THE MODERN HOMESTEAD PM ITS arrangeme: AND CONSTRUCTICM'-^'**'! ri RICHARD HENDERSON MS'' '.'v'> ^ ft*>S >«;'v:vi^;v'./;-:v. kr:^ ■-/;>;■,.■■ : V ' ■- THE ESTATE LIBRARY SERIES. THE MODERN HOMESTEAD BV PERMISSION. THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF PORTLAND, WHOSE ESTATES. BOTH IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND, LIKE THOSE OF MANY OTHER LANDOWNERS, ARE CHARACTERISED BV WELL-APPOINTED AND EFFICIENT HOMESTEADS.. THE MODERN HOMESTEAD ITS ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION. RICHARD HENDERSON, MEMBER (by EXAMINATION) OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND, AND THE SURVEYORS' INSTITUTION. AUTHOR OF " THE YOUNG ESTATE MANAGERS GUIDE. " WITH INTRODUCTION BY JAMES MACDOXALD, F.R.S.E., SECRETARY OF THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND. THE ESTATE LIBRARY SERIES. LONDON : THE COUNTRY GENTLEMEN'S ASSOCL\TION, LTD., i6, COCKSPUR STREET, PALL M.\LL, SAY. HRAHBUKV, AGNKW, & CO. LD., PKINTKHS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE. Hi INTRODUCTORY NOTE. There is need — and in many cases there is room — for greater economy in providing the buildings necessary for agricultural holdings. At the present day neither the owner nor the occupier of land can afford to spend money lavishly or thoughtlessly in any form of farm equipment. The time for lordly estate or farm management has gone past, probably never to return. Even when the strictest economy is observed it is no easy matter for landowners or farmers to draw from land anything like a reasonable return for their capital employed upon it. With these significant circumstances in view, one all the more heartily welcomes the appearance of such a work as Mr. Henderson offers to the public in the volume entitled " The Modern Homestead." For the preparation of this volume Mr. Henderson has exceptional qualifications. His tastes, training and experience have all combined to fit him for such an undertaking. He is familiar with the numerous types of homesteads to be seen upon present-day farms, and has made it his business to study their peculiar features, their weak points, and their strong. He has had extensive and varied practical experience both in the erection of new homesteads and in the repairing and remodelling of old. Armed with this knowledge and guided by a clear and commendable conception of the principles which should be upper- most in the minds of modern farm architects, he set himself to the preparation of a work which cannot fail to be of great service both to owners and occupiers of land. An outstanding feature in "The Modern Homestead" is its con- sistent and thoroughly wholesome inculcation of the principle of the strictest and soundest economy. Unnecessary or unremunerative out- lay of money is carefully guarded against at every point. A minimum expenditure, consistent with efficiency, is an object which Mr. Henderson has kept constantly in view. Economy in labour is another point of prime importance in the designing of farm homesteads, and to this also Mr. Henderson has given careful attention. The author is a skilful draughtsman and has done well to make free use of this accomplishment. The many excellent sketches and plans it contains enhances greatly the practical usefulness of the book. JAMES MACDONALD. PREFACE. It is undeniable that much inconvenience results to agriculture in general on account of the want of system displayed throughout the country in the arrangement of farm buildings. Besides this incon- venience, which means increased labour to the occupiers, there is often discomfort to the animals to be reckoned with ; and sometimes in addition there is direct loss to the proprietors in the erection of buildings for which there is no need. The reason of this is not far to seek. Trained architects are seldom called upon in connection with farm buildings, and when they are, their want of touch with rural matters leads them astray. Indeed, they are usually the greatest sinners in the way we refer to. Failing their assistance, the property manager takes the matter in hand himself. In the majority of cases, however, he has not had the training or undergone the experience requisite to enable him to do the work satisfactorily. He may have a subordinate whose duty it is to attend to the buildings on the estate, but as a rule that official will have acquired his skill from an architect, and like the latter, will not be fully in sympathy with agricultural subjects. There are of course architects well qualified to deal with estate work, no matter how elementary to the profession it may happen to be. There are also estate agents possessed of the double qualification of intimacy with the requirements of farms and a knowledge of building that is needed in the planner of efficient farm homesteads. And where estates have employment for clerks of works some of these are w^ell fitted to identify themselves with the special requirements of country life, and to leave their mark for the good of the district in which their duties lie. But these only serve to prove the case we started with — that, taking the country as a whole, there are few farm homesteads to be met with that approach perfection in their own peculiar line. The generality of them point to a want of aim in their arrangement, and a disregard of simple sanitary laws. Agent, occupier, and country tradesman seem all to have had a hand in the promiscuous adding of house to house or building to building and the jamming of shedding into every available corner, or the leaning it against any clear wall space. It is only right to consult the occupier with regard to any accommodation viii PREFACE. that is about to be provided at the homestead. The buildings will be there, however, long after he has gone over to the majority; therefore it is advisable to keep this in view when arranging for their erection. Many tenants may have to make use of the homestead, but it can serve only one farm. What may come up to the notions of one tenant may not to any of the others. It follows, then, that it is hardly possible to make the original set of buildings suitable to the purposes, either real or fancied, of a series of tenants, and that each change of occupancy implies alterations and additions to the available housing. Still, where the necessary skill is forthcoming a good deal can be done towards minimising these periodical outlays in answer to the wishes of fresh lessees. There is a type of homestead or farm-steading that is peculiar to each of the different agricultural districts of Great Britain. If this be carefully noted and followed out when a new place is about to be established, there is less chance of many calls being made for future alterations on a homestead so arranged than with one that has evolved on no fixed principle. In Scotland, for instance, there are but three leading types of homesteads — that of the arable land on the east side of the country, that of the dairying tracts on the west, and that peculiar to the sheep farm proper. We may find each of them blended with one or other of the remaining pair according to circumstances, but these three are easily capable of differentiation. To begin with, therefore, if one keeps close to the single characteristic type of his district, or to the admixture of the pair that may otherwise apply, he is not far from the mark. A homestead erected on these lines lends itself easy of adaptation to the limited demand for change in arrangement that is likely ever to arise. It is possible even to lay down a single type that is capable of including the strictly arable- farm one of the east coast — the Caithness " square," the " toon " of the north-east, the "mains" of the Lothians, and the " on stead " of the Border Counties and Northumberland — and the one devoted specially to dairying. But these are matters that we shall seek to demonstrate as the body of our work proceeds. Our present object is to lend a helping hand to those who are in search of guidance on questions of the kind. A lead in this respect is not as yet readily available. The branch of architec- ture involved therein is, as we have said, usually so intermittent in its calls on the professional exponent of the art as to be hardly worth his while to devote full attention thereto. And the layman who has had opportunity to master the subject seldom will take to print to enlighten his less experienced fellows. There are not awanting in this connection, as in other departments, instructors who have more of the fluency of the ready writer than the wit of the man of experience to recommend their productions. More stone than bread, hoAvever, is generally found in their baskets. We claim to have had rather PREFA CE. ix exceptional opportunities of becoming acquainted with the subject, and in the following pages seek in a plain way to put, more especially, though not solely, young enquirers on the right track for picking up some knowledge of the underlying principles for themselves, so that they may in future be able to act in accordance therewith. The various diagrams relating to the actual work of building construction at the homestead we have purposely made simple and easy, in order that beginners may not be deterred from venturing forward on their own account. If we succeed in some measure in helping either to lessen or make more efficient the outlay on the part of proprietors, to lessen the too frequent inconvenience and simultaneously reduce the labour bill of occupiers, and at the same time do something towards increased comfort and health of the live stock, we shall have done our little in the furtherance of the interests of the parent industry. RICHARD HENDERSON. ^jst July. 1902. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. Interests affected in its erection — Landlord's interest — Tenant's interest — The interests of the two almost identical — Economy in building never to be pressed at the expense of efficiency — In what manner our homesteads might have developed had the reaping machine evolved on certain lines — Next to economy and efficiency in the erection of the homestead comes the easy staffing of the place — Plan I. (for the corn-growing and cattle-feeding farm) — It affords a suitable type of home- stead for British farming generallj^ — Conditions that govern choice of site of the farm homestead — The leading features of the plan — How the plan might be modified — Plan II. (for the partly-dairy farm) — Plan III. (for the dairy farm proper — Plan IV. (for the sheep farm) ...... pp. i — 20 CH.\PTER II. THE WALLS. The materials for their construction — Stone — Brick, wood, and iron — The dressing given to the stones — The founding of the walls — Concrete in some cases a valu- able aid — The foundation trenches — The reason why walls must be built plumb — Ordinary mortar — Its preparation — The "setting" or hardening of mortar — Portland cement — Arden lime— Building stone walls — Rubble work — Best class of stones for the purpose — Finishing of corners and of door and window openings — Lintels — Sills — Damp course — Thickness of the walls — Headers or throughbands — Bedding the stones — Bond in building as exemplified in brickwork — Standard size of bricks — Pointing the outer face of walls .... //■ 21 — 44 CHAPTER III. THE ROOFS : THEIR FRAMEWORK. Less choice of materials for roofing than for building — The hard-woods — The soft woods — British forestry of small moment in the timber market — Some of the positions where home-grown timber can be advantageously used at the home- stead — Fir and pine wood in general — Red pine — The seasoning of wood for building purposes — How wood forms — The ordinary Scottish or " couple " roof of the homestead — The principles involved in its construction — The pitch of roofs — Size of the spars of the common roof — Some of the disadvantages of this class of roof — The "principal " roof better — The wall-plate — The roof-truss or principal rafter — The piecing together of the principal roof — An iron king-post substituted for one of wood — Another sort of roof — Sound, economy to fill up the angle formed between wall-head and roofing-boards — Advisable to plane all interior exposed wood surfaces ....... ■• //• 45 — 69 j^ii CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. THE roofs: their covering. What the outer covering of a roof has to face-Wood alone not fit for the ordeal- Which of the metals are— Slate the best natural material for the purpose— The basis for the attachment of slates— Roofing-boards for slates-The admission of light by way of the root— A suitable size of roof-light— The advantages of the roof-light — Other operations preparatory to slating— The eaves-gutters— No building should be without them-The manner of fitting up the eaves-gutters— The centre gutter to be dispensed with wherever possible — The valley, the flank and the piend-The securing of lead on the roof-Cast-iron centre gutters -The construction of the valley -The raggle-The junctions with chimneys- The fewer breaks in the roof-line the easier is the roof maintained watertight— Not wise to range two buildings together— The choice of slates-The slate nails —The manner of arranging the slates on the roof— The lap or " cover " of the slates— The tilt or "bell-cast" of the slates— The finishing of the ridges and piends— The finish at the gables //■ 70—95 CHAPTER V. FLOORS AND DRAINS. The ordinary available flooring materials— What is required of a first-class flooring material— Portland cement concrete one of the best materials for farm floors- Tar macadam very suitable in some cases— The method of laying tar macadam —The method of laying concrete— Other materials and how to deal with them— Solid walls and concrete floors keep rats at bay— Wood floors— The sleepers, or floor joists -The flooring-boards— Ventilation beneath the wood floor to be unstinted— Doorsteps— Overhead floors— A combined floor and ceiling— The drains— Two sets of drains required at the homestead— The drain-pipes and method of laying them — The rain-water drains— The sewage drains— The ter- minus of the sewage drain to be either in the dungstead or in a liquid-manure tank— The liquid-manure tank //. 