UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS.
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE.
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE
By FREDERIC T. BIOLETTI.
BULLETIN No. 174.
(Berkeley, January 4, 1906.)
SACRAMENTO:
w. w. shannon, : : : : superintendent state printing.
1906.
BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER, Ph.D., LL-D., President of the University.
EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF.
E. W. HTLGARD, Ph.D., LL.D., Director and Chemist. (Absent on leave.)
E. J. WICKSON, M.A., Acting Director and Horticulturist.
W. A. SETCHELL, Ph.D.. Botanist.
ELWOOD MEAD, M.S., C.E-, Irrigation Engineer.
C. W. WOODWORTH, M.$., Entomologist.
R. H. LOUGHRIDGE, Ph.D., Agricult?tral Geologist and Soil Physicist. (Soils and Alkali.)
M. E. JAFFA, M.S., Assistant Chemist. (Foods, Ntitrition.)
G. W. SHAW, M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Chemist. (Cereals, Oils, Beet-Sugar.)
GEORGE E COLBY, M.S., Assistant Chemist. (Fruits, Waters, Insecticides.)
A. R. WARD, B.S.A., D.V.M., Veterinarian and Bacteriologist.
E. W. MAJOR, B.Agr., Animal Industry.
RALPH E. SMITH, B.S., Plant Pathologist.
E- H. TWIGHT, B.Sc, Diplome E.A.M., Viticulturist.
F. T. BIOLETTI, M.S., Viticulturist.
WARREN T. CLARKE, B.S., Assistant Entomologist and Asst. Supt. Farmers' Institutes.
H. M. HALL, M.S , Assistant Botanist.
GEORGE ROBERTS, M.S., Assistant Chemist, in charge of Fertilizer Control.
C. M. HARING, D.V. M., Assistant Veterinarian and Bacteriologist.
ALBERT M. WEST, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist.
E. H. SMITH, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist.
G. R. STEWART, Student Assistant in Station Laboratory.
ALICE R. THOMPSON, B.S., Assistant in Soil laboratory.
D. L. BUNNELL, Clerk to the Director.
R. E. MANSELL, Foreman of Central Station Grounds. : .
JOHN TUOHY, Patron, )
r Tulare Substation, Tulare.
J. FORRER, Foreman, )
J. W. MILLS, Pomona, in charge Cooperation Experiments in Southern California.
J. W. ROPER, Patron, )
v University Forestry Station, Chico.
HENRY WIGHTMAN, In charge, )
ROY JONES, Patron, )
y University Forestry Station, Santa Monica.
J. H. BARBER, Foreman, )
VINCENT J. HUNTLEY, Foreman of Calif ornia Poultry Experiment Station, Petaluma.
The Station publications (Reports and Bulletins), so long as avail-
able, will be sent to any citizen of the State on application.
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE.
In planning for the series of wine-making experiments which will
be detailed in Bulletin No. 177, it was necessary to devise a cooling
machine, both for the reduction of temperature of the heated must and
for the control of the temperature of fermentation. While the machine
made was intended only for a temporary and special purpose, it proved
so efficient, and is at the same time so simple in construction and of such
moderate cost, that it will be found useful in nearly all wineries where
any attempt is made to keep the temperature of the fermenting wine
within the most favorable limits. For this reason the construction and
work of the cooler are described here, together with some of the pre-
liminary tests made with small models before the full-sized machine
was constructed.
Description of the Cooler. — The machine consists essentially of a
copper tube 220 feet long and 1^ inches in diameter, through which the
wine is pumped and which is inclosed in a canvas irrigating hose 4
inches in diameter, through which cold water runs in a direction oppo-
site to that of the wine. The whole is supported on a wooden stand,
as shown in the figure on the cover of this bulletin where the cooler is
shown in operation.
Capacity of the Cooler. — The capacity (that is to say, the amount of
wine which can be cooled in a given time) of any cooler of this type
will depend on the number of degrees which the wine is lowered and on
the difference of temperature between the wine and the water. The
tests shown in Table I indicate that 1,000 gallons of must at 140° F.
can be lowered 50° F. (viz., to 90° F.) per hour by the use of 1,100 gallons
of water at 71.5° F. (see test 8). If the hot must has a temperature of
125° F., the same amount will be lowered by the same amount of water of
the same temperature 41° F., or to 84° F. (see test 9). As fermenting wine
never attains such high temperatures as these, test 10 is interesting as
indicating what can be expected from the machine in controlling the
temperature of a fermenting vat. This test shows that 1,000 gallons of
fermenting wine can be lowered from 95° F. to 78° F. (viz., 17° F.) in
one hour by the use of 850 gallons of water at 71.5° F.
Comparison with Other Coolers. — In order to compare the work of
this cooler with coolers of other forms, a factor was calculated repre-
senting the number of gallons of wine cooled per hour 1° F. per unit
4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA— EXPERIMENT STATION.
of surface, and for one degree of reduction of temperature of the wine,
and for one degree of difference between the temperature of the hot
wine and of the cool water.
Given:
R = Number of gallons of wine cooled per hour.
F = Number of degrees Fahrenheit wine is lowered.
D = Number of degrees of difference between the temperature of the hot wine
and of the cool water.
S = Number of square feet of surface of cooling tube.
K = Number of gallons per hour cooled 1° F. per square foot of 8 and per
each degree of F and each degree of D.
Then,
RXF
K =
DXS
This factor K will doubtless vary considerably according to whether
we are dealing with liquids very near together or very far apart in
temperature, or if we pass very small or very large volumes of wine
through the machine; but within the limits of practice, it was found
very constant and gives a very simple and accurate measure of com-
parison between different machines and different ways of using the
same machine. For purposes of comparison, observations were made
on two other wine-cooling devices. One of these devices consisted of a
length of iron water-pipe placed in an irrigation ditch, and was used
for cooling sherry in taking it from the heating house to the storage
cellar. The piping consisted of 400 feet of 1-inch and 200 feet of 1-J-inch
iron water-pipe, through which the wine was pumped. The test of this
device is shown under No. 11 in Table I.
TABLE I.
Tests of Cooling Machines.
o
CO
1
Water.
Wine.
R
F
D
K
s
Rate.
1st
Temp.
2d
Temp.
Rate.
1st
Temp.
2d
Temp.
1
)
\
450
71.0
91.0
550
99.0
79.0
550
20.0
28.0
5.46
72
2
>End closed...
