;-NRLF 
 
THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
PRESENTING 
 
 A FAMILIAR METHOD OF TEACHING 
 
 THE 
 
 CHEMICAL PHI JCIPLES 
 
 AND ' 
 
 OPERATIONS 
 
 OF THE MOST PRACTICAL DTLITV 
 
 TO FARMERS, MECHANICS, HOUSEKEEPERS AND PHY 
 
 SICIANS ; AND MOST INTERESTING TO 
 
 CLERGYMEN AND LAWYERS. 
 
 INTENDED FOR SCHOOLS AND THE POPULAR CLASS-ROOM, 
 
 THIRD EDITION. 
 
 BY AMOS KATON. 
 
 ALBANY: 
 
 PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY WEBSTERS AND SKINNERS, 
 
 1828. 
 
NORTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW- YORK. 
 
 L.S. 
 
 BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the twentieth day of February, in 
 the forty-sixth year of the independence of the United States ot* 
 America, WEBSTERS & SKINNERS, of the said district, have de- 
 posited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof they claim 
 as proprietors, in the'words following, to wit : 
 
 " Chemical Instructor; presenting a familiar method of teaching the 
 Chemical Principles and Operations of the most practical utility to 
 Farmers, Mechanics, Housekeepers and Physicians ; and most inter- 
 esting to Clergymen and Lawyers. Intended for Schools and the Po- 
 pular Class Room. By Amos Eaton. 
 
 In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled "An act 
 
 for the encouragement of learning, bv securing the copies of maps, charts and books, 
 to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned :" 
 and also to the act.eutitled " An act supplementary to an act entitled ' An act for the 
 
 encouragement of learning, by securing the copies ot maps, charts and books, to the 
 authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned,' and ex- 
 tending the benefits ihereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical 
 and other prints." 
 
 RICHARD R. LANSING, 
 Citric of the N. District of Neat-York. 
 
NOTICES 
 
 TO BE PREFIXED TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Although tliis is announced as the second edition, it 
 might have been entitled the seventh; for it had been 
 published, in substance, under the title of Chemical 
 Note-Book, five times before? it assumed the present 
 form and title. 
 
 I believe it is known to all 'within the narrow limit of 
 circulation, to which this book is destined, that I have 
 devoted a large proportion of my time and attention to 
 the simplification of chemical experiments, for the last 
 nine years. During this period, 1 have given more than 
 thirty full courses of lectures on chemistry, with from 
 six to eight hundred experiments at each course'; and 
 have endeavoured to improve my method at every step 
 in each course. 
 
 Every change which the reader will find in this edi- 
 tionj is the result of experience. All the experiments 
 are described precisely as I have frequently performed 
 them ; and as 1 have often caused them to be performed 
 by students in my presence. , 
 
 The whole object of my course of instruction being 
 the practical application of science to the common con- 
 cerns of life, 1 give no experiments on rare, doubtful, or 
 useless substances ; and avoid, as far as possible, all 
 hypothesis of a merely speculative kind. 
 
 The valuable works of Thompson, Ure, Brande, Mur- 
 ray, A< cum, Henry, Davy, Gorham, and others ; and 
 the smaller works of Cotting, Cutbush, Comstock, &c. 
 together with the translations of Lavoisier, Fourcroy, 
 &c. as well as the essays, and editions of foreign works, 
 published by Silliman, Cooper, Hare, &c. must all be 
 contained in the library of the thorough chemist. But I 
 venture to assert, that any one, or all, of these works 
 will not form even a tolerable guide for a course of chem- 
 
4 NOTICES, 
 
 icaJ experiments adapted to the wants of the farmer, the 
 mechanic, or the housekeeper. Neither is this such a 
 work as I couid wish to put into their hands ; but it 
 comes as near it, as I am at present prepared to make it. 
 
 It is much to he regretted, that most of the latest cele- 
 brated treatises on chemistry, have so large a. proportion 
 of their pages devoted to th >se useless compounds, which 
 can never profit the scholar nor Ihc practical man. Par- 
 ticularly those endless compounds with chlorine and 
 iodine, which may be equally multiplied and extended 
 with any other substance. This is surely trifling with 
 the richest stores of human knowledge. Put such works 
 into the hands of a student, and tell him to place full 
 confidence in the authors, he would form strange views 
 of the science. He would imagine, that the chloridic 
 and iodic theory of Davy constituted the whole science 
 of chemistry : and that all further knowledge of the sub- 
 ject should be pursued as a convenient, though not very 
 important, appendage to chlorine and iodine. And even 
 admitting all Davy's speculations to be well supported, 
 are not those idle speculations as unimportant as any of 
 the smallest mites of human knowledge ? I would as 
 soon set a student to commit to memory all the amulets 
 of the dark ages, or the number of ways in which the 
 letters of the alphabet can be arranged. 
 
 In this edition I have prefixed a few general remarks, 
 with a short account of the natural history, to each chem- 
 ical principle. I have separated the rationale from the 
 illustration, in the three first classes of chemical princi- 
 ples. The analysis of soils, minerals, mineral waters, 
 &c. 1 have placed after organic substances. 
 
 A. JEATON, 
 
 EEHSSELAER SCHOOL, 
 Trey, JV. Y. Feb. 6, 1826, 
 
NOTICES 
 
 FOR THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 As two full editions of this little hook were sold in a 
 very short time, without any exertion on the part of the 
 bookseller or author ; its simple arrangement and quaint 
 style seem to have been sanctioned. I shall therefore 
 make no alteration in the plan, nor materially enlarge 
 the book. A few corrections, and some extension oi ifie 
 head, applications, are nearly all the reader is to expect. 
 
 This enquiry has often been made : " Since this little 
 book is intended for schools and the popular class-room 
 only, and has never been noticed in any public journal, 
 why are more copies of it sold than of any other work 
 on the subject of chemistry, published since it ap- 
 peared ? 
 
 I answer this enquiry by an extract from a letter, 
 \\rittenbythefrank ingenuous professor of chemistry 
 in one of our learned institutions. 
 
 ** I will thank you to request Messrs. Websters and 
 " Skinners to send me three dozen Chemical Instruc- 
 " tors. For, like the professors of many of our public 
 " institutions, though Thompson, Brande, Henry, Gor. 
 " ham, Davy, Murray, and other large books with great 
 <* names, are set forth as the text-books, I conduct my 
 " lectures and give my experiments, according to your 
 directions. Though 1 <lo riot acknowledge myself de- 
 " pendant on this duodecimo of 260 pages ; yet it is my 
 <( only safe guide for experiments. I intend now to put 
 " it into the hands of every student, with some sufficient 
 " apology to be borrowed from the neighboring profes- 
 sors." 
 
 The professor in another public institution, says : " I. 
 f( should not be able to go through with the labor of a 
 <( course of chemical experiments, on account of my 
 I* feeble state of health, had you not, by your simple 
 
b' NOTICES. 
 
 " method described in the Chemical Instructor, so 
 " greatly reduced the labor of preparation." 
 
 I cannot consent to enlarge the work, according to 
 the advice of some of my friends. I have long been con- 
 vinced, that the greatest improvement which could now 
 he made in our colleges, would be effected by introduc- 
 ing small text books, in which the substance of volumin- 
 ous, works should be judiciously condensed. 
 
 AMOS EATON. 
 Troy,Mareh 28, 1828. 
 
( r ) 
 
 PORTABLE APPARATUS. 
 
 Pneumatic cistern. For an economical course of instruction, such 
 as that proposed in the following work, a wooden box, three feet long, 
 eighteen inches deep and eighteen inches wide, will be sufficient. It 
 is made of pine plank, so arranged that the grains of the wood all run 
 in the same direction ; that all the pieces, constituting the cistern, 
 may swell and shrink uniformly. Consequently, in the end pieces the 
 grains are vertical. 
 
 Grooves are cut in the side pieces to let in the bottom and the end 
 pieces. There is not a nail nor a pin used for holding it together. It 
 is wholly secured by square iron rods with nuts and screws, resembling 
 sleigh rods, with broad collars to prevent their sinking into the wood, 
 and these are confined to the two side pieces Four rods at each end 
 and four under the bottom are sufficient. These may be loosened and 
 tightened, by turning the nuts, as the planks swell and shrink. A lid is 
 attached to one end of the cistern by strong iron hinges. This is very 
 useful for covering up the cistern to prevent its freezing in cold weath- 
 er, for the convenience of transportation, and to serve for a table when 
 open. 
 
 The inside of the cistern is divided into two parts, by inch square 
 posts, screwed to the side pieces within, and by a beam an inch and a 
 half in depth and an inch thick resting upon, and screwed to the upper 
 ends of the posts. The upper side of the beam is four inches lower 
 than the top of the cistern. The smallest division is the well, and is 
 half as large as the other ; across which, with iis ends supported on the 
 said beam and abeam at the end, is the moveable shelf. This is three 
 inches wide and two inches thick, having two invertedtunnels wrought 
 in its under side, terminating upwards in small holes perforating the 
 shelf. One of these holes is about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, 
 which is generally used ; the other is a quarter of an inch in diameter, 
 furnished with a half-inch tube which is used for filling vials with gases. 
 Shoulders are cut at each end of the shelf, letting it down so that it is 
 but half an inch higher than the top of the beams ; to prevent its rising 
 up it is loaded with lead. 
 
 Common wooden water-pails, with wooden hoops, are used for gas- 
 holders. Pails are selected of a size and height fitted to the size and 
 depth of the cistern. The ears nre cut off and one side of the top cut 
 in a little, so as to permit water to enter, when they are inverted on 
 the bottom of the cistern ; for they are always used with their bottoms 
 upwards. Each pail has a half-inch and quarter-inch hole in its bot- 
 tom, for the admission of large and small stop-cocks, tubes, &c. These 
 inverted pails may be held down in the water by cross-bars let into the 
 sides of the cistern, OK by a board cover. Such a cover may equal the 
 size of all the surface of the cistern but the well, and form a level with 
 the top of the moveable shelf It may be perforated with auger-holes 
 for admitting the necks of inverted decanters. Some of these holes 
 may correspond with the holes in the pail gasholder. These auger-holes 
 are very convenient when decanters are used for collecting and hold- 
 ing gases, as a cheap and convenient substitute tor bell-glasses. 
 
 A forge and furnace. Let a sheet-iron box be made, 12 inches long, 
 10 inches wide and 10 inches high Let the-corners be as nearly square, 
 as the sheet-iron can be conveniently wrought. Let a hole be made 
 
8 PORTABLE APPARATUS. 
 
 in one end about an inch in diameter, 3 inches above the bottom, for 
 tlie admission of a bellows pipe. Place the neck for the stove pipe on 
 the top, very near the opposite end. Cut an opening for a door in the 
 middle of one side of the stove, nearly of a semi-circular form, with the 
 strait side down, 3 inches above the bottom. Let its strait side be 6 
 inches, and the height 6 inches Let the piece so cut be used for a door 
 or lid, by shoving it up one inch, and supporting it at that height by 2 
 iron pins near the top of the opening on the outside, and two corres- 
 ponding holes in the upper edge of the lid to suspend it by. Cut a hole 
 one inch and a half in diameter, opposite to the centre of the base of 
 the door, 2 inches above the bottom of the stove. A suitable length of 
 pipe for conducting off the smoke under the mantle piece of a chimney 
 or out at a window, finishes the iron part of the forge, which can always 
 be borrowed for a course. A dripping pan, with a 3 inch brim, as largo 
 as can be put into the door, will be wanted for a sand bath. To use 
 this apparatus, make a strong bench, about three feet high, and a few 
 inches wider and lorigei than the box, and set it about 8 feet back of 
 the cistern. Let it be so situated that every auditor can see an experi- 
 ment at the nose of the bellows. Cover the bench with brick, and set 
 the stove upon them. Set a row of brick edgewise around the inside 
 of the stove. Bore ajiole through two brick for the bellows pipe to go 
 through. Then lay a floor of one thickness of brick inside of the stove, 
 or box. 
 
 When a forge is wanted, put in the coal, leaving the door or lid off, 
 and proceed as with other forges. When a sand bath is wanted, set in 
 the dripping pan half filled with sand, supported on another lining of 
 briek, with coal filled in. The heat under the pan may be regulated by 
 the bellows ; or the lid may be put up and a brick 'left off in front, 
 when the inch opening under the lid will operate as an air furnace. It 
 may be used as an air furnace for any other purposes in the same way. 
 The sheet iron sides of the stove may be as easily defended with the 
 loose brick, as if set in mortar. Be careful to keep a quantity of square- 
 edged brick, squared on a grindstone, of equal dimensions. 
 
 A bellows. A large hand bellows is sufficient for any experiments. 
 It may be fastened to a moveable stand or block, so that it will lie 
 down steadily when used. 
 
 Tongs One light pair of tongs, with the rivit near the bows, like 
 taylors' shears ; and one pair fitted both to hold a crucible and to pinch 
 a small thing as a nail are sufficient. 
 
 Crucibles. Two large lead pots, with perforated bottoms, having- 
 tops large enough to take in a pint retort; and two or three nests of 
 common crucibles. 
 
 Gun-barrels. Two gun-barrels at least, perfectly stopped at the 
 brich, and air tight, will be wanted ; for that which is kept for oxygen 
 must not be used for carburetted hydrogen, nor for any other purpose, 
 but collecting oxygen. 
 
 Gas-tubes. Two leaden tubes, drawn down to about one fourth of 
 an inch caliber, long enough to reach from a gun-barrel set in the forge, 
 to half across the cistern. A few lead and glass tubes will be wanted 
 of various sizes. 
 
PORTABLE APPARATUS. 
 
 Stop-cocks. About half a dozen good stop-cocks will be necessary. 
 Small brass cocks at the hardware stores will do, if no better can be 
 had, by filing off the crooked part. 
 
 Flexible. tubes. These may be made of good calf-skin. Such tubes 
 will not hold the gases, unless they are soaked in water three or four 
 hours before they are used ; or a shorter time if the water is moder- 
 ately warmed. 
 
 Ladle and spoons. A common iron ladle, which will hold a pint or 
 a little less. A common iron table Spoon, a tea-spoon, and silver mus- 
 tard spoon, very small. 
 
 Glass ware. 6 pint retorts, 6 half pint retorts, 2 half gallon bell- 
 glasses, 2 quart bell-glasses, 2 tubulated quart bell-classes, 6 assay 
 glasses without feet or noses, sometimes called glass-cylinders, 2 bolt- 
 heads or rnattrasses with 6 inch necks, 1 air thermometer, made like a 
 bolthead only more slender and delicate, a dozen test glasses, 2 dozen 
 8 ounce vials, 1 dozen plain pint and 1 dozen quart, decanters, an iron 
 mortar, and a pint wedgewood mortar. 
 
 Borrowed glass ware, crockery, fyc. Any liberal crockery merchant 
 and druggist will lend the following articles, on condition they are paid 
 for or returned clean and sound. 3 dozen plain wine glasses, 6 quart 
 and 6 pint tumblers, 6 large and 6 small white earthen plates, 2 plain 
 pitchers, 6 quart and 6 pint earthen bowls, 2 large wash bowls. 
 
 Mercurial trough. Get a mercurial trough cut in a block of wood 
 about 9 inches long and 6 wide. Let it be cut 3 inches deep, 6 inches 
 long, and so narrow as to hold 12 Ib. of mercury, and leave an inch 
 unfilled. A deep groove, for laying down a vial, in one side of the- 
 bottom. A druggist will lend the mercury, if the deficiency in weight 
 be paid for. 
 
 Reflector. A plain sheet of tin for a reflector. Also a ball of iron 
 with an eye to hang it by, for using with the reflector. See Caloric, 
 Prop. 17. 
 
 Scales. An accurate pair of scales with grain weights. 
 
 Florence flasks. About two dozen. 
 
 Bags. About a dozen bladders for bags, large and small. 
 
 Kettle. A sheet iron kettle, holding about 3 quarts, with a handle oa 
 one side 18 inches long, and pouring nose on another side. 
 
 Dripping pan. An extra dripping pan, besides that used fora sand 
 bath, and about 12 inches square, for holding coals, and for setting the 
 lead pot in. This may be set on a couple of bricks laid on a table or 
 bench, when coals are put in the pan, or when the lead pot contains 
 coals and is set in it. 
 
 Jack-o'-lantern basin, for making phosphuFetted hydrogen. See 
 Phosphorus, Prop. 5. 
 
 Etching box. A box of tin (lead or copper is better,) two inches 
 square and two inches high, open and perfectly even oa the top. It 
 
10 USE OF APPARATUS, 
 
 should be set in a hole in the centre of a tin plate, so that cold water 
 may be poured on a piece of glass laid over its top, without wetting 
 the coals on which the box stands. See Fluorine, Prop. 1. 
 
 Gas-pistol, for exploding gas, as directed under Hydrogen, prop. 3. 
 
 Fire syringe. A syringe of lead, pewter, or other metal, six inches 
 long and closed at the end. See Caloric, Prop. 2. 
 
 Hammers, files, a compass-saw, a block of wood for an anvil, wire 
 of various sizes, gallipots, tobacco pipe.s, pincers, corkscrews, and nuirr 
 erou.s other small articles will be wanted ; which will occur to any in- 
 structor without particular directions. 
 
 USE OF APPARATUS. 
 
 The cistern. is set firmly on short cross benches, elevated sufficiently 
 to bring the top of it to the instructor's elbows It is filled quite full 
 of water A tub stands under it with one edge projecting a few inches, 
 directly under a large brass cock, which is fitted in, level with the'in- 
 side bottom of the cistern. A long horizontal hole or slit is cut against 
 the centre of the well, half an inch thick. A stopper is fitted to this, 
 which maybe pulled out to let the water run through it into the tub, 
 when the experiments are of that kind which may cause the cistern to 
 run over. 
 
 1. Let each of the students Jill the bell-glasses with icater and set them 
 on the shelves. Hold a bell-glass, tumbler, cylinder, or specie bottle, in 
 a horizontal position over the well. Sink it in this position until it is 
 almost full, lower the closed end until all .the air passes out ; then turn 
 the closed e<nd upwards and raise it carefully, pressing it against the 
 shelf until it is high enough to slide on the shelf. 
 
 2. Ltt each student transfer air from one bi ll-glass to another. 
 
 In this operation let the air be carefully poured up under water, into 
 a glass filled with water so that no bubbles shall escape. 
 
 3. Let each student pour air into the wooden gas-holder. 
 
 In performing this operation, slide the vessel down against the gas- 
 holder, keeping it in a vertical position until it reaches the bottom of 
 the cistern. Then incline it towards the horizontal position, and at the 
 same time raise the gas-holder ; and crowd it gradually into the gas- 
 holder. 
 
 4. Let each student pass a current of air from a gas-holder by way of 
 a stop-cock through a lead tube. 
 
 A stop cock is fitted into one of the holes of a gas-holder (the other 
 hole being stopped with a peg,) and the gas-holder is afterwards filled 
 with air by blowing the air under it through a tube. The gas-holder 
 being filled, press it down to the bottom of the cistern, and stay it there. 
 
 Fix a lead tube to the stop-cock, and turn the stop. A strong cur- 
 rent will be forced out by the pressure of the water of the cistern int' 
 the gas-holder below. 
 
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES. 11 
 
 5. Let each student pass a current of air from a gas-holder tfirougha 
 flexible tube and tobacco-pipe, and make soap bubbles. 
 
 Perform this operation as directed under Hyd Prop 7. 
 
 6. Let each student Jill a small glass cylinder, invert it and set it on tht 
 shelf of the mercurial trough. 
 
 This operation is performed as directed with water. But requires 
 that the glass cylinder be grasped firmly and held steadily. 
 
 7. Let each student use a retort by passing a common gas into a receiver. 
 In performing this experiment, let the student produce hydrogen, as 
 
 directed under Hyd. Prop. 1. 
 
 8. Let each student take the specific gravity of a mineral. 
 
 Weigh a small mineral specimen in the air, suspended from a beam 
 of the scales by a fine silk thread. Then let it hang in a tumbler of 
 water and weigh it there. Now subtract the weight in water from the 
 weightinair, and divide the weight in the air by the difference, and 
 the quotient will be the specific gravity. 
 
 CHEMICAL SUBSTASSTCZSS, 
 
 FOR A COURSE OF EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 Tests for acids and alkalies. Collect in the^nonth of October or No- 
 vember, leaves from the red cabbage. Those of the brightest red are 
 rot the best ; but those. should be selected, which are rather bluish or 
 glaucous. Dry the thinnest part of the leaves, or the bark of the stalk, 
 by slow heat of a fire or stove. The heat should not be sufficient to dry 
 them in less than four or five days. When dried sufficiently break 
 them up pretty fine by rubbing them in the hands, and c-rk them up in 
 dry phials. When wanted for use put about a tea-spoonful into a wine- 
 glass of pure rain or river water, and soak it about an hour. Then 
 press it with a rod and pour off the water into another wine-glass or 
 phial for use It should never be used after the infusion has been 
 made longer than two or three days. 
 
 Procure at the shops, or elsewhere, the following substances for one 
 course of lectures. 
 
 Sulphuric acid 2 quarts, nitric acid 1 pint, muriatic acid 1 pint, irom 
 filings at the gun smith's 2 pounds, phosphorus 1 ounce, oxymuriate 
 of potash 1 ounce, sulphur 1 roll, sea coal 3 pounds, hard soap 1 pound, 
 chalk 2 pounds, carbonate of ammonia 1 pound, muriate of ammonia 4 
 ounces, oxyd of manganese 10 pounds, saltpetre 1 pound, red lead 1 
 pound, prarl ash 2 pounds, quicklime 6 pounds, fine table salt 2 quarts, 
 white wax 1 cake, borax 2 ounces, fluc>r spar 6 ounces, carbonate of 
 soda 3 ounces, liquid ammonia 8 ounces, copperas 8 ounces, blue vitriol 
 2 ounces, alum 2 ounces, white vitriol 1 ouncf, magnesia of the shops 
 2 ounces, epsom salts 6 ounces, sugar of lead 2 ounces, corrosive sub- 
 limate 1 ounce, calomel 1 ounce, lunar caustic quarter of an ounce, 
 verdigris 2 ounces, nut galls 2, prussiate of potash quarter of an ounce, 
 spirits of turpentine 1 pint, oxalic acid quarter of an ounce, or it may 
 be obtained in the expressed juice of green wood-sorrel, alcohol 1 pint, 
 ether 1 ounce. A little zinc, tin foil and grain tin, bismuth, gold leaf, 
 
12 
 
 COURSE OF LECTURES. 
 
 arsenic, copper filings and lead. Also a little gum-arabic, starch, 
 white sugar, sweet oil, rosin, camphor, liquorice in ball, iridia rubber, 
 indigo, prussian blue, flowers of bt-nzoin, citric acid, vinegar, glue, 
 isinglass, iodine, sulphuric ether, nitrate or muriate of barytes and 
 strontian, chromate of potash, zaffre, silver leaf, plat ina wire, best pot- 
 ter's clay, tobacco pipes, a coil of wax tapers, common potash, a pound 
 of tow, 3 pounds of putty for lutes, gun flints, 3 sizes of iron and brass 
 wire. 
 
