them that
European knowledge and treatment could aflford. From the same malady
I have lost the most valuable dogs. At last I discovered that dogs at
Tarsus generally died either of this or of the yellow fever, unless they
were washed daily with cold water and soap, and. confined in a court-
yard and kept from all contact even with the gi-ound trodden on by
other dogs wherein the seeds of the malady might be left ; for I suspect
that it is caused by some minute insect that gets into the skin of the
animal, and nothing can drive it out that would not be equally pernicious
to the life of the dog.
Bears are to be found in Mount Taurus; but as they only prowl
about at night, they are not freqviently met with. I have had them
shot, or rather they shot themselves by a not very ingenious contrivance
of the people of the country. As the bears come down into the gardens
nearest the mountains to feed upon the vegetables, they walk along
the paths and leave marks of their footsteps. The gardener ob-
serving this, puts across their road a string which is connected with
the trigger of a gun that is set so as to fire on the poor creature as it
passes, and the gardener hearing the gun go oiF, comes up and finishes
the work of destrviction. The flesh of this animal is remarkably fat,
and not unlike beef, but it is not eaten by the people of the country.
I have seen one ham which weighed 60 lbs.
The flesh of the porcupine when young is good and tender. The
gipsies are constantly in search of them; but it requires some cleverness
and patience to get a shot at them ; their acute sense of hearing renders
them sensible to a person's being in wait, and they cannot easily be
compelled to leave their burrows. The native sportsmen even pretend
that it is necessary to cover the flint lock of the gun with the left hand
when firing, as they discover the flash and dip back into their holes
before the shot can reach them ! The Tiirks do not consider them
unclean, but few eat them ; their flesh is white, and tastes like some-
thing between a sucking-pig and a hare.
Hyenas, wolves, and jackals abound, and prowl about at night in
search of carrion. I have heard the hyenas howling within a few yards
of me, when I have slept on the sands of the sea-shore, where we Avould
light a fire to keep ofi^ the innumerable mosquitoes that infest the coast.
The people plant the stems of four fir-trees and form a kind of table on
the top Avith branches and leaves ; here they climb to the height of
twenty to thirty feet, and endeavour to sleep in the air out of the reach
of this plague, the most irritating of all insects, and whi-ch is believed
278 NATURAL HISTORY — ZOOLOGY.
to have a peculiar relish for a stranger's blood. The jackals frequent
the marshes ; they are very numerous and noisy, but are so thick-skinned
that it is a difficult matter to kill one with a club. I have had to do
this with one that had been attacked by my dogs, and I can speak
from experience as to their toughness ; if a cat has nine lives, the
jackal may be said to have nine times nine ! There are two kinds of
foxes ; the one large and grey, the other small and brown. These, as
well as the jackals, appear lo have a fine scent, and they hunt for them-
selves, destroying a great deal of game, which is, however, very abundant
in spite of their depredations. A friend of mine assured me that some
years previous to my coming to Tarsus he had been out shooting, and
had first counted a hundred fraucolins, which he put up in the course
of an hour and a half, after which he desisted from counting any more.
There is but one kind of hare in Cilicia, the large heavy hare. It
is of a darker colour than the desert hare, found to the east of
Syria. This latter kind is very small, and will often beat the grey-
hounds in a straight line, without their being able to turn her once. A
gentleman of veracity residing at Aleppo related to me an incident hav-
ing reference to the hare of the desert which I may be allowed to repeat
here. He was out coursing on the desert side of the city; and, strange
to say, the strength of the hare, dogs, hawk, and horses was so per-
fectly matched, that after a long chase they all came to a full stop.
First the hai-e came to a stand ; then the dogs, out of breath, a few
paces behind ; next the horses of the sportsmen brought to a perfect
stand -still ; and lastly, the hawk resting on a stone close by quite
exhausted ! The gentleman's servant dismoimted and took up the hare
in his hands.
On the plains of Adana a kind of fallow-deer is met with, called by the
natives yumurgia; their skins are dyed and used by the Muhammadans as
carpets to say their prayers upon. This animal is very large, but is by
no means so swift as the gazelle; the latter are very abundant, and may
be seen in flocks of fifty or sixty. They afford the chief sport for cours-
ing, and are seldom taken except by an extraordinary dog, unless they
can be driven into a muddy field after heavy rains, which they have the
instinct to avoid, by making for the high road as soon as they apprehend
pursuit. It requires a great deal of tact and ingenuity to manoeuvre
so as to get them into the predicament requisite to make them flounder
till the dogs can come up to them. I recollect when at Mosul being
instrumental in the capture of two, which we took on the plains of
Nineveh with dogs that my friend the French consul had in vain taken
out on several occasions. The flesh of the red gazelle is barely eat-
GAZELLES AND DOGS. 279
able, — it is always lean and dry, whereas the rimi^ or Avhite gazelle
of the desert, is very fat, and is, perhaps, the most delicious of all
venison. The gazelle supplies a tribe of Arabs called Slaih with
food, raiment, and tents. These people have a simple method of taking
large herds of them for their winter provisions. They build a wall of
loose stones about four feet high and about a quarter of a mile long, dis-
posed in a semicircle. In the centre they leave a breach, behind which
they dig a deep pit. When they have contrived to drive the gazelles
along this cul-de-sac, which is effected by the whole tribe tui'ning out to-
gether, the poor animals, seeing no other exit, jump through the breach
and fall into the pit, where the men are ready to slaughter them. Their
flesh is dried in the sun, and is said to form the only food of the tribe;
their skins also serve as covering for the body, and are used as tents to
shelter them from the rays of the sun. This Slaih tribe is a remarkable
one ; with the exception of a very few donkeys, they possess no worldly
goods either of camels, sheep, or horses, whereby to tempt the cupidity
of their neighboui's, with all of whom they are thus enabled to keej) at
peace.
The dogs used for coursing in Cilicia are very beautiful, having
silky hair on their ears and tails ; they are bred in the higher regions
of Mount Taui-us and Anatolia, and are brought down by the Turkmans
in the winter, and return to their yai'las in the summer, as they cannot
hold out against the heat of the plains. They are very tame, and, unhke
any other dog of the Turks, are much petted, and allowed to lie on their
carpets and beds. They are very suscejDtible of cold, and are always
kept covered with cloth-felt. A good dog is much prized, and is often
not to be had in exchange for a cow or a horse and a measiu-e of wheat.
Such as take hares may be had from half a guinea to a guinea; but one
that has taken a gazelle, under the most favourable circumstances, will
fetch 21. 10s. at least ; and then the proprietor will only part with it
when constrained to do so by his superior or by his siiperstitious preju-
dices ; for the Orientals think that if they refuse to part with an animal
they have been asked to dispose of,, it will be struck with the evil eye
and die, or be lost or stolen. They profess, indeed, to despise dogs,
and express their contempt of any one i-efusing to give a dog or horse ;
and yet the Tm-kman will never give away either if good for any thing,
nor sell either but at an exorbitant price. They have a very fine
breed of shepherd-dogs, which they bring up on milk, as they seldom
have any bread to spare. (The greater part of their wheat is puichased
with the money produced by the sale of their cattle.) This breed is
promulgated all over the north of Asia Minor, and I have seen it as
280 NATURAL HISTORY — ZOOLOGY.
perfect on tlie borders of the Lake ofUmmiyah in Persia. It is a large
handsome dog, of a light-brown colour, -with long woolly hair, and is
faithful, courageous, and hardy. Some have been kno-\\Ti to possess a
good scent, and I have seen them used to find game, and to attack the
wild boar, which is very large, and does much mischief to the crops of
the villagers, who each pay so much a year to people who make a busi-
ness of hunting this monster of the marshes. While him ting or hawking
I have often come across a sow with seven or eight young ones ; but my
pointers had no chance with them, and it required larger dogs to over-
come them. I recollect encountering one on foot with a lance, and I
had to keep the ■•lance in the huge beast to save myself until my com-
panions came up and put a ball into the animal.
There is a kind of antelope in the higher regions of Mount Taurus
which the people call Gha-'ik. It is remarkable for the length of its
horns, which are sometimes four feet long, and curve over its back in a
semicircle without branching off at all. It is as large as the fallow-
deer, and its skin is much esteemed by the IMuhammadans ; it has a
strong musk smell, is hard and short in the hair, which is brown, with
a darker streak along the back and a dirty yellow white on the stomach.
Some years ago one of these animals being caught before it was three
days old, it was brought up by a goat in a village near Kulak Bi^ghaz
Castle. If not taken very young, it is impossible to have one alive, and
there is much difficulty in getting a shot at them, as they are very alert
and live among the highest rocks of INIount Taurus. I offered the sports-
men of Nimrud a handsome present for a hve specimen, but in vain.*
* This is evidently the ibex (C'apra ibex) which occurs throughout Taiinis, and is
described by Professor Edward Forbes as inhabiting the mountainous parts of Lycia,
•where it is known by the same name, spelt by him Caik or Caigi. Professor Forbes
says (Travels in Lycia, vol. ii. p. 62) that it ib specifically identical with the ibex of
Switzerland. The " wild goat" of Crete, whose horns are figured in Mr, Pashley's
work, is the same species. A specimen was procured alive and kept tame as a pet
on board the Beacon (Capt. Graves). In Lycia the ibex frequents the summits of
the highest mount'tins in summer. In the month of Octol>er 1841, during Mr.
Hoskyn's tour, a herd of them was met with on the sunmiits of the Massicytus,
travelling in. single file over the steeji rocks, at an elevation of 9000 feet. In the
winter they are said t<i descend from the heights. The wild goat of Crete mentioned
by Aristotle, and of which he reports that, when woundetl, it is said to seek the horb
dictamnus, was doubtless this ibex. Its modem name Professor Forbes thinks is only
a corruption of the ancient aVf . — W. F. A.
CHAPTER XVII.
GAME BIEDS.
GAME BIRDS — MANNER OF TAKING QUAILS — MANNER OF TAKING FRANCOLIN
AND PARTRIDGES — CAPTURE OF WILD DOVES.
Quails and woodcocks are very abundant in their respective seasons of
passage. The former afford amusement to the peasants, who take them
in a very cui'ious manner. A lad walks about till he sees a quail, which
he intimidates from rising by holding a jacket extended by two sticks
over his head, which the quail mistakes for the wings of a large bird or
hawk, and by shaking either of these " wings" he drives the poor little
creature in the direction he pleases, till he conducts it into a small net
he has fixed some yards further off, and then he takes it with the hand.
I witnessed another plan for entrapping the quail used by the Arabs
(m the coast of Egypt, which I will here note. The Arab sticks two
branches of the date-tree in the earth; and these are joined about afoot
high at the top, forming a triangle, of which the ground is the base,
and he fastens thereto a small net opposite the side facing the sea ; of
these he makes several hundred, planting them in regular rows at ten
paces from each other ; the quails arrive during the night, or rather very
early in the morning, and as soon as they begin to feel the heat of the sun,
they naturally seek for shade, which is no where to be found in the
sandy desert (between Alexandria and Eosetta) except under these ar-
tificial bowers, where they are induced to take refuge. About ten
o'clock, the Arab knows that all the quails have repaired under his
treacherous cover, and he has nothing further to do but to present him-
self on the side facing the sea, which is open, and the quail, if it attempts
to fly at all, must be entangled in the net on the other side. In this way
thousands are taken daily and brought in cages to market ; but they are
never so good as those shot, because they soon fret in captivity and
become lean.
Some of the peasants of the plain of Tarsus and Adana employ
282 GAME BIRDS.
sparrow-liawks, wliicli tliey capture a few days before tlie passage of
the quails (whicli takes place from the 15th of April to the end of
May, and again between the 15th of September and 15th of October),
and train them to take quails, letting them go again when the sea-
son is over. If this useful little hawk is kept two years, it is capable
of taking partridges and francolins, to do which it is requisite to prac-
tise it at the young birds, which he will continue to take until they are
full fledged. But it is the most delicate of all hawks, and it is very
seldom that any remain free from accident for so long a period.
Cihcia abounds in francolins and partridges; the latter are of the
red-legged species and keep to the mountains, coming down into the
hilly part of the plains in the winter, and are at that time to be met
with in vast laimbers among the bushy mounds of sand on the sea-
shore. The former is a morass bird, and never to be found at any
distance from water; the female is exactly like the hen pheasant, but
not so the male, which has a little tail; bvit is quite as variegated in
colours and as com-ageous as any of the gallinaceous breed. The people
of the country have a curious way of taking these two kinds of birds,
namely, by galloping them down; for when they have floAni t^\^ice, they
generally allow themselves to be taken with the hand, probably from
exhaustion. The same method is practised in regard to the coi-morant
in the shallow waters of some rivers ; and Sir John Malcolm, in his
Sketches in Persia, mentions the circumstance of the Persians taking
the partridge in the same manner in the environs of Bushire (Abu
Shahir), when he was on his way from that place towards the capital.
The natives sometimes keep a decoy bird, which they expose in
spring-time in its cage, when, by its crowing, it attracts other male
birds which come to fight with it, and which are thereupon shot from
behind a wall or hedge. It is remarkable that the cock will eat the
brains of its fallen enemy, which are generally given to it; and it is
curious to see it crow and quite glut itself as if triumphing in its repast.
Partridges and francolins are also approached by a man holding in his
hand a light framework, on which is fixed a checkered linen cloth, two
feet by six, with a small hole to peer through, till he comes within shot,
when he sticks it in the ground and fires from behind. Turkman
children have also an ingenious way of catching larks or any other
small bird. The contrivance is this: they tie at one end of a horse-hair
four inches long, a piece of dry sheep or goat's dung, and to the other
end an insect or grab of any kind ; they throw several of these on the
ground and retiie to a distance; when they sec that a bird has swallowed
one of these baits, they lom to it, and invariably, on its fiying, its wings
CATCHING DOVES.
283
get entangled in the horse-liair, which is kept hanging down by the
weight attached to it, and the bird is thus soon caught.
The natives of Galata, to the Avest of IMursina, have also a simple
yet efHcacious method of capturing wild doves; these, like all other birds
of passage, on their first arrival, fly iu a direct Hne, never deviating thirty
paces to tl.\e right or left ; the people know this, and in the twilight be-
fore sunrise they place across their road a net six feet high by fifty long.
On each side of the road, six or eight men stand with crooked branches
of trees about three feet long in their hands, and when they see the
doves coming, they throw these dark branches up in the air, and the
doves imagining them to be hawks coming down tipon them fly very
low, and consequently come in contact with the nets, and as they go in
flights of thirty or more, many are taken in this way.
^/^
SCULFTUKED ROCKS AT ANAZARBA : FROM A SKKTCU BY MR. E. B. B. BARKER.
DIANA STARTING FOR THE CHASE.
CHAPTER XVIII.
FALCONRY.
The ancient and aristocratic sport of falconry, formerly muoli in vogue
in Cilicia, has latterly fallen into disuse; even in tliat province the rich
have degenerated to such a point that they cannot conceive any gratifi-
cation in activity, and the poor are too much occupied in matters more
profitable than attending to their hawks, which require constant care and
trouble. Still, man is by natuie a sportsman, and the Turkmans appre-
ciate the qualities of a good falconer, the term avgi being still a lauda-
tory one, and many of their chiefs feel flattered by it. When they see a
European excel in their own line, they are much pleased, and look upon
him as one of themselves. Some of the young chiefs keep hawks ; but
their dogs are badly trained : when young they are allowed to nin wild,
* From the original plaster of Paris sketch modelled by Mr. J. Hancock of New-
castlc-on-Tyne.
HAWKING. 285
and are therefore never afterwards under command. Tliey liuut, how-
ever, ynth considerable activity; but it is for themselves, as they gene-
rally eat the game they get hold of, if they are not closely watched. In-
deed, I once saw a dog swallow a quail — bones, feathers, and all — with-
out giving his master the chance or time to get it out of his mouth.
Of course they cannot be expected to bring the game on which they
are fed, to " induce them to be sharp ami look after itf as a young Tui'k-
man told me ; considering it as a matter of course that a dog would not
hunt without such incentive. As soon as the dog seizes the bird, the
master calls out, " Husht ! husht .'" throwing a stone or any thing he
can at him to make him let go the bird, in order to get hold of it him-
self, and cut its throat before it dies; for if it dies of itself, or is killed
by the dog, they look upon it as strangled, and their rehgion forbids
their eating it. But some confirmed sportsmen laugh at this, and cut
the bird's throat subsequently, in order to make it appear that this
prescribed formality has been gone through in proper time, and thus
induce their women to cook the game for them.
The Turkmans have but one kind of sporting dog. It appears to be
of a somewhat similar breed to the Scotch terrier, and is well adapted to
go through the bushes, as its hair is long, and it is a hardy beast. It is
called boji; is small, and has long bristly hair (generally grey, and
abounding about the eyes and nose). It is an intelligent animal, and
were it brought up by a European, might be rendered subservient and
useftil for the hawk ; and as they are natives of a hot climate, they can
stand the heat well, and remain longer without water. Such quahties
are valuable; for I have seen my dogs quite knocked up as late in the
year as the 25th of November, and chiefly fi'om the heat of the season.
These Turkman bojis have not so acute a scent as some of our best
dogs in England, but they are as good as the generality of common
breeds, and very persevering. It is really astonishing how these poor
creatiu'es hunt at all, for they are nearly starved.
Besides the sparrow-hawk (accipiter nisus), hashek in Arabic, atmajia
in Turkish, the Cilicians are acquainted with three species of hawks :
The gos-hawk, dogliaa; autour of BufFon, aster paliu)iharius of
Linnaeus.
The lanner, seifee ; falco gentilis or lanarius of Linnaeus.
The peregrine, sheheen; falco nohilis ov p)ere(jrinus of Linna?us.*
* The sparrow-hawk is the falco nisus ; the gos-hawk the falco palumbarius ; the
falco gentilis is the greater buzzard, falco gallinarius of Temminck. According to
the latter author, the falco peregrinus of Linnaus and the falco lauarius of Gmelin
are different ages of the true blue-backed falcon. — \V. F. A.
28G FALCONRY.
The doghan or gos-hawk is a native of IMoimt Taurus. It is fre-
quently brought up from the nest, as bad sportsmen imagine that by
that means a haAvk becomes tamer, and not so likely to fly away. But
this is an error ; and I do not know that there is really any benefit to be
derived from an eyas ; and I can point out several disadvantages. One
is, that unless very carefully and constantly fed when young, it gets into
the habit of " calling" when it is hungrj^ — a great vice, and one that is
catching in birds. No sportsman would keep such among his hawks,
as it would spoil the whole lot. Further, the hawk takes to scratching,
and will not easily give up the game it seizes, Avhich it often nearly
tears to pieces. Besides these disadvantages, the hawk having never
caiight any thing in the wild state, must be taught ; and it requires some
time to develop its instinct : whereas haggards, that is, hawks taken by
the net faU-Jledged, know what they have to do, having hunted on their
OAVTi account, and it is merely necessary to tame them in order to ren-
der them useful birds. They are also more careful of their Avdngs, the
advantages of which they can appreciate better than a bird that has
never flown, and they are soon brought into the use of their facidties ;
whereas the nestling or eyas has to be taught to fly, and practised a
long while before it can be brought into trind. On the Avhole, therefore,
I lean towards the haggard; and the doghan is so tractable a creatm-c,
that in the course of ten days it may be brought to be as tame as can
be desired. Generally speaking, a much longer time is taken to train
them by timid or inexperienced falconers ; but I have myself hunted a
doghan and made him take a partridge the eighth day; but then I had
dogs accustomed to hunt under the hawk, which is of great consequence,
as a dog that does not know Avhat hawks are ■will do more harm than
good.
In England hawks are "Jloum at hack ;" that is, when brought from
the nest, they are kept in a shed, Avhere they are regularly fed, and
allowed to fly away and return in the evening to their roost.* This is
a great advantage, as it enables you to keep your hawk much fatter;
and in alter times, when hunting, if it is lost or flies away, you know
that it Avill return home. And this is particularly advantageous in case
of hawks of the lure, which are most prone to wander. The doghan is
so steady a bird that it is extremely difticult to lose it; and he must be
a very inexperienced falconer who would allow it to be in that state
which would induce it to fly away. Thus, on the whole, the doghan
gives the least trouble of any kind of hawk, and requires the least train-
* Tlic falconers in the East cannot do this, as they wovild be sure to have their
liawks stolen.
PRACTICE OF HAWKING. 287
ing ; and we shall see further that it is the bird the best adapted for
the present state of the country.
I have lately perused a work of much interest, called Game Birds
and Wild Fowl, their Friends and their Foes, by A. E. Knox, M.A.,
F.L.S. The author devotes a chapter to falconry, and gives a gi-aphic
account of this exhilarating sport from the experience of his friend,
Colonel Bouham, of the 10th Hussars, who, he says, although a good
shot and a practised stalker, laid aside the gun and the rifle for the en-
jopnent of the " noble craft." " Would that others could be tempted
to follow his example !" To this I would add, as an inducement, my
persuasion, that those who have not felt all the excitement experienced
by the falconer cannot be said to have tasted of all the pleasures of life ;
and surely if there remain to them still one enjoyment Avhich is so re-
fined and innocent, it is worth their while to give it a fair trial, Avhich
all can do who have the means of keeping a man, two horses, and a dog,
and have the run of an open country.
Knox's description (page 164) of the perfection to which dogs can be
brought goes far beyond my experience, as I have not had the advan-
tage of seeing dogs in such good training ; and 1 considered that one dog
I had for seven years had reached the acme of what dogs were capable
of; but I find, from what he says, that the intelligence of the Russian set-
ters leads them to distinguish and appreciate the nature of the different
characters in which they were alternately required to appear; and when
the game was sprung, and the bird fell or flew away, no attempt was
made, no inclination was evinced, to break the point; they Avould " down
charge" as instantaneously and perfectly as if the discipline usual in
such cases had never been for a moment relaxed in their sport under
the hawks. Dogs, in hawking, are expected to run in upon the game
directly it rises, and follow the hawk as closely as possible. I had a
pointer that Avould cross the river and hunt alone under the hawk who
had pursued the quarry to the other side, and would be on the top of
a bush waiting the arrival of his coadjutor to raise the game, which
generally takes refuge on the first flight in the closest cover at hand.
Doll would first go round the bush to make sure that the partridge had
not skulked out, and then entering, would raise it. The bird would
then try to fly back to the side of the river from whence it was first
started, and would sometimes be struck close to my feet by the hawk.
Sometimes the bird fell into the river at the moment of l)eing seized.
In this case the hawk would not let go his prey ; but both might be seen
sailing down the stream, until Doll, swimming back to me, and see-
ing how matters stood, could go to the rescue, and land haAvk and
288 FALCONRY.
partridge on my side of the river. If the quarry drops in the river be-
fore it is caught, the doghan will not lay hold of it, but vnW return to
his master. But it happens that he sometimes overtakes it before it is
quite in the water, and yet not sufficiently in the air to enable him to
caiTy it, which he can easily do, to a distance of a couple of himdi-ed
yards, when at a sufficient height in the air. Can you imagine any
sight more attractive and picturesque than the repose of the party after
the excitement of an exploit Uke the one just mentioned ? Often might
you see the dog actually hunt alone with the hawk across the river, and
return wdth the hawk, or be in time to rescue it from the stream. IMy
Arab mare appeared, upon these occasions, to understand what Avas
going on, and to take as much interest as the falconer in the sport.*
And as the hawk (after having been duly fed) was perched on her biick,
she would tm-n round and look ajiprovingly (for horses can look approv-
ingly) at the intelligent victor, while the dog, having shaken off the water
from its back, would be jumping up to lick her mouth ; the sportsman
caressing all the three, wondering which he loved best, his gallant hawk,
his generous mai-e, or his faithful dog !
Mr. Knox acknoAvledges that the movements of the gos-hawk in cover
are exceedingly rapid and effective. Its short wings enable it to pass
more easily through the interstices of boughs ; while with its long and
fan-like tail it steers its way and performs marvelloiisly intricate evo-
lutions, as it pui'sues the pheasant, the black-cock, the hare, or the
squirrel, through the tangled labyrinths of coppice and underwood.
But he says, " its character is altogether devoid of that energy and per-
severance that are so conspicuous in the falcon. If the quaiTy should
gain an advantage at the beginning of the chase, it frequently rchn-
quishes the pui'siut altogether, and, settling on the nearest branch, pre-
pares to dart upon the next passer-by."
This is the general complaint made by sportsmen against the gos-
* I am not cxaf^gerating tlic intelligence of these noble creatures ; and I declare
that my horse woiild always distinguish between a hare and any other animal, be-
tween the game I sought and any common bird, of which it would take no notice, but
always start off in pursuit of the quarry, when put up, if I happened to be looking
a different way. It is a known fact, that the Arab horse, when let loose to graze
while his master is reposing, will always come up and snoi't, to apprise him of the
api)roach of an intruder on the pnvacy of the desert.
In the East the saddles are made to cover the greater part of the back of the horse,
and are much more convenient than the English sjxddle for mounting and dismounting,
with the embarrassment of the hawk on the hand, which it is very often requisite to
do. The pommel is large enough to form a hold for the left hand ; and the hind part
of the saddle is raised, so that it is often convenient to perch the hawk upon it. An
English rider mounts by the mane of the horse, and not the jjommel, in order not
to throw too great a strain upon the saddle and saddle-gii-ths.
THE GOS-HAWK. 289
hawk, but my experience lias shewn me that these defects are not in-
herent in the hawk ; but originate generally with the sportsman. If a
gos-hawk is iwoperhj trained, and given something (say the head) of
every thing he takes, he will never give up the pursuit until he reaches
the bush wherein the quarry has taken refuge; but the dog and the
falconer must be alert, and come to his assistance, and never give up the
search for that identical bird. If the bird is let go, and the sportsman
looks after another, the hawk, whose mind and soul are set upon that
particular bird, which he will distinguish from among any niuuber that
may rise, and Avill never fail to pursue in preference to the rest, is dis-
couraged from the sport.
]\Ir. Knox proceeds : — " It was not without reason, therefore, that
this species, and some other hawks of similar stnicture, habits, and
character, were styled ' ignoble ' by our ancestors, to distinguish them
from the long-Avinged, high-flying, or ' noble' falcons."
I am Sony to differ from an authority of such high standing as the
naturalist above quoted; but I would beg to suggest a very different
reason for the epithet in question. The gos-hawk, and those of his
structure, are birds so much easier to train and keep than the falcons,
which require a man for each, that the vulgar herd used them when
they could not afford to keep those of a higher flight, which Avere thus
left to the privileged aristocratic and rich falconers. That the gos-hawk
is more efficient than the peregrine is clear from the fact that Colonel
Bonhain, according to Mr. Knox, acknowledges that " three groiCse ivere
sufficient to take from a falcon in one day." Colonel Bonham being a
great proficient, and having had great practice, must be allowed to be a
fair judge ; and I am assured that, in general, the peregrine cannot be
brought to take so many. One flight, or two at most, daily, is all that
is expected of him by the falconers of the present day. Now, the dog-
lian will take as many birds as ycai can fly him at; and I have repeat-
edly taken fifteen to tAventy francolins in a country where there were
no preserves, and Avhere we had to hunt out our game. AVliat woidd
the doghan not do here in England, provided ahvays he had the head of
the quarry given him to encourage him ? That oui- forefathers did not
look upon the gos-hawk as really ignoble, may be seen from the many
elaborate treatises published in the way of treating and hunting this
haAvk alone ; and that they appreciated his good qualities may be inferred
from their ahvays keeping one " to feed their falcons tvith,''^ that is, to secure
game for them when the peregrine Avas not in humour to hunt, a thing
of constant occurrence. Indeed, I belicA^e that the uncertainty and ca-
prices of this latter bird have been the chief cause of the noble art of
u
290 FALCONRY.
falconry falling into disrepute. People coiild not afford to keep sereral
of these birds (for each of which, properly speaking, a man is required)
in order to seciu'e one flight or two. Sometimes the falconer might, in
his zest for the sport, invite a party of fiiends to witness his exploits,
and twenty to one but they were all disappointed, and told that the
bird, on being tried oiit in the field, Avas not in the humour ; was
too fat, or too thin, or some other excuse ; and you are never svu'e
Avhat your bird Avill do till you have had the trouble of going out to
fly him.
Now the gos-hawk, when properly broken in, requires little or no
attention ; his master need keep no servants or falconer to attend upon
him, and carry him day and night on the hand, which is requisite \nth
the peregrine; if in proper trim, he is ready to hunt, and you can count
upon him, and you may fly him as often as you please in the course of
a day. I do not recollect over seeing my hawks done up from flight
after flight, for six hours consecutively ; and I have kno-mi a gos-hawk
belonging to Rizu Kuli Mirza Nayebel Ayaly, a Persian prince residing
at Bagdad, take twenty-one francolins consecutively. The prince as-
sured me, and I firmly beheve him, that he made siu'e of the quarry
every time he let him fly from his hand. I have myself taken four
hares and a dozen francolins, ynXh. several minor birds, and some larger
birds, in one day; and I invariably found my gos-hawk improve by ex-
ercise, — the more I hunted him, the more he Avas anxious to continue
the sport.
If ever falconry is to be revived in England, this bird will be the
one to which we must have recourse. The enclosed state of the country
has been generally brought forward as a reason for this sport having
been discontinued. Such may be the case ; and it constitutes the chief
impediment in hunting with the peregrine, where life and death are in
the scale ; for -if you do not arrive in time to assist your falcon, he may
be killed by the crane or heron. But in folloAving the gos-haAvk, you j
need never go faster than a hand canter ; and you AAdll not find more
impediments in your Avay than a fox-hunter is prepared to meet: sui-ely, \
therefore, this should be no discouragement. Besides, if your dogs know ■
what they are about, they aa^U folloAv the haAvk Avhile you go round by ;
a gate; and Avhen you come up, you Avill be just in time to see the game
raised, and the haAvk Avaiting your ariival on the nearest bush or tree;
for the gos-luiAvk flies in a straight line at his qiiarr}-, Avhich he ncA^er
allows to go beyond a thousand yards from the place it first started from.
Indeed, the sport Avith the gos-haAvk is so gentle, and, in a tolerably open
country, so easy, that I think it particularly adapted for ladies ; and I
GOS-HAWKS. 291
shall be happy to bear of some of our noble-minded countrywomen setting
the example to the sex, and give every encouragement to the sportsman
by honoming him ^vitli their presence, and cheering him by an interest
in his success. With such inducements of so refined a character, I have
no doubt that the art of falconry would be revived; and it would be
deUghtftil to strive, by patience and attention to oiu' hawks, to gain the
approving smile of beauty. Indeed, the presence of the fair sex consti-
tuted in former times, no doubt, half the charm of falconry.
Let me not be thought desii'ous of detracting from the merits of the
peregrine or the lanner. The latter is one of the most perfect of its race;
but both reqtrire much attention and an open country, and must be left
to those who have attained great perfection in the art of falconry. Gene-
rally speaking, the gos-hawk AviU answer the pm-poses of most sportsmen.
At the Zoological Gardens there are now five or six gos-hawks
imported from Germany ; one of these I have trained and sent into the
country, consigning it to the care of F. H. Salvin, Esq., Killingbeck
Hall, Leeds, who has succeeded in making it take rabbits ; and latterly
" Juno" has distinguished herself, and taken hares, which is an inter-
esting sight, and one that no person in England has witnessed, except
myself and a friend who visited me in Cihcia. I trust this bird, by her
feats, may be the cause of once more attracting the attention of the
public to an amusement now almost extinct.* I cannot speak too highly
of Mr. Salvin's intelligence, patience, and perseverance. He has carried
his refinement so far, as to hunt \nt\\ the otter, and has performed mi-
racles with some cormorants, which he tamed and trained to take fish
for him. I am happy that he has turned his attention to the gos-hawk,
as, having kept falcons some years back, he will no doubt be better able
to do justice to this bii'd than any one else.
Mr. John Hancock of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, a gentleman well known
as one of our first naturalists, has, I beheve, carried falcomy to perfec-
tion. He has kept every kind of hawk, and understands well their
habits and mode of hfe. His collection of stuffed birds and their eggs
is quite imique both in its variety and in the way they are got up. No
one who has seen them can forget the specimens of taxidermy he exhi-,
bited in the transept of the Great Exhibition ; and I am happy to hear
that he is about to favour the pubHc with lithographic drawings, done
by himself, of what I may very properly call " anatomical specimens
of stuffed Inrds," and Avhich stand prominent in the art which he has
* I have since received two trained gos-hawks from Tarsus. They were three
months in a cage on then- way to England, and came in perfect health. They have
just finished moulting in the Zoological Gardens.
292 FALCONRY.
carried to such perfection, as to rank, in my opinion, -with the first
2)ainters.
Falconry is, indeed, not quite extinct in England; for I find that the
Duke of Leeds takes an interest in this noble sport ; and Colonel Thorn-
ton, Lord Orford, Sir Thomas Sebright, Colonel Wilson, and the late
Duke of St. Alban's (the Grand Falconer of England), have all kept
hawks.
So late as 1839, there was a Hawking Society, called the Norfolk
Hawking Club ; and on its being dissolved, some of the members, such
as the Duke of Leeds, the late Honourable C. Wortley, and Mr. E.
Cliiff Newcome, joined the Loo Club patronised by the present King of
Holland.
Mr. Newcome, as well as Captain Yerncr and some others, still
pursvie this sport with great success ; and I cannot but express the
greatest interest in their pursuit, and wish their example may be fol-
lowed by others.
I am also informed that there are plenty of open districts still in
England, iipon the chalk formation, suitable to falconry, such as the
country between Lincoln and Peterborough, the Berkshire and Wilt-
shire DoA^ais, seen from the Great Western Kailway, and the country
about Brighton, Winchester, &c. Those Avho cannot find time or con-
venience to go to these places, let them keep the humble, unassuming,
useful, and efficient gos-hawk, which I have hunted successfully in a
country as bushy as any that nature has produced, and as wild as can
be well imagined. The dense thickets that occm- between IMount Tau-
rus and the sea-shore, are, indeed, remarkable. The dog can scarcely
penetrate them, and sportsmen would generally flinch from flying a
hawk there; but living as I did in the vicinity at Mursina, I used to
try, day after day, and I soon learned the " dodges" requisite to ensure
a good day's sport, even with such difficulties to surmoimt.