<
750
71.0
82.0
550
94.0
76.0
550
18.0
23.0
5.98
72
3
J
I
750
71.0
81.0
550
92.0
75.0
550
17.0
21.0
6.18
72
4
End op e n ;
i- much leak-
r
900
68.0
109.0
900
117.0
91.0
900
26.0
49.0
5.27
72
5
i
<
i
900
68.0
98.0
1,000
102.0
84.0
1,000
18.0
34.0
7.35
72
6
900
68.0
92.0
1)00
95.0
82.0
900
13.0
27.0
6.02
72
7
age,
i
900
68.0
900
82.0
77.0
900
5.0
14.0
4.46
72
8
I End open ; lit-
[ tie leakage...
r
1,100
71.5
114.0
1,000
139.0
89.5
1,000
49.5
67.5
10.19
72
9
<!
1,100
71.5
106.5
1,000
127.0
86.0
1,000
41.0
55.5
10.26
72
10
1
850
71.5
88.0
1,000
1,500
97.0
79.5
1,000
17.5
25.5
9.53
72
11
Sherry C.
82.0
120.0
93.5
1,000
26.5
38.0
5.68
184
1?
TJ. C
500
72.0
2,400
101.0
88.0
2,400
13.0
29.0
5.75
187
R = Number of gallons cooled per hour.
F = Number of degrees F. wine is lowered.
D = Difference between temperature of hot wine and cool water.
K = Gallons per hour cooled one degree per square foot, and degree, etc.
S = Number of square feet of surface of cooling tube.
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE.
The other device consisted of an ordinary beer wort cooler, but the
wine instead of flowing over the outside was pumped through the tube
and cooled by allowing the water to drip over the outside of the battery
of tubes. The cooling was made more complete by the use of two pro-
peller fans, which caused a strong current of air to pass over the surface
of the tubes and cool the water by evaporation. The test of this
machine is shown under No. 12 in Table I, where it is indicated by the
letters U. C, meaning " University Cooler," as it is identical in principle
with the cooling machine invented at the Berkeley Experiment Station,
and described in Bulletin No. 117. (See Figs. 1 and 2.) The first of
COOLED WINE
BLOWER
HOT WINE
FIG. 1. University air-blast cooler.
these machines is useful for the purpose intended, and requires little
attention, but would be of little use in controlling the temperature of
fermentation, owing to the high temperature of the water in the irrigat-
ing ditch during the vintage. Moreover, by comparing the factor K in
test 11 w r ith that of test 9, it will be seen that for unity of surface it is
little more than half as efficient as the machine used in our experiments,
notwithstanding the fact that it was supplied with a practically unlim-
ited amount of cooling water.
The efficiency of the U. C. machine, as indicated by the factor K of
test 12, is little larger. The principal merit of this machine is that it
uses little water. The present machine (on front page) uses between
four and five times as much for the same effect. This would be a disad-
vantage where water is scarce, and it was for such cases that the U. C.
D UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION.
machine was recommended in Bulletin No. 117. Where the cost of
water is merely nominal for the amounts necessary, as it is in most
California wineries, the possibility of cooling nearly twice as much wine
in a given time with a machine of the same size of our present construc-
tion is a great advantage.
Several cellars in California have installed a cooling device consisting
of a system of iron water-pipes arranged in various ways in the interior
of the fermenting vat itself. The pipes are usually arranged around
the cask at a few inches from the staves, but are sometimes placed in an
upright series in the middle of the vat extending from one side to tlm
FIG. 2. Another form of air-blast cooler.
opposite, and from the bottom to the top. The wine is kept cool by
running water through this system of pipes whenever the temperature
rises too high. With such a device it is possible to control the temper-
ature, but in order to keep the temperature approximately even in all
parts of the vat, constant stirring during the tumultuous fermentation
is necessary. This is troublesome, and with very large vats impossible.
Instead of stirring, the temperature may be equalized by pumping the
wine over from the bottom of the vat to the top of the pomace; but if
this method is used, more pumping is needed than is necessary for our
machine. The amount of water necessary to obtain the same effect is
about twice that used in our cooler. The principal defect in this device,
however, is the difficulty of removing the pomace and the cleaning of
the vat, owing to the presence of the network of pipes and supports.
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE. /
It is also expensive to install, as a series of cooling pipes must be placed
in every vat. Moreover, although it has been shown that a limited
exposure of the wine to contact with iron has no bad effects, it is prob-
able that the continued presence of so much iron piping in the wine for
four or five days would have an injurious effect.
Copper or Iron Pipe. — Though the machine is by no means expensive,
it could be made for little more than half the cost if it were possible to
use iron pipe instead of copper tubing. Iron being a poorer conductor
of heat than copper, an iron pipe would be less efficient than a copper
tube, but tests with a small model of the cooler indicate that there
FIG. 3. Iron tank used for transportation of wine in Algeria.
would be a loss of only about 10 per cent in efficiency, which would not
counterbalance the difference of cost. The acids of the wine act more
energetically on iron than on copper, but the time during which the
wine is in contact with the metal is so short that this need not be taken
into account. To test this, a piece of ordinary black iron water-pipe
was immersed in red wine and left there sufficiently long to make the
time of contact one* hundred times what would occur in a single cool-
ing of the wine. The wine was then heated to 100° F. and left again in
contact for twenty times the length of an ordinary cooling. At the end
of this time, the color of the wine had not been affected at all, either in
tint or intensity. Twenty-four hours later the wine was examined
again by means of a Salleron vino-colorimeter, and no change could be
detected. As iron salts act very rapidly on the color of red wine, this
may be taken as proof that no ordinary cooling through iron pipes
8 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION.
would affect the wine in the least. Moreover, in most cellars now, the
must is pumped from the crusher to the vats through iron pipes
without any injury. In Algeria, after many attempts to rind a suitable
coating for the inside of the iron tanks used in transporting wine from
outlying wineries to central storage cellars, it has been found best to
leave them uncoated and no deleterious effects follow. (See Fig. 3.)
Galvanized iron pipes, however, should not be used, as the zinc is
soon corroded by the wine, and the zinc salts which thus get into the
wine are poisonous and might cause the wine to be rejected if exported.
We can not, however, recommend iron pipes at present for use in a
cooling machine, as we have not yet tested them on a practical scale.
There is danger that, owing to the roughness of their interior surfaces,
they might retain the sediment and choke up. However, the cooler
described on page 43 of Bulletin No. 167 is constructed of iron pipes,
and is said to work satisfactorily during a whole vintage without any
cleaning except flushing with hot water.