96— 115 CHAPTER VL DOORS, WINDOWS AND VENTILATORS. The door styles and lintel — The arch stronger than the lintel for the doorway — The wood beam as lintel — The iron girder as lintel — Fitting up the doors : the hinged large door — The door on wheels — Hanging the smaller doors — Mounting the sliding-door — Various types of doors — The sliding-door rails — Other fittings of the sliding-door — Modifications of the door— Handles, latches, locks and bolts — W' indows^The ordinary sash window rather at a disadvantage at the homestead — Casement windows — Iron-framed windows — Ventilators : the common kinds at the homestead — The double-horned zinc ventilator — Craig's ventilator — Taylor's ventilator — Fresh air inlets — The fresh air inlets ought to be controll- able — A simple method of accomplishing this — How the ridge ventilator may be controlled if considered necessary ...... //. 116 — 142 CHAPTER VII. SANITATION AT THE HOMESTEAD. What sanitation at the homestead implies — The two classes of live stock that suffer most from defective sanitation — Why the cows are apt to be the greater sufferers — CONTENTS. xiii How the seeds of bovine disease are spread in badly ventilated byres — Our atmo- sphere — Its composition— Oxygen — Nitrogen— Other substances contained in the atmosphere — Carbon di-oxide— Ammonia and the oxides of nitrogen — Moisture — Microscopic organisms and dust — Fresh air in many ways essential within the farm buildings — The difficulties in the way of providing this— Artificial heat recommended by some sanitarians for application to byres — This only admissible, however, in the case of the cows yielding milk — No need for it where other classes of stock are concerned — The usual condition of the atmosphere within the stable — County bye-laws with regard to farm sanitation —Why the central authorities have sought to regulate the size of cowhouses — Some of the anomalies which have arisen out of that interference ...... pp. 143 — 162 CHAPTER VHI. THE WATER SUPPLY : IN THEORY. Good water and plenty of it essential at the homestead — Absolutely pure water not met with in nature — The composition of water — The three physical conditions of water — Latent heat as exemplified in the case of water — Water as the universal solvent — The suspensory matters in water — What happens to rain when it touches earth — What the sea receives back in the rain-water it gives forth to the atmosphere — What surface water generally contains — Filtration not very practic- able at the farm — Dissolved matters more to be considered than substances in suspension — Lime the most abundantly represented of dissolved matters — Hard water and soft water — Temporary hardness and permanent hardness of water — The solvent powers of water increased by the presence of carbon di-oxide therein — The chemist should be consulted when doubt exists over a new water supply — A rough-and-ready way of gauging the hardness of water — The presence of organic matter in water to be viewed with suspicion— Examples of water analyses pp. 163 — 181 CHAPTER IX. THE WATER SUPPLY : IN PRACTICE. The rainfall on the roofs as a source of supply — The construction of the storage tank — Not very practicable to annex a filter to the tank — The size of the tank — A pump a necessary adjunct of the tank — The ordinary horse and duck pond — How it may be turned to better account — The surface well — Water from a bore — Boring for water on the small scale referred to usually rather uncertain in results — Gravitation supplies — Collecting water from surface springs — The nature of the collecting tank — Its construction — How to place it in order to lessen digging — The water pipes leading to the tank — The supply pipes : lead piping — Iron piping — The effects of soil and of water on iron pipes — The effects of the same on lead piping — Points to be observed in laying supply pipes — Sometimes practicable to apply the syphon to the purposes of the water supply — The ordinary lift pump — Providing water in the fields . pp. 182 — 203 CHAPTER X. "power" at THE HOMESTEAD. The forces available for power at the homestead — The first principles involved in the subject — The force of gravity — The centre of gravity of a body — Density of a body — Specific gravity of a body — The action of bodies under the force of gravity — Newton's first law of motion — The forces that bear upon bodies in motion — The momentum of a moving body — Newton's second law — Newton's third law — No loss of force in Nature, but easily convertible from one form to another — xiv CONTENTS. Man's first machines for turning forces to his service— The pulley— The lever — The inclined plane— The screw— The wedge — What man was enabled to do with these simple machines— Force derived from heat— The expansive property of gases a source of much power— The use of coal in this connection— The tendency of heat and force alike to come to a state of uniformity or dead level- Summing up— The retardative effect of friction in machines— What a horse- power represents ....•••■ //• 204 — 226 CHAPTER XI. •'power" at the homestead — continued. Power now in demand for many more purposes than formerly at the homestead — Horse-power now all but obsolete — The advantages of water-power — The three modifications of the ordinary water-wheel —The undershot wheel— The overshot wheel — The breast wheel — The mechanical advantage of the ordinary water-wheel — A drawback of the water-wheel — The turbine water-wheel — A representative form of the turbine — The wind-wheel — The water-ram— The expansive force of gases as power — Steam — The steam-engine — Engine boilers — The Cornish boiler — Combined engine and boiler — Locomotive engines — Steam for heating, scalding, and cooking purposes -The petroleum-vapour or oil- engine — The gas-engine — The differences in principle between these engines — The piston and crank of the engine — The fly-wheel ••■//■ 227 — 255 CHAPTER XH. THE BARN RANGE. The barn range the centre of the group — The position of the barn door — The usual arrangements for thrashing — The itinerant thrasher — The position of the fixed thrashing mill — The barn windows — The ground floor— The upper or granary floor — The straw-house attached to the barn — The style of roof best adapted to the range — The granary — Side ventilators for the granary —The finishing of the roof — Light to the granary — Ridge ventilators to the granary — The granary stair — Conveniences for filling and emptying the granary — Trimming the joists for hatchways in the granary floor— Provision for loading and disloading carts in connection with the granary — Outer stairs and doors of granaries generally troublesome — Arrangements for the delivery of food-stuffs by gravitation from the granarv — The buildings subsidiary to the barn — Different plans of arranging these buildings — Their construction : the walls — The roof — The floors — Light and ventilation .......... pp. 256 — 278 CHAPTER Xin. BUILDINGS WEST OF THE BARN. The nature of these buildings — How the cow fares for room in her winter quarters — The byre floor — The grip — The lairs to be as level as practicable — Underdrains in the byre to be avoided as much as possible — The byre passages — The byre with a central feeding passage — The single byre with one passage — The double byre with single passage — Communication between byre and barn — The byre fittings ; the troughs — The travises — The wood travis — The various methods of arranging and fixing the posts — The usual size of the travis — Travises with iron posts — A fodder-rack seldom fitted up in the cow byre — The air space of byres — The floor space — Byres for larger cows than Ayrshires — Byres for fattening cattle— Variance in the methods of housing fattening cattle very much a matter CONTENTS XV of custom — The loose-box advantageous — The arrangement of loose-boxes — Their manner of construction— Supplying water in the byres and boxes — How the single row of boxes may be doubled ...... pp. 279 — 302 CHAPTER XIV. BUILDINGS EAST OF THE BARN. The power or motor-house — The placing of the doorways thereof — The floor of the motor-house — The implement shed — Other purposes to which the implement shed and the hospital may be occasionally put : the dipping of sheep for instance — Arrangement of the inner doorways of this range — Too many inner doorways often a source of danger during an outbreak of fire — The outer door- ways of the implement shed— The outer doorway of the motor-house— The roof of these buildings — The roof of the shed supplementary to the motor-house — The sheep-dipping tank — The dimensions of the tank — A drain from the bottom of the tank almost necessary — The formation of the drain— How it may be trapped — How to deal with the effluent from the tank — The hospital — The loose-box — The hay-house — A hay-shed in connection therewith — The stable : the floor thereof — The drains — The dip of the floor — The usual form of travis — An improved form of travis — The stall fittings — .\ hay-loft over the stable not at all desirable — The ridge ventilators — The harness-room — -The cart-shed — The odd place //. 303—326 CHAPTER XV. THE DAIRY BUILDINGS, PIG-HOUSE, AND DUNGSTEAD. The position of the dairy buildings with regard to the other houses — The scullery — The vat-room, or churning-room — A drain for leading the whey to the pig-houses — The milk-room — The floor of the milk-room — The walls — The windows — The ventilation of the room — The shelves — The ceiling — The cheese-room — The side walls and the ceiling thereof — The windows — The ventilation of the room — All well-appointed cheese-rooms nowadays fitted up with reversible shelves — A description of these shelves — Heating the cheese-room — The pig-house — May be either double or single ; and how arranged — A good kind of trough — The pig- house floor — The partitions between the pens — The pen doors— The dungstead — The formation of the bottom or floor — A liquid manure tank a desirable accessory to the dungstead — .\ cheap and simple method of roofing the dungstead. PP- 327—350 CHAPTER XVI. THE CATTLE COURTS, THE HAY AND SHEAF SHEDS, AND THE SHEEP "FANKS." The cattle courts require a favourable exposure — The number and size of the courts at the homestead ruled by the amount of straw available — The construction of the courts of an inexpensive nature — No artificial flooring needed — A section of a court and shed — The arrangement for supplying the wants of the animals in the courts — Food stores in connection with the courts — Supplying water in the courts — The fittings of the court shed — The troughs — The fodder-racks — The court gate — The kind of timber that may be used in the construction of the shed — The hay and sheaf sheds : home-grown wood eftective as pillar or post — The fixing of the posts — Height of the sheds — Their width — Their roofs — An impor- tant point is to keep the roof as clear of ties as possible — The iron pillar — Com- mon tj-pes of sheds — The slated shed usuall)- hampered with roofing timbers — A little ventilation in the roof beneficial — Eaves-gutters and conductors essential — The lining of parts of the sheds — The position of the sheds relative to the homestead — Other kinds of shedding at the homestead — Conveniences for the handling of sheep — The fanks or mustering-place of the sheep — The fence of the outer enclosure — The pen divisions — The floor of pen and alley //. 