AN 
 
 PROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 BY NOAH WEBSTER, LL. D. 
 
 NEW HAVEN: 
 PUBLISHED BY DURRIE AND PECK. 
 
 1833. 
 
Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1831, by NOAH 
 WEBSTER, in the Clerk's office of the District Court of Connecticut. 
 
 5DUCA 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE British Grammars of the English language appear to me to 
 be very imperfect, and, in some particulars, very erroneous. Since 
 the publication of the grammars of Lowtli and Priestley, who 
 added most of the improvements, which have been made since the 
 days of Wallis, some important discoveries have been made in the 
 origin of words and in the construction of sentences, which have 
 not been introduced into any grammar published in Great Britain ; 
 at least as far as my knowledge extends. 
 
 Grammar is a difficult subject, especially to the young student; 
 and the difficulties that belong to the subject, have been increased 
 by the use of terms merely technical in designating the parts of 
 speech. On entering upon the subject, the young student meets 
 with the words noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb ; words he 
 never saw or heard of before, as they are no part of the common 
 language which he has been accustomed to use ; and words which 
 he does not understand. To remedy, as far as possible, this evil, I 
 have, in tin's work, not only explained the technical terms, but have 
 used other terms, with them, which serve as .interpreters of the 
 words commonly used. These interpreting words are more easily 
 understood, and some of them are more strictly correct, or better 
 adapted to express their true signification. Thus for noun, the 
 English word name is often used ; a word which every child under- 
 stands. This accords with the practice of the nations on the con- 
 tinent of Europe. For pronoun, the word substitute or representa- 
 tive is sometimes used ; for several of the words called pronouns 
 are often used in the place of sentences, or they refer to them. 
 Mribute is a word better understood than adjective ; though it were 
 to be wished, we could find a more familiar term for that class of 
 words. For adverb, I often use modifier ; a term much wanted to 
 denote certain words which have the uses of different parts of 
 speech. Thus most and very, which are adjectives, are often used 
 as adverbs ; as in the phrases most wise, very good. If we call 
 the words, in such phrases, adverbs, then we call them by the same 
 name as we do mostly and verily. In like manner, up, over, to, which 
 are prepositions, are used to modify verbs, in such phrases as to 
 give uj), to give over, to come to ; and it seems very unnatural to call 
 them, in these and similar forms of speech, prepositions. 
 
 The terms used to express the tenses of English verbs, are bor- 
 rowed from the Latin ; but some of them are improperly applied. 
 Thus, he created is called the imperfect tense, denoting unfinished 
 action ; but this is not correct : the imperfect tense in English is, 
 
 5 .*-?. 06 ' 
 
4 ,,,',' PREFACE. 
 
 fee* was cre'atihg. ' The , words pluperfect and preter-pluperfect, 
 whicli cignify; mort ihftn finished, beyond more than finished, are 
 ' wry v c*wkw,ard term's/ '.Few: which reason I call the tense which 
 'they designate, the prior-past, which denotes an act past prior to 
 another act, event or time. In like manner, the term prior-future 
 is used to denote an act past prior to a future time or event speci- 
 fied. 
 
 In this work, I have given a complete exhibition of the English 
 verb, in all its forms or combinations, declarative, interrogative and 
 negative. This will show foreigners, as well as our own youth, the 
 proper place of the auxiliaries, and of the sign of negation not, in 
 all the various combinations. 
 
 In all or most English Grammars, an or a is said to be an indefi- 
 nite article. This is not true ; it is used before definite nouns, as 
 well as before those which are indefinite. It is also said, that a 
 becomes an before a vowel ; but the fact is directly the reverse : 
 an is the original word, and loses the n before a consonant. It is 
 the same word as one, but in Saxon orthography. 
 
 Grammars also tell us, that is sometimes a conjunction. This is 
 not true ; it is always a pronoun or substitute : when it is called a 
 v^:^ auction, it refers to a sentence. 
 
 In most grammars, notwithstanding is called a conjunction. This 
 is not true ; it is a compound of not and the participle withstanding 
 and with that expressed or understood, or with a sentence, consti- 
 tuting the case absolute, like non obstanie in Latin. 
 
 Provided is also called, in certain cases, a conjunction. This is 
 not true ; it is a participle forming the case absolute, as above 
 stated, in regard to notwithstanding. 
 
 If is called also a conjunction. "This is not true ; it is always a 
 Verb, being only a contracted form of give. The fact is the same 
 with though ; it is a verb, but defective. 
 
 To the syntax, I have added several new rules and illustrations ; 
 the British Grammars, in this particular, beinor very defective. In- 
 deed, so defective and erroneous are the British Grammars, and the 
 compilations in the United States, formed on their principles, that 
 without some- further helps, the construction of many established 
 and legitimate phrases and sentences in our language, cannot be 
 explained. 
 
 The term mood I have discarded. Mode is the proper transla- 
 tion of" the Latin modus ; and the orthography mood confounds this 
 grammatical term with a word of different origin, denoting temper 
 or state of the mind. 
 
AN 
 
 IMPROVED GRAMMAR',' 
 
 OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 LANGUAGE, in its most extensive sense, is the instrument 
 or means of communicating ideas and affections of the mind 
 and body, from one animal to another. In this sense, brutes 
 possess the powers of language ; for by various inarticulate 
 sounds, they make known their wants, desires and suffer- 
 ings. Thus the neighing of the horse, the lowing of the ox, 
 the cackling and chirping of birds, constitute the language 
 of those animals ; and each respective species understand 
 instinctively their own peculiar language. The signs made 
 by deaf and dumb people form also a kind of imperfect lan- 
 guage ; and even the looks, when made to express ideas and 
 affections, speak an intelligible language. 
 
 As brutes have few affections or ideas, and little neces- 
 sity for communicating them, their language consists in a 
 few inarticulate sounds. But man, being a rational animal, 
 capable of acquiring, and of learning to communicate num- 
 berless ideas, is furnished with suitable organs for uttering 
 an indefinite variety of sounds to express his ideas ; and the 
 modulations of his voice, in the distinct utterance of sounds, 
 by opening and closing the organs, constitute what are de- 
 nominated articulate sounds. 
 
 DIVISION OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 Language is of two kinds, spoken and written. The ele- 
 ments of spoken language are articulate sounds, uttered by 
 the voice, which is formed by the air issuing through the 
 glottis, a small aperture in the wind pipe, and modulated by 
 articulations of the throat, tongue, palate, teeth, and lips. 
 This is the original and proper sense of the word language. 
 
 But as sounds are fleeting, and not capable of being com- 
 municated to a great distance, if men had no other means of 
 communicating their thoughts, their intercourse would be 
 limited to a small compass, and their ideas would be en- 
 1* 
 
O AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 -trusted to memory and tradition only; by which they would 
 soon be obscured, ,perrerted, or forgotten. Hence the in- 
 vefcUpn.of characters r tp represent sounds, exhibit them to 
 the' eye, and render them durable. This was the origin of 
 written language. The elements of this language are let- 
 ters or characters, which, by consent of men, and common 
 usage, are combined into words, and made to represent the 
 articulate sounds uttered by the voice. These characters 
 being easily inscribed or engraved upon durable substances, 
 as paper, parchment, wood and stone, render language per- 
 manent, and capable of being transmitted from age to age, 
 and of being communicated over the habitable globe. Of 
 this art, it is not easy to decide which deserves to be most 
 admired, the difficulty, the ingenuity, or the usefulness of 
 the*invention. 
 
 OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 <i rarrtmar, as a science, treats of the natural connection 
 between ideas, and words which are the signs of ideas, and 
 develops tlie principles which are common to all languages. 
 These principles are not arbitrary, nor subject to change, 
 but fixed and permanent ; being founded on facts, and dis- 
 tinctions established by nature. Thus the distinction be- 
 tween the sexes ; between things and their qualities ; be- 
 tween the names of substances and of their actions or mo- 
 tions : between unity and plurality ; between the present, 
 past and future time, and some other distinctions, are found- 
 ed in nature, and give rise to different species of words, and 
 to various inflections in all languages. 
 
 v> The grammar of a particular language is a system of gen- 
 eral principles, derived from natural distinctions of words 
 and of particular rules, deduced from the customary forms 
 of speech, in the nation using that language. These usages 
 are mostly arbitrary, or of accidental origin ; but when they 
 become common to a nation, they are to be considered as 
 established, and received as rules of the highest authority. 
 
 A rule, therefore, is an established form of construction 
 in a particular class of w ? ords. Thus the usual addition of 
 5 or es, to a noun, to denote plurality, being a general prac- 
 tice, constitutes a rule. 
 
 An exception to a rule, is the deviation of certain words 
 from the common construction. Thus man, if regularly 
 formed in the plural, would be mans; but custom having 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 7 
 
 established the use of men as its plural, the word is an ex- 
 ception to the general rule. 
 
 Grammar is commonly divided into four parts orthogra- 
 phy, etymology, syntax and prosody. 
 
 Orthography treats of the letters, their powers and com- 
 binations in syllables ; or, it teaches the true manner of writ- 
 ing words, called spelling. 
 
 Etymology treats of the derivation of words from their 
 radicals or primitives, and of their various inflections and 
 modifications to express person, number, case, sex, time and 
 mode. 
 
 Syntax explains the true mode of constructing sentences. 
 
 Prosody treats of the quantity or accent of syllables and 
 the laws of versification. ^ 
 
 NOTE. In this compilation, the only subjects treated are, a part of 
 etymology, and syntax and prosody. 
 
 OF LETTERS. 
 
 The elements, or first principles of language, are articu- 
 late sounds, and letters or characters, which represent them. 
 
 There are in the English language twenty-six letters, 
 which represent sounds or articulations : A. a. B. b. 
 C. c . D. d. E. e. F. f. G. g. H. h. I. i. J. j. K. k. 
 _L. 1. M. m. N. n. O. o. P. p. Q. q. R. r. S. s. 
 T. t. U. u. V. v. W. w. X. x. Y. y. Z. z. Of these, 
 J and X represent a combination of articulations. 
 
 Letters are of two kinds vowels and consonants ; or, 
 more strictly, of three kinds vowels, consonants and aspi- 
 rates. 
 
 A vowel is a vocal or open sound ; or a simple sound, 
 uttered by opening the mouth in a particular manner. A 
 simple sound is one which is begun and continued at pleas- 
 ure, with the same position of the organs, as a, e, o, and 
 the broad a or aw ; the Italian a as in father, and oo, which 
 in English represents the Italian u and French ou. 
 
 An articulation is the forming of a joint a jointing or 
 closing of the organs of speech ; by which the voice is whol- 
 ly or partially intercepted.* 
 
 A close articulation entirely and instantly interrupts the 
 utterance of sound, as &, p, f, in the syllables, ek, ep, et. 
 
 * Latin articulatio, from articulus, a joint. 
 
8 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 These letters are therefore called pure mutes. A less close 
 articulation admits a small prolongation of sound, as 6, d 9 
 g, as in the syllables, eb, ed, eg. These are called impure 
 mutes. 
 
 Imperfect articulations do not completely interrupt all 
 sound. Some of them admit a kind of hum ; others of a 
 hissing sound ; others of a breathing, which may be contin- 
 ued at pleasure. Of this kind are the following letters : ef, 
 el, em, en, er, es, ez 9 esh, eth. These are therefore called 
 semi-vowels. 
 
 II is a mark of breathing, and may be called an aspirate, 
 
 Articulations or consonants precede or follow vowels, as 
 in at, go, blush. They therefore determine the manner of 
 beginning and ending vocal sounds. But even when they 
 produce no sound, they so modify the manner of uttering 
 vowels, as to aid in forming distinct words. Thus in bat, 
 gap, cap, we hear the same vowel, but the articulations 
 which precede or follow that sound, form with it different 
 words, that may be distinguished as far as the voice can be 
 heard. 
 
 An articulate sound is properly a sound which is pre- 
 ceded or followed by a closing of the organs ; but we extend 
 the signification to sounds formed by organs capable of ar- 
 ticulation, that is, by the human organs of speech. 
 
 The great difference between men and brutes, in the ut- 
 terance of sound by the mouth, consists in the power of ar- 
 ticulation in man, and the entire want of it in brutes. 
 
 On articulation, therefore, depends the formation of sylla- 
 bles and words. It is the basis of human speech or lan- 
 guage, and the faculty of articulation is the distinguishing 
 characteristic and privilege of man. 
 
 All men, having similar organs of speech, use nearly the 
 same articulations. Hence the same simple letters, or let- 
 ters with the same powers, occur, with slight differences, in 
 all languages. The compound letters, or combinations of 
 sound, are subject to greater variety. 
 
 Articulations formed by the lips are called labial letters, 
 or labials, lip-letters, from the Latin labium, a lip. Such 
 are &, Z, m, p, v. Those formed by the tongue and teeth, 
 are called dental letters, or dentals, from the Latin dens, a 
 tooth. Such are d, t, th, s and z. The two latter are also 
 denominated sibilant letters, or sibilants, from the Latin 
 sibito, to hiss. Letters formed by the tongue and palate, are 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 9 
 
 called palatal letters, or palatals, as g, k, Z, r. The two 
 former, when they represent a deep utterance of sound from 
 the throat, may be called gutturals. 
 
 When an articulation occasions a sound through the nose, 
 it is called a nasal letter. Such are m, n, and ng y in ing. 
 
 J, in English, represents the sounds of d and soft g. X 
 represents the sound of k and 5. 
 
 A diphthong is the union of two vowels, which are so ra- 
 pidly, uttered in succession, as to be considered as forming 
 one syllable, as oi, and oy, in voice, joy. 
 
 A triphthong is the union of three vowels in a syllable. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 
 
 Words are naturally divided into two CLASSES, PRIMARY 
 and SECONDARY. 
 
 The Jirst class consists of words which are essential to 
 the language of men ; on which other words depend, or to 
 which they are added as auxiliaries. In this class are in- 
 cluded the Noun or Name, and the verb. These two spe- 
 cies of words are so necessary to a communication of ideas, 
 that no complete sentence or proposition can be formed 
 without the use of both, unless when a substitute is used for 
 a name. Thus, the sun shines, is a complete sentence, con- 
 taining a name and a verb ; but remove either of them, and 
 the proposition is destroyed. From the importance of these 
 words, they are here denominated Primary, or the PRIMARY 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 The second class consists of words of secondary or subor- 
 dinate use, or of such as are dependent on other words in 
 construction. Of these there are several species. 
 
 1st. Words which supply the place of other words and of 
 sentences, which are here called pronouns or substitutes. 
 
 2d. Words which express the qualities of things, and 
 which therefore are attached to the names of those things. 
 These are here called adjectives, attributes or attributives. 
 These are primary words in point of importance ; but be- 
 ing necessarily dependent on other words in construction, 
 they are here ranked with the secondary. 
 
 3d. Words which modify the sense of other words by ex- 
 pressing the manner of action, or degree of quality. These 
 are here called adverbs or modifiers. 
 
10 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 4th. Words which are placed before other words, and 
 show the relation between them and those which precede. 
 These are called prepositions. 
 
 6th. Words which join together the parts of a sentence or 
 of a discourse, in a regular construction. These are called 
 connectives or conjunctions. 
 
 These five species of subordinate or dependent words are 
 denominated secondary. 
 
 There are therefore two classes of words containing seven 
 species or parts of speech. The first class contains two 
 species. 
 
 I. Nouns or Names which are the signs of our ideas of 
 whatever we conceive to exist, material and immaterial. 
 
 II. Verbs which express affirmation, motion, action or 
 being. 
 
 The second class contains five species. 
 
 III. Pronouns or Substitutes, words which are used in 
 the place of other words or of sentences. 
 
 IV. Adjectives or Attributes, which express the qualities 
 of things, and qualify the action of verbs, or the sense of 
 other attributes and modifiers. 
 
 V. Adverbs or Modifiers, which qualify the action of 
 verbs, and the' sense of attributes. 
 
 VI. Prepositions, which show the relation between words, 
 and also the condition of things. 
 
 VII. Connectives or Conjunctions, which unite sentences 
 in construction. 
 
 N OTE . Participles are ? by some grammarians, considered as a dis- 
 tinct part of speech ; and they certainly have some claims to be so con- 
 sidered ; but I have chose to follow the common arrangement which is 
 attended with no inconvenience. 
 
 NOUNS OR NAMES. 
 
 A noun or name is that by which a thing is called ; and 
 it expresses the idea of that which exists, material or imma- 
 terial. Of material substances, as man, horse, tree, table 
 of immaterial things, as faith, hope, love. These and simi- 
 lar words are, by customary use, made the names of things 
 which exist, or the symbols of ideas, which they express 
 without the help of any other word. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 11 
 
 DIVISION OF NAMES OR NOUNS. 
 
 Names are of two kinds ; common, or those which repre- 
 sent the idea of a whole kind or species ; and proper or ap- 
 propriate, which denote individuals. Thus animal is a 
 name common to all beings, having organized bodies and 
 endowed with life, digestion, and spontaneous motion. 
 Plant and vegetable are names of all beings which have or- 
 ganized bodies and life, without the power of spontaneous 
 motion. Fowl is the common name of all feathered animals 
 which fly ; Jish, of animals which live wholly in water. 
 
 On the other hand, Thomas, John, William, are proper 
 or appropriate names, each denoting an individual of which 
 there is no species or kind. London, Paris, Amsterdam, 
 Rhine, Po, Danube, Massachusetts, Hudson, Patowmac, are 
 also proper names, being appropriate to individual things. 
 
 Proper names however become common when they com- 
 prehend two or more individuals ; as, the Capets, the Smiths, 
 the Fletchers " Two Roberts there the pagan force defy'd." 
 
 Hook's Tasso, b. 20. 
 
 LIMITATION OF NAMES. 
 
 Proper names are sufficiently definite without the aid of 
 another word to limit their meaning, as Boston, Baltimore, 
 Savannah. Yet when certain individuals have a common 
 character, or predominant qualities which create a simili- 
 tude between them, this common character becomes in the 
 mind a species, and the proper name of an individual pos- 
 sessing this character, admits of the definitives and of plural 
 number, like a common name. Thus a conspirator is called 
 a Catiline ; and numbers of them Catilines or the Catilines 
 of their country. A distinguished general is called a Cesar ; 
 an eminent orator the Cicero of his age. 
 
 But names, which are common to a whole kind or species, 
 require often to be limited to an individual or a certain num- 
 ber of individuals of the kind or species. For this purpose 
 the English language is furnished with a number of words, 
 as an, or a, the, this, that, these, those, and a few others, 
 which define the extent of the signification of common 
 names, or point to the particular things mentioned. These 
 are all adjectives or attributes, having a dependence on some 
 noun expressed or implied ; but some of them are used also 
 
AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 as substitutes. Of these an or a and the are never employ- 
 ed as substitutes, but are constantly attached to some name 
 or an equivalent word; and from their peculiar use, have 
 obtained the distinctive appellation of articles. But defini- 
 five is a more significant and appropriate term ; as they are 
 definitive attributes, and have, grammatically considered, the 
 like use as this, that, some, none, any. 
 
 An is simply the Saxon one, or an, one. It was formerly 
 written an before a consonant ;* but for the ease and rapidi- 
 ty of utterance, it is written and pronounced a before a con- 
 sonant, and before a vowel which includes the sound of aeon- 
 sonant ; as, a pen, a union : also before h aspirate ; as, a house. 
 It retains its primitive orthography an, before a vowel, and 
 a silent consonant ; as, an eagle, an hour. 
 
 The is used before vowels and consonants ; but in poetry, 
 e, for the sake of measure, may be omitted, and th made to 
 coalesce with a succeeding vowel; as, " th'embroidered vest." 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 A noun or name, without a preceding definitive, is used 
 either in an unlimited sense, extending to the whole species, 
 or, in an indefinite sense, denoting a number or quantity, but 
 not the whole. 
 
 " The proper study of mankind is man." Pope. 
 
 Here man comprehends the whole species. 
 
 " In the first place, woman has, in general, much stronger 
 propensity than man to the perfect discharge of parental 
 duties." Life of Cowper. 
 
 Here woman and man comprehend each the whole spe- 
 cies of its sex. 
 
 " From whom also I received letters to the brethren." 
 Acts, xxii. 5. 
 
 " The men were overwhelmed by the waves, and absorb- 
 ed by the eddies. Horses, baggage, and dead bodies, were 
 seen floating together." 
 
 In these passages, letters, horses, and dead bodies, with 
 out a definitive, denote some, an indefinite number, but no 
 all. So in the following sentence : 
 
 A house is consumed byjirefire is extinguished by water. 
 
 * " And thses geares woBrun ofslegene IX eorlas and an cyning.' And 
 this year were slain nine earls and one king. Saxon Chron. p. 82. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 NOTE. The rule laid down by Lowth, and transcribed implicitly by 
 his followers, is general. " A substantive without any article to limit it, 
 is taken in its widest sense; thus man means all mankind" The ex- 
 amples already given prove the inaccuracy of the rule. But let it be 
 tried by other examples. 
 
 " There are fishes that have wings, and are not strangers to the airy 
 regions." LOCKE, b. 3. ch. 6. 12. If the rule is just, thai fishes is to be 
 " taken in its widest sense," then all fishes have wings ! 
 
 " When ye shall see Jerusalem compassed with armies' ' What ! all 
 armies ? " There shall be signs in the sun" What ! all signs ? " JMz- 
 tion shall rise against nation" What! every nation? How the rule 
 vanishes before the test ! 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 The definitive an or a, being merely one, in its English 
 orthography, and precisely synonymous with it, limits a 
 common name to an individual of the species its sole use 
 is to express unity, and with respect to number, is the most 
 definite word imaginable as an ounce, a church, a ship, 
 that is, one ship, one church. It is used before a name, 
 which is indefinite, or applicable to any one of a species ; as, 
 
 " He bore him in the thickest troop, 
 As doth a lion in a herd of neat." Shakspeare. 
 
 Here a limits the sense of the word lion, and that of herd to 
 one but does not specify the particular one " As any lion 
 does or would do in any herd." 
 
 This definitive is used also before names which are definite 
 and as specific as possible ; as, " Solomon built a temple." 
 " The Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden." Lon- 
 don is a great commercial city. A decisive battle was fought 
 at Marengo. The English obtained a signal naval victory 
 at the mouth of the Nile.* 
 
 * " A respects the primary perception and denotes individuals as un- 
 known the respects our secondary perceptions and denotes individuals 
 tat known. Cleaves the individuals unascertained, whereas the article 
 the ascertains the individual also." Harris' Hermes, 215, 217. 
 
 "A has an indefinite signification and means one, with some reference 
 to more." Johnson's Diet. Grammar. 
 
 " A is used in a vague sense to point out one single thing of the kind, 
 in other respects indeterminate" " a determines it to be one, single 
 thing of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which." 
 
 Lowth' s Introduction^ 
 
 But let us try this rule. Harris wrote, or rather compiled from Greek 
 grammarians, " A Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Gram 
 
14 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 NOTE. When the sense of words is sufficiently certain, by the con- 
 struction, the definitive may be omitted ; as, " Duty to your majesty, and 
 regard for the preservation of ourselves and our posterity, require us to 
 entreat your royal attention." 
 
 It is also omitted before names whose signification is general, and re- 
 quires no limitation as, " wisdom is justified of her children" " anger 
 resteth in the bosom of fools." 
 
 The definitive a is used before plural names, preceded by 
 few or many as, a few days, a great many persons.* It is 
 also used before any collective word, as, a dozen, a hundred, 
 even when such words are attached to plural nouns ; as, a 
 hundred years. 
 
 It is remarkable that a never precedes many without the 
 intervention of great between them but follows many, 
 standing between this word and a name and what is equally 
 
 mar." Johnson compiled " A Dictionary of the English Language." 
 Lowth wrote " Jl Short Introduction to English Grammar." David left a 
 flourishing kingdom to Solomon. Now I request some of the gentlemen, 
 who teach the rules of these Grammars, to inform the world whether a, 
 in the passages recited, denotes one thing of the kind, in other respects 
 indeterminate. 
 
 Chares erected a huge Colossus at Rhodes Romulus built a city in 
 Italy and called it Ro7ne Great Britain has a navy superior to any on 
 the ocean Love to God is an indispensable duty Virgil composed an 
 ?pic poem The Earl of Chatham was an eminent statesman Oxygen 
 is a substance which forms acids the carbonic acid is a combination of 
 oxygen and carbon The air is an invisible elastic fluid Lisbon was de- 
 stroyed by an earthquake in 1755 that is, according to our grammars, 
 any earthquake, uncertain which. 
 
 The history of this word is briefly this. An and one are the same 
 word an, the Saxon or English orthography, and one a corruption of 
 the French un or vne. The Greek en, the Latin vnus, that is, r un with 
 the usual ending of adjectives, and the Saxori an or ane, are mere dia- 
 'lectical differences of orthography, as are the German cin and the Dutch 
 een. Before the Conquest, an was used in computation or numbering 
 an, twa, threo one, two, three, &c. ; and the n was used before articu- 
 lations, as well as before vowels " Ac him saed hyra an" But to him 
 said one of them. Alfred Orosius, lib. 6. 30. " An cyning" one king. 
 Sax. Chron. p. 82. This word was also varied to express case and gen- 
 der, like the Latin unus. " And thsps ymb anne monath" And within 
 this one month. Sax. Chron. $2. " The on tham anum scipe waceron" 
 Who were in that one ship. ibm. 98. An therefore is the original 
 English adjective or ordinal number one ; and was never written a until 
 after the Conquest. 
 
 * The origin of this use of a before many is to be sought in the prim- 
 itive character of many, which was a noun in the Gothic and Saxon, sy- 
 nonymous with multitude. A many was therefore correct. Its use as 
 an attribute is secondary or derivative j but this use carries with it the 
 definitive a t in anomalous phrases. 
 
OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 15 
 
 ringular, many, the very essence of which is to mark plu- 
 rality, will, with a intervening, agree with a name in the 
 singular number ; as, 
 
 " Full many a gem of purest ray serene." Gray. 
 
 " Where many a rose bud rears its blushing head." 
 
 Beattie. 
 RULE III. 
 
 The definitive the is employed before names, to limit their 
 signification to one or more specific things of the kind, dis- 
 criminated from others of the same kind. Hence the per- 
 son or thing is understood by the reader or hearer ; as, the 
 twelve Apostles, the laws of morality, the rules of good 
 breeding. 
 
 This definitive is also used with names of things which 
 exist alone, or which we consider as single ; as, the Jews, 
 the Sun, the Globe, the Ocean ; and also before words when 
 used by way of distinction ; as, the Church, the Temple. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 The is used rhetorically before a name in the singular 
 number, to denote the whole species, or an indefinite nun> 
 ber; as, " the Jig-tree putteth forth her green figs." SoL 
 Songs. , , 
 
 " The almond-tree shall flourish, and the grasshopper shall 
 be a burden." " Or ever the silver cord shall be loosed 
 or the golden bowl be broken," &c. Ecclesiastes. 
 
 " There loaded camels move in solemn state, 
 And the huge elephant 3 s unwieldy weight." 
 
 Hoole's Tasso, b. 15. 
 
 " For here the splendid treasures of the mine, 
 And richest offspring of thejield combine." 
 
 Lusiad, 2. 
 
 " The Christian, who, with pious horror, avoided the abom- 
 inations of the circus or the theatre, found himself encom- 
 passed with infernal snares," &c. Gib. Rom. Emp. ch. 15. 
 
 " The heart likes naturally to be moved and affected." 
 Campbell's Rhet. ch. 2. 
 
 NOTE 1. This definitive is also used before names employed figura- 
 tively in a general sense ; as, 
 
 " His mates their safety to the waves consign." Lusiad, 2. 
 
16 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 Here waves cannot be understood of any particular waves ; but the 
 word is a metaphor for a particular thing, the ocean. 
 
 In addresses and exclamations, the definitive may be, and usually is, 
 omitted ; as, " Sink down, ye mountains, and, ye valleys, rise." 
 
 " Be smooth, ye rocks ; ye rapid floods, give way." Pope, Mes. 
 " Gran ville commands ; your aid, O Muses, bring." Wind. Forest. 
 
 NOTE 2. The definitive the is used before an attribute, which is se- 
 lected from others belonging to the same object ; as, " The very frame of 
 spirit proper for being diverted with the laughable in objects, is so dif- 
 ferent from that which is necessary for philosophizing on them." 
 Ctvmplell, Rhet. 1. 2, 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 As men have occasion to speak of a single object, or of 
 two or more individuals of the same kind, it has been found 
 necessary to vary the noun or name, and usually the termi- 
 nation, to distinguish plurality from unity. The different 
 forms of words to express one or more are called in gram- 
 mar, numbers ; of which there are, in English, two, the sin- 
 gular and the plural. The singular denotes an individual, 
 or a collection of individuals united in a body ; as, a man, a 
 ship, an office, a company, a society, a dozen. The plural 
 denotes two or more individuals, not considered as a collec- 
 tive body ; as, men, ships, offices, companies, societies. The 
 plural number is formed by the addition of 5 or es to the 
 singular. 
 
 RULE 1. When the terminating letter of a noun will ad- 
 mit the sound of s to coalesce with the name or the last syl- 
 lable of it, 5 only is added to form the plural ; as, sea, seas ; 
 hand, hands ; pen, pens ; grape, grapes ; vale, vales ; vow, 
 vows. 
 
 2. When the letter s does not combine in sound with the 
 word or last syllable of it, the addition of s increases the 
 number of syllables; as, house, houses; grace, graces; 
 page, pages ; rose, roses ; voice, voices ; maze, mazes. 
 
 3. When the name ends in x, ss, sh, or ch with its English 
 sound, the plural is formed by adding es to the singular ; 
 for a single 5 after those letters cannot be pronounced ; as, 
 fox, foxes ; glass, glasses ; brush, brushes; church, churches. 
 But after ch with its Greek sound, like k, the plural is form- 
 ed by s only ; as monarch, monarchs. 
 
 4. When a name ends with y after a consonant, the plu- 
 ral is formed by dropping y and adding ies ; as, vanity, van- 
 ities. Alkali has a regular plural, alkalies. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 17 
 
 But after ay, cy, and oy, s only is added ; as delay, delays ; 
 valley, valleys ; joy, joys ; money, moneys. 
 
 NOTE 1. We sometimes see valley, chimney, money, journey, and a 
 few others, with like terminations, written in the plural with ies val- 
 lies, chimnies, &c. But this irregularity is not to be vindicated. Either 
 the singular number should be written vally, or the plural valleys. The 
 latter is preferable.* 
 
 NOTE 2. A few English nouns deviate from the foregoing rules in 
 the formation of the plural number : 
 
 CLASS 1. In some names, fm the singular is, for the con- 
 venience, of utterance, changed into v ; as, 
 
 life lives 
 knife knives 
 wife wives 
 leaf leaves 
 calf calves 
 
 self selves 
 half halves 
 beef beeves 
 elf elves 
 loaf loaves 
 
 sheaf sheaves 
 shelf shelves 
 wolf wolves 
 wharf wharves 
 thief thieves 
 
 CLASS 2. The second class consists of words which are 
 used in both numbers, with plurals irregularly formed ; as, 
 
 child 
 foot 
 
 children 
 feet 
 
 hypothesis 
 brother 
 
 hypotheses 
 brothers or brethren 
 
 tooth 
 man 
 
 teeth 
 men 
 
 penny 
 die 
 
 pennies or pence 
 dies or dice 
 
 woman 
 
 women 
 
 pea 
 
 peas or pease 
 
 ox 
 
 oxen 
 
 criterion 
 
 criterions or criteria 
 
 louse 
 
 lice 
 
 focus 
 
 focuses or foci 
 
 goose 
 beau 
 
 geese 
 beaux 
 
 radius 
 index 
 
 radiuses or radii 
 indexes or indices 
 
 thesis 
 
 theses 
 
 calx 
 
 calxes or calces 
 
 emphasis 
 antithesis 
 
 emphases 
 antitheses 
 
 phenomenon 
 
 phenomena 
 
 Pennies is used for real coins ; pence for their value in 
 computation. Dies denotes stamps for coining ; dice, pieces 
 used in games. Peas denotes the seeds as distinct objects ; 
 pease the seeds in a mass. Brothers is the plural used in 
 
 * The change of y into ies to form the plural number, may seem to a 
 foreigner an odd irregularity ; but the cause is very obvious, Formerly 
 the singular number of this class of words ended with ie; as, glorie, van^ 
 itie, energie, and the addition of s made the plurals/ones. But whether 
 from caprice, negligence, or a desire to simplify the orthography, the 
 termination ie was laid aside for y in the singular, while the old plural ies 
 was retained. A strange inconsistency, but by no means the only one 
 which the progress of our language exhibits. 
 
18 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 common discourse ; brethren, in the scripture style, but is 
 not restricted to it. 
 
 Cherubim and seraphim are real Hebrew plurals ; but 
 such is the propensity in men to form regular inflections in 
 language, that these words are used as in the singular, with 
 regular plurals, cherubims, seraphims. In like manner, the 
 Hebrew singulars, cherub and seraph, have obtained regular 
 plurals. 
 
 The influence of this principle is very obvious in other 
 foreign words, which the sciences have enlisted into our ser- 
 vice ; as may be observed in the words radius, focus, index, 
 &/c. which now begin to be used with regular English plural 
 terminations. This tendency to regularity is, by all means, 
 to be encouraged ; for a prime excellence in language is the 
 uniformity of its inflections. The facts here stated will be 
 evinced by a few authorities. 
 
 " Vesiculated corallines are found adhering to rocks, 
 shells zndfucuses." Encyc. art. Corallines. 
 
 " Many fetuses are deficient at the extremities." Dar. 
 Zoon. Sect. 1, 3, 9. 
 
 " Five hundred denariuses." Baker's Livy, 4. 491. 
 
 " The radiations of that tree and its fruit, the principal fo~ 
 cuses of which are in the Moldavia islands." Hunter's St. 
 Pierre, vol. 3. 
 
 " The reduction of metallic calxes into metals." Ency. 
 art. Metallurgy. 
 
 See also Mediums, Campbell's Rhetoric, 1, 150; Calyxes, 
 Darwin's Zoon. 1 74 ; Caudexes, Phytologia, 2, 3 ; Irises, 
 Zoon. 1. 444 ; Reguluses and residuums. Encyc. art. 
 Metal. 
 
 In authorities equally respectable, we find stamens, stra- 
 tums, funguses ; and in pursuance of the principle, we 
 may expect to see lamens for laminae ; lamels for lamellae ; 
 baryte for barytes ; pyrite for pyrites ; strontite for stron- 
 tites ; stalactites for the plural stalactites. These reforms 
 are necessary to enable us to distinguish the singular from 
 the plural number. 
 
 CLASS 3. The third class of irregulars consists of such 
 as have no plural termination ; some of which represent 
 ideas of things which do not admit of plurality ; as, rye, 
 barley, flax, hemp, flour, sloth, pride, pitch, and the names 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 19 
 
 of metals, gold, silver, tin, zink, antimony, lead, bismuth, 
 quicksilver. When, in the progress of improvement, any 
 thing, considered as not susceptible of plurality, is found to 
 have varieties, which are distinguishable, this distinction 
 gives rise to a plural of the term. Thus, in early ages our 
 ancestors took no notice of different varieties of wheat, and 
 the term had no plural. But modern improvements in ag- 
 riculture have recognized varieties of this grain, which have 
 given the name a plural form. The same remark is appli- 
 cable to fern, clay, marl, sugar, cotton, &,c. which have plu- 
 rals, formerly unknown. Other words may hereafter under- 
 go a similar change. 
 
 Other words of this class denote plurality, without a plu- 
 ral termination ; as, cattle, sheep, swine, kine, deer, hose ; 
 trout, salmon, carp, perch, and many other names of fish. 
 Pish has a plural, but is used in the plural sense without the 
 termination ; as, 
 
 " We are to blame for eating these Jish." 
 
 Anacharsis, 6. 272. 
 
 " The Jish reposed in seas and crystal floods, 
 The beasts retired in covert of the woods." 
 
 Hook, T. 2. 726. 
 
 Cannon, shot and sail, are used in a plural sense ; as, 
 
 " One hundred cannon were landed from the fleet." 
 
 Burchett, Naval Hist. 732. 
 
 " Several shot being fired." Ibm. 455. 
 "Several sail of ships." Ibm. 426. 
 
 In the sense in which these words are here used, they 
 hardly admit of a plural ending. 
 
 Under this class may be noticed a number of words, ex- 
 pressing time, distance, measure, weight and number, which, 
 though admitting a plural termination, are often, not to say 
 generally, used without that termination, even when used 
 with attributes of plurality ; such are the names in these ex- 
 pressions, two year, five mile, ten foot, seven pound, three 
 tun, hundred, thousand, or million, five bushel, twenty 
 weight, &c. Yet the most unlettered people never say, two 
 minute, three hour, five day, or week, or month ; nor two 
 inch, yard or league ; nor three ounce, grain, dram, or peck. 
 
20 
 
 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 We observe this practice in the Saxon Chronicle. " He 
 heold that Arcebisceop-rice 18 year." p. 59. He held that 
 archbishopric eighteen year.' In that work, winter is used 
 in the same manner ; forty-one winter p. 41. Yet year 
 and winter had, in- the Saxon, plural terminations. But this 
 use is considered as vulgar. 
 
 A like singularity is observable in the Latin language. 
 " Tritici quadraginta millia modium." Liv. lib. 26. 47. For- 
 ty thousand modium of wheat. " Quatuor millia pondo auri," 
 four thousand pound of gold. Ibm. 27. 10. 
 
 Here we see the origin of our pound. Originally it was 
 merely weight four thousand" of gold by weight. From 
 denoting weight generally, pondo became the term for a cer- 
 tain division or quantity ; retaining however its signification 
 of unity, and becoming an indeclinable in Latin. Twenty 
 pound then, in strictness, is twenty divisions by weight ; or, 
 as we say, with a like abbreviation, twenty weight. 
 
 The words horse, foot and infantry, comprehending bod- 
 ies of soldiers, are used as plural nouns, and followed by 
 verbs in the plural. Cavalry is sometimes used in like man- 
 ner. 
 
 CLASS 4. The fourth class of irregular nouns consists of 
 words which have the plural termination only. Some of 
 these, denoting plurality, are always joined with verbs in the 
 plural ; as the following : 
 
 Annals -drawers tees customs 
 
 archives downs lungs shears 
 
 ashes dregs matins scissors 
 
 assets embers mallows shambled 
 
 bitters entrails orgies tidings 
 
 bowels fetters nippers tongs 
 
 compasses filings pincers or thanks 
 
 clothes goods pinchers vespers 
 
 calends hatches pleiads vitals 
 
 breeches ides snuffers victuals 
 
 Letters, in the sense of literature, may be added to the 
 foregoing list. Manners, in the sense of behavior, is also 
 plural. 
 
 Other words of this class, though ending in s, are used 
 either wholly in the singular number, or in the one or the 
 other, at the pleasure of the writer. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 21 
 
 Amends wages conies economics 
 
 alms billiards catoptrics mathematics 
 
 bellows fives dioptrics mechanics 
 
 gallows sessions acoustics hydraulics 
 
 odds measles pneumatics hydrostatics 
 
 means hysterics statics analytics 
 
 pains physics statistics politics 
 
 news ethics spherics 
 
 riches optics tactics 
 
 Of these, pains, riches, and wages* are more usually con- 
 sidered as plural news is always singular odds and means 
 are either singular or plural the others are more strictly 
 singular ; for measles is the name of a disease, and, in strict- 
 ness, no more plural than gout or fever. Small pox, for 
 pocks, is sometimes considered as a plural, but it ought to 
 oe used as singular. Billiards has the sense of game, con- 
 taining unity of idea ; and ethics, physics and other similar 
 names, comprehending each the whole system of a particu- 
 lar science, do not convey the ideas of parts or particular 
 branches, but of a whole collectively, a unity, and hence 
 seem to be treated as words belonging to the singular num- 
 ber. 
 
 Authorities. 
 
 Pre-eminent by so much odds. Milt. P. L. 4. 474. 
 
 With every odds thy prowess I defy. Hoole, Tas. 6. 19, 40. 
 
 Where the odds in considerable. Camp. Rhet. ch. 5. 
 
 The wages of sin is death. Bible. 
 
 Much pains has been taken. Enjield, Hist. Phil. ch. 2. 
 
 Let a gallows be made of fifty cubits high. Bible. 
 
 Here he erected a fort and a gallows. Lusiad, 1. 134. 
 
 The riches we had in England was the slow result of long 
 industry and wisdom, and is to be regained, &,c. Davenant, 
 2. 12. 
 
 Mathematics informs us. Encyc. art. Strength of Mate- 
 rials. 
 
 Politics is the art of producing individual good by gen- 
 eral measures. Beddoes' Hygeia, 2. 79. 
 
 Politics contains two parts. Locke, vol. 2. 408. 
 
 Locke however uses a plural verb with ethics. " The 
 ideas that ethics are conversant about." B. 4. 12. 8. 
 
 * Originally wagis, and really singular. 
 
XX AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 ^ Pains, when preceded by WMC/J, should always have a 
 singular verb. 
 
 Means is so generally used in either number, (every means, 
 all means, this means, and these means,) that authorities in 
 support of the usage are deemed superfluous. 
 
 GENDER. 
 
 Gender, in grammar, is a difference of termination, to ex- 
 press distinction of sex. 
 
 There being two sexes, male and female, words which 
 denote males are said to be of the masculine gender ; those 
 which denote females, of feminine gender. Words ex- 
 pressing things without sex, are said to be of neuter gender. 
 There are therefore but two genders ; yet for convenience, 
 the neuter is classed with the genders ; and we say there are 
 three, the masculine, feminine and neuter. The English 
 modes of distinguishing sex are these : 
 
 1. The regular termination of the feminine gender is ess ; 
 which is added to the name of the masculine ; as, lion, lion- 
 ess. But when the word ends in or, the feminine is formed 
 by retrenching a vowel, and blending two syllables into 6*ne ; 
 as, actor, actress. In a few words, the feminine gender is 
 represented by ix ; as, testatrix, from testator ; and a few oth- 
 ers are irregular. The following are most of the words 
 which have a distinct termination for the feminine gender : 
 
 Actor 
 
 actress 
 
 deacon 
 
 deaconess 
 
 abbot 
 
 abbess 
 
 duke 
 
 duchess 
 
 adulterer 
 
 adultress 
 
 embassador 
 
 embassadress 
 
 baron 
 
 baroness 
 
 emperor 
 
 empress 
 
 benefactor 
 
 benefactress 
 
 tiger 
 
 tigress 
 
 governor 
 hero 
 
 governess 
 heroine 
 
 songster 
 seanister 
 
 songstress 
 seamstress 
 
 heir 
 
 heiress 
 
 viscount 
 
 viscountess 
 
 peer 
 
 priest 
 
 peeress 
 priestess 
 
 jew 
 lion 
 
 Jewess 
 lioness 
 
 poet 
 
 poetess 
 
 master 
 
 mistress 
 
 prince 
 
 princess 
 
 marquis 
 
 marchioness 
 
 prophet 
 
 prophetess 
 
 patron 
 
 patroness 
 
 shepherd 
 
 shepherdess 
 
 protector 
 
 protectress 
 
 sorcerer 
 
 sorceress 
 
 executor 
 
 executrix 
 
 tutor 
 
 tutoress 
 
 testator 
 
 testatrix 
 
 instructor 
 
 instructress 
 
 elector 
 
 electress 
 
 traitor 
 
 traitress 
 
 administrator 
 
 administratrix 
 
 count 
 
 countess 
 
 
 
 2. In many instances, animals, with which we have most 
 frequent occasions to be conversant, have different words to 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 23 
 
 express the different sexes ; as, man and woman ; brother 
 and sister ; uncle and aunt ; son and daughter ; boy and 
 girl ; father and mother ; horse and mare ; bull and cow. 
 
 Man however is a general term for the whole race of 
 mankind ; so also, horse comprehends the whole species. 
 A law to restrain every man from an offence would compre- 
 hend women and boys ; and a law to punish a trespass com- 
 mitted by any horse, would comprehend all mares and colts. 
 In like manner, goose, though originally the name of the fe- 
 male, is used generally for the whole species ; as is the plural 
 tjcesc. 
 
 3. When words have no distinct termination for the female 
 sex, the sexes are distinguished by prefixing some word indi- 
 cating sex ; as, a male rabbit, a female opossum ; a he goat, 
 a she goat ; a man servant, a maid servant ; a male coquet ; a 
 female warrior ; a cock-sparrow, a hen-sparrow. 
 
 4. In all cases, when the sex is sufficiently indicated by a 
 separate word, names may be used to denote females with- 
 out a distinct termination. Thus, although females are rare- 
 ly soldiers, sailors, philosophers, mathematicians, or chimists, 
 and we seldom have occasion to say, she is a soldier, or an 
 astronomer; yet there is not the least impropriety in the 
 application of these names to females, when they possess the 
 requisite qualifications ; for the sex is clearly marked by the 
 word slie or female, or the appropriate name of the woman ; 
 as, " Joan of Arc was a warrior." " The Amazons were a 
 nation of female warriors." Ency. art. Amazons.* 
 
 5. Although the English language, is philosophically cor- 
 rect in considering things without life as of neither gender, 
 yet by an easy analogy, the imagination conceives of inani- 
 mate things as animated and distinguished by sex. On this 
 fiction, called personification, depends much of the descrip- 
 tive force and beauty of poetry. 
 
 " Indus or Ganges rolling his broad wave/' Akenside. 
 
 " There does the soul 
 Consent her soaring fancy to restrain." Ibm. 
 
 * The termination or in Latin is a contraction of ver, a man ; as er in 
 English is of wer, the same word in Saxon. But in common under- 
 standing, the idea of gender is hardly attached to these terminations ; for 
 we add cr to words to denote an agent without life ; as, grater, heater. 
 
24 AN IMPKOVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " Now morn, Tier rosy steps in th } eastern clime 
 Advancing " Milton, P. L. b. 5. 
 
 " The north-east spends his rage." Thomson. 
 
 * CASE. 
 
 Case in grammar denotes a variation of words to express 
 the relation of things to each other. In English, most of 
 the relations are expressed by separate words ; but the rela- 
 tion of property, ownership or possession, is expressed by 
 adding s to a name, with an apostrophy ; thus, John's book ; 
 which words are equivalent to " the book of John." This 
 is called the Possessive Case. In English therefore names 
 have two cases only, the nominative or simple name, and 
 the possessive. The nominative before a verb, and the ob- 
 jective after a verb, are not distinguished by inflections, and 
 are to be known only by position or the sense of the pas- 
 sage. 
 
 When the letter s, added as the sign of the possessive, 
 will coalesce with the name, it is pronounced in the same 
 syllable; as, John's. But if it will not coalesce, it adds a 
 syllable to the word ; as, Thomas's bravery, pronounced as 
 if written Thomasis the church's prosperity, churchis 
 prosperity. These examples show the impropriety of re- 
 trenching the vowel ; but it occasions no inconvenience to 
 natives. 
 
 When words end in es or ss, the apostrophy is added 
 without e ; as, on eagles' wings ; for righteousness' sake. 
 
 PRONOUNS OR SUBSTITUTES. 
 
 Substitutes or pronouns are of two kinds ; those which 
 are used in the place of the names of persons only, and may 
 be called personal; and those which represent names, at- 
 tributes, a sentence or part of a sentence, or a series of pro- 
 positions. 
 
 The pronouns which are appropriate to persons, are, I, 
 thou, you, he, she, we, ye, and who. 
 
 I is used by a speaker to denote himself, and is called the 
 jirst person of the singular number. 
 
 When a speaker includes othersxwith himself, he uses we. 
 This is the Jirst person of the plural number. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 25 
 
 Thou and you represent the person addressed tliou in 
 solemn discourse, and you, in common language.* These 
 are the second person. In the plural, ye is used in solemn 
 style, and you in familiar language. 
 
 He represents the name of a male, and she, that of a fe- 
 male, who is the subject of discourse, but not directly ad- 
 dressed. These are called the third person. 
 
 * As you was originally in the plural number, grammarians insist that 
 it must still be restricted to that number. But national usage rejects the 
 arbitrary principle. The true principle, on which all language is built, 
 rejects it. What fundamental rule have we to dispose of words, but this, 
 that when a word signifies one, or unity, it belongs to the singular num- 
 ber ? If a word, once exclusively plural, becomes, by universal use, the 
 sign of individuality , it must take its place in the singular number. That 
 this is a fact with you, is proved by national usage. To assign the sub- 
 stitute to its verb, is to invert the order of things. The verb must follow 
 its nominative if that denotes unity, so does the verb. 
 
 " When you was at Athens, you attended the schools of the philoso- 
 phers." Cicero, Tusc. Quest. Trans, b. 2. 
 
 " On that happy day when you was given to the world." Dodd's 
 Massillon, Serm. 1. 
 
 " Unless you was ill." BosweWs Life of J. JE. 68. 
 
 " You icas on the spot where your enemy was found killed." Gu- 
 thries Quinctilian } b. 2. 
 
 " You was in hopes to have succeeded to the inheritance." Ibm. b. 5. 
 
 " When you was here comforting me " Pope's Let. 
 
 " I am as well as when you was here." Gays Let to Swift. 
 
 " Why was you glad ?" BosweWs Life of Johnson. 
 
 These writers did not commit mistakes in the use of the verb after you 
 they wrote the language as established by national usage the founda- 
 tion of all language. So is the practice in the United States not mere- 
 ly popular usage, though this, when general, is respectable authority; 
 but the practice of men of letters. 
 
 " Where was you standing during the transaction ?" 
 " How far was you from the defendant ?" 
 
 "How far was you from the parties?" Judge Parker. Trial of 
 Self ridge, p. 58. 
 
 " Was you acquainted with the defendant at college ?" Mr. Dexter. 
 Jim. p. 60. 
 
 " Was you there when the pistol was fired?" Mr. Gore. Ibm. 60. 
 " Was you in the office?" Att. Gen. Ibm. 68.* 
 
 * This use of was is from the Gothic dialect ; but it is primitive and 
 correct. 
 
 3 
 
26 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 It is a substitute for the name of any thing of the neuter 
 gender in the third person, and for a sentence. 
 
 They is a substitute for the names of persons or things, 
 and forms the third person of the plural number. 
 
 Who is a relative or a personal pronoun, used to intro- 
 duce a new clause or affirmation into a sentence, which 
 clause has an immediate dependence on the preceding one.* 
 Who is also used to ask questions, and hence it is called an 
 interrogative. 
 
 Which is also a relative, but is of neuter gender. It is 
 also interrogative. 
 
 These pronouns have two cases ; the nominative which 
 precedes a verb, and the objective which follows it. They 
 are inflected in the following manner : 
 
 Sing. Plu. 
 