 It is best to put all these articles into phials, boxes, and paper bag?, 
 hut closely ; and have them all labelled and well arranged. 
 
 COURSE OF XiXSCTUlLES. 
 
 Divide the course into thirty lectures. Each lecture should occupy 
 one hour. If a very full course is required, one hour and forty min- 
 utes. If a hasty illustration of general principles is required, half an 
 .hour to a lecture is sufficient, and two half hour lectures may be given 
 each day. Let the subject of each lecture be as follows : 
 
 1st lecture to include Affinity. 
 
 2d, first half of Caloric. 
 
 3d, last half of Caloric. 
 
 4th, Electricity and Light. 
 
 5th, Oxygen, and the Nomencla- 
 ture. 
 
 6th, Chlorin gas. 
 
 7lh, Muriatic acid, Fluorin, and 
 lodiri. 
 
 Qlh, first half of Hydrogen. 
 
 9th, last half of Hydrogen. 
 I0th, first half of Nitrogen, 
 llth, last half of Nitrogen. 
 12th, Sulphur. 
 13th, Phosphorus. 
 14th, first half of Carbon. 
 15th, last half of Carbon,&. Boron 
 36th, Potash, and the Nomencla- 
 ture. 
 I7tb, Soda and Ammonia. 
 
 18th, Lime. 
 
 59th, Barytes, Strontian, Magne- 
 sia and Silex. 
 
 20th, Alumine, and Metals in gen- 
 eral 
 
 21st, Iron, Manganese and Tin. 
 
 22d, Zinc, Arsenic and Chrome. 
 
 23d, Copper, Antimony, Bismuth 
 and Cobalt.. 
 
 24th, Gold, Silver and Platina. 
 
 25th, Mercury, Lead, and Nickel. 
 
 26lh, Vegetable Substances 
 
 27th, Animal Substances and Dy- 
 ing. 
 
 28th, Analysis of Mineral Waters 
 and Soils. 
 
 29th, first half of Analysis of Min- 
 erals 
 
 30th, last half of Analysis of Min- 
 erals. 
 
13 
 OX. &S3XFIC ATXONT 
 
 OF 
 
 IN the present state of chemical science, it is 
 supposed that we have fifty-six chemical princi- 
 ples ; and that each of these principles, excepting 
 affinity, is a simple material substance, differing 
 in some essential qualities from all the others. 
 Eighteen of these are either very uncommon or of 
 a douhtful nature, or unmanageable in the arts. 
 Only thirty -seven of the simple substances are 
 used in the arts or in agriculture. As all animal 
 and vegetable matter, all soils, all works of art, 
 and every thing with which we are concerned in 
 life, consist of one, two, or more of the thirty- 
 seven simple substances, which are printed in 
 italics in the following list, they may be consid- 
 ered as the chief subjects for the attention of the 
 student in chemistry 
 
 Chemical principles are distributed into five 
 classes. 
 
 CLASS i. , POWERS. 
 * Affinity, Caloric, Electricity, Light. 
 
 CLASS 2. ACIDIFYING SUBSTANCES. 
 Oxygen, f Chlorine ? Fluorine? Iodine? 
 
 * This is an universal property of matter. 
 
 \ * do not believe, that either of these three last is a simple or acid- 
 ifying substance. But I am compelled to submit to the force of au- 
 thority. 
 
14 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 CLASS 3. OXYDABLE SUBSTANCES, NOT ME- 
 TALLIC. 
 
 Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorus $ 
 Carbon, Boron, Selenium. 
 
 CLASS 4. METALLOIDS. 
 
 Section 1. The bases of alkalies and of alka- 
 line earths. Of Potash, of Soda, of Lime, of 
 Barytes, of Strontian, of Magnesia, of Lithia. 
 
 Section 2. The imaginary bases of non-alka- 
 line earths. Of Silex, of Jllumine, of Glycine, 
 of Zircon, of Yttria, of Thorina. 
 
 CLASS 5. METALS. 
 
 Section 1. Those which absorb oxygen with 
 such force as to decompose water when heated 
 sufficiently. Iron, Manganese, Tin, Zinc, Cad- 
 mium. 
 
 Section 2. Those which absorb oxygen, but 
 not with sufficient force to decompose water, and 
 from which oxygen cannot be separated by heat 
 alone. (Some are capable of becoming acids.) 
 Arsenic, Chrome, Molybdena, Tungsten, Colum- 
 bium. (Others are not capable of becoming acids.) 
 Copper, Antimony, Bismuth, Cobalt, Titanium, 
 Tellurium, Cerium, Uranium. 
 
 Section 3. Those which receive oxygen artifi- 
 cially from the decomposition of strong acids only. 
 Gold, Silver, Platina, Palladium, Osmium, Rho- 
 dium, Iridium. 
 
 Section 4. Those which absorb oxygen at 
 limited temperatures, and give it wholly off at 
 higher temperatures. Mercury, Lead, Nickel. 
 
CLASSIFICATION. l5 
 
 ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 
 
 All vegetable and animal bodies have for their 
 ultimate elements three or more of the preceding 
 simple substances. Carbon, oxygen and hydro- 
 gen are essential to vegetable matter. Carbon, 
 oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, are essential to 
 animal matter. Other simple elements are, in al- 
 most all cases, combined with these. 
 
 PROXIMATE ELEMENTS. 
 
 Those substances which are produced in plants 
 and animals by the common operations of nature, 
 are denominated proximate principles, or proxi- 
 mate elements. 
 
 Of Plants. Gum, resin, gum-resin, fixed oil> 
 volatile oil,starch, gluten,albumen, fibrin, gelatine, 
 bitter principle, extractive matter, tannin, wax, 
 camphor, sugar, guaiacum, balsam, caoutchouc, 
 indigo. These are the most important. Several 
 others are described in authors ; besides the ve- 
 getable acids, which will be noticed hereafter. 
 
 Of Animals. Gelatine, albumen, fibrin, gase- 
 ous matter, &c. which will also be described here- 
 after. 
 
 All compounds in the mineral kingdom, as am- 
 ber, bitumen, &c. and ail *the aerological com- 
 pounds, as the atmosphere, and the various va- 
 pours and compound gases which float in it, and 
 all other material compounds of which we have 
 any knowledge, consist wholly of a greater or 
 less number of the chemical principles enumerat- 
 ed in the five classes. 
 
16 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 CLASSES OF CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 1. AFFINITY. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 The term Natural History is considerably dis- 
 torted in applying it to this class of chemical prin- 
 ciples. This liberty is taken here for the sake of 
 uniformity. 
 
 Affinity is an universal property of matter ; 
 consequently it is in all places where matter is 
 found. Though the other three powers are sup- 
 posed to be matter by most chemists, affinity is 
 not held to be so by any. It is one of the five 
 kinds, or, as some express it, one of the five modi- 
 fications of attraction. The other four, viz. of 
 cohesion or adhesion, of gravitation or electricity, 
 and of magnetism, appertain to the department of 
 Natural Philosophy. Being the only kind of at- 
 traction which is employed as an efficient agent 
 or power in producing chemical changes, it is 
 called chemical attraction. 
 
 The term affinity is limited exclusively to hete- 
 rogeneous attraction ; that is, when dissimilar par- 
 ticles or atoms are compounded together. Homo- 
 geneous attraction, or that application of attrac- 
 tion, whereby similar particles are held together, 
 as the constituent particles of a bar of wrought 
 iron, should be placed under cohesive attraction. 
 
 Affinity is simple or elective in its effects, ac- 
 cording to its applications ; though the principle 
 is a single one and uniform in its operations. 
 
 Proposition 1. Simple affinity is that applica- 
 tion of affinity or chemical attraction, whereby the 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. AFFINITY. 17 
 
 constituent atoms of a compound body are united, 
 without causing any decomposition. 
 
 Illustration. Pour a teaspoon of olive oil into 
 half a wine glass of water. No combination will 
 take place. Drop in a piece of pearlash, half the 
 size of a pigeon's egg, let it dissolve and stir the 
 mixture, which will effect a chemical combination, 
 and produce white soap. 
 
 Rationale. Water and oil repel each other ; 
 therefore these two substances, on being mixed, 
 illustrate the absence of affinity. All alkalies 
 (of which potash, the basis of pearlash, is one) 
 attract both water and oil'. Consequently it ope- 
 rates as tlie bond of union between the water and 
 oil. While this union is effected nothing is ex- 
 cluded. No decomposition having taken place, 
 the experiment has been performed by simple af- 
 finity. 
 
 Application. By the application of this princi- 
 ple, soft soap is manufactured with oil (or soap- 
 grease) potash and water Hard soap with oil, 
 soda and water. Also volatile liniment with am- 
 monia, olive oil and water. Sulphuric acid (oil 
 of vitriol) by the direct combination of sulphur 
 and oxygen. 
 
 Elective affinity is either single or double. 
 
 Prop. 2. Single elective affinity is that appli- 
 cation of affinity, whereby the constituent atoms of 
 a new compound, by the force of their attraction, 
 exclude others from a previous state of combina- 
 tion. 1 
 
 Illustration. Put a teaspoon of table salt into 
 a win* glass, which had been previously dried on 
 a plate. Pour upon it a teaspoon of sulphuric 
 
 2* 
 
18 CLASS I. POWERS, 
 
 acid. Muriatic acid gas will escape into the at- 
 mosphere, and Glauber's salts will be formed in 
 the wine glass. 
 
 Rationale. Table salt consists of muriatic acid 
 and soda. Soda has a stronger affinity for sul- 
 phuric acid than for muriatic. It therefore elects 
 the sulphuric acid, and unites with it with such 
 force, as to exclude the muriatic. Such is the na- 
 ture of the muriatic acid that when separated from 
 its combination with other substances, it becomes 
 a gas and enters into the atmosphere. It is in- 
 visible, but by its attraction for water it unites to- 
 gether, or condenses, the aqueous vapour of the 
 atmosphere so as to render the vapotir visible. 
 By the visibility of the vapour we perceive the 
 course and motions of the gas. 
 
 Application. On this principle soda is obtain- 
 ed from common salt for the manufacture of coarse 
 hard soap. The muriatic acid of the salt elects 
 the potash which is introduced, and the soda of 
 the salt being excluded, immediately unites to the 
 animal oil and forms with it the hard soap. See 
 this process more fully explained under soda. 
 
 Prop. 3. Double elective affinity is that appli- 
 cation of affinity whereby neutral compounds de- 
 compose each other and form other neutral com- 
 pounds. 
 
 Illustration. Take about four parts of muriate 
 of lime and five parts of sulphate of soda, weigh- 
 ing them after being well dried over coals on. 
 plates Dissolve them in water separately. Now 
 mix them in a wine glass, and a precipitate of sul- 
 phate of lime (gypsum) will soon settle at the bot- 
 tom, and a solution of muriate of soda will stand 
 over it. On testing the new compounds with red 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. AFFINITY. 19 
 
 cabbage, they will be found to be neutral salts 
 exhibiting neither the acid nor alkaline test. On 
 tasting the liquid it will be found to be a solution 
 of table salt. 
 
 If the proportions of sulphate of soda and mu- 
 riate of lime are mixed at random, after being dis- 
 solved, without weighing or measuring, the result 
 will be pretty satisfactory, provided the muriate 
 of lime be in excess. Sulphate of lime will be 
 precipitated, and the supernatant liquid will be a 
 mixture of muriate of lime and muriate of soda. 
 The muriate of lime being almost tasteless, the 
 new formed muriate of soda will be readily recog- 
 nized. 
 
 Rationale. Though the sulphuric acid and 
 muriatic acid both have a stronger affinity for the 
 soda than for the lime, and though the soda has a 
 stronger affinity for the sulphuric than for the mu- 
 riatic ; yet the attraction between the lime and the 
 muriatic acid being comparatively feehle, and pret- 
 ty strong between the sulphuric acid and the lime, 
 and between the muriatic acid and the soda, the 
 sulphuric acid being hard pressed by the effort 
 made by the muriatic acid and soda to unite, is 
 drawn away by the lime from the soda, leaving 
 the muriatic acid in possession. 
 
 Application. Corrosive sublimate of the shops 
 is made upon this principle by sulphate of mercu- 
 ry and muriate of soda, as will be shown under 
 mercury. Numerous other operations will be re- 
 ferred to this principle under the various bases of 
 numerous compounds. Upon this law Dr. Wol- 
 laston constructed a scale of chemical equiv- 
 alents, by which the artist or the chemist can at 
 sight determine what proportions of any com- 
 
20 CLASS I. POWERS, 
 
 pounds are required for decomposing each other 
 without loss. For if the proportions be found, 
 between the quantities of the bases necessary for 
 saturating any one acid, the same relative propor- 
 tions of the same substances will be required for 
 saturating all other acids. Or if the proportional 
 quantities of acids required for any one base be 
 determined, the same relative proportions ojf acids 
 will be required for all other bases. These rela- 
 tive proportions of acids or alkalies, are denomi- 
 nated equivalents to each other. For example ; 
 if a given quantity of sulphuric acid should re- 
 quire for saturation three times as much potash as 
 aluinine, then it would follow of course that nitric 
 acid and muriatic acid would require three times 
 as much potash as alumine for saturation ; though 
 all tin se acids would differ from each other in the 
 absolute quantity required. 
 
 Prop. 4. By affinity the constituents of com- 
 pounds are united in definite proportions, in all 
 cases wherein the properties and sensible quali- 
 ties are thereby changed, 
 
 Illustration. Put into two wine glasses half a 
 teaspoon of muriatic acid to each, Put a solid 
 ma^s of carbonate of soda into each, of equal 
 weight, and in such quantity as to be beyond what 
 is sufficient to saturate the acid. After efferves- 
 cence ceases weigh what remains of each parcel 
 and they will be found to be equal. Pass about 
 the liquids in the two wine glasses, with tasting 
 rods (pine sticks areas good" as glass rods) and 
 the taste of common table salt will be recognized 
 by all. 
 
 Rationale. The soda of carbonate of soda has 
 a stronger affinity for muriatic aciu than for the 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. AFFINITY. 21 
 
 carbonic ; consequently it unites to the muriatic 
 acid and forms common table salt, (muriate of so- 
 da.) The effervescence is caused by the escape 
 of the carbonic acid, which was a constituent of 
 the carboaate of soda. This unit-n of the soda 
 with the portions of muriatic acid would continue 
 an unlimited time, were it not for the law of defin- 
 ite proportions. That the proportions are definite 
 is manifest from the fact, that in both trials the 
 same quantity of soda is required for the same 
 quantity of acid. At this definite point, the caus- 
 tic alkali (soda) and the severe acid, (muriatic) 
 become common table salt. 
 
 Application. The law of definite proportions 
 is of great importance in the arts. It regulates 
 the uniformity of compound bodies, and prevents 
 the evils which migtt arise from carelessness or 
 mistake in the manufacture of many articles. la 
 the manufacture of copperas for example, 36 parts 
 of the protoxyd of iron will unite with precisely 
 40 parts of sulphuric acid. Ai d in the manufac- 
 ture of white vitriol, 42 parts of oxyd of zinc will 
 unite with 40 parts of sulphuric acid. These are 
 the uniform proportions in the dry state ; and each 
 takes 63 parts of water for crystallization. There- 
 fore if the manufacturer should carelessly add too 
 much acid or too much metal, he would suffer a 
 loss of the material in excess, but nature would 
 impose this law upon him and compel him to give 
 us copperas in the one case and white vitriol in 
 the other, notwithstanding his errors. 
 
 Prop. 5. By affinity some substances unite 
 with other substances in several definite propor~ 
 tions, which proportions can always be expressed 
 in whole numbers without any fractional remain* 
 der. 
 
22 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 Illustration. [This experiment cannot be giv- 
 en during a lecture before a class.] Take any 
 quantity of nitric acid, and, by a process to be 
 given under nitrogen, reduce it down, by taking 
 away portions of oxygen, to nitrous acid, hyponi- 
 trous acid, deujoxyd of nitrogen (nitric oxyd j and 
 protoxyd of nitrogen (nitrous oxyd, or exhilarat- 
 ing gas) and the proportions of oxygen combined 
 with nitrogen in each state of combination will be 
 found thus In the protoxyd of nitrogen 175 
 grains of nitrogen will be combined with 100 grains 
 of oxygen in deutoxyd of nitrogen 175 grains of 
 nitrogen with 200 of oxygen in the hyponitrous 
 acid 175 grains of nitrogen with 300 of oxygen 
 in the nitrous acid 175 grains of nitrogen with 400 
 of oxygen in the nitric acid 175 grains of nitro- 
 gen with 500 of oxygen. 
 
 Rationale. Nature having, in the case of the 
 nitric acid of saltpetre combined with nitrogen the 
 highest proportion of oxygon which it will receive^ 
 and it being extremely difficult to combine nitro- 
 gen and oxygen chemically, it is necessary to be- 
 gin with this high combination and reduce the 
 oxygen down to its lowest proportion. Then on 
 retracing our steps, we find the proportions rising 
 in a numeric ratio. The same rule has been 
 found to govern in all combinations where suffi- 
 cient investigation has been made. 
 
 Application. The ATOMIC THEORY is founded 
 upon the above fact. Mr. Dalton infers, and sup- 
 ports his inference with great ability, that the ul- 
 timate atoms of these compounds are numerically 
 combined. For example, that if the ultimate 
 atom of oxygen is supposed to weigh one, the ul- 
 timate atom of nitrogen weighs one and three 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. AFFINITY. 23 
 
 fourths. Then one atom of nitrogen and one atom 
 of oxygen, form the smallest particle of the pro- 
 toxyd of nitrogen (exhilarating gas) that one 
 atom of nitrogen joined to two atoms of oxygen 
 form the smallest particle of the deutoxyd of ni- 
 trogen one atom of nitrogen to three of oxygen 
 form the hypbmtrpus acid one atom of nitrogen 
 to four of oxygen form the nitrous acid one of 
 nitrogen to five of oxygen form the nitric acid 
 (aqua fortis.) See JVPNevin's Atomic Theory 
 also Thompson, Brande, Ure, and Gorham. 
 
 Prop. 6. B?j affinity some substances unite in 
 indefinite proportions, and their properties and 
 sensible qualities are not changed. 
 
 Illustration. Mix alcohol and water, or sul- 
 phuric acid and water. The qualities and sen- 
 sible properties of both these liquids will remain 
 unchanged. Being diffused among the water, 
 there will be less of them in a given measure or 
 space, but they will remain unchanged. 
 
 Rationale. The combination is not a mere me- 
 chanical suspension like clay diffused in water, 
 because they will never settle down at the bottom 
 of the water. It must therefore be a chemical 
 compound ; though very different from that des- 
 cribed in the 4th proposition. 
 
 Application. Proof spirit, brandy, gin, &c. are 
 made by combining alcohol with water. If more 
 water is added, as in forming what is called grog, 
 still the alcohol is not changed. Caloric unites 
 with ice, forming water, and with water forming 
 steam, without changing the nature of the water. 
 But the proportion is definite for changing ice to 
 water and water to steam 5 and here the change 
 
24 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 of the state of it seems to bear a suitable propor- 
 tion to the definite proportion of caloric. 
 
 Prop. 7. Heat increases the strength of chem- 
 ical affinity. v 
 
 Illustration. Pour cold nitric acid, diluted with 
 about an equal measure of water, upon lead shav- 
 ings in a florence flask, and little or no action v\ ill 
 take place. Set the flask containing the It ad and 
 acid upon hot coals, or over a candle or lamp, ac- 
 tion will commence, exhibiting the orange fumes 
 of nitrous acid, &c. 
 
 Rationale. Lead attracts the oxygen of the ni- 
 tyic acid very feebly when cold. When heated 
 its attraction encreasesin strength, and it takes so 
 much oxygen from the nitric acid, that the acid is 
 reduced which comes in contact with the lead, 
 producing the orange gas. The process of reduc- 
 ing nitric acid is fully explained under nitric acid 
 and nitrous acid. 
 
 Application. This principle has an almost 
 perpetual application in the manipulations of the 
 laboratory, and in many of the arts. In the manu- 
 facture of soap, though it may be made cold, the 
 encreased affinities by the aid of heat, greatly ex- 
 pedite the combination of the oil and alkalies. In 
 the manufacture of sulphuric acid, the affinity be- 
 tween sulphur and oxygen is never sufficient with- 
 out the aid of heat. 
 
 Remark. In some cases elective affinity is con- 
 siderably varied by varying the proportion of the 
 masses of substances presented to each other. 
 That is, the weaker affinity may be strengthened 
 by increasing the quantity of the substance pos- 
 sessing the weaker affinity. This complicated 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CALORIC. 25 
 
 subject is ably treated by Bertbollet in his re 
 searches into the laws of chemical affinity. Also 
 see Gorhanrs article Affinity. 
 
 Prop. 8. In some cases affinity is strengthened 
 between two bodies by combining one of them with 
 some other body. 
 
 Illustration. Put copper filings into a vial of 
 pure oxygen gas, and they will not unite. Put 
 them into a wine glass of nitric acid, and they will 
 immediately become oxy dated. 
 
 Rationale. Though pure oxygen will not com 
 bine with copper, a proportion of it will separate 
 from its combination with nitrogen in the nitric 
 acid, and unite with the copper ; thereby reducing 
 nitric acid to nitrous acid, called the orange gas. 
 This gas will be seen ascending from the wine 
 glass. 
 
 Application. In the manufacture of hard soap, 
 which consists of animal or vegetable oil and soda, 
 the two substances will not unite without boiling 
 together a long time. But if the manufacturer first 
 unites the oil with potash, and then introduces 
 muriate of soda ; when the potash separates" from, 
 the oil to unite with the muriatic acid, the soda, of 
 the muriate of soda, unites almost instantaneously 
 with the oil. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 2. CALORIC. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Caloric is contained in every body constituting 
 the earth, and whatever exists upon and near its 
 surface. It is probably diffused throughout the 
 solar system, and even throughout the universe. 
 The coldest ice, the hardest metal, as well as the 
 
 3 
 
26 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 most expanded gas, all contain caloric in combi- 
 nation. Steam contains caloric. Abstract caloric 
 until but 212 degrees, according to Fahrenheit's 
 scale, remain, and it will become water. Take 
 away 180 degrees more, leaving but 32, and it 
 will become ice. Continue to abstract more and 
 more, until the known powers of nature and of art 
 are exhausted in the operation, and there will still 
 remain an immeasurable proportion of caloric in 
 combination with the ice. 
 
 All gases and liquids would become solids, if 
 caloric were abstracted to a certain degree. At- 
 mospheric air would first become liquid, liquids 
 would become solids, till, at length, all things 
 would become as permanently solid as the oldest 
 primitive rocks. But on increasing the quantity 
 of caloric in the whole terrestrial system, all sol- 
 ids would become liquids, and liquids would be- 
 come gases. Rocks would become fused, and at 
 length be converted into gases. By continually 
 adding caloric, the whole substance of the earth 
 and its inhabitants, would become a vast globe of 
 rarified gas. Hence it follows, that all substan- 
 ces are capable of being in the state of a solid, of 
 a liquid, or of a gas ; and that these states depend 
 on the quantity of caloric held in combination. 
 See Lavoisier's Elements. 
 