The Water Hose. — The exterior tube through which the water runs
and the function of which is to keep the cool water in contact with the
tube containing the hot wine, may be made of metal or any substance
that will conduct the water.
For reasons of economy and ease of construction a canvas hose was
chosen. Woven cotton and linen fire-hose were first tested and found
perfectly satisfactory. As soon as the tissues of the hose were thor-
oughly soaked with water, the leakage was reduced to a simple sweating.
This sweating, as will be shown later, is a distinct advantage, as it per-
mits a certain amount of evaporation, which has the effect of cooling
the water and thus increasing its effect on the cooling of the wine.
As woven hose is very expensive, a test was made with ordinary sewn
canvas irrigating hose. In the preliminary trials it seemed that all
the hose of this kind procurable leaked too much to allow any benefit to be
obtained from the evaporation, and a great deal of water escaped before
its cooling power had been completely utilized. As there was, however,
an abundance of- water available at the cellar where the experiments
were to be tried, it was determined to use this kind of hose in the con-
struction of the cooler.
Various kinds of canvas were tried and their relative rates of leakage
determined under conditions as near those of practice as possible. The
amount of leakage was found to vary very much with different qualities
of canvas. In general, the stronger and coarser canvas leaked the
most, though the very fine canvas also leaked more than the medium
grades. It is possible that in time, after long use, the heavier grades
would have ceased to leak so copiously, for the grade which was adopted
leaked much less in actual practice after it had been in use for a few
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE. 9
days than had been anticipated after the laboratory tests. The grade
adopted was Neville's No. 10. The grades lighter than this seemed
hardly strong enough, and the heavier leaked more.
Even the No. 10 canvas leaked so much at first that during the first
cooling experiments the exit of the hose was kept closed, and all the
water used was forced by the pressure through the pores of the canvas.
When used; in this way the efficiency of the machine was much dimin-
ished, as is seen by comparing the factor K of tests 1, 2, and 3 in Table
I with that of tests 8, 9, and 10. When the leakage had been diminished
as much as possible, the efficiency of the machine was nearly doubled.
The reason of this is, of course, that when excessive leakage occurs a
great part of the water escapes before its cooling capabilities have been
utilized.
The best method of diminishing the leakage was found to be, after
setting up the machine, to close the exit of the hose and then allow the
water to enter at full pressure. There is no danger of bursting the
hose unless there is an excessive supply of water, as 240 feet of 4-inch
hose was found at first to be able to leak 750 gallons per hour under a
pressure of about 40 feet, coming through a 1-inch water-pipe. In an
hour or two the leakage diminishes considerably, and then, when the
exit is opened, it becomes very little. Each time the machine was used,
the leakage became less, until after the third or fourth day the leakage
was little more than was needed to keep the outside of the hose moist
and so obtain the cooling effect of evaporation. Each time the hose
was filled, after having been allowed to become dry, it was found neces-
sary to swell it up again by closing the exit at first. This required
only a few minutes, however, and not an hour or two as when the hose
was new.
An improvement on the design of the machine would be to let the
hose lie in a half-round gutter exactly fitting the hose. This would
cause most of the leakage to be through the upper part. In this way
all the water which escaped would be warm, and the efficiency of the
machine would be increased by getting rid of it. In the machine as
actually constructed the hose lay on the edge of a straight board, one
inch thick, the object being to expose as much surface as possible to the
evaporating effect of the dry air. While the machine was working, the
difference of temperature between the upper and the lower surfaces of
the hose was marked, the water, as it was warmed, rising and flowing
in a stream overlying the cool stream of water below. As undoubtedly,
owing to the greater pressure, more than half of the leakage took place
on the lower half of the surface of the hose, a means of causing all
the leakage to be at the expense of the warmer water in contact with
the upper surface might be an advantage.
10
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION.
Cooling Due to Evaporation. — In the preliminary tests, made before
constructing the machine, it was found that more cooling was obtained
than could be accounted for by the rise of temperature of the water
used; that is to say, the warm stream was cooled more than the
cool stream was warmed. This could be accounted for in the model
only by the cooling due to evaporation from the hose as the water
passed through. Calculations based on tests made with the model
showed that this cooling would amount to a little more than 0.5° F.
with a machine of the size of the final cooler when passing 1,000 gallons
of wine per hour under the atmospheric conditions surrounding the
model. The relative humidity of the air when the tests were made was
60. The mean relative humidity of the air at Fresno during the month
of September is given by the Weather Bureau as 42 as an average of
twelve years, and as the cooler is used principally during the day when
the air is driest, it was expected that the cooling due to evaporation
would be much greater in practice than was indicated by the tests of
the model.
This expectation was abundantly verified by the practical tests of the
large cooler used at Fresno. The following table is calculated from the
data given in Table I:
TABLE II.
Comparison of Heat Lost by the Wine, and of Heat Gained by the Water.
Calories Lost Calories Gained
Kxperiment. by Wine. by Water.
1 1,000 819)
2 !_.: 1,000 833 \ End of hose closed.
3 1,000 802)
4 1,000 1,577) ~ nA rt . * naa n „ a „
f. 1 nnn i cm End of nose open
a" IS o39l End 0f hose °P en;
io I:::::::::::::::::::; l:Z Hi ] ™r y nme leakage.
In the first three experiments, where the exit end of the water hose
was closed, the cooling by evaporation is shown by the table above to be
considerable, and corresponds to a lowering of the temperature of the
water 3° F. In the second three experiments there is an apparent
reversal of this effect, due to the fact that the temperature of the warmed
water was taken as it emerged from the exit. This did not give the
average temperature of the water, but something higher, as the warmer
water in the upper part of the hose traveled more freely and reached
the end, while much of the cooler water escaped by leakage before it
reached the end. When the hose leaks as much as it did during these
experiments, much of the cooling power of the water is lost and the use
of the semi-circular trough suggested above would be very effective.
When the leakage had diminished to a mere sweating of the hose, as
in the last three experiments, the cooling effect of evaporation is again
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE. 11
'evident. In experiments 8 and 9 this effect corresponds to 2.5° F. and
2.3° F. respectively, while in experiment 10, where the water was pass-
ing more slowly, it is increased to 4.1° F.
In the first three tests some of the difference shown between the rise
of temperature of the water and the fall of temperature of the wine
may be due to the difference between the specific heats of water and of
half-fermented wine. The latter difference, however, is too small to
account for all of the former. In the last three experiments this source
of uncertainty is eliminated, as warm water was used instead of wine
in making the tests.