I find that Colonel Thornton and the Earl of Orford were the last
sportsmen who took the hare and the kite with the Iceland falcon
towards the close of the 17th centmy (1700). In 1844, INIr. E. C. New-
come, of Hockwold Hall, Brandon, Norfolk, took, \r\{\\ a cast of old
"passage-hawks," fifty-seven herons.*
I also hear from my fellow-admirers of this sport, that his Grace the
Duke of Leeds, when ^ranjuis of Carmarthen, and living at Dunotar
* Tho herons are not killcfl ; but being taken alive from the hawk, a copper ring, with
tho name of tho captor and date upon it, is fixed to its logs, and it is turned off again ;
and as the heron is along-lived bird, I have read of their being recaptured many years
after. Indeed, in one instance, a bird was shot at tho Cape of Good Hope, bearing on
its log a date so ancient that / am afraid to venture upon noting it here.
FEAT or A HAWK. 293
House, near Stoneliaven, in Kincardineshire, Scotland, killed Avith one
peregrine, an old eyas tiercel, " the General," 130 partridges out of 133
flights in one season. These instances, and Colonel Bonham's suc-
cess in Ireland, should, I think, encourage others to enter the field of
competition ; and I should be happy to afford them every assistance and
information in my power, having had great experience for many years,
diu-ing my residence in the East, in the training of hawks. Indeed,
when I visited Persia, Malek Kasem Mirza, the viceroy of Azerbigian,
declared to liis officers that he had learned a great deal from me in con-
versation on the subject, when I passed some twenty days in his happy
valley near the borders of the lake of Urimiyah ; and I confess that I
also learned much from him, for the Persians have carried falconry to
the greatest perfection possible. As an example of which I will cite
one case. Timour Mirza Seif-il-dowly, great grandson of the King of Per-
sia, Feth AU Shah, now residing with his two elder brothers at Bagdad,
when at Aleppo some years ago, was accompanied by my brother in a
hawking expedition. He had only a gos-hawk -with him, having left
his other falcons (of which he has more than a dozen, chiefly lanners)
at home. He rode with his slave behind him equally well mounted.
On coming to the place where partridges were expected to be found, two
rose at the same time. He let off his hawk, which seized one of them
immediately in the air at a few paces off". The prince dismounted and
took it from the hawk, which he raised in his right hand, concealing
the prize with his left. The hawk looked forward, and seeing the other
partridge still flying in the open country, proceeded in pui'suit of it.
The prince remounted, giving the first partridge to his man, and gal-
lopped off" after his hawk, coming up just after it had overtaken and
seized the partridge that had flown upwards of a quarter of a mile,
thus effecting " un coup double .'" This he did three times successively,
taking six partridges one after the other, to the astonishment of my bro-
ther, who was aware of the difficulty that is experienced by falconers in
extracting the quarry out of the hand of the hawk, so as to enable it to
look forward, instead of looking after the missing bird. I must note,
however, that the coimtry where this took place was clear of any bush,
and that the partridge could scarcely hide itself any where, except
under a stone ; and that it is not extraordinary that it should be taken
in such an open country ; the wonder lay in the bird's patient obedience
to its master, in allowing him possession of the parti-idge, and flying im-
mediately after the second. In that open country, I have myself taken
forty-tAvo partridges in three days, with a bird I had not had in train-
ing ten days, and which Ibrahim Pasha had given me; and I believe
294 FALCONRY.
that there is no limit to the niimber of bii'ds a gos-hawk -would take
when in proper condition — quite as many as he may be flown at, always
pi'ovided he is not discouraged by being deprived of his right to the
head.
Sportsmen have found that it is necessary to keep each falcon to a
distinct species of quarry, i. e. you cannot properly fly them at fur and
feather indiscriminately. But although this rule applies also to the
gos-hawk in some degree, I have fomid that it is by no means unexcep-
tionable ; for I used to fly my gos-hawk (one I kept seven years) at every
thing ; and I remember often returning home with every kind of game
that I had met Avith, including hares, ducks, geese, partridges, franco-
lins, ciu'lews, water-birds, small herons, quails, rails, and even crows,
and birds of rapine, three times his size ! Indeed, there was nothing he
would not fly at, if I would let him go ; and he once actually attacked
a vulture, which had carried off one of his companions, a gos-hawk
belonging to a sporting friend, who was out with me, and who had
neglected his bird in piu'suing the game his dogs were hot upon.
Besides the German gos-hawk, there is at the Zoological Gardens,
Regent's Park, a prccio'js and beautiful specimen of the Austrahan gos-
hawk ; it is pei-fectly white, and its eyes are the colour of bright rubies.
This is a hawk of considerable value for the sportsman ; its hands are
larger in comparison to the other European and Asiatic gos-hawks, as it
is smaller in body. But judging from appearances, I am led to believe
that it would be swifter in flight, and, on the whole, a more efficient bird.
I have had the pleasure of taming this bird, and could, I think, promise
to turn it out a perfect hawk. This is the only specimen in England ;
but I believe that Mr. Mitchell, the secretary to the society, is daily
expecting some more of them from our antipodes. It forms, in my
opinion, the beau idea of perfection in a hawk. I consider it worthy of
a princely hand, and should be happy to see his Royal Highness Prince
Albert patronise the training of this bird to afford amusement to our
young Prince of Wales. It is without a defect, and might be brought
to perform Avonders. There are also peregrines and Iceland falcons to
be seen in the same collection. Hitherto, indeed, the natural liistory
of hawks has been much neglected, and we must look forward to
more correct and valuable di'awings, which we are promised by Mr.
Hancock.
The two accompanying illustrations have been kindly furnished me
by my friend Mr. John Hancock, to exliibit the different forms of the
two tribes of " hawk of the lure" and " hawk of the fist."*
* I cannot avoid making a few remarks here on the wanton destruction of life
ANTIQUITY OF FALCONRY.
295
In England, liawks axe di\ddi3d into long-winged and sliort-winged ;
in the East, they follow the same division, but call them black and
yellow-eyed ; the peregrine and lanner being of the former, the gos-
hawk and sparrow-hawk of the latter. And it is remarkable how, on
almost every point, the sportsmen of the East and West are agreed.
Although the communication between them has been interrupted for
centuries, the general system of treatment, the many ingenious con-
trivances, either discovered or handed down from posterity, are in
THE GOS-HAWK.
THE FALCON.
both alike. Each use bells, jesses, leashes, hoods, and gauntlets, that
are much alike. They imp the broken feathers in the same way ; and
both bathe and weather their hawks, give castings, and feed them in the
same manner. This alone would prove the ancient origin of falconry,
which appeal's to have had one source, and probably to have been in-
troduced by the Indo-Germanic race from the plains of Hindustan, so
favoui-able to hawking. It appears from all accounts that falconry is
more generally attended to there than in any other j^art of the world ;
and it was there that Colonel Bonham seems to have acquired his valu-
able experience, " in spite of Thugs, tigers, and fever," and where his
wliich the mania for coUecting eggs and birds to stuff has generated. At the late sale
of the valuable and interesting zoological collection at Knowsley, many a rare animal
was bought in order to kill and stuft' it ; and the exertions made in collecting eggs, an
unfair practice and a morbid taste, will soon deprive us of many an interesting bird,
unless put a stoj) to by the execration of public opinion, expressed on aU possible
occasions.
296 FALCONRY.
perseverance lias been reAvarcled by tlie acquisition of many a sporting
troph}'.
There is a kind of hawk called by the Easterns ispir. I have only
seen one of these. They are much esteemed and fetch a great price :
I have heard it said that 5/., a dog, a horse, a camel, a donkey, a cow, a
goat, and a sheep, have been given in exchange for one of these birds.
They are very rare in Syria, and always haggards ; but I must confess
that I lia^'e not been able to make a real distinction between them and
the doghan, except that, when they have moulted, their eyes remain
9/elloiv, the pristine colour of the first year, whereas that of the doghan
changes into a ruby red. They are certainly more powerful and swifter
of flight, flj'ing u]} hill after partridges, and taking them often compre-
hensively^ that is, flying at the covey, and not singling out any particular
bird, by which means the whole lot is brought to a stand-still in a small
space, while the hawk is flying about from bush to bush making a
whistling noice, Avhich so frightens the partridges that they allow them-
selves to be taken by the dogs rather than fly again. When the sports-
man has thus secured the whole covey, he throws up one to the hawk
in waiting, who seizes it in the air, and gives it up, after having been
rewarded with the head for his patience and assistance, and is ready to
renew the sport until evening, when, of course, he must be well fed
on the last taken. Modern sportsmen, in these degenerate days, will
perhaps call this proceeding a species of poaching ; but \\:hen Ave
consider the difficulty and merit of training haAvks to be so tractable,
we must not, in consideration of the tastes of others, desecrate the
noble art of falconry A\-ith such an appellation ; and Ave must recollect
that, in the East, the chief point looked to is the quantity bagged, Avhich,
by the by, is much the same A\-ith our present generation, Avho go out in
a preserve to shoot at game as if they Avere so many barn-door fowls,
and glory in the number they bring doAvn Avithout any exertion or
trouble. It is related of Charles X. of France, that a shooting day
used to cost him thousands of francs in poAvder alone, as he had a party
of keepers sent round to drive up the game (by firing at it in the air
Avithout shot), and bring it under the aim of the royal gim !
Tlie yelloAv-eyed haAvks, or haA\'ks of the fist, are ncA'cr hooded ; those
of the lure are accustomed to the liood, because, I believe, that, as the
latter sit more forAvard on the hand than the fonner, they cannot ba-
lance themselves so Avell; and it is necessary to blind them in order to
carry them about, as by that means you compel them to have recoiu'se
to their " hands,'^ instead of constantly opening their " sails" to lielp
themselves in their balance. This is the only use I can discover of the
TUE rEREGRINE. 297
hood, and I would never recommend it, except on particular occasions,
Avhen necessary to keep the bird qiiiet. But otherwise I consider the
use of the hood should be deprecated.
The songhir* is a larger species of peregrine. It is sometimes taken
in the north of Asia ]\Iinor ; but I have not seen a specimen of this falcon.
It is considered by the Tm-kmans as the king of birds, and they have
assured me that all the feathered tribes " tremble in its presence."
The peregrine of the cliffs of Mount Taurus is smaller than the Eng-
lish peregrine, but more beautifully variegated in plumage. It is
known as the " Barbary flilcon." It is generally kept in the East by
rich men, who can aftbrd to have one man, or even two men, for each
bird. The hand of the falconer should be its only perch. Thus
treated, its natui-al Avildness is conquered, and it may be brought to
talce any thing, although it is generally kept to protect the doghan from
the attacks of its natural enemies, the eagle and vulture. So we see
that the peregrine acts but a secondary, although a loyal part, in the
estimation of Eastern falconers.
The lanner, I have said, is the perfection of birds. The older it
grows, the more perfect it becomes, it is so gentle and so tractable ; but
it requires a A'-ery experienced sportsman to bring it to hunt at all. If
he once succeeds, the bird is without price. It is the hawk most in use
in Bagdad, where they are divided into several species, each having a
separate name and employment. Some are trained to assist the dogs in
taking the gazelles of the neighbouring desert, wliich it does by fasten-
ing itself on the head of the females, which have no horns, until the
dogs come up. It is a native of the centre of Asia Minor ; and I am told
that you may see a nest on every tree in fi'ont of the habitations of the
people of Bur and Nigdy. If naturalists have not called this hawk
the " falco gentilis" they have given a misnomer to any other species,
and deprived it of its rights. Its eyes are of a bluish-black colour ; its
beak grey, Avith whitish-grey feet, and black claws. It is not unlike in
feathers to the English peregrine in its first year's plumage. I cannot,
however, be expected to enter here into a dissertation on the treatment
and training of hawks. To do this effectively a separate volume should
be devoted to the subject. I have ojily mentioned cursorily what I
thoiight might be of most interest, and which I trust wiU. attract the
attention of the sporting world.
Falconry is a source of healthy and innocent enjoyment ; and it is
very desirable that some person of distinction should patronise its re-
vival. Being conducted on horseback, qiiietl//, it is more adapted to the
* The Turkish appellation of this falcon.
298
FALCONRY.
generality of sportsmen than fox-liimting or shooting, both of which
are too violent exercises for many persons, and subject to many serious
accidents, from which falconry is quite free. This " noble craft" com-
bines every advantage, and let us hope will be brought into fashion
once again ; that we may see, as our ancestors did, those scenes so gra-
phically portrayed by onr immortal "Walter Scott and other celebrated
novehsts, when describing this pageant of past glory.
GESRIL HADEED, IN THE PLAINS OF ANTIOCH :
FROM A SKETCH BY MR. C. F. BARKER.
CHAPTER XIX.
MEDICINAL PLANTS.
Among the medicinal herbs that have fallen under my notice, I must
mention the Adiantum capillus Veneris, or maiden-hair, of which the
people of the country make a strong decoction to remove dysentery and
violent diarrhoea.
There is also a black seed, hke a dried black bean, of which I have
not learned the name (nor is it, perhaps, used in the materia medica, if
known at all). It is remarkably useful in the above maladies ; it is
a tasteless astringent, and one or two seeds pounded up and taken in
coffee bring about the desired effect.
The Colocynth, or bitter apple, which grows wild on the sea-coast.
The Palma Christi, or castor-oil plant, which the inhabitants culti-
vate for domestic as well as medicinal purposes.
Mount Taurus produces also the Scainmony plant, and the giun is
collected from the Avild plants by persons who come to Tarsus from
Latachia expressly for the purpose.
And, lastly, the Scilla maritinia, which is to be found every where
on a sandy groimd. The bulb of this plant is dried in an oven and
reduced to powder ; it forms an excellent gum or glue, used by shoe-
makers instead of their Avax ; when required, it is simply rubbed up
gradually with a Httle cold water into a paste, and after it is used and
has dried, it becomes impei-vious to moisture, and no insect mil touch
it. In the state used in Turkey, it is of a brown colour ; but I think
that, by sifting it of the rind, the remaining pith would be white, and
it might be made available in book -binding, saddlery, &c, I brought
some of it with me to England, and it has been declared to possess many
valuable quahties. In Europe, the squiU is a Avell-known medicinal
agent for coughs and consumption j but these maladies are unknown in
Cilicia and Sp'ia. So true is this, that the ancient Greek and Roman
physicians were in the habit of sending their consumptive patients from
Europe to Antioch and Suedia, on account of the beauty and salubrity
300
MEDICINAL PLANTS.
of the climate : an example "wliicli, it is to be hoped, our countrymen
will soon learn to follow; for in few places can so fine a climate, such
beautiful scenery and vegetation, such resources in learned or philan-
thropic pursuits, or in field-sports, and siich cheap living, be found
united together. The country would also benefit infinitely by the
occasional residence of our valetudinarians at Suedia, Betias, or the
neighbourhood. The reason that these districts have hitherto attracted
so little attention is because travellers generally confine themselves to
the beaten tract from Beyiait to Palestine. In this respect I\Ir. Neale's
work, lately published, is calculated to do some good.
BETIAS: MR. BAUKF.ll's Sl'MMHU KESIDESCE OX MOUNT EHOSSUS.
FKO.V A SXUTCH BY .Mil. E. B. B. BARKER.
APPENDIX.
NARRATIVE OF NADIR BEY, WRITTEN FROM HIS OWN DICTATION.*
Depuis rinstant oii Dieii tout piiissant crea dans le ciel I'etoile qui devait
marquer mon existence, et depiiis le jour de ma naissance jusqu'a I'age de
onze ans, enfant, je ne savais rien, je n'avais rien vu, si ce n'est les pleurs
de ma bien-aimee et tres-honoree mere, possedant une ame eeleste, qui, au
miJieu d'un chagrin continue!, n'avait pu m'apprendre autre cliose qu'a I'ai-
mer et a partager ses peines. J'appris aussi, avant de I'avoir jamais vu,
que mon bien-aime empereur et pere avait ^te assassine par son propre
frere qui par-la a imprime siu' le front de mon oncle une taclie de sang,
que rien ne pourra effacer de son vivant, et qui souillera sa memoire lors-
qu'il aura rejoint ses anceti'es dans reternite. J'ap^ms encore qu'a I'epoque
du massacre des innocentes dames de son harem, ce Dieu tout puissant et
misericordieux, qui m'a donne I'etre, se servit de la main meme d'un des
assassins pour sauver les jours de ma tendre mere — barbare assassin,
qui montrait des sentimens de generosite et d'humanite superieurs a ceux
d'un oncle souille de sang — empereur de di'oit, mais de fait un assassin,
qui s'abreuvait du sang de sa propre famille. De cette epoque, quoiqu'en-
fant, mon jeune coeur eprouvait toutes les angoisses d'une pareille tra-
* The mLstakes left are those in the original, which, though incorrect, is very good
for a Tui'k to dictate to an Italian amanuensis. (For Translation, see p. 310.)
It may be j)roper to premise here, that the author in no way pretends to guarantee
the authenticity of the above extraordinary document. The improbability of the
events and the incoherence of the writer are manifest throughout. Little faith can
therefore be placed in the princely origin claimed by its author. Still there are such
strange things enacted in a country circumstanced as Tiu-key is, and which 'receive
such frequent illustration in its past history, and there is so much that is romantic in
the life of this Oriental adventurer, that there is every excuse for presenting so curious
a biography in his own words. If necessary, a fiu-ther excuse might be foimd for such
a publication, in the fact that the existence of such a personage as Nadir Bey — as a
pretender to the throne of the Osmanlis — was veiy generally known in the countries
that border the Mediterranean. Miss Eomer, as we shall afterwards see, has already
published some accoimt of " the Tm-kish pretendei-," as that lady designates him ; and
frequent allusions have also been made in the Maltese and other newspapers of the
day to the same extraordinary^ personage, whose stoiy has now for some time excited
the greatest interest and curiositj^ in many parts of the world, but has never before
been given in the author'^ own words.
302 APPENDIX.
gedie de mon pauvre pere, que mes yeux n'avaient pas en le bonlieur de
voir, mais que mon coeur avait devine, et je detestais Taction horrible de
mon oncle. Comme enfant, je partageais les chagrins de ma royale m^re,
I'objet de mon affection la plus devouee dans mon enfance, et de mon
respect, de mon amour, dans I'adolescence, et mon unique consolation
dans I'age viril. ]\Iais helas ! peu de terns apres le chagrin qui la con-
sumait termina les jours de cette auguste dame, et elle s'envola, comme
je I'espere et le crois fermement, vers les regions du bonhetu' etemel.
Elle me laissa par droit d'heritage les di'oits de prince imperial, titre
que la puissance divine m'accordait, et qu'aucun pouvoir humain ne
pouvait me contester, et dont on ne peut sans crime me priver ; mais en
meme tems elle me legua aussi xm. chagrin profond, et une douleur dont Ja
puissance humaine ne pouvait adoucir I'amertume. Elle me laissa aussi
un vetement superficiel que nul ne pouvait dechirer a I'exception de moi-
meme ; elle me laissa im sentiment de vengeance dont moi seul peut
connaitre la profondeur; elle me laissa des diamants, preuve de la muni-
ficence imperiale de son auguste epoux le sultan, et son amant ; elle me
laissa des papiers ecris de son auguste main — ajoutez a cela quelle me
confia aux soins, a la prudence, et a la protection de Joaniza, homme
d'environ soixante-dix ans, qui avait survecu a sa femme et ses enfants,
^tre devovie et fidele au service de ma mere, et reconnaissant des bontes
et des bienfaits qu'elle avait repandus sur lui pendant sa vie. Elle lui
recommanda de me conduire a Constantinople, ayant soin de ne faire
connaitre ni mon nom ni ma naissance, mais de me faire donner une
education ottomane aussi brUlante que possible; et lorsque je arriverais
a I'age de majorite, de declarer mes droits, et de m'engager a les faire
valoir. C'est ainsi que la plus cherie des meres expira dans cet espoir.
Mais il ne fut pas realise ; car " I'homme propose, et Dieu dispose."
L'honnete vieillard, fidele executeur des ordres de sa bienfaitrice,
essaya de me conduire a Constantinople, sans s'inquieter de ses pi'opres
infirmites et de son age avance. Peu de tems apres la mort de ma mere
nous partimes de Caffa, ville de la Crimde, oil ses saintes cendres impe-
riales reposent : nous arrivamcs a Odessa dans Tintention de nous
rendre a la capitale oii avaient rcgn6 mes ancotrcs; mais nous fftmes
arretes dans notre voyage par les lois arbitraircs de la Kussie, qui ne
permettent a aucun sujet de passer la frontiere ; et quoique le vieux
Joaniza ffit descendu d'une famille de la Moldavie, et devenu sujet de
la Russic par suite d'un sc'jour do plusieurs annecs dans cet empire, ou
la justice est inconnue. Cependant, apr^s avoir etc retenu pendant trois
ans dans cette ville, le bon vieillard termina sa carrifere, et je restai sans
protection, isol6, et sans un sevd ami, k I'age de quinze ans. Je connus
NARRATIVE OP NAPIR BEY. 303
alors la situation deplorable dans laquelle je me trouvais place. Je
rappellai a ma memoire les demieres paroles de ma noble mere, que me
redisalt souvent le bon Aaeillard, et ce fut alors que la vengeance prit
reellement possession de mon coeur; et ayaut arrange mes projets, j'im-
plorai dans les larmes la protection de Dieu seul, et pla^ant toute ma
confiance en lui, j'appellai la prudence et le coui'age a mon aide, et
quittai la ville, accompagne d'un Grec nomme Macris, qui allait en
Moree, passant par Trieste poiu- servir son pays, disait-il. Arrive a
Bulta, les Juifs astucieux decouvrirent un air de mystere existant entre
moi et mon compagnon, attendu que, n'ayant point de passeport, je
comptais sur sa prudence; malgre que j'eusse acliete cherement I'amitie
de ces Juifs, les malheureux n'en suivirent pas moins leurs dispositions
a la duplicite, et aussitot que j'en eus connaissance, je quittai cette ville
et mon compagnon, et seul je gagnai Mozilow sur le Dniester. La je fus
assez tranquille, et je fis tout ce que je put pour gagner I'amitie de
chacun, et apprendre tout ce que je pouvais. La j'appris un peix le
Polonais ; de-la je me rendis a Lozensk, ou, par hasard, je me suis procure
un document d'Eleftliery, en Grec, sorte de passeport, qui me mit k
meme ensuite de voyager en Eussie sous ce deguisement, et d'etre admis
dans la meilleure societe de cet empire. Je fus a meme d'etudier sa
force et sa politique, ses lois, et la faiblesse de ses ressources ; en un
mot, je put apprecier son gouvernement avec justesse. La j'ai vu I'en-
nemi puissant de mon pays, et par consequent de mon coeur ; enfin, je
quittai la Russie pour me rendre en Pologne, oil je trouvai ce peuple
guerrier, brave et genereux, et sa brillante armee ; je commen9ai des
lors a m'attacher a la theorie et aux tactiques de leur armee; et j'arrivai
a dix-huit ans connaissant parfaitement la politique astucieuse de la
Eiissie, et penetre des souiFrances qu'enduraient mon pays natal par
suite de la revolte des Grecs. Je fus oblige de quitter la Pologne a cause
des soup^ons que j'avais inspire a la police, et je passais en Galicie dans
I'intention de me rendre en Moldavie, et de-la dans la capitale de mes
ancetres. Mais a Lembergh on me demanda dans Tliotel ou j'etais
descendu, d'oii je venais ; mais ne desirant pas les satisfaire sur ce point,
ou plutot craignant le gouvernement rvisse, je repondis que j'arrivais de
la Moldavie, sans penser aux consequences qui en pouvaient resulter.
Lorsqu'on me demanda ou j'avais fait quarantaine, je balbutiai, et re-
pondis, " Nulle part." Cette reponse etonna tout le monde, et on me
dit que je serais pendu pour m'etre soustrait a cette mesure de precau-
tion. Ce que je compris facilement ; mais ne voulant pas etre traite
comme coupable sans avoir commis un crime, je quittai cette ville, et,
sous r^gide de la protection divine, je gagnai, sans etre inquiete, la ville
304 APPENDIX.
de Jassy en Moldavie, faisant partie de I'empire que gouveriiait nion
oncle. La, reflechissant sur ma situation, j'accusai souvent le destiu.
En peu de terns j'appris la langue moldavienne, seul avantage que je
retirais de mon sejour. Je me mis en route pour Constantinople, pousse
par la vengeance, et formant des projets imaginaires, batailles, et vic-
toires; la tete pleiuede ces reves je clieminais, et de cette maniere je me
trouvai lance au milieu dune nation etrangere, quoique ce fut ma patrie;
des raoeurs et des manieres toutes nouvelles pour moi ; et lorsque j'etais
a etudier ce nouveau pays, la guerre eclata avec la Eussie dans les
annees 1828 et 1829. Je n'y eomprenais rien, croyant qu'il etait de
mon dcA^oir de prendre parti contre les agresseurs de mon pays. Je vis
alors I'armee des Turcs, lions de courage, honnete par nature, mais com-
mandes par des generaux aussi ignorans que des agneaux, sans en pos-
seder la douceur, qui, dans leur vanite, se croyaient nes pour gouverner.
Je ne pouvais que les plaindre et pleiu'er sur mon pays, et sur le mal-
heureux resultat qui eut lieu a Adrianople, et je le considerai comme
un chatiment inflige par la providence a mon oncle le Sultan Mahmout.
Je me rendis alors au tombeau revere de mon legitime empereur, mon
pere bien-aime, ou je versai les pleurs filiales, et ensuite je vis son
assassin place dans des circonstances les plus critiques, et ce tableau
horrible rappellant I'afFreuse tragedie dans laquelle mon auguste pere
avait perdu la vie, mes sens s'egarerent, et je ne revai plus que A^en-
geance ; mais bien malheureux est I'liomme qui en fait son idole.
Neanmoins me trouvant dans mon pays natal, j'apercjus I'activite qu'il
mettait a le civiliser et a en reformer les abus ; j'approuvai ces principes ;
mais malheureusement 11 ne poiivait communiquer a d'autres ce qu'il
ne connaissait pas lui-meme, comme la suite I'a demontr^ ; ses idees
etaient nobles et genereuses, mais il ignorait sur quelles bases il fallait
les fonder. Je ne saurais exprimer les combats qui s'elevaient en moi :
d'un cote brulant de vengeance, et de I'autre retenu par la prudence et
I'amour de mon pays, qui devait 6tre sauv^, mais non pas remu^ par des
revolutions, me firent j)rendre la rosoliTtion de le hair, mais de ne pas
I'arreter dans la voie de reforme qu'il avait en vue, et plutot le seconder
comme empereur de ma patrie adoi'ee. Pour ce faire, il etait n^^cessaire
de connaitre mieux notre empire, et je me rendis en Asie pour examiner
de quel est composee cette grand e nation ; et aprcs avoir satisfait ma
curiosite sur ce point, je revins a la capitale dans I'inteution d'etre utile
a mon pays. II fallait connaitre les Clemens du gouvernement ; je fis
Ja connaissance de tous les amis de mon pere, de ceux qui correspondaient
avec ma m^re sublime, pour qui j'avait des lettres d'elle, et qui en con-
sequence sont devenu mes vrais amis, et qui me sont encore; en suite je
NARRATIVE OF NADIR BEY. 305
fls la connaissance de Eeis Effendi et de I'interprete de la Sublime Porte i
ils devinrent mes vrais amis; et me confiant a leur amitie, je decouvris a.
ce dernier la plaie que j'avais dans le coeur, moii nom, ma naissance, et
quellcs etaient mes projets. Le brave liomme, honnete Mussulman, parut
frappe de la foudre, et apres un moment de reflexion, il s'exprima ainsi,
les yeux baignes de larmes : " Prince, ayez confiance en Dieu, mais
jamais dans les hommes. Cacliez bien votre origine imperiale, et suivez
vos intentions pacifique^s; aimez votre pays, et Dieii vous sera en aide.
Quant a moi, je vous suis devoue jusqu'a mon dernier moment ; mais
n'oubliez pas que votre vie est en danger, que vous devez la conserver
pour votre pays ; ainsi, que la prudence vous guide, et qiie Dieu vous
protege." J'ai suivi ses conseils ; et en peu de tems je fis beaucoup
d'amis ; et Hosref Pacha, alors g6neralissime, qui k cette epoque igno-
rait mon origine, me confila le coramandement d'un regiment de cavalerie
qu'on dcvait former a Aldana. Arriv^ la, je m'occupai de recruter les
soldats; et lorsque j'eus le complement, je re9us I'ordre de les discipliner
pour I'infanterie, ce que je fis avec le plus grand zele. Je contractai la
un engagement d'amiti^ fraternelle avec Hagi Ali Bey, gouverneur de la
place, et fils du fameux Hassan Pacha d'Adana, H. Ali Bey avait sous
ses ordres environ 19,000 hommes de cavalerie, les plus braves, je crois,
du monde entier, et entierement a sa disposition et a la mienne. Ce fut
le moment le plus propice pour venger la. mort de mon. pere; mais ay ant
deja resolu de servir mon pays en assistant et participant a la reforme
dont il avait besoin, je renon^ai a inquieter mon oncle dans ses projets.
Quelques tems apres, comme j'avais un goiit jirononcee pour la cavalerie,
je demandai la permission de me rendre a Constantinople, afin de faire un
^change et de passer de I'infanterie dans la cavalerie ; et en ayant re§u I'auto-
risation, je me rendis a la capitale. Independamment de mes appartemens
du Seraskier, je pris un logement particulier h, Pera, afin de me ti'ouver
en rapport avec les Europeens, et apprendre le Fran9ais. Peu de tems
apres les Strangers vinrent h, moi, m'appellant Moszinski, a ma graude
surisrise ; et quoique je declinasse I'honneur que Ton me faisait, mes
devices furent inutiles ; et bientot, en d^pit de moi-meme, toiit Pera
m'appella de ce nom, me felicitant de ce que j'etais si bien avec le gou-
vernement turc, et dont le motif m'a occasionne des persecutions de la
Eussie (motif imaginaire).
Un jour, en mon absence, la grande incendie de Pera eut lieu; et lors-
que, comme tout le monde, je fus pour sauver ce que je possedais,
j'arrivai au moment ou tout etait en cendre. Pres de-la j'aper9us une
femme grecque, seule et sans assistance. Le feu avait deja gagne sa
maison; son denuement excita ma compassion; et avec I'assistance de mes
X
306 APPENDIX.
gens, je sauvais sa vie et ses objets les plus precieux ; car ses propres
domestiques Tavaient abandonn^e h, perir, pour se livrer au pillage de sa
maison. Apres avoir mis en surety ce qui avait ^te sauve dans le mai-
son de Monsieur Black, qui est batie en pierre, je conduisit cette dame,
encore toute effrayee, dans une maison eloignee de lincendie ; Ik je lui
demandai ses clefs pour aller chercber ses bijoux, argent, et papiers,
parceque je considerais prudent qu'elle les eut en sa possession, dans la
crainte qiie dans une confusion scmblable ils ne fussent perdus. Je
m'aper9us qTi'efFrayee ; elle craignait de se confier a un Stranger ; cepen-
dant les larmes aux yeux, et avec cette debcatesse feminine, elle me les
remis, Je la quittai, et me dirigeai de suite vers la maison de M. Black;
mais heui'eusemeut pour elle je rencontrai par liasard en chemin des gens
inconnuR, qui emportaient ses malles, qu'ils avaient enlevee dans la con-
fusion du moment; et quoiqixe je n'en fassent pas precisement certain,
j'arretai les frippons, et ouvrit les malles avec les clefs qu'elle m'avait
remises. J'en sortis les bijoux et papiers, et mis le reste en sui'ete dans
la maison de M. Bersolesy ; je retournai de suite aupres de Taffligee
Mariola (elle s'appellait ainsi), et lui remis ses bijoux et papiers, qu'elle
avait cru perdus, et que le basard setd m'avait fait decouvrir. Mariola,
etonnee d'une semblable chance et de I'honnetete, comme elle le disait,
d'un etranger, me remercia de la maniere la plus gracieuse m'exprimant
sa reconnaissance, et me disant qu'il n'^tait pas possible que je fusse
Tin des Chretiens du pays ; car la probite et la generosite que j'avais
montree etaient bien rare chcz eux. Et pourtant, je considei'ais que je
n'avuis fait que mon devoir. Je donnai alors I'ordre a mes gens de lui
procurer une maison a Arnaut Kivy, comme elle le desirait ; ct apres
avoir fait transporter ce qui avait ete sauve de Tincendie, je I'accom-
pagnai dans la maison qu'on avait preparee poiu- sa reception ; mais
a peine arrivee, see pleurs commenc^rent k couler abondamment. Je
lui en demandai la cause ; et elle me repondit, avec cette delicatesse qui
n'appartient qua une dame de distinction, que desormais elle ne pouvait
plus gouter le bonheur, et que sa reputation se trouvait compromise de
ce que je lavais accompagnee, ce qui etait coutraire a leurs usages.
Ces pLeurs me causerent une vive emotion, et quelque chose meme de
plus tendre ; et etourdie, comme vm jeune homme que jetais, pour la
mi'ttre a I'abri de la calomnie d'une societe grecque et injuste, j"ofFris de
lepouser (vu que la loi mussulman permet ^ 1 homme d'epouser une
femme de quelle que religion qu'elle soit) ; et Mariola me repondit qu'elle
acceptait volontiers une pareille destin^e, quoique je ne fusse pas Grec.
Mariola (-tait le pKis cher objet de mon cceur.
Un jour liosref Pacha m'apprit que la revolution faisait des pro-
NARRATIVE OP NADIR BEY. 307
gres rapides en Pologne, et que I'armee russe avait ete battue plusieurs
fois. II me demanda si j 'avals voyage en Pologne, et me fit beaucoup
de questions sui' cette brave nation; et entr'autres, si j'en connaissais la
langue; et I'ayant satisfait sur tous ces points, il jugea a propos de
m'envoyer personnellement en Pologne. On me permettra de garder le
silence sur I'objet de ma mission. D'apres ses ordres je me mis en
voyage, et arrival k Belgrade, porteur de depeches adressees par Hosref
Pacha h. Hussein Pacha, gouverneur de cette ville, qui ecrivit de suite
k Vienne pour obtenir que la quarantaine fut reduite, s'il ^tait possible.