 Proposition 1. Caloric and light are not the 
 same substance. 
 
 Illustration. Suspend an iron ball, which is at 
 a high rt-d heat, by a wire, opposite to a sheet of 
 white paper pinned to the wall, and at the dis- 
 tance of about four feet from it. Place an air 
 thermometer between the ball and the paper, five 
 OF six inches from the paper. After the liquid in 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CALORIC. 27 
 
 j 
 
 the thermometer has been moved down by the 
 heated ball as much as the heat will move it, dark- 
 en the room. Now bring a pane of clear glass 
 before the ball, at the distance of about six inches 
 from it. The liquid in the thermometer will im- 
 mediately rise, while the light thrown upon the 
 paper will not be materially diminished by the in- 
 terposition of the glass. 
 
 Rationale. Caloric and light are both radiated 
 from the heated ball. The thermometer is affect 
 ed by the caloric, and the paper is illuminated by 
 the light. If light and heat are the same sub- 
 stance both should be equally interrupted by the 
 interposed glass. But since the heat is greatly 
 interrupted, and the light not materially inter- 
 rupted (unless it be by some imperfection in the 
 glass,) it follows, that they possess different prop- 
 erties, and cannot be the same substance. 
 
 Application. A glass screen will defend the 
 face and eyes from heat, when we inspect iron or 
 other metal in a state of fusion with a magnifier 
 of two or three inches focus. 
 
 Prop. 2. Combined caloric, which does not 
 excite the sensation of heat nor affect the ther- 
 mometer, may be brought to the free stdte by com 
 2?ression. 
 
 Illustration. Put a piece of tinder in the end 
 of the piston of the fire syringe, consisting of cot- 
 ton cloth dipped in a solution of saltpetre and well 
 dried. Force down the piston suddenly, and the 
 tinder will take fire. 
 
 Rationale. Caloric was combined with the ah 
 in the syringe before it was compressed ; in which 
 state it did not excite the sensation of heat nor in- 
 
IS CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 flame the tinder. When it was compressed by 
 the piston, the particles of air were brought too 
 near each other to afford room for so much caloric. 
 Part of it being forced from its state of combina- 
 tion, became free and inflamed the tinder. 
 
 Application. There is so much caloric in the 
 combination with air, water, and other substances 
 about us, that if it were capable of producing the 
 ordinary effects of heat, the whole race of man 
 Avould be burned to cinder in a day.* 
 
 Prop. 3. Combined caloric may be brought to 
 the free state by mixing liquids which strongly at - 
 tract each other. 
 
 Illustration. Set a wine glass, half filled with 
 cold water, within about half an inch of the bulb 
 of an air thermometer. Set another wine glass 
 equally near, half filled with cold sulphuric acid. 
 Let them stand a few minutes. Now empty the 
 glass of sulphuric acid into the water, and the air 
 in the thermometer will be considerably expanded. 
 
 Rationale. In this experiment, the caloric re- 
 mains combined with both liquids while they are 
 separate ; and the thermometer is not affected. 
 But when they are mixed, the affinity between 
 sulphuric acid and water unites them so closely as 
 to diminish their bulk, and to force part of their 
 caloric from the combined to the free state. It 
 then passes off towards other bodies, and in its 
 
 * Some chemists consider heat as the effect of a vibratory motion in 
 the particles of matter. This hypothesis is chiefly founded upon the 
 fact, that a flame may be excited and continued by friction, greatly 
 disproportioned to the combustible substances consumed. But wa's 
 this experiment ever fairly made in the exhausted receiver of the air 
 pump ? If a stick is put in the state of rapid rotary motion in a lathe, 
 and another stick held against it, a great flame will be produced, by 
 the compression of the air which is forced between the sticks by thi* 
 rapid motion. 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CALORIC. 29 
 
 way passes into and expands the air of the ther- 
 mometer. 
 
 If the hand be applied to the wine glasses be- 
 fore and after the mixture of the liquids, it will 
 appear, that while combined with the liquids the 
 caloric does not excite the sensation of heat ; but 
 that when pressed out into a free state by the mix- 
 ture, it does produce that sensation. 
 
 Application. When we sit by a fire we are 
 warmed by the caloric, which is brought out from 
 its combined state with the oxygen of the atmos- 
 phere, into a free state, through the agency of the 
 combustible fuel. Here is no addition of caloric ; 
 for the air of the room held all, which now warms 
 us, in combination, before we experienced that 
 sensation. 
 
 Prop. 4. Caloric, by entering into combina- 
 tion with solids in due proportion, may convert 
 them into liquids, and by encreasing the propor- 
 tion, may convert the liquids into vapours or gases. 
 
 Illustration. Lay a piece of ice on a hot stove 
 or fire-shovel, it will soon receive caloric sufficient 
 to become water. Let it remain a little longer and 
 it will become vapour and pass off into the air. 
 
 Rationale. The particles of water in the state 
 of ice were fixed ; but caloric being introduced 
 between them caused them to move freely among 
 each other, and thus become liquid. More calo- 
 ric being introduced, the particles were separated 
 so widely as to form vapour or steam. 
 
 Application. When a kettle of water is placed 
 over the fire, the particles of water next to the bot- 
 tom first receive caloric enough to become vapour 
 or steam, and attempt to ascend ; but the coldev 
 
30 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 water above robs them of a portion of caloric and 
 forces them to remain in the liquid state. When 
 all the water in the kettle has received very near- 
 ly the quantity of caloric required for converting 
 the whole into vapour, the particles next to the 
 bottom being converted into steam succeed in as- 
 cending to the top and passing off. A succession 
 of such ascending particles of vapour keeps up 
 the bubbling called boiling. 
 
 Metals are fused upon the same principle. The 
 same cause also keeps the atmosphere in the sitate 
 of gas. 
 
 Prop. 5. More caloric is required for convert- 
 ing liquids into vapour or gas , when the liquids 
 are subject to atmospheric pressure, than when 
 that pressure 9 or any part of it, is taken off. 
 
 Illustration. Fill a florence flask one third full 
 of water. Fit a sound cork to its mouth perfectly 
 tight. Suspend the flask with the mouth open, 
 over a candle, lamp, or coals, until the water 
 boils. Put in the cork, that all air may b ex- 
 cluded which is driven out by the steam, before 
 the flask is taken down. As soon as the water 
 stops boiling, set the flask on ice, snow, or in cold 
 water, and it will instantly boil. Hold it over 
 the coals and it will not boil. This may be re- 
 peated a dozen times with success. The flask 
 may be passed through fifty hands after it is so 
 cool as not to be painful to the hand, and then be 
 returned, and still boil when set on ice, snow, or 
 in very cold water. 
 
 Rationale. Water does not require 212 de- 
 grees of heat for converting it into vapour. It has 
 been made to boil at 67 degrees \ that is 31 de^ 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CALORIC. 31 
 
 grees below blood heat. Therefore it requires 
 145 degrees of heat to resist the pressure of the 
 atmosphere. In this experiment the atmospheric 
 pressure is taken off, or most of it, and the water 
 is left to boil with the degree of heat which it re- 
 quires when not restrained by atmospheric pres- 
 sure. 
 
 Application. A boiling pot which boils over 
 with the lid on, will often cease to boil over when 
 the lid is removed. In this case there is not a va- 
 cuum between the lid and the water ; but the air 
 beneath the lid being driven out by steam, leaves 
 room, without the usual pressure, for the steam 
 continually to follow it to the top of the pot, so as 
 to pass out under the edges of the lid. When the 
 lid is taken off, the pressure of the atmosphere 
 keeps down the water until an additional degree 
 of caloric forces it up again. It cannot be said 
 that the cold air which is let in, by cooling the 
 water, produces this effect ; for it will not, if the 
 heat is but about 212^ boil over again with the 
 same fire. A stronger heat is now required. 
 
 Prop. 6. Caloric enlarges the volume, and 
 thereby diminishes the specific gravity of a gas, ly 
 entering into and combining with it. 
 
 Illustration. Bring a burning coal near an air 
 thermometer, and it will force the liquid down 
 the tube. 
 
 Rationale. Caloric being accumulated in one 
 body in excess, compared with the quantity of it 
 in another hody, in seeking its equilibrium passes 
 into the body containing the less quantity. Thus 
 \t passes from the burning coal into the atmos- 
 phere about it, including the atmospheric air in 
 
32 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 the bulb of the air thermometer. This enlarges 
 the volume and forces the liquid down, and out at 
 the mouth of the beak of the thermometer. 
 
 Application. A heated chimney or stove pipe, 
 by thus expanding the air in it, renders it of less 
 specific gravity than the surrounding air. The 
 heavier air presses into it of course ; and thus a 
 current, carrying with it smoke, &c. is continued 
 in "that direction. The same application of calor- 
 icj on a vast scale, causes winds. 
 
 Prop. 7. Caloric passes from its combination 
 with one body into another, which contains less in 
 proportion to its capacity for caloric, until the two 
 bodies are in equilibrio. 
 
 Illustration. Put the warm hand upon the bulb 
 of the air thermometer, and the liquid will sink at 
 first and at length become stationary. Dip the 
 hand in cold water and it will rise. 
 
 Rationale. The hand containing more caloric, 
 in proportion to its capacity for caloric, than the 
 air in the thermometer, caloric passes out of it and 
 enlarges the- volume. When the hand is cooled; 
 the order is inverted. 
 
 Application. Frozen eggs or apples are thus 
 gradually thawed in cold water. Water, not be- 
 ing frozen, though very cold, contains more calor- 
 ic than they ; consequently caloric passes gradu- 
 ally into them from the water until their tempera- 
 ture is raised above freezing. When the hands 
 or feet are frozen, they should be gradually thaw- 
 ed in cold water in the same way. 
 
 Prop. 8. Caloric expands jTtymds, as well as 
 gases, by entering into and combining with them. 
 
 Illustration. Take the measure of the length 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CALORIC. S3 
 
 of a cold rod of iron, which is about a foot long 
 and cut off square at both ends. Heat it red hot 
 and apply it again to the same measure ; and it 
 will be found to be considerably longer. Cool it 
 and apply it again, and it will be found to fit the 
 measure as at first. 
 
 Rationale. Caloric, being introduced between 
 the particles of iron, separates them a little dis- 
 tance ; though not so far as to bring the iron to a 
 fluid state. - 
 
 Application. This principle causes the pendu- 
 lums of clocks and balance wheels of watches, to 
 vary in length according to the varying tempera- 
 ture of the weather ; and consequently to run fast- 
 er in cold and slower in hot weather. 
 
 Prop. 9. Caloric expands liquids, as well as 
 solids and gases, by entering in and combining 
 with them. 
 
 Illustration. Fill the bulb of a bolthead with 
 cold alcohol ; and on holding it over coals or a 
 candle, the alcohol will expand, and consequent- 
 ly ascend into the neck of the bolthead. A glass 
 tube, luted into the neck of a florence flask, filled 
 with alcohol, will be quite as good. 
 
 Rationale. Caloric, being introduced between 
 the particles of alcohol, separates them a little 
 distance from each other, though not far enough 
 to bring the alcohol to the state of vapour. 
 
 Application. Thermometers are constructed 
 by confining a liquid (quicksilver or alcohol is 
 generally employed) in a tube with a bulb at the 
 base, containing no air. Degrees are marked 
 against the side of the tube, by which the temper 
 ature is indicated as the liquid ascends and de- 
 scends in the tube. That all thermometers may 
 
34 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 be made to accord with each other, the boiling 
 and freezing of pure water, are assumed as start- 
 ing points. Then the space of the tube between 
 these points is cut into a number of equal divis- 
 ions, each of which is the measure on every de- 
 gree above and below, as well as between, those 
 points. Fahrenheit divides this space into 180 
 parts, Reaumur into 80, De Lisle into 150, the 
 Centigrade into 100. We use Fahrenheit, who 
 begins to count at 32 degrees below freezing, mak- 
 ing the boiling point at "2 12. 
 
 Prop. 10, Caloric is transferred through bod- 
 ies called conductors ; and substances differ great- 
 ly in their conducting powers. 
 
 Illustration. Procure a pipe stem and an iron 
 rod of the same size and length. Make a white 
 wax or bees wax head on one end of each about 
 the size of a musket ball. Put the other end of 
 each close together on burning coals, passing them 
 between two bricks, in order to defend the wax 
 from the direct heat of the coals. Then raise the 
 heat of the coals with a hand bellows, and the head 
 of wax on the iron rod will melt soon ; whereas 
 the wax on the pipe stem can scarcely be made to 
 melt. Charcoal is a slow conductor of caloric : 
 which will be well illustrated by burning one side 
 of a small piece of charcoal, while it may be held 
 in the hand by the other side. 
 
 Rationale. Caloric is received from the burn- 
 ing coals by both rods. It is then transferred from 
 particle to particle along their whole extent ; hut 
 it passes with much greater velocity from one par- 
 ticle of iron to the next, than from one particle of 
 the baked clay of the pipe-stem to the next, 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CALORIC. 35 
 
 Application. An iron stove soon gives off ca- 
 loric into a room and soon cools ; whereas a brick 
 Russian stove must be heated a long time before 
 it begins to give off caloric into the room, and will 
 not cool in a very long time. Clothes made of 
 wool and silk are slow conductors of caloric : 
 those made of flax conduct caloric rapidly. As 
 stone is a better conductor of caloric than brick, 
 a stone house has its rooms sooner heated in sum- 
 mer and cooled in winter, than a brick house. 
 
 Prop. 11. The same substance is a better con- 
 ductor of caloric if dark coloured or rough, than if 
 bright, polished or light coloured. 
 
 Illustration. Scratch and blacken with lamp 
 smoke one side of a small tin canister. Fit it to 
 a stand, so that the blackened and polished sides 
 may be readily set at the distance of half an inch 
 from the same side of the bulb of an air thermom- 
 eter. Now fill the canister with hot water, and 
 present the polished and blackened sides of it al- 
 ternately to the thermometer several times. The 
 liquid will always sink lowest when the blacken- 
 ed side is presented. 
 
 Rationale. As the caloric is transmitted through 
 the rough blackened side with the greatest facil- 
 ity, or rather meets with less obstruction than in 
 passing through the polished side, the air in the 
 bulb of the thermometer receives more caloric 
 from the water in a given time, and is consequent- 
 ly more expanded. 
 
 Application. A white earthen teapot will keep 
 the tea hot longer than a black one. A bright tin 
 coffee pot will keep the coffee hot longer than a 
 japanned one. Light coloured clothes will keep 
 
36 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 us cooler ill hot weather and warmer in cold 
 weather than dark coloured. For our bodies be- 
 ing warmer than the air in cold weather, caloric 
 passes out through our clothes ; but the hot rays 
 of the sun in summer pass through our clothes in- 
 wardly. 
 
 Prop. 12. When solids are converted into li- 
 quids caloric is absorbed from the adjoining bodies. 
 
 Illustration. Put a table spoon of Epsom salts 
 into a tumbler. Pour twice as much cold water, 
 by measure, upon it. The water and tumbler 
 will become intolerably cold. If ice be dissolved 
 in nitric acid in the same manner, it will give the 
 same result. A freezing mixture may be made as 
 follows : pulverize separately and very finely, 
 one part by weight of sal amoniac and one part of 
 saltpetre. Put these into a tumbler and pour on 
 them three parts by weight of very cold water. 
 Now stir this mixture with a test glass, or a very 
 thin small vial, containing half a teaspoon of cold 
 water. The water in the test glass will soon be 
 frozen. 
 
 Rationale. The salts in this mixture, by their 
 action upon each other, and by the aid of the wa- 
 ter, are brought to the liquid state. More caloric 
 being required by these substances for their liquid 
 than for their solid state, they absorb it from the 
 nearest substances. Consequently the water in 
 the test glass is deprived of so much of its caloric^ 
 as to be reduced to the state of ice. 
 
 Application. When snow has commenced 
 thawing by the heat of the sun through the day, 
 it will continue to melt in the evening. During 
 the time it melts in the evening it takes so much 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CALORIC. 37 
 
 caloric from the atmosphere, as often to render it 
 colder than on a preceding evening while water 
 was freezing into ice. 
 
 Prop. 13. While liquids are converted into va 
 your or gas, caloric is absorbed from the adjoining 
 bodies. 
 
 Illustration. Wet a piece of thin cotton cloth 
 in ether and lay it on the bulb of the air thermom 
 eter, and apply a few drops of ether to the cloth 
 frequently, and the air in the bulb will be con 
 densed. The ether should be quite as warm as 
 the thermometer when applied, to make the ex- 
 periment a fair one. 
 
 Rationale* More caloric being required to con- 
 vert the ether into vapour, and the thermometer 
 being .nearest, it is robbed of part of its caloric. 
 
 Application. Inflamed tumors are cooled on 
 this principle by frequently wetting with ether- 
 Rooms are cooled in hot summer days by sprink- 
 ling with water ; because the water soon passes 
 into vapour and absorbs some of the caloric from 
 the air of the room. 
 
 Prop. 14. When liquids become solids, com- 
 bined caloric is evolved or pressed out and. becomes 
 free. 
 
 Illustration. Prepare liquid muriate of lime as 
 directed under lime. Pour half apoonfull into a 
 wine glass. Pour in strong sulphuric acid, until 
 a solid is forme'd. On taking the wine glass be- 
 tween the thumb and finger, the student will find 
 it considerably heated. 
 
 Rationale. The sulphuric acid having a supe- 
 rior affinity for the lime, the muriatic acid is forced 
 
 4 
 
38 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 . 
 
 put in the state of gas, leaving solid gypsuin in 
 the wine glass. The caloric of fluidity being 
 pressed out warms the glass. 
 
 Application. When the freezing process com- 
 mences, and water begins to be converted into ice, 
 or vapour into snow, so much caloric is frequently 
 evolved as very sensibly to diminish the severity 
 of the cold. The heat produced in slaking lime 
 is caused by solidifying water. 
 
 Prop. 15. When vapour or gases become liquidsy 
 solids, or more dense vapours or gases, combined 
 caloric of the vapour or gas is evolved or pressed 
 out and becomes free. 
 
 Illustration. Let the flame of burning hydro- 
 gen pass into a large dry vial of atmospheric air, 
 and water will be formed which will line the vial 
 with vapour, and great heat will be produced. 
 
 Rationale. The burning of the hydrogen is 
 carried on by the union of the oxygen of the atmos- 
 phere with the hydrogen ; which will be demon- 
 strated under the article hydrogen. When the 
 flame is confined in the vial, water, the product of 
 this combustion, is made manifest. As all the 
 heat, or free caloric, is caused by this process, it 
 follows that the caloric is evolved by the reduc- 
 tion of the gases to the liquid state. 
 
 Application. All combustion is explained upon 
 the same principle. For example, successive por- 
 tions of oxygen coming in contact with heated 
 portions of oil in a lamp or melted tallow of a can- 
 dle, which are carried up the wick by capillary 
 attraction ; the oxygen and oil uniting and form- 
 ing a more dense gas, a quantity of caloric is press- 
 ed out of the oxygen. A continued succession 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CALORIC. 39 
 
 of such combinations pressing out a continued suc- 
 cession of portions of caloric, from the combined 
 to the free state, produces a continued blaze. All 
 combustibles have an affinity for oxygen, and af- 
 ter combustion are found to be combined with 
 oxygen. 
 
 Rooms may be warmed by steam upon this prin- 
 ciple. Steam holds a great quantity of caloric in 
 combination, and it is readily condensed by a very 
 little cold water, or by the lower temperature of 
 the metallic tubes in which it is confined. On be- 
 ing condensed, as it passes from the state of vapour 
 to the liquid state, caloric is pressed out from its 
 combined state to a free state, and thus warms the 
 rooms. 
 
 Prop. 1 6. Free caloric is radiated in all direc- 
 tions from the body from which it is disengaged* 
 
 Illustration. Suspend a heated iron ball by a 
 wire, and hold an air thermometer on all sides of 
 it in succession. It will be found to be equally 
 affected at equal distances. 
 
 Rationale. As the thermometer is equally af- 
 fected on all sides at equal distances, it follows, 
 that its radiation is equal in all directions. 
 
 Application. A stove set in or near the centre 
 of a room will afford as much warmth on each of 
 all its sides, as it would on the one exposed side, 
 if set in a side fire-place. 
 
 Prop. 17. Caloric is reflected by hard polished 
 surfaces like light. 
 
 Illustration. Set a bright tin plate on one edge. 
 Set up a board on one edge perpendicular to the 
 middle of the tin plate, so that its nearest edge 
 shall be about two inches from the plate. Sus 
 
10 CLASS I. POWERS, 
 
 pend a heated ball on one side of the board and 
 set an air thermometer on the other side, so that 
 they may be at equal distances from the board and 
 from the plate. The thermometer will be imme- 
 diately affected. 
 
 Rationale. As the board was interposed be- 
 tween the heated ball and the thermometer, the 
 latter could not be affected directly. Of course 
 the caloric must have been conveyed to the ther- 
 mometer by reflection upon the tin. 
 
 Application. Polished walls of a room, called 
 hard finish, will reflect the caloric radiated from a 
 stove, and thereby cause the air of a room, to be 
 warmed much more than papered walls. A room 
 lined with sheet tin might be kept warm with very 
 little fire, on this principle. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 3. ELECTRICITY.* 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 The electic fluid is universally diffused. It 
 presents no phenomena which indicate its pres- 
 ence when in equilibrio. When its equilibrium is 
 disturbed and it is seeking its restoration, it ex- 
 hibits several interesting properties. Nature thus 
 presents it on a large scale in the terrific form of 
 lightning. 
 
 Prop. i. The electric fluid is accumulated lij 
 friction, and manifests itself by attraction and re- 
 
 * Electricity, was not considered as belonging to the department of 
 Chemistry by Lavoisier, Henry, Accura and others, who wrote their 
 systems as early as the year 1810, and previous. As some important 
 decompositions are now effected by the power of electricity, a fevv 
 of its principles oughtto.be illustrated ; though its most important 
 phenomena are referrible to natural philosophy. 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. ELECTRICITY, 41 
 
 Illustration. Lay a half sheet of paper upon a 
 warm smooth board or table. Rub the paper smaii- 
 ly with a large thick piece of India rubber, as if 
 rubbing out pencil marks, about a dozen strokes. 
 Now lift up one end of the paper and let it fall back 
 on the board, and it will go down with force, 
 being moved by electrical attraction. It will 
 also adhere to the side of a ceiling. Hold light 
 down suspended by fine threads near the paper, 
 and it will be attracted and repelled alternately. 
 Hub a glass cylinder, a stick of sealing vvax,* a 
 piece of rosin, amber, or gum-copal, with a dry silk 
 handkerchief, and it will attract and repel alter- 
 nately, suspended pieces of cork, feathers, tow, 
 thread, &c. The substance should be warmed, 
 and the experiment should be made when the at- 
 mosphere is dry and the wind northerly. 
 