Under average working conditions in a dry climate it may be expected
that the results of evaporation from the canvas hose will be equivalent
to the use of water about 3° F. cooler in a machine where this evapora-
tion could not take place.
Effect of Sunshine, Shade, and Wind. — The machine should be placed
in such a position that the greatest possible benefit may be derived
from the effects of evaporation. This will be in a shady place where
the canvas hose is exposed to the full force of any wind that may be
blowing. It should not be inside a building where it is protected from
the wind, and where the air may be rendered moist by the vapors given
off by fermenting wine or by water used in washing. The heat and
dryness outside promote evaporation from the hose, and consequently
increase the efficiency of the cooler The direct rays of the sun, how-
ever, should not strike the cooler, for in this case the radiant heat will
warm the water more than the evaporation cools it. In a test with a
small model cooler it was found that where in the shade the water was
cooled 0.5° F. by evaporation, the resultant of the effects of radiant
heat and evaporation in direct sunshine was a rise of 1.25° F.
Relative Positions of Canvas Hose and Copper Tube. — Tests were
made with a small model to determine the effect of placing the copper
rube in different positions in the canvas hose. Four tests were made, as
A— 10.0° F. B— 15.3° F. C— 15.6° F. D— 16.0° F.
FIG. 4. Comparative cooling, corresponding to different positions of tube.
indicated in Fig. 4. In A, the tube was placed as near the upper part
of the hose as possible; in B, in the center; in C, as near the lower
part as possible. In D, spiral flanges were soldered to the tube, with
the object of making the stream of water circulate around the tube in its
12
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION.
passage from one end of the hose to the other. When the tube was
placed near the upper part of the hose the wine was cooled less than
two thirds as much as when placed in the other positions. The most
effective method was where spiral flanges were used, but the superiority
over the plain tube when placed in position C was so little that it would
not repay the extra expense and trouble involved in the use of the
flanges.
The position C was adopted in the construction of the machine.
This is the position the tube and hose naturally take when the hose is
inflated by the
pressure of the
water, if they rest
on a flat, contin-
uous surface. The
tube is kept in a
position which
leaves a small space
between it and the
1 o w e r surface of
the hose by means
of the couplings
which are neces-
sary to join the 20-
foot lengths of cop-
per tubing which
were used in the
construction of the
machine. These
couplings should
FIG. 5. Cross-section of cooler showing relative positions of hose, De &S Small as prac-
tnhe, support, and proposed gutter, a, canvas hose ; b, couplings ti/>qV,lp A h n q p
of copper tube; c, gutter; d, copper tube; s, support. c '
coupling is too
large and would obstruct the passage of the water too much. A very
good coupling was designed by Mr. Meakin, which projects only one
quarter of an inch from the tube and was found to answer the purpose
perfectly. Fig. 5 shows the relative positions and actual sizes of hose,
tube and couplings, and support. The small space between the lower
surface of the copper tube and the hose is an advantage, as it increases
the cooling surface in contact with the cooler water, which has a
tendency to run along the lowest part.
Support of Cooler. — The cooler should be placed on a support that
raises it a few feet from the ground, both for convenience of working
and to expose it more perfectly to the wind.
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE.
13
In order to control the amount of leakage, and to prevent more leak-
age in one part of the machine than in another, some method must be
adopted of varying and equalizing the water pressure in all parts of
the hose. This it was found possible to do in the machine constructed by
the means indicated in Fig. 6. The 220 feet of tubing was made in four
lengths joined by three semi-circular bends, as shown in the figure
referred to. The support was built to give a fall of 3 feet in the entire
length, and as the water passed from the upper end to the lower the fall
FIG. 6. Scheme of Cooling Machine,
W —Entrance of warm wine.
W,=Exit of cooled wine.
E =:Entrance of cool water.
E,=Exit of warmed water.
tended to restore the pressure lost by friction and leakage. The amount
of pressure was determined by 8 or 10 feet of rubber wine hose attached
to the lower end through which the water escaped. By raising the end
of this piece of hose, as at Ei, the pressure could be increased, and by
lowering it decreased, to any required degree. For the purpose of swell-
ing up the canvas hose a maximum pressure was obtained by screwing a
cap on the end of the hose at Ei. When the machine is in working
order, the best height for the exit Ex is easily found by trial.
The wine enters the lower end of the machine at W and escapes at
the upper, Wi. This upward passage of the wine is desirable, as it pre-
14 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION.
vents any interference with the flow due to the gas given off freely by
the fermenting wine. The gas is carried upward regularly and perfectly.
Temperature of the Water. — A certain amount of cooling will be
obtained whatever the temperature of the water, provided it is lower
than that of the wine, but the cooler the water the more effect it Will
have. This is shown by the following tests made with the model cooler:
TABLE in.
Comparison of the Effects of Water of Different Temperatures.
Temperature of Water.
1st Temp, of Wine.
2d Temp, of Wine.
Degrees Cooled.
65° F.
75
92° F.
92
82.0° F.
85.5
10.0° F.
6.5
Thus, with the same conditions of flow and of temperature of wine
and water, water at 65° F. reduced the wine 10° F., and water at 75° F.
only 6.5° F. In practice it will probably be found that the necessary
efficiency will be obtained with this machine only if the temperature of
the water available is at least 20° F. lower than that of the maximum
temperature which it is desired that the wine shall not exceed. That
is to say, if it is desired to keep the fermenting wine below 92° F., the
water used must not exceed 72° F. (See test 3, Table I.) When there
is a difference of only 14° F., for example, the wine can be cooled
only 5° F. at a practical rate. (See test 7, Table I.) This is too little
for practical purposes. It is very necessary, therefore, that the water
should be as cool as possible. For this reason it will usually be neces-
sary to have a special reservoir or water tank for the use of the cooler.
The water as it came from the well which was used in our cooling
experiments had a temperature of 66° F., which was quite low enough
for efficient cooling. After this water had been in a 20,000-gallon iron
tank, covered above but exposed to the sun on the sides, for two or
three days its temperature would often rise to over 80° F., which was
much too warm for the purpose. Even during the vintage, when a
great deal of water was being used and water was almost continually
being pumped into the tank and drawn out, it was usually over 71 c F.
when it reached the cooler.
The water tank should be completely protected from the direct rays
of the sun. The best way to do this would be to place a roof over it
and then surround it with a screen which would keep off the sun but
allow free circulation of air. If the sides of the tank were covered
with canvas kept wet by some automatic sprinkling device, it is
probable that the water instead of becoming warmer in the tank would
be cooled. If this were done, the tank might be made large enough to-
hold the water needed for several days.
