/^n. The one at Sura was the higher in rank, and was called Gaon (excellency), a title which later was transferred to the president of the school in Pumbe- ditha. The function of the Gaon was to preside over the regular course of studies, Sidra, and the popular extension course called Kalla, held twice a year in the months preceding the Passover and the fall festivals. He further rendered decisions in important cases sub- mitted to him from all parts of the world. A num- ber of collections of these decisions called Teshubot (Responsa), have come down to us. They are written partly in Aramaic and partly in Arabic, according to the language in which the question was written. The Gaon licensed rabbis, or judges, as they were called, because their chief function was to act as judges in civil cases. These licenses were endorsed by the Exilarch, Resh Galutha, the political head of the communities in Babylonia, representing them be- fore the government and appointing the Gaon. The former, in turn, was appointed by the Caliph, and his office was hereditary as a rule. The oldest literary works of the period are collections of laws regarding matters of frequent occurrence, such as liturgy, mourning, the reception of proselytes, etc. They are known as the "Small Tractates," and are usually found in the ninth volume of our editions of the Talmud. Other compendia of the law are the Halakot Gedo- lot by Simeon Kayara, written in the eighth century, HISTORY OF THE JEWS 41 and the Sheeltot of Ahai of Shabha, the latter arranged according to the Pentateuch, and containing some moral lessons besides the legal exposition of the text. The compilation of these works was opposed by the Gaonim, who considered them injurious to the study of the law and detrimental to their own authority. In the ninth century the first Talmudic dictionary "p"iy was written by Zemah Gaon. His work has not come down to us, but most of it was incorporated in the Talmudic dictionary of the same name, written by Nathan of Rome in the eleventh century. The title has also been retained by subsequent compilers of Talmudic dictionaries, including the Aruch Comple- tum, edited by Alexander Kohut (1878-1892). At the same time Amram Gaon compiled the first liturgy, Seder Rab Amram, and thus is the originator of our present prayer-book. The form in which this com- pilation has come down to us is not as the original left the hands of its editor, for quite a number of later texts are found in it and its order of services is not exactly identical with any of the rituals in use at present. Still, it is the groundwork of the liturgy of Judaism to-day all over the world. From the same period dates, probably, the first Kab- alistic book which we possess, the "Sefer Yezirah" (Book of Creation). It may be called a theosophical treatise, written in the language and form of the Mish- nah, and based on the philosophy of the Pythagorean and Alexandrian schools. Its subject-matter naturally makes it obscure ; from the tenth century at least it has been commented upon. Legend has ascribed its authorship to Rabbi Akiba, and even to Biblical per- sons such as Abraham. 42 HISTORY OF THE JEWS In the ninth century we meet the first traces of a scientific literature. Prominent here is Saadya Gaon (892-942), born in Fayum, and called to Sura as Gaon, quite an unusual event. His literary activity extends over the whole field of Jewish literature. He wrote commentaries on the Bible besides an Arabic translation, and on Talmudic topics. He also com- posed religious hymns, but the most important of all his works is his mjni mJlOK (Dogma and Science), the first attempt at a scientific apology for Judaism from a philosophical point of view. His independence brought him into conflict with the Exilarch David ben Zakkai, to whose dictates he would not submit in a matter which he regarded as unjust; consequently he was deposed. Saadya contended that this act was illegal and excommunicated the Exilarch. The latter proved stronger and Saadya was forced into exile. Later on, however, they became reconciled, and Saadya was reinstated (934). The last two Gaonim of any importance lived in Pumbeditha. They were Sherira, who died in 999, and his son, Hay Gaon, who died in 1038. From the former we possess a very important historical treatise on the development of Rabbinic law known as the epistle of Sherira Gaon. It was written at the request of a man in Morocco, and was inspired by apologetic motives to prove that the law had been handed down unaltered from generation to generation. From Hay Gaon we have various Talmudic works, many responsa, and a didactic poem. Their contemporary was Samuel ibn Hofni, a rationalistic writer, who rejected the be- lief in the miracles related in the Talmud. Otherwise the age of the Gaonim is characterized by a blind faith, HISTORY OF THE JEWS 43 not only in Bible and Talmud, but also in popular superstitions and in the preservation of superstitious customs. Hay was succeeded by Hezekiah, who after holding his office for two years was put to death by the Caliph in 1040. After this time the office lost all significance. Names of a few of those who held office after this time are found, but nothing is known of their activity, nor has any literary work of this age come down to us. The blind faith which characterized the period of the Gaonim aroused considerable opposition, culminat- ing in the foundation of a religious sect called the Karaites, tnpJD ^2, ' ' Sons of the Bible. ' ' Their founder was Anan ben David (760) who claimed the Bible as the only authority for faith and practice, and there- fore rejected all Rabbinic law. His successors founded a congregation in Jerusalem, and very soon spread in the East. The most prominent teachers of the Kara- ites are Benjamin of Nehawend, and Salman ben Jeroham, the latter of whom carried on a literary con- troversy with Saadya. Judah Hadassi, in the thir- teenth century wrote nsnn hivx, the standard work of the Karaite law, written in rhymed prose. Other im- portant Karaite scholars are Aaron ben Elijah, who died in 1369, the author of PV p, a compendium of the religious law, and D"n J»y, a work on religious philosophy. In the fifteenth century Elijah Bashjazi wrote another compendium of the Karaite religion entitled W?H nviN. By this period a large Karaite community settled in Lithuania, where Isaac of Troki wrote a very able polemical treatise directed against Chris- tianity, known as ruiOK pirn. In 1698, Jacob Trigland, 44 HISTORY OF THE JEWS professor at Leyden, made inquiries concerning the Karaites by means of a letter addressed to their chief sent through an ambassador to Poland. He received a reply, ^tidth, written by Mordecai ben Nissim. This was, for a long time, the only source of informa- tion on the history of the Karaites. The last Karaite author of any consequence was Abraham Firkovitch (1787-1874) of Russia, who discovered and published important Karaite documents. Some of these, how- ever, he forged in the interest of the Karaite claim that the Karaites represent the original Judaism from which the Rabbanites seceded. At the same time that the Karaite schism occurred, the Chazars, a Tartar tribe, were converted to Judaism. Reports of the existence of a Jewish kingdom had reached the Jews of Western Europe. Hasdai ibn Shaprut wrote a letter of inquiry on this. He received a reply from the King of the Chazars, and these two letters are the chief source of information concerning this remarkable event. Toward the end of the tenth century the kingdom of the Chazars was conquered by the Russians. Judah Halevi, who wrote his Kuzari about 1140, used the story of the conversion of the Chazar King in the form of a philosophic dialogue be- tween him and the rabbi who converted him. The knowledge he had of an independent Jewish state was the basis of the fanciful reports circulated by an adventurer who called himself Eldad Hadani and pretended to be a descendant of one of the lost ten tribes. Their habitation and modes of life he de- scribed in a book. He appeared in the tenth century in Morocco, but nothing is known as to what finally became of him. HISTORY OF THE JEWS 45 In the ninth century, the literature of religious hymns, Piyut, begins. The authors of these are called Payetanim (poets). Their works are characterized by arbitrary handling of the Hebrew grammar, by the creation of new words in an arbitrary style, and finally, by obscure allusions to the Midrash. The oldest of these poets are Jose ben Jose and Jannai. Their successor, Eleazar ben Kallir, is the most pro- lific of all. Of his life we know nothing with cer- tainty. The literary activity of the Jews of Europe began in the ninth century. The first work is probably the Josippon, a history of the Jews from the ^destruction of Babylon by Cyrus to the downfall of Jerusalem in 70, which was ascribed to Josephus Flavius. Another anonymous writer, who lived in Italy in the ninth century, is the author of the Midrash, called Pirke Rabbi Eliezer. But the first Jewish author who lived in Europe, known by name, is Sabbatai Donolo (913-982), who wrote on medicine, astrology, and Kabbala. CHAPTER V THE JEWS OF EUROPE (1040-1215) The first mention of Jews in Germany is found in two orders of Emperor Constantine (321), in which he regulated the condition of the Jews of Cologne. It is possible that this settlement was of a temporary char- acter, for nothing is heard of the Jews in Germany until the tenth century. A statement to the effect that Charlemagne called Rabbi Kalonymus of Lucca in Italy to be Chief Rabbi of all the Jews of Germany is first reported in the sixteenth century, and is in all likelihood legendary. Under Charlemagne the Jews appear in Germany only as travelling traders. In 1016, however, there was already a bloody persecution of the Jews in Mayence. Gershom ben Judah, a native of France, was rabbi in Mayence. He occupied so prominent a position that he was called riTiJn "ilND (light of the exile). He wrote commentaries on various parts of the Talmud, responsa, other Talmu- dic works, and liturgical poetry. He died in 1028. To him are ascribed various rules, among them a prohibition of polygamy and an injunction to respect the secrecy of letters. At the same time there lived in Mayence Simeon bar Isaac, the liturgical poet, whose hymns are found in the ritual of the German Jews for the second day of Rosh Hashana. In 1090 Emperor Henry IV granted charters to the Jews of Worms and Speyer. These are the oldest 46 HISTORY OF THE JEWS 47 laws regulating the status of the Jews in Germany, granting to them freedom of trade and travel, pro- claiming the inviolability of their cemeteries, and prohibiting the kidnapping and baptism of their chil- dren. Six years later the first crusade broke out, and the mobs composing the army of the crusaders on the Rhine invaded the Jewish settlements, chiefly Cologne, Mayence, Speyer and Worms, in that part of the coun- try. Houses were sacked, synagogues desecrated, and many Jews cruelly murdered ; others committed suicide after killing their own children in order to save them from forced conversions. A number of Jews who had been converted to Christianity, in order to save their lives, later on returned to Judaism in spite of the ecclesiastic law which put this under the penalty of death. The Emperor, who at that time was in Italy, sanctioned this in spite of the protests of the Pope. Another persecution broke out in 1146, when the second crusade began. But the consequences were not as serious as those of the first crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux strongly condemned all acts of violence toward the Jews, who found refuge in the castles of the lords, and the Bishop of Speyer opened his castle, the Wolkenburg, to them, protecting them from the attacks of the mob. Still, in Wuerzburg, quite a number were killed, under the charge of having mur- dered a Christian. This may be considered the first blood-accusation on the European continent, although no particular motive for the crime was given. There is, however, a case on record in England in 1144, where the Jews were accused of having murdered a boy, William of Norwich, and nailed him to a cross in order to mock the crucifixion of Jesus. 48 HISTORY OF THE JEWS During the course of the twelfth century, local outbreaks of mob violence occurred everywhere in Europe, notably at Blois, France, in 1171, where thirty- four Jews were burned at the stake. In 1189, on the occasion of the coronation of King Richard Coeur de Lion, a bloody persecution took place in London, and soon spread over the other cities of the kingdom. Notable is the case of Benedict of York, who, in order to save his life, turned to Christianity and returned to Judaism on the next day. Both King Richard and the Archbishop of Canterbury permitted this, although it was against the canonical law. The climax of the ill-treatment of the Jews was reached in 1215, when the Lateran Council, presided over by Pope Innocent III, passed various laws repeat- ing the usual prohibition against office-holding by Jews, and decreeing that they should wear a distinct mark on their outer garments. This is the origin of the Yellow Badge, which in some countries continued to be in force until the end of the eighteenth century. The Pope stated that the Jews should be like Cain, singled out for their wickedness, and that their treat- ment should be an object lesson to Christians. SPIRITUAL LIFE OF THE PERIOD The spiritual life of the Jews reached its highest development in Spain, where the contact with the cul- tured Arabs, whose language the Jews spoke, made the works of the ancient Greek philosophers and scientists accessible to them. In the beginning of the eleventh century Bahya ibn Pakuda, a philosopher, wrote "The Duties of the Heart, ' ' perhaps the most popular work of this literature. His ideal of life is asceticism. HISTORY OF THE JEWS 49 His contemporary, Solomon ibn Gabirol (born 1022), wrote a philosophical book, "The Fountain of Life," which, however, is only extant in a Latin translation. He also wrote an ethical treatise, "The Choicest of Pearls," and some Hebrew poetry. His poems, of which quite a number have found place in the liturgy, are among the best works of their class. Of his secular poems in Hebrew, a wine song is the most famous. About the same time Samuel Hanagid was secretary to the King of Granada. He was not only a patron of Jewish learning but an author of considera- ble note. He wrote an introduction to the Talmud, and various works which are sequels to Biblical books, such as Psalms, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. His son, Joseph, succeeded him, and was killed in a riot in 1060. The greatest Hebrew poet of mediaeval times is Judah Halevi (born about 1080, died 1141). Of his numerous poems, some are of a religious, others of a secular character. Of the latter the best known is a description of a sea voyage ; of the former, the Ode to Zion, embodied in the ritual for the ninth of Ab and translated into various modern languages. He also wrote an apology for Judaism, called Kuzari, previ- ously mentioned, which presents its doctrines in the form of dialogues between the King of the Chazars and the rabbi who converted him. In 1140 he went to Palestine to spend the remainder of his days there. He seems to have died before he reached his goal. A younger contemporary is Abraham ibn Ezra (1092- 1167). He was born in Spain, and travelled through a great part of Europe and the Orient. Of his numer- ous works, comprising the fields of poetry, Hebrew 50 HISTORY OF THE JEWS grammar, astrology, and other subjects, the most note- worthy is his commentary on the Pentateuch, which makes him rank as the first Biblical critic. He proved by his strong critical arguments that the Pentateuch as we possess it does not come from Moses but was partly the product of later times. His contemporary is Moses ibn Ezra, a very prolific Hebrew poet, whose poems, however, suffer from an excessive play on words. It is not known whether the two Ibn Ezras were relatives. The most illustrious author of mediaeval times is Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides, born at Cordova, 1135; died at Cairo, 1204). His first work was a commentary on the Mishnah, written in Arabic, and translated into Hebrew by Samuel ibn Tibbon. This work was a preparation for the greatest work of his life, the "Mishneh Torah, " in which he presents the whole doctrine and law of Judaism. It is written in clear Hebrew, and, while in the law following the Rab- binic sources, it shows here and there, especially in the dogmatic part, the author's object to harmonize Judaism with philosophical thought. He is the author of a philosophic work, "The Guide of the Perplexed," written in Arabic and known by its Hebrew title, Moreh Nebukim. His object of harmonizing religion with philosophy is made manifest in the first part of this work by his attempt to explain the anthropomor- phic passages of the Bible. He also explains prophecy as a divine gift and tries to present reasons for the divine laws, showing that they are intended for the instruction and the material and moral elevation of mankind. The book was translated into Hebrew by Samuel ibn Tibbon in the twelfth century, and by HISTORY OF THE JEWS 51 Judah Alcharizi in the thirteenth. It was at an early date translated into Latin, and in recent times into various modern languages. Maimonides in addition wrote quite a number of works on scientific subjects, notably on medicine, and various Rabbinic works- He was physician in ordinary to the Sultan. Of the Talmudists of this period, the greatest is Solo- mon ben Isaac (Rashi) of Troyes (1040-1105). He wrote a commentary on almost the whole Babylonian Talmud printed in all Talmuds, and a standard work to-day. He is the author of commentaries on most of the Biblical books. His commentary on the Penta- teuch contains in clear and concise language the Rab- binic interpretation of the Mosaic law and well-chosen homiletical interpretations from the Midrash, and is one of the most popular works in the Rabbinic litera- ture. It has been printed with the text of the Pentateuch innumerable times, and is a very popular text-book in Jewish study circles all over the world. Rashi wrote other Rabbinic works and religious hymns. The most prominent Rabbinic author of this period in Spain was Isaac Alfasi (born in Fez, 1013; died in Spain, 1103). He wrote an abridged Talmud, omitting all discussions of matters not of legal inter- est and all the laws not in force after the destruction of the Temple. By this method he facilitated the ren- dering of legal decisions. In Italy there lived at this time Nathan ben Jehiel of Rome, who wrote a Tal- mud dictionary "Aruk, " using the work of the same title by Zemach Gaon. Rashi 's grandsons, Samuel, Isaac and Jacob ben Meirwere also prominent Talmudic authors. Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam) wrote several Talmudic treatises, 52 HISTORY OF THE JEWS supplements to his grandfather's commentaries, and a commentary on the Pentateuch somewhat more free from the blind, unrestricted submission to Rabbinic authority which characterizes his grandfather's work. The greatest Talmudist among the brothers was Jacob ben Meir (Rabbenu Tarn, died 1171), whose chief work is "Sefer Hayashar, " in which he proclaims the principle that the contradictions in the Talmud must be harmonized. These men are the founders of a school of authors known as Tosafists, from "Tosafot" (Additions), glosses to Rashi's Talmud commentary. These glosses are printed in most of our editions of the Talmud. Through the activities of these men the French province of Champagne and Western Germany became the chief seats of Rabbinic studies. CHAPTER VI PERIOD OF OPPRESSION (1215-1492) During the thirteenth century the persecutions of the Jews continued, although they are of a more spo- radic character than those of the time of the crusades. In 1235 a number of Jews were killed in Fulda on the charge of ritual murder. This is the first distinct case of its kind, but was frequently repeated in France and various places in Germany, although Emperor Frederick" II (1236) and Pope Innocent IV (1247) de- fended the Jews against this accusation. An important change in the political condition of the Jews resulted from the law of Frederick the Belli- gerent of Austria (1244). In this law the territorial ruler for the first time proclaimed his right to legislate for the Jews, heretofore considered the exclusive priv- ilege of the Emperor of Germany, as overlord of all the Jews. This law deals largely with the regulation of money-lending. It permits a very high rate of in- terest, and allows the Jews to be tried in accordance with their own laws. It prohibits all violence toward the persons and properties of the Jews, their syna- gogues and cemeteries, and forbids the forcible bap- tism of Jewish children. It became the prototype for all similar mediaeval legislation, and was repeated almost verbatim in subsequent laws issued by the kings of Bohemia, Hungary, the Dukes of Saxony and Silesia, and others during the thirteenth century. 53 54 HISTORY OF THE JEWS In England, the Jews were constantly being black- mailed by King John (1199-1216) and by King Henry III (1216-1272). The most notable and typical in- stance of the extortion of money from the Jews, is that reported of King John, who imprisoned a Jew and ordered that one of his teeth should be drawn every day until he agreed to pay the sum demanded of him. The heavy taxes laid upon the Jews forced them to charge higher rates of interest, thus embitter- ing the people against them, and making them so miserable that they asked to be permitted to emigrate. Finally Edward I, in 1290, ordered the expulsion of all the Jews from England. They were permitted to take their property with them, and a sea captain, who put the Jewish exiles aboard his vessel on a sand bar where they were drowned by the high tide, was put to death. In France the vassals possessed power independent of the crown. There the Jews were expelled from the territory of the king and recalled several times during the fourteenth century. At each expulsion they were robbed, so that an assembly of Jewish notables pro- posed to declare it unlawful, under penalty of excom- munication, for any Jew to settle in territory from which the Jews had been previously expelled. Judah Hechasid, author of a book on religious ethics, how- ever, condemned this resolution because it would not be effective and merely cause the Jews to transgress the law. A very serious persecution broke out in Franconia, in 1298, the Jews being accused of desecrating the host in Roettingen. This is the first case of this kind, often repeated up to the sixteenth century. The HISTORY OF THE JEWS 55 leader of the mob was a man named Rindfieisch. Another bloody persecution broke out in Alsace, in 1336, under the leadership of an innkeeper, John Arm- leder, so called because he fastened to his arm a patch of leather which was imitated by all his followers. These riots were finally suppressed after having brought great misery upon the Jews, but the evil-doers were not punished. The most serious persecutions broke out in 1348- 1349, during the so-called Black Plague which spread all over Europe. As a reason for these attacks the rumor was circulated that the Jews had poisoned the wells or had smeared some poisonous salve on the doors. In many cases the Jews were killed and their houses sacked. The protection of the Emperor availed them nothing; even if the Emperor threatened a city with punishment for breach of the peace, the affair was usually compromised by allowing the city to retain part of the plunder taken from the Jews, the Emperor taking the rest. The Flagellants, who ap- peared at about this time, by their religious fanati- cism also stimulated the hatred against the Jews. Other annoyances were frequent. On the basis of the view that the Jews were chattels of the king, various rulers occasionally declared void the bonds held by the Jews. The most typical instance is that of Wenzel, King of Bohemia and German Emperor, who in 1385 annulled all the bonds held by Jews and accepted from the debtors a fraction of their debts in settlement. During the fifteenth century frequent expulsions took place. The cities, originally small settlements where the Jews were the merchants and bankers, had 56 HISTORY OF THE JEWS grown in size and importance, and the citizens were jealous of their successful Jewish competitors. Such expulsions were often ordered under the excitement aroused by some false accusation. Thus, in 1421, the Jews of Vienna were accused of having desecrated the host, and a number of them were publicly burned at the stake, all the others being expelled from the city and the entire province. Such expulsions took place in 1426 at Cologne, the oldest Jewish settlement in Germany, in 1440, at Wittenberg, and in 1475 at Bamberg. The religious troubles of this period contributed to turn the people against the Jews. The Hussites were then a great menace to the Church, and John Capis- trano, an Italian monk, preached against them in various places in the kingdom of Bohemia. Every- where he set the mob against the Jews, and occasion- ally as at Breslau in 1453, he tried them on the charge of ritual murder. A number of Jews were burned at the stake, and many others expelled. From other cities of that kingdom, as Bruenn and Olmuetz, the Jews were expelled. Another Catholic revivalist, Bernardin of Feltre, appeared in Trent, where he arranged a ritual murder trial. The body of a boy named Simon was found, and the Jews were accused of having murdered him (1475). Again a number of Jews were cruelly put to death and the remainder expelled in spite of the fact that the Doge of Venice exonerated them from the charge, and that the Pope declared the accusation to be baseless. Simon was considered a martyr and later on made a saint. A similar charge was brought against the Jews of Ratisbon, but they succeeded in HISTORY OF THE JEWS 57 proving their innocence. The expulsions continued. In 1499 the Jews were expelled from Nuremberg and Ulm, in 1493 from Magdeburg, in 1496 from the prov- ince of Styria, and somewhat later from Ratisbon and Saxony. The exiles sought refuge in villages and little towns under the rule of the nobles, or emigrated to Poland, where, toward the end of the fifteenth century, there was already a considerable Jewish set- tlement. This soon became in numbers the most im- portant in Europe. FRANCE Under Louis IX (1226-1270), a religious fanatic, the Jews were treated badly. In 1236 a mob of cru- saders attacked them, and wrought great suffering among them. In 1240 Nicholas Donin, a converted Jew, brought charges against the Talmud as contain- ing statements which were blasphemous to the Chris- tian [religion. Consequently all copies that could be found were seized and in cart-loads were publicly burnt at Paris in 1244. In 1254 the King decreed the expulsion of all the Jews from France, but the decree was repealed under Philip IV (1288-1314). All the Jews found in the kingdom were imprisoned and their property confiscated under Philip's successor, Louis X. They were recalled in 1315, but under Philip V suffered greatly from a fanatical mob, known as Shep- herd Crusaders. After many vicissitudes their final expulsion was decreed in 1394. Only in the south of France, where the feudal barons still had sovereign rights, and in the Papal possessions at Carpentras and Avignon, a few isolated Jewish communities, with a ritual of their own, remained. Most of the Jews exiled 58 HISTORY OF THE JEWS from France went to the adjoining German territories of Alsace and Lorraine, and when these territories were annexed to France in the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries, the Jews were permitted to remain there. But they were not allowed to settle in France proper until 1791. SPAIN The Christian kingdoms in the latter part of the Middle Ages continually expanded, so that the Moors were restricted to the southern part of the peninsula. The growing religious fanaticism of the Christians affected the condition of the Jews unfavorably, but individuals rose to prominence as financiers or physi- cians. James VIII of Aragon ordered a public dispu- tation between Jews and Christians held at Barcelona in 1263. The Jewish side was defended by Moses ben Nachman, and, although he had been assured per- fect freedom of speech, the Christians took such offence at his remarks that they demanded his execution. The King sent him instead into exile. He went to Palestine, where he died. Alphonso X (1254-1284), of Castile, employed Don Isaac, a Jew, as his astrono- mer. Alphonso's constitution, regulating the condi- tion of the Jews, is rather severe. They were restricted in their commercial activity and compelled to wear yellow badges. In a civil war between Peter the Cruel (1350-1369) and Henry II (1369-1379) the Jews sided with the former, and although Henry was victorious he treated them with moderation. In 1391 Ferdinand Martinez began to preach violent sermons against the Jews in Toledo, the largest Jewish community of Spain. His HISTORY OF THE JEWS 59 example was followed in many other places, and in consequence of these incendiary speeches, riots broke out all over Christian Spain. A great many Jews were killed or forcibly converted to Christianity. Many of the latter fled as soon as they were able to do so to Mohammedan countries in order to be able to practice the Jewish religion openly. They were called Marannos, probably from the Hebrew D"iniD (excom- municated). The Jews called them D'DIJK (compelled to profess the Christian religion). In 1413-1414 another public disputation between Jews and Christians was arranged by Pope Benedict XIII, one of the three who claimed the Papal throne at that time. It took place in Tortosa, Aragon. The idea had been suggested to the Pope by Solomon Halevi, a converted Jew who called himself Paul and later on became Bishop of Burgos. He was an influ- ential friend of the King of Castile. Another convert, a Jewish scholar like Paul, had written a satire against Paul and his conversion. This was Joshua Alorqui, who as a Christian took the name of Geron- imo de Santa Fe, and was derisively called by the Jews fpJB, ' ' Blasphemer. ' ' Among those who took up the cudgels for the Jews at Tortosa was Joseph Albo, author of the philosophic work ' ' Ikkarim. ' ' The many converts whom the Church forced to remain [in her fold while they were Jews at heart and secretly practiced Judaism, pro- voked the ecclesiastic authorities. For their sake a special court of inquiry, called the "Inquisition," was created in 1480. This may be defined as a court- martial to try cases of heresy. It proceeded with the utmost severity and with absolute disregard of the 60 HISTORY OF THE JEWS most elementary forms of court procedure. From time to time it arranged public executions, at which those convicted of heresy were burned a.t the stake, often after having undergone terrible' tortures. Such an execution was called an auto-da-fe. In 1483 Thomas Torquemada was appointed Grand Inquisitor, and he was assisted by the blind monk, Peter Arbues. During the time of the existence of the Inquisition (1480-1808), 31,712 were burned at the stake and hundreds of thousands were punished with imprisonment, confiscation of property, or were publicly disgraced. One of the latter kinds of pun- ishment was the sentence compelling the victim to wear a hideous penitential gown, the San Benito. Peter Arbues was assassinated by Marannos, and Pope Pius IX declared him a saint in 1868. The vic- tims of the Inquisition were mostly converted Jews, although there were also Moors and native Christian? among them. In spite of the terrors of the Inquisi- tion, the Jews assisted the Marannos in the observance of the Jewish religion, and this was the cause of the edict of expulsion promulgated by Ferdinand, King of Castile, and his wife Isabella, Queen of Aragon, on March 30, 1492, soon after the capture of Granada, the last Moorish stronghold in Spain. Most of the exiled fled to Portugal, where they found a temporary home. But when Manuel, King of Por- tugal, married the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, it was stipulated in the marriage contract that the Jews should be expelled from that country also. This expulsion took place in 1498. Most of the exiles went to Turkey, where they were kindly received. Others went to the Barbary States in Northern Africa, HISTORY OF THE JEWS 61 and especially to Morocco. A number went to Italy and settled in the various cities, even in the Papal possessions. Still there were a great many Marannos left in Spain, and while they were compelled to pro- fess and practice the Catholic religion, they remained Jews for many generations. Hence up to the end of the eighteenth century, they were always autos-da-fe held at which Jews were publicly burned. From time to time the wealthy Marannos would escape and seek refuge in countries where they were permitted to publicly practice their religion. ITALY Italy was split up into many petty states whose boundary lines were constantly shifting. The