 Rationale. The electric fluid being accumu- 
 lated by friction, it makes an effort to pass off to 
 restore its equilibrium ; in doing which it attracts 
 those bodies. Afterb?inga short time in contact, 
 electrified bodies repel each other, See Webster's 
 Philosophy, head Electricity. 
 
 Application. In cold dry weather, when the at- 
 mosphere is always highly charged with the elec- 
 tric fluid, our clothes often exhibit analogous ap- 
 pearances when we put them off or on in a cold, 
 room ; which are to be explained on the same prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 Remark. The electric fluid is accumulated 
 more expeditiously by the aid of an amalgam, as 
 follows : Melt one part of tin and two parts of 
 zinc, and stir them well together in the ladle. 
 Heat six parts of mercury so that water will hiss 
 when poured upon -it. Put the three metals into 
 
 4* 
 
42 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 a warm iron mortar, and rub them to a powder 
 with a pestle. The amalgam will now be prepar- 
 ed for use. The best way of using it is, to rub 
 cold tallow upon a piece of soft leather, and then 
 spread the amalgam upon tlje tallow, pressing it 
 on hard with a wide knife-blade. 
 
 Prop. 2. The electric fluid is accumulated by 
 the action of diluted acids upon pairs of metallic 
 plates, and tends to restore its equilibrium in the 
 direction of the metal which has the strongest at- 
 traction for oxygen. 
 
 Illustration. Make a trough of baked mahog- 
 any, and divide it into half inch portions by me- 
 tallic partitions. Each of these partitions to be 
 made of a plate of zinc and copper soldered togeth- 
 er at the edges, and set in with the same metals the 
 same way. Fill these portions or divisions with a 
 liquid consisting of one part of sulphuric acid, one 
 part of nitric acid, and sixty parts of water. Now 
 fit in a wire at each end of the trough, by coiling 
 one end spirally so that it will spring strongly 
 against the two extreme metallic plates, when in- 
 eerted into the end cells or divisions. Bring the 
 other ends of the wires^ almost together, and sparks 
 will piss from one to the other. 
 
 Rationale. All the zinc plates being in one di- 
 rection and the copper plates in the other, and 
 zinc having a stronger attraction for oxygen than 
 copper, the electric fluid tends to restore its equi- 
 librium in the direction of the zinc side of the 
 plates. When the conducting wires are brought 
 iogether, the electric fluid passes from the zinc 
 (or positive) side over to the copper (or negative) 
 Side. 
 
PRINCIPLE 4. LIGHT. 43 
 
 Application. *If an animal, but recently dead, 
 be placed in the circle with a proper application 
 of the wires to a nerve and a muscle, the animal 
 "will exibit signs of life. Airy metal, even plati- 
 na, if placed in the circle will burn like tinder. 
 This application of electricity is called GALVAN- 
 ISM. 
 
 Prop. 3. Compounds, of which one of the con? 
 stituents is oxygen, may be decomposed if placed 
 in the galvanic circle the oxygen always going 
 to the positive side or pole. 
 
 Illustration. Place the two ends of the wire 
 conductors in the opposite sides of a wine glass of 
 water, and the oxygen will go to the positive pole, 
 and if iron, will unite with it, while the hydrogen 
 will rise up in bubbles from the negative pole. 
 Solutions of salts are decomposed ; the acids going 
 to the positive, and the bases to the negative poles. 
 Acids are decomposed ; the oxygen going to the 
 positive pole and the acidifiable bases to the ne- 
 gative. 
 
 Rationale. The same as in the last proposition. 
 
 Application. By this mode of applying elec- 
 tricity, potash, soda, lime, and many other bodies 
 may be decomposed, which resist the most pow- 
 erful chemical agents. 
 
 a 
 
 PRINCIPLED. LIGHT. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Light is chiefly derived from the sun, in the so- 
 lar system. This is called solar light or celestial 
 light. It is also derived from terrestrial objects ; 
 as from combustion, friction, chemical attraction; 
 
44 CLASS I. POWERS. 
 
 &c. This is called terrestrial light. It is gener- 
 ally accompanied by caloric. 
 
 Every ray of common light contains in itself 
 seven different knids. These may be best sepa- 
 rated by a triangular glass prism; but the same 
 operation may b<* performed with a tumbler of 
 water. Such experiments, however, belong to 
 the department of natural philosophy. The seven 
 kinds of light differ in two remarkable charac- 
 teristics 'They are of different colours and of dif- 
 ferent degrees of refrangibility. They are red. 
 orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. 
 The red is least refrangible, the violet most ; 
 and the intermediates vary in their degrees of re- 
 frangibility according to this order of succession. 
 The different colouring of bodies depends on the 
 different kinds of light which they reflect to the 
 eye. White bodies reflect all kinds of light 
 black reflect none. 
 
 Prop. i. The different kinds of light are reflect- 
 ed, according to the arrangement of the constituent 
 atoms of bodies reflecting them; not according to 
 the nature of those atoms.- 
 
 Illustration. Prepare the following solutions as 
 here directed : 1. Sugar of lead dissolved, 1 to 
 50 of water by weight 2. Pearlash, 1 to 4 of wa- 
 ter 3. Corrosive sublimate, 1 to 30 of water 4. 
 Copperas, 1 to 6 of water 5. Sulphuric acid, 1 to 
 12 of water 6. Verdigris, 1 to 100 of water -7. 
 Strong liquid ammonia 8. Tincture of red cab- 
 bage 9. Tincture of galls 10. Prussiate of pot- 
 ash 11. Nitrate of mercury, made of 1 of mercury 
 to 4 of nitric acid, to which is added twice as much 
 water. 
 
 By mixing these liquids we make, 
 Red One of 5 with one of 8. 
 
PRINCIPLE 4. LIGHT, 45 
 
 Orange Four of 3 with one of 2. 
 
 Limpid with one of 5. 
 Yellow Four of 11 with one of 2. 
 Green Three of 8 with one of 2. 
 
 Ruby red with one of 5. 
 Blue Three of 6 with one of 7. 
 
 Limpid with one of 5. 
 Indigo One of 4 with one of 10. 
 Violet Add the red to the indigo. . 
 White Mix three of 1 with one of 2. 
 Black Three of 9 with one of 4. 
 
 Limpid with one of 5. 
 
 Rationale. These liquids either reflect differ- 
 ent colours before they are mixed, from those 
 which they reflect afterwards, or reflect no colours 
 as some of them are limpid. It follows as a ne- 
 cessary conclusion, that colouring is not inherent 
 in matter, but depends on the peculiar arrange- 
 ment of the constituent atoms. For if inherent in 
 matter the same matter would always present the 
 same colours. 
 
 Application. As colours are changed by the 
 various applications of the laws of chemical affin- 
 ity, dyers, limners, &c. ought to be well acquaint- 
 ed with these laws. Mordants sometimes only 
 fix a colour b^ their affinity for the stuff and for 
 the colouring matter. In other cases they effect 
 a total decomposition of the colouring matter, and 
 thereby produce new colours. 
 
 Prop. 2. Light decomposes many substances 
 by its direct action upon their elementary consti- 
 tuents. 
 
 Illustration. Put oxymuriatic acid gas (chlo 
 rine gas) into a vial, cork it tight and set it in a 
 window exposed to the rays of the sun. In a few 
 
46 CLASS I. "POWERS. 
 
 days examine it, and it will be found to consist of 
 muriatic acid and oxygen. 
 
 Fill a bell-glass or large tumbler loosely with 
 mint, hyssop, savory, or some other leaves and 
 herbage, collected in the morning before sun-rise. 
 Fill the same up with water, and invert it in a 
 plate filled with water. This operation is best 
 performed in a cistern or tub of water. Set it in 
 a window, exposed to the rays of the sun. Bub- 
 bles will soon appear on all parts of the leaves, 
 which, on shaking the whole a little, will rise to 
 the upper part of the vessel. Towards evening 
 immerse it in a tub of water or cistern, and draw 
 out the leaves through water. JS ow experiment 
 upon this gas, as in other cases, and it will be 
 found to be pure oxygen. Perhaps the best meth- 
 od will be to fill a small wide mouthed vial with 
 it, and test it by dipping an extinguished candle 
 into it ; which will be lighted by the heat of the 
 sparks on the wick. 
 
 Rationale. In this case we can merely refer to 
 facts, without being able to assign their cause. 
 Light eliminates oxygen from its compounds in 
 numerous cases. In the case of the chlorine or 
 oxymuriatic acid, the additional portion of oxy- 
 gen, which converts muriatic acid into the oxy- 
 muriatic, is disengaged, leaving the muriatic. 
 
 Application. The green colour of vegetables 
 is produced by the action of light. For potatoe 
 vines growing in a dark cellar, and other vegeta- 
 bles excluded from light, are not green. A pris- 
 oner long confined in a dungeon loses his usual 
 colour and becomes of a peculiar white, unlike 
 those equally confined where light is admitted. 
 
PRINCIPLE 4. LIGHT. 4? 
 
 Prop. 3. Light is radiated from many sub- 
 stances which seem not to belong to the class of 
 luminous bodies ; which light is denominated phos- 
 phorescence. 
 
 Illustration. Rub two pieces of white quartz 
 slightly together in the dark, and they will be- 
 come luminous. 
 
 Rationale. Jn this case nothing like the scin- 
 tillations of flint and steel is the cause of the lu- 
 minous appearance. Neither is the're any phos- 
 phorus in combination with common quartz. 
 This and some other minerals either absorb light 
 and give it off when rubbed, or possess a pecu- 
 liar property, which cannot be referred to any 
 classification of the phenomena of light. 
 
 Application. Some bodies absorb and give off 
 light, as rotten wood, putrid fish, some artificial 
 preparations, &c. Snow absorbs light by day, 
 which it gives off at night ; which may be demon- 
 strated by opening a window in a dark night and 
 the room will be actually illuminated consider- 
 ably, 
 
48 
 CLASS II. ACIDIFYING SUBSTANCES. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 1. OXYGEN. 
 
 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Oxygen is very generally diffused, though not 
 so universally as caloric, electricity and light. 
 It is one of the constituents of thjs atmosphere 5 
 composing about 21 per cent of it. It is the only 
 souring or acidifying principle used by nature ; 
 and probably so in all artificial preparations. It 
 is found in nature in the solid, liquid and gaseous 
 state ; but when pure it is always in the gaseous 
 state. It is combined with most of the metals in 
 a solid state forming what are called oxids of met- 
 als, and also acids in a few cases. As the ores 
 called oxid of iron, oxid of manganese, &c. chro- 
 mic acid in the chroinate of iron, &c. It is com- 
 bined with hydrogen in the liquid state, forming 
 water, and with carbon in th e gaseous tate y form- 
 ing carbonic acid gas. The same acid is solid in 
 a tripple compound, as in the common marble, 
 which consists of carbonic acid and lime. In the 
 state of combination, oxygen is found solid in 
 primitive, transition and secondary rocks. There- 
 fore, the earth, the ocean and the air abound in it. 
 
 Proposition 1. Oxygen is found in great abun- 
 dance in combination with metals 9 from which it 
 may be disengaged by caloric in the state of gas. 
 
 Illustration. Pulverize the black oxid of man- 
 ganese in an iron mortar. Fill about ten inches 
 of a gun-barrel with it. Put the end containing 
 the manganese into a fire. A furnace is best ; but 
 if the door of a common close stove be taken off 
 and set bottom up, so that the gun-barrel may lie 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. OXYGEN. 49 
 
 in the notch or hole in the bottom of the door, with 
 the lower end in the fire, and the mouth elevated, 
 it will heat to good advantage. A leaden tube 
 must be fitted to the mouth of the gun -barrel, 
 which leads to the cistern, passing the end under 
 the funnel in the moveable shelf. Over this the 
 bell-glass or other receiver must stand, filled with 
 water. The leaden tube must be fitted to the 
 mouth of the gun-barrel. No luting will be neces- 
 sary. Merely wind a little wet flax or tow around 
 the pipe and ring it in forcibly. Then suck at the 
 end of the leaden tube, so as to exhaust consid- 
 erable of the air, and placing the tongue over the 
 end, wait a moment to see whether the tongue will 
 be released. If not, all is tight. Be sure to have 
 some part of the tube considerably higher thai? 
 the water of the cistern, by bending it arching up 
 wards. Otherwise water may get into the gun 
 barrel and cause an explosion with steam. 
 
 The apparatus being thus prepared, raise the 
 heat with charcoal or good dry hard wood, and 
 keep the gun-barrel at a moderate red heat. Ai 
 first collect the gas that comes over in a small 
 open-mouth vial ; the opodeldoc vials will do- 
 Frequently try it by dipping the hot wick of an 
 extinguished candle into it. When the candle is 
 lighted in it by the sparks and heat of the wick, 
 begin to save it for use. About one gallon of the 
 gas may be collected from ten inches of the Ben 
 nington manganese. But there is great difference 
 in manganese. Some contains a great quantity of 
 carbonate of iron, and carbonic acid will come 
 over sometime before the oxygen appears. 
 
 Red lead, being oxygen and lead, is quite as 
 good as the manganese : but it is very difficult to 
 
 5 
 
50 CLASS II. ACIDIFYERS. 
 
 clear out the gun^barrel after the process is ended. 
 Whereas manganese is easily emptied out. 
 
 Rationale. Oxygen is combined with manga- 
 nese in a solid state. By applying heat, the ca- 
 loric enters into combination with the metal and 
 the oxygen. The manganese will not ever be- 
 come fused without more than ten thousand de- 
 grees of heat, but the oxygen will be disengaged 
 and converted into gas at about one thousand de- 
 grees. It then comes over and assumes the tem- 
 perature of the atmosphere. 
 
 Application. We are taught by this experi- 
 ment, that the pure respirable part of the air we 
 breathe may be a solid in combination, and be 
 brought back to air again by heat. 
 
 Prop. 2. Some acids hold their highest pro- 
 portions of oxygen by so feeble a tenure, that 
 though combined with a base in the state of a salty 
 they will give it off in the state of gas, ivhen but 
 slightly heated. 
 
 Illustration. If saltpetre is coarsely pulveriz- 
 ed and put into a gun-barrel^ and conducted ac- 
 cording to the directions for manganese, except- 
 ing that the barrel must hardly be heated to red- 
 ness, the saltpetre will melt and boil, and soon af- 
 ter oxygen gas will come over. 
 
 Rationale. Saltpetre consists of nitric acid 
 and potash. The nitric acid parts with its high- 
 est portions of oxygen by being heated, and the 
 salt is reduced to the nitrite of potash. This acid 
 will be fully described under Nitrogen. 
 
 Application. The facility with which oxygen 
 is obtained from saltpetre, is the property on which 
 its use in the manufacture of gun-powder depends. 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. " OXYGEN. 51 
 
 There is another substance, called oxy muriate of 
 potash, from which pure oxygen may be obtained 
 on the same principle with much less heat, and is 
 very explosive. 
 
 Prop. 3. Oxygen is the only supporter of com 
 bustion in the atmosphere. 
 
 Illustration. Having obtained some nitrogen 
 gas (which is the other constituent of the atmos- 
 phere) by the process hereafter to be described, 
 fill a small glass cylinder, or wide mouth vial 
 with it, dip a burning candle into it, and the 
 candle will be extinguished. Now fill the same 
 vessel about three fourths full of nitrogen, and fill 
 up the remainder with oxygen. Let the two gases 
 stand a few minutes to mix according to those 
 equilibrium laws which govern their union. Let 
 down into it a short piece of a burning caudle by 
 a wire, and it will burn as in common atmospheric 
 air. 
 
 Rationale. As the candle would not burn in 
 nitrogen and noAv does burn after the introduction 
 of oxygen, it is manifest that it is the oxygen 
 which supports the combustion. 
 
 Application. When much of the oxyaen has 
 been consumed by the breathing of a crowded as- 
 sembly in a close room, candles do not burn in the 
 voom with the same brilliancy. 
 
 Prop. 4. Oxygen promotes combustion vehe- 
 mently when pure. 
 
 Illustration. Fill a glass cylinder with oxygen, 
 and let down a short piece of a burning candle in 
 to it by a wire, and it will burn vehemently. 
 
 Rationale. Oxygen being mixed with nitrogen 
 in the atmosphere^ and nitrogen not being a sup- 
 
52 CLASS II. ACIDIFYERS. 
 
 porter of combustion, the strong action of the oxy 
 gen as a supporter of combustion is restrained. 
 But when it is divested of the nitrogen, it acts 
 with all its force. 
 
 Application. The necessity for having oxygen 
 diluted with nitrogen is manifest ; for if the at- 
 mosphere were pure oxygen, all combustible sub- 
 stances, when once inflamed, would burn without 
 controul, to the destruction of all the living beings 
 inhabiting the earth. 
 
 Prop. 5. Some metals will burn vehemently, 
 after being inflamed, in pure oxygen. 
 
 Illustration. Coil up a piece of fine iron wire, 
 sometimes called harpsicord wire, which is about 
 the size of sewing thread. It will take the most 
 suitable form by winding it spirally and closely 
 around a pipe stem. Let the coil be three or four 
 inches long, with the upper end fitted into a cork, 
 which suits the mouth of an 8 ounce vial. Fill the 
 vial nearly with oxygen, leaving only water 
 enough in it to cover the bottom an inch thick, to 
 defend it from being broken with the globules of 
 hot oxyd of iron which will fall upon it. Set the* 
 vial on the table, stopped with another cork. Now 
 tie a small knot of silk thread on the lower end of 
 the coil, hold a piece of brimstone in the candle 
 till it melts a small spot, blow out the blaze of 
 brimstone and dip in the knot of thread. Be sure 
 that the thread and melted brimstone that adheres 
 to it, all do not exceed in size a large pin head. 
 All being ready, pull out the cork from the vial, 
 hold the thumb over the mouth, and let an assist 
 ant steady the vial. Now light the brimstone 
 match and put the coil of wire quickly into the 
 vial, fitting in the cork to which it is attached. 
 
1. OXYGEX. 58 
 
 Lift up the vial by the neck, that all the class may 
 see the wire burn ; which will send off brilliant 
 sparks and make a beautiful exhibition. 
 
 If a wire, which is about twice as large as the 
 coil, be flattened with si hammer, and so fitted into 
 the cork as to extend down through the centre of 
 the coil, and it be set on fire at the same time, and 
 in the same manner with the coil, it will present a 
 very curious appearance. The central wire will 
 burn with a large globular flame, while a smaller 
 globular flame will perform revolutions around it, 
 resembling the motion of a -planet around the sun. 
 If a still finer wire is coiled around the first coil 
 and ignited, a moon will be seen revolving around 
 the planet, while the planet revolves around the 
 sun. 
 
 Hationale. Same as in Prop. 4. 
 
 Application. From this experiment it appears, 
 that if the oxygen of the atmosphere were not di- 
 luted or reduced in power by nitrogen, even iron 
 would not resist combustion. Our iron stoves 
 would burn with the fuel put into them ; the 
 smith's hammer and anvil would blaze like tin- 
 der. 
 
 Prop. 6. Oxygen is the acidifying or souring 
 jjrinciple. 
 
 Illustration. Fill an opodeldoc vial with oxy- 
 gen, leaving half a spoon-full of pure water in the 
 bottom. Put a piece of phosphorus, of the size of 
 a pea, into a mustard spoon or a strip of tin bent 
 in the same form. Suspend it from the end of a 
 large piece of wire or iron rod, forming a conven- 
 ient handle to move it with. All being ready, 
 pull the cork out of the vial and liold the thumb 
 
54 CLASS II. ACIDIFYERS, 
 
 upon it; let an assistant steady the vial and hold 
 a candle with the blaze very near the mouth of it. 
 Now take off the thumb, touch the phosphorus to 
 the candle, and in the same instant let it down 
 into the vial of oxygen. It will burn most brilliant- 
 ly and probably crack the vial. A white floccu- 
 lent substance will line the vial. Whether the 
 vial breaks or not, rinse off this white substance in 
 the water in the bottom of the vial. Now pass 
 this liquid about in wine glasses, and the class 
 will perceive that something has given acidity to 
 the phosphorus. 
 
 Rationale. As nothing but phosphorus and 
 oxygen were in the vial, with the little water in 
 the bottom of it, the acidity of the water must have 
 been caused by the union of the oxygen and phos 
 phorus. 
 
 Application. This applies to all acids, as will 
 be shown under each. 
 
 NOMEN CL ATU #E. 
 
 Oxygen enters into combination with acidifiable 
 substances, in several definite proportions, which 
 requires a peculiar nomenclature. When combin- 
 ed in the lower proportions, they are called oxids. 
 or oxides, inthv higher proportions they are called 
 acids. The proportions of oxygen in the oxids 
 are expressed by the Greek numerals. As pro- 
 toxid, deutoxid, tritoxid, and peroxid. For ex- 
 ample, the metal called manganese is said to com- 
 bine with four definite proportions of oxygen, 
 forming the protoxid of manganese, the deutoxid 
 of manganese, the tritoxid of manganese, and the 
 jperoxid of manganese* Some metals do nat 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CHLORINE. 55 
 
 unite with oxygen in more than one proportion, 
 some with two, some with three, none more than 
 four. 
 
 The proportions of oxygen in acids is expressed 
 by the terminations ous and ic. As sulphurous 
 and sulphuric acid. When acids contain more 
 than two proportions of oxygen, the term hypo is 
 prefixed to the name next below which it stands. 
 As hypo-sulphuric acid, implies an acid compos- 
 ed of sulphur and the next proportion of oxygen 
 below that contained in sulphuric acid. Hypo-sul- 
 phurous acid would express the acid which con- 
 tained a definite proportion of oxygen, next below 
 that contained in sulphurous acid. If the acid 
 combines with higher proportions of oxygen than 
 that expressed by the termination zc, they are ex- 
 pressed by oxygenated and by hyper. As muri- 
 atic acid, when combined with one higher propor- 
 tion, is called oxygenated muriatic acid when 
 two proportions, hyper-oxygenated muriatic acid. 
 Oxygenated is usually abbreviated, so as to form 
 oxy-muriatic. 
 
 Some oxids, which are in the state of gas, are 
 expressed by substituting the adjectives in ous 
 and ic for the Greek numerals. Thus we say ni- 
 trous oxid and nitric oxid. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 2. CHLORINE, 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 tjhlorine is an artificial substance. If simple, it 
 exists in nature in a state of combination with hy- 
 drogen, forming muriatic acid. Whether simple 
 or compound, has been a subject of much discus- 
 sion ; though the question is immaterial in respect 
 
56 CLASS II. ACIDIPYERS. 
 
 to its use in the arts. The question ought to be de- 
 cided by bringing chlorine and ammonia together 
 in the state of perfectly dry gases. According to 
 Murray, muriate of ammonia and some water are 
 always produced. If so, chlorine must be a com- 
 pound of muriatic acid and oxygen. Its oxygen 
 goes to a part of the hydrogen of the ammonia 
 and forms Avater, while the muriatic acid unites 
 with the remainder of undecomposed ammonia. 
 But Davy says, these gases may be so well dried, 
 that they may be united without producing any 
 water. Students who are desirous to examine the 
 arguments on both sides, may read Cooper's note 
 to Chlorine, in his American edition of Thomp- 
 son's Chemistry. 
 