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE.
15
It would be possible to pump directly from the well into the cooler,
but this would be less convenient, as it would necessitate a special
pump and well for the purpose and would require more supervision.
Temperature of the Must or Wine. — With water at a given temperature,
the hotter the wine the greater difference there will be between the
temperature of wine and water, and therefore the more efficient the
machine. Tests with the model cooler gave the following ratios:
TABLE IV.
Efficiency with Wine of Different Temperatures.
1st Temp, of Wine.
2d Temp, of Wine.
Temperature of Water. Degrees Cooled.
100° F.
92
84
86.0° F.
82.0
76.3
66° F.
66
66
14.0° F.
10.
7.7
Thus, with all other conditions the same, the amount of cooling was
nearly twice as much with wine at 100° F. as with wine at 84° F. The
same is shown to be the case with the large cooler, as may be seen by
comparing tests 4 and 6, where, the other conditions being identical,
must at 109° F. was reduced 26° F., and must at 92° F. only 13° F.
This shows that to obtain the maximum amount of work out of the
machine the cooling should commence when the temperature of the
wine is very near the maximum which it is to be allowed to reach. If
the wine is to be allowed to reach 95° F. much time and labor is wasted
by commencing to cool it when it has reached only 90° F., and still more
if, as is sometimes advised, we cool the must before it has commenced to
heat at all.
Ratio of Volumes of Wine and Water. — The less wine we pass through
the machine per hour and the more water, the greater cooling effect we
will obtain. If, however, we pass the wine too slowly, we do not get
enough work out of our machine, and on the other hand, if we pass the
water too quickly, we lose too much of the cooling power of our water.
The differences obtained with the model cooler with different ratios of
water and wine are shown by the following results of tests:
Degrees Lowered.
Rate of water equal to that of wine 10.0° F.
Rate of water 1| times that of wine 11.3
Rate of water 2 times that of wine. 13.2
These tests indicate that with a machine of this construction it would
not pay to use more water than wine, for while an equal quantity lowered
the wine under the conditions of the test 10° F., double this quantitv
lowered it only 3.2° F. more.
With the large machine it was found that satisfactory results were
obtained when using a little less water than wine. (See test 10, Table I. )
16
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION.
Rate of Pumping. — The rate at which the wine should be passed
through the machine to obtain the maximum efficiency is a function of
the particular machine, and will differ according to its size. The
machine used was found to work very satisfactorily when cooling 1,000
gallons per hour. (See tests 8, 9, and 10, Table I.)
In order to calculate the size of machine necessary to accomplish a
certain amount of cooling with a certain amount of water at a given
temperature, a formula deduced from that given on page 3 may be used:
RXF
s =
DXK
The factor K will undoubtedly differ according to the size of the machine
and according to the diameter of the copper tubing used, but unless
these are very different from the machine described here, it will be
approximately equal to 9 within the limits of cooling that will be used
in practice. If, then, we take K to be 9, the volume of wine (R) to be
cooled per hour as 1,000, and the number of degrees (F) which it is
desired to cool the wine as 15, we can calculate the required cooling
surface (S) as follows:
S=DX 1 f°
From S obtained in this way we can calculate the length (L) of copper
tubing required according as we use 1^-inch, 1^-inch, or 2-inch tubing
as follows:
L = S X 3.054, for lj-inch copper tubing.
L = S X 2.545, for l|-inch copper tubing.
L = S X 1.909, for 2-inch copper tubing.
The following table has been computed in this way for some of the
commonest cases that are likely to occur :
TABLE V.
Length of Cooler Needed for Various Conditions.
i-3
■■a
R=Rate.
! <S
3 p
CD r+
1 C
' l-t
D'
F
K
S
L=-Number of Feet
Copper Tubing.
incli.
H-
inch.
2-
inch.
(
65°
95°
30
15
9
59.3
181
151 114
1,000 gallons per hour . . .
i
... \
I
65
72
92
95
27
23
15
15
9
9
65.9
76.4
201
233
168 : 126
194 146
72
92
20
15
i)
88.9
272
226 170
With the larger copper tubing, as indicated by certain tests made, it
is probable that the efficiency would be a little less, so that it would
probably be necessary to use a little more tubing than is indicated in
the last column.
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE.
17
Specifications for a Cooling Machine. — In order to give an idea of the
cost of a machine of this construction, the following list of materials is
given for a machine suitable for the use of a cellar making not more
than 300,000 gallons of dry wine during a vintage of thirty days:
Bill of Materials.
Copper tubing, 200 linear feet of 1^-inch, @ 46 cents $92 00
Canvas irrigating hose of No. 10 canvas, 200 linear feet, 3 inches in diameter, % 5c. 10 00
Two brass castings for the ends of cooler, @ $2.25 . 4 50
Nine couplings for copper tube, @ 45 cents 4 05
Three copper semi-circular bends for tubes, @ $2.60 7 80
Three galvanized iron bends for hose, @ 35 cents 1 05
Three pieces of galvanized iron piping for hose, @ 20 cents 60
Half-round galvanized iron guttering, 200 feet, @ 6 cents 12 00
Wooden stand 20 00
Ten feet of 3-inch rubber hose, with cap _ 7 50
$159 50
The following table shows how much a machine of this size would
reduce the temperature of wine at 95° F. and at 92° F. with water at
65° F. and 70° F., when working at the rate of 1,000 gallons of wine
per hour and using an equal quantity of water:
TABLE VI.
Reduction of Temperature of Wine under Various Conditions.
Rate.
Temperature of Water.
Temperature of Wine.
Reduction of
Temperature.
r
1,000 gallons per !
hour.
1
65° F.
65
70
70
95° F.
92
95
92
21° F.
19
18
16
A machine of this size would be quite sufficient, if used ten hours per
day under ordinary conditions, to control the temperature of the wine
in a cellar which crushed 50 tons per day of red grapes for dry wine.
By running the machine day and night the capacity could be more than
doublejd, which would be a sufficient safety factor to provide for extraor-
dinarily hot weather or the crushing of more than the average amount
during a part of the vintage.
There, is also the possibility of the vats filled on separate days requir-
ing cooling on the same day, but a competent wine-maker who attends
to the proper starting of his fermentations can nearly always avoid
this.