351 — 375, fi- 8r u a o 9- 8- • - a- vn O IT i_i £0 H 1 I M I Plan I I r' (0 i 7^ •c o TS • o c (U i 1 oo o if) in > 1 o t3 C i 31 ^ '^i SP ,^ n i T3 c o •a 1 (P "~i ^ J |_£LJI =PP=P°P 3L-----u:"V.--:-::i|:T-r:i-:|:-:j-- i^bttK Plan III. I 1 Plan IV. THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. CHAPTER I. The Essentials of a Good Homestead. J The interests involved in the planning and erection of affected in a farm homestead or steading are threefold, affecting as Its erection. ^j-^gy Jq landlord and tenant and the domesticated animals. On the proprietor's behalf, one has to take care that the set of buildings is in keeping with the requirements of the holding. The same, of course, holds good with the tenant. If the liousing does not enable him unrestrictedly to make the most out of the farm something is wrong. And concurrently with these runs the welfare of the animals whose accommodation is provided for. It goes without saying that if they are not comfortable a full return cannot be expected from them. As regards the landlord's interests, the first principle Landlord's involved is to guard against the erection of what is interest. " ^ not absolutely necessary to the profitable working of the farm. Building is an expensive item in the estate accounts, and requires a tight hand over it. It ought always to be well done ; but it can be simple as well as thorough. The second leading principle is the arrangement or grouping of the respective houses in such a way that the purpose of each can be slightly modified at any time to meet the demands of prospective tenants. When this is done much unneces- sary intermittent outlay in alterations and additions is obviated. Some system is then being followed, and an occasional improvement may easily be effected either without sacrificing work already completed or marring the symmetry of the whole. In this direction, more than any other, perhaps, does the special skill of the estate manager reveal itself. Up to this point the interests of landlord antl tenant are Tenant's nearly identical. So long as it answers the end, the tenant interest. is pleased with something that is strong and substantial and that calls seldom for repair. He can hardly, however, be expected to have an eye towards the adaptive character of the homestead, such as M.H. B 2 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. it is natural to look for in the proprietor. Provided the place meets the wants of the tenant in possession, he is content witli things as they are. How it may affect his successors in the premises is not his business. ^Vhat he is most concerned about is the suitability of the housing to his method of working the farm. This implies that the steading can be used by the tenant at the least expenditure of labour practicable under the circumstances that apply to places of the kind. Further, th.it it be htted to accommodate his stock, whether live or dead— both animals and implements— without detriment to either. The interests of landlord and tenant thus being almost alike IhVJ'^^J^^^^ in the matter of homestead accommodation, and those of almost the tenant and his stock being wholly so, it therefore identical. comes about that the interests of the three are not very antagonistic. What room for difference there is lies between the first- mentioned two. It goes no farther either than the occupier, in some cases, seeking for more accommodation than the landlord thinks fit to burden the farm with. It may sound strange in some ears to use the word " burden " in this connection. But what direct return is ever available for outlay on the buildings proper of the farm ? Does the efficient nature of the steading ever induce the off'erer for the lease of a farm to allow an extra shilling per acre therefor ? We have heard theorists say that such is the case, but we never came across it on the part of the rent-paying farmer. It cuts the other way occasionally, as some of us can tell from experience ; at least, it affords a certain class of offerer an opening to belittle the advantages of a farm possessed of a well-appointed set of buildings (these implying, as he will maintain, much cost in upkeep) if negotiations necessitate interviews between parties. We do not wish to infer that the farm is as valuable when the steading is unserviceable and out of repair as when it is in good order and well adapted to the development of the place. All the same, it must be apparent to any one that in a business of this nature there is ample room for the exercise of the maxim that induces efficiency with economy. We would not unduly press economy — never, at any Economy rate, at the expense of efficiency. Nor would we be too in Building . i • r i • ^^ never to be conservatne on the pomt oi accommodation. On pressed at the contrary, we are inclined to think that custom of Efficiency, deals rather hardly with the tenant in this respect. The conditions under which agriculture is prosecuted have changed very much in recent years, and are likely to keep changing. Labour is so much dearer now that it has to be economised in every shape and form. Farm implements are now more costly tlian they used to be, and proper storage room must be afforded them at the steading. And every opportunity should be given to the tenant to enable him to secure his crops as quickly and as cheaply as possible. THE ESSENTIALS OE A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 3 Shedding should be at the service of his crops as well as his animals. When labourers were plentiful and easy to pay, the storing of hay and corn in ricks was looked upon as the one method available ; but now, when harvesters are in some places hardly to be met with, the farmer who has neither hay nor sheaf shed at his disposal is at times sadly handicapped in the ingathering of his crops. He is able with the help of mowers, tedders, and self-binders, to face the difficulty of se\ering them from the ground ; but when it comes to the time of carrying them home and ricking them in the stackyard, he is often at his wits' end how to overcome the work. He is obliged sometimes to build a range of stacks in the newly-reaped cornfields, which seems always to us a slovenly proceeding. In fact, the ricking of hay and corn at the steading, other than in sheds of some sort, will, in our opinion, soon be seen at none but those farms that are held from and by the least enterprising landlords and tenants. Affairs may be hardly ripe yet for that state of matters, but we are inclined to think that it will soon take place. Already tenants are frequently provided with shedding of the nature referred to on payment of interest on the outlay involved ; seldom, however, to the full extent that the circumstances of the farm warrant. The demand for accommodation of this kind is growing, however, and before very long we may expect to see provision being as freely made for the housing of hay and corn crops as for the cattle, and equally a matter of course. We often picture to ourselves the changes there would manner our have been at our homesteads had the reaping machine Homesteads evolved on the line of securing the ears of grain irrespec- might have . ^ . . . 11 i- developed tive 01 the straw. Had it, tor mstance, developed mtc had the something after the description of the Australian stripper. Machine what a saving would have resulted to agriculture evolved on generally. Were it practicable to make sure of the ears first and afterwards to deal with the straw as occasion offered, British agriculture would be completely revolu- tionised. To begin with, the range of barn buildings, usually the biggest about the steading, could then be cut down considerably. Thrashing would, under these conditions, be a comparatively simple operation. At present every sheaf, every straw indeed, has to be beaten unmercifully in order that grain and stalk may be effectually separated. Much power, a good deal of machinery, and roomy buildings are required for the operation. How different it would be had the farmer the ears of corn alone to deal with in this way. A tithe of the motive power would be sufficient. Thrashing would then be done by a rubbing instead of a beating motion, and, considering the difference in bulk of the matter to be handled, the sheaf-loft, a good deal of the machinery space, and much of the granary room could be dispensed with. The operation of separating the grain from B 2 4 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. the ear and husk would be about as simple as that of chaffing or chopping hay and straw, or of bruising oats. It would, in fact, require less expenditure of force than either, and might be done in a space as circumscribed as generally is allotted to one or the other. The donkev-engine could be substituted for the one of many horse- power. In these, as in some other directions which will occur to the mind of him who is at home in such matters, would building be saved. There would, of course, have to be storage room of some kmd for the ears of corn, but rough shedding would suffice — some sort of building that would allow the wind to whistle through while it stopped the advent of rain, would do. On the other hand, much less granary accommodation w^ould be called for. The grain would keep better in the ear than when detached therefrom, and the separation of the two being so easy, and so capable of quick performance, that operation would be delayed until the grain was actually wanted. The advantages of such a system as we refer to, could it be instituted, would, however favourable they might be to the proprietor, be even more marked in the case of the farmer himself. His labour bill would, it is needless to say, be very much lessened. He is at all times at the mercy of the elements. But under the conditions we are presuming he would, at any rate during harvest season, be comparatively easy in mind on that point. Not having to wait on the straw until he could make sure of the ear, he could then laugh at the weather, as it were. At present, should it be unfavourable, he is obliged to wait on patiently until the straw has become sufficiently seasoned to admit of its keeping in bulk, while all the time, it may be, the grain is daily decreasing in value. Were the straw by itself it would matter little or nothing what sort of weather it had to face. It would be seasoned in time. It could be seasoned, too, and much quicker, without having recourse to the slow and troublesome process of binding it into sheaves, and placing these on end in small groups, as is customary. It could be left lying as it fell behind the mower. If not likely to season as it lay, a round of the tedder would put it out of danger. Afterwards, were a baler at disposal, how handy it w^ould be could the straw, thus tidily put together, be stored in a shed until required. What was to be used as litter for live stock would, of course, be dealt with more summarily. It could simply be carted to the steading and be piled up in shed, or be packed together in long ricks. In the meantime the ears of corn, safely housed, would be seasoning under the most favourable circumstances. How different, we repeat, is all this from the prevailing method of harvesting our grain crops ! \\'e have to undertake the laborious operation of severing the crops from the ground and tying them into small bundles as we proceed, taking care to keep the ears at one end of the sheaf. Of recent years this work has, indeed, been considerably lightened. Since the days of the sickle much improvement has certainly THE ESSENTIALS OE A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 5 been made in harvesting appliances. First came the manual-deHvery reaper, next the self-delivery, followed later by the self-binder. Each of thebc was a most decided advancement on its predecessors. But still the ad\ancement was in the contrary direction to what we would ha\e had it go. And while we are enabled to reap more readily than before, the ad\antage is gained somewhat at the expense of the "winning " of the corn. Machine-cut corn packs closer together than either sickle or scythe-cut corn, and machine-bound corn closer