 Muriatic acid is the substance in which we are 
 to consider the natural history of chlorine; for 
 chlorine is obtained from it, either by adding oxy- 
 gen to it, or by divesting it of its hydrogen. Mu- 
 riatic acid being one of the constituents of common 
 salt, it is as extensive as the waters of the ocean, 
 the waters of salt springs, and the mines of solid 
 salt. 
 
 It may be proper to add, that some of the advo- 
 cates for the chlorid ic theory, consider common 
 table salt as analagous to the oxlds. That it is 
 the chlorid of sodium, arid not a salt. 
 
 Prop. 1. Chlorine is obtained in the state of gas 
 from common table salt by the aid of the oxid of a 
 metal, and a strong acid. 
 
 Illustration. Put into a half pint retort a pul- 
 verized mixture, well rubbed together, consisting 
 of a tea spoon-full of manganese with twice as 
 much table salt. Then pour into the retort about 
 two tea spoons of sulphuric acid, with half as 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CHLORINE. 57 
 
 much water. Apply the heat of a candle to the 
 retort, and the chlorine gas will come over. Ifc 
 ought not to be collected in the cistern ; for the 
 cistern water will give off* a disagreeable odour 
 for many days afterwards. Invert the receivers 
 in a large wash-bowl, and let the water he warm 
 to prevent the absorption of the gas. 
 
 As this gas is destructive to the lungs, very 
 small quantities should be used in the laboratory. 
 Opodeldoc vials, (used as receivers) should be 
 prepared, filled with water, and inverted in the 
 bowl, before the process commences. Just vials 
 enough should be filled for the proposed experi- 
 ments ; then the retort should be instantly carried 
 out of the room. The vials should be corked 
 closely, and the water immediately thrown out 
 
 Rationale. This process is explained on two 
 very different hypotheses. Lavoisier, Berzelius, 
 Murray and others, say that the muriatic acid, be- 
 ing disengaged from the soda, and oxygen from 
 the manganese, the muriatic acid unites with a de 
 finite proportion of oxygen, and forms the oxy~ 
 muriatic acid ; that is, this gas consists of muriat- 
 ic # acid with an additional proportion of oxygen. 
 Davy and others say, that the oxygen disengaged 
 from the manganese unites with a portion of hy- 
 drogen, and forms water; which hydrogen, they 
 say, combined with chlorine, formes the muriatic 
 acid. The chlorine being thus divested of the hy- 
 drogen, which held it in the state of muriatic acid, 
 comes over a purej simple, yellowish green, suffo- 
 cating as. 
 
 5 S3 
 
 Application. On this principle, and by a more 
 economical use of the same substances, the same 
 gas is obtained and combined with water, to form 
 
58 CLASS II. ACIDIFYERS. 
 
 the bleaching liquor. But the gas is ofteu disen- 
 gaged in large quantities from the water, when its 
 temperature is a little raised ; which is very suf- 
 focating and injurious to the health of workmen. 
 To remedy this inconvenience, the chlorine is uni- 
 ted to lime, forming an oxy muriate or chlorid of 
 lime. See this subject again under lime. 
 
 Prop. 2o Chlorine gas feebly supports com- 
 bustion, and inflames some substances spontane- 
 ously. 
 
 Illustration. Fill an opodeldoc vial with the 
 gas. Immerse a short piece of a burning candle 
 in it, held upright by a wire. It will burn a short 
 time with a deep coloured flame and much dense 
 smoke. 
 
 Fill another, and immerse in it a small piece of 
 phosphorus, in a mustard wpoou. It will take lire 
 and burn spontaneously. 
 
 Fill another, and immerse in it gold, silver and 
 copper leaf, they will soon take fire spontaneous- 
 ly. Brass or copper wire will burn in this gas, 
 if immersed in a vial of it when heated to redness 
 in a candle. For all these experiments the gas 
 must be just made and kept warm. 
 
 Rationale. Those who consider chlorine as 
 muriatic acid with an additional portion of oxy- 
 gen, say, the candle burns with the additional 
 portion of oxygen, which the muriatic acid readi- 
 ly parts with. And that the action of the acid, 
 combined with the excess of oxygen, causes the 
 spontaneous combustion. Those who consider 
 chlorine as a simple substance, say, these cases of 
 combustion are evidence that it is entitled to a 
 place in this class with oxygen ; and that it sup- 
 ports combustion of itself independently of oxy 
 gen. 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CHLORINE. 59 
 
 Application. The facility with which chlorine 
 inflames combustible substances, renders salts 
 made with it very suitable for fire- works. Oxy- 
 muriate of potash readily inflames many combus- 
 tible substances by mere compression in contact 
 with them. 
 
 Prop. 3. Chlorine extinguishes vegetable col" 
 mirs, if the substances to be operated upcn are 
 moistened, or if the chlorine is in a liquid state. 
 
 Illustration. Obtain chlorine in the liquid state,, 
 as follows : Fill a strong quart decanter one third 
 full of water. Put into it a pulverized mixture, 
 consisting of half a gill by measure of red lead and 
 a gill of common table salt, well rubbed together. 
 After shaking it up, put into the decanter two 
 thirds of a wine glass of sulphuric acid. Put in 
 a ground glass stopper loosely, and shake the de- 
 canter half a minute. The .atmospheric air and 
 some gas will escape. Now press in the glass stop- 
 per perfectly tight and plunge the decanter into a 
 tub or cistern of cold water, just keeping the 
 mouth above water. Agitate it as much as may 
 be done under water, about once each minute, for 
 fifteen minutes. Now take it out and let the ex- 
 cess of red lead and salt settle. The sulphuric acid 
 must never be in excess. The liquid will now be- 
 come yellowish-green, and will be tolerably pure ; 
 though it will contain a little muriatic acid. Pour 
 a little into a wine glass, and with it wash out 
 writing from paper, and extinguish the colours 
 from calico. 
 
 Fill an 8 ounce vial with the chlorine gas. Wet 
 or dampen one end of a piece of calico, and insert 
 it into the vial by the side of the cork, leaving the 
 dry end out. The wet end in the vial will soon 
 become faded. 
 
60 CLASS II. ACIDIFYERS* 
 
 Rationale. The chlorine becomes muriatic acid 
 by parting with its oxygen. And it has been found, 
 by the use of sulphurous acid and of some other 
 compounds, that oxygen thus imparted will extin 
 guish vegetable colours. 
 
 Application. The liquid chlorine obtained in 
 this way may be kept in vials in a dark cool place, 
 and used for taking spots out of linen, &c. It has 
 been employed for fraudulent purposes, to oblite- 
 rate written instruments so as to write something 
 different in the same place. 
 
 This may be readily detected by prussiate of 
 potash. For wherever it has been applied, the 
 place will become green on the application of a 
 solution of prussiate of potash. 
 
 t Prop. 4. Muriatic acid,* from winch chlorine 
 is made, is obtained from common table salt by 
 elective ajjinitij. 
 
 Illustration. Fill two or three vials or small 
 cylinders with mercury and invert them in the 
 trough. Lute very firmly a pipe bowl to the mouth 
 of a tubulated half pint retort, with half an inch of 
 the stem remaining, which must point upwards. 
 Having previously dried some fine salt on an 
 earthen plate, put into the retort, through the tu- 
 bulature, a wine glass full of the salt. Place the 
 retort in a fixed steady position, with the beak in 
 the trough, so as to immerse the pipe bowl and 
 stem uader the mercury ; but do not place any of 
 the receivers in a situation to collect the gas yet. 
 All being ready, now pour gradually into the re- 
 
 * Muriatic acid was supposed to consist of an unknown base com- 
 bincd with oxygen, until the chloridic theory was introduced. Many 
 able chemists still believe in the old hypothesis; and consider the new 
 one as an unnecessary anomaly. 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CHLORINE. 61 
 
 tort, through the tubulature, as much strong sul- 
 phuric acid as will be sufficient to moisten, or ra- 
 ther wet, the salt. Considerable gas will be given 
 off immediately and pass out at the tubulature ; 
 but not more than is necessary for driving out the 
 air and vapour which were in the retort. Put in 
 the stopper, and let the gas waste a few seconds 
 through the pipe stem. Now move one of the re- 
 ceivers to receive the gas, setting it down so as to 
 bring the pipe stem a little way into the mouth of 
 the receiver, whether a vial or glass cylinder ; be- 
 cause the gas will not ascend into it if merely 
 brought under it, as the practice is when receivers 
 are filled with water. Two or three small re- 
 ceivers will now be soon filled with pure muriatic 
 acid gas. But if a sufficient quantity does not 
 come over, apply a candle to the retort. This gas 
 may be collected for ordinary experiments, with- 
 out a mercurial trough. As it is heavier than at- 
 mospheric air, set an 8 ounce vial on the table in- 
 clined a little to one side, and insert the neck of 
 the retort, extending its beak to the bottom of the 
 vial. The gas will soon force out the air and fill 
 the vial. A goose quill with the feathered end dip- 
 ped in liquid ammonia may be used to determine 
 when the vial is full. For the ammonia will 
 form a cloud about the mouth of the vial when it 
 is filled and runs over. Several vials may be filled 
 and corked tight ; each to be used for a separate 
 experiment. 
 
 Rationale. Common salt consists of muriatic 
 acid and soda. The soda elects the sulphuric 
 acid, and excludes the muriatic ; forming Glauber's 
 salts, which remain in the retort. 
 
 Application. On this principle the muriatic 
 6 
 
62 CLASS II. ACIDIFYERS. 
 
 acid, called spirits of salt, which is used by ar- 
 tists, may be obtained. For if the gas be passed 
 into a receiver containing water, the water will ab- 
 sorb it and the common liquid, muriatic acid of the 
 shops, will be formed. 
 
 Prop. 5. Muriatic acid is strongly absorbed by 
 water or ice. 
 
 Illustration. When the muriatic acid has al- 
 most ceased to come over by the last described 
 process, take up the retort, pull off the pipe bowl 
 and set the mouth in water, holding the neck in a 
 vertical position. The water will ascend in the 
 neck of the retort, and at length fill it. 
 
 Cut a piece of ice of a suitable form for entering 
 the mouth of one of the vials of gas, and pass it 
 in through the mercury. It will become liquid, 
 and mercury will ascend and fill the vial. Invert 
 one of the vials of gas and place its mouth in a 
 bowl of water. The water will ascend and fill it. 
 
 Rationale. Water absorbs muriatic acid gas 
 so powerfully, that it combines with it immediate- 
 ly. Its volume being thus reduced to almost no- 
 thing, a vacuum is formed into which the water 
 or mercury rushes by force of atmospheric pres- 
 sure. 
 
 Application. The strong attraction existing be- 
 tween muriatic acid and water, still exists when 
 the acid is combined with soda in the state of salt. 
 This accounts for the salt's forcing ice into the 
 liquid state when they are used together for a 
 freezing mixture also, when salt is used for 
 thawing out a pump, &c. 
 
 Prop. 6. Muriatic acid gas extinguishes flame f 
 first giving it a green tinge. 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. CHLORINE. 63 
 
 Illustration. Let down a short piece of candle 
 slowly into an opodeldoc vial of the gas. As the 
 candle enters the gas, a green ring will encircle 
 the base of the flame. On immersing it a little 
 farther, it will be extinguished. 
 
 Rationale. Though muriatic acid gas extin- 
 guishes flame, it gives a green tinge to it after mix- 
 ing with the nearest portion of atmospheric air. 
 
 Application. This experiment seems to shew, 
 that the muriatic acid possesses some faint vestige 
 of that property of the chlorine which enables it 
 to support combustion. 
 
 Prop. 7. Muriatic acid may be arrested in wa- 
 ter standing over common salt, at the moment of its 
 escape ; forming the liquid spirits of salt, or the 
 muriatic acid of the shops 
 
 Illustration. Having heated common table salt 
 in a crucible to a moderate red heat and let it cool, 
 put an ounce into a tubulated pint retort. Pour 
 through the tubulature, upon the salt, the same 
 weight of diluted sulphuric acid, consisting of 
 equal measures of the best sulphuric acid of the 
 shops, and water, after they had been mixed and 
 cooled. Then distil over the liquid muriatic 
 acid. This may be easily done, by fitting the 
 neck of the retort to a receiver, immersed in cold 
 water or surrounded with ice or snow, and apply- 
 ing a very moderate heat to the retort. A sand 
 bath, or coals in a lead pot, will give a due degree 
 of heat. 
 
 Rationale. The muriatic acid is disengaged 
 from the soda, as when we obtain it in the state of 
 gas ; but it is arrested in the water which is mixed 
 with the sulphuric acid. On distillation the mu- 
 riatic acid and water come over in vapour, and are 
 
64 CLASS IIo ACIDIFYERS. 
 
 condensed into a liquid, leaving the sulphate of 
 soda in the retort. 
 
 Application. By this method a physician or 
 an artist may obtain the acid, whose purity he is 
 acquainted with, by very little labour or expense. 
 And in the same experiment we illustrate the doc- 
 trine of elective affinity, forcible attraction, and the 
 motion of caloric in evaporation and condensa- 
 tion. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 3. FLUORINE. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Fluoric acid is chiefly found in combination 
 with lime, constituting the fluor spar. From its 
 analogy to other acids, it was supposed to have an 
 acidifiable base, which is combined with oxygen. 
 This base was never discovered. The acid so 
 nearly resembles the muriatic acid, that it seemed 
 necessary to suppose, that it consisted of hydro- 
 gen and a simple substance analogous to chlorine. 
 Therefore to accommodate the chloridic theory, a 
 fluorine is assumed, with little or no evidence. 
 
 Fluoric acid has been found in topaz, and in a 
 few other minerals; but it is always obtained 
 from fluor spar when used in the arts. 
 
 Prop. 1. Fluoric acid dissolves flint and glass. 
 It is found constituting an essential part of fluor 
 spar, from which it may be obtained in the state of 
 gas, by elective affinity. 
 
 Illustration. Put into the etching box a tea 
 spoon full of coarsely pulverized fluor spar, and 
 set the box into a dripping pan of coals placed on 
 bricks upon the table. Pour in strong sulphuric 
 acid, just sufficient to moisten or moderately wet 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. FLUORINE. 65 
 
 the fluor spar. Fluoric acid will immediately rise 
 up out of the cup, which may he known hy its at- 
 tracting so much vapour from the air as to exhibit 
 the appearance of common steam. As soon as it 
 begins to appear, which will be in a few seconds, 
 lay over the cup a piece of common window glass, 
 large enough to cover its mouth, which had been 
 previously waxed and written upon. Let an as- 
 sistant instantly apply snow, ice, or cold water, to 
 the upper side of the glass, in order to keep it so 
 cool as to prevent the wax which is on the under 
 side from melting. Take off the glass in ten 
 seconds and apply another, and so on. Two- or 
 three may be applied before the fluor spar and sul- 
 phuric acid are renewed. The writing made in 
 the wax will appear beautifully etched upon the 
 glass on scraping off the wax. 
 
 The best method of preparing the glass, is to 
 warm, or rather heat moderately, the face of a 
 smoothing iron or piece of polished marble, so 
 that white wax or very fine beeswax will melt on 
 being applied to it. Lay the glass flat upon the, 
 melted wax, and on sliding it off, it will be very 
 evenly waxed. A dozen pieces or more may be. 
 prepared in succession. The writing may be 
 made with the end of a hard stick, nail, &c. Care 
 must be taken to lay the glass perfectly bare 
 throughout all the strokes, or there will be inter- 
 ruptions in the etching. 
 
 Rationale. The lime elects the sulphuric acid, 
 and excludes the fluoric in the state of gas. This 
 gas has a strong affinity for silex, with which it 
 unites and forms a fluo-silicious gas, leaving the 
 etched channels. 
 
 Application. Any devise, name* stanza^ &c a 
 
66 CLASS II. ACIDJFYERS, 
 
 may be etched in this way, not only upon glass, 
 but upon any silicious substance. Common flint, 
 common chalcedony, the carnelion, &c. may be en- 
 graved in the same manner. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 4, IODINE. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 ' Iodine is obtained from barilla (the coarse im- 
 pure soda,) or from the sea weeds from which the 
 barilla is obtained. Whether it exists as a ready 
 formed simple substance in the sea weed, or wheth- 
 er it is a compound, produced in the process of 
 obtaining it, is not known It possesses several 
 properties in common with chlorine. Being al- 
 ways in connexion with muriatic acid, it may be a 
 compound of that substance, somewhat analogous 
 to the combination of muriatic acid with oxygen, 
 in forming chlorine. But as it has not yet been de- 
 composed, it is treated as a simple substance. To 
 call a substance simple, merely because it has not 
 been decomposed, is a rule adopted when it will 
 aid in the cause of a favorite hypothesis only. 
 Muriatic acid and fluoric acid were always con- 
 sidered as compound from mere analogy, when 
 neither of them was supposed to have been decom- 
 posed. And it is not probable that any one would 
 have even suspected iodine to be a simple sub- 
 stance, had it not been necessary for the support 
 of the chloridic theory.* 
 
 *We have a remarkable specimen of curious reasoning in support 
 of a favorite hypothesis in some of the writings of Sir Humphrey Da- 
 vy. He says, that, according to the sound logic of chemistry, chlorine 
 and iodine must be considered as simple substances, because they have 
 faot been decomposed. But in support of another favourite hypothesis 
 f (tnat all earths have metallic bases, and must be classed with metals.) 
 jhe assumes, from analogy merely, that alumine, glycine, zincoa and 
 
PRINCIPLE 4. IODINE. 67 
 
 Iodine at the common temperature, is in the 
 state of solid scales, of a steel-grey colour. In 
 this it differs from chlorine, which is in a state of 
 gas when pure. 
 
 Prop. 1. Iodine be comes it purple gas on rais- 
 ing the temperature a little. 
 
 Illustration. Put a few scales of iodine into a 
 test glass or small vial. Cork the vial quickly to 
 prevent much air from coming in contact with it. 
 Warm the vial over coals, until the scales are con- 
 verted into a purple gas. Immerse the vial in cold 
 water or snow, and the purple gas will return to 
 solid scales. 
 
 Rationale. At the common temperature this 
 substance is a solid ; but by giving it more caloric 
 it becomes a gas. 
 
 Application. This experiment shows that the 
 same substance may change its colour by merely 
 receiving an additional portion of caloric. 
 
 Prop. 2. Iodine gives different colours to dif- 
 ferent substances. 
 
 Illustration. Put a few scales of iodine into a 
 tea spoon of alcohol in a wine glass, it will give a 
 reddish purple colour. Put a few scales into a 
 solution of starch, and it will give a dark purple 
 colour. Put a few scales on a bright silver dollar, 
 and it will give an iridescent hue. Rub a few 
 scales between the fingers, and it will give to the 
 skin a dirty yellow colour. 
 
 Rationale. We can only refer these results to 
 the general proposition under light ; that different 
 
 yttria, are compounds of different metals and oxygen ; though they 
 have never been decomposed, nor a shadow of evidence of their com- 
 pound nature has hitherto been deduced from experiment, 
 
68 CLASS II. AC1DIFYERS, 
 
 colours depend on the different arrangement of 
 constituent atoms. 
 
 Application. The above solution in alcohol 
 is used by physicians in the scrofula. The other 
 combinations are subjects of curiosity only. See 
 New-York Medical and Physicial Journal, p. 
 263 ; 519. 
 
 NOMENCLATURE, 
 
 A peculiar nomenclature has been introduced 
 for chlorine and iodine, when in combination with 
 other substances. Considering them as analogous 
 io oxygen, their nomenclature is also analogous. 
 If uncompounded chlorine or iodine is united with 
 a metallic base, the compound is called a chlorid 
 or iodid of that metal. When they arc supposed 
 to be united with oxygen, the termination is in ic. 
 as in other compounds of oxygen where an acid is 
 formed, &c. A comparative view of the nomen- 
 clature of those who do, and of those who do not. 
 believe these to be simple substances, will suffi- 
 ciently illustrate this nomenclature. Chlorine and 
 iodine are oxymuriatic acid and oxiodiatic acid. 
 Hydrochloric acid and bydriodic acid are muriatic 
 acid and iodiatic acid. Chloric acid and iodic 
 acid are hyperoxymuriatic acid, and hyperoxiodi- 
 atic acid. Their salts are expressed by termina- 
 ting the names of their acids in ate and ite, as will 
 be explained hereafter, in regard to sajts in gener- 
 al. 
 
69 
 
 CLASS HI. OX1DABLE SUBSTANCES, 
 NOT METALLIC. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 1. HYDROGEN. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 As water is a compound of hydrogen and oxy- 
 gen, it is as extensively diffused as water. Water 
 of crystallization forms a part of crystals, consti- 
 tuting rocks of all formations, from the oldest to 
 the most recent. Hydrogen is one of the essen- 
 tial constituents of all animal and vegetable mat- 
 ter. It is also found pure. Whatever decompo- 
 ses water by attracting and uniting with its oxy- 
 gen, disengages the hydrogen in an uncombined 
 state. It appears also, as a production of nature, 
 in the state of several compound gases ; such as 
 the sulphuretted hydrogen, a very nauseous scen- 
 ted gas, the carburetted hydrogen, which issues 
 from decaying vegetables and coal mines, &c. It 
 issues from decaying animal matter in combina- 
 tion with nitrogen, forming ammonia. 
 
 Prop. t. Hydrogen and oxygen being the com- 
 bined constituents forming water, if the oxygen of 
 the water is united to a n,etal by elective affinity? 
 the hydrogen will come over in the state of gas. 
 
 Illustration. Put half a gill of water into a 
 pint retort, to be decomposed. Put into the water 
 a table spoonfull of iron filings, or half as much 
 zinc, hydrogen would come over, after a long time> 
 in small quantities. As this operation would re- 
 quire several months, put in diluted sulphuric 
 acid, consisting of a wine glass one third full of 
 sulphuric acid, filled up with water, to hasten the 
 
70 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 process. Hydrogen gas will come over immedi- 
 ately and with great rapidity. If a smaller pro- 
 portion of sulphuric acid be put in, the gas will 
 come over slower and continue longer. It may be 
 received over water in bell-glasses, tumblers, gas- 
 holders, decanters, &c. 
 
 The sulphuric acid may be dispensed with, if 
 the water be converted into steam and pass over 
 hot iron. This may be performed by passing an 
 open gun-barrel across a furnace and heating it 
 red hot ; while water is boiling at the lower end 
 in a tin cap, box, or glass retort with a neck fitted 
 to the gun- barrel. Iron filings or wire may be put 
 into the gun-barrel ; but the heated inner surface 
 of a new barrel will decompose the water, without 
 the filings or wire, for a short time. 
 