treat- ment of the Jews varied in its details according to time and locality but is the same in general through- out mediaeval times. It was characterized by restric- tion of economic liberty and humiliation in social position. The Jews produced quite a number of emi- nent scholars, physicians (sometimes attending on the Popes), astronomers and translators of Arabic works into Latin. Their economic activity was largely con- fined to money-lending and, in the fourteenth century, they became the pioneers of banking by combining the pawn-shops in a certain city into companies which were given the exclusive privilege of money-lending. In the fifteenth century clerical agitation became very strong, and loan associations were formed under priestly management to suppress money-lending by Jews. One of the most notable agitators in this re- spect was Bernardin of Feltre, who is known through his participation in the ritual murder trial at Trent 62 HISTORY OF THE JEWS (1475). Italy became a force in Jewish culture by the establishment of the first Hebrew printing presses. The first book printed seems to have been published in 1474. One of the earliest printed books was the "Psalms" with the commentary of David Kimhi, 1475. The edict of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain affected also those of Sicily and southern Italy, at that time Spanish dependencies. Since that period there has existed no Jewish community in that part of Italy. HUNGARY In Hungary the Jews settled at a very early date. They were tax-farmers and financiers. Our first documentary evidence goes back to 1251, when King Bela IV granted them a charter, essentially a repro- duction of that granted by the Duke of Austria in 1244. Under Louis (1342-1382) they were given the alternative of expulsion or conversion to Christianity. During the fifteenth century the Jews suffered from persecution and expulsion. POLAND In Poland the Jews appear in the thirteenth century as Ja small community without any intellectual life. In 1264 they obtained their first charter, this being confirmed by Casimir the Great (1333-1370). It is also a reproduction of the Austrian law of 1244. When Capistrano appeared (1450) in Poland the Jews suffered from mob attacks but fared not as badly as those of Bohemia. The persecution of the Jews in Western Europe, beginning with the crusades, drove many of them to emigrate to the large and thinly settled kingdom of Poland. Hence toward the close HISTORY OF THE JEWS 63 of the fifteenth century, Poland was the center of Rabbinic learning and has to-day proportionately the largest Jewish population in the world. THE EAST In 1187 Saladin reconquered Jerusalem. From that time Jews began to emigrate to Palestine and Egypt. The persecution of the Jews through the Inquisition and their expulsion from Spain drove many to Morocco and Algeria. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 brought many Jews to the Balkans, and the number of the immigrants was so large that their dialect, Ladino, became the universal language of the Jews of the East, just as in Poland and Hun- gary the immigrants from Germany made Yiddish predominant. JEWISH LITERATURE, THIRTEENTH TO FIFTEENTH CENTURY From the thirteenth century the spiritual life of the Jews declined. Talmudic literature, ritualism and Kabbala were almost exclusively cultivated. Poetry, exegesis, philosophy and scientific literature were con- stantly declining. The most prominent representative of Maimonides' tradition is David Kimhi of Narbonne, 1170-1230. He wrote a Hebrew Grammar, ^>3o, and commentaries to most of the Biblical books. He also took an active part in the defense of Maimonides' works when the orthodox of Spain and France, influ- enced by the zeal of the Dominican Frhrs in their attack on the Albigenses and the scholastic philosophy, wished to commit the "Moreh" to the flames. Be- sides Kimhi two members of his family are noted for 64 HISTORY OF THE JEWS grammatical and exegetical works. These are his father Joseph and his brother Moses. To Southern France belongs also the family of Ibn Tibbon, four generations of which were prominent translators of philosophical, Rabbinic and scientific books from Arabic into Hebrew. Judah the Elder (1100-1150) translated Bahya's "Duties of the Heart," Saadya's "Dogma and Science," and Judah Halevi's "Kuzari. " His son Solomon translated Maimonides' "Moreh" and the commentary on the Mishna. But the orthodox party prevailed in their opposition to Maimonides, and in 1233 the ' ' Moreh' ' was publicly burned at Paris. The Dominicans, who had been appealed to, extended their inquisitory activities, and on the testimony of Nicholas Donin, a converted Jew, charged the Talmud with hostility to the Christians. All copies of the book that could be found were burned at Paris in 1244. In spite of these attacks philosophical studies did not die out completely. In the fourteenth century Levi ben Gershom (1288-1344) flourished in Southern France. His philosophical work, "The Wars of the Lord," is an attempt to reconcile Judaism with Platonic philosophy. He also invented an astronomic instrument in which the great astronomer Kepler was much interested. To the fourteenth century belongs Hasdai Crescas, whose commentary to Maimonides' "Moreh" and philosophical treatise, "The Light of the Lord," have great scientific value. Of little independent value is the work'Tkkarim" (Fundamental Principles), by Joseph Albo (1380-1440). He is an imitator of Mai- monides; but, instead of thirteen fundamental articles of faith, he recognized only three — God, revelation HISTORY OF THE JEWS 65 and the future life. To the school of the preachers belongs Isaac Arama, whose work, "Akedat Yizhak, " is a philosophical interpretation of the Midrash, and follows the weekly portions of the Haggadic writers. Isaac Abarbanel, born in Lisbon, 1447, died in Venice, 1508, wrote various dogmatic treatises in which, as in his commentaries on the Pentateuch, he outlined his views. He showed little independence, sometimes plagiarized, and is very verbose. He put together a great number of questions on some topic in Biblical literature, and attempted to answer them. From this time philosophy and scientific literature are on the decline. The intellectual activity of the Jews is confined mostly to Rabbinic literature. Secular subjects are rarely taken up until the end of the eighteenth century. Then a revival of secular knowledge and scientific literature took place. Of the scientific writers Jacob Anatoli, 1200-1250, in Italy, translated serious scientific works from Arabic and Hebrew into J Latin for Frederick II. Kalonymos ben Kalonymos of Rome, 1280-1340, wrote an ethical treatise, "Eben Bohan" (Tried Stone from Isaiah xxviii, 16), and a travesty on the Talmud, "Masseket Purim. " To the same period belong Immanuel ben Solomon of Rome, a friend of Dante, author of ' ' Mehabberot, " a poem in the style of the "Divina Commedia. " This in some places is lascivious, and was condemned by Joseph Caro in the "Shulhan Aruk." In the style of Dante, Moses Rieti (1388- 1460) wrote his "Mikdash Meat." To the fifteenth century belong Judah Messer Leon of Mantua, who wrote a text-book on rhetoric in Hebrew, Nofet Zufim (honeycombs), and Elijah del 66 HISTORY OF THE JEWS Medigo, a native of Crete, who was professor of phi- losophy in Padua. He wrote an apology for Judaism in Hebrew, "Behinat Ha-Dat" (Evidenced Religion). In this class the polemical writers against Christianity are included. Joshua Allorqui of Spain, who later on became a convert to Christianity, wrote such a polem- ical treatise under the title "Be not like thy fathers." In scientific literature we have the anthology of the Midrashim called "Yalkut Shimeoni, " by Simeon Kara (the Bible reader) of the thirteenth century. This is a selection of homiletical expositions from old Rabbinic works arranged in the order of the books of the Bible. A similar work is the "Yalkut Machiri" of uncertain date, but most likely from the fourteenth century, by Machir ben Aba Mari. Only parts of it are in existence. TALMUDIC LITERATURE In the beginning of the thirteenth century, ortho- dox authorities in France and Spain attacked Maimon- ides' philosophy. Their leaders were Meir Abulafia in Spain, and Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier in France. They denounced the work of Maimonides to the Dominicans, and the latter burned it publicly at Paris in 1244. Of Talmudic authorities who possessed secular learning and worked in the field of exegesis the most prominent was Moses ben Nachman of Gerona (Ramban, 1200-1270). His commentary on the Pen- tateuch contains sound exegetical views, is strictly traditional and gives space to Kabalistic interpreta- tions. He indulged in vehement invectives against Ibn Ezra, and in his notes on Alfasi vehemently HISTORY OF THE JEWS 67 attacked Zerahiah Halevi for his critical remarks on Alfasi in ''The Wars of the Lord." One of the most prominent Spanish Rabbis was Solomon Ibn Adret (Rashba), in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. He was opposed to philosophy and issued a prohibition that no one should read the Moreh before he was twenty-five years old. He pro- fessed a belief in every statement in the Talmud, even if in conflict with well-known scientific facts. He left thousands of responsa. A younger contemporary of his is Asher ben Yechiel, a disciple of Meir of Rothenburg (German rabbi of the thirteenth century), who emigrated to Spain in 1305 and died in Toledo in 1327. He wrote a work on the plan of that by Alfasi, making an abstract of the practical laws of the Talmud. It is printed in most of the Talmud editions, and quoted as Rosh. He had eight sons who were Talmudic scholars, and of these the most prominent was Jacob ben Asher, who died in 1350. He wrote an important set of codes of the Rabbinic law, called Turim. The first, Orah Hayyim, treated chiefly of liturgies, the second, Eben Haezer, of matrimonial laws, the third, Yoreh Deah, of dietary laws, the fourth, Hoshen Mishpat, of civil laws. Another disciple of Meir of Rothenburg was Mor- decai ben Hillel, who was killed in Nuremberg during the Rindfleisch riots of 1298. He wrote notes to Al- fasi 's code of value, because of their many historical references. To the fourteenth century belongs Isaac ben Sheshet (Ribash) of Barcelona, who fled after the persecution of 1391, and became Chief Rabbi of Al- giers, where he died about 1410. In his decisions 68 HISTORY OF THE JEWS he is very orthodox, but distinguished by his humani- tarian views. Thus he forced his congregations to rescind an order against the landing of further immi- grants. His successor was Simeon ben Zemach Duran, whose responsa are collected under the title (Tashbez) . He is supposed to have been the first rabbi who received a salary. In Italy, in the thirteenth century, Isaiah di Trani the Elder, and his grandson, Isaiah di Trani the Younger, flourished. In the latter half of the fifteenth century Joseph Colon wrote a volume of responsa. His opponent was Elijah Kapsali. Of special interest in Colon's deci- sions is the case of the congregation of Nuremberg, in which he held that all German congregations were obliged to contribute toward the expenses of the trial of Israel Bruna, who was accused of complicity in the murder of a Christian child in 1477. In Germany the most important rabbi of the fifteenth century was Israel Isserlein of Marburg, 1400-1470, author of Terumat Ha-Deshen, a collection of responsa contain- ing important historical notes. When the authori- ties in Breslau issued a law that Jews had to swear with uncovered head and by the name Yahve, he permitted it, provided it was not meant as an attempt to convert the Jews. The German and French rabbis in the thirteenth century were characterized by their strict adherence to authority and rigorous view of the law. The most prominent is Judah ben Samuel Hechasid, author of "Sefer Hasidim. " Eleazar ben Jehudah of Worms, a descendant of the Kalonymos family, and author of Rokeah (druggist), is a type of this ascetic school. Another is Moses of Coucy, author of a compendium HISTORY OF THE JEWS 69 of the 613 commandments Sefer Mizwot Haggadol, abbreviated Semag. In the thirteenth century the study of Kabbala received strong impetus from Isaac, the blind, son of Rabed. His disciples were Ezra and Ezriel; their disciple was Ramban, and he introduced Kabbala into his commentary on the Pentateuch. About 1390 Moses of Leon wrote the Zohar, a Kabbalistic Midrash on the Pentateuch, which he claimed was written by Simeon ben Yohai, disciple of Akiba, and discovered by him in a cave. It is written in Aramaic. CHAPTER VII THE PERIOD OF IMPROVEMENT (1492-1791) The Jews of Spain went to Turkey, North Africa, Oriental countries, and especially to Palestine. They came in such numbers that their language, the so- called Ladino, became the language of the Jews in these countries, taking the place of Arabic and Greek. Sultan Bajazed II, 1481-1513, is reported to have said that he could not understand why Ferdinand of Spain should be called a wise king, since he had impover- ished his own country and enriched Turkey. Jews stood very high at Court. Joseph Hamon was physi- cian to Sultans Bajazed II and Selim I (1512-1520) and his son, Moses Hamon, to Sultan Soliman II (1520-1566). Joseph Mendes (died 1579) and his aunt, Gracia, whose daughter Reyna he had married, were Marranos who had fled from Spain to Antwerp, then to Venice, and finally to Constantinople. Joseph was a special favorite of the Sultan, who forced the Republic of Venice to surrender the property of Don- na Gracia, which had been confiscated. The Sultan made Joseph Duke of Naxos, and he seriously con- templated the establishment of a Jewish state there. Owing to Don Joseph's influence, the Pope was forced to free a number of Marranos who had been impris- oned in the Papal States and charged with apostasy. A number of Jews, prompted by Messianic expecta- tions, founded settlements in Jerusalem and Safed. 70 HISTORY OF THE JEWS 71 In Italy the condition of the Jews changed for the worse. Venice established the first ghetto, called thus after the gun foundry "Gietto" in the vicinity. At the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the six- teenth century the Popes employed Jewish physicians, such as Bonet del Lattes under Leo X. But Paul IV and Pius V issued oppressive laws against the Jews, restricting their commercial activity to trading in cast-off clothing, enforcing the marks of distinction, Jew Badges, and ordering the censorship of Hebrew literature. The reaction against Protestantism and the foundation of the Jesuit order further tended to make the condition of the Jews still worse. The Council of Trent, 1563, prohibited the Talmud alto- gether, but later on modified its decree to the effect that the word Talmud should not be printed on the title page of the work and that every edition should be submitted to the ecclesiastic censor aided by Jewish converts. Prominent among the latter were Elijah and Solomon Romano, grandsons of Elijah Levita. The Italian Jews, in order to obviate the dangers arising from informations against Jewish literature, decided in 1564 that no book should be printed with- out the consent of three prominent rabbis and the trustees of the congregation in the district where the press was located. By these measures the Hebrew printing trade, which had flourished in Italy during the first half of the sixteenth century, was ruined and the press transferred to Poland. There, owing to the low state of industry, the art of printing declined. The frequent expulsions and the constant oppres- sions fostered Messianic hopes. In 1507 a Messianic pretender arose in Northern Italy. His name was 72 HISTORY OF THE JEWS Asher .Lemlein. Of the particulars of his career we know nothing. Of greater importance is the appear- ance of a man who called himself David Reubeni in Venice, 1522. He pretended to be the brother of the reigning king of the tribe of Reuben, living in Ara- bia, and planned an alliance of the Christian powers against the Mohammedans. For this he pledged the aid of the ten tribes living there. The Pope sent him to Portugal, where he made the acquaintance of Solo- mon Molcho, a young Marrano, who returned with Reubeni to Italy, preached and prophesied there and became a favorite of the Pope. The Jews feared the results of his eccentricities and denounced him to the authorities as an apostate from Christianity, but the Pope shielded him. Finally both went to Germany in 1530, where they hoped to win Charles V to their plans. They were