 Nominative . It we 
 Objective me us 
 
 Nom. - - - thou ye 
 Obj. - - - thee you 
 
 Nom. - - - you you 
 Obj. - - - you you 
 
 Nom. - - - he they 
 Obj. - - - him them 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Nom. - - she they 
 
 Obj. - - her them 
 
 Nom. - - it they 
 
 Obj. - - it them 
 
 Nom. - - who who 
 
 Obj. - - whom whom 
 
 NOTE. Mine, thine, his, hers, yours and theirs, are usually consid- 
 ered as the possessive case. But the three first are either attributes, 
 and used with nouns, or they are substitutes. The three last are always 
 substitutes, used in the place of names which are understood, as may be 
 seen in the note below.t 
 
 * Who is called a relative, because it relates to an antecedent. But 
 this is also true of he, she, they, and most of the substitutes. They all 
 relate to the words which they represent. 
 
 t Me is also used in the nominative, in popular practice it is me. 
 This is condemned as bad English ; but in reality is an original idiom of 
 the language, received from the primitive Celtic inhabitants of England 
 and France, in whose language mi was the nominative case of the first 
 personal pronoun. The French language retains the same word, from 
 the same original, in the phrase c'est moi it is I. 
 
 t That mine, thine, his, yours, hers and theirs, do not constitute a pos- 
 sessive case, is demonstrable ; for they are constantly used as the nom- 
 inatives to verbs, and as the objectives after verbs and prepositions, as in 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 27 
 
 Its and whose have a better claim to be considered as a possessive 
 case ', but as they equally well fall under the denomination of attributes, 
 1 have, for the sake of uniformity, assigned them a place with that part 
 of speech. 
 
 But it must be observed, that although it and who are real substitutes, 
 never united to names, like attributes it day who man ; yet its and 
 whose cannot be detached from a name expressed or implied ; as, its 
 shape its figure whose face whose works whose are they ? that is, 
 whose works ? These are therefore real attributes. 
 
 In the use of substitutes, it is to be remarked, that /, thou, 
 you, ye and we are generally employed without an antece- 
 dent name. -When / and the name of the person are both 
 employed, as they are in formal writings, oaths and the like, 
 
 the following passages : " Whether it could perform its operations of 
 thinking and memory out of a body organized as ours is. Locke, b. 2. 
 27. " In referring our ideas to those of other men called by the same 
 name, ours maybe false." " It is for no other reason but that his agrees 
 not with our ideas." Ibm. ch. 32. 9 and 10. 
 
 " You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was." Bacon. Unity 
 in Religion. 
 
 " He ran headlong into his own ruin whilst he endeavored to precip- 
 itate ours" Bolingbroke. Let. to Windham. 
 
 " The reason is, that his subject is generally things ; theirs, on the 
 contrary, is persons." Camp. Rhet. b. 1. ch. 10. 
 
 " Yours of the 26th Oct. I have received, as I have always done 
 yours, with no little satisfaction." Wycherley to Pope. 
 
 " Therefore leave your forest of beasts for ours of brutes, called men." 
 Ibm. 
 
 " These return so much better out of your hands than they went from 
 mine." Ibm. 
 
 " Your letter of the 20th of this month, like the rest of yours tells 
 me with so much more wit, sense and kindness than mine can express," 
 &c. Ibm. 
 
 " Having good works enough of your own besides to ensure yours 
 and their immortality." Ibm. 
 
 " The omission of repetitions is but one, and the easiest part of yours 
 and of my design." Pope to Wycherley. 
 
 " My sword and yours are kin." Shakspeare. 
 
 It is needless to multiply proofs. We observe these pretended pos- 
 sessives uniformly used as nominatives or objectives. To say that, in 
 these passages, ours, yours, theirs, and mine form a possessive case, is 
 to make the possessive perform the office of a nominative case to verbs, 
 and an objective case after verbs and prepositions a manifest solecism. 
 
 Should it be said that a noun is understood ; I reply, this cannot be 
 true, in regard to the grammatical construction : for supply the noun for 
 which the word is a substitute, and the pronoun must be changed into 
 
AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 lh- pronoun J.K (<!: tin- name ; as, "I, Richard Roc, of 
 I!-. Ion In null. ir |;III;MI;I;M-, i/ui/ and //v also |>ivrd<' the; 
 
 mm.:; JIM, " You,. loin. Dor, of New York." " We, Richard 
 !.,.-, HIM! .i,in. Doo, of Philadelphia." 
 
 J<>/' i ii-. '! hy writer; very indefinitely, as a suhst iluir lor 
 any j< r on who may rr.nl ihr work llir mind of the writer 
 i iii(i!'i ni n" a |MT:,OII addressed. 
 
 /// and I In- 1/ an ii ,,-i| 111 tin aim- indefinite manner; as, 
 " /// :<|<lom JiveH lue'ally, irlia lives hy r.haiir-. M lt Illess- 
 <!ll /ire ////// thai MIOIIMI, loi f/ni/ hall In- roinl'ortrd."' 
 
 /// .in.l //////, III nrli sriitriirr;;, ir|M--,rnl ailV jMTSOnS 
 who I ill \\illnii the ill* (|iicn! d< ,ci i|l inn. 
 
 \\'hn and irlnmi an a I \\ a \ 'til* lilnh ; for />rrstui* t and 
 iH-vn lot linn" . or hiiiti 1 1 /' piallv apphrahlr to 
 
 pOMOriH II lo ihuijfH.t 
 
 ,.,. ...l|. OtlV< \ "'" "I til- "Ml, ol < >, h.l.ri . I..T..I 
 
 ' In . ||.|( M .... ,1 I.. |.|.-, i|.il 
 
 Ili-il H. ! other 
 
 ,n.i 
 
 In iliMMi inKHi('N, junt quoted, the word //,.///.. in p.m. ,1 |.\- a 
 ' Ltm > tn NAinn OMO: " To ensure yawr* nn.l //., 
 
 .if,il,l,, ,. ,il -I rUfJ Ml.. I of ,;,// ,/<>/.;;, " \|\ 
 
 UK) </'"" "" lun \\ .11 MI.V | i .">, |.i, -l.-iul (hat tin- rollIK 
 h. i. jnitl .hll. I'iMil . anon f 
 
 1 I ...... n il' i lll"ll i r.|H.illv il.M i-.ivi- 'f III 
 
 > I pONNOMNlVPl, tllOtl the MUtte WOrd .i.lnnl <>l ' I \\ n (I ilfcr 
 
 > i n , I- M \\ r .1 \ ' "M ' I 1\ . ' ill i :ir.|U.nnlaii.-< . .(' , , . , 
 
 inu-',nt i/int'* t *~qf being tlf i"ti<>i HI,- p init H' tin- \\.u.ii 
 
 in Hi. , ii lit. -IK HIM .1 lu< I \\ " M.'tr. <>! Ih 
 
 t ii n, \\ hi. h 
 
 < '.nii|. Hi Ih. . \\ mil i \\ ill) a MUM.' in III,- |> 
 (H On M lull , in \ l.i I In i M IN Oh I i l.i ni I lofQ filth 9T '.-> 
 
 MIV.' riini' . lln' \\.-i.l fi.m-.r h. in.> n n.l.M -.! mnl . ami ihr tlildlllon l'llu' 
 n. .mi niiiKi'M (in all. i ih.-ii in Hi. ' iu\ f.itli 
 
 " in \ I .Hi. i . |I,<IIMH IK." 
 
 * Tin i.i. . 'iii|'-n i- \\ il h I hal 'l naiMi". \N . 
 
 ,.| Hi. I. IIIIF'H" Of A Kol.h. i .-I Hi. Iviin- M M.hh.-! 
 :. ,|.i .mil i ii. , , .1 \IMII :l< ijtiailllll 
 
 II '. , , , ill,, , II than lli.< 
 
 /../MI ,, I ,\\ III nl i.i . .'in I. iiiii-i Ih." u-^r l ;,-'.', -\, -. n\ l!u- n.Mitri . n 
 
 I III.' .1(1 II, I HI. I Mil, , I II. Ill,' I I. - 
 
 ii ,, /' . ;. Mill, "i an. I /./,/ ..-M ' I'ho i|Mi-.-<(ii|i <r'(.',v< Ni>luhi*M I \V 
 I, i\ , ).. in Ii air. I I,. lh.< I...M.MII .M ').' UMtl H * 
 
 n ,. i ,.i ih, pi iiuii 
 in wAi' ./wAn, yNAnl ; UM HAXOUN. : 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29 
 
 Whoever is often employed as the nominative to two 
 verbs ; as, " Whoever expects to find in the scriptures a spe- 
 cific direction for every moral doubt that arises, looks for 
 more than he will meet with." Paley, Phil. ch. 4. 
 
 Mine, thine and his are equally well used as substitutes, 
 or as attributes. " The silver is mine, and the gold is mine." 
 Hag. 2. 8. " The day is thine, the night also is thine" 
 I* 71. 16. "The Lord knoweth them that are his" % 
 Tun. 2. 19. In these examples, the words mine, thine, his, 
 may be considered as substitutes. " The silver is mine," 
 that ; ' '/. 
 
 In this character, the words usually follow the verb ; but 
 
 wln-n emphatical, they may pn-rrde it; as, "His will I be." 
 
 2 *SV////. Hi. I*. " Tli in' , < ) Lord, is the greatness, the pow- 
 
 nd the glory." 1 Ch. 20. 11. " Thine is tin kingdom. "* 
 
 These words are &100 D0ed as attributes of possession; as, 
 not inim- iM-mii's triumph." " So let thine enemies 
 h." " And Ahrain removed hit tent." Mine and thim 
 are however not thus used in familiar languago ; but in sol- 
 nun and el-vated style, ; til! u--d as attributes. 
 
 " Mine eyes beheld the messenger divine." Lusiad, b. 2. 
 
 ( Germans still use wer, icessen, wcm ; th<- Dutch. 
 
 i the Laws of IS </>tmus We have 
 
 i ir/mxr. From th.- tiiiu- of Numa, at least, this jri-mir 
 
 -r.v. ;tnd I hrh-v. n-mains SO, in ;ill .!' tin- 
 
 It is better classed with adjectives or attribute*}, lik< 
 * In a/ldi) dj ;.ll.- L r.'d, th.-.i th-M- words ;u,- m.t .1 
 
 possessive cao, id, we may 
 
 'lie passages used in ill. t< 
 
 the gold is ' ' th.Mn that areo/ 
 
 //////. ' is, ;IH lli.' prcNi'iit lurm of cxpK'h^H.n 
 
 (JJ\ in these expressions, would r;tth<-r imply proceeding from, 
 Besides, the same word-* admit f the possessive ; :n. " And 
 
 from mm.- nil. ii 
 i if his." /'.v :'.U I " 1!' lli.i' 
 
 th these sayin^M ' Muti 1 Win i. 
 
 ers mid in tli<- |..i--- .!." h. i< 
 
 TromStmiiel, u tl- m;i/i o) i lil. !. ili< 111 
 
 thy mt '-I' tin-in IJul in tin- |... ;.;- h.. m I 
 
 an'd M.-ittin-v.' tbft wordf" all ye saints of his," " th -i 
 
 niiml.i I I I 
 
 possible to r;olv; these passaged, willuint 
 
 lug as uht.itut/-H, in the tame cane, as the i. <i I" v i". I. H>< \ 
 
 *nt. 
 
30 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 There is another class of substitutes, which supply the place 
 of names, attributes, sentences or parts of a sentence. 
 
 It. 
 
 In the following sentence, it is the substitute for a name. 
 " The sun rules the day ; it illumines the earth ;" here it is 
 used for sun, to prevent a repetition of the word. 
 
 In the following passage, it has a different use : " The 
 Jews, it is well known, were at this time under the dominion 
 of the Romans." Porteus, Lect. 8. Here it represents the 
 whole of the sentence, except the clause in which it stands. 
 To understand this, let the order of the words be varied. 
 " The Jews were at this time under the dominion of the Ro- 
 mans, it [all that] is well known/' 
 
 " It is a testimony as glorious to his memory, as it is sin- 
 gular, and almost unexampled in his circumstances, that he 
 loved the Jewish nation, and that he gave a very decisive 
 proof of it, by building them a synagogue." Ibm. 
 
 To discover what is represented by the first it, we must 
 inquire, What is a glorious testimony? Why, clearly, that he 
 loved the Jewish nation, and gave them a decisive proof of it, 
 by building them a synagogue. It then is a substitute for 
 those clauses of the sentence. The second it refers to the 
 same clauses. In the latter part of the sentence, he gave a 
 magnificent proof of it of what ? of what is related in a pre- 
 ceding clause he loved the Jewish nation of that he gave 
 a decisive and magnificent proof. Here it represents that 
 member of the sentence. 
 
 " As for the pulling of them down, if the affairs require 
 it" Bacon on Ambition. Require what? "The pulling 
 of them down" for which part of the sentence it is a sub- 
 stitute. 
 
 " Shall worldly glory, impotent and vain, 
 That fluctuates like the billows of the main : 
 Shall this with more respect thy bosom move 
 Than zeal for crowns that never fade above ? 
 Avert it, heaven !" Hook's Tasso, 6. 5. 
 
 Avert what ? All that is expressed in the four preceding 
 lines, for all which it is a substitute. 
 
 " And how could he do this so effectually, as by perform- 
 ing works, which it utterly exceeded all the strength and 
 ability of men to accomplish." Porteus, Lect. 5. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 31 
 
 What utterly exceeded ? To what does it refer ? Let us 
 invert the order of the words " as by performing works, to 
 accomplish which exceeded all the strength of men." Here 
 we find to accomplish, a verb in the infinitive, is the nomina- 
 tive to exceeded, and for that verb, it is a substitute. 
 
 This inceptive use of it forms a remarkable idiom of our 
 language, and deserves more particular illustration. It stands 
 as the substitute for a subsequent member or clause of a sen- 
 tence, and is a sort of pioneer to smooth the way for the 
 verb. Thus, " It is remarkable, that the philosopher Seneca 
 makes use of the same argument." Porteus, Lect. 6. If 
 we ask, What is remarkable ? the answer must be, The fact 
 stated in the last clause of the sentence. That this is the 
 real construction, appears from a transposition of the clauses, 
 " The philosopher Seneca makes use of the same argument, 
 that is remarkable." In this order we observe the true use 
 of that, which is also a substitute for the preceding clause 
 of the sentence, and it becomes redundant. The use then 
 of the inceptive it, appears to be to enable us to begin a sen- 
 tence, without placing a verb as the introductory word ; and 
 by the use of it and that as substitutes for subsequent mem- 
 bers of the sentence, the order is inverted without occasion- 
 ing obscurity. 
 
 It is to be noticed also that this neuter substitute it, is 
 equally proper to begin sentences, when the name of a per- 
 son is afterwards used ; as, " It was John who exhibited such 
 powers of eloquence." But if we transpose the words, and 
 place who or that, the substitute which begins a new clause, 
 next after the inceptive word, we must use he for the incep- 
 tive " He, who or that exhibited such powers of elgquence, 
 was John." 
 
 In interrogative sentences, the order of words is changed, 
 and it follows the verb. Who is it that has been thus elo- 
 quent ? 
 
 There is a sentence in Locke, in which the inceptive it, is 
 omitted, " Whereby comes to pass, that, as long as any un- 
 easiness remains in the mind." B. ch. 21. In strictness, this 
 is not a defective sentence, for that may be considered as the 
 nominative to comes Whereby that comes to pass which 
 follows. Or the whole subsequent sentence may be consid- 
 ered as the nominative for all that comes to pass. But 
 the use of the inceptive it is so fully established as the true 
 idiom of language, that its omission is not to be vindicated. 
 
32 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 This and that, these and those. 
 
 This and that are either definite attributes or substitutes. 
 As attributes, they are used to specify individuals, and dis- 
 tinguish them from others ; as, " This my son was dead and 
 is alive again. " " Certainly this was a righteous man." " The 
 end of that man is peace." " Woe to that man by whom the 
 Son of man is betrayed." This and that have plurals, these 
 and those. 
 
 The general distinction between this and that, is, this de- 
 notes an object to be present or near in time or place ; that, 
 to be absent. But this distinction is not always observed. 
 In correspondence however with this distinction, when, in 
 discourse, two things are mentioned, this and these refer to 
 the last named, or nearest in the order of construction ; that 
 and those to the most distant ; as, 
 
 " Self-love and reason to one end aspire, 
 
 Pain their aversion, pleasure their desire ; 
 
 But greedy that [self love] its object would devour, 
 
 This [reason] taste the honey and not wound the flower." 
 
 Pope. 
 " Some place the bliss in action, some in ease, 
 
 Those call it pleasure, and contentment these" Ibm. 
 
 The poets sometimes contrast these substitutes in a simi- 
 lar manner, to denote individuals acting or existing in de- 
 tached parties ; or to denote the whole acting in various ca- 
 pacities ; as, 
 
 " 'Twas war no more, but carnage through the field, 
 Those lift their sword, and these their bosoms yield." 
 
 Hook's Tasso, b. 20". 
 
 "Nor less the rest, the intrepid chief retain'd ; 
 These urged by threats, and those by force constraint." 
 
 Ibm. 
 
 There is a peculiarity in the use of that ; for when it is an 
 attribute, it is always in the singular number ; but as a sub- 
 stitute for persons or things, it is plural as well as singular ; 
 and is used for persons as well as things more frequently than 
 any word in the language ; as, 
 
 " I knew a man that had it for a by-word, when he saw 
 men hasten to a conclusion, ' Stay a little, that we may make 
 an end the sooner.' " Bacon on Dispatch. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 33 
 
 Here that is the representative of man, and it stands for the 
 last clause of the sentence or by-word. 
 
 " Let states that aim at greatness take heed how their no- 
 hility and gentlemen multiply too fast. 7 ' Bacon. 
 
 Here that is a substitute for a plural name. So also in the 
 following. " They that are whole need not a physician, but 
 they that are sick." " They that had eaten were about four 
 thousand" " they that are in the flesh" " they that weep" 
 " bless them that curse you." 
 
 Another very common use of this and that, is to represent 
 a sentence or part of a sentence ; as, 
 
 "It is seldom known that, authority thus acquired is pos- 
 sessed without insolence, or that, the master is not forced to 
 confess that, he has enslaved himself by some foolish confi- 
 dence." Rambler, No. 68. 
 
 In this sentence, the first that represents the next mem- 
 ber " Authority thus acquired is possessed without inso- 
 lence, that is seldom known ;" it represents the same clause. 
 The second that represents all which follows, including two 
 clauses or members ; the third that is the substitute for the 
 last clause. In strictness, the comma ought always to be 
 placed after that ; which punctuation would elucidate the 
 use of the substitute and the true construction ; but the prac- 
 tice is otherwise ; for* that, in this and like sentences, is 
 either a nominative or an objective. The first that in the 
 foregoing sentence is the nominative, coinciding with it, or 
 in apposition to it ; and when the clauses are transposed, 
 the inceptive it, being redundant, is dropped, -, and that be- 
 comes the nominative. The same remark is applicable to 
 the second that ; the verb and first clause, it is seldom known, 
 being understood. The third that is the objective after con- 
 fess. " The master has enslaved himself by some foolish 
 confidence he is forced to confess that all that is seldom 
 known." 
 
 Such is the true construction of sentences the definitive 
 that, instead of being a conjunction, is the representative of 
 a sentence or distinct clause, preceding that clause, and 
 pointing the mind to it, as the subject which follows. And it 
 is as definite or demonstrative in this application to sentences, 
 as when it is applied to a name or noun. 
 
 The following sentence will exhibit the true use of that 
 as a substitute : "He recited his former calamities ; to which 
 
34 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 was now to be added that he was the destroyer of the man 
 who had expiated him." Beloe's Herodotus, Clio, 45. 
 
 According to our present grammars, that is a conjunction ; 
 if so, the preceding verb was, has no nominative word. But 
 the sense is, " to which was to be added that" which is re- 
 lated in the following words. 
 
 The use and importance of this substitute are more clearly 
 manifest, when it denotes purpose or effect ; as in this pas- 
 sage, " And he came and dwelt in a city called Nazareth; 
 that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophets, 
 He shall be called a Nazarene." Matt. 2. 23. Here that is 
 equivalent to that purpose or effect. He came and dwelt in 
 Nazareth, for the purpose expressed in what follows. It and 
 which represent the last clause in the sentence " He shall 
 be called a Nazarene." The excellence and utility of sub- 
 stitutes and abbreviations are strikingly illustrated by this use 
 of that. 
 
 This substitute has a similar use in this introductory sen- 
 tence, That we may proceed that here refers to the fol- 
 lowing words. The true construction is, But that we may 
 proceed but, as will hereafter be shown, denoting supply 
 or something more or further ; so that the literal interpreta- 
 tion of the expression is More that, or further that, we may 
 proceed. It is the simple mode our ancestors used to ex- 
 press addition to what has preceded, Equivalent to the mod- 
 ern phrase ; let us add, or we may add what follows, by 
 way of illustrating or modifying the sense of what has been 
 related. 
 
 That, like who and which, has a connecting power, which 
 has given to these words the name of relative; in which char- 
 acter, it involves one member of a sentence within another, 
 by introducing a new verb ; as, " He, that keepeth his mouth, 
 keepeth his life." Prov. 13. 3. In this passage, that keepeth 
 liis mouth, is a new affirmation, interposed between the first 
 nominative and its verb ; but dependant on the antecedent 
 nominative. 
 
 " The poor of the flock, that waited upon me, knew that 
 it was the word of the Lord." Zecli. 11. 11. In this passage, 
 we have that in both its characters the first that is a substi- 
 tute for poor of the flock ; the second, for the last clause of 
 the sentence, it was the word of the Lord. 
 
 This exposition of the uses of that enables us to understand 
 the propriety of that that joined in construction. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 35 
 
 "Let me also tell you that, that faith, which proceeds 
 from insufficient or bad principles, is but little better than 
 infidelity." In this passage, the first that is a substitute for 
 the whole subsequent part of the sentence ; the second that 
 is an attribute agreeing with faith " That faith which pro- 
 ceeds from bad principles is little better than infidelity let 
 me tell you that." Hence it might be well always to sepa- 
 rate the two words by a comma. We now distinguish these 
 words by a stronger emphasis on the last. 
 
 " He, whom thou now hast, is not thy husband ; in that 
 saidst thou truly." John 4. 16. That is, in that whole 
 declaration. 
 
 From these passages and the explanation, we learn that 
 that is a substitute either for a single word or a sentence ; 
 nor has it any other character, except when an attribute. 
 
 This is much less frequently a substitute for sentences 
 than that; but is used in this character, as well as in that of 
 an attribute ; as, " Let no prince measure the danger of dis- 
 contents by this, whether they be just or unjust ; for that 
 were to imagine people to be reasonable, who do often spurn 
 at their own good ; nor yet by this, whether the griefs where- 
 upon they rise be in fact great or small" 
 
 Bacon on Kingdoms. 
 
 Here this, in each part of the sentence, is the representa- 
 tive of the clause in italics succeeding. 
 
 " Can we suppose that all the united powers of hell are 
 able to work such astonishing miracles, as were wrought for 
 the confirmation of the Christian religion ? Can we suppose 
 that they can control the laws of nature at pleasure, and that 
 with an air of sovereignty, and professing themselves the 
 lords of the universe, as we know Christ did ? If we can 
 believe this, then we deny," &/c. We observe, here, this 
 represents a series of sentences. 
 
 In some cases, this represents a few words only in a pre- 
 ceding sentence, as in the following " The rule laid down 
 is in general certain, that the king only can convoke a par- 
 liament. And this by the ancient statutes of the realm, he 
 is bound to do, every year, or oftener, if need be." Blacks. 
 Comment. B. 1. ch. 2. 
 
 If we ask, What is the king bound to do ? the answer 
 must be, Convoke a parliament ; for which words alone this 
 is the substitute, and governed by do. 
 
36 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 The plurals these and those, are rarely or never used as 
 substitutes for sentences. 
 
 Which. 
 
 WJiich is also a substitute for a sentence, or part of a 
 sentence, as well as for a single word ; as, " if there can be 
 any other way shown, how men may come to that universal 
 agreement, in the things they do consent in, which I presume 
 may be done." Locke on Und. B. 1. 2. 
 
 Which, in this passage, represents all which precedes 
 which or all that is above related, may be done. 
 
 " Another reason that makes me doubt of any innate prac- 
 tical principles, is, that I think there cannot any one moral 
 rule be proposed, whereof a man may not justly demand a 
 reason ; which would be perfectly ridiculous and absurd, if 
 they were innate, or so much as self-evident, which every 
 innate principle must needs be." Ibm. chap. 3. 
 
 In this passage, the first which represents the next prece- 
 ding part of the sentence, a man may justly demand a reason 
 which power of demanding a reason would be ridiculous. 
 The second which is a substitute for self-evident ; which, that 
 is, self-evident, every principle must be. 
 
 " Judas declared him innocent, which he could not be, had 
 he, in any respect, deceived the disciples/' Porteus, Lect. 
 2. Here which represents the attribute innocent. 
 
 That would equally well represent the same word, with a 
 connective. " Judas declared him innocent, and that he 
 could not be," &/c. 
 
 " We shall find the reason of it to be the end of language, 
 which being to communicate thoughts" that is, end of lan- 
 guage ; and for those words, is which the substitute. 
 
 What. 
 
 This substitute has several uses. First it has the sense 
 of that which; as, " I have heard what has been alleged." 
 
 Secondly What stands for any indefinite idea; as, " He 
 cares not what he says or does." " We shall the better know 
 what to undertake." Locke on Und. 1. 6. 
 
 Thirdly W/iat is an attribute, either in the singular or 
 plural number, and denotes something uncertain or indeter- 
 minate ; as, " In what character, Butler was admitted into 
 that lady's service, is unknown." Johnson's Life of Butler. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 37 
 
 " It is not material what names are assigned to them." 
 
 Camp. Rhet. 1.1. 
 
 " I know not what impressions time may have made upon 
 your person." Life of Cowp. Let. 27. 
 
 " To see what are the causes of wrong judgment." 
 
 Locke, 2. 21. 
 
 Fourthly WJiat is used by the poets preceding a name, 
 for the or that which, but its place cannot be supplied by 
 these words, without a name between them ; as, 
 
 " Wliat time the sun withdrew his cheerful light, 
 And sought the sable caverns of the night." 
 
 Hook's Tasso, b. 7. 
 That is, at the time when or in which. 
 
 Fifthly A principal use of what is to ask questions; as, 
 "What will be the consequence of the revolution in 
 France ?" 
 
 This word has the singular property of containing two cases ; 
 that is, it performs the office of a word in the nominative, and 
 of another in the objective case ; as, " I have, in what goes 
 before, been engaged in physical inquiries farther than I in- 
 tended." Locke, 2. 8. Here what contains the object after 
 in, and the nominative to goes. 
 
 What is used with a name as an attribute and a substi- 
 tute ; as, " It was agreed that what goods were aboard his 
 vessels, should be landed." Mickle's Discovery of India, 
 89. Here what goods are equivalent to the goods which ; 
 for, what goods include the nominative to two verbs, were 
 and should be landed. This use of the word is not deemed 
 elegant. 
 
 As. 
 
 As primarily signifies like, similar; the primary sense of 
 which is even, equal. It is used adverbially in the phrases, 
 as good, as great, as probable. The sense of which is, like 
 or equally good, great or probable. Hence it frequently fol- 
 lows such. " Send him such books as will please him." 
 But in this and similar phrases, as must be considered as the 
 nominative to will please; or we must suppose an ellipsis of 
 several words. "Send him such books as the books which 
 will please him, or as those which will please him." So in 
 the following sentences : 
 4 
 
38 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " We have been accustomed to repose on its veracity with 
 such humble confidence as suppresses curiosity." 
 
 Johnson's Life of Cowley. 
 
 <f All the punishment which God is concerned to see in- 
 flicted on sin, is only such as answers the ends of govern- 
 ment." 
 
 " Many wise men contented themselves with such proba- 
 ble conclusions, as were sufficient for the. practical purposes 
 of life." EnfieU, Hist. Phil 2. 11. 
 
 " The malcontents made such demands as none but a ty- 
 rant could refuse. 3 ' BoUngbroJce on Hist. Let 7. 
 
 In the last example, if as is to be considered as a pronoun 
 or substitute, it is in the objective case. 
 
 These and similar phrases are anomalous; and we can 
 resolve them only by supplying the ellipsis, or by considering 
 as in the nature of a pronoun, and the nominative to the 
 verb. 
 
 In the following form of expression, we may supply it for 
 the nominative : " Do every thing as was said about mercu- 
 ry and sulphur." Encyc. 
 
 " As it was said." 
 
 In poetry, as supplies the place of such, or such as. 
 
 " From whence might contest spring and mutual rage, 
 As would the camp in civil broils engage." 
 
 Hook's Tasso. 
 
 In prose, we should say, " such contest and rage as. :) 
 
 As sometimes refers to a sentence or member of a sen- 
 tence, and sometimes its place may be supplied by which. 
 "On his return to Egypt, as I learned from the same au- 
 thority, he levied a mighty army." Beloc, Herod. 
 
 Which I learned. " On his return to Egypt, he levied a 
 mighty army, which [fact] I learned from the same authority." 
 
 As often begins a sentence. " As to the three orders of 
 pronouns already mentioned, they may be called pre-positive, 
 as may indeed all substantives." Harris. That is, con- 
 cerning, respecting the three orders, or to explain that which 
 respects the three orders, &c. 
 
 Both. 
 
 Both is an adjective of number ; but it is a substitute also 
 for names, sentences, parts of sentences, and for attributes. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. OV 
 
 " Abraham took sheep and oxen, and gave them to Abime- 
 lech, and both of them made a covenant." 
 
 Genesis, 21. 27. 
 
 Here both is the representative of Abraham and Abime- 
 lech. 
 
 " If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the ditch." 
 
 Matt. 15. 14. 
 
 " A certain creditor had two debtors and when they had 
 nothing to pay, he frankly forgave them both." Luke 7. 
 
 " He will not bear the loss of his rank, because he can 
 bear the loss of his estate ; but he will bear both y because he 
 is prepared for both." Boling. on Exile. 
 
 In the last example, both represents the parts of the sen- 
 tence in italics. 
 
 When it represents two attributes, it may and usually does 
 precede them ; as, " he endeavored to render commerce 
 both disadvantageous and infamous." Mickle,p. 159. 
 
 As an attribute, it has a like position before names; as, 
 
 " Tousa confessed he had saved both his life and his honor/' 
 
 Ibm. 160. 
 
 " It is both more accurate, and proves no inconsiderable 
 aid to the right understanding of things, to discriminate by 
 different signs such as are truly different." 
 
 Campbell's Rhet. 1. 33. 
 
 In this passage, both represents more accurate, and the 
 following member of the sentence ; but the construction is 
 harsh. 
 
 " The necessity which a speaker is under, of suiting him- 
 self to his audience, both that he may be understood by them, 
 and that his words may have an influence upon them." 
 Camp. Rhet. Ch. 10. 
 
 Here both represents the two following clauses of the sen- 
 tence. The definitive the is placed between both and its 
 noun ; as, " To both the preceding kinds, the term burlesque 
 is applied." Camp. Rhet. 1. 2. 
 
 Same. 
 
 The adjective same is often used as a substitute for per- 
 sons and sentences or parts of a sentence ; as, "Nothing ap- 
 pears so clearly an object of the mind or intellect only, as 
 
40 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 the future does, since we can find no place for its existence 
 any where else. Not but the same, if we consider, is equal- 
 ly true of the past." Hermes, p. 112. 
 
 In this ill-constructed sentence, same has reference to all 
 which is predicated of the future tense that is, that it is an 
 object of intellect only, since we canjind no place for its ex- 
 istence any where else The same, all this, is true of the 
 past also. 
 
 " For brave and generous ever are the same." Lusiad. 1. 
 Many, few, all, any. 
 
 These words we often find used as substitutes for names ; 
 " For many shall come in my name, saying, I am Christ, 
 and shall deceive many." Matt. 24. 5. " Many are called, 
 but few chosen." 20. 16. " All that come into the tent, and 
 all that is in the tent, shall be unclean seven days." Num. 
 19. 14. " If a soul shall sin against any of the command- 
 ments." Lev. 4. 2. " Neither is there any, that can de- 
 liver out of my hand." Deut. 32, 39. 
 
 First, last, former, latter, less, least, more, most y 
 are often used as substitutes. 
 
 "The victor's laurel, as the martyr's crown, 
 Thejirst I hope, nor less the last I prize." 
 
 Hook's Tasso, 6. 8. 
 
 " The last shall be first, and the Jirst last. Matt. 20. 16. 
 
 " It will not be amiss to inquire into the cause of this 
 strange phenomenon ; that, even a man of discernment should 
 write without meaning, and not be sensible that he hath no 
 meaning ; and that judicious people should read what hath 
 been written in this way, and not discover the defect. Both 
 are surprising, but the Jirst much more than the last." Camp. 
 Rhet. 2. 7. 
 
 Here both represents the two clauses of the sentence, pre- 
 ceded by that both of those propositions are surprising. 
 First and last stand in the place of the same clauses. 
 
 " Sublimity and vehemence are often confounded, the lat* 
 ter being considered as a species of the former." Camp. 
 Rhet. 1.1. 
 
 Here latter and former are used for names which are near 
 in construction, and no obscurity is occasioned by the sub- 
 stitutes. But these words, when placed far from the words 
 which they represent, obscure the sense, and compel the 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 41 
 
 reader to peruse a sentence the second time, which is always 
 a fault in style. For example : " As to the ^Etolian, it is 
 frequently confounded with the Doric ; and as this union 
 takes place also in other essential points, it is only between 
 the Dorians and lonians that a kind of parallel can be drawn. 
 This I -shall not undertake to perform ; I shall only make 
 one general observation ; the manners of the former have 
 ever been severe, and the characteristics of their architect- 
 ure, language and poetry, are grandeur and simplicity. The 
 latter more early made a progress in refinement." Anarch, 
 ch. 72. 
 
 In every jcase, where the antecedent word or sentence is 
 not obvious, so that the mind instantly applies the substitute 
 to its principal, the use of a substitute is a fault. For exam- 
 ple : " When a speaker addresseth himself to the understand- 
 ing, he proposes the instruction of his hearers, and that by 
 explaining some doctrine unknown or not distinctly compre- 
 hended by them, or by proving some position disbelieved or 
 doubted by them. In other words, he proposes to dispel ig- 
 norance or to vanquish error. In the one, his aim is their 
 information; in the other, their conviction. Accordingly, the 
 predominant quality of the former is perspicuity ; of the latter, 
 argument. By that, we are made to know ; by this, to be- 
 lieve." Camp. Rhet. 6. 1. ch. 1. 
 
 To what antecedent words or clauses, do all these substi- 
 tutes refer ? In the one and the other what ? Doubtless, the 
 antecedents must be the two parts of the sentences, beginning 
 with, by explaining and by proving. That is, in explaining 
 an unknown doctrine, his aim is instruction in proving a 
 doubted point, his aim is conviction. The predominant 
 quality of the former former what ? unquestionably, the 
 same sentences are the antecedents to the former and latter. 
 These words cannot refer to information and conviction ; for 
 although perspicuity may be predicated of information, yet it 
 cannot be a predominant quality of it ; and argument cannot 
 be predicated of conviction. But the whole passage is per- 
 plexed and obscure.* 
 
 * This criticism is the more necessary, as the use of 'former and latter 
 in our best writers, is indulged to a fault. There are few places in which 
 it is not better to repeat the antecedents than to use former and latter. 
 The injudicious use of these and other substitutes is a great blemish in 
 Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric. 
 4 # 
 
AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " Leonis refused to go thither with less than the appoint- 
 ed equipment." Mickle, 1. 181. Here less supplies the 
 place of equipment, and prevents the necessity of its repe- 
 tition. 
 
 :< To the relief of these, Noronha sent some supplies, but 
 while he was preparing to send more, an order from Portugal 
 arrived." Mickle, 1. 180. 
 
 Here more is sufficiently intelligible without a repetition of 
 the name supplies. 
 
 " And the children of Israel did so, and gathered, some 
 more, some, less." Exod. 16. 17. 
 
 " I cannot go beyond the word of the Lord, my God, to do 
 less or more. Numb. 22. 18. 
 
 " Then began he to upbraid the cities wherein most of his 
 mighty works were done/' Matt. 11. 20. 
 
 " Was not this love indeed ? 
 We men say more, swear more, but indeed 
 Our shews are more than will." Shaks. Twelfth Night. 
 
 Such. 
 
 " Jabal was the father of such as dwelt in tents." Gen. 4. 
 
 " Thou shalt provide able men, such as fear God." Ex. 18. 
 
 " Objects of importance must be portrayed by objects of 
 importance ; such as have grace, by things graceful." Camp 
 Rhet. 1. 2. 
 
 Such here supplies the place of a name or noun, but it re- 
 tains its attributive sense, and the name may be added. 
 
 Self and own. 
 
 Self is said to have been originally an attribute ; but is 
 now used as an intensive word to give emphasis to substi- 
 tutes and attributes.* Sometimes it is used as a noun. In 
 the plural, it forms selves. It is added to the attributes my, 
 your, own ; as, myself, yourself,t ourselves ; and to him, her, 
 
 * SeZf has the force of the Latin ipse, and was in Saxon, added to all 
 cases ; he-self, his-self, him-self. So in Latin tu, te, ipse, was used in 
 the nominative. 
 
 t In this compound, we have a strong confirmation of what I have al- 
 ledged respecting the arrangement of you in the singular number, when 
 used of a single person. Self is invariably in the singular selves in 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 43 
 
 them ; as, himself, herself, themselves. And though annexed 
 to substitutes in the objective case, these words are indiffer- 
 ently in the nominative or objective. Self is never added to 
 his, their, mine, or thine. 
 
 The compounds himself, herself, thyself, ourselves, them- 
 selves, may be placed immediately after the personal substi- 
 tute ; as, He himself wrote a letter to the minister ; or immedi- 
 ately after the following verb or its object ; as, " He wrote a 
 letter himself," " he went himself 'to the admiralty." In such 
 phrases, himself not only gives emphasis to the affirmation, 
 but gives to an implied negative, the force of one expressed, 
 " He went himself to the minister," carries with it a direct 
 negation that another person went. In negative sentences, it 
 has a different effect. " He did not write the letter himself,' 1 
 implies strongly that he wrote it by an agent, or had an agency 
 in procuring it to be written. 
 
 These compound substitutes are used after verbs when re- 
 ciprocal action is expressed ; as, " They injure themselves." 
 
 Itself is added to names for emphasis; "this is the book 
 itself." 
 
 Own is an attribute denoting property, used with names to 
 render the sense emphatical ; as, " this book is my own.' 1 ' 
 
 Own is sometimes a substitute ; as, " He came unto his 
 own, ami his own received him not." John 1. 11. 
 " This is an invention of his oivn." 
 
 One, other, another, none. 
 
 The attribute one is very often a substitute other is used 
 in the same manner, and often opposed to one. " All ration- 
 al or deductive evidence is derived from one or the other of 
 these two sources." Camp. Rhet. ch. 5. To render these 
 words more definite, and the specification of the alternative 
 
 the plural. Now if you is to be classed with plurals in all cases, we 
 must, to be consistent, apply yourselves to a single person. Yet we 
 make the proper distinction yourself is applied to one person your- 
 selves to more. But upon the principle of our grammars, that you must 
 always be joined to a verb in the plural, we are under the necessity of 
 saying, " You yourself were," when we address a single person which 
 is false construction. Whatever verb therefore is used with you when 
 applied to an individual, it must be considered as a verb in the singular 
 number. 
 
44 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 more explicit, the definitive the is placed before them ; as, 
 " either he will hate the one, and love the other." 
 
 Another has sometimes a possessive case ; as, " the horse is 
 another's;" but this form of speech is but little used. 
 
 Another is the Saxon an, one, and other one other. It is 
 an attribute ; but often used as a substitute. " Let another 
 praise thee, and not thine own mouth." Prov. 27. 2. 
 
 None [no one] is often a substitute ; as, " Ye shall lie 
 down and none shall make you afraid." Lev. 26. 6. It is 
 used in the plural as well as the singular number. 
 
 The cardinal numbers are all used as substitutes, when 
 the things to which they refer are understood by the train of 
 discourse, and no ambiguity is created by the omission of the 
 name ; as, " The rest of the people also cast lots, to bring one 
 of ten to dwell in Jerusalem." Neh. 11. 1. 
 
 One has sometimes the possessive form ; " One's person 
 is to be protected by law ;" and frequently the plural num- 
 ber ; as, " I have commanded my sanctified ones, and I have 
 called my mighty ones" Isa. 13. 9. 
 
 One, when contrasted with other, sometimes represents 
 plural names, and is joined with a plural verb, as in this pas- 
 sage; "-The reason why the one are ordinarily taken for 
 real qualities, and the other, only for bare powers, seems to 
 be," &LC. Locke, b. 2. ch. 8. 25. 
 
 One and another have a peculiar distributive use in the 
 following and the like expressions; " Brethren, let us love 
 one another." The effect of these words seems to be, to 
 separate an act affirmed of a number collectively, and distri- 
 bute it among the several individuals " Let us love let 
 each one love the other." " If ye have love one to another" 
 " by love serve one another." One another, in this phrase- 
 ology, have the comprehensive sense of every one. " By 
 love serve" every one serve the other. Each is used in a 
 like sense They love each other that is they love each 
 love the other. 
 
 Several 
 
 Several is an attribute, denoting originally one thing sev- 
 ered from others. But this sense seems to be now confined 
 to technical law language ; as, " a joint and several estate.' 1 
 In common use, it is always plural, expressive of an indefi- 
 nite number, not very large. It is frequently a substitute ; 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 45 
 
 as, "Several of my unknown correspondents." Spectator, 
 281. 
 
 Some. 
 
 The attribute some is often used as a substitute ; as, " Some 
 talk of subjects they do not understand ; others praise virtue 
 who do not practice it." Johnson. 
 
 Each, every, either, neither. 
 
 Each is a distributive attribute, used to denote every indi- 
 vidual of a number, separately considered ; as, " The king of 
 Israel and the king of Judah sat each on his throne." " Thou 
 also and Aaron, take each of you his censer." " The four 
 beasts had each of them six wings." 
 
 In these passages, each is a substitute for the name of the 
 persons or objects, one separate from the other.* 
 
 Every denotes all the individuals of a number considered 
 separately ; it is therefore a distributive attribute, but some- 
 times a substitute, chiefly in the law style ; as, " every of the 
 clauses and conditions." It is generally followed by the name 
 to which it belongs, or by the cardinal number one. 
 
 We sometimes see every separated from its name by the 
 definitive the and an attribute of the superlative degree ; as, 
 " every the least variation." Locke. 
 
 Either and neither are usually classed with the conjunctions ; but in 
 strictness, they are always attributes or substitutes. Their correlatives 
 or and nor, though considered as conjunctions, belong to the latter class 
 of words or being merely an abbreviation of other, and nor being the 
 same word with the Saxon negative prefixed, as will be hereafter shown. 
 
 Either and or denote an alternative ; as, " I will take either 
 road at your pleasure." That is, I will take one road or the 
 other. In this use, either is an attribute. 
 
 Either is also a substitute for a name ; as, " Either of the 
 roads is good." It also represents a sentence or a clause 
 of a sentence ; as, " No man can serve two masters, for ei- 
 ther he will hate the one and love the other, or else," &>c. 
 Matt. 6. 2. To understand the true import of either, let or 
 be also reduced back to its original orthography ; " for either 
 he will hate the one and love the other ; other else he will 
 
 * Each is as applicable to a hundred or thousand as to two. " The 
 prince had a body-guard of a thousand men, each of whom was six feet 
 high," 
 
46 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 hold to the one and despise the other." Here we are pre- 
 sented with the sentence as it would have stood in the Saxon ; 
 and we see two distinct affirmations, to the first of which is 
 prefixed either, and to the last other. These words then are 
 substitutes for the following sentences, when they are intended 
 to be alternative. Either and or are therefore signs of an 
 alternative, and may be called alternatives. 
 
 Either is used also for each; as, " Two thieves were cru- 
 cified on either side one." This use of the word is con- 
 stantly condemned by critics, and as constantly repeated by 
 good writers ; but it was the true original sense of the word, 
 as appears by every Saxon author. 
 
 Either is used also to represent an alternative of attri- 
 butes ; as, " the emotion must be cither , not violent or not 
 durable.^ Camp. Rhet. 1. 2. 
 
 Neither is not cither, from the Saxon ne-either ; and nor 
 is ne-other, not other. As either and or present an alterna- 
 tive or a choice of two things ; so neither and nor deny both 
 or the whole of any number of particulars ; as, " Fight neither 
 with small nor great." 1 Kings, 22. 31. Which sentence, 
 when resolved, stands thus ; " Fight not either with small, not 
 other with great." Such is the curious machinery of lan- 
 guage ! 
 
 Neither is also used as an attribute and as a substitute for 
 a name ; as, " Neither office is filled, but neither of the of- 
 fices will suit the candidate." 
 
 NOTE. Or, either, nor and neither, are here explained in their true 
 original character ; but when they stand for sentences, it is more natu- 
 ral to consider them as connectives, under which head I have arranged 
 them. 
 
 In general, any attribute [adjective] which describes per- 
 sons or things with sufficient clearness, without the name to 
 which it strictly belongs, may be used as a substitute ; as, 
 " The rich have many friends" " Associate with the wise 
 and good" " The future will resemble the past" " Such is 
 the opinion of the learned." 
 
 ATTRIBUTES OR ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Adjectives in grammar are words which denote the quali- 
 ties inherent in, or ascribed to things, or defining them ; as, 
 a bright sun ; a splendid equipage ; a miserable hut ; a mag- 
 nificent house ; an honest man ; an amiable woman ; liberal 
 charity ; false honor ; a quiet conscience. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 47 
 
 As qualities may exist in different degrees, which may be 
 compared with each other, suitable modes of speech are de- 
 vised to express these comparative degrees. In English, 
 most attributes admit of three degrees of comparison, and a 
 few admit of four. There are therefore four degrees of 
 comparison. 
 
 The first denotes a slight degree of the quality, and is ex- 
 pressed by the termination isTi; as, reddish, brownish, yel- 
 lowish. This may be denominated the imperfect degree of 
 the attribute. 
 
 The second denotes such a degree of the attribute as to 
 constitute an absolute or distinct quality ; as, red, brown, 
 tfrrat, small, brave, wise,. This is called the positive degree. 
 
 The third denotes a greater or less degree of a quality, 
 than exists in another object, with which it is compared ; as, 
 greater, smaller, braver, wiser. This is called the compara- 
 tive degree. 
 
 The fourth denotes the utmost or least degree of a quali- 
 ty ; as, bravest, wisest, poorest, smallest. This "is called the 
 superlative degree. 
 
 The imperfect degree is formed by adding ish to an attri- 
 bute ; as, yellow, yellowish. If the attribute ends in e, this 
 vowel is omitted ; as white, whitish. 
 
 The comparative degree is formed by adding r to adjec- 
 tives ending with e ; as, wise, wiser and by adding er to 
 words ending with a consonant ; as, cold, colder or by pre- 
 fixing more or /ess ; as, more just, less noble. 
 
 The superlative degree is formed by adding st to attri- 
 butes ending with e; as, wise, zvisest and est to those 
 which end with a consonant ; as, cold, coldest or by prefix- 
 ing most and least ; as, most brave, least charitable. 
 
 Every attribute susceptible of comparison, may be com- 
 pared by more and most, less and least. 
 
 All monosyllables admit of er and est, and dissyllables 
 when the addition may be easily pronounced ; as, happy, 
 happier, happiest ; lofty, loftier, loftiest. But few words of 
 more syllables than one will admit of er and est. Hence 
 most attributes of more syllables than one are compared by 
 more and most, less and least ; as, more fallible, most up- 
 right, less generous, least splendid. 
 
 When attributes end in y after a consonant, this letter is 
 dropped, and i substituted before er and est; as, lofty, loft- 
 ier, loftiest. 
 
48 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 A few attributes have different words or irregular termi- 
 nations for expressing the degrees of comparison ; as, good, 
 better, best; bad or evil, ivorse, worst ; fore, former, first ; 
 little, less or lesser, least; much, more, most; near, near- 
 er, nearest or next; old, older, oldest or eldest ; late, later, 
 latest or last. 
 
 When qualities are incapable of increase or diminution, 
 the words which express them do not admit of comparison. 
 Such are the numerals, first, second, third, &/c., attributes of 
 mathematical figures, as square, spherical, rectangular for 
 it will readily appear, that if a thing is first or square, it can- 
 not be more or less so. 
 
 The sense of attributes however is not restricted to the 
 modification, expressed by the common signs of compari- 
 son ; but may be varied in an indefinite number of ways, by 
 other words. Thus the attribute very, which is the French 
 vrai, true, formerly written veray, is much used intensively 
 to express a great degree of a quality, but not the greatest ; 
 as, very wise or learned. In like manner are used much, 
 far, extremely, exceedingly, and most of the modifiers in ly. 
 
 Some adjectives, from particular appropriate uses, have 
 received names, by which they are distinguished. But the 
 usual classification is by no means correct. The following 
 distribution seems to result from the uses of the words 
 named. 
 
 An or a, the, this, that, these, those, other, another, one, 
 none, some, may be called definitives, from their office, which 
 is to limit or define the extent of the name to which they 
 are prefixed, or to specify particulars. 
 
 My, thy, her, our, your, their; and mine, thine, his, when 
 used as attributes, with names, are possessive attributes, as 
 they denote possession or ownership. Its and whose, if 
 ranked with attributes, belong to the same class. 
 
 Each and every are distributives, but they may be classed 
 with the definitives. 
 
 Either is an alternative, as is or, which is now considered 
 merely as a connective. 
 
 Own is an intensive adjective. The words to which self 
 is affixed, himself, myself, themselves, yourself, yourselves, 
 'ourselves, thyself, itself, may be denominated intensive sub- 
 stitutes, or, for brevity, intensives. Or they may be called 
 compound substitutes. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 49 
 
 VERB. 
 
 The verb is a primary part of speech, and of the most im- 
 portance. The uses of the verb are, 
 
 1st. To affirm, assert or declare ; as, the sun shines ; 
 John loves study ; God is just ; and negatively, avarice is 
 not commendable. 
 
 2d, To command, exhort or invite ; as, go, attend, let us 
 observe. 
 
 3d. To pray, request, entreat ; as, O may the spirit of 
 grace dwell in us. 
 
 4th. To inquire or question ; as, does it rain ? will he 
 come? 
 
 From the various uses and significations of verbs, have 
 originated several divisions or classes. The only one in 
 English which seems to be correct, and sufficiently compre- 
 hensive, is into transitive and intransitive. To these may 
 be added a combination of the verb be, with certain auxilia- 
 ries and participles, which is called a passive verb, or rather 
 the passive form of the verb.* 
 
 1. A transitive verb denotes action or energy, which is 
 exerted upon some object, or in producing some effect. In 
 natural construction, the word expressing the object, fol- 
 lows the verb, without the intervention of any other word, 
 though the order may be sometimes varied. Thus, " ridi- 
 cule provokes anger/' is a complete proposition ridicule 
 is the agent or nominative word, which causes the action 
 provoke is the verb, or affirmation of an act anger is the 
 object or effect produced, following the transitive verb pro- 
 voke. 
 
 " The wind propels a ship," is the affirmation of an act of 
 the wind exerted on a ship. Wind is the agent, propels, the 
 verb, and ship, the object. 
 