 Rationale. The oxygen of water has a strong- 
 er affinity for iron than for hydrogen, consequent- 
 ly elects the iron and excludes the hydrogen. 
 And though the hydrogen is in a liquid state when 
 combined with oxygen, it takes so much caloric 
 when in a free state as to become a gas. It is not 
 known how the sulphuric acid acts upon the iron 
 or upon the water in so rapidly hastening the pro- 
 cess of decomposition. We can say, that in a 
 manner not yet explained, it excites a strong pre- 
 disposition in the iron and oxygen to unite. As 
 muriatic acid produces the same effect, it cannot 
 be ascribed to any decomposition of the acid, as 
 suggested by Dr. Cox ; for muriatic acid cannot 
 be decomposed at least so as to separate oxygen 
 from a base. 
 
 Application. Earthquakes- are probably caus- 
 ed by hydrogen in some instances ; but more fre 
 (jiie&tlv by sulphuretted hydrogen. Iron and wa 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. HYDBOGEST. 71 
 
 t 
 
 ter are in contact in the earth, consequently hy- 
 drogen is formed. The hydrogen passes into vast 
 caverns and mixes with air. Any spontaneous 
 combustion in the earth, for which there are many 
 causes, would explode the gas ; which explosion, 
 if of sufficient extent, would cause an earthquake. 
 Prop. 2. Hydrogen gas burns in a continued 
 Maze, when passed from any vessel into atmos- 
 pheric air. 
 
 Illustration. Put some of the gas into a tubu- 
 lated bell-glass or common gas-holder, and im- 
 merse it beneath the surface of the water in the 
 cistern ; having previously fitted a pipes tern into 
 a cork with which the tubulature or hivie in the top 
 of the gas-holder, is stopped, the upper end of the 
 pipestem being also stopped with a peg. Pull out 
 the peg, and at the same instant apply a candle to 
 the stream of hydrogen which is forced out by the 
 pressure of the water, and it will be lighted and 
 burn steadily with some degree of decripitation. 
 If a stop cock be used, which is better, no peg will 
 be wanted in the end of the pipe. 
 
 Rationale, The hydrogen, and oxygen of the 
 atmosphere unite and form water. Caloric is then 
 forced out, as explained under caloric at the 15th 
 proposition. 
 
 Application. This flame was formerly called 
 the philosophic candle ; though it was exhibited 
 in a very simple manner. It does not give so 
 much light as some of its compounds, and is not 
 now used for gas lights. 
 
 Prop. 3. Hydrogen gas explodes if inflamed 
 when intermixed with oxygen very violently if 
 the oxygen is pure, considerably when the oxygen 
 is combined with nitrogen as in atmospheric air. 
 
72 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 Illustration. Mix a quantity of hydrogen and 
 atmospheric air in a tumbler or small bell-glass, 
 one part of hydrogen to two of air by bulk. Fill 
 the gas-pistol with water, hold the thumb on the 
 vent hole, or stop it with a peg, and set the mouth 
 over one of the funnel holes in the shelf. Pour 
 under and fill the gas-pistol with the mixture of 
 air and hydrogen. Having a suitable cork ready 
 and well soaked in water, stop the mouth of the 
 pistol very tight with it. Now raise up the pistol, 
 elevating the mouth so as to point above the heads 
 of the class ; remove the thumb from the vent, and 
 at the same instant touch the flame of a candle to 
 it. It will explode and drive the cork to a distance. 
 But if the mixture be made of equal parts of pure 
 oxygen and hydrogen, the explosion will be much 
 more violent. 
 
 .Rationale. During the explosion, the two gas- 
 es combine and form water. As the volume of wa- 
 ter is much smaller than the volume of the gases, 
 a question naturally arises, why is not the cork 
 driven into the pistol instead of being driven out 
 with such force ? If the two gases united instan- 
 taneously throughout the whole pistol, the cork 
 would be pressed inwards. But their combina- 
 tion is progressive, from the vent hole to the muz- 
 zle ; and the heat, consequently the expansion of 
 the uncombined gases, outruns the process of com- 
 bination. 
 
 Application. This exhibits the principle of 
 earthquakes before referred to. Also the inflam- 
 mability of hydrogen, and shows that oxygen is a 
 supporter of combustion. 
 
 Prop. 4. Hydrogen gas, though itself combus- 
 tible , will not support the combustion of other sub~ 
 stances. 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. HYDllOGEN. 73 
 
 Illustration. Fill a glass cylinder, or opodel- 
 doc vial, with hydrogen gas. Raise it up slowly, 
 still retaining it in its inverted position, and care- 
 fully settle it down over a candle. When the gas 
 touches the flame it will slightly explode. After 
 it is so far settled down over the candle as to bring 
 the wick within the gas, it will be extinguished. 
 
 Rationale. The vessel containing the gas is rais- 
 ed with the closed end upwards, because the gas 
 is much lighter than atmospheric air. The slight 
 explosion at the mouth of the vessel occurs in 
 consequence of the mixture of the hydrogen at the 
 mouth with the oxygen of the atmosphere. 
 
 Application. The distinction between a com- 
 bustible substance and a supporter of combustion, 
 should be well settled in the mind of the student. 
 Hydrogen and oxygen are good specimens. 
 
 Prop. 5. Hydrogen and oxygen, when unite A 
 by combustion, form water. 
 
 Illustration. Fit a stop-cock into the top of a 
 wooden gas-holder or tubulated bell-glass. To 
 the upper end of the stop- cock fit a lead pipe about 
 one inch and a half in length. Cut off a wine- 
 glass, with a triangular file, so far above the bot- 
 tom as to leave a hole equal to the size of the lead 
 tube. Fit the glass so that it may stand upon the 
 upper end of the stop-cock with the lead tube ex- 
 tending into it through the hole in the bottom. 
 The glass is to be half full of mercury when used. 
 Fit a pipe stem into the end of the leaden pipe, so 
 that it shall stand upright through the mercury to 
 the height of about two inches above it. Having 
 put a sufficient quantity of hydrogen into the gas- 
 holder, turn the stop and let a small quantity of 
 
 7 
 
74 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 the gas pass out, which iliust be lighted up by ap 
 plying a candle to the end of the pipe stem. Re- 
 gulate the blaze by the stop, making it as small 
 as it will burn. But if the blaze is extremely 
 small, it will not burn in the oxygen. 
 
 Having previously filled entirely full a perfect- 
 ly dry 8 ounce vial with oxygen, stop it with the 
 finger and raise it up and shut it down suddenly 
 over the burning hydrogen, bringing its mouth 
 do vn to the mercury. It will continue to burn, 
 but will not explode. At length the blaze will 
 become broader, and finally cease. At that instant 
 turn the stop. On examination the vial will be 
 found to be lined with fine drops of water, and 
 some will run down upon the mercury. No at- 
 mospheric air will unite with the oxygen ; because, 
 as soon as the blaze comes within the oxygen gas 
 it will expand with the heat, and thus it will be 
 partly forced out while the vial is settling down 
 towards the mercury, and of course prevent the 
 entrance of air. 
 
 The best method for filling the vial with oxygen 
 so as to keep it dry, is, to fill it from a bladder, or 
 from a tubulated bell-glass immersed in the cis- 
 tern. Iii- either case, let the vial stand upright, 
 and force the oxygen to the bottom of it by ex- 
 tending the tube to the bottom. Force in about 
 thrice as much oxygen as would be sufficient to 
 fill the vial, which will entirely clear it from at- 
 mospheric air. 
 
 Rationale. By this mode of burning the two 
 gases, every thing is excluded which can possibly 
 affect the new compound. It follows that water 
 is formed, in the state of vapour, in this case, by 
 the combustion and consequent couibination of 
 oxygen and hydrogen. 
 
PRINCIPLE i. HYDROGEX, 75 
 
 tion. From this experiment it appears, 
 that the burning of one of the most combustible 
 substances with the all pov^erflll supporter of com- 
 bustion, the liquid is produced which we apply 
 to extinguish flame. Attempts have been made to 
 decompose water with charcoal, so that a perpet- 
 ual supply of hydrogen may be added as a fuel. 
 
 Prop. 6. While hydrogen is burning in oxy- 
 gen, it excites vibrations in a glass vessel, pro 
 ducing sounds. 
 
 Illustration. While the above apparatus re- 
 mains unmoved, li^ht up the hydrogen as before, 
 take up a small decanter of oxygen which was 
 filled in the cistern, stopping its mouth, quickly 
 shut it down over the burning hydrogen so as to 
 bring the mouth very near the mercury, but not 
 quite touch it. The decanter will immediately 
 commence ringing, and if every thing is conduct- 
 ed judiciously, with a suitable glass,, &c. the 
 sound will almost deafen all present. I think the 
 common bottles used for preserving citrons and 
 other sweet- meats, is the best form. In thfcse the 
 neck is broad and about one third the length of 
 the body. 
 
 Keeping the flame chiefly in the neck, while 
 the tip of the flame ascends beyond the shoulder 
 into the broadest part, produces a greater effect. 
 When the sound grows faint, turn the stop a little, 
 so as to enlarge the stream of hydrogen, or fill the 
 jar again with oxygen. 
 
 Rationale. The most reasonable explanation 
 given for these vibrations appears to be 5 that the 
 succession of globules of water, which are formed, 
 strike against the sides of the glass, with such 
 force as to cause the ringing. By suspending 
 
CLASS III. OXIDABLES, 
 
 fine asbestos threads within the vessel, it may be 
 seen that these globules do move with much ve- 
 locity. 
 
 Application. Whatever hypothesis we may 
 choose to adopt, the doctrine of sound, as produced 
 by the vibration of elastic bodies, is well illustrat- 
 ed by this experiment. A very amusing musical 
 instrument might be constructed, by suspending 
 different sized glass vessels over a horizontal 
 tube, with lateral keyed outlets, passing into the 
 vessels. 
 
 Prop. 7. Hydrogen is much lighter than at- 
 mospheric air. 
 
 Illustration. Fit a tobacco pipe to the end of 
 a flexible tube. Attach the tube to a stop-cock 
 which is fitted to the top of a gas-holder. Set a 
 bowl of strong soap suds on a table near the cis- 
 tern. Having put a large quantity of hydrogen 
 into the gas-holder, turn the stop so as to let out 
 xlie gas slowly. By applying the pipe bowl to 
 the soap suds, bubbles may be inflated with the 
 Lydrogen gas and shaken off, as children inflate 
 them with their breath and throw them. But in- 
 stead of falling downward as when inflated with 
 the breath, they will ascend and rise to the upper 
 ceiling. 
 
 Rationale. The soap suds being an adhesive 
 liquid, is blown into bubbles by the stream of hy- 
 drogen gas which is forced into it by the pressure 
 of water in the cistern. When the bubble attains 
 to such a size that the difference between the 
 weight of the hydrogen gas and the atmospheric 
 air is sufficient to overcome the weight of the soap 
 suds employed in making the bubble, it ascends, 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. HYDROGEN* 77 
 
 Application. This is the gas with which bal 
 loons are inflated. It being but about a thirteenth 
 as heavy as atmospheric air, a large balloon, 
 when inflated with it, will carry up several per 
 sons. 
 
 Prop. 8. Water absorbs and holds in combina- 
 tion a quantity of atmospheric air. 
 
 Illustration. Fill the bulb and part of the neck 
 of a bolthead, or a florence flask may do, with 
 river water, or any water which has been consid- 
 erably agitated in the open air. Tie a thread 
 around the ueck at the precise surface of the wa- 
 ter. Now suspend it over a candle, or over burn- 
 ing coals, and the water will rise in the neck. 
 Let the heat be continued a little while, but not so 
 as to commence boiling, and numerous bubbles of 
 air will be disengaged and appear in the vessel. 
 
 Rationale. T*he particles of atmospheric air, 
 which are in water, are too minute to be visible. 
 But on being heated their volumes become enlarg- 
 ed, as explained in the 6th Prop, under Caloric. 
 
 Application. Air gives to water in running 
 streams a kind of briskness, as it is commonly call- 
 ed, which is not found in the water of wells ; and 
 on agitating well water a short time in open air it 
 is greatly improved for drinking. The air con- 
 tained in water is essential to the lives of fish, 
 which has been often shewn by experiment. 
 Some species of fish cannot live in a small still 
 fish pond, which would be healthy if the water 
 was frequently agitated, so as to give it a better 
 opportunity to absorb air. 
 
 A remarkable fact, which is asserted by the 
 raftsmen on the Hudson river above the head of 
 
 7.* 
 
78 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 tide water, requires particular investigation, 
 They assert, that their mouths become sore, and 
 a sensation is experienced as after a long continued 
 use of vinegar ari^l water, whenever they practice 
 drinking the water of the river. It should be added, 
 that in this part of the river the water is much 
 agitated in the rafting season, which is the spring. 
 
 Prop . 9. Water on freezing expands its vol- 
 ume and thereby diminishes its specific gravity. 
 
 Illustration. Lay a piece of ice on water and it 
 will float. Glass vessels are broken in wMch wa- 
 ter is left to freeze, unless they diverge upwards 
 so much as to allow the ice to rise up when the 
 freezing process commences. 
 
 Rationale. By an effort to shoot into crystals, 
 probably very minute interstices are formed in the 
 ice. la addition to this, when the water becomes 
 solid, caloric is pressed out anoV enters the minute 
 particles of air contained in the water and enlarg- 
 es their volume, as explained under the 6th and 
 14th Prop, of Caloric. If this hypothesis is not 
 demonstrated, it is better to adopt it for the pre- 
 sent, than to substitute an anomaly by saying 
 water is an exception to the general law. 
 
 Application. To this principle we are indebt- 
 ed for our bridges, erected by nature for the bois- 
 terous season of winter. Thus too rocks are split 
 down and broken into soils. 
 
 Prop. 10. The specific gravity of water is en- 
 creased by dissolving a salt in it. 
 
 Illustration. Fill two tumblers almost fall of 
 water. Let the water of one tumbler be pure, and 
 that of the other contain as much common salt as 
 it will hold at the temperature of pretty cool wa 
 
PBINCIPLE 2. NITROGEN. 79 
 
 ter. Attach a piece of lead to a small block of 
 wood, whittling off from either the lead or the 
 wood until it will barely float in the tumbler of 
 salt water. Now put it into the tumbler of fresh 
 water and it will sink to the bottom. 
 
 Rationale. Salt being strongly attracted by 
 water, combines with it closely, and probably 
 enters the interstices between its particles, giving 
 it a more dense consistency? of course greater spe- 
 cific gravity. 
 
 Application. A ship will swim in the ocean 
 with a freight so heavy, that it would sink if sail- 
 ed into a fresh water river. Persons cast away 
 at sea can sw ; im much easier than they could in 
 fresh water, because the greater specific gravity 
 of the water will help to buoy them up. 
 
 NITROGEN.^ 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Nitrogen is one of the two constituents of the 
 atmosphere ; composing about 79 per cent of it. 
 Nitrogen and oxygen are the only essential con- 
 stituents of the atmosphere ; though other gases, 
 as well as aqueous vapour, are always suspended 
 in it. It may be easily divested of these substan- 
 ces by operating upon an enclosed portion of it 5 
 and then only it ma; be called pure atmospheric 
 air. Some authors have set down aqueous vapour 
 and carbonic acid as constituent parts of the at- 
 mosphere. But I can perceive no better reason 
 for treating them as essential constituents of tho 
 atmosphere, than for treating carburetted hydro- 
 
 * I am very elad to find nitrogen used by Brando instead of 
 ^Vhich Gorhanjijas very unadvisedly adopted. 
 
80 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 gen, ammonia, or floating dust, as such. Or for 
 treating mud and drift-wood as essential constitu- 
 ents of the Hudson, or of the Thames. 
 
 Nitrogen is an essential constituent of saltpetre, 
 from which it derived its name. It is also produc- 
 ed in a pure state from the earth at New-Leba- 
 non Springs and in Hosick, in the state of New- 
 York. See Prop. 4, under this head. 
 
 Prop. 1. Nitrogen and oxygen being the only 
 essential constituents of atmospheric air, if the 
 oxygen be abstracted from an enclosed portion of 
 the atmosphere, the nitrogen will be left in the state 
 of gas. 
 
 Illustration. The oxygen may be-extracted by 
 burning phosphorus in an enclosed portion of at- 
 mospheric air ; or more perfectly if the season 
 is not cold, as follows : Mix finely pulverised 
 sulphur and iron filings, rubbing them well to- 
 gether. Then moisten the mixture with water, 
 and place as much of it on the bottom of an invert- 
 ed wine-glass as will lie on it, or place it on any 
 other stand of about the same height. Place this 
 on a shelf of the cistern, or in a large soup plate 
 filled with water. Now shut over this mixture a half 
 gallon bell-glass, or specie bottle of that size, and 
 let it stand about twenty- four hours. The oxy- 
 gen will be absorbed from the air in the bell-glass, 
 and the water will have ascended to fill the vacan- 
 cy made by the loss of the oxygen, which is about 
 twenty-one per cent. The remaining gas will be 
 nitrogen. 
 
 Rationale. Phosphorus attracts oxygen so 
 strongly that its combustion will continue until 
 very nearly the last atom of oxygen is exhausted, 
 paste of iron filings and sulphur, however^ 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. NITROGEN. 81 
 
 will absorb, probably, the very last atom. But 
 the process is slow and difficult to be explained. 
 
 Application. Whatever .consumes the oxygen 
 of the air in a close room, will tend to leave an 
 encreased proportion of nitrogen. Probably the 
 prisoners crowded into the Black Hole of Cal- 
 cutta, had but very little oxygen to breathe for 
 some time before they died. 
 
 Prop. 2. Nitrogen gas extinguishes flame and 
 destroys life, if breathed, by excluding oxygen. 
 
 Illustration. Immerse a burning candle in an 
 8 ounce vial of it, it will be extinguished. Fill a 
 small jar or large mouth vial entirely full of the 
 gas, and turn it up. Take a live mouse into the 
 hand, having a leathern glove on it to defend it 
 from the bite of the mouse, and drop it into the 
 jar, instantly covering it again. The mouse will 
 expire in a short time, though not so soon as in 
 some other gases. 
 
 Rationale. The candle is extinguished and 
 the mouse is killed, by excluding oxygen , which 
 is essential to the support of combustion and of 
 life. But this gas does not operate as an active 
 agent in the destruction of life, like carbonic acid 
 gas. 
 
 Application. Since oxygen and nitrogen arc 
 the only essential constituents of the atmosphere, 
 and since nitrogen entinguishes flame and destroys 
 life, it is manifest that oxygen is the only support- 
 er of combustion and animal respiration in the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Prop. 3. Nitrogen gas is the lightest of the 
 constituents of atmospheric air. 
 
 Illustration. Extinuish a candle as before 
 
82 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 directed in a vial of nitrogen gas. Then cover it 
 loosely with dry paste-board, so that the motion 
 of the air may not drire it out, and let it stand a 
 while. Afterwards, or at least after a few trials, 
 the candle will not be extinguished. 
 
 Rationale. Nitrogen, being lighter than the 
 atmospheric air, ascends like all lighter bodies 
 when immersed in heavier liquids or gases ; while 
 common air takes its place in the vial. 
 
 Application. Though oxygen and nitrogen in 
 open space, mix in an equilibrium proportion ; 
 when one of them is in excess, or in any .manner 
 separated from its state of union, it will seek its 
 place according to its specific gravity. Conse 
 quently a disunited quantity of oxygen will settle 
 downwards, and that of nitrogen will ascend. So 
 that when much oxygen is consumed by a crowd 
 of persons in a close room, the excess of nitrogen 
 will ascend and render the air near the upper 
 ceiling very unfit for breathing, while the air 
 lower down is more suitable for respiration. 
 
 Prop. 4. Mout seventy-nine per cent of nitro- 
 gen gas mixed with twenty-one per cent of oxy- 
 gen, will form artificial air, in all respects similar 
 to atmospheric air. 
 
 Illustration. Take four 8 ounce vials, as near 
 ly equal in size and form as can be procured, and 
 fill them as follows : The first with nitrogen, the 
 second with oxygen, the third with four measures 
 of nitrogen and one measure of oxygen, and lei 
 the fourth remain with atmospheric air. Turn 
 them all up, leaving them covered with pieces of 
 wet paste-board, excepting the fourth which may 
 be open. Light a short piece of wax taper which 
 is suspended by a wire coiled round at its lower 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. NITROGEN. 83 
 
 end. Let it burn some time with a large wick, 
 which should he spread out wide and fnll of 
 sparks. Now immerse the blazing caudle in the 
 nitrogen, and it will be extinguished then quick- 
 ly immerse it in the oxygen and it will be re-light- 
 ed next immerse it alternately several times in 
 the cylinders of artificial and natural air, and it 
 will burn alike in both. 
 
 Rationale. The wick of the candle is not act- 
 ed on positively by the nitrogen ; but stops burn- 
 ing merely on account of the exclusion of oxygen. 
 It therefore remains sufficiently heated to contin- 
 ue the flame, as soon as it receives a supply of 
 pure oxygen. As the candle burns in the artifi 
 cial air just as it does in the natural, it is manifest 
 that the natural and artificial are similar ; at least 
 so far as respects combustion. Since the appear- 
 ance oft burning candle is different, when confin- 
 ed in a vial, from its appearance in open air, it is 
 necessary to immerse it in a vial of natural air 
 when comparing with its appearance in artificial 
 air. 
 
 Application. By this experiment we see at one 
 view the nature of the two constituents of the air 
 in their separate and in their combined state. 
 Though these proportions are temporarily' varied 
 in the atmosphere of confined rooms, and some- 
 times in large cities and other places, nature has 
 provided remedies for such contingencies. A con- 
 siderable supply of oxygen is drawn from the ve- 
 getable kingdom, which was illustrated under 
 oxygen. There are other means prescribed for 
 equalizing the proportions of those gases, accord- 
 ing to their equilibrium principle. 
 
 The production of the nitrogen cannot always 
 
84 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 be accounted for. There is a small hill or rather 
 an ascent of ground in the town of Hosick, in the 
 state of New- York, from which continually issues 
 immense quantities of nitrogen gas. Wherever 
 the little rivulets pass over any part of four or five 
 acres of this hill, nitrogen gas continually bub- 
 bles through the water.* 
 
 Prop. 5. Atmospheric air holds in suspension 
 more or less of aqueous vapour. 
 
 Illustration. Put a little common table salt 
 into a wine-glass, and pour on it strong sulphuric 
 acid sufficient to wet it. Muriatic acid gas will 
 be disengaged, and condense aqueous vapour so as 
 to become visible, and appear like steam. 
 
 Rationale. Muriatic acid is invisible, as shewn 
 under chlorine ; where it was also shewn, that it 
 strongly attracts water. When discharged into 
 the atmosphere, its attraction for water brings 
 together numerous invisible particles of vapour, 
 which becomes a visible vapour when thus aggre- 
 gated. 
 
