-f 
 
 REESE LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Received 
 Accessions No.^4t^'/ <? Shelf No. .. 
 
 
</O id r* A-^W r 
 
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 i^oltttcal anti IStfjtc.il 
 
POLITICAL FRAGMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 ARCHYTAS, CHARONDAS, ZALEUCUS, 
 
 AND OTHER 
 
 ANCIENT PYTHAGOREANS, 
 
 PRESERVED BY STOBJEUS; 
 
 AND ALSO, 
 
 ETHICAL FRAGMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 THE CELEBRATED COMMENTATOR ON THE GOLDEN PYTHAGORIC 
 VERSES, 
 
 PRESERVED BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GREEK 
 
 BY THOMAS TAYLOR. 
 
 ei/u 
 
 uaj. 
 
 FIND. PYTH. OD. 2. 
 
 .. Just like a cork unmerged I keep 
 On the broad barrier of the deep. 
 
 fctefoicfe : 
 
 PRINTED BY C. WHITTINGHAM, 
 COLLEGE HOUSE J 
 
 FOR THE TRANSLATOR, MANOR PLACE, WALWORTH. 
 1822. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE collection of PYTHAGORIC FRAG- 
 MENTS contained in this volume must be 
 considered by every one as highly valuable 
 if their antiquity only is regarded ; but by 
 the lover of genuine wisdom they will be 
 deemed inestimable, as proceeding from 
 the school of the father of philosophy. 
 
 t 
 
 Of the greater part of the authors of these 
 
 fragments little more than the country in 
 which -they lived is known. But of Cha- 
 rondas, and Zaleucus, those celebrated le- 
 gislators, Seneca in his 90th Epistle informs 
 us that they learnt their laws in the silent 
 and sacred recess of Pythagoras. Though 
 
VI 
 
 Seneca, however, Diodorus Siculus, Dio- 
 genes Laertius, Porphyry, and lamblichus 
 make both Charondas and Zaleucus to be 
 the disciples of Pythagoras ; yet Dr. Bent- 
 ley, in his Dissertation on Phalaris, seems 
 more disposed to think that they were not 
 Pythagoreans than that they were. At the 
 conclusion, however, of his discussion of 
 this subject he says, " I do not assert any 
 thing positively on either side of this whole 
 debate about the two lawgivers [Charondas 
 and' Zaleucus]. I rather desire to stand 
 a neuter, till the matter shall be decided 
 by some abler hand*/' But the man of 
 intellect who reads this concession of the 
 doctor, will doubtless laugh when he finds 
 him also asserting, " Thus much I am sure 
 may be safely concluded, that if Zaleucus 
 was really Pythagoras' disciple, the learned 
 Mr. Dodwell's calculation must be wrong 
 [respecting the age of Pythagoras]. For 
 
 * Dissertation on Phalaris, p. 273. 
 
Vll 
 
 which is more probable, that a Mr. Dod- 
 well was mistaken in this particular, or that 
 Diodorus Siculus, Laertius, Porphyry, and 
 lamblichus were wrong, who lived so many 
 centuries prior to him, and who were able 
 to derive information so much more deci- 
 sive respecting Zaleucus, through books 
 which were then extant, but which have 
 long since utterly perished ? By Vossius *, 
 however, who, though he was not perhaps 
 so great a verbal critic as Bentley, was cer- 
 tainly a man of more intellect -f, the whole 
 
 * In Lib. de Philosophorum Sectis. 
 
 t The following extract from Bentley's Eighth Sermon at 
 Boyle's Lectures, sufficiently shows the doctor's deficiency 
 in intellect. " Nor do we count it any absurdity, that such a 
 vast and immense universe should be made for the sole use 
 of such mean and unworthy creatures as the children of men. 
 For if we consider the dignity of an intelligent being, and 
 put that in the scales against brute inanimate matter, we 
 may affirm, without overvaluing human nature, that the soul 
 of one virtuous and religious man is of greater worth and 
 excellency than the sun and his planets, and all the stars in 
 the world." For this opinion is not only stupid and arro- 
 gant in the extreme, but is also contrary to the doctrine of 
 the Scriptures, of which the doctor was a teacher. For as I 
 
Vlll 
 
 of these fragments were considered as pre- 
 cious monuments ; and he wonders, and is 
 
 have observed in p. 13 of the Introduction to my transla- 
 tion of Proclus On the Theology of Plato, " the stars are 
 not called Gods by the Jewish legislator, as things inanimate 
 like statues fashioned of wood or stone/' This is evident 
 from what is said in the book of Job, and the Psalms. 
 " Behold even the moon and it shineth not, yea the stars 
 are not pure in his sight. How much less man that is a 
 worm, and the son of man which is a worm?" (Job, xxv. 
 v. 5 and 6). And, " When I consider thy heavens, the 
 work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars which thou hast 
 ordained ; what is man that thou art mindful of him, and the 
 son of man that thou visitest him/' (Psalm viii. v. 3 and 4.) 
 It is evident, therefore, from these passages, that the heavens 
 and the stars are more excellent than man; but nothing 
 inanimate can be more excellent than that which is ani- 
 mated. To which may be added, that in the following verse 
 David says, that God has made man a little lower than the 
 angels. But the stars, as I have demonstrated in the above 
 mentioned Introduction, were considered by Moses as angels 
 and Gods ; and consequently they are animated beings, and 
 superior to man. 
 
 Farther still, it is said in Psalm xi. v. 4, that " the Lord's 
 throne is in heaven." And again, in Isaiah, chap. Ixvi. v. 1. 
 " Thus saith the Lord, the heaven is my throne, and the 
 earth is my footstool." If, therefore, the heavens are the 
 throne of Deity, they must evidently be deified. For nothing 
 can come into immediate contact with divinity, without 
 being divine. Hence, says Simplicius, (in Comment, in 
 Lib. ii. tie Caelo.) " That it is connascent with the human 
 
IX 
 
 at the same time indignant, at their not 
 being more frequently perused. 
 
 Of Hierocles, the author of the ETHICAL 
 FRAGMENTS, something more is known 
 than of the authors of the POLITICAL 
 FRAGMENTS, through what is said of him 
 
 soul to think the celestial bodies are divine, is especially 
 evident from those (the Jews), who look to these bodies 
 through preconceptions about divine natures. For they also 
 say that the heavens are the habitation of God, and the 
 throne of God, and are alone sufficient to reveal the glory 
 and excellence of God to those who are worthy ; than which 
 assertions what can be more venerable ? " 
 
 Indeed, that the heavens are not the inanimate throne and 
 residence of Deity, is also evident from the assertion in the 
 nineteenth Psalm, that " the heavens declare the glory of 
 God." For R. Moses, a very learned Jew, (See Gaffarel's 
 Unheard-of Curiosities, p. 391.) says, " that the word saphar 
 to declare, or set forth, is never attributed to things inani- 
 mate." Hence he concludes, " that the heavens are not 
 without some soul; which, says he, is no other than that of 
 those blessed intelligences who govern the stars, and dispose 
 them into such letters as God has ordained; declaring unto 
 us men, by means of this writing, what events we are to 
 expect. And hence this same writing is called by all the 
 ancients, chetab hamclachim; that is to say, the writing of 
 the angels." 
 
by Suidas,Damascius*,and ^EneasGazaeus. 
 For from the last of these we learn that he 
 flourished about the end of the fifth century 
 of the Christian era; and from the other 
 two, that he was a Platonic philosopher of 
 Alexandria : that his conceptions were 
 magnificent, and his genius sublime ; that 
 he was very eloquent, astonished his audi- 
 tors by the beauty and copiousness of his 
 language, and contended with Plato him- 
 self in elegance of diction, and fertility of 
 intellect. One of his auditors was Theose- 
 bius, a man of great penetration, who at 
 different times twice heard Hierocles orally 
 explaining the Gorgias of Plato ; and 
 though on comparing the latter with the 
 former explanation, he found nothing in 
 the one which might be said to be the same 
 with what was in the other, yet each of 
 
 * In the Fragments of his Life of Isidorus the Platonist, 
 preserved by Photius. The greater part of what Suidas has 
 said about Hierocles is taken from these memoirs of Isi- 
 dorus. 
 
XI 
 
 them unfolded as much as possible the in- 
 tention of Plato in that dialog-lie which, 
 as Damascius well observes, was a thing of 
 a most singular nature, and clearly demon- 
 strates the amplitude of his conceptions. 
 We are informed, also, by the same Theo- 
 sebius, that Hierocles once said, when 
 expounding Plato, that the discourses of 
 Socrates* resembled cubes, because they 
 remained firm wherever they might fall. 
 
 The following circumstance, says Suidas, 
 evinces the fortitude and magnanimity of 
 Hierocles. On coming to Byzantium, he 
 offended the prcvai/crs (frjprirkTtftofos Toiq K^- 
 i.e. the Christians -J-; and being brought 
 
 * The discourses of Socrates in Plato. 
 
 t For so the Christians were called by the heathens, 
 when the religion of the latter was rapidly declining, and 
 that of the former had gained the ascendency. Thus Por- 
 phyry, in a passage preserved by Theodoret, (in lib. i. De 
 Curat. Graec. Superst.) XctXjco^croe yap rj irpoq deovs 
 anreiprj TE Kai rpaytia, rj<; iro\\at; arpairovq Rapfiapoi 
 tfcvpov, E\\>/m CE tTr\av>iQtjffav, 01 $e Kparovvrts ijci 
 
Xll 
 
 into a court of justice by them was whipped. 
 But while the blood was flowing, he took 
 
 . e. " For the way which leads to the Gods is 
 bound with chains of brass, and is arduous and rough, many 
 paths of which were indeed discovered by the Barbarians; 
 but the Greeks have wandered from them, and they are 
 entirely corrupted by those who now prevail." 
 
 This passage of Porphyry, derived its origin from the 
 following oracle of Apollo, preserved by Eusebius : 
 
 yap odog /naicapav Tptj^eia TE TroXXov, 
 ra irpara ^totyo/zcv?/ irvXeuaiv. 
 e eavaiv aQefffyaTOi eyyeyaviai, 
 Ac irpuroi fjLepoirav TT' aiTBipova icprfeiv 
 Qt TO KO\OV invovrts vdup NttXwrt^oc 
 IloXXac Kat QotviKec odovs juaKapuv 
 A.0ffvpioi Ai/^ot rf, KUI E/3^oat<yy ytvos avlpuv. 
 
 But for Eflpatuv, in the last line, I read XaX^atwy, it not 
 being at all reasonable to suppose that an oracle of Apollo 
 would say that the Hebrews knew many paths which led to 
 the knowledge of the Gods. It is probable, therefore, that 
 either Aristobulus the Jew, well known for interpolating the 
 writings of the heathens, or the wicked Eusebius, as he is 
 called by the Emperor Julian, has fraudulently substituted 
 the former word for the latter. The Oracle, with this emen- 
 dation, will be in English as follows : 
 
 The path by which to deity we climb 
 
 Is arduous, rough, ineffable, sublime j 
 
 And the strong massy gates, through which we pass 
 
 lu our first course, are bound with chains of brass. 
 
Xlll 
 
 some of it in the hollow of his hand, and 
 besprinkled with it the judge, at the same 
 time exclaiming : 
 
 Cyclops, since human flesh is thy delight, 
 Now drink this wine *. 
 
 Being banished, most probably in con- 
 sequence of this magnanimous behaviour, 
 and returning some time after to Alexan- 
 dria, he gave philosophical lectures to his 
 auditors in his usual manner. Suidas adds, 
 that the grandeur of the conceptions of 
 
 Those men the first who of Egyptian birth 
 Drank the fair water of Nilotic earth, 
 Disclosed by actions infinite this road, 
 And many paths to God Phoenicians show'd. 
 This road the Assyrians pointed out to view, 
 And this the Lydians and Chaldeans knew. 
 
 But when Porphyry says that the Greeks have wandered 
 from the path which leads to divinity, he alludes 1o their 
 worshipping men as Gods ; which, as I have shown in the 
 Introduction to my translation of Proclus On the Theology 
 of Plato, is contrary to the genuine doctrine of the heathen 
 religion; and was the cause of its corruption, and final 
 extinction, among the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 * Odyss. lih. ix. v. 347. 
 
XIV 
 
 Hierocles may be learnt from the perusal of 
 his Commentaries On the Golden Verses 
 of the Pythagoreans, and from his treatise 
 On Providence * ; in which works it ap- 
 pears that he was sublimely wise in his life, 
 but not accurate in his knowledge. Da- 
 mascius also says, that Hierocles was not 
 at all deficient in any thing pertaining 
 to merely human science, but that he was 
 by no means replete with blessed concep- 
 tions, i. e. with conceptions which are the 
 offspring of an entheastic, or divinely in- 
 spired energy ; and which are to be found 
 in abundance in the writings of Plato, Plo- 
 tinus, lamblichus, Proclus, and Damascius 
 himself. This, indeed, will be immediately 
 evident *f- to the man who has penetrated 
 
 * Fragments of this work are to be found in Photius. 
 But they are fragments of a treatise or treatises, On Provi- 
 dence, Fate, and Free Will. 
 
 t An adept in the philosophy of Plato will at once be 
 convinced of the truth of this assertion, by comparing what 
 Hierocles has said about prayer in his Commentary On the 
 Golden Verses of the Pythagoreans, with what is said re- 
 
XV 
 
 the depth of these writings, but to the merely 
 
 specting it by lamblichus, in his Treatise on the Mysteries ; 
 and by Proclus, at the beginning of the second book of his 
 Commentary On the Timams of Plato. See the Introduc- 
 tion to the second Alcibiades, in Vol. 4. of my translation of 
 Plato, and the Notes to my translation of M aximus Tyrius ; 
 in which the reader will find what lamblichus, Proclus, and 
 Hierocles have said on this subject: And that he was not 
 consummately accurate in his knowledge, will be evident by 
 comparing what he says in his above mentioned Commen. 
 tary, about that middle order of beings denominated the 
 illustrious heroes, with what lamblichus and Proclus have 
 most admirably unfolded concerning them. And this will 
 still more plainly appear from what he says about the cele- 
 brated tetrad, or tetractys of the Pythagoreans, in p. 16(J, 
 and 170, of the same Commentary. For in both these 
 places, he clearly asserts, that this tetrad is the same with 
 the Demiurgus, or maker of the universe. Thus, in the 
 former of these places Kai rr]v rerpaca irr/yr/v TTJS atdiov 
 StaKOffutifftuf;, aTrofyaiverai Tt]v avrr^v ovrrav ro> Sij/biiovpya 
 Bey. i. e. " And the author of these verses shows that the 
 tetrad, which is the fountain of the perpetual orderly distri- 
 bution of things, is the same with the God who is the Demi- 
 urgus. And in the latter passage, cert yap uq etyauw, Srj/Lii- 
 ovpyos TUV o\u>v KOI atria tj Trpas, Qto<; vorjroc, uiTiot; TOV 
 ovpaviov KUI aiffSrjrov Oeov. i. e. " For as we have said, the 
 tetrad is the Demiurgus and cause of the wholes of the uni- 
 verse, being an intelligible God, the source of the celestial 
 and sensible God/' The tetrad, however, or the animal 
 itself, (TO avTM&or) of Plato ; who, as Syrianus justly ob- 
 serves, was the best of the Pythagoreans ; subsists at the 
 extremity of the intelligible triad, as is most satisfactorily 
 
XVI 
 
 verbal critic is a circumstance involved in 
 Cimmerian darkness. 
 
 shown by Proclus in the third book of his Treatise On the 
 Theology, and in the fourth book of his Commentary On die 
 Timaeus of Plato. But the Demiurgus, as it is demon- 
 strated by the same incomparable man, in the fifth book of 
 the former of these works, subsists at the extremity of the 
 intellectual triad. And between these two triads another 
 order of Gods exists, which is denominated intelligible, and 
 at the same time intellectual, as partaking of both the ex- 
 tremes. The English reader who has a genius for such spe- 
 culations, will be convinced of this by diligently perusing my 
 translations of the above mentioned works. Notwithstand- 
 ing, however, the knowledge of Hierocles was not so con- 
 summately accurate on certain most abstruse theological 
 dogmas as that of lamblichus, Proclus, and Damascius, yet 
 where ethics are concerned, his notions are most correct, 
 most admirable, and sublime. 
 
POLITICAL FRAGMENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PYTHAGOREANS. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF HIPPODAMUS THE 
 THURIAN ON A REPUBLIC. 
 
 I SAY that the whole of a polity is divided into 
 three parts. And one part, indeed, consists 
 of good men, who manage the public affairs. 
 But the second part consists of those who are 
 powerful. And the third part is composed of 
 those who are employed in supplying and pro- 
 curing the necessaries of life. I denominate, 
 however, the first multitude [in a polity] that 
 which consults [for the good of the whole] ; the 
 second, that which is auxiliary; and the third, 
 that which pertains to mechanical and sordid 
 occupations. Of these also, I say that the two 
 first belong to those whose condition in life is 
 liberal; but the third, to those who labour to 
 procure subsistence. And of these indeed, 
 
 B 
 
that which consults is the best; but that which 
 is employed in sordid occupations is the worst; 
 and that which is auxiliary, is a medium be- 
 tween the two. That which consults likewise 
 [for the general good] ought to govern ; but 
 that which is engaged in sordid occupations 
 ought to be governed : and that which is auxi- 
 liary ought both to govern and be governed. 
 For that which consults for the general good 
 previously deliberates what ought to be done ; 
 but that which is of an auxiliary nature, so far 
 as it is belligerent, rules over the whole of the 
 mechanical tribe; but so far as it antecedently 
 receives counsel from others, is itself governed. 
 Of these parts, however, each again receives 
 a triple division. For of that which consults, 
 one part presides, another governs, and another 
 counsels for the general good. And with re- 
 spect to the part which presides, it is that 
 which plans, contrives, and deliberates about 
 what pertains to the community, prior to the 
 other parts, and afterwards refers its counsels 
 to the senate. But the governing part is either 
 that which now rules [for the first time], or 
 which has before performed that office. And 
 with respect to the third part, which consults 
 for the general good, this receives the advice of 
 the parts prior to itself, and confirms by its 
 suffrages and authority whatever is referred to 
 
3 
 
 its decision. And, in short, it is requisite that 
 those who preside should refer the affairs of 
 the community to that part which consults for 
 the general good ; but that this latter part 
 should refer these affairs through the Praetors 
 to the Convention. 
 
 In a similar manner also of that part which 
 is auxiliary, powerful, and efficacious, one part 
 is of a governing nature; another part is de- 
 fensive; and the remaining, which is the greater 
 part, is gregal and military. It is the govern- 
 ing part, therefore, from which the leaders of 
 armies, the prsefects of cohorts, the bands of 
 soldiers, and the vanguards are derived, and 
 universally all those who rank as leaders. But 
 the whole genus of the vanguards consists of 
 those that are most brave, most impetuous, 
 and most daring. And the remaining multi- 
 tude is gregarious and military. Of the third 
 part, however, which is engaged in sordid occu- 
 pations, and in labouring to procure the neces- 
 saries of life, one part consists of husbandmen, 
 and those who are employed in the elaboration 
 of the land ; but another part consists of arti- 
 ficers, who procure such instruments and ma- 
 chines as the occasions of life require; and 
 another part is engaged in peregrinations and 
 merchandise, and in exporting to foreign re- 
 gions such things as are superabundant in. the 
 
 B2 
 
city, and importing into it other things from 
 foreign countries. The systems of political 
 society, therefore, are coarranged through so 
 many and such like parts. 
 