 2. An intransitive verb denotes simple being or exist- 
 ence in a certain state ; as, to be, to rest ; or it denotes ac- 
 tion, which is limited to the subject. Thus, " John sleeps," 
 is an affirmation, in which John, the nominative to sleeps, 
 
 * The common distribution into active, neuter and passive, is very ob- 
 jectionable. Many of our neuter verbs imply action in a pre-eminent 
 degree, as to run, to walk, to fly ; and the young learner cannot easily 
 conceive why such verbs are not called active. 
 
 5 
 
50 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 is the subject of the affirmation ; sleeps is a verb intransi- 
 tive, affirming a particular thing of John, which extends to 
 no other object. 
 
 3. The passive form of the verb in English, is composed 
 of certain auxiliaries and participles with the verb be. It 
 denotes passion or suffering ; that is, that the subject of the 
 affirmation or nominative is affected by the action affirmed ; 
 as, " John is convinced." " Laura is loved and admired." 
 
 In this form of the verb, the agent and object change 
 places. In the transitive form, the agent precedes the verb, 
 and the object follows ; as, " John has convinced Moses." 
 In the passive form, the order is changed, and the agent fol- 
 lows the verb, preceded by a preposition; as, " Moses is 
 convinced by John." 
 
 To correspond with their nominatives, verbs are used in 
 both numbers, and with the three persons in each. 
 
 As action and being may be mentioned as present, past 
 or future, verbs have modifications to express time, which 
 are called tenses. And as action and being may be repre- 
 sented in various ways, verbs have various modifications to 
 answer these purposes, called modes. Hence to verbs be- 
 long person, number, tense and mode. 
 
 The persons which have been already explained, are, I, 
 thou or you, he, she, it, in the singular'number ; in the plu- 
 ral, we, ye or you, they. The numbers have been before 
 explained. 
 
 TENSES. 
 
 There are six teases, modifications or combinations of the 
 verb to express time. Each of these is divided into two 
 forms, for the purpose of distinguishing the definite or pre- 
 cise time from the indefinite. These may be thus explained 
 and exemplified : 
 
 Present Tense, indefinite. 
 
 This form of the present tense affirms or denies action or 
 being, in present time, without limiting it with exactness to 
 a given point. It expresses also facts which exist generally, 
 at all times, general truths, attributes which are permanent, 
 habits, customary actions, and the like, without reference to 
 a specific time ; as, God is infinitely great and just ; man is 
 imperfect and dependent ; plants spring from the earth ; 
 oirdsfy; fishes swim. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1 
 
 Present Tense, definite. 
 
 This form expresses the present time with precision ; 
 usually denoting action or being, which corresponds in time 
 with another action ; as, / am writing , while you are wait- 
 ing. 
 
 Past Tense, indefinite. 
 
 This form of the past tense represents action which took 
 place at a given time past, however distant, and completely 
 past ; as, " In six days, God created the heavens and the 
 earth." " Alexander conquered the Persians." " Scipio 
 was as virtuous as brave." " The Earl of Chatham was an 
 eloquent statesman." 
 
 Past Tense, definite [imperfect.] 
 
 This form represents an action as taking place and unfin- 
 ished in some specified period of past time ; as, " I was 
 standing at the door when the procession passed." 
 
 Perfect Tense, indefinite. 
 
 This form of the perfect tense represents an action com- 
 pletely past, and often at no great distance, but the time not 
 specified ; as, " / have accomplished my design" But if a 
 particular time is named, the tense must be the past ; as, 
 " I accomplished my design last week." " I have seen my 
 friend last week," is not correct English. In this respect, 
 the French idiom is different from the English ; for, " J' ai 
 vu mon ami hier," is good French, but " I have seen my 
 friend yesterday," is not good English. The words must 
 be translated, " I saw my friend yesterday." No fault is 
 more common than a mistranslation of this tense. 
 
 It is to be noted however that this perfect indefinite tense, 
 is that in which we express continued or repeated action. 
 " My father has lived about eighty years." " The king has 
 reigned more than forty years." " He has been frequently 
 heard to lament." Life of Cowper. We use it also when 
 a specified past time is represented, if that time is expressed 
 as a part of the present period. Thus, although we cannot 
 say, " We have been together yesterday," we usually say, 
 " We have been together this morning, or this evening." 
 We even use this tense in mentioning events which happen- 
 ed at a greater distance of time, if we connect that time with 
 the present ; as, " His brother has visited him once within 
 
52 ~ AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 two years." " He has not seen his sister, since the year 
 1800." 
 
 Perfect Tense, definite. 
 
 This form represents an action as just finished ; as, "I 
 have been reading a history of the revolution in France." 
 
 Prior-Past Tense, indefinite [pluperfect.] 
 This form of the prior past tense expresses an action 
 which was past at or before some other past time specified ; 
 as, " He had received the news before the messenger ar- 
 rived." 
 
 Prior-Past, definite. 
 
 This form denotes an action to be just past, at or before 
 another time specified ; as, " I had been reading your letter 
 when the messenger arrived." 
 
 Future Tense, indefinite. 
 
 This form of the future tense gives notice of an event to 
 happen hereafter ; as, " Your son will obtain a commission 
 in the navy." " We shall have a fine season." 
 
 Future Tense, definite. ' 
 
 This form expresses an action which is to take place and 
 be unfinished at a specified future time ; as, " He will be 
 preparing for a visit at the time you arrive." 
 
 Prior-Future, indefinite. 
 
 This form of the future tense denotes an action which will 
 be past at a future time specified ; as, " They will have per- 
 formed their task, by the appointed hour." 
 
 Prior-Future, definite. 
 
 This form represents an action which will be just past at 
 a future specified time ; as, " We shall have been making 
 preparations, a week before our friends arrive."* 
 
 * The common names and distribution of the tenses, are so utterly in- 
 correct and incompetent to give a just idea of their uses, that I have ven- 
 tured to offer a new division, retaining the old names, as far as truth will 
 warrant. The terms prior-past, and prior-future, are so perfectly de- 
 scriptive of the tenses arranged under them, that I cannot but think they 
 will be well received. The distinction of indefinite and definite is not 
 wholly new ; but I have never seen the definite forms displayed, though 
 they are as necessary as the indefinite forms. Indeed, I see not how a 
 foreigner can learn our language, as the tenses are commonly distributed 
 and defined. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 53 
 
 In the use of the present tense, the following things are 
 to be noticed. 
 
 1. The present tense is customarily used to express fu- 
 ture time, when by any mode of expression, the mind is 
 transported forward to the time, so as to conceive it pres- 
 ent; as, "I cannot determine, till the mail arrives." " As 
 soon as it is light, we shall depart." " When he has an op- 
 portunity, he will write." The words till, when, as soon as, 
 carry the mind to the time of an event to happen, and we 
 speak of it as present. 
 
 2. By an easy transition, the imagination passes from an 
 author to his writings; these being in existence and present, 
 though long after his decease, we substitute the writer's name 
 for his works, and speak of him as living, or in the present 
 tense ; thus, Milton resembles Homer in sublimity and in- 
 vention, as Pope resembles Virgil, in smoothness of versifi- 
 cation. Plato is fanciful ; Aristotle is profound. 
 
 3. It gives great life and effect to description, in prose or 
 verse, to represent past events as present ; to introduce them 
 to the view of the reader or hearer, as having a present ex- 
 istence. Hence the frequent use of the present tense for the 
 future, by the historian, the poet and the orator : 
 
 " She spoke ; Minerva burns to meet the war ; 
 And now heaven's empress calls the blazing car; 
 At her command rush forth the steeds divine ; 
 Rich with immortal gold, the trappings shine. " 
 
 Iliad, 5. 
 
 The definite tenses, it will be observed, are formed by the 
 participle of the present tense, and the substantive verb, be. 
 This participle always expresses present time, even when 
 annexed to a past or future tense ; for / was writing, de- 
 notes, that, at the past time mentioned, the action was pres- 
 ent ; / shall be writing, denotes future time, but an action 
 then to be present. 
 
 The past tense of every regular verb ends in ed d being 
 added to a verb ending in e ; and ed to a verb with other 
 terminations ; as, hate, hated ; look, looked. 
 
 The future tense is formed by the present tense of shall 
 and will; for, I shall go, he will go, are merely an appro- 
 priate use of / shall to go, I will to go. See an explanation 
 of these words under the head of auxiliaries. 
 
54 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 There are other modes of expressing future time ; as, " I 
 am going to write" " I am about to write." -These have 
 been called the inceptive future, as they note the commence- 
 ment of an action, or an intention to commence an action 
 without delay. 
 
 We have another mode of expression, which does not 
 strictly and positively foretell an action, yet it implies a ne- 
 cessity of performing an act, and clearly indicates that it will 
 take place. For example, " I have to pay a sum of money 
 to-morrow." That is, I am under a present necessity or ob- 
 ligation to do a future act. 
 
 The substantive verb followed by a radical verb, forms 
 another idiomatic expression of future time ; as, " John is 
 to command a regiment." " Eneas went in search of the 
 seat of an empire which was, one day, to command the 
 world." The latter expression is a future-past that is, past 
 as to the narrator ; but future as to the event, at the time 
 specified, f 
 
 Mode, in grammar, is the manner of representing action 
 and being, or the wishes and determinations of the mind. 
 This is performed by inflections of the verb, or by combina- 
 tions of verbs with auxiliaries and participles, and by their 
 various positions. 
 
 As there are scarcely two authors who are agreed in the 
 number and denominations of the modes in English, I shall 
 offer a distribution of the verbs, and a display of their in- 
 flections and combinations, somewhat different from any 
 which I have seen. 
 
 1. The first and most simple form of the verb, is, the verb 
 without inflections, and unconnected with persons. This 
 form usually has the prefix to ; as, to love. 
 
 This form of the verb, not being restricted to person or 
 number, is usually called the Infinitive Mode. 
 
 2. Another use of the verb is to affirm, assert or declare 
 some action or existence, either positively, as, he runs, or 
 negatively, as, you are not in health. This form is called the 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 3. Another office of the verb is to command, direct, ask, 
 ar exhort ; as, arise, make haste, let us be content. This is 
 called the Imperative Mode. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 55 
 
 4. Another use of verbs is to represent actions or events 
 which are uncertain, conditional or contingent; as, if he shall 
 go ; if they would attend. This is called the Subjunctive 
 Mode ; but would better be denominated the Conditional. 
 The indicative becomes conditional, by means of words used 
 to express condition ; as, if, though, unless, whether. 
 
 The MODES then are four the Infinitive, the Indicative, 
 the Imperative, and the Subjunctive. 
 
 It may also be observed that the combinations, and ar- 
 rangements of our verbs and auxiliaries to express negative 
 and interrogative propositions, are really modes of the verb, 
 and a place might be assigned to the verb for each purpose, 
 were it not for the inconvenience of having modes of modes. 
 For the sake of distinction, I denominate these verbs inter- 
 rogative and negative, and have exhibited the conjugation of 
 each. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Participles are derivatives from verbs, formed by particu- 
 lar terminations, and having the sense of verbs, attributes or 
 names. 
 
 There are two species of participles one denoting pres- 
 ent time, and formed by adding ing to the verb ; as, turn, 
 turning : or, when the verb ends with e, by dropping that 
 letter and adding ing ; as, place, placing. But e is retained 
 in dyeing, from dye, to color, to distinguish it from dying, 
 the participle of die ; in which word, y is used to prevent 
 the duplication of i. In singeing, from singe, e is retained 
 to soften g, and to distinguish the word from singing ; so also 
 in twingeing. 
 
 This participle of the present tense is used, as before ob- 
 served, to form the definite tenses. But it often loses the 
 sense of the verb, and becomes an attribute ; as, a loving 
 friend, lasting friendship. In this use, it admits of compar- 
 ison by more and less, most and least ; as, more lasting, less 
 saving, most promising. 
 
 This participle also becomes an adverb or modifier by re- 
 ceiving the termination ly ; as, lovingly, laughingly : and this 
 species of modifiers admits of comparison ; as, more lovingly, 
 most charmingly. 
 
 This participle also becomes a name and admits of the 
 definitive ; as, " the burning of London in 1666." In this 
 capacity, it takes the plural form ; as, " the overflowings of 
 
56 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 the Nile" He seeth all his goings. 9 ' And sometimes the 
 plural is used when a modifier is attached to the participle ; 
 as, " the goings out, the comings in." Ezek. 43. 11. But 
 this use of the participle is not esteemed elegant, nor is it 
 common. 
 
 In a few instances, the participle in ing becomes a name 
 by receiving the termination ness ; as, willingness, from will- 
 ing. 
 
 The other species of participle is formed from the verb, by 
 adding d or ed, and in regular verbs, it corresponds exactly 
 with the past time ; as, loved, preceded. This may be called 
 the participle of the perfect tense. 
 
 This participle, when its verb is transitive, may be joined 
 with the verb be, in all its inflections, to form the passive form 
 of a verb, and the participle, in such combination, is called 
 passive. But 
 
 This participle, when formed from an intransitive verb, can- 
 not, except in a few instances, be joined to the substantive 
 verb, or used in a passive sense ; but it unites with the other 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 This participle often loses its verbal character, and be- 
 comes an attribute ; as, a concealed plot, a painted house. In 
 this character, it admits of comparison ; as, " a more ad- 
 mired artist," "a most respected magistrate;" and a few of 
 these verbal attributes receive the termination ly, and be- 
 come modifiers ; as, pointedly, more conceitedly, most deject- 
 edly. 
 
 Those verbs, whose past tense and participle end in ed, 
 are deemed regular. All which deviate from this rule, are 
 deemed irregular, and their participles of the perfect tense 
 end mostly in t, n and g. A list of them will be found in the 
 sequel. 
 
 AUXILIARIES. 
 
 In English, a few monosyllabic verbs are chiefly employ- 
 ed to form the modes and tenses of other verbs, and from 
 this use, are denominated auxiliaries or helping verbs. 
 These are followed by other verbs, without the prefix to; 
 as, " he may go ;" though they were originally principal 
 verbs, and some of them still retain that character, as well 
 as that of auxiliaries. 
 
 The verbs which are always auxiliary to others, are may, 
 can, shall, must; those which are sometimes auxiliaries, 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 57 
 
 and sometimes principal verbs, are will, have, do and be. To 
 these may be added need and dare. 
 
 May conveys the idea of liberty or permission ; as, " he 
 may go, if he will." Or it denotes possibility ; as, "he may 
 have written or not."* 
 
 Can has the sense of to be able. 
 
 Shall, in its primitive sense, denotes to be obliged, coin- 
 ciding nearly with ought ; which sense it retains in the Ger- 
 man. But this signification, though evidently the root of 
 the present uses of this word, is much obscured. The fol- 
 lowing remarks will illustrate the several uses of will and 
 shall. 
 
 Will has a common origin with the Latin volo. Hence 
 the German wollen, the old English woll, and the present 
 contraction won't, that is, woll-not.^ 
 
 This was originally a principal verb, and is still used as 
 such in our language. It denotes the act of the mind in de- 
 termining, or a determination ; for he wills to go, and he will 
 go, are radically of the same import. 
 
 When a man expresses his own determination of mind, / 
 will, we are accustomed to consider the event, or act willed, 
 as certain ; for we naturally connect the power to act, with 
 the intention ; hence we make the declaration of will a 
 ' ground of confidence, and by an easy association of ideas, 
 we connect the declaration with an obligation to carry the 
 determination into effect. Hence will expressed by a per- 
 son himself, came to denote a promise. 
 
 But when a person declares the will of another, he is not 
 supposed to possess the power to decide for him, and to 
 carry his will into effect. He merely offers an opinion, 
 grounded on information or probable circumstances, which 
 give him more or less confidence of an event depending on 
 another's will. Hence will in the second and third person 
 simply foretells, or expresses an opinion of what will take 
 place. 
 
 Shall, in many of its inflections, retains its primitive sense 
 to be obliged or bound in duty ; but in many of its uses, 
 
 * The primitive idea expressed by may was power ; Sax. magan, to 
 be able. 
 
 t It is supposed that the Roman v was pronounced as our w, 
 
58 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 its sense is much varied. In the first person, it merely fore- 
 tells ; as, " I shall go lo New York to-morrow>" In this 
 phrase, the word seems to have no reference to obligation ; 
 nor is it considered by a second person as imposing an obli- 
 gation on the person uttering it. But when shall is used in 
 the second and third persons, it resumes its primitive sense, 
 or one nearly allied to it, implying obligation ; as, when a 
 superior commands with authority, you shall go ; or imply- 
 ing a right in the second and third person to expect, and 
 hence denoting a promise in the speaker ; as, " you shall 
 receive your wages." This is radically saying, " you ought 
 to receive your wages;" but this right in the second person 
 to receive, implies an obligation in the person speaking to 
 pay. Hence shall in the first person foretells; in the 
 second, promises, commands, or expresses determination. 
 When shall, in the second and third persons, is uttered with 
 emphasis, it expresses determination in the speaker, and 
 implies an authority to enforce the act. " You shall go." 
 
 Hence proceeds the impropriety of using shall, when the 
 Supreme Being is supposed to be the person addressed or 
 spoken of. The Lord shall fight for us the Lord shall 
 destroy them the Lord shall comfort Zion. " Thou shalt 
 not suffer thy Holy One to see corruption." Acts 13/35. 
 See Ps. 16. 10. Acts 2. 27. 
 
 No human being has a right to use words respecting God 
 which imply authority or command. In the examples cited, 
 will is the proper auxiliary, expressing prediction. 
 
 But when shall is preceded by another word, as by when, 
 while, whoever, if, provided, &LG. it ceases, in the second and 
 third person, to express promise, command or determination; 
 as, When you shall have read the books; while he shall be 
 present ; whoever shall put away his wife ; if you shall see 
 my friend ;- provided you or he shall receive information. In 
 these and similar examples, shall refers to event merely, 
 without implying obligation, promise or command. 
 
 Must expresses necessity, and has no variation for per- 
 son, number or tense. 
 
 Do is a principal and a transitive verb, signifying to act 
 or make ; but is used in the present and past tenses as an 
 auxiliary, to give emphasis to a declaration, to denote con- 
 trast, or to supply the place of the principal verb. 
 
 " It would have been impossible for Cicero to inflame the 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 59 
 
 minds of the people to so high a pitch against oppression, 
 considered in the abstract, as he actually did inflame them 
 against Verres the oppressor." Camp. Rhet. I. 10. Here 
 did expresses emphasis. 
 
 "It was hardly possible that he should not distinguish 
 you as he has done." 1 Cowp. Let. 40. Here done , stands in 
 the place of distinguished you. For it must be observed 
 that when do is the substitute for another verb, it supplies 
 the place not only of the verb, but of the object of the verb. 
 
 " He loves not plays 
 
 As thou dost, Antony." 
 
 That is, as thou lovest plays. 
 
 Do is also used in negative and interrogative sentences ; 
 the present and past tenses of the indicative mode being 
 chiefly formed by this auxiliary ; as, "I do not reside in 
 Boston." Does John hold a commission? 
 
 Have is also a principal and transitive verb, denoting to 
 possess; but much used as an auxiliary ; as, "He has lately 
 been to Hamburg." It is often used to supply the place 
 of a principal verb or participle, preventing a repetition of 
 it, and the object after it ; as, " I have not seen Paris, but 
 my brother has" that is, has seen Paris. 
 
 Equally common and extensive is the use of be, denoting 
 existence, and hence called the substantive verb. Either in 
 the character of a principal verb-, or an auxiliary, it is found 
 in almost every sentence of the language. 
 
 The inflection of a verb, in all the modes, tenses, num- 
 bers and persons, is termed Conjugation. The English 
 verbs have few inflections, or changes of termination ; most 
 of the tenses and modes being formed by means of the aux- 
 iliaries-. 
 
 NOTE. In the following conjugations, a small n in an Italic charac- 
 ter, is inserted in the place where not should stand in negative sen- 
 tences. The same place is generally occupied by never, but not in every 
 case. It is believed this letter will be very useful, especially to foreign- 
 ers. The learner may conjugate the verb with or without not, at pleasure. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. 
 MAY. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 dar. Plural. 
 
 1st Person, I may n We may n 
 
60 
 
 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 2d Person, 
 
 3d Person, 
 
 C Thou mayest n 
 I You may n* 
 C mas. He may n 
 <.fem. She may n. 
 ([ neut. It may n 
 
 I might n 
 C Thou mightest n 
 \ You might n 
 
 He might TI 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 CAN. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1 can n 
 
 C Thou canst n 
 ( You can n 
 
 He can n 
 
 Plural. 
 We can TI 
 C Ye can n 
 
 ( You can n 
 They can TI 
 
 Singular. 
 I could n 
 Thou couldst 7i 
 You could n 
 He could 7i 
 
 Ye may n 
 You may n 
 They may n 
 
 Wfe might n 
 Ye might n 
 You might n 
 They might TI 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 "We could 7i 
 C Ye could n 
 You could n 
 
 They could TI 
 
 SHALL. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 I shall n We shall n 
 
 C Thou shalt n C Ye shall n 
 ( You shall 7i You shall TI 
 
 He shall n They shall 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 I should TI. We should n 
 
 C Thou shouldst n C Ye should n 
 ( You should ?i You should TI 
 
 He should n They should TI 
 
 Present Tense. 
 I will TI We will n 
 
 Thou wilt TI C Ye will n 
 You will n I You will n 
 
 He will n They will n 
 
 WILL. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 I would n We would TI 
 
 Thou wouldst n $ Ye would n 
 You would n ( You would n 
 He would TI They would n 
 
 NOTE. Will, when a principal verb, is regularly conjugated: I will, 
 thou wiliest, he wills. Past tense, I willed. 
 
 MUST. 
 
 Must has no change of termination, and is joined with verbs only in 
 the following tenses. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 I must n love We must n love 
 
 C Thou must n love ( Ye must n love 
 
 ( You must n love ( You must n love 
 
 He must n love They must n love 
 
 * It may be remarked once for all, that thou and ye are the second 
 person used in the sacred style ; and sometimes in other grave discourses, 
 In all other cases, you is the second person of the singular number, as 
 well as of the plural. It is not one of the most trivial absurdities which 
 the student must now encounter at every step, in the study of English 
 grammar, that he meets with you in the plural number only, though he 
 finds it the reoresentative of an individual. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 61 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I must n have loved We must n have loved 
 
 C Thou must n have loved C Ye must n have loved 
 
 \ You must n have loved ( You must n have loved 
 
 He must n have loved They must n have loved 
 
 DO. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 I do ?i love We do n love 
 
 C Thou dost n love C Ye do n love 
 
 \ You do n love ( You do n love 
 
 He does or doth n love They do n love 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 I did n love We did n love 
 
 C Thou didst n love C Ye did n love 
 
 \ You did n love ( You did n love 
 
 He did n love They did n love 
 
 Infinitive Mode. Participles. 
 
 To do Doing, done, having done. 
 
 NOTE. In the third person singular of the present tense, doth is used 
 in sacred and solemn language ; does in common and familiar language. 
 This verb, when principal and transitive, has all the tenses and modes ; 
 I have done, I had done, I will do, &c. 
 
 HAVE. 
 
 Infinitive Mode, Present Tense. To have. 
 
 Perfect Tense. To have had. 
 Participle of the Present Tense. Having. 
 
 Of the Perfect Tense. Had. 
 Compound.- Having had. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 Present Tense. Past Tense. 
 
 I have n We have n 
 
 C Thou hast n C Ye have n 
 ( You have n ( You have n 
 
 He has or hath n* They have n 
 
 I had n We had n 
 
 ] Thou hadst n C Ye had n 
 
 [ You had n ( You had n 
 " He had n They had n 
 
 NOTE. In the foregoing tenses, this verb is used either as a principal 
 verb or an auxiliary. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 I have n had We have n had 
 
 C Thou hast n had C Ye have n had 
 
 ( You have n had You have n had 
 
 He has or hath n had They have n had 
 
 * Hath is used in the solemn style ; has in the familiar. . 
 
 6 
 
62 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 Prior-Past Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I had n had We had n had 
 
 C Thou hadst n had C Ye had n had 
 
 \ You had n had You had n had 
 He had n had They had n had 
 
 NOTE. In these tenses, the perfect and prior-past , this verb is always 
 principal and transitive. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 In this tense the verb is principal or auxiliary, with the 
 same form of conjugation. 
 
 The following form foretells : 
 
 I shall n have We shall n have 
 
 C Thou wilt n have C Ye will n have 
 
 ( You will n have You will n have 
 
 He will n have They will n have 
 
 The following form promises, commands or determines : 
 
 I will n have We will n have 
 
 C Thou shalt n have C Ye shall n have 
 
 ( You shall n have ( You shall n have 
 
 He shall n have They shall n have 
 
 Prior-Future. 
 
 This tense foretells, and is used only when the verb ' is 
 principal. 
 
 I shall n have had We shall n have had 
 
 C Thou shalt or wilt n have had C Ye shall or will n*have had 
 
 ( You shall or will n have had ( You shall or will n have had 
 
 He shall or will n have had They shall or will n have had 
 
 NOTE. Will is not used in the first person of this tense j it being in- 
 compatible with the nature of a promise. We cannot say, ' I will have 
 had possession a year, on the first of October next ;" but / shall have 
 had, is a common expression. 
 
 Imperative Mode. 
 
 Have n or have thou n Have ye n, have you n 
 
 Have you n or do n you have Do n you have 
 
 NOTE. A command, request or exhortation must, in the nature of 
 things, be addressed to the second person ; nor can these phrases, let we 
 have, let us have, be considered, in strictness, as the first person of this 
 mode ; nor let him have, as the third. 
 
 The true force and effect of the verb, in this mode, depend on its ap- 
 plication to characters, and the manner of utterance. Come, go, let him 
 go, if uttered with a respectful address, or in a civil manner, may ex- 
 press entreaty, request or exhortation. On the other hand, such words 
 uttered with a tone of authority, and addressed to inferiors, express 
 command. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 63 
 
 CONDITIONAL OR SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 The Conditional or Subjunctive Mode is the same as the 
 Indicative ; with some preceding word expressing condition, 
 supposition or contingency. These words are if, though, or 
 although, unless, except, whether, lest, albeit. 
 
 If is a corruption of gif, the imperative of gifan, the 
 Saxon orthography of give. Though, the Saxon theah, 
 signifies permit, allow. Although is a compound of all and 
 though, give or allow all. The old word thof, still used in 
 some parts of England, is the imperative of the Saxon tha- 
 fan, to allow. Unless is the imperative of the Saxon on- 
 Icsan, to loose, or dissolve. Except is the imperative of 
 that verb. Lest is from lesan, to loose or dissolve. Albeit 
 is a compound of all, be and it, let it be so. 
 
 These words, if, though, answer in signification and use, 
 to the following : admit, grant, allow, suppose, as signs 
 of a condition or hypothesis : " If you shall go," is simply 
 " give, you shall go ;" that is, give that condition or fact ; 
 allow or suppose it to be so. 
 
 It has been, and is still customary for authors to omit the 
 personal terminations of the second and third persons of the 
 verb in the present tense, to form the subjunctive mode ; if 
 thou go, if he write. 
 
 The correct construction of the subjunctive mode is pre- 
 cisely the same as that of the indicative ; as it is used in 
 popular practice, which has preserved the true idiom of the 
 language; if thou hast, if he has or hath; to denote present 
 uncertainty. But a future contingency may be expressed 
 by the omission of the personal terminations ; if he go, that 
 is, if he shall go. 
 
 Be. 
 
 Be is a verb denoting existence, and therefore called the 
 substantive verb. It is very irregular, being derived from 
 different radicals, and having undergone many dialectical 
 changes. 
 
 Infinitive Mode, Present Tense. To be. 
 
 Perfect Tense. To have been. 
 
 Participle of the Present Tense. Being. 
 
 Of the Perfect. Been. 
 Compound. Having been. 
 
64 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 Indicative Mode, Present Tense. 
 
 I am n We are n 
 
 \ Thou art n C Ye are n 
 
 [ You are n You are n 
 
 ' He is n 
 
 [ She is n They are n 
 [ It is n 
 
 The foregoing form of the present tense is now generally 
 used by good writers. But the following form is the most 
 ancient, and is still very general in popular practice. 
 
 I be n We be n 
 
 You be n Ye or you be n 
 
 He is n They be n 
 
 Thou beest, in the second person, is not in use. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 I was n We were n 
 
 C Thou wast n C Ye were n 
 
 You was or were n ( You were n 
 
 He was n They were n 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 I have n been We have n been 
 
 C Thou hast n been C Ye have n been 
 
 You have n been ( You have n been 
 
 He hath or has n been They have n been 
 
 Prior-Past Tense. 
 
 I had n been We had n been 
 
 C Thou hadst n been C Ye had n been 
 
 \ You had n been { You had n been 
 
 He had n been They had n been 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 I shall or will n be We shall or will n be* ' 
 
 C Thou shalt or wilt n be C Ye shall or will n be 
 
 ( You shall or will n be You shall or will n be 
 
 He shall or will n be They shall or will n be 
 
 Prior-Future Tense. 
 
 I shall n have been We shall n have been 
 
 Thou shalt or wilt n have been C Ye shall or will n have been 
 You shall or will n have been ( You shall or will n have been 
 He shall or will n have been They shall or will n have been 
 
 Imperative Mode. 
 
 Command ^ e n> be tbou w; ^ n thou be ' or do n be ' be ^ e w ' 
 do ?i you be, or do you n be ; or do n be. 
 
 Let them n be ' let him n be ; let . us n be ' let them n be ' 
 
 Subjunctive Mode. 
 
 This mode is formed by prefixing any sign of condition, 
 hypothesis or contingency, to the indicative mode in its va- 
 rious tenses. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 65 
 
 Present Tense. . Past Tense. 
 
 If I am We are 
 
 C Thou art C Ye are 
 
 You are ( You are 
 He is They are 
 
 If I was We were 
 
 C Thou wast C Ye were 
 
 ( You was or were ( You were 
 He was They were 
 
 The foregoing tenses .express uncertainty, whether a fact 
 exists or existed ; or they admit the fact. The following 
 form is used for the like purposes : 
 
 Tflbe We be 
 
 C Thou be C Ye be 
 
 I You be I You be 
 He be They be 
 
 But this is more properly the form of the conditional fu- 
 ture ; that is, the verb without the sign of the future if he 
 be, for if he shall be. 
 
 The following is the form of expressing supposition or 
 hypothesis, and may be called the 
 
 Hypothetical Tense. 
 
 If I were We were 
 
 C Thou wert C Ye were 
 
 I You was or were You were 
 He were They were 
 
 "If I were," supposes I am not; "if I were not," sup* 
 poses I am.* 
 
 The other tenses are the same as in the indicative mode. 
 
 * No fault is more common than the misapplication of this tense. In 
 the -Saxon, were was often used in the third person of the indicative 
 mocle, and without a preceding sign of condition ; as in these examples 
 i l After thisum hafde se cyng mycel getheat, and swithe deope spaece 
 with his witan ymbe this land, hu hit ware gesett." Sax. Chron. An. 
 1085. " After this the King held a great council, and made important 
 representations respecting this land, how it were settled." In the Ger-* 
 man, the inflection of the word, in the imperfect tense of the indicative, 
 is Ich war, du warest, er war, he were. The orthdgraphy of the word, 
 in the imperfect tense of the subjunctive, is were, and our early English 
 writers seem to have confounded the two tenses. The regular Saxon 
 verb in the past tense of the indicative, was thus inflected Ic wses, du 
 waere, he wses. Hence our greatest writers, Milton, Dryden, Pope and 
 others, retained that form of the word Before the heavens thou wert ; 
 remember what thou wert expressions which Lowth condemns as not 
 analogous to the formation of words in different modes. I would con- 
 demn this use of the verb also, but for a different reason j it is now 
 obsolete. 
 
 But the use of this form of the verb is retained in the subjunctive 
 mode, which, our grammars teach us, must follow the signs of condi* 
 6 * 
 
66 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 The Conjugation of a Regular Verb. 
 
 LOVE. 
 
 Infinitive Mode, Present Tense To love. 
 
 Perfect Tense To Htlbe loved. 
 Participle of the Present Tense Loving. 
 Of the Perfect Loved. 
 Compound Having loved. 
 
 Indicative Mode Present Tense ; indefinite. 
 
 I love n We love n 
 
 C Thou lovest n (Ye love n 
 
 ( You love n ( You love n 
 
 He loveth or loves n They love n 
 
 With the auxiliary do. 
 
 I do n love We do n love 
 
 C Thou dost 7i love C Ye do n love 
 
 ( You do n love \ You do n love 
 
 He doth or does n love They do n love 
 
 Definite. 
 
 I am n loving We are n loving 
 
 C Thou art n loving C Ye are n loving 
 
 You are n loving ( You are n loving 
 
 He is n loving They are n loving 
 
 tion if t though, unless, whether a rule which, without qualification, 
 has a mischievous effect. On carefully examining the original state of 
 the language, I find the common and true use of were in the singular 
 number, is, to express hypothesis or suj)position. Thus, Sax. Chron. 
 ad annum 1017. On the third of the ides of December, at night, the 
 moon appeared " swylce he call blodig wsere" such, or, as, if, he all 
 bloody were and the heaven was red, " swylce hit bryne wsere" as if 
 it were on fire. This use of were, in the singular number, is legitimate, 
 and is still retained by good writers but its use to express a mere un- 
 certainty respecting a past event, after a sign of condition, is obsolete or 
 not legitimate. The following examples will illustrate the distinction 
 " Whether the killing were malicious or not, is no farther a subject of 
 inquiry," &c. Judge Parker, trial of Self ridge, p. 161. Here were is 
 improperly used. So also where the fact is admitted: " Though he 
 were a son, yet learned he obedience." Heb. 5. 8, where Lowth justly 
 condemns the use of were " Unless a felony were attempted or intend- 
 ed." Self ridge's Trial, p. 125. It ought to be was. 
 
 The following is the true sense of were in the singular number 
 " Were it necessary for you to take your books with you ?" Judge Par- 
 ker, Ibm. 159. " If it were possible, they would deceive the elect." 
 Mat. 24, 24. This is the only legitimate use of this tense. " It were 
 easy." Miller's Letters, p. 281. It would be easy. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 67 
 
 Past Tense, indefinite. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I loved n We loved n 
 
 C Thou lovedst n (Ye loved n 
 
 \ You loved n You loved n 
 
 He loved n They loved n 
 
 With the auxiliary did. 
 
 I did n love We did n love 
 
 C Thou didst n love ( Ye did n love 
 
 You did n love ( You did n love 
 
 He did n love They did n love 
 Definite. 
 
 I was n loving We were n loving 
 
 ( Thou wast n loving C Ye were n loving 
 
 You was n loving ( You were n loving 
 
 He was n loving They were n loving 
 
 Perfect Tense, indefinite. 
 
 I have n loved We have n loved 
 
 C Thou hast n loved C Ye have n loved 
 
 \ You have n loved ( You have n loved 
 
 He has or hath n loved They have n loved 
 
 Definite. 
 
 1 have n been loving We have n been loving 
 
 C Thou hast n been loving C Ye have n been loving 
 
 ( You have n been loving ( You have n been loving 
 
 He has or hath n been loving They have n been loving 
 
 Prior-Past, indefinite. 
 
 I had n loved We had n loved 
 
 C Thou hadst n loved C Ye had n loved 
 
 You had n loved ( You had n loved 
 
 He had ri loved They had w loved 
 
 Definite. 
 
 I had n been loving We had n been loving 
 
 C Thou hadst ?i been loving C Ye had n been loving 
 
 ( You had n been loving ( You had n been loving 
 
 He had n been loving They had n been loving 
 
 Future Tense, indefinite. 
 
 The form of predicting. 
 
 I shall 7i love We shall n love 
 
 C Thou wilt n love C Ye will n love 
 
 ( You will n love \ You will ra love 
 
 He will n love They will n love 
 
 The form of promising, commanding and determining. 
 
 I will n love We will n love 
 
 C Thou shalt n love C Ye shall n love 
 
 \ You shall n love ( You shall n love 
 
 He shall n love They shall love 
 
68 
 
 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 Definite. 
 
 I shall or will n be lovin 
 
 Plural. 
 We shall or will n be loving 
 
 i snail or will n be loving We shall or will n be loving 
 
 C Thou shalt or wilt n be loving C Ye shall or will n be loving 
 
 ( You shall or will n be loving ( You shall or will n be loving 
 
 He shall or will n be loving They shall or will n be loving 
 
 Prior-Future, indefinite. 
 
 I shall n have loved We shall n have loved 
 
 C Thou shalt or wilt n have loved C Ye shall or will n have loved 
 \ You shall or will n have loved \ You shall or will n have loved 
 
 He shall or will n have loved They shall or will n have loved 
 
 Definite. 
 
 I shall n have been loving 
 f Thou shalt or wilt n have been 
 
 loving 
 \ You shall or will n have been 
 
 loving 
 He shall or will n have been 
 
 loving loving 
 
 We shall n have been loving 
 Ye shall or will n have been 
 
 loving 
 You shall or will n have been 
 
 loving 
 They shall or will n have been 
 
 Let me n love 
 Love n 
 Do n love 
 Do thou n love 
 Do you n love 
 
 Imperative Mode. 
 
 Let us n love 
 
 Love n 
 
 Do n love 
 
 Do ye or you n love 
 
 Subjunctive Mode. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 If, though, unless, 
 whether, suppose, 
 admit, &c. 
 
 I love n We love n 
 
 C Thou lovest n* C Ye love n 
 
 ( You love n \ You love n 
 
 He loveth or loves n They love n 
 
 Some authors omit the personal terminations in the se- 
 cond and third persons if thou love, if he love. With this 
 single variation, which I deem contrary to the principles of 
 our language, the subjunctive mode differs not in the least 
 from the indicative, and to form it the learner has only to 
 prefix a sign of condition, as, if, though, unless, &/c. to the 
 indicative, in its several tenses : With this exception, how- 
 ever, that in the future tense, the auxiliary may be and often 
 is suppressed. Thus instead of 
 
 If I shall or will love 
 Thou shalt or wilt love 
 You shall or will love 
 He shall or will love 
 
 We shall or will love 
 Ye shall or will love 
 You shall or will love 
 They shall or will love 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 69 
 
 Authors write, 
 
 If, <$/-c. I love We love 
 
 Thou love Ye love 
 
 You love You love 
 
 He love They love 
 
 It is further to be remarked, that should is very often used 
 to form the conditional future if 1 should, thou shouldst, 
 &/c. This tense is inflected like the past tense, but is pro- 
 bably more used for the conditional future than shall and 
 will 
 
 The other auxiliaries also in the past time are used in this 
 conditional mode in a very indefinite sense. 
 
 I shall therefore offer a new tense in this mode composed 
 of any principal verb, with might, could, should, and would, 
 expressing, like the Greek aorists, time indefinite present, 
 past w future, especially the future. 
 
 Subjunctive Mode, indefinite Tense. 
 If, though, unless, 
 whether, lest, ex- 
 cept, suppose, &c. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 I might, could, should, or would n love 
 Thou mightest, couldst, shouldst or wouldst n love 
 You might, could, should, would n love 
 He might, could, should, would n love 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We might, could, should, would n love 
 Ye or you might, could, should, would n love 
 They might, could, should, would n love 
 
 In the subjunctive mode, there is a peculiarity in the tenses 
 which should be noticed. When I say, if it rains, it is un- 
 derstood that I am uncertain of the fact, at the time of 
 speaking. But when I say, " If it rained, we should be ob- 
 liged to seek shelter," it is not understood that I am uncer- 
 tain of the fact ; on the contrary, it is understood that I am 
 certain, it does not rain at the time of speaking. Or if I 
 say, " if it did not rain, I would take a walk," I convey the 
 idea that it does rain at the moment of speaking. This form 
 of our tenses in the subjunctive mode has never been the 
 subject of much notice, nor ever received its due explana- 
 tion and arrangement. For this hypothetical verb is actu- 
 ally a present tense, or at least indefinite, it certainly 
 does not belong to past time. It is further to be remarked, 
 that a negative sentence always implies an affirmative " if 
 
70 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 it did not rain/' implies that it does rain. On the contrary, 
 an affirmative sentence implies a negative " if it did rain," 
 implies that it does not. 
 
 In the past time, a similar distinction exists ; for " if it 
 rained yesterday," denotes uncertainty in the speaker's mind 
 but " if it had not rained yesterday," implies a certainty, 
 that it did rain. 
 
 Passive form of the Verb. Indicative Mode. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1 am n loved We are n loved 
 
 C Thou art n loved C Ye are n loved 
 
 You are n loved You are n loved 
 
 He is n loved They are n loved 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 I was n loved We were n loved 
 
 C Thou wast n loved C Ye were n loved 
 
 ( You was or were n loved ( You were n loved 
 
 He was n loved They were n loved 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 I have n been loved We have n been loved 
 
 C Thou hast n been loved C Ye have n been loved 
 
 ( You have n been loved You have n been loved 
 
 He has or hath n been loved They have n been loved 
 
 Prior-Past Tense. 
 
 I had n been loved We had n been loved 
 
 C Thou hadst n been loved C Ye had n been loved 
 
 \ You had n been loved ( You had n been loved 
 
 He had n been loved They had n been loved 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 I shall or will n be loved We shall or will n be loved 
 
 C Thou shalt or wilt n be loved C Ye shall or will n be loved 
 
 | You shall or will n be loved \ You shall or will n be loved 
 
 He shall or will n be loved They shall or will n be loved 
 
 Prior-Future Tense. 
 
 I shall n have been loved We shall n have been loved 
 
 f Thou shalt or wilt n have been f Ye shall or will n have been 
 
 loved loved 
 
 \ You shall or will n have been ) You shall or will n have been 
 
 loved loved 
 
 He shall or will n have been They shall or will n have been 
 loved loved 
 
 Imperative Mode. 
 
 Let me n be loved Let us n be loved 
 
 Be n loved Be n loved 
 
 Be thou or you n loved Be ye or you n loved 
 
 Do you n be loved* Do you n be loved 
 
 * The not is usually placed after do } and contracted into don't. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 71 
 
 Singular. 
 If, 4/-C. I am n loved 
 
 Thou art n loved 
 You are n loved 
 He is n loved 
 
 If, 4/-C. I be n loved 
 
 C Thou be n loved 
 
 You be n loved 
 
 He be n loved 
 
 Subjunctive Mode. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Or thus : 
 
 If, 4"C. I was n loved 
 
 C Thou wast n loved 
 ( You was or were n loved 
 He was n loved 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 If, 4/*c. I were n loved 
 
 C Thou wert n loved 
 
 ( You were n loved 
 
 He were n loved 
 
 Or thus : 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 If, 4/*c. 1 have n been loved 
 
 C Thou hast n been loved 
 ( You have n been loved 
 He has or hath n been loved 
 
 Prior-Past Tense. 
 If, fyc. I had n been loved 
 
 C Thou hadst n been loved 
 You had n been loved 
 He had n been loved 
 
 Plural. 
 
 We are ?i loved 
 C Ye are n loved 
 ( You are n loved 
 
 They are n loved 
 
 We be n loved 
 C Ye be n loved 
 ( You be n loved 
 
 They be w loved 
 
 We were n loved 
 C Ye were n loved 
 \ You were TI loved 
 
 They were n loved 
 
 We were n loved 
 C Ye were n loved 
 ( You were n loved 
 
 They were n loved 
 
 We have ?i been loved 
 C Ye have n been loved 
 ( You have n been loved 
 - They have n been loved 
 
 We had n been loved 
 C Ye had w been loved 
 You had ra been loved 
 
 They had n been loved 
 
 loved 
 Ye shall, will or should n be 
 
 i oe x le snail, will c 
 
 ) loved 
 be \ You shall, will < 
 ' loved 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 If, 4/-r. I shall, will or should n be We shall, will or should n be 
 
 loved 
 
 / Thou shalt, wilt or shouldst n be 
 j loved 
 
 \ You shall, will or should n be ^ You shall, will or should n be 
 \ loved 
 
 He shall, will or should n be They shall, will or should n be 
 
 loved loved 
 
 Prior-Future Tense. 
 
 If, fyc. I shall or should n have We shall or should n have been 
 
 been loved loved 
 
 {Thou shalt or shouldst n have ^ Ye shall or should n have been 
 
 been loved j loved 
 
 You shall or should n have been \ You shall or should n have been 
 
 loved ( loved 
 
 He shall or should n have been They shall or should n have been 
 
 loved loved 
 
72 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 The future is often elliptical, the auxiliary being omit- 
 ted. Thus, instead of if I shall be loved, &,c. are used the 
 following forms : 
 
 If, fyc. I be n loved We be n loved 
 
 C Thou be n loved C Ye be n loved 
 
 ( You be n loved ( You be n loved 
 He be n loved They be n loved 
 
 An exhibition of the verb in the interrogative form, with 
 the sign of the negative. 
 
 Indicative Mode. 
 Present Tense, indefinite. 
 
 Love In? Love we n ? 
 
 C Lovest thou n ? C Love ye n ? 
 
 ( Love you n ? ( Love you n ? 
 
 Loveth or loves he n? Love they n ? 
 
 The foregoing form is but little used. The following is 
 the usual mode of asking questions. 
 
 Do I n love ? Do we n love ? 
 
 C Dost thou n love f C Do ye n love ? 
 
 ( Do you n love ? ( Do you n love ? 
 
 Does or doth he n love ? Do they n love ? 
 
 Definite. 
 
 Am I n loving ? Are we n loving ? 
 
 C Art thou n loving ? C Are ye n loving ? 
 
 ( Are you n loving ? ( Are you n loving ? 
 
 Is he n loving ? Are they n loving ? 
 
 Past Tense, indefinite. 
 
 Did I n love ? Did we n love ? 
 
 C Didst thou n love ? C Did ye n love ? 
 
 { Did you n love ? ( Did you n love ? 
 
 Did he n love ? Did they n love ? 
 
 The other form of this tense, loved he 1 is seldom used. 
 
 Definite. 
 
 Was I n loving? Were we n loving ? 
 
 C Wast thou n loving ? C Were ye n loving ? 
 
 \ Was or were you n loving ? ( Were you n loving ? 
 
 Was he n loving ? Were they n loving ? 
 
 Perfect Tense, indefinite 
 
 Have I n loved ? Have we n loved ? 
 
 C Hast thou n loved ? C Have ye n loved ? 
 
 ( Have you n loved ? ( Have you n loved ? 
 
 Has or hath he n loved ? Have they n loved ? 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 73 
 
 Definite. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Have I n been loving ? Have we n been loving ? 
 
 C Hast thou n been loving ? C Have ye n been loving ? 
 
 Have you n been loving ? Have you TI been loving? 
 
 Has or hath he n been loving ? Have they n been loving ? 
 
 Prior-Past, indefinite. 
 
 Had I n loved ? Had .we TI loved ? 
 
 C Hadst thou n loved ? . C Had ye n loved ? 
 
 \ Had you TI loved ? Had you n loved ? 
 
 Had he 71 loved ? Had they TI loved ? 
 
 Definite. 
 
 Had I n been loving ? Had we n been loving ? 
 
 C Hadst thou 7i been loving ? C Had ye n been loving ? 
 
 ( Had you n been loving ? \ Had you n been loving ? 
 
 Had he n been loving ? Had they n been loving ? 
 
 Future Tense, indefinite. 
 
 Shall I n love ? Shall we n love ? 
 
 C Shalt or wilt thou n love ? C Shall or will ye n love ? 
 
 ( Shall or will you n love ? Shall or will, you n love ? 
 
 Shall or will he n love ? Shall 'or will they n love ? 
 
 Definite. 
 
 Shall In be loving ? Shall we n be loving ? 
 
 C Shalt or wilt thou n be loving ? C Shall or will ye n be loving? 
 ( Shall or will you n be loving ? \ Shall or will you n be loving ? 
 
 Shall or will he n be loving ? Shall or will they n be loving ? 
 
 Prior- Future, indefinite. 
 
 Shall I n have loved ? Shall we n have loved ? 
 
 C Shalt or wilt thou n have loved ? C Shall or will ye n have loved ? 
 ( Shall or will you n have loved ? ( Shall or will you n have loved ? 
 
 Shall or will he n have loved ? Shall or will they n have loved ? 
 
 The definite form of this tense, is little used. 
 
 Will, in this tense, is not elegantly used in the first person. 
 
 The interrogative form is not used in the imperative 
 mode a command and a question being incompatible. 
 
 Let the learner be instructed that in interrogative sen- 
 tences, the nominative follows the verb when alone, or the first 
 auxiliary when one or more are used ; and the sign of ne- 
 gation not, (and generally never,) immediately follows the 
 nominative. 
 
 The following combinations, with can,, may, could, and might, 
 are, by some writers, considered as forming a mode, called 
 Potential. They may however be resolved, thus : can is a 
 verb regularly followed by have in the Infinitive Mode^ and had, 
 the participle ; these together constituting a tense, in the 
 indicative or Subjunctive Mode. But if any persons think it 
 7 
 
74 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 more correct or convenient, to call these combinations the 
 Potential Mode, let them do so. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 1 may or can n have We may or can n have 
 
 C Thou mayest or canst n have C Ye may or can n have 
 ( You may or can n have You may or can n have 
 
 He may or can n have They may or can n have 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 I may n have had We may n have had 
 
 C Thou mayest n have had C Ye may n have had 
 
 You may n have had ( You may n have had 
 
 He may n have had They may n have had 
 
 In like manner with can. 
 
 Prior-Past Tense. 
 
 I might n have had We might n have had 
 
 C Thou mightest n have had C Ye might n have had 
 
 You might n have had You might n have had 
 
 He might n have had They might n have had 
 
 In like manner with could, icould, and should. **r 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 All verbs whose past tense and perfect participle do not 
 end in ed are deemed irregular. The number of these is 
 about one hundred and seventy-seven. They are of three 
 kinds. 
 
 1. Those whose past tense and participle of the perfect 
 are the same as the present ; as, beat, burst, cast, cost, cut, 
 hit, hurt, let, put, read, rid, set, shed, shred, shut, slit, split, 
 spread, thrust, sweat, wet. Wet has sometimes wetted; heat 
 sometimes het ; but -the practice is not respectable. 
 
 2. Verbs whose- past time and participle are alike, but dif- 
 ferent from the present ; as, meet , met ; sell, sold. 
 
 3. Verbs whose present and- past tenses and participle are 
 all different; as, know, knew, known. 
 
 A few verbs ending with ch, ck, x, p, II, ess, though regu 
 lar, suffer a contraction of ed into t , as, snatcht for snatched, 
 checkt for checked, snapt for snapped, mixt for mixed, dwelt 
 for dwelled, past for passed. Others have a digraph short- 
 ened ; as, dream, dreamt ; feel, felt ; mean, meant ; sleep, 
 slept ; deal, dealt. In a few, v is changed into/*; as, bereave, 
 bereft ; leave, left. 
 
 As some of the past tenses and participles are obsolete or 
 obsolescent, it is deemed proper to set these in separate col- 
 umns, in italics, for the information of the student. 
 
OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 75 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 Participle 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Participle. obsolete. 
 
 obsolete. 
 