Cela lui fut accoi'de; mais malheureusement j'appris que les Russes
etaient entres dans Varsovie, et que le gouvernement polonais n'existait
plus ; et quoique Turc, je plaignis alors bien sincerement cette brave et
noble nation; mais pour ne pas exciter des soup9ons, je me rendis k
Vienne avec I'intention de passer par Trieste pour me rendre a Con-
stantinople. Apres avoir re^u pendant plusieurs jours les plus grands
honneurs de sa majeste et de la noblesse de -Vienne, je fus arrete avec
toute ma suite (comme il est mentionne dans le journal, le Messager des
Chambres du 27 Janvier, 1832); et lorsqu'on m'interrogea, je ne crus pas
couvenable de repondre a leurs questions sur I'objet de ma mission, et
je m'apper9us, par leur conduite et leurs questions insidieuses, qu'ils
me prenaient pour im noble Polonais, et je fus des lors oblige de conve-
nir que je I'etais, puisqu'on m'assurait que sans cet aveu rien ne pouvait
me faire recouviir ma liberte ; et il ne me fut pas difficile de confirmer
cette qualite, puisque je connaissais la langue, et je n'hesitai pas a ceder
a leur opinion, afin d'eviter leurs soup^ons. lis me creerent une famille,
pere, mere, freres, et sojm-s, et une parente considerable; ajoutant a cela
des domaines et d'autres richesses, qui, disait-on, m'appartenaient en
Pologne. Je regrettais seulement que ce fut ideal; mais tout a coup un
estafette, porteur de depeches qui me concernaient, et arrivant de Con-
stantinople, vint aneantir ma nouvelle famille et mes proprietes. Vers
minuit je fus mande par le Prince de Metternich; et a la, fin de cette
entrevue il me dit que j'etais libre, et que I'empereur, ainsi que lui
meme, regrettaient beaucoup I'erreur qui avait ete commise a mon
egard, m'accablant de complimens, et me disant qui j'etais libi'e de con-
tinuer mon voyage, et que sa majeste I'Empereur d'Autriche se rappelle-
rait toujovirs de moi avec plaisir. Je leur offris mes remercimens, mal-
gre qu'ils fussent plutot dus a I'estafette. Quittant Vienne, je passai par
Trieste, et arrival a Constantinople. Le matin meme de mon arrivee,
Namyk Pacha, alors Namyk Bey, m'invita a me rendre chez le Seras-
kier, qui, disait-il, desirait me voir de suite. Je m'y rendis aussitot; et
apres des politesses c^remonieuses, je fus conduit en prison, ou plutot
303 APPENDIX.
dans tin cachot aflfreux. Je ne pouvais comprendi'e ni la conduite infame
du Seraskier, ni qiielle pouvait etre la cause de mon emprisonnement ;
car n'etant pas d'xin naturel mechant, je ne pouvais pas soupgonner
rinterprete de la Sublime Porte, qtii connaissait mon origine, de m'avoir
trahi. Mais la j'^tais injuste ; et croyant que je devais partager le sort in-
fortune d'un pere cheri, je murmurai contre lui qui m'avait cree potu- me
faire terminer mes joiu's d'lme maniere aussi cruelle dans cette horrible
prison. Vingt fois par jour on m'annon^ait que la mort m'attendait;
et avec tout mon courage, j'etais quelques fois abattu et craintif. Je
ne pouvais compter sur aucune assistance — un miracle seul pouvait
me sauver; et ma conscience ne me reprocliant aucun crime, ni action
deshonorable, me faisait esperer un meilleur avenir, car j'etais libre,
quoique prisonnier ; tant il est vrai qu'une conscience pure franchit les
murs epais du plus noir donjon. Un jour accable de desespoir, les fideles
domestiqites de Hosref Pacha, son Selichtar Aga et un Arm^nien
INIarderaki, dignes instruments d'un tel maitre et de leur nature vils et
envieux du bien d'autrui, s'aper9urent que je possedais des diamans,
ceux qui avaient appartenus k ma mere bien aimee ; ils les convoiterent,
et sans plus de fa^on me proposerent de leur donner trois brillans pour
prix de ma liberte; et quoiqu'il me fut bien penible de me defaire de
ces reliques de ma tendre mere, j'aurais sacrifie la moiti^ de mon
existence pour sauver I'autre, car je ne pourrais depeindre les tortures
que j'endurais dans cette affreuse prison. Je leur donnai done les trois
brillans et de I'argent, et les deux miserables me dircnt que c'etait tout
pour le Pacha lui-meme, et que par consequent je pouvais compter sur
ma liberty. Je vovilus bien le croire ; mais c'etait en vain que j'espe-
rais d'etre libre, car les hypocrites m'avaient trahis, et je continual a
demeurer prisonnier sans espoir. Par leurs ordres ma captivit6 fut
rendue plus mal; et craignant unjour qu'ils vinrent s'emparer des deux
brillans qui me restaient, et des papiers 6cris de la main de mon auguste
mere, j'adoptai un moyen pour les sauver. Ce fut de les faire entrer
dans une bouteille, que j'enfouis a plus de trois pieds de profondeur dans
ma prison ; ou ils sont encore, car je ne pouvais pas les reprendre sans
cr^er des soup9ons qui eussent amen6 des resultats facheux.
Un jour un Grec ivre fut amene dans la prison pour une dette de
quarante-neuf jnastrcs; et me voyant, se mit a parler Grec, en me de-
mandant CO qu'un gentilhommc comme moi pouvait faire dans uii lieu
semblable. " Quel crime," dit-il, " avez-vous pu commettre ?" Je lui
repondit que le crime imaginaire pour leriuel j'etais detenu me couterait
la vie. " Grand Dieu !" s'ecria cet homme ivre, " payez ma dette,
seigneur, et vous ne pcrirez pas." Deslrant faire une bonne action, je
NARRATIVE OP NADIR BEY. 309
payai la modique somme poui* laquelle il etait aiTete. II s'en dormit;
et a son reveil, " AUons, monsieur," me dit-il, " moi, et cinqiiante pali-
caris, que j'ai a mes ordres, nous vous dclivrerous cette nuit." Je
n'attacluiis aucune croyance a ce que me disait cet homme ; mais il me
viut a I'idee de le faire servir d'instrument a luon projet. J'ecrivis
en langue grecque a I'ambassadeur de France, le suppliant de sauver
ma vie. Je la remis a cet homme, qui fort heureusement la delivra
fidelement. Le ministre charge d'affaires de France, M. le Baron de
Varen, fit aussitot tout ce qui dependait de lui, et par des moyens que
je ne connais pas, il me procura en peu de jours ma liberie. Je
dois certainement ma vie a ce noble Fran9ais. Pendant mon empri-
sonnement, les Russes, qui ne negligeaient rien pour me persecuter, les
Grecs et les Patriai'ches avaient reussi a me separer pour jamais de
ma bien-aimee Mariola, sous le pretexte qu'etant ne Grecque, elle ne
pouvait epouser un homme qui ne professait i^as la meme religion.
Brulant de rage contre Hosref Pacha, et tons les evenemens dont j'avais
ete victime, je ^^artit pour l'Egy[3te, ou j'entrai au service de Mehemet
Ali, et re9us le grade de general instructeur et inspecteur de toute la
cavalerie, et peu apres aide-de-camp d'Ibrahim Pasha, ainsi qu'il en est
fait mention au No. 1 de la Revue Britannique pour le mois de Janvier
1834. Cependant je regrettais de servir sous un homme qui faisait la
guerre a mon oncle, c'est-a-dire a ma famille et a mes interets. J'obtins la
permission de veuir en Europe pour y retablir ma sante; mais je ne
retournai que pour ne pas agir contre les interets de ma famille et de
mon pays. Depuis, poiu- mon instruction, j'ai parcoiu"u I'Europe et
I'Amerique; mais partout j'ai ete en but aux persecutions de la Sainte
AlHance, dont tous les calculs etaient dei'outes parcequ'elle ne pouvait
decouvrir mon origine ni I'objet de mes voyages. J'ai etudie les langues
anglaises et fran^aises, et j'ai resolu de servir ma patrie sous I'incog-
nito. Plusieurs fois, sous un deguisement, je me rendis a Constantinople,
et je finis comme auparavant par eutrer au service mihtaire. Par les
ordi'es de sa majeste mon oncle, et par I'interm^diaire de son Excellence
Reschid Pacha, ministre des affaires etrangeres, je fut nomme comman-
dant des troupes de Silistrie, compos^es d'infanterie, cavalerie, et artil-
lerie; et de plus je fus charge d'etablii- une colonie dans les fameuses
plaines de Dobrige Ovasse. Mais je m'aper^us en Silistrie, aussi bien
que dans les provinces qiie j'avais traversees, qu'il existait la plus
grande confusion et les abus les plus crians dans les administrations
civiles et militaires, ainsi que dans tout Le systeme gouvernemeutal, et
que la gangrene de ces abus avait mine et detruit le bonheur du peuple
et le pouvoir du souverain ; car ceux qui gouvernaient en sou nom,
310 APPENDIX.
enfl^ d'orgiieil, et agissant pkitot conime ennemi du peuple que dans
son interet, etait en general des homines sans education et de I'ori-
gine la plus basse, pratiquant dans lenr ignorance des cruautes in-
ouies, croyant par-la decevoir leur souverain, on cenx qui venaient
le representer. Lorsque je decouvris vin systeme aussi pernicieux, qiu
deA-ait amener la mine de I'empire et de ma maison, mon coeur decliir^
ne put le voir et le tolerer plus longtems. Je pris la resolution de me
rendre h, Constantinople, pour exposer k sa majeste mon oncle le mal
qui existait, et I'aider de mes conseils pour y apporter un remede ; et
quoique je fusse assez hem-eux pour gagner la faveur du Sultan et des
principaux personnages, cependant je ne pus parvenir a leur faire adopter
les moyens que je proposals en faveur de ma patrie bien aimee, en
tachant de leur faire abandonner les principes pernicieux sur lesquels ils
fondaient la base du gouvernement, et les changer pour un systeme paci-
fique, qui fut favorable a la civilisation. Mais tons mes efforts fiirent
vains, de sorte que, d6sesp(^rant de reussir, et fatigue d'une lutte sembla-
ble, je pris le parti enfin de faire connaitre mon origine a sa majesty
mon oncle, et de reprendre de ses mains les renes du gouvernement,
dont il ne savait pas diriger la marche, et par ce moyen sauver ma pa-
trie et I'honneur de ma race. Dans cette intention je quittai Constanti-
nople, pour me rendi-e en Eitrope, d'ou je fis connaitre h, sa majesty
et mon origine et mes intentions pour le bonheur de la nation; raais
la mort, qui ne respecte aucun etre, nous I'a enleve ; et j'espere qu'il sera
plus heureux dans les regions celestes qu'il ne le fiit sur la terre, oil
sa vie etait abreuvee de douleurs; et je remercie la Providence de
m'avoir pr^serv^ I'honneur, en me sauvant de la tache d'etre la cause
de quelque catastrophe, quelque coupable qu'il fut a mes yeux.
TRANSLATION.
From the moment that almighty God created in heaven the star
which was to mark my existence, and since the day of my birth till I
was eleven years of age, still a child, I knew nothing, I had seen nothing,
except the tears of my much-beloved and ever-honoured mother, who,
possessing a heavenly soul in the midst of continual grief, had only been
able to teach me to love her and to participate in her sorrows. I also
learned (without having ever seen him) that my well-beloved emperor
and father had been assassinated by his own brother, who thereby im-
printed on the forehead of my uncle a stain of blood which nothing can
ever wipe oiF during' his life, and which will darken his memory when
he shall have joined his ancestors in eternity. I also learned that, at the
time of the massacre of the innocent ladies of the harem, that almighty-
NARRATIVE OF NADIR BEY. 311
Providence whicli had granted me being, had used the instrumentality
of the very hand of one of the assassins to save the life of my tender
mother; a barbarous assassin, who evinced sentiments of generosity and
humanity superior to those of an uncle whose hands were imbrued with
blood; an emperor by force, but in truth an assassin, who bathed him-
self in the blood of his own family. From this time, although a child,
my young heart experienced all the anguish suggested by such a tragedy ;
and referring to my poor father, whom my eyes had never had the
happiness of seeing, but whom my heart could imagine, I detested the
horrible action of my uncle. As a child I participated in the griefs of
my royal mother, who was the object of my most devoted affection in
my infancy, of my respect and love in my adolescence, and my only
consolation in my manhood. But alas I a little while after this, the grief
which consumed her terminated the life of this august lady, and her soul
flew, as I believe and hope firmly, to the regions of eternal happiness. She
left to me by right of inlieritance the rights of an imperial prince, — a
title which divine power gave me, and which no human power can con-
test with me, and of which I cannot be deprived without a crime ; but
at the same time she bequeathed to me profound grief and pain, the
bitterness of Avhich no human power can soften. She left me also a
superficial covering whom no one but myself could tear ; she left me
a feehng of vengeance of vdiich I alone can know the depth ; she left
me diamonds, proofs of the imperial munificence of her august spouse
the sultan and her lover ; she left me papers written with her own
august hand; — add to this, she confided me to the care, pmdence, and
protection of Joaniza, a man of about seventy years of age, who had out-
lived his "wife and children ; a person devoted and faithful in the service
of my mother, and grateful for the kindness and beneficence she had
bestowed on him during her life. She recommended him to take me to
Constantinople, being cai'eful not to allow either my name or my birth
to be known; to give me an Ottoman education as brilliant as possible;
and when I had attained my majority, to declare openly my rights, and
induce me to assert them. Thus it was that the fondest of mothers died
in hopes, which, however, were not realised; for "man proposes, and
God disposes." The honest Ottoman, faithful executor of the orders of
his benefactress, endeavoui'ed to take me to Constantinople, regardless
of his own infirmities or his advanced age. Soon after the death of my
mother we left Caffa, a town in the Crimea, where her holy imperial
remains now repose. We arrived at Odessa, with the intention of pro-
ceeding to the capital where my ancestors had reigned ; but we were
detained on our voyage by the arbitrary government of Eussia^ which
312 APPENDIX.
allows no subject to pass the frontier; and this in spite of the old Joaniza
being descended from a family of Moldavia, and having become a sub-
ject of Russia in consequence of a residence of several years in that
empire, where justice is unkno-nTi. After having been detained three
years in this city, the good old man terminated his career; and I remained,
at the age of fifteen, isolated, Adthout protection and without a single
friend. I then first felt the full force of the deplorable situation in which
I found myself placed. I recalled to mind the last words of my noble
mother, which the good old man often used to repeat to me ; and it was
then that vengeance really took possession of my heart; and having laid
my plans, I implored with tears the protection only of God, and placing
all my .confidence in him, I called prudence and courage to my aid, a n
left the city accompanied by a Greek named Macris, who was proceed-
ing by way of Trieste to the Morea, as he said, to serve his country.
Arrived at Bulta, the cunning Jews discovered that the relations exist-
ing between me and my companion were somewhat mysterious, for hav-
ing no passport I counted on his prudence ; but although I pitrchased
the goodwill of these Jews at a dear price, the wretches did not the less
follow the suggestions of their evil dispositions to duplicity ; which com-
ing to my knowledge, I left the city and my companion, and reached
Mozilow on the Dniester alone. There I Avas pretty quiet, and did every
thing in my poAver to gain the friendship of every one, and to learn
all I could. There I learned a little Polish ; and thence I Avent to
Lozensk, Avhere I obtained by chance a Greek document of Elefthery,
a kind of passport, Avhich enabled me, at an after period, to travel in
Russia in disguise, and to be admitted into the best society of that empire.
I Avas even enabled to study its strength and its politics, its laws, and
the Aveakness of its resources ; in a Avord, I could correctly imderstand
its government. I saAv there the poAverful enemy of my country, and
consequently of my heart. At last I left Russia for Poland, Avhere I
found that warlike people, so brave and so generous, Avith its brilliant
army. From that time I began to attach myself to the theory and the
tactics of their army, and reached my eighteenth year knoAving perfectly
the astute politics of Russia; and penetrated with the sufferings which
my native country endured in consequence of the rcA'olt of the Greeks,
I Avas compelled to leave Poland in consequence of susjiicions I had
caused in the police ; and I passed into Gallicia Avith the intention of pro-
ceeding into Moldavia, and thence to the capital of my ancestors; but at
Lembergh I Avas asked in the hotel at which I put up whence I came ;
and not Avishing to satisfy them on this point, or rather fearing the
Russian government, I answered, that I came from Moldavia, Avithout
NARRATIVE OF NADIR BEY. 313
thinking of the consequences that might result therefrom. When I
was asked where I had performed quarantine, 1 stammered and replied
"No where." This answer astonished every body, and they told me that
I should be hung for having evaded this precautionary measure. This
I easily understood; but being unwilling to be treated as guilty without
having committed any crime, I left the town, and, under the wing of
Divine Providence, I reached without impediment the town of Jassay in
Moldavia, which forms a part of the empire governed by my uncle.
There, reflecting on my situation, I often lamented my fate. In a short
time I learnt the Moldavian language, the only advantage I obtained by
my stay here, I started for Constantinople, impelled by vengeance, and
forming imaginary projects of battles and victories. With my head full
of these dreams, I journeyed, and thus I found myself launched in the
midst of a nation strange to me, although in the country of my birth.
With manners and customs all new to me, and whilst I was studying
this new country, the war broke out with Russia in the years 1828 and
1829. I was unconscious of every thing, and thought it my duty to take
part against the aggressors of my country.
I then saw the army of the Turks — lions in courage, honest by
nature, but commanded by generals as ignorant as lambs, without pos-
sessing the softness of the latter, who, in their vanity, thought them-
selves born to govern, I could bu.t pity them, and weep over my coun-
try, and over the unhappy results which took place at Adrianople, and
which I considered as a punishment inflicted by Providence on my uncle,
the Sultan Mahmood. It was then that I visited the tomb of my revered
and legitimate emperor, my well-beloved parent, and shed filial tears ;
and seeing his assassin placed in such critical circumstances, this hor-
rible portrait recalling to mind the dreadful tragedy in which my father
liad lost his life, I lost my senses, and I dreamt of nothing but ven-
geance. But unhappy is the individual who makes an idol of this pas-
sion. Finding myself in my native country, I could not help being
witness of the activity that my uncle employed in civilising it, and in
reforming existing abuses, and approved of his good intentions; but
unfortunately he could not communicate to others that with which he
was himself unacquainted — as the sequel shewed: his ideas were noble
and generous ; but he was ignorant of the basis on which to found them.
I cannot express the tumult of my emotions. I burned with vengeance,
but was withheld by prudence and the love of my country, which I
thought I ought to save, but not disturb by revolution; so I decided
that my hatred of the man should not induce me to impede him in the
path of reform which he had taken, but that I would rather second
814 APPENDIX.
him as the emperor of my adored coiintrj. To do this, it was neces-
sary to be better acquainted with our empire; and I passed into Asia to
examine the materials of which this great nation is composed ; and having
satisfied my curiosity on this point, I returned to the capital, with the
intention of being useful to my country. It was requisite to be ac-
quainted Avith the elements of the government. I made the acquaint-
ance of all the friends of my father, as also of those Avho corresponded
with my noble mother, to whom I had letters from her, and who be-
came my real friends, and who are still so. Afterwards I made the
acquaintance of the Reis EfFendi, and the interpreter of the Sublime
Porte. They became my real friends ; and trusting to their friendship,
I confided to the latter my secret, my name, my birth, and what were
my projects.
The good man — an honest Mussulman — was struck with astonish-
ment, and after a little reflection, he expressed himself in the following
terms, his eyes wet with tears: "Prince, trust in God, but never in
men. Conceal your imperial origin, and follow your pacific intentions;
love your country, and G(jd will help you. As for me, I shall be de-
voted to you to my last moment; but do not forget that your life is in
danger, and that it is your duty to preserve it for your country; may
prudence therefore guide you, and may God protect yoiT." I followed
his advice, and made a great many friends in a short time.
Hosref Pasha, who was then general-iu-chief, and who was at that
time ignorant of my origin, confided to me the command of a regiment
of cavalry that was to be formed at Adana. Arrived at this place, I
occupied myself in recruiting for soldiers ; and when I had the number
required, I received the order to train them as infantry, which I did
with the greatest zeal. I contracted here a fraternal friendship with
Hagi Ali Bey, governor of the place, and son of the famous Hassan
Pasha of Adana.
liagi Bey had under him about 19,000 horsemen, the bravest, I
think, in the world, and entirely at his disposal and at mine. 1'his was
the most propitious moment for revenging the death of my father; but
having already resolved upon serving my country in assisting and par-
ticipating in the reform that it required, I persisted in my resolution of
not distvirbing my uncle in his projects. Some time after, as I had a de-
cided taste for the cavalry service, I asked permission to go to Constan-
tinople, in order to make an exchange, and pass from the infantry to the
cavalry; and having received the authorisation I had requested, 1 re-
turned to the capital.
Besides the apartments at the Seraskier's, 1 took private lodgings at
NARRATIVE OP NADIR BEY. 315
Pera, in order to find myself in connexion witli Europeans, and to learn
French. A little while after, people came to me, and to my great sur-
prise, they called me Moszinski; and although I declined the honour
done me, all I could say to the contrary was useless; and soon, in spite
of myself, all Pera called me by this name, complimenting me on being
so well with the Tiu-kish government, and which motive occasioned me
persecutions by Russia ; but the motive for this was qiiite imaginary.
One day in my absence, the great fire at Pera took place; and when,
like every one else, I went to save my effects, I arrived and found every
thing reduced to cinders. Near to the place I perceived a Greek
Woman alone and unassisted. The fire had already reached her hoiise ;
her unprotected state excited my compassion ; and with the assistance of
my servants, I saved her life and her most valuable effects ; her own
servants had abandoned her to her fate in order to pillage the house.
After I had put in safety what we had saved in the house of Mr. Black,
which is of stone, I led this lady, still much frightened, to a house at a
distance from the conflagration. I there asked her for her keys, in order
to go and bring her her jewels, money, and papers, because I thought it
prudent she should have them in her possession, for fear that in such
confusion they might be lost. I perceived that she was frightened, and
feared to trust a stranger. She, however, with tears in her eyes, and a
feminine grace, consigned them to me. I left her, and proceeded im-
mediately to the house of Mr. Black; but fortunately for her, I met some
strangers who were carrying away her trunks, which they had stolen in
the confusion ; and although I Avas not certain of the fact, I stopped the
rascals, and opened the trunks Avith the keys she had given me. I took
out from them her jewels and papers, and placed the rest of the things
in safety at the house of Mr. Bersolesy. I then returned to the afflicted
Mariora (for that was her name), and consigned to her her jewels and
papers, which she had thought lost, and which chance alone had made
me discover. Mariora, surprised at such an incident, and pleased with
the honesty, as she said, of a stranger, thanked me in the most gra-
cious manner, expressing her gratitude, and saying that it was impossible
that I could be one of the Christians of the country, for the probity and
generosity I had evinced was very rare among them. And yet I thought
I had only done my duty. I then ordered my own servants to procure
a house in Arnaut Kivy, as she desired; and having caused what was
saved from the fire to be taken there, I accompanied her to the house
which had been prepared for her reception ; but scarce had we reached
it when her tears began to flow again. I asked her the cause of her
grief; and she answered me with that delicacy which appertains only to.
816 APPENDIX.
a lady of distinction, that henceforth she could no longer taste of happi-
ness, as her reputation had been compromised by my having accom-
panied her, which was contrary to their usages. Her tears caused me
great emotion, and even a more tender feeling; and like a giddy, foolish
young man as I was, in order to protect her fi-om the calumnies of the
Greeks, I offered to marry her (as the Mussulman law permits a man to
marry a woman of whatever religion she may be) ; Mariora replied that
she accepted willingly such a destiny, even thovigh I was not a Greek.
Mariora was the dearest object of my heart.
One day Hosref Pasha informed me that the revolution in Poland
was making progress, and that the Russian army had been beaten
several times. He asked me if I had travelled in Poland, and ques-
tioned me particularly regarding this brave nation, and whether I knew
the language. Having satisfied him on all points, he thought proper
to send me to Poland. I must be allowed to preserve silence upon the
object of my mission. According to his orders, I started for Belgrade
with letters addressed by Hosref Pasha to Hussein Pasha, governor of
that town, who immediately wrote to Vienna to obtain permission to
have the quarantine shortened for me if possible. This was granted ;
but unfortunately I heard that the Russians had entered Warsaw, and
that the Polish government existed no more ; and although a Turk
myself, I pitied sincerely that brave and noble nation; but in order not
to excite suspicions, I proceeded to Vienna mth the intention of passing
on to Trieste, and thence to Constantinople. After having received
during several days the greatest marks of favour from his majesty the
Emperor of Austria and the nobles of Vienna, I was arrested, with all
my suite (as is mentioned in the journal le Messager des Chamhres,
under date of the 27th Jan. 1832) ; and when I was questioned, I did
not think proper to answer their questions on the sulyect o my mission,
and I perceived by their conduct and their insidious queries that they
took me for a noble Pole, and I was obliged to grant that I was so,
because I was assured that without such an avowal nothing could make
me recover my liberty. It was not difficult for me to confirm this
disguise, as I knew the language, and did not hesitate to encourage
them in their opinion in order to avoid further suspicions. They
created for me in their imagination a family — father, mother, brothers,
and sisters, and a large circle of relations, and added to this domains
and other riches, which they said belonged to me in Poland. I was
sorry that all this was only ideal ; when all at once an estafette arrived
with dispatches regarding me from Constantinople, just in time to
annihilate my newly acquired family and property. About twelve
NARRATIVE OF NADIR BEY. 3l7
o'clock at night I was sent for by Prince Metternich ; and at the end
of my conference with him, he told me that I was free, and that the
Emperor, as well as himself, regretted extremely the error that had
been committed regarding me ; he loaded me with compliments, and
said that I was free to prosecnte my journey, and that his majesty the
Emperor of Austria would always think of me with pleasure. I offered
them my thanks, which were due rather to the estafette. Leaving
Vienna, I passed by way of Trieste to Constantinople. The same
morning of my arrival Namick Pasha, then Namick Bey, invited me to
go to the Seraskier, who, he said, wished to see me immediately. I
went to him at once, and after much ceremonious politeness I was taken
to prison, or rather to a horrible dungeon. I could not understand
either the infamous conduct of the Seraskier or what could be the cause
of my imprisonment ; not being of a Avicked character myself, I could
only suspect that the interpreter of the Sublime Porte (who knew my
story) had betrayed me. But here I was unjust. Believing that I was
destined to suffer the same fate as my unfortunate father, I murmured
against Him who had created me in order to make me terminate my
days in such a cruel manner in this horrible prison. Twenty times a
day a proximate death Avas announced to me, and vnth all my courage,
I was at times cast down and fearful. I could reckon on no assistance ;
a miracle only could save me ; and my conscience reproaching me with
no crime nor dishonoiuable action, made me hope for a happier future ;
for I was free although a prisoner ; so true is it that a pure conscience
cannot be restrained by the thick walls of the darkest diingeon. One
dav, overwhelmed with despair, the faithful servants of Hosref Pasha,
his Selichtar Aga and an Armenian Marderake, worthy instruments of
such a master and of their vile nature, envious of the goods of their
neighbour, perceived that I possessed diamonds, the same which had
belonged to my beloved mother. As they coveted their possession, they,
without farther ceremony, proposed to me to give them these brilliants
as a price for my liberty ; and although it was very painful for me to
deprive myself of these relics of my dear mother, I would have sacri-
ficed the half of my existence to save the other half, for I could not
describe the tortures I endured in this dreadful prison. I therefore
gave them three diamonds and some money, and these two wi'etches
told me that it was all for the pasha himself, and that consequently I
could coTint on my liberty. I believed them ; but it was vain for me
to hope for hberty, for these hypocrites had deceived me, and I re-
mained a prisoner without hope. By their order my captivity was
rendered more insufferable; and feai'ing one day that they intended to
318 ArPENDIX.
take possession of the two other diamouds that remained with me, and
of papers Avritten by my august mother, I adopted a plan for saving
these. This was to put them into a bottle, which I buried at a depth
of upwards of three feet in my prison, where they have ever since re-
mained ; for I could not take them up again without creating suspicions
that would have led to disagreeable consequences.
One day a di'unken Greek was brought into prison for a debt of
forty- nine piastres; and seeing me, he began to speak in his language,
asking me what a gentleman like me could have to do in such a place.
" What crime," said he, " can you have committed?" I answered him
that the imaginary crime for which I was detained would cost me my
life. "Heavens!" exclaimed this desperate man; "pay my debt, sir,
and you shall not perish." Anxious to do a good action, I paid the
small sums for Avhich he had been arrested. After this he fell asleep;
and on awaking, he said: " Well, sir, I and fifty palicaris, whom I
have at ray orders, vdU. come to-night and deliver yoii." I put no
faith in what this man said; but it came into my mind to make him
instrumental to my project. I wrote in the Greek language to the
French ambassador, beseeching him to save my life ; and 1 then gave
him the letter, which he fortunately delivered. The French charge
d'affaires, M. le Baron de Varen, immediately did all that depended on
him, and by means Avith Avhich I am unacquainted he obtained in a few
days my liberty. I certainly owe my life to this noble Frenchman.
During my imprisonment, the Russians, who neglected nothing to per-
secute me, and the Greeks and the Patriarchs, had succeeded in separat-
ing me for ever from my beloved IMariora, under the pretext that, being
born a Greek, she could not marry a man who did not profess the same
religion. Burning with rage against Hosref Pasha, and against all the
events to which I had been a A-ictim, I left for Egypt, and entered into
the service of ]\Iahmed Ali ; and I received the grade of general instruc-
tor and inspector of all the cavalry, and a little while after of aide-de-
camp to Il)rahim Pasha, as is mentioned in No. 1 of the Revue Britan-
nique for the month of January, 1834. But it grieved me to serve
under a man who was making war against my uncle, that is, against
my family and my interests ; so I obtained permission to come to Europe
for my health, and did not return to act against the interests of my
family and of my country. Since then I have travelled in Europe and
America for my instruction; but every where I have been subjected to
the persecutions of the Holy Alliance, whose calculations w'ere foiled be-
cause they could not discover my origin, nor the object of my travels.
1 have studied the English and French languages ; and I resolved to sen^e
nauratiye of nadib bey. 319
my cotmtry under an incognito. I have several times been to Constan-
tinople in disguise, and finished as before by entering into the military
service. By order of his majesty my -uncle, and by means of his Ex-
cellency Eeschid Pasha, minister for foreign affairs, I was named com-
mander of the troops in Silistria, composed of infantry, cavalry, and
artillery ; and further, I was charged with the order to estal^lish a colony
in the famous plains of Dobrige Ovass. But I perceived that in Silis-
tria, as well as in the provinces that I had traversed, there existed the
greatest confusion and the most striking abuses in the civil and mili-
tary administrations, as weU as in aU the system of government, and that
the gangrene had undermined and destroyed the happiness of the people
and the power of the sovereign ; for those who governed in his name,
inflated with pride, acted more Hke the enemies of the people than as
their protectors ; and were, generally speaking, men Avithout education,
and of the loAvest classes, practising, in their ignorance, the most un-
heard-of ci-uelties, and believing that they would thereby deceive their
sovereign, or those who came to represent him. When I discovered
such a pernicious system, which must have led to the ruin of the em-
pire and of my family, my heart, torn by such sights, could no longer
tolerate them. I resolved to go to Constantinople in order to expose the
evil to his majesty my uncle, and to assist him with my advice in re-
medying such a state of things. But although I was fortunate enough
to gain the favour of the Sultan, and of the principal personages of the
government, I could not succeed in making them adopt the means that
I proposed in favour of my beloved country, by seeking to make them
abandon the pernicious principles on which they based the foundation
of theii' government, and to change them for a pacific system, that might
be favourable to civilisation. All my efforts were so futile, that de-
spairing of success, and fatigued with the struggle, I decided at last on
making known my origin to his majesty my vincle, and to take from his
hands the reins of government, which he did not know how to direct,
and thus to save my country and the honour of my race. With this
intention I left Constantinople. To this effect I passed into Eiu'ope,
whence I made known to his majesty my origin and my intentions for
the happiness of the nation; but death, which spares no one, took him
from us ; and I trust that he will be happier in the celestial regions than
he was on earth, where his life was steeped in sorrow ; and I thank Pro-
vidence for having preserved my honour by saving me from the shame
of being the cause of any catastrophe, however culpable he might have
been in my eyes.*
* Long after I had written that which relates to the " Turkish pretender," in the
320 APPENDIX.
B.
PETITION OF NADIR BEY.
Agli EcceUentissiini Ambasciatori delle illnstre Potenze Cristiane della
Europa presso la Corte di sua Maesta il Ee delle due Sicilie.
EccELLENTissiMi SiGNORi, — Quantunque la penna sia debole a descri-
vere il mio penoso destine, spero pero, cTie il loro scelto giudizio, dono
felice dei sapienti rappresentanti, sapra intendeme la sostanza.
lo r iufelice Principe Imperiale Aclimed Nadir, nato nelle amarezze
e le stragi del 1808, in cui fu vittima mio augusto e assai compianto
padre, sono stato da hingo tempo perscgiiito e sospetto, parte per aver
celato I'origine mio onde sconcertare i progetti dei malvaggi e degli
body of the work, and since my return to England, a friend has pointed out to me
that this mysterious personage has ab-eady been introduced to my countrjnnen by
Miss Isabella Eoraer, in a paper entitled " Some Account of the Tm-kish Pretender,"
published in Colbiu-n's Nero Monthly Magazine, No. 233, for May 1S40 ; and I avail my-
self of the opportimity thus afforded to give some fm-ther details of the impressions re-
ceived of so strange a character by that clever and accompUshed traveller and authoress.
" If ' travellers see strange sights ' in the course of their wanderings, it is quite as
natxiral a consequence that they shoidd also meet with very strange people. In my
late tour in the East, it happened that I came in contact with more than one personage
of that description ; and as then* names have since come before the public through
newspaper renown, I feel that I am not guilty of any breach of good-feeling in making
use of them in the present instance.
" Since the fleath of Sultan Mahmoud, and during the last few months, I have fre-
qtienth- seen allusions made in the newspapers to a personage who had lately appeared
at Malta, and bad excited great curiosity and a certain degree of interest in the public
mind there, from the romantic character under which he had presented himself to the
authorities of that place — no less a one than thatof rightful heir to the sabre ofOthman,
and pretender to the Tarkish throne ! The story upon which ho grounds his claims
to such high destinies is, that when Sultan Mustapha (the brother and predecessor of
the late Sultan Mahmoud) was deposed and murdered after a brief reign of a few
months, a general massacre followed of the lathes of the imperial harem, as the natural
consequence of such an event ; the bowstring and the sack did their dreadful duty,
antl the waves of the Bosphonis closed over the unresisting victims. One sultana,
however, who was enceitite at the time, contrived by some wonderful means to escape
the fate of her companions, and in due time became the mother of a son, whom she
brought vvp in the strictest privacy. That boy was Nadir Bey, the person in question
— so at least runs the story which he is represente<l to have told at Malta of his birth
and parentage ; and I have heard that many persons there ftilly believed in its truth,
and that some even have been found sufficiently confiding to advance him large sums
of money to assist in the fiu-thorance of his designs.