 In the next place, it is requisite to speak of 
 their adaptation and union. Since, however, 
 the \vhole of political society may be perfectly 
 assimilated to a lyre, in consequence of requir- 
 ing apparatus and coaptation, and also because 
 it is necessary that it should be touched and 
 used musically ; this being the case, I have 
 sufficiently spoken above about the apparatus 
 of a polity, and shown from what and from how 
 many particulars it is constituted. I shall now, 
 therefore, endeavour to speak of the coaptation 
 and union of these. I say then, that political 
 society is coadapted from the following three 
 particulars, from disciplines, the study of man- 
 ners [or customs], and from the laws; and that 
 through these three, man is instructed, and be- 
 comes more worthy. For disciplines are the 
 sources of erudition, and cause the desires to 
 be impelled to virtue. But the laws, partly de- 
 taining by fear, repell men [from the commis- 
 sion of crimes,] and partly alluring by honours 
 and gifts, excite them [to virtue]. ^ Ami man- 
 ners and studies fashion the soul like wax, and 
 through their continued energy impress in it 
 propensities that become, as it were, natural. 
 
It is necessary, however, that these three should 
 
 have an arrangement in conjunction with the 
 
 beautiful, the useful, and the just; and that 
 
 each of these three should, if possible, have all 
 
 these for its final intention; but if not all of 
 
 them, it should at least have two or one of % 
 
 them as the mark at which it aims, in order 
 
 that disciplines, manners, and laws may be 
 
 beautiful, just, and advantageous. In the first 
 
 place, however, the beautiful in conduct should 
 
 be preferred; in the second place the just; and 
 
 in the third place, the useful. And univer- 
 
 sally the endeavour should be, that through 
 
 these the city may become, in the most emi- 
 
 nent degree, consentaneous and concordant 
 
 with its parts, and may be free from sedition 
 
 and hostile contention. But this will be ef- 
 
 fected, if the passions in the souls of youth are 
 
 disciplined, and in things pleasing and painful 
 
 are led to mediocrity, and if the possessions of 
 
 men are moderate, and they derive their sub- 
 
 sistence from the cultivation of the earth. 
 
 And this will also be accomplished, if good 
 
 men rule over those that are in want of virtue; 
 
 skilful men over those that are deficient in 
 
 skill; and rich men over those things that re- '^y 
 
 quire a certain largess and expenditure; and 
 
 if also appropriate honours are distributed to 
 
 those who govern in all these in a becoming 
 
 
 
 4-r 
 
I 
 
 manner. But there are three causes which are 
 incitements to virtue, viz. fear, desire, and 
 shame. The law, however, is able to produce 
 fear, but custom shame : for those that have 
 been accustomed to act well, will be ashamed 
 to do any thing that is base. And disciplines 
 are capable of producing desire. For they at 
 one and the same time assign the causes of 
 things, and attract the soul, and they espe- 
 cially effect this when they are accompanied 
 with exhortation. Hence it is necessary that 
 the souls of young men should be sufficiently 
 instructed in what pertains to senates, fellow- 
 ship, and associations, both military and politi- 
 cal, but that the tribe of elderly men should be 
 coadapted to things of this kind ; since young 
 men, indeed, require correction and instruction, 
 but elderly men are in want of benevolent 
 associations, and a mode of living unattended 
 with pain. 
 
 Since, therefore, we have said, that the wor- 
 thy man is perfected through three things, viz. 
 through customs, laws, and disciplines, it is 
 requisite to consider how r customs or manners 
 are usually corrupted, and how they become 
 permanent. We shall find, then, that customs 
 are corrupted in two ways: for they are either 
 corrupted through ourselves or through fo- 
 reigners. And through ourselves, indeed, 
 
either through onr flying from pain, or through 
 our pursuit of pleasure. For in consequence 
 of flying from pain, we do not endure labour; 
 and through our pursuit of pleasure, we reject 
 what is good. Labours, however, procure 
 good for mankind ; but pleasures evil. Hence 
 men through pleasures, becoming incontinent 
 and remiss, are rendered effeminate in their 
 souls, and more profuse in their expenses. 
 But customs and manners are corrupted Qgj, 
 through foreigners, when a multitude of these 
 dwelling with us, rejoice in the success of 
 their emporetic employment; or when those 
 who dwell in the suburbs, being lovers of plea- M 
 sure and luxury, impart their manners to the 
 neighbouring inhabitants. On this account it 
 is necessary that the legislators, and prefects 
 of the mass of the people, should diligently ob- 
 serve whether the customs of the city are care- 
 fully preserved, and proceed equally through 
 all the citizens. And farther still, they should 
 observe whether the genuine and indigenous 
 multitude, of which the polity consists, remains JjjK/ 
 pure and unmingled with any other nation ; 
 and whether the magnitude of possessions re- 
 mains in the same state, and does not become 
 excessive. For the possession of superflui- 
 ties is accompanied by the desire of still more 
 
8 
 
 of the superfluous. After this manner, there- 
 fore, customs ought to be rendered secure. 
 
 With respect to disciplines, however, the 
 same legislators and pnefects should diligently 
 inspect and examine the tribe of sophists, whe- 
 ther they teach what is useful to the laws, to 
 political dogmas, and to the peculiar economy 
 of life. ' For the doctrines of the sophists inge- 
 nerate in the souls of men, no casual but the 
 greatest infelicity ; when they dare to make in- 
 novation in any thing pertaining either to human 
 or divine concerns, contrary to common con- 
 ceptions ; than which nothing can be more per- 
 nicious either with respect to truth, or secu- 
 rity, or renown. And in addition to this, also, 
 they introduce darkness and confusion into 
 the minds of the vulgar. But of this kind are 
 all such doctrines as either teach that there is 
 no God, or if there is, that he is not so affected 
 towards the human race, as to look to it with 
 providential attention, but deserts and despises 
 it. For doctrines of this kind produce in men 
 folly and injustice, to an extent which it is not 
 easy to narrate.^) For every man who is full of 
 anarchy, and who has shaken off the fear of 
 disobedience [to rulers and the laws], wantonly 
 exults, and violates the laws. Hence it is 
 necessary to employ political and venerable 
 
9 
 
 assertions, which are adapted to the disposition 
 of the speaker, and which are void of dissimu- 
 lation. For thus what is said will exhibit the 
 manners of the speaker. From the laws, how- 
 ever, security will thus be necessarily intro- 
 duced, if the polity is composed and coar- 
 ranged from every thing which is according to 
 nature, and not from such things as are pre- 
 ternatural. For cities derive no advantage 
 from a tyranny, and very little from an oligar- 
 chy. It is necessary, therefore, that a kingdom 
 should be established in the first place; and in 
 the second place, an aristocracy. For a king- 
 dom, indeed, is a thing imitative of God, and 
 which is with difficulty preserved and defended 
 by the human soul. For it is rapidly changed 
 through luxury and insolence. Hence it is not 
 proper to employ it universally, but only so far 
 as it may be useful to the polity ; but an aris- 
 tocracy should be more abundantly interwoven 
 in it, because it consists of many rulers, who 
 emulate each other, and who often alternately 
 govern. It is also entirely necessary that a de- 
 mocracy should be introduced. For as a citi- 
 zen is a part of the whole polity, it is requisite 
 that he should receive a certain reward from it*. 
 
 * Thus, too, Plato in his Laws mingles his polity from a 
 democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. He was, however, 
 decidedly of opinion, as is evident from his Politicus, that 
 
10 
 
 But it is necessary that he should be suffici- 
 ently restrained. For the vulgar are audaci- 
 ous and precipitate. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF DIOTOGENES ON 
 SANCTITY. 
 
 IT is necessary that the laws should not be 
 enclosed in houses, and by gates, but in the 
 manners of the citizens. What, therefore, is 
 the principle of every polity? The education of 
 youth. For vines will never bear useful fruit, 
 unless they are well cultivated; nor will horses 
 ever become excellent, if colts are not properly 
 trained. For recently produced fruit receives 
 a figure especially similar to that which touches 
 and is near to it. And men prudently attend to 
 the manner in which vines ought to be cut and 
 taken care of; but in things pertaining to the 
 education of their own species, they conduct 
 themselves negligently and rashly; though nei- 
 ther vines nor wine govern men, but man and 
 the soul of man. And we commit the nurture 
 of a plant, indeed, to a man of some worth, and 
 think that he who takes care of it, deserves no 
 less than two mina; but we commit the edu- 
 
 tlie best form of government is that in which either one 
 man, who is a most excellent character, is the supreme ruler, 
 or a few excellent men rule conjointly. 
 
11 
 
 cation of youth to some Illyrian or Thracian, 
 who are men of no worth. The first legislators, 
 however, as they could not render the middle 
 class of mankind stable, adjoined [in their edu- 
 cation] dancing and rhythm, which participate 
 of motion alone and order; and besides these 
 they adde,d sports, some of which exhorted 
 them to fellowship, but others to truth and 
 mental acuteness. In a similar manner also 
 they instituted for those who through intoxica- 
 tion or repletion had committed any crime, the 
 pipe and harmony, by which they gave an ar- 
 rangement to the mind, so that the manners 
 being matured and rendered mild, they might 
 be capable of being adorned. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF ARCHYTAS ON LAW 
 AND JUSTICE. 
 
 I SAY that every [political] association con- 
 sists of a governor and the governed ; and of a 
 third thing, viz. the laws. Of laws, however, 
 one is animated, viz. a king; but another inani- 
 mate, viz. written law. The first law, there- 
 fore, is animated*; and if it is observed, the 
 
 * In the original there is only irpuro^ uv o vo^toc, which 
 is evidently defective; but by adding */^i/^oc the sense will 
 be complete. And in what immediately follows TOVTU yap 
 o /UFV (3a<Ti\evs vo/ut/uo? which also is defective, Gesner adds 
 after TOVTM yap, but he should doubtless have added 
 
12 
 
 king will be legitimate; the magistrate will be 
 consentaneous; the subject will be free; and 
 the whole community will be happy. But if 
 both the animated and written laws are trans- 
 gressed, the king will be a tyrant; the magis- 
 trate unfit for his office; the subject a slave; 
 and the whole community unhappy. For ac- 
 tions form a continued series from governing, 
 the being governed, and, in the third place, 
 from subjugation. To govern, therefore, is the 
 province of that which is more, but to be 
 governed, of that which is less excellent, and 
 to be subjugated, pertains to both these. For 
 that part of the soul which is rational governs, 
 the part which is irrational is governed, and 
 both are vanquished by the passions. For 
 virtue is produced from the apt conjunction 
 of both these parts; and she leads the soul 
 from pleasures and pains to tranquillity and 
 apathy*. 
 
 AND IN ANOTHER PART OF THE SAME WORK. 
 
 IT will be beneficial to the community, if law 
 is not monarchical, and advantageous [only] to 
 
 * i. e. To a perfect subjugation of the passions to reason, 
 and not to a perfect insensibility, as is stupidly supposed by 
 many who do not understand the proper meaning of the 
 word apathy, as used by the Pythagoreans, Platonists, and 
 Stoics. 
 
13 
 
 a private individual, but if it is generally use- 
 ful, and extends to every one. But it is also 
 necessary that the law should look to the 
 whole region, and to the different places in it. 
 For neither is the earth able to receive the same 
 fruits [every where] nor the soul of every man 
 the same virtue*. 
 
 IN ANOTHER PART ALSO OF THE SAME WORK. 
 
 Bur it is necessary that the more excellent 
 law and the city should be composed of every 
 other polity, and should 'have something of a 
 democracy, of an oligarchy, of a kingdom, and 
 of an aristocracy ; as is the case in Lacedaemon. 
 For the kings there are monarchs; the elders 
 form an aristocracy ; the ephori an oligarchy ; 
 and the ippagretaef and the young men a de- 
 mocracy. It is necessary, however, that law 
 should not only be good and beautiful, but that 
 
 * The original is, I conceive, evidently defective in this 
 place; for it is, ovre yap ya TUS avrue KapiruG, ovre ^v-^a, 
 avQpuTrw TOLV avrav apirav Trapadefaffdai Swarai. It ap- 
 pears, therefore, to me, that iravra^ov should be added after 
 and that for ovre vct we should read ovre 
 
 t Among the Lacedaemonians the three men were thus 
 denominated, who were chosen by the Ephori to preside 
 over the equestrian order. But the ephori were magis- 
 trates corresponding to the tribunes of the people among the 
 Romans. 
 
14 
 
 it should also reciprocate in its parts : for thus 
 it will be strong and stable. But when I say 
 it should reciprocate, I mean that the same 
 magistrate should alternately govern and be 
 governed, as in Lacedaemon, in which there are 
 the most equitable laws. For there the ephori 
 are opposed to the kings, the elders to the 
 ephori, and the media between these are the 
 young men, and the ippagretae ; for these last 
 both incline to those rulers that excell in 
 power, and are in subjection to others. 
 
 It is necessary that the law should, in the 
 first place, establish what pertains to the gods, 
 to daemons and parents, and, in short, to what 
 is beautiful and honourable. But in the second 
 place, it should establish what pertains to 
 things that are useful. For it is fit that minor 
 concerns should be subsequent to such as are 
 greater. Nor should the laws be contained in 
 houses and gates, but in the manners of the 
 citizens. For neither in Lacedaemon, which 
 possesses the most excellent laws, is the city 
 governed by a multitude of writings, but rather 
 by the manners of the subjects. But it will be 
 beneficial to the community, if law is not mo- 
 narchical, and advantageous [only] to a private 
 individual, but if it is generally useful, and ex- 
 tends to every one ; and if it refers punishment 
 to disgrace and ignominy, and not to the loss of 
 
15 
 
 property. For by punishing with disgrace, the 
 citizens will endeavour in the most decorous and 
 useful manner, to avoid the punishment ordained 
 by the laws. But if the punishment is pecuniary, 
 the citizens will value money immoderately, 
 and will conceive it to be the greatest remedy 
 of crimes. It will be best, therefore, for the 
 whole city to be so arranged that it may not 
 be in want of any thing external, either with 
 respect to virtue or power, or any other cause. 
 For thus the body, a family, and an army will 
 be beautifully constituted, when each of these 
 has the cause of safety in itself, and does not 
 derive it externally. And this, indeed, will be 
 the case with the body when it is strong, with 
 a family when it is well composed, and with 
 an army which neither consists of mercenaries, 
 nor is unexercised. For these, when thus con- 
 stituted, will be far more excellent than others, 
 and will be free indeed, and foreign from every 
 thing of a servile nature ; and will not, for the 
 purpose of endurance, be in want of many 
 things, but of a few, and those easily procured. 
 For thus he who is strong will not sink under 
 burdens, and he who is thinly clothed will 
 vanquish cold; since men are exercised by 
 casualties and calamities. Indeed, to the man 
 who is temperate, and who has laboured much 
 
16 
 
 both in body and soul, all meat and drink will 
 appear to be agreeable; and a bed composed 
 of leaves will be pleasant; but to him who 
 has deliberately chosen a luxurious and Syba- 
 ritic life, even the apparatus of the great [or Per- 
 sian] king would not be sufficiently pleasing. 
 Hence it is necessary that the manners and 
 pursuits of the citizens should be deeply tinc- 
 tured with law : for this will cause them to be 
 sufficient to themselves, and will be the means 
 of distributing to each of them that which is 
 due to him according to his desert. For thus, 
 also, the sun, moving in a circle through the 
 zodiac, distributes to every thing on the earth 
 generation, nutriment, and an appropriate por- 
 tion of life ; administering, as if it were equi- 
 table legislation, the excellent temperature of 
 the seasons. Hence, too, Jupiter is called 
 Nomios, or legal; and Nemeios, or the distri- 
 butor. He, likewise, who distributes nutriment 
 to sheep, is called Nomeus, or a shepherd; and 
 the songs of harpers are denominated Nomai. 
 For these properly dispose the parts of the 
 soul by harmony, rhythms, and measures. 
 
17 
 
 ON THE MUTATIONS OF POLITIES, FROM THE 
 TREATISE OF HIPPODAMUS ON A POLITY. 
 
 EVERY thing mortal, by a necessity of nature, 
 is conversant with mutations; some things, 
 indeed, receiving a revolution from a worse to 
 a better condition, but others from a better to 
 a worse. For things that are generated, are 
 increased ; when increased, arrive at their 
 acme: after this become old, and at length 
 finally perish. And things, indeed, which are 
 
 generated by nature, through the same nature 
 
 . ,, .. , . f 
 
 terminate in the immamfest; and again from 
 
 the immanifest accede to mortality, through a 
 permutation of generation ; and, by a recipro- 
 cation of corruption, form a circular retrogres- 
 sion. And some things, through human folly, 
 from an ebullition of insolence and satiety, 
 when both houses and cities have been exalted 
 to the summit of human felicity, and been 
 exuberantly rich, have perished, together with 
 their much applauded possessions. Thus, 
 also, it happens that every empire is bounded 
 by three times: by one, indeed, and that the 
 first, which comprehends in itself acquisition; 
 by the second, which comprehends fruition; 
 and by the last, which brings with it destruc- 
 tion. For empires at their commencement 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 being destitute of the goods of fortune, are 
 busied in acquisition ; but afterwards becoming 
 prosperous, they perish. Such things, there- 
 fore, as are under the dominion of the gods, 
 being incorruptible, are preserved through the 
 whole of time by incorruptible natures; but 
 such things as are under the government of 
 men, being mortal, receive from mortals a per- 
 petually various mutation. For the end, in- 
 deed, of satiety and lascivious insolence is 
 destruction; but a strenuous and worthy life 
 is the end of poverty and narrow circum- 
 stances. Not only poverty, however, but many 
 other things bring human life to an end. 
 
 FROM DIOTQGENES IN HIS TREATISE CON- 
 CERNING A KINGDOM. 
 