imprisoned; Molcho, as an apos- tate, was burned at the stake and Reubeni sent to Portugal, where every trace of him was lost. Who he was is not known. He seems to have travelled in the East, and probably was an Arab. The Reformation of 1517 at first influenced the con- dition of the Jews for the better. The accusations that the Jews desecrated hosts ceased. As late as 1492 a number of Jews were burned for this supposed crime at Sternberg in Mecklenburg. In 1510, thirty- nine Jews were burned at Berlin for the same cause. But aside from this Protestantism in itself stood for religious toleration. Luther, in the beginning of his career, spoke of the Jews as "cousins of our Lord," who should be treated with kindness. He thought that his purified Christianity would win them over, but, toward the end of his life, when he had failed in HISTORY OF THE JEWS 73 his efforts and was embittered for other reasons, he wrote two pamphlets filled with invective against the Jews. In these he advocated the confiscation of their property, the destruction of their synagogues, and the forcible baptism of their children. Still more bitter than Luther's attacks were those of John Eck, his Catholic opponent. It seems, however, that the Reformation increased the number of Jewish converts. Prominent among these was Emanuel Tremellius, an Italian, who first became a monk and then a Protestant. He was a friend of Calvin, and translated the Bible for him into Latin. He also translated Calvin's Catechism into Hebrew. Another convert was Luke Helic, who as- sisted the Moravian Brethren in translating the Bible into the Slavic language. A calumniator of Judaism was Antonius Margaritha, the son of a rabbi of Ratis- bon, named Jacob Margaliot, who in 1530 wrote a libel on Judaism. Characteristic was the act of the Protestant Landgrave, Louis of Hesse, who advised the suppression of an anti -Jewish book, "Jiidenfeind, " by Nigrinus (1570) saying that the same arguments might just as well be used by Catholics against Protestants. The Renaissance, which produced the Reformation, also had a favorable effect on the position of the Jews. When John Pfefferkorn, a convert from Juda- ism, in 1506 accused the Jews of blaspheming Jesus in their prayers and in their literature, and proposed the confiscation of all their books, John Reuchlin, a famous diplomat and expert Hebrew scholar, ren- dered an opinion in their favor. The Dominicans of Cologne, among them a former rabbi, Victor von 74 HISTORY OF THE JEWS Karben, whose tool Pfefferkorn had been, made the latter's cause their own, but did not succeed. In Frankfort-on-the-Main, where the books had been confiscated, they were ordered to be returned to their owners, and a long and bitter controversy, in which both parties engaged in vile attacks, ensued. In the meantime the Reformation intervened ; and the Pope, who had been appealed to, ended the matter by an order in 1516 that both parties should keep their peace. He reversed this decision in favor of the Dominicans in 1520. Such occasions as the calumniations of Pfefferkorn and others showed the arbitrariness of municipalities and lords in the treatment of the Jews, and pointed out the advisability of Jews appointing an advocate, "Shtadlan, " who would always defend their rights when necessary. One of the most famous of these was Josel Rosheim (1478-1554) who was originally appointed as their advocate by the Jews of Alsace, and often acted in behalf of all the Jews of Germany, here and there arbitrating dissensions in congregations. He obtained various charters from Emperor Charles V, in which protection to the Jews was promised. Among these stipulations, one issued in 1530 is of special interest. The Emperor prohibited the ex- pulsion of Jews from his territory without his con- sent. This rule, however, was not even observed in the immediate possessions of the German rulers. At various times Ferdinand I, brother of Charles V, and German Emperor (1522-1564) ordered expulsions from Austria in 1557, and in 1541 and 1561 from Bohemia; they were hardly ever carried out. When the expul- sion from Bohemia was decreed, Mordecai Meisels, a HISTORY OF THE JEWS 75 wealthy Jew of Prague, 1528-1601, and the descend- ant of the Italian family Soncino, which in 1513 estab- lished a printing press in Prague, went to Rome and obtained a bull from the Pope for the protection of the Jews. The law of expulsion from Bohemia was re- pealed. Meisels was in other ways a great benefactor of his co-religionists. In Berlin, where the Jews had been expelled in 1510, Leopold (Lippold) was a physician and favorite of the Margrave Joachim II of Brandenburg. After the death of his master he was accused of having pois- oned him and executed in 1573. A new refuge was opened to the Jews in Holland, when this country gained its independence from Spain. A family of fugitive Marranos is said to have been driven to Em- den, Hanover, by unfavorable winds, and thence they were advised to go to Amsterdam (1593). Moses ben Uri of Emden followed them and instructed them in Judaism. Some other converts followed, among them monks, statesmen and scholars. One of the most prominent rabbis of Amsterdam was Menasseh ben Israel, who in 1654, tried to obtain from Cromwell official permission for the Jews to resettle in England, whence they had been expelled in 1290. A bill intro- duced into Parliament for the readmission failed to pass, but prominent jurists rendered an opinion that the expulsion was not a legal act. The Jews already in London were not molested, opened a synagogue and acquired a cemetery in 1660. Charles II was favorable to the Jews, some of whom had assisted him financially before he had ascended the throne; in 1664 he confirmed their right of residence. About the middle of the seventeenth century a col- 76 HISTORY OF THE JEWS ony of Marranos from Amsterdam settled in Brazil, which was then under Dutch rule. When the Portu- guese reconquered it (1654) the Jews were expelled and settled in the Dutch West Indies and New York, then New Amsterdam. Governor Stuyvesant objected to their landing, but the directors of the West India Company, among whori there were several Jews, overruled his decision. Meantime the Jews had set- tled in Rhode Island, where Roger Williams had promulgated full religious freedom in 1657. In Amsterdam the Portuguese community combined strict traditional piety with secular learning and great commercial activity. To the Portuguese Jews, Am- sterdam owes its importance as the center of the diamond trade. Uriel Acosta, who held high office in Spain and emigrated to Holland in order to openly profess Judaism, became imbued with deistic ideas, was tried as a heretic and did penance. Then, ex- communicated as a backslider, he became despondent and, having attempted to kill Rabbi Saul Morteira, committed suicide in 1640. Baruch or Benedict Spinoza (1633-1677) was also excommunicated, but disregarded all attempts to bring him back to Juda- ism. He is the originator of a famous system of philosophy, called Pantheism or Monism, laid down in his principal work, the "Ethics." He also occu- pies a prominent place in the history of Biblical Criticism through his work, "Tractatus Theologico Politicus." In 1666, the year which the Christian Millenari- ans regarded as Messianic by reason of a passage in Revelation xiii, 18, Judaism was stirred by Sabbatai Zebi of Smyrna, who proclaimed himself the Messiah. HISTORY OF THE JEWS 77 Expelled from that city he went to Egypt, where he received the enthusiastic support of Raphael Joseph, a wealthy tax-farmer. In Palestine, whither he went, he found many admirers, and the prophet, Nathan of Gaza, proclaimed him the true Messiah. Being denounced for high treason, Sabbatai was brought to Constantinople and imprisoned in the fort of Abydos, but the means supplied by his followers enabled him to hold court like a prince. Everywhere in Europe the majority of the Jews believed him to be the Mes- siah. The representatives of the Jews in Poland sent two prominent rabbis as a committee to him, but Nehemiah Hakohen, the Polish Kabbalist, who had come to ascertain the truth, denounced him as an im- postor. Sabbatai Zebi was brought before the Sultan to answer a charge of high treason ; and, in order to save his life, he turned to Islam. The Sultan gave him an office, and for ten years, until his death, he remained in contact with the Jews. Many of his followers turned to Islam, and still exist as a special sect called Donmah in Salonica. Others of his fol- lowers who remained true to Judaism formed a mys- tic community, which adopted the name of Hasidim. They were excommunicated by the most prominent rabbis, but progressed rapidly, although many of them were unmasked as frauds. Nehemiah Hayon, an Oriental, wrote a book in which he taught the doc- trine of the Trinity (1712) and Jacob Frank, a Polish Jew, formed a Judaeo-Christian sect. The latter was supported by those who wished to convert the Jews to Christianity, and lived in princely style in Offen- bach, where he died in 1793. The center of Hasidism was in Podolia and Volhy- 78 HISTORY OF THE JEWS nia; Israel Besht, 1695-1760, may be considered as its founder. His work was continued by his disciples, among whom Baer Mezdzyrzecz (1700-1772) was the most prominent. Later Nahman of Bratzlav (1779- 1810) developed the theory of miiaculous powers of healing granted to favored individuals and the mystic interpretation of the Bible and the Rabbinic com- mands. They still have a great number of devotees in parts of Austrian and Russian Poland. Persecutions in the seventeenth century are of rarer occurrence than in former times. The most serious one was that which, with several interruptions, lasted from 1648 to 1655, and the leader of which was the Cossack captain Chmelnicki. The Cossacks, who were under the sovereignty of the Polish king, rebelled against their masters, and the Jews had to suffer, partly because they were unable to protect themselves, and partly because, as tax-farmers, they had been the instrument of the extortion practised by the Polish nobles. Thousands were massacred, and since that time the 20th of Sivan is observed as a fast-day in Poland. They fled in all directions, and many great Talmudists among them became rabbis in Western Europe. The Jesuits in Poland and in those places where the Catholic Church had succeeded in crushing the Ref- ormation became very powerful and fostered hatred of the Jews, often resulting in mob violence. In 1664 such a massacre occurred in Lemberg. The Jews were accused of the murder of Christians; similar charges were often made. In 1659 two prominent Jews were put to death on Rosh Hashanah in Rossieny, Lithuania, under the charge of ritual murder; in HISTORY OF THE JEWS 79 1694 Lazarus Abeles and a friend of his were impris- oned in Prague, charged with having killed the son of Abeles, who wanted to become a Christian. Abeles hanged himself and his friend was cruelly put to death. In Vienna and Prague mission services, which the Jews were compelled to attend every Sabbath, were held by the Jesuits since 1630. In 1670 Emperor Leopold I expelled the Jews from Vienna, influenced partly by the hatred of the citizens and partly by the bigotry of the Empress, a Spanish princess. Some of the refugees were given permission by the Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg to settle in Berlin. At about the same time Halle, Halberstadt and Dessau were opened to them. In 1670 Herz Levi of Metz was accused of having murdered a Christian child and was put to death. His innocence was afterwards proved. Peculiar to the history of the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries were the court Jews, Hof-Jude, Hof- factor, Minister-Resident. Prominent among them were Elijah Gomperz of Cleve, Moses Benjamin Wolf of Dessau, Jost Libman of Berlin, Behrendt Lehman of Dresden, and Samuel Oppenheimer and Samson Wertheimer of Vienna. These Jews did service as jewelers, bankers, general brokers and army con- tractors, and, as such, were exempt from Jewish taxes and certain disabilities. They possessed great in- fluence, which they used to good advantage for their fellow -Jews. Samuel Oppenheimer, who died in 1703, obtained from Emperor Leopold an order of confisca- tion of an anti-Jewish book, "Entdecktes Juden- thum, " by J. A. Eisenmenger (1700), which, up to date, has served as a repertory for anti-Semitic writers. In 1614 a serious riot broke out in Frankfort-on- 80 HISTORY OF THE JEWS the-Main, led by the guilds, which accused the patri- cians controlling the municipal council of partiality to the Jews. The council, aided by imperial troops, succeeded in suppressing the rebellion after consider- able difficulty. Vincent Fettmilch, the leader, was quartered, his home demolished, and his family expelled from the city. Other ringleaders were beheaded. While the city council thus showed its sincere intention to have the law respected even with regard to the Jews, the new legal regulation for the Jews of Frankfort, "Juden-Staettigkeit, " was a speci- men of mediaeval ideas, maintaining the usual restric- tions on occupation, marriage, residence and quite a number of measures, like the yellow badge, meant to disgrace a Jew. It remained in force until 1807. The political condition of the Jews at this time nevertheless shows steady improvement, although their threatened expulsion from the city of Metz and their actual expulsion from Vienna and the province of Lower Austria in 1670 were a relapse into the condi- tions of the 'fifteenth century. Still, such events are local and few and far between ; on the other hand, an improvement is manifest in various instances where Jews were admitted to countries or cities from which they had been expelled in mediaeval times. Particu- larly important was their settlement in Hamburg and Berlin at this time. In Hamburg the municipal coun- cil gave to some Portuguese Marranos, who came there to escape from the Inquisition, the right of resi- dence in spite of clerical protest. The first settlers were soon followed by Jews from Germany in the course of the seventeenth century, and finally (1710), they formed a legally-organized congregation. Simi- HISTORY OF THE JEWS 81 larly Portuguese Jews had found a haven of refuge in various cities of Southern France, although there in a Catholic country they had to conceal their Judaism. In Berlin and the Margravate of Brandenburg, the Elector Frederick William I allowed some Jews, expelled from Vienna, to settle in his states on their plea that they were persecuted for conscience' sake (1671). Still more important was the readmission of the Jews to England by Cromwell in 1654; and, although the bill for their readmission did not pass, their settlement was quietly overlooked and declared by jurists to be legally justified. Another new coun- try was opened to Jewish settlement by the end of the sixteenth century when the Spanish Netherlands had made themselves independent of the Spanish crown. The constitution of the new country' was based on perfect religious freedom, and naturally fugitives from the Inquisition were among the first to avail them- selves of this opportunity. They were soon joined by the settlers from other countries, and in the seven- teenth century Amsterdam was one of the leading Jewish communites of the world. The greatest importance, however, attaches to the settlement of the Jews in the New World. While in the Spanish colonies there was not only no religious liberty but even persecutions of Marranos culminating in autos-da-fe, as in the mother country, the conquest of Brazil by the Dutch in 1624 resulted in the first organized Jewish community on the American conti- nent. The loss of Brazil in 1654 forced the Jews to emigrate, and some settled in the Dutch and British possessions in Central and South America, Surinam, Curacoa and Jamaica. But the most important settle- 82 HISTORY OF THE JEWS merit was that of New York in 1654. The intolerance of the Dutch governor Stuyvesant drove some of the newcomers to Newport, R. I. (1657), where Roger Williams had proclaimed full religious liberty. In 1733 some Portuguese Jews from England availed themselves of the opportunity created by James Ogle- thorpe, who made Georgia an asylum for convicts who were willing to reform. They sent some of their poor to Savannah. As the governor was unfavorable to the settlement of the Jews, fearing that their presence would prejudice the success of the colony, some Jews went to South Carolina, for which the philosopher John Locke had drafted a liberal constitution (1697). He expressly declared equal rights