" It chance<l that on my rctnm fi-om Constantinople to Vienna, in 1838, this
identical Na/lir Achmot Boy (as he then styled himself) was one of my fellow-pas-
sengers on board the Austrian steamer in which I crossed the Black Sea ; and ho just
remained long enotigh with us to create imiversal astonishment at his acijuirements,
and to intriguer every one on board most completely as to who or what he could be ;
PETITION OF NADIR BEY. 321
interessati, e parte per amor della patria e dei miei ben amati parent!
iinperiali ; locche spero non essere delitto in me.
Appena credoi il momento propizio ai miei interessi, lasciai il servizio
militare di mio zio il fu Sultano Mahmud II. ; il quale regnava allora,
ed arrivando in Eiu'opa, feci noto la mia nascita, ed il mio dixitto al
trono. Qnesto passo non mi giovb punto, attesa la repentina morte del
Imperatore mio zio. Da quel momento avvissato dai miei amici, clie
I'attuale Imperatore mio cugino, profittando della mia lontananza, si era
impadronito del impero, ed in seguito per mia somma disgrazia, ed al
suo poco onore, ha cercato con ogni mezzo di screditarmi in faccia al
for it seemed to be unanimously decided that he must be any thing but that which he
represented himself. I, of coiu-se, shared in the general curiosity ; and several pages
of my journal were consequently devoted to especial mention of his sayings and doings,
and the various speculations to which his presence gave rise among the passengers of
the Ferdinando Primo. He came on board in the Golden Horn^ accompanied by one
of the Armenian bankers of the court, at the precise moment I did, and a very few
minutes before the paddles were set in motion, and that we dropped down the Bcs-
phorus to take in more passengers at Therapia and Buyukdere. His companion re-
mained \\ith him to the last moment, and then retm-ned in his caique to Seraglio
Point ; while Nadir Bey, left to himself, paced the deck alone for a short time, appa^
rently in deep thought.
" He was dressed in the Turkish uniform, which had been adopted hy the Sultan
and his officials throughout tlie empire, namely the Fez cap and blue military sm'tout ;•
but his countenance and bearing were so unlike an Osnianli, his clothes so much better
made, his firm step and military carriage so diflferent from the shviffliug lounging gpit
of eveiy Turk I had ever before seen, that I at once concluded ho must be one of the
numerous German military instructors then resident at Pera, whom the Sultan had
induced to enter his service, in order that they might organise his army according to
European tactics. In short, nothing about him tvahissoit le Tare, except his beard,,
which was a genuine Oriental one.
'■ We had scarcely cleared the Golden Horn, and the various passengers scattered
in groups about the deck were admiring the gorgeous ajipearanco produced by the
innumerable domes and minarets of Stamboul stee^jed in the golden light of an eastern
morn, and rising pi-oudly above the groves of solemn cj'presses which are interspersed
among the buildings, and form so picturesque a characteristic of all Oriental cities —
when Nadir Bey approached the English party of which I formed one, and with the
ease and poUteness of high breeding, quite divested of forwardness, addressed us in
very good English, spoken without hesitation, but with a foreign accent. Ho ex-
pressed gi-eat surprise that an English woman shoidd have tnisted herself among tha
barbarous Tm'ks ! And when I eagerly vindicated then- national character from the
aspersions which I conceived a jjrejudieed stranger to be unwoi-thily casting upon it, he,
thanked me for the i>artial view I had taken of his country-people, and to the great sur-
I'rise ofom-Uttle group, announced himself to be an Asiatic Turk, anativeof Caramaiiia.
' ' ' But where, ' he was asked, ' did you learn English ? From your manner of speak-
ing it, you must have passed some years in England, and have applied j'ourseU" to it at
a very early age.' ' No,' he answered, ' I studied it in my own country, and not until
I was twenty-two years of age ' (he appeared then to be scarcely thirty). ' I
never was in England before last j'ear, when I passed four mouths there with om-
ambassador, Rescind Pacha ; my hfe has been passed in Turkey, and if my several
absences from it were put together, they would not amomit in all to a year and a half/
V
322 APPENDIX.
mondo, impieganJo da per tutto spie per son-egliarmi, .e niimerosi
assassin! per trvicidarnii, io per evitargli lui tal delitto, lio viaggiato
incognito siil contineute dell' Europa, reputata essere ciA'ilizzata, ospitale,
ed umaua, onde trovar^■i asilo e sicurezza. Ho trovato in vece iina
continiia ed incompreensibile persecuzione.
Per involarmi a qualunque ricerclie, condiscesi adottarini nome
plebeo, ch' ad ogni ora tradiva il mio sangue ed il mio aspetto ; cagio-
nando -vacppiu sospctti e per conseguenza rigori maggiori.
Lasciando nelle mani d'Iddio il nuo destino, io sperava di trovare
pace ed asilo nel regno felice di sua JNIaesta il Re delle due Sicilie ;
" He spoke with gi-eat delight of the short sejour he had maile in England, dis-
coui'sed with considerable shrewdness upon the peculiarities he had remarked in the
social sti-uctui-e there, and admired the perfection to which education has been brought.
" Nadu- Bey was led b}' easy transitions to speak of j^ublic affairs, and his hearei-s
soon foimd that he had made himself master of the politics of Em-ope, and had espe-
cially given his attention to fathoming the intricacies and double-dealing of Russian
fliplomacy, of which he spoke in a strain of the bitterest invective.
"But Nadir Bey i^rosently took occasion to teU us that he was only going as far as
^ ai-na in the steamer, and that there horses and attendants awaited to take him by
land to Silistria, where he had business to transact from the Porte with the pacha of
that place.
"Some of the passengers having joined our gi-oup who did not imdei-stand English,
the conversation was then carried on in French and Italian, and wc foimd that Nadu*
was still more conversant with those languages than with the English, speaking each
^^■ith the fluency and pm-ity of a native of France or Italy. But his great triumjih was re-
served for the horn- of dinner, and by the time that repast was concluded, nobody knew
what to make of him, but every one agi-eed in declaring that he could not be a Turk.
" In the first place, before he seated himself at table, he took off his Fez cap (no
Osmanli ever uncovers his head), and displayed a cherehrre of luxui-iant chestnut-curls,
instead of the ISIoslem shaven crown, and the single tuft of hair, by which Azrael, the
angel of death, is to draw up every true believer into Paradise. Then he sat upon his
chah- hke any Christian, ate with a knife and fork instead of his fingers, called for a
bottle of champagne, and, in short, did every thing that a Turk does not do.
"There happened to be among the cabin-passengers the natives of so many dif-
ferent nations, that a Babel-likc confusion of tongues prevailed during dinner ; but
Nadir Bey, to the general surprise, appeared to possess a_ key to all ; he conversed
■with each man in his own language, and by general admission proved himself to be as
great a proficient in German, Greek, Russian, Polish, Hungarian, Wallachian, and
Sclavaque, as he had already done in English, French, and Italian. Besides these, he
assured us that he imderstood Persian and Arabic perfectly (the learned tongues of the
Turks), wliich, with Turkish, made thirteen langxiages with which he was conversant.
In short, he appeared to be a reduced copy of that Colossus of linguists. Cardinal
Mezzofanti. Such acquirements — prodigious in a European savant — in a Turk ap-
peared miraculoiLs ! Every body was imerveille by them, and his vanity was cridently
<p-atified by the effect he had produced, although he did not suffer himself to be elated
by it into any unbecoming excitement of sjiirits.
" In short, when we rose from table, half the company were raving about him, and
the other half tearing him to pieces.
"The Englishmen imitcd in pronouncing him to be a 'wonderful fellow, whoever
be might be,' but incUncd to fancy him an agent of Russia, sent piu^iosely on board
TETITION OF NADIR BEY. 323
.stato pacifico e neutro negli afFari dell' Oriente ; proponendomi di A'ivervi
quietamente ; ma anche quest' ultimo progetto, pare aver recato ofFesa
alle Potenze Eiiropee, le quali me lo negano in questo momento, proba-
bilmente colla loro influenza.
Emminentissimi Signori, additemi ri prego qual delitto in me tanto
v' ofFende ? Di tutta la mia vita qual fatto lia potuto dar ombra o
offendere qualunque Potenza Eiu-opea ? JVesstma. Per cui dopo esservi
persuasi del mal inteso, vi prego cessare di perseguitarmi, ma anzi sten-
dere I'ospitalita dei vostri sovrani di cui siete gli onorevoli rappresen-
tanti, ad uu prence la cui sola colpa sta nell' essere infelice. Pure non
the steamer to Jan filer himself with the various strangers he met there, and to gather
and tm-n to account the opinions that escaped from them in the flow of conversation,
unchecked by the suspicion that ' a chiel was near them taking notes.'
" As for myself, I knew not what to make of him. Certainly he was imlike every
Osmanli I had ever before had any communication with, for that race are proverbially
slow of speech, and emit their sentences and their ideas at such long intervals fi'om
each other, ruminating so long ujion the answei's they receive to them, that I always
fancied they must fear that a mental indiyestion would be the consequence of attempting
to get on faster. Now this man possessed fluency of language, and a flow of ideas
which I had no where seen in the East.
' ' But, after all, of what consequence could it be to any one there what the stranger
really was ? And I checked in myself an approach to that which I have always con-
demned in others, and which is but too much the way of the world ; namely, a desire
to cry down whatever baffles our penetration, and to attribute bad motives to that
which is withheld from our confidence ; and with perfect indifference as to whether
Nadir Bey were Moslem or Christian, sjiy or statesman, renegade or Osmanli, and a
full recognition that whichever of these might be his real character, his talents must
remain unquestionable, I proceeded to take my cofiee upon deck, where he veiy soon
joined our party.
" We spoke of Sultan Mahmoud and of his accomphshments, his talent as a versifier
(for the sultan was accounted one of the most eminent poets in the empu'e), and the
grace and eloquence which he lavished upon his hattischerifi"s, which were always
written by himself. His highness was also said to be a good musician, and had com-
posed several charming ballads. Nadir Bey insisted upon the high moral qualities
of the sultan, his justice, moderation, and humanity — his unwillingness to spUl human
blood.
" Nadir Bey's admiration of the Sultan amounted to enthusiasm ; but he admitted
that cu'cumstances rendered it difficult for him to be an impartial judge, and that ho
could see no imperfections in one who had bestowed upon himself so many signal
proofs of favour and esteem. He then told us that the Sultan had just presented him
with sixty leagues of territory, extending from the banks of the Danube to the foot of
the Balkan mountains in Bulgaiia, and that ho was then on his way to take jjossession
of it. I asked him if any government was attached to this large gi'ant of land, but he
answered, none — that he was not a pacha — that his civil rank was that of Bey (or
prince) — his military rank that of general of artilleiy, and that he had formerly been
aide-de-camp to the celebrated Hussein Pacha, and as such had served under him in
the SjTian campaign of 18.32. In that capacity he had been sent by Hussein to Lady
Hester Stanhope, to assure her of his protection, and to place a guard at her disposal ;
he had passed a day and night iu the momitaiu residence of the noble recluse ; and on
324 APPENDIX.
voi-lio credere le Potenze Europee capaci direttameute o indii-ettamente
di voler spingermi verso il coltello pronto a troncare la mia testa.
Tutti i sospetti clie hanno potuto dar motivo sul conto mio, sono
immaginarii ; e le credo essere i segiienti : ringliilterra mi crede segre-
tamente alleato alia Russia, la Russia mi crede unito coUa Francia, e la
Fraucia colF lugliilterra ; 1' Austria poi puo pensarc cli' io sia con
tutt' e tre. Questa diffidenza mi cagiona 1' inimicizia individuale di ogni
Potenza, reducendosi poi ad una persecuzione generale.
In mia difFesa lio il piacere di dire, die sono sin' oggi libero di ogni
obligazione, non avendo mai avuto impegno politico con qualunque
his return was asked by Hussein, whether he w-ished to many her, in which case he
(tlie Pacha) would summon her to bestow her hand upon him, never dreaming that the
eccentric and highmindetl old lady could offer any objection to such an arrangement.
" Neither Nadir Bey or his auditors appeared to grow weary of each other, and
iiight came on before the conversazione bi-okc up.
"The next morning we anchored off Varna, and the accomplished Tm-k, taking
leave of us, went on shore there.
" Nothing particular happened during the first few days of our passage xx\i the
Danube ; but at Silistria, where we anchored for some hours, we were, to our great
surprise, rejoined by Nadir Bey, who had taken what we supposed to be a final leave
of us several days before at Varna. He came to the place of embarkation on horse-
back, surroiuided by the Pacha of Silistria's attendants on foot, and followed by a
servant of his own, holding on his wrist a splendid tame falcon. The master, the man,
and the bird were the only individuals of the party, however, who were to be om*
fellow-passengers, and the pleasant recollections of the early part of our voyage across
the Black Sea led every one on board to give them a most cordial welcome.
"Nadir Bey told us that he should go as far as Rustchuck with us, where the busi-
ness of taking possession of his territory would require his presence for some days, and
that cheniin faisant he should have an opportunity of showing us that jjart of his new
acquisition which lay xipon the Bulgarian side of the Danube between Sihstria and
Rustchuck, and where he proposed to buOd several villages. He was, if possible, more
agreeable than he had prcvioiLsly shewn himself, and up to the hour of dinner, nothing
could surpass the harmony that reigned throughout the whole party."
Miss Romer concludes :
" Nadir Bey disembarked at Rustchuck, and we saw no more of him. The next
time I heard his name alhided to was more than a year afterwards, when, in a lort. r
from Constantinople, it was stated that the pubUc attention there had lately!
occupied with the sudden disappearance of that mysterious personage Nadir Bey, ^'. '
after contriving to make himself master of all the secrets of Turkish jwlicy, had Hod,
no one knew whitlier. By some ho was supposed to be a spy of ^lehcmet All's — by
others, a Polish renegade, secretly employed in the interests of Russia — that he under-
stood almost every European language j but no one had ever ascertained to what nativi'.
he belonged.
"I forgot to mention that, on the pi'cceding day, when every body was compli-
menting him on his proficiency in English, one of the gentlemen inquired whether he
wrote the language as well as ho spoke it .' and upon his replying in the aftii-mative, I
requested lie would give mc his autograi)h in English and in Turkish, to add to my
collection. The gentleman already alluded to furnished him with a pencil and a fly-
leaf from his note-book, and in five minutes Nadir Bey prcHented mc with his signature,
I
TETITION OF NADIR BEY. 32-5
Potenza Europea ; nemmeno ho ofFerto, ne progettato, ne mai cercato
tale alleanza ; clichiaro alio stesso tempo clie se mi fosse anche stata
ofFerta, iiou avrei mai osato accettarla; bramando arrivare al mio trono,
col solo ajuto di Dio, col volcr dei miei popoli e col sacro diritto mio.
Nel corso dei miei viaggi in Europa, non mi sono giammai permesso di
ofFendore o criticare i govcrni, le societa e costumi dei Cristiani ; nou
cercando, in quelli clie ho fatto nel mio esilio, altro ch' istriiirmi. In
Africa ero per rivedere i miei amici, onde ottenerne una assistenza pecii-
niaria per il mio sostegno ; non avendo nessnna speranza, ne diritto di
ottenerlo dalla generosita dei Eegnanti Cristiani.
In fine posso asserir loro colla sincerita di un Turco, clie ho sempre
rispottato e rispetto le legge e la societa di ogni nazione ; ne mai ho pro-
ferito j^avole pregiudiziose ad esse come si piio rilevare dai fatti clie
offre la mia vita.
Esscndomi spiegato coll' integrita clie da me si deve, mi rimctto alia
ospitalita e discrezione dei Ee Europee ; pregando i loro onorevoli rap-
prcscntanti, se la generosita Cristiana pno stendersi sin ad mi Musnl-
mano, di prendere in considerazione il mio stato pericoloso e intei'-
cedere nnitamente presso la sna Maesta il lie delle due Sicilie ; onde mi
venga accordata quella tolleranza e quel asilo, da me chiesta come
sommo favore.*
TKANSLATIOX.
To the most illustrious Ambassadors of the Christian Poivers of Europe at
the Court of his Ilajesti/ the King of the two Sicilies.
Most illustrious Gentlemen, — Although my pen may be weak in
describing my painful position, I hope that your judicious judgments,
the happy gift of wise representatives, Avill discern the real truth.
I, the unhappy imperial Prince Ahmed Nadir, born in the revolu-
tions of 1808, to which my august and much-lamented father was a
victim, have been for a long time persecuted and suspected, partly for
having concealed my origin in order to disconcert the projects of wicked
preceded by four lines in English verse, in whicL. not a single fault of grammar, ortho-
gi'aphy, or metre was to be detected. The oriental metaphors they contained were
evidence of their originality, and as they were, of course, veiy complimentary, I shall
not here insert them ; but I have preserved them as a literary cmiosity, and a rehc
which may hereafter acquire additional interest, should the extraordinary personage
who wrote them succeed in establishing the claims to which he now pretends, and be-
come known to the world, not as a clever adventurer, but as the rightful ' Sultan of
the Ottoman Sultans, and Master of the Two Lands and the Two Seas.' Paris,
Fehnian/'ist, 1840."
* The above is without date, but was probably written in 1844. The mistakes that
occur are such as may bo excused in a foreigner.
326 APPENDIX.
and designing men, and partly for my love of my country and of my
raucli-respected parents, which I trust is not a crime in me.
As soon as I thought the time pi'opitious to my interests, I left the
military service of my uncle. Sultan Mahmud II., who -was then reigning,
and arriving in Europe, I made known my birth and my right to the
throne. This step profited me nothing, in consequence of the sudden
death of my uncle the emperor. From this moment I Avas informed
by my friends that the present emperor, my cousin, profiting by my
absence, had taken possession of the empire ; and subsequently he has,
to his disgrace and my misfortune, endeavoured by every way to dis-
credit me in the face of the world, employing every where spies to
Avatch me and assassins to murder me; and in order to save him from
such a crime, I have travelled incognito on the continent of Europe,
which bears the reputation of being civilised, hospitable, and humane,
seeking an asylum and security, instead of which I have met Avith con-
tinued and incomprehensible persecutions.
In order to screen mj-self from CA-ery requisition, I condescended to
adopt a plebeian name, Avhich my appearance and my blood belied at
every instant, and thus caused suspicions, and consequently greater
i-igoxu".
Leaving in the hands of God my future destiny, I had hoped to
haA'e found peace and an asylum in the happy kingdom of his Majesty
the King of the tAvo Sicilies — a pacific state, and neutral in the affairs of
the LcA^ant. I proposed to myself to live quietly ; but eA-en this last
project appears to have giA^en offence to the European poAvers, Avho
deny it to me at this moment probalily Avith their influence.
Illustrious Sirs, point out to me, I pray you, Avhat crime in me
offends you. In all my life AAdiat deed can have given umbrage or
offended any European poAA^er ? None xvhatever. Therefore, after
having been couA-inced of the existence of a misunderstanding, I beg
you Avill cease to jiersecute me, and, on tlie contrary, extend the hospi-
tality of the soA'ereigns Avhose honourable representatives you are, to a
prince Avhose only fault is that of being unfortunate. I Avill not believe
that the European poA\'ers are capable, directly or indirectly, of desiring
to push me toAvards the knife Avhich is ready to cut off my head.
All suspicions that may liave originated on my accoimt are ima-
ginary, and I believe them to be the folloAving : England thinks me
secretly allied Avith Russia ; Russia believes me luiitcd to France, and
France Avith England ; Austria may imagine that I side Avith all three.
This mistrust in me causes me the animosity of each of the poAvers; and
hence all unite in one common persecution.
TETITION OF NADIR BEY. 327
In my own defence I have much pleasure in declaring that I am to
this day free from any obligation, never having had any political engage-
ment with any European power, nor have I ever offered, projected, or
sought any such alliance ; I also declare that, if it had been offered me,
I shoidd not have dared to have accepted it, being desirous to reach
my throne by the assistance only of God, by the will of my people, and
by my sacred right. In the course of my travels in Europe I have
uever permitted myself to offend or criticise the governments, the social
state, or the customs of Christians, having only sought my own institic-
tion during my peregrinations in my exile. I had passed into Africa
to Adsit my friends and obtain pecuniary assistance for my subsistence,
having no hope or right to obtain it from the generosity of reigning
Christian powers.
In short, I can assure you, with the sincerity of a Turk, that I have
ever respected, and do respect, the laws and customs of every nation, nor
have I ever expressed a single Avord prejudicial to them, as may be
learned by the facts that are evinced by my whole life.
Having explained myself with the integrity due by me, I remit my-
self to the discretion and hospitality of the kings of Europe, praying their
honourable representatives (if Christian generosity may be extended to
a Mussulman) to take into consideration my dangerous position, and
conjointly intercede with H. M. the King of the two Sicilies, in order
that that toleration and asylum may be accorded to me which I beg as .
the highest favour.
— c-CA^gSF^
8'28 APPENDIX.
C.
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS.
COPY OF A BU1XRDI FROM MUHAMMED IZZET PASHA ^INSUBEECTIOX OF LATTA-
KIYAH IX 1804 — STATE OF NORTH SYRIA IN 1805 ANT) IN 1814 PETI-
TION FROM THE CHIEF OF THE TRADES TO MR. JOHN BARKER, 1841
NOTICE OF BADIR KHAN BEY, THE EXTIRMINATOR OF THE NESTORIAN
CHRISTIANS STORY OF FAHAL, CHIEF OF THE ARABS OF THE ZOR, OR
FOREST DISTRICT ON THE EUPHRATES.
The subjoined documents are given partly as illustrative of the manners
and peculiarities of the coimtry, partly of the evils of an administration
of provinces at a distance from the central seat of government, and
which were formerly in a retrograde, rather than a progressive state of
civilisation. They are also introduced with a view to shew the differ-
ence that is already manifest between the present comparatively pro-
sperous and promising condition of the Turkish empire, and the anarchy
and misi-ule of bygone times. The first in the list — the translation of
a copy of a huijwdi published on the occasion of the Turks resuming
the government of Syria, after the expulsion of the Egj-ptians — strik-
ingly attests that the intentions of the Porte are most excellent, and
might bear still better fmit than they do, were those intentions strictly
attended to and carried out.
1841.
Trcutskdion of a copy of a hnjurdi from Muhammcd Izzet Pasha, Com-
mander-in-chief at Bayritt, to the JilvtscUim of Lattaliyah, obtained
hi/ the liiissian consul at JJai/nit, accompanied hy a letter from him,
and jrresented by the Greek Bishop at Lattakiyah.
]\Iost honourable of Cadis, present judge of Lattakiyah, EflVndi! may
you be promoted ! Most praised of the honourable learned, authorised
to give decisions, Mufti EfTendi, may your knowledge increase !
Shoot of the odoriferous tree, fringe of Hashcm's tiara, constant scribe
of the nobles ! and you, esteemed and praised, chosen in the service of
the Sublime Porte, Kapuj Bashi, Mutsellim of Lattakiyah, Haznadar,
niSTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 329
Muhammad Aga, may you be ever respected ! and you, equally hon-
oured, learned clergy and nobles, and all citizens, may your knowledge
and fame increase ! and all subjects in Lattakiyali resident, Muham-
madans and Christians : know by these presents — .
That, through the great zeal of his Highness the Sultan, proceedino-
from his benevolence to do all in his power to give peace and tranquil-
lity to his subjects, under the shadow and tutelage of his Highness,
among whom there are subjects of the Porte of the Greek persuasion,
and others of other Christian denominations, who are either residents or
sojourners in the Ottoman dominions; that all of. these may partake of
the charity of the Porte, in all manner of peace, and happiness, and
tranquillity, and that all tyranny and ojtpression may be prevented in
every possible way, this is in very deed the demand and desire of the
Sultan, whom God preserve and protect :
Therefore, it has devolved upon me, in very truth, to seek and
inquire whether they be really in felicity, because they ai'e subjects and
slaves of the Sublime Porte, — " For like unto us are they, and like
them are we."* Such is the Sidtan's pleasure: therefore it behoves all
who are under his excellent authority, to defend their women and pro-
perty the same as our women and property, and to pre"S'ent all manner
of evil ; and therefore we cannot cease asking and sending spies, going
and coming, concerning the existence of oiu' Christian rayas,! ^^ they be
truly in confidence and real tranquillity or not ? But at the same time
I have heard from some persons of veracity, going and coming, that
some Turks of Lattakiyah ill-treat and annoy some of our Christian
raj'as, and for this reason these Christian rayas are not enjoying their
Avished-for tranquillity. We have been very much astonished that this
should happen on tlie j^art of onr Turkish rayas ; and we know not in
Avhat manner, or in what way, they dare to ill-ti-eat them, which is con-
trary to the intentions of the Sublime Porte, and contrary to our o^Yn ;
and for this they desei^ve condign punishment. Therefore was it neces-
sary that we should write this circular to you all, to enjoin —
1st. We command our said Mntsellim, on the receipt of this, to call a
general assembly, and to publish 02:)en]y, that it may be known to all,
both the great and the little, this wish of the Sublime Porte, and that
* I liave not seen the original, but should rather think this is a translation of a
part of tlie Koran quotation, wherein is said, " so were you before until God had
comjiassion on you, &c."
I quote from memory.
•f Eaya in Tvu'key means a subject.
330 ArrENDix.
all may be ■well restrained from falling in tlie least tittle contrary to this,
and refi'ain from any thing that may be hiu-tful to any of our Christian
rayas ; and you, be you ever watchful in this connnand, -ndth all vigil-
ance, and l)oth in private and public have overseers and spies ; and
Avhatever is proved to have been done by any one in the least annoying,
or injurious, or hurtful, to another, do you immediately punish the
same mthout pardon. And because, with all our heart, we desire the
j^rotection of oiir Christian rayas, and their tranquillity, and to prevent
all manner of evil and abuse, from wherever it be, from henceforth if
we hear of any ill-treatment, and you refrain from executing due ;[)un-
ishment on the party offending, we shall not listen to your excuses in
any way. There is no need of warning and commanding you further.
And we inform all, of every degree, Avho may be subjects of his
Highness the Sultan, whom God protect and prosper, that it is necessary
3'ou all hie you to yoiu- several occupations, and gain your livelihoods,
and refrain from all abuse and ill-usage, because this is contrary to the
Avill of the Sultan and our own. And he who occupies himself Avith
his own affairs will ever find his happiness therein; but Avoe to him
Avho commits such abuses. He will find his piniishment without mercy.
And God says, " You haA'c all a shepherd, and of every shepherd the
sheep are demanded." Such is the Avill of his Highness the Sultan.
Therefore pay the greatest attention, for Ave liaA'e noAv Avanied you, and
have commanded you. For God says, " This is jiist;" and he AA'ill con-
duct you in the right Avay. And it is Avith this intent avc have noAv
Avritten j-ou this buyurdi, from the divan of the Commander-in-chief,
tliat on its arrival, Avhen you haA^e understood it, you may act in con-
formity, and not contrary, but execTite it to the letter, Avithout the.
smallest deviation.
23 Ramadan, 125G. (.5 November, lo41.)
1804.
Extract of a letter from J. Barlcer, Esq., dated Aleppo, htJi /<ept. 1804.
"Insurrection in Lattakiyah — Proceedings of Ali Aga Ibn llustuni.
" Insurrections are Ijecome so connnon in the; Turkish cm])!!-!.' that
a relation of such CA^ents are twice-told tales to Avhich it is hard to
draAv attention. So nuu-li is said of PasAvan Ughlu, Tarsanik Uglilu,
Kutchuk Ali Ughln, in every ])art of the Grand Signer's dominions,
that a more circumstantial accomit of the rebels of Syna can scarcely
fail to be interesting.
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 331
"Letiisnin over ciu-sorily the principal events that have taken place
since the death of Jizzar Pasha, of Acre.
" Wliile Jizzar lived, his power, added to that of Ibrahim Pasha, not
only maintained order in the principal cities of Syria, Damascus, and
Aleppo, but in a great measure controlled petty rebels. Damascus and
the country round it "vvas kept in subjection by the same chief ; and
Aleppo, -with its neighboiiring townis, -while governed by Ibrahim
Pasha, Avas maintained in the most orderly and submissive subordi-
nation.
'' P>ut on the demise of Jizzar, Ibrahim Pasha not being able to suc-
ceed to his authority in Damascus, and in the absence of Ibrahim Pasha
from Aleppo, his son i\Ialanud Pasha could scarcely hold the reins of
government, until the Porte had time to hear of the changes taken place,
and invest him Avith regular authority.
" While the father Avas endeaA'ouring in A'ain to establish his autho-
rity in Damascus, the son AA-as, on the third day after being proclaimed
Pasha of Aleppo, di'iven out of the city by a general insurrection of the
people. Ibrahim retired to Saida, near Acre, Avith 3000 or 4000 troops,
Avhich AA'ere, in the A^ery improbable event of the Porte's not coming
to an accommodation Avith Ismail Pasha for the gOA'ernment of Acre,
to act in concert A\"ith the Capitan Pasha against that place, and tlie son
Avas at a village near KilHs, vriih 1000 or 2000 men skimiishing AA'ith the
Kurds of that district, and endeaA'ouring, hitherto in A'ain, to enter the
latter place, Avhicli is little better than a A'illage,* and over Avhich his
jimsdiction extends as Pasha of Aleppo.
" This general relaxation of all government has naturally annihilated
trade, by exciting just alanus for the security of property; and every
one is contemplating Avith anxiety the daily cA'ents that pass in rapid
succession, to rob him of the feeble hopes of seeing once again return
past days of tranquillity and comparative happiness.
" The Europeans established in these parts haA^e hitherto been mere
spectators of tyrannical oppression, because, as thei'e is no hope of the
authors of it receiving any punishment adequate to the enormity of their
crimes, the example of that impiinity miist operate most perniciously on
the minds of the people of Aleppo.
" The occuiTence alluded to is as foUoAVS : — On the 31st of July last,
there arrived at Lattakiyah, from Constantinople, a ncAV goA'ernor, ap-
pointed for that place, Avith 200 men in his suite. He had scarcely
taken possession of the goA'ernment, Avhen the old goA'ernor luA'ited the
Governor of Jisr al Shughul, named Ali Aga Ilm Pustiuu, to assist him
* Killis is now a goodly town, with bazaars, barracks, and numerous mosques.
332 APPENDIX.
ill deposing the new one. Ali Aga willingly obeyed the call ; took with
him about 400 men, chiefly Arnauts ; and, on the first day of his enter-
ing Lattakiyah, put the new governor in chains, and set up the old one
in his room.
"But perceiving soon after that nothing was to be got out of a Tiu'k-
ish Mutsellim, who had only been ten days in the enjoyment of the
emoluments of his post, he released the imprisoned governor, and turning
the tables on the other, who had invited him to come to his assistance,
threw him into prison, and reqviired from him a hundred j^i'^'ses* As
far as the 24th August, the most excruciating torments had only ex-
torted from him forty purses. lie probably possesses no more.
" Ali Aga then proceeded to levy a contribution on the town, which
he was desirous of fixing at 1500 pxirses; but after every art to mitigate
his rapacity had been exhausted, he still persists in demanding 500
purses. This sum, although enormous, relative to the slender means of
the inhabitants of Lattakiyah, Avas, under the dread of greater evils, col-
lected in part, and laid at his feet; bu.t it had no other effect than that
of increasing his avidity, and he returned to his original demand of
1500 purses, as the price on which he consented to quit the town,
thi'catening that if his demand was not immediately complied with, he
would give up the place to be plundered by his troops.
" It now, of course, became evident that nothing less than the sack of
the town could satiate the rapacity of this brutal horde of robbers ; and
from that moment no one thought of any thing but the means of flj'ing
from the scenes of horror that might naturally be expected to ensue ;
but only a few had licen fortunate enough to escape, when Ali Aga's
troops drew a cordon round the town, proceeded immediately to pillage
the houses of the fugitives, and to throw into prison individually such
of the I'emaining inhabitants as it was supposed, if put to the sufterance
of torture, and in dread of losing their Uves, Avould produce money.
*' In this general persecution it Avas, that Ali Aga quartered six men at
the house of each of the Europeans in the place, Avho consist only of Mr.
Nicholas Ducci, British and Imperial agent; Mous. Geoffroy, French
commissary ; and a 8ig. Vidal, Dutch vice-consul, which latter found
means to nui awav, but Avas l;iid hold of, and, it is said, thi'OAATi into
prison at a place called Jibali, lietAveen Lattakiyah and Tripoli.
" Tlie business of these six niflians Avas, to intimidate, by brutal usage,
and by repeated threats of murder, the masters of the houses in AA'hich
* A purse contains 500p., and the piastre was then wortli 15p. to 1^. ; cr>jo
33/. =rono purse of those days.
IIISTOmCAL DOCUMENTS. 333
tliey were lodged, and thereby extort from them, first a contribution of
3000 piastres from M. GeoiFroy, and 1500 piastres from Mr. Ducci.
" The dread of the execution of the threats with whicli these demands
were accompanied, and the hope that tlioy wonid finish there, induced
them at length to comply; but, unfortunately, these persecutions were
continued, and up to the 24th past, M. GeoflToy had been compelled, at
different times, to disburse 11,000 piastres, and IMr. Ducci 2000 piastres.
"The advices of that date state that the outrages committed by the
troops went on increasing in atrocity; that they had pillaged all the
Avarcliouses, had phuidered sevei'al Christians' houses, and ravished
their women ; and that the tortures Avhich those who were m the pri-
sons were siifFering were so great as to endanger their lives.
" The history of Ali Aga Ibn Rustum is succinctly thus : — His ances-
tors have been, for a century joast, in possession of the chief considera-
tion in the to-\ni of Jisr Shughul, about tAvo days' journey distant from
Aleppo, on the road to Lattakiyah, and thereby kept the government of
the place and its vicinity in the hands of the head of their own family
in s})ite of the Pashas of Aleppo, at whose pleasure they ought by right
to hold it.
" This family had lately, by feuds and other causes, considerably
declined in riches and power, and was reduced to three individuals
of note — Cassim, Hussain, and Ah, the hero of this narrative, when
Ibrahim Pasha, of Aleppo, about five years ago, formed the design of
subduing them. He invited Ali Aga, then a mere lad of eighteen, to
Aleppo. He debauched him with prostitutes, and encouraged him iu
the use of spirituous liquors, a vice that never fails to render a Turk the
most abandoned of human creatures. He at length obtained for him,
on the passage of the grand vizir through Aleppo, in 1802, an Impe-
rial command as Aga of Jisr Shughul, on his bond for paying 200
purses, when he should have dispossessed his two elder cousins of the
government. Ali soon succeeded in nuirdering both his relations; and,
on his assuming the government, Ibrahim Pasha, not finding him so
submissive as he had hoped to render him, sent first his son, Mahmud
Bey (noAv Pasha), and afterwards his Kehya, with 3000 men, agains
him, but was both times repulsed with loss and disgrace.