 A KING should be one who is most just; and 
 he will be most just who pays the greatest 
 attention to the laws. For without justice no 
 one will be a king; and without law there can 
 be no justice. For that which is just is just 
 through law, which is the effective cause of 
 justice. But a king is either animated law, or 
 a legal ruler. And hence it follows that he 
 will be most just and most observant of the 
 laws. There are, however, three peculiar em- 
 
19 
 
 ployments of a king; viz. to lead an army, to 
 administer justice, and to worship the gods. 
 He will, therefore, be able to lead an army 
 properly, if he knows how to carry on war in 
 a becoming manner. But he will be skilled in 
 administering justice, and in governing all his 
 subjects, if he has well learned the nature of 
 justice and law. And he will worship the 
 gods in a pious and holy manner, if he has 
 diligently considered the nature and virtue of 
 God ; so that a good king must necessarily be 
 a good general, judge, and priest. For these 
 are things consequent and suitable to the 
 transcendency and virtue of a king. For it is 
 the province of the pilot to preserve the ship, 
 of the charioteer to preserve the chariot, and 
 of the physician to save the sick ; but it 
 belongs to a king and to a general to save 
 those who are in danger in battle. For of that 
 of which any one is the leader, he is also the 
 provident inspector and artificer. But to be 
 conversant with judicial affairs is, indeed, a 
 universal thing ; but is particularly the proper 
 work of a king : who, like a god, is a leader 
 and protector in the world. And universally, 
 indeed, it is fit that the whole polity should be 
 coadapted to one ruler and empire ; but, espe- 
 cially, that things which have the relation of 
 parts should accord with the same harmony 
 
 c2 
 
20 
 
 and supreme domination. Farther still, it is 
 the province of a king to oblige and benefit his 
 subjects, but this not without justice and law. 
 And the third thing which is adapted to the 
 dignity of a king is the worship of the gods. 
 For it is necessary that what is most excellent 
 should be honoured by the most excellent; 
 and that which is the leader and ruler, by that 
 which leads and rules. Of things, therefore, 
 which are by nature most honourable, God is 
 the best ; but of things on the earth, and per- 
 taining to men, a king is the most excellent. 
 As God also is to the world, so is a king to the 
 city [which he governs]; and as a city is to the 
 world, so is a king to God. For a city, in- 
 deed, being coadapted from things which are 
 many and different, imitates the coarrange- 
 ment and harmony of the world ; but a king 
 who possesses an innoxious dominion, and 
 who is himself animated law, exhibits the form 
 of God among men. 
 
 AND IN ANOTHER PART OF THE SAME 
 TREATISE. 
 
 HENCE it is necessary that a king should 
 not be vanquished by pleasure, but that he 
 should vanquish it; that he should not be 
 
21 
 
 similar to, but far excel the multitude; and 
 that he should not conceive his proper employ- 
 ment to consist in the pursuit of pleasure, but 
 rather in the acquisition of probity. At the 
 same time also it is fit that he who has occa- 
 sion to rule over others should first be able to 
 govern his own passions. 
 
 But with respect to the desire of obtaining 
 great property, it must be observed, that a king 
 ought to be wealthy in order that he may 
 benefit his friends, relieve those that are in 
 want, and justly punish his enemies. For the 
 enjoyment of prosperity in conjunction with 
 virtue is most delightful. The same thing 
 must be said concerning the transcendency of 
 a king. For since he always surpasses others 
 in virtue, it is fit to form a judgment of his 
 empire with reference to virtue, and not with 
 reference to riches, or power, or his military 
 strength. For he possesses one of these [viz. 
 riches] in common with any casual persons ; 
 another [viz. power] in common with irrational 
 animals ; and the last in common with tyrants. 
 But virtue is alone the peculiarity of good 
 men. Hence, whatever king is temperate with 
 respect to pleasures, liberal with respect to 
 money, and prudent and most skilful in govern- 
 ing, he will be in reality a king. The people, 
 however, have the same analogy with respect 
 
22 
 
 to the virtues and the vices, as the parts of the 
 human soul. For the desire of accumulating 
 more than is fit subsists about the irrational 
 part of the soul: for desire is not rational*. 
 But ambition and ferocity subsist about the 
 irascible part: for this is the fervid and stre- 
 nuous part of the soul. And the love of plea- 
 sure subsists about the epithymetic part: for 
 this is the effeminate and yielding part of the 
 soul. But injustice, which is the most perfect 
 vice, and is of a composite nature, subsists 
 about the whole soul. Hence it is necessary 
 that the king should coharmonize like a lyre 
 the city that is furnished with good laws, first 
 establishing in himself the most just boundary 
 and order of law, as knowing that the proper 
 arrangement of the people, over whom divinity 
 
 * In the original, a /LIW yap irXtovwria ytverat ire/oi TO 
 ayovfiEvov fiepos rac ipi/^ac* XoytKct yap a tiridv/Liia. But 
 for ayovfjLtvov, I read a\oyov; and for Xoyuca, it is necessary 
 to read ov \oytica. For the vices, according to the Pytha- 
 goreans, subsist about the irrational part of the soul, which 
 consists, according to them, as well as according to Plato, 
 of anger and desire. Hence Metopus, the Pythagorean, 
 says : " Since there are two parts of the soul, the rational 
 and the irrational, the latter is divided into the irascible and 
 the appetitive. And the rational part, indeed, is that by 
 which we judge and contemplate ; but the irrational part is 
 that by which we are impelled and desire." See my trans- 
 lation of Pythagoric Ethical Fragments, at the end of my 
 translation of lamblichus' Life of Pythagoras. 
 
23 
 
 has given him dominion, ought to be coadapted 
 to this boundary. It is also necessary that a 
 good king should establish becoming positions 
 and habits in the delivery of public orations, 
 conducting himself politically, seriously, and 
 earnestly, in order that he may neither appear 
 to be rough to the multitude, nor may be con- 
 temptible; but may be agreeable and easy in 
 his manners. He will however obtain these 
 things, if in the first place he is venerable in 
 his aspect and his discourse, and appears to 
 deserve the sovereign authority which he pos- 
 sesses. But, in the second place, if he proves 
 himself to be benign from his behaviour to 
 those whom he may happen to meet, from his 
 countenance and his beneficence. And in the 
 third place, if he is formidable from his hatred 
 of depravity, from the punishment which he 
 inflicts on it, from his celerity in inflicting it, 
 and, in short, from his skill and exercise in 
 the art of government. For venerable gravity, 
 being a thing which imitates divinity, is capa- 
 ble of causing him to be admired and ho- 
 noured by the multitude. Benignity will ren- 
 der him pleasing and beloved. And his being 
 formidable will cause him to be terrible to 
 and unconquered by his enemies, and magna- 
 nimous and confident to his friends. 
 
 It is necessary, however, that his gravity 
 
24 
 
 should have nothing in it of an abject or vulgar 
 nature, but that it should be admirable, and 
 such as becomes the dignity of empire and a 
 sceptre. Nor should he ever contend with 
 his inferiors, or his equals, but with those that 
 are greater than himself; and he should con- 
 ceive, conformably to the magnitude of his 
 empire, that those pleasures are the greatest 
 which are derived from beautiful and great 
 deeds, and not those which arise from sensual 
 gratifications; separating himself indeed from 
 human passions, and approximating to the 
 Gods, not through arrogance, but through mag- 
 nanimity and an invincible transcendency of 
 virtue. Hence he should invest himself with 
 such a gracefulness and majesty in his aspect 
 and his reasonings, in the conceptions of his 
 mind, in the manners of his soul, and in his 
 actions and the motions and gesture of his 
 body, that those who survey him may perceive 
 that he is adorned and fashioned with modesty 
 and temperance, and a decorous disposition. 
 For a good king should convert to himself the 
 souls of those that behold him, no less than the 
 sound of a flute and harmony attract the atten- 
 tion of those that hear them. And thus much 
 concerning the venerable gravity of a king. 
 
 But I shall now endeavour to speak of his 
 benignity. Universally, therefore, every king 
 
25 
 
 will be benign, if he is just, equitable, and 
 beneficent. For justice is a connective and 
 collective communion, and is alone that dispo- 
 sition of the soul which adapts itself to those 
 that are near to us. For as rhythm is to mo- 
 tion, and harmony to the voice, so is justice to 
 communion ; since it is the common good of 
 those that govern, and those that are governed, 
 because it coharmonizes political society. But 
 equity and benignity are certain assessors of 
 justice; the former indeed softening the se- 
 verity of punishment; but the latter extending 
 pardon to less guilty offenders. It is neces- 
 sary, however, that a good king should give 
 assistance to those that are in want of it, and 
 be beneficent. But his assistance should be 
 given not in one way only, but in every possible 
 way. And it is requisite to be beneficent, not 
 looking to the magnitude of honour, but to the 
 manner and deliberate choice of him by whom 
 honour is conferred. It is likewise necessary 
 that a worthy king should so conduct himself 
 towards all men as to avoid being troublesome 
 to them, but especially towards men of an in- 
 ferior rank and of a slender fortune : for these, 
 like diseased bodies, can endure nothing of a 
 troublesome nature. Good kings, indeed, have 
 dispositions similar to those of the Gods, and 
 which especially resemble those of Jupiter, the 
 
26 
 
 ruler of all things. For he is venerable and 
 honourable, through transcendency and mag- 
 nitude of virtue. He is benign, because he is 
 beneficent, and the giver of good ; and hence he 
 is said by the Ionic poet [Homer] to be the 
 father of men and Gods. He is also terrible 
 and transcendent, because he punishes the 
 unjust, and reigns and rules over all things. 
 But he carries thunder in his hand, as a symbol 
 of his formidable excellence. From all these 
 particulars, therefore, it is requisite to remem- 
 ber that a kingdom is a God-resembling thing. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF STHENIDAS THE 
 LOCRTAN, ON A KINGDOM. 
 
 IT is requisite that a king should be a wise 
 man: for thus he will be honoured analo- 
 gously to the first God, of whom also he will 
 be an imitator. For this god is by nature the 
 first king and potentate ; but a king is so by 
 birth and imitation. And the former rules in 
 the universe, and in the whole of things ; but 
 the latter in the earth. The former also 
 governs all things eternally, and has a never- 
 failing life, possessing wisdom in himself; but 
 the latter acquires science through time. But 
 a king will imitate the first God in the most 
 
27 
 
 excellent manner, if he acquires magnanimity, 
 gravity, and the want of but few things ; exhi- 
 biting to his subjects a paternal disposition. 
 For on this account especially, the first God is 
 conceived to be the father both of Gods and 
 men, because he is mild to every thing which 
 is in subjection to him, and never ceases to 
 govern with providential regard. Nor is he 
 alone satisfied with being the maker of all 
 things, but he is the nourisher, the preceptor 
 of every thing beautiful, and the legislator to 
 all things equally. Such also ought the king 
 to be who rules over men on the earth. Nothing 
 however is beautiful which is deprived of a 
 king and a ruler. But it is not possible for a 
 king or a ruler [properly so called] to exist 
 without wisdom and science. He, therefore, 
 who is a wise man and a king, will be an imi- 
 tator, and a legitimate minister of God. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF ECPHANTUS, THE 
 CROTONIAN, ON A KINGDOM. 
 
 THAT the nature of every animal is adapted 
 to the world, and to the things contained in the 
 world, appears to me to be evident from many 
 arguments. For every animal thus conspiring 
 [into union and consent], and having such a 
 
28 
 
 colligation of its parts, it follows a series which 
 is most excellent, and at the same time neces- 
 sary, through the attractive flux of the uni- 
 verse about it, which is effective of the general 
 ornament of the world, and the peculiar per- 
 manency of every thing which it contains. 
 Hence it is called AOXTJUOC /cosmos, and is the 
 most perfect of all animals. But in its parts, 
 which are many, and naturally different, a 
 certain animal excels ; both from its native 
 alliance to the world *, and from participating 
 of divinity in a greater degree. [And in the 
 nature, indeed, of the God who is eternal, the 
 stars called planets are comprehended, form- 
 ing the first and the greatest series |]. But in 
 the sublunary region, where bodies move in a 
 right line, the nature of demons has its sub- 
 sistence. And in the earth, and with us, the 
 most excellent nature is man ; but the most 
 divine is a king, who surpasses other men in 
 the common nature : in his tabernacle, indeed, 
 [i. e. in his body], resembling other men, as 
 being generated from the same matter, but 
 fashioned from the best of artificers, who fa- 
 
 * I here read, with Victorius, /car' oimorara fyycv^, for 
 
 KCtt OIKEIOTCITOV V JtVOLV. 
 
 t This sentence within the brackets is not to be found in 
 Stobceus. 
 
29 
 
 bricated him, by using himself as the arche- 
 type. Hence, in a certain respect, a king is 
 one and alone ; being the production of the 
 supernal king, with whom he is always fami- 
 liar: but being beheld by his subjects in his 
 kingdom as in a splendid light. For a king- 
 dom is judged and proved to resemble the 
 eagle, the most excellent of winged animals, 
 which looks undazzled at the sun. And a 
 kingdom is, indeed, analogous to the sun, 
 because it is divine ; and through excess of 
 splendour cannot be seen without difficulty, 
 except by genuine eyes. For the numerous 
 splendours which surround it, and the dark 
 vertigos which it produces in those who sur- 
 vey it, as if they had ascended into a foreign 
 altitude, evinces that their eyes are spurious. 
 But those who can fitly arrive thither, on ac- 
 count of their familiarity with, and alliance to 
 it, are able to use it properly. A kingdom, 
 therefore, is a thing pure, genuine, uncor- 
 rupted, and through transcendency, most di- 
 vine; and difficult to be acceded to by man. 
 Hence it is necessary that he who is established 
 in it should be naturally most pure and pel- 
 lucid [in his soul], in order that he may not 
 obscure by his stains that which is most splen- 
 did ; as some persons defile the most sacred 
 places, and the impure pollute those they 
 
30 
 
 may happen to meet. But it is requisite that 
 a king, who associates with men, should par- 
 ticipate of an undefiled nature, and should 
 know how much more divine both himself and 
 his qualifications are than other things ; and 
 from the exemplars to which he assimilates 
 himself, he should use both himself and his 
 subjects in the best manner. And to other 
 men, indeed, if they are delinquents, the most 
 holy purification is for them to be assimilated 
 to their rulers, whether law or a king adminis- 
 ters their affairs. But kings who cannot find 
 any thing on the earth to imitate more excel- 
 lent than their own nature, ought not to 
 wander any farther in search of a paradigm, 
 but should immediately become benefited by 
 imitating God. For neither should any one 
 search for the world, since he exists in, and is 
 a part of it; nor should he who governs others 
 be ignorant of him by whom he is governed. 
 This, however, is a most abundant ornament, 
 that nothing [in the universe] can be found 
 without a ruler. 
 
 The manners of a king also ought to be the 
 preceptors of his government. For thus the 
 beauty of it will immediately shine forth, since 
 he who imitates God through virtue will be 
 dear to him whom he imitates; and much 
 more will he be dear to his subjects. For no 
 
31 
 
 one who is beloved by divinity will be hated 
 by men ; since neither do the stars, nor the 
 whole world hate God. For if they hated 
 their ruler and leader, they would never be 
 obedient to him. But because he governs 
 properly, mundane affairs are well governed. 
 I therefore, indeed, apprehend that the terrene 
 king ought not to be deficient in any one of the 
 virtues which pertain to the celestial king. 
 But as the former is a certain foreign and ex- 
 ternal thing, in consequence of proceeding to 
 men from the heavens ; so, likewise, his virtues 
 may be conceived to be the works of God, and 
 to accede to him through divinity. And if 
 you consider the thing from the beginning, you 
 will find what I say to be true. For the ter- 
 restrial king obtains possession of the race of 
 men by a communion, which is the first and 
 the most necessary of all things. And this 
 race is also the possession of him who governs 
 every thing in the universe. For it is impos- 
 sible that any thing can subsist without friend- 
 ship and communion ; the truth of which may 
 be easily seen, if the accustomed communion 
 which exists among citizens is supposed to be 
 destroyed ; since this is much inferior to a 
 divine and royal nature. For natures of this 
 kind are not oppressed by any such indigence ; 
 but, conformably to intellect, they supply the 
 
32 
 
 wants of others, and afford them assistance in 
 common. For they are perfect in virtue. But 
 the friendship which is in a city, and which 
 possesses a certain common end, imitates the 
 concord of the universe. But without the 
 arrangement of magistrates no city can be 
 inhabited. In order, however, to effect this 
 arrangement, and to preserve the city, laws 
 are necessary, and a certain political domina- 
 tion, and also a governor and the governed. 
 But the consequence of these things is, the 
 general good, a certain concinnity, and the 
 consent of the multitude in conjunction with 
 concordant persuasion. He, likewise, who 
 governs according to virtue, is called a king, 
 and is so [in reality]; since he possesses the 
 same friendship and communion with his sub- 
 jects as divinity possesses with the world, and 
 the natures which it contains. All benevo- 
 lence, however, ought to be exerted ; in the 
 first place, indeed, by the king towards his 
 subjects ; but in the second place, by the sub- 
 jects towards the king: and this benevolence 
 should be such as that of a parent towards his 
 child, of a shepherd towards his flock, and of 
 law towards him who uses it. 
 
 For there is one virtue pertaining to the 
 government, and to the life of men. But no 
 one should through indigence solicit the as- 
 
33 
 
 sistance of others, when he is able to supply 
 himself with what nature requires. For though 
 there is a general communion [in the city], yet 
 every one should so live as to be sufficient 
 to himself; since he who is sufficient to him- 
 self does not appear to require the aid of any 
 other person in his passage through life. If, 
 therefore, it is necessary to lead an active life, 
 it is evident that a king, though he should also 
 assume other things, will, nevertheless, be 
 sufficient to himself. For he will have friends 
 through his own virtue ; and in using these, he 
 will not use them by any other virtue than that 
 by which he regulates his own life. For it is 
 necessary that he should follow a virtue of 
 this kind, since he cannot procure any thing 
 which is more excellent. And God, indeed, 
 not having either ministers or servants *, nor 
 employing any mandate, and neither crowning 
 nor proclaiming those that are obedient to him, 
 or disgracing those that are disobedient, thus 
 administers so great an empire. But as it 
 appears to me exhibiting himself to be most 
 
 * i. e. God is not in want of ministers or servants to as- 
 sist him in the government of the universe : for he produces 
 and provides for all things at once by his own immediate 
 energy. But the cooperation of subordinate divine powers 
 with him is necessary to the proper participation of him by 
 the different beings which the universe contains. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 worthy of imitation, he inserts in all things a 
 vehement desire of participating his nature. 
 He is, however, good ; and the communication 
 of goodness, and this, with the greatest faci- 
 lity, is his only work. But those who imi- 
 tate him *, accomplish every thing in a better 
 manner through this imitation. And the imi- 
 tation of him is to every thing the source of 
 sufficiency. For there is not one virtue which 
 makes things to be acceptable to God, and 
 another which imitates him; [but both these 
 are effected by one and the same virtue]. And 
 is not our terrestrial king in a similar manner 
 sufficient to himself? For assimilating himself 
 to one, and that the most excellent nature, he 
 will beneficently endeavour to render all whom 
 he governs similar to himself. But such as 
 offer violence to, and compel their subjects, 
 entirely! destroy in every individual of the 
 community a promptitude to imitate [that which 
 is most excellent]. For without benevolence, 
 it is impossible there can be assimilation ; since 
 benevolence especially destroys every thing of 
 a terrific nature. It is much to be wished, 
 indeed, that human nature was not in want 
 
 * For 01 fjiifjiEvfjiEvoL TWV ctvTuv in this place, I read 01 
 
 rov 
 
 t Instead of EVIOTE here, I read 
 
35 
 
 of persuasion: for persuasion is the relic of 
 human depravity, of which this temporary 
 animal [man] is not destitute. Persuasion, 
 indeed, is a thing proximate to necessity ; 
 since this first of itself performs those things 
 which fly from necessity. Such beings, how- 
 ever, as spontaneously use what is beautiful 
 and good, are not influenced by the reverence 
 of persuasion ; for neither are they influenced 
 by the fear of necessity. 
 