Method of Using the Cooler. — In order to obtain the full benefit of the
cooling machine (that is, to use it with the greatest efficiency), certain
facts must be kept in mind and a plan of cooling adopted in accordance
with these facts.
Every gram of sugar in a hundred cubic centimeters of must in fer-
menting will generate enough heat to raise the must 2.34° F. This
corresponds, very nearly, to the production of 2.34° F. for every degree
18
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION.
Balling of the must. This heat is disposed of in three ways: (1) A
portion is taken up by the must, which is thus raised in temperature;
(2) another portion escapes from the must by radiation and conduc-
tion; and (3) the remainder should be removed by the cooler.
If we know how much heat will be taken up in the first two ways,
we will know how much it is necessary to remove by the third.
To determine this we first calculate how much heat will be developed
by the fermentation of all the sugar present, and add this to the tem-
perature of the must. This will give us the number of degrees of
temperature which must be disposed of in the three ways. For example,
if the must has 24 per cent of sugar, there are 24 X 2.34 degrees, or 56° F.
to be disposed of. If the grapes on crushing have a temperature of
70° F., and we are to allow the fermentation to reach a maximum of
92° F., they will take up 92 — 70, or 22° F. This leaves 34° F. to be
removed by radiation and cooling. Experiments have shown that in
the more usual methods of fermenting red grapes in California, about
half of the heat generated by fermentation will be lost by radiation.
Thus, 56 -s- 2, or 28° F., will escape in this way. This leaves 34 — 28,
or 6° F., to be removed by the cooling machine, if we desire the fermen-
tation not to exceed a temperature of 92° F. To keep it below 90° F.
we should have to remove 8° F., while if we are to allow it to reach
98° F. no cooling at all will be necessary.
TABLE VII.
Removal of Heat by Radiation and by Cooling.
Experiment.
First
Temp.
Max.
Temp.
Last
Temp.
i
Sugar
Fer-
mented
Degrees
F. Gen-
erated.
Degrees F.
Removed
by Cooler.
Degrees F.
Lost by
Radiation.
Number
Days in
Vat.
No. 1
84
71
74
81
84
96
96
98
98
92
93
94
90
92
79
21
19
17
17
24
49
44
40
40
57
20
6
6
27
20 = 41%
15 = 34%
18 = 45%
29 = 73%
35 = 61%
Mean = 51%
4
No. 2
3
No. 3
No. 7
No. 9 ■_.:..
6
4
3
Table VII shows the amount of heat removed by radiation in five of
the experimental fermentations made at Fresno. The amounts vary
considerably — from 34 to 73 per cent. The cause of this is that the
fermentations were experimental and conducted in various ways.
The average of all is, however, 51 per cent, or about half.
Calculations based on the series of fermentations described in Bulle-
tin No. 159 show much less variation, the following losses of heat in
twelve fermentations being found: 53, 67, 48, 55, 55, 50, 53, 48, 59, 56,
55, 50 per cent, being on the average 54 per cent. These fermentations
were conducted in the ordinary way, in open vats holding about 4,000
gallons.
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE.
19
The amount of heat lost by radiation will depend on the outside tem-
perature surrounding the vat, the size and shape of the vat, and the
amount of stirring and pumping-over that is practiced. For the pur-
poses of our calculations it may be taken that in ordinary open fer-
menting vats not exceeding 3,000 gallons capacity the loss will be 50
per cent, except in the hottest weather. In larger vats up to 10,000
gallons capacity, and in very hot weather, the loss may be no more
than 33 per cent.
Using these figures we may calculate the amount of cooling necessary,
as follows:
Let—
S = Sugar (% Balling) contained in the must.
T = Temperature of contents of vat.
M = The maximum temperature desired.
C = The number of degrees necessary to remove by cooling.
Then,
C = 1.17 S + T - M.
Example:
8 = 24%; T = 80°F.; M = 92° F.
Then,
C = (1.17X24) + 80 -92 = 16.
In this case, therefore, it would be necessary to remove the equivalent
of 16° F. from every gallon of fermenting grapes in the vat.
This formula may be used at any time, but it is best to wait until
the temperature of the fermenting vat nearly reaches the desired max-
imum before making the calculation and before commencing the cooling.
The calculation is less liable to error at this time, because the grapes
and must have already taken up all the heat they can without surpass-
ing the maximum chosen, and the contents of the vat have become more
thoroughly mixed so that our test of the sugar-contents is more likely
to properly represent the whole vat.
The following table shows some examples of the results we would get
by making these calculations:
TABLE VIII.
T = Temperature
of Must.
C = Cooling Necessary for a Maximum (M) of —
S = Sugar.
90°
93°
96°
24%
24
22
22
22
70°
80
60
70
80
8°
. 18
6
16
5°
15
3
13
2°
12
10
This represents such calculations as might be made as soon as the
vats are filled. If we wait until the maximum temperature is reached
we would get such results as the following:
20
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXFERIMP:NT STATION.
TABLE IX.
T = Tern pe ra t u re
of Must.
C = Cooling Necessary for a Maximum (M) of
S = Sugar.
90°
93°
96°
10%
10
10
6
6
6
90°
93
95
90
93
95
12°
H
I
9°
12
~4
7
0°
9
11
1
4
5
It is highly desirable that we postpone the use of the cooler until the
vat has very nearly reached the maximum temperature desired, for it is
only in this way that we can obtain the maximum efficiency for our
machine.
When we have thus found C*, the number of degrees which the
whole contents of the vat must be lowered, we can easily determine
how much the cooler should be used. If 10,000 gallons are to be cooled
5 degrees, it does not matter whether we pass 10,000 gallons through
the cooler taking 5° F. from every gallon passed, or whether we simply
pass 5,000 gallons taking 10° F. If the contents of the vat are thor-
oughly mixed, as they will be during the operation, the final effect will
be the same, namely, the reduction of the temperature of the whole 5° F.
For every machine there will be a certain rate of pumping and a
certain amount of lowering of the temperature corresponding to the
greatest efficiency of the machine. This rate and this degree of cooling
must be determined for each machine, and will depend principally on
the size of the machine and the temperature of the water. In the
machine used at Fresno, they were 1,000 gallons per hour and a reduc-
tion of 15° F. To determine the time, therefore, during which we must
use the cooler on a certain vat, we first determine C as above and then
make use of the following formula:
H =
GXC
RXF
Where
H = The number of hours the cooler must be used.
G = The number of gallons of grapes in the vat.
C = The number of degrees F. which the whole vat must be lowered.
li = The number of gallons per hour passed through the cooler.