" Ali Aga's means were, however, little adequate to the support of
troops necessary for his defence in these contests; and six months ago,
on a chief of 200 or 300 Arnauts quitting his service, he was obliged to
put his son into the Arnauts' hands as a pawn for arrears of pay due to
him. Pie then picked a quarrel with JiAvallik Bakir Aga, Mutsellim of
Antioch, and went against that town, in hopes of being able to redeem
534 APPENDIX.
bis child by the phinder thereof. He, however, failed in that enter-
prise; but the grand caravan of pilgrims to Mecca happening to pass
on their return to Constantmople, while he lay before Antioch, he ob-
tained a considerable booty by avanizing them. He then pillaged
Seleucia, modern Suedia, and most of the villages lying between IdUb
and the coast, some of which he entirely laid waste. But what is parti-
cularly worthy of remark, as affording a just idea of the impoverished
state of the country, is, that the fruits of all these ravages, and of those
which he is now committing at Lattakiyah, are not only insufficient to
enable him to raise the sum for which his son is in pawn, but even
unequal to the maintenance and jaay of the 400 troops now in his ser-
vice (8th September). Direct advices from Lattakiyah were, a few days
ago, received here up to the 30th Augiist, at Avhieh time the persecu-
tions suffered by Mons. GeofFroy and Mr. Ducci were carried on to the
most horrible excess. The first was tormented to produce 100 purses
more, and the other fifty : sums quite beyond their means.
" We had, however, yesterday the happiness to learn that Ali Aga
had been defeated by another rebel, called ]\Iukadim Adi-a,* inhabiting
the mountains of Kastravan. This mountain chief was at the head of
a numerous armed peasantry, which forced Ali Aga to fly the place ; but
on his endeavoui'ing to escape, he was taken and carried back in chains
to Lattakiyah.
" There is Httle doubt of the facts ; but details are wanting to infonii
us of the fate of the inhabitants of Lattakiyah during the contest."
1805.
To give an idea of the then unsettled state of the Turkish govern-
ment, I subjoin an extract of a letter, dated ^intioch, 1 September 1805,
written by John Barker, Esq. :
" You have herewith a copy of a recent letter, from wliicli you will
see the very precarious situation of Europeans in this revolted proA'ince
of the Grand Seignior's nominal dominions. The existence of this
empire is really a phenomenon in pohtics, which produces novel circum-
stances and new matter for reflection that confound the observer who is
accustomed to compare living events ■with the successions of causes and
effects in the revolutions recorded in the annals of past times. The
Turkish empire, like the fable (jf Midiauunad's coffin, suspended between
powers of equal attraction, while sustained by the jealousy of the great
* Mukadini Adra was a respectable man, and chief of the Fellah, or Ansayiiis, who
are very powerful and numeroiu) in those parts.
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 335
states of Europe, may be compared to a beautiful captive in the bands
of a band of independent Barbary robljers, Avho every night retires to
rest trembling at the thought of an instant assault from some ardent
bandit, and every morning awakes in astonishment that another sun has
risen to behold her safety. Her fond imagination ascribes the mira-
culous security to the interposition of Providence ; and I have been
trium2:)hantly told by a Turk that the truth of the Muhaunnadan re-
hgion obtained an infallible evidence from the supernatural existence
of the Ottoman Empire. ' I challenge you, who are a Christian and a
consul ,' said he, ' to prodiice me another example, ancient or modern,
where a people, long after their power of repelling aggression had
ceased, has not oidy been suffered to continue in the list of independent
nations, l>ut whose government is, like ours, assiduously courted, feasted,
and Mattered, by the ambassadors of all the pOAverfnl nations of Europe.'
" There is no part of Syria or Palestine at this time governed by a
man in complete subordination to the Porte except the town of Acre,
■with a very small district roiuid it, which was delivered to SuJaiman
Pasha by the troops, who betrayed Ismail Pasha, the successor of
Jizzar ; but you know that from Acre itself a very trifling revenue can
be draAVTi, and that without the poAver which Jizzar possessed of render-
ing the Druzes tributary, a Pasha of that place can find little scope for
extortion.
" Abu Marrak Pasha, whom I described in my last letter as occu-
pied in laying waste Palestine, is an Ai'ab of a most atrocious cha-
racter, who, while the Grand Vizier was in Egypt, was appointed to
the government of Jaffii ; but having been prevented taking possession
by Jizzar, he came to Aleppo in the year 1801, and from thence was
sent to govern one and successively another of the cities of Mesopo-
tamia, which were then in arms to resist the entrance of a Pasha Avho
should attempt to estabhsh the authority of the Porte by force. Pie
was, however, admitted, Avith only a fe^v cliiuhadars in his suite, and
after remaining some time, apparently content Avith a nominal authority
and the daily amusement of playing the gent, he formed and executed
the bold design of murdering, Avith his oAvn hand, Avhile lulled in the
security of a festival, almost all the chiefs of the popular faction ;*
* This is by no means an unusual occurrence ; and wc see such constantly reported
in the annals of Turkish history : note the destruction of the Janissaries at Aleppo,
and of the Mamelukes in Egyjit, &c. The facility with which these coiqis de main are
executed proceeds from the discord of the chiefs among each other, and from the
people being kept down by fear and not by love or interest. The chiefs are not the
head of a xyartij, but have seized the government by means of extortion, cruelty, and
money.
330 ArPENDix.
whereby lie struck such terror into the rest of the iuhabitauts, that they
immediately submitted to be reduced hterally to sell the ragged carpet
which served them for bedding, in order to satisfy, or rather to feed, for
nothing could satiate his cruel rapacity. By this glorious exploit he
•was soon distinguished by the Vizier as an excellent instrument to
be employed in cases where the humanity of other pashas had broken
through the black cloud of their o^^pression — who had paused in the
dii-eful work of desolation.
'* I saw Abu Marrak again last year in his passage from IMeso-
potamia to Mecca, the ostensible place of his destination ; but as that
appointment had lieen forced upon him by the intrigues of his aud his
patron s enemies as a kind of exile, he proceeded no further than Jaffa,
where last winter he played the Porte a notable trick. The Porte had
sent him 300 piu-ses by a Kapuji Bashi, who had orders to transmit to
him only a few at a time and by degrees, as he might see himself that
they had been actually appropriated to the defraying of expenses neces-
sary for the prosecution of his journey to Mecca. With the first and
second payments he purchased such articles as satisfied the Kapuji of his
intention to proceed to his pashalik ; but Abu IMarrak quickly dis-
covering his impatience to touch the whole 150,000 j^iastres, and the
officer of the Porte endeavouring to retract, the pasha seized the Ivliazny
at once, and thereby put an end to all further dispute. I saw the Kapuji
in his passage through Antioch, on his retiu'n to Constantinople with this
melancholy story, and he had, of course, a great deal to say on the sub-
ject. Since that time Al>u IMarrak had reared the standard of open re-
bellion at Jaffa, and the Porte has ordered the other pashas of S}-ria to
send his head to Constantinople.
'' These pashas are, Ibraliim Pasha, his son Mahmud Pasha, Alj-
dallah Pasha, Sulaiman Pasha, and Abdin Pasha (of two tails). A few
Avords on each Avill give you an idea of the present state of Sp'ia.
" I])rahim Pasha and his son. The first mentioned is a native of
Aleppo, who, from the low station of a farrier, has raised himself
to the possession of a considerable revenue (while the city was
governed by him or his son) of two or three millions of piastres ;
but these teniu-es, without their possessing the advantage of their be-
longing to the Pasha, would probably not yield a tenth part of that
sum. Ibrahim Pasha was lately Pasha of Damascus ; that is, diuing
two years of his residence there, he has collected the mild, not to say
insignificant dues of the miri, spent from his private purse a consider-
able sum of money in conveying the pilgrims (such as they were) to
Mecca, and chose to sit out the term of his government a qiuet spectator
lIISTOmCAL DOCUMENTS. 337
of the prajtoriaii rule of the janissaries over that city, doubtless because
he had no personal interest in subduing them equal to the expense of an
endeavour to effect it ; and you know the Porte, like the superior of the
Propaganda Fide in sending out its missionaries, never accompanies
its benedictions with any adequate means of their obtaining their ends.
' There,' says the Grand Vizier on the nomination of Abdallah Pasha,
successor to Ibrahim Pasha, ' there's a firman for you, with a flaming
cipher of his Imperial Majesty the King of Kings, the distributor of all
the crowns in the imiverse; go, and with the magic of this despoil the
janissai'ies of Damascus of the fruits of their long-continued extortions .'
And this said to Avhom ? to a man who has scarcely the means of pro-
viding a regular supply of rice and butter for the subsistence of half
a dozen raggamuffin chiuhadars.
" Ibrahim Pasha is now appointed to the government of Diyarbakir ;
but he, as well as his son Mahmud Pasha, who is named for Tripoli,
know much better than to waste their means in the unprofitable and
probably unsuccessful enterprise of rediicing those to^vais to subjection ;
and both are encamped, with one or two thousand men, at a village
about ten leagues from Alejipo, Avhere they have too great an interest
to aljandon easily the hope of being reinstated in its government.
" Meanwhile, hoAvever, the janissaries of that ill-fated city are fatten-
ing in the clover of supreme dominion, and quaffing its usual sweets,
and full gratification of revenge, avarice, pride, lust, and ambition,
which are displayed in assassinations, in general monopoly, in contempt
of all constituted authorities, — mutsellims, cadis, nniftis, custom-officers,
and consuls, — in the violation of female and male chastity; in the
view of the chiefs toAvards a more perfect and undiA'ided authority.
From this sketch of a picture of Alejipo, your sympathetic mind will
readily fill up the dark colours of the present and future miseries of its
unhappy inhabitants ; yet sure I am that, great as these sufferings are, the
free voice of the j^eojyle icoiild not be in favour of a change for the govern-
inent of a jxisha !
" There remains, therefore, only Sulaiman Pasha from Avhom the
Porte can expect the head of Aim Marrak. I understand that he is
besieging Jaffa, but I do not know Avith Avhat prospect of success.
The 2;enei"al idea is that Abu Marrak Avill not be subdued.*
* Abu Marrak, after ha^-ing been defeated by Sulairaan Pasha, retired to Aleppo,
where he had previously married the daughter of Ibrahim Pasha. An order from
Constantinoi^le coming for his head, he concealed himself in an amhar, a large box for
containing provisions of barley. He was seized and strangled by the successor of Ibra-
him Pashaj his father-in-law.
Z
:33S APrEXDix.
'•As to Abdin Pasha, you Mdll judge from the following account of
his proceedings what good may be expected from him. After the death
of Ali Aga Ibn Eustum, aboTit this time last year, the mutsellim of the
Porte, who had cut off that rebel, was beheaded in his tm-n, a few days
afterwards, by one Abderrahman Effendi, who had been in usurped pos-
session of the government of Lattakiyah several years previous to the
taking of that town by Ibn Eustum. This self-erected governor enjoyed
the fruits of that assassination only till May last, about Avhich period
a certain Ahmed Pasha, a man of weight, and even of humanity and
justice, inhabiting Karamania, was sent to quell a rebellion in Cyprus,
where he quickly re-established order and tranquillity, and afterwards
sent his brother, Abdin Pasha, with about 1000 men against Latta-
kiyah. On his approach, all those who had assisted Abderrahman
Effendi in ojapressing the people immediately fled to the moixutains of
Kastrawan, and left him to be seized by the oppressed, who joyfully
remitted the tyrant into the hands of their deliverer. But I have now
to relate what is the usual course of similar events in these parts, that
the Lattakiyans soon had reason to exclaim, in agonies of distress,
* Kurban din Abdarrahman Effendi !' ' Kiirban Ali Aga !' a strong ex-
pression of regret at the disadvantageoiis change in their situation.
" The foul fame of Abdin Pasha's bad government reached Constan-
tinople almost as soon as the head of the rebel whom he had subdued ;
and Ibn Chiakal Hussain, an independent man of some consideration and
power, of Turkman origin, although now stationary with his tribe,
which has converted its black tents into a feyv small villages in the
neighbourhood of Lattakiyah, was named to supersede him in the
government of that place, and Abdin Pasha was ordered to proceed to
Jidda. But such arrangements not proving agreeable to the latter, a
conflict ensued between the Turkman and the Karamanian, which has
now lasted three months in bloodless skirmishes. jNIeanwhile, however,
the work of oppression and devastation is going on to the pitch that the
place is literally depopulated of men; and consequently none of the
necessaries of life, not even bread or grain, is to be had there,
" Many of the fugitives, among whom are all the Franks, with only
the clothes on their backs, for they ran away on foot, are come here to
claim the compassion and assistance of the people of Antioch ; and the
crew of a vessel under Ionian colours, of which the rudder had been
taken off by the pasha a feAv days ago, put to sea in their long boat,
leaving the ship, with the cargo, to take care of itself
" M. Ducci, who kept a register of daily occurrences at Lattakiyah
subsequent to the pasha's entry, qualifies the 18th May with the em-
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 339
phatic words of ' a bloody day.' He relates that, on the preceding
evening, a corps of 300 Arnauts, a remnant of the followers of Ali Aga,
Avho had been driven out of the town on their master's death, seeking
an opportunity of revenge, presented themselves to Abdin Pasha, and
offered their services; which being dechned, an altercation ensued, that
ended by their chief firing his pistol at the breast of the pasha, and the
instant slaughter of 150 Arnauts, whose heads, says M. Ducci, I counted
at the gate of the tower, and whose blood ran in streams down the
gutters. The rest retired into a ruined seraglio, where they kept the
enemy at bay but a short time, and in flying were so closely pursued
that very fuw could have escaped with their lives.
" I must now close with a description of Abdin Pasha's jDerson and
character, many of the extraordinary features of which I shall suppress,
because, whatever may be my credit for veracity with you, were I to
relate all that has been told me concerning him, or indeed such part as
/ lielieve, it Avould form a picture of depravity which, thank God, an
Englishman has no opportunity of contemplating, and consequently
could not regard in any other light than a caricature.
" Abdin Pasha is a native of Karamania, a short, thick-set, brown
man, Avho seldom shaves his head or changes his dirty clothes, never
pares his nails, or uses water in any act of cleanliness. He keeps his
lireaSt bare, being afflicted with an asthma, from the paroxysms of
which lie feels relief by lying on his stomach, and in continual motion ;
he seldom sits upright, but strikes terror into all who approach him, by
transacting business while spitting, scratching, and rubbing his body,
and rolling on a dirty carpet, which, as well as his clothes and hands,.
are generally besmeared with blood. His asthmatic convulsions and
perpetual perturbation have established a belief that he is constantly
labouring to exj)el a Uve pig which is in his stomach. He is his ovm.
executioner, and few nights have passed chiring his stay at Lattakiyah in
which his long yatagan has not been imbrued in the bowels of some of
his own men, whom he sacrifices on the slightest causes of disgust ; yet
such an ascendency has he acquired over the minds of his followers,
that they patiently see their comrades daily butchered, and obey the
orders of their chief with scrupuloiis exactness. Their mmibers^are,,
however, from a thousand reduced by the yatagan of the pasha and by
desertion to about four hundred. Night and day his faithfiil aqua-
vita bottle never quits him, and although he is almost continually
taking a small dose, he never loses the use of his faculties, and business
goes on Avith regularity and despatch. He scarcely ever sleeps, and is
very often changing place, which he does on horseback, and contrary to
340 ArrENDix.
the custom of pashas, at great speed. He freqixently takes the diver-
sion of the jarid or javehn throwing, and one day amused himself and
his troops hy forcing the Dutch consul, a very corpulent young man
and no jockey, to mount a restive horse, and take his part in the sport,
in which he was of course literally the butt of the coiiipanij, to the no
small satisfaction of all beholders.
"One good feature in this extraordinary character must not, however,
be suppressed by the candid historian : he has ever himself respected, and
forces his adherents to entertain an unbounded respect for the asylum
of the harem. This fortmiate sentiment, from his addiction to the un-
natiu'al vice of his country, he must owe to early prejudices of educa-
tion. The Christian fugitives with whom I have conversed, attribute it
to the special bounty of the Virgin Mary, as it afforded them in their
distress the resoiu-ce of flying and leaving the female part of their
fcimilies, without apprehension, behind them. I have since learned that
the families of all his men are in the power of his brother.
"P.S. The crop of corn in the province of Nedjd having, as is
reported, this year generally foiled, flying parties of Wahabis of 1000
>nien, more or less, have appeared within a few leagues of Bassora, Bag-
dad, Aleppo, and Damascus, and again made their enterprises the sub-
, ject of discoui'se and aj^prehension to the people of this country.
" The corps that approached Aleppo a few days ago, probably not
■more than 600 men, drove the tribe Muwali, which may be considered
.ns the vanguard of that city, to within five miles of its walls, after
Jiaving carried aAvay the greatest part of the latter's property in corn,
cattle, tents, &c. And on the back of this disagreeable information
has just reached us the intelligence that Seood or Siwad, chief of the
Wahabis, after a long siege, took Mi'diua by famine. The fact is not
.doubted, biit the exact date of that disastrous event is unknown, and
-the particidars are likewise involved in great obscurity. It is said
(that the first step SiAvad took after entering the Holy City Avas to de-
molish all the buildings consecrated to religious uses, not sparing the
tomb of the prophet himself; that he prohibited smoking, as a profane
practice; and issued a proclamation, which is represented to import as
folloAvs :
" * If you can find better than me di) not follow me. If your Sul-
tan slioidd send you armies to war with me, and can vanrpiish me,
while you sustain yourselves in rebellion against my authority, well
and good ; but for the present, I have vanquished you, and therefore I
now appoint a man to rule over you in my name. As for myself I
fihall go far from you ; but I will send you idlimas (doctors in divinity)
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 341
to instruct you in Moslemism, because jox\ are ignorant of tlie true
faith.' "
The follo^\^ng bears date 1814, and is also from the pen of Mr. J.
Barker, our consul in Aleppo at that time.
Early in 1814 the consular agents received an order from their
respective superiors, ordering them in strong terms " not to interfere
Avith the internal affairs of the country, and to refrain particularly from
giving protection to the persons belonging to the party which, for some
time, had been engaged in a rebellious opposition to the regular govern-
ment of the provinces."
" Aleppo, Jan. 19th, ISli.
" On the 18th January, at a very early hour, the dragomans of all the
Europcau agents were summoned to appear in Mehkamy. They found
already assembled in the hall of justice the ayans,* Avho, as Avell as the-
interpreters, had been sent for to take cognisance of the contents of a
firman, enjoining the former to aid the pasha in bringing to justice
such of the janissaries as had committed crimes with impunity during
the rebellion of the Aujak,-j- and declaring that the Franks must not inter-
fere Avith any regulations tending to further the grand object of the re-
formation of that corps, but strictly conform in all things to the tenour
of the capitulations.
" After the reading of the firman, a buyurdi Avas jiublished, addressed
to the cadi, enjoining him to sununon into his presence all the janissa-
ries in the sei'vice of the Europeans, in order that they might be ex-
amined, and dismissed or arrested, according to the report that should
be made of their conduct for ten years past, founded on the testimony of
the ayans of the city.
" On the return of the dragomans from the jMehkamy, I suggested to
my colleagues that, Avithout refiising our compliance Avith the summons,,
Ave should endeaA'our to defer it till the next day; and this Avith a vicAv
to gain the time necessary to soften by presents the ayans, Avho, Ijcing
notoriously the bitter enemies of the janissaries, no reasonable hope
could be entertained of their testimony proving favourable; but my
opinion Avas OA'erruled: the summons of the cadi Avas immediately com-
l)lied Avith by all the consuls; and six, about half the number of the
janissaries that appeared in Mehkamy, Avho A\-erc unable to pass the
ordeal, Avere couA'eyed thence into the prison of the Sardar. Of these
* Primates of the country.
+ Quai'ter of the town occupied by tlie janissai-ies.
342 APPENDIX.
were the two English janissaries ; the others, one French, two Spanish,
and one Danish.
"To-day (19th Jan. 1814) we have been obliged to have recourse to
the means abovementioned ; that is, to endeavour to procvire the favom -
able testimony of the ayans, after they had already caused the arres-
tation of the janissaries ; but as, fortunately, in the cornipted mass of
Turkish affairs, men generally sacrifice their personal resentment to
their private interests, the ayans left a door o}X;n for negociation, by
saj-ing onlv, for those whom they did not befriend, that they had not an
adequate knowledge of their conduct to be able to answer for its recti-
tude. They have now all promised us their good offices for the relea-
of oiu- janissaries, and it is hoped that, by using the pretence of haviii-
made subsequent inquiries into the characters of the janissaries in ar-
rest, they may still be able to establish their innocence. In the mean-
time I have thought it proper to-day to present a note to the Pasha
on the subject, in order to give my testimony of their good conduct,
and to infoi-m him that their long and faithful senices naturally im-
pose on me the duty of interceding with his excellency for their pardon
and release.
" Their family has, in fact, been for three generations in the Britirli
service at Aleppo; and they, men in the middle of life, are burdened
"\\'ith seven or eight children. My intercession in their behalf cannot,
therefore, I hope, be constiiied into an infraction of the duty of a jnib-
lic agent.*
*' Although zeal for the good government of Aleppo is the ostensible
pretext of the Pasha's conduct towaixls these few insignificant indivi-
duals of the Aujak, the principal reason teas, no doubt, a desire of humili-
ating and degrading the Franks; a disposition which, I am sorry to say,
I have invariably found in every species of Tiu'kish authorities, when
they have not been softened by the usual douceur of presents. In the
present case the Pasha has lieen indisposed against tlie Europeans of
Aleppo, not only by their total neglect of paying him the ciistomary
compliments on his arrival, ]:)ut likewise l)y the inij)ropc'r conduct of
several of the Jew merchants under French and Austrian protection."!"
* Tliis phrase shews how strict nmst have been the orders of the ambassadoi-s to
force the consuls to the barbarity of giving up to the Tm-ks indi\-iduals in theii" emisloy,
which is without precedent in the East ; where the persons employed by the consuls
arc by custom considered sacred, sib much as Europeans themselves; otherwise what
chance would there be of finding faithfid servants, if they were to be exposed to be
traducefl by the jealous intrigues of their enemies '
f The Pashas appointed to rule in Aleppo had, since the increase of the jjower of
tlie janissaries, been held in the greatest contempt. Manj- came and went without
daring to imdertake Any p«^ of the office allotted them. They were completely at
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 343
" On tlie approach of the Pasha to Aleppo, the janissaries and others
had secreted property in most of the Frank warehouses. The simple
act of receiving those effects could not reasonably be considered as indi-
cating an improper intercourse "with rebels, because the Europeans Avere
in circumstances that would have made a refusal a dangerous experi-
ment; but when the Pasha had seized the principal chiefs, and the
■whole power of the corps was thereby destroyed, it was cleaidy the duty
of e^'ery individual in Aleppo to endeavoiu- to be the first to make a
pulilic declaration of all the property belonging to janissaries that was
in his jiossession. Listead of which, there were those, unfortunately, who
not only '^^"aited till they were called upon, but who discovered so much
reluctance to part A\ith their deposits, that the Pasha was forced, in or-
der to oljtain them, to find collateral proofs of their existence. It is
much to be regretted that the Pasha did not found his complaint against
the consuls upon specific facts, as in that case the individuals accused
would, of coiu'se, have been heard in their own justification; but he fore-
saw that, by making it a general accusation, each ambassador woidd
flatter himself that the pei'son under his immediate jurisdiction was
not the oliject of the Pasha's displeasuix?, and be therefore inchned to
consent to put into his hands what undoubtedly the Pasha considered
as a formal authorisation to seize all the janissaries in our service. It
may, indeed, Ije said that the Pasha, without the letters of the ambas-
sadors, had it, at any time, in his poAver to order the cadi to summon
the janissaries to the Mehkamy, to pu.nish, imprison, or kill them at his
pleasure. But as he did not take that step until armed against the
consuls, it is unfair to presume it Avoukl never luiA^e been taken at aU,
if the lettei's had not been granted him. There is no laAV to preA^eut his
seizing, AA-ithout even the insignificant forms of Turkish justice, a great
number of incUviduals of the Aujak, Avho have procured protection in the
service of the a>/ans, but he has hithei'to res^iected a protection notori-
ously acquired by money ; Avhile the consideration due to Europeans has
not been a sufficient safeguard for persons mider similar circumstances
of proscription, but Avho had much more legitimate claims on us for
2:)rotection. Independently of direct infraction of our capitulations,
Ave are therefore naturally inclined to a^cav A\dth a jealous eye eA'ery
thing that tends to impair that kind of conventional consideration or
the mercy of the janissaries, who made them a certain fixed allowance, or refused to
recognise them, just as it suited them ; and in one instance a M. Popolani, who had
formed the acquaintance of one of the miserable individuals sent as jiasha by the
Porte, was hailed from the noighboiu-ing house, and entreated to supi)ly him vnth.
something to eat ; the allotted meal not having been furnished tliat day by those ap-
pointed to feed the great man !
344 ArrENDix.
respect, -wlncli is, ia fact, the only solid basis of tlie security of our
lives and property."
"Aleppo, Jau. 27th, 1814.
"Ahmed Pasha, one of my janissaries, Avas last night strangled, with
Ebn Tul>al, the French janissary. The other four are still in prison;
but it is supposed their friends Avill succeed in obtaining their release
with money. The distinction that has been made between the punish-
ments of these two men and the others naturally implies in them a
greater degree of guilt ; and although I do not consider myself responsi-
ble for the good behaviour of my janissaries, it is necessary to say that
I do not believe Ahmed Pasha was guilty of any crime of a nature to
warrant the forfcitui-c of life. During the prosperity of the Aujak,' he
Avas perhaps more insolent in his iisiial deportment toAvards the ayans
than the generality of his comrades; and it is that imprudence, joined
to the reputation of j)Ossessing forty purses, Avhich has brought him to
his untimely end.
" The French janissary Avas precisely in similar circumstances ; all the
others are knoAATi to possess A'cry little property.
*' Ahmed has been in the British service from his childhood, and till
six years ago his conduct Avas as correct as that of Turkish serAants
usually is. About that time he insinuated himself into the good Avill
of Ahmed Aga, first chief of the janissaries of Aleppo, and insensibly
became one of his confidential servants, — a lucrative situation, Avhich
placed him in circumstances very ill-suited to the nature of his old em-
ploy. The transaction of the comjilicated and disreputable business of a
janissary chief A\'as obviously incompatible with the duty of attending
at my door. I therefore made, at different times, eA^ery effort in my
poAver to dismiss him, but Avithout effect; for besides Avhat I had to
fear from liis personal resentment, a request in his behalf from Ahnu'd
Aga, his new master, Avas to me a peremptory command ; so that he
continued to be nominally in my service, Avhile the duty Avas performed
by his brother, Abbud Pasha, a foolish, insignificant felloAV.
"Upon the approach of Jalal iddeen Pasha (Chiapan Ughlu), he be-
came more officious Avith me, and sought by degrees to disengage him-
self from the service of Ahmed Aga.
" The contest between the Aujak and the Pasha remained for some
lime of a very douljtful issue, Avhen, of course, it Avould haAC been still
less than CA'er prudent to discharge a protege of Ahmed Aga. I Avas
then at Lattakiyah, and had every thing to apprehend from the conse-
quences of his resentment, directed tOAvards Ilojiya Nasri IlaAva, the per-
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 345
son left in charge of my affairs in Aleppo. At length the Pasha got
into his power, and in one day executed, all the chiefs of the Aujak,
when the whole corps was in an instant dissolved. The large cap and
white sash that distinguished them were no longer any where to be seen.
The most conspicuous or most guilty fled in disguise; and the rest,
more confident in their innocence, or in their resources, tlirew them-
selves at the feet of their enemies, the grandees of the town, who,
during the reign of the janissaries, had sunk into poverty and contempt.
Ahmed was one of those who preferred to run all risks to bearing the
certain evils of perpetual banishment. He was soon after thrown into
prison by Hadji Efiendi, an ay an, for an ancient dispiited claim upon
him of 2500 piastres, lie remained ten days in prison, in butt of his
enemies, who, not appearing to accuse him, he flattered himself that
he had found means to appease them. When I arrived at Aleppo, I
found him duly furnished with a taskary of the Pasha, recognising him
as a janissary in the British service; which document he had procured
for himself and his brother, when taskaras were given to the other
Frank janissaries. Having no special ground of complaint against
him, and considering the situation of his pregnant wife and four helple; s
children, his long services and present misfortune, I thought it would
have been an unbecoming and ungenerous act to give him up to the
rapacity of the Pasha.
" In public these unfortunate men have not Ijeen accused of any
specific misdemeanour. After tlieir arrestation in the INIehkamy, they
were conveyed to the sardar's house; then removed to the Castle; and
thence to execution. In hopes of propitiating the Pasha, I paid him,
on the 23d instant, a visit of ceremony. I have endeavoured to pro-
cui'e the intercession and good offices of most of the people of weight in
the city; and the consciousness of having strenuously employed every
means in my power is the only consolation I can receive in this very
disagreeable business.
" On the 28th January, the one Danish, and the two Spanish janissa-
ries were yesterday evening liberated for about 8000 piastres. This
morning the Pasha has sent me my janissary Abbud, saying that he
made me a present of him !"
" Aleppo, Jan. 30th, 1814.
" On the 20th instant the Pasha made known to the consids his wish
that they should assemble the people under their protection, in order
to compel them to make a public declai-ation of any property they
might have belonging to janissaries, dead, living, or absconded. This
346 APPENDIX.
step Avas calculated to give considerable iineasiness, because, as most
of the Franks had long ago remitted to the Pasha all the effects that
had bc'en confided to their custody by the janissaries, it was appre-
hended that the Pasha meant to follow it up by some more violent
measure.
" Myself, the Austrian, Eussian, and Danish consuls instantly repHed,
that Ave had nothing in our possession belonging to janissaries ; but the
French consid haAdng a great number of persons tmder his protection,
judged it necessary to convene a general assembly on the occasion.
After which, lie sent his first dragoman, M. Simion, to the Pasha with
a copy of the j^i'oces verbal. When this paper was put into the pasha's
hands, he did not deign to look at it, but said angrily, " What credit
would you have me give to your declarations, after having found pro-
perty in the hands of the Franks, which they had preAiously denied
possessing? This afftur must be examined before the cadi, when I shall
bring credible witness to prove that there is still property of the rebels
in the hands of the Franks, and execute in consequence the orders of
the Porte." The dragoman had been charged at the same time to com-
plain that in the preceding days, a French doctor, Anthout having given
any provocation, had been beaten Avith his OAvn cane by a soldier; and
that another Frank (also a French subject) had received a box on the
ear ; to Avhich the Pasha replied, that if the dragoman coidd point out
the jiersons Avho had committed these insults, he Avould order their
chastisement. The di-agoman said that such a designation Avas impos-
sible ; and then very imprudently suggested that a public crier should
be ordered to proclaim in the city that the Franks must not be molested.
The Pasha of course ix'fused to coinply Avith so ridicidous a request,
Avhen some altercation ensuing, the dragoman says the Pasha insinuated
that, if the exigency required it, he Avoidd as soon hang him, or any
other Frank, as a rajah (Turkish subject).
'' Ten days haA'e noAV elapsed A\-ithout the Franks having been sum-
moned to appear in Mehkamy,* or the Pasha's having taken any further
step in the business of the secreted property of the janissaries ; and I am
inclined to think, that if the Franks conduct thcmseh'es Avith prudence
xuid temper, the Pasha may yet be induced to act toAvards them Avith
moderation.
" It is, hoAvever, fair to state, that a feAV days ago the Arnaut avIio
had insulted the doctor Avas apprehended Avhile sitting in the public ba-
zaar Avith the gold-headed cane in his hand, Avithout his having receiATd
* It is contrary to all established custom that a European should be compelled to
.appear at a Turkish tribunal.
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 347
any cliastisement at till. Besides wliicli circumstance, another Frencli
subject has just been insulted in sport, but narrowly escaped a very
serious injury. While out riding, he was met by a party of Dalli-Bash
playing at tliejarid; one of them galloped up to him, and when within
fi\'e yards, threw a jarid with all his force, which pierced the gentle-
man's hat, and reliounded over a garden-Avall.*
" I nuist also add, that yesterday the Franks were also concerned in
a most extraordinary public measure, which touches more or less every
man in the city. The Pasha having promulgated a command for the
reduction of the ciu'rency of coins to the standard of the capital, he
fancied that he could likewise regulate and fix the prices of all the com-
modities that are sold in the shops and Avarehouses. Strange as it may
appear, the execution of this project was attempted. Yesterday a great
crowd of people assembled in the INIehkamy ; and among shoemakers,
smiths, Bagdad merchants, petty shopkeepers, manufacturers, &c. &c.,
there were the house-brokers of the Europeans, who were severally
interrogated about the prices at which they vended cochineal, sugar,
cloths, red caps, coral, &c., and gravely informed that his excellency the
Pasha had ordered that the prices of all their wares should be regulated
and fixed! And what is still more ridiculous, it was proposed to limit
also the profit of every article as it passed from hand to hand, which
was Avisely settled by the deputy cadi, the person who presided at this
grave assembly, at one para per piastre. -j-
" On which a facetious shopkeeper disturbed the solemnity of the
25roceeding, by saying, ' Why, look ye, gentlemen, nothing can be fairer ;
for my part, I am quite satisfied Avith the arrangement. I usually sell
for five jiiastres. I shall have earned an ample daily provision for my-
self and family.'
'• xVfter three or four hours sitting without much progress being made
in business, the session was prorogued till to-morrow; but it is pro-
bable that enough has been already done to prove the impracticability of
the undertaking.
" This measure is the more extraordinary, as the Pasha has had suffi-
cient time to see the bad effects of his maximum on the necessaries of
life ; for by fixing their prices three months ago, there is now an alarm-
* The instauces of insults to Europeans, wherein some were much injured, went
on increasing, until Ibrahim Pasha took possession of Syria. To this prince Europeans
owe all the little respect accorded them to tliis day by the people of the countrj^ ;
still, at liis time in Damascus, and to this day in Hamma, Christians are not allowed
to ride in the streets !
■f- Forty paras make one piastre.
348 ArPEXDix.
ing scarcity in the chief articles of meat, butter, bread, aud barley, as
Avell as a want of all other provisions.