 Again, a king alone is capable of effecting 
 this good in human nature, that through the 
 imitation of what is more excellent, man may 
 pursue what is fit and decorous ; and that 
 those who are corrupted as if by intoxication, 
 and through a bad education have fallen into 
 an oblivion of that which is more excellent, 
 may through his eloquence be corroborated, 
 may have their diseased minds healed, and the 
 oblivion which dwells in them through de- 
 pravity being expelled, may have memory for 
 an intimate associate, from which persuasion 
 is produced. For this, though it originates 
 from depraved seeds, yet is the source of a 
 certain good to the inhabitants of the terres- 
 trial region, in which language supplies what 
 is deficient (through the imbecility of our na- 
 ture), in our converse with each other. 
 
 n2 
 
36 
 
 AND IN ANOTHER PART OF THE SAME WORK. 
 
 HE who has a sacred arid divine conception of 
 things, will be in reality a king*. For being 
 persuaded by this, he will be the cause of all 
 good, but of no evil. And, moreover, that he 
 will be just, being fitted for society, is evident 
 to every one. For communion or association 
 consists in equality, and in the distribution of 
 it. And justice indeed precedes, but commu- 
 nion participates. For it is impossible for a 
 man to be unjust, and yet distribute equality ; 
 or that he should distribute equality, and yet 
 not be adapted to association. But how is it 
 possible that he who is sufficient to himself 
 should not be continent? For sumptuousness 
 is the mother of incontinence, and incontinence 
 of wanton insolence, from which so many 
 human evils are derived. But self-sufficiency 
 is not vanquished by sumptuousness, nor by 
 any thing which proceeds from it; but being 
 itself a certain principle, it leads all things, but 
 is not led by anything. And to govern, in- 
 deed, is the province of God, and also of a 
 king (on which account, likewise, he is de- 
 
 * Conformably to this, Plato also in the Politicus says : 
 " It is requisite to call him royal who possesses the royal 
 science, whether he governs or not." 
 
37 
 
 nominated sufficient to himself); but it pertains 
 to both, not to be governed by any one. It is, 
 however, evident, that these things cannot be 
 effected without prudence. And it is mani- 
 fest that God is the intellectual prudence of 
 the world. For the world is connectedly con- 
 tained by gracefulness, and a fit order of things, 
 which cannot take place without intellect. 
 Nor is it possible for a king without prudence 
 to possess these virtues ; I mean justice, con- 
 tinence, communion, and such other virtues 
 as are the sisters of these. 
 
 FROM ARCHYTAS. 
 
 THE unwritten laws of the gods were promul- 
 gated against depraved manners, inflicting a 
 severe destiny and penalty on the disobedient; 
 and these unwritten laws are the fathers and 
 leaders of those that are written, and of the 
 dogmas established by men. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF DIOTOGENES ON 
 SANCTITY. 
 
 IT is proper to invoke God in the beginning 
 both of supper and dinner, not because he is 
 in want of any thing of this kind, but in order 
 
38 
 
 that the soul may be adorned by the recollec- 
 tion of Divinity. For since we proceed from 
 him, and participate of a divine nature, it is re- 
 quisite that we should honour him. And since 
 God also is just, it is fit that we should act 
 justly in all things. In the next place, there 
 are four causes which terminate all things, and 
 bring them to an end, viz. nature, law, art, and 
 fortune. And nature, indeed, is universally 
 the principle of all things. But of those things 
 which from manners lead to political concord, 
 law is the inspective guardian and fabricator. 
 Of things which obtain their consummation 
 through human prudence, art is justly said to 
 be the mother and leader. And of those things 
 which, casually and accidentally, similarly be- 
 fall the worthy and the depraved, we assert 
 fortune to be the cause. For fortune does not 
 produce any thing in measure and bound, in 
 an orderly and prudent manner. 
 
 THE PREFACE OF CHARONDAS, THE CATANEAN, 
 TO HIS TREATISE OF LAWS. 
 
 IT is requisite that those who deliberate 
 about, and perform any thing, should begin 
 from the Gods: for it is best, as the proverb 
 says, for God to be the cause of all our delibe- 
 
39 
 
 rations and works. And, farther still, it is 
 requisite to abstain from base actions, and 
 especially on account of consulting with God. 
 For there is no communication between God 
 and him who is unjust. Every one, also, 
 should give assistance to himself, and should 
 incite himself to the undertaking and perform- 
 ance of such things as are conformable to his 
 desert; since for a man to extend himself simi- 
 larly to small and great undertakings appears 
 to be too sordid and illiberal. Hence, you 
 should be very careful to avoid falling vehe- 
 mently into things of an extended nature, and 
 of great consequence. But, in every undertak- 
 ing, you should measure your own desert and 
 power, in order that you may obtain honour 
 and veneration. 
 
 Let no assistance be afforded to a man or 
 woman who has been condemned by the city, 
 nor let any one associate with such a person, 
 or if he does, let him be disgraced, as being 
 similar to him or her with whom he associates. 
 But it is proper to love men who, from the 
 previous decision of the city, are good, and to 
 associate with them ; and by imitating and ac- 
 quiring in reality their virtue and probity, to be 
 thus initiated in the greatest and most perfect 
 of the mysteries. For no man is perfect witl> 
 out virtue. And assistance should be given to 
 
40 
 
 an injured citizen, whether he is in his own, or 
 in a foreign country. But let every stranger 
 who was venerated in his own country, and 
 conformably to the proper laws of that coun- 
 try, be received and dismissed auspiciously 
 and familiarly, calling to mind hospitable Ju- 
 piter, as a God who is established by all nations 
 in common, and who is the inspective guardian 
 of hospitality and inhospitality. 
 
 Let more elderly men also preside over such 
 as are younger, so that the latter may be 
 ashamed of and deterred from vice, through 
 reverence and fear of the former. For in cities 
 in which more elderly men are shameless, the 
 children and grandchildren of these are also 
 destitute of shame. But wanton insolence and 
 injustice are the attendants of shamelessness 
 and impudence. And destruction follows 
 these. Let, however, no one be impudent*, 
 but let every one be modest arid temperate; 
 because he will thus have the Gods propitious 
 to him, and will procure for himself salvation. 
 For no vicious man is dear to divinity. Let 
 every one likewise honour probity and truth, 
 and hate what is base and false. For these 
 are the indications of virtue and vice. Hence 
 
 * Plato says somewhere (I think in his Laws), that a 
 greater evil than impudence cannot befall either cities or 
 individuals. 
 
41 
 
 it is requisite to accustom children from their 
 youth [to worthy manners], by punishing those 
 that are lovers of falsehood, but being delighted 
 with those that are lovers of truth, in order 
 that in each that which is most beautiful, and 
 most prolific of virtue, may be implanted. 
 Each of the citizens, likewise, should be more 
 anxious to pretend to be temperate than to 
 pretend to be wise: for the pretence of wisdom 
 is a great indication of an ignorance of probity, 
 and is also a sign of pusillanimity. But let the 
 pretence of temperance be considered as a true 
 claim to it. For no one should feign with his 
 tongue, that he performs beautiful deeds, when 
 at the same time he is both destitute of wor- 
 thy conduct and good intentions. 
 
 It is likewise requisite to preserve benevo- 
 lence towards rulers, being obedient to and 
 venerating them as if they were parents. For 
 he who does not conceive that this is proper 
 will suffer the punishment of bad counsel from 
 the daemons who are the inspective guardians 
 of the seat of empire. For the rulers are the 
 guardians of the city, and of the safety of the 
 citizens. 
 
 But it is also necessary that governors should 
 preside justly over those that are governed, in 
 the same manner as over their own children, in 
 
42 
 
 passing sentence on others, laying asleep hatred, 
 friendship, and anger. 
 
 Let those likewise be praised and celebrated 
 who, being themselves in affluence, have as- 
 sisted the indigent, and let them be considered 
 as the saviours of the children and defenders 
 of their country. And let the wants of those 
 be relieved who are poor through fortune, and 
 not through an indolent and intemperate life. 
 For fortune is common to all men, but an in- 
 dolent and intemperate life is peculiar to bad 
 men. 
 
 Let it also be considered as a worthy deed, 
 to point out any one who has acted unjustly, 
 in order that the polity may be saved, which 
 has many guardians of its decorous arrange- 
 ment. But let the indicator of the unjust 
 action be considered as a pious man, though 
 his information should be respecting his most 
 familiar acquaintance. For nothing is more 
 familiar and allied to a man than his country. 
 Let, however, the indication be made, not of 
 things done thro ugh involuntary ignorance, but 
 of such crimes as have been committed from a 
 previous knowledge [of their enormity.] And 
 if he who is detected should be hostile to him 
 by whom he is detected, let him be hated by 
 all men, in order that he may suffer the punish- 
 
43 
 
 nient of ingratitude, through which he deprives 
 himself of being cured of the greatest of dis- 
 eases injustice. 
 
 Farther still, let a contempt of the Gods be 
 considered as the greatest of iniquities, and 
 also injuring parents voluntarily, the neglect- 
 ing rulers and laws, and voluntarily dishonour- 
 ing justice. But let him be considered as a 
 most just and holy citizen who honours these 
 things, and indicates to the citizens and rulers 
 those that despise them. 
 
 Let it be esteemed to be more venerable for 
 a man to die for his country than, through a 
 desire of life, to desert it, together with probity. 
 For it is better to die well than to live basely 
 arid disgracefully. 
 
 It is likewise requisite to honour each of the 
 dead, not with tears nor with lamentations, but 
 with good remembrance, and with an oblation 
 of annual fruits. For when we grieve immo- 
 derately for those that are dead, we are un- 
 grateful to the terrestrial daemons. 
 
 Let no one curse him by whom he has been 
 injured. For praise is more divine than defa- 
 mation. 
 
 Let him be thought to be a better citizen 
 who is superior to anger, than him who is an 
 offender through it. 
 
 Let not him be praised but disgraced, who, 
 
44 
 
 in the sumptuousness of his expence, surpasses 
 temples and palaces. For let nothing private 
 be more magnificent and venerable than things 
 of a public nature. 
 
 Let him who is a slave to wealth and money 
 be despised, as one who is pusillanimous and 
 illiberal, and is astonished by sumptuous pos- 
 sessions, and let him be considered as one who 
 leads a tragical life, and whose soul is vile. 
 For he who is magnanimous foresees with him- 
 self all human concerns, and is not disturbed 
 by any thing of this kind [whether prosperous 
 or adverse], when it accedes. 
 
 Let no one speak obscenely, in order that 
 he may not in his thoughts approach to base 
 deeds, and that he may not fill his soul with 
 impudence and defilement. For we call things 
 which are decorous and lovely, by their proper 
 names, and by those appellations which are 
 established by law. But we abstain from nam- 
 ing things to which we are hostile, on account 
 of their baseness. Let it also be considered as 
 base, to speak of a base thing. 
 
 Let every one dearly love his lawful wife, 
 and beget children from her. But let no one 
 emit the seed of his children* into any other 
 person; nor let him illegally consume that 
 
 * i. e. The seed which pertains to the propagation of his 
 children. 
 
45 
 
 which is honourable both by nature and law, 
 and act with wanton insolence. For nature 
 produced the seed, for the sake of procreating 
 children, and not for the sake of lust. 
 
 But it is requisite that a wife should be 
 chaste, and should not admit the impious con- 
 nection with other men, as by so doing she will 
 subject herself to the vengeance of the demons, 
 whose office it is to expel those to whom they 
 are hostile from their houses, and to produce 
 hatred. 
 
 Let not him be praised who gives a stepmo- 
 ther to his children*, but disgraced, as being 
 the cause of domestic dissension. 
 
 And as it is proper to observe these man- 
 dates, let him who transgresses them be ob- 
 noxious to political execration. 
 
 The law also orders that these proems should 
 be known by all the citizens, and should be 
 read in festivals after the pagans f by him who 
 is appointed for this purpose by the master of 
 the feast, in order that the precepts may be 
 inserted in the minds of all that hear them. 
 
 * i. e. To his children while they live in his house under 
 his protection and are unmarried; and who are in danger 
 through having a stepmother of losing that property which 
 ought to be theirs on the death of their father. 
 
 t Pa3an is a song of rejoicing, which was sung at festivals 
 and on other occasions, in honour of Apollo, for having slain 
 the serpent Python. 
 
46 
 
 THE PREFACE OF ZALEUCUS, THE LOCRIAN, TO 
 HIS LAWS. 
 
 IT is requisite that all those who inhabit a 
 city and country should in the first place be 
 firmly persuaded that there are Gods, in con- 
 sequence of directing their attention to the 
 heavens and the world, and the orderly distri- 
 bution of the natures which they contain. For 
 these are not the productions either of fortune 
 or of men. It is also requisite to reverence 
 and honour these, as the causes to us of every 
 reasonable good. It is necessary, therefore, 
 that every one should so prepare his soul that 
 it may be free from every vice ; since God is 
 not honoured by a bad man, nor is he to be 
 worshiped sumptuously, nor with tragical ex- 
 pence, like some depraved man ; but by virtue, 
 and the deliberate choice of beautiful and just 
 deeds. Hence it is necessary that every one 
 should be good to the utmost of his power, 
 both in his actions and his deliberate choice, if 
 he wishes to be dear to divinity, and should 
 not fear the loss of money more than the loss 
 of renown. And it is also requisite to call 
 him a better citizen who would rather sustain 
 a loss of property than of probity and justice. 
 Let, however, such things as the following 
 
47 
 
 be denounced by us against those who are not 
 easily impelled to do what we have above en- 
 joined, but whose soul is easily excited to in- 
 justice. All citizens of this kind, both male 
 and female, and also those who live in the 
 same house w 7 ith them, should remember that 
 there are Gods who punish the unjust, and 
 should place before their eyes that time in 
 which to every one there will be a final libera- 
 tion from life. For all such will repent when 
 they are about to die, from a remembrance of 
 their unjust deeds, and from their being im- 
 pelled to wish that all things had been done by 
 them justly. Hence it is necessary that every 
 one, in every action, should always associate 
 to himself this time, as if it were present: for 
 thus he will especially pay attention to probity 
 and justice. But if an evil daemon is present 
 with any one, converting him to injustice, such 
 a one should abide in temples, at altars, and in 
 sacred groves, flying from injustice as a most 
 impious and noxious mistress, and supplicating 
 the Gods to cooperate with him in turning from 
 it. He should also accede to those men who 
 are renowned for their probity, in order to 
 hear them discourse about a blessed life, and 
 the punishment of bad men, that he may be 
 deterred from unjust deeds; but he should 
 only dread avenging daemons. Those, like- 
 
48 
 
 wise, that dwell in the oity, should honour all 
 the Gods according to the legal rites of the 
 country, which are to be considered as the 
 most beautiful of all others. All the citizens, 
 too, should obey the laws, reverence the rulers, 
 and rise to them, and comply with their man- 
 dates. For after the Gods, daemons, and heroes, 
 proximate honours are paid by men who are 
 intelligent, and wish to be saved, to parents, 
 the laws, and the rulers. Let, however, no 
 one make the city to be dearer to him than his 
 country, since he will thus excite the indigna- 
 tion of the Gods of the country: for such con- 
 duct is the beginning of treachery. And far- 
 ther still, for a man to be deprived of his own 
 country, and to live in a foreign land, is a thing 
 of a more afflictive nature, and more difficult 
 to be borne [than most other misfortunes] : for 
 nothing is more allied to us than our country. 
 Nor let any one think that a citizen, whom the 
 laws have permitted to partake of the polity, 
 should be considered by him as an implacable 
 enemy ; since a man who is capable of thus 
 thinking can neither govern nor judge in a 
 proper manner, in consequence of his anger 
 predominating over his reason. Let no one, 
 likewise, speak ill either of the city in common, 
 or of a citizen privately. But let the guardians 
 of the laws keep a watchful eye over offenders, 
 
49 
 
 in the first place by admonishing them; and in 
 the next place, if they are not restrained by 
 this from acting ill, let them be careful that 
 they are punished. Arid with respect to the 
 established laws, if some one of them should 
 appear not to be well ordained, let it be changed 
 into one that is better. But where all of them 
 remain, let them be [universally] obeyed; as it 
 is neither beautiful, nor beneficial, for the esta- 
 blished laws to be vanquished by men; though 
 it is both profitable and beautiful, to be re- 
 strained, as if vanquished, by a more excellent 
 law. It is requisite, however, to punish those 
 who transgress these, as machinating for the 
 city the principle of the greatest evils anarchy. 
 But the magistrates should neither be arrogant, 
 nor judge insultingly, nor in passing sentence 
 be mindful either of friendship or hatred, but 
 of what is just. For thus they will decide 
 most justly, and will be worthy of the magis- 
 tracy. It is fit, therefore, that slaves should do 
 what is just through fear, but those that are 
 free, through shame, and for the sake of the 
 beautiful in conduct. Hence it is requisite 
 that the governors should be men of this kind, 
 in order that they may be reverenced by those 
 whom they govern. But if any one wishes to 
 change some one of the established laws, or 
 to introduce another law, let him, with a halter 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 about his neck, speak of the subject of his 
 wishes to the people. And if it shall appear 
 from the suffrages, that the law already esta- 
 blished should be dissolved, or that a new law 
 should be introduced, let him riot be punished. 
 But if it should be thought that the preexisting 
 law is better, or that the law which is intended 
 to be introduced is unjust, let him who wishes 
 to change an old, or to introduce a new law, 
 be executed by the halter. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF CALLICRATIDAS ON 
 THE FELICITY OF FAMILIES. 
 