F = The number of degrees lost by the wine passing through the cooler.
For example, let
G = 2500; C = 10; R = 1000; F = 15.
Then,
„ 2500 X 10 , _ n m . ,
ii=—^-r—- -— = 1.67, or 1 hour 40 minutes.
IOliO X 15
*C can be found without calculation by referring to Tables XIII and XIV at the end
of this bulletin.
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE.
21
In order to use the cooler effectively, it is necessary to watch closely
the rise of temperature and disappearance of sugar, as is done in every
well-conducted cellar. These observations should be made at least
twice a day, and oftener when the temperature approaches the critical
point. From these observations some such table as those shown below
should be constructed. This will enable us to start the cooling at the
right moment, and in a few seconds to calculate the amount of cooling
necessary.
TABLE X.
Examples of Control of Temperature with Cooler.
I, Vats 1000-3000 gallons. Moderate weather. Quick fermentation. Heat radiated ,
one half of that generated by fermentation.
Sugar
Lost.
Heat
Generated.
Heat Lost
by Radia-
tion, etc.
Tempera-
ture of Vat.
Degrees
Removed
from Vat.
At crushing
At 1 day
At 2 days _ . .
At 2£ days ..
At 3 days ...
At 4 days . __
24%B
21
15
12
5
3%B
6
3
7
5
7.02° F
14.04
7.02
16.38
11.70
3.02°F
7.04
4.02
8.38
5.70
80 3 F
84
91
94
(81)
89
95
13° F
II. Vats 1000-3000 gallons. Moderate weather. Slower fermentation.
Heat lost, one half.
At crushing
At 1 day .
At 2 days
At 3 days
At 4 days
At 5 days
24% B
22
17
8
2
2%B
4.68° F
11.70
21.06
14.04
4.68
1.68°F
5.70
11.06
7.04
2.68
70° F
73
79
89
(81)
88
90
8°F
III. Vats 5000-10,000 gallons. Or warm weather. Heat lost, one third.
At crushing
At 1 day
At 2 days...
At 3 days ...
At 4 days _..
24%B
21
15
5
6
10
5
7.02°
F
14.04
23.40
11.70
2.02°F
4.04
8.40
3.70
80° F
85
95
(80)
95
(87)
95
15° F
8°F
Example I represents a fermentation of grapes containing 24 per
cent of sugar which were crushed warm (80° F.), and of which the
maximum temperature attained during fermentation was 95° F. The
22 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION.
cooling necessary for 2,500 gallons of fermenting grapes, with our
machine, is found by using the formula given on page 20:
„ 2500X13 '. _ .v ,
il = -.,^ w ,,- =2.17, or 2 hours 10 minutes.
1000 X 15
In example II the grapes were cooler when crushed and the tempera-
ture was not allowed to exceed 90° P. The cooler was used as follows:
H = , -.^ w ., =1.34, or 1 hour 20 minutes.
1000 X 15
In example III it is supposed that on account of hot weather and
large vats the loss by radiation was only one third of the heat generated
by fermentation. In this case, C, the number of degrees which it is
necessary to lower the whole vat, is found by modifying the formula on
page 19:
C = 1.56S + T-M.
In this case, if we are dealing with a vat containing 9,000 gallons of
crushed grapes, the time our cooler would have to be used is as follows:
„ 90 00 X 23 . .
"■ = Vr t r>r> w t - = 13.8, or 13 hours 50 minutes;
1000 X lo
or, as represented in the table, one cooling of 9 hours one day and
another of
„ 9000 X 8 . _ . , _. . ,
H= =4.8, or 4 hours 50 minutes
lOtlt) X 15
the next.
It is not necessary that the temperature of the vat after cooling
should be as low as is indicated by the figures in parentheses in the last
column but one of Table X. These figures simply represent the
temperature which would be necessary if the cooling were instanta-
neous. As the cooling takes time, heat is being generated by the
fermentation at the same time that the cooler is removing heat. The
final temperature of the vat, therefore, after the cooling, will be higher
than that represented by the figures in parentheses. The difference
will be very slight in the case of small vats, which are cooled quickly,
but considerable in the case of large vats. In a 10,000-gallon vat.
under the conditions represented in example III, during the first cool-
ing of 9 hours, 15° F. would be removed by the cooler, but at the same
time about 4° F. would be added by fermentation, so that when the
cooling was finished the temperature of the vat would not be 80° F.,
but 84° F.
This does not mean that the cooling has not been so effective as the
calculation indicated. The production of heat has been accompanied
by a diminution of sugar, and the possibility of a rise of temperature
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE.
23
in so far diminished. The effective cooling therefore has been 15° F.,
as shown by calculation. This shows the need of making these calcu-
lations, for it is impossible to tell simply by testing the temperature of
the vat when sufficent cooling has been effected.
Cooling White Wine. — It is much more rare to find white wines fail-
ing to ferment out dry than red. The reason for this is that, they
much more rarely attain high temperatures during fermentation.
There are several causes for this. In the first place the absence of a
cap of pomace permits the heat to radiate off more freely; and in the
second place, white wines are usually fermented in smaller casks or
vats, which is also an aid to heat radiation; and finally, white musts
are usually sulfured, which makes the fermentation slower, and this
gives the heat generated more time to escape.
This is well shown by the record of two fermentations in puncheons
of white wine made this vear at Fresno:
TABLE XI.
Loss of Heat by Radiation in Puncheons of Fermenting White Wine.
Sugar.
Experiment VI.
At crushing
At 1 day
At 2 days ...
At 3 days . ..
At 4 days . - .
At 5 days ...
Total loss of heat by radiation
Experiment Via.
At crushing
At 1 day
At 2 days ,
At 3 days
At 4 days
22.5%B.
16.7
9.1
4.7
2.8
2.0
Temperature
Observed.
Total loss of heat by radiation
78°
85
88
88
88
87
F.
25.0%B.
78°
17.0
88
8.7
92
59
89
4.4
87
Heat
Generated.
13.5°
17.8
10.3
4.5
2.0
P
18.5°
19.5
6.5
3.5
F.
Loss by
Radiation.
48%
84
100
100
150
81%
46%
80
146
157
80%
In the first of these cases enough of the heat generated by the fer-
mentation of 20.5% B. of sugar was lost by radiation to prevent the
temperature of the wine rising above 88° F.