 Abide 
 
 abode 
 
 abode 
 
 
 Am 
 
 was 
 
 been 
 
 
 Arise, rise 
 
 arose, rose 
 
 arisen, risen 
 
 
 Awake 
 
 awoke, awaked 
 
 awaked 
 
 
 Bear 
 
 bore 
 
 borne bare 
 
 
 Beat 
 
 beat 
 
 beat, beaten 
 
 
 Begin 
 Bend. 
 
 begun, began 
 bended, bent 
 
 begun 
 bended, bent 
 
 
 Bereave 
 
 bereaved, bereft 
 
 bereaved, bereft 
 
 
 Beseech 
 Bid 
 
 besought 
 bid, bade 
 
 besought 
 bid, bidden 
 
 
 Bind 
 
 bound 
 
 bound 
 
 bounden 
 
 Bite 
 
 bit 
 
 bit, bitten 
 
 
 Bleed 
 
 bled 
 
 bled 
 
 
 Blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown 
 
 
 Break 
 
 broke 
 
 broke, broken brake 
 
 
 Breed 
 
 bred 
 
 bred 
 
 
 Bring 
 Build 
 
 brought 
 builded, built 
 
 brought 
 built 
 
 
 Burst 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 
 Buy 
 
 bought 
 
 bought 
 
 
 Cast 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 
 
 
 Catch 
 
 catched, caught 
 
 catched, caught 
 
 
 Chide 
 
 chid 
 
 chid 
 
 chidden 
 
 Chuse, choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chose, chosen 
 
 
 Cleave, to stick 
 
 cleaved 
 
 cleaved clave 
 
 
 Cleave, to split 
 
 cleft 
 
 cleft, clove, cloven 
 
 
 Cling 
 Clothe 
 
 clung 
 clothed 
 
 clung 
 clothed, clad 
 
 , 
 
 Come 
 
 came, come. 
 
 come 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 
 Crow 
 
 crowed 
 
 crowed crew 
 
 
 Creep 
 
 crept 
 
 crept 
 
 
 Cut 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 
 Dare 
 
 durst, dared* 
 
 dared 
 
 
 Deal 
 
 dealt 
 
 dealt 
 
 
 Dig 
 
 dug, digged 
 
 dug, digged 
 
 
 Do 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 
 Draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 
 Drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven, drove drave 
 
 
 Drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drank 
 
 drunken. 
 
 Dwell 
 
 dwelt, dwelled 
 
 dwelt, dwelled 
 
 [drunk 
 
 Eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eat, eaten 
 
 
 Engrave 
 Fall 
 
 engraved 
 fell 
 
 engraven, engraved 
 fallen 
 
 
 Feel 
 
 felt 
 
 felt 
 
 
 Fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 
 * When transitive, this verb is always regular; as, " he dared him." 
 
76 
 
 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 Participle 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Participle. obsolete. 
 
 obsolete, 
 
 Find 
 
 found 
 
 found 
 
 
 Flee 
 
 fled 
 
 fled 
 
 
 Fling 
 
 flung 
 
 flung 
 
 
 Fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 
 Forget * 
 Forsake 
 
 forgot 
 forsook 
 
 forgot, forgotten forgat 
 forsaken 
 
 
 Freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen, froze 
 
 
 Get 
 Gild 
 
 got 
 gilded, gilt 
 
 got, gotten gat 
 gilded, gilt 
 
 
 Gird 
 
 girded, girt 
 
 girded, girt 
 
 
 Give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 
 Go 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 
 Grave 
 Grind 
 
 graved 
 ground 
 
 graved, graven 
 ground 
 
 
 Grow 
 Have 
 
 grew 
 had 
 
 grown 
 had 
 
 
 Hanff 
 Hear 
 
 hanged, hung 
 heard 
 
 hanged, hung 
 heard 
 
 
 Hew 
 
 hewed 
 
 hewed, hewn 
 
 
 Hide 
 
 hid 
 
 hid, hidden 
 
 
 Hit 
 
 hit 
 
 hit 
 
 
 Hold 
 
 held 
 
 held 
 
 holden 
 
 Hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 
 Keep 
 Knit 
 
 kept 
 knit 
 
 kept 
 knit 
 
 
 Know 
 
 knew 
 
 known 
 
 
 Lade 
 
 laded 
 
 laden 
 
 
 Lay 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 
 
 
 
 Lead 
 
 led 
 
 led 
 
 
 Leave 
 
 left 
 
 left 
 
 
 JLend 
 
 lent 
 
 lent 
 
 
 Let 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 
 Lie (down) 
 
 lay 
 
 . Iain 
 
 
 Lose 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 
 
 
 Make 
 
 made 
 
 made 
 
 
 Meet 
 
 met 
 
 met 
 
 
 Mow 
 
 mowed 
 
 mowed, mown 
 
 
 Pay 
 
 paid 
 
 paid 
 
 
 Put 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 
 Read 
 
 read 
 
 read 
 
 
 Rend 
 
 rent 
 
 rent 
 
 
 Rid 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 
 Ride 
 
 rode 
 
 rid 
 
 ridden 
 
 Ring 
 
 rung, rang 
 
 rung 
 
 
 Rise 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
 
 Rive 
 
 rived 
 
 rived, riven 
 
 
 Run 
 
 ran, run 
 
 run 
 
 
 Saw 
 
 sawed 
 
 sawed, sawn 
 
 
 Say 
 
 said 
 
 said 
 
 
 See 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
 
 Seek 
 
 sought 
 
 sought 
 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 
 Past Tense Participle. 
 
 Infinitive 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Participle. 
 
 obsolete. obsolete. 
 
 Sell 
 
 sold 
 
 sold 
 
 i 
 
 Send 
 
 sent 
 
 sent 
 
 
 Set 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 
 Shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken, shook 
 
 
 Shape 
 Shave 
 
 shaped 
 shaved 
 
 shaped 
 shaved 
 
 shapen 
 shaven 
 
 Shear 
 
 sheared 
 
 sheared, shorn 
 
 
 Shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 
 Shine 
 
 shone, shined shone, shined 
 
 Shew 
 
 shewn 
 
 shewn 
 
 
 Show 
 
 showed 
 
 shown, showed 
 
 
 Shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 shod 
 
 
 Shoot 
 
 shot 
 
 shot 
 
 JL 
 
 Shrink 
 
 shrunk 
 
 shrunk 
 
 
 Shred 
 
 shred 
 
 shred 
 
 
 Shut 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 
 Sing 
 Sink 
 
 sung 
 sunk 
 
 sung 
 sunk 
 
 sang 
 sank 
 
 Sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 sitten 
 
 Slay 
 
 slew 
 
 slain 
 
 
 Sleep 
 Slide 
 
 slept 
 slid 
 
 slept 
 slid 
 
 slidden 
 
 Sling 
 
 . slung 
 
 slung 
 
 
 Slink 
 
 slunk 
 
 slunk 
 
 
 Slit 
 
 slit, slitted 
 
 slit, slitted 
 
 
 Smite 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten, smit 
 
 
 Sow 
 
 sowed 
 
 sowed, sown 
 
 
 Speak 
 
 spoke 
 
 spoke, spoken 
 
 spake 
 
 Speed 
 
 sped 
 
 sped 
 
 
 Spend 
 
 spent 
 
 -~ spent 
 
 
 Spill 
 
 spilled, spilt 
 
 spilled, spilt 
 
 
 Spin 
 
 spun 
 
 spun 
 
 
 Spit 
 
 spit 
 
 spit 
 
 spat spitten 
 
 Spread 
 
 spread 
 
 spread 
 
 
 Spring 
 Stand 
 
 sprung 
 stood 
 
 . sprung 
 stood 
 
 sprang 
 
 Steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stole, stolen 
 
 
 Sting 
 Stink 
 
 stung 
 stunk 
 
 stung 
 stunk 
 
 stank 
 
 Stride 
 
 strid, strode 
 
 strid 
 
 stridden 
 
 Strike 
 
 struck 
 
 struck 
 
 stricken 
 
 String 
 
 strung 
 
 strung 
 
 
 Strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven 
 
 
 Strow 
 
 strowed 
 
 strowed strown 
 
 
 Strew 
 
 strewed 
 
 strewed 
 
 
 Swear 
 
 swore 
 
 sworn 
 
 sware 
 
 Sweat 
 
 sweat 
 
 sweat 
 
 
 Swell 
 
 swelled 
 
 swelled 
 
 swollen 
 
 Swim 
 
 swum, swam 
 
 swum 
 
 
 Swing 
 
 swung 
 
 swung 
 
 
 Take 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 
 
 7* 
 
 
 
78 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 Past Tense Participle 
 
 Infinitive. Past Tense. Participle. obsolete. obsolete 
 
 sach taught taught 
 
 'ear tore torn 
 
 Tell told told 
 
 Think thought thought 
 
 Thrive thrived, throve thrived thriven 
 
 Throw threw thrown 
 
 Thrust thrust thrust 
 
 Tread trod trod, trodden 
 
 Wax waxed waxed waxen 
 
 Wear wore worn 
 
 Weave wove woven, wove 
 
 Weep wept wept 
 
 Win * won won 
 
 Wind wound wound 
 
 Work worked, wrought worked, wrought 
 
 Wring wrung, wringed wrung, wringed 
 
 Write Wrote writ, written 
 
 NOTE 1. The old forms of the past tense, sang, spake, sprang, for- 
 gat, &c. are here placed among the obsolete words. They are entirely 
 obsolete, in ordinary practice, whether popular or polite ; and it seems 
 advisable not to attempt to revive them. In addition to this reason for 
 omitting them, there is one which is not generally understood. The 
 sound of a in these and all other like cases, was originally the broad a 
 or aw; which sound, in the Gothic and Saxon, as in the modern Scotch, 
 corresponded nearly with o in sp.oke, swore. Spoke is therefore nearer 
 to the original than spake, as we now pronounce the vowel a with its 
 first or long sound, as in sake. 
 
 NOTE 2. In the use of the past tense and participle of some of these 
 verbs, there is a diversity of practice ; some authors retaining those 
 which others have rejected as obsoletejJjpMany words which were in 
 use in the days of Shakspeare and Lord Bacon, are now wholly laid aside ; 
 others are used only in books, while others are obsolescent, being occa- 
 sionally used ; and a few of the old participles, having lost the verbal 
 character, are used only as attributes. Of the last mentioned species, 
 are fraught, drunken, molten, beholden, shorn, bounden, cloven. Holpcn 
 is entirely obsolete. Holden, swollen, gotten, are nearly obsolete in com- 
 mon parlance. Wrought is evidently obsolescent. 
 
 Bishop Lowth has attempted to revive the use of many of the obsoles- 
 cent past tenses and participles, for which he has, and I think deserved- 
 ly, incurred the severe animadversions of eminent critics. " Is it not 
 surprising (says Campbell on Rhetoric, b. ii. ch. 2.) that one of Lowth's 
 penetration should think a single person entitled to revive a form of in- 
 flection in a particular word, which had been rejected by all good writ- 
 ers of every denomination, for more than a hundred and fifty years ?" - 
 This writer declares what Lowth has advanced on the use of the past 
 tense and participle, to be inconsistent with the very first principles of 
 grammar. He observes justly that authority is every thing in language, 
 and that this authority consists in reputable, national, present usage. 
 
 Independent of authority, however, there are substantial reasons in 
 the language itself for laying aside the participles ending with en, and 
 for removing the differences between the past time and participle. In 
 opposition to the opinion of Lowth, who regrets that our language has so 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 79 
 
 few inflections, and maintains that we should preserve all we have, I 
 think it capable of demonstration that the differences between the past 
 time and participle of the past tense of our irregular verbs, is one of the 
 greatest inconveniences in the language. If we used personal termina- 
 tions to form our modes and tenses, like the Greeks, it would be desira- 
 ble that they should be carefully retained. But as we have no other 
 than about half a dozen different terminations, and are therefore obliged 
 to form our modes and tenses by means of auxiliaries, the combination of 
 these forms a part of the business of learning the language, which is ex- 
 tremely difficult and perplexing to foreigners. Even the natives of Scot- 
 land and Ireland do not always surmount the difficulty. This difficulty 
 is very much augmented by the difference between the past tense and 
 the 'participle. To remove this difference, in words in which popular 
 usage has given a lead, is to obviate, in a degree, this inconvenience. 
 This is recommended by another circumstance it will so far reduce our 
 irregular verbs to an analogy with the regular, whose past tense and par- 
 ticiple of the perfect are alike. 
 
 In a number of woftis, the dropping of n in the participle will make 
 a convenient distinction between the participle and the adjective ; for in 
 the latter, we always retain the en we always say a written treatise, a 
 spoken language, a hidden mystery though the best authors write, a 
 " mystery hid from ages ;" " the language spoke in Bengal." 
 
 Defective Verbs. 
 
 Verbs which want the past time or participle, are deemed 
 defective. Of these we have very few. The auxiliaries 
 may, can, will, shall, must, having no participle, belong to 
 this class. Ought is used in the present and past tenses on- 
 ly, with the regular inflection of the second person only / 
 ought, thou ought est, he ought, we, you, they ought. Quoth 
 is wholly obsolete, except in poetry and burlesque. It has 
 no inflection, and is used chiefly in the third person, with 
 the nominative following it, quoth he, 
 
 Wit, to know, is obsolete, except in the infinitive, to in- 
 troduce an explanation or enumeration of particulars; as, 
 " There are s$ven persons, to wit, four men and three wo- 
 men." Wot arid wist are entirely obsolete. , 
 
 Adverbs or Modifiers. 
 
 Adverbs are a secondary part of speech. Their uses are 
 to enlarge, restrain, limit, define, and in short, to modify the 
 sense of other words. 
 
 Adverbs may be classed according to their several uses. 
 
 1. Those which qualify the actions expressed by verbs and 
 participles ; as, " a good man lives piously ;" " a room is 
 elegantly furnished." Here piously denotes the manner of 
 living elegantly denotes the manner of being furnished. 
 The words of this kind, which are very numerous, are really 
 compound adjectives, formed by annexing the attribute like 
 
80 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 to any other attribute "pious-tike, elegant-like. The phrases 
 mentioned, when expressed according to the primitive 
 idiom, stand thus : " he lives pious-like ;" "a room elegant- 
 like furnished." So that the most numerous class of modi- 
 fiers of verbs are really attributes or adjectives; But being 
 used as the qualifiers of verbs and other attributes, and not 
 to express the qualities of names, they may well take a dif- 
 ferent appellation. 
 
 In this class may be ranked a number of other words ; as, 
 when, soon, then, ivhere, whence, hence, and many others, 
 whose use is to modify verbs. 
 
 2. Another class of modifiers are words usually called prep- 
 ositions, used with verbs to vary their signification ; for 
 which purpose they generally follow them in construction ; 
 as, to fall on, give out, bear with, cast up; or they are pre- 
 fixed and become a part of the word ; as, overcome, under- 
 lay. In these uses, these words modify, or change the sense 
 of the verb ; and when prefixed, are united with the verb in 
 orthography. 
 
 A few modifiers admit the termination of comparison ; as, 
 soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest. Most of 
 those which end in ly, may be compared by more and most, 
 less, and least; as, more justly, more excellently; less hon- 
 estly, least criminally. 
 
 NOTE. The numerous distinctions of adverbs into those of time, place 
 and quantity, casual, illative, adversative, &c. seem to be more perplex- 
 ing than useful. We might as well make the definition of every word 
 in our dictionaries the foundation of a class, as to recognize the divisions 
 of this species of words, with which the ingenuity of authors has filled 
 our grammars. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 Prepositions, so called from their being put before other 
 , words, serve to connect words and show the relation be- 
 tween them, or to show the condition of things. Thus, a 
 man of benevolence, denotes a man who possesses benevo- 
 lence. Christ was crucified between two thieves. Receive 
 the book from John and give it to Thomas. 
 
 The prepositions most common are, to, for, by, of, in, 
 into, on, upon, among, between, betwixt, up, over, under, be- 
 neath, against, from, out, with, through, at, towards, before, 
 behind, after, without, across. 
 
 We have a number of particles, which serve to vary or 
 modify the words to which they are prefixed, and which are 
 sometimes called inseparable prepositions, because they are 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. | 81 
 
 never used but as parts of other words such are a, be, con, 
 mis, pre, re, sub, in abide, become, conjoin, mistake, prefix, 
 return, subjoin, &/c. These may be called prefixes. 
 
 Connectives or Conjunctions. 
 
 Connectives are words which unite words and sentences 
 in construction, joining two or more simple sentences into 
 one compound one, and continuing the sentence at the pleas- 
 ure of the writer or speaker. They also begin sentences 
 after a full period, manifesting some relation between sen- 
 tences in the general tenor of discourse. 
 
 The connectives of most general use, are, and, or, either, 
 nor, neither, but, than. 
 
 And is supposed to denote an addition ; as, " The book is 
 worth four shillings and sixpence." That is, it is worth four 
 shillings, add sixpence, or with sixpence added. " John re- 
 sides at New- York, and Thomas at Boston." That is, John 
 resides at New- York, add [add this which follows] Thomas 
 resides at Boston. From the great use of this connective 
 in joining words of whioh the same thing is affirmed or pre- 
 dicated, it may be justly called the copulative by way of 
 eminence. 
 
 The distinguishing use of the connective is to save the 
 repetition of words ; for this sentence, " John, Thomas and 
 Peter reside at York," contains three simple sentences; 
 " John resides at York"" Thomas resides at York" " Pe- 
 ter resides at York ;" which are all combined into one, with 
 a singlp verb and predicate, by means of the copulative. 
 
 Either and or have been already explained under the head 
 of substitutes ; for in strictness they are the representatives 
 of sentences or words ; but as or has totally lost that char- 
 acter, both these words will be here considered as connect- 
 ives. Their use is to express an alternative, and I shall call 
 them alternatives. Thus, " Either John or Henry will be 
 at the Exchange," is an alternative sentence ; the verb or 
 predicate belonging to one or the other, but not to both ; 
 and whatever may be the number of names or propositions 
 thus joined by or, the verb and predicate belong to one only. 
 
 One very common use of or, is to join to a word or sen- 
 tence, something added by way of explanation or definition. 
 Thus, " No disease of the mind can more fatally disable it 
 from benevolence than ill-humor or peevishness." Ram~ 
 bier, No. 74. Here peevishness is not intended as a distinct 
 
82 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 thing from ill-humor, but as another term for the same idea. 
 In this case, or expresses only an alternative of words, and 
 not of signification. 
 
 As either and or are affirmative of one or other of the par- 
 ticulars named, so neither and nor are negative of all the 
 particulars. Thus, " For I am persuaded that neither death, 
 nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things 
 present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any 
 other creature shall be able to separate us from the love of 
 God." Rom. 8. 38. Here neither is in fact a substitute 
 for each of the following particulars all of which it denies 
 to be able to effect a certain purpose not either of these 
 which follow shall separate us from the love of God. It is 
 laid down as a rule in our grammars, that nor must always 
 answer to neither ; but this is a great mistake, for the nega- 
 tion of neither, not either, extends to every one of the fol- 
 lowing alternatives. But nor is more generally used, and 
 in many cases, as in the passage just recited, is far the most 
 emphatical. 
 
 But is used for two Saxon words, originally by mistake, 
 but now by established custom ; bet or bote, the radical of 
 our modern words better, boot, and denoting sufficiency, com- 
 pensation, more, further, or something additional, by way 
 of amendment ; and beuion or butan, equivalent to without 
 or except. 
 
 In the former sense, we have the word in this sentence ; 
 " John resides at York, but Thomas resides at Bristol." 
 The primitive sense here is, Jolm resides at York ; more, 
 add or supply, Thomas resides at Bristol. It does not al- 
 ways signify opposition, as is usually supposed, but some 
 addition to the sense of what goes before. 
 
 In the latter sense, or that of butan, it is used in this pas- 
 sage, " He hath not grieved me, but in part." 2 Cor. 2. 5. 
 That is, " He hath not grieved me, except in part." The 
 first assertion is a complete negation ; the word but (beutan) 
 introduces an exception. " Nothing, but true religion, can 
 give us peace in death." Here also is a complete negation ; 
 with a saving introduced by but. Nothing, except true reli- 
 gion. 
 
 These were the only primitive uses of but, until, by means 
 of a mistake, a third sense was added, which is that of only. 
 Not knowing the origin and true meaning of but, authors 
 omitted the negation in certain phrases where it was es- 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 83 
 
 sehtial to a true construction ; as in the following passages : 
 "Our light affliction, which is but for a moment." 2 Cor. 4. 
 " If they kill us, we shall but die." 2 Kings 7. 
 
 The but, in these passages, is buton, be out, except ; and, 
 according to the true original sense, not should precede, to 
 give the sentence a negative turn : " Our light affliction is 
 not, but (except) for a moment." " We shall not, but die." 
 As they now stand, they .would in strictness signify, Our 
 light affliction is except for a moment We can except die, 
 whicl^would not be sense. To correct the sense, and repair 
 the breach made in the true English idiom, by this mis- 
 take, we must give but a new sense, equivalent to only. Thus 
 we are obliged to patch and mend, to prevent the mischiefs 
 of innovation. 
 
 The history of this word but should be, as Johnson ex- 
 presses the idea, " a guide to reformers, and a terror to in- 
 novators." The first blunder or innovation blended two 
 words of distinct meanings into one, in orthography and 
 pronunciation. Then the sense and etymology being ob- 
 scured, authors. proceeded to a further change, and suppress- 
 ed the negation, which was essential to the buton. We have 
 now therefore one word with three different and unallied 
 meanings ; and to these may be reduced the whole of John- 
 son's eighteen definitions of but. 
 
 Let us however trace the mischief of this change a little 
 further. As th^word but is now used, a sentence may have 
 the same meaning with or without the negation. For exam- 
 ple : "he hath not grieved me, but in part" and " he hath 
 grieved me, but in part," have, according to our present use 
 of but, precisely the same meaning. Or compare different 
 passages of scripture, as they now stand in our Bibles. 
 
 He hath not grieved me, but in part. 
 Our light affliction is but for a moment. 
 
 This however is not all ; for the innovation being directed 
 neither by knowledge nor judgment, is not extended to all 
 cases, and in a large proportion of phrases to which but be- 
 longs, it is used in its original sense with a preceding nega- 
 tion, especially with nothing and none. " There is none 
 good, but one, that is God." Matt. 19. 17. This is cor- 
 rect there is none good, except one, that is God. " He 
 saw a fig-tree in the way, and found nothing thereon but 
 leaves only." Matt. 21. 19. This is also correct " he 
 
84 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 found nothing, except leaves ;" the only is redundant. " It 
 amounts to no more but this." Locke, Und. b. 1.2. This 
 is a correct English phrase ; "It amounts to no more, except 
 this ;" but it is nearly obsolete. 
 
 Hence the propriety of these phrases ; " They could not, 
 but be known before.'* Locke, 1.2. " The reader may be, 
 nay, cannot chuse but be, very fallible in the understanding 
 of it." Locke, 3. 9. Here but is used in its true sense 
 They could not, except this, be known before. That is, the 
 contrary was not possible. The other phrase is fre^iently 
 found in Shakspeare and other old writers, but is now obso- 
 lete. They cannot chuse but that is, they have no choice, 
 power or alternative, except to be very fallible. 
 
 But is called in our grammars, a disjunctive conjunction, 
 connecting sentences, but expressing opposition in the sense. 
 To illustrate the use of this word which joins and disjoins 
 at the same time, Lowth gives this example: " You and I 
 rode to London, but Peter staid at home." Here the bishop 
 supposed the but to express an opposition in the sense. But 
 let but be omitted, and what difference will the omission 
 make in the sense ? " You and I rode to London, Peter staid 
 at home." Is the opposition in the- sense less clearly mark- 
 ed than when the conjunction is used ? By no means. And 
 the truth is, that the opposition in the sense, when there is 
 any, is never expressed by the connective at all, but always 
 by the following sentence or phrase : " Th^ have mouths, 
 but they speak not ; eyes have they, but they see not." 
 Psalm 115. 5. Let but be omitted " They have mouths, 
 they speak not ; eyes have they, they see not." The omis- 
 sion of the connectives makes not fhe smallest alteration in 
 the sense, so far as opposition or difference of idea in the 
 members of the sentence is concerned. Indeed the bishop 
 is most unfortunate in the example selected to illustrate his 
 rule ; for the copulative and may be used for but, without 
 the least alteration in the sense : " You and I rode to Lon- 
 don, and Peter staid at home." In this sentence -the oppo- 
 sition is as completely expressed as if but was used ; which 
 proves that the opposition in the sense has no dependence 
 on the connective. 
 
 Nor is it true that an opposition in the sense always fol- 
 lows but : " Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every 
 word which proceedeth out of the mouth of God." Matt. 
 4. 4. Here the last clause expresses no opposition, but 
 
OF THE ENGLISH JLANGUAGE. 85 
 
 merely an additional fact. The true sense of but when 
 used for bote, is supply, more, further, something additional, 
 to complete the sense it may be in opposition to what has 
 preceded or in continuation only. In general, however, the 
 word but is appropriately used before a clause of a sentence, 
 intended to introduce a new and somewhat different idea, by 
 way of modifying the sense of the preceding clause. This 
 use is very naturally deduced from the original sense of the 
 word, something further which is to make complete or quali- 
 fy what has preceded. 
 
 Than is a connective of comparison : " John is taller than 
 Peter." 
 
 Because is a mere compound of by and cause by cause. 
 " It is the case of some to contrive some false periods of busi- 
 ness, because they may seem men of dispatch." Bacon of 
 Dispatch. See also Apoth. 7. 6. This is a correct English 
 idiom, Dr. Lowth's criticism to the contrary notwithstand- 
 ing; but it is now obsolete. 
 
 Exclamations. 
 
 Exclamations are sounds uttered to express passions and 
 emotions ; usually those which are violent or sudden. They 
 are called interjections, words thrown in between the parts 
 of a sentence. But this is not always the fact, and the name 
 is insignificant. The more appropriate name is exclama- 
 tions; as they are mere irregular sounds, uttered as passion 
 dictates, and not subject to rules. 
 
 A few of these sounds however become the customary 
 modes of expressing particular passions and feelings in eve- 
 ry nation. Thus in English, joy and surprise and grief are 
 expressed by oh, uttered with a different tone and' counte- 
 nance. Alas expresses grief or great sorrow pish, pshaw, 
 express contempt. Sometimes verbs, names, and attributes 
 are uttered by way of exclamation in a detached manner; 
 as, Hail ! Welcome ! Bless me ! 
 
 In two or three instances, exclamations are followed by 
 names and substitutes in the nominative and objective as, O 
 thou in the nominative ah me in the objective. Sometimes 
 that follows O, expressing a wish " O that the Lord would 
 guide my ways." But in such cases, we may consider wish 
 or some other verb to be understood. 
 8 
 
86 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 Derivation. 
 
 HOWEVER numerous may be the words in a language, the 
 number of radical words is small. Most words are formed 
 from others by addition of certain words or syllables, 
 which were originally distinct words, but which have lost 
 their distinct character, and are now used only in combina- 
 tion with other words. Thus er, in lover, is a contraction of 
 wer, a Saxon word denoting man, [the Latin vir ;] ness de- 
 notes state or condition ; ly is an abbreviation of like or 
 liche ; fy is from f ado, to make, &,c. 
 
 Most of the English derivatives fall under the following 
 heads : 
 
 1. Names formed from names, or more generally from 
 verbs, by the addition of r, er or or, denoting an agent ; as, 
 lover, hater, assignor, flatterer, from love, hate, assign, flat- 
 ter. In a few instances, words thus formed are less regular ; 
 as, glazier from glass, courtier from court, parishioner from 
 parish. 
 
 2. Names converted into verbs by the prefix to, as, from 
 water, cloud, to water, to cloud. 
 
 3. Attributes converted into verbs in the same manner ; 
 as, to lame, to cool, to warm, from lame, cool, warm. 
 
 4. Verbs formed from names and attributes by the termi- 
 nation ize ; as method, methodize ; system, systemize ; mor- 
 al, moralize. When the primitive ends with a vowel, the 
 consonant t is prefixed to the termination ; as stigma, stig- 
 matize. 
 
 5. Verbs formed from names and attributes by the addition 
 of en or n ; as, lengthen, widen, from length, wide. 
 
 6. Verbs formed by fy; as brutify, stratify, from brute, 
 stratum. 
 
 7. Names or nouns formed from attributes by ness ; as 
 goodness from good ; graciousness from gracious. 
 
 8. Names formed by dom and ric, denoting jurisdiction ; 
 as, kingdom, bishopric, from king and bishop. Dom and ric 
 are nouns denoting jurisdiction or territory. 
 
 9. Names formed by hood and ship, denoting state or con- 
 dition; as, manhood, lordship, from man, lord. 
 
 10. Names ending in ment and age, from the French, de- 
 noting state or act ; as, commandment, parentage, from com- 
 mand, parent. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 87 
 
 11. Names in er, or, and ee, used by way of opposition, 
 the former denoting the agent, the latter the receiver, or per- 
 son to whom an act is performed ; as, assignor, assignee ; 
 indorser, indorsee. 
 
 12. Adjectives or attributes formed from names by the 
 addition of y ; as, healthy, from health ; pithy, from pith ; 
 or ly added to the name ; as, stately, from state. Ly is a con- 
 traction of like. 
 
 13. Attributes formed from names by the addition of ful ; 
 as, hopeful, from hope. 
 
 14. Attributes formed from names or verbs by ible or 
 able ; as, payable, from pay ; creditable, from credit ; com- 
 pressible, from compress. Able denotes power or capacity. 
 
 15. Attributes formed from names or attributes by ish; 
 as, whitish, from white ; blackish, from black ; waggish, from 
 wag. 
 
 16. Attributes formed from names by less ; as, fatherless, 
 from father ; .noting destitution. 
 
 17. Attributes formed from names by ous ; as, famous, 
 from fame -gracious, from grace, 
 
 18. Attributes formed by adding some to names ; as, de- 
 lightsome, from delight. 
 
 19. Modifiers formed from attributes by ly ; as, sweetly, 
 from sweet. 
 
 20. Names to express females formed by adding ess to 
 the masculine gender ; as, heiress, from heir. 
 
 21. Names ending in ty, some directly from the Latin, 
 others formed from attributes ; as, responsibility, from re- 
 sponsible ; contractility, from contractile ; probity, from 
 probitas. 
 
 22. Attributes formed by adding al to names ; as nation- 
 al, from nation. 
 
 23. Attributes ending in ic mostly from the Latin, or 
 French, but some of them by the addition of ic to a name ; 
 as, balsamic, from balsam ; sulphuric, from sulphur. 
 
 24. Names formed by ate to denote the union of sub- 
 stances in salts ; as, carbonate, in the chimical nomenclature, 
 denotes carbonic acid combined with another body. 
 
88 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 25. Names ending in ite from other names, and denoting 
 salts formed by the union of acids with other bodies ; as, sul- 
 phite, from sulphur. 
 
 26. Names ending in ret formed from other names, and 
 denoting a substance combined with an alkaline, earthy or 
 metallic base; as, sulphuret, carburet, from sulphur and 
 carbon. 
 
 27. Names formed from other names by adding cy ; as, 
 ensigncy, captaincy, from ensign, captain. 
 
 Words are also formed by prefixing certain syllables and 
 words, some of them significant by themselves ; others 
 never used but in composition : as, re, pre, con, mis, sub, 
 super; and great numbers are formed by the union of two 
 words ; as, bed-room, ink-stand, pen-knife. 
 
 Syntax. 
 
 Syntax teaches the rules to be observed in the construc- 
 tion of sentences. 
 
 A sentence is a number of words arranged in due order, 
 and forming a complete affirmation or proposition. In phi- 
 losophical language, a sentence consists of a subject and a 
 predicate, connected by an affirmation. Thus, " God is om- 
 nipotent," is a complete proposition or sentence, composed of 
 God, the subject, omnipotent, the predicate or thing affirmed, 
 connected by the verb is, which forms the affirmation. 
 
 The predicate is often included in the verb ; as, " The sun 
 shines." 
 
 A simple sentence then contains one subject and one per- 
 sonal verb ; that is, the name and the verb ; and without 
 these, no proposition can be formed. 
 
 A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sen- 
 tences, joined by connectives. The divisions of a compound 
 sentence may be called members or clauses. 
 
 Sentences are declaratory, as, I am writing ; the wind 
 blows imperative, as, go, retire, be quiet interrogative, 
 as, where am 1 1 who art thou ? or conditional^ as, if he 
 should arrive. 
 
 The rules for the due construction of sentences fall under 
 three heads. First, concord or agreement Second, gov- 
 ernment Third> arrangement and punctuation. 
 
 Concord is the agreement of words in construction ; as, 
 verbs in person and number with their nominatives ; adjec- 
 tives with nouns, in number, case,, and gender. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 89 
 
 Government is when one word requires another to be in 
 a particular case, mode or position. 
 
 In agreement, the name or noun is the controlling word, 
 as it carries with it the verb, the substitute and the attribute. 
 In government, the verb is the controlling word ; but names 
 and prepositions have their share of influence also. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 A verb must agree with its nominative in number and 
 person. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 In solemn style. " Thou hast loved righteousness." 
 Heb. 1. 9. 
 
 " Thou madcst man a little lower than the angels, and 
 crownedst him with glory and honor." Heb. 2. 7. 
 
 " Thou slialt not steal." Commandment. 
 
 "Art thou called, being a servant?" 1 Cor. 7. 21. 
 
 " But ye are washed ; but ye are sanctified." I Cor. 
 6. 11. 
 
 " Know ye not that we shall judge angels ?" 1 Cor. 6. 3. 
 
 " Do ye not know that the saints shall judge the world T 3 
 1 Cor. 1. 2. 
 
 In familiar language. " This is the word of promise." 
 Rom. 9. 9. 
 
 I write ; John reads ; Newton was the chief of astrono- 
 mers ; we are astonished at his discoveries ; are you pleased 
 with the new chimistry ? Emilia lias an elegant form. 
 
 NOTE 1. The nominative to a verb is found by young learners, by 
 asking who or what does what is affirmed. " Eumenes, a young man of 
 great abilities, inherited a large estate from his father. His father, har- 
 assed with competitions, and perplexed with a multiplicity of business, 
 recommended the quiet of a private station." Let the question be ask- 
 ed, Who inherited a large estate ? The answer is, Eumenes, which is the 
 nominative to the verb inherited. Who recommended the quiet of a 
 private station ? His father, which is therefore the nominative to the 
 verb recommended. 
 
 NOTE 2. Let the following rules be observed respecting the position 
 of the nominative : 
 
 I. The nominative usually precedes the verb in declarato- 
 ry phrases; as, "God created the world;" "the law is a 
 rule of right." But the nominative may be separated from 
 8* 
 
90 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 its verb, by a member of a period ; as, "Liberty, say the fana- 
 tic favorers of popular power, can only be found in a de- 
 mocracy." Anach. ch. 62. 
 
 II. The nominative often follows an intransitive verb, for 
 such a verb can have no object after it, and that position of 
 the nominative creates no ambiguity : thus, " Above it stood 
 the seraphim." Isa. 6. " Gradual sinks the breeze" 
 Thomson. 
 
 III. When the verb is preceded by here, there, hence, 
 thence, then, thus, yet, so, nor, neither, such, the same, here- 
 in, therein, wherein, and perhaps by some other words, the 
 nominative may follow the verb, especially be ; as, " here 
 are five men;" " there was a man sent from God;" "hence 
 arise wars;" " thence proceed our vicious habits;" "then 
 came the scribes and Pharisees;" "thus saith the Lord." 
 " Yet required not I bread of the governor." Neh. 5. 18. 
 " So panteth 'my soul after thee, O Lord." Psalm 42. 
 " Neither hath this man sinned nor his parents." John 9. 
 " Such were the facts ;" " the same was the fact." " Here- 
 in consists the excellency of the English government." 
 Blacks. Com. b. 1. 
 
 IV. When an emphatical attribute introduces a sentence, 
 the nominative may follow the verb ; as, " Great is the Lord, 
 glorious are his works, and happy is the man who has an in- 
 terest in his favor." 
 
 V. In certain phrases, which are conditional or hypothet- 
 ical, the sign of the condition may be omitted, and the nom- 
 inative placed after the auxiliary ; as, " Did he but know my 
 anxiety ;" for, if he did but know " Had I known the fact ;" 
 for, if I had known " Would they consent ;" for, if they 
 would, &-c. 
 
 VI. When -the words whose, his, their, her, mine, your, 
 &/c. precede the verb with a governing word, the nomina- 
 tive may follow the verb ; as, " Out of whose modifications 
 have been made most complex modes." Locke, 2. 22. 10. 
 
 VII. In interrogative sentences, the nominative follows 
 the verb when alone, or the first auxiliary; as, Believest 
 thou? Will he consent? Has he been promoted? The 
 nominative also follows the verb in the imperative mode; 
 as, go thou, " be ye warmed and filled." But after a single 
 
 t verb, the nominative is commonly omitted ; as, arise, flee. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 91 
 
 NOTE 3. In poetry, the nominative is often omitted in interrogative 
 sentences, in cases where in prose the omission would be improper ; as, * 
 " Lives there who loves his pain ?" Milton. That is, lives there a man 
 or person. 
 
 NOTE 4. In the answer to a question, the whole sentence is usually 
 omitted, except the name which is the principal subject of the interro- 
 gation ; as, " Who made the chief discoveries concerning vapor ?" Black. 
 *' Whose theory of respiration is generally received?" Crawford's. 
 
 NOTE 5. In poetry, the verb in certain phrases is omitted, chiefly 
 such verbs as express an address or answer ; as, " To whom the mon- 
 arch" that is, said or replied. 
 
 NOTE 6. When a verb is placed between two nominatives in differ- 
 ent numbers, it may agree with either ; but generally is made to agree 
 with the first, and this may be considered as preferable ; as, " His meat 
 was locusts and wild honey." " It [piracy] is the remains of the man- 
 ners of ancient Greece." jlnach. ch. 3(5. 
 
 NOTE 7. Verbs follow the connective than, without a nominative 
 expressed ; as, " Not that any thing occurs in consequence of our late 
 loss, more afflictive than was to be expected." Life of Cowper, Let. 62. 
 
 " He felt himself addicted to philosophical speculations, with more ar- 
 dor than consisted with the duties of a Roman and a senator." Mur- 
 phey's Tacitus, 4. 57. 
 
 " All words that lead the mind to any other ideas, than are supposed 
 really to exist in that thing." Locke, 2. 25. 
 
 These forms of expression seem to be elliptical ; " more afflictive than 
 that which was to be expected." That which or those which generally 
 supply the ellipsis. 
 
 NOTE 8. We sometimes see a nominative introducing a sentence, the 
 sense suddenly interrupted, and the nominative left without its intended 
 verb ; as, " The name of a procession ; what a great mixture of inde- 
 pendent ideas of persons, habits, tapers, orders, motions, sounds, does it 
 contain !" &c. Locke, 3. 5. 13. This form of expression is often very 
 striking in animated discourse. The first words being the subject of the 
 discourse, and important, are made to usher in the sentence, to invite at- 
 tention ; and the mind of the speaker, in the fervor of animation, quit- 
 ting the trammels of a formal arrangement, rushes forward to a descrip- 
 tion of the thing mentioned, and presents the more striking ideas in 
 the form of exclamation. 
 
 NOTE 9. We have one phrase in which the personal pronoun me 
 precedes a verb in the third person methinks, methought. Anciently, 
 him was used in like manner him thuhte, him thought. Alf. Orosius. 
 And names also; as, " tham halgan Gast was gethuht." It thought (or 
 seemed good) to the Holy Ghost. Lamb. Sax. Laws. 21. Him, me 
 and tham are here in the Saxon dative case. Me thinks, it seems to 
 me, mihi videtur. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 A name, a nominative case or a sentence joined with a 
 participle of the present tense, may stand in construction 
 
92 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 without a verb, forming the case absolute, or clause inde- 
 pendent; as, " Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multi- 
 tude being in that place." John 5. 13. Here multitude, the 
 name, joined with being, stands without a verb. 
 
 " By memory we conceive heat or light, yellow or sweet, 
 the object being removed." Locke, 2. 10. 
 
 " I have, notwithstanding this discouragement, attempted 
 a dictionary of the English language." Johnson's Preface. 
 
 " Whatever substance begins to exist, it must, during its 
 existence, necessarily be the same." Locke, 2. 27. 28.* 
 
 " The penalty shall be fine and imprisonment, any law or 
 custom to the contrary notwithstanding" 
 
 The latter phraseology is peculiar to the technical law 
 style. In no other case does notwithstanding follow the 
 sentence. But this position makes no difference in the true 
 construction, which is, "any law or custom to the contrary 
 not opposing" the real clause independent. 
 
 It is very common, when this participle agrees with a 
 number of words, or a whole clause, to omit the whole ex- 
 cept the participle ; and in this use of notwithstanding, we 
 have a striking proof of the value of abbreviations in lan- 
 guage. For example ; " Moses said, Let no man leave of it 
 till the morning. Notwithstanding, they hearkened not to 
 Moses." Ex. 16. 20. Here notwithstanding stands with- 
 out the clause to which it belongs ; to complete the sense in 
 words, it would be necessary to repeat the whole preceding 
 clause, or the substance of it " Moses said, Let no man leave 
 of it until the morning. Notwithstanding this command of 
 Moses, or notwithstanding Moses $aid that which has been 
 recited, they hearkened not to Moses." 
 
 " Folly meets with success in this world ; but it is true, 
 notwithstanding, that it labors under disadvantages." For- 
 teus, Lecture 13. This passage at length would read thus 
 
 * During is the participle of an old verb now obsolete ; but its deriv- 
 atives endure and enduring are in use. During is usually called ,a pre- 
 position ; but no consideration can justify the practice it retains its true 
 verbal sense. Equally erroneous is the classification of notwithstand- 
 ing with conjunctions. The two words not and loithstanding are 
 joined indeed without reason ; but the resolution of sentences in which 
 this compound is found, demands a restoration of it to its true place and 
 character. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 93 
 
 " Folly meets with success in the world ; but it is true, not' 
 withstanding folly meets with success in the world, that it 
 labors under disadvantages." By supplying what is really 
 omitted, yet perfectly well understood, we learn the true 
 construction ; so that notwithstanding is a participle always 
 agreeing with a word or clause, expressed or understood, 
 and forming the independent clause, and by a customary 
 ellipsis, it stands alone in the place of that clause. 
 
 Such is its general use in the translation of the Scriptures. 
 In the following passage, the sentence is expressed " Not- 
 withstanding I have spoken unto you." Jer. 35. That is, 
 " This fact, / have spoken unto you, not opposing or pre- 
 venting." Or, in other words, " In opposition to this fact." 
 
 It is also very common to use a substitute, this, that, which 
 or what, for the whole sentence; as, "Bodies which have 
 no taste, and no power of affecting the skin, may, notwith- 
 standing this, [notwithstanding they have no taste, and no 
 power to affect the skin,] act upon organs which are more 
 delicate." Fourcroy. Translation. 
 
 I have included in hooks, the words for which this is a 
 substitute. 
 
 "To account for the misery that men bring on then*- 
 selves, notwithstanding that, they do all in earnest pursue 
 happiness, we must consider how things come to be repre- 
 sented to our desires under deceitful appearances." Locke, 
 2. 21. 61. 
 
 Here that, a substitute, is used, and the sentence also for 
 which it is a substitute. This is correct English ; but it is 
 usual to omit the substitute, when the sentence is expressed 
 "Notwithstanding they do all in earnest pursue happi- 
 ness." 
 
 It is not uncommon to omit the participle of the present 
 tense, when a participle of the perfect tense is employed 
 " The Son of God, while clothed in flesh, was subject to all 
 the frailties and inconveniences of human nature, sin cx- 
 cepted" Locke, 3. 9. That is, sin being excepted ; the 
 clause independent. 
 
 This omission is more frequent when the participle pro- 
 vided is used, than in any other case. " In the one case, 
 provided the facts on which it is founded be sufficiently nu- 
 merous, the conclusion is said to be morally certain." 
 Campbell on Rhet. 1. 114. Here being is omitted, and the 
 
94 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 whole clause in italics is independent " Tlie facts on which 
 it is founded are sufficiently numerous, that being provided, 
 the conclusion is morally certain." Provided } in such cases, 
 is equivalent to given, admitted, or supposed. 
 
 " In mathematical reasoning, provided you are ascertain- 
 ed of the regular procedure of the mind, to affirm that the 
 conclusion is false, implies a contradiction." 2bm. 134. 
 
 In this phrase, that may follow provided provided that, 
 you are ascertained, &c. as in the case of notwithstanding, 
 before mentioned that being a definitive substitute, point- 
 ing to the following sentence that which follows being pro- 
 vided* 
 
 It is not uncommon for authors to carry the practice of 
 abridging discourse so far as to obscure the common regu- 
 lar construction. An instance frequently occurs in the 
 omission both of the nominative and the participle in the 
 case independent. For example: "Conscious of his own 
 weight and importance, his conduct in parliament would be 
 directed by nothing but the constitutional duty of a peer." 
 Junius, Let. 19. Here is no noun expressed to which con- 
 scious can be referred. We are therefore to supply the 
 necessary words, to complete the construction " He being 
 conscious" forming the clause independent. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 A sentence, a number of words, or a clause of a sentence, 
 may be the nominative to a verb, in which case the verb is 
 always in the third person of the singular number ; as, " All 
 that is in a man's power in this case, is, only to observe what 
 the ideas are which take their turns in the understanding." 
 Locke, 2. 14. Here the whole clause in italics is the nom- 
 inative to is. 
 
 " To attack vices in the abstract, without touching per- 
 sons, may be safe fighting indeed, but it is fighting with shad- 
 ows." Pope, Let. 48. 
 
 " I deny that men's coming to the use of reason, is the 
 time of their discovery." Locke, 1. 2. 
 
 * Provided that, says Johnson, is an adverbial expression, and we 
 sometimes see provided numbered among the conjunctions, as its corres- 
 pondent word is in French. What strange work has been made with 
 grammar ! 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 95 
 
 " That any thing can exist without existing in space, is 
 to my mind incomprehensible." Darwin, Zoon. sect. 14. 
 Here the definitive substitute may be transferred to a place 
 next before the verb " Any thing can exist, without exist- 
 ing in space," that [whole proposition] is incomprehensible. 
 
 No species of sentences falls under this rule more fre- 
 quently than those which begin with the infinitive mode. 
 "'* To show how the understanding proceeds herein, is the de- 
 sign of the following discourse." Locke, 1. 4. 
 
 This sentence may be inverted without the change of a 
 single word. " The design of the following discourse is to 
 show," &/c. 
 
 " To fear no eye and to suspect no tongue, is the great 
 prerogative of innocence." Rambler. This sentence may 
 be inverted ; but according to our idiom, the substitute it 
 would precede the verb " it is the great prerogative of in- 
 nocence to fear," &c. The sentence thus inverted would 
 be good English without the substitute " The great pre- 
 rogative of innocence is" but this alters the sense, and 
 limits the prerogatives of innocence to the one mentioned. 
 By changing the to a, this inconvenience would be remedied ; 
 but in either case the force of the sentiment would be im- 
 paired. 
 
 " Our ideas of eternity can be nothing but an infinite suc- 
 cession of moments of duration. " Locke, 2. 17. 16. " The 
 notion they have of duration, forces them to conceive," &/c. 
 Ibm. In these passages, we observe the nominative or subject 
 of the affirmation consists of several words ; for it is not simply 
 an idea which is affirmed to be nothing but an infinite suc- 
 cession of moments of duration ; but our idea of eternity. 
 In like manner, attributes and other words often make an 
 essential part of the nominative. " A wise son maketh a 
 glad father ; but a foolish son is the heaviness of his moth- 
 er." Abstract the name from its attribute, and the proposi- 
 tions cannot always be true " A son maketh a glad father 
 a son is the heaviness of his mother." 
 
 " He that gathereth in summer is a wise son." Here the 
 predicate belongs to the person described " He that gath- 
 ereth in summer." Take away the description, that gath- 
 ereth in summer, and the affirmation ceases to be true or be- 
 comes inapplicable. 
 
 These sentences or clauses thus constituting the subject 
 of an affirmation, may be termed nominative sentences. 
 
96 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 The infinitive mode may be the nominative to a personal 
 verb; as, " to see is desirable; to die is the inevitable lot of 
 men." Sometimes an attribute is joined with the infinitive ; 
 as, " to be blind is calamitous." In this case the attribute 
 has no name expressed to which it refers. The proposition 
 is abstract, and applicable to any human being, but not ap- 
 plied to any. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 In some cases the imperative verb is used without a defi- 
 nite nominative ; as, " I will not take any thing that is thine 
 save only that which the young men have eaten." Gen. 
 14. 24. 
 
 t ' Israel burned none, save Hazor only." Josh. 11. 13. 
 
 "I would that all were such as I am, except these bonds." 
 Acts 26. 29. 
 
 " Our ideas are movements of the nerves of sense, as of 
 the optic nerve in recollecting visible ideas, suppose of a tri- 
 angular piece of ivory." Darwin, Zoon. Led. 39. 
 
 This use of certain verbs in the imperative is very fre- 
 quent, and there is a peculiar felicity in being thus able to 
 use a verb in its true sense and with its proper object, with- 
 out specifying a nominative ; for the verb is thus left ap- 
 plicable to the first, second or third person. I may save or 
 except, or you may except, or we may suppose. If we ex- 
 amine these sentences, we shall be convinced of the propri- 
 ety of the idiom ; for the ideas require no application to 
 any person whatever. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 When the same thing is affirmed or predicated of two or 
 more subjects, in the singular number, the nominatives are 
 joined by the copulative and, with a verb agreeing with 
 them in the plural number ; as, " John and Thomas and Pe- 
 ter reside at Oxford." In this sentence, residence at Oxford 
 is a predicate common to three persons ; and instead of 
 three affirmations John resides at Oxford, Thomas resides 
 at Oxford, Peter resides at Oxford the three names are 
 joined by and, and one verb in the plural applied to the 
 whole number. 
 
 " Reason and truth constitute intellectual gold, which de- 
 fies destruction." Johnson. " Why are whiteness and cold- 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 97 
 
 ness in snow?" Locke. "Your lot and mine, in this re- 
 spect, have been -very different." Cowp. Let. 38.* 
 
 In like manner, names and attributes, representing all the 
 subjects or particulars connected by and, must be in the 
 plural number; as, " Plato and Aristotle ivere learned men; 
 these philosophers founded the Academic and Peripatetic 
 schools." " The most able generals of the last century 
 were Frederic of Prussia, the Duke of Marlborough and 
 Prince Eugene." "We look on the whiteness and softness, 
 produced in the wax, not as qualities in the sun, but effects 
 produced by its powers." Locke, 2. 8. 
 
 When three or more particulars are enumerated, the con- 
 nective may be omitted, except before the last; as, "The 
 particular bulk, number, figure and motion of the parts of 
 fire or snow are really in them." Locke, 2. 8. The copu- 
 lative may, however, be inserted where the repetition of it 
 adds to the ideas dignity, force or solemnity. 
 