" If the other price-limiting speculation should be carried into effect,
it -will be seen that it was conceived with a view to throw obstacles
in the way of trade, for the sole purpose of compelling the different
branches of industry to unite in a contribution to purchase relief !
" The object, as far as it regards the Franks, will, however, I trust,
completely fail, as on this ground we are well armed by the express
tenor of our capitulations." *
Translation of a 2'>etition in Turl-ish from the Chiefs of the Trades and the
Poor in Antioch, to Mr. John Barker.
O friend of the nation, and zealous in befriending the poor, the
honom-ed i\Ir. Barker !
"We,t the population of this town, the literate aud illiterate class,
the chiefs of the villages, and the chiefs of the trades, in a body, have
previously sent foiir petitions to the Pasha at Aleppo, borne by persons
liarc-footed and bare-headed, having been weighed down by the tyranny
of Halif Aga (the former mutsellim), praying that he might be removed
from power; and his highness listened to our complaints, and placed
Sliakir Bey, colonel of the sbahis,| in his place. From that day we have
enjoyed tranquillity. But we have now learnt of a certainty, that Halif
Aga has petitioned his highness to the effect that he might send to this
Xovax [orders to the Bey], and have fifteen of the chiefs of the trades
put in chains and brought to Aleppo, in order that, after having done
so, the said Ilaji Halif Aga may be reinstated in the mutsellimlick.
Since we have a certainty of this, and also that these individuals
arc not guilty of any crime, but that this proceeds from the enmity of
Ilaji Halif Aga, which is as clear to all as the sun in the heavens, we,
* It was only vci-j- lately (1847), that tlic Pasha of Adana iirctended to prohibit the
Europeans from selling- any thing whatever in dtio il ; but on what he founded his
pretensions I cannot say. The Eui-opcan shops in Tarsus and Adana had been closed,
and complaints sent to Constantinople, with what chance of obtaining success no one
can tell ; and in Aleppo seventy persons under Eiu-opcan protection, some of whom
had been for thirty years in the service of various consulates, were seized and put in
prison until they i>aid the Karagc, a pcreoual tax on the Christian subjects of the
Grand Seigneur, from which all protected have hitherto been exempted. Later, the
French ambassador obtained an order of the Porte to the Pasha of Adana to desist
from such ridiculous pretensions.
t The persons who presented the petition belong all to the Muhammadan class of
the population.
+ The sbahis are the Sultan's in-cgular cavalry, of whom a trooji is quartered at
Antioch.
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 349
your servants, tlie poor, humbly state — firstly, that we Avill not have
Ilaji Ilalif x\.ga return to Antioch [that is, as mutsellim]; and secondly,
that these persons should be sent in chains to Aleppo, shall never be
Avith our consent; and in order that there may not be a revolution in
the town, we have lieen in a body to Mr. Michail Adib, the English
consular agent in this town, and have laid before him our case. To
which he answered, " I have a superior, to Avhom I will write, and in-
foi-m of the tacts of the case; and please God, Mr. Barker Avill cause the
affair to be properly represented." And we agreed to this advice of Mr.
Michail, and we have sent in this petition, that you may take what
measures you think fit for our trau(pdllity. (Signed as above.)
Postscript. — honoiu'ed sir, —
Mr. Michail Adib has written on the subject to the present mutsel-
lim and the council [to ask] why this injustice should be committed ?
and they answered, " We have no knowledge of it." Upon which Mr.
Michail begged that a written document be given to these [fifteen] in-
dividuals as a guarantee, Avhich they refused. Mr. Michail then went
to them [the mutsellim and council] and procured the paper; but for
all this, we, your humble sei'vants, are still in fear, and pray you will
strengthen us, because we do not wish to make disturbances, but that
justice should be done [to us], and we have [for this purpose] fallen at
the feet of the British government, and pray it may protect us from
oppression, (Signed as above.)
Dated Rubi Aliir 19, 1257. [June Sth, 1S4L]
BADIR KUAN BEY, THE EXTERMINATOR OF THE NESTORIAX CHRISTIANS.
Badir Khan Bey belonged to the chief family Avhich has been at the
head of the Kurds of Kiuxlistan Proper for many years, and whose per-
sons are considered by their tribe to be almost sacred. It is problema-
tical whether Badir Khan Bey is the actual head of the family; be this as
it may, by his bravery, and the assistance he afforded the Porte, he was
about seven years ago raised to the chief command ; and he contrived to
subdue to his authority, imder the sanction of the Porte, a district con-
taining 4000 villages, for which he contributed to the Turkish govern-
ment a sum of 1000 pui'ses annually; nor has he ever failed in his en-
gagement, so that tliQ Porte had really no caiise of complaint; for as to
his persecution of the Christians, according to the conscience of most of
the great men at Constantinople, Badir Khan Bey cannot be blamed for
thus promoting the cause of his religion.
350 ArPEXDix.
During tlie time that lie governed in Kurdistan, Badir Kliau con-
trived to amass a very large sum of money, great part of which he
buried, and caused the persons who had been employed in building up
the place where the treasiu'e was concealed to be killed, that the secret
of the spot might remain with him alone.
Badir Khan calculated upon rallying 40,000 followers to his standard
Avhen he first refused to give up his aiithority. But Avhen the troops
of Osman Pasha approached Jizirah, Iziddin Shir, a lad of seventeen,
the son of Mirsirdin,* had Ijeen entrusted with one of the passes into
Kurdistan, Bughaz Kalaasi, and he broke his trust by openly making
protestations to the Pasha of Musul, that he Avas determined not to fight.
On this, three-fourths of the Kurds abandoned Badir Khan, and he
found the numbers of his followers reduced first to 12,000, and after-
wards to a few hundred men, his immediate dependents. The Turks
all admit, that if it had not been for this treachery, the army of the
Porte would not have been in sufficient foi'ce to conquer the Kurd chief.
When Osman Pasha reached Jizirah, he found that the boats of the
bridge over the Tigris had been destroyed, to interrupt commimicatiou ;
and he ordered these to be repaired, and crossed "vvith his whole army,
encamping on the other side (where w^e since pitched our tent). Here
he was joined by Iziddin Shir, who had been to Musul, where the Pasha
had given him a nishan or honorary decoration, and had treated him
with great kindness, naming him governor of Kurdistan, in the place of
Badir Khan.
There is a road direct north, at about two hours ride from Jizirah;
but as it passes through precipitous hills, the army might haA'e been
attacked in those passes at a disadvantage, so Osman Pasha preferred
following the course of the stream along a Avood, which winds ■sA'ith the
river, north-west, for an hour, Avhere they encamped in an open place
among some olive-trees. Badir Khan, seeing himself l)etrayed by his
cousin, Iziddin Shir, and fearing that he would lead the Tiu-ks through
the defile, which was held by his younger brother, Mansur Bey,"]" he re-
solved on attacking them, with the hopes of throwing disorder into their
ranks before they could enter the gorge. The Turkish army consisted of
* Who had killed liis predecessor and brother-in-law, Suj-id Bc}', and taken the
reins of government for a short while previous to the aggrandisement of Badir Khan.
t To shew the spii-it of fanaticism still reigning in these parts, I will only state a
fact I lately Icamcd at Musul. Mansur Bey and his brother had pressed into their
sen^ice some hoi-ses from Musul to Jizirah to carry their effects ; these horses belonged
to a Christian, who followed them to bring back the animals ; but they were refused to
him unless he would consent to turn Turk ; on his complaining, Mansur made him open
his mouth, and thnist a jarid down his throat. The poor man is now in Masul, and has
lost the power of speech.
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 851
12,000 regiiliu- infantry and cavalry, and GOOO to 8000 irregulars. Badir
Khan's troops amounted to only 12,000, the rest being in the mountains,
and many siding with Iziddin Shir, others maintaining neutrality.
With these Badir Khan suriounded the army at night and kept up a
lieavy fire till morning, but he killed only twelve men and woiuided
sixty. The people of Jizirah, Avho were Kurds, and, at heart, on the
side of Badir Khan, pretend that the Pasha caused the bodies of the
soldiers to be sown up in sacks and thrown into the river, that the
number of the killed should not be kno-wn. They also say that one
Kurd was so brave, that he actually came up to the cannon to stop it
with stones directly after it had been fired off, and that he gave the
salara to the soldiers as he did this; on which he was shot by a subor-
dinate officer; but that, collecting his remaining strength, he stabbed
the Turk to the heart, on wdiich the colonel of the regiment came for-
ward and cut the Kurd down with his sword. They also say that the
Kurds succeeded in carrying off foiu" guns, which they were, however,
obliged to abandon in their flight the next morning. As soon as day
broke, the Turks, who had returned the fire without moving from their
place, charged the Kui'ds and rorited them. The Kurds then retired
by the pass near Finik (ancient Phoenicia), Avhere is an old castle, be-
sides several more modern and rudely constructed forts, Avhich have
been destroyed since the subjection of Badir Khan, together with seve-
ral others held by him in the mountains, Iziddin Shir conducted the
army through the other pass held by his brotlier, where there is a castle
built by his father, in which there is a little spring of brackish Avater,
and Avhich is noiv garrisoned by twenty Arnauts. This castle is inge-
nic^usly situated, commanding a pass through Avhich runs a stream
Avhich flows into the Tigris. It is at a sufficient height to render it
difficult of access, and still not too high to give effect to cannon defend-
ing the entrance of the pass. Opposite to it was another fortification,
Avhich the Pasha has pulled doAvn. This pass is one hour to the east
of the place of engagement, and through it the army made their Avay to
Dar Gul, or the Monastery Lake, tAVO and a half hours fm-ther on.""'
The army Avent in four days from Dar Gul to Avrack, and there
Badir Khan made his last stand Avith some tAvo or three hundred men
Avho remained faithful to him. There Avas some hard fighting at this spot^.
AA'hich Avas Avell situated to resist the attacks of the army; but at the end
of forty- eight hoiu's, Badir Khan surrendered on his own terms.
NoAv, if it had ever been the intention of the Porte to bring him to
condign punishment, there Avas not the least necessity for their alloAving
'" An "hour" may be computed to be about 3 J miles at most.
oo2 ArPENDIX.
him all lie demanded; but the fact is, the Porte had been compelled
against its Avill to make war upon him at the special desire, and in
accordance with the reiterated demand, of the British ambassador. At
all events, Badir Khan having proceeded to Constantinople, he there
pleaded his OAAm cause so effectually, that he has been allowed to rethe
and hve peaceably at Candia.
An account of the horrible atrocities committed by this savage
upon the defenceless Nestorians AviU be found in Layard's JMneveh and
tts Eemains, vol. i. p. 173 et seq., and at p. 239 a brief account of the
capture of Badir Khan ; corroborating, however, the more minute details
here given, inasmuch as Layard says, " The Turkish ministers had
more than suspected that Osman Pasha had reasons of his o^^^l for
granting these terms."
The Stonj ofFahel, Chief of the Arabs of the Zor, or Forest District of
the Euphrates; as related by Joiix Barker, Esq. Dated, Aleppo,
•20th May, 1823.
The Pasha of Aleppo, without having any cause of complaint, but
incited merely by the hope of plunder, was induced to make a grand
expedition against Fahel, an ancient chief of the tribes of sedentary
Arabs Avho inhabit the Zor, or forest on the banks of the Euphrates.
"With this view he despatched the mutsellim (governor) of Killis, Avith
four field-pieces, 2000 Turkish soldiers, and half that number of armed
peasants, to which force was added 1000 Arabs of the tribe Haddidin,
whom he had engaged to act as auxiliaries. This formidable army was
calculated to strike terror into the heart of the old patriarch, the fame
of whose riches Avas greater than his power.
Fahel prudently sought to avert the impending danger by an offer
of a large sum of money ; but that mark of submission and fear served
only to stimulate the Pasha's covetousness the more. The latter was
already in imagination possessed of the golden hoards of Fahel, when
his army was suddenly enveloped, attacked, and dispersed, leaving in
the hands of the victors the four cannons and the mutsellim, whose life
was spared in the manner related to me by a peasant, who was one of
tlie musketeers.
" It was not," said he, " the affair of a long summer's day — of an hour
— of half-an-hour. It Avas over in a shorter space of time than I have
employed to relate it. The first discharge of the artillery killed five of
our OAvn men. The cannoneei's had hardly time to reload before they
HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS. 353
were surrounded, having the mutseUim in the midst of them, and were
forced to use their swords and pistols. They made an obstinate resist-
ance ; but they all fell by the lances of the Fahel, except the mutsellim,
whose life was preserved by one of the sons of the chief, who was seen
flying in every direction, exclaiming, " No quarter to the Eviam ! * but
sj)are the peasant, for he has been brought here against his will."
The auxiliary Arabs abandoned camp and baggage, and saved them-
selves by flight ; but a woman was left behind. On the enemy coming
up to the empty tents,' she was recognised and accosted by a man, who
said to her: " Sister, what are you doing here ?" "I am in labour,"
she replied. " Then thou art the booty that God has assigned me," said
the Arab, and respectfully retired to a short distance. There he waited
patiently till the woman was delivered. The mother having nothing
that could serve to swaddle the infant, he tore off the skirt of his
tattered under-garmeut to cover it.
He then assisted his " sister " to mount his mare, and with the halter
in his hand, and words of comfort and urbanity in his conversation, he
journeyed on many a weary league in the traces of the fugitive tribe,
which he overtook, and restored the woman and the babe to their
family. He was introduced to the chief; and the next day, 'with the
view of effecting a reconciliation, he prevailed upon him to accompany
him to the tents of the victorious Fahel.
The old man upbraided him gently with having sided with the
Osmanlis. He replied, with dignit}^, " O Fahel ! I am a Haddidin.
Can you think me capable of uniting in a sincere friendship with those
Osmanli dogs ? Between you and me there is an honourable warfare.
"We fight ibr the goods of this world ; but the Ruam are not restrained
by the sacred laws of the Arabs. They respect not the chastity of the
women. They will slay a brave man whom they have had the chance
to laihorse ; and, with still greater baseness, stoop to take away his
sandals and his water-bottle, and expose him to perish in the desert !"
" Thou art a brave fellow," said Fahel, " and shalt hereafter be
esteemed amongst my dearest friends."
The interview between the rival chiefs had scarcely terminated,
when the naked and trembling mutsellim was conducted into the tent.
Fahel rose at his entrance. He was immediately furnished with a proper
suit of apparel, and after receiving the assurance of safety, and the cere-
monies of the pipe and the coflee being over, he Avas presented with a
cake of unleavened coarse Arab bread. The mutsellim broke it, turned
* Ruam is the i)lural of Rumi, and is a name the Arabs give to Turkish soldiers
without distinction, whctlicr they are from Rumilia (Tiu-key in Euroiie) or not.
A A
354 APPENDIX.
it over and over in his mouth, and after fruitless efforts to swallow it,
declared he could not eat it.
" "V^Hiat ! " exclaimed Fahel, sternly ; " you cannot eat our bread !
Yet this it is which your master envies us the possession of"
Wlien this Lacedajmonian rebuke had made its due impression on
the mutsellim, he was regaled with the choicest viands that could be
procured, and continued to be treated with respect and even kindness
in his captivity.
In the anguish of defeat the Pasha declared his resolution to be
revenged. He made some vain demonstrations to raise another army ;
but was soon after called away to the command of a distant province.
Meantime, instead of a prison, the mutsellim had enjoyed in the Zor
an asylum against the fury of his master, who sought to wash out his
own disgrace in the blood of the unhappy lieutenant.
He was at length dismissed with the honourable gifts of vests and
horses, and many other tokens of the hospitality and munificence of the
Arabs.
The new Pasha prudently accepted from Panel the ciistomary tribute
for the privilege of eelling to the people of Aleppo the surplus of his
corn, his sheep, and his butter.
In this little picture of living Arab manners it will be seen that the
victorious chief rose from his seat on a distinguished captive being led
into his presence ; but that mark of civility he shews to the meanest
indi\'idual, whether ISIuhammadan, Jew, or Christian. So very distinct
are Fahel's manners from those of the Turk in authority, that he never
suffers his hand or his vest to be kissed except by women and children.
He even always Iwnself carTies the water- vessel for his ablutions, deem-
ing it impious in a being subject to the wants of nature to exact from a
fellow-creature so degrading a service. The sentiment of this religious
respect for the dignity of a human being is not peculiar to Fahel. It
was displayed by Dr. Johnson, wlien he himself bought oysters with
which he fed his superannuated cat. But the virtue that distinguishea
a modern British philosopher is so common in Arabia as to attract no
attention among a people we please to call barbarians.
burckiiardt's account of cilicia. 355
D.
burckhaiidt's account of cilicia.
Mr. Lewis Burckhardt, the celebrated traveller, had a wonderful power
of describing even what he saw but casually ; witness his description
of Palmyra, where he was only permitted to remain a couple of hours,
and which he barely traversed on horseback ; and yet he gives a plan of
the city, and an admirable account of its ruins and edifices. On has
first going to the East, he j^i'oceeded to reside at Aleppo, in order to
prepare himself for being enabled to pass for a Mussulman.
On his way he touched at Tarsus ; and his account of this place is
sogra^shic, that we think we cannot do better than insert an extract, to-
gether with his relation of his first landing at Suedia, and the difficixlties
he experienced at Antioch on his first assuming the native costume.
" After we had left Satalia, we sailed for three days along the coast
of Caraniania, and kept our course constantly ten leagues distant from
the shore. The chain of snowy mountains seems to continue in a direc-
tion parallel with the shore. At the foot of these mountains I observed
every evening thunder-clouds and lightning. During our stay in the
port of Satalia we were twice refreshed by heavy showers, though it
was now the season when it very seldom rains in other parts of the
Levant. I suppose that the vicinity of the snowy mountains, which
rapidly condense the copious vapours arising from the heated earth,
give rise to these clouds. On the 26th, late at night, we anchored in
the roads of Mersin, a collection of villages so called, situated to the
west of Tarsus, about fourteen miles distant from it. The next morning
some of VIS went with the Tripoline on shore, where we found a party
of about twenty Turkmans encamped vmder and around a single tent ;
they were selling grain, with which the buyers loaded several camels.
After a short parley, the chief of the party led vis to his village, about
two miles distant. We remained there the whole day in the chief's
house, couched upon carpets, which were spread upon a terrace shel-
tered from the sun by the shade of two large mulberry-trees. We
returned to our ship in the evening, and spent the next four days in
the same manner with these hospitable people.
"An aga is at the head of this Turkman tribe ; he commands about
356 APPENDIX.
twenty-five villages, over each of wliich lie appoints a chief to collect
the revenue, which is equally divided between the chief and the aga.
Many of these chiefs are Greeks, who, by their long residence with the
Tiu'kmans, have completely adopted their manners. Their dress is the
same, excepting the red cap, which the Greeks do not wear ; and but
for that mark it would be impossible for a stranger to distinguish them
from their masters. The Turkmans are continually moving about on
horseback from one village to another ; they are tolerably well mounted
and well armed, each with a gun, two pistols, a poniard, and a sabre.
They never go but armed ; but it seems to be chiefly from ostentation,
for they live at peace with the inhabitants of the neighboui'ing liUages,
have nothing to fear from straggling Arab tribes, and have no oppor-
tunity of attacking travellers or caravans, which never pass this way.
They occupy the wdiole plain, which extends in length from Cape
Bajarre to beyond Tarsus ; its breadth extends from the sea to the
lowest ridge of the mountains of Caramania, and varies from four to
five or ten miles. This jilain, at least as much as I saw of it in my
way to Tarsus, is for the greater part sown with barley and wheat ;
where it is left unciiltivated, numerous herds of bufFalos and fine cattle
feed upon the wild grass. Wild capers grow in great abundance. I
found in several rivulets small tortoises ; and amongst the ruins of de-
serted houses we got here and there sight of a zerboa. The Tripoline
having made his purchase of grain from the aga, the latter sent on board
our ship three fat sheep in earnest of his engagements. In six days the
ship was to begin loading. The Tripoline being at leisure during this
time, I persuaded him to go Avith me to Tarsus, in search of a furtlier
conveyance for me by sea or land ; one of the other Tripolines was like-
wise desirous of looking out for a passage for Beirout : the excixrsion
was therefore soon agreed iipon. "We formed a small caravan, and set
out on horseback on the morning of the 30th. The road from our
anchoring place to Tarsus crosses the above-mentioned plain in an
easterly direction : we passed several small rivulets which empty them- :
selves into the sea, and which, to judge from the size of their beds, swell^
in the rainy season to considerable torrents. We had ridden about an
hour, when I saw, at half an hour's distance to the north of our route,
the ruins of a large castle, upon a hill of a regular shape in the plain :
half an hour further towards Tarsus, at an equal distance from our road,
upon a second tumulus, were ruins resembling the former; a third insu-
lated hillock, close to which we passed midway of our route, was over-
grown with grass, without any ruins or traces of them. I did not see
iu the whole plain any other elevations of ground but the three just
btjrckhardt's account of cilicia. 357
mentioned. Not far from the first ruins stands in the plain an insulated
cohiinn. Large groups of trees shew from afar the site of Tarsus. We
passed a small river before we entered the town, larger than those we
had met on the road. The western outer gate of the town, through
which we entered, is of ancient structure ; it is a fine arch, the interior
vault of which is in perfect preservation: on the outside are some remains
of a sculptured frieze. I did not see any inscriptions. To the right and
left of this gateway are seen the ancient ruined walls of the city, which
extended in this direction further than the town at jiresent does. From
the outer gateway,* it is about four hundred paces to the modern entrance
of the city; the intermediate ground is filled up by a burying-ground
on one side of the road, and several gardens with some miserable huts
on the other. We led our horses to the khan of the muleteers, and went
ourselves to the khan of the merchants, where we found tolerable accom-
modation, the brother of the Tripoline being known here. Our room
was soon filled with all the foreign merchants who lived in the khan,
and the principal town merchants ; we sold to them a few silk handker-
chiefs and coarse cambric, and were plagued with their company for the
whole remaining part of the day. The foreign merchants were a party of
Ivahines (Kahirines 1), several Aleppines, and some Constantinopolitans.
In the evening the alley at the gate of the khan was transformed into a
dark coffee-room, where every body went to smoke a pipe. As we were
strangers, we were greeted at our entrance with the usual politeness of
Orientals towards travellers : ' Peace be with you ; you are welcome
among us; how are you? God send you a happy evening,' &c. &c., Avere
compliments which every one whom we approached addressed to us.
We were treated by several merchants with pipes, coffee, ice-water, and
bour, which latter drink is water mixed with the juice of liquorice. Tlie
ice is brought from the mountains three days' journey distant, at the
price of three piastres for about five pounds. A tolerable singer sung
some Turkish airs, and accompanied himself upon a sort of mandoline.
Many questions were addressed to me about my person and affairs : my
neighbour the Tripoline took the trouble of answering them to the satis-
faction of the company. ' Allah Kerim !' ' God is great !' was their
usual exclamation at hearing that I came from so far. We retired rather
late ; for my part I had been much entertained with the party. We
went to sleep before the door of our room upon a covered terrace built
of wood, wliich runs along the interior circuit of the khan. Before sun-
rise every body was up; some of the merchants descended into the court-
* It was to the east of this gateway alluded to by Mr, Biu'ckhardt that the terra-
cottas were found. — W. B. B.
358 APPE.NDIX.
yard to perform at the fountain the abkil ions which are prescribed to
the Mussulman after his night's rest. But in this part of their religious
rites, as AveU as in the performance of their daily prayers, I observed
much indiiFerence amongst the plurality of the Turks I saw here, as
well as of those "svith whom I travelled afterwards from Suedieh to Aleppo.
Amongst the latter Avere many who, during eight days, did not pray
once; even two Hadjis, who had performed the Mecca pilgrimage, were
of that number. Some would pray once, others twice a day, before sun-
rise and after sunset ; only three or four of the caravan were strict in
regvdarly chanting the three daily prayers, to which number the Koran
limits the duty of travellers ; but I did not find that more respect or
deference was j>aid to them than to the others.
" We remained in the khan that morning, and quitted the town at
noon to retiu-n to our ship, leaving the Tripoline behind to settle oui'
affairs. The little I saw of Tarsus did not allow me to estimate its
extent ; the streets through Avhicli I passed were all built of wood, and
badly; some well-furnished bazaars, and a large and handsome mosque
in the vicinity of the khan, make up the whole register of curiosities
which I am able to relate of Tarsus. Upon several maps Tarsus is
marked as a sea-town : this is incorrect ; the sea is above three miles
distant from it. On our return home, we started in a S.W. direction, and
passed, after two hours and a half's march, Casal (Cazan or Caisanlu), a
large village half a mile distant from the sea-shore, called the Port of
Tarsus, because vessels freighted for Tarsus usually come to anchor in
its neighbourhood. From thence turning towards the west, we arrived
at our ship at the end of two hours. The merchants of Tarsus trade
principally with the Syrian coast and Cyprus : Imperial ships arrive there
from time to time to load grain. The land-trade is of very little conse-
quence, as the caravans from Smyrna arrive very seldom. There is no
land-communication at all between Tarsus and Aleppo, which is at ten
journeys (caravan travelling) distant from it. The road has been ren-
dered unsafe, especially in later times, by the depredations of Kutshuk
Ali, a savage rebel, who has established himself in the mountains to the
north of Alexandretta. Tarsus is governed by an aga, who, I have
reason to believe, is almost independent. The French have an agent
there, who is a rich Greek merchant.
" On the following day the TripoUne rejoined us ; he had taken, to
my great satisfaction, a passage for me on board a Greek sailing-boat
from Tripoli of Syria.* That vessel was at anchor at Casal, and accord-
* This Tripoli is distinguished from the city of which my fellow-traveller is a native
by the appellation of Taraboluiis fcl Shark, or Tripoli of the East.
burckiiardt's account of cilicia. 359
ing to its master's affirmation was bouud for Latikia, which was exactly
the place where I wished to land. I left our ship on the second of July ;
in taking leave of the Tripoline I took off my sash, a sort of red cam-
bric shawl, of Glasgow manufacture, wliich he had always much admired,
thinking it to be Indian stuflf, and presented it to him as a keepsake or
rcAvard for his good services. He immediately unloosened his turban,
and twisted the shawl in its stead round his head, making me many pro-
fessions of friendship, and assuring me of his hospitality if ever the
chance of mercantile pursuits should again engage me to visit the Medi-
terranean, and perhaps Tripoli in Barbary. The time I hope may come
when I shall be enabled to put his assiurances to the test. (I think I
forgot to mention that the Trijioline was much skilled in languages,
wliich enabled me freely to converse with him ; besides his native Arabic
tongue, he spoke Turkish, Greek, and Italian.) The vessel on board of
which I now embarked was an open boat with three maists, about thirty-
five feet long and nine broad, much resembling the representation of the
germs of the Nile, which Bruce and other travellers have given. These
vessels are very common on the Syrian coast, where they are called
Shacktur. I had engaged to pay for my passage twenty-five piastres
at my arrival in Latikia ; but was no sooner with my baggage on board,
than the master informed me that he meant to proceed to Antakia
(Antiochia), not to Latikia, and that I was at liberty to return to my
own ship if I did not choose to go his way. I thus found myself duped
a second time, though I had most distinctly agreed for my passage to
Latikia. However, there being no other conveyance to the coast of
Syria at hand, I resolved to remain on board. I was afraid of being
kept in these parts until after the return of my old ship for Malta, when
I should have nobody to recommend me to those in whose company I
might continue my way ; I knew, moreover, that there was a brisk inter-
course between Antakia and Aleppo. There had not been for some time
any opportunity from Tarsus to the opposite coast. A crowd of passen-
gers came therefore on board. I counted fifty-six men and women lying
upon deck, besides six sailors, and six horses in the ship's hold. We had
each just as much space allowed as the body covered, and remained in
this state two nights and one day. In general the passage is performed
within the twenty-four houi's.
" On the morning of the 5th we entered the bay of Suedieh, which
is formed on one side by the promontory called Eas Ivlianzir, on the
other by another projecting rocky mountain (Ras Bassit) ; both are the
extremities of chains of barren rocks, which I conceive to be the remotest
branches of the Libanus. These mountains come down to the water's
360 APPENDIX.
edge on both sides of the bay; in the bottom of it, where the Orontes,
now called Aasi, empties itself into the sea, begins a level country of four
or five miles in width and length. It is to the whole of this tract of level
land, which contains several villages, that the name of Suedieh is ap-
plied, though that appellation is also given sometimes exclusively to
the port.
*' The wind being favourable, we entered the river, and anchored,
after half an hour's sailing through its sinuosities, at Mina, the port of
Antokia, where the ship was laid close to the shore, where the elevated
banks of the river form a kind of quay. Mina is a miserable village
built close to the river's right bank, consisting of about seven or eight
houses, the best of which serves as a place of residence to the aga, whom
the aga of Antakia appoints to receive the duties upon exports and im-
ports> Higher up than Mina the Aasi is not navigated; the navigation
is rendered impracticable by rocks, though there is plenty of water.
Here., at the last stage of its course, it is a fine slow-flowing river, much
about the size of the Thames beyond Eichmond Bridge ; its waters are
muddy, and this being the case in the month of June, three or four
months after the rainy season, I suppose they can hardly be clear dur-
ing any other part of the year.
"Arrived at Suedieh, I found myself very uncomfortably situated.
I had lost my friend the Tripoline, and though he had warmly recom-
mended me to the master of the Shacktur, yet I found the crew of the
vessel to be tliievous and treacherous. They spread the rumour amongst
the people of Suedieh that I was a Frank ; and as the ship was immediately
to return to Tarsus, I expected to find myself completely at the mercy
of the inhabitants, amongst whom, as well as amongst the crew, there
was nobody who understood the Italian, or, as they called it, the Latin
tongue. I remained on board the ship that day and the following; and
was bargaining for a horse and mules to take mc to Antakia, when, to
my great satisfaction, a caravan from Aleppo came down to the coast
with Indian goods ; I soon got acquainted with the muleteers, and made
my bargain with one of them for the whole journey from Suedieh to
Aleppo. He first asked fifty piastres per kantar (about five hundred
pounds English weight). I got him down to thirty, and was afterwards
informed at Aleppo that I should not have paid more than twenty-
five. It is a great point gained by travellers in these countries if they
can make with their mule or camel-drivers the usual bargain of the
country. If the muleteer overcharges them, he makes a boast of it
wherever he goes ; the traveller is immediately known to be a person
little conversant with the customs of the country, and he may be sure
o is
S w
< >.
burckiiardt's account of cilicia. 361
to be dealt "with accordingly in every respect, wherever the mvile-driver
accompanies him. I was helping the sen-ants to distribute my baggage
into mules' loads, and to tie it round with cords, when the aga sent for
me. I foiind him smoking his pipe in a miserable room, surrounded by
his people : entering the room, I pulled off my slippers and sat down
on the lloor before him. I shall here remark that it is a custom most
strictly adhered to never to sit down upon a carpet or even a mat, and
in presence of a man of rank, not even upon the bare floor, without pull-
ing off the slipi)ers; and if a person has but one pair on his feet, which
is the Moggrebyn and the Greek fashion, he must sit down bare-
footed.
" After I had drunk a dish of coffee, I asked the aga what his plea-
sure Avas ; he answered me by making a sign with his thumb and fore-
finger, like a person counting money. I had several chests for the British
consul at Aleppo with me, and had also marked my own baggage with
the consul's name, thinking by these means to prevent its being examined.
He asked me what the chests contained ; I expressed my ignorance about
it, telling him only that I thought there was a sort of Frank drink (beer)
and some eatables which I had been charged with at Malta for the consul
on my way home. He sent one of his people to look over their contents ;
a bottle of beer had been broken in loading, the man tasted it by putting
his finger into the liquor, and found it abominably bitter: such Avas his
report to the aga. As a sample of the eatables, he produced a potato
which he had taken out of one of the barrels, and that noble root excited
a general laughter in the room : * It is Avell worth while,' they said, ' to
send such stuff to such a distance.' The aga tasted of the raw potato, and
spitting it out again, swore at the Frank's stomach, which could bear
such food. The other trunks were now left unexamined ; and I Avas
asked fifteen piastres for the permission to depart Avith them. I gave
him ten piastres, and receiA^ed from him a sort of receipt for that money,
because I told him that without it the consul would never believe that
I had really paid doAvn the money as duty upon his effects. The aga Avas
very high in his expressions, talking of his grandeur, hoAv little he cared
about the sultan, and still less for any consul, &c. He laughed a great
deal at my Arabic, Avhich certainly was hardly intelligible ; but he did
not much trouble himself Avith questions about my affairs, his mind
seeming noAV solely taken up by the hope of extorting money from the
Aleppine merchants ; and so I left him; and soon afterwards, about an
hour before sunset, departed from Suedieh AA-ith part of the caraA-an, the
rest intending to pass the night there. The road from Suedieh to An-
takia crosses the plain for about one hour's distance. On the right runs,
362 ArpENDix.
in ■ a doep bed, a branch of the Aasi, and forms in this place several
islands ; on your left extends the well-cultivated plain of Suedieh.
" As we approached the mountains which enclose the plain on the
•western side, we passed several extensive and regularly-planted orchards
belonging to the aga of Antakia. The road now lay through lanes
thickly overhung on both sides with shrubs, and I was entering a coun-
try famous for the beauties of its landscape scenery, when the sun shed
its last rays. We continued our way in the dark for about one hour
and a half longer, and halted near a rivulet at the entrance of the hills,
where men and horses were fed : we remained there till about t^vo hours
after midnight.
" From thence the road leads over a mountainous and rocky groiind
abounding with trees and springs. At the break of day Ave passed a
village and a considerable rivulet flowing towards our right; one hour's
march fiu-ther another rivulet; the coimtry then opens, and the traveller
finds himself upon the ridge of a high plain (Carachaiain), encompassed
by the two before-mentioned chains of moi;ntains, from which he descends
into the valley which the Aasi waters, and where he finds Antakia very
pictm-esquely situated, near the foot of the southern chain of mountains,
surrounded with gardens and well-sown fields. It was yet early in the
morning when we passed the river and entered the town; a strong-built
bridge leads over the river immediately into the town -gate. I was
stopped at the gate and asked for one of the two pistols which I wore
in my girdle; I had told the people of the caravan that they belonged
to the English consul. My muleteer assvared me that the pistol would
be restored ; I therefore gave it i;p voluntarily, well convinced it would
have been forced from me against my will. The aga's man brought it
back in the evening; I was asked two piastres for the returning of it; they
had taken the flint, and the powder from the pan. Arrived at Antakia,
the muleteer led his mules to the khan of the muleteers ; I might have
gone to the khan of the merchants, but having nobody to accompany me
and introduce me there, I preferred staying with the muleteers, whose
way of living I also wished to see. The khan is a large com-tyard built
in a triangular shape: the basis of the triangle is distributed on both
sides of the entrance-door into small dark cells, which serve as maga-
zines for the goods and as places to cook in. On another side are the
stables; and the whole length of the third side is taken up by a terrace
built of stone, about four feet elevated from the ground, and eight feet
broad, where the muleteers eat, sleep, and pray, that side of the khan
l)eing built in the direction of Mecca. In the midst of the yard is a large
water-basin, which alfords diink to men and beasts indiscriminately.