for non -Christians. They formed a congregation at Charleston in 1750, for a long time the most flourishing Jewish settlement in the territory now comprised in the United States. Yet up to the end of the eighteenth century only six Jewish communities are known : New York, Newport, R. L, Savannah, Ga., Charleston, S. C, Philadelphia, and Lancaster, Pa. These Jews took part in the American Revolution, and their patriotism was ex- pressly recognized in the reply of George Washington to their addresses of congratulation when he was elected President. An English law of 1740 gave to the Jews in the American colonies full rights of naturalization, also extended to Canada when it became a British posses- sion. The growth of Jewish population was slow and did not begin until the reactionary governments of Europe, after the July revolution of 1830, made the hope of any improvement appear vain. Thus, since 1830 large streams of Jewish immigrants have settled HISTORY OF THE JEWS 83 all over the United States. Another far stronger cur- rent of immigration began in consequence of the per- secutions in Russia in 1881. The Jewish population of America may now accordingly be figured at 2,000,- 000 souls. In Spanish America the only settlement of any consequence is in Argentine. INTELLECTUAL AND LITERARY LIFE The Reformation was promoted by the Renaissance, essentially a critical examination of traditional views. While this movement had not a very deep influence on the Jews, it did not pass entirely unnoticed. Elijah Mizrahi, Chief Rabbi of Constantinople (1455-1525), took notice of the Copernican system, and in his super- commentary on Rashi, tried to harmonize this modern conception of the cosmos with Rabbinic statements. He also wrote a text-book of arithmetic, a commentary on Euclid's elements, an astronomical book, besides various Talmudic works. More evident is the influence on Elijah Levita, born in Neustadt-an-der-Aisch, Bavaria, 1468, died in Venice, 1549. Elijah Levita was a teacher of many prominent Christian theologians, both Catholic and Protestant, then very much interested in the study of Hebrew. He wrote various works on Hebrew grammar, among them "Bahur" (1518), a glossary of Rabbinic words, "Tishbi" (1541), and a book on the Massorah, "Massoret ha-Massoret" (1548), in which he laid down the bold and since that time generally- accepted theory that the vowel points and accents were not invented until the eighth century. He was also a writer of popular works, translated the Psalms into Judseo-German and published the Bobo book, a 84 HISTORY OF THE JEWS translation of an Italian romance based on the English story of "Sir Bevis of Hampton," underlying Shake- speare's "Hamlet" (1540). Another exponent of the Renaissance was Azariah dei Rossi of Ferrara (1511-1578), who in his work, "Meor Enayim, " a collection of critical essays, de- fended the theory that the Talmudic writings are not authoritative on matters of history and science, but merely on Rabbinic law. Joseph Solomo del Medigo, born in Crete, 1591, died at Prague, 1655, was an am- biguous character and adventurer, a wanderer dur- ing most of his life. In his work, "Elim" (1629), he had the courage to criticize Rabbinic theology, and especially the Kabbala. Leon Modena of Venice (1571-1648), who was a very prolific author, went still further, attacking the Rabbinic law as in many instances incongruous with the Bible, and recommend- ing a change of the religious practices. In the works which he published he merely indicated his liberal ideas; he clearly stated them in works that remained unpublished for two centuries. In Italy, where secular education was not held in such abhorrence as was the case in Northern Europe, in the seventeenth centurytwo women wrote Italian poetry and made translations from Hebrew. These are Deborah Ascarelli and Sarah Copia Sullam, . An attempt to rationalize Talmudic passages was made as early as the beginning of the sixteenth century. Jacob ibn Habib, who was among the exiles from Spain, settled in Constantinople, and collected the Haggadic passages of the Talmud, with the intention of pub- lishing them with an apologetic commentary. He died in 1516 after having finished only part of his HISTORY OF THE JEWS 85 work; it was edited after his death by his son. It is even now, as ' ' En Jacob, ' ' a very popular book for the study of Talmudic ethics. While on one side there was a liberal tendency noticeable in Rabbinic Judaism, on the other a con- solidation of the Rabbinic legalism and a progress of mysticism were noticeable. Joseph Caro (1488-1575), a native of Spain who toward the end of his life lived in Safed, Palestine, compiled a brief compendium of the Rabbinic law, "Shulhan Aruk. " It was printed during the author's lifetime in Venice in 1564, and often reprinted afterwards. The author followed the arrangement of Jacob ben Asher, but otherwise is quite independent. It was his object to give the whole Rabbinic law in one volume, without showing its development and without regard to different opin- ions. He prepared himself for his work by writing exhaustive commentaries on the codes of Maimonides and Jacob ben Asher. During his lifetime the book was annotated by Moses Isserlsof Cracow (1520-1572), who called his notes "Mappah" (tablecloth). It was his object to lay down the practice of the German Jews, neglected by Joseph Caro as a rule. This codi- fication was strongly attacked by some of the more liberal rabbis of the time. Solomon Luria (1500- 1573), rabbi of Lublin, but of German descent, took a more critical view of the old sources, although apart from legal decisions he proclaimed his absolute faith in traditions and condemned the liberal tendencies of Abraham ibn Esra and Maimonides. A strong opponent of Azariah Dei Rossi was Loewe Ben Bezalel (1530-1609), rabbi of Posen and Prague and the hero of many legends. He maintained the ab- 86 HISTORY OF THE JEWS solute belief in Rabbinic authority in every respect. In spite of occasional opposition the ' 'Shulhan Aruk' ' soon attained general popularity and was considered an authoritative book, to which many prominent rabbis, as Abraham Gombiner, Sabbatai Cohen and David Halevi added their glosses. These were in the later editions added to the ''Shulhan Aruk," the authority of which is indicated by the fact that the glossaries are called "Aharonim" (epigones). The sufferings which Jews had to endure during the fifteenth century and of which the expulsion from Spain and Portugal was the culmination, were the cause of a strengthening of mysticism. Particularly in Palestine, to which quite a number of Spanish Jews were drawn by Messianic hopes, such a center was formed. In Safed, where Joseph Caro wrote his "Shul- han Aruk," a number of disciples gathered around Isaac Luria, who preached a religion based on the be- lief in the mysterious. He did not write, but numer- ous disciples put his ideas in writing. Among them were Hayyim Vital, who was considered a worker of miracles, and Elijah de Vidas, whose work, "The Beginning of "Wisdom, ' ' became a favorite book for edification. Another Kabbalistic author of the same circle was Solomon Halevi Alkabez, best known by his popular Sabbath hymn, "Lekah Dodi," which also has a Kabbalistic tendency. German Jews came to Palestine to join the circle of mystics. One was Isaiah Horowitz (1550-1630), who had been rabbi of Frankfort-on-the-Main and Prague. Of his works a large Kabbalistic compen- dium, "The Two Tablets of the Covenant" (Shelah), became very popular. Abstracts of it were made and HISTORY OF THE JEWS 87 translated into Judaeo-German. Even in Italy, where secular culture was far more general among Jews than in any other country in Europe, Kabbala had a strong hold on the people. A great enthusiast for the doctrine of mysticism was Moses Hayyim Luzzatto (1707-1747), who wrote allegorical dramas in Hebrew, one of which, "Praise to the Righteous," is a mas- terpiece of modern Hebrew literature. His ethical treatise, "The Path of the Righteous," is also de- servedly popular. He went to Palestine hoping to receive prophetic inspiration there, and died at the age of forty of the plague. Talmudic literature monopolized the activities of the German and Polish Jews, the latter being con- sidered the leaders in this line and filling most of the Rabbinic positions in Western Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Among the most prominent dialecticians may be mentioned Jacob Joshua of Lemberg (1680-1756), rabbi of Frankfort- on-the-Main, Aryeh Loeb of Minsk, rabbi of Metz (1700-1786), Ezekiel Landau (1713-1793), rabbi of Prague, and Jonathan Eybeschuetz (1690-1764), rabbi of Metz and Altona, whose works show the highest development in this branch. Already in the eight- . eenth century a sounder development of Rabbinic studies, showing the beginnings of criticism and an interest in historical and archaeological questions, began. Among those who led to the scientific presentation of Rabbinic literature in modern times are to be men- tioned Jair Hayyim Bacharach (1634-1702), rabbi of Worms, of whose works very little has been preserved but who was interested in the scientific presentation 88 HISTORY OF THE JEWS of Rabbinic theology as the theory of oral tradition, and Jacob Emden (1696-1776), the bitter opponent of Jonathan Eybeschuetz, who gathered historical mate- rial on Sabbatai Zebi, and the mystics who followed him and had the boldness, although a believer in Kab- bala, to state that the Zohar, as we possess it, is not the work of Simeon ben Johai. An emancipation from the strict Rabbinic dialectics by better attention to correct Rabbinic texts and to the study of philologi- cal and archaeological questions is found in the works of Joseph Steinhart (1706-1776), rabbi of Fuerth, Isaiah Pick (1720-1799), and Elijah of Wilna (1720- 1797). The sufferings of the Jews in Spain stimulated in- terest in historical literature and various authors, chiefly prompted by a desire to keep up the courage of the Jews in the midst of persecutions, wrote historical works. Among them may be mentioned Gedaliah ibn Yahya, an Italian who wrote the "Chain of Tradi- tion," Solomon ibn Verga, a Spaniard who emigrated to Turkey and wrote "Shebet Jehudah, " Joseph Cohen of Avignon, who- wrote "The Valley of Weeping," and Samuel Usque, who wrote a work in Portuguese called "Consolations in Tribulation, " all of the six- teenth century. Somewhat later David Gans (died at Prague in 1617) wrote a dry compilation of events in Jewish and general history under the title "Zemah David." To the seventeenth century belongs the Oriental, David Conforte, his "Kore Hadorot" being chiefly valued for its accounts of Rabbinic literature in the Orient. Jehiel Heilprin of Minsk, eighteenth century, wrote a history in the style of a chronicle, beginning HISTORY OF THE JEWS 89 with Creation. It shows a naive belief in the historic- ity of the Midrash but is very valuable by reason of its collection of historic passages from Rabbinic litera- ture. Secular education was slowly beginning to find its way among the Jews. Quite a number of German Jews studied medicine in Italy, chiefly from a practi- cal point of view. Tobias Cohen of Metz (1652-1729) studied in Frankfort-on-the-Oder, being supported by the Elector of Brandenburg. In his later years he lived in the Orient, where he wrote a compilation on various scientific subjects, ' ' Maaseh Tobiyah. ' ' In this he shows sound knowledge of medicine. CHAPTER VIII THE PERIOD OF EMANCIPATION FROM 1791. In the middle of the eighteenth century a slow but marked improvement in the condition of the Jews is noticeable. To some extent this is due to the change in the economic life of the Jews, many of whom were engaged in manufacturing pursuits and in such mer- cantile enterprises as were of noticeable benefit to the state. Some Jews were farmers of the tobacco monop- oly, in many states an important part of the revenue, others engaged in various manufacturing enterprises and thus received privileges which exempted them from the disabilities imposed on other Jews. This was the case in Prussia, where Jewish enterprises created the flourishing textile industry in and near Berlin. One of these manufacturers was Bernhard Isaac, in whose house Moses Mendelssohn lived first as tutor and then as bookkeeper. Frederick the Great gave to some Jews the same rights as Christian mer- chants, although he was in general not well disposed toward the Jews, and would not allow them to engage in agriculture or ship-building. Aaron Elias Selig- mann established a large tobacco manufactory in Laimen, Bavaria, in 1779, which gave occupation to many hands; for his merit in developing industry the King of Bavaria bestowed a baronetcy on him in 1814. Israel Honig was farmer of the tobacco monopoly 90 HISTORY OF THE JEWS 91 in Austria, and was in 1789 knighted by Emperor Joseph II. The distinctions bestowed on individual Jews, how- ever, did not improve the condition of the masses. The progress of liberal ideas made this question a matter of serious concern for legislators. In England a bill giving the Jews political rights was passed in 1753, but aroused such opposition among the populace that the government found itself compelled to repeal it in the same year. Of more permanent value were the measures of the humane Joseph II of Austria (1780-1790). In various legislative acts, and espe- cially in the so-called "Toleranz-Edict" of January 2, 1782, he laid down the principle that the Jews should be treated like human beings. Although they were still under considerable restrictions, their lot was in many ways improved, and the Emperor laid special stress on their education. As a tangible evidence of the improvement in their condition the abrogation of the poll tax, ' ' Leibzoll, ' ' the Jew badge and Jew taxes may be noted. The abolition of these mediaeval dis- criminations, which were based on the principle that the Jew was a foreign and injurious element of the population, became more and more general by the end of the eighteenth century. France abolished the poll tax in 1784. As early as 1781 the Academy of Metz offered a prize for the best essay on the improvement of the Jews. The prize was won by Abbe Gregoire, a Catholic priest, who advo- cated the abrogation of all Jewish disabilities. About the same time Christian F. Dohm, an official in the Prussian war department, wrote an essay on the civil improvement of the Jews, in which he likewise advo- 92 HISTORY OF THE JEWS cated the granting of full equality to the Jews. This principle became for the first time a fact when on September 27, 1791, the French National Assembly passed a bill giving the Jews full civic and political equality with other citizens. When the French rule spread over adjacent coun- tries this was everywhere adopted. Such was the case in Holland in 1796, and in all parts of Germany which directly or indirectly came under French influence. In Cologne, where for nearly four hundred years no Jew had been permitted to reside, Jews began to set- tle in 1798. In Mayence the population tore down the gates of the ghetto in 1798, and this was done in Rome when the French ruled there. In Frankfort-on- the-Main, where the Jews labored under cruel dis- criminations, their condition was considerably im- proved in 1807 by an edict of the Grand Duke, Baron von Dahlberg, and in 1811 they were given full civil equality. Even reactionary countries like Prussia could not resist the current of the time, and the edict of March 11, 1812, declared the Jews to be citizens, gave them freedom of residence and occupation and the right to professorships in the universities; and although it withheld from them political rights, it promised to grant them such in the future. Jews have been drafted into the army in Austria since 1787, and in Prussia since 1812; but numerous Jews joined the army as volunteers and distinguished themselves by acts of bravery during the wars of liberation. In 1809 the Austrian Jew, Israel Honig, was made lieutenant for bravery on the battlefield of Aspern, and a few years afterwards was promoted to the rank of captain. In Prussia several Jews were HISTORY OF THE JEWS 93 promoted to the rank of officers during the Napoleonic wars. Meantime reaction began to set in. Napoleon, who as commander of the army in the Orient in 1798, had called upon the Jews to join his army and conquer Palestine, changed his policy. Moved by complaints against the business methods of the Jews, he called an assembly of Jewish notables in 1806 and laid before them twelve questions, including whether the Jews considered themselves Frenchmen, whether