 When terms of number are employed to specify the par- 
 ticulars, the copulative is suppressed; as, "These three then, 
 first ^the law of God, secondly the law of political societies, 
 thirdly the law of fashion or private censure, are those to 
 which men compare their actions." Locke, 2. 28. 13. ^ , 
 
 NOTE 1. The rule for the use of a plural verb with two or more 
 names in. the singular number, connected by and, is laid down by critics 
 with too much positiveness and universality. On original principles, all 
 the names, except the first, are in the objective case ; for it is probable 
 that and contains in it the verb add. " John and Thomas and Peter re- 
 side at York," on primitive principles, must be thus resolved " John, 
 add Thomas, add Peter reside at York." But without resorting to first 
 principles, which are now lost or obscured, the use of the singular verb 
 may be justified by considering the verb to be understood after each 
 name; and that which is expressed, agreeing only with the last; as, 
 " Nor were the young fellows so wholly lost to a sense of right, as pride 
 and conceit has since made them affect to be." Rambler, No. 97. That 
 is, as pride has and as conceit has. " Their safety and v/elfare is most 
 concerned." Spectator, No. 121. In our best authors the^singular verb 
 is frequent in such sentences.! 
 
 * Is the last example an evidence that mine is in the possessive case ! ! 
 
 t This was also a very common practice with the best Greek and Ro- 
 man writers " Metis enim, et rcffo, et consilium in senibus est. Cicero, 
 de Senec. ca. 19. 
 
 " Sed etiam ipsius terras vis.et natura delectat." Ibm. 15. 
 
 See Homer, 11. 1. 61. 
 
 See also examples in the Greek Testament. Matt. 12. 31. 13. 42. 
 50. 16. 17. 28. 1. . 
 9 
 
98 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 What will the hypercritic say to this sentence, " Either sex and every 
 age was engaged in the pursuits of industry." Gib. Rom. Emp. ch. 10. 
 Is not the distributive effect of either and every, such as to demand a 
 singular verb ? So in the following : " The judicial and every other 
 power is accountable to the legislative." Paley. Phil. 6. 8. 
 
 NOTE 2. When names and pronouns belonging to different persons, 
 are thus joined, the plural pronoun must be of the first person in pref- 
 erence to the second and third, and of the second in preference to the 
 third /, you and he are represented by we; you and he, by you. Pope 
 in one of his letters makes you or / to be represented by we or you. 
 " Either you or I are not in love with the other." The sentence is an 
 awkward one, and not to be imitated. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 When an affirmation or predicate refers to one subject 
 only among a number, which are separately named in the 
 singular number, the subjects are joined by the alternative 
 or or nor, with a verb, substitute and name in the singular 
 number; as, "Either John or Peter was at the Exchange 
 yesterday; but neither John nor Peter is there to-day." 
 
 Errors. " A circle or square are the same in idea." 
 
 Locke, 2. 8. 
 "But whiteness or redness are not in the porphyry." 
 
 Ibm, 
 
 "Neither of them [Tillotson and Temple] are remarkable 
 for precision." Blair. 
 
 Substitutes for sentences, whether they represent a single 
 clause, or the parts of .a compound sentence, are always in 
 the singular number; as, "It is true indeed that many have 
 neglected opportunities of raising themselves to honor and 
 to wealth, and rejected the kindest offers of fortune." Ram- 
 bler, No. 58. Here it and that refer to the clauses which 
 follow" It is true that, many have rejected the kindest of- 
 fers," &,c. 
 
 "It being unavoidable in discourses, differing from the 
 ordinary received notions, either to make new words, or to 
 use old words in a new signification." Locke, 2. 12. 14. 
 Here it refers to the two alternative clauses which succeed. 
 
 -RULE VIII. 
 
 Collective or aggregate names, comprehending two or 
 more individuals under a term in the singular number, have 
 
OF THE ENGLISH 
 
 a verb or pronoun to agree with them in the singular or plu- 
 ral ; as, The council is or are unanimous ; the company was 
 or were collected ; this people, or these people. 
 
 No precise rule can be given to direct, in every case, 
 which number is to be used. Much regard is to be had to 
 usage, and to the unity or plurality of idea. In general, 
 modern practice inclines to the use of the plural verb and 
 pronoun ; as may be seen in the daily use of clergy, nobil- 
 ity, court, council, commonalty, audience, enemy, and the 
 like. 
 
 " The clergy began to withdraw themselves from the tem- 
 poral courts." Blackstonc's Com. Introduction. 
 
 " Let us take a view of the principal incidents attending 
 the nobility, exclusive of their capacity as hereditary coun- 
 selors of the crown." BL Com. 1. 12. 
 
 "The commonalty are divided into several degrees." 
 
 Ibm. 
 
 " The enemy were driven from their works." 
 
 Portuguese Asia, Mickle, 163. 
 
 "The chorus prepare resistance at his first approach the 
 chorus sings of the battle the chorus entertains the stage." 
 
 Johnson's Life of Milton. 
 
 "The nobility are the pillars to support the throne." 
 
 BL Com. 1. 2. 
 
 Party and army, in customary language, are joined with a 
 verb in the singular number. Constitution cannot be plu- 
 ral. Church may be singular or plural. Mankind is almost 
 always plural. 
 
 The most common and palpable mistakes in the applica- 
 tion of this rule, occur in the use of sort and kind, with a 
 plural pronoun these sort, those kind. This fault infects the 
 works of our best writers ; but these words are strictly singu- 
 lar, and ought so to be used. 
 
 When a collective name is preceded by a definitive which 
 clearly limits the sense of the word to an aggregate with an 
 idea of unity, it requires a verb and pronoun to agree with 
 it in the singular number ; as, a company of troops was de- 
 tached; a troop of cavalry was raised; this people is 'be- 
 come a great nation ; that assembly was numerous; a "gov- 
 ernment established by that people." Bl. Com. 1. 2. 
 
100 Aft IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 Yet our language seems to be averse to the use of it, as 
 the substitute for names even thus limited by a, this or that. 
 " How long will that people provoke me, and how long will 
 it be ere they will believe me for all the signs that I^have 
 shewed among them 1" Num. 14. 11. " Liberty should 
 reach every individual of a people; as they all share one 
 common nature." Spectator, No. 287. In these passages, 
 it, in the place of they, would not be relished by an English 
 ear; nor is it ever used in similar cases.* 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 When the nominative consists of several words, and the 
 last of the names is in the plural number, the verb is com- 
 monly in the plural also: "A part of the exports consist of 
 raw silk." " The number of oysters increase." Golds. 
 Anim. Nat. Vol. 4. ch. 3. " Of which seeming equality we 
 have no other measure, but such as the train of our ideas 
 have lodged in our memories." Locke, 2. 14. 21. " The 
 greater part of philosophers have acknowledged the excel- 
 lence of this government." Anach. Vol. 5. p. 272. 
 
 NOTE 1 . The practice of using a plural verb after these and similar 
 nominatives, is a proof of the propriety of considering the whole of the 
 words, or the name and its adjuncts, as the actual nominative. Separate 
 the words part and exports in the first example, and the affirmation of 
 the verb cannot with truth be applied to either ; and as the whole must 
 be considered as the nominative, the verb is very naturally connected in 
 number with the last name. 
 
 NOTE 2. When an aggregate amount is expressed by the plural 
 names of the particulars composing that amount, the verb is often in the 
 singular number ; as, " There was more than a hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand pounds sterling." Mavor's Voyages, 1. 
 
 However repugnant to the principles of grammar, this may seem at 
 first view, the practice is correct; for the affirmation is not made of the 
 individual parts or divisions named, the pounds, but of the entire sum or 
 amount. (See this subject more fully explained under Rule XIV.) 
 
 The correctness of these rules as universal, is questioned ; and in some 
 cases, it may not be vindicable. A part of the exports consists, seems 
 to be the most correct ; yet, a part of philosophers have, seems to be 
 more agreeable to usage than a part of philosophers has. 
 
 names 1 
 
 2. 
 
 a noun in the singular, of the feminine gender. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 101: 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 Pronouns or substitutes must agree with the names they 
 represent, in number, gender and person ; as, 
 
 "Mine answer to them that do examine me is this" 
 
 I Cor. 9. 3. 
 
 "These are not the children of God." Rom. 9. 8. 
 
 "Speak to the children of Israel, and say to them, when ye 
 come into the land whither I bring you." Num. 15. 18. 
 
 " This is the heir ; come, let us kill him, and let us seize on 
 his- inheritance." Matt. 21. 38. 
 
 "Esther put on her royal apparel she obtained favor in 
 his sight then the king said unto her" Esth. 5. 
 
 " A river went out of Eden to water the garden, and it was 
 parted." Gen. 2. 10. 
 
 "The woman whom thou gavest to be with me." 
 
 Gen. 3. 12. 
 
 "Ignatius, who was bishop of Antioch, conversed with the 
 apostles." Paley's Evid. Sect. 3. 
 
 " A letter, which is just received, gives us the news." 
 
 "O thou who rulest in the heavens." 
 
 Who and icJiom are exclusively the substitutes for per- 
 sons; whose is of all genders, and as correctly applied to 
 things as to persons. 
 
 " The question whose solution I require." Dryden. 
 
 "That forbidden fruit whose mortal taste." Milton. 
 
 " A system whose imagined suns." Goldsmith. 
 
 "These are the charming agonies of love 
 Whose miseries delight." Thorn. 
 
 /, though neuter, is used as the substitute for infant or 
 child; the distinction of sex in the first period of life being 
 disregarded. 
 
 Formerly which was used as a substitute for persons ; as 
 appears from old authors, and especially in the vulgar ver- 
 sion of the scriptures " mighty men which were of old." 
 But this use of the word is entirely discarded. Which how- 
 ever represents persons, when a question is asked or dis- 
 crimination intended ; as, which of the men was it ; I know 
 not which person it was. 
 9* 
 
lO AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 Who is sometimes used as the substitute for things, but 
 most unwarrantably : " The countries who." Davenant on 
 Rev. 2. 13. "The towns who." Hume, Contin. 11. ch. 10. 
 " The faction or party who." Equally faulty is the use of 
 who and whom for brutes : " The birds who " 
 
 The use of it for a sentence, seems to have given rise to 
 a very vague application of the word in phrases like this : 
 How shall I contrive it to attend court ? How fares it with 
 you ? But sued phrases, whatever may have given rise to 
 them, are used chiefly in familiar colloquial language, and 
 are deemed inelegant in any other style. 
 
 A more justifiable use of it is seen in this sentence : " But 
 it is not this real essence that distinguishes them into species ; 
 it is men who range them into sorts," &,c. Locke, 3. 6. 36. 
 
 Here it is in the singular, though referring to men in the 
 plural. The cause or origin of this, in our language as in 
 others, may perhaps be found in the disposition of the mind 
 to combine the particular agents employed in performing an 
 act, into a single agent. The unity of the act or effect seems 
 to predominate in idea, and control the grammatical construc- 
 tion of the substitute. 
 
 RULE XI. 
 
 In compound sentences, a single substitute, who, which or 
 that, employed to introduce a new clause, is the nominative 
 to the verb or verbs belonging to that clause, and to others 
 connected with it ; as, " The thirst after curiosities, which 
 often draws contempt." Rambler, No. 83. " He who suf- 
 fers not his faculties to lie torpid has a chance of doing 
 good." Ibm. " They that are after the flesh, do mind the 
 things of the flesh." Rom. 8. 5. " Among those who are 
 the most richly endowed by nature, and [are] accomplished 
 by their own industry, how few are there whose virtues are 
 not obscured by the ignorance, prejudice or envy of their 
 beholders \"Spec. No. 255. 
 
 In a few instances, the substitute for a sentence or a clause, 
 is introduced as the nominative to a verb before the sentence 
 or clause, which it represents ; as, " There was therefore, 
 which is all that we assert, a course of life pursued by them, 
 different from that which they before led." Paley, Evid. 
 eh. 1 . Here which is the representative of the whole of the 
 last part of the sentence, and its natural position is after that 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 103 
 
 The substitute what combines in itself the offices of two 
 substitutes, which, if expressed, would be the nominatives to 
 two verbs, each in distinct subsequent clauses; as, " Add to 
 this, what, from its antiquity is but little known, has the rec- 
 ommendation of novelty." Hermes, pref. 19. Here what 
 stands for that, which and the two following verbs have no 
 other nominative. 
 
 This use of what is not very common. But what is very 
 frequently used as the representative of two cases one, the 
 objective after a verb or preposition, and the other, the nom- 
 inative to a subsequent verb. Examples : 
 
 " I heard what was said." " He related what was seen." 
 
 " We do not so constantly love what has done us good." 
 
 Locke, 2. 20. 14. 
 
 " Agreeable to what was afterwards directed." 
 
 Bl Com. b. 2. cli. 3. 
 
 " Agreeable to what hath been mentioned." 
 
 Prideaux, p. 2, 6, 3. 
 
 " There is something so overruling in whatever inspires 
 us with awe." Burke on the Sublime, 304. In these sen- 
 tences what includes an object after a verb or preposition, 
 and a nominative to the following verb. " I have heard that, 
 ivhich was said."- 
 
 RULE XII. 
 
 When a new clause is introduced into a sentence with two 
 pronouns, or with one pronoun and a name, one of them is 
 the nominative to the verb, and the other is governed by the 
 verb or a preposition in the objective case> or by a noun in 
 the possessive ; as, " Locke, whom there is no reason to 
 suspect of favoring idleness, has advanced." Ramb. 89. 
 Here reason is the nominative to is,, and whom is governed 
 by suspect. 
 
 " Take thy only son Isaac, whom thou lovest." Gen. 22. 
 Here are two substitutes, one the nominative to the verb, 
 and the other governed by it in the objective. 
 
 " God is the Sovereign of the universe, whose majesty 
 ought to fill us with awe, to whom we owe all possible rever- 
 ence, and whom we are bound to obey." 
 
 It is not unusual to see in periods, a third clause introduced 
 within a second, as a second is within the first^each with 
 
104 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 a distinct substitute for a nominative ; as, " Those modifica- 
 tions of any simple idea, which, as has been said, I call sim- 
 ple modes, are distinct ideas." Locke, 2. 13. 
 
 Involution to this extent may be used with caution, with- 
 out embarrassing a period ; but beyond this, if ever used, it 
 can hardly fail to occasion obscurity. Indeed the third mem- 
 ber included in a second, must be very short, or it will per- 
 plex the reader. 
 
 Substitutes are sometimes made to precede their princi- 
 pals ; thus, " When a man declares in autumn, when he is 
 eating them, or in spring, when there are none, that he loves 
 grapes." Locke, 2. 20. But this arrangement is usually 
 awkward and seldom allowable. 
 
 RULE XIII. 
 
 When there are antecedents in different persons, to which 
 a nominative pronoun refers, the pronoun and verb follow- 
 ing may agree with either, though usage may sometimes 
 offer a preference ; as, " I am the Lord that make all things ; 
 that stretch forth the heavens alone ; that spread abroad the 
 earth/' &c. Isa. 44. Here / and Lord are of different per- 
 sons, and that may agree with either. If it agrees with J, 
 the verbs must be in the first person ; " I am the Lord that 
 make" If that agrees with Lord in the third person, the 
 verb must be in the third person ; "I am the Lord that 
 maketh." But in all cases the following verbs should all be 
 of the same person. 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 
 The definitive adjectives, this and that, the only attributes 
 which are varied to express number, must agree in number 
 with the names to which they refer ; as, this city, that church ; 
 these cities, those churches. 
 
 This and that are often used as substitutes for a name in 
 the singular number, which is omitted ; but the same name 
 in the plural immediately follows after a connective ; as in 
 this example, " The mortality produced by this and other 
 diseases" Life of Washington, 3, 6. That is, by this dis- 
 ease and other diseases. The sentence may be varied thus 
 by this disease and others but the first form is the most com- 
 mon, and it occasions no obscurity. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 105 
 
 Other adjectives and participles, used as adjectives, are 
 joined to the names which they qualify without inflection ; 
 as, a wise man, wise men ; an amiable child, or amiable chil- 
 'dren ; a received truth, or received truths ; a shining charac- 
 ter, or shining characters. 
 
 Adjectives are often used as substitutes for the names of 
 men and things which they describe by their qualities ; as, 
 few were present ; the wise are respected ; the bravest are 
 not always victorious. 
 
 In this character, attributes take a plural form, and are 
 qualified by other attributes ; as, the goods of fortune, two 
 jinites or infinites, universals, generals the chief good, a 
 happy few ; "the extraordinary great" Burke on the Sub- 
 lime, 304. "The blue prof ound." AJcenside. 
 
 When nouns are joined by a copulative, an adjective pre- 
 ceding the first, is applied to the others without being repeat- 
 ed ; as, " From great luxury and licentiousness" here great 
 belongs to licentiousness as well as to luxury. " Converted 
 to strict sobriety and frugality of manners." Enfield. 
 
 When a period of time is described by its component parts 
 or portions, specified by plural names, an attribute in the sin- 
 gular number, or denoting unity, is often joined to the plural 
 names of the parts ; as, " I have not been to London this jive 
 years;" "an election regularly takes place every seven 
 years;" that is, in every single period or term of seven 
 years. 
 
 This idiom is explainable on very natural principles. The 
 whole portion of time has no name, and we are therefore 
 obliged to express our idea of it by something equivalent, 
 which, in this instance, are the parts Jive and seven years. 
 The mind is fixed upon the entire period, and while the lips 
 utter the name of the parts, the mind naturally considers the 
 whole as a unity, and overlooking the several portions, at- 
 taches the attribute to that unity or whole period. Hence 
 originated the customary abbreviation of twelve months, into 
 a twelvemonth ; seven nights into se'night ; fourteen nights 
 into & fortnight ; and hence dozen, hundred, &c. admit the 
 definitive a. 
 
 To the same cause probably may be ascribed the common 
 phrases, twenty pound, thirty foot, and others similar ; in 
 which a whole quantity or space, for which we have no ap- 
 propriate name, is described by smaller portions equivalent. 
 The idea of unity, in all such cases, being predominant, anc{ 
 
 / .rf 
 
166 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 the only one which the speaker wishes to communicate, is 
 very apt to control the language, and occasion the omission 
 of the sign of the plural even when it is necessary to the 
 very purpose intended. 
 
 Hence we learn the cause why enumeration and addition 
 of numbers are usually expressed in the singular number ; 
 two and two is four ; seven and nine is sixteen ; that is, the 
 sum of seven and nine is sixteen. But modern usage in- 
 clines to reject the use of the verb in the singular number, 
 in these and similar phrases. 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns to which 
 they belong ; as, a wise prince ; an obedient subject ; a pious 
 clergyman, a brave soldier. 
 
 Exception 1. When some word or words are dependent 
 on an attribute, it follows the name ; as, knowledge requi- 
 site for a statesman ; furniture convenient for a family. 
 
 Exception 2. When an attribute becomes a title, or is 
 emphatically applied to a name, it follows it; as, Charles, the 
 Great; Henry, the First; Lewis, the Gross; Wisdom in- 
 comprehensible. 
 
 Exception 3. Several attributes belonging to the same 
 name, may precede or follow the name to which they be- 
 long ; as, a learned, wise and martial prince, or a prince 
 learned, wise and martial. 
 
 Exception 4. The verb be often separates the name from 
 its attribute ; as, war is expensive ; gaming is ruinous. 
 
 Exception 5. An emphatical attribute is often used to in- 
 troduce a sentence, in which case it precedes the name which 
 it qualifies, and sometimes at a considerable distance ; as, 
 " Great is the Lord ;" auspicious will- be that event ; fortu- 
 nate is that young man who escapes the snares of vice. 
 
 Exception 6. The attribute all may be separated from its 
 noun by the, which never precedes it in construction ; as, 
 " all the nations of Europe." Such and many are separated 
 from names by a; as, " such a character is rare;" "many a 
 time." 
 
 All adjectives are separated from names by a when pre- 
 ceded by so and as so rich a dress as splendid a retinue ; 
 and they are separated by a or the, when preceded by how 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 107 
 
 and however ; as, " how distinguished an act of bravery," 
 " how brilliant the prize." " However just the complaint ;" 
 and by too ; as, too costly a sacrifice. 
 
 The word soever may be interposed between the attribute 
 and the name ; " how clear soever this idea of infinity" 
 " how remote soever it may seem." Locke. 
 
 Double is separated from its noun by the; as " double the 
 distance," the, in such cases, never preceding double. But 
 a precedes double, as well as other attributes. 
 
 All and singular or every precede the before the name 
 in these phrases. " All and singular the articles, clauses and 
 conditions." " All and every of the articles" phrases of 
 the law style. 
 
 RULE XVI. 
 
 Adjectives belong to verbs in the infinitive mode ; as, " to 
 see is pleasant," " to ride is more agreeable than to walk ;" 
 " to calumniate is detestable." 
 
 Sometimes the attribute belongs to the infinitive in union 
 with another attribute or a name ; as, " to be blind is unfor- 
 tunate ;" " to be a coward is disgraceful." Here the attri- 
 bute unfortunate is the attribute of the first clause, to be 
 blind, &/c. 
 
 RULE XVII. 
 
 Adjectives belong to sentences, or whole propositions : 
 Examples : 
 
 " Agreeable to this, we read of names being blotted out 
 of God's book" Burder's Oriental Customs, 375. 
 
 What is agreeable to this! The answer is found in the 
 whole of the last clause of the sentence. 
 
 "Antiochus to verify the character prophetically given 
 of him by Daniel acted the part of a vile and most detesta- 
 ble person, agreeable to what hath been aforementioned of 
 him." Prideaux, part 2, 6. 3. 
 
 " Her majesty signified her pleasure to the admiral that 
 as soon as he had left a squadron for Dunkirk, agreeable to 
 what he had proposed, he should proceed with the fleet." 
 Burchet, Nav. Hist. 439. 
 
 " Independent of his person, his nobility, his dignity, his 
 relations and friends may be urged," &/c. Crutkrie's Quinc- 
 tilian. 
 
108 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " No body can doubt but that these ideas of mixed modes 
 are made by a voluntary collection of ideas put together in 
 the mind, independent from any original patterns in nature." 
 Locke, 3, 5. 
 
 " Whereupon God was provoked to anger, and put them 
 in mind how, contrary to his directions, they had spared the 
 Canaanites" Whiston's Josepkus, b. 5, ch. 2. 
 
 " Greece, which had submitted to the arms, in her turn, 
 subdued the understandings of the Romans, and contrary to 
 that which in these cases commonly happens, the conquerors 
 adopted the opinions and manners of the conquered." En- 
 Jield, Hist. Phil. b. 3, 1. 
 
 " This letter of Pope Innocent enjoined the payment of 
 tithes to the parsons of the respective parishes, where any 
 man inhabited, agreeable to what was afterwards directed 
 by the same Pope in other countries." Blacks. Comment, 
 b. 2, ch. 3. 
 
 " Agreeable to this, we find some of the Anglo-Saxon la- 
 dies were admitted into their most august assemblies" 
 Henry, Hist. Brit. b. %, ch. 7, and b. 4, ch. 1, sec. 4. 
 
 " As all language is composed of significant words vari- 
 ously combined, a knowledge of them is necessary, previous 
 to our acquiring an adequate idea of language." Encyclop. 
 art. Grammar. 
 
 " His empire could not be established, previous to the in- 
 stitution of pretty numerous societies." Smdlie, Ph. Nat. 
 Hist. 339. 
 
 "Suitable to this, we find that men, speaking of mixed 
 modes, seldom imagine," &c. Locke, 3, 5, 11. 
 
 " No such original convention of the people was ever 
 actually held, antecedent to the existence of civil govern- 
 ment in that country ." Pal Phil b. 6, ch. 3. 
 
 NOTE. Writers and critics, misapprehending the true construction 
 of these and similar sentences, have supposed the attribute to belong to 
 the verb, denoting the manner of action. But a little attention to the 
 sense of such passages will be sufficient to detect the mistake. For in- 
 stance, in the example from Enneld, the attribute contrary cannot qual- 
 ify the verb adopted ; for the conquerors did not adopt the opinions of 
 the conquered in a manner contrary to what usually happens trie 
 manner of the act is not the thing affirmed, nor does it come into con- 
 sideration. The sense is this, the fact, that the conquerors adopted the 
 opinions and manners of the conquered, was contrary to what com- 
 monly happens in like cases. The attribute belongs to the whole sen- 
 tence or proposition. The same explanation is applicable to every sim- 
 ilar sentence. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. . 109 
 
 In consequence of not attending to this construction, our hypercritics, 
 who are very apt to distrust popular practice, and substitute their own 
 rules for customary idioms, founded on common sense, have condemned 
 this use of the attribute, and authors, suffering themselves to be led 
 astray by these rules, often use an adverb in the place of an adjective. 
 
 " The greater part of philosophers have acknowledged the excellence 
 of this government, which they have considered, some relatively to 
 society, and others as it has relation to the general system of nature." 
 Anach. ch. 62. 
 
 " The perceptions are exalted into a source of exquisite pleasure in- 
 dependently of every particular relation of interest." 
 
 Studies of Nature, 12. 
 
 In the first of these examples, relatively is used very awkwardly for 
 as relative, or as relating, or as it relates, or 'in relation; for the word 
 has a direct reference to government. 
 
 In the second example, independently is used as if it had been in- 
 tended to modify the verb exalt the perceptions are independently ex- 
 alted. But the manner of exalting is not the thing described. It is 
 not that the perceptions are exalted in an independent manner, nor in a 
 manner independent of a relation to interest : but the fact, that the per- 
 ceptions are exalted into a source of exquisite pleasure, is independent 
 of every relation of interest. Equally faulty is the following sentence : 
 
 " Agreeably to this law, children are bound to support their parents.' 
 
 Paley, Phil. 
 
 Johnson, in his life of Thomson, has this sentence " Why the dedica- 
 tions are to winter and the other seasons, contrar'dy to custom, left out 
 in the collected works, the reader may imagine." It is strange that a 
 man of this author's discernment should not perceive that it was not the 
 manner of leaving out, which he was stating, but the fact The dedica- 
 tions to winter and other seasons are left out, which fact or thing is con- 
 trary to custom.* I do not recollect this use of contrary in any other 
 passage ; though it is certainly as vindicable as the use of any other 
 modifier under like circumstances ; for in every case it entirely perverts 
 the sense of the passage. In this instance, the use of the adverb in- 
 stead of the attribute, may have been an oversight. 
 
 In this kind of phrase, I have even seen an instance of the participle 
 according converted into accordingly. See this word explained in the 
 sequel. I have not seen priorly used for prior, in 'like sentences 
 <; Priorly to his arrival in England" Nor anteriorly, posteriorly, 
 exteriorly, infer iorly, nor adjacently or contiguously to the river; 
 and the like barbarisms ; but subsequently, antecedently, consistently, 
 conformably, are frequent in our best authors. " To do what we will, 
 consistently with the interests of the community, is civil liberty." Pa- 
 ley, Phil. 6. 5. This is not English ; for it is not the manner of doing, 
 but the thing done, which must be consistent with the public interest. 
 A misapprehension of the true import and construction of such passages, 
 has done immense mischief to the language. 
 
 * The idiom in question has resulted from that disposition to abridge 
 the number of words used in communicating ideas, which I have re- 
 peatedly mentioned ; the effects of which are among the prime excel- 
 lencies of every language. 
 
 10 
 
110 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 In the place of this awkward phrase, in which an adverb is made to 
 precede to, I would use a noun with a preposition. Instead of " In con- 
 sidering sound relatively to its external cause" I would Use in relation 
 " In considering sound in relation to its external cause." " This was 
 one in conformity with" not conformably to. He could not in consis- 
 tency with, not consistently with. In agreement or ficcor dance with; 
 not agreeably to. 
 
 These forms of expressions are genuine and more elegant and correct 
 English; but in most instances, the ^adjectives, relative, conformable, 
 consistent, agreeable, referring to a clause* in the sentence, would be 
 equally correct. 
 
 RULE* XVIII. 
 
 Adjectives are used to modify the action of verbs, and tp 
 express the qualities of things in connection with the action 
 by which they are produced. Examples : 
 
 " Open thine hand wide. Deut. 15. 17. 
 
 We observe in this passage, that wide, the attribute of 
 hand, has a connection with the verb open ; for it is not 
 " open thy wide hand;" but the attribute is supposed to be 
 the effect of the act of opening. Nor can the modifier, 
 widely, be used ; for it is not simply the manner of the act 
 which is intended ; but the effect. 
 
 " Let us write slow and exact." Guthrie, Quinct. 2. 375. 
 
 We might perhaps substitute slowly for slow, as describ- 
 ing only the manner of writing ; but exactly cannot be 
 substituted for exact; for this word is intended to denote 
 the effect of writing, in the correctness of what is written. 
 The attribute expresses the idea with a happy precision and 
 brevity. 
 
 As this is one of the most common, as well as most 
 beautiful idioms of our language, which has hitherto escaped 
 due observation, the following authorities are subjoined to 
 illustrate and justify the rule. 
 
 "We could hear distinctly tbe bells which sounded 
 sweetly soft and pensive" Chandler's Travels, ch.%. 
 
 " A southerly wind succeeded blowing fresh." Tb. v. 2. 3. 
 
 " His provisions were grown very short" 
 
 Burchet's Nav. Hist. 357. 
 
 " When the caloric exists ready combined with the water 
 of solution." Lavoisier. Trans, ch. 5. 
 
 " The purest clay is that which burns white." 
 
 Encyc. art Chimistry. 
 
 " Bray, to pound or grind small." Johnson's Diet. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Ill 
 
 " When death lays waste thy house." Beattie's Mins. 
 
 " All which looks very little like the steady hand of 
 nature." Pal. Phil. ch. 5. 
 
 " Magnesia feels smooth ; calcaripus earths feel dry ; litho- 
 marga feels very greasy, or at least smooth; yet some feel 
 dry and dusty." Kirwan. vol. 1, 12. 189. 
 
 " By this substance, crystals and glasses are colored 
 Hue" Chaptal, Trans. 299. 
 
 " There is an apple described in Bradley's work, which 
 is said to have one side of it a sweet fruit, which boils soft ; 
 and the other side, a sour fruit, which boils hard." 
 
 Darwin, Phytol. 105. 
 
 " Drink deep or taste not the Pierian spring." Pope. 
 
 " Heaven opened wide her ever during gates." 
 
 Milton, P:L. 7. 
 
 " The victory of the ministry cost them dear" 
 
 Hume, Contin. 11.9. 
 
 " And just as short of reason he must fall." Pope. 
 
 " Thick and more thick the steely circle grows." 
 
 Hook's Tasso, b. S. 
 
 " Ancus marched strait to fidenae." Hook. Rom. Hist. 1. 6. 
 
 " The cakes eat short and crisp." Vicar of Wakejield. 
 
 " A steep ascent of steps which were cut close and deep 
 into the rocks." Hampton's Polybius, 2, 65. 
 
 " It makes the plow go deep or shallow" Enc. art. Agri. 
 
 " The king's ships were getting ready." Lusiad, 1. 91. 
 
 " After growing old in attendance." Spect. No. 282. 
 
 " The sun shineth watery." Bacon, Apoph. 
 
 " Soft sighed the flute." Thomson, Spring. 
 
 " I made him just and right." Milton, 3. 98. 
 
 " He drew not nigh unheard." Ibm. 645. 
 
 " When the vowel of the preceding syllable is pronounced 
 short" Murray's Grammar. 
 
 " Here grass is cut close and gravel rolled smooth. Is 
 not that trim 1" Bo swell, Johnson, 3. 
 
 "Slow tolls the village clock deep mourns the turtle." 
 
 Beattie's Minstrel 
 
 " If you would try to live independent." Pope, Let. 
 
AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " He obliged the Nile to run bloody for your sakes."* 
 W/iiston's Josephus, 3. 5. 
 
 " Correct the heart and all will go right" Porteus 
 Lect. 3. 
 
 The poets sometimes use adjectives in this manner, when 
 modifiers would express the idea. Sometimes they are in- 
 duced to it by the measure; and not unfrequently by the 
 obvious superiority of the attribute in expressing the idea 
 with force and precision. 
 
 When two qualifying words are wanted, the latter may 
 be an adjective, though applied to a verb ; as, " He beat time 
 tolerably exact." Golds. An. Nat. ch. 12. 
 
 " The air will be found diminished in weight exactly equal 
 to what the iron has gained." Lavoisier, ch. 3. 
 
 " Horses are sold extremely dear." Golds. 
 
 " And greatly independent lived.' 1 Thorn. Spring. 
 
 "This was applying a just principle very ill." VatteL 
 Trans. 2. 7. 
 
 It will be remarked that we have no adverbial form of the 
 attribute in the comparative and superlative degrees, except 
 that of more and most, less and least, prefixed. But we use 
 the adjectives with the regular terminations, in these degrees, 
 to qualify verbs. Examples : 
 
 " To hands that longer shall the weapon wield." 
 
 Hoole, Tas. 7. 
 
 " Then the pleasing force 
 
 Of nature and her kind parental care, 
 
 Worthier I'd sing." Akenside, PI. of Im. 1. 323. 
 
 " So while we taste the fragrance of the rose, 
 
 Glows not her blush the fairer?" Ibm. 2. 77. 
 
 " When we know our strength, we shall the better know 
 what to undertake with hopes of success." Locke, 1. 6. 
 
 "And he that can most inform or best understand him, 
 will certainly be welcomed." Rambler, No. 99. 
 " How much nearer he approaches to his end." 
 "I have dwelt the longer on the discussion of this point." 
 
 Junius, Let. 17. 
 
 * " Cruentam etiam fluxisse aquam Albanam, quidam auctores erant." 
 Liv. lib. 27. II. Some authors related that the Alban river ran 
 Moody. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 113 
 
 " The next contains a spirited command, and should be 
 pronounced much higher" Murray's Grammar.* 
 
 " Leviathan, which God of all his works 
 Created hugest that swim th' ocean's stream." 
 
 Milton, 1. 201. 
 
 " But mercy first and last shall brightest shine." Ib. 3. 134. 
 
 " Such opinions as seemed to approach nearest [to] the 
 truth." Enfield. Hist. Phil 2. 59. 
 
 " Her smiles, amid the blushes, lovelier show ; 
 Amid her smiles, her blushes lovelier glow." 
 
 Hook. Tasso. b. 15. 
 
 Authors, misguided by Latin rules, and conceiving that 
 every word which is used to qualify a verb, must be an ad- 
 verb, have pronounced many of the passages here recited 
 and similar ones to be incorrect and in such as are too well 
 established to bear censure, they call the adjective an ad- 
 verb. Were it not for this influence in early education, 
 which impresses a notion that all languages must be formed 
 with the like idioms, we should never have received an idea 
 that the same word may not modify a noun, an adjective and 
 a verb. 
 
 So far are the words here used from being adverbs, that 
 they cannot be changed into adverbs, without impairing the 
 beauty, weakening the force or destroying the meaning of 
 the passages. Let the sentences be put to the test Magne^ 
 sia feels smoothly the cakes eat shortly and crisply the 
 apples boil softly or hardly glows not her blush the more 
 fairly. Every English ear rejects this alteration at once the 
 sentences become nonsense. Nor can the attribute be sep- 
 arated from the verb " Amid her smiles, her blushes, be- 
 ing lovelier, glow" this is not the sense nor will it an-, 
 swer to say, 4< her lovelier blushes glow" this is not the 
 idea. The sense is, that the attribute expressed by lovelier, 
 is not only a quality of blushes, but a quality derived, in a 
 degree, from the action of the verb, glow. 
 
 Thus, clay burns white objects may be seen double 
 may rise high fall low grow strait, or thick, or thin, or 
 
 * In remarking upon such phrases as "The vices which enter deeper 
 or deepest into the soul," Murray says, deeper and deepest should be 
 more deeply, most deeply. It is recommended to change the adjective 
 in the two passages I have cited "The vowel of the preceding syllable 
 is pronounced shortly 11 " The next should be pronounced muca 
 highly .'" This alteration will put his rule to the test 
 
114 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 fat, or lean one may speak loud the sun shines clear 
 ihejiner a substance is pulverized to grow wiser, to plunge 
 'deeper, spread wider and similar expressions without num- 
 ber, constitute a well established idiom, as common as it is 
 elegant* 
 
 The attributes thus connected with verbs may easily be 
 distinguished from those which merely qualify names, the 
 latter being separable from the verb. Thus, 
 
 (t Our great enemy 
 
 All uncorruptible, would, on his throne, 
 Sit unpolluted." Milton, P. L. 2 
 
 Here unpolluted has no effect at all upon the verb ; but 
 may be separated from it, and carried into the first line with- 
 out altering the sense. 
 
 " And the birds sing concealed" Thomson. 
 
 "He roved uncertain through the dusky shade.'* Hook. 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 Some adjectives are used to modify the sense of others 
 and of participles; as a very clear day, red hot iron, a more 
 or most excellent character. " Without coming any near- 
 er." Locke; more pressing necessity, most grating sound, 
 u a closer grained wood." Lavoisier. Trans. 
 
 <(> Full many a gem with purest ray serene." Gray. 
 
 " Some deemed him ivondrous wise." Beattie's Minstrel. 
 
 * The Roman writers availed themselves of the same idiom. " Ob 
 multitudinem familiarum, quee gliscebat immensum" 
 
 Tacitus. An. lib. 4. 27. 
 
 " Fabius Arpos primum institit oppugnare quaa maxime neglectam 
 custodiam vidit, ea potissimum adgredi statuit" Liv. lib. 24. 46. 
 
 How much more impressive is the description which Tacitus here 
 gives of an alarming insurrection of slaves, than if he had used the ad- 
 verb ! " A multitude of slaves which was increasing and growing im- 
 mense !" this is giving to*prose the rhetorical sublimity of verse. It is 
 giving the verb its full effect, and at the same time, attaching the attri- 
 bute to that effect. 
 
 In the word potissimum, in Livy, as in many others, we see the effect 
 of not understanding this elegant use of attributes. Such words are 
 marked in dictionaries as adverbs ! How would Tully, Livy and Taci- 
 tus smile to see their native tongue, disfigured with accents to distin 
 fuish adverbs from adjectives, in a modern dictionary of the language ! 
 t is a just remark of Mr. Tooke, that all words which critics have not 
 understood, they have thrown into the common sink of adverbs. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 115 
 
 In these expressions the last attribute belongs more im- 
 mediately to the noun expressing its quality and the Jirst 
 attribute qualifies the second. 
 
 Not un frequently two attributes are used to modify a 
 third, or the principal one; as, " The manner in which ex- 
 ternal force acts upon the body is very little subject to the 
 will." Rambler, No. 78. 
 
 RULE XX. 
 
 Adjectives are used to qualify the sense of adverbs ; as, a 
 city was very bravely defended ; the soldiers were most am- 
 ply rewarded ; a donation more beneficially bestowed ; a, 
 house less elegantly furnished ; a man the least peaceably 
 disposed. 
 
 In these phrases, the modifier attends the verb or partici- 
 ple to mark the manner or character of the act or affirma- 
 tion ; and the attribute attends the modifier to mark the de- 
 gree or extent of that manner of character. 
 
 For a like purpose of defining the degrees of quality and 
 modification, we make great use of much before attributes 
 of the comparative and superlative degrees ; as, a prince 
 much more humanely disposed ; or much less martially in- 
 clined. 
 
 We have a few other words which are often used to mod- 
 ify attributes as well as verbs as, a little, a great deal, a 
 trifle. " Many letters from persons of the best sense do 
 not a little encourage me." Spectator, 124. " It is a great 
 deal better ;" "a trifle stronger;" the last of which expres- 
 sions is colloquial. 
 
 RULE XXI. 
 
 The adjectives each, every, either and neither, have verbs 
 and substitutes agreeing with them in the singular number ; 
 as, 
 
 " Each one was a head of the house of his fathers." 
 
 Josh. 22. 14. 
 
 " Every one that Jindeth me, shall slay me." Gen. 4. 14. 
 " And take every man his censer." Num. 16. 17. 
 
 " Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer." 
 
 Lev. 10. 1. 
 
116 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " Neither of the ways of separation, real or mental, is com- 
 patible to pure space." Locke, 2. 13. 
 
 Errors. " Let each esteem others better than them- 
 selves." It ought to be himself. 
 
 " There are bodies, each of which are so small." It ought 
 to be is. Locke, 2. 8. 
 
 NOTE. A plural verb, which affirms something of a number of par- 
 ticulars, is often followed by a distributive which assigns the affirmation 
 to the particular objects or individuals. Thus, " If metals have, each a 
 peculiar earth" Hence we may consider each as the nominative to has 
 understood " If metals have, if each metal has a peculiar earth." There 
 is no other way of resolving the phrase. This manner of expression is 
 common, though quite useless as the last clause, " if each metal has" 
 is sufficient. It has not the merit of an abbreviation. This phrase, 
 " Let us love one another," is of a similar construction, but it is not 
 easy to find a substitute of equal brevity. 
 
 RULE XXII. 
 
 Names of measure or dimension stand without a govern- 
 ing word, followed by an adjective ; as, " a wall seven feet 
 high and two feet thick" " a carpet six yards wide" " a 
 line sixty fathoms long" " a kingdom five hundred miles 
 square" " water ten feet deep." 
 
 " An army forty thousand strong," is a similar phrase. 
 
 E. Double comparatives and superlatives, most straitest, most 
 highest, being improper and useless, are not to be used. The few which 
 were formerly used are obsolete. Worser, a mistake in spelling wyrsa, 
 is obsolete ; but lesser, a mistake for lessa, is still used, as well as its ab- 
 breviation, less. We never say, the less Asia, but lesser. 
 
 The superlative form of certain adjectives, which, in the positive de- 
 gree, contain the utmost degree of the quality, as extremest, chief est, is 
 improper and obsolete. But authors indulge in a most unwarrantabe 
 license of annexing comparison to attributes whose negative sense pre- 
 cludes increase or diminution ; as in these sentences, u These are more 
 formidable and more impassable than the mountains." Golds. An. Nat. 
 ch. 2. " This difficulty was rendered still more insurmountable by the 
 licentious spirit of our young men." Murphy, Tacit. Orat. 35. " The 
 contradictions of impiety are still more incomprehensible." Massillon, 
 Serm. to the Great. 
 
 Similar to these are numerous expressions found in good authors 
 more impossible, more indispensable, less universal, more uncontrollable ; 
 and others, in which the sign of comparison is not only improper, 
 but it rather enfeebles the epithet; for the word itself expressing the full 
 extent of the idea, ought to bear some emphasis, which, if a qualifying 
 word is prefixed, will naturally be transferred to that word.* 
 
 * This effect may proceed also from another consideration. If the at- 
 tribute alone is used, its sense precludes the idea of increase or diminu- 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 117 
 
 In a few instances, this usage seems to be too well established to be 
 altered, and particularly in the use of more and most, less and least per- 
 fect. In general, it would indicate more precision of thought to apply 
 a term of diminution to the affirmative attribute less possible, less sur- 
 mountable, less controllable ; rather than a term of increase to a negative 
 attrioute. 
 
 NOTE 2. In English, two names are frequently united to form a new 
 name ; as, earth-worm, drill-plow, ink-stand, book-case. In some cases, 
 these compounds are by custom effectually blended into one term ; in 
 other cases, they are separated into their component parts by a hyphen ; 
 in other cases, words are united, and the first term forms a sort of occa- 
 sional attribute to the second ; as, family '-use or family-consumption. 
 
 NOTE 3. From a disposition to abridge the number of words in dis- 
 course, we find many expressions which are not reducible to any pre- 
 cise rule, formed at first by accident or ellipsis ; such are at first, at last, 
 at best, at worst, at most, at least, at farthest, at the utmost. In these 
 expressions there may have been an ellipsis of some name ; but they are 
 well established, brief and significant. 
 
 NOTE 4. We have certain attributes which follow a verb, and a name 
 to which they belong, but never precede the noun. Such are adry, 
 afeared, afraid, alone, alike, aware, akin, alive, asleep, awake, athirst, 
 aloft, aghast, afloat, askew, ashamed, pursuant, plenty, worth ; to 
 which may be added amiss, aground, ashore, aside, and a few others 
 which may be used as attributes or modifiers. We say, one is adry, 
 ashamed, alive or awake. But never an adry person, an ashamed child, 
 &c. We say," A proclamation was issued pursuant to advice of coun- 
 cil." But we can in no case place pursuant before the noun. 
 
 Plenty, as an attribute, has not yet been recognized by critics ; but 
 critics do not make language, nor can they reject what a nation has 
 made. Plenty is constantly used as an adjective after a name in collo- 
 quial language, and is found in our best writers ; to cavil at this usage, 
 therefore, is as idle as it is impertinent. 
 
 " The sea muscle is perhaps the most plenty" Golds. An. Nature. 
 tl Where shrubs me plenty and water scarce." Ibm. 2. 21. 
 
 " In those provinces where wood was plenty." 
 
 Rycaut GarciJlaso, 923. 
 
 " This species is more plenty in France." Encyc., Art. Loxia. 
 " Provisions are plenty and living cheap." Ibm., Art. Adrianople. 
 
 Worth not only follows the name which it qualifies, but is followed by 
 a name denoting price or value ; as. a book worth a dollar or a guinea 
 it is well icorth the money " It is worth observation." Beloe's Herodo- 
 tus. Erato, 98. If a substitute is used after worth, it must be in the 
 objective case. It is icorth them or it. 
 
 But worthy, the derivative of worth, follows the usual construction 
 of attributes, and may precede the name it qualifies ; as, a worthy man. 
 
 tioii ; it expresses all that can be expressed. But admit comparison, 
 and it ceases to express the utmost extent of the quality. 
 
i!8 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 RULE XXIII. 
 
 One name signifying the same thing with another, or de- 
 scriptive of it, may be in apposition to it ; that is, may stand 
 in a like character or case, without an intervening verb ; as, 
 Paul, the apostle ; John, the baptist ; Newton, the philoso- 
 pher ; Chatham, the orator and statesman. 
 
 NOTE 1. In the following sentence, a name in the plural stands in 
 apposition to two names in the singular, joined by an alternative. " The 
 terms of our law will hardly find words that answer them in the Spanish 
 or Italian, no scanty languages"-* Locke, 3. 5. 8. 
 
 NOTE 2. Names are not unfrequently set in apposition to sentences ; 
 as, " Whereby if a man had a positive idea of infinite, either duration or 
 space, he could add two infinites together; nay, make one infinite infi- 
 nitely bigger than another; absurdities too gross to be confuted." 
 Locke,. 2. 17. 20. Here the absurdities are the whole preceding propo- 
 sitions. 
 
 'You are too humane and considerate; things few people can be 
 charged with." Pope, Let. Here things are in apposition to humane 
 and considerate. Such a construction may be justified, when the ideas 
 are correct, but it is not very uncommon. 
 
 " The Dutch were formerly in possession of the coasting trade and 
 freight of almost all other trading nations ; they were also the bankers 
 for all Europe ; advantages by which they have gained immense sums." 
 Zimmerman's Survey, 170. Here advantages is put in apposition to the 
 two first members of the sentence. 
 
 RULE XXIV. 
 
 When two names are used, one denoting the possessor, 
 the other the thing possessed, the name of the possessor pre- 
 cedes the other in the possessive case; as, "In my Father's 
 house are many mansions." Men's bravery ; England's 
 fleet ; a Christian's hope ; Washington's prudence. 
 
 NOTE 1. When the thing possessed is obvious, it is usual to omit the 
 name ; as, " Let us go to St. Paul's," that is, church; "He is at the 
 President's," that is, house. 
 
 " Nor thirk a lover's are but fancied woes." Covoper. . 
 That is, a lover's woes. " Whose book is this ? William's." 
 
 NOTE 2. When the possessor is described by two or more names, the 
 sign of the possessive is generally annexed to the last ; as, " Edward, 
 the Second of England's Queen." Bacon on Empire. 
 
 " In Edward the Third's time." Black. Com. b. 1. ch. 2. 
 
 " John the Baptist's head." Matt. 
 
 " A member of parliament' s paying court to his constituents." 
 
 Burke. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 119 
 
 But if the thing possessed is represented as belonging to a number 
 severally specified, the sign of the possessive is repeated with each ; as, 
 " He has the surgeon's and the physician's advice." " It was my fa- 
 ther's, mother's, and uncle's opinion."* 
 
 NOTE 3. When of is used before the possessive case of nouns, there 
 is a double possessive, the thing possessed not being repeated ; as, " Vi- 
 tal air was a discovery of Priestley's." " Combustion, as now under- 
 stood, was a 'discovery of Lavoisier's." The sense of which is, that 
 vital air was one of the discoveries of Priestley. This idiom prevents 
 the repetition of the same word. 
 
 NOTE 4. The possessive may be supplied by of, before the name of 
 the possessor ; as, " the hope of a Christian." But of does not always de- 
 note possession ; it denotes also consisting of, or in, concerning, &c. ; 
 and in these cases, its place cannot be supplied by the possessive case. 
 Thus cloth of wool, cannot be converted into wool's cloth. ; nor a cup of 
 water, into water's cup ; nor an idea of an angel, into an angel's idea ; 
 nor the house of Lords, into the Lord's house. 
 
 RULE XXV. 
 
 Participles are often used for nouns, and have the like ef- 
 fect in governing them in the possessive case ; as, " A cou- 
 rier arrived from Madrid, with an account of his Catholic ma- 
 jesty's having agreed to the neutrality." " In case of his 
 Catholic majesty's dying without issue." " Averse to the 
 nation's involving itself in another war." Hume, Cont. vol. 
 7, b. 2, ch. 1. " Who can have no notion of the same per- 
 son's possessing different accomplishments." Spect. No. 
 150. 
 
 This is the true idiom of the language ; yet the omission 
 of the sign of the possessive is a common fault among mod- 
 ern writers, who learn the language by grammar, and neg- 
 lect usages which are much better authority, and the basis 
 of correct grammar. " Pieces of iron arranged in such a 
 way as seemed most favorable for the combustion being 
 communicated to every part." Lavoisier , Trans. 
 
 m 1 
 
 is not ] 
 
 three words king of England, are one name in effect, and can have but 
 one sign of the possessive. But when two or three distinct names are 
 used, the article possessed is described as belonging to each : " It was 
 my father's advice, my mother's advice, and my uncle's advice." We 
 can omit advice after the two first, but by no means, the sign of the pos- 
 sessive. 
 
120 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " There is no reason for hydrogen being an exception." 
 Ibm. These expressions are not English. 
 
 RULE XXVI. 
 
 Transitive verbs and their participles require the objective 
 case or the object of action to follow them ; as, " In the be- 
 ginning, God created the heaven and the earth" 
 
 "If ye love me, keep my commandments." "O right- 
 eous Father, the world hath not known thee." 
 
 .Sometimes the object and often the objective case of sub- 
 stitutes precedes the governing verb; as, " The spirit of 
 truth, whom the world cannot receive." " Whom ye igno- 
 rantly worship, him declare I unto you." 
 
 Whom and which, when in the objective case, always pre- 
 cede the verb. 
 
 In verse, a greater license of transposition is used, than 
 in prose, and names are often placed before the governing 
 verb. 
 