 THE universe must be considered as a system 
 of kindred communion or association. But 
 every system consists of certain dissimilar con- 
 traries, and is coarranged with reference to 
 one certain thing, which is the most excellent, 
 and also with a view to a general benefit. For 
 that which is denominated a choir, is a system 
 of musical communion, and is referred to one 
 certain common thing, a concert of voices. 
 Farther still, the system of body about a ship 
 consists of certain dissimilar and contrary 
 things, and is coarranged with reference to 
 one thing which is best, viz. the pilot, and also 
 with a view to a common benefit, a prosperous 
 
navigation. Thus, too, a family, being a sys- 
 tem of kindred communion, consists of certain 
 dissimilars, which are its proper parts ; and is 
 coarranged with a view to one thing which is 
 best, viz. the father of the family; and is re- 
 ferred to a common advantage, unanimity. 
 And, in short, every family, in the same man- 
 ner as a psaltery*, requires these three things, 
 apparatus, coadaptation, and a certain con- 
 trectation, and musical use. Apparatus, in- 
 deed, being the composition of all its parts, 
 from which the whole, and all the system of 
 kindred communion derives its completion. 
 But of the parts of a family there are two first 
 and greatest divisions ; viz. man and posses- 
 sions, the latter of which is the thing governed, 
 and affords utility. Thus, also, the first and 
 greatest parts of an animal are soul and body ; 
 and soul, indeed, is that which governs and 
 uses, but the body is that which is governed, 
 and imparts utility. And possessions, indeed, 
 are the adscititious instruments of human life; 
 but the body is the connascent and allied in- 
 strument of the soul. Of those persons, how- 
 ever, that give completion to a family, some are 
 consanguineous, but others have an affinity to 
 the family. And those that are kindred are 
 
 * A kind of harp beaten with sticks. 
 E2 
 
52 
 
 generated from the same blood, or have the 
 same origin from those who first disseminated 
 the race. But those that have an affinity have 
 an adscititious alliance, as commencing from the 
 communion of wedlock. And these are either 
 fathers or brothers, or maternal or paternal 
 grandfathers, or some other of those relatives 
 that are produced by marriage. But if the 
 good arising from friendship is also to be re- 
 ferred to a family (for thus it will become 
 greater and more magnificent, not only through 
 an abundance of wealth and many relations, 
 but also through numerous friends) ; in this 
 case it is evident, that the family will thus be- 
 come more ample, and that the social species 
 of friendship is to be enumerated among things 
 which are requisite to the completion of a 
 family. But of possessions some are neces- 
 sary, and others are of a liberal nature. And 
 the necessary, indeed, are those which are sub- 
 servient to the wants of life; and the liberal 
 are such as lead a man to an elegant and well 
 arranged mode of living, so that he may not be 
 in want of other things. Such things, however, 
 as exceed what is requisite to a liberal and ele- 
 gant mode of life, are, at the beginning, the roots 
 to men of wanton insolence, and destruction. 
 For those that have great possessions are neces- 
 sarily at first inflated with pride, and when thus 
 
33 
 
 inflated become arrogant ; and, being arrogant, 
 they also become fastidious, and conceive that 
 their kindred, and those of the same nation and 
 tribe with themselves, neither resemble, nor are 
 equal to them. Hut when they are fastidious, 
 they also become wantonly insolent. And the 
 extremity and end of all wanton insolence is de- 
 struction. When, therefore, in a family and city 
 there is a superfluity of possessions, it is ne- 
 cessary that the legislator should cut off, and, as 
 it were, amputate the superfluities, in the same 
 manner as a good husbandman lops the too 
 luxuriant leaves of trees. But of the kindred 
 and domestic part of man there is a triple spe- 
 cies. For there is one species which governs, 
 another which is governed, and another which 
 gives assistance to a family and relatives. And 
 the husband, indeed, governs, but the wife is 
 governed, and the offspring of both these is an 
 auxiliary. 
 
 AND IN ANOTHER PART OF THE SAME WORK. 
 
 WITH respect also to practical and rational 
 domination, one kind is despotic, another is of 
 a guardian nature, and another is political. 
 And the despotic, indeed, is that which governs 
 with a view to the advantage of the governor, 
 
54 
 
 and not of the governed. For after this man- 
 ner a master rules over his slaves, and a tyrant 
 over his subjects. But the guardian domina- 
 tion subsists for the sake of the governed, and 
 not for the sake of those that govern. And 
 with this kind of power the anointers rule over 
 the athletse, physicians over the sick, and pre- 
 ceptors over their pupils. For their labours 
 are not directed to their own advantage, but to 
 the benefit of those whom they govern ; those 
 of the physician being undertaken for the sake 
 of the sick, the anointers for the sake of exer- 
 cising the body, and those of the erudite for 
 the sake of the inerudite. But the political 
 domination has for its end the common benefit 
 both of the governors and the governed. For 
 according to this domination, in human affairs, 
 both a family and a city are coharmonized ; but 
 in things of a divine nature the world is aptly 
 composed. A family, however, and a city are 
 an imitation according to analogy of the go- 
 vernment of the world. For divinity is the 
 principle of nature, and his attention is neither 
 directed to his own advantage, nor to private, 
 but to public good. And on this account, the 
 world is called icoa/uog, from the orderly dispo- 
 sition of all things which are coarranged with 
 reference to one thing which is most excellent, 
 
5.3 
 
 and this is God, who is, according to concep- 
 tion, an intellectual* animal, incorruptible, and 
 the principle and cause of the orderly disposi- 
 tion of wholes. Since, therefore, the husband 
 rules over the wife, he either rules with a des- 
 potic, or with a guardian, or, in the last place, 
 with a political power. But he does not rule 
 over her with a despotic power: for he is dili- 
 gently attentive to her welfare. Nor is his 
 government of her entirely of a guardian na- 
 ture : for this is itself a part of the communion 
 [between man and wife]. It remains, there- 
 fore, that he rules over her with a political 
 power, according to which both the governor 
 and the thing governed establish [as their end] 
 the common advantage. Hence, also, wedlock 
 is established with a view to the communion of 
 life. Those husbands, therefore, that govern 
 their wives despotically, are hated by them; 
 but those that govern them with a guardian 
 authority are despised by them. For they 
 appear to be, as it were, appendages and flat- 
 
 * In the original ovpaviov faov a celestial animal; but as 
 Callicratidas is here speaking of the Demiurgus, or artificer 
 of the universe, who is an intellectual god, for ovpaviov I 
 read votpov. For the Demiurgus is the maker, and not one 
 of the celestial gods. But he is called an animal, as being 
 the cause of life to all things. Thus, too, Aristotle, in the 
 12th book of his Metaphysics, says, " that God is an animal 
 eternal and most excellent." 
 
66 
 
 terers of their wives. But those that govern 
 them politically are both admired and beloved. 
 And both these will be effected, if he who 
 governs exercises his power so that it may be 
 mingled with pleasure and veneration ; plea- 
 sure indeed being produced by his fondness, 
 but veneration from his doing nothing of a vile 
 or abject nature. 
 
 AND AGAIN, IN ANOTHER PART OF THE SAME 
 WORK. 
 
 HE who wishes to marry ought to take for a 
 wife one whose fortune is conformable to his 
 own, in order that he may not contract nuptials 
 either above or beneath his condition, but ana- 
 logous to the property which he possesses. 
 For those who marry a woman above their 
 condition have to contend for the mastership; 
 for the wife, surpassing her husband in wealth 
 and lineage, wishes to rule over him ; but he 
 considers it to be unworthy of him, and preter- 
 natural to submit to his wife. But those who 
 marry a woman beneath their condition sub- 
 vert the dignity and splendour of their family. 
 It is necessary, however, on this occasion to 
 imitate the musician, who, having learned the 
 proper tone of his voice, endeavours to bring it 
 to such a medium that it may be rendered suf- 
 
57 
 
 ficiently sharp and flat, and may be neither 
 broken, nor lose its interiseness. Thus, there- 
 fore, it is necessary that wedlock should be 
 coadapted to the peculiar tone of the soul, so 
 that the husband and wife may not only accord 
 with each other in prosperous, but also in ad- 
 verse fortune. It is requisite, therefore, that 
 the husband should be the regulator, master, 
 and preceptor of his wife. The regulator, in- 
 deed, in paying diligent attention to her affairs; 
 but the master, in governing and exercising 
 authority over her; and the preceptor in teach- 
 ing her such things as it is fit for her to know. 
 This, however, will be especially effected by 
 him who, directing his attention to worthy 
 parents, marries from their family a virgin in 
 the flower of her youth. For such virgins are 
 easily fashioned, and are docile ; and are also 
 naturally well disposed to be instructed by, 
 and to fear and love their husbands. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF PERICTYONE* ON THE 
 DUTIES OF A WOMAN. 
 
 IT is necessary that a woman should sufficiently 
 possess a harmony full of prudence and tem- 
 perance. For it is requisite that her soul 
 
 * This Perictyone is different from her who was the mo- 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 ther of Plato. 
 
58 
 
 should be vehemently inclined to the acquisi- 
 tion of virtue ; so that she may be just, brave, 
 and prudent, and may be adorned with fruga- 
 lity, and hate vainglory. For, from the posses- 
 sion of these virtues, she will act worthily when 
 she becomes a wife, towards herself, her hus- 
 band, her children, and her family. Frequently, 
 also, such a woman will act beautifully towards 
 cities, if she happens to rule over cities or na- 
 tions, as we see is [sometimes] the case in a 
 kingdom. If, therefore, she subdues desire 
 and anger, a divine harmony will be produced. 
 Hence she will not be pursued by illegal loves, 
 but she will love her husband, her children, 
 and all her family. For such women as are 
 fond of being connected with other men besides 
 their husbands, become hostile to the whole of 
 their families, both to those branches of it that 
 are free, and those that are slaves. They also 
 machinate stratagems against their husbands, 
 and falsely represent them as the calumniators 
 of all their acquaintance, in order that they 
 alone may appear to be exceedingly benevo- 
 lent ; and they govern their families in such a 
 way as may be expected from those that are 
 lovers of indolence. For from such conduct 
 the destruction ensues of every thing which is 
 common to the husband and wife. And thus 
 much as to these particulars. 
 
59 
 
 It is also requisite to lead the body to what 
 is naturally moderate, with respect to nutri- 
 ment, clothes, bathing, anointing, dressing the 
 hair, and to whatever pertains to decoration 
 from gold and jewels. For whatever of a 
 sumptuous nature is employed by women in 
 eating and drinking, in garments and trinkets, 
 renders them disposed to be guilty of every 
 crime, and to be unjust both to their hus- 
 band's bed, and to every other person. It is 
 requisite, therefore, that they should only sa- 
 tisfy hunger and thirst, and this from things 
 easily procured; and that they should defend 
 themselves from cold by garments of the sim- 
 plest kind. But to be fed with things which 
 are brought from a distant country, or which 
 are obtained at a great price, is no small vice. 
 It is also great folly to search after exceedingly 
 elegant garments, which are variegated with 
 purple, or any other precious colour. For the 
 body wishes to be neither cold nor naked, but 
 to be covered for the sake of decorum, and is 
 not [externally] in want of any thing else. The 
 opinion of men, however, in conjunction with 
 ignorance, proceeds to inanities and superflui- 
 ties. Hence a woman should neither be deco- 
 rated with gold, nor with Indian gems, nor 
 with the jewels of any other nation, nor plait 
 her hair with abundance of art, nor be perfumed 
 
60 
 
 with Arabian unguents, nor paint her face so 
 that it may be more white or more red, nor 
 give a dark tinge to her eyebrows and her eyes, 
 nor artificially dye her gray hairs, nor fre- 
 quently bathe. For the woman who seeks 
 after things of this kind searches for a specta- 
 tor of female intemperance. For the beauty 
 which is produced by prudence, and not by 
 these particulars, pleases women that are well 
 born. Nor should she conceive that nobility 
 and wealth, the being born in a great city, 
 glory, and the friendship of renowned and royal 
 men, are to be ranked among things that are 
 necessary. For if they happen to be present, 
 they should not be the cause to her of any mo- 
 lestation ; and if they should not be present, 
 she should not regret their absence. For a 
 prudent woman will not be prevented from 
 living [properly] without these. And if those 
 great and much admired things which we have 
 mentioned should not be present, her soul 
 should not anxiously explore, but withdraw 
 itself from them. For in consequence of 
 drawing their possessor to misfortune, they are 
 more noxious than beneficial. For to these, 
 treachery, envy, and calumny are adjacent, so 
 that such a woman cannot be free from per- 
 turbation. 
 
 It is also necessary that she should venerate 
 
01 
 
 the Gods through good hope of obtaining feli- 
 city by this veneration, and by obeying the 
 laws and sacred institutions of her country. 
 But after the Gods, I say, that she should ho- 
 nour and venerate her parents. For these 
 cooperate with the Gods in benefiting their 
 children. Moreover, she ought to live with 
 her husband legally and kindly, conceiving 
 nothing to be her own property, but preserving 
 and being the guardian of his bed. For in the 
 preservation of this all things are contained. 
 It is likewise requisite that she should bear 
 every thing [in a becoming manner] which may 
 happen to her husband, whether he is unfor- 
 tunate in his affairs, or acts erroneously through 
 ignorance, or disease, or intoxication, or from 
 having connection with other women. For 
 this last error is granted to men ; but not to 
 women, since they are punished for this offence. 
 It is necessary, therefore, that she should sub- 
 mit to the law with equanimity, and not be 
 jealous. She ought likewise to bear patiently 
 his anger, his parsimony, and the complaints 
 which he may make of his destiny, his jea- 
 lousy, and his accusation of her, and whatever 
 other faults he may inherit from nature. For 
 all these she should cheerfully endure, con- 
 ducting herself towards him with prudence 
 
02 
 
 and modesty. For a wife who is dear to her 
 husband, and who truly performs her duty to- 
 wards him, is a [domestic] harmony, and loves 
 the whole of her family, to which also she con- 
 ciliates the benevolence of strangers. If, how- 
 ever, she neither loves her husband nor her 
 children, nor her servants, nor wishes to see 
 any sacrifice preserved ; then she becomes the 
 leader of every kind of destruction, which she 
 likewise prays for, as being an enemy, and also 
 prays for the death of her husband, as being 
 hostile to him, in order that she may be con- 
 nected with other men ; and, in the last place, 
 she hates whatever her husband loves. But it 
 appears to me that a wife will be a [domestic] 
 harmony, if she is full of prudence and mo- 
 desty. For then she will not only love her hus- 
 band, but also her children, her kindred, her 
 servants, and the whole of her family, in which 
 possessions, friends, citizens, and strangers are 
 contained. She will likewise adorn the bodies 
 of these without any superfluous ornaments, 
 and will both speak and hear such things only 
 as are beautiful and good. It is also requisite 
 that she should act conformably to her hus- 
 band's opinion in what pertains to their com- 
 mon life, and be satisfied with those relatives 
 and friends that meet with his approbation. 
 
63 
 
 And she will conceive those things to be plea- 
 sant and disagreeable which are thought to be 
 so by her husband, unless she is entirely des- 
 titute of harmony. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF PERICTYONE ON THE 
 HARMONY OF A WOMAN*. 
 
 PARENTS ought not to be injured either in 
 word or deed ; but it is requisite to be obedi- 
 ent to them, whether their rank in life is small 
 or great. And in every allotted condition of 
 soul and body, and of external circumstances, 
 in peace, also, and war, in health [and sick- 
 ness f], in riches and in poverty, in renown and 
 ignominy, and whether they are of the same 
 class with most of the community, or are ma- 
 gistrates, it is necessary to be present with, 
 and never to forsake them, and almost to sub- 
 mit to them even when they are insane. For 
 such conduct will be wisely and cheerfully 
 adopted by those that are pious. But he who 
 despises his parents will, both among the living 
 
 * In this extract no mention whatever is made of the har- 
 mony of a woman ; for it wholly consists of the duty of chil- 
 dren to their parents. 
 
 t Kai voffy is omitted in the original, but ought, as it ap- 
 pears to me, to be inserted. 
 
64 
 
 and the dead, be condemned for this crime by 
 the Gods, will be hated by men, and under the 
 earth will, together with the impious, be eter- 
 nally* punished in the same place by Justice, 
 and the subterranean Gods, whose province it 
 is to inspect things of this kind. For the 
 aspect of parents is a thing divine and beauti- 
 ful, and a diligent observance of them is attended 
 with a delight such as neither the survey of the 
 sun, nor of all the stars which dance round the 
 illuminated heavens, is capable of producing, 
 nor any other spectacle, should it even be greater 
 than this. And, it appears to me, that the 
 Gods are not enviousf when they perceive 
 that this takes place. Hence it is requisite to 
 reverence parents both while they are living, 
 and when they are dead, and never oppose 
 them in any thing they may say or do. If also 
 they are ignorant of any thing through decep- 
 tion or disease, their children should console 
 
 * It is well observed by Olympiodorus, on the Phaedo of 
 Plato, " that the soul is not punished by divinity through 
 anger but medicinally ; and that by eternity of punishment 
 we must understand punishment commensurate with the 
 soul's partial period; because souls that have committed 
 the greatest offences cannot be sufficiently purified in one 
 period." 
 
 t For typovttiv in this place, which is evidently erroneous, 
 I read <f)6ovir. 
 
65 
 
 and instruct, but by no means hate them on 
 this account. For no greater error and injus- 
 tice can be committed by men than to act im- 
 piously towards their parents. 
 
 ON THE REVERENCE DUE TO PARENTS. FROM 
 THE APOPHTHEGMS OF ARISTOXENUS, THE 
 TARENTINE. 
 
 AFTER divinity and demons, the greatest at- 
 tention should be paid to parents and the laws; 
 not fictitiously, but in reality preparing our- 
 selves to an observance of, and perseverance 
 in, the manners and laws of our country, 
 though they should be in a small degree worse 
 than those of other countries. 
 
 AND IN THE FOURTH BOOK OF THE SAME 
 WORK *. 
 
 BUT after these things follow the honours 
 which should be paid to living parents, it being 
 right to discharge the first, the greatest, and 
 
 * The whole of this extract is to be found in the fourth 
 book of Plato's Laws. (See torn. viii. p. 187, and 188, of 
 the Bipont edition.) But there is occasionally some little 
 difference between the text of Plato and that of Aristoxenus, 
 as the critical reader will easily discover. Neither Fabri- 
 cius nor the editors of Stobaeus have noticed the source of 
 this extract. 
 
 F 
 
the most ancient of all debts. Every one, 
 likewise, should think that all which he pos- 
 sesses belongs to those who begot and nur- 
 tured him, in order that he may be ministrant 
 to their want to the utmost of his ability, 
 beginning from his property; in the second 
 place discharging his debt to them from things 
 pertaining to his body ; and in the third place, 
 from things pertaining to his soul ; thus repay- 
 ing with usury the cares and pains which his 
 now very aged parents bestowed on him when 
 he was young. Through the whole of life, 
 likewise, it is requisite that he should parti- 
 cularly employ the most respectful language 
 in speaking to his parents ; because there is a 
 most severe punishment for light and winged 
 words ; and Nemesis, the messenger of Justice, 
 is appointed to be the inspector of every thing 
 of this kind. When parents, therefore, are 
 angry, it is requisite to yield to them, and to 
 appease their anger, whether it is shown in 
 words or in deeds; acknowledging that a 
 father may reasonably be very much enraged 
 with his son, when he thinks he has been 
 injured by him, But on the death of parents, 
 the most decent and beautiful monuments 
 should be raised to them; not exceeding the 
 usual magnitude, nor yet less than those which 
 
67 
 
 our ancestors erected for their parents. Every 
 year, too, attention ought to be paid to the 
 decoration of their tombs. They should, like- 
 wise, be continually remembered and reve- 
 renced, and this with a moderate and appro- 
 priate expense. By always acting, therefore, 
 and living in this manner, we shall each of us 
 be rewarded according to our deserts, both by 
 the Gods and those natures that are superior 
 to us, and shall pass the greatest part of our 
 life in good hope. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF PEMPELUS 
 ON PARENTS *. 
 