their law permitted them to take usurious interest from non- Jews and whether intermarriage with Christians would be permitted. The answers given by this body of men were satisfactory, and the Emperor in 1807 estab- lished a Sanhedrin to ratify these principles and form a supreme ecclesiastic authority for all the Jews of the world. While thus apparently showing favor to the Jews, he issued a law in 1808 which imposed some restrictions on the freedom of trade of the Jews of Alsace. With his downfall, however, a general reac- tion set in. Some states repealed the laws which had given full freedom to the Jews, while others, among them Prussia, limited the efficacy of these laws by interpretation. In Rome, where the rule of the Pope was reinstated, all oppressive measures were put in force again. In Hamburg and Luebeck, where, during the French rule, the Jews had enjoyed full equality, the former restrictions were partly reintroduced. From Luebeck the Jews were unconditionally expelled in 1816. In some cities of Bavaria attacks on the Jews were organized by the mob under the cry of "Hep-hep" in 1819, and an article of the Congress of Vienna of 94 HISTORY OF THE JEWS 1815, which declared that the Jews should retain all the rights they had acquired during the time of tran- sition, became practically a dead letter. The July Revolution of 1830 strengthened liberal ideas and brought the Jewish question up for discus- sion in various Parliaments, particularly in Southern Germany. In Baden and Bavaria the petition for the improvement of the condition of the Jews was regu- larly met with the demand that the Jews should first show their willingness to assimilate with their envi- ronment by a change of their religious beliefs and practices. Legislation made very little progress, and in some instances new reactionary measures were introduced. King Frederick William III of Prussia in 1836 ordered that Jews should not have any Christian names. The decisive change came about after the French Revolution in 1848. By and by all states of Western Europe recognized in their constitutions the full civil and political equal- ity of the Jews, and in the '^Parliaments which were elected on this basis, Jews were members. Gabriel Riesser (1806-1864) was one of the vice-presidents of the National Assembly in Frankfort. The first Aus- trian Parliament had five Jewish members and the Diet of Bavaria two. When the storm passed away, a reactionary spirit again took hold, although the liber- ties granted to the Jews were not entirely repealed. Some countries like Austria suspended the constitu- tion, while others like Prussia interpreted it in a sense which rendered nugatory some of the rights given to the Jews in theory. This, however, was mostly the case with regard to the right of holding official positions. Civic equality and the right to vote at HISTORY OF THE JEWS 95 elections and hold elective offices remained uncon- tested. Finally toward the end of the 'sixties even these disabilities were removed. The Austrian constitution of 1867 granted to the Jews unrestricted equality. The law of the North German Federation of July 3, 1869, declared that every state must remove all dis- abilities imposed upon citizens on the ground of their religious belief. This law was embodied in the con- stitution of the German Empire in 1871. Sweden, which had admitted the Jews only at the end of the eighteenth century, and in 1838 still restricted their residence to four cities, granted them full equality in 1870. Switzerland, while a republic, had for a long time restricted the Jews to two places in the Canton of Aargau. Not until 1878 were they given full equality with other citizens. Norway had, until 1851, a law on its statute-book which prohibited even the temporary residence of Jews in the country. England made slow but steady progress. In 1830 the first attempt was made to give the Jews political rights, a year previously the disabilities imposed on Christian dissenters having been removed. In 1833 Francis H. Goldsmid was admitted to the bar, and in 1835 David Salomons was elected sheriff of London and Middlesex, the first municipal office held by a Jew. In 1845 he was elected alderman and in 1855 Lord Mayor of the city of London. The entrance of Jews to Parliament was opposed with great vehemence by the Conservative Party. In 1847 Baron Lionel de Rothschild was elected to Parliament, but could not take his seat because the prescribed oath contained "upon the true faith of a Christian. " Not until 1858 96 HISTORY OF THE JEWS was a bill passed which allowed a Jew to omit these words from the oath. His son, Baron Nathan de Rothschild, was in 1885 admitted as the first Jew to the House of Lords. Only in the East of Europe restrictions continued. Czar Alexander I in 1804 issued a law which encour- aged the Jews to take up agricultural pursuits and acquire secular knowledge. This step was isolated, and in the reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855) the Jews were subjected to terrible persecutions, the worst of which was that children were forcibly taken from the houses of their parents and brought up in barracks as soldiers to serve twenty-five years after they had reached the age required for the army. Under Alex- ander II (1855-1881) a slow improvement in excep- tional cases took place. Jews who engaged in manu- facturing or business enterprises, skilled mechanics and those who had received a college education, were exempt from most of the disabilities imposed on the masses, but the condition of the latter was not changed. They were still restricted in their rights of residence and occupation and excluded from all polit- ical rights. With the assassination of Alexander II a new era of persecutions began. This culminated in bloody riots, which spread over a great part of Southern Russia and were periodically repeated afterwards. The bloodiest persecutions were those of Kishineff and Homel in 1903, and of Odessa and a great many other cities in Southern Russia in 1905, and of Bialystok in 1906, when more than a thousand people lost their lives. Even further restrictions were introduced. Thus a law of May 3, 1882, prohibited the residence of Jews HISTORY OF THE JEWS 97 in rural districts and the acquisition of rural estates, and while in former times the acquisition of secular knowledge by Jews was encouraged by the govern- ment, laws of December 5, 1886, and July 6, 1887, restricted the attendance of Jewish students at high schools and universities to a percentage ranging from three to ten. While the Jews obtained the right to participate in the elections of the Duma, the Imperial Parliament, they have no right to participate in mu- nicipal elections and are represented in the municipal boards only by a few members who are appointed by the government. They are also excluded from the county boards, Zemstvo. Similar conditions prevail in Rumania. When that country gained its autonomy in 1856, it not only denied to the Jews political rights but declared them to be foreigners. Frequent mob attacks and arbitrary treatment on the part of the courts and the officials made them practically outlaws. A hope for improve- ment seemed to loom up when in 1878 the Congress of Berlin embodied an article in the treaty which com- pelled the newly founded sovereign and autonomous states of Servia, Bulgaria and Rumania to remove from their statute-books all laws discriminating against citizens on the ground of religious belief. They complied with this requirement, but Rumania availed itself of a ruse by which the law was practi- cally rendered nugatory. By declaring the Jews to be foreigners, and naturalizing some Jews, it apparently complied with the law, while almost all the 250,000 Jews of the country remained in their former state of misery, enhanced by new regulations restricting their economic freedom. 98 HISTORY OF THE JEWS It looked in 1878 as if Europe had guaranteed the fair treatment of the Jews even in countries of oppres- sion; opposition began in popular ranks, and in the same year anti-Semitism arose as a new name for hostility toward the Jews. This first made itself felt in Germany through the foundation of the Christian Socialist party in 1878, started with the avowed object of withdrawing from the Jews their political rights, including that of holding public office and advocating the prohibition of the immigration of Jews. From Germany the movement spread to Austria, where it first was taken up by the radical German party in 1883, and later on by the clericals. It spread then to Hungary and France, where the publication of Drumont's "La France Juive" in 1886 marks the beginning of the movement culminating in the Drey- fus case. Captain Alfred Dreyfus in 1894 was charged with high treason in order to stir up anti -Jewish feel- ing, and this was not abated until his innocence had finally been established in 1906. Another sign of an unfavorable change in the attitude of the masses toward the Jews was the revival of the blood accusa- tion. When in 1840 it made its appearance in Damas- cus, where Jews were imprisoned and tortured for this cause, it seemed that such a return to mediaeval bar- barism was confined to the Orient. In 1882, however, it took place in Tisza-Ezlar, Hungary, and other cases followed in Western Europe: at Xanten, Germany, in 1891, at Konitz in 1899, and at Polna, Bohemia, in 1900. The disappointment caused by the unlooked-for reaction manifested itself also in the attitude of the Jews with regard to their future. Soon after it had HISTORY OF THE JEWS 99 become evident that the condition of the Jews in Rumania would not be improved by the Treaty of Berlin, and after the bloody persecutions in Russia had destroyed the hope that Russia would slowly improve the condition of its Jews, a movement for the settle- ment of the Jews in Palestine began. In 1882 the foundation of a society, "Lovers of Zion, " marked the beginning of a movement looking toward the resettlement of the Jews in Palestine. It assumed more systematic shape by the publication of "Der Judenstaat, " by Theodor Herzl in 1896, which was followed in 1897 by the first Congress of Zionists con- vened at Basle, which declared in its platform the object to establish "a legally secured home for the Jewish people in Palestine. ' ' At the same time an unprecedented emigration took place from Russia and Rumania to free countries, particularly to the United States, Canada, Australia and South Africa, with a smaller but also considerable stream of emigration to England. Baron de Hirsch attempted to regulate the emigra- tion by turning it to Argentine, where he acquired large tracts of land in 1890. Indeed, agricultural settlements were founded there, although they did not realize the expectations of those who would have turned large masses of immigrants into that country. In spite of the retrogressive movement which the history of the Jews seemed to present, Western Europe not only retained the principles enacted by the con- stitutions promulgated in and after 1848, but individ- ual Jews have risen to prominence in political life. Almost all states of Western Europe have had Jews as members of their Parliaments, and some have ob- 100 HISTORY OF THE JEWS tained prominent positions in the government service. France had several Jews as ministers. Cremieux was minister of justice in 1848, Godchaux and Achille Fould served under Napoleon III, and Raynal under the republic. In Italy, Wollemborg was once and Luzzatti six times minister of finance, and Joseph Ottolenghi was minister of war. In 1910 Luzatti became pre- mier. Holland had repeatedly Jewish ministers, and England saw in 1909 the first Jew, Herbert Samuel, member of the cabinet. The United States had a Jew in the cabinet in the person of Oscar S. Straus, sec- retary of commerce and labor (1906-1909). In the Grand Duchy of Baden, Moritz Ellstaetter was minis- ter of finance (1868-1893). Quite a number of Jews have occupied positions as judges, as professors at universities, and in other public activities. CULTURE The improvement of the political conditions influ- enced the intellectual and social life of the Jews to a considerable degree. This is noticeable in their litera- ture, education, religious life and finally in their com- munal organizations. Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786), of Dessau, came as a boy to Berlin. After a youth filled with hardship he found employment in the house of a manufacturer, first as tutor and then as bookkeeper. His main object was to raise Jews from their intellectual isola- tion. He translated the Pentateuch, the Psalms and some smaller books of the Bible into correct German, and edited this work with a Hebrew commentary. It soon became popular and was the medium for teach- ing the young people the German language. He also HISTORY OF THE JEWS 101 defended Judaism against various attacks and pre- sented its teaching in a German work, "Jerusalem." In his work on the Bible, he was assisted by various co-workers, among whom the most prominent is Naphtali Herz Wesel, who called himself Hartwig Wessely (1725-1805). The latter's epic on the life of Moses, patterned on Klopstock's "Messias," was written in elegant Hebrew verse, and became an inspiration to many other writers disgusted with the obscure and artificial style of Rabbinic Hebrew, and having a taste for literary beauty. An organ for such endeavors was presented by the publication of the first Hebrew magazine, "Meassef" (1784). The progress of secular education made Hebrew literature soon disappear in "Western Europe, but the influence of Wessely and his disciples made itself very strongly felt in the East of Europe, and particularly in the countries comprising the former kingdom of Poland. Their modern Hebrew writings introduced the young men to the knowledge of history and science, and gave them a taste for secular education and for a western conception of life. Isaac Bar Loewinson (1788-1860) wrote works in defense of Judaism, and advocated secular culture, patriotism, manual trades and the emancipation from mediaeval conditions still existing in these countries. Marcus Aaron Guenzburg (1795-1846) worked chiefly as translator of popular works, such as juveniles like Campe's "Robinson Crusoe." A more independent character was given to Hebrew literature by Abraham Mapu (1808-1867) who wrote two novels from Biblical life, "The Love of Zion," and "The Guilt of Samaria," and another describing the 102 HISTORY OF THE JEWS life of the Jew in his Lithuanian home, "The Hypo- crite." Mapu used Biblical Hebrew with great facil- ity and became the father of a new development in Hebrew and later in Yiddish, giving to Jewish litera- ture a high literary character. He was followed by Judah Loew (Leon) Gordon (1833-1892), whose satir- ical poems not merely possess a value for the ease with which the author handled the Hebrew language, but have been a great force impressing upon the minds of the Jews in Eastern Europe the defects of their in- tellectual isolation and the shortcomings of Rabbinic teachings. Among the later poets Chayim Nachman Bialik, born 1873, is the most popular. His elegy on the massacre of Kishineff is one of the gems of modern Hebrew literature. Yiddish literature from its earliest beginnings in the sixteenth century was mostly used as a vehicle for the religious instruction of women and people of little education or merely adapted and translated some of the popular literature of the countries where its ex- ponents lived. From the middle of the nineteenth century it commenced to assume a more independent character and thus secured a place in the world's his- tory as is shown by the fact that some of its works were translated into other European languages. Among the novelists may be mentioned Shalom Jacob Abram- owitsch (born 1836) who writes under the pseudonym, "Mendele the bookseller," Shalom Rabinowitsch (born 1859) and, the most popular of all, Isaac Loeb Peretz (born 1851). A poet who presents the tragic as well as the humorous side of the New York ghetto, Morris Rosenfeld, born 1864, is to be mentioned ; his works have been translated into various European HISTORY OF THE JEWS 103 languages. Of dramatists whose works have occa- sionally found their way to the German and English stage there are Shalom Asch, and Jacob Gordin (1853-1909), who deals with the life of Russian Jews in America. The disappearance of the social and intellectual isolation in the life of the Jews created a special literature which is called the ghetto novel. This deals with the life of the Jews in the era of transition from their isolation