still. We get it cut and tied much quicker, but then, packed more regularly and tighter than before, the straw takes longer to dry. What a blessing it would be therefore to agriculture could we fall upon a feasible method whereby we could separate the ear from the straw, carrying the former away to the steading at once out of all risk of damage from exposure, and lea\ing the latter by itself to mature at leisure ! It can stand what the other cannot. As things go neither gets a proper chance. The grain has to wait on the straw ; and lest the grain suffer too much the straw has often to be taken before it is ready, with the consequence of heated ricks and damage to straAv and corn alike. It may not be practicable for us to adopt the '• stripper" method of harvesting grain. Our corn crops are usuallv too much knocked about for them to be on their feet at harvest time ; and to comb out a tangled mass of laid corn would be a hopeless job. The separation of the two parts of the plant might be attained by a modification of the self-binder, under which, instead of binding the bunches of corn, it decapitated them, afterwards shaking out and releasing the straw, but retaining the ears. These, the machine that can tie up corn could no doubt be modified to secure in bags and deliver at stated intervals. Our corn crops are heavier than those grown on the continents either of Europe or America, or in Australasia, where the self-binder and the stripper consequently work easier in the thinner and more upstanding stuff. If not possible for us, however, to retrograde in the way of thinner and much shorter crops, it is open to us, as instance the results obtained by the Messrs. Garton, to help matters by paymg attention to the selection of \arieties of corn of medium length, but stout enough in straw to carry its head erect until delivered over to the reaper. Such a departure from the existing methods of procedure would, of course, necessitate the erection of more shedding accommodation at the steading. As we have indicated, storage room would be required for the loose ears. These would keep securely in considerable bulk, and the grain improve all the time. The several grams would be kept apart, and air, if allowed access all round, could freely circulate throughout the mass. A shed after the nature of an ordinary hay-barn, but with a wood floor raised a little from the ground, and the sides and ends enclosed with some perforated material, such as fine-meshed wire net, and protected from rain by means of louvre boards, would answer 6 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. admirably. Provision would also have to be made for keeping the straw secure. Seasoned loose, it would more than ever be needful of house-room of some kind at the steading. It is bad enough when the sheaves have to be secured by themselves in the absence of sheds, but much more labour would be required when loose, or e\"en trussed, straw had to be handled. But even had much extra shedding, of the kind spoken of, to be put up, buildings of that nature are not neces- sarily very costly. They would prove to the proprietor a favourable set-off" against the more expensive group that at present embraces the thrashing-barn and granaries. These we do not mean to infer would, under the change of circumstances we have been assuming, be alto- gether dispensed with. They would, however, be considerably curtailed, so much so indeed as to clearly outweigh any outlay on extra shedding. Besides, we are inclined to maintain that there is already too little shedding of the kind at the farm steading. We advocate roofage for both corn and hay. Had the farmer abundance of this, harvest labour and anxiety Avould both be lessened. And had he further ease from these in the way we have been seeking to point out, his lot would be vastly impro\ed. We have been digressing a little, perhaps, and that, too, on the very eve of our work. But our end in view being the furthering of rural economv, and the better organisation of labour being apparently one of the most vital present-day aids to agriculture, we need offer no excuse. This, in fact, with a care over the proprietor's interests, will be our keynote all through. It may have been gathered, then, that next to economy economy and ^^^ efficiency in the erection thereof, the great matter to efficiency in be kept in view, when grouping together the buildings the Homestead *^*^ ^'^^ homestead, is the easy staffing of the place — the comes the rendering it capable of being worked at the least expense oAlie place" ^^^ labour. It is not difficult to lay down rules in this connection. The observance of these is, however, quite a different affair. When it comes to putting them in practice, hardly two cases are to be met with that are on identical lines. We may in many instances manage to follow out one or two of the leading ideas bearing upon the arrangement of the buildings. As a rule, howe\er, the more subsidiary of these have to accommodate themselves to the circumstances of the site. More especially is this true when we have an old set of buildings to deal with. This, we need hardly say, is of commoner occurrence than the erection of the homestead anew. Besides being obliged to conform to the exigencies of the site, we are in these cases held in check by the position of the main buildings relative to the steading as a whole. The skill of the planner of farm steadings comes out more prominently in the re-arranging and improving of old sets of buildings than in the erection of completely new places. Tlie fundamental laws that govern a good steading can be easily observed in THE ESSENTIALS OE A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 7 the erection of a new one : but in the altering of an old one tliese have to be modified in various ways as circumstances will admit. What these laws are may be put as the placing of the straw-house in as central a place as possible for the serving of the live stock. Next to this comes the placing of the dungstead, or manure-pit, in an equally central position as regards the buildings that have to be regularly cleared of soiled litter. The principal labour at the steading consists in these two operations — supplying the animals with straw and the removal of their droppings, together with the straw they have messed. \\'hen matters, therefore, have been adjusted so as to make the accomplish- ment of these aims as convenient as possible, a considerable reduction of labour has been attained. \\'hen, in addition to these facilities towards the economy of labour, it is possible to place the hay-barn, the turnip-house, the cake and meal store, and the food-preparing shed equally handy for the purposes they are there to serve, little more can be done in the way of conserving the tenant's interests. The little there is lies in constructing the buildings in such a manner that they are easily kept in repair, and at the same time making them conducive to the health of the live stock housed therein. Constructing the build- ings plainly, but substantially, ensures the former condition, and attention to the elementary laws of sanitation provides for the latter. There is no necessity for spending more money in the erection of the homestead than is absolutely needful. We do not, however, advocate the pushmg of economy to the verge of ugliness in all that pertains to the steading. The buildings may be plain and serviceable, and yet not altogether objectionable from an artistic point of view. Neither, on the other hand, \\ould we sacrifice utility and economy for the sake of appearance. A little money judiciously spent will take away the bare- ness, if nothing else, from the harshest place of the kind. But first of all let us arrange the houses in such a manner that each one separately, and as a part of the whole group, will serve its end at the least outlay of labour. Following on this we have to make sure that the animals proposed to be confined within the buildings will have the opportunity of being comfortable as well as healthy. Then we must see to their erection for the least amount of money without sacrificing either efficiency or permanency. After that, or at any rate after the probable cost of that has been arrived at, comes in what those who control the purse are willing to spend gratuitously in improving the appearance of the countryside, or at least toning down somewhat the too frequent ugliness of these excrescences on the landscape. On Plan I. we give the ground plan of a steading which will serve to illustrate the principles of the saving of labour which we have been refer- ring to. It is one after the type characteristic chiefly of North Country arable farming. As we shall see further on, it is capable of adaptation to suit the varying practices of other parts, whether of rearing or fattening 8 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. live stock or a combination of both. The plan shows the range of barn buildings — the thrashing-floor and straw-barn with granary Plan I. (for aboAe — situated with one end convenient to the stackyard, the Corn- . . •' ' growing and and the Other projecting far enough mto the courtyard to be Cattle-feeding }-,3^j-^jy fQj- j-}^g delivery of straw to both cattle and horses. Farm). ■' . ... The manure-pit occupies, it will be seen, an equally con- venient position at the opposite end of the steading. The sheaves are thus handed in at the north side to be stripped of their grain, after which the straw is passed on to both byre and stable, eventually to find its way, in one shape or another, from these places to the manure heap. Each place is in turn brought within easy i^each of the other, and time and labour, both of which are suggestive of money, are in this way economised. The rickyard Ave have represented by a range of shedding supposed to be capable of holding the average annual corn crop of the farm. These sheds are separated from the sheaf-barn by the breadth of a road only. The sheaves can be carted directly into the barn and be tipped up on the floor, or it can be so contrived by laying a series of tram-rails that they can be delivered at the feeding board of the thrashing mill in hand trolleys. No horse is needed under a system of this kind. A woman or a boy can fill, wheel, and discharge a trolley by her or himself; and two, or three at the outside, of these wheeled conveyances are ample under ordinary circumstances to keep the mill going. The sheaves are not always so handy to reach, however, but that it is advisable to have the services of a youth in helping to load the trolleys. Or by means of a travelling endless band the sheaves may be carried direct from shed to mill-board. Built against the part of the barn that projects into the courtyard on one side is the engine-house, whether steam or vaporised oil be the power employed to drive the mill, and at the other the food-preparing sheds, where pulping, corn bruising, cake crushing, and allied operations go on. And at right angles to this range are produced on the south- east side the implement shed and places connected therewith, and on the north-west side the cow-byre and any other house there is room for in the same row. Down the west side of the square is led the housing of the cattle, whether in the shape of loose boxes or byres, or a combina- tion thereof. On the opposite side we have placed the stables, cart- shed, and other accommodation of the kind. Placed in the centre of the open side of the courtyard is the dungstead, leaving ample space in which to pass by it at each side. Room for the pigs is found against the back wall of the building. The dungstead is alongside the main road to the homestead, and in consequence its contents are all the more easily discharged. At the other side of the road we have the open courts for cattle — the curtains, hammels, and so on, as they are vari- ously termed. A hayshed might be placed parallel to the outer wall of the east side of the square, handy to the stable, and then we have done. THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. g This affords a good typical farm homestead where British It affords a -i^ • . . suitable type ^iS^ricultiire IS concerned. We do not claim perfection for British for it. We maintain, however, that it is on the right ge^nerany. hnes for conforming with the principles we started upon, and few, we think, will dispute the correctness of them. If nothing more, it gives a lead that way which many, after hearing us out to the end, may be glad to follow. There is no crowding anywhere ; and fresh air and sunlight are allowed