 Application. This experiment demonstrates, 
 that clouds are not the only repositories of aque- 
 ous vapour in the atmosphere ; but that it is held 
 in suspension in its most clear and transparent 
 state. 
 
 Prop. 6. Nitrogen is found combined with its 
 highest 2^' oportion of oxygen in the saltpetre, from 
 which it may be obtained by elective affinity. 
 
 Illustration. Put into a tubulated pint retort 
 about a wine-glass full of pulverized saltpetre, 
 
 * Dr. L. C. Beck and myself collected and tested this gas on the 17th 
 of Aug. 1821. It is situated near the east boundary of the state of N. 
 York, about 6 miles S. W. from Bennington, Vt. Vid. Report of the 
 Geological Strfvey of Rensselaer county, p. 29. 
 
PRINCIPLE} 2. NITROGEX, 85 
 
 and pour upon it, through the tubulature, strong 
 sulphuric acid sufficient to wet it, or about two 
 thirds as much by weight as there is of the salt- 
 petre. Having previously luted the neck of the 
 retort into a receiver containing a gill of water 
 which has a stoppered tubulature ; now set the 
 retort into a lead pot with coals and raise the heal: 
 very moderately. Leave out the stopper a while, 
 for the air to pass out. Then put in the stopper 
 rather loosely, but regulate it according to the 
 pressure of the gas. The nitric acid, (aqua fortis) 
 will come over in the state of gas, or rather in con- 
 nexion with the vapour of water. It will be ab 
 sorbecl by the water of the receiver. After the 
 process is finished, pass around some of the acid 
 in wine glasses with a rod, and the class will re- 
 cognize the taste of diluted aqua fortis, or nitric- 
 acid. 
 
 Rationale. Saltpetre consists of nitric acid and 
 potash. Potash has a stronger affinity for sul- 
 phuric than for nitric acid. Of course it elects 
 the sulphuric and excludes the nitric. Such is the 
 nature of nitric acid, that at the common tempera- 
 ture it takes to itself, from the surrounding bodies* 
 a sufficient quantity of caloric to become a gas or 
 vapour. 
 
 Application. On this principle the aqua fortiy 
 of the shops is manufactured. Iron retorts are- 
 used in the manufacture of it in the large way \ 
 therefore it will generally give the test of iron 
 with prussic acid. As saltpetre always contains 
 muriate of soda, muriatic acid will be contained 
 in the aqua fortis of the shops ; consequently wil 
 generally dissolve gold, unless it is removed by 
 nitrate of silver, (lunar caustic. 
 
 8 
 
86 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 Hemark. It is difficult to operate upon this 
 acid, while uncombined with water ; as it cannot 
 be collected over water or mercury. But as it is 
 more than twice as heavy as atmospheric air, it 
 may be collected in a dry vial, as directed for mu- 
 riatic acid ga&. 
 
 Prop. 7. Nitric acid may be reduced to nitrous 
 acid and nitric oxid, by yielding part of its oxy- 
 gen to a metal. 
 
 Illustration. Put into a very small retort, a gill 
 retort is best, a table spoonful of copper filings 
 about one fourth as much mercury will do, but 
 not so well. Then pour into it about two spoon- 
 fuls of nitric acid, diluted with three or four times 
 as much water. Put the beak of the retort into 
 the cistern under a receiver, and apply the heat of 
 a candle or a pan of coals to the retort. The heat 
 must be uniformly applied, or the gas may be a 
 little condensed in the retort, and the water will 
 rush into it. The gas will soon come over ; but 
 the first will be mixed with atmospheric air, of a 
 reddish colour, and should be allowed to escape 
 through the water of the cistern. It will soon pass 
 Into the receiver in a colourless state. This gas 
 Is the nitric oxid, or the deutoxid of nitrogen. 
 
 After a sufficient quantity has been collected, 
 fill a small glass cylinder or opodeldoc vial, half 
 full of oxygen (atmospheric air will do) and then 
 fill it up with nitric oxid. It will immediately 
 take another portion of oxygen and become ni- 
 trous acid. This gas is readily distinguished 
 from the nitric oxi(i by its deep orange colour 
 and strong attraction for water. If the glass cylin- 
 der be turned up and a burning candle be immers- 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. NITROGEN. 87 
 
 ed ill it, the candle will continue to burn with con- 
 siderable brilliancy. 
 
 Rationale. The copper filings always reduces 
 the acid to an oxid in this case. But such is the 
 affinity of the deutoxid of nitrogen for oxygen, 
 that it passes almost instantaneously through the 
 hyponitrous to the nitrous state that is, it be- 
 comes the onn^e nitrous gas, which is rapidly ab- 
 sorbed by water. 
 
 Application. In this experiment we begin with 
 the highest state of oxidation which nitrogen is 
 capable of. In this state only it is found in na- 
 ture. We then obtain the lower acids and the 
 oxids. In the manufacture of nitric acid, more 
 or less of this acid is found combined with it It 
 is this which passes off in fumes on unstopping a 
 bottle of nitric acid of the shops. 
 
 Prop. 8. Nitric acid may be reduced to nitrous 
 oxid (the exhilirating gas) by heating it when 
 chemically combined with ammonia. 
 
 Illustration. Prepare the salt called nitrate of 
 ammonia, according to the directions to he given 
 under ammonia. If the salt is prepared in crys- 
 tals, let them be melted and evaporated to a dry 
 powder in an open earthen plate with a slow heat. 
 JSut it is much better to evaporate it to dryness, 
 \vith so much heat as to prevent crystallization. 
 Put the salt into a retort, which may be about one 
 fourth part filled. Apply a lead tube to the beak 
 of the retort about three feet long, to prevent acci- 
 dents, which generally happen without it,by break- 
 ing the retort with water when highly heated. No 
 luting is necessary, wet tow or flax will be suffi- 
 cient. Now set the retort into a lead pot with 
 
88 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 coals, and raise the heat with the hand bellows. 
 After the salt has melted, and when vapours he- 
 gin to appear in the retort, apply the beak to the 
 cistern under the receiver. A great quantity of 
 the gas will soon come over : and it will continue 
 until all the salt, or nearly all, disappears. 
 
 This nitrous oxid gas may be breathed in small 
 quantities by the members of the class, about a 
 pint to each, without injury. It will exhiliarate 
 slightly, and the taste is sweetish and pleasant, 
 If breathed in large quantities, as about two gal- 
 lons at once, and respired a dozen times, it intoxi- 
 cates and suspends the power of reasoning. It is 
 unquestionably injurious to health ; but being gen 
 erally administered to the young and healthy, 
 they endure it, mostly, without any bad conse- 
 quences. Brande says it cannot be breathed with 
 impunity.* 
 
 A burning candle let down into this gas has its 
 flame increased, and it is always surrounded with 
 a purplish ring or halo. 
 
 Rationale. By these two last illustrations it 
 appears, that nitrogen combines with oxygen in 
 five definite proportions. And that, beginning 
 with the highest proportion it may be reduced 
 to the other four. In reducing it to the lowest 
 state, the nitrous oxid, the rationale is thus given 
 by chemists. The nitrate of ammonia consists of 
 nitric acid combined with ammonia ; and am- 
 monia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. 
 When considerable heat is applied to this salt, 
 
 Several persons have lately employed themselves in peddling this 
 gas about the country, who call their vulgar frolicks, lectures on chem- 
 istry. All sensible citizens ought to discountenance such gross out- 
 rages upon decency, which tend to reduce the science to the level of 
 a puppet-show. 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. NITROGEN. 89 
 
 the hydrogen of the ammonia unites with the high- 
 est portion of the oxygen of the nitric acid and 
 forms water. This comes over in the state of 
 white vapour, which appears first. The nitric is 
 thus reduced to a lower state of oxidation. At 
 the same time the nitrogen of the ammonia takes 
 away another proportion of oxygen and becomes 
 nitrous oxid, leaving to the nitrogen of the nitric 
 acid just oxygen enough to form nitrous oxid also. 
 Application. This gas was at one time thought 
 to be useful in medicine ; but its use seems now to 
 be doubted. The experiment is instructive, as it 
 presents an interesting view of complicated de- 
 composition. 
 
 Prop. 9. Nitrogen and hydrogen combined 
 form an alkaline compound called ammonia, harts* 
 horn, or volatile alkali. 
 
 Illustration. Fill a florence flask with nitro- 
 gen. Pulverize iron filings so as to make them 
 almost into an impalpable powder. Pour a small 
 quantity of water upon them, so as to be enabled 
 to make them adhere in the form of little balls, 
 twice or thrice the size of peas. Drop about a 
 dozen of these bails into the flask care being 
 taken not to leave the flask open but an instaut at 
 a time when dropping in the balls ; as the nitro- 
 gen will ascend. After several days small quan- 
 tities of ammonia will be produced. This may 
 barely be perceived by the scent ; but if muriatic 
 acid gas be passed into the flask, muriate of am- 
 monia, or sal ammoniac, will be formed in a small 
 quantity and adhere to the side of the flask. 
 
 A much better method for illustrating this pro- 
 position is, to decompose ammonia. Make holes 
 & little below the middle of a lead pot so that a 
 
90 CLASS III, OXIDABLES, 
 
 long tobacco pipe may be passed through it in the 
 hottest place. Lute a small retort (a florence flask 
 will do) to one end of the pipe containing dry lime 
 and sal ammoniac. To the other end attach a 
 leaden pipe, so bent as to enter a bowl of water. 
 Raise the heat in the lead pot till the tube begins 
 to be red. Now apply a candle to the retort. 
 Ammoniacal gas will pass into the heated tube and 
 be decomposed. Hydrogen and nitrogen gases 
 will pass into the bowl of water and may be col- 
 lected in the usual way. 
 
 Rationale. When hydrogen and nitrogen are 
 mixed, having been previously prepared, they will 
 not combine to form ammonia. But if hydrogen 
 comes in contact with nearly pure nitrogen, at the 
 instant of its disengagement from the oxygen of 
 the water, it combines with it. In this evanescent 
 state only, it seems that the composition can be 
 effected. 
 
 The last experiment merely demonstrates, that 
 the two constituents of ammonia will separate on 
 being heated. 
 
 Application. These experiments demonstrate 
 the compound nature of ammonia. But as am- 
 monia is produced in great abundance in nature, 
 and has most of its properties in common with the 
 alkalies, it will be treated in connexion with the 
 other alkalies, whose bases are metalloids. 
 
 SULPHUR. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Sulphur is very abundant in nature. It is gen- 
 erally found in combination with a metal; which 
 is called a sulphuret. la combination with iroB ; 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. SULPHUR, 91 
 
 called iroii pyrites, it is found in every rock from 
 the oldest granite to the most recent secondary 
 rock. From its combination with this metal and 
 with copper, the brimstone of the shops is obtain- 
 ed by the process called sublimation. 
 
 It is found in combination with lead, zinc, sil- 
 ver, mercury, &c. It is also found pure in Italy 
 and in other volcanic districts. 
 
 It is inflammable and electrical. It is tasteless 
 and inodorous when pure ; but on combining with 
 oxygen by combustion, or by heat or warmth be- 
 low combustion, it gives off a disgusting odour or 
 suffocating gas. 
 
 It crackles by the warmth of the hand. It may 
 be crystallized by melting, and then by pouring 
 out the melted interior of the mass, just at the pre- 
 cise time the exterior is beginning to be covered 
 with an incrustation, by cooling. The crystals 
 are acicular. 
 
 Prop. 1. Sulphur on being in flamed in atmos- 
 pheric air, will unite with a definite proportion of 
 oxygen and form sulphurous acid gas. 
 
 Illustration. Cover the bottom of a small plate 
 a quarter of an inch deep with water. Put a small 
 piece of common brimstone upon a sheet iron 
 bench set in the plate, which is sufficiently heated 
 to inflame the brimstone, and shut over it a tubu- 
 lated bell-glass, or a tumbler with a hole in the 
 bottom. This vessel must be of a size just to shut 
 down within the rim of the plate. At first take 
 the stopper out and raise the bell glass a little 
 above the water, to give passage to a current of 
 air. Regulate this by the progress of the burning 
 sulphur. After the bell-glass appears well filled 
 a white vapour ; shut it down close and tight- 
 
92 GLASS III. OX1DABLES* 
 
 eu the stopper. The water in the plate \vill ab- 
 sorb the sulphurous acid gas in about five minutes. 
 Pour part of this water into wine glasses and pass 
 it around, and the class will perceive the nause- 
 ous sulphurous astringent taste, peculiar to this 
 acid. In the mean time wet several substances, 
 coloured with vegetable colouring matter, and it 
 will extinguish many of them, but not all. A yel- 
 low straw braid becomes whitened in it ; and 
 some colours on calico will be extinguished. The 
 liquid sulphurous acid loses this property by 
 keeping long. 
 
 Rationale. It seems that though sulphur is 
 highly inflammable, it will not receive its highest 
 proportion of oxygen while in a gaseous state. 
 For if burned in pure oxygen, sulphurous acid 
 will be produced. VV r hen colours are extinguish- 
 ed by sulphurous acid, it is decomposed. From 
 this it appears, that its disengaged oxygen produ- 
 ces the effect, like the oxygen disengaged when 
 chlorine is reduced to muriatic acid. 
 
 Application. This acid is used by milliners 
 both in the liquid and in the gaseous state, for 
 bleaching straw bonnets. If old yellow straw 
 braid is soaked a while in water and then suspend- 
 ed inside of a no- headed barrel or hogshead, and 
 brimstone is inflamed at the bottom of the cask 
 and suffered to commence burning thoroughly, 
 then the top covered over, the straw will soou 
 become whitened by the action of this acid. It 
 is also used for killing bees when taking up a 
 hive, and for killing insects to preserve in a col- 
 lection. 
 
 Prop. 2. Sulphur, on being inflamedin atmos- 
 pheric air? jf previously pulverized and mixed wiib 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. SULPHUR. 93 
 
 it portion of saltpetre, will unite with its highest 
 definite proportion of oxygen and form sulphuric 
 acid, or oil of vitriol. 
 
 Illustration. Dry some saltpetre on a plate. 
 Then pulverize it very thoroughly, and mix it 
 with about four times as much sulphur, (in the 
 large way, eight times as much sulphur is used,) 
 and rub them intimately together. Now proceed 
 in all respects as in producing sulphurous acid, 
 above described ; and the additional portion of 
 oxygen furnished by the saltpetre will perfect the 
 process. After the water has absorbed the acid, 
 pass some of it around in wine glasses with tasting 
 rods, and the class will recognize the clean pleas- 
 ant sour taste of the sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, 
 in a weak or diluted state. It is distinguished from 
 all other acids by its charring or blackening 
 vegetable ^ubstances. 
 
 Rationale. Under the preceding proposition 
 the sulphur combines with the proportion of oxy- 
 gen requisite for producing sulphurous acid. The 
 saltpetre, being in immediate contact, furnishes 
 the next proportion and produces the sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 Application. The oil of vitriol of the shops is 
 made on the same principle. Leaden chambers 
 being substituted for the bell-glass, and the floor 
 is covered with water. It is at first obtained in a 
 very diluted state. It is then slowly evaporated, 
 until it comes to a suitable strength for the market. 
 When this, or any other acid, is combined with 
 the smallest quantity of water, which can hold it 
 in the liquid state, it is called concentrated acid. 
 TO produce this, the acid itself is distilled over, 
 after the evaporation of the water is finished, Bui 
 
94 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 almost any experiment may be performed with the ' 
 acid which is prepared by slowly evaporating the 
 water from it in an open plate. 
 
 Remark. Sulphuric acid is the key to most 
 chemical analyses. It is made by a direct pro- 
 cess. Whereas nitric acid and muriatic acid, be- 
 ing the other two powerful acids, are obtained 
 from saltpetre and from common table salt, by the 
 agency of sulphuric acid. 
 
 Prop. 3. Sulphur may be combined with hydro- 
 gen and form the bases of most of the nauseous 
 scents, called sulphuretted hydrogen gas. 
 
 Illustration. Mix about equal bulks of finely 
 pulverized iron filings and pulverized sulphur. 
 Put this mixture into a crucible ; covering it over 
 by inverting in it the crm ible next smaller in size, 
 of the nest of crucibles to which it belongs. Set it 
 upon hot coals and melt the mixture lifttit remain 
 until the blue blaze, which leaks out between the 
 crucibles, ceases. Now empty it out, which will 
 be the artificial sulphuret of iron. Next proceed 
 with this in all respects, as directed for obtaining 
 hydrogen gas, with this addition; that after the 
 sulphuret and the diluted sulphuric acid are mix- 
 ed in the retort, the heat of the caudle must be ap 
 plied to the retort. 
 
 This gas must not be collected in the cistern ; 
 but the receiver must be filled with pure clean 
 rain or river water and inverted in a wash-bowl or 
 some other convenient vessel, so that no metal- 
 lic substance shall touch the water. 
 
 Rationale. The iron part of the sulphuret acts 
 in some measure as it does in the production of 
 hydrogen gas^ but not so powerfully. Therefore 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. SULPHUR. 95 
 
 the aid of heat is required to strengthen the affini- 
 ty. When the hydrogen is thus disengaged from 
 the oxygen of the water, sulphur unites with it, 
 and a compound gas is produced. 
 
 Application. This is the gas which is generat- 
 ed in all dirty sinks, and other places ahounding 
 in such filthy substances. It is so destructive to 
 life, that a horse will die in a few minutes if cov- 
 ered with a cloth and exposed to it, when introduc- 
 ed under the covering. 
 
 Prop. 4. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas explodes 
 on being inflamed in oxygen. 
 
 Illustration. Mix it with oxygen and explode 
 it in the gas pistol in all respects as directed with 
 pure hydrogen. 
 
 Rationale. Same as given for the explosion of 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Application. There may possibly be a suffi- 
 cient quantity of this gas generated about the kitch- 
 ens and sinks of filthy housekeepers, to explode 
 with the oxygen of the atmosphere. This would 
 be a dangerous method of purification " by fire." 
 Earthquakes are supposed to be caused by the ex- 
 plosion of this gas in most cases ; because the 
 smell is perceived wherever an opening is made 
 by the explosion. 
 
 Prop. 5. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is ab- 
 sorbed rapidly by water; and, in the liquid state, 
 gives a dark or black tinge to many metals. 
 
 Illustration. White the gas is coming over, as 
 before mentioned, let some pass into a decanter, 
 which is filled with rain water and inverted, until 
 half the water runs out. Put the thumb over the 
 mouth and shake the decanter violently. It will 
 
96 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 immediately absorb the gas. Now pour a little 
 into a wine glass and drop in a little sugar of lead 
 and it will be blackened. Copperas, blue vitriol, 
 white vitriol, and other metallic salts may be 
 dropped into different glasses of the liquid, and all 
 will receive different shades of colour. A piece 
 of silver coin will also become brown if immersed 
 in it a while, especially in the roughest parts of it. 
 Rationale. There is some difficulty in giving 
 a satisfactory reason for these various appearan- 
 ces of metallic oxids. As a portion of the gas is 
 always decomposed during the process, it is pro- 
 bable that a sulphuret, more or less perfect, is 
 formed with the metal. 
 
 Application. When lead is suspended in wa- 
 ter, this liquid is a ready test. Silver spoons, &c. 
 often exhibit dark coloured spots, which appear 
 unaccountable to housekeepers. These are ge- 
 nerally caused by liquid sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 generated about filthy sinks, &c. Ladies who paint 
 their faces with a cosmetic, whose base is bismuth 
 or other metal, often become tawny by approach- 
 ing an old dock or sewer. 
 
 Many natural springs are highly charged with 
 sulphuretted hydrogen. They are always useful 
 in cutaneous eruptions ; and are generally called 
 Harrowgate springs, from their resembling the 
 Harrowgate waters in England. They are dis- 
 tinguished by the smell of sulphur, or by testing 
 with sugar of lead. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 Phosphorus; the most combustible of all simple 
 
PRINCIPLE 4. PHOSPHOHUS. 97 
 
 solids, is always found in nature in the state of 
 an acid ; mostly forming a salt with lime. Bones 
 of animals consist chiefly of phosphoric acid and 
 lime. 
 
 Bat phosphorus is not a recently created sub- 
 stance. In truth, it seems that all material sub- 
 stances were created at the same time. For we 
 find those which appear to us the most recent, 
 fugitive, changeable and transitive, in connec- 
 tion with those which we are disposed to consider 
 the oldest and most permanent. Phosphate of 
 lime, a compound similar to animal bones, is found 
 in the oldest granite ; though rarely in transition 
 or secondary rocks. 
 
 The process for obtaining phosphorus is too la- 
 borious and difficult, to be performed in the course 
 proposed in this work. It is obtained from ani 
 inal bones. The lime is easily disposed of by 
 soaking the bones in diluted sulphuric acid, after 
 they have been burned to whiteness and pulveriz- 
 ed. But to separate the oxygen from the phos- 
 phorus, after the phosphoric acid is freed from 
 the lime, requires a high and long continued heat ; 
 and it requires considerable experience to con 
 duct this part of the process with success. It may 
 be purchased at a dollar and a half or two dollars 
 per ounce. Half an ounce will be sufficient for a 
 course of instruction. 
 
 Prop. i. Phosphor us decomposes water, slow 
 ly when the water is in the liquid state 9 but with 
 considerable rapidity when in the vaporous state. 
 
 Illustration. Expose a stick of phosphorus to 
 water several days in a vial, and the outside will 
 be covered with a white substance, which is the 
 oxid of phosphorus. The oxid is more inflamma- 
 
 9 
 
98 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 ble than pure phosphorus. , If a little be scraped 
 off and exposed to the rays of the sun, in a short 
 time it will take fire. 
 
 Put water into a small vial or test glass (pre- 
 viously filled with nitrogen gas) just sufficient to 
 cover the bottom Then put in a stick of phospho- 
 rus, and cork it perfectly tight. Set it in a warm 
 room a few days, and the outside of the stick of 
 phosphorus will be covered with phosphoric acid. 
 
 Rationale. In the first case the strength of affi- 
 nity but feebly decomposes the water in the liquid 
 state. In the last case the small quantity of wa- 
 ter passing into a state of vapour is more easily de- 
 composed. 
 
 Application. Sticks of phosphorus kept in 
 vials of water in the common way, are always 
 covered on the outside with the oxid. I once set 
 a gallipot in a desk in Rutland court-house, Ver- 
 mont, to the inside of which a little oxid of phos- 
 phorus adhered. The weather was extremely 
 cold, and it stood undisturbed and forgotten for 
 several days. At length a crowded assembly oc- 
 cupying the room one evening, and the tempera- 
 ture of the air being considerably raised, it took 
 fire spontaneously and burned rapidly. If a vial 
 be heated a little, and a piece of phosphorus at- 
 tached to the end of a wire be rubbed about the 
 inside of the vial, in a half melted state, so as to 
 coat it, this will be the phosphoric match vial. 
 This being the oxid of phosphorus, if a little be 
 taken out and exposed to the air, if the weather 
 is not very cold, it will take fire spontaneously. 
 The vial must be kept corked and even when it 
 is preparing, it may take fire and require the vial 
 to be stopped a moment until it is extinguished. 
 