BURCKHARDT'S account op CILICIA. 363
" My entrance into the klian excited considerable curiosity, and the
little cell I took jjossession of was soon beset by troublesome inquii'ers,
who imanimously declared that I was a Frank come to the country for
evil purposes. I had nobody to take my part except my muleteer,
whce remonstrances in my behalf were soon lost in the general cry of
djaour (inttdel) raised by the other inhabitants of the khan, and by the
town's-people who came to visit their friends.
" Whenever I could get any of them to listen to me for half an hour,
I found means to appease them ; but the town's-people did not even con-
descend to speak to me, and I evidently saw that their plan was to make
religion a pretext for practising an avanie upon me. My property fortu-
nately was mixed with that of the consul ; a spare shirt and a carpet
constituted my whole baggage ; besides a pocket-purse, containing the
money necessary for my daily expenses, I had about twenty sequins
hidden upon me. The aga of Antakia sent his dragoman to get some-
thing out of me. This was a wretched Frank, who pretended to be a
Frenchman, but whom I should rather suppose to be a Piedmontese. I
pretended complete ignorance of the French language ; he therefore
asked me in Italian minutely about my affairs, and how I could attempt
to travel home without any money or goods to defray the expenses of
the joui'ney. I answered that I hoped the consul, in remuneration of my
having carefully watched his effects, would pay the expense of a camel
from Aleppo to Bagdad, and that at the latter place I Avas sure of finding
friends to facilitate my fiu'ther journey. When the man saw that nothing
in my manners betrayed my Frank origin, he made a last trial, and
pulling my beard a little with his hand, asked me familiarly ' Why I
had let such a thing grow ?' I answered him Avith a blow upon his
face, to convince the by-standing Turks how deeply I resented the re-
ceived insult ; and the laugh now turned against the poor dragoman,
who did not trouble me any further. I am at a loss to state how far I
succeeded in sustaining my assumed character; I thought that the major
part of the caravan people Avere gained over to my side, but the tOAvn's-
people were constant in their imprecations against me. I had been
flattered with an immediate departure for Aleppo, but the caravan was
detained four days in the khan. During the Avhole time of our stay, I
spent the daytime in the cell of the goods, amusing myself Avith cooking
our victuals; the town's-people, though often assembled before the door
of the room, never entered it; in the evening the gates of the khan were
shut, and 1 then Avent to sleep Avith the muleteers upon the terrace.
" I Avas relieved from this unpleasant situation on the 10th, Avhen it
Avas decided that the caravan should depart. The muleteers began pre-
364 APPENDIX.
paring for tlieir departure by dividing tlie wliole court into squares of
different sizes, by means of ropes, at the end of which iron wedges are
fastened, which are driven into the earth up to their heads; each mule-
teer takes one of these squares proportionate in size to the number of
his beasts, and loads them in it. Though the ropes are little more than
one inch above ground, the animals never move out of the square assigned
to them, and thus great order prevailed in the khan, though it was dark
when we loaded, and the Avhole court crow^ded with beasts and bales. At
halting-places, when the beasts are fed, the same ropes are extended in
front of them to prevent their getting amongst the baggage.
" I cannot say much of Antakia, having seen nothing of it but the
streets through which I entered. It looks like a neat town, at least in
comparison to Tarsus : living is only half as dear as it is in Aleppo.
This circumstance, joined to the beauty of the surrounding country, and
the proximity of the sea, would make it a desirable place for Franks to
live in, were it not for the fanaticism of its inhabitants, who pride them-
selves upon being descendants from the Osmanlis the conquerors of Syria.
Last year at a tumult raised at Suedieh, these Osmanlis murdered the
Greek aga (Barhoom Kehya, grandfather of Jusif Saba) of Suedieh, with
his whole family, and a young French physician, who had come to his
house to cure his son. The aga of Antakia is appointed by the Grand
Signior, and is independent of any pasha.
"We marched the whole night of the 10th over a plain covmtry, and
reached early the next morning Hamsie, a village situated at nine hours
march from Antakia, on the right bank of the Oi'ontes. We passed
the river in a ferry-]:)oat : its banks on both sides are about forty feet
high at this place; its breadth is near fifty A-ards; the depth no where
more than five feet. On a little eminence a few hundred paces from
the ground on the river's side where we encamped, rises a sjiring of
excellent w^ater ; my companions, however, drank of the muddy water
of the Orontes in preference to taking the trouble of filling their flasks
at the spring. One of the merchants had a tent with him, under the
shade of which we passed the whole day. In the evening the village
youths kindled a large fire, and amused themselves with music and
dancing. The next day we passed a chain of calcareous mountains
planted here and there with olives; on the top of one of these mountains
lives a custom-house officer, who exacted a toll from each individual, as
it was said, in the name of the Grand Signior. The descent on the
eastern side is steep, but the mules walked with the greatest firmness.
In the valley into which we descended lies the town of Ermenaz, w^a-
tered by several streams. Though small, it is one of the best towns in
BURCKIIARDT'S ACCOUNT OF CILICIA. 365
this part of Syria; its gardens are cultivated with great care, and its in-
habitants are industi-ious, because they are out of the immediate reach of
rapacious pashas and janissaries. Tliey work a glass manufacture which
supplies Aleppo. The olives of the country round Aleppo are, next to
those of Tripoli, the best in Syria; its grapes are likewise much esteemed.
As we rode by, I saw lying on the right-hand side of the I'oad near the
town, a broken ancient column of about four feet in diameter ; and I
was told afterwards in Aleppo that many like remains of antiquity are
to be met with in the neighbourhood of Ermenaz. At half an hour's dis-
tance from this latter place we again began to mount, and the path became
difficult and tiresome for the beasts, from the number of detached rocks
with which it is overspread. After nearly eight hours' march (meaning
the whole day's work) we descended into the eastern plain of Syria, and
encamped at the foot of the mountains, round a large tree in the vicinity
of a copious spring. Whenever the beasts were unloaded, it was with
much difficulty that I could prevent my luggage from being thrown upon
the ground. The caravan people in this country, and I should suppose
every where else in the East, are accustomed to loads of bales of goods
which do not receive -any injury from letting them fall to the ground.
The loads on each side of the beast are tied together over its back by a
cord. Arrived at the halting-place, the first thing the muleteer does is
to go from mule to mule to unloosen that cord ; the loads then fall to the
ground. This mode of unloading, and the great carelessness of these
people, render the transport of many European commodities utterly im-
practicable, without their being accompanied by a servant sent along
with them, for the express purpose of taking off the loads. A Frank
merchant of Aleppo received some years ago a load of Venetian looking-
glasses Avhich Avere all dashed to pieces. Provided the chests which con-
tain the merchandise be entire, the muleteer thinks himself free from
responsibility. We were joined in the evening by some other travellers,
whose curiosity led them to new inquiries about my person and affairs.
None of my companions had till now found out any thing which could
have directly inculpated myself; they, however, kept a strict Avatch over
all my motions : being obliged at night to go aside, two of the travellers
last arrived followed me unseen, and pretended afterwards to have ob-
served some irregularities in the ablutions necessary to be performed on
such occasions ; in consequence of which, I was told that I was ' Haram,'
or in a forbidden unclean state ; and notwithstanding every thing I said
to defend and excuse myself, I found that from that time I had lost the
good opinion of all my companions. We marched the next day six
hours, and halted at Mart Mesriu, a village belonging to Ibrahim Pasha,
3G6 APrEXDix.
who, in the time of Djezar, Avas Pasha of Aleppo, afterwards Pasha of
Damascus, and who lives now in disgrace and poverty at this place, the
whole appearance of which makes it probable that in a few years hence
it will be deserted by its inhabitants. The wide-extended plain over
Avhich we marched this day consists almost throughout of a fertile soil,
but without any trees, and in most places uncultivated, but where a
number of ruined and deserted villages indicate that many parts of it
must have formerly been cultivated. Having been much plagued dur-
ing this whole day by my fellow-travellers, and in the evening also by
the peasants, who had collected round the caravan, I swore that I would
not eat any more with any of them. This declaration being somewhat
in the Arab style, they were startled at it; and my muleteer especially
much pressed me to rejoin their mess; I assured him that I would rather
eat nothing and starve than have any further friendly dealings with men
who professed themselves my friends one day, and proved my enemies
the next (it should be observed that this was the last stage of our jour-
ney ; I therefore did not run great risk in making good my words). The
tract of coimtry over which we passed on the following day was similar
m appearance to that which we had seen on the preceding. The num-
ber of deserted and ruined villages increased the nearer we approached
Aleppo. We had marched about eight hours Avhen we discerned the
castle of Aleppo, at the sight of which the armed horsemen of the caravan
set off at a gallop, and repeatedly fired off their guns; the merchants put
themselves ahead of the caravan; and after one hour's march further
we entered the town. All merchandises coming to Aleppo must be
taken to the custom-house khan; they are weighed there to deter-
mine the amount of the sum due to the muleteer for freight, and a duty
must be paid for them to the Grand Signior, which, together with the
taxation-money of the Christians and Jews, is the only branch of revenue
which the janissaries, the present masters of the town, still allow the
Porte to retain. The English consular house is in that A'ery khan.
" I was now arrived at Aleppo in a shape which entirely left it to
my option cither to continue in my disguise or to avow my European
origin. After a long conversation on that subject with ]\Ir. Barker, I
was convinced that it would better answer the pru'pose of my stay in
Aleppo to choose the latter, and my reasons for it were the following :
At the time I left England and Malta, I imagined that the intercourse
between Cairo and Aleppo was frequent, and that it might easily happen
that Cairine merchants might see me here and recognise me afterwards
at home, or that travelling Alcppines who knew me here might after-
wards see me again in Egypt. The departure of the Syrian pilgrim
BURCKnAIlDT'S ACCOUNT OF CILICIA. 367
caravan to Mecca not having taken place for the last three years, has
almost annihilated the commei'cial intercourse overland between the two
countries. At the meeting of the Syrian and African caravan near
Mecja, Egyptian merchants used formerly to join the former and return
with them to Damascus and Aleppo, and vice versa. At present the
little commerce carried on between Cairo and Aleppo is entirely in the
hands of a few Turkish and Greek houses at Tripoli, Latikia, and Alex-
andria, and the Egyptian merchants themselves never come to Aleppo.
Had I continued in my disguise, and continued to live exclusively amongst
the Turks, opportunities would have frequently happened to put the vera-
city of my story to the test. East Indians come from time to time to
Aleppo Avith the Bagdad caravan, and many of the Bagdad and Bassorah
merchants established at Aleppo have been in India. My person would
have been infinitely more noticed than it now is, if taking a shop in the
bazaar, as I first intended, I should have exposed myself to the curiosity
of the whole town ; I should have entirely foregone the instruction to
be derived from books and masters skilled in the language; and, more-
over, I have no doidit that the French consul residing here would have
heard of my arrival and have done every thing to put my pursuits in a
dubious light. These are the reasons which convinced me that, for the
j^resent time, it was more advisable to appear in a shape which would
preclude the intrusion of cui'ious inquirers, and afford more facility to
my studi'es. I continue my name of Ibrahim, and pass in my Turkish
dress unnoticed in the crowds of the street and the bazaars. The consul
receives me at his house as a travelling country merchant of his ; and
as it frequently happens that people corning into the Levant change
their names, nobody wonders at my being called with an oriental name.
I had first my doubts whether my fellow caravan travellers might not
be over-inquisitive here; but such of them as I have since met greeted
me without further questions, and the government of the city is now
such, that a man picking a quarrel with me about what I might have
told him at Antakia, would only expose himself to be fined for a sum
of money by the janissaries, the masters of the town, for their trouble
to settle the business with the consid.
" My plans for the present are to remain at Aleppo the wdiole of the
winter and part of next summer. I have been fortunate enough to find
a good and Avilling master of Arabic, and I hope to make progress in
the study of the literal as well as vulgar language. As soon as I shall
be able to express myself with some precision in the vulgar dialect, and
perfectly to luiderstand it, I shall visit the Bedouin Arabs in the Desert,
and live with them some months. I can do this in perfect security; and
368 APPENDIX.
I have no doubt that you will approve of it, as it will afford me the best
opportunity of practising the manners and becoming acquainted with
the character of a class of people who are the same, Avhether they over-
run the deserts of Arabia or those of Africa.
" You need not be afraid that the history of my own person, which
has taken up so considerable a portion of the preceding pages, will any
more be exhibited before you at such a length. I thought it might be
of some iiitei'est to the Association to see how far I Avas able to succeed
in making good my way to Aleppo in the disguise in which I left Lon-
don, unaided as I was by a knowledge of Eastern languages, or a fami-
liarity with Eastern manners. This trial has so far been satisfactory
to me, that, in the first place, I am persuaded that nothing of my pur-
suits has transpired at Malta, which will always be of material conse-
quence to me ; secondly, in being landed at a remote corner of Syria, I
have avoided the general intercourse of a mercantile seaport, such as
Acre, Beirout, Tripoli, or Latakia ; and finally, it has created within
me the confidence that, whenever I may be able to call in support of a
similar disguise, a fluent utterance of Arabic, and a habitude of oriental
manners, I shall easily find means to triumph over such obstacles as
those I met with in the khan at Antakia," in which he succeeded perfectly.
" A few days after my arrival at Aleppo, I was attacked by a strong
inflammatory fever, which lasted a fortnight. The want of nights' rest
occasioned by the quantity of vermin which had collected upon my per-
son, principally during my stay in the khan of Antak.'a, was, as I thought,
the cause of it. I have enjoyed perfect health since that time, and the
climate agrees with me better than I expected.
Alex)po, October 2d, 1809.
Mr. Burckhardt remained two years and a half in Syria, making
daily additions to his practical knowledge of the Arabic language, and
to his experience of the cliaracter of Orientals, and of ]\Iohammadan
society and manners. His priufipal residence was at Aleppo. Having
assumed the name of Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah at Malta, he continued to
bear it in Syria ; but apprehensive of not liaviug yet had sufficient expe-
lience thoroughly to act the jiart of a Mussulman, and finding no neces-
sity for such a disguise at Aleppo, he was not studious to conceal his
European origin, and wore only such a Turkish dress as is often assumed
in Syria by English travellers, less for the sake of concealment than to
avoid occasional insult. Thus lie had the benefit of an unmolested inter-
course with the Mussulman 2)c)pulatiuu of Aleppo, at the same time that
he was not prevented from openly accepting the friendship and pro-
tection of Mr. Barker, the British consul, nor under the necessity of
burckeardt's account of cilicia. 369
denying himself tlie social resources affortleJ by the houses of the Euro-
pean residents, especially those of Mr. Barker, and of Mr. Masseyk,
formerly Dutch consul. Of his obligations to the former of these gentle-
men, he omitted no opportunity of bearing testimony.*
I cannot better conclude this long, but I trust not uninteresting ex-
tract, than by giving Mr. Salt's account of the last moments of Mr. Lewis
Burckhardt ; it is to me most heart-rending; and his sensibility and
feeling towards his mother, to whom he had been so devoted all his life,
are touching in the extreme.
"On the morning of the 15th (1817), conscious of his danger, he
proposed and obtained the consent of his physician, that Mr. Salt, his
Majesty's consul-general, should be sent for, 'I went over immediately,'
says Mr. Salt in a letter to the secretary of the Association ; ' and can-
not describe how shocked I was to see the change which had taken place
in so short a time. On the Tuesday before, he had been walking in my
garden Avith every appearance of health, and conversing with his usual
liveliness and vigour; now he could scarcely articulate his words, often
made use of one for another, was of a ghastly hue, and had all the ap-
pearance of approaching death. Yet he perfectly retained his senses,
and was surprisingly firm and collected. He desired that I should take
pen and paper and write down what he should dictate. The following
is nearly word for word wdiat he said : ' If I should now die, I wish you
to draw upon Mr. Hamilton for two hundred and fifty pounds, for money
due to me from the Association, and together with what I have in the
hands of Mr. Boghoz (two thousand piastres), make the follo\ving dispo-
sition of it :. Pay up my share of the Memnon Head (this, he afterwards
repeated, as if afraid that I should think he had already contributed
enough, as I had once hinted to him). Give two thousand piastres ta
Osman (an Englishman, whom at Shikh Ibrahim's f particular request I
had persuaded the Pasha to release from slavery). Give foui* hundred
piastres to Shaharti my servant. Let my male and female slaves, and
whatever I have in the house, which is little, go to Osman. Send one
* During his residence afc my father's house he was naturally desirous of forming
himself as much as possible to the manners and customs of the Mohammedans ; and
he used to practise in his room the genuflections used by the Turks diu^ing their five
times of prayer. To do this more at his ease, he would lock himself up ua his room.
The people of the country, who had some suspicion of his identity, and were desirous of
clearing up their minds on the subject, used to peep at him through the kej'hole ; and
as they saw him going through the ceremonies of prayer, they decided that he must
be a Mohammedan ; and all his assurances to the contrary were ever after useless to
change their opinion thus formed of him.
t From the time of his departm-e from Aleppo, Mr. Burckhardt had continued tq
pass by this name.
B B
370 APPENDIX.
thousand piastres to the poor at Zurich. Let my whole library, -with
the exception of my European books, go to the University of Cambridge,
to the care of Dr. Clarke the librarian ; comprising also the manuscripts
in the hands of Sir Joseph Banks. My European books (they were only
eight in number) I leave to you (Mr. Salt). Of my papers make such
a selection as you tliink fit, and send them to Mr. Hamilton for the
African Association; there is nothing on Africa. I was starting in two
months' time with the caravan returning from Mecca, and going to
Fezzan, thence to Tombuctou; but it is otherwise disposed. For my
affairs in Europe, Mr. Eapp has my will.* Give my love to my friends
(enumerating several persons with whom he was living upon terms of
intimacy at Cairo). Write to Mr. Barker (he then paused, and seemed
troubled, and at length with great exertion said) — let Mr. Hamilton
acquaint my mother with my death, and say that my last thoughts have
been "with her. (This subject he had evidently kept back, as not trust-
ing himself with the mention of it until the last.) The Turks,' he added,
' will take my body, I know it ; perhaps you had better let them.' —
When I tell you that he lived only six hours after this conversation,
you will easily conceive what an effort it must have been. The expres-
sion of his countenance when he noticed his intended journey, was an
evident struggle between disappointed hopes and manly resignation.
Less of the weakness of hiunan nature was perhaps never exhibited
upon a deathbed. Dr. Richardson and Osman, who has for some time
lived with him, were both present at this conversation. He ended by
expressing a wish ithat I should retire, and shook my hand at parting
as taking a final leave. So unhappily it proved; he died at a qiiarter
before twelve the same night without a groan. The funeral, as he de-
sired, was Mohammedan, conducted with all proper regard to the respect-
able rank which he had held in the eyes of the natives. Upon this point
1 had no diflSculty in deciding, after his own expression on the subject.
The Arabic manuscripts for the University of Cambridge are in a large
chest, and shall be forwarded by the first safe opportunity, together
with his papers, which ai'e few, and appear to be chiefly copies of what
1 believe him to have already transmitted.'
" To those who have perused the preceding extracts from Mr. Burck-
• This rofora to a will made previous to his departure from England, according to
which, in case he had advanced into the interior of Africa, and was not heard of by the
Ist of January 1820, he was to be considered as dead. Bj' this will, after shewing his
gratitude to a relation to whom ho had been indebted while at Leipzig, he appointed
his mother residuary legatee for all sums which might accrue to him from his engage-
ments with the African Association.
burckhardt's account of cilicia. 371
Lardt's correspondence, it will be almost superfluous to add any remarks
upon liis character. As a traveller he possessed talents and acquirements
which were rendered doubly useful by his qualities as a man. To the
fortitude and ardour of mind, which had stimulated him to devote his
life to the advancement of science in the paths of geographical discovery,
he joined a temper and prudence well calculated to ensvu'e his triumph
over every difficulty. His liberality and high principles of honour, his
admiration of those generous qualities in others, his detestation of injus-
tice and fraud, his disinterestedness and keen sense of gratitude,* were
no less remarkable than his warmth of heart and active benevolence,
which he often exercised towai-ds persons in distress, to the great pre-
judice of his limited means. No stronger example can easily be given
of sensibility united with greatness of mind, than the feelings which
he evinced on his deathbed, when his mother's name, and the failure of
the great object of his travels, were the only subjects upon which he
could not speak without hesitation. By the African Association his loss
is severely felt, nor can they easily hope to supply the place of one whom
birth, education, genius, and industry, consj)ired to render well adapted
to whatever great enterprise his fortitude and honourable ambition might
have prompted him to undertake. The strongest testimony of their
approbation of his zealous services is due from his employers to their
late regretted traveller ; but it is from the public and from posterity
vthat his memory will receive its due reward of fame ; for it cannot be
doubted that his name will be held in honourable remembrance as long
as any credit is given to those who have fallen in the cause of science."
* His present to the University of Cambridge of the choicest collection of Arabic
manuscripts in Europe, was intended as a mark of his gratitude for the literary benefits
and the kind attention which he received at Cambridge when preparing himself for his
travels. Of his disregard of pecuniary matters, and his generous feeling towards those
who were dear to him, a single example will be sufficient. His father having bequeathed
at his death about ten thousand pounds to be divided into five equal parts, one to his
widow and one to each of his children, Lewis Bm-ckhardt immediately gave up his
portion to increase that of his mother. " If," he said, " I perish in my present under-
taking, the money will be where it ought to be ; if I return to England, my employers
will undoubtedly find me some means of subsistence."
APPENDIX
TahJe T. Commerce o/KArsARn
Statistics.
Imports from the chief Towns.
Name of I Their
Erze-
J
Trehi- "I
zonde \
Kara-
Hisar
Diyar-
Bakir
Musul
Damas-
cus .
Aleppo.
75,000
60,000
30,000
Tarsus \-
30,000
20,000
100,000
60,000
6,000
Days.
20
16
12
20
35
15
7
Name of the
goods
imported.
Times.
5to6 -{
1„2|
3,,5 «
Teftic. . . .
Buffalo-skins
Hare-skins .
Pelisses . . .
Merchandise
from Persia.
Calicoes . . .
Buffalo-skins
Goat-skins
2„3 <
1„2
1„2
Hare-skins
Trebizond
Calicoes
Tragacanth
Galls
Alaja . . .
Citara . .
Galls . . .
Manufac-
tuies of the
place . . .
Ditto . . .
Cotton
Soap . .
Hinna .
Tobacco
.}
In what
quantity.
Their
value.
40,000 okes
600 skins .
12,000 ,, .
8000 . . .
2,000,0001
piasters . i
2000 . . .
500 ...
20,000 . .
10,000 . .
1,000. . .
10,000 okes
500 cantars
1600 pieces
650 . . .
500 cantars
3500 pieces
6000 ,, .
6000 „ .
5000 sacs, ]
of 100 I-
okes each J
150 cantars
150 „
6 p. the -i
oke . . '
100 to 130,
p. each . <
lito2p. ,,
100 to 500,
p. each . J
90 to 95 p. ,
100 to 130
p. each . •
9 to 10 „
1 J to 2 „
90 to 95 „ \
10tol5p.v
the oke . 5
900. .1200?
p. the oke '
35 ,, 40 „
50 ,, 55 ,,
900 ,,1200,,
70 ,, 100 „
40 „ 50 „
850p. the"!
cantar . J
900 „ „
800,, 900,,
100, ,800,,
A
MMERCiAL Tables.
'h the chief Towns of Asia Minor.
Exports to the chief Towns.
Observations.
Name of the
goods exported.
Cotton of Ada- 1
na and Tarsus /
Cotton of Tar-
sus & Adana
Cotton of Tar-
sus & Adana
European ma- ^
nufactures J
In what
quantities.
300 loads
The value.
200 loads
200 loads
30,000 Ids.
Amasia silk
Do.
bales for"]
ountry, & I
est is re- |
rted J
Hair sacks
Yellow leather
Buflfalo-skins.
Ropes
Tukat copper .
Constantino- "1
pie small ware J
50 to 60 Ids.
ofl20okes
each load .
500 Ids. of
50 pieces
each
1000 pieces
400 skins .
25,000 . .
3000 okes .
100,000 T
p. worth J
750 to 800
piasters
the cantar
C 750 to 800
(p. the can.
Do.
110tol20\
p. the oka J
IfitoUp.l
the piece j
5 to 25 p "1
ea^h J
110tol30 1
p. do. J
U p. do. .
10 to 21 I
p. the oke J
Duty.
2ipr. 1
cent J
2ipr.
cent
Do.
2ipr.
cent
Do.
Do.
2ido.
6 paras
the oke
The cantar weighs
180 okes. Tlie duty
p.iid is, in spite of all
regulatioiis and or-
ders, emanated from
Constantinople bySub-
lime Firman.
Erzerum generally
receives what cotton
it requires from Ra-
wan, at 15 days' jour-
ney off (under the do-
minion of Russia, and
formerly belonging to
Persia), but the cold
some years kills the
plant, and then re-
course is had to Adana
and Tarsus for the sup-
ply needed for the con-
sumption of the place.
Trebizonde receives
its English manufac-
tures fiom Constanti-
nople per steamers,
winch have much di-
minished the com
merce of Kaisariyah
with all to'.vns that
can communicate with
Constantinople by their
means.
The greater part of
European manufac-
tures, however, reach
this place by way of
Aleppo.
Do. do. do.
The distance between
Aleppo and Kaisari-
yah, by way of Ma-
rash, is only 7 days'
journey in summer;
but in winter the snow
impedes the mountain
ro ids, and the cara-
vans go by Adana.
The 'Tarsus and
Adana cotton goes al-
so to Kastamuni, Tu-
k it, Amasia, Cliurum,
Zi.it, Ladik, &c.,
without passing thro'
the town (lo within 6
hours of it).
Duty paid m Tukat.
Table I. {continued). Commerce of Kaisariyas
Imports from the chief Towns.
th the chief Towns of Asia Minor.
Exports to the chief Towns.
Obsekvations.
at portion
nsunied in
iyah, what is
ut, & where.
Name of the
goods exported.
In what
quantity.
Their value.
Duty.
Adana receives the
same goods from Kai-
sariyah as Tarsus, but
in treble quantity.
The Adana and Tar-
sus cotton reaches this
place direct, passing
within eight hours of
Kaisariyali.
Tukat traffics with
Constantinople direct,
and receives the cotton
of Adana and Tarsus in
the same way asKastani-
cantars,"]
rest goes 1
rds Erze-
he coun- "l
onsump- \
Bo.
ii<? coun- 1
[ ^to send 1
European 1
manufactures J
Galls ....
2.50,000 p."!
worth. J
5 loads. . .
1200 p. thel
load ... J
21 pr.
cent
) Adana
"'aii'sus . J
ported to 1
ne^ . .J
on'sumed^
country, 1
\ is sent
) Smyrna J
onsumedl
country,
hol, without its enter-
ing into Kaisariyah. The
new copper produced
yearly is about 200,000
okes ; it is monopolised
the rest
to Smyr. J
he country
whole is^
amed in V
ariyah J
Do.
Smyrna & I
tantinople)
Soap . ...
10 loads . .
6 p. the oke
hy the government, and
goes to Constantinople.
Amasia, for the last
thirteen years, traffics
with Constantinople by
way of Samsun, so that
the commerce of Kai-
sariyah is thus much
European "1
manufactures J
Do.
20,000 ps. \
worth . . ^
in small 1
quantities, j"
reduced.
Do. do. do.
Do. do. do.
Do. do.
Do. do.
the coun- \
ise . . .J
the con-
ption of \
town . .
Cotton ....
European
70 cantars .
70,000 ps."l
worth . . J
850 p. the\
cantar . • ,
• •
Do. do. do.
Here the Pasha ot
Kaisariyah resides.
Table I. {continued^. Commerce of Kaisariyj
Statistics.
I.MPOUTS FROM THE
CHIEF 1 OWNS.
Name of
the towns.
Their
popula-
tion.
Their distance
from Kaisaryiah
in caravan days'
journey.
How
often
yearly.
Xame of the
goods imported
into Kaisariyah.
In what
quantity.
Their value. ^
Kara-\
man >
COIlt''. )
20,000
Days.
9
Times, f
10 J
Currants "1
and raisins J
5000 loads .
10 paras the "1 2 J
oke ... J ce
1
Merze- 1
hum . . '
15,000
8
..j
New copper
Teftic and 1
goat-hair. /
Hopes . . .
Vegetables, \
grain, &c. J
rsooo to
1 6000 okes .
J GOOO to
\ 7000 okes .
GOOO. . . .
14 to 15 p. ,, .
5 M 6 p. „ . 2^
3„3ip.„ . j\
M
Sivas . ■
20,000
5
20 .
Hare-skins .
BuSalo-skins
15,000 . .
300 to 400 .
20„40p. „ . 1^
100,,130p."l 1 a
each • . • J
1
_
^
1
1
Calicoes, 3 "1
pikes broad J
Do. 21 do.
5000 pieces .
3000 „ .
200 p. each .
60 p. „ . j
70 to 80 p. .,
40 „ 45 p. „
50 „ 80 p. „
<3 *
60,000
8
15„20.
Do. 36 yds. "1
do. ]
Do. 24 yds. 1
do. J
Madapolam .
13,000 „ .
8000 „ .
5000 „ .
«
2d quality .
1 angibs . •
Nankin . .
2d quality
H. Sprigs. .
3000 „ .
•iO.OOO „ .
20,000 „ .
10,000 „ .
3000 „ .
Do.
30 p. „ .
110„120p.„
80. p. „ .
80 p. „ .
Lappets . .
Farmaish . .
10,000 „ .
21,000 „ .
28 to 30 p. „
30 „ 55 p. „
Smyrna \
13J,000
25
27 -
Zebras . . .
Striped "I
dimity . . J
Handkers. "
of Constan- 1
tinople imi- [
15,003 „ .
4,000 „ .
;20,000 „ .
23 „ 35 p. „
SO „ 90 p. „
7 „ 12 p. „
1 tation . .^
Chintz . . .
1 Coloured '
dimity . . j"
White do.
j
/.•■o,ono to
i I 40,000 „ .
.-)000 „ .
5000 „ .
CO „ 100 p. „
70 paras to"!
3^p. „ ./
Do.
h the chief Towns of Asia Minor.
Exports to the ch
lEF Towns.
Observations.
it portion
isunied in
Name of the
In what
yah, what is
goods exported.
quantity.
Their value.
Duly.
at, & where.
lichSOOO"]
are con- 1
The raisins serve to
d in the j
make a kind of brandy
ry. . J
they call raki.
le country
Cotton. . . .
30 loads . .
800 p. the]^
cantar . . J
Do.
Of goat-hair they make
famous hair-sacks.
sported
Te use of"!
European "1
40,000 ps.
ju-ntry . J
manufactures J
worth.
myiTia. .
Coffee ....
10,000 okes.
re to 7 p.
\ the oke.
[edir/t^hel
ry . ■; . /
ntity con-
in thecoun-
Sugar ....
300 okes . .
1) p. the oke.
Boots & shoes
5000 pairs .
20 to 30 p. \
each ... J
cent J
he rest being
ipoiteil.
pieces . .
Yellow leather .
30,000 . . -
5 „ 23 p. „
• '
For Constantinople.
900 „ .
Yellow berries .
400,000 okes
27 to 33 ,.1
the oke. J
.2
>> •
Galls
200 cantars .
1200 p. the!
cantar. J
o
a
»» •
Wool ....
50,000 ces
3 p. the oke
100 to I5U 1
" •
Scammony . .
500 ,,
p. the oke. j
0.2
,. •
Salip
2500
10 „ 12 p. „
n3 *
00 „ .
Aniseed . . .
10,000 ,,
3 „4p. „
OS O
,> •
Teftic ....
20,000 „
15 „ 18 p. „
CD w
00 „ .
Persian berries
30(',000 ,,
28 „ 30 p. „
Teftic ....
5000
15 „ 18 p. „
^ o
2 B
For Smyrna.
It •
)„6000,, .
Gum traga- 1
canth . . . _|
20,000 ,,
9 „ 11 p. „
1200 p. the!
antar. _|
tC (U
Note. The steamers
00 ,, .
Galls ....
50 cantars .
that run between Sam-
sun and Constantinople
) „ •
Wool ....
30,000 okes
450 p. ,,
T3 — '
have drawn all the com-
merce of that quarter to
)
Aniseed . . .
20,000 „
3 to 4 p. ,,
be ^
C *
Q
Constantinople. Kaisa-
riyah still communicates
with Sm\rna by cara-
00 „ .
Hare-skins . .
1000 „
U to 2 p.-i
each. J
>»
a
van. Tarsus, it has been
suggested, might serve
-i
Kai-ariyah as a place of
<u
deposit, & thus shorten
00
the distance by land to
Smyrna, as the roads are
very bad, and goods ex-
3 ,,5000,,
posed to rain during the
journey on mules' backs.
378
APPENDIX,
Tahle I. {concluded). Commerce of Kaisariyah with
the chief Towns of Asia Minor.
Imports from the chief Towns.
Name of
the lowu.
Name of the
goods
imported.
.}
In what
quantity.
Sugar . ,
Coflfee . .
Pepper . .
Pimento .
Cochineal
Indigo . ■
5000 pieces .
18,000 „ .
12,000 „
2000 „ .
150 bales • .
r 35,000 to
t 40,000 ekes
200,000 „ .
20,000 „ .
3,000 „ .
4,000 „ .
i 0,000 „ .
Their value.
70 paras to -i
2^ p. each J
2 to 3 p. „
8 „ 30 p. „
80 p. the doz.
24 to .52 p. -1
the pike . J
6 „ 7 p.the-i
oke ... J
5 „ 7 p. „
5 „ 6 p. „
6 p.
125 ,,130 p. -i
the oke . J
90 „135p. „
Quantify con-
sumed in the
country; the rest
being exported.
4000 „ 5000
pieces ....
5000 ,,
6000
500 dozens . ,
50 bales . .
10,000 „
30,000 „
4000 ,,
1000 ,,
1200 „
2000 ,.
/
COMMERCIAL AND STATISTICAL TABLES.