to modern culture. This litera- ture began in Germany and its best known repre- sentatives are Aaron Bernstein (1812-1884), Leopold Kompert (1822-1886), Karl Emil Franzos (1848-1904), and, among Christians who view the life of the East- ern Jews with sympathy, Leopold von Sacher-Ma- soch (1835-1895) and Eliza de Orzeska (1842-1910). Sketches from the life of the Alsatian Jews were pre- sented in French by Alexander Weill (1811-1898) and in Danish by Meier Aaron Goldschmidt (1819-1887). In the English language, Israel Zangwill, born 1864, wrote novels dealing with the life of the foreign Jews in England. Among his works "The Children of the Ghetto" has obtained a place in the world's best lit- erature. The English stories of Martha Wolfenstein (1869-1906) deal with the life of European Jews. A place in modern Jewish literature belongs to the Jewish press as it has developed in the nineteenth cen- tury. The first Jewish periodical that had more than an ephemeral existence was "Meassef, " published in Hebrew with some parts in German. It began to ap- pear in 1784, and with some interruptions was kept up until 1810. The oldest periodical still in existence is the "Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums, " begun 104 HISTORY OF THE JEWS by Ludwig Philippson, rabbi in Magdeburg, in 1837. It was followed by the "Archives Israelites" in 1840 in Paris, and by the "Jewish Chronicle" in 1841 in London. Of the numerous periodicals published in the United States, the oldest still existing is the "American Israelite," founded by Isaac M. Wise in Cincinnati in 1854. The first Hebrew weekly, which dealt not only with Jewish affairs, was the ' ' Hamaggid, ' ' founded by Laz- arus Silbermann in Lyck, East Prussia, in 1858. The first Hebrew daily paper was the "Hazefirah, " pub- lished first as a weekly in 1862 and afterwards as a daily from 1886. Quite a number of valuable maga- zines dealing with Jewish history and literature have been published since the middle of the nineteenth century in Hebrew and in various modern languages. "Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fuer Juedische Theo- logie" (1835-1840) and "Juedische Zeitschrift fuer Wissenschaft und Leben" (1862-1875) were both edited by Abraham Geiger; the "Monatsschrift fuer Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums, ' ' begun by Zechariah Frankel in 1854, was discontinued in 1887 and has been republished since 1891. "Revue des Etudes Juives" dates from 1881; "Jewish Quar- terly Review" appeared from 1888 to 1908. Of the Hebrew magazines there are "Kerem Hemed, " of which nine volumes were published from 1833 to 1856, BikureHa-ittim (1820-1831), and "Haschiloach" since 1896. Rabbinic literature of the older type, dealing with the law and Talmudic dialecticism has, also a great number of representatives during this period. Among the foremost may be named Moses Schreiber (Sofer), HISTORY OF THE JEWS 105 born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1762, died as rabbi of Presburg in 1839, and Akiba Eger (1761-1837). In Western Europe this literature shows a steady- decline. Of the authors whose life belongs entirely to the nineteenth century may be mentioned Jacob Ettlinger, rabbi of Altona (1798-1871), and Seligman Bar Bamgerger, rabbi of Wuerzburg (1807-1878) . Very numerous, however, are the Rabbinic authors of East- ern Europe and the Orient, among whom Isaac Elha- nanSpector, rabbi of Kovno (1810-1896), Hayim David Hazan, rabbi of Jerusalem (1790-1868), Hayim Pa- laggi, rabbi of Smyrna (1784-1868), and Hayim Heze- kiah Medini (1834-1904), may be mentioned. Already before Mendelssohn's time individual Jews in Germany and Austria distinguished themselves in literature and science. But the education of the masses was almost entirely confined to Bible and Tal- mud. With the popularization of secular knowledge the necessity for schools arose and the first institution of this kind was founded in Berlin as the "Jewish Free School" in 1778. The efforts of Emperor Joseph II to promote secular culture among the Jews of Aus- tria led to the establishment of a primary school in Prague in 1782. Others followed indifferent cities: the Wilhelm Schule of Breslau was founded in 1791; the Herzog Franz-Schule in Dessau in 1799. Higher schools were the Jacobson Schule in Seesen in 1801, the Samson Schule in Wolfenbuettel in 1803, and the Philanthropin in Frankfort-on-the-Main in the next year. Even in Eastern Europe, where religious fanat- icism was bitterly opposed to secular education, such schools came into existence like the one founded in Tarnopol by Joseph Perls in 1815. The Alliance 106 HISTORY OF THE JEWS Israelite Universelle, founded in 1860, made it one of its principal objects to establish schools for secular education in the Orient, and it now has a great num- ber of schools which it maintains in Turkey, Northern Africa and Asia, extending from Palestine and Asia Minor to Persia and Mesopotamia. With the growing number of schools the need for special training schools for Jewish teachers arose. The first of these was founded in Berlin in 1825. More important was the need for training schools foi rabbis. The old method of education by which every young man who devoted himself to study was a Tal- mudic scholar was discontinued in Western Europe. On the other hand, it became necessary to give the rabbis a more systematic training. The first modern school of this kind was established in Padua, then under Austrian rule, in 1829. Later the Yeshibah of Metz was transformed into a Rabbinic seminary and subsequently transferred to Paris. In 1854 the Rab- binic seminary of Breslau was founded and this was followed by the establishment of similar institutions in European countries. In 1875 the first Rabbinic seminary in America, the Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati, was opened. In New York the Jewish Theological Seminary was established in 1886. Various educational institutions devoted to special needs, such as the school for the deaf-mutes opened in Nikolsburg in 1845, and later transferred to Vienna, and the first Jewish institute for the blind established in the latter city in 1872, deserve to be mentioned in this connection. The removal of the disabilities which kept the Jews from agriculture and mechanical trades, and the de- HISTORY OF THE JEWS 107 sire of the Jews to direct the young generation into such pursuits gave rise to quite a number of institu- tions all over the world devoted to these purposes. Several of these are located in the Orient and were founded or subventioned by the Alliance Israelite. It established the first agricultural school near Jaffa in Palestine in 1871. The Hebrew Technical Institute of New York, founded in 1884, the agricultural schools at Ahlem, founded 1893, at Woodbine, N. J., 1891, and at Doylestown, Pa., 1896, may be mentioned. With the emancipation from Rabbinic studies a new development in Jewish learning took place. This showed itself in what is called the "Science of Juda- ism, " and may be defined as a systematic study of Jewish history and literature. The pioneer in this work was Leopold Zunz (1794-1886) who wrote books on the history of Jewihs homiletics, on the syna- gogal poetry and various minor essays on all phases of Jewish literature. He found numerous followers, not merely in western Europe, but also in the East, and thus contributed largely to the intellectual elevation of the Jews. In Eastern countries the first who wrote on these topics in Hebrew were Nahman Krochmal (1785- 1840) and Solomon LoewRapoport (1790-1867). The latter, inspired by the works of Zunz, was the author of biographies of prominent mediaeval rabbis. In Italy we have Isaac Samuel Reggio (1784-1855) and Samuel David Luzzatto (1800-1865), who used the excellent collections of old Hebrew prints and manu- scripts for the elucidation of the history of Jewish literature. The external side of the literature was presented in erudite form by the great bibliographer 108 HISTORY OF THE JEWS Moritz Steinschneider (1816-1907). History in more readable form was written first by Isaac Marcus Jost (1795-1860), and then by Heinrich Graetz (1817- 1891), the latter' s work having gone through various editions and been translated into French, English, Hebrew and Yiddish. Numerous authors worked at the elucidation of portions of Jewish history and care- fully edited old manuscripts. Thus they shed light on obscure parts of the Jewish past and showed the many-sided activity of the Jews during the long period of their history and their influence on all human activities. In this connection the participation of the Jews in spiritual activity ought to be mentioned. We find them as authors, artists, inventors and scholars in all lines. Only the most prominent can be named. Ludwig Boerne, formerly Loeb Baruch (1784-1837), is one of the classic essayists of German literature. Heinrich Heine (1797-1856) is one of the greatest of lyric poets. Both Heine and Boerne became converted to Christianity. A classic author of village idyls is Berthold Auerbach (1812-1882). Among the greatest tragedians of the world are Eliza Rachel Felix (1821— 1858), in her days the foremost actress on the French stage, and Adolf von Sonnenthal (1832-1909) consid- ered the most prominent German actor of his time. Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864) is one of the world's best known composers. Moritz Oppenheimer (1800- 1881) was a prominent painter, and his scenes from Jewish life possess, besides their value as works of art, great worth as historic scenes. Marcus Antokol- sky (1842-1902) is one of the most famous sculptors, and Joseph Israels (born 1824) and Max Liebermann HISTORY OF THE JEWS 109 (born 1849) are among the greatest painters of our age. In the lines of science and scholarly work the names of prominent Jews are too numerous to mention. The great change in the life of the Jews and their education brought about the necessity of harmonizing their religious practices with their new life. Thus the reform movement began. The forces which pro- moted it were aesthetic, political and dogmatic. In the first class may be reckoned the efforts of Israel Jacobson (1769-1828). Although not a professional scholar he was a man of considerable Jewish learn- ing, and his object was to make the services of the synagogue more attractive to the younger generation. The synagogue established by him in connection with the school which he founded in Seesen in 1810 was the first that introduced some of the reforms which since have been generally accepted, namely, a sermon in the vernacular and decorum and modern music. In 1818 the first reform congregation was estab- lished in Hamburg. It was followed in 1824 by a similar organization in Charleston, S. C. ; this, how- ever, was soon dissolved. These synagogues intro- duced a ritual different from the one which had up to this time been generally in use. The most important changes were those which eliminated the belief in the return of the Jews to Palestine and consequently also in the restoration of the sacrificial cult. These were followed by an attempt to present systematically the teachings of modern Judaism and to apply the prin- ciples of the modern critical school to the whole of Jewish life, particularly the observance of the dietary and marriage laws. 110 HISTORY OF THE JEWS The desire to work in harmony led to the convoca- tion of Rabbinic assemblies, the first of which was held in Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1844. As the ex- ponent of the most radical views Samuel Holdheim (1806-1860) is to be mentioned. It was his idea that Judaism had lost all its former national significance. On this basis the reform congregation of Berlin, whose first rabbi Holdheim was, was established in 1845, introducing for the first time solemn services on Sunday. The most prominent scientific exponent of the reform idea was Abraham Geiger (1810-1874), one of the most prominent workers in scientific Jewish litera- ture. He stood for a more historic conception of the reform principle, although as a Bible critic his posi- tion was advanced. His views were shared by two of the leading rabbis of America, David Einhorn (1809-1879) and Samuel Hirsch (1815-1889). They, together with Samuel Adler (1809-1891), represented the progressive ideas of German theology in America. In 1842 reform was definitely introduced in the synagogue of Charleston, S. C. , following the example set by the foundation of the West London Synagogue of British Jews the year previously. In America, however, reform took strongest hold and soon was accepted by the leading congregations composed of the native and the naturalized element. The most prominent figure in the popularization of this move- ment in America was Isaac Mayer Wise (1819-1900). A more conservative view, usually spoken of as that of historic Judaism, was represented by Zecha- riah Frankel (1801-1875). He stood for freedom of thought in theoretical matters but advocated con- HISTORY OF THE JEWS 111 servatism in worship and practice. Another division was formed by those who stood uncompromisingly for the preservation of the traditional Jewish life based on a strict belief in the divine origin of the Bible and the authenticity of Rabbinic interpretation, differing from the old school only in so far as they admitted secular education. The chief exponent of this thought was Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808-1888). In Amer- ica his views were represented by Isaac Leeser (1806- 1868) and Sabato Morais (1823-1897), while a com- promising attitude was taken by Benjamin Szold (1829-1902) and Marcus Justrow (1829-1903). The traditional view of Judaism in the sense in which it had generally existed until the latter half of the eight- eenth century, was restricted to the Orient and East- ern Europe and to congregations formed by recent immigrants from these countries in Western Europe and America. As a literary champion of this uncom- promising attitude Hillel Lichtenstein (1815-1891) deserves mention. One of the features of modern Jewish development is the communal organization rendered possible by the freedom of movement in religious, charitable and political activities. The Alliance Israelite Universelle deserves for this the first place. It was founded for the purpose of defending the interests of the Jews in countries of oppression and promoting their economic and moral as well as their intellectual status. This organization was followed by others with similar objects, the Israelitische Allianz of Vienna, started in 1873, the Anglo-Jewish Association, founded in 1871, and the Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, in 1901. Of the many organizations confined to particular 112 HISTORY OF THE JEWS countries the Deutsch-Israelitischer Gemeinde-Bund, founded in 1869, and the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, established in 1873, deserve special mention. Very numerous are the societies created for the promotion of the welfare of the Jews, and aside from the local institutions, like hospitals, homes for the aged, orphan asylums and sanitariums, the so- cieties for the promotion of mechanical trades and agriculture are distinctly a product of the Jewish con- ditions of the nineteenth century. Of organizations having a wider scope, the Jewish Colonization Association founded by Baron Moritz de Hirsch in 1891, has the greatest capital. These schemes of colonization, to which the work done by the Zionist organizations and that contemplated by the Jewish Territorial Organization founded in 1905, have to be added, are as yet only in their infancy. In general, however, since the French Revolution there has been a steady progress of Jewish life in all directions. INDEX Aaron ben Elijah, 43 Abarbanel, Isaac, 65 Abaye, 34 Abba Areka (Rab), 33 Abbahu of Csesarea, 31 Abderrahman, 39 Abeles, Lazarus, 79 Abraham ibn Ezra, 49 Abramowitsch, Shalom Jacob, 102 Abulafia, Meir, 66 Acosta, Uriel, 76 Adereth Elijahu, 34 Adler, Samuel, 110 JEtia, Capitolina, 22 Agobard, 38 Agrippa, 16, 17 - II, 17 Ahai of Shabha, 41 "Aharonim,"86 Akedat Yizhak, 65 Akiba, 22, 25, 26, 27, 41 Albigenses, 63 Albo, Joseph, 59, 64 Alcharizi, Judah, 51 Alexander I, 96 — II, 96 — Jannai, 13 — , son of Aristobul, 14 — the Great, 8 — , successors of, 9 Alexandra Salome, 13 Alfasi, Isaac, 51, 66, 67 Algiers, Chief Rabbi of, 67 Alkabez, Solomon Halevi, 86 Alkymus, 12 Alliance Israelite Univer- selle, 106, 107, 111 Alorqui, Joshua, 59, 66 Alphonso X, 58 Alsace, 55, 58, 74, 93, 103 Ambrosius, 37 America, 83, 99, 100, 109, 110, 111 America, Early Jewish Com- munities in, 81, 82 American Revolution, 82 Amolo, 39 Amoraim, 31 Amram Gaon, 41 Amsterdam, 75, 76, 81, 82, 100 Anan ben David, 43 Anatoli, Jacob, 65 Anglo - Jewish Association, 111 Antigonus, 9 -, 14 Anti-Jewish books, 38, 39, 73, 79 Antiochus III, 9 — IV (Epiphanes),9, 11 — V, 11 Antipater, 13, 14 Anti-Semitism, Rise of, 98 Antokolsky, Marcus, 108 Antony, 14 Apollonius, 10 Arabs, 35, 39, 48, 49, 58 Arama, Isaac, 65 Arbues, Peter, 60 Archelaus, 15 Arians, 38 Aristobul, 13 -, 13, 14 Armleder, John, 55 Artaxerxes, 8 -III, Ochus. 