In the second case, the fermentation started more rapidly during the
first day, and although the total heat lost during four days was practi-
cally the same as in the first case, there was more generated the first
day, which shows itself in the rise to 88° F. instead of to 85° F., as in
the first case. This rapid start caused the maximum temperature to
be 3 degrees higher, e. g. 92° F.
24
UNIVERSITY OF 1 CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION.
This exemplifies the danger of starting the fermentation too rapidly
by adding too large a quantity of yeast or starter.
When the maximum temperature is reached, as much or more heat
is lost by radiation as is generated by fermentation. In a properly
conducted fermentation of red wine this does not usually occur until
the wine is nearly dry. With white wine in small casks, owing to the
much greater loss of heat, this usually occurs when the wine still con-
tains 4 or 5 per cent of sugar. In cold seasons and localities the fall of
temperature may be so rapid as to check the fermentation.
While a cooling machine is rarely needed for white wines when fer-
mented in small casks, it is quite otherwise when the fermentation
takes place in large casks or vats. This is exemplified by the record of
a 1,600-gallon cask of Burger made at Fresno this year.
TABLE XII.
Loss of Heat by Radiation and Cooling in a 1,600-gallon Cask of Fermenting White Wine.
Experiment VIII.
At crushinj
At 1 day...
At 2 days.
At 3 days
Sugar
21.5%B.
7.0
2.1
1.0
Temperature
Observed.
80° F.
90
Cooled to 80° F.
86
89
Heat 'Heat Lost by
Generated. Radiation.
34.0 °F.
11.5
2.5
70%
43%
Heat lost by radiation 60%
Heat lost by cooling 21%
Total 81%
i'
In this case the heat lost by radiation, 60 per cent, is little more than
in the red wine fermentation. If the wine had not been cooled when it
reached 90° F., it would have risen to 95° or 96° F. The heat lost by
radiation and removed by cooling in the 1,600-gallon cask were, together,
capable of keeping the maximum only as low as it was kept in the 180-
gallon puncheons by radiation alone.
A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE.
25
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A NEW WINE-COOLING MACHINE. 27
Notes on the Use of Tables XIII and XIV. — To use these tables we
must first determine, the temperature and degrees Balling of the must
in the vat. Then by following the horizontal line opposite the number
representing the degrees Balling until it intersects the vertical line
running from the number representing the temperature we find a num-
ber which shows the number of degrees F. which the contents of the
vat must be lowered. This number we call C. Then by using the
formula given on page 20 we find how long the cooler should be used
in the vat. This formula and one of the above tables are all that are
necessary for the effective and economical working of the machine.
For example:
Grapes at 20 per cent Bal. if crushed at 64° F. will not rise above
90 c F., and therefore need no cooling. Grapes with the same amount
of sugar but crushed at 79° F. must be cooled 12° F. when they reach
90° F., or before, or they will reach a temperature of over 100° F. By
referring to the 90° column we find the number 12 in the row repre-
senting 10 per cent of sugar. This shows that the fermenting must will
reach 90° F. when it still has 10 per cent of sugar, and as indicated in
that line requires to be cooled 12° F., as already determined.
This shows that we can tell the amount of cooling necessary from the
temperature and sugar tests at any time, either when the grapes are
first crushed or when they are fermenting. The later the determination
is made the less liable to error it will be. Any calculation made before
fermentation will be only approximate, but made when the temperature
is near the maximum it will be quite exact enough.
STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION.
REPORTS.
1890. Report of the Viticultural Work during the seasons 1887-93, with data
regarding the Vintages of 1894-95.
1897. Resistant Vines, their Selection, Adaptation, and Grafting. Appendix to
Viticultural Report for 189G.
1898. Partial Report of Work of Agricultural Experiment Station for the years
1895-90 and 189G-97.
1900. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for the year 1897-98.
1902. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1898-1901.
1903. Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1901-1903.
1904. Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903-1904.
BULLETINS.
Reprint. Endurance of Drought in Soils of the Arid Region.
No. 128. Nature, Value, and Utilization of Alkali Lands, and Tolerance of Alkali.
(Revised and Reprint, 1905.)
131. The Phylloxera of the Vine.
133. Tolerance of Alkali by Various Cultures.
135. The Potato- Worm in California.
137. Pickling Ripe and Green Olives.
138. Citrus Fruit Culture.
139. Orange and Lemon Rot. .
140. Lands of the Colorado Delta in Salton Basin, and Supplement.
141. Deciduous Fruits at Paso Robles.
142. Grasshoppers in California.
143. California Peach-Tree Borer.
144. The Peach-Worm.
145. The Red Spider of Citrus Trees.
14G. New Methods of Grafting and Budding Vines.
147. Culture Work of the Substations.
148. Resistant Vines and their Hybrids.
149. California Sugar Industry.
150. The Value of Oak Leaves for Forage.
151. Arsenical Insecticides.
152. Fumigation Dosage.
153. Spraying with Distillates.
154. Sulfur Sprays for Red Spider.
155. Directions for Spraying for the Codling-Moth.
156. Fowl Cholera.
157. Commercial Fertilizers.
158. California Olive Oil ; its Manufacture.
159. Contribution to the Study of Fermentation.
160. The Hop Aphis.
161. Tuberculosis in Fowls. (Reprint.)
162. Commercial Fertilizers. (Dec. 1, 1904.)
163. Pear Scab.
164. Poultry Feeding and Proprietary Foods. (Reprint.)
165. Asparagus and Asparagus Rust in California.
166. Spraying for Scale Insects.
167. Manufacture of Dry Wines in Hot Countries.
168. Observations on Some Vine Diseases in Sonoma County.
169. Tolerance of the Sugar Beet for Alkali.
170. Studies in Grasshopper Control.
171. Commercial Fertilizers. (June 30, 1905.)
172. Further Experience in Asparagus Rust Control.
173. Commercial Fertilizers. (December, 1905.)
CIRCULARS.
No. 1. Texas Fever. No. 13. The Culture of the Sugar Beet.
2. Blackleg. 14. Practical Suggestions for Cod-
3. Hog Cholera. ling-Moth Control in the
4. Anthrax. Pajaro Valley.
5. Contagious Abortion in Cows. 15. Recent Problems in Agriculture.
7. Remedies for Insects. What a University Farm is
9. Asparagus Rust. For.
10. Reading Course in Economic 16. Notes on Seed-Wheat.
Entomology. 17. Why Agriculture Should be
11. Fumigation Practice. Taught in the Public Schools.
12. Silk Culture.
Copies may be had by application to the Director of the Experiment
Station, Berkeley, California.