 NEITHER divinity, nor any man who possesses 
 the least wisdom, will ever advise any one to 
 neglect his parents. Hence we cannot have 
 any statue or temple which will be considered 
 by divinity as more precious than our fathers 
 and grandfathers when grown feeble with age. 
 For God will recompense him with benefits 
 who honours his parents with gifts ; since if 
 
 * The whole of this extract is taken from the eleventh 
 book of Plato's Laws, but what is there said is here some- 
 what amplified. 
 
 F2 
 
68 
 
 this is not done, divinity will not pay any atten- 
 tion to the prayers of such parents for their 
 children. The images of our parents, indeed, 
 and progenitors should be esteemed by us as 
 far more venerable and divine than any inani- 
 mate images. For these animated images, 
 when they are continually adorned and ren- 
 dered splendid with honour by us, pray for us, 
 and implore the gods to bestow on us the 
 most excellent gifts : but the contrary when 
 we despise them. Neither of these, however, 
 is effected by inanimate images. Hence he 
 who conducts himself in a becoming manner 
 towards his parents and progenitors, and 
 other relatives of this kind, will possess the 
 most proper of all statues, and the best cal- 
 culated to render him dear to divinity. Every 
 one, therefore, endued with intellect should 
 honour and venerate his parents, and should 
 dread their execrations and [unfavourable] 
 prayers, as knowing that many of them fre- 
 quently take effect. These things, therefore, 
 being thus disposed by nature, men that are 
 prudent and modest will consider their living 
 aged progenitors as a treasure, to the extremity 
 of life; and if they die before they arrive at 
 that period, they will be vehemently desired 
 by them. On the contrary, progenitors will be 
 
terrible in the extreme to their depraved and 
 stupid offspring. But he who, being profane, 
 is deaf to these assertions, will be considered 
 by all intelligent persons as odious both to 
 Gods and men. 
 
 FROM THE TREATISE OF PHINTYS, THE DAUGH- 
 TER OF CALLICRATES, ON THE TEMPERANCE 
 OF A WOMAN. 
 
 A WOMAN ought to be wholly good and modest; 
 but she will never be a character of this kind 
 without virtue. For any virtue subsisting in 
 any one thing renders that which receives it 
 valuable. And the virtue, indeed, of the eyes 
 is sight, but of the ears hearing. Thus, too, 
 the virtue of a horse causes it to be a good 
 horse; and the virtue of a man and the virtue 
 of a woman render each of them worthy. But 
 the principal virtue of a woman is temperance; 
 for through this she will be able to honour and 
 love her husband. Many, indeed, may perhaps 
 think it does not become a woman to philo- 
 sophize, as neither is it proper for her to ride 
 on horseback, nor to harangue in public. But 
 I think that some things are the province of a 
 
70 
 
 man, others of a woman, and that others are 
 common both to man and woman* And, like- 
 wise, that some things pertain more to a man 
 than to a woman ; but others more to a woman 
 than to a man. But the things peculiar to a 
 man are, to lead an army, to govern, arid to 
 harangue in public. The offices peculiar to a 
 woman are, to be the guardian of a house, to 
 stay at home, and to receive and be ministrant 
 to her husband. And the virtues pertaining to 
 both are fortitude, justice, and prudence. For 
 it is fit that both the husband and wife should 
 have the virtues of the body, and in a similar 
 manner those of the soul. And as health of 
 body is beneficial to both, so also is health of 
 soul. The virtues, however, of the body are 
 health, strength, vigour of sensation, and 
 beauty. With respect to the virtues, also, 
 some are more adapted to be exercised and 
 possessed by a man, but others by a woman. 
 For fortitude and prudence pertain more to 
 the man than to the woman, both on account 
 of the habit of the body, and the power of the 
 soul ; but temperance peculiarly belongs to the 
 woman. Hence it is requisite to know the 
 number and the quality of the things through 
 which this virtue accedes to a woman. I say, 
 therefore, that they are these five. And in the 
 
71 
 
 first place, she obtains this virtue through 
 sanctity and piety about the marriage bed. 
 In the second place, through ornament pertain- 
 ing to the body. In the third place, through 
 egressions from her own house. In the fourth 
 place, through refraining from the celebration 
 of orgies, and the mysteries of the mother of 
 the Gods*. And in the fifth place, through 
 being cautious and moderate in the sacrifices 
 to divinity. Of these, however, the greatest 
 and most comprehensive cause of temperance, 
 is that which causes the wife to be undefiled 
 with respect to the marriage bed, and not to 
 have connexion with any other man than her 
 husband, For in the first place, by such ille- 
 gal conduct, she acts unjustly towards the 
 Gods who preside over nativities, rendering 
 them not genuine but spurious adjutors of her 
 family and kindred. In the second place, she 
 acts unjustly towards the Gods who preside 
 over nature, by whom she solemnly swore, in 
 conjunction with her parents and kindred, that 
 she would legally associate with her husband 
 in the communion of life and the procreation 
 of children. And in the third place, she acts 
 
 * See p. 137, and 138, of my Translation of lamblichus 
 on the Mysteries. 
 
72 
 
 unjustly towards her country, by not observing 
 its decrees. To which may be added, that to 
 offend against right in those things for which 
 the greatest punishment, death, is ordained, 
 on account of the magnitude of the crime, and 
 to do so for the sake of pleasure and wanton 
 insolence, is nefarious, and most undeserving 
 of pardon. But the end of all insolent con- 
 duct is destruction. 
 
 This, also, ought to be considered, that no 
 purifying remedy has been discovered for this 
 offence, so as to render a woman thus guilty 
 pure and beloved by divinity. For God is 
 most averse to pardon this crime. But the 
 best indication of the chastity of a woman 
 towards her husband is that which arises from 
 the resemblance of her children to their father. 
 And thus much concerning the marriage bed. 
 
 With respect, however, to the ornament of 
 the body, it appears to me, that the garments 
 of a woman should be white and simple, and 
 by no means superfluous. But they will be 
 so, if they are neither transparent nor va- 
 riegated, nor woven from silk, but are not 
 expensive, and are of a white colour. For thus 
 she will avoid excessive ornament, luxury, and 
 superfluous clothes; and will not produce a 
 depraved imitation in others. And, in short, 
 
73 
 
 she should not decorate her person with gold 
 and emeralds. For they are very expensive, 
 and exhibit pride and arrogance towards the 
 vulgar. It is necessary, however, that a city 
 which is governed by good laws, and is well 
 arranged in all its parts, should accord with 
 itself, and have an equable legislation ; and 
 should expel the artificers who make things of 
 this kind from the city. She should, likewise, 
 give a splendour to her face, not by employ- 
 ing adscititious and foreign colour, but that 
 which is adapted to the body, and is produced 
 by washing it with water; and adorning her 
 person through modesty rather than through 
 art. For thus she will render both herself and 
 her husband honourable. But the lower class 
 of women should go out of their houses, for 
 the purpose of sacrificing to the tutelar deity 
 of the city, for the welfare of their husbands 
 and all their family. A woman, also, should 
 depart from her house neither by twilight nor 
 in the evening, but should openly leave it when 
 the forum is full of people; accompanied by 
 one, or at most two servants, for the sake of 
 beholding a certain thing, or of buying some- 
 thing she may want. She should also offer 
 frugal sacrifices to the Gods, and such as are 
 adapted to her ability; but she should abstain 
 
74 
 
 from the celebration of orgies, and from those 
 sacred rites of the mother of the Gods, which 
 are performed at home. For the common law 
 of the city ordains that these shall not be per- 
 formed by women. To which may be added, 
 that these rites introduce ebriety, and mental 
 alienation. It is necessary, however, that she 
 who is the mistress of a family, and presides 
 over domestic affairs, should be temperate and 
 undefiled. 
 
ETHICAL FRAGMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 HIEROCLES, 
 
 ji jstofcacus. 
 
 HOW WE OUGHT TO CONDUCT OURSELVES 
 TOWARDS THE GODS. 
 
 SUCH particulars, also, as the following, are to 
 be previously assumed concerning the Gods, 
 viz. that they are immutable, and firm in their 
 decrees ; so that they never change the concep- 
 tion of what appeared to them to be fit from the 
 beginning. For there is one immutability and 
 firmness of the virtues, which it is reasonable to 
 suppose subsists transcendently with the Gods, 
 and which imparts a never failing stability to 
 their conceptions. From which it is evident, 
 that there is no probability that the punish- 
 ments which divinity thinks proper to inflict can 
 
76 
 
 be remitted. For it is easy to infer, that if 
 the Gods change their decisions, and omit to 
 punish him whom they had designed to punish, 
 the world can neither be beautifully nor justly 
 governed; nor can any probable reason for 
 [the necessity of] repentance be assigned. 
 Poetry also appears to have asserted such 
 things as the following, rashly, and without 
 any reason : 
 
 By incense and libation, gentle vows, 
 
 And sacrifice and prayer, men bend the Gods, 
 
 When they transgress, and stray from what is right*. 
 
 And 
 
 For flexible are e'en the Gods themselves t. 
 
 And in short whatever of a similar nature is 
 to be found in poetry. 
 
 * Iliad IX. v. 495. 6. 7. 
 
 t Iliad IX. v. 493. Hierocles is mistaken in saying that 
 poetry rashly asserts that the Gods are flexible. For as I 
 have observed in my Notes to lamblichus on the Mysteries, 
 divine flexibility indicates in Homer, and other theological 
 poets of antiquity, that those who through depravity become 
 unadapted to receive the illuminations of the Gods, when 
 they afterwards obtain pardon of their guilt through prayers 
 and sacrifices, again become partakers of the goodness of the 
 Gods. So that divine flexibility is a resumption of the parti- 
 cipation of divine light and goodness, by those who through 
 inaptitude were before deprived of it. 
 
77 
 
 Nor must we omit to observe, that though 
 the Gods are not the causes of evil, yet they 
 connect certain persons with things of this 
 kind, and surround those who deserve [to be 
 afflicted] with corporeal and external detri- 
 ments; not through any malignity, or because 
 they think it requisite that men should struggle 
 with difficulties, but for the sake of punish- 
 ment. For as pestilence and drought, and 
 besides these excessive rain, earthquakes, and 
 every thing of this kind, are for the most part 
 produced through certain other more physical 
 causes, yet sometimes are effected by the 
 Gods, when the times are such that the ini- 
 quity of the multitude, publicly, and in com- 
 mon, requires to be punished ; after the same 
 manner, also, the Gods sometimes afflict an 
 individual with corporeal and external detri- 
 ments, in order to punish him, and convert 
 others to what is right. 
 
 But to be persuaded that the Gods are never 
 the cause of any evil *, contributes greatly, as 
 it appears to me, to proper conduct towards 
 the Gods. For evils proceed from vice alone, 
 
 * See on this most interesting subject, that divinity is not 
 the cause of evil, my translation of the Fragments of Proclus 
 on the Subsistence of Evil, at the end of my translation of 
 his six books On the Theology of Plato. 
 
78 
 
 but the Gods are of themselves the causes of 
 good, and of whatever is advantageous; while, 
 in the meantime, we do not admit their bene- 
 ficence, but surround ourselves with voluntary 
 evils. Hence, on this occasion, it appears to 
 me that it is well said by the poet : 
 
 that mortals blame the Gods, 
 
 as if they were the causes of their evils ! 
 
 though not from Fate, 
 
 But for their crimes they suffer pain and woe *. 
 
 For that God is never in any way the cause of 
 evil may be proved by many arguments ; but at 
 present we shall only adduce what Plato f says : 
 viz. " that as it is not the province of what is 
 hot to refrigerate, but the contrary ; so neither 
 is it the province of that which is beneficent to 
 be noxious, but the contrary." Moreover, God 
 being good, and immediately replete from the 
 beginning with every virtue, cannot be noxious, 
 or the cause to any one of evil ; but on the 
 contrary, must impart every good to those who 
 are willing to receive it ; bestowing on us, also, 
 
 * See Odyss. I. v. 32, 33, 34. 
 
 t See the first book of his Republic. 
 
79 
 
 such media* as are according to nature, and 
 which are effective of what is conformable 
 to nature. But there is only one cause of 
 evil . 
 
 HOW WE OUGHT TO CONDUCT OURSELVES 
 TOWARDS OUR COUNTRY. 
 
 AFTER speaking of the Gods, it is most rea- 
 sonable to show, in the next place, how we 
 should conduct ourselves towards our country. 
 For, by Jupiter, our country is as it were a 
 certain secondary God, and our first and 
 greatest parent. Hence he who gave a name 
 to the thing did not rashly denominate it 
 patris ; this word being derived from 
 pater , a father; but pronounced with a femi- 
 
 * i. e. Such things as are neither really good, nor really 
 evil, but media between these. 
 
 t After this last sentence, the words rnvra x/>*/, follow in 
 the original; which evidently show that something is want- 
 ing: as they are only the beginning of another sentence. 
 This defect, however, is supplied in my copy of Stobacus, 
 (Eclog. Ethic, lib. II. p. 207), by some one in manuscript, 
 as follows: ravra Xjorj irpovotiv, /nrj Sta vov TV<j>\OTTj-a KUI 
 ayvufjLoavvrjv, TO. (lege TUVTO) tj/niv airavraffwcn ; and he has 
 also added the following Latin translation of these words : 
 " Haec oportet prospicere ne per mentis caecitatem et igno- 
 rantiam haec nobis occurrant." But the addition, from what- 
 ever source it was obtained, does not appear to me to be 
 at all apposite ; and therefore I conceive it to be spurious. 
 
80 
 
 nine termination, in order that it might be as 
 it were a mixture of father and mother. This 
 reason, also, proclaims that our country is to 
 be honoured equally with our two parents; 
 so that we ought to prefer it to either of them 
 taken separately, and not to honour the two 
 more than it; but to pay an equal portion of 
 respect to each. There is, likewise, another 
 reason, which exhorts us to honour it more 
 than our two parents conjointly; and not only 
 to honour it beyond these, but also to prefer it 
 to our wife, children, and friends ; and, in 
 short, after the Gods, to all other things. 
 
 As, therefore, he is stupid who esteems one 
 finger more than the five, but he is most rea- 
 sonable who prefers the five to one; for the 
 former despises what is more eligible, but the 
 latter, in the five, preserves also the one finger : 
 after the same manner, he who wishes to save 
 himself rather than his country, in addition to 
 acting unlawfully, desires impossibilities. But 
 he who prefers his country to himself is dear 
 to divinity ; and reasons fitly and firmly. At 
 the same time it has been observed, that though 
 some one should not be connumerated with 
 the system [or the cooperating combination of 
 the many], but should be considered apart 
 from it, yet it is fit that he should prefer the 
 safety of the system to his own preservation. 
 
Hi 
 
 For the destruction of the city will evince 
 that the safety of the citizen entirely depends 
 on its existence, just as the abscission of the 
 hand is attended with the destruction of one 
 finger, as a part of the hand. We may, there-; 
 fore, summarily conclude, that general is not 
 to be seperated from private utility : but is to 
 be considered as one and the same with it. 
 For that which is advantageous to the coun- 
 try is common to each of the parts of it; since 
 the whole without the parts is nothing*. And 
 vice versa, that which is advantageous to the 
 citizen extends also to the city, if it is assumed 
 as beneficial to the citizen. For that which 
 is useful to a dancer, so far as he is a dancer, 
 will also be advantageous to the whole choir. 
 Depositing, therefore, all this reasoning in the 
 discursive power of the soul, we shall receive 
 much light from it in particulars, so that we 
 
 * This is true of the whole which consists of parts, so as 
 not to he able to subsist without them. For whole has a triple 
 substance ; viz. it is either prior to parts, or in other words, 
 js a whole containing parts causally; or it consists of parts; 
 or is in a part, so that a part, also, becomes a whole according 
 to participation. A city, therefore, is a whole consisting of 
 parts, any part of which being absent, diminishes the whole. 
 See Prop. 67 of my translation of Proclus' Elements of The- 
 ology ; and the second book of my translation of Proclus on 
 the Timaeus. 
 
 G 
 
shall never omit to perform what is due from 
 us to our country. 
 
 Hence, I say, it is necessary that every pas- 
 sion and disease of the soul should be removed 
 from him who intends to act well by his coun- 
 try. It is likewise requisite that a citizen 
 should observe the laws of his country as cer- 
 tain secondary Gods, and should render him- 
 self perfect conformably to their mandate. 
 But he who endeavours either to transgress, or 
 to make any innovation in the laws, should be 
 with all possible diligence prevented from 
 doing- so, and in every way opposed. For a 
 contempt of the existing laws, and preferring 
 new to ancient laws, are things by no means 
 beneficial to a city. Hence it is requisite that 
 those should be restrained from giving their 
 votes, and from precipitate innovation, who 
 are pertinaciously disposed to act in this man- 
 ner. I therefore commend Zaleucus, the Lo- 
 crian legislator, who ordained, that he who 
 intended to introduce a new law, should do it 
 with a rope about his neck, in order that he 
 might be immediately strangled, unless he 
 could change the ancient constitution of the 
 polity, to the very great advantage of the com- 
 munity. But customs, which are truly those of 
 the country, and which, perhaps, are more ancient 
 
83 
 
 than the laws themselves, are to be preserved no 
 less than the laws. The present customs, how- 
 ever, which are but of yesterday, and which have 
 been so very recently introduced into every city, 
 are not to be considered as the customs of the 
 country, [or as the institutes of ancestors'] ; and, 
 perhaps, neither are they at all to be regarded 
 as customs *. In the next place, because cus- 
 tom is an unwritten law, having for its inscrip- 
 tion a good legislator, viz. the approbation of 
 all those that use it; perhaps, on this account, 
 it is proximate to things which are naturally 
 just 
 
 AFTER WHAT MANNER WE OUGHT TO CONDUCT 
 OURSELVES TOWARDS OUR PARENTS. 
 
 AFTER speaking of the Gods and our country, 
 what person deserves to be mentioned more 
 than, or prior to our parents? Hence it is re- 
 quisite that we should discourse about them. 
 He, therefore, will not err who says, that they 
 
 * When the intelligent reader considers that Hierocles 
 flourished about the middle of the fifth century after Christ, 
 he will immediately understand what the recent customs 
 are to which Hierocles, in the ahove passage, alludes. 
 Needham, in his translation of this passage, either did not 
 understand the meaning of it, or wilfully omitted to trans- 
 late it. 
 
 G2 
 
84 
 
 are certain secondary and terrestrial Gods; 
 since on account of their proximity to us, they 
 are, if it be lawful so to speak, more to be ho- 
 noured by us than the Gods themselves *. 
 But it is necessary, previously, to assume, that 
 the only measure of gratitude towards them is 
 a perpetual and unremitting promptitude to 
 repay the benefits we have received from them ; 
 since, though we should perform many things 
 for their sake, yet they will be far less than 
 what they deserve. At the same time, also, 
 it may be said, that these our deeds are nearly 
 theirs, because they produced us by whom 
 they are performed. As therefore, if the works 
 of Phidias and of other artists should them- 
 selves produce certain other things, we should 
 not hesitate to say that these latter, also, were 
 the works of the artists; thus, likewise, it may 
 be justly said, that our performances are the 
 deeds of our parents ; through whom we like- 
 wise derived our existence. Hence, in order 
 that we may easily apprehend the duties which 
 we owe them, it will be requisite to have this 
 sentence perpetually at hand, that our parents 
 
 * The honours which we pay to divinity can be of no ad- 
 vantage to him, but benefit us ; but the honours which we pay 
 to our parents are beneficial to them. And in this sense, 
 and in this only, the latter are to be honoured more than the 
 former. 
 