free play. As we proceed we shall point out the simplicity of its structure, and how few repairs it requires to keep it abreast of the ordinary tear and wear of the affair as a whole. It will be admitted, we have no doubt, that it is a place that can be easily manned. Some are loud in the praises of homesteads either partially or entirely covered in. Our preference always lay for such a one as we are setting forth. Each building gets a fair chance of sun and air, both of which are conducive to the welfare of building material and animal life alike, and there is a large yard in which animals have freedom to frisk and romp in or to show themselves to the advantage of their owners. There they can be let loose to drink their fill or be made to show their paces without let or hindrance. Farm fires are a source of loss even to the fully insured business-like tenant, and every one is anxious to nip them in the bud. An outbreak of fire once fairly started makes sad work with a covered-in steading. There is no keeping it within bounds once the flames obtain the mastery. But at the open place we represent fire may under many circumstances rage uninterruptedly at one part of the steading until it burns itself out without causing hurt to other parts. And as regards initial cost, the subsequent cost of upkeep, and the general duration of the estab- lishment itself, which of the two has the advantage is capable of proof without much demonstration. A Hash of one's own brain is sufficient to clear up doubt on these points. The slater and the plumber are bound to be frequent visitors to the homestead that is roofed over. It is not of course in every position that a place so planned can be carried out to the full. All depends on the site that may be at disposal. Many things have to be taken into account in deciding upon the site of the homestead. Generally speaking, more foresight is shown in the selection of the site than in the arrangement of the buildings it has been set apart for. This is, more than likely, due to the fact that the matter of placing the steading with a view to its being convenient to the requirements of the farm comes more directly home to the agricultural mind than does the more technical work of grouping the houses to the best advantage. The one appeals to the general intelligence of those who have to do with country affairs ; the other is more in the province of the man who can narrow his ideas and exercise the patience and painstaking necessary to deal with details. lo THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. Conxenience with regard to the farm in all its parts is the that eovern ^^^^ consideration bearing on a choice of a proper site for Choice of Site the homestead. There are. however, many counter\"ail- HomesteaT ^"» circumstances bearing thereon that are apt to be overlooked. A plentiful as well as efficient water supply has to be kept in view when the site of a homestead is in question. And the counterpart to this in the form of a ready way of getting rid of sewage has also to be borne in mind. The frequent behests of the sanitary officer of these times on matters of water supply and defective drainage emphasise that these points have too often been overlooked in the past. Easy access to some good through road and proximity to a railway station are also important points in this connection. So, too, is the availability of a good head of water as a source of motive power at the steading. A plentiful supply of water power at the farm is an immense advantage to the tenant. Where it is available no expensive engine has to be there to lock up capital in. Neither is there the constant expense for fuel and attendance connected there '.vith to be faced. A head of water means more or less irregularity in the outline or configuration of the ground, a condition which is against the finding of many situations otherwise suitable that would give the amount of fairly level ground on which to build our suggested homestead. As repre- sented it is supposed to be on ground almost level from west to east,, but with a slight " hang " or slope from north to south. This admits of the floors in each range being nearly all kept on the one respective rake or incline. \\ hen we come to deal with ground of irregular outline a certain amount of latitude can be given by extra building and making up of the surface where this is necessary. Taking the north-east side first, so long as we get the byre and barn floors to a mutual level it is easy to deal with the remainder of the row should the ground be either above or below that on the other side of the barn. It can either be made up or be excavated as circumstances require. If the former, extra build- ing to a corresponding height is a necessity. It may happen, of coarse, that the ground on the opposite side is that requiring to be altered. Down both the long sides of the rectangle it is evident that it is practicable to build on ground with a gentle slope. Where the cattle are located the continuous floor is laid with a run corresponding to the ground outside. At the other side the stable floor is of necessity kept level longwise and with it, in order to prevent the inconvenience of steps, the hay-house at one end and the harness-room at the other. But these three places together do not occupy so much of the row as to give trouble in this respect. The loose box at one side of them and the cart-shed at the other readily adapt themselves to the adjustment of the floor levels of that row to the rake of the courtyard surface. All artificial levelling means, however, extra cost — that of altering the surface THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. ii and the extra building whicli this impHes at some part or other of the different blocks. The principal point to be kept in mind is to have a site that will admit of an easy slope from barn to byre and stable, continued from these to the dungstead. The produce consumed at the homestead and the waste and spent materials resulting therefrom are all coming this way, and it is easier to bring them down hill than to carry them up. It is the natural way, too, for the drainage matters, whether from the interior of houses, from the housetops or from the courtyard — all should pass to the end where the spent material finds exit. The clean pro- vender comes in at the head, and as it serves its end is passed on to the foot ; and with it should go waste water and sswage ; not necessarily together these two, however, but the one to be let loose and the other retained. ^. , ,. From the elevations delineated on Plan Ia. (which is Tiie leading ) features of sufficiently representative of the two succeeding plans we give to allow us to dispense with repetitions amended to the slight modifications they imply) it may be readily grasped how simple are the roof lines we suggest. The simpler these, the cheaper in construction, the more effective in purpose, and the easier kept in order will they be. The fewer breaks and joints therein the less risk will there be of rain finding an entrance. The walls are not high, nine feet to wallhead being in one-storeyed places about the limit we care to reach. This in byre and stable, if both are open to the roof, as we think they ought always to be, gives head- room and to spare within. If this be granted it is waste to carry the walls higher. We would have no animals housed in a building with floor overhead. \\'here two storeys are in one house the height of the lower one from floor to floor should never be less than nine feet, as before. But we show none of the buildings having two storeys excepting the thrashing-floor with the granary above. Here nine feet of headroom is too little for the kind of work that goes on. It is advisable to have room enough to enable a cart to be tipped up, and also to allow a goodly pile of sheaves being packed within, should this be at any time thought an advisable proceeding. Some would prefer the granary to be over the straw-barn instead of the sheaf-loft, while others again would have it extend over both from end to end of the barn range. It is best, therefore, to make the range so that the lofting or granary space could be laid over all or part as circumstances at the time of erection or at later dates might make justifiable demand. The foregoing is a homestead typical, we have said, of the requirements of the well-managed arable farm. Setting aside the cattle accommoda- tion in the meantiriie, the other buildings are, as shown, suited to any part of the country. It might be necessary, in order to meet fully the 12 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. wants of a horse-breeding district, to proxide one or two extra loose boxes about the place. There might in that case be one taken off the implement-shed, and what is marked as the artificial manure store might also be sacrificed to the same interest. Rather than this, however, it would be better to erect a range of these, of more perishable material than stone and lime, at some convenient place handy to the other build- ings. Even in a district where horse-breeding predominates it is not every farmer thereabouts that goes into the business very extensively. When, therefore, a real demand for several of these arises, it is better to provide a few supplementary to the steading than to turn other buildings away from the well-defined objects of their own. Now that increasing capital is being invested in labour-saving implements, it is but right that serviceable keeping-places be set apart for them. Further, it is due to the farmer who spends much money on artificial manures that he is provided with a proper place in which these can be housed and mixed, or otherwise dealt with. True, it is only for a month or two in the year that artificial manures are in evidence at the steading, but during the other months there are plenty of useful pur- poses other than sheltering animals to which it can be turned to account by the " managing" farmer. More granary room might be required in one district than another, but the 60 feet by 18 feet or 60 feet by 20 feet floorage available in the barn range, if taken advantage of to the full, implies a considerable storage area. The straw-barn as marked off might, indeed, be small enough for the requirements of some districts, especially such as those where it is common to see an endless web transporting the straw, and alongside a foot-bridge or rail for allowing the attendant to pass to and fro and deliver the straw from side to side and fill up the house in a regular manner. \\ ere this to be practised, there would not be head- room left if we ran a loft over the straw-house. At a pinch, howe\"er, there is the implement-sl:cd to have recourse to. There are no live stock in it, and granary accommodation could be proxided by adding half a storey thereto. It would hardly do not to carry the granary the full length of this range, but running a loft over the hospital would not be a great infringement of our rule never to house animals in buildings not open to the roof. Standing at a corner, the hospital could easily be well ventilated, although it did happen to be under the granary. But there is nothing to hinder the enlargement of the barn range both in length and breadth to suit the requirements of any farm, and thus keep the granary within the bounds of its own department. The stable, with hay-house communicating at one end and the harness-room at the other, would come up to the requirements of any district ; and so without doubt would the adjoining cart-shed. The dunghill, too, would be equally accommodating, as also would the pigsty abutting thereupon. THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 13 Coming now to the housing space for the cattle, while the parts of the homestead we have just been dealing with are capable, as we have planned them, of almost universal adoption so far as Britain is con- cerned, it is very different with this division of the buildings. In the extreme North of Scotland, for instance, the arable farmers work almost wholly with store cattle, rearing these to a certain age, on attaining which they are disposed of to be fattened by farmers more favourably situated as regards weather. In the north-east counties the rearing and fattening of cattle are more or less combined. Further south, again — in Fife, the Lothians, and the Border counties — the rearing of cattle is almost dis- pensed with, the " stores," or young, raw animals, being imported for the purpose of getting finished off or being manufactured into beef. This is not all, however, for