379
£ s
3 ^ M
E 6
E -r Z
« ** S C M m
c ? 2 - " -t;
■^ o
.a o >o cc c
■S c
£ .s J3
5 so
•^2^E S
fc p- o 2 Ji
S is S 2 ? H
c 3
■papBxa SI ;u30 jad f j; jo i^np b '^jed
J3q)0 XuB oj ji .' saov/d asoyf ut pied si ^;np aqj
'aidoupuB^suoj JO BujAins 04 ;u3s aaB spoo3 iuB jj
^
;-° "
. M Hi '^ <a B,
O O O ^ ,a J3 I.
Q o
I. o ■- 5*
o o o «
C^ r-. b M
■H ^
2 5
-^ 1-1 1-1 c^
o "". o ^^
0000
r-. — 00 «
o ^t^ 00
CM 1-1 O C «5
H C3
Is Es «C .52
o o 3 d
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c - ^ o « f
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fee t^ »- ^
"S ^"" c "" 'S
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c^ajij-ti — rt^^
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COMMERCIAL AND STATISTICAL TABLES.
385
TABLE VI.
Shaving the difference between the Duty paid at Constantinople per Tariff
and the per-centage Duty on Goods from the Interior.
Name of the articles of
commerce.
Value on the spot.
Duty to be paid according
to the tariff established
between England and the
Porte.
Which makes
the duty amount
to so much per
cent, instead
of 12 per cent.
Butter of Turkey
Haisius
16 p. per 4 okes
15 p. per ditto
3168 aspres per kintal
267 ,, the oke..
Duty here.
15 per cent
Do.
Currants
40 p. the Aleppo 1
cantar j
ad valorem
Do.
Cotton of Anatolia . .
2^ p. the oke
3405 aspres the kintal
25 per cent
Buffalo-skins
5 p. the oke
ad valorem
Morocco of Kaisariyah
Madder-roots of Cy- 1
prus J
,, of Anatolia
10 p. each
650 p. the cantar 1
650 p. „ j
ad valorem
2592 aspres the kintal
13A do.
Grain, wheat
50 p. the kilo of 1801
okes J
198 aspres the kilo |
of Constantinople J
261 do.
„ barley
30 p. same measure . .
90 ditto ditto . .
27 do.
Indian corn
30 p. ditto
ad valorem
Wool, i black \
„ § white J
400 p. the cantar of 1
180 okes J
2952 aspres the kintal
24f do.
Honey
2 p. the oke
ad valorem
Goat and sheep-skins. .
Lamb-skins
3 to 4 p. each
15 paras each
64 aspres each
3Q „
13| do.
80 do.
Hare -skins
25 paras each
2304 aspres for eachlOO
31 do.
Cow and buffalo-hides
3 p. the oke
ad valorem
Leeches*
40 p. do.
288 aspres per oke . .
6 do.
Old copper
7i p. do.
192 „ „ ..
13i do.
Linseed
25 paras the oke
259 ,, every 200 \
okes J
17 do.
Sesam-seed
1 J- p. do.
402 „ ditto
16 do.
Valonea
80 p. the Aleppo \
cantar J
960 „ per kintal..
40 do.
Black raisins
120 p. the cantar of 1
180 okes J
489 „ „ ..
13'- do.
,, currants
1 p. the oke
2160 „ „ ..
40 do.
Persian berries
15 p. do.
403 „ „ ..
221 do.
* A large sum is paid bnsides, for the sole privilege of lishing for leeches by Europeans who
jindertake the monopoly. This sum amounts to more than lOOOi. for the district of Adana and
^.•\rsus. The price of leeches has risen of late years to more than 200 p. the oke.
C C
INDEX.
Abd'ul Hamid I., 71.
Abd'ul Masjid, ascended the throne 1839,
72.
Abdullah Rushdi, 97 ; falls into disgrace,
103.
Abgar Bar-man, note, 172.
Abington, Mr., 151 ; on the various re-
presentations of Perseus, note, 197.
Acteon, 189.
Acts xix. 18-20, 159.
Actium, battle of (b,c. 31), 28.
Adana, 111.
Admetus, King, 175.
Adonis as Apollo, with the cloak and
brooch, 178.
.(Esculapius, 196.
Agrippa, 3^?.
Ahmed I., 70.
II., 71.
III., abdicates in favour of his
nephew, 71.
Izzet Pasha, 97.
■ Minikli Pasha, 112.
Aleiuni; a plain in Cilicia, 18.
Aleppo, 82,
Alexander the Great marches against
Darius, 20 ; nearly loses his life by
bathing, 20 ; at Issus, 21,
Severus, 163.
Alexandretta, small lake of, 1 1 4.
Jonas pillars, 263.
Alexius succeeded by John Comnenus,
54.
Allen, Captain William, 270,
Al Mamun, expedition into Asia Minor,
46 ; death of, from eating dates, 46.
Alp-Arslan captures Romaiius Diogenes,
50.
Amaxia. iron mines of, 28.
America, central monuments of, 209.
Ammodes, the, or Sandy Cape, 265 ;
celebrated for turtle, 265.
Amorium, siege of, 47.
Amphilochus, city of, 265.
Amurad I., t5G.
II. besieges Constantinople, 68;
marches with a large army into Asia
Minor, 68.
Amurad III. strangles five of his brothers
69.
IV. enters Cilicia with an im-
mense force, 70; undertakes the con-
quest of Persia, 70.
Anastasius, 42.
Anatolia, 112.
Anazarba, note, 55 ; ruins of aqueduct at,
56, 275 ; ruins of, 266 ; sculptured
rocks of, 283.
Anchiale, note, 15, 136.
Ancient tomb at Tarsus, 133.
bard, 243.
Andronicus, romantic adventures of, 5Q.
Animals, 249.
Antalcidas, treaty of, 20.
Antelope, 280.
Antioch, 21; tax-gatherers at,reote, 107;
bay of, 268 ; ruins of, 26S.
Antiochus the Great, '23.
Epiphanes, 24.
Antipater, a disciple and successor of
Diogenes, note, 31,
Antiquities in Cilicia, 265.
Apis, 182.
Appian " Syriacs, " 129 ; account of
Seleucia, 272.
Apollo Belvidere, 155 ; winged, 157; as
Osiris, 161 ; head of, radiated, 162 ; on
the Colossus at Rhodes, 162 ; Belvi-
dere, where found, 184; at Rhodes,
various figures of, 195.
Apollodorus, note, 13.
Appendix, 301.
Aqueduct, ruins of, at Anazarba, 56,275.
Arab horse, instinct of, 288.
Aratus, 136.
Arbela, battle of, 21.
Archimedes, 139.
Ariadne and Bacchus, heads of, 216.
Arif Pasha, note, 106.
Arimes, adventures of, 275.
Aristotle, 16 ; relation of circumstance
about Mount Casius, 273.
Arrian, 16.
Arsus, 111 ; description of, note, 112.
Art, additional works of, 213.
Artaxerxes, 19,
383
INDEX.
Artaxerxes Habegan, 37.
Artemisia, Queea of Halicarnassus, 19.
Aski Shaker, 131.
Athena;us, a philosopher of Cilicia, 30.
■ , 134.
Atheiiodorus the philosopher warns Au-
gustus, 29.
Attalia, 60.
Atys, head of, 227.
Augustus, 29.
Aurelian prepares for his Persian expedi-
tion, 38.
Avolio, 201.
Ayass, remarkable for turtles, 111; castle
of, 'ifiS.
Azof, sea of, 3S.
Ba \j,, 22G ; conjectures on, by Mr. Birch,
259.
Babylon, 234.
Bacchante, 200.
Bacchus, 19'); Indian, 226.
Bagdad, khalifs of, 4fj.
Baldwin, 52.
Barker, Mr. John, British Consul at
Aleppo. 83.
, Mr. W. liurckhardt, )io{e, 161.
Basilica, 263.
Bayas, river of, note, 1^ ; fever jirevails
at, note, 81 ; gulf of. 111.
Bayazid, (Hi.
■ II. attacks Kayit Bay, 62 ; ex-
pedition of, into Asia Minor, 68 ;
poisons his father, 69.
Baylan, 26^3 ; mosque of, 263 ; ruins at,
263.
Beard, Rev. Dr., remarks on Tarshish,
iioie, I'i.
Bears, 277; method of shooting, 277;
flesh of, 277.
Beaufort, Admiral Sir Francis, " Kara-
mania," 7totf, 24' ; descrijjtion of ruins,
no/e, 31; views on the antiquities of
Cilicia, 2ij5 ; on the ruins of Soli, i\;c.,
266.
Berenice, widow of Herod, 33.
Berkeley's, Bishop, work, "' Siris," 217.
Betias, Mr. liarker's summer residence,
3(»0.
Birch, Mr., on the Apollo Helios, 162.
Birds, 251.
, game, of Cilicia, 281.
Bocliart, 12 ; nule, 13.
( I'haleg, p. 333), derivation of
the word ("asius, note, 273.
Bohcmond, deatii of, 53.
Bomitae or altars, site of, according to
Pliny, 2i;3.
Bouham, t olonel, 289.
Bonomi, " Nineveh and its Palaces,"
note, 199.
Bonzes, 235.
Botta, discoveries of, 213.
Boy and dolphin, 2i0.
Boys on dolphins, 231.
Brahma, 236.
British Museum, 202 ; silver enamels in,
257.
Bryant, Mr., "Mythological Dictionary,"
148.
Buddist Bonze, 235.
Huffon, 285.
Bulwer"s " Rise and Fall of Athens,"
173.
Burney, Dr., 259.
Byzantine annals, 48.
Caffa, 62.
Caius Caligula, bust of, with the lorica,
223.
Calchas, 141.
Calistheues, 21.
Campestris, 135.
Cantacuzene, John, 66.
Cape Boar, 267.
Cappadocia, plains of, 39.
Captive kneeling, from Rosellini's great
work, 211.
Caravallas Turkish shij)s of war, 80.
Carthage, 2').
Cassius, INIount. 208 ; height of, 273 ;
vegetation, 273 ; mentiot)ed in Scrip-
ture, 273 ; tradition of, 273.
Casts, making of, 169.
Cato, note, 29.
Caucasus, Mount, 28.
Causeway, Roman, traces of, 266.
Cecenius Petus, president of Syria, 33.
Celendris, castle of, 30.
Ceres, head of, 176.
Clialdean astrologers, 235.
Charles X. of France, ~40; enormous
cost of his hunting expeditions, 296.
Chariots, 2.33.
Chesney, Colonel, note, 269 ; remarks
on the port of Seleucia Pieria, 270.
Chinese, 207.
Christians introduced into the councils
of { ilicia, 106.
Christian Church, ruins of, at Rhosus,
262.
Christianity early diffused in Cilicia, 172.
Clironos, 193.
Chora'bus, 259.
Chosroes, 43.
Cicero named proconsul of the province
of Cilicia, 26.
Cilicia, early history of, 11; situation,
INDEX.
389
12; Hypacheans, original inhabitants
of, 14 ; under the Assyrians, 15 ; death
of Xerxes, 19 ; the gates of, 22 ; battle
of Ipsus, 23 ; revolt of the citizens of,
24 ; invasion of Tigranes, 2o ; Cicero
named proconsul, '2G ; Tarchondemus
king of, 28 ; Tacitus on the trees of,
note, 30 ; a Roman province, 33 ; in-
vaded by Sapor, 37 ; birthplace of St.
George, 40; invasions of the Huns, 41 ;
annexed to the Greek empire, 53 ; mo-
dern history of, 73 ; extraordinary oc-
currence at, 93 ; taxation in, 105 ;
charsictpr of tax-gatherers, 107; mal-
administration of justice, 109 ; geo-
graphy of, 110; climate of, 114;
forests of, note, 122 ; custom-houses,
126, quarantine laws, 127 ; Lares and
Penates of, 153 ; potters of, 171 ; early
diffusion of Christianity in, 172; terra-
cottas, 215 ; situations of towns and
cities in, 2fi2 ; remains of churches
and castles in, 263 ; geography of,
265 ; antiquities of, 266 ; Mediter-
raneum, 266 ; natural history, 276 ;
coursing and hunting, 278 ; hawking,
280 ; birds of, 281 ; partridges and
quails of, 282; falconry and hawking,
285 ; medicinal plants of, 299.
Cinyras, 13.
Cleanthus, a philosopher of Tarsus, 24 ;
death of, 24.
Cleopatra at Tarsus, 27.
Cliteans, a bold tribe of mountaineers in
Cilicia, 32.
Cneius Piso, 30.
Coins, I.'jS.
Colossus of Rhodes, 194.
Comic mask, 177, 178.
Comnenus, John, marches to Antioch
and Aleppo, 54 ; killed in a wild boar
hunt, 54.
Conrad III., Emperor of Germany, 55.
Constantius marches against Julian, 39 ;
death of 40.
Constantinople retaken by the Greeks,
A D. 1261, 59.
Consumption unknown in Cilicia and
Syria, 299.
Conybeare and Howson, " Life of St.
Paul," 236.
Coracesium, note, 26 ; account of, by
Strabo, 129.
Corsica, 63.
Cory's " Ancient Fragments," 274.
Cossuatianus Fapito, ■t'^.
Coughs unknown in Cilicia and Syria,
299.
Coursing in Cilicia, 278.
Crates, 1 42.
Cretins, 239.
Crocodiles, 251 ; Mount, 264 ; worship,
264 ; terra-cottas of, 264 ; different
species, 264.
Croesus, King of Lydia, IS.
Crusades, 52.
Cupid, head of, 194.
and swan, 219.
Curtius Severus, 32.
Cyaxares, 17-
Cybele, 175 ; mysteries of, 176 ; head of,
192.
Cydnus River, 17, 20 ; falls into the
liake Rhegma, 137.
Cyprus, 1 3 ; attacked by the Turks, G3 ;
kings of, 130.
Cyrus sends for Syennesis, 19.
D'Agincourt, note, 202.
Daniel, the prophet, tomb of, 17.
Darius resolves to invade Greece, 18,
198.
David, king, 15.
Deguignes' " Hist. Gen. des Huns, des
Turcs, &c.," 207.
D" Herbelot,speculations about the Huns,
207.
Deifying men, 163.
Delian deities, 194.
Delos, island of, 130.
Diana, head and statue of, 156 ; starting
for the chase, 284.
Dioclesian, 39.
Diogenes, note, 31.
Dion Cassius, note, 29.
Dionysus, 201.
Doghan, one of the hawk species, 286.
Doi;s, 249 ; treatment of, in Cilicia, 276 ;
description of, used for coursing in
Cilicia, 279.
Domestic and religious art, 253.
Doria, Philip, a Genoese admiral, 59.
Drinking bowls, 254 ; vessels generally,
255.
Due de Luynes, " Essai sur la Numis-
matique des Satrapes," note, 201.
Ducas, Vataces John, 57.
Duda Bey, piratical expeditions of, 84 ;
description of, 84 ; attack on, 85 ; be-
trayed, 86 ; death of, 86.
Dutch consul, arrest of, 81.
Dwarfs, 239.
East India Company, S3.
Egyptian antiquities, 211.
Eleusa, tomb at, 21-2.
Eleusinian mysteries, 176.
390
INDEX.
Epiphanea, the birthplace of St. George,
40 ; extensive ruins of, 26 i.
Epyasa, wife of Syeanesis, 19.
Eros, winged, 1G6.
Erotes, 19i.
Eudocia, Empress, 50.
Euphrates expedition, note, 125.
Fakirs, 235.
Falconry, 284' ; gos-hawks and their
mEuiagement, 290 ; antiquity of, 295.
Fallow-deer seen on the plains of Adana,
278.
Famagosta, capture of, 59.
Figures, fragments of, 2-15.
Fir-cone. 217.
Forbes, Professor, remarks on the ibex,
note, 280.
Forster, Rev. Charles, " Historical Geo-
graphy of Arabia," note, 13.
Fortifications at Tarsus, 135.
Francolins, 282.
Frederic I., death of, 57.
Frederickssteeu, death on board the, 265.
Furniture, 257.
Galata, natives of, method of captur-
ing wild doves, 283.
Game-birds of Cilicia, 281.
" Game Birds and Wild Fowl," by A. E.
Knox, 287.
Ganymede, 246.
Gates, remains of, in Cilicia and Syria,
26'1- ; of Kulak Bughaz, 266.
Gazelles, method of taking them, 279.
Genoese ISepublic, 58.
George III., 210.
Gerhard, note, 193.
Germanicus, 30.
Gesbril-Hadeed in the plains of Antioch,
298.
Gha-ik, a species of antelope remark-
able for its length of hortis, I'SO.
Gibbon, note, +8 ; " Decline and Fall of
the Homan Empire," 201.
Gladiator conquered, 24 k
Godfrey of Houillon, 52.
Gordys founds a colony in Gordiieus,
274 ; situation of, note, 274.
Gos-hawk, Australian, the, 294; the
training of, 289.
Government, thorough change of, 103.
Granicus, battle of tlie, 20.
Greece, invasion of, by the Persians, 19.
Greek Church, 262.
Griinaldi, Joe, 239.
Grotefend, Professor, note, Ifi ; on the
niythology of the .Assyrians, »o/e, 149,
150.
Hadrian, 34; emperor, 273.
Haji Ali Bey, capture of, 89.
Hamilton, Mr. William i., " Researches
in Asia Minor, &c." note, 42.
Handles of vases, lamps, &c. 256 ; ring,
25() ; of dishes, 256.
Ilardouin, 218.
Hares, 278.
Harpies, 225.
Harpocrates, 181.
Hassan Pasha, 103 ; anecdote of, «., 103
Haiti Sherifof Gulhanah, 72.
Hawks in England, 286; extraordinary
feat of, 293 ; of the lure, 295 ; of the
fist, 293.
Hawking, description of, in Cilicia, 285 ;
Society, 292.
Hawkins' " History of Music," 260.
Hecate, 198.
Head of a child, 166; of Commodus as
Hercules, 167 ; of a lady with all the
attributes of Juno, 167 ; of a lady,
temp. Emperor Claudian, 168 ; with
the attributes of Juno, 177 ; ofahorse,
180 ; of a lady, 188.
Hellenic divinities, 193.
Hellespont, 31).
Hera of the Assyrians, 217.
Heraclius defeats the Persians, 43.
Hercules, statue of, 46, 167, 169; hold-
ing his club, 216.
Hero. 193.
Herodotus, 14, 18.
Herons, 7iote, 292.
Hittites, 210.
Homer, 15 ; mention of Tarsus, note, 161 ;
Iliad, V. 499, note, 273.
Horses, 250.
Household articles, 257.
Human figures, 21-3.
Humboldt on the Huns, 203 ; " Aspects
of Nature," 205; " Relation Histo-
rique," 7wte, 207.
Huns, invasions of, 71 ; portraits of, 203 ;
their identity with the extinct races of
America, 205 ; sjjeculations about, 207.
Hyenas in Cilicia, '111 .
Hypacheans, original inhabitants of Ci-
licia, 14.
Ibkx capra, note, 280.
Ibrahim I. fits out an expedition against
Candia, 71.
II. besieges Vienna, 71.
Pasha, 90 ; a hawk, gift of, by,
293.
Idiots, 237 ; head of, 239 ; fools and
dwarfs, 239.
Imma, battle of, note, 38.
INDEX.
391
Incense-burner, 155.
lo, wanderings of, 274.
Ipsus, battle of, 23.
Irene the Great, 45.
Iris, 177.
Isaurians, a savage horde of Cilicia, 41.
Isis, worship of, 177, 191; priests of, 235.
Isper, a species of eastern hawk, 296.
Issus, the scene of the great battle which
decided the fate of the Persian empire,
21 ; battle at the plains of, 35.
Jackals abound in Cilicia, 277.
Jam, son of Mohammed II., 62.
Janissaries, 66.
Jeremy, apocryphal book of, 217.
Jerusalem, 2 Kings, ch. xxi. 13, 257.
Jona's Pillars, 7iote. 91 ; a colossal mar-
ble fragment, 263.
Jonstonus " Dendographia," 218.
Josephus, note, 33 ; on the depravity of
the priests of Isis, 165 ; " Antiq. Jud."
i. c. i , 213.
Jovian, successor to Julian, 41.
Julian, death of, 41.
Juno, 157.
Jupiter, head of, 157.
Casius, 273.
Justin I., 42.
Justinian, 43.
Juvenal, 236.
Kalat Kurkass, 129.
Kamses, the Egyptian, the name of a
ferocious crocodile, 264.
Kara Kaya, " Black Rock," castle and
ruins of, 265.
Karadoghar, ruin at, note, 16.
Karadughar, note, 105.
Kaisanli, 1 15.
Kel-Aga, 88.
Khalil Hey, 74 ; life of, note, 74,
Khorsabad, mention of, 224.
Kilitch Arslan, king of Nicsea, defeated
by the crusaders, 52.
Kitto, Dr., " Cycl. Bib. Lit." note, 12.
Klaproth, speculations of, on Huns, 207.
Knight, Mr. R. P., 152.
Kulak- Bughaz, 112; lead mines of, 125.
Kurt-Kulak, 100 ; ruinous khan at, 265.
Kutchuk Ali, 75 ; extortions of, 76 ;
cruelty of, 77; some account of, 78;
imprisons English sailors, 79 ; un-
loads and then sinks a French vessel,
80 ; letter of, to the Dutch consul, 80.
KuzanUglu, 102.
Labienus marches with a large army
into Cilicia, 28 ; death of, 28.
Labourers, wages of, at Tarsus, 120.
Lamas, aqueduct of, 128.
Lamp, 156, 201.
Languages, peculiarities of, note, 205.
Laocoon, 222.
Lares and Penates, 145; explanation of,
146 and note ; different classes of, 147.
Larnika, 113.
Lascaris, Theodore, 57.
Layard, nute, 150; discoveries of, 213;
Lajard, M., note, 217.
Leake, Colonel, 265.
Leander swimming the Hellespont, 222.
Lebanon, Mount, 273.
Leg of a horse, 175.
Linnaeus, 286.
Lion attacking a bull, 187.
Louis VII., 55.
LucuUus, a Roman general, 25.
Lucretius, mention of Meliboea, 269.
Lycophron, v. 18, 227.
Lynx, caught on Mount Taurus, 276.
Lyres, 259.
Macrocephalus, 238.
Magi and monks, 232.
, bonzes, and fakirs, 235.
Mahmud II., 72.
Malcolm, Sir John, " Sketches in Per-
sia," 282.
Mallos, 21, 141.
Man riding a bear, 226.
Mandarins, 228.
Manuel, Emperor, 55.
Marash, bridle-way to, described by
Strabo, 266.
Marc Antony at Tarsus, 27.
Markatz Kalahsi, a Saracen castle, 263.
Marsyas, fable of, 220.
Masseyk, Mr., ill-treatment of, 81.
Matakh, mounds and ruins of, 265.
Mausoleum at Tarsus, ground-plan of,
133.
Maximin, defeat and death of, 39.
Mecca, caravan of, 100.
Medes, the, 17.
and Persians, 234.
Medicinal plants of Cilicia, 299.
Mediterranean, pirates of, 25.
Medusa, head of, 267.
Melek Seraf, final conquest of St. Jean
d'Acre by, 59.
Meliboea, poetical celebrity of, 269.
Melitus, Bishop of Antioch, 140.
Mercury, 8 ; origin of, 215.
Mesmerists, modern, 233.
Mesopotamia, 271.
Messalina, head of, 158.
Messiah, the advent of, 29.
392
INDEX.
Mexico, 207,
Midas, 185.
Minerva as Pallas, 219.
and Cupid, 219.
Missis, 110.
Mithridates, king of Pontus, 25.
Mocenigo in communication with Ozun
Hassan, 00.
Moguls become masters of all Asia, 67.
under Gengliiz Khan, 63.
Mohammed adopts and embellishes the
cave of the Seven Sleepers, 3t).
III., cruelties of, 70.
Mohammedan, tomb of, near the ruins of
Seleucia Pieria, 209.
Monster, head of, 237.
Monsters and idiots, 237.
Mopsuestia, note, 34.
Mopsus, poet and soothsayer, nole, 2-5.
, a celebrated prophet, 111.
Morpheus, 183.
Morocco, Emperor of, 95.
Mosquitoes, 277 ; method of sleeping
out of their reach, 277.
Muhammad I., 68.
v., 71.
Izzat Pasha, 92.
Muhassil, the, 108.
Musical instruments, 259.
Mustafa I., deposed by Janissaries, 70.
II., 71.
III., 71.
V. proclaimed sultan 1807, 71.
Pasha, 86.
death of, 102.
Mustuk Bey, 87.
Mutassim besieges Amorium, 47.
Mythological analogies, 174.
Nadir Bey, 93 ; arrest of, 95 ; narrative
of, by himself, 3()1 ; petition, 320.
Naiad, 197.
Napoleon, 240.
Neptune, 18:3.
Nergat, 251.
Nero, 163.
New Testament, 233.
Nicaea, Turkman dynasty at, 51.
Nicephorus, accession of, 46.
Phocas, 48.
Nicopolis, 67.
Nicotia taken by Admiral Catani, 59.
^Jige^ river, 270.
Nimrod, 15.
Nimrud, 115; peculiar broken earthen
vase of, 221.
Nineveh, 16; plains of, 278.
Ninias, 15.
Nizam, note, S3.
Odenathus, Prince of Palmyra, attacks
Sapor, 38.
Olympus, Mount, 135.
Orchan, 65.
Organ, first invention of, 260.
Orinoco, 205.
Orontes, river, 267 ; course of, 268.
Osiris, 14.
Osman II., 70.
III., 71.
Osmanli dynasty, 65.
Othman, 65.
Ottoman Empire, modem history of, 73.
Ounce, the, 275.
Ovid, 146.
Oxen, 249.
Pal^eologus, Michael, 64.
Pallas, 169.
Palma Christi, 299.
Pan, head of, 155, 218.
Pandean organs, 26i).
syrinx, 260.
Pan-pipes, 260.
Part Ilia, kingdom of, 37.
Partridges in Cilicia, 282.
Pashalik of Tarsus, revenue of, 125.
Penates of Rome, 149.
Peregrine, the, 297.
Peri;amus, library of, 139.
Peruvian carvings, 206.
Perseus, 12; founds Tarsus, 1552 BC,
14, 197.
Persians, ultimate defeat of, 61.
Pescennius Niger, 35.
Peter the Hermit, 52.
Phallus, 224.
Philemon, a comic poet, 136.
Philip, phvsician of Alexander the Great,
20.
Philopater, son of Tarchondemus, 29.
Philotas crosses the Aleian plain, 20.
Phocas the Tyrant, 43.
Phree, the Egyptian Sun, 252.
Phrygian head, 197.
Physicians, Greek and Roman, 299.
Pierius, Mount, 269.
cliffs of, 269.
Pisa, republic of, 58.
Pliny, " Natural History," note, 170; on
the site of the Bomitse or altars, 263.
Plistarchus, 23.
Plutarch's account of Darius, n.2\ ; 147.
Pococke, Dr., 263.
Polemon, king of Cilicia, 33.
Pompeiopolis, ruins of, 130.
Pompey defeats the pir.ites, 26.
Porcupines in Cilicia, 277 ; flesh of, 277.
Porphyrogenitus relates the particulars
INDEX.
393
of the execution of the Saracens of
Candia, 47.
Pottery-labels, 258.
Priapus. 201.
Priest, with attributes of Apollo, 164.
Priestess, a basso-relievo gem, 199.
Protection, system of, 88.
Ptolemy, Evergetes, invades Syria, 23.
Fhiladelphus, 14.
Publius Servilius, 135.
Pylse Ciliciae, 113,
Pyramus river, 18, 19.
Pythagoras, 233.
Quails, 281 ; manner of taking, 281 ;
Arabian method of entrapping, 281.
Quarantine laws, 127.
Quiutus Curtius, note, 21.
Rameses III., 210.
RasMajusi, 227.
llawlinson, Colonel, 18.
Ray, 218.
Religious art, 2->3.
Hemnius stabs Vonones, 30.
Rhea, the goddess, 253.
Khegma, 13G.
Rhosus, interesting remains of, 262.
Rhossus, Mount, 112.
Rich, Mr., note, 13, 146.
Rizu Kuli Mirza, a Persian prince, 290.
Roman ware, 199.
Roman emperors, deification of, 165.
causeway, 266.
Romer, Miss, "the Turkish Pretender,"
note, 301.
Rosellini, on Egyptian Antiquities, 210.
, M. C. •• Teste," vote, 259.
Rotolo, a Turkish weight, note, 75.
Russia, wars with, commence, 71.
Saddles in the East, note, 288.
St. George, a native of Cilicia, 40 ;
church of, 136.
St. Jean d'Acre, 59.
St. Paul born at Tarsus, 31 ; censures
elaborately plaited hair, 172 ; Ro-
mans, ch. i. v. 18-32, 224 ; life of, 236.
Saint Simon, Mount, 268.
Salamis, battle of, 19.
Samosata, city of, 33.
Saracenic castle, Markatz Kalahsi, 263.
Saracens, rise of, 45.
Sarcophagus at Seleucia Pieria, 131.
Sapor invades Cilicia, 37.
Sardanapalus, 15.
Saturn, 193.
Schiller, 233.
Schomburgk, Sir Robert, letter to Hum-
boldt, 225.
Scilla, Martima, 299.
Scott, Sir Walter, on the " noble craft"
of falconry, 298.
Selene, 201.
Seleucia, 60 ; Pieria, ruins of the city-
walls, 270 ; gates of, 270 ; docks, 270 ;
port, 270 ; the Place of Olives, 268 ;
grotto, 268 ; ruins of, 269 ; port and
ruins of, 270-272; description of.
Journal Royal Geo. Soc, tiote, 270.
Seleucus Nicator, 273.
Selim II. takes the island of Cyprus, 69.
III. is put to death, 71.
Senator, image of, with the clavus latus,
186.
Serapis, 14.
Seven Churches, 23.
Sleepers, legend of, Z6.
Shutz, Colonel, 113.
Sibyl, African, 228.
Silenus, 218.
Silver, o.xide of, 257.
Sinai, Mount, 273.
Sinope taken by Mohammed II., 59.
Sis, celebrated monastery at, 111.
Smith's " Dictionary of Antiquities,"
186 ; " Mythology," note, 267.
Smyrna, 1 17.
Soli, Strabo's account of, note, 2 1.
Somnus, 183.
Songhur, the, a large species of pere-
grine, 297.
Soulouque, emperor of Hayti, 210.
Sparrow-hawks, 281 ; used for catching
quails, 282.
Spartans, war against Artaxerxes, 20.
Spence, Mr., 259.
Stephanus, iwte, 161.
Stephens, " Incidents of Travel," note,
203; of Byzantium, 264.
Strabo, account of, 7ivle, 24 ; Fables
mentioned by, 141.
Sulaiman invades .Asia Minor, 50, 66.
II. wins the battle of Mohatz,
69.
III., 71.
pasha, government of, 99 ;
anecdotes of, lOi.
Syennesis, 115.
Syrinx, 259.
Tacitus, 13; on the trees of Cilicia,
7ioie, 30.
, grandson of the historian, 38 ;
death of, at Tyana, 38.
Tancred, 52.
Tanzimat Khairiyah, 108.
Tarchondemus, king of Cilicia, 28.
Tarshish, note, 12.
394
INDEX.
Tarsus, built by Perseus, 12 ; Heeren on
the situation of, note, 12; Scriptural
mention of, 13 ; founded by Perseus,
14 ; ditto by Sardanapalus according to
Grecian historians, 15 ; tomb of the
propliet Daniel, 17; treaty of Antal-
cidas, 20 ; visited by Marc Antony and
Cleopatra, 27 ; birthplace of St. Paul,
31 ; gates of, opened to receive Pro-
bus, 39 ; reduced by famine, 49 ; 6000
inhabitants in, 113; villages near, 115;
merchants of, 115 ; its advantages and
disadvantages in point of commerce,
117 ; some particulars of, 119 ; wages
of labourers at, 120; cultivation of
the soil, 121 ; Plain of, 122; geology of,
123; great monument at, 133; moun-
tains and fortifications, 135 ; schools of
instruction, 138; illustrious men of,
138 ; collection of Lares and Penates,
150; discovery of terra cottas, 152;
religious system of, 1 59 ; Apollo of,
161 ; mythology of, 227.
Tartars under Genghiz Khan, 63.
Tartarus, representation of, 248.
Tatius, king of the Sabines, 147.
Taurus, Mount, 20.
Taxation in Cilieia, 105.
Terra cottas, discovery of, 152 ; miscel-
laneous objects, 201.
Theophilus, 46.
Tibareni, 266.
Tiberius, 165.
Tigranocerta, a city of Armenia, 25.
Tigrines invades Cilieia, 25.
Timur-Lang takes Bagdad, 67; anecdote
of, note, 67.
Tomb of the Kings, 271.
Tradition connected with Mount Casius,
272.
Trajan, 34; death of, 34,
Trebellius, 32.
Tripod table, 257.
Triptolemus, 274.
Trosobor, chief of the Cliteans, 32.
Troy, 15.
Tugrul Bay, 50.
TuUus Hostilius, 186.
Turkish officials, quarrels of, 97.
Turkmans, 49.
Turkman dynasty at Nicaea, 51.
Turkmans, sporting dogs of the, 285.
Tutulated head, l!t2.
Typhon, 181 ; adventures of, 274.
Ugliness, deification of, 209.
Utensils, 199.
Uzzum Hassan, a powerful Turkman
chief, 68.
Valens, emperor, 140.
Vases, 190.
Venetian fleet, 58.
Venus, head of, 170.
at the bath, 193.
Vespasian, 33.
Victory, 189.
Virgil, mention of Celibcea, 269. J
Vitellius, governor of Syria, 32. ,
Voltaire, 24. \
Vonones, king of the Parthians, 30. j
death of, 30. j
i
Warburton's "Crescent and the i
Cross," 233.
Washington, George, 240.
Wild animals in (.'ilicia, 276.
Wolff, Rev. Mr., note, 13.
Wolves in Cilieia, 277.
Woodcocks, 281.
Works of art, 213.
XEN.\RCHns, 134.
Xenophon, 19.
Xerxes, expedition of, against Greece, 19 ;
death of, 19.
Yates, Dr. Holt, 270.
Young Atys, 174.
Youth playing the syrinx, 260.
^Zaims, 89. >
Zenicetus the pirate, 135.
Zeno, a philosopher of I'arsus, 24, 42.
Zenobia, wife of Sapor, 38 ; taken pri
soner, 38.
Zeus, 193. 226.
Zimisces, John, 48.
Zoological Gardens, gos-hawks at, 291
Zoology of Cilieia, 278.
THE END.
IJO
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