 " But through the heart 
 Should jealousy its venom once diffuse" Thomson. 
 
 11 She with extended arms his aid implores" Ibm. 
 
 A name with whatever, whatsoever or whichever, pre- 
 ceding, is placed before the governing verb; as, "whatsoever 
 positive ideas we have.'' Locke, 2. 17. 
 
 The object is often omitted after a transitive verb ; as, he 
 reads. 
 
 NOTE 1. We have some verbs which govern two words in the ob- 
 jective case j as, 
 
 " Did 1 request thee, Maker, from my clay 
 To mold me, man ?" Milton, 10, 744. 
 
 " God seems to have made him what he was." Life of Cowper. 
 
 " Ask him his opinion;'" " You have asked mt the neics." 
 
 Will it be said that the latter phrases are elliptical, for " ask of him his 
 opinion ?" I apprehend this to be a mistake. According to the true idea 
 of the government of a transitive verb, him must be the object in the 
 phrase under consideration, as much as in this, " Ask him for a guinea ;" 
 or in this, " Ask him to go." 
 
 This idiom is very ancient, as we often see in the Latin " Interroga- 
 tus sententiam." Liv. 26. 33. " Se id Scipionern orare." Ibm. 27.17. 
 " Auxilia regem orabant." Ibm. lib. 28. 5. The idiom in both lan- 
 guages had a common origin. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 121 
 
 NOTE 2. Some verbs were formerly used as transitive, which are no 
 longer considered, as such ; as, tf he repented Azw," u flee thee away," 
 " he was swerved " " the sum was amounted," &c. which are held 
 improper. . 
 
 Cease, however, is used as a transitive verb by our best writers 
 " Cease this impious rage." Milton. " Her lips their music cease." 
 Tasso by Hoole. 
 
 RULE XXVII. 
 
 Intransitive verbs are followed by the name of the act or 
 effect, which the verb expresses iii action ; as, " To live a life 
 of virtue ;" " to die the death of the righteous;" " to dream 
 dreams;" " to run a race ;" "to sleep the sleep of death." 
 
 We observe, in these examples, life is the name of living 
 supposed to be complete ; as race is the name of the act of 
 running, when accomplished. 
 
 NOTE. Nearly allied to this idiom is that of using, after verbs transi- 
 tive or intransitive, certain nouns which are not the objects of the verb, 
 nor of precisely the same sense ; but which are either the names of the 
 result of the verb's action, or closely connected with it. Examples : " A 
 guinea weighs five penny weight, six grains ;" " a crown weighs nine- 
 teen penny weight ;"* " a piece of cloth measures ten yards." 
 
 " And on their hinges grate harsh thunder." " And rivers run pota- 
 ble gold." " The crispid brook ran nectar." " Groves whose rich trees 
 wept odorous gums and balm." " Grin a ghastly smile." Milton. 
 
 " Her lips blush deeper sweets." Thomson. 
 
 " To ascend or descend a flight of stairs, a ladder, or a mountain" 
 " To cost a guinea."- 
 
 Under this rule or the following may be arranged these expressions 
 " Let them go their way" " When matters have been brought this 
 length." Lavois. Translation. *' We turn our eyes this way or that 
 way." " Reckoning any way from ourselves, a yard, a mile," &c. 
 
 Locke, 2, 17. 
 
 Similar to this idiom are the phrases to go west or east pointing 
 north or south north-west or south-east and the like, which I find to be 
 Saxon phrases and very ancient. 
 
 In some instances verbs of this sort are followed by two objects ; as, 
 11 a ring cost the purchaser an eagle." 
 
 * The radical idea of weight is carry, bear or sustain, from the Saxon 
 wceg, a balance. The idiom in question has its original in that idea a 
 guinea weighs five penny weights six grains that is, carries or sustains 
 that weight in the scales. How much of the propriety, and even of the 
 beauty of language is lost, by neglecting to study its primitive state and 
 principles ! 
 
AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 RULE XXVIII. 
 
 Names of certain portions of time and space, and espe- 
 cially words denoting continuance of time or progression, 
 are used without a governing word ; as, " Jacob said, I will 
 serve thee seven years for Rachel." "And. dust shalt thou 
 eat all the days of thy life" " And he abode with him the 
 space of a month." " The tree of life yielded her fruit 
 every mouth." " In those days I Daniel was mourning three 
 full weeks." " Whosoever shall urge thee to go a mile, go 
 with him twain." " To walk a mile, or a league." 
 
 " Effects occurring every moment to ourselves." 
 
 " You have asked me news a hundred times." Pope.* 
 
 Words expressing particular or precise points of time 
 are usually preceded by a preposition ; as, " at that hour ;" 
 " on that day." But to both these rules there are excep- 
 tions. 
 
 RULE XXIX. 
 
 The verb be has the same case after it as before it ; or 
 two substitutes connected with be in construction are in the 
 same case. "It is /, be not afraid." " Thou art she" "it 
 is he" " Who was he ?" " Who do men say that I am ?" 
 u Whom do they represent me to be?" But " WJwm do 
 men say that I am," is incorrect. 
 
 RULE XXX. 
 
 Transitive verbs and their participles admit of a sentence, 
 a clause or a number of words as their object ; as, " He is 
 not alarmed so far, as to consider how much nearer he ap- 
 proaches to his end" Rambler, No. 78. 
 
 Consider what? The whole following clause, which' is 
 the object of the verb. 
 
 * Lowth, followed by the whole tribe of writers on this subject, al- 
 ledges some prepositions to be understood before these expressions of 
 time. But this is a palpable error, arising from preconceived notions of 
 the necessity of such words. The fact is otherwise. All these peculiar 
 phrases are idiomatic ; and the remains of the early state of our lan- 
 guage. 
 
 The same idiom is found in the Greek and Latin languages, which 
 were built on a Teutonic foundation it is found in the Saxon, from 
 which it is derived to modern English ; and is therefore to be considered 
 as original, or coeval with the language. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 123 
 
 " For to say, a man has a positive clear idea of any quan- 
 tity, without knowing how great it is, is as unreasonable as 
 to say, he has a positive clear idea of the number of sands on 
 the sea shore" Locke, 2, 17. 15. Here the parts of this 
 period in italics are the things said, the objects of the verb 
 say. The first clause, being the object after say, forms, with 
 the preceding words, the nominative to is and the same 
 clause of the period is qualified by the attribute unreasona- 
 ble For to say all which follows is as unreasonable, &c. 
 
 "If he escapes being banished by others, I fear he will 
 banish himself." Pope, Let. to Swift. 
 
 Here being banished stands in the place of a noun, as the 
 object after escapes. 
 
 " Whether that which we call ecstasy be not dreaming with 
 the eyes open, I leave to be examined." Locke, 2, 19. 
 
 " We cannot avoid observing their sensible qualities, nay 
 the very substances to be in a continual flux." Locke, 2, 19. 
 
 This rule comprehends the construction of the verbs 
 save, except, add, admit, allow, suppose, and many others 
 when used to govern sentences ; and in strictness, the old 
 verbs if, though, unless. Examples : 
 
 " Add to this, what, from its antiquity, is but little known, 
 has from that very circumstance, the recommendation of nov- 
 elty" Hermes, Preface. In this sentence the whole of 
 the clauses in italics, is what is to be added and is the ac- 
 tual object governed by the verb add. 
 
 " Suppose then the world we live in to have had a Creator." 
 " Suppose the disposition which dictated this council to 
 continue." Paley, Evid. 1. 
 
 " Not forgetting therefore what credit is due to the evan- 
 gelical history, supposing even any one of the four gospels 
 to be genuine" Tbm. ch. 9. 
 
 "It is good also not to try experiments in states, except 
 the necessity be urgent, or the utility evident." 
 
 Bacon on Innovation. 
 
 " They are in effect no more than standing commissions, 
 save that they have greater authority." Ibm. of Council. 
 
 " For that mortal dint, 
 Save he who reigns above, none can resist." 
 
 Milton 2, 815. 
 
124 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " I wish I could give you any good reasons for your com- 
 ing hither, except that, 1 earnestly invite you" Pope, Let. 
 
 " Lord Bathurst is too great a husbandman to like barren 
 hills, except they are his own to improve." 
 
 Pope, Let. Sept. 3, 1726. 
 
 " The ships of either party may freely traffick with the 
 enemies of the other, excepting with contraband merchan- 
 dise." Anderson, Commerce, 3, 71. 
 
 " Suppose I was to say, light is a body" Hermes, 78. 
 " Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish." 
 
 Luke 13. 
 " Ye cannot bear fruit, except ye abide in me." John 15. 
 
 " He that sacrificeth to any god, save to the Lord only, 
 shall be put to death." Ex. 22, 20. 
 
 " And he could there do no mighty works, save that he 
 laid his hand on afeiv sick and healed them" Matt. 6, 5. 
 
 " He that is washed, needeth not, save to wash his feet." 
 
 John 13. 
 " Add to this their custom of plantation of colonies" 
 
 Bacon. 
 
 In these and similar passages, the object of the verb is a 
 whole proposition or statement, in a sentence or clause of a 
 sentence. In this passage, " Except ye repent, ye shall all 
 likewise perish," the fact excepted is affirmed in a single 
 verb. Takeaway this fact " that you shall repent" and the 
 consequence must be, you will perish. This is one of the 
 modes of abbreviation in language which I have so frequent- 
 ly mentioned, and which constitutes a principal excellence 
 of the English. 
 
 We observe in some of the passages here cited, the pro- 
 noun that, after the verb. This is probably the true origin- 
 al construction ; the substitute that, pointing to the whole 
 following clause. " He could do no mighty works there, 
 save that, [except that single fact which follows] he laid his 
 hand on a few sick and healed them." 
 
 NOTE. It may be here observed that in some of the passages cited 
 the verb has no definitive nominative the verbs save, except, suppose, 
 add, &c. are in the imperative mode ; but the address is not made to 
 any particular person or persons. And this probably has led authors to 
 class save and except among conjunctions, prepositions or adverbs, or to 
 consider them as used adverbially \ for it has been already observed 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 125 
 
 that the class of adverbs has been a sort of common sink to receive all 
 words which authors have not been able to comprehend. 
 
 Is it not strange that suppose, add, admit, allow, and other verbs, 
 which are constantly used in the same manner, should have hitherto es- 
 caped the same doom ? In the passages above cited from Paley, suppose 
 is used precisely in the same manner as except and save in others. In- 
 deed nothing but the most inexcusable negligence could have led critics 
 to this classification of save and except for in many passages of scrip- 
 ture, these very words, in the sense in which they are called conjunc- 
 tions or adverbs, have an object following them, like other transitive 
 verbs ; as, " Israel burned none of them save Hazor only." Josh. 11. 13. 
 " Ye shall not come into the land, save Caleb and Joshua." Num. 14. 
 30. " I would that all were as I am, except these bonds." Acts. 
 
 This use of verbs without a definite nominative occasions no incon- 
 venience ; for the address is not made to any particular person, but is 
 equally applicable to any one who will apply it. See the subject further 
 explained under rule 38. The following passage in Locke, 2, 27, 2, con- 
 tains another verb used in the same manner ; " Could two bodies be in 
 the same place at the same time, then those two parcels of matter must 
 be one and the same, take them great or little." 
 
 The error of considering save as an adverb or conjunction, has how- 
 ever produced a multitude of mistakes in construction, as in these pas- 
 sages : " Save he who reigns above." Milton. " Which no man know- 
 eth, saving he that receiveth it." Rev. 2. 17. The nominative he can- 
 not be reconciled to any principle of true construction. He ought to be 
 him, the object after the verb. Except might have been used, and this 
 word being called a preposition, would have required after it the objec- 
 tive case. But both words are verbs, and ought to have the same con- 
 struction. 
 
 RULE XXXI. 
 
 The infinitive mode follows, first, another verb or parti- 
 ciple ; as, " He loves to cherish the social affections" " be 
 persuaded to abandon a vicious life" " he is willing to en- 
 counter danger" " he was proceeding to relate his adven- 
 tures." 
 
 2dly. The infinitive follows a noun ; as, " The next thing 
 natural for the mind to do." Locke. " He has a desire to 
 improve." 
 
 3dly. It follows an adjective or verbal attribute ; as, " a 
 question difficult to be solved. 1 ' -" It is deligbtful to contem- 
 plate the goodness of Providence." " God is worthy to be 
 loved and trusted." " Be prepared to receive your friend." 
 
 4thly. It follows as ; thus, " an object so high as to be in- 
 visible ;" " a question so obscure as to perplex the under- 
 standing." 
 
 11* 
 
1-26 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 5thly. It follows than after a comparison ; as, " Nothir 
 makes a man suspect much, more than to know little." 
 con on Suspicion. 
 
 6thly. It" follows the preposition for, noting cause or n 
 tive; as, " What went ye out for to see." Matth. 11. 
 
 This is the true original idiom; but it is usual n 
 omit for ; as, " he went to see a reed shaken with the wind 
 In every phrase of this sort, for is implied in the E 
 but the use of the word is vulgar. 
 
 The infinitive mode is independent, standing as a sub> 
 for a whole phrase; as, "It is not once in ten attemp 
 you can find the case you seek, in any law book ; / 
 nothing of those numerous points of conduct cone- 
 which the la*w professes not to prescribe/'! Paley, Philos. 
 
 RULE XXXII. 
 
 The verbs bid, make, see, hear, feel, let, with the auxili 
 ries, may, can, must, shall and will, and dare and / 
 used as auxiliaries, are followed by the infinitive without t 
 prefix to; as, "He bids me come" "We cannot mak- 
 understand" "Let me see you write" "We hear 
 relate the story" "We felt the earth tra -" Whi- 
 
 they let pass." Locke. "He may go, can go, mi 
 shall go, will go." "I dare engage; I dare say" "1 
 need not be anxious." 
 
 NOTE 1. In the uses of dare and need, there are some peculiar!! 
 which deserve remark. 
 
 When dare signifies to defy or challenge, it is regular in the 
 and persons, is a transitive verb, and followed by the infiir/ 
 usual prefix ; as, " he dares me to enter the list.'' But when it is 
 transitive, denoting to hare courage, it more generally drops t 
 sonal terminations, has an anomalous past tense, and is follower: 
 infinitive without to ; in short it has the form of an auxiliary ; and 
 the German, it is classed with the auxiliaries. Example? 
 gage." Pope's Works. Letter to Gnu. I dare not confer 
 Gay. fi I dare say." Locke. " But. my Loiv re not do 
 
 ther." Juniiif. L>\. ^. Durst I Texture to deliver my owi. 
 ment." Hume, Es. 7. 
 
 The past tense, when regular, is followed by the infinitive with 
 usual prefix : ' You have dared to thrmc more than a suspick 
 mine." Junhts, Let. 20. The same remark may be extended 
 future tense ; " He will not dare to attack his adversary." 
 
 In like manner, need, when a transitive verb, is regular in its infl 
 tions ; as, " A man needs more prudence" " The army needed pro 
 ions," But when intransitive, it drops the personal terminations in 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 127 
 
 present tense ; is formed like an auxiliary, and followed by a verb, with- 
 out the prefix to ; as, " Nobody need be afraid he shall not have scope 
 enough." Locke, 2, 22, 9. " 1 need not go any farther." Ibm. " Nor 
 need we wonder." Ibm. '' The lender need be under no fear." An- 
 ach.ch.69. " There need be no difficulty." Beddoes, Hygeia, 1. 27. 
 " She need dig no more." Spectator. J\"o. 121. ' ; A man need not be 
 uneasy on these grounds." Boswdl, 3, 41. " He need not urge to this 
 honorable court." Judge Chase. 
 
 In the use of this verb, there is another irregularity, which is peculiar, 
 the verb being without a nominative, expressed or implied. u Whereof 
 here needs no account." Milt. P. L. 4. 235. There is no evidence of 
 the fact, and there needs hone. This is an established use of need. 
 
 NOTE 2. The infinitive mode has, in its sense and use, a near affinity 
 nun, and often has the construction of one. It is much employed 
 : oduce sentences which are the nominative to verbs, as well as the 
 objects following thorn ; as, " To will is present with me, but to perform 
 that which is good I find not." Here the first infinitive is the nomina- 
 tive to is, and the second begins the sentence which is the object after 
 
 \ 
 
 NOTE 3. A common mistake in the use of the infinitive is, to use the 
 perfect tense after another verb in the past time ; when in fact one of the 
 verbs in the past time would correctly express the sense , thus, " It 
 >could have been no difficult matter to have compiled a volume of such 
 ng precedents." Cowp. to Hill, Let. 29. Here the first verb states 
 he time past when it was not difficult to compile a volume; at that 
 line the compilation could not be past ; the verb therefore should have 
 yeen to compile, which is present and always indefinite. 
 
 In the following passage, we have a like use of verbs which is cor- 
 rect. i: A free pardon was granted to the son, who was known to have 
 tffercd indignities to the body of Varus/' Murphy, Tacitus, 6. 1. 
 'lere the offering of indignities was a fact precedent to the time stated 
 n the verb was known ; and therefore the verb, to have offered, is well 
 mployed. 
 
 RULE XXXIII. 
 
 The infinitive signifying motive or purpose, often intro- 
 
 a a clause or sentence which is not the nominative or 
 
 bjective to any verb; as, " To see how far this reaches, and 
 
 hat are the causes of wrong judgment, we must remember 
 
 things are judged good or bad" in a double sense." 
 
 ~,ockc, 2, 21, 61. "To prevent property from being too 
 
 nequally distributed, no person should be allowed to dis- 
 
 ose of his possessions to the prejudice of his lawful heirs." 
 
 -Anach. ch. 62. 
 
 NOTE. This form of sentence seems to be derived from the use of for 
 ?fore the verb, for to see. The modern practice is to prefix some noun ; 
 in order to see, or " With a view to prevent." 
 
128 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 RULE XXXIV. 
 
 In the use of the passive form of the verb, there is often 
 an inversion of the order of the subject and object; thus, 
 " The bishops and abbots were allowed their seats in the 
 house of lords." Blacks. Com. b. 1, ch. 2. 
 
 Here the true construction would be, " Seats in the house 
 of lords were allowed to the bishops and abbots." 
 
 " Theresa was forbid the presence of the emperor." 
 Murphy's Tacitus, 2, 540. NOTE. This is a common 
 phrase. It may be resolved thus : the presence of the em- 
 peror was forbid to Theresa or, Theresa was forbid to ap- 
 proach the presence of the emperor. 
 
 " I was this day shown a new potato." Darwin, Phy- 
 tol Sect. 18. 
 
 " He was shown that very story in one of his own books." 
 
 Guth. Quinc. 1. 32. 
 
 This idiom is outrageously anomalous ; but perhaps in- 
 corrigible. 
 
 RULE XXXV. 
 
 The participle of the present tense without a definitive a 
 or the, or with any possessive attribute, usually retains the 
 sense of its verb, and has the objective case after it ; as, " The 
 clerk is engrossing the bill." " The love we bear our 
 friends is generally caused by our finding the same dispo- 
 sitions in them, which we feel in ourselves." 
 
 Pope's Letters. 
 
 " In return to your inviting me to your forest." Ibm. 
 
 But when the participle is preceded by a or the, it takes 
 the character and government of a noun, and in most cases, 
 must be followed by of; as " The middle station of life 
 seems to be most advantageously situated for the gaining of 
 wisdom. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the 
 supplying of our wants, and riches, upon enjoying our su- 
 perfluities." Spectator, No. 464. 
 
 In many cases this participle becomes a noun, without a 
 or the; as, "It is more properly talking upon paper, than 
 writing." Pope, Let. 
 
 NOTE. The foregoing rule is often violated by our best writers, and 
 to make it universal is to assume an authority much too dictatorial. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 129 
 
 " Some were employed in blowing of glass ; others in weaving of linen." 
 
 Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. 10. 
 
 " When the hindering any action." Locke, 2, 21. 
 
 In these two examples the rule is disregarded to the prejudice of the 
 language. But let us attend to the following " The attributing to fac- 
 ulties that which belonged not to them." Locke, 2,21. Here the par- 
 ticiple preceded by the cannot be followed by of, nor does it perform the 
 office of a noun, but it retains the nature and government of a verb. 
 " The not making a will is a culpable omission. ;v Paley, Phil. ch. 23. 
 These expressions are perfectly good English. 
 
 RULE XXXVI. 
 
 Participles of the present tense, either single or in union 
 with the participle of the perfect tense, often perform,, at 
 once, the office of a verb and a noun; as, " The taking from 
 another what is his, without his knowledge or allowance, is 
 called stealing." Locke, 2. 28. 16. 
 
 " By the mind's changing the object to which it Compares 
 any thing." Locke, 2. 25. 
 
 " To save them from other people's damning them." 
 
 Wycherly to Pope. 
 
 "Such a plan is not capable of being carried into execu- 
 tion:' Anach. ch. 62. 
 
 " They could not avoid submitting to this influence." 
 
 Boling. on Hist. Let. 8. 
 
 " Suppose a Christian^ Platonist or Pythagorean, should, 
 upon God's having ended all his works, think his soul has 
 existed ever since." Locke, 2. 27. 14. 
 
 " Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mis- 
 chief." Ibm. 1. 2. 20. 
 
 " He was displeased with the king's having disposed of 
 the office, or with his having bestowed it upon a worthless 
 man." Henry, Hist. Brit. b. 3. 
 
 " Its excesses may be restrained, without destroying its 
 existence." Blacks. Com. b. 1. ch. 2. 
 
 " Supposing it had a right to meet, without being called 
 together." Ibm. 
 
 " He was near losing his life." 
 
 Dobson's Life of Petrarch, 1. 29. 
 
 " The advising or attempting to procure any insurrec- 
 tion." Judge Chase. 
 
130 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 NOTE 1 . The participle in ing, though strictly active in its significa- 
 tion, is not unfrequently used by modern authors in a passive sense ; as, 
 " More living particles are produced than are necessary for nutrition 
 or for the restoration of decomposing organs ;" that is, organs suffering 
 decomposition. Darwin, Zoon. sect. 39. 9. " From which caloric is 
 disengaging^ that is, undergoing the process of separation. Lavoisier , 
 Translation. " The number is augmenting daily." Ibm. "They 
 seemed to think Cesar was slaying before their eyes rather than that he 
 was slain." Gutk. Quin. 2. 18. "The nation had cried out loudly 
 against the crime while it was committing." Boling. on Hist. Let. 8. 
 " My lives are re-printing." Johns, to Boswell, 1782. 
 
 Many of this kind of participles have become mere attributes ; as, 
 " Writing paper ; looking glass ; spelling or pronouncing dictionary." 
 Wanting and owing have long had the character of passive participles 
 with the sense of wanted, owed. 
 
 NOTE 2. The use of two participles in the place of a noun is one of 
 the most frequent practices of our best writers ; as, " This did not pre- 
 vent John's being acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Nor- 
 mandy." Henry, Hist. Brit. b. 3. The participle being with an attri- 
 bute, supplies the place of a noun also. "As to the difference of being 
 'more general, that makes this maxim more remote from being innate" 
 Locke, 1. 2. 20. 
 
 RULE XXXVII. 
 
 Participles, like attributes, agree with a sentence, a part 
 of a sentence or a substitute for a sentence; as, " Concerning 
 relation in general, these things may be considered." 
 
 Locke, 2. 25. 
 
 Here concerning relates to the whole of the last clause of 
 the sentence " These things may be considered" all which 
 is concerning relation in general. 
 
 " This criterion will be different, according to the nature 
 of the object which the mind contemplates." 
 
 Enfield, Hist. Ph. 2. 15. 
 
 That is, the difference of criterion will accord with the na- 
 ture of the object. 
 
 " According to Hierocles, Ammonius was induced to ex- 
 ecute the plan of a distinct eclectic school," &c. 
 
 Ibm. p. 63, 
 
 Here the whole statement of facts in the last clause was 
 according to Hierocles ; that is, it accorded with his .testi- 
 mony. 
 
 "I have accepted thee, concerning this thing also." 
 
 Gen. 19, 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 131 
 
 tl l speak concerning Christ and the church." 
 
 Eph. 5. 32. 
 
 " Thus shalt thou do unto the Levites, touching their 
 charge." Num. 8. 26. 
 
 " And touching the house of the king of Judah, say, Hear 
 ye the word of the Lord." Jer. 21. 10. 
 
 " Now as touching things offered unto idols, we know that 
 we all have knowledge." 1 Cor. 8. 1. 
 
 In general, as is used in scripture before touching, and 
 the construction is, " Now, as, or that which follows is 
 touching things offered to idols." Since the translation of 
 the Bible, this word touching, in this sense, has been obso- 
 lescent, and respecting has taken its place. 
 
 " He finds the ideas he has in his mind to agree or dis- 
 agree^according as the words standing for them are affirm- 
 ed or denied one of another in the proposition." 
 
 Locke, 1. 2. 23. 
 
 NOTE. The use of participles explained under this rule, coincides 
 with that of attributes as explained under rule 17. 
 
 RULE XXXVIII. 
 
 Participles often stand without a name, sentence or sub- 
 stitute on which they immediately depend, being referable 
 to either of the persons indefinitely; as, "It is not possible 
 to act otherwise, considering the weakness of our nature." 
 Spectator. 
 
 NOTE 1. Johnson, in his Dictionary, calls this a kind of conjunction, 
 and adds " It had been more grammatically written considered, vu 
 French, but considering is always used." 
 
 This criticism indicates an incorrect view of the subject. Considered 
 cannot be used without a change in the structure of the sentence 
 " The weakness of our nature being considered." But to make this form 
 of expression correspondent to the other clause, that ought also to be 
 varied, and a definite person introduced, thus " It does not appear (to 
 us) possible to act otherwise, the weakness of our nature being consid- 
 ered." But this amendment would be of no advantage. 
 
 To comprehend the use of such expressions, we should consider that 
 men find it useful to deal in abstract propositions and lay down truths 
 without reference to persons. This manner of discoursing is often less 
 invidious than to apply propositions or opinions to persons. To accom- 
 plish this purpose, men have devised words and modes of speech which 
 enable them thus to communicate their ideas. In the passage cited, the 
 first clause contains a general abstract proposition, equally applicable to 
 any person " It is not possible to act otherwise." That is, it is not pos- 
 
132 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 sible for me, for you, for him, or for her but it might be invidious to 
 specify persons. It is not possible for John or Thomas to act otherwise, 
 he considering the weakness of his nature. Hence the proposition is 
 left without application and it follows naturally that the persons who 
 are to consider the cause, the weakness of our nature, should be left 
 indefinite, or unascertained. Hence considering is left without a direct 
 application to any person. 
 
 Whatever foundation there may be for this explanation, the idiom is 
 common and well authorized. 
 
 " Generally speaking, the heir at law is not bound by the intention of 
 the testator." Paley, Phil. 23. 
 
 " Supposing that electricity is actually a substance, and taking it for 
 granted that it is different from caloric, does it not in all probability con- 
 tain caloric, as well as all other bodies ?" 
 
 Thompson, Chim. art. Caloric, 
 
 Here is no noun expressed or implied, to which supposing and taking 
 can be referred ; we would be most naturally understood 
 
 " Supposing the first stratum of particles to remain in their place, 
 after their union with caloric ? ice can conceive an affinity," &c. Ibm. 
 Here supposing may be referred to ice, but is this the rearconstruction ? 
 
 " For supposing parliament had a right to meet spontaneously, with- 
 out being called together, it would be impossible to conceive that all the 
 members would agree," &c. Blacks. Com. b. 1. 2. 
 
 " The articles of this charge, considering by whom it was brought, 
 were not of so high a nature as might have been expected." 
 
 Henry. Brit. b. 4. ch.\. 
 
 " It is most reasonable to conclude that, excepting the assistance he 
 maybe supposed to have derived from his countrymen, his plan of civi- 
 lization was the product of his own abilities." Enfield. H. Ph. 1. ch. 9. 
 
 " None of us put off our clothes, saving that every one put them off 
 for washing." Neh. 4. 23. 
 
 " And he said unto them, Hinder me not, seeing the Lord hath pros- 
 pered my way." Gen. 24. 56. 
 
 " Lie not one to another, seeing that ye have put off the old man with 
 his deeds." Col. 3. 9. 
 
 " Comparing two men, in reference to a common parent, it is easy to 
 frame the ideas of brothers." Locke, 2. 25. 
 
 " Granting this to be true, it would help us in the species of things 
 no farther than the tribes of animals and vegetables." Locke, 3. 0. 23. 
 
 Bating for abating, in a like construction, is found in old authors, but 
 now obsolete. Admitting, allowing, and some others are frequent in a 
 like construction. 
 
 The substitute, which, in most of these phrases, might be most con- 
 veniently supplied, is we, as the writer maybe considered as addressing 
 himself to his readers, and including them with himself. 
 
 It will be readily observed how nearly this idiom is allied to the inde- 
 pendent clause; for, by a trifling change, these sentences may be re- 
 solved into that case. " Two men being compared in reference to a 
 common parent, it is easy [for us, you or him] to frame the ideas of 
 brothers." " Hinder me not, since (seeing) the Lord hath prospered 
 my way." 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 133 
 
 RULE XXXIX. 
 
 Adverbs or modifiers are usually placed near the words 
 whose signification they are intended to affect. 
 
 First. They are placed before adjectives ; as, truly wise ; 
 sincerely upright ; unaffectedly polite. 
 
 Secondly. They usually follow a verb when single ; as, 
 he spoke eloquently ; and if a verb is transitive with an 
 object following, the modifier follows the object; as, "John 
 received the present gratefully." 
 
 To this rule, the exceptions are very numerous, and not 
 to be classed under general heads. "So it frequently hap- 
 pens ;" " men often deceive themselves." Indeed, in many 
 cases, the position of the modifier makes no difference in the 
 sense, and may be regulated entirely by the preference of 
 sound, in the general structure of the period, provided it is 
 not such as to mislead the reader, in the application of the 
 word. 
 
 Thirdly. When one auxiliary and a participle are used, 
 the modifier is usually placed between them, or it follows the 
 participle ; as, " he was graciously received," or " he was 
 received graciously ." The first is the most elegant. 
 
 Fourthly. When two auxiliaries are used, the adverb is 
 usually placed after the second ; as, " We have been kindly 
 treated" But it may follow the participle, " We have been 
 treated kindly ;" and in some cases it may precede the aux- 
 iliaries ; as, " And certainly you must have known." Junius, 
 Letter 8. 
 
 Fifthly. When adverbs are emphatical, they may intro- 
 duce a sentence, and be separated from the word to which 
 they belong ; as, " How completely this most amiable of 
 human virtues had taken possession of his soul !" Port. 
 Lect. 8. This position of the modifier is most frequent in 
 interrogative and exclamatory phrases. 
 
 The 'adverb always is usually placed before a verb. 
 
 Never commonly precedes a single verb, except be, which 
 it follows; as, "We are never absent from church on Sun- 
 day." It is sometimes placed before an auxiliary ; as, " He 
 never has been at court ;" but it is more correctly and ele- 
 gantly placed after the first auxiliary; as, " He has never 
 been at court" " He has never been intoxicated." 
 
 This word has a peculiar use in the phrase, " ask me 
 never so much dowry." Gen. 34. " The voice of charmr 
 12 
 
134 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 ers, charming never so wisely." Psalm 58. The sense is, 
 " Ask me so much dowry as never was asked before" an 
 abbreviation singularly expressive of the idea of asking to 
 any amount or extent. Authors not understanding it, have 
 substituted ever for never, which impairs the force, if it does 
 not destroy the sense, of the phrase. The use of both is 
 now common, but never is preferable " Some agreements 
 indeed, though never so expressly made, are deemed of so 
 important a nature, that they ought not to rest in verbal 
 promise only." Black. Com.. B. 3. ch. 9. 
 
 The use of here and there, in the introduction of sentences 
 before verbs, forms an authorized idiom of the language ; 
 though the words may be considered as redundant. The 
 practice may have originated in the use of the hand in 
 pointing, in the early stage of society. 
 
 Here, there, and where, originally denoting place, are 
 now used in reference to words, subjects and various ideas 
 of which place is not predicable. " It is not so with re- 
 spect to volitions and actions ; here the coalescence is inti- 
 mate." Hermes, ch. 8. " We feel pain, in the sensations, 
 where we expected pleasure." Locke, 2. 7. 4. 
 
 Hence, whence, and thence, denoting the place from which 
 a departure is stated, are used either with or without the 
 preposition from. In strictness, the idea of from is in- 
 cluded in the words, and it ought not to be used. These 
 words also are used not only in reference to place, but to 
 any argument, subject, or idea, in a discourse. 
 
 Hither, thither, and whither, denoting to a place, are 
 nearly obsolete in popular practice ; and obsolescent in 
 writing ; being superseded by here, there, where. This 
 change is evidently the effect of the all-controlling disposi- 
 tion of men to abridge speech by dismissing useless sylla- 
 bles, or by substituting short words of easy pronunciation 
 for those which are more difficult. Against this disposition 
 and its effects, the critic remonstrates in vain ; and we may 
 rest assured that common convenience and utility are better 
 guides in whatever respects the use of words, than the 
 opinion of men in their closets. No word or syllable in a 
 language, which is essential, or very useful, is ever lost. 
 
 While is a noun denoting time, and not a modifier. In 
 this phrase, " I will go while you stay," the word is used 
 in its primitive manner, without government, like many 
 other names of portions of time a month, a week. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 135 
 
 We are accustomed to use, as modifiers, a little and a 
 great deal. "The many letters I receive, do not a little 
 encourage me." Sped. No. 124. Many names are used in 
 like manner, as modifiers of the sense of verbs. " You don't 
 care six-pence whether he was wet or dry." Johnson. 
 
 RULE XL. 
 
 In polite and classical language, two negatives destroy the 
 negation and express an affirmative ; as, " Nor did he not 
 perceive them," that is, he did not perceiye them. This 
 phraseology is not common nor agreeable to the genius of 
 our tongue. 
 
 The following is a common and well authorized -use of 
 negatives : " His manners are not inelegant," that is, are 
 elegant. This manner of expression, however, when not 
 accompanied with particular emphasis, denotes a moderate 
 degree of the quality. 
 
 NOTE. In popular language, two negatives are used for a negation, 
 according to the practice of the ancient Greeks and the modern French. 
 This idiom was primitive, and was retained in the Saxon; as, " Oc se 
 kinning Peada tie rixade nune, while." Sax. Chron. p. 33. And the 
 king Peada did not reign none while that is, not a long time. The 
 learned, with a view to philosophical correctness, have rejected the use 
 of two negatives for one negation. The consequence is, we have two 
 modes of speaking directly opposite to each other, but expressing the 
 same thing. " He did not owe nothing," in vulgar language, and " he 
 owed nothing," in the style of the learned, mean precisely the same 
 thing. 
 
 RULE XLI. 
 
 Prepositions are followed by the names of objects and the 
 objective case ; as, from New York to Philadelphia; across 
 the Delaware ; over land ; by water ; through the air ; with 
 us ; for me ; to them ; in you ; among the people ; toward 
 us. 
 
 The preposition to is supposed to be omitted after verbs 
 of giving, yielding, affording, and the like ; as, " give them 
 bread," instead of " give bread to them." " Afford him pro- 
 tection ;" " furnish her with books." But this idiom seems 
 to be primitive, and not elliptical. 
 
 From is sometimes suppressed, as in this phrase : " He 
 was banished the kingdom." 
 
 Home, after a verb denoting motion to, is always used 
 without to; as, " We are going home." 
 
136 -AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 After the attribute near, to is often omitted ; as, " To 
 bring them nearer the truth." Massillon. Also, after ad- 
 joining ; as, " a garden adjoining a river." 
 
 The preposition is sometimes separated from the word 
 which it governs ; as, " With a longing for that state which 
 he is charmed with" instead of " with which he is charmed." 
 
 In many cases; the relative pronoun may be suppressed ; 
 as, " I did not see the person he came with" that is, with 
 whom he came and in other cases, what is employed for the 
 word governed ; as, " I know not what person he gave the 
 present to." 
 
 This separation of the preposition from the word govern- 
 ed by it, and the suppression of the substitute, are most 
 common and most allowable in colloquial and epistolary 
 language. In the grave and elevated style, they are sel- 
 dom elegant ; and never to be admitted to the prejudice of 
 perspicuity ; as in the following passage " Of a space or 
 number, which, in a constant and endless enlarging progres- 
 sion, it can in thought never attain to." Locke, 2. 17. 8. 
 
 A separation of the preposition to such a distance from 
 the word with which it is connected in construction, is per- 
 plexing and inelegant. 
 
 NOTE. In the use of who as an interrogative, there is an apparent 
 deviation from regular construction it being used without distinction of 
 case ; as, " Who do you speak to ?" " Who is she married to ?" " Who 
 is this reserved for?" "Who was it made by?" This idiom is not 
 merely colloquial ; it is found in the writings of our best authors. It is 
 the Latin cut and quo. 
 
 RULE XLII. 
 
 Prepositions govern sentences and clauses, or members 
 of sentences ; as, " The marine acid dissolves all metals, 
 without excepting gold, silver or mercury. "-^Encyc. Art. 
 Mineralogy. 
 
 " Without seeking any more justifiable reasons of hostil- 
 ity." Hume, 1. 5. 
 
 " Besides making an expedition into Kent." 
 
 Hume, 1. 36. 
 " From what has been said." Blair's Serm. 
 
 " To the general history of these periods will be added, n 
 &,c. Enfield, Prelim. 
 
 " About the beginning of the eleventh century." Ibm. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 137 
 
 " By observing these rules and precautions." Ibm. 
 "In comparing the proofs of questionable facts." Ibm. 
 
 " For want of carefully attending to the preceding dis- 
 tinction." Enfield, H. Ph. b. 2. 
 
 " After men became Christians." Paley^s Evid. ch. 1. 
 
 " Before you were placed at the head of affairs." 
 
 Junius, Let. 8. 
 
 " Personal bravery is not enough to constitute the gene- 
 ral, without he animates the whole army with courage." 
 
 Fielding's Socrates, p. 188. 
 
 " Pray get these verses by heart against I see you." 
 
 Chesterfield, Let. 
 
 " After having made me believe that I possessed a share 
 in your affection." Pope, Let. 7. 
 
 " Ambition, envy, will take up our minds, without we 
 can possess ourselves with sobriety." Spect. No. 143. 
 
 NOTE. We observe, in the foregoing, passages, the preposition has 
 two uses one is to precede a word to which other words are annexed 
 as necessary to complete the sense " about the beginning/' Here the 
 sense is not complete the time is not designated. To define the time 
 which is the object of the preposition about, it is necessary to add the 
 words < of the eleventh century" about that time. So that the whole 
 clause is really the object after the preposition. 
 
 The other use of the preposition is to precede nouns, verbs or other 
 words, which are not the object of the preposition, but which have a 
 construction independent of it; as, "after men became Christians." 
 Here men is the nominative to became ; yet the whole proposition is as 
 really the object governed by after, as the word hour, in the phrase, af- 
 ter that ftour. " Against I see you," is a phrase of like construction. 
 No single word is an object or in the objective case after against ; but 
 the whole affirmation is the object. " Without we can possess our- 
 selves," has a like construction, and though superseded, in a degree, by 
 unless, a word of similar import, is a true English phrase : After [this 
 fact] men became Christians Against [that time when] I see you 
 Without [this fact] we can possess ourselves. 
 
 Let us examine the following sentence : " After thus considering 
 what was likely to happen, we are next to inquire," &c. Paley, Evid. 
 ch. 2. Here considering refers to we; but is it not, with the whole 
 clause, governed by after as the object ? 
 
 ",^hen we would consider eternity a parte ante, what do we but re- 
 peat in our minds the idea of years and ages ?" Locke,2. 17, 10. Here 
 but has the force of a preposition, or of a verb in the imperative mode 
 equivalent to except : What do we except this we repeat, &c, 
 
 4C Man, but for this, no action could attend, 
 And, but for that t were active to no end." Pope. 
 
138 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " What with more decency were in silence kept, 
 
 And but for this unjust reproach, had slept." Dryd. Virg. 10. 96. 
 " The law never speaks but to command." Paley, Ph. 3. 
 
 RULE XLIII. 
 
 The words if, though, unless, and lest, may be followed 
 by verbs in the future tense, without the usual auxiliaries 
 shall, will or should; as, "If his son ask bread, will he 
 give him a stone ?" " If he ask a fish, will he give him a 
 serpent ?" " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 
 " He shall not eat of the holy things, unless he wash his 
 flesh with water." " Lest thou say, I have made Abram 
 rich." 
 
 Except has a like effect upon the following verb ; as, "I 
 will not let thee go, except thou bless me." Whether has 
 been numbered also among the conjunctions, which require 
 the conditional mode, but by an egregious mistake. It is 
 not a connective, nor does it imply a condition or hypothe- 
 sis, but an alternative. 
 
 NOTE. The arrangement of the foregoing form of the verb, in the 
 present tense of the subjunctive mode, is one of the most palpable mis- 
 takes that the compilers of English grammars have committed. It seems 
 to have originated in the Saxon and ancient English practice of omitting 
 the personal termination, to express future time shall and will not being 
 much used, in ancient times, for this purpose. In consequence of this 
 practice, the translators of the Bible, who wrote the style of the age of 
 Elizabeth,* rarely made any difference between a present uncertainty 
 and a future contingency ; so that the present and future tenses of the 
 original are confounded, and the form of the verb in English which com- 
 prehends both, has been placed by grammarians in the present tense of 
 the conditional mode. 
 
 Deut. 9. 28. Lest the land say In the original, lest the land shall 
 say in the future. 
 
 Deut. 30. 17. If th,ine heart turn away, so that thou wilt not hear 
 original if thine heart shall turn in the future. 
 
 1 Kings 8. 31. If any man trespass against his neighbor original 
 shall trespass. 
 
 As a general fact, the original Hebrew verb, which the translators 
 have rendered by a verb without shall or will or a personal termination, 
 is in the future tense ; and the English verb, having the sense of the fu- 
 ture, ought to be arranged in grammars under that tense. 
 
 * The present translation of the Bible is commonly considered as made 
 in the reign of James I. but on comparing it with the translations pub- 
 lished in the beginning of Elizabeth's reign, it is evident that the last 
 translators merely revised the former copies, altering a few phrases and 
 ' words \ but leaving the body of the style unaltered. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 139 
 
 This remark is confirmed by the Greek translation of the seventy 
 who render the Hebrew by a verb in the future or by an aorist, the sense 
 of which after a sign of condition, is future. 
 
 Job 13. 15. Though he should slay me. 
 
 Levit. 22. 6. Unless he shall wash his body. 
 
 Gen. 14. 23. Lest thou shouldst say or that thou shouldst not say. 
 
 Gen. 32. 26. Except thou shall bless me. 
 
 See also Gen. 19. 15, Ex. 20. 19, and indeed examples in almost every 
 chapter in the Old Testament. 
 
 In the New Testament, the aorist, with the sense of a future, is gen- 
 erally rendered by a like form 'of the English verb. " Take heed lest 
 any man deceive you" that is, shall or should deceive you. See 1 Cor. 
 10. 12, Heb. 3. 12, a future tense, Luke 8. 12, and numerous other 
 examples. 
 
 The translation may be considered as correct ; but to make it correct, 
 the verbs should in grammars be arranged under the future tense, or an 
 aorist. 
 
 For want of attention to the distinction between present uncertainty 
 and future contingency, the translators have confounded two tenses of 
 the original, into one in English. Thus Matt. 4. 3. ought to be trans- 
 lated if thou art the son of God ; so also Luke 23. 35. The original is in 
 the indicative if he is the son of God. So also in John 10. 24-*-l. 25 
 15. 18. If the world hates you ;' in the indicative. Acts 3. 39 if it is 
 of God. See also John 7. 171 John 4. 1. and 8. 13. 
 
 In these and numerous other passages, the original Greek tense is cor- 
 rectly placed in the present tense of the indicative expressing a condi- 
 tion or uncertainty respecting a present fact or event. And our common 
 people who learn the language by tradition, preserve this use of the In- 
 dicative, which was its primitive use ; for the Greeks and English derive 
 it from the same source. 
 
 " And shall not God avenge his own elect, who cry to him day and 
 night, though he bear long with them ?" Luke 18. 7. In the original, 
 though he bears long with them. The fact is not mentioned as a future 
 contingency though he should bear ; but as a fact admitted though he 
 bears long with them, still he will be avenged. 
 
 " But though our outward man perish, yet the inward man is renewed 
 day by day." 2. Cor. 4. 16. The original, diaphtheiretai, is in the pres- 
 ent tense of the indicative though our outward man perishes, or rather 
 is perishing or decaying. The translation, which indicates a future 
 casual event, though our outward man perish, [that is, should perish,] 
 seems not to convey the Apostle's meaning, for he evidently speaks of a 
 fact conceded, as present. 
 
 I might extend these criticisms to almost every passage in the Bible, 
 in which this pretended present tense of the subjunctive mode is used in 
 our version, and show that the translators have confounded two tenses, 
 which, in the original, are uniformly kept distinct. 
 
 To demonstrate the impropriety of that practice, let us attend to the 
 principles of our own tongue. 
 
 It has been before remarked that if, though and unless, are old Saxon 
 verbs in the imperative mode, and that the ingenious invention of our 
 ancestors to express a condition or supposition was, to employ a verb, 
 with the sense of give, grant, put, be, if, that is, give the fact. We re- 
 
140 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 tain the idiom, and the words employed ; but as these have lost their in- 
 flections, critics have ignorantly classed them with conjunctions a part 
 of speech to which they have no more alliance than they have to nouns 
 or adjectives.* We have also certain words of Latin original, employed 
 for precisely the same purpose suppose, allow and admit, which indeed 
 are not yet misnamed and classed with conjunctions. 
 
 The Saxon method therefore of expressing condition, doubt or hy- 
 pothesis, was to declare the fact which was to be supposed, by a verb in 
 the indicative mode, and prefix to this fact or statement, a verb in the 
 imperative mode, denoting give, grant or suppose. Thus, " Give his 
 son shall ask bread, will he give him a stone ?" Give, in the imperative, 
 and his son shall ask bread, a sentence following give as its object. This 
 is precisely the construction of such sentences of a conditional kind. Now 
 to omit the personal termination of the verb in the hypothetical sentence. 
 " Give, he ask bread/' is to convert the sentence into false English, un- 
 less we suppose the tense future, and the auxiliary vnll or shall sup- 
 pressed. In the present tense, it is just as bad English, as to omit the 
 termination after the Latin equivalent words suppose or admit. " Sup- 
 pose his son ask bread" " Suppose he be the son of God." 
 
 Unless is a verb, onlysan, to unloose, release, dismiss, put away, re- 
 move. Unless he wash his flesh, he will be unclean. That is, dismiss 
 (or suppose not to exist) this fact he wash his flesh, and he will be un- 
 clean. This shows that the sentence is not English, except we consider 
 wash as in the future, and the auxiliary shall suppressed. That the 
 tense is future, is not only obvious, from the sense of the verb itself, but 
 from the following clause If his son (shall) ask bread, icill he give him 
 a stone ? Unless he (shall) wash his flesh, he icill be unclean the last 
 clauses are in the future, corresponding in time with the contingent 
 events expressed in the first clause. 
 
 The use of the present tense of the subjunctive, without 
 the personal terminations, was formerly very general. It 
 was reserved for the classical writers of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury to lay aside the pedantic forms, if he go, if it proceed, 
 though he come, &,c., and restore the native idiom of the lan- 
 guage, by writing it as men spoke it, and as they still speak 
 it, unless perverted by grammars. 
 
 " If they are notions imprinted.' 1 Locke on Und. p. 15. 
 Lon. 1796. 
 
 " If principles are innate." p. 28. 
 
 " If any person hath put such a notion into his head." 
 p. 73. 
 
 " Whether that substance thinks or no/' p. 82. 
 
 * " If his son ask bread, will he give him a stone ?" In the name of 
 reason, what single property of a conjunction has if? " Though he slay 
 me, yet will I trust in him." What connecting powers has though ,f 
 Not the least ; and this is equally true of si and nisi in Latin. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 141 
 
 " Whether the soul doth think whether it has pleasure 
 or pain or be [is] capable of happiness or misery." p. 83. 
 
 " Though a shadow consists in nothing but the absence 
 of light." p. 110. 
 
 " Whether these his observations are justly grounded, I 
 cannot tell." Sped. No. 265. 
 
 " If I am rightly informed." Ibm. 
 
 " If he has not the pomp of a numerous train." No. 264. 
 
 " Though mutual esteem produces mutual desire to please." 
 
 Rasselas, 29. 
 
 " If he was but feared." Rambler, No. 4. 
 
 " If his health was impaired." No. 5. 
 
 "If he is born to think." No. 7. 
 
 " If he is dwelling with delight." No. 8. 
 
 " If he pretends to hold him to syllogism." No. 9. 
 
 " Of which the writer, if he was to live now, would be 
 ashamed." No. 29. 
 
 "If it was not for you." Pope's Letters. 
 
 "If there was no other way." Hume continued, 7. ch. 2. 
 
 " If the revolution was not lawful if the doctor was guil- 
 ty." Ibm. ch. 5. 
 
 " If this was the decision of man only." Porteus, Lect. 3. 
 
 " If he has declared." Ibm. 
 
 " If the reality is proved." Ibm. Lect. 6. 
 
 " Though this institution is calculated." Coxe, Trav. 
 Russia. 
 
 " Unless some powerful motive animates this regularity 
 and decency of appearance." Anacharsis, Trans, ch. 47. 
 
 " If a soldier has quitted his rank if he is married if 
 the person admits the augmentation if he does not." Ibm. 
 ch. 56. 
 
 " If the physician does not enjoin a proper regimen if 
 the patient deviates from his injunctions." Beddocs, Hy- 
 geia, Es. 8. 
 
 " If newspapers are scurrilous." Junius, Let. 16. 
 
 "If no circumstances are alledged in his favor if no al- 
 legation be [is] made to lessen the force of evidence." 
 Ibm. 62. 
 
142 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " If he means Antigonus if he means Demetrius." 
 Prideaux, 1. 2. 
 
 " Unless he thinks it proper or prudent so to do." 
 Slacks. Comment. 1. 3. 
 
 It is needless to multiply authorities they may be cited 
 without end and such is THE LANGUAGE. 
 
 The poets omit the auxiliary of the future tense, without 
 the sign of contingency a license not admissible in prose. 
 
 " To-morrow, ere fresh morning streak the east." Milt. 
 
 That is, shall streak. 
 
 The auxiliary is omitted also after a command. 
 
 " Gabriel hath given 
 
 Charge and strict watch, that to this happy place, 
 No evil thing approach or enter in." Milton. 
 
 To the false rules of Grammars, we may ascribe the omis- 
 sion of the personal terminations of verbs after till and be- 
 fore " At the end of which a new shaft is sunk, and this 
 is done repeatedly, till the shaft penetrate to the bottom of 
 the mine." Heron's Fourcroy, 2, 248. " The resounding 
 of the rock when it is struck, warns the workmen before 
 this event take place." Ibm. 249. 
 
 It has been remarked under the head of tenses, that the 
 present tense is properly used for the future, after words 
 which carry the mind forward to the time. Till is a word 
 of this sort its meaning is, to the time, which has such an 
 effect upon future time, that we conceive and speak of it in 
 the present tense. 
 