while the north country beef producers tie up their fattening animals, those further south mostly lodge the animals in open sheds, with courts attached. Usually a few loose boxes are set apart as well. At some places there are many courts and few loose boxes ; at others the latter predominate. From this it may be implied that, taking the country at large, there is more diversity in the arrange- ment of the part of the steading set aside for cattle than occurs in all the rest put together. Even in the one department of beef preparing there is much disparity in the matter of housing the cattle during their enforced spell of gluttony. The "custom of the country"' has as much to do with this variance in the quartering of stock being made ready for the butcher as anything else we are aware of. In fact, we can think of nothing else bearing on this, unless it be the amouni of straw available. That, however, could only affect the choice of open courts if balanced against the other two. The tied-up animal will spoil or tread down as much straw as the one confined in a loose box ; therefore there is little between the two in that respect. It is easy to understand that the treatment in this respect of growing stock will naturally be different from that of animals kept for the laying on of beef ; and that the treatment of cows will differ from either. But why in one district fattening animals should be tied up by the neck like milch cows, and in another they should have comparative liberty in loose boxes, while not far from either we come to where it is customary to give them the freedom of open courts, it is difficult to tell, unless it be due to what we have suggested. And the custom of an\- particular district has, we suspect, originated in the class of buildings at the disposal of the farmers thereof at the time they took up this branch of their industry. It is not so very long since the art of fatten- ing cattle at the homestead sprung into universal practice in the best agricultural districts of our country. Until root crops became a fixed part of our rotations, and artificial feeding stuffs followed later on, it was impossible to adopt the system. There was little except hay and straw then available as winter food for cattle. There were the various 14 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. grains at disposal, of course, but oats and beans, dry of themselves, need to be qualified with much pulpy food ere they can be turned to useful account by the domesticated ruminant. It was hard to keep on until the following spring a modicum of the flesh gained by the animal during the grazing season. A few cattle could, no doubt, by the aid of cooked messes of one kind or another, be advantageously tided oxer the lean season of winter and early spring at nearly every farm. The cows are an instance in point. There cannot have been many, however, at the ordinary kind of home- steads. But the manner in which these few were then housed would un(]uestionably govern the after method of so disposing of the increased number of winter-fed cattle. Custom dies hard, and the mixture of method we speak of still prevails. There must be one system better than another, one would think. If so, it is reasonable to maintain that the one under which the animals are most comfortable is the best. It can hardly be that according to which the "beasts" are tied by the neck and obliged to stick to almost one position, whether standing or lying. Never at liberty to use its tongue, either as a counter-irritant or as an aid to toilet making, and at no time free to assume any sort of position in accordance with ease or inclination, an ox or a heifer so situated cannot be said to be under conditions of the most comfortable nature. Confined in a loose box, it can lie where and how it likes, and it can use either tongue or foot when any part itches. And if unable to reach the spot with these organs, there are the walls and rails that border the box to rub against. Somewhat similar are the conditions of its confinement in the open court. It is apter there to have masterful companions and to feel changes of weather, but it gets more air and has the chance now and again of basking in the sun's rays. The best of the three for placing the animal under circumstances most likely to make it grow fat is unquestionably the loose box, where distractions are limited, the air is warm, hunger is unknown and repletion encouraged, and a soft bed is ever at hand. There is but the one plan adopted in housing the cow. She has to be tied by the neck in a line with others, her head against the wall, or against a breastwork of boards if there be a feeding passage in front of the row, and her hind feet at the edge of the " grip " or channel which collects the droppings. This allows her, in accordance with the breed she is of, from 7 feet to 7 feet 6 inches from head to tail, and all the breadth slie has in the rank is from 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches. This is the limit of her bed. In it she has both to lie and stand. On foot she cannot edge to the right or to the left without encroaching on her neighbour's room, and laid down she has to content herself with almost one position. There is no tossing to and fro and stretching limbs in bed with her. Jammed up thus in line, she can neither stretch nor lick herself, nor can she satisfy much of her mild curiosity as to what is THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 15 going on around her. But had she more elbow-room, she would mess her bed and annoy her neighbours in her endeavours to see better round about. Were her head-gear looser, she would soon have her tail where her head ought to be. As it is, the present close packing has to be supplemented by short barricades (the travises), so as to stiffen up the row. She knows no better, however, and gets along somehow. Taking the cows into account, our provisional plan allows for all three methods of lodging the animals. We pillory only the cows, however, and that because there is no other method practicable, bad in theory though it be. We have given space for twenty. That may be too many for some farms. Where it happened so, the spare stalls could be occupied with fattening heifers. We next provide a range of loose boxes for cattle, each capable of holding two at least. And separated from these by the breadth of the road that passes the low end of the homestead we have planned a series of open courts. This affords a fair variety of cattle accommodation suited to the wants of the different classes and ages of stock. The young, as well as their good-natured seniors, could have the run of the courts, while the more quarrelsome or excitable were placed under the more pacific influences of the loose box. We have shown no part as being specially set aside for calves. But the loose box or two nearest to the cow-house or byre would always be at their service. If these could not be spared, then it would not be difficult to locate a shed somewhere within handy reach of the byre. , ^, Here, then, we repeat, is a homestead which we consider is How the Plan > . t- > . . might be typical of the requirements of the British farmer ot arable modified. land, easily capable, as we have laid it down on the plan, of adaptation either to the varieties we find in that class of farming or to the different-sized farms which it may include. With little or no modi- fication, except enlargement as needful, it will meet the wants of such advanced farmers as those of Berwick and Roxburgh, of the Lothians and Fife, Forfar, Aberdeen, Banff, Moray, Inverness, and Easter Ross and Cromarty. And as regards Caithness, where the stores are hoTised similarly to their dams, all that is requisite to make it equally suitable in that stormy part is to fit up the easterly range as a byre instead of a set of loose boxes, and dispense with the open courts, should they in the circumstances be deemed superfluous. It is a type, moreover, for which we lay claim to capability of being worked at a minimum outlay of labour, and of being erected at a comparatively small outlay in money. And, still sticking to the North, very little alteration, as (for the partly- shown on Plan II., is needed to make it equally suitable to Dairy Farm), ^i^^ ^jg ^^[^y farms of Galloway and Dumfries, where dairy- ing and arable farming are combined. The homestead could remain as it is, with the exception that room be made for more cows, and that dairy offices be provided. From forty to a hundred cows are kept on the i6 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. average farm of this class, usually sublet to a niiddleman called '* the bower." The extra accommodation for cows could be met by making the byre a double one, whicli would then admit of forty being housed therein to start with. As much of the loose-box range as necessity called for could be similarly dealt with, and the remainder be set aside for the younger stock. Shelter for an increased number of pigs would now become a necessity. A good place for this might be where the open courts are ; or, better perhaps, the pig-houses might be, as we show them, in one at right angles to the dunghill up the centre of the yard. This would block up the court a little, and go to divide it into two. But a division of this kind at a place where, so to speak, there are two interests concerned — the bower at one side taken up with the welfare of the cows, and the tillers of the soil at the other — is rather an advantage than otherwise. \\'here we have draw^n them on the plan they are within easy reach at one end of straw-barn and cooking-shed, and of the dung- stead at the other. An underground earthenware pipe would serve to convey the whev from the dairv to some convenient part of the pig-house. The site we choose for the dairy buildings keeps them well a^\•a^• from the tainted air that proceeds from the cooking-shed, the pig-houses, and the dunghill ; and while we thus keep them thoroughly isolated in this respect, they are at the same time quite convenient to the byres. It is but a step from byre to dairy offices, yet the one is quite cut off from the other so far as the odours prevalent in the byre are capable of affecting the delicate work that goes on in the dairy. ^Moreover, these offices are in their right place at the cold corner of the homestead. At the farm where the cows are hired to a bower, the tenant requires an odd place in which to keep a cow or two for his own household wants, and perhaps accommodation for a pig or two as well. This he likes to be entirely away from the bower's department. It can be got without much trouble somewhere at his own side of the steading ; or near to the farmhouse, especially if the establishment is of any importance, might be the proper place for it. There would need to be a two-stalled stable and gighouse beside the farmhouse at any rate, and the lot would go together. Coming to the dairy farm proper, such as prevails in (for the Dairy Ayrshire, Renfrew, Bute, and parts of Lanark, and is Farm proper;, occasionally found in some districts near to these, w^e are face to face with an entirely different class of homestead. The dwelling- house forms part of the block. The farms are small, and the tenants and their families do the big share of the work, and naturally prefer to live close to the seat of operations. The housewife likes, indeed, to be within earshot of her charges even by night, so that either she or her husband can attend at once when sounds of distress are heard. It is THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 17 satisfactory to her also to know that her husband, when rising frequently in the night time to attend to some ailing animal, or to note the condition of some one of them under suspicion, is not unduly exposed to the night air when scant of garment. And in those instances where the " grey mare is the better horse " and trusts but little to deputy in times of emergency, it is well, too, that such exemplary individuals are not put to too much risk in the same way. The health officer and his subordinates, the sanitary inspectors, are generally bitter against house and byre being in such direct communication, and not altogether without cause either. It is better policy, however, to ameliorate as far as possible rather than to break down completely an arrangement that has served its end so well in the past, and helped to make the people we are referring to the best managers of dairy cattle in our own country, if not. indeed, the world o\"er. It is not difficult to arrange matters in such