8 Aruk, 41, 51 113 114 INDEX Aryeh Lob, 87 Ascarelli, Deborah, 84 Asch, Shalom, 103 Ashe, Rab, 34 Asher ben Yechiel, 67 Auerbach, Berthold, 108 Augustus, 16 Austria, 79, 91, 92, 94, 95, 98, 105 Auto-da-fe, 60, 61, 81 Avignon, 57 Azariah dei Rossi of Fer- rara, 84, 85 Babylonia, 7, 8, 31, 32, 33, 40 Bacharach, Jair Hayyim, 87 Bahya ibn Pakuda, 48, 64 Bajazed II, Sultan, 70 Balkans, 63 Bamberger, Seligman Bar, 105 Barcelona, Disputation at, 58 Bar Kochba, Simeon, 22, 26 Bashjazi, Elijah, 43 Basle, Zionist Congress at, 99 Bavaria, Mobs in, 93 Bela IV, 62 Benedict XIII, 59 — of York, 48 Benjamin of Nehawend, 43 Berlin, 72, 75, 79, 81, 90, 100, 106, 110 -, Treaty of, 97, 99 Bernard of Clairvaux, 47 Bernardin of Feltre, 56, 61 Bernstein, Aaron, 103 Besht, Israel, 78 Bevis of Hampton, Sir, 84 Bialik, Chayim Nachman, 102 Bialystok, 96 Bikure Ha-ittim, 104 Black Plague, 55 Blois, France, 48 Blood-accusation, 47, 53, 56, 61, 78, 79, 98 Bobo book, 83 Boerne, Ludwig, 108 Bohemia, 62 Bonds, Annulling of, 54 Brazil, 81 Breslau, 56, 68 — , Rabbinic Seminary at, 106 Bruna, Israel, Trial of, 68 Bulgaria, 97 Byzantine Empire, 30, 37 Caesar, 14 Caesarea, 17 Caligula, 16 Callistus, 23 Calvin, 73 Capistrano, John, 56, 62 Caro, Joseph, 65, 85, 86 Carpentras, 57 Casimir the Great, 62 Cestius Gallus, 18 Champagne, province of, 52 Charlemagne, 39, 46 Charles II of England, 75 — Ill of France, 39 Charleston, S. C, Reform Congregation at, 109, 110 Charters, 46, 47, 62 Chazars, 44, 49 "Children of the Ghetto," 103 Chmelnicki, 78 Cincinnati, Rabbinic Semi- nary of, 106 Claudius, 17 Clemens, Flavius, 21 Clementina, 21 Cohen, Joseph, 88 — , Sabbatai, 86 — , Tobias, 89 Cologne, 56, 92 Colon, Joseph, 68 Conforte, David, 88 Constantine, 29, 46 Constantinople, Conquest of, 63 Cordova, Jews in Caliphate of, 39 Crassus, 14 Cremieux, 100 Crescas, Hasdai, 64 INDEX 115 Cromwell, 75, 81 Crusades, 47, 57, 62 Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, 30 Cyrus, 7 Czars, 96 Dahlberg, Baron von, 92 Damascus, Blood Accusation in, 98 Dante, 65 David Halevi, 86 David ben Zakkai, 42 Delmedigo, Jos. Sol., 84 Demetrius I, 11 Dessau, 79 Deuterosis, 30 Deutsch - Israelitischer Ge- meinde-Bund, 11 Dialecticism (see Pilpul) Dio Cassius, 21 Diocletian, 28 Disputations, 58, 59 Divina Commedia, 65 Dod Mordecai, 44 Dohm, Christian F., 91 Dominican Friars, 63, 64, 66, 73, 74 . Domitian, 20 Donin, Nicholas, 57, 64 Donmah, 77 Donolo, Sabbatai, 45 Dramatists, Yiddish, 103 Dreyfus, Capt. Alfred, 98 Drumont's "La France Juive," 98 Duma, 97 Dunash ibn Labrat, 39 Duran, Simeon ben Zemach, 68 Eben Bohan, 65 - Haezer, 67 Eck, John, 73 Edward I, 54 Eger, Akiba, 105 Einhorn, David, 110 Eisenmenger, J. A., 79 Eldad Hadani, 44 Eleazar ben Azariah, 25 — ben Jehudah, 68 — ben Kallir, 45 — of Modin, 22 — bar Padath, 31 Eliezer ben Hyrkanos, 25 Elijah Levita, 83 — de Vidas, 86 — del Medigo, 66 — of Wilna, 88 Elisha ben Abuya (Acher the Apostate), 26 Ellstaetter, Moritz, 100 Emden, city, 75 — , Jacob, 88 Emigration from Russia and Rumania, 99 Emunot Wedeot, 42 England, 54, 75, 82, 91, 95, 100, 110 En Jacob, 85 ' ' Entdecktes Judenthum, ' ' 79 Eshkol Hakofer, 43 Ethics, 76 Ets Hayim, 43 Ettlinger, Jacob, 105 Expulsion of Jews, Arabia, 36 — , Austria, 74 — , Berlin, 75, 79 — , Bohemia, 74 — , England, 54, 75 — , France, 57 — ■, Germany, 56, 57 — , Hungary, 62 — , Luebeck, 93 — , Portugal, 59, 60 — , Spain, 60, 62 — , Vienna, 79 Eybeschuetz, Jonathan, 87 t 88 Ezra, the Scribe, 8, 32 — , the Kabbalist, 69 Ezriel, 69 Felix, Eliza Rachel, 108 Ferdinand of Spain, 60, 70 — I of Austria, 74 Firkovitch, Abraham, 44 116 INDEX "Fiscus Judaicus," 20, 21 Flagellants, 55 Fould.Godchaux andAchille, 100 France, 37, 38, 39, 48, 53, 54, 57, 58, 68, 91, 98, 100 Frank, Jacob, 77 Frankel, Zechariah, 104, 110 Frankfort-on-the-Main, 80, 92, 110 Franzos, Karl Emil, 103 Frederick II of Germany, 53, 65 — the Belligerent, Law of, 53 - the Great, 90 - William III, 94 - William, of Brandenburg, 79 French Revolution, 94 Gabirol (see Solomon ibn) Gamaliel II, 24, 25 Gan Eden, 43 Gans, David, 88 Gaonim, 40, 41, 42, 43 Gaza, Battle of, 9 Gedaliah ibn Yahya, 88 Geiger, Abraham, 104, 110 Germany, 36, 37, 39, 46. 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 68, 72, 73, 74, 75, 79, 80, 81, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 98, 101, 103 Geronimo de Santa Fe (see Alorqui, Joshua) Gershom ben Judah (Meor Hagolah), 46 Gessius Floras, 17 Ghetto, 71, 92 Ghetto novel, 103 Goldschmidt, Meier Aaron, 103 Goldsmid, Francis H., 95 Gombiner, Abraham, 86 Gomperz, Elijah, 79 Gordin, Jacob, 103 Gordon, Judah Loew, 102 Goths, 37, 38 Graetz, Heinrich, 108 Granada, 49 Gregoire, Abbe, 91 Gregory I, 37, 38 Gregory of Tours, 38 Guenzburg, Aaron, 101 "Guide of the Perplexed," 50 Habib, Jacob ibn, 84 Hadrian, 21, 22 Halakot Gedolot, 40 Halberstadt, 79 Halle, 79 Hamaggid, 104 Hamburg, 93, 109 Hamon, Joseph, 70 Hanina, Rabbi, 31 Haschiloach, 104 Hasdai ibn Shaprut, 39, 44 Hasidim, 77 -, Sefer, 68 Hasidism, 77, 78 Hasmoneans, 11 Hay Gaon, 42 Hayon, Nehemiah, 77 Hazan, Hayim David, 105 "Hazefirah," 104 Hechasid, Judah ben Samuel, 68 Heilprin, Jehiel, 88 Heine, Heinrich, 108 Helic, Luke, 73 Heliodorus, 10 Henry II of Aragon, 58 - Ill of England, 54 — IV of Germany, 46 "Hep-hep" riots, 93 Heraclius, 30 Herod, 14, 15 — Antipas, 15 Herzl, Theodor, 99 Hezekiah, 14 — , Gaon, 43 Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, 111 Hillel, 23, 24 — II, 32 Hilperic, 38 Hirsch, Baron Moritz de, 99, 112 INDEX 117 Hirsch, Samson Raphael, 111 — , Samuel, 110 Hisda, 34 Hizuk Emunah, 43 Hof-Jude, Hof-factor, 79 Holdheim, Samuel, 110 Holland (see Amsterdam) Homel, 96 Honig, Israel, 90, 92 Horowitz, Isaiah, 86 Hoshen Mishpat, 67 Host Desecration, 54, 56, 72 Huna, 33, 34 Hungary, 62 Hussites, 56 Hyrcan, John, 12 Ibn Ezra, Abraham, 49, 85 — , Ganah, 39 — , Moses, 50 - Tibbon, Samuel, 50, 64 Idumeans, 12, 13, 15 Ikkarim, 59, 64 Immanuel ben Solomon, 65 Innocent III, 48 — IV, 53 Inquisition, 59, 60, 63, 80, 81 Ipsus, Battle of, 9 Isaac ben Meir, 51 — ben Sheshet (Ribash), 67 — , Bernhard, 90 — , Don, 58 - of Troki, 43 — , son of Rabed, 69 Isabella, 60 Isaiah di Trani, 68 Ishmael, Rabbi, 26 Isidore of Seville, 38 Islam, 36, 77 Israelitische Allianz, 111 Israels, Joseph, 108 Isserlein, Israel, 68 Isserls, Moses, 85 Jabneh, School of, 24 Jacob ben Asher, 67, 85 Jacobson, Israel, 109 Jakob ben Meir (see Rab- benu Tarn) James VIII, 58 Jannai, 45 — , Alexander, 13 Jason (Joshua), 10 Jastrow, Marcus, 111 Jerome, 32 Jerusalem, Siege of, by Ti- tus, 18 — , by Hadrian, 22 — , by Saladin, 63 Jesuits, 71, 78, 79 Jew Badge (see Yellow Badge) Jewish Colonization Associ- ation, 112 — Propaganda, in Rome, 21, 29 — Territorial Organization, 112 Joachim II, Margrave, 75 Johanan bar Nappaha, 31 — , high priest, 8 — ben Zakkai, 24 John, King of England, 54 — Hyrcan, 12 Jonathan, Maccabee, 12 Jose bar Halafta, 27 — ben Jose, 45 — , Rabbi, 32 Joseph II of Austria, 91, 105 — , Rab, 34 — , Raphael, 77 — , son of Samuel Hanagid, 49 — , son of Tobias, 9 Josephus, Flavius, 18, 45 Joshua ben Hananiah, 25 - ben Jehozadak, 8 — , Jacob, 87 Josippon, 45 Jost, Isaac Marcus, 108 Jotapat, Siege of, 18 Judaso-Christian sect, 77 Judah bar Ezekiel, 34 - bar Ilai, 27 - ben Samuel Hechasid, 68 — Hadassi, 43 - Halevi, 44, 49, 64 — Hanasi, 27, 28, 30, 33 118 INDEX Judah, successors of, 31 — Hayug, 39 — , son of Hezekiah, 16 -, the Elder, 64 — , the Maccabee, 11 — , the Patriarch, 23 Jiidenfeind, 73 Judenstaat, Der, 99 Julian, the Apostate, 29 Julius Severus, 22 Justinian, 30 Kabbala, 41, 45, 63, 69, 77, 84, 86, 87, 88 Kalla, 40 Kalonymos ben Kalonymos, 65 — family, 68 - of Lucca, 39, 46 Kapsali, Elijah, 68 Kara, Simeon, 66 Karaites, 43, 44 Karben, Victor von, 74 Kerem Hemed, 104 Kimhi, David, 62, 63 — , Joseph, 64 — , Moses, 64 Kishineff, 96, 102 Kohut, Alexander, 41 Kompert, Leopold, 103 Krochmal, Nahman, 107 Kuzari, 44, 49, 64 Ladino, 63, 70 Laimen, Bavaria, 90 Landau, Ezekiel, 87 Lateran Council, 48 Lattes, Bonet de, 71 Leeser, Isaac, 111 Legislation, Mediaeval, 53 Lehman, Behrendt, 79 "Lekah Dodi," 86 Lemberg, 78 Lemlein, Asher, 72 Leo X, 71 Leon, Judah Messer, 65 Leopold (Lippold), 75 — I of Austria, 79 Levi ben Gershom, 64 Herz 79 Levita, Elijah, 71, 83 Libman, Jost, 79 Lichtenstein, Hillel, 111 Liebermann, Max, 108 Literary Activity in Europe, Earliest, 45 Lithuania, 78 Liturgy, 41, 49 Locke, John, 82 Loeb, Aryeh, 87 Loewe Ben Bezalel, 85 Longobards, 37 Louis I of Germany, 39 — of Hungary, 62 — IX of France, 57 — X of France, 57 — of Hesse, 73 Luebeck, 93 Luria, Isaac, 86 — , Solomon, 85 Luther, 72, 73 Luzzatti, Luigi, 100 Luzzatto, Moses Hayyim, 87 — , Samuel David, 107 Lysias, 11 Maaseh Tobiyah, 89 Maccabee, Judah the, 11 Machir ben Aba Mari, 66 Magnesia, Battle of, 9 Maimonides, 50, 51, 63, 66, 85 Mammaea, 23 Manuel, 60 Mapu, Abraham, 101, 102 Marannos, 59, 60, 61, 70, 72, 76, 80, 81 Marcus Aurelius, 23 Margaliot, Jacob, 73 Margaritha, Antonius, 73 Mariamne, 15, 16 Marinus (see ibn Ganah) Martinez, Ferdinand, 58 Massada, Siege of, 19 Masseket Purim, 65 Mattathiah, 11 Mayence, 46, 92 "Meassef," 101, 103 INDEX 119 Medigo (see Delmedigo, Jos. Sol.) Medigo, Elijah del, 66 Medini, Hayim Hezekiah, 105 Meir of Rothenburg, 67 -, Rabbi, 27 Meisels, Mordecai, 74 Menahem ben Saruk, 39 Menasseh ben Israel, 75 Mendele the bookseller (see Abramowitsch) Mendelssohn, Moses, 90, 100, 101, 105 Mendes, Joseph (Duke of Naxos), 70 — , Gracia, 70 Menelaus, 10 Meor Enayim, 84 Merovingian kings, 37 Messiah, 33, 36, 70, 71, 76, 77, 86 Metz, 91, 106 Meyerbeer, Giacomo, 108 Mezdzyrzecz, Baer, 78 Midrah, 45, 65, 66 Miklol, 63 Ministers, Jews as, 100 Mishnah, Compilation of, 27, 30, 31, 33, 34 — , Commentary, 50, 64 Mishneh Torah, 50 Mizrahi, Elijah, 83 Mob Violence, 29, 40, 37, 46, 48, 54, 55, 57, 62, 78, 79, 80, 93, 96, 99 Modena, Leon, 84 Modin, 11 Mohammed, 35, 36 Mohammedans, 29, 39, 40, 70, 72 Molcho, Solomon, 72 Monism, 76 Morais, Sabato, 111 Moravian Brethren, 73 Mordecai ben Hillel, 67 - ben Nissim, 44 Moreh Ncbukim, 50, 63, 64, 67 Morteira, Rabbi Saul, 76 Moses ben Maimon (see Mai- monides) — ben Nachman, 58, 66 — ben Uri, 75 — ibn Ezra, 50 - of Coucy, 68 — of Leon, 69 Nahman bar Jacob, 34 — of Bratzlav, 78 Naples, 37 Napoleon I, 93 — Ill, 100 Nathan of Gaza, 77 — of Rome, 41, 51 Naxos, Duke of, 70 Nebuchadnezzar, 7 Nehardea, School in, 33 Nehemiah, 8 — Hakohen, 77 Nero, 18 Nerva, 21 New York, 102 — , Rabbinic Seminary of, 106 Nicholas I, 96 Nigrinus, 73 Nikanor, 12 Nikolsburg, 106 Norway, 95 Nuremberg, 67, 68 Odessa, 96 Offenbach, 77 Oglethorpe, James, 82 Omar, Covenant of, 36 Onias III, 10 Oppenheimer, Moritz, 108 — , Samuel, 79 Orah Hayyim, 67 Organizations, 111, 112 Orzeska, Eliza, 103 Ostrogoths, 36 Ottolenghi, Joseph, 100 Padua, School at, 106 Palaggi, Hayim, 105 Palestine, Character of Stud- ies in, 32 Pantheism (Monism), 76 120 INDEX Parliaments, Jews as mem- bers of, 94, 95, 97 Parsees, 28 Parthians, 14, 28 Paul IV, 71 Payetanim, 45 Peretz, Isaac Loeb, 102 Perls, Joseph, 105 Persecutions (see Mob Vio- lence, Host Desecration, and Blood Accusation) Persia, 8, 30, 40 Peter the Cruel, 58 Petronius, 16 Pfefferkorn, John, 73, 74 Pharisees, 13, 21 Philip, son of Herod, 15 - IV of France, 57 - V of France, 57, 72 Philippi, Battle of, 14 Philippson, Ludwig, 104 Pick, Isaiah, 88 Pilpul, 34, 87, 88 Pirke, Rabbi Eliezer, 45 Pius V, 71 — , Marcus Antoninus, 23, 26 Piyut, 45 Podolia, 77 Poland, 57, 62, 71, 77, 78 Pompey, 14 Pontius Pilate, 16 Popes, 37, 38, 48, 53, 57, 59, 61, 70, 71, 72, 74, 93 Portugal, 60, 76, 80, 81, 82 Press, Jewish, 101, 103, 104 Printing, 62, 71, 75 Priscus, 38 Propaganda, 20, 29 Protestantism, 72, 73 Prussia (see Berlin and Ger- many), 90, 92, 94 Ptolemy, of Egypt, 9 — , son-in-law of Simon the Maccabee, 12 Pumbeditha, School of, 34, 40, 42 Quietus, 21 Quirinius, 1? Rab (see Abba Areka) Raba, 34 Rabba bar Nahmani, 34 Rabbenu-Hakadosh (see Ju- dah Hanasi) — Tarn, 51, 52 Rabbi (see Judah Hanasi) Rabina, 34 Ramban, 66, 69 Rapoport, Solomon Loew, 107 Rashba (see Solomon ibn Adret) Rashbam, 51, 52 Rashi, 51, 52 Ratisbon, 56, 57 Ravenna, 37 Rebellion of Jews, under Trajan, 21 Reform Movement, 109, 110, 111 Reformation, 72, 73, 74, 78, 83 Reggio, Isaac Samuel, 107 Renaissance, 73, 83, 84 Resh Galutha, 40 - Methibta, 40 Responsa (see Teshubot) Reubeni, David, 72 Reuchlin, John, 73, 74 Reyna, 70 Rhode Island, 76, 82 Ribash (see Isaac ben She- shet) Richard Coeur de Lion, 48 Riesser. Gabriel, 94 Rieti, Moses, 65 Rindfleisch riot, 55, 67 Rcettingen, 54 Rokeah, 68 Romano, Elijah, 71 — , Solomon, 71 Rome, 13 sq. (see Popes), 93 Rosenfeld, Morris, 102 Rosh, 67 Rosheim, Josel, 74 Rossi, Azariah dei (see Aza- riah) INDEX 121 Rothschild, Baron Lionel de, 95 — , Baron Nathan de, 96 Rumania, 97, 99 Russia, 96, 97, 99 Saadya Gaon, 42, 43 Sabbatai Zevi, 76, 77, 88 Saboraim, 34 Sacher-Masoch, Leopold von, 103 Sadducees, 13 Safed, 70, 86 Saladin, 63 Salman ben Jeroham, 43 Salome Alexandra, 13 Salomons, David, 95 Samaritans, Conversion of, 12 Samuel of Naharder, 33 — ben Meir (see Rashbam) -, Herbert, 100 — Hanagid, 49 — ibn Adijah, 35 - ibn Hofni, 42 San Benito, 60 Sanhedrin, 24, 25, 33, 93 S argon, 7 Schools, Modern, 105, 106, 107 Schreiber, Moses (Sofer), 104 "Science of Judaism," 107 Secular Education, Rise of, 101, 105 Seder Rab Amram, 41 Seesen, 109 Sefer Hayashar, 52 Seleucus, 9 Seligmann, Aaron Elias, 90 Selim I, Sultan, 70 Semag, 69 Servia, 97 Severus, Alexander, 23 — , Septimius, 23 "Shebet Jehudah," 88 Sheeltot, 41 Shepherd Crusaders, 57 Sherira, Epistle of, 42 Shesheth, 34 Shtadlan, 74 Shulhan Aruk, 65, 85, 86 Sicarii, 17 Sidra, 40 Silbermann, Lazarus, 104 Simeon bar Isaac, 46 — ben Azai, 26 — ben Gamaliel II, 27 — ben Lakish, 31 — ben Shetach, 13 — ben Yohai, 69, 88 — Kayara, 40 — the Stylite, St., 30 Simon, the reformer, 10 — , the Maccabee, 12 -, of Trent, 56 Sofer, Moses, 104 Soliman II, Sultan, 70 Solomon ben Abraham of Montpellier, 66 — ben Isaac (see Rashi) — Halevi (Paul, Bishop of Burgos), 59 — Ibn Adret (Rashba), 67 — ibn Gabirol, 49 — Ibn Verga, 88 — , son of Judah, 64 Soncino family, 75 Sonnenthal, Adolf von, 108 Spain, 38, 39, 48, 49, 58, 70, 81, 88 Spector, Isaac Elhanan, 105 Speyer, 46, 47 Spinoza, Benedict, 76 Steinhart, Joseph, 88 Steinschneider, Moritz, 108 Straus, Oscar S., 100 Stuyvesant, Governor, 76, 82 Sullam, Sarah Copia, 84 Sultans, 70 Sura, School in, 33, 40, 42 Sweden, 95 Switzerland, 95 Syria, 9, 10, 12 Szold, Benjamin, 111 Talmud, Burning of, 57 — , Palestinian, 32 122 INDEX Talmud, Babylonian, 34, 46, 51, 52, 64, 67, 71, 84 — , Travesty on, 65 Talmudic Dictionaries, 41, 51 — Literature, 66 Tanaim, 27, 31 Targum, 34 Tarnopol, 105 Tashbez (Simeon Duran), 68 Terumat Ha-Deshen, 68 Teshubot (Responsa), 40,42, 46, 67, 68 Theodoric, 36 Theodosius I, 29 — II, 30 Tiberias, School of, 31 Tineius Rufus, 22 Tishbi, 83 Titus, 18 Toledo, 58 "Toleranz-Edict," 91 Torquemada, Thomas, 60 Tortosa, Disputation at, 59 Tosafists, 52 Tractatus, Theologico Politi- cus, 76 Trajan, 21 Trani, Isaiah di, 68 Tremellius, Emanuel, 73 Trent, Blood Accusation at, 56, 61 — , Council of, 71 Trigland, Jacob, 43 Tryphon, 12 Turim, 67 Turks, 63, 70 Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 112 United States (see America) Uriel Acosta, 76 Usha, Synod at, 26 Usque, Samuel, 88 Varus, 16 Venice, 70, 71, 72 Vespasian, 18, 24 Vidas, Elijah de, 86 Vienna, Congress of, 93 — , School for blind and deaf mutes at, 106 Visigoths, 38 Vital, Hayyim, 86 Volhynia, 77 Washington, George, 82 Weill, Alexander, 103 Wenzel, King of Bohemia, 55 Wertheimer, Samson, 79 Wesel, Naphtali Herz, 101 Wessely Hartwig (see Wesel) West India Company, 76 William of Norwich, 47 Williams, Roger, 76, 82 Wise, Isaac M., 104, 110 Wolf, Moses Benj., 79 Wolfenstein, Martha, 103 Wolkenburg Castle, 47 Wollemborg, 100 Worms, 46 Wuerzburg, 47 Yalkut Machiri, 66 — Shimeoni, 66 Yellow Badge, 48, 58, 71, 91 Yezirah, Sefer, 41 Yiddish, 63, 102 Yoreh Deah, 67 Zadok, 13 Zangwill, Israel, 103 Zealots, 16, 18, 24 "Zemah David," 88 Zemah Gaon, 41, 51 Zemstvo, Jews excluded from the, 97 Zerahiah Halevi, 67 Zerubbabel, 8 Zevi, Sabbatai (see Sabba- tai) Zion, Ode to, 49 — , Lovers of, 99 Zionism, 99, 113 Zohar, 69, 88 Zunz, Leopold, 107