 In the first passage just cited, shall may perhaps be sup- 
 plied shall penetrate which will render the sentence tol- 
 erable ; but it cannot be prefixed to take in the second pas- 
 sage, and the sentence appears not only incorrect, but ludi- 
 crous. The same fault in Pinkerton's Geography, renders 
 many passages incorrect, and some ridiculous. 
 
 " Though the Mersey present a grand estuary, its course is 
 not of great extent."-;- Pinkerton's Geography, v. 1. Phil. 82. 
 
 " This is not English even upon Lowth's principles, for he 
 lays it down as a rule, that when a fact is certain, admitted, 
 or taken for granted, the indicative mode is the most proper 
 1 and he condemns this translation " Though he were a 
 son, yet learned he obedience." " Though the Mersey pre- 
 sents," is the true English idiom. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 143 
 
 " A large river, which there divides itself into three 
 branches before it join the sea." Vol. 2. 135. 
 
 " In Neged,- a young Arab cannot marry till he have prov- 
 ed his valor." Ibm. 316. 
 
 Pinkerton's works abound with similar mistakes ; he car- 
 ries the false rules of Lowth to an extent never intended by 
 the learned author. The like errors abound in the works 
 ofPaley.* 
 
 " Those who hold such doctrine must require that a man 
 so attacked, must, before he strike the assailant, stop and 
 ascertain how the pistol is loaded." Trial of Self ridge, p. 
 160. 
 
 I know not whether this inaccuracy is the fault of the 
 judge or of the reporter; but strike cannot be considered 
 here as either future or conditional : it expresses time in that 
 indeterminate manner, which constitutes a principal office 
 of a present tense of the indicative it ought to be strikes. 
 
 RULE XLIV. 
 
 Connectives join two or more clauses or members in a 
 compound sentence ; as, " Keep thy tongue from evil, and 
 thy lips from speaking guile." 
 
 Here are two clauses united by and, which continues the 
 sense and prevents the repetition of the verb keep. 
 
 " I sought the Lord, and he heard me, and delivered me 
 from all my fears." Here are three clauses combined into 
 a sentence or period by the help of and ; but a new verb is 
 introduced in each, and the second connective prevents the 
 repetition of the substitute he only. 
 
 u A wise son heareth his father's instruction ; but a scorn- 
 er heareth not rebuke." Here but joins the two clauses, 
 but a new character is the nominative to a distinct verb, in 
 the second clause, which exhibits a contrast to the first, and 
 no word is omitted. 
 
 * From a careful survey of the history of our language, I have ascer- 
 tained beyond any reasonable doubt, that the English Grammars which 
 have been published within the last forty years, have introduced more 
 errors than they have corrected. 
 
144 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 RULE XLV. 
 
 Connectives join single words, jvhich are the nominatives 
 to the same verb, expressed or understood or words which 
 follow a transitive verb or a preposition in the same case. 
 Connectives also join verbs, attributes, and modifiers. Ex- 
 amples : 
 
 " Peter and John went up into the temple." 
 
 Here Peter and John are the nominatives to the verb, and 
 the connective and prevents the repetition of the verb and 
 following part of the sentence Peter went up into the tem- 
 ple. John went up into the temple. I and you will go to 
 Boston William and Thomas must go to Washington. 
 Neither I nor John was present Peter or Henry will attend. 
 "I am the way and the truth and the life." 
 
 In the following, the connective joins words which are 
 the object of a verb or preposition. " The torch of truth 
 discovers malevolence and envy." " I have dispatched my 
 correspondents with fair words and general civility.": Ram- 
 bler. 
 
 I esteem him and her and them He loves us and you. 
 It is for you and me. 
 
 In the following, two verbs in the same tense or mode 
 are joined by a connective. "Their fondness of allegory 
 dazzled and confounded their understanding." Enjield. 
 "Plutarch taught philosophy and was a voluminous writer." 
 Ibm. " All are of the dust and turn to dust." " The idea 
 is likely to sink deeper and spread the farther." 
 
 Connectives join attributes and modifiers ; as, " He is wise 
 and virtuous." " An orator pleads eloquently and plau- 
 sibly." 
 
 The connectives perform a very important office in abridg- 
 ing Janguage, by enabling us to omit words which must 
 otherwise be repeated. Thus, when I say, " I esteem re- 
 ligion and virtue," two affirmations, " I esteem religion, I 
 esteem virtue," are actually included in the sentence. 
 
 When several words or clauses succeed each other,. it is 
 not uncommon to omit the connective ; as, " We hear nothing 
 of causing the blind to see, the lame to walk, the deaf to 
 hear, the lepers to be cleansed." Paley, Evid. 
 
 After the connective than, there may be and usually is an 
 ellipsis of a verb, name or other words; as, "There .is 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 145 
 
 none greater in this house than I." Gen. 39. 9, that is, than 
 I am. 
 
 " In the throne only will I be greater than thou." Gen. 
 61, that is, than thou shalt be. 
 
 " He loves his money more than his honor," that is, more 
 than he loves his honor. 
 
 " The king of the north shall return and set forth a mul- 
 titude greater than the former." Dan. 11. 13, that is, than 
 the former multitude. 
 
 " I will pull down my barns and build greater." Luke 
 12, that is, greater barns. 
 
 Sometimes other words may be suppressed without ob- 
 scuring the sense, as, " It is.better for me to die than to live." 
 Jonah 4. That is, better than for me to live. 
 
 Precise rules for the ellipsis of words, in all cases, cannot 
 be given. In general, a writer will be governed by a regard 
 to perspicuity, and omit no word, when the want of it leaves 
 the sense obscure or ambiguous, nor when it weakens the 
 strength of expression. But the following remarks and ex- 
 amples may be of use to the student. 
 
 1. When a number of words are joined in construction, 
 the definitive may be omitted, except before the first; as, 
 the sun, moon and stars a house and garden. So also when 
 two or more attributes agree with the same name : as, a great, 
 wise, and good prince. But when attributes or names are 
 particularly emphatical, the definitive should be expressed 
 before each the sun, the moon and the stars. 
 
 2. The repetition of names adds emphasis to ideas ; as, 
 " Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God," is more 
 emphatical than " Christ the power and the wisdom of God." 
 
 3 An adjective belonging to two or more nouns joined 
 by a connective, may be omitted except before the first; as, 
 my house and garden good qualities and actions " their 
 interest and solicitation" Rambler, 56. Nor does it make 
 any difference that the names are in different numbers ; as 
 our attributes have no distinction of number, the same word 
 may be applied to the singular number and the plural ; as, a 
 magnificent house and gardens his house and lands. But 
 when a precedes the first attribute, this construction is not 
 elegant. 
 
 13 
 
146 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 4. In compound sentences, a nominative pronoun or name 
 may be omitted before all the verbs except the first ; as, I 
 love, fear and respect the magistrate instead of I love, I 
 fear and I respect. The substitute may sometimes be sup- 
 pressed ; as, the man I saw, for the man whom I saw. 
 
 NOTE. In this particular of the substitute, authors often indulge an 
 unwarrantable license. The use of that for that which is obsolete and 
 not justifiable. " We speak that we do know," is an original English 
 phrase, but has ceased to be used by good writers. 
 
 The omission of the substitute in phrases like this " There was an 
 instance occurred" for ichich occurred is found in all our good authors 
 but it is so gross a violation of syntax, without utility or pretext of any 
 kind, that every writer should avoid it. 
 
 The verb may often be omitted ; as, he is wise and virtuous that is, 
 he is wise, he is virtuous. They go to see and be seen that is, they go 
 to see, they go to be seen. 
 
 After Ac/ice, thence and whence a verb is often omitted without occa- 
 sioning obscurity ; as, " Hence the flood of vice which overspreads the 
 land." 
 
 The auxiliaries often supply the place of a principal verb ; as, John 
 loves money better than you do ; John has read more books than Peter 
 has [read ;] John shall go, but Peter shall not [go.] 
 
 5. An adverb need not be repeated with every word which 
 it qualifies, the connective and rendering it unnecessary ; as, 
 he spoke and acted gracefully. Here gracefully belongs 
 to speaking as well as to acting. 
 
 A preposition may be omitted after a connective ; as, he 
 walked over the hills and the valleys that is, over the valleys. 
 
 After like and near, to is usually omitted ; as, " Like three 
 distinct powers in mechanics." Blacks. Com. 1. 2. That 
 is, like to three " Such opinions as seemed to approach 
 nearest the truth." Enfield, 2. 59 that is, nearest to the 
 truth. 
 
 Likewise after join and adjoin, to is sometimes omitted ; 
 as, " a garden adjoining the river." 
 
 For is omitted by the poets after mourn. 
 
 " He mourn'd no recreant friend, no mistress coy." 
 
 Beattie. 
 
 NOTE 1. The common rule respecting connectives is, that they ioin 
 like modes and tenses, as well as like cases ; or if the tense or mode is 
 changed, the nominative to the additional verb must be repeated. But 
 this is often false. " He lives temperately and he has long lived temper- 
 ately," is an instance in which the repetition of the nominative is alledg- 
 ed to be indispensable. This I apprehend to be a great mistake the 
 sentence is more correct, as well as more easy and familiar, without the 
 last nominative. So when we pass from the affirmative to the negative 
 or from the negative to the affirmative, the subject or nominative is said 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 147 
 
 to be always resumed. This is doubtless an egregious error. " He is 
 rich, but he is not respectable," is not so common a sentence, as, " He 
 is rich, but not respectable." The general rule respecting the ellipsis, 
 is, that a word may always be suppressed, when the omission occasions 
 no obscurity or ambiguity. " He is indolent, and therefore will be 
 poor," is perfectly good English. But let the rule be put to the test of 
 authorities. 
 
 " Not that he is or ever was, obliged by these statutes to call a new 
 parliament every year." Blacks. Com. b. 1. 2. 
 
 Is this incorrect ? No man will pretend that this is not an authorized 
 idiom and perfectly correct. And how shall we supply the ellipsis ? 
 Not that he is or he ever was ! What sort of language is this ? 
 
 " For when a man says gold is malleable, he means and would insin- 
 uate something more than this." Locke, b. 3. ch. 10. 17. 
 
 What necessity is there of repeating the nominative before would ? 
 Not the least. It is impossible to improve the perspicuity of the sentence. 
 
 " That they have contributed and will probably yet contribute in a 
 considerable degree to the abridgment of the labor." Miller's Retro- 
 spect, Vol. I. 390. 
 
 "But whatever they were or are." Burke. Reflections on the Fr. 
 Rev. 72. 
 
 " The whole has been done under the auspices, and is confirmed by 
 the sanction, of religion and piety." Ibm. 
 
 " It has opened and will more and more open their eyes." Ibm. 
 
 tl If I have been born, or dwell or have served an apprenticeship in one 
 town." Paley. Phil. b. 6. 7. 
 
 " He neither receives nor can give delight." Johnson. 
 
 " Cowper's exhortation is not inferior to similar exhortations in the 
 accomplished translator of Tansillo's poem, the Nurse, by which these 
 enchanting writers have induced and will continue to induce, so many 
 mothers," &c. Life of Cowper. Will any person say, this latter sen- 
 tence is not correct ? How will the grammarian supply the nominative ? 
 It cannot be done without repeating a part of the preceding clause by 
 which these enchanting writers have induced, and by which they will 
 continue to induce And of what use is this repetition ? Does it add 
 any thing to the perspicuity or elegance ? Not the least. Nothing can 
 show, in a stronger light, the falsity of the rule. 
 
 " The philosopher who hath busied himself in considering their na- 
 tures, and thinks he knows how far," &c. Locke, b. 2. ch. 8. 3. 
 
 Here a repetition of the nominative icho before thinks, would improve 
 the structure of the sentence, but is by no means indispensable. 
 
 " These are the fountains of knowledge, from whence all the ideas 
 we have or can have, do spring. Locke, 2. 1. 
 
 " I neither do nor can comprehend all I would." Ibm. 2. 17. 
 
 In the two last examples. th repetition of the nominative, instead of 
 improving, would impair the structure of the sentences. 
 
 The mischiefs resulting from a vague manner of instituting Grammar 
 rules, will be fully seen in the perpetual confusion of tenses which 
 occur in almost every author. We are told that conjunctions connect like 
 
148 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 tenses and modes and whether is a conjunction. Let us see the con- 
 sequence, " If I should ask any one, whether ice and water were two 
 distinct species of things." Locke, 3. 6. 18. 
 
 To resolve this sentence by common grammars, we are to say, that 
 should ask is a verb in the imperfect tense of the subjunctive mode, 
 whether is a conjunction, and were, a verb connected with ask by that 
 conjunction. And what sort of language is this " If I should ask" a 
 contingent event or hypothesis of course the time future " Whether 
 ice and water were, two distinct things," that is, were, in time past, and 
 perfectly past ; for were by itself never denotes time imperfectly past ? 
 
 In this way, the author is led to write what he never intended sheer 
 nonsense. The verb was intended to express a fact of general existence 
 one which is always true or false that is, the identity or diversity of 
 ice and water a fact existing in nature, and therefore to be mentioned 
 in the present tense indefinite" Whether ice and water are two dis- 
 tinct substances." 
 
 " It would seem that inquietude was as natural to it as its fluidity." 
 Golds, Jin. Nat. ch. 17. Here is a similar mistake the use of the first 
 verb in what is called past time, leading the author to use a second verb 
 in the same tense But that is no connective, any more than every sub- 
 stitute in the language The inquietude of the ocean is a natural prop- 
 erty, existing at all times and the author meant the verb to express 
 that idea. " It would seern that inquietude is as natural to the sea as 
 its fluidity." To show this to be the real construction, let the order 
 of the words be changed. " Inquietude was as natural to the sea as its 
 fluidity that would seem." This arrangement exhibits the mistake in 
 its true light. Let the reader attend to the following passages. 
 
 " If my readers will turn their thoughts back on their old friends, they 
 will find it difficult to call a single man to remembrance, who appeared 
 to know that life was short, [is short] till he icas about to lose it." 
 Rambler, No. 71. 
 
 " Upon this supposition the alchimists icent, who, supposing that all 
 bodies were [are] composed of salt, sulphur and mercury." Encyclop. 
 art. Chimistry, 23. 
 
 " They considered the body as a hydraulic machine, and the fluids as 
 passing through a series of chimical changes ; forgetting that animation 
 was [is] its essential characteristic." Darwin, Zoon. pref. 
 
 " A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was [is] 
 verse." Murray's Grammar. 
 
 " From the figure and movements of the feathered tribes, we should 
 be led to imagine that the structure of their organs was [is] extremely 
 different from that of quadrupeds their economy and way of living 
 required [require] some variations of their frame." Smeliie, Phil, of 
 Nat. Hist. p. 71. 
 
 " Supposing Parliament had a right to meet spontaneously and if 
 half of the members met [should meet] and half absented [should absent] 
 themselves, who shall determine which is the legislative body ?" 
 Blacks. Com. 1. 2. 
 
 " Two more were stationed in Dalmatia, in a situation, if a war broke 
 [should break] out at their back, to support the other legions ; and if a 
 sudden emergence required [should require] their presence, ready to 
 advance by rapid marches into Italy." Murphy's Tacitus, 1. 264. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 149 
 
 The employment of these verbs by the translator is the less excusable, 
 as he had the original to guide him to the true sense " QUOB si repen- 
 tinum auxilium Italia posceret, haud procul accirentur." If Italy should 
 require sudden aid the legions might be called from a small distance. 
 
 Examples of this mistake may be cited without end but those which 
 I have collected are amply sufficient to show the miserable state of 
 grammatical knowledge. How easy would it have been to detect these 
 blunders, had the parts of speech been understood, and properly classed 1 
 Take for example, the passage from Murray and resolve it according 
 to the explanation of that which is given in the preceding pages " This 
 was verse a stranger to the poem would not easily discover that" What 
 nonsense ! But correct the verb. " This is verse a stranger would not 
 easily discover that" The whole error has arisen probably from con- 
 sidering that as a conjunction when in fact it is a representative of the 
 following member of the period and the sentence is found to consist of 
 two clauses one hypothetical, the other declaratory " A stranger to 
 the poem, (if he should attempt) would not easily discover that this is 
 verse." 
 
 From the practice of connecting like tenses, probably has arisen a sim- 
 ilar misapplication of tenses, where no connective is used ; as, " In this 
 way we might indicate which of their elements existed [exists] in ex- 
 cess." Lavoisier by Kerr. 
 
 " It would be true gold to him and belong to that species, who include 
 malleableness in his nominal essence." Locke, 3. 6. 35. 
 
 It ought to be who should include. A similar mistake in the follow- 
 ing passage is really ludicrous " I said to him that he should rebuild 
 the Greek cities and give them wise laws, until a proper time arrived to 
 restore them to liberty." Anacharsis, 3.231. It ought to be should 
 arrive. 
 
 A few authors, led by their own sense of right and wrong, [for surely 
 they have had no Grammar to guide them,] have occasionally avoided 
 these errors and written the language with correctness. And among 
 these is the translator of Anacharsis, notwithstanding the mistake just 
 cited. 
 
 ' " They said that man is an animal." Anach. vol. 4, note. 
 " He told us these birds are natives of Samos." Ibm. ch. 74. 
 
 " Sabellius, who openly taught that there is but one person in the 
 Godhead." Encyc. art. Sabellius. 
 
 " His matter had taught him that happiness consists in virtue." 
 
 Anach. ch. 7. 
 
 " D. Laertius says, the Egyptians taught that matter is the first prin- 
 ciple." Enfield, Hist. Phil. l,ch. 8. 
 
 " Anaxagoras affirmed that a pure mind governs the universe." 
 
 Jim. ch. 3. b. 2. 
 
 If we examine these sentences, we shall find ,the time correctly, 
 affirmed in each member The first declares a fact past the last, a fact 
 now existing, as well as when the affirmation was made. 
 
 " He told us that these birds are natives of Samos" or according to 
 the idea before explained these birds are natives of Samos he told us 
 that 
 
 13 * 
 
150 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 Man is an animal they said that happiness consists in virtue his 
 master taught him that. 
 
 I told my brother that, if he went [should go] to-morrow, I would ac- 
 company him. 
 
 How far is it to England ? three thousand miles ? Indeed, I thought 
 it was [to be] four thousand. 
 
 What day of the week is it ? Monday. Then I mistake ; I thought 
 it was [to be] Tuesday. 
 
 It rains. Is it best to begin work in the rain ? I should think it was 
 not, [I should think it not to be best, or I should think it not best.] To 
 be, may be omitted. 
 
 What is the color of the cloth ? I should think it was [to be] blue. 
 
 I told the man that if he came [should come] to-morrow, I would con- 
 verse with him. 
 
 It was agreed that if the contract was fulfilled [should be fulfilled] by 
 the tenth of next month, the interest should be deducted. 
 
 Let him who is not guilty of such mistakes, cast the first stone ! ! 
 
 I have been the more particular in illustrating this part of my subject, 
 to show the necessity of tracing the idioms to their true source, of under- 
 standing the principles of construction, and of calling the parts of speech 
 by their true names. 
 
 Punctuation. 
 
 Punctuation is the marking of the several pauses which 
 are to be observed, in reading or speaking a sentence or 
 continued discourse. By means of pauses, a discourse is di- 
 vided into periods or complete sentences, and these, into 
 phrases. 
 
 A period is a sentence complete, making perfect sense, 
 and not connected in construction with what follows. The 
 pause after the period is marked by a point [.] and in speak- 
 ing, is distinguished by a cadence or fall of the voice. 
 
 .The members of a period, or clauses and phrases, are all 
 more or less connected in sense, and according to the near- 
 ness of the connection, are marked by a comma, [,] a semi- 
 colon [;] or a colon [:] 
 
 The comma is the shortest pause, and is often used to 
 mark the construction, where very little interruption of voice 
 is allowable. 
 
 A simple sentence or clause contains an affirmation, a 
 command or a question, that is, one personal verb, with its 
 nominative and adjuncts. By adjunct, is meant any phrase 
 or number of words added by way of modifying or qualify- 
 ing the primary words. Thus when it is said, " Cicero was 
 an orator of a diffuse style" the latter words, of a diffuse 
 styk, are the adjunct of orator, and the whole forms a com- 
 plete simple sentence, with one verb or affirmation. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 151 
 
 A phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a 
 proposition. 
 
 COMMA. 
 
 RULE I. In general, the parts of a simple sentence or 
 clause are not to be separated by any point whatever; as 
 " Hope is necessary in every condition of life." But when 
 a simple sentence is long, or contains a distinct phrase or 
 phrases, modifying the affirmation', it may be divided by a 
 comma; as, " To be very active in laudable pursuits, is the 
 distinguishing characteristic of a man of merit." " By re- 
 venging an injury, a man is but even with his enemy." In 
 most cases, where a short pause will give distinctness to 
 ideas, a comma is well placed after an important word ; " To 
 rnourn without measure, is folly ; not to mourn at all, insen- 
 sibility." 
 
 The pause after measure, in this sentence, is essential to 
 the strength of the expression. " The idea of beauty is 
 vague and undefined, different in different minds, and diver- 
 sified by time or place." Rambler. 
 
 RULE II. When a connective is omitted between two or 
 more words, whether names, adjectives, pronouns, verbs or 
 modifiers, the place is supplied by a comma; as, " Love, joy, 
 peace and blessedness are reserved for the good." " The 
 miseries of poverty, of sickness, of captivity, would, without 
 hope, be insupportable." Rambler. " We hear nothing of 
 causing the blind to see, the lame to walk, the deaf to hear, 
 the lepers to be cleansed." Paley. " He who loves, serves 
 and obeys his Maker, is a pious man." " Industry steadily, 
 prudently and vigorously pursued, leads to wealth." " Da- 
 vid was a brave, martial, enterprising prince." " The most 
 innocent pleasures are the most rational, the most delightful 
 and the most durable." 
 
 RULE III. Two or more simple sentences closely con- 
 nected in sense, or dependent on each other, are sepa- 
 rated by a comma only ; as, "When our vices leave us, we 
 flatter ourselves we leave them." " The temperate man's 
 pleasures are durable, because they are regular." " That 
 all the duties of morality ought to be practised, is without 
 difficulty discoverable, because ignorance or uncertainty 
 would immediately involve the world in confusion and dis- 
 tress." Rambler, 81. 
 
152 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 RULE IV. The sentence independent or case absolute, de- 
 tached affirmations or phrases involved in sentences, and 
 other important clauses, must be separated from the other 
 parts of a sentence, by a comma ; as, " The envoy has re- 
 turned, his business being accomplished. " " The envoy, 
 having accomplished his business, has returned. 7 ' " Provi- 
 dence has, I think, displayed a tenderness for mankind." 
 Rambler. " The decision of patronage, who was but half 
 a goddess, has been sometimes erroneous." Rambler. " The 
 sciences, after a thousand indignities, retired from the pal- 
 ace of patronage." Ibm. " It is, in many cases, apparent." 
 Ibm. 
 
 RULE V. A comma is often required to mark contrast, 
 antithesis, or remarkable points in a sentence, and sometimes 
 very properly separates, words closely dependent in con- 
 struction ; as, (t a good man will love himself too well to 
 lose, and his neighbor too well to urin, an estate by gaming." 
 " Prosperity gains friends, and adversity tries them." "It 
 is harder to avoid censure, than to gain applause." 
 
 "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull." 
 
 RULE VI. A single name in apposition is not separated by 
 a comma; as, "the Apostle Peter" but when such name 
 is accompanied with an adjunct, it should be separated ; as, 
 " Parmenio, a friend of Alexander's, hearing the great offers 
 that Darius had made, said, ' Were I Alexander, I would ac- 
 cept them.' " " So would I, (replied Alexander,) were I 
 Parmenio." 
 
 RULE VII. Terms of address, and words of others re- 
 peated, but not introduced as a quotation, are separated by 
 a comma ; as, " Wherefore, sirs, be of good cheer." " My 
 son, hear the counsel of thy father." " Thus shalt thou say 
 to the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me unto you." 
 Exodus. 
 
 RULE VIII. Modifying words and phrases, as, however, 
 nay, hence, besides, in short, finally, formerly, &c. are usu- 
 ally separated by a comma ; as, " It is, however, the task of 
 criticism to establish principles." Rambler. 
 
 SEMICOLON. 
 
 The semicolon is placed between the clauses of a period, 
 which are less closely connected than such as are separated 
 by a comma. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 153 
 
 First. When the first division of a sentence completes a 
 proposition, so as to have no dependence on what follows, 
 but the following clause has a dependence on the preceding, 
 the two parts are separated generally by a semicolon ; as, 
 l( It may be laid down as a maxim, that it is more easy to 
 take away superfluities than to supply defects; and there- 
 fore he that is culpable, because he has passed the middle 
 point of virtue, is always accounted a fairer object of hope, 
 than he who fails by falling short." Rambler. In this sen- 
 tence, the part of the sentence preceding the semicolon, is a 
 perfect period in itself, and might have been closed with a 
 full point ; but the author has added another division, by 
 way of inference, and this is dependent on the first division. 
 The author proceeds " The one has all that perfection re- 
 quires, and more, but the excess may be easily retrenched ; 
 the other wants the qualities requisite to excellence." Here 
 the first division makes a complete proposition; but the an- 
 tithesis, begun by the numeral one, is not complete, without 
 the last division. 
 
 " Economy is no disgrace ; for it is better to live on a lit- 
 tle, than to outlive a great deal." 
 
 "Be in peace with many; nevertheless, have but one 
 counselor of a thousand." 
 
 " A friend cannot be known in prosperity ; an enemy can- 
 not be hid in adversity." 
 
 In general then, the semicolon separates the divisions of 
 a sentence, when the latter division has a dependence on 
 the former, whether the former has a dependence on the lat- 
 ter or not. 
 
 Secondly. When several members of a sentence have a 
 dependence on each other, by means of a substitute for the 
 same principal word, and the clauses, in other respects, con- 
 stitute distinct propositions, the semicolon may be used ; as, 
 " Wisdom hath builded her house ; she hath hewn out her 
 seven pillars ; she hath killed her beasts ; she hath mingled- 
 her wine ; she hath also furnished her table." Prov. 9. 
 
 COLON. 
 
 The colon is used when the sense of the division of a pe- 
 riod is complete, so as to admit of a full point, but some- 
 thing is added by way of illustration ; as, " A brute arrives 
 
154 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 at a point of perfection that he can never pass : in a few 
 years he has all the endowments he is capable of; and were 
 he to live ten thousand more, would be the same thing he is 
 at present." Sped. No. 111. 
 
 NOTE. This point is of little use ; the difference between the colon 
 and semicolon is so small, that the two pauses are frequently confounded, 
 as may be seen in our present version of the Proverbs. It is said that a 
 colon should be placed before a quotation ; but I consider the use of the 
 semicolon as preferable. I conceive the colon might be rejected without 
 injury to the perspicuity of sentences ; and punctuation very much sim- 
 plified by substituting the semicolon and the full point. That slight de- 
 pendence of a subsequent sentence upon a preceding one, which is mark- 
 ed by a colon, is also marked by the full point ; for we are not to sup- 
 pose a full point precludes a connection between sentences. Let the fol- 
 lowing sentences from the Rambler, No. 31, be cited as an example. 
 
 " With the great and ambitious, I would discourse of honors and ad- 
 vancements. To the rich I would tell of inexhaustible treasures and the 
 sure method to attain them. I would teach them to put out their money 
 on the best interest, and instruct the lovers of pleasure how to secure 
 and improve it to the highest degree. The beauty should learn of me 
 how to preserve an everlasting bloom. To the afflicted I would admin- 
 ister comfort, and relaxation to the busy." 
 
 All the parts of a continued discourse are connected ; and often by such 
 nice grades of dependence, that it is not easy to discern, much less to 
 mark the minute distinctions. I have never examined any author, 
 whose use of the points is either accurate or uniform ; and in particular 
 the colon is every where confounded with the semicolon or the period. 
 
 PERIOD. 
 
 The period or full point marks a completion of the sense, 
 a cadence of the voice, and the longest pause used between 
 sentences. It closes a discourse also, or marks the comple- 
 tion of a subject, chapter or section. 
 
 The full point is used also after initials when used alone ; 
 as, after N. S. for New Style ; and after abbreviations ; as, 
 Croc. Anglic, for Crocus Anglicanus. 
 
 To these may be added, 
 
 The dash which marks a break in the sentence, or an ab- 
 rupt turn ; as, " If thou art he but O how fallen !" 
 
 The interrogation point ? that closes a sentence which 
 asks a question ; as, " How long, ye simple ones, will ye 
 love simplicity ?" 
 
 The exclamation point ! which is used after sudden ex- 
 pressions of surprise, or other emotion; as, "O happiness! 
 our being's end and aim !" 
 
 The parenthesis ( ) and hooks [ ] include a remark or 
 clause, not essential to the sentence in construction, but use 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 155 
 
 ful in explaining it or introducing an important idea. They 
 mark a moderate pause, and the clause included is read with 
 a depressed tone of voice ; as, 
 
 " Know then this truth (enough for man to know) 
 Virtue alone is happiness below." Pope. 
 
 It will be readily seen that the sentence is not at all de- 
 pendent on the parenthetical clause ; but the converse is not 
 true, for that clause has a dependence more or less remote, 
 on the sentence. Thus, enough for man to know, is not in- 
 telligible without connecting it with the parts of the sen- 
 tence preceding and following. So in this passage ; " If 
 any one pretends to be so sceptical, as to deny his own ex- 
 istence, (for really to doubt of it, is manifestly impossible,) 
 let him enjoy his beloved happiness." Locke, 4, 10, 2. The 
 included clause here is connected with the preceding part of 
 the sentence, and it is a substitute for existence. 
 
 With regard to the duration of the pauses, it may be ob- 
 served that the comma, semicolon, colon, and full point, may 
 bear to each other the proportion of one, two, three, four, 
 and the interrogation point and exclamation point may be 
 considered each as equal in time to the colon or period. 
 But no precise rule can be given, which shall extend to 
 every case ; the le'ngth of the pauses must depend much on 
 the nature of the discourse, and their respective proportions 
 may be often varied to advantage by a judicious speaker. 
 
 Prosody * 
 
 PROSODY is that part of Grammar which treats of the 
 pronunciation of words, and the laws of versification. 
 
 Pronunciation is regulated principally by accent and 
 quantity. 
 
 Accent is a particular stress of voice with which a certain 
 syllable of a word is uttered, and by which it is distinguish- 
 ed from the others. Thus, in pronouncing .probability, we 
 lay a greater stress of voice upon the third syllable, than 
 
 * The substance of the remarks under this head was published more 
 than forty years ago. For some of the observations I am indebted to 
 Sheridan's Art of Reading; but for more of them, to the Honorable 
 John Trumbull, Esq. one of the judges of the Supreme Court of Con- 
 necticut. His rules of metrical composition, originally published in my 
 Grammar, and afterwards in my Dissertations on the English Language, 
 are probably the best that have been written. 
 
156 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 upon - the others the voice naturally resting upon that, and 
 passing over the others with rapidity and a slight enuncia- 
 tion. This stress of voice on a particular part of a word, 
 is equally necessary to the ease of utterance and the melody 
 of speaking. 
 
 In addition to the accent, which may be called primary, 
 there is, in pronouncing words of many syllables, a secon- 
 dary accent, less distinct than the principal accent, but evi- 
 dently distinguishing some one syllable, from those which 
 are unaccented. Thus in the word indiscriminate, the prin- 
 cipal accent is on the third syllable ; but the first syllable is 
 evidently uttered with more force of voice, than the second 
 and last two syllables. The final cause of both accents is 
 the ease of pronunciation, and by this should both be regu- 
 lated ; for that manner of pronouncing words which is most 
 easy for the speaker, enables him to utter the several sylla- 
 bles with the most distinctness, which is consistent with a 
 rapid communication of thoughts; and this is necessary to 
 render his enunciation agreeable to his hearers. Hence no 
 rules of pronunciation drawn from the termination of words, 
 from their etymologies, or from the practice of popular 
 speakers, should be suffered to interfere with this funda- 
 mental principle, the ease of utterance for a forced, un- 
 natural accent is not only painful to the speaker, but utterly 
 destructive of melody. 
 
 The accent may fall on a vowel or on a consonant. 
 When it falls on a vowel, the vowel is long ; as in glory, 
 table, lawful. When it falls on a consonant, the consonant 
 closes the syllable, and the preceding vowel is short; as in 
 hab'it, grat'itude, deliverance.* 
 
 * It may be thought that I am captious in criticising the works of 
 English authors, or of others who have written on this subject, but the 
 propriety of detecting error, wherever found, supersedes the necessity 
 of apology. 
 
 It has been the practice of most English authors to place the marks 
 of accent, in all cases, over the vowel of the accented syllable a prac- 
 tice probably borrowed from the Greek language. Thus in Johnson's 
 Dictionary, the vowel a in habit, as well as o in hdly, has the mark of 
 accent, for which reason the mark is no guide to the true sound of the 
 letter, and a learner would be led to give to a its long sound thus, habit 
 as well as to o its long sound in holy. 
 
 But this is not the worst evil. The usual rules for dividing syllables, 
 are not only arbitrary, but false and absurd. They contradict the very 
 definition of a syllable given by the authors themselves. Thus Lowth 
 defines a syllable to be " a sound, either simple or compound, pronounced 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 157 
 
 The quantity of a syllable is the time in which it is pro- 
 nounced. In English this time is long or short long, as in 
 frame, denote, compensation short, as in that, not, melon. 
 
 The accent has no small influence in determining the 
 length of a syllable, by prolonging the sound of the vowel ; 
 but, in many words, vowels have their long sound, though 
 not under the accent ; as, nosegay, agitate. 
 
 There are some general rules for accenting syllables, 
 which may be discovered by attending to the analogy of 
 formation. Thus words ending in tion and sion have the 
 accent on the last syllable save one ; as protection, adhesion : 
 words ending in ty usually have the accent on the last syllable 
 except two ; as, vanity, hostility. 
 
 Few of these rules however are so general, that the ex- 
 ceptions to them are not almost as numerous as the words 
 which fall within the rule ; and therefore the accent of words 
 is best learnt from a dictionary and general usage. The 
 rules laid down for this purpose in several works of distinc- 
 tion, are so numerous, and subject to so many exceptions, 
 that they tend rather to embarrass, than to assist the student. 
 
 Most prosodians who have treated particularly of this 
 subject, have been guilty of a fundamental error, in consid- 
 ering the movement of English verse as depending on long 
 and short syllables, formed by long and short vowels. This 
 hypothesis has led them into capital mistakes. The truth 
 is, many of those syllables which are considered as long in 
 verse, are formed by the shortest vowels in the language ; 
 as, strength, health, grand. The doctrine, that long vowels 
 are necessary to form long syllables in poetry, is at length 
 
 by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or part of 
 a word." But in dividing syllables, no regard is had to the definition 
 for manifest Lowth divides thus, ma-ni-fest. Here, the first syllable 
 man is pronounced with a single impulse of the voice according to the 
 definition ; yet in writing, the syllable is split the constituent part of a 
 word is divided into two parts that which is to be pronounced with a 
 single impulse of the voice, is so separated, as to require two impulses. 
 A syllable in pronunciation is an indivisible thing ; and strange as it 
 may appear, what is indivisible in utterance, is divided in writing; 
 v/hen the very purpose of dividing words into syllables in writing, is to 
 lead the learner to a just pronunciation. Thus Murray, though he ad- 
 mits that" a syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant," yet 
 separates that consonant from the syllable as in me- Ion ci-vil ti-mid. 
 Most of the English elementary books which I have seen are liable to 
 the same objection. 
 14 
 
158 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 exploded, and the principles which regulate the movement 
 of our verse, are explained; viz. accent and emphasis. 
 Every emphatical word, and every accented syllable, will 
 form what is called in prose a long syllable. The unaccented 
 syllables, and unemphatical monosyllabic words, are consid- 
 ered as short syllables. 
 
 But there are two kinds of emphasis ; a natural emphasis, 
 which arises from the importance of the idea conveyed by a 
 word; and an accidental emphasis, which arises from the 
 importance of a word in a particular situation. 
 
 The first or natural emphasis belongs to all nouns, verbs, 
 participles and adjectives, and requires no elevation of the 
 voice ; as, 
 
 "Not half so swift the trembling doves can^/y." 
 
 The last or accidental emphasis is laid on a word when it 
 has some particular meaning, and when the force of a sen- 
 tence depends upon it ; this therefore requires an elevation 
 of the voice ; as, 
 
 "Perdition catch my soul but I do love thee." 
 
 So far the prosody of the English language seems to be 
 settled ; but the rules laid down for the construction of verse, 
 seem to have been imperfect and disputed. 
 
 Writers have generally supposed that our heroic verse 
 consists of five feet, all pure Iambics, except the first foot, 
 which they allow may be a Trochee. In consequence of 
 this opinion, they have expunged letters from words which 
 were necessary ; and curtailed feet in such a manner as to 
 disfigure the beauty of printing, and in many instances, de- 
 stroyed the harmony of our best poetry. 
 
 The truth is, so far is our heroic verse from being con- 
 fined to the Iambic measure, that it admits of eight feet, and 
 in some instances of nine. I will not perplex my readers 
 with a number of hard names, but proceed to explain the 
 several feet, and show in what places of the line they are 
 admissible. 
 
 An Iambic foot, which is the ground of English numbers, 
 consists of two syllables, the first short and the second long. 
 This foot is admitted into every place of the line. Example, 
 all Iambics ; 
 
 " Where slaves once more theft native land behold, 
 No fiends torment, no Christians thirst for gold." 
 
 Pope. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 159 
 
 The Trochee is a foot consisting of two syllables, the first 
 
 long and the second short. Example ; 
 
 " Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze, 
 
 Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees.' Pope. 
 The Trochee is not admissible into the second place of the 
 
 line ; but in the third and fourth it may have beauty, when it 
 
 creates a correspondence between the sound and sense. 
 " Eve rightly call'd mother of all mankind." 
 " And staggered by the stroke, drops the large ox." 
 The Spondee is a foot consisting of two long syllables. 
 
 This may be used in any place of the line. 
 
 1. " Good life be now my task, my doubts are done." 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 2. " As some lone mountain's monstrous growth he stood." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 But it ha*s a greater beauty when preceded by a Trochee. 
 "Load the tall bark and lanch into the main." 
 
 3. "The mountain goats came bounding o'er the lawn." 
 
 4. " He spoke, and speaking in proud triumph spread 
 
 The long contended honors of her head." Pope. 
 
 5. " Singed are his brows, the scorching lids grow black." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 The Pyrrhic is a foot of two short syllables ; it is grace- 
 ful in the first and fourth places, and is admissible into the 
 second and third. 
 
 1. " Nor in the helpless orphan dread a foe." Pope. 
 
 2. On they move, 
 
 Indisso/wbly firm." Milton. 
 
 3. " The two extremes appear like man and wife, 
 
 Coupled together for the sake of strife." Churchill. 
 But this foot is most graceful in the fourth place. 
 "The dying gales that pant upon the trees." 
 " To farthest shores the ambrosial spirit flies, 
 
 Sweet to the world and grateful to the skies." 
 The Amphibrach is a foot of three syllables, the first and 
 third short, and the second long. It is used in heroic verse 
 only when we take the liberty to add a short syllable to a line. 
 " The piece you say is incorrect, why take it y 
 I'm all submission, what you'd have it, make it." 
 
160 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 This foot is hardly admissible in the solemn or sublime 
 style. Pope has indeed admitted it into his Essay on Man. 
 
 " What can ennoble sots or slaves or cowards ? 
 Alas ! not all the blood of all the Howards." 
 Again ; 
 
 " To sigh for ribands, if thou art so silly ; 
 Mark how they grace Lord Umbra or Sir Billy." 
 
 But these lines are of the high burlesque kind, and in this 
 style the Amphibrach closes lines with great beauty. 
 
 The Tribrach is a foot of three syllables, all short ; and 
 it may be used in the third and fourth places. 
 
 " And rolls impetuous to the plain." 
 Or thus ; 
 
 " And thunders down impetuous to the plain." 
 
 The Dactyl, a foot of three syllables, the first long and 
 the two last short, is used principally in the first place in the 
 line. 
 
 " Furious he spoke, the angry chief replied." 
 
 " Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night." 
 
 The Ariapest, a foot consisting of three syllables, the two 
 first short and the last long, is admissible into every place of 
 the line. 
 
 " Can a bosom so gentle remain 
 Unmoved when her Corydon sighs? 
 Will a nymph that is fond of the plains, 
 These plains and these valleys despise ! 
 Dear regions of silence and shade, 
 Soft scenes of contentment and ease, 
 Where I could have pleasantly stay'd, 
 If aught in her absence could please." 
 The trisyllabic feet have suffered most by the general 
 ignorance of critics ; most of them have been mutilated by 
 apostrophies, in order to reduce them to the Iambic measure. 
 Thus in the line before repeated, 
 
 " Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night," 
 we find the word in the copy reduced to two syllables, 
 murm'ring, and the beauty of the Dactyl is destroyed. 
 Thus in the following, 
 " On every side with shadowy squadrons deep/* 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 161 
 
 by apostrophizing every and shadowy, the line loses its har- 
 mony. The same remark applies to the following. 
 
 " And hosts infuriate shake the shudd'ring plain." 
 " But fashion so directs, and moderns raise 
 On fashion's mouldering base, their transient praise/' 
 
 Churchill. 
 
 Poetic lines which abound with these trisyllabic feet, are 
 the most flowing and melodious of any in the language ; and 
 yet the poets themselves, or their printers, murder them with 
 numberless unnecessary contractions. 
 
 It requires but little judgment and an ear indifferently ac- 
 curate, to distinguish the contractions which are necessary, 
 from those which are needless and injurious to the versifica- 
 tion. In the following passage we find examples of both. 
 
 " She went from op'ra, park, assembly, play, 
 To morning walks and prayers, three times a day ; 
 To pass her time 'twixt reading and bohea, 
 To muse and spill her solitary tea ; 
 Or o'er cold coffee trifle with the spoon, 
 Count the slow clock, and dine exact at noon ; 
 Divert her eyes with pictures in the fire, 
 Hum half a tune, tell stories to the 'squire ; 
 Up to her godly garret after sev'n, 
 There starve and pray, for that's the way to heav'n." 
 
 Pope's Epistles. 
 
 Here e in opera ought not to be apostrophized, for such a 
 contraction reduces an Amphibrachic foot to an Iambic. 
 The words prayers, seven and heaven need not the apostro- 
 phe of e ; for it makes no difference in the pronunciation. 
 But the contraction of over and betwixt is necessary ; for 
 without it the measure would be imperfect. 
 
 PAUSES. 
 
 Having explained the several kinds of feet, and shown in 
 what places of a verse they may be used, I proceed to an- 
 other important article, the pauses. Of these there are two 
 kinds the cesural pause, which divides the line into two 
 equal or unequal parts ; and the final pause, which closes 
 the verse. These pauses are called musical, because their 
 sole end is melody of verse. 
 14* 
 
162 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 The pauses which mark the sense, and for this reason are 
 denominated sentential, are the same in verse as in prose. 
 They are marked by the usual stops, a comma, a semicolon, 
 a colon or a period, as the sense requires, and need no par- 
 ticular explanation. 
 
 The cesural pause is not essential to verse, for the shorter 
 kinds of measure are without it ; but it improves both the 
 melody and the harmony. 
 
 Melody in music is derived from a succession of sounds ; 
 harmony from different sounds in concord. A single voice 
 can produce melody ; a union of voices is necessary to form 
 harmony. In this sense harmony cannot be applied to 
 verse, because poetry is recited by a single voice. But har- 
 mony may be used in a figurative sense, to express the 
 effect produced by observing the proportion which the mem- 
 bers of verse bear to each other.* 
 
 The eesural pause may be placed in any part of the verse ; 
 but has the finest effect upon the melody, when placed after 
 the second or third foot, or in the middle of the third. 
 After the second ; 
 
 "In what retreat, inglorious and unknown, 
 
 Did genius sleep, when dullness seiz'd the throne ?" 
 After the third ; 
 
 " O say what stranger cause, yet unexplored. 
 
 Could make a gentle belle reject a lord ?" 
 In the middle of the third ; 
 
 " Great are his perils, in this stormy time, 
 Who rashly ventures, on a sea of rhyme." 
 
 In these examples we find a great degree of melody, but 
 not in all the same degree. In comparing the divisions of 
 verse, we experience the most pleasure in viewing those 
 which are equal ; hence those verses which have the pause 
 in the middle of the third foot, which is the middle of the 
 verse, are the most melodious. Such is the third example 
 above. 
 
 In lines where the pause is placed after the second foot, 
 we perceive a smaller degree of melody, for the divisions 
 are not equal ; one containing four syllables, the other six, 
 as in the first example. 
 
 Sheridan's Art of Reading. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 163 
 
 But the melody in this example, is much superior to that 
 of the verses which have the cesural pause after the third foot ; 
 for this obvious reason : When the pause bounds the second 
 foot, the latter part of the verse is the greatest, and leaves 
 the most forcible impression upon the mind ; but when the 
 pause is at the end of the third foot, the order is reversed. 
 We are fond of proceeding from small to great, and a cli- 
 max in sound pleases the ear, in the same manner as a 
 climax in sense delights the mind. Such is the first ex- 
 ample. 
 
 It must be observed further, that when the cesural pause 
 falls after the second and third feet, both the final and 
 cesural pauses are on accented syllables; whereas, when the 
 cesural pause falls in the middle of the third foot, this is on a 
 weak syllable, and the final pause on an accented syllable. 
 This variety in the latter, is another cause of the superior 
 pleasure we derive from verses divided into equal portions. 
 
 The pause may fall in the middle of the fourth foot ; as, 
 
 " Let favor speak for others, worth for me : M 
 
 but the melody, in this case, is almost lost. At the close of 
 the first foot, the pause has a more agreeable effect. 
 
 " That's vile ; should we a parent's fault adore, 
 And err, because our fathers err'd before?" 
 
 In the middle of the second foot, the pause may be used, 
 but produces little melody. 
 
 " And who but wishes to invert the laws 
 Of order, sins against the eternal cause." 
 
 Harmony is produced by a proportion between the mem- 
 bers of the same verse, or between the members of differ- 
 ent verses. Example ; 
 
 " Thy forests, Windsor, and thy green retreats, 
 At once the monarch's and the muse's seats, 
 Invite my lays. Be present, sylvan maids, 
 Unlock your springs, and open all your shades." 
 
 Here we observe, the pause in the first couplet is in the 
 middle of the third foot ; both verses are in this respect sim- 
 ilar. In the last couplet, the pause falls after the second 
 foot. In each couplet, separately considered, there is a uni- 
 formity ; but when one is compared with the other, there is 
 
164 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 a diversity. This variety produces a pleasing effect* The 
 variety is further increased, when the first lines of several 
 succeeding couplets are uniform as to themselves, and dif- 
 ferent from the last lines, which are also uniform as to them- 
 selves. Churchill, speaking of reason, lord chief justice in 
 the court of man, has the following lines; 
 
 " Equally form'd to rule, in age or youth, 
 The friend of virtue, and the guide to truth ; 
 To her I bow, whose sacred power I feel, 
 To her decision make my last appeal ; 
 Condemn'd by her, applauding words in vain 
 Should tempt me to take up my pen again ; 
 By her absolv'd, the course I'll still pursue ; 
 ' If Reason's for me, God is for me too.' J; 
 
 The first line of three of these couplets, has the pause 
 after the second foot ; in this consists their similarity. The 
 last line in three of them, has the pause in the middle of the 
 third foot ; they are uniform as to themselves, but different 
 from the foregoing lines. This passage, which on the whole 
 is very beautiful, suffers much by the sixth line, which is not 
 verse, but rather hobbling prose. t 
 
 The foregoing remarks are sufficient to illustrate the use 
 and advantages of the cesural pause. 
 
 The final pause marks the close of a line or verse, wheth- 
 er there is a pause in the sense or not. Sentential pauses 
 should be marked by a variation of tone ; but the final pause, 
 when the close of one line is intimately connected with the 
 beginning of the next, should be merely a Suspension of the 
 voice without elevation or depression. Thus ; 
 
 " Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
 Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
 Brought death into the world, and all our woe," &c. 
 
 * Sheridan. 
 
 t Churchill has improved English versification, but is sometimes too in- 
 correct. It is the remark of some writer, " That the greatest geniuses 
 are seldom correct," and the remark is not without foundation. Homer, 
 Shakspeare and Milton, were among the greatest geniuses that ever liv- 
 ed, and they were certainly guilty of the greatest faults. Virgil and 
 Pope were much inferior in point of genius, but excelled in accuracy. 
 Churchill had genius, but his contempt of rules made him sometimes 
 indulge a too great latitude of expression. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 165 
 
 When these lines are read without a pause after the words 
 fruit and taste, they degenerate into prose. Indeed in many 
 instances, particularly in blank verse, the final pause is the 
 only circumstance which distinguishes verse from prose. 
 
 EXPRESSION. 
 
 One article more in the construction of verse deserves 
 our observation, which is Expression. Expression consists 
 in such a choice and distribution of poetic feet as are best 
 adapted to the subject, and best calculated to impress senti- 
 ments upon the mind. Those poetic feet, which end in an 
 accented syllable, are the most forcible. Hence the Iambic 
 measure is best adapted to solemn and sublime subjects. 
 This is the measure of the Epic, of poems on grave moral 
 subjects, of elegies, &c. The Spondee, a foot of two long 
 syllables, when admitted into the Iambic measure, adds 
 much to the solemnity of the movement. 
 
 " While the clear sun, rejoicing still to rise, 
 In pomp rolls round immeasurable skies/' Dwight. 
 
 The Dactyl, rolls round, expresses beautifully the majes- 
 ty of the sun in his course. 
 
 It is a general rule, that the more important syllables 
 there are in a passage, whether of prose or verse, the more 
 heavy is the style. For example ; 
 
 " A past, vamp'd, future, old, reviv'd new piece." 
 
 " Men bearded, bald, cowl'd, uncowl'd, shod, unshod." 
 
 Such lines are destitute of melody, and are admissible 
 only when they suit the sound to the sense. In the high 
 burlesque style, of which kind is Pope's Dunciad, they give 
 the sentiment an ironical air of importance, and from this 
 circumstance derive a beauty. On the other hand, a large 
 proportion of unaccented syllables or particles, deprives lan- 
 guage of energy ; and it is this circumstance principally 
 which in prose constitutes the difference between the grave 
 historical, and the familiar style. The greatest number of 
 long syllables ever admitted into a heroic verse is seven, as 
 in the foregoing ; the smallest number is three 
 
 " Or to a sad variety of woe." 
 
 The Trochaic measure, in which every foot closes with a 
 weak syllable, is well calculated for lively subjects. 
 
166 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 " Softly sweet in Lydian measures 
 Soon he sooth'd his soul to pleasures ; 
 War he sung is toil and trouble, 
 Honor but an empty bubble," &c. 
 