85 
 
 should be considered by us as the images of 
 the Gods ; and by Jupiter, as domestic Gods, 
 our benefactors, kindred, creditors, lords, and 
 most stable friends. For they are most stable 
 images of the Gods, possessing a similitude to 
 them beyond the power of art to effect. For 
 they are the guardian Gods of the house, and 
 live with us ; and besides this, they are our 
 greatest benefactors, imparting to us things of 
 the greatest consequence; and, by Jupiter, be- 
 stowing on us not only what we possess, but 
 also such things as they wish to give us, and 
 for which they themselves pray. Farther still, 
 they are likewise our nearest kindred, and the 
 causes of our alliance with others. They are, 
 also, creditors of things of the most honourable 
 nature, and only repay themselves by taking 
 what we shall be benefited by returning. For 
 what gain can be so great to a child as piety 
 and gratitude to his parents? They are most 
 justly, too, our lords: for of what can we be 
 in a greater degree the possession, than of 
 those through whom we exist? Moreover, 
 they are perpetual and spontaneous friends 
 and auxiliaries ; at all times, and in every cir- 
 cumstance, affording us assistance. Since, 
 however, the name of parent is the most excel- 
 lent of all the beforementioned appellations, 
 
86 
 
 according to which we also denominate the 
 Gods themselves; something else must also 
 be added to this conception; viz. that children 
 should be persuaded that they dwell in their 
 father's house, as if they were certain ministers 
 and priests in a temple, appointed and conse- 
 crated for this purpose by nature herself; 
 who entrusted a reverential attention to their 
 parents to their care. Since of attentive regard, 
 therefore, one kind pertains to the body, but 
 another to the soul, we shall readily perform 
 what each of these requires, if we are willing 
 to do that which reason persuades us to do. 
 But reason persuades us to pay less attention 
 to the body than to the soul; though attention 
 to the former is necessary. We should, there- 
 fore, procure for our parents liberal food, and 
 such as is adapted to the imbecility of old age ; 
 and besides this, a bed, sleep, unction, a bath, 
 garments ; and in short, all the necessaries 
 which the body requires, that they may never 
 at any time experience the want of any of these; 
 in thus acting, imitating their care about our 
 nurture, when we were infants. Hence, we 
 should compel ourselves to employ a certain 
 prophetic attention to them, in order to dis- 
 cover what they particularly desire of things 
 pertaining to the body, though they should not 
 
87 
 
 indicate the object of their wish*. For they 
 divined many things respecting us, when we 
 frequently signified by inarticulate and mourn- 
 ful sounds, that we were in want of certain 
 things, but were unable to indicate clearly the 
 subjects of our wants. So that our parents, 
 by the benefits which they formerly conferred 
 upon us, become the preceptors to us of what 
 we ought to bestow on them. 
 
 With respect to the souls of our parents, we 
 should, in the first place, procure for them 
 hilarity; which will be especially obtained, if 
 we are conversant with them by night and by 
 day, unless something prevents us, walking, 
 being anointed, and living together with them. 
 For as to those who are undertaking a long 
 journey, the converse of their families and 
 friends is most delightful, after the manner of 
 those that accompany a solemn procession ; 
 thus, also, to parents who are now verging to 
 the grave,the sedulous and unremittingattention 
 
 * This reminds me of what Pope, no less piously than 
 pathetically says, respecting his mother, in the following 
 most beautiful lines : 
 
 " Me let the tender office long engage, 
 
 To rock the cradle of reposing age, 
 
 With lenient arts extend a mother's breath, 
 
 Make languor smile, and smooth the bed of death ; 
 
 Explore the thought, explain the asl'iny eye, 
 
 And keep awhile one parent from the sky. 
 
 See his Seventh Epistle, nenr the end* 
 
88 
 
 of their children is most acceptable, and most 
 dear. Moreover, if at any time they should 
 act wrong, which frequently happens to be the 
 case with many, and especially with those who 
 have been educated in a more vulgar manner; 
 they should be corrected indeed, yet not by 
 Jupiter with reprehension, as we are accus- 
 tomed to do to our inferiors or equals, but as 
 it were, with exhortation ; and not as if they 
 had erred through ignorance, but as if they 
 had committed an oversight, through inatten- 
 tion; and that if they had attended, they would 
 by no means have erred. For admonitions, 
 and especially if they are vehement, are grievous 
 to those that are old. Hence, it is necessary, 
 that the remedy of their oversight should be 
 accompanied by mild exhortation, and a cer- 
 tain elegant artifice. Children, likewise, in- 
 crease the joy of their parents, by performing 
 for them servile offices, such as washing their 
 feet, making their bed, and waiting on them 
 after the manner of servants. For they are 
 not a little delighted, when they receive ne- 
 sessary servile attentions from the most dear 
 hands of their children, and make use of their 
 ministrant works. But parents will be espe- 
 cially gratified when their children are seen to 
 honour those whom they love and very much 
 esteem. On which account, it is fit that chil- 
 
89 
 
 dren should affectionately love the kindred of 
 their parents, and pay a proper attention to 
 then), and in a similar manner should love the 
 friends of, and all those that are dear to their 
 parents. And this being admitted, we shall be 
 enabled to collect many other duties of chil- 
 dren to their parents, which are neither small 
 nor casual. For since our parents are grati- 
 fied by the attention which we pay to those 
 whom they love, but we are in a most eminent 
 degree beloved by our parents, it is evident 
 that we shall very much please them, by pay- 
 ing a proper attention to ourselves. 
 
 ON FRATERNAL LOVE. 
 
 THE first admonition, therefore, is very clear, 
 easily obtained, and is common to all men. 
 For it is a sane assertion, which every man 
 will consider as evident. And it is this : Act 
 by every one, in the same manner as if you 
 supposed yourself to be him, and him to be 
 you*. For he will use a servant well who con- 
 I 
 
 * The following extract from Sir William Jones, as given 
 by Moor in his Hindu Pantheon, p. 421, demonstrates the 
 great antiquity of this precept: 
 
 " Our divine religion has no need of such aids as many 
 are willing to give it; by asserting that the wisest men of 
 
90 
 
 aiders with himself, how he would think it 
 proper to be used by him, if he indeed was the 
 
 this world were ignorant of the two great maxims that we 
 must act in respect of others as we should wish them to act in 
 respect of ourselves and that, instead of returning evil for 
 evil, we should confer benefits on those who injure us. But 
 the first rule is implied in a speech of Lysias, and expressed 
 in distinct phrases by Thales and Pittacus ; and I have even 
 seen it word for word, in the original of Confucius, which I 
 carefully compared with the Latin translation. If the con- 
 version, therefore, of the Pandits and Maulavis, in India, 
 shall ever be attempted by protestant missionaries, they must 
 beware of asserting, while they teach the gospel, what those 
 Pandits and Maulavis would know to be false. The former 
 would cite the beautiful Arya couplet, which was written at 
 least three centuries before our era, and which pronounce 
 the duty of a good man, even in the moment of destruction, 
 to consist, not only in forgiving, but even in a desire of bene- 
 fiting his destroyer as the sandal tree, in the instant of its 
 overthrow, sheds perfume on the axe which fells it. And the 
 latter would triumph, in repeating the verse of SADI, who 
 represents a return of good for good as a slight reciprocity ; 
 but says to the virtuous man, * Confer benefits on him who 
 has injured thee:' using an Arabic sentence, and a maxim 
 apparently of the ancient Arabs. Nor would the Mussul- 
 mans fail to recite four distichs of Hafiz, who has illustrated 
 that maxim, with fanciful but elegant allusions : 
 
 " Learn from yon orient shell to love thy foe, 
 And store with pearls the hand that brings thee woe : 
 Free, like yon rock, from base vindictive pride, 
 Emblaze with gems the wrist that rends thy side. 
 Mark where yon tree rewards the stony shower 
 With fruit nectarious, or the balmy flower : 
 All uature calls aloud ' Shall man do less 
 Than heal the smiter, and the railer bless?'" 
 
 As. Res. Vol. IV. 
 
91 
 
 master, and himself the servant. The same 
 thing also must be said of parents with respect 
 to children, and of children with respect to 
 parents; and, in short, of all men with respect 
 to all. This admonition, however, is transcen- 
 dently adapted to the alliance of brothers to 
 each other; since nothing else is necessary for 
 him to admit previously, who considers how 
 he ought to conduct himself towards his bro- 
 ther, than promptly to assume the natural 
 sameness of the person of each of them. This, 
 therefore, is the first admonition, that a man 
 should act towards his brother in the same 
 way in which he would think it proper that his 
 brother should act towards him. But, by Ju- 
 piter, some one may say, I do not exceed pro- 
 priety in my manners and am equitable, but 
 my brother's manners are rough and without 
 affability. Such a one, however, does not 
 speak rightly. For, in the first place, perhaps 
 he does not speak the truth ; since an excessive 
 love of self is sufficient [to induce a man] to 
 magnify and extol what pertains to himself, but 
 to diminish and vilify what pertains to others. 
 Frequently, therefore, men of inferior worth, 
 prefer themselves to others who are far more 
 excellent characters. And, in the next place, 
 though the brother should be in reality such a 
 person [as above described], I should say, 
 
92 
 
 prove yourself to be a better man than he is, 
 and you will vanquish his rusticity by your 
 beneficence. For no great thanks are due to 
 those who conduct themselves moderately to- 
 wards worthy and benignant men ; but to ren- 
 der him more mild who is stupid, and whose 
 manners are rough, is the work of a man [pro- 
 perly so called], and deserves great applause. 
 Nor is it at all impossible for the exhortation 
 to take effect. For in men of the most absurd 
 manners, there are the seeds of a mutation to 
 a better condition, and of honour and love for 
 their benefactors. For are not even savage 
 animals, and such as are naturally most hostile 
 to our race, and who are taken away by vio- 
 lence, and at first are detained by chains, and 
 confined in iron cages, are rot these after- 
 wards rendered mild by a certain mode of 
 treatment, and by daily supplying them with 
 food ? And will not the man who is a brother, 
 or even any casual person, who deserves atten- 
 tion in a much greater degree than a brute, 
 be changed to milder manners by proper treat- 
 ment, though he should not entirely forsake 
 his rusticity? In our behaviour, therefore, to- 
 wards every man, and in a much greater degree 
 towards a brother, we should imitate the reply 
 of Socrates to one who said to him, " May I 
 die unless I am revenged on you." For his 
 
answer was, " May I die, if I do not make yon 
 rny friend.'* And thus much concerning these 
 particulars. 
 
 In the next place, a man should consider 
 that after a manner his brothers are parts of 
 him, just as my eyes are parts of me; and like- 
 wise my legs, my hands, and the remaining 
 members of my body. For brothers have the 
 same relation to a family considered as one 
 thing [as the parts to the whole of the body]. 
 As, therefore, the eyes and the hands, if each 
 of them should receive a peculiar soul and in- 
 tellect, would, by every possible contrivance, 
 pay a guardian attention to the remaining parts 
 of the body, on account of the beforementioned 
 communion, because they could not perform 
 their proper office well without the presence of 
 the other members; thus also it is requisite 
 that we who are men, and who acknowledge 
 that we have a soul, should omit no offices 
 which it becomes us to perform to our bro- 
 thers. For again, brothers are more naturally 
 adapted to assist each other, than are the parts 
 of the body. For the eyes, indeed, being pre- 
 sent with each other, see what is before them, 
 and one hand cooperates with the other which 
 is present; but the mutual works of brothers 
 are, in a certain respect, much more multifari- 
 ous. For they perform things which are pro- 
 
94 
 
 n'table in common, though they should be at 
 the greatest distance from each other ; and they 
 greatly benefit each other, though the interval 
 which separates them should be immeasurable. 
 In short, it must be considered, that our life 
 appears to be a certain long war continued to 
 the extent of many years; and this partly 
 through the nature of the things themselves 
 which possess a certain opposition ; and partly 
 through the sudden and unexpected occur- 
 rences of fortune ; but most of all through vice 
 itself, which neither abstains from any violence, 
 nor from any fraud and evil stratagems. Hence 
 nature, as not being ignorant of the purpose for 
 which she generated us, produced each of us 
 accompanied, after a certain manner, by an 
 auxiliary. No one, therefore, is alone, nor 
 does he derive his origin from an oak or a rock, 
 but from parents, and in conjunction with bro- 
 thers, and kindred, and other familiars. But 
 reason affords us great assistance, conciliating 
 to us strangers, and those who have no con- 
 nection with us by blood, and procuring for us 
 an abundance of auxiliars. On this account 
 we naturally endeavour to allure and make 
 every one our friend. Hence it is a thing per- 
 fectly insane to wish to be united to those who 
 have not any thing from nature which is capa- 
 ble of procuring our love, and voluntarily to 
 
become familiar with them in the most ex- 
 tended degree ; and yet neglect those prompt 
 anxiliars and associates which are supplied by 
 nature herself, such as brothers happen to be. 
 
 ON WEDLOCK. 
 
 THE discussion of wedlock is a thing most ne- 
 cessary. For the whole of our race is natu- 
 rally adapted to society. But the tirst and 
 most elementary of all associations is that 
 which is effected by marriage. For cities could 
 not exist without a household ; but the house- 
 hold of an unmarried man is truly imperfect; 
 while, on the contrary, of him who is married, 
 it is perfect and full. Hence we have shown 
 in our treatise On Families, that a life accom- 
 panied by wedlock is to be precedaneously 
 chosen by the wise man ; but a single life is 
 not to be chosen, except particular circum- 
 stances* require it. So that as it is requisite 
 
 * viz. Such circumstances as induced Plato, Plotinus, 
 Proclus, and many other ancient philosophers, not to engage 
 in wedlock, because they found that they could give greater 
 assistance to philosophy by continuing single; but Pythago- 
 ras and Socrates, though they rank among the wisest men 
 that ever lived, did not find a married life incompatible with 
 the cultivation of philosophy in the highest perfection possi- 
 ble to man. Wedlock, therefore, is never to be avoided 
 from any sordid and selfish motives. 
 
96 
 
 xve should imitate the man of intellect where 
 we can, but marriage is with him an object of 
 precedaneons choice; it is evident that it will 
 also be proper for us, unless some circumstance 
 occurs to prevent it from taking place. And 
 this is the first reason why wedlock is most 
 necessary. 
 
 But it seems that Nature herself, prior to the 
 wise man, incites us to this, who also exhorts 
 the wise man to marry. For she not only made 
 us gregarious, but likewise adapted to copula- 
 tion, and proposed the procreation of children 
 and stability of life, as the one and common 
 work of wedlock. But Nature justly teaches 
 us, that a choice of such things as are fit should 
 be made so as to accord with what she has 
 procured for us. Every animal, therefore, lives 
 conformably to its natural constitution, and, 
 by Jupiter, in a similar manner every plant 
 lives agreeably to the life which is imparted to 
 it. Only there is this difference between the 
 two, that the latter do not employ any reason- 
 ing, or a certain enumeration, in the selection 
 of things which they explore; as they make 
 use of nature alone, because they do not parti- 
 cipate of soul ; but animals are led to investi- 
 gate what is proper for them by imaginations 
 and exciting desires. To us, however, Nature 
 gave reason, in order that it might survey every 
 
97 
 
 thing else, and, together with all things, or 
 rather prior to all things, might direct its atten- 
 tion to Nature herself, so as in an orderly man- 
 ner to tend to her as to a very splendid and 
 stable mark, and choosing every thing which is 
 consonant to her, might cause us to live in a be- 
 coming manner. Hence he will not err, who 
 says that a family is imperfect without wed- 
 lock. For it is not possible to conceive of a 
 governor without the governed, nor of the go- 
 verned without a governor. And this reason 
 appears to me to be very well calculated to 
 make those ashamed who are adverse to mar- 
 
 riage. 
 
 I say, therefore, that marriage is likewise 
 advantageous. In the first place, indeed, be- 
 cause it produces a truly divine fruit, the pro- 
 creation of children, since they will be assist- 
 ants to us in all our actions (as partaking of 
 our nature), while our strength is yet entire; 
 and they will be good auxiliars, when we are 
 worn out, and oppressed with old age. They 
 will also be the familiar associates of our joy 
 in prosperity, and sympathizing participants of 
 our sorrows in adversity. Farther still, be- 
 sides the procreation of children, the associa- 
 tion with a wife is advantageous. For, in 
 the first place, when we are wearied with 
 labours out of the house, she receives us with 
 
 H 
 
aa 
 
 officious kindness, and recreates us by every 
 possible attention. In the next place, she pro- 
 duces in us an oblivion of our molestations. 
 For those sorrowful circumstances of life which 
 take place in the forum, or the gymnasium, or 
 the country, and, in short, all the cares and 
 solicitudes occasioned by converse with our 
 friends and familiars, do not so obviously mo- 
 lest us, being obscured by our necessary occu- 
 pations ; but when we are liberated from these, 
 return home, and our mind becomes, as it 
 were, at leisure, then these cares and solici- 
 tudes approach, availing themselves of this 
 occasion, in order to torment us, at the time 
 when life is destitute of benevolence, and is 
 solitary. Then, however, the wife being pre- 
 sent becomes a great solace on this occasion, 
 by making some inquiries about external af- 
 affairs, or by referring to, and considering, to- 
 gether with her husband, something about do- 
 mestic concerns, and thus, by her unfeigned 
 alacrity, affords him a certain exuberance of 
 pleasure and delight. But it would be too 
 prolix to enumerate particularly the benefit of 
 a wife in festivals, for the purpose of procuring 
 sacrifices and victims ; in the journeys of her 
 husband, by preserving the family in a stable 
 condition, and not suffering it to be entirely 
 without a ruler; in paying proper attention to 
 
99 
 
 the domestics; and in the aid which she af- 
 fords her husband when he is afflicted with 
 disease. For it is sufficient summarily to say, 
 that tivo things are necessary to all men, in order 
 to pass through life in a becoming manner, viz. 
 the aid of kindred and sympathetic benevolence. 
 But we cannot find any thing more sympathetic 
 than a ivife, nor any thing more kindred than 
 children. Both these, however, marriage af- 
 fords* How is it possible, therefore, that it 
 should not be most advantageous to us? 
 
 I also think that a married life is beautiful. 
 For what other thing can be such an ornament 
 to a family, as is the association of husband 
 and wife? For it must not be said that sump- 
 tuous edifices, walls covered with marble plas- 
 ter, and piazzas adorned with stones, which 
 are admired by those who are ignorant of true 
 good, nor yet paintings and arched myrtle 
 walks, nor any thing else which is the subject 
 of astonishment to the stupid*, is the ornament 
 of a family. But the beauty of a household 
 
 * Hence Diogenes, in perfect conformity with that digni- 
 fied independence of character which he so eminently pos- 
 sessed, and which is to be found more or less in the conduct 
 of all the ancient philosophers, when a certain wealthy and 
 ostentatious man brought him to a fine house which he had 
 built, and desired him not to spit, as he perceived he begun 
 to hawk, spit in the man's face, observing at the same time, 
 that he could not find a worse place to spit in. 
 