a way that the owners of the animals are in close touch with them, and yet sufficiently isolated therefrom as to transgress the laws of sanitation but slightly. On Plan III. we show, as we have said, a place suitable for a dairy farm characteristic of the districts we have referred to. W'e still stick to the fundamental law we started with — that of keeping the straw- barn and dunghill within easy reach of the live stock, seeking in this way to minimise as far as possible the labour of attending to the animals. As we remarked at the beginning of this chapter, most of the work con- nected therewith is the carrying of fodder to them and the subsequent removal of their soiled litter and excrement, consequently the easier we can make the carrying out of these operations the better for all concerned. The art of reducing labour at the homestead is, in fact, the placing of the live stock quarters in close touch on the one hand with the commissariat department, and on the other with the refuse depot. We keep the part of the steading east of the barn range much as before, because the needs of the arable farmer are much the same in all our respective districts. It is at the other side where we come to mark off the peculiarities of the Scottish dairy farmer. We place the house at the north-east corner so that it may be handy both to the byre and the dairy offices. We keep it clear of the barn by introducing the small one-storeyed storehouse between the two. It might be practicable to have had house and barn joined to each other, but we prefer the arrangement given on the plan. The cattle accommodation takes up the west wing of the steading, following out much the same arrangement as we give on Plan II. It is cut off from the house by means of the open passage shown on the plan. The currents of air are likely to be always tending from one end to the other of this passage, carrying with them both the odours that are apt to issue from the byre door at one side and the smells following on M.H. c 1 8 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. cooking that emanate from the kitchen at the other. Both are in addition effectually cut off from the dairy offices in so far as tainted air is concerned by placing these buildings in the manner indicated. Dungstead and pig-houses we also incline to place in accordance with the arrangement on Plan II. Both in this and the preceding instance some calf pens would be essential. In this, part of the space allotted to food preparation might be spared for the purpose. In the other, the root house might be taken if an opan root store, as on Plan III., were substituted. It is necessary that ample accommodation for poultry be provided in this instance. Something of the kind is of course needed at the other types of homestead, but not very often in the proportion found necessary on the smaller dairy farm. Poultry-keeping is a fruitful source of income to the dairy farmer's wife, because she is favourably situated for looking after the birds, and it is but right that she gets the chance of developing this branch industry to the limit of her powers. It is a shame that the poultry are to be found so often stowed away in a loft in the byre. The cows are thereby robbed of their already scrimp enough air-space, and the poultry placed under very adverse circumstances as regards pure air and cleanly surroundings. There is often no proper way of access for women folk reaching the loft, and after more or less scrambling the floor has been gained, it is only towards the centre of the place that one can stand upright. Under these circumstances it is hardly likely that much attention can be paid to the periodical cleaning out of the place. It is enough to overtake the egg-collecting wathout in addition having to stir up latent dust and smells in a general turn-over of the place. The hens are kept warm in winter, which is to their benefit if accompanied with even fairly fresh air ; but this condition is entirely wanting when they are perched among the spent and vapour- laden air of the cow-house. And in summer, on account of their house being so close to the slates and little if any means of ventilation being left in the roof, the condition of the air within is sometimes really shocking. Something better than this ought, we maintain, to be at the disposal of the thrifty housewife. Such a condition exists because nothing better is placed to her hand. Give her suitable houses to start with, and the backward state of poultry management that characterises our agriculture generally will begin to improve. The sanitary inspector, where he can, is gradually interfering for good in this respect, but the matter might be rectified without waiting for his suggestions. What is given must further be convenient to the dwelling-house — somewhere adjoining the rickyard, perhaps. On the arable farm, what of this kind of accommodation we provide will for convenience be near to the farm kitchen, somewhere beside the small byre and stable. There is less need, however, of pro\iding in this way for the requirements of the THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD HOMESTEAD. 19 bigger farmer. If he condescends to poultry-keeping, and has a taste that way, he will no doubt have movable houses for the majority of his feathered friends, so that he can both keep the separate breeds apart and give any of them a change of ground as he thinks fit. p. jy There remains now the sheep farm pure and simple to (for the Sheep attend to. What is needed here is hardly worth a plan Farm). ^^ itself, and might be delineated as we go into detail over other matters in the following chapters. All the same we will do by it as with the others. What is really wanted on the moorland or hill farm, however, is, in fact, more or less of a miniature steading, and may as well be depicted in company with the others. Setting aside the farmhouse and the shepherd's cottage, what may be looked for at the place are the barns, a stable, and a cart-shed, room for a few cows and some young cattle, a pig-house, and plenty of shedding. The latter is wanted both for the temporary storage of wool, and for the handling of sheep on the great occasions of smearing or dipping, clipping, and the separation of the lambs from the ewes, and ought accordingly to be made inter-communicable. And in connection with the sheds there must be suitable pens or " fanks " in which to classify the sheep and retain them, as may be desired. When the steading is of any size, both a corn and a hay-shed are useful adjuncts thereto. They enable the respective crops to be easily and expeditiously made safe for the winter ; and to be able to abstract a few sheaves from the one or a bundle or two from the other without having to break into a rick of either, and thus make it vulnerable to the next high wind, is a great boon at a place of the kind. The farm may be so large that one gathering-place is not sufficient to serve the different " hirsels " or separate " gangs " of sheep. In that instance supplementary fanks and sheds must be put up at the most convenient places, besides the cottages of the more outlying shepherds, perhaps. Sheds and barns to any very appreciable extent can hardly, however, be called for at many of these isolated places. On Plan IV. we have, therefore, laid down the arrangement of a miniature homestead, typical of the wants of the class of farm it refers to — the simplest, yet to us the most interesting homestead of all — the one that calls to memory the pleasant pastoral sounds connected with the sheep-walk, as well as those associated with the lonely moor. It brings us in mind of the annual gathering of the flocks, whether to dress or wean the lambs, or to shear or dip their dams. And we hear in the ore connection in endless medley the shouts of the men and the laughter of the girls, the yapping of the dogs, the thick " baa " of the ewes, and the tremulous bleating of their offspring ; and in the other the wail of the whaup, the bumming of the snipe, and the " kuck-kuck " of the grouse. We have now exhausted the list we led off" with, and it remains to go closer into detail. To do this the more thoroughly our idea is to c 2 ■20 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. discuss separately the several buildings that make up the homestead, paying close attention to the fittings and other peculiarities of each as we go along. In that way we would seek to make matters clear, and help to spread a sound knowledge of this branch of rural economy. First, however, there are fundamental points common to each of tlie buildings — the walls and roofs for instance — which, for the sake of learners principally, we propose to take up at this stage and have done with, in order to steer clear, as far as we can, of unnecessary repetition. These subjects will occupy us long, but some acquaintance with them is essential on the part of him who has to do with the arrangement and construction of farm buildings. CHAPTER II. THE WALLS. The Materials ^^ ^he construction of these we are led of necessity in for their con- a climate such as ours to make use of materials that are struction. capable of witlistanding exposure to sun, rain, and frost. Nature provides us at first hand with stone, a material which in every way answers the purpose. It is impracticable, however, to handle it in bulk and form a building out of it devoid of joint or seam. But our ' progenitors early discovered that fragments of stone could be built up to form walls of considerable stability. These were at first thick and uuAvieldy. The workers' tools, if any were then forthcoming, must have been few and of small account, and as likely to harm the handlers as have much effect on the stones. In time, with the growth of intelli- gence and experience on man's part, he took to the piecing together of handy-sized stones by means of mortar or plastic stuff that would eventually harden more or less and knit all in a piece. Neater walls were thus obtained, their lasting powers being determined by the nature of the mortar used. Mud of a clayey texture — still necessary to the house-building swallow and to the man in embryo (the savage as well as the child) — was the first sort of mortar man turned to account. Nowadays we have mortars that will become as hard as the stones they are set to bind together. Walls constructed of building stone and a mortar of this class, if properly put together, are more efficient than if they were cut out of solid stone, could such a thing be done. Stone of one kind or another is readily met with in most districts of the British Isles. In some it is too far under- ground to be readily available. Where this happens recourse is had to brick, which is simply artificial stone. The situations devoid of build- ing stone are happily those that are generally well supplied with brick- forming clay. This, mixed with a due proportion of sand in order to form a slight fiux, is formed into bricks which are roasted in kilns and thus rendered as hard and impervious to moisture as stone. In no part of our country, therefore, have we far to go for material, whether it be stone or brick, with which to erect the walls of our various buildings. And in this way it occurs that the nature of the walls of a homestead take after the geological formation indicated by the outcropping rocks of the neighbourhood, or it may be by the absence of any such. Here 22 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. we come across one built of whinstone that has either been quarried or found in boulders ; there one of granite similarly obtained ; another we pass constructed of freestone. Further afield we may come upon one the walls of which are of limestone, and by-and-by, as we proceed, find another where brick alone has been used. These different types tell plainly the nature of the crust of the earth around their respective sites. So far as efficiency goes it matters little what kind of stone is used in the construction of the buildings. One is as good as another, provided of course that it be a good specimen of its class. Generally speaking, the stone from stratified rocks such as our various sandstones succumbs sooner to weather than granite, whin, and stones of a similar nature do ; but it is a very poor stone indeed that cannot be turned to useful pur- pose in farm buildings. No such sharp, well-defined corners are looked for in these that one expects in a dwelling-house or town building. All the same we do not advocate the use of poor stone in this connection. It is, however, bad management fetching either brick