 The Anapestic measure, in which there are two short syl- 
 lables to one long, is best adapted to express the impetuosity 
 of passion or action. Shenstone has used it to great advan- 
 tage in his inimitable pastoral ballad. It describes beauti- 
 fully the strong and lively emotions which agitate the lover, 
 and his anxiety to please, which continually hurries him 
 from one object and one exertion to another. 
 " I have found out a gift for my fair, 
 
 I have found where the wood pigeons breed ; 
 
 Yet let me that plunder forbear, 
 
 She will say 'twas a barbarous deed. 
 
 For he ne'er could prove true, she averr'd, 
 
 Who could rob a poor bird of her young : 
 
 And I lov'd her the more when I heard 
 
 Such tenderness fall from her tongue." 
 
 The Amphibrachic measure, in which there is a long syl- 
 lable between two short ones, is best adapted to lively comic 
 subjects ; as, in Addison's Rosamond, 
 
 " Since conjugal passion 
 
 Has come into fashion, 
 And marriage so blest on the throne is, 
 
 Like Venus I'll shine, 
 
 Be fond and be fine, 
 And Sir Trusty shall be my Adonis." 
 
 Such a measure gives to sentiment a ludicrous air, and 
 consequently /is ill adapted to serious subjects. 
 
 Great art may be used by a poet in choosing words and 
 feet adapted to his subject. Take the following specimen. 
 
 " Now here, now there, the warriors fall ; amain 
 Groans murmur, armor sounds, and shouts convulse the 
 plain." 
 
 The feet in the last line are happily chosen. The slow 
 Spondee, in the beginning of the verse, fixes the mind upon 
 the dismal scene of woe ; the solemnity is heightened by the 
 pauses in the middle of the second and at the end of the 
 third foot : But when the poet comes to shake the plains, he 
 closes the line with three forcible Iambics. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 167 
 
 Of a similar beauty take the following example. 
 " She all nightlong, her amorous descant sung." 
 
 The poet here designs to describe the length of the night, 
 and the music of the nightingale's song. The first he does 
 by two slow spondees, and the last by four very rapid syl- 
 lables. 
 
 The following lines, from Gray's Elegy written in a 
 Country Church-yard, are distinguished by a happy choice of 
 words. 
 
 " For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, 
 This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned, 
 Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, 
 Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind ?" 
 
 The words longing and lingering express most forcibly 
 the reluctance with which mankind quit this state of exist- 
 ence. 
 
 Pope has many beauties of this kind. 
 
 " And grace and reason, sense and virtue split, 
 With all the rash dexterity of wit." 
 
 The mute articulations with which these lines end, ex- 
 press the idea of rending asunder, with great energy and 
 /effect. The words rash and dexterity are also judiciously 
 chosen. 
 
 In describing the delicate sensations of the most refined 
 love, he is remarkable for his choice of smooth flowing 
 words. There are some passages in his Eloisa and Abelard, 
 which are extended to a considerable length without a sin- 
 gle mute consonant or harsh word. 
 
 OF READING VERSE. 
 
 With respect to the art of reading verse, we can lay down 
 but a few simple rules; but these may perhaps be useful. 
 
 1. Words should be pronounced as in prose and in con- 
 versation ; for reading is but rehearsing another's conversa- 
 tion. 
 
 2. The emphasis should be observed as in prose. The 
 voice should bound from accent to accent, and no stress 
 should be laid on little unimportant words, nor on weak syl- 
 lables. 
 
168 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 3. The sentential pauses should be observed as in prose ; 
 these are not affected by the kind of writing, being regula 
 ted entirely by the sense. But as the cesural and final paus 
 es are designed to increase the melody of verse, the strict- 
 est attention must be paid to them in reading. They mark 
 a suspension of voice without rising or falling. 
 
 To read prose well, it is necessary to understand what 
 read ; and to read poetry well, it is further necessary to ur 
 derstand the structure of verse. For want of this knowl- 
 edge, most people read all verse like the Iambic measure 
 The following are pure Iambics. 
 
 " Above how high progressive life may go ! 
 Around how wide, how deep extend below!" 
 
 It is so easy to lay an accent on every second syllable, 
 that any school-boy can read this measure with tolerable 
 propriety. But the misfortune is, that when a habit of read- 
 ing this kind of meter is once formed, persons do not vary 
 their manner to suit other measures. Thus in reciting the 
 following line, 
 
 " Load the tall bark, and lanch into the main," 
 
 many people would lay the accent on every second syllable ; 
 and thus read, our poetry becomes the most monotonous 
 and ridiculous of all poetry in the world. 
 
 Let the following line be repeated without its pauses, and 
 it loses its principal beauty. 
 
 " Bold, as a hero, as a virgin mild." 
 So in the following. 
 
 " Reason, the card, but passion, is the gale." 
 
 " From storms, a shelter, and from heat, a shade." 
 
 The harmony is, in all these instances, improved much 
 by the semi-pauses, and at the same time the sense is more 
 clearly understood. 
 
 Considering the difficulty of reading verse, it is not sur- 
 prising to find but few who are proficients in this art. A 
 knowledge of the structure of verse, of the several kinds of 
 feet, of the nature and use of the final, the cesural and the 
 semi-cesural pauses, is essential to a graceful manner of 
 reading poetry ; and even this, without the best examples, 
 will hardly effect the purpose. It is for this reason that 
 children should not be permitted to read poetry of the more 
 difficult kind, without the best examples for them to imitate 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 169 
 
 They frequently contract, in early life, either a monotony 
 or a sing song cant, which, when grown into a habit, is 
 seldom ever eradicated. 
 
 A PRAXIS, 
 Or Example of Grammatical Resolution. 
 
 " If the excellence of Dryden's works was lessened by 
 his indigence, their number was increased ; and I know not 
 how it will be proved, that if he had written less, he would 
 have written better ; or that indeed he would have under- 
 gone the toil of an author, if he had not been solicited by 
 something more pressing than the love of praise." 
 
 Johnson's Life of Dryden. 
 
 If the imperative mode of the verb give, formerly written 
 gif, the imperative of the Saxon gifan used to intro- 
 duce a supposition of what is expressed in the following 
 words. 
 
 the a definitive, used to limit the sense of excellence in its 
 application to " Dryden's works" that particular ex- 
 cellence, 
 excellence a name, or noun, the nominative to the verb was, 
 
 or the subject of the passive verb was lessened, 
 of a preposition, preceding Dryden's works, and showing 
 the relation of those words to excellence, which relation 
 is that of property or possession of the works of Dry- 
 den. 
 
 Dryderfs a proper or appropriate name that is, a name 
 belonging to an individual, and not to a species in the 
 possessive case, governed by works, 
 works a name in the plural number, following of. 
 was lessened the passive form of the verb to lessen, in the 
 past tense, indefinite, subjunctive mode, third person sin- 
 gular, agreeing with excellence, its nominative. This 
 form of the verb is composed of the substantive verb was, 
 and the participle in e d. 
 by a preposition. 
 
 his an attribute agreeing with indigence. 
 indigence a name in the singular number, following the 
 preposition by. 
 
 15 
 
170 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 their an attribute agreeing with number. 
 
 number a name, the nominative to was increased. 
 
 ivas increased the passive form of the verb increase, in the 
 past tense indefinite of the indicative mode, third person 
 singular, agreeing with number. 
 
 and a connective of the two sentences, the preceding and 
 the following. The sense is complete at increased, and 
 there the sentence might have been closed ; but as other 
 clauses are added by the writer, the pause is marked with 
 a semicolon. 
 
 / a substitute for the writer's name, or a personal pronoun, 
 nominative case to knoiv. 
 
 know a transitive irregular verb, affirming a fact, and there- 
 fore in the indicative mode first person singular, in the 
 present tense indefinite, agreeing with J. 
 
 not a modifier of the verb know, rendering the affirmation 
 
 negative. 
 how a modifier of the verb will be proved. 
 
 it a substitute of neuter gender, nominative case repre- 
 senting the subsequent part of the sentence the nomina- 
 tive to will be proved inceptive, that is, introducing the 
 verb, before the sentence or clause, which is the real nom- 
 inative. 
 
 will be proved the passive form of the verb prove in the 
 future tense, third person singular, agreeing with the 
 nominative it. 
 
 that a substitute representing the same part of the sentence 
 as it how it will be proved, viz. that which follows. 
 
 if -as before an imperative verb, used to introduce a 
 
 condition. 
 he a substitute for Dryden, nominative to had written. 
 
 had written a transitive verb, in the prior-past tense, inde- 
 finite, subjunctive mode, third person singular, agreeing 
 with he. 
 
 less an attribute in the comparative degree, here used as a 
 substitute for a smaller quantity, the object after the transi- 
 tive verb had written. 
 
 he a substitute for Dryden, nominative to would have writ- 
 ten. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 171 
 
 would have written the irregular verb write, in the prior- 
 past tense indefinite, third person singular, agreeing with 
 he. 
 
 better a modifier qualifying the action of the verb would 
 have written describing the manner of action in the 
 comparative degree. 
 
 or a connective of the sentences between which it stands, 
 and expressing an alternative. 
 
 that a substitute representing a part of the sentence which 
 follows the words, I do not know how it will be proved, 
 are here understood before that. 
 
 indeed an adverb, or rather a compound of in and deed a 
 preposition and noun. 
 
 he as before, nominative to would have undergone. 
 
 would have undergone the irregular compound verb under- 
 go, in the prior-past tense agreeing with he, the third 
 person. 
 
 the a definitive, limiting the sense of toil to a particular 
 kind the toil of an author. 
 
 toil a name or noun, in the singular number the object 
 after the transitive verb would have undergone. 
 
 of- a preposition. 
 
 an a definitive, limiting the subsequent word to one person. 
 
 author a name in the singular number, following of. 
 
 if as before, expressing a condition. 
 
 he a substitute as before, nominative to had been solicited. 
 
 had been solicited the passive form of the verb solicit, ren- 
 dered negative by the modifier not in the prior-past tense 
 of the subjunctive mode, third person singular, agreeing 
 with he. 
 
 by a preposition. 
 
 something a noun, composed of some and thing following 
 by. 
 
 more an adverb of the comparative degree, used to mod- 
 ify the sense of pressing. 
 
 pressing a participle of the present tense of the verb press ; 
 but used as an attribute of the preceding word something. 
 
 than a connective, uniting the following words in construc- 
 tion with the preceding. 
 
172 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 the a definitive, restraining the sense of love. 
 
 love a name, nominative to the verb is understood. 
 
 of- a preposition. 
 
 praise a name following of. 
 
 In parsing the foregoing and all similar combinations of 
 words forming the tenses of verbs, the several auxiliaries 
 may be named separately, if the teacher should prefer that 
 mode. Thus the combination was lessened consists of 
 was, the substantive verb in the past tense, and lessened, the 
 passive participle of the transitive verb to lessen. The 
 combination will be proved consists of the auxiliary will, 
 and the substantive verb be, and the participle passive of the 
 transitive verb to prove; all together forming the future 
 tense. 
 
 Critical Notes. 
 
 " I persecuted this way unto the death." Acts 22. 4. 
 
 As no particular sort of death is here intended, the defini- 
 tive the ought to have been omitted. Lowth. 
 
 " When he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you 
 into all truth." John 16. 13. 
 
 As the sense is probably all evangelical truth, and not 
 other kinds of truth, Lowth supposes the definitive the ought 
 to have been used ; all the truth, agreeable to the original 
 Greek. This criticism is probably just; but the student 
 must be cautious of following implicitly the use of the Greek 
 article ; for nothing is less determinate 1 and Lowth himself 
 acknowledges that it has puzzled all the grammarians to re- 
 duce the use of it to any clear and certain rules. In the 
 New Testament, it is often used in passages where it is not 
 admissible in an English translation. Matt. 3. 8, "Bring 
 forth therefore fruits meet for repentance;" in the Greek, 
 worthy of the repentance. Verse 11, "Whose shoes I am 
 not worthy to bear ;" in the original, whose the shoes. In 
 the same verse, " He shall baptize you with the Holy 
 Spirit;" in the original, with Holy Spirit. Matt. 18. 8", 
 "It is better for thee to enter into life halt or maimed ;" in 
 the original, into the life. Same chapter, verse 2, " And 
 Jesus called a little child unto him ;" in the original, there 
 is no definitive And Jesus calling child. Verse 3, " Ex- 
 cept ye be converted and become as little children ;" in the 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 173 
 
 original, as the children. Matt. 22. 13, " There shall be 
 weeping and gnashing of teeth ;" in the original, there shall 
 be the [or this] weeping and the gnashing of the teeth. Ch. 
 24. 3, "Upon the mount of the olives." Rom. 7. 1, 
 "Know ye not, brethren, [for I speak to them that know 
 the law,] how that the law ;" in the original, I speak to them 
 that know law. Verse 2, " For the woman that hath a hus- 
 band is bound by the law ;" in the original, bound by law. 
 Verse 8, " For without the law, sin was dead ;" in the ori- 
 ginal, without law. Verse 21, "I find there a law;" in the 
 original, I find there the law. A multitude of similar pas- 
 sages might be cited to prove how little is the analogy be- 
 tween the Greek and English languages, in regard to the use 
 of the definitives. 
 
 But to place this fact in a stronger light, let it be observed 
 that the Greeks use both the article or definitive in conjunc- 
 tion with the pronoun this that is, two definitives with the 
 same word. Rom. 7. 24, " Who shall deliver me from the 
 body of this death?" in the original, from the body of the 
 this death, or the death this. Matt. 4. 3, " If thou art the 
 Son of God, command that these stones be made bread ;" in 
 the original, the these stones. This is a common idiom of 
 the Greek, and one utterly repugnant to the genius of the 
 English. 
 
 Equally singular is the use of the Greek article before 
 proper names. Matt. 2. 22, " He turned aside into the parts 
 of Galilee;" in the original, into the parts of the Galilee. 
 Chap. 17. 1, "Jesus taketh Peter;" in the original, the Pe- 
 ter. Chap. 3. 1, 
 
 " Preaching in the wilderness of Judea ;" orig. of the 
 Judea. 
 
 We cannot therefore draw any general inference, res- 
 pecting the extent of the signification of words in English, 
 from the use of the Greek article. Indeed, there are many 
 cases where this article must be omitted, or utterly pervert 
 the true meaning. Matt. 11. 8, "Behold, they that wear 
 soft clothing are in kings' houses;" in the original, in the 
 houses of the kings. Ver. 11, " Among them that are born 
 of women, there hath not risen a greater than John the 
 Baptist;" in the original, them that are born of the women. 
 
 In other cases, the English the must be used where no 
 article is found in the Greek ; as in Matt. 11. 5, (l The blind 
 receive their sight the lame walk the lepers are cleansed 
 15* 
 
174 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 and the deaf hear." Here is no article in the Greek, but 
 in English it cannot be omitted, except before lepers. 
 
 Of the arbitrary and uncertain proof of the definite article, 
 the French language furnishes abundant proof. 
 " L'avarice est de tous les vices, le plus odieux." 
 The avarice is the most hateful of all vices. 
 
 " Le gouvernment doit avant toutes choses proteger les 
 proprietes." The government ought before all things to 
 protect the properties. " Theophraste loue /'hospitalite et 
 il a raison." Theophrast praises the hospitality, and he has 
 reason. ISarret. Trans, of Cicer. de Off. 
 
 The use of the le before names of general application, is 
 wholly arbitrary and useless, but established by custom. 
 
 Some author, I think Blair, boasts of the superiority of 
 the English over the Latin language, in the use of articles. 
 This is a great error. The Latin unus is the English an 
 and is, ifle, hie, answer all the purposes of the, this and that. 
 The Romans used these definitives when they wanted them, 
 nor is any part of their writings left obscure for want of 
 other articles. 
 
 " Truly, this was the Son of God." Matt. 27, 54. Lowth 
 supposes that the should be , as this was spoke by a pagan 
 who probably believed in a plurality of Gods. 
 
 So also in Dan. 3. 25. 
 
 In this passage, " About an eight days," Luke 9. 28, an 
 is redundant or improper. Lowth. 
 
 " Nevertheless, Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord." 
 1 Kings 15. 14. This mode of expressing possession is ob- 
 solete. 
 
 " The more shame for ye." The use of ye in the objec- 
 tive is admissible only in the comic and burlesque style. 
 Lowth. 
 
 In popular practice, that and this are often followed by 
 there and here that there house ; this here tree. This idiom 
 is probably as old as language, and is not a corruption. It 
 existed in the Celtic an tigh od, that house there ; and the 
 French has preserved it Cet maison la. It may have 
 had its origin in the poverty of the primitive languages of 
 the world, or it may have proceeded from the practice of 
 pointing to objects described, or from the Saxon genitive of 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 175 
 
 this, thissere ; but in the improved style of modern lan- 
 guage, it is unnecessary, and in English, is confined to the 
 vulgar and colloquial style. 
 
 " I had rather," is probably a mistake for " I would rath- 
 er," but the error, at least in colloquial language, seems in- 
 corrigible. 
 
 "The rules of our religion, from which we are swerv- 
 ed." Tillotson. The passive form of swerve is obsolete. 
 " Flee tliee away" " Was entered into a conspiracy" " To 
 vie charities" " Take pains to agree the sacred and pro- 
 fane chronology" are incorrect; for intransitive verbs do 
 not admit the passive form, nor an object after them. 
 
 Succeed, though numbered among intransitive verbs, has 
 obtained a general use in a transitive sense " Succeed the 
 means of grace," is the customary language of divines, and 
 well authorized. 
 
 " If Jove this arm succeed." Pope. 
 
 In the words abed, ashore, &,c. and before the participles 
 acoming, agoing, ashooting, a has been supposed a contrac- 
 tion of on or at. It may be so in some cases ; but with the 
 participles, it is sometimes a contraction of the Saxon prefix 
 ge, and sometimes perhaps of the Celtic ag. 
 
 " In him who is, and him who finds, a friend." Pope. 
 
 Lowth condemns this use of a noun in the nominative and 
 objective at the same time ; but without reason, as the cases 
 are not distinguished in English. 
 
 In the use of mistaken, there is a singularity which de- 
 serves notice. When applied to persons, it is equivalent to 
 being wrong or in an error. " I am mistaken you are mis- 
 taken ;" mean, I am in an error you are in an error. But 
 applied to things, it signifies misunderstood; his words or 
 opinions are mistaken, that is, misunderstood. 
 
 As used for that in the following sentence, and in similar 
 cases, Lowth condemns as improper or obsolete " the rela- 
 tions are so uncertain as they require a great deal of exam- 
 ination." Bacon. This use of as is obsolete ; but is genu- 
 ine English. 
 
 It is a popular mistake to use wives for the possessive 
 wife's. It is at my wife's disposal is correct ; but not, at 
 my wives disposal. 
 
 On the other hand, printers err in using proves for proofs, 
 m the plural. 
 
176 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 Latter refers both to time and place later to time only. 
 Priestley. 
 
 We sometimes hear the strongest of the two, used for the 
 stronger of the two. In such cases, the comparative degree 
 is the more correct. 
 
 Then and above are often used as attributes ; the then min- 
 istry ; the above remarks ; nor would I proscribe this use. 
 It is well authorized and very convenient. 
 
 Johnson observes, " A has a peculiar signification, de- 
 noting the proportion of one thing to another ; as, the land- 
 lord hath a hundred a year." But the only peculiarity of 
 this use is, that no preposition is employed ; a hundred a 
 year, for a hundred in a year or for a year a dollar a day, 
 instead of a dollar for a day. 
 
 Averse, in Lowth's opinion, should be followed by from ; 
 but why, any more than repugnant or unwilling 1 Prac- 
 tice has established the use of to, with propriety. 
 
 The verb lay is often used for lie I will lay down. Lay 
 is transitive I will lay myself down. When no object fol- 
 lows, the intransitive verb lie should be used ; let him lie 
 down. 
 
 The word rather is used to express a small degree of ex- 
 cess ; " She is rather profuse in her expenses." In like man- 
 ner is used full; " the coffee is full strong." Priestley. 
 
 The signification of words in construction, sometimes de- 
 pends on the tone of voice with which they are uttered ; thus, 
 " I cannot find one of my books," if uttered without any pe- 
 culiar force of voice upon one, means that one of my books 
 is missing. But with an emphasis upon one, it means that 
 all are missing. Thus, if I say " No laws are better than 
 the English," the word no uttered without emphasis, makes 
 me declare the English to be the best laws with emphasis, 
 it makes me affirm them to be worse than none. 
 
 In the following sentence, an important distinction is made 
 by the definitive a " He behaves with a little reverence." 
 This is positive, and rather praises than dispraises ; but omit- 
 ting a " He behaves with little reverence," and I rather dis- 
 praise the person. Thus, when I say " There were few men 
 present," I speak of the number as inconsiderable by way of 
 diminution But there were a few men present, I intend to 
 represent the number in the most favorable light. Priestley. 
 
 When we say " half a dollar," we mean in value only 
 but " a half dollar," means a coin or piece of money. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 177 
 
 In this mode of expression, " He looks him full in the 
 face," the is used for his, which is rendered unnecessary by 
 the use of him preceding. Priestley. 
 
 There are many grammatical errors in the writers of the 
 16th and 17th centuries, which Lowth, Priestley, Blair, and 
 Campbell have enumerated in their respective works, and 
 many of them are copied into Murray's Grammar. But the 
 greatest part of them are now so perfectly obsolete, that stu- 
 dents are in no danger of learning them, either from books 
 or common practice ; and it seems to be inexpedient to swell 
 ^he size of a modern grammar, by criticisms upon modes of 
 writing no longer used. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 In the preceding pages, I have attempted to unfold the 
 true principles of construction in the English language. It 
 is probably the first correct analysis of many sentences ever 
 attempted. The following observations and examples will 
 show that the same or a similar analysis is necessary to ex- 
 plain the true construction of sentences in other languages. 
 
 O&x yag OTI oux oixsi fv S|xo, TOW iv sv <rou tfa^xi /xou, a^a$ov. 
 " For I know that in me, that is, in my flesh, dwelleth no 
 good thing." 
 
 In this sentence, the Greek on, that, is called a conjunc- 
 tion, as that is in English. This is a mistake ; on is a pro- 
 noun relative or substitute for the following part of the sen- 
 tence. The sentence is to be thus resolved '' In me, that 
 is, in my flesh, dwelleth no good thing ;" that I know, or I 
 know that. I know the fact stated in the whole of that part 
 of the sentence which in Greek follows o<n. Similar is the 
 .use of on in most other cases. This pronoun, like quod in 
 Latin, and that in English, is to be considered as of neuter 
 gender ; and never varied for expressing number. The rea- 
 son is obvious ; when such words represent or refer to sen- 
 tences, no variation is necessary. 
 
 Homo autem, quod rationis est particeps, per quam con- 
 sequentia cernit, facile totius vitae cursum videt. Cicero de 
 Off. ca. 4. The literal construction of this sentence is, " But 
 man, that he is a partaker of reason, readily sees the whole 
 course of life." 
 
 We are accustomed to call quod a conjunction, and per- 
 haps because it seems to have no word to govern it. But 
 
178 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR 
 
 usage constitutes the correctness of the phrase, and no other 
 rule of government is necessary ; it is the only rule of cor- 
 rect language in all cases. Quod we render by because, or 
 as, or since ; but in this use, quod expresses cause, reason, 
 or purpose, in a brief idiomatic form, and is really the rela- 
 tive pointing to the following part of the sentence. It is 
 perhaps elliptically used, former quod. 
 
 In unfolding the structure of sentences, it would be useful 
 to the tyro, to resolve compound words into their component 
 parts. Thus quamobrem, is quam ob rem, or ob quam rem ; 
 quare, is qua and re, in the ablative ; inter ea, is inter ea ; 
 prtBterea, is prater ea ; qualibct, is quam or quod libet ; 
 quamvis, is quam and vis ; quaqua, a duplication of the rela- 
 tive in the ablative. 
 
 The principles explained in this work throw much light 
 on what, are called impersonal verbs. As it is written in 
 the prophets, " Behold I send my messenger before tJiy face, 
 who shall prepare thy way before thce." Mark 1. 2. Here 
 the whole passage cited is the nominative to ysygoLicrau, that 
 is written in the prophets. In English it precedes the 
 verb, but, as has been observed, it is the representative of the 
 sentence which follows. 
 
 " Sed animadvertendum est diligentius, quse natura re- 
 rum sit." Cicero de Off. lib. 2. 20. Here the last member 
 of the sentence is the real nominative to the verb est what 
 is the nature of things, is to be considered. It is observable 
 that in this form of construction, where a sentence or mem- 
 ber is the nominative, the participle or attribute is of the 
 neuter gender.* 
 
 " duamquam te, Marce fill, annum jam audientem Cratip- 
 pum, idque Athenis, abundare oportet prseceptis institutisque, 
 philosophise." Ibm. 1.1. " Although, Marcus, it behooves 
 you, who have now attended Cratippus a year at Athens, to 
 be well furnished with the precepts and maxims of philoso- 
 phy." Here the last part of the sentence is really the nom- 
 inative to oportet. To be well initiated in the principles of 
 philosophy becomes you, my son, who enjoy the advantage 
 of the institutions of Cratippus, at Athens, the seat of sci- 
 ence and the arts. The same remark is applicable to licet, 
 
 * Yet some verbs appear to be really impersonal, as, " pugnatum est 
 sub muris." It was fought under the walls. 
 
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 179 
 
 libet, lubet, placet, &/c. " Si placet tibi audire" if to hear 
 pleases you. 
 
 But the French exceeds all languages in the number of 
 nouns, verbs and adjectives, which are thrown into the com- 
 mon sink of adverbs, conjunctions and prepositions. Thus 
 autre fois, aujourd'hui, cependant, autour, autant, pourquoi, 
 pent etre, are denominated adverbs autant que, pourvu que, 
 a condition que, de sorte que, pendant que are called con- 
 junctions concernant, suivant, attendu, joignant, pendant, 
 cxcepte, all regular verbals or participles, are classed among 
 the prepositions. Yet it would be far better to resolve all 
 words and phrases according to their original principles, as 
 far as it can be done. " II est, pent etre, difficile de ranger 
 sous 1'ordre de la nature, la divination qui vient de 1'art et 
 de 1'etude." Morabins, Trans. Cic. de Divin. liv. 1. 
 
 It is difficult to rank, in the order of nature, the divination 
 which proceeds from art and study all this peut etre 
 may be. In strictness, the whole sentence or proposition 
 which is affirmed to be possible, is the nominative to peut 
 etre. Ce pendant that pending, admitting that to be the 
 fact, is the case absolute or independent. Pendant que, that 
 depending, during that pourvu que that being provided. 
 " J'ai quelque chose a vous dire concernant cette affaire." 
 I have something to say to you, concerning that affair. 
 Here concerning retains its verbal signification, as in Eng- 
 lish, and relates to or agrees with the preceding part of the 
 sentence. " J'obeis suivant vos ordres." I obey, follow- 
 ing your orders. " II travaille toute la semaine except e le 
 dimanche." He labors the whole week, Sunday excepted 
 that is, Sunday being excepted the case independent. 
 Parce que because that is, for that which follows Parce 
 que il pretend qu il y a dans la nature des signes des choses 
 Par the preposition, ce the pronoun or definitive, and que 
 the substitute representing the following part of the sentence. 
 " Soit qu 1 il parte ou qu' il demeure." Whether he goes or 
 stays that is, Be it, soit que be that fact which is express- 
 ed by il parte que is a substitute or relative referring to the 
 following affirmation il parte and the nominative to soit. 
 In the second member of the sentence soit is understood 
 before que. 
 
 The sentence fully expressed would stand thus ; soit que 
 il parte; ou soit que, il demeure. Be that, he goes; or, 
 be that, he remains. 
 
180 AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR. 
 
 " Qui a fait que j'ai trouve grace devant le roi." Literal- 
 ly, who hath made that I have found favor before the king. 
 But let the clauses of the sentence be transposed. " I have 
 found favor before the king ; who hath made or caused that." 
 
 Mais pendant que les hommes dormoient. But while men 
 slept; literally, but pending that men slept. Here que relates 
 to the last words, les hommes dormoient. Matt. 13. 
 
 Pourvu que j'acheve avec joie ma course. Provided that, 
 I may [or might] finish my course with joy. Here pourvu 
 is a participle, which with que, constitutes the case absolute, 
 or independent sentence ; and que, the relative, refers to the 
 following part of the sentence. Acts 20. 
 
 These criticisms, already extended to an inconvenient 
 length, considering the limited nature of this work, may 
 serve to show the reader how artificial and arbitrary are the 
 distribution and denominations of the several species of 
 words, in our grammars, and how ill calculated are the com- 
 mon rules to illustrate the origin or the true principles of 
 language. Before a language can be correctly understood, 
 words must be traced to their source, their radical significa- 
 tions explained, their mutations, contractions, and combina- 
 tions, developed. It is not the English language only whose 
 history and principles are yet to be illustrated ; but the 
 grammars and dictionaries of all other languages, with which 
 I have any acquaintance, must be revised and corrected, be- 
 fore their elements and true construction can be fully un- 
 derstood. 
 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 The following Examples of the Declension of Nouns may be 
 added under the article CASE, page 24. 
 
 Sing. Plu. 
 
 Nom. book books 
 
 Poss. book's books' 
 
 Obj. book books 
 
 Richard William 
 
 Richard's William's 
 Richard William 
 
 In the following, the possessive case singular is pronounced 
 with an additional syllable. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 face 
 
 faces 
 
 Thomas 
 
 flesh 
 
 Poss. 
 
 face's 
 
 faces' 
 
 Thomas's 
 
 flesh's 
 
 Obj. 
 
 face 
 
 faces 
 
 Thomas 
 
 flesh 
 
 Nom. 
 
 horse 
 
 horses 
 
 tress 
 
 miss 
 
 Poss. 
 
 horse's 
 
 horses' 
 
 tress's 
 
 miss's 
 
 Obj. 
 
 f horse 
 
 horses 
 
 tress 
 
 miss 
 
 Nom. 
 
 church 
 
 churches 
 
 highness 
 
 peeress 
 
 Poss. 
 
 church's 
 
 churches' 
 
 highness's 
 
 peeress's 
 
 Obj. 
 
 church 
 
 churches 
 
 highness 
 
 peeress. 
 
 Singular Number. 
 
 Nom. flax plexus Syrius Venus 
 
 Poss. flax's plexus's Syrius's Venus's 
 
 Obj. flax plexus Syrius Venus 
 
 Let it be observed that after ce and se in face, horse ; after 
 ch in church ; after s, sh and ss in Thomas, flesh, tress, and 
 Venus, and after x in flax, the possessive case must be pro- 
 nounced with an additional syllable, as if the word ended 
 in es. 
 
 16 
 
182 APPENDIX. 
 
 FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED BY RULE I. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 I goeth ; I goes ; I loveth ; I walketh ; I is ; I art. 
 Thou loves ; thou write ; thou hate ; thou trembles. 
 He, she or it, desire ; he commend ; she dress ; it rain. 
 We finds ; we sees the clouds ; we dreadeth the cold. 
 Ye or you studies ; you ploweth the field ; you runs fast. 
 They playeth ; they strikes the ball ; they sells corn. 
 The teacher smileth ; the woman spinneth ; the children 
 cries. 
 
 EXAMPLE 2 BY RULE II. 
 
 It was declared to me, him being present. 
 
 It was said of him, them being in the company. 
 
 This was done, her not knowing it or thee not knowing it. 
 
 BY RULE III AND IV. 
 
 To publish slanderous words are wrong and wicked. 
 
 To rise early contribute to health. 
 
 To be kind art a duty, and are a pleasure. 
 
 To be just, are a divine command. 
 
 To be unjust, are mean as well as wicked. 
 
 EXAMPLE 3 BY RULE VI. 
 
 America and Europe is three thousand miles distant from 
 each other. 
 
 Gold and tin is both useful metals. 
 
 Instruction and wisdom leads to honor. 
 
 Strong drink and laziness soon wasteth an estate. 
 
 Labor and economy seldom fails to produce wealth. 
 
 Anger and envy destroys happiness. 
 
 Love and kindness insures domestic peace. 
 
 Your lot and mine has been very different. 
 
 I and you am very intimately acquainted. 
 
 You and he resembles each other. 
 
APPENDIX. 183 
 
 EXAMPLE 4 BY RULE VII. 
 
 John or Thomas have done the mischief. 
 Envy or jealousy were the cause of his misery. 
 Extreme cold or heat are painful. 
 
 It is difficult to determine whether the poor man or the mi- 
 ser most deserve pity. 
 
 EXAMPLE 5 BY RULE VIII. 
 
 That sort of goods are not fashionable. What sort then are 
 to be preferred 1 
 
 These sort of clothes are not durable. 
 
 This kind of lands are not fertile. These kind are less va- 
 luable. 
 
 A troop of horse were raised. This assembly were nume- 
 rous. 
 
 That company were very noisy and rude. 
 
 A council were called to deliberate. 
 
 EXAMPLE 6 BY RULE X. 
 
 This are not my children. 
 
 Speak to the men and say to him. 
 
 There are twelves states who are adjacent to the Atlantic. 
 
 I see several horses who were brought from Arabia. 
 
 The men which I saw were tall and robust. 
 
 He has four daughters which are young and handsome. 
 
 Piety is the ornament who most adorns the female sex. 
 
 EXAMPLE 7 BY RULE XII. 
 
 Take thy only son who thou lovest. 
 John is the man who we admire for his integrity. 
 Washington was the man who the electors chose first Pre- 
 sident. 
 
 EXAMPLE 8 BH RULE XVII. 
 
 Congress assembled agreeably to adjournment. 
 
 Accordingly to order, the house proceeded to business. 
 
 The sun rose, previously to his arrival. 
 
 Antecedently to the introduction of Christianity, there was 
 no public provision for the poor. 
 
 Antecedently to the gospel, bravery was considered one of 
 the first of virtues. 
 
184 APPENDIX. 
 
 Subsequently to the promulgation of the gospel, humility 
 was held to be the first of virtues. 
 
 We cannot indulge in intemperance, consistently with the 
 principles of religion. [In consistency.] 
 
 He voted in the negative, conformably to his former opinions. 
 [In conformity.] 
 
 The subject was considered, relatively to the condition of 
 the society. [In relation.] 
 
 Isaac was called the seed of Abraham, preferably to Ish- 
 mael. [In preference.] 
 
 EXAMPLE 9 BY RTTLE XXI. 
 
 Each of the men are furnished with the Bible. 
 Every one of them were able-bodied men. 
 Neither of the roads were the shortest. 
 Either of the houses are sufficiently large. 
 
 EXAMPLE 10 BY RULE XXV. 
 
 We seldom hear that a man holding fire in his hand produces 
 HO pain. 
 
 A person selling cheap and buying dear will probably end in 
 ruin. 
 
 A man agreeing to a covenant binds him to a performance. 
 
 EXAMPLE 11 BY RULE XXVI. 
 
 Do you love he ? Does he love thou ? 
 Who do you seek ? 
 
 EXAMPLE 12 BY RULE XXIX. 
 
 It is me. It was him. It was them : it was her. 
 Who do men say that I am ? Who do men alledge me 
 to be? 
 
 EXAMPLE 13 BY RULE XXXII. 
 
 Bid my son to go. Make the man to work. See the stu- 
 dent to read. Hear him to recite. Feel the chair to move. 
 Let him to see the place. He may not to go. He might not 
 to learn. We must to be industrious. Shall we to be com- 
 pelled. Will they to fulfill their obligations ? 
 
 u Nothing could have engaged him to have undertaken this 
 royage." 
 
 
 
APPENDIX. 185 
 
 " It would have been easy to have swelled this portion of my 
 volume with correspondence." 
 
 " I did not mean to have been so troublesome." 
 " They are intended to be such explanations as I conceived 
 the author would have made, had he have had in view the pur- 
 pose to which the book is now applied." 
 
 EXAMPLE 14 BY RULE XXXV. 
 
 By not favoring of his proposal By engaging of his men 
 in service. 
 
 By the wasting his estate by the employing his resources 
 to bad purposes. 
 
 FORMATION OF VERBS IN THE SEVERAL TENSES AND PER- 
 SONS. 
 
 To turn, a regular verb. 
 
 Indicative. Present. Indefinite. Singular. I turn, thou, he, 
 she or it. Plural. We, ye or you, they. 
 
 Definite. I am turning, &c. Grammar, p. 66. 
 
 Past, indefinite. I turned, thou, &c. 
 
 Definite. I was turning, &c. 
 
 Perfect, indefinite. I have turned, &c. 
 
 Definite. I have been turning, &c. 
 
 Prior-Past, indefinite. I had turned, &c. 
 
 Definite. I had been turning, &c. 
 
 Future indefinite. I shall or will turn, &c. 
 
 Definite. I shall be turning, &c. 
 
 Prior-Future, indefinite. I shall have turned, &c. 
 
 Definite. I shall have been turning, &c. 
 
 The pupil is to form the tenses ; repeating all the combina- 
 tions, and the inflections, of the verbs in the several persons. 
 
 To Go, an irregular verb. 
 
 Indicative. Present time. Indefinite. I go, thou, he, she, it. 
 We, ye or you, they. 
 
 Definite. I am going, &c. 
 Past Tense, indefinite. I went, &c. 
 Definite. I was going, &c. 
 Perfect Tense, indefinite. I have gone, &c. 
 Definite. I have been going, <fec. 
 Prior-Past, indefinite. I had gone, &c. 
 16* 
 
186 APPENDIX. 
 
 Definite. I had been going, &c. 
 Future Tense, indefinite. I shall or will go, &c. 
 Definite. I shall or will be going, &c. 
 Prior-Future, indefinite. I shall have been gone, &c, 
 Definite. I shall have been going, &c. 
 
 In like manner, teachers may give their pupils any other verb, 
 and particularly irregular verbs, and oblige them to form all the 
 tenses and persons. The past tense and participles may be 
 found in my Grammar p. 74, 75, 76. 
 
 The same may be done with verbs in the passive, interroga- 
 tive and negative form. 
 
 LESSONS IN PARSING, AND RESOLUTION OF PHRASES. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 If the power of example is so great, care should be taken 
 that the best examples only should be exhibited. Rambler No. 4. 
 
 If, a verb in the imperative mode, contracted from give ; the, 
 a definitive adjective agreeing with power, and expressing a 
 particular power ; power, a common noun, nominative to is ; 
 of, a preposition ; example, a noun following of in" the objective 
 case ; is, the substantive verb, intransitive, in the third person 
 of the present tense, indicative mode, agreeing with power ; 
 so, an adverb or modifier of great ; great, an adjective agreeing 
 with power ; care, a noun, the nominative to should be ; should, 
 an auxiliary verb, past tense of shall, but in this conditional 
 sentence, the time or tense is indefinite ; be, an intransitive 
 verb, and with should is indefinite in time ; taken, a passive 
 participle, from take, an irregular, but transitive verb ; and 
 should be taken are the passive form of the verb take, indefi- 
 nite tense. See Improved Grammar, p. 68, 69. That, a pro- 
 noun or substitute for the following member of the sentence ; 
 the, a definitive adjective agreeing with examples ; best, an ad- 
 jective in the superlative degree, agreeing with examples ; ex- 
 amples, a noun in the plural number, the nominative to should 
 be exhibited ; only, an adverb or modifier of examples and limit- 
 ing the word to the best ; should, an auxiliary verb as before ; 
 be, an intransitive verb, as before ; exhibited, the participle pass- 
 ive of the verb exhibit, and these forming the passive form of 
 the verb, in time indefinite. Gram. p. 56. 
 
APPENDIX. 187 
 
 RESOLUTION. 
 
 Give the fact, viz. the power of example is so great, then 
 care should be taken that, viz. the best examples only should 
 be exhibited. The verb give introduces the condition, or sup- 
 position, which being admitted or granted, the consequence fol- 
 lows. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 If her ladyship therefore designs to continue her assembly, 
 I would advise her to shun such dangerous experiments. 
 
 Rambler No. 10. 
 
 If, a verb. Imp. for give, introducing a condition ; her, 
 a pronominal adjective agreeing with ladyship, which is a 
 common noun, nom. to designs ; therefore, a compound of 
 there and for, (there originally a pronoun signifying that, 
 and for a preposition, the word then is equivalent to for that, 
 that is, for that reason, referring to something preceding,) de- 
 signs, a regular verb transitive, ind. mode ; pr. tense ; 3d per- 
 son sing., agreeing with ladyship ; to, a preposition ; continue, 
 a transitive verb, preceded by to, in the infinitive mode, fol- 
 lowing designs ; Gram. Rule xxxi : her, pronominal adj. agree- 
 ing with assembly, which is a common noun, sing. num. obj. 
 case, governed by continue ; I, a personal pronoun, sing. num. 
 nom. case to would advise ; would, an auxiliary verb, past time 
 of will, but indefinite , advise, a regular verb transitive, with 
 the auxiliary would, in the indefinite tense, and agreeing with 
 /; her, a personal pronoun of feminine gender, in the object- 
 ive case following advise ; to shun, a transitive regular verb in 
 the infinitive mode, following her or advise ; such, an adjective 
 agreeing with experiments ; dangerous, an adjective agreeing 
 with experiments, which is a common noun, in the plural num- 
 ber, governed by shun in the obj. case. 
 
 RESOLUTION. 
 
 Give, or grant the fact expressed in the words, her ladyship 
 designs to continue her assembly, then I would advise her, &c. 
 
 Formerly this verb if was followed by that, as, " If that I 
 may apprehend." Phil. 3.12. This is the proper phrase, the 
 word that, a pronoun following the verb if in the objective 
 case, and referring to the following clause of the sentence. In 
 modern writings, that is usually omitted. 
 
188 APPENDIX. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 But though that we, or an angel from heaven preach to you 
 otherwise, than that which we have preached to you, let him 
 be accursed. Gal. 1. 8. Bishop's Bible. 
 
 But, a connective or conjunction, indicating some connec- 
 tion of the sense with the preceding sentence ; though, a verb 
 transitive, but defective, imp. mode, introducing a condition 
 admitted, and governing the pronoun that in the objective case ; 
 that, a pronoun or substitute for the following clause of the 
 sentence ; we, a personal pronoun, nom. plu. to preach ; or, a 
 connective expressing an alternative or one of two things ; an, 
 an adjective, denoting one indefinitely ; angel, a noun, sing, 
 num. nominative to preach ; from, a preposition ; heaven, a 
 noun sing. num. following from; preach, a regular verb tran- 
 sitive, in the future tense, for shall preach, or should preach, 
 agreeing with angel the nom. ; to, a preposition ; you, a per- 
 sonal pronoun, obj. case plu. following to ; otherwise, a com- 
 pound of other and wise, used as a modifier of the sense, or 
 manner of speaking ; than, a connective ; that, a pronoun fol- 
 lowing than. Rule 45 ; and referring to the following clause 
 of the sentence ; ivhich, a pronoun of the neuter gender, obj. 
 case, governed by preach. Rule 12 ; we, a personal pronoun, 
 nom. plu. to have preached ; have, an auxiliary verb ; preached, 
 a participle of the perfect tense, with the auxiliary have, form- 
 ing the perfect tense, agreeing with we in the nom. case ; to, 
 a preposition ; you, a pronoun, obj. case plu. following to ; let, 
 an irregular verb transitive, imp. mode, agreeing with the pro- 
 noun thou or you; him, a personal pronoun, in the obj. case, 
 sing, following let, a transitive verb ; ^intransitive verb, with 
 accursed, the passive participle of accurse, constituting the 
 passive form of the verb, following let, [or let him be accursed, 
 may be classed together in the imperative mode.] 
 
 RESOLUTION. 
 
 But allow, [grant, admit] that [which follows] an angel from 
 heaven preach to you otherwise, than that which we have 
 preached to you, let him be accursed. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor. 
 
 2 Cor. 8, 9. 
 
 
APPENDIX. 189 
 
 Though, a verb defective, imp. mode, followed by the clause, 
 he was rich, as the object : he, a personal pronoun, nom. case, 
 to was ; was, the substantive verb, in the past tense, 3d person, 
 sing. num. agreeing with he ; rich, an adjective agreeing with 
 he ; yet, a connective ; for, a preposition ; your, a pronominal 
 adjective, plu. agreeing with sakes ; sakes, a noun plu. numb, 
 following the preposition for ; he, as before, nominative to be- 
 came ; became, an intransitive verb, in the past tense, 3d per- 
 son sing, agreeing with he ; poor, an adjective agreeing with he. 
 
 RESOLUTION. 
 
 Allow, or admit, that he was rich, yet for your sakes he be- 
 came poor. The compound although has a like signification, 
 and is to be parsed in like manner. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 His face was as though he would go to Jerusalem. Luke $, 53. 
 
 His, an adjective agreeing with face ; face, a noun nom. to 
 was ; as, an adverb ; though, a defective verb, imp. mode ; 
 he, a personal pronoun, 3d person nom. to would go ; would, an 
 auxiliary to go ; go, a verb intransitive, with would in the tense 
 indefinite, 3d person, agreeing with he ; to, a preposition ; Je- 
 rusalem, a proper noun, following to. 
 
 RESOLUTION. 
 
 His face was, as, allow or admitting the fact that he intended 
 actually to go to Jerusalem as if the fact were admitted and 
 real. The following may thus be resolved. " He says I must 
 not go ; but I will though 11 vulgar phraseology. Allow or 
 admit that he says " I must not go, yet I will," 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 Provided it shall not rain, I will take a ride. 
 
 Provided, a passive participle of the verb provide, with the 
 following clause constituting the clause independent. But 
 there is an ellipsis of the word that provided that, it shall not 
 rain ; that fact being provided. It, the neuter pronoun, nom. 
 case ; shall, an auxiliary to rain ; not, an adverb ; rain, a verb 
 intransitive, in the third person, with shall, forming the future 
 tense, agreeing with it; I, a personal pronoun, first person, 
 nom. to will take ; will, an auxiliary to take, a transitive verb t 
 
190 APPENDIX. 
 
 and with will forming the future tense, first person, agreeing 
 with I ; a, an adjective agreeing with ride; ride, a noun obj. 
 case, following take. 
 
 LESSON VIT. 
 
 The woman saith to him, Sir, I perceive that thou art a 
 prophet. John 4, 19. 
 
 The, a definitive adjective ; woman, a noun feminine, nom. 
 case to saith ; saith, an irregular transitive verb, in the 3d per- 
 son sing. num. agreeing with woman ; to, a preposition ; him, 
 a personal pronoun, obj. case after to ; Sir, a noun in the no- 
 minative case, used as an address ; /, a personal pronoun first 
 person, nom. to perceive ; perceive, a regular transitive verb, in 
 the first person, ind. mode, pr. tense, agreeing with /; that, a 
 pronoun, or substitute for the following clause ; thou, a personal 
 pronoun, 2d person, sing. num. nom. to art ; art, an intransi- 
 tive verb, 2d person, ind. mode, pr. tense, agreeing with thou ; 
 a, definitive adjective, agreeing with prophet ; prophet, a noun 
 nominative case following art. Rule xxix. 
 
 RESOLUTION. 
 
 Thou art a prophet ; I perceive that, [that fact, thou art a 
 prophet.] 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE. CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 SOLEMN STYLE. 
 
 Who is thou, O man, that presume on thy own wisdom ? 
 Thou ought to know thou are ignorant. 
 
 He that confess his sins and forsake them, shall find mercy. 
 
 A soft answer turn away wrath. Anger rest in the bosom 
 of fools. 
 
 FAMILIAR STYLE. 
 
 Philadelphia are a beautiful city ; it stand on the west bank 
 of the Delaware ; its streets art regular ; its side- walks is well 
 paved ; it containeth people who speaks different languages ; 
 its mechanics is noted for good workmanship ; its literary men 
 is distinguished for science. 
 
APPENDIX. 191 
 
 New York are a growing city ; its harbor art large and of 
 easy entrance ; it wilt be a great emporium of trade. Their 
 inhabitants is industrious and enterprising ; they is Distinguish- 
 ed for arts. 
 
 Boston have been lately incorporated into a city. The 
 growth of the city have been very rapid. Their inhabitants is 
 distinguished for enterprise and learning. Great improvements 
 has been made recently in their streets, buildings and commer- 
 cial conveniences. 
 
 New Haven wast incorporated in January in the year seven- 
 teen hundred and eighty four. Their streets is regular, and it 
 are ornamented with trees, which renders the city most beauti- 
 tiful. Yale College presenteth a noble view from the open 
 square. The town were settled in 1638. 
 
 Hartford standcth on the west banks of the Connecticut ; 
 their surrounding country consist of most fertile land ; and it 
 have a great internal trade. The town was settled in the year 
 sixteen hundred and thirty six, and incorporated in May, in the . 
 year seventeen hundred and eighty four. 
 
 New London, Norwich and Middletown was incorporated in 
 May in the year seventeen hundred and eighty four. They 
 is handsome cities. New London have one of the best harbors 
 in the world. 
 
 His cattle is very large. > Our constitution were formed in 
 the year seventeen hundred and eighty seven. The church 
 are often disgraced by hypocrites. A multitude were assembled. 
 
 That pens want mending. This books is torn. These is a 
 fine day. I do not like these sort of clothes. Those kind of 
 horses are excellent for the harness. 
 
 He which is not contented with the goods of fortune whom 
 he now enjoys, might be unhappy with greater possessions. 
 
 He which delights in low tricks want dignity of mind. 
 
 He which is guilty of cheating must be rewarded with the 
 infamy whom he deserves. 
 
 His sister which is much beloved by his acquaintance, for its 
 virtue and good sense, is older than I am ; he sings sweetly ; 
 and he charms by their modesty. 
 
 Virtue is his own reward ; it keep conscience tranquil. 
 
 The states who lie on the east of the Alleghany mountains is 
 called the Atlantic states. 
 
 The forest are full of birds who delight us with their songs. 
 
192 APPENDIX. 
 
 The boys who I admire are those which are studious. The 
 women who you saw are very handsome. The ladies which 
 possess modesty and good sense are respected. 
 
 See that boys impudence. The ladys bonnet is awry. John 
 his book is lost. 
 
 It was proposed to he and /, that we should study in the same 
 room. The story was told to we and they. I and you is yet 
 young ; we are younger than them. The instructor taught / 
 and she. 
 
 Him being sick, the physician was called. 
 
 Her being dressed, she went to church. 
 
 Them being convened, the business was begun. 
 
 I did not hear nothing about the affair. He did not hear not 
 one word. They do not care nothing about the war in Europe. 
 We did not pay nothing for our dinner. We see the apples on 
 the tree, but we can not get none. 
 
 A woman which have merit, improved by a refined and vir- 
 tuous education, retain, in his decline, a influence over the 
 men, more flattering than those of beauty. 
 
 Admirable would be the effects of such refined education, 
 contributing no less to public good than to private happiness. 
 An man, which at present must degrade herself to a fop or an 
 coxcomb in order to please the women, would soon discover 
 that their favor are not to be gained, but by exerting every 
 manly talents in public and private life ; and the two sexes in- 
 stead of corrupting each other, would be rivals in the race of 
 virtue. Mutual esteem would be to each a school of courtesy ; 
 and a mutual desire of pleasing would give politeness to their 
 behavior, delicacy to their sentiments, and tenderness to their 
 passions. 
 
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