 H 2 
 
100 
 
 consists in the conjunction of man and wife, 
 who are united to each other by destiny, and 
 are consecrated to the Gods who preside over 
 nuptials, births, and houses, and who accord, 
 indeed, with each other, and have all things 
 in common, as far as to their bodies, or rather 
 their souls themselves; who likewise exercise 
 a becoming authority over their house and ser- 
 vants; are properly solicitous about the edu- 
 cation of their children ; and pay an attention 
 to the necessaries of life, which is neither ex- 
 cessive nor negligent, but moderate and appro- 
 priate. For what can be better and more ex- 
 cellent, as the most admirable Homer says, 
 
 Than when at home the husband and the wife 
 Unanimously live*. 
 
 On which account I have frequently wondered 
 at those who conceive that the life with a wo- 
 man is burdensome and grievous. For a wife 
 is not by Jupiter either a burden or a molesta- 
 tion, as to them she appears to be ; but, on the 
 contrary, she is something light and easy to be 
 borne, or rather, she possesses the power of 
 exonerating her husband from things truly 
 troublesome and weighty. For there is not 
 any thing so troublesome which will not be 
 
 * Odyss. lib. 7, v. 183. 
 
101 
 
 easily borne by a husband and wife when they 
 are concordant, and are willing to endure it in 
 common. But imprudence is truly burden- 
 some, and difficult to be borne by its posses- 
 sors : for through it things naturally light, and 
 among others a wife, become heavy. In reality, 
 indeed, marriage to many is intolerable, not 
 from itself, or because such an association as 
 this with a woman is naturally insufferable; 
 but when we marry those whom we ought not, 
 and, together with this, are ourselves entirely 
 ignorant of life, and unprepared to take a wife 
 in such a way as a free and ingenuous woman 
 ought to be taken, then it happens that this 
 association with her becomes difficult and into- 
 lerable. It is certain, indeed, that marriage is 
 effected by the vulgar after this manner. For 
 they do not take a wife for the sake of the pro- 
 creation of children, and the association of life; 
 but some are induced to marry through the 
 magnitude of the portion, others through trans- 
 cendency of form, and others through other 
 such like causes ; and by employing these bad 
 counsellors, they pay no attention to the dis- 
 position and manners of the bride, but cele- 
 brate nuptials to their own destruction, and 
 with their doors crowned introduce to them- 
 selves a tyrant instead of a wife, whom they 
 cannot resist, and with whom they are unable 
 
102 
 
 to contend for the chief authority. It is evi- 
 dent, therefore, that marriage through these 
 causes, and not through itself, becomes bur- 
 densome and intolerable to many. It is pro- 
 per, however, as it is said, neither to blame 
 things which are innoxious, nor to make our 
 imbecility in the use of things the cause of 
 complaint against them. Besides, it is also in 
 other respects most absurd, to investigate on 
 all sides the auxiliaries of friendship, and pro- 
 cure certain friends and associates, as those 
 who will aid and defend us in the difficulties of 
 life, and yet not explore and endeavour to ob- 
 tain that relief, defence, and assistance which 
 are afforded us by nature, by the laws, and by 
 the Gods, through a wife and children. 
 
 With respect to a numerous offspring, it is 
 after a certain manner, according to nature and 
 consentaneous to marriage, that all, or the 
 greatest part of those that are born, should be 
 nurtured. Many, however, appear to be un- 
 persuaded by this admonition, through a cause 
 not very decorous : for they are thus affected 
 through a love of riches, and because they 
 think poverty to be a transcendently great evil. 
 In the first place, therefore, it must be consi- 
 dered, that in procreating children, we not only 
 beget assistants for ourselves, nourishers of our 
 old age, and participants with us of every for- 
 
103 
 
 tune and every circumstance that may occur in 
 life I say, we do not beget them for ourselves 
 alone, but in many things also for our parents. 
 For the procreation of children is gratifying to 
 them; because, if we should suffer any thing of 
 a calamitous nature prior to their decease, we 
 shall leave our children instead of ourselves, as 
 the support of their old age. But it is a beau- 
 tiful thing for a grandfather to be conducted 
 by the hands of his grandchildren, and to be 
 considered by them as deserving of every other 
 attention. Hence, in the first place, we shall 
 gratify our own parents, by paying attention to 
 the procreation of children. And, in the next 
 place, we shall cooperate with the prayers and 
 ardent wishes of those that begot us. For they 
 from the first were solicitous about our birth, 
 conceiving that through it there would be a 
 very extended succession of themselves, and 
 that they shall leave behind them children of 
 children, and have to pay attention to our mar- 
 riage, our procreation, and nurture. Hence, 
 by marrying and begetting children, we shall 
 accomplish, as it were, a part of their prayers ; 
 but, by being of a contrary opinion, we shall cut 
 off the object of their deliberate choice. More- 
 over, it appears that every one who voluntarily, 
 and without some prohibiting circumstance, avoids 
 
104 
 
 marriage, and the procreation of children, ac- 
 cuses his parents of madness, as not having en- 
 gaged in wedlock with right conceptions of 
 things. It is easy also to see, that such a one 
 forms an incongruous opinion. For how is it 
 possible that he should not be full of dissen- 
 sion, who finds a pleasure in living, and wil- 
 lingly continues in life as one who was pro- 
 duced into existence in a becoming manner by 
 his parents, and yet conceives that for him to 
 procreate others is one among the number of 
 things which are to be rejected? In the first 
 place, however, as we have before observed, it 
 is requisite to consider, that we do not beget 
 children for our own sakes alone, but for those 
 also through whom we ourselves were begot- 
 
 o o 
 
 ten ; and, in the next place, for the sake of our 
 friends and kindred. For it is gratifying to 
 these to see children which are our offspring, 
 both on account of benevolence and propin- 
 quity, and on account of security. For the 
 life of those to whom these pertain, is esta- 
 blished as in a port by a thing of this kind, 
 analogously to ships, which, though greatly 
 agitated by the waves of the sea, are firmly se- 
 cured by many anchors. On this account, the 
 man who is a lover of his kindred, and a lover 
 of his associates, will earnestly desire to marry 
 
105 
 
 and procreate children. We are likewise 
 loudly called upon by our country to do so. 
 For we do not beget children so much for our- 
 selves as for our country, procuring a race that 
 may follow us, and supplying the community 
 with our successors. Hence the priest should 
 know that he owes priests to his city ; the 
 ruler that he owes rulers ; the public orator 
 public orators; and, in short, the citizen that 
 he owes citizens to it. As, therefore, to a 
 choir the perennial continuance of those that 
 compose it is gratifying, and to an army the 
 duration of the soldiers, so to a city is the last- 
 ingness of the citizens. If, indeed, a city was 
 a certain system of a short duration, and the 
 life of it was commensurate with the life of 
 man, it would not be in want of succession. 
 But since it is extended to many generations, 
 and if it employs a more fortunate daemon en- 
 dures for many ages, it is evident that it is not 
 only necessary to direct our attention to the 
 present, but also to the future time, and not des- 
 pise our natal soil, and leave it desolate,, but 
 establish it in good hopes from our posterity. 
 
106 
 
 HOW WE OUGHT TO CONDUCT OURSELVES 
 TOWARDS OUR [OTHER] KINDRED. 
 
 THE consideration of the duties pertaining to 
 [our other] kindred is consequent to the dis- 
 cussion of those that pertain to parents, bro- 
 thers, wives, and children; for the same things 
 may, in a certain respect, be said of the former 
 as of the latter; and on this account may be 
 concisely explained. For, in short, each of us 
 is, as it were, circumscribed by many circles ; 
 some of which are less, but others larger, and 
 some comprehend, but others are compre- 
 hended, according to the different and unequal 
 habitudes with respect to each other. For the 
 first, indeed, and most proximate circle is that 
 which every one describes about his own mind 
 as a centre, in which circle the body, and 
 whatever is assumed for the sake of the body, 
 are comprehended. For this is nearly the 
 smallest circle, and almost touches the centre 
 itself. The second from this, and which is at 
 a greater distance from the centre, but com- 
 prehends the first circle, is that in which pa- 
 rents, brothers, wife, and children are arranged. 
 The third circle from the centre is that which 
 contains uncles and aunts, grandfathers and 
 grandmothers, and the children of brothers and 
 
107 
 
 sisters. After this is the circle which compre- 
 hends the remaining relatives. Next to this is 
 that which contains the common people, then 
 that which comprehends those of the same 
 tribe, afterwards that which contains the citi- 
 zens; and then two other circles follow, one 
 being the circle of those that dwell in the vici- 
 nity of the city, and the other, of those of the 
 same province. But the outermost and great- 
 est circle, and which comprehends all the other 
 circles, is that of the whole human race*. 
 
 * This admirable passage is so conformable to the follow- 
 ing beautiful lines in Pope's Essay on Man, that it is most 
 probably the source from whence they were derived. The 
 lines are these: 
 
 " Self love but serves the virtuous mind to wake, 
 As the small pebble stirs the peaceful lake, 
 The centre moved, a circle straight succeeds, 
 Another still, and still another spreads, 
 Friend, parent, neighbour first it will embrace, 
 His country next, and next all human race ; 
 Wide and more wide the' o'erflowings of the mind, 
 Take every creature in of every kind." 
 
 In Hierocles, however, the circles are scientifically de- 
 tailed; but in Pope they are synoptically enumerated. 
 Pope, too, has added another circle to that which is the 
 outermost with Hierocles, viz. the circle which embraces 
 every creature of every kind. But as Hierocles in this frag- 
 ment is only speaking of our duties to kindred, among which 
 the whole human race is, in a certain respect, included, he 
 had no occasion to introduce another circle, though the Pla- 
 tonic doctrine of benevolence is as widely extended as that 
 of Pope. 
 
108 
 
 These things being thus considered, it is the 
 province of him who strives to conduct him- 
 
 As the selflove, however, mentioned here by our poet is 
 of a virtuous nature, and is wholly different from that selflove 
 which is reprehensible, and is possessed by the vulgar, I 
 shall present the reader with what Aristotle says concerning 
 the former in the 9th book of his Nicomachean Ethics, as 
 the distinction between the two is at present but little known. 
 
 Aristotle, therefore, having observed, that the selflove of 
 the multitude leads them to distribute to themselves the 
 greater part in wealth and honours, and corporeal pleasures, 
 and that in consequence of vindicating to themselves more 
 of these things than is fit, they are subservient to desires 
 and passions, and the irrational part of the soul, adds as 
 follows : 
 
 " He who always earnestly endeavours to act justly or 
 temperately, or to act according to any other of the virtues, 
 the most of all things, and, in short, who always vindicates 
 to himself that which is beautiful in conduct; such a man 
 will never be called by any one a lover of himself, nor will 
 he be blamed by any one. It would seem, however, that 
 such a man as this is, in a greater degree, a lover of himself; 
 for he distributes to himself things which are most eminently 
 beautiful and good, is gratified in his most principal part [in- 
 tellect], and in all things is obedient to it. But as that which 
 is the most principal thing in a city appears to be most emi- 
 nently the city, and this is the case in every other system of 
 things; thus, also, that which is most principal in man is 
 especially the man. He, therefore, who loves this principal 
 part of himself, is especially a lover of himself, and is grati- 
 fied with this. That every man, therefore, is principally in- 
 tellect, and that the worthy man principally loves this is not 
 immanifest. Hence, he will be especially a lover of him- 
 self, according to a different species of selflove from that 
 which is disgraceful, and differing as much from it as to live 
 
109 
 
 self properly in each of these connections to 
 collect, in a certain respect, the circles, as it 
 were, to one centre, and always to endeavour 
 earnestly to transfer himself from the compre- 
 hending circles to the several particulars which 
 they comprehend. It pertains, therefore, to 
 the man who is a lover of kindred [to conduct 
 himself in a becoming manner*] towards his 
 parents and brothers; also, according to the 
 same analogy, towards the more elderly of his 
 relatives of both sexes, such as grandfathers, 
 
 according to reason differs from living according to passion, 
 and as much as the desire of that which is beautiful in con- 
 duct differs from the desire of that which appears to he ad- 
 vantageous. Hence it is necessary that a good man should 
 be a lover of himself; for he himself is benefited by acting 
 well, and he also benefits others. But it is not proper that 
 a depraved man should be a lover of himself; for he will 
 hurt both himself and his neighbours, in consequence of 
 being subservient to base passions. With the depraved man, 
 therefore, there is a dissonance between what he ought to do 
 and what he does; but with the worthy man, those things 
 which he ouyht to do he also does.' 1 " 
 
 Conformably to what Aristotle asserts in this last sentence, 
 Seneca also says, " Sapiens nihil facit quod non debet, et 
 nihil praetermittit quod debet." i. e. " The wise man does 
 nothing which he ought not to do, and omits nothing which he 
 ought to do." 
 
 * There is a deficiency here in the original, which I have 
 endeavoured to supply in the translation by the words in the 
 brackets. It appears to me, therefore, that the words 
 are wanting. 
 
no 
 
 uncles and aunts; towards those of the same 
 age with himself, as his cousins; and towards 
 his juniors, as the children of his cousins. 
 Hence we have summarily shown how we 
 ought to conduct ourselves towards our kin- 
 dred, having before taught how we should act 
 towards ourselves, our parents, and brothers; 
 and besides these, towards our wife and chil- 
 dren. To which it must be added, that those 
 who belong to the third circle must be honoured 
 similarly to these ; and again, kindred simi- 
 larly to those that belong to the third circle. 
 For something of benevolence must be taken 
 away from those who are more distant from 
 us by blood ; though at the same time we 
 should endeavour that an assimilation may 
 take place between us and them. For this 
 distance will become moderate, if, through the 
 diligent attention* which we pay to them, we 
 cut off the length of the habitude towards each 
 individual of these. We have unfolded, there- 
 fore, that which is most comprehensive and 
 important in the duties pertaining to kin- 
 dred. 
 
 It is requisite, likewise, to add a proper 
 measure conformably to the general use of 
 appellations, calling indeed cousins, uncles 
 
 * For fvorao-fwe, in this place in the original, I read 
 
Ill 
 
 and aunts, by the name of brothers, fathers 
 and mothers; but of other kindred, to deno- 
 minate some uncles, others the children of 
 brothers or sisters, and others cousins, accord- 
 ing to the difference of age, for the sake of the 
 abundant extension which there is in names. 
 For this mode of appellation will be no ob- 
 scure indication of our sedulous attention to 
 each of these relatives; and at the same time 
 will incite, and extend us in a greater degree, 
 to the contraction as it were of the above men- 
 tioned circles. But as we have proceeded 
 thus far in our discussion, it will not be unsea- 
 sonable to recall to our memory the distinc- 
 tion with respect to parents, which we before 
 made. For in that place in which we com- 
 pared mother with father, we said that it was 
 requisite to attribute more of love to a mother, 
 and more of honour to a father; and conform- 
 ably to this, we shall here add, that it is fit to 
 have more love for those who are connected 
 with us by a maternal alliance, but to pay 
 more honour to those who are related to us 
 by a paternal affinity. 
 
112 
 
 ON ECONOMICS. 
 
 PRIOR to all things, it is requisite to speak of 
 the works through which the union of a family 
 is preserved. These, therefore, are to be di- 
 vided after the accustomed manner; viz. rural, 
 forensic, and political works are to be attri- 
 buted to the husband; but to the wife, such 
 works as pertain to spinning wool, making of 
 bread, cooking, and, in short, ever} 7 thing of a 
 domestic nature. Nevertheless, it is not fit 
 that the one should be entirely exempt from 
 the works of the other. For sometimes it will 
 be proper when the wife is in the country that 
 she should superintend the labourers, and per- 
 form the office of the master of the house ; and 
 that the husband should sometimes convert his 
 attention to domestic affairs ; and partly in- 
 quire about, and partly inspect what is doing 
 in the house. For thus, what pertains to the 
 mutual association of both will be more firmly 
 connected by their joint participation of neces- 
 sary cares. Since, however, our discussion 
 has extended thus far, it appears to me that I 
 ought not to omit to mention manual opera- 
 
113 
 
 tions ; for it will not be incongruous to add 
 this also to what has been said about works. 
 
 What occasion, therefore, is there to say, 
 that it is fit the man should rneddle with agri- 
 cultural labours ? For there are not many by 
 whom this will not be admitted. Bat though 
 so much luxury and idleness occupies the life 
 of men of the present day, yet it is rare to find 
 one who is not willing to engage in the labour 
 of sowing and planting ; and to be employed 
 in other works which pertain to agriculture. 
 Perhaps, however, the arguments will be much 
 less persuasive, which call on the man to 
 engage in those other works which belong to 
 the woman. For such men as pay great at- 
 tention to neatness and cleanliness will not 
 conceive the spinning of wool to be their busi- 
 ness : since, for the most part, vile diminutive 
 men, and the tribe of such as are delicate and 
 effeminate apply themselves to the elaboration 
 of wool, through an emulation of feminine soft- 
 ness. But it does not become a man, who is 
 truly so called, to apply himself to things of 
 this kind; so that neither shall I, perhaps, ad- 
 vise those to engage in such employments, who 
 have not given perfectly credible indications 
 of their virility and modesty. What, there- 
 fore, should hinder the man from partaking of 
 
 i 
 
1J4 
 
 the works which pertain to a woman, whose 
 past life has been such as to free him from all 
 suspicion of absurd and effeminate conduct? 
 For in other domestic works, is it not thought 
 that more of them pertain to men than to 
 women ? For they are more laborious, and 
 require corporeal strength, such as to grind, 
 to knead meal, to cut wood, to draw water 
 from a well, to transfer large vessels from one 
 place to another; to shake coverlets and ear- 
 pets, and every other work similar to these. 
 And it will be sufficient, indeed, for these 
 things to be performed by men. But it is 
 also fit that some addition should be made to 
 the legitimate work of a woman, so that she 
 may not only engage with her maid servants 
 in the spinning of wool, but may also apply 
 herself to other more virile works. For it ap- 
 pears to me that the making of bread, the 
 drawing of water [from a well], the lighting of 
 fires, the making of beds, and every other work 
 similar to these are the proper employments 
 of a freeborn woman. But a wife will seem 
 much more beautiful to her husband, and espe- 
 cially if she is young, and not yet worn out by 
 the bearing of children, if she becomes his 
 associate in gathering grapes, and collecting 
 olives ; and if he is verging to old age, she will 
 
115 
 
 render herself more pleasing to him, by par- 
 taking with him of the labour of sowing and 
 ploughing, and extending to him, while he is 
 digging or planting, the instruments proper 
 for such works. For when a family is go- 
 verned after this manner by the husband and 
 wife, so far as pertains to necessary works, it 
 appears to me that it will be conducted in this 
 respect in the best manner. 
 
 ai? 
 
 THE END. 
 
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