or stone from a distance, if the available stone of the immediate neighbourhood, though perhaps not so good as either, is capable of being formed into a good wall. The dry-stone dykes or walls of any district give one a good idea of the weather-resisting qualities of the easiest obtained stones of the country- side. Stone gets well tested in these erections ; consequently when we meet with an oldish dyke the stones composing which are still compara- tively sharp on the edge and not much crumbled on face, it may safely be taken for granted that stone of the same kind is quite good enough with which to serve the builder at the homestead. Although the various kinds of stone found in agricultural districts are much on a level as regards efficiency, they vary considerably in matters such as texture, density, their form of cleavage or fracture (how they split up into pieces that can be manipulated first by the quarrymen and next by the mason), and so on. Stratified rock, be it sandstone, lime- stone, or shaly stuff, or any of the innumerable gradations and admix- tures of these, can as a rule be readily quarried along the natural bedding planes of the rock. At one time horizontal, these, as the result of the subsequent crumpling and twisting, are now found running in all directions corresponding with the degree of disturbance the respective strata have undergone. The primary rocks, those composing the ribs of our sphere, such as granite and the early ones laid thereon that have now lost trace of their origin, as well as the intrusive rocks, whin, trap, and allied kinds, those that have been thrust up through the sedimentary rocks of later time, are more homogeneous in bulk. The first-mentioned contain many flaws or lines of easy fracture, while the others have few weaknesses of that nature. The one quarries out in longish blocks or in cubes, but the other gives way to the labourer only in jagged junks of irregular fracture. Every time the steady deposit of rock-forming material in the sedimentary rocks has been temporarily checked or been THE WALLS. 23 entirely replaced by some other one, a fresh bed or easily-defined joint represents the change. These joints between and among the several beds afford a ready line of separation between the respecti\'e beds, or, when such occur, between the different layers of single beds, of which quarrymen are able to avail themselves. But nothing of the kind is there to help them in their attacks upon the real framework of mother earth. Some of the sedimentary rocks are further rendered easy of upbreak by means of frequent fractures along the short plane of the stratification, that is, at right angles to their bedding, caused by crump- ling and contortions of the earth's crust as it adapted itself to varying strains during the cooling and lessening bulk of the globe. This and other causes have in many places similarly reduced the primary rocks to a more or less shattered condition, and, if nothing else, given quarry- men a clean-cut side or sole to work from and so render his labour easier, or, at any rate, more symmetrical in its development. Failing available stone, brickwork takes its place. This, "■^j' °° ' w^hen of good quality, is about as permanent as good stonework. Wood is but a makeshift as a wall-forming material at the homestead. Galvanised iron is hardly so serviceable. Wood, if kept clear of the ground and put together in such a way that moisture can freely drip from it and air have liberty to play on it, will indeed last a considerable time. But the place for galvanised iron, if used at all, is the roof, under which head we shall duly treat of it. The Dressine ^^^^ stones used in farm buildings are never dressed into given to the symmetrical blocks more or less polished, such as we are °^^^- accustomed to see in the better class buildings of towns or in country mansions. All they usually receive at the hands of the mason is a chipping off or rough "clour" of sharp edges and corners by means of his single-handed hammer. The great matter to keep in view is to avoid stones of a wedge shape. Every one who thinks must know, this is the w^orst form anything that has to be laid on or against others can have when stability of the structure is essential. The Avedge leads to sliding and outward thrust ; but every particle in a theoretically perfect wall presses downwards to the earth's centre within the narrow space defined by the outer and inner faces of the wall. The art of the mason lies, therefore, in his skill in first knocking the stones into suitable shape, and thereafter placing them in position in such a way that they will lie steadily each one as part and parcel of the whole. Each must be able to bear its share of the weight above without flinching. Once the mortar has become hard and stone-like in itself it serves to bind all the different pieces of stone together as one. This we have all seen in the ruins of castles and abbeys. It is a slow natural process, however, and in the meantime the wall, as a patchwork of separate pieces of \arying size, has to stand. It is evident that the nature of the stones available has much to d-> 24 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. with arri\ing at a state of stability of the wall. Flat stones "bed" well because they have little tendency to shift. They bear equally on those beneath and they afiford good footing to those above. Others that are all angles act as so many compound or many-sided wedges, neither steady themselves, because lacking in breadth of base, nor of advantage to others adjoining them above and around. Bricks are entirely different in this respect. If laid both level and plumb each one is bound to distribute its own weight as well as the burden it sustains equally at all points of its base. But from their comparatively small and uniform size a brick wall has of necessity a large number of joints, which are all so many weak points in the structure. We shall see as we proceed how the bricklayer counteracts this defect. Meanwhile it will be w-ell to observe the proper sequence and first discuss the foundations of the wall, and next the matter of the mortar that holds the stones or bricks together. In order to make sure of a firm foundation the wall of the°Walls^ must be based either on rock or on unyielding subsoil. The aim in view is to secure uniform pressure at every part of the foundation. This it is impossible to arrive at absolutely. One cannot make certain that even the bottom of a trench cut down to the rock will be eqvially firm from end to end. Were we to cut far enough into the rock, provided the same kind held good over the area embraced by the foundations of a building, a close approach to the ideal of equal resistance throughout might be obtained. The architect of farm buildings has to rest content with less, however. He has to be satisfied with a trench cut down to the undisturbed subsoil. And this, if level in bottom, does well enough, and without being very deep. Level it must be, however, else the weight of the wall will be unequally distributed over the foundation, and undue strains will eventually throw it out of shape. There must be no compressible soil that has either been disturbed by recent excavation, or " spoil " that has been deposited on the place between the foundation stones and mother earth — the stuff that has not seen daylight since it was carried hence by natural forces and deposited over the site of our proposed building. Any sort of medium, other than the natural subsoil, be it cultivable soil, " forced " stuff of any kind — soil laid there artificially — moss or similar organic accumulation, must be cleared out " down to the hard " before a satisfactory base for the foundation can be ensured. Sound boulder clay and firm sand make the best of foundations. But there must be a sufficient thickness of either. If there is merely a seam of one or the other lying upon a bed of yielding matter, of a mossy nature, for instance, only an unstable base can be expected. Given on the other hand a fair depth of boulder clay or well compacted sand, we have at once a bottom of uniform resistance on which to start the rearing of our walls. It is not necessary to go far down in either THE WALLS. 25 Concrete in some cases ; valuable aid Fig. substance to make sure of a base that practically speaking is fit for any ordinary purpose. Here, in fact, we are nearer the ideal of a trench of unvarying consistency than in almost any other medium. Cement concrete is a valuable aid towards strengthening weak foundations or rather in safeguarding against bad results likely to happen from these if treated in the usual manner. The weak points of a foundation betray themseves as the weight gradually begins to increase with the height of the walls. They may not give way until after the completion of the building, but sooner or later they are bound to be found out. innumerable strains come into play in a building before it fairly settled down stability give many a thrust and counter-thrust ere each can be merged into the central one of all — ^gravity. It is generally not till after this has been accomplished that the weaknesses referred to begin to show ; and then too late to be remedied at the seat of the evil. There is no getting down then beneath the foundation to make good defective parts. Concrete possesses the good quality of being itf-^fff^; able to be turned to ■-:>/-". account in bridging :'•. V '. over the inequalities '^y.-T' of an inferior kind of foundation. Itformsin the foundation trench when properly laid a continuous solid mass from end to end capable of spanning these weak places without yield or break. Thus an irregular base is converted into one steady and solid, on which to erect the fabric of a building. Where mother earth is sound at surface and good big stones are abundant, nothing further is needed. Where, however, these conditions either together or singly are absent, concrete is of great advantage in this connection. In a brick district, too, it may be the cheapest thing to use even under good circumstances as regards subsoil. We have already emphasised the necessity of forming the bottom of the foundation trench as level as possible. A wall built on a foundation with a rake as in Fig. i cannot be considered very stable. It may not be practicable to cut the whole ^-^— '' — 1 '' r^~T ^""^ ^ ^- ^ =E^ 1(1 V- ' • . h - • ■ • ■ '.» Fig. 2. The Founda- tion Trenches 26 THE MODERN HOMESTEAD. length of the trench on one level. Irregularity of the surface may prevent the thing being done. When the trench follows the inclination of the slope it can be done at no point, that is to say, keeping economy in view. It can be done, as Fig. 2 shows, by cutting deeper at the high end of the trench, but if the inclination is (juick it can easily be seen what a serious amount of extra building is implied under this manner of working. The same end can be obtained by the easier and sim- pler method set forth in Fig. 3, which is equally serviceable with that of Fig. 2 ; and out of question consi- derably cheaper. Every change in level of the bottom of the foundation trench must be followed up in the same way by one or more steps. If this is not observed there must be unequal distribution of strain in the wall. In a well-built wall the strains are allied into the perpendicular by gravity, and pass down parallel in accordance with the arrows on Figs. 11, 13, 14 and 16, and Avithin the outer and inner faces of the building. But the wall must be plumb and the foundation equal in resistance throughout to allow of this. \Mienever the bottom of the trench varies in level, at these points there Fig. 3. Fig. 4- is, as Fig. 4 shows, a break in the uniform resistance of the bottom of the trench and a consequent change in the distribution of the weight. At points a, b, and c, the respective portions of wall raised on these are bound to bear to the side which dips lowest and therefore to press against the part of the wall there. Each portion of the wall, however, is supposed to have its own duty meted out to it without having to buttress adjoining parts in addition. Instead of the pieces we are instancing being given a chance to stand strongly up to their work. THE WALLS. 27 their foothold is weakened by being placed on an incline down which they would slide were they not arrested by the nearest part on the level. In Fig. 5, we draw attention to the danger of carrying a foundation that follows the face of rising ground too near the edge thereof. It is a kind of foundation, however, that one is not often brought face to ^^^<