PRINCIPLE 4. PHOSPHORUS. 99 
 
 Prop. 2. By light friction phosphorus becomes 
 oxidated, and during the process a partial com- 
 bustion and illumination takes place. 
 
 Illustration. Rub a stick of phosphorus light- 
 ly on a board. The phosphorus which is left on 
 the board will be luminous in the dark, arid by 
 blowing upon it, undulating waves of light will 
 appear and vanish. 
 
 Rationale. Though the phosphorus does not 
 break out into a flame, oxygen unites with it with 
 such force as to disengage sensible heat and light^ 
 and to produce an acid or oxid. All combustion 
 is caused by the combination of oxygen with the 
 combustible substance, and all oxidations would 
 produce combustion, did not the process go on too 
 slow to render the disengagement of caloric mani- 
 fest to the senses. In this case, the light is mani- 
 fest in the dark. 
 
 Application. Letters or even sentences may be 
 written on board ceilings, &c. which may be read 
 in the dark for fifteen or twenty minutes. During 
 their illumination, the phosphorus is manifestly 
 in a state of imperfect combustion, and becomes 
 oxidated. 
 
 Prop. 3. Phosphorus on being inflamed in at- 
 mospheric air, will unite with its highest definite 
 proportion of oxygen and form phosphoric acid. 
 
 Illustration. Set oil the table a perfectly dry 
 earthen plate. Lay upon the centre of it a piece 
 of a stick of phosphorus one third of an inch iu 
 length. Set it on fire and invert over it a perfect- 
 ly dry half-gallon tubulated bell-glass. Raise 
 one edge of the bell-glass half an inch by inclin- 
 ing it a little towards one side, or placing a chip 
 under it. Start the stopper of the tubulature a 
 
100 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 little, so as to permit the nitrogen gas to escape, 
 as the oxygen of the air in the hell-glass becomes 
 exhausted. In this way continue the combustion 
 of the phosphorus until it is nearly consumed. 
 The inside of the bell-glass will exhibit the ap- 
 pearance of a snow-storm, and a considerable 
 depth of dry white phosphoric acid will fall upon 
 the plate. This acid strongly attracts water, like 
 the other acids It will become liquid, though 
 corked up in a vial, unless much care is taken to 
 make the vial perfectly dry, and to fit in the cork 
 very tight when it is dry. 
 
 While the acid remains untouched and dry on 
 the plate, dip a fine shaving brush into cold wa- 
 ter arid strike it across the finger, so as to sprinkle 
 very fine drops of water upon the dry acid, and 
 minute brilliant sparks will appear. I have not 
 seen any notice of this fact published. It may 
 have been published ; but it was, so far as respects 
 my knowledge of the subject, an original discove- 
 ry made by one of the students of the Rensselaer 
 School. I am not prepared to assign a reason for 
 this appearance. 
 
 Rationale. Same as that frequently given al 
 ready, in regard to the union of acidifyabies with 
 oxygen. 
 
 Application. This acid is not much used. It 
 is ready formed in animal bones, as before observ- 
 ed. It is used in medicine in combination with 
 soda and some other bases. 
 
 Prop. 4. Phosphorus may be inflamed under 
 water by furnishing it with a due portion of oxy- 
 gen. 
 
 Illustration. Put a piece of phosphorus into a 
 tall narrow cylindric glass which is filled with 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. PHOSPHORUS. 101 
 
 cold water, and put in with it about three times as 
 much oxymuriate of potash. Bring the two sub- 
 stances in contact with each other. Provide a 
 very long tube and stop up the lower end and fill 
 it with sulphuric acid, before it is put into the wa- 
 ter. Then press the thumb upon the upper end 
 of the tube and unstop the lower end, at the in- 
 stant it is to be put in. After the open end of the 
 tube is brought in contact with the salt, the thumb 
 may be raised up and pressed down, so as to fur- 
 nish the quantity of acid required to continue the 
 flame. 
 
 The phosphorus may be inflamed also by forc- 
 ing a stream of oxygen upon the phosphorus, 
 through a tube from a bladder. But in this case 
 the water must be hot, nearly at boiling heat. 
 
 Rationale. Such is the strength of attraction 
 between phosphorus and oxygen, that they will 
 unite and produce combustion even when invel- 
 oped in water, whether immediately presented or 
 obtained from a salt. 
 
 Application. This experiment has its use in 
 familiarizing our minds with the correct princi- 
 ples of combustion. 
 
 Prop. 5. Phosphorus may he made to unite 
 with hydrogen, forming a compound which ex- 
 plodes and burns spontaneously in atmospheric 
 air, called phosphuretted hydrogen gas, 
 
 Illustration. Procure a tin vessel, called a 
 jack-o ? lantern basin, made as follows. Have an 
 inch hole made through the bottom of a tin quart 
 basin. Have a tin quart decanter made with strait 
 sides. Let the mouth of the decanter be soldered 
 to the under side of the basin, so as to fit the hole 
 
102 CLASS III. OXIDABLES, 
 
 in the basin. Now introduce, through the hole in 
 the bottom of the quart basin, into the decanter 
 part, a mixture of two parts of dry newly slacked 
 lime and one of dry pearlash, pouring in occasion- 
 ally a little cold water, just sufficient for a thick 
 paste, until it is almost filled to the bottom of the 
 basin part. Drop in about two inches of a stick 
 of phosphorus. Stir the whole well, so as to mix 
 all parts thoroughly. 
 
 Set the decanter part upon coals, or suspend it 
 over a lamp. Let the beat be raised moderately. 
 Before the mass is to a boiling heat, bubbles of 
 the gas will appear in the neck and explode. 
 
 Now fill the neck with water, and lay upon the 
 mouth a piece of lead about two inches in diame- 
 ter with a hole in the center about the size of a 
 pipe- stem. Fill up the basin with water, which 
 must be occasionally changed by dipping out. 
 when it becomes too warm. Bubbles of gas will 
 rise to the top of the water, explode and form an 
 ascending comma or wreath ; but they may some- 
 times spread over the surface of a very small size, 
 Break off the foot of a wine-glass and use it for a 
 receiver, for collecting and turning up large bub- 
 bles, and for transferring gases into a cistern. 
 
 Rationale. Phosphorus decomposes water, and 
 unites with the hydrogen of the water in its eva- 
 nescent state. But it seems to require the pres- 
 ence of an alkali to create in it, in some unexplain- 
 ed manner, a pre-disposition to decompose the 
 water. See Carbon, Prop. . 7. 
 
 Application. This is an exhibition of the jack- 
 o'lantern, so often seen about places where ani- 
 mal bodies are putrifying in damp ground. But 
 nature has a method of combining the phosphuret- 
 
PRINCIPLE 4. PHOSPHORUS. IOB 
 
 ted hydrogen with something, which causes it to 
 burn more steadily and to endure longer. 
 
 Prop. 6. Phosphuretted hydrogen gas ex- 
 plodes spontaneously, and with great brilliancy 
 in oxygen gas. 
 
 Illustration. "While the bubbles of phosphuret* 
 ted hydrogen gas are ascending, pass a wine-glass 
 of it under a hole in the shelf, over which is set a 
 strong bell-glass, with about a half pint of oxygen 
 in the upper part of it. After a bubble has as- 
 cended through the water of the bell-glass and 
 comes in contact with the oxygen, it will explode 
 with a brilliant illumination. JSut if any bubbles 
 pass into the oxygen and break without explod- 
 ing, they will mix with the oxygen and form an 
 explosive compound. Then if succeeding bub- 
 bles should explode, the whole would explode 
 and break the bell-glass with some danger to the 
 auditors. Therefore, if this happens, the process 
 must be discontinued, and the oxygen removed. 
 See Silliman's Journal. 
 
 Rationale. It seems that the combustible qual- 
 ities of these two very combustible substances, 
 are strengthened by their union. Though each 
 attracts oxygen powerfully while separate, when 
 combined they even attract it from the atmosphere 
 with sufficient force to explode spontaneously. 
 
 Application. This experiment ought to satisfy 
 our minds, that the pretended mysteries of conju- 
 rors and showmen are but the application of their 
 smattering knowledge of a few scientific facts. 
 
 Prop. 7. Phosphorus dissolves in warm oil, 
 and in that state is luminous in the dark when ex- 
 posed 'to atmospheric air. 
 
104 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 Illustration. Fill an ounce vial two thirds full 
 of sweet oil. Put some shavings of phosphorus 
 into it ; ahout half an inch of a common stick will 
 be sufficient. Hold the vial near the fire, until it 
 is ahout as hot as can be borne by the hand, and 
 keep it at this temperature until the phosphorus is 
 melted. Now if the cork is taken but, the upper 
 part of the vial will become luminous in the dark 
 by the admission of air. Cover all the lights in 
 the room, pour two or three tea- spoonfuls of it 
 into the hand, and rub it thoroughly over a boy's 
 face and hair, and let him show himself to the 
 class. His face will be singularly luminous, and 
 his hair will exhibit a kind of undulating flame, 
 It must not be forgotten in this experiment, that 
 the vial is to be warm, but not hot, so that the oil 
 may be of a temperature about equal to blood heat 
 whenever it is to be applied, and there must be no 
 unmelted piece of phosphorus. 
 
 Rationale. Caloric and light generally accom- 
 pany each other. Consequently combustion pro- 
 duces light. In this case there is manifestly a 
 partial combustion. This appears from the fact, 
 that when air is admitted by unstopping the vial, 
 it becomes luminous ; but on stopping it again it 
 becomes dark as soon as the oxygen of the admit- 
 ted air is expended. 
 
 Application. Although many luminous mete- 
 ors traverse the atmosphere, called shooting stars, 
 &c. which have never been subjected to analysis ; 
 yet these three last experiments go far towards 
 a solution of such phenomena. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 5. CARBON, 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 Carbon is pure in the state of a diamond only. 
 
PRINCIPLE 5. CARBON. 105 
 
 Common charcoal is always combined with a lit- 
 tle oxygen. Carbon is abundant in nature in va- 
 rious states. In the pitcoal if exists in combina- 
 tion with a little oxygen, bitumen, sulphur, &c. 
 In the anthracite or glance coal it is more pure 
 than in any other state, excepting the diamond. 
 Combined with oxygen in the state of gas, it floats 
 in the atmosphere. It forms a constituent part 
 of marble, of chalk, of all vegetable and animal 
 matter, &c. 
 
 Carbonate of lime is found disseminated in gra- 
 nite ; therefore carbon is associated with the old- 
 est rocks in the solid state, while we give off por- 
 tions of it from our lungs in the state of gas at 
 every respiration. 
 
 Prop. l. Charcoal, when cold, absorbs sul 
 phuretted hydrogen gas, ammoniacal gas, carbu* 
 retted hydrogen gas, carbonic acid gas, fc. and 
 gives them off again when heated. 
 
 Illustration. Prepare these gases according to 
 the directions heretofore given, and hereafter to 
 be given : fill small glass cylinders or opodeldoc 
 vials with them separately, and place them over 
 mercury. Cut pieces of charcoal of a size which 
 will easily enter the mouths of the glass cylinders. 
 Take the pieces separately into the small crooked 
 wire tongs and hold them over a hot fire, until 
 they become red hot. Take them from the fire 
 and scrape off the outside a little, and plunge them 
 into mercury to cool without coming in contact 
 with the air. After they are perfectly cooled, 
 pass them separately into the several cylinders of 
 gas, still holding them in the tongs, and a con- 
 siderable quantity of each will be absorbed, and 
 the mercury will ascend to fill the vacuum. After 
 
106 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 these pieces of coal are saturated, draw them out 
 through mercury (at least one or two of them) and 
 heat them again. On applying them a second 
 time, it will be found that the heat has driven out 
 the gases, as they will again absorb them as be- 
 fore. 
 
 A little mercury will be found pressed into the 
 pores of the coal ; but this does not affect the ex- 
 periment, as the coal will absorb the gases equal- 
 ly well, though a little slower. 
 
 Rationale. The absorbing property of char- 
 coal commences from the moment of its manufac- 
 ture at the coalpit consequently it absorbs the 
 first of these gases with which it comes in contact 
 after cooling. By heating, the absorbed gas is 
 disengaged ; then on cooling, it again absorbs as 
 above shown. 
 
 Application. There is not an experiment 
 known in chemistry, which explains more of the 
 practical principles of agriculture and domestic 
 economy, than this. All the gases which are pro- 
 duced when animal matter passes into a state of 
 putrefaction being absorbed by it, it is very im- 
 portant in resisting and checking the progress of 
 putrefaction. A tooth-powder, made by heating 
 finely pulverized charcoal to redness in an iron 
 skillet, and pouring it while hot into a bowl of 
 clean water, is the best of all known substances 
 to preserve the teeth from decay, or to prevent 
 further decay after it had commenced. For the 
 gases being all driven out by heat, the charcoal 
 absorbs water and sinks in it. If kept in a bottle, 
 it will remain under water, defended from the gas- 
 es, and if shaken up and a tea-spoonfull be taken 
 occasionally into the mouth, and the teeth rubbed 
 with itj every thing impure will be absorbed. 
 
PRINCIPLE 5. CARBON. 107 
 
 Putrid meat will become purified by immersing 
 it in a similar preparation. Putrid water is also 
 purified by pouring into it heated 'charcoal pow- 
 der, &<. &c. 
 
 Carbonaceous manures, as rotted straw, leaves, 
 &c. furnish food for vegetables upon the same 
 principle. In the cool season of night they ab- 
 sorb carbonic acid, carbu retted hydrogen, ammo- 
 nia, &c. which they give off under the heating 
 ?ays of the sun, during the day, to the absorbent 
 vessels of the fibrous roots of plants. 
 
 Prop. 2. Charcoal, if exposed to oxygen gas 
 in a state of ignition, will combine with it ? and 
 form carbonic acid gas. 
 
 Illustration. Fill a glass cylinder or opodel- 
 doc vial, with oxygen gas in the cistern, slip across 
 its mouth a piece of paste-board, turn it up and 
 set it near the mercurial trough. Expose a small 
 piece of charcoal to a strong heat, holding it in 
 the tongs until it is red hot and burning. Sow 
 lay it upon the surface of the mercury, and hold- 
 ing the paste-board pressed upon the tumbler, 
 bring it, with the top downwards, over the burn- 
 ing charcoal. Quickly remove the paste board, 
 and shut the tumbler closely over the coal. It will 
 burn, throwing off bright sparks, until so much of 
 it has become a gas and combined with the oxy- 
 
 fm, as to convert the whole into carbonic acid, 
 be bulk of the gas will neither increase nor di- 
 minish, but become specifically heavier. The 
 oxygen must be perfectly pure. 
 
 Now draw out the coal through the mercury, 
 slip the paste-board across the mouth of the tum- 
 bler, turn it up and set it on the table. Immerse 
 a burning candle in it, and it will be extinguished. 
 
108 CLASS III. OXIDABLES* 
 
 Test it also with limpid lime water. This may be 
 performed most conveniently, by carefully letting; 
 down into it a low glass cup of lime water. It 
 will soon be covered with a white or grey pellicle. 
 A very small watch glass will do, if it is not con- 
 venient to obtain any other. 
 
 'Rationale. Carbon has a strong affinity for 
 oxygen, but will not combine with it, while in a 
 solid state unless its affinity is strengthened by the 
 aid of caloric. As soon as the combination takes 
 place, such is the nature of this compound, that it 
 assumes the gaseous form and remains a perma- 
 nent gas iti every known temperature. 
 
 Application. A kettle of burning coals is fre- 
 quently set into a close bed-room on a cold night. 
 Carbonic acid gas is formed by the union of the 
 charcoal with the oxygen of the ataiosphere,which 
 frequently destroys life. 
 
 Prop. 3. Carbonic acid exists in combination 
 with lime, forming chalk, common limestone, or 
 marble, from which it may be obtained by elective 
 affinity. 
 
 Illustration. Pulverize a fragment of marble, 
 and put a wine glass full into a pint retort. Pour 
 on it about a gill of water. After it has soaked 
 about a minute, pour in slowly half a wine glass 
 of sulphuric acid, diluted with about five times as 
 much water. The carbonic acid will come over 
 in a state of gas, and may be collected in any re- 
 ceiver placed on a shelf of the cistern. 
 
 Rationale, Lime, which constitutes the basis 
 of the marble, elects the sulphuric acid, and there- 
 by excludes the carbonic acid. The latter acid, 
 as soon as it is eliminated from its connexion with 
 the lime, absorbs caloric from the atmosphere and 
 
PRINCIPLE 5. CARBOK. i09 
 
 other surrounding bodies in sufficient quantities to 
 convert it into a gas, from the solid state in which 
 it existed while it constituted an essential part of 
 the raarhle. 
 
 Application. On this principle the carbonic 
 acid for making acidulous water, improperly call- 
 ed soda water, is obtained. But by what process 
 nature disengages the vast quantity of this gas. 
 which is required to charge the Saratoga and 
 Ballston waters so highly, no one has hitherto 
 suggested even a plausible conjecture. 
 
 Prop. 4. Carbonic acid gas is absorbed by wa- 
 tery and in that state of combination gives the acid 
 test. 
 
 Illustration. Pass some of the gas into a de 
 canter of pure cold water and agitato it, until the 
 water and gas are well mixed. Pour into a wine- 
 glass of it some of the blue infusion of red cabbage, 
 and it will become of a very light red colour. The 
 infusion ought rather to be greenish when put in, 
 by putting into it an extremely small quantity of 
 an alkali before it is used, otherwise the change 
 in colour made by the acidulous water will hardly 
 be perceived. 
 
 Rationale. This is one of those primary facts, 
 for which no satisfactory rationale can be given. 
 We can say little more in such cases, than that so 
 is the fact. 
 
 Application. This proves the fixed air to be 
 an acid gas. The taste of the water also indicates 
 its acid quality. Carbonated waters, called soda 
 waters, are prepared upon this principle. The 
 quantity of carbonic acid gas, absorbed by the 
 water, depends on the coldness of the water, and 
 
 10 
 
110 CLASS III. OXIDABLES* 
 
 the force applied to compress the gas, while in? 
 contact with the water. The waters sold under the 
 name of soda waters, as prepared in most of our 
 towns, contain both sulphurous acid and muriatic 
 acid. Chalk is commonly used, which generally 
 contains a little muriate of soda. This being de- 
 composed furnishes muriatic acid ; and it is im- 
 possible to avoid a little mixture of sulphurous 
 acid, arising, probably, from a slight decomposi- 
 tion of some portion of the sulphuric acid, used 
 in the process. To cleanse the gas from these 
 deleterious impurities, Mr Meigs, of Albany, 
 prepares this gas and forces it once through his 
 condenser, containing a small quantity of water, 
 before he introduces the water for use. The 
 small quantity of water readily absorbs all the 
 muriatic acid and sulphurous acid, and wastes a 
 little carbonic acid. This being drawn off and 
 pure water added, the carbonated water is made 
 very pure. 
 
 Prop. 5. Carbonic acid gas is heavier than 
 atmospheric air, extinguishes flame, and des- 
 troys life when breathed. 
 
 Illustration. Immerse a candle, suspended by 
 a wire, in a tumbler containing atmospheric air, 
 and let it be observed that it burns as it did in air 
 not contained in the tumbler. Take out the can- 
 dle and invert a glass cylinder or opodeldoc vial, 
 which is filled with carbonic acid gas, in the tum- 
 bler. The cylinder should be smaller than the 
 tumbler, so that its mouth may enter the mouth of 
 the tumbler; and the mouth of the cylinder must 
 be covered with wet paste-board, until it is brought 
 directly over the tumbler After holding the glass 
 cylinder in this position about eight or ten seconds,, 
 
PRINCIPLE 5. CARBON. Ill 
 
 the gas will have settled down into the tumbler. 
 Now immerse the candle again, and it will he ex- 
 tinguished. The gas will remain in the tumbler, 
 and still extinguish a candle for any length of time 
 if a piece of dry paste- board be loosely laid over 
 it, so as to prevent its being driven out by the mo- 
 tion of the air. 
 
 Fill a glass cylinder with carbonic acid gas, set 
 it on the table with the mouth upwards, and put a 
 live mouse into it. The mouse will appear con- 
 vulsed for a moment and expire. 
 
 Rationale. Gases, as well as liquids and sol- 
 ids, of the greatest specific gravity, tend to occupy 
 the lowest position. As gases move freely among 
 each other, the heaviest descends of course, unless 
 assisted by the attraction of affinity or of adhesion. 
 In this experiment, it is probable that some of the 
 carbonic acid gas co nbines with atmospheric air: 
 but after the latter is fully saturated, the former 
 settles at the bottom of the tumbler nearly pure. 
 Its properties are then rendered manifest by ex- 
 tinguishing the candle, &c. 
 
 Application. This is the gas usually called 
 choak damps, by miners. Being heavier than at- 
 mospheric air, it settles down into wells and cav- 
 erns, and often destroys the lives of miners. As 
 it is absorbed by water, unless it is very rapidly 
 produced, none will be found to remain in wells 
 which contain water; but it is generally found in 
 deep dry wells, which are dug in very compact 
 earth or in rocks. In all such cases, a candle 
 should be let down before the well is entered. 
 But the gas ma,y be found in wells containing wa- 
 ter ; for water will not generally absorb more 
 than Us bulk of the gas in twenty-four hours, and 
 
112 CLASS III. -OXIDAELES. 
 
 a larger quantity may be accumulated in that time* 
 especially in limestone countries. 
 
 Prop. 6. Carbonic acid gas may always be 
 found, in a greater or less proportion, suspended 
 ''"w the atmosphere. 
 
 Illustration. Pour a tea-spoon of limpid lime 
 water into a clean decanter. Shake it smartly, 
 and the lime water will become milky. 
 
 Rationale. The milky appearance of the lime 
 water demonstrates the presence of carbonic acid. 
 As the decanter contained common atmospheric 
 air, the presence of carbonic acid in combination 
 is proved. 
 
 Application. Carbonic acid is found to be ex- 
 cellent food for plants, when absorbed by fresh 
 earth, by carbonaceous manure, &c. as before ob- 
 served. Therefore its suspension in the atmos- 
 phere affords an inexhaustible fund of vegetable 
 nutriment. 
 
 Prop. 7. Carbonic acid gas is given out bij 
 animals at every respiration,, 
 
 Illustration. Put some limpid lime water into 
 a wine glass and breathe in it through a tube ex- 
 tend i tig to the bottom of the glass. After thus 
 exciting a bubbling in the lime water five or six 
 seconds, it will become milky. 
 
 Rationale. As the milky appearance of lime 
 water has never been produced by any limpid gas 
 excepting the carbonic acid, it is evident that this 
 gas is contained in the breath. That its propor- 
 tion in the breath Js much greater than in the in- 
 haled atmospheric air, may be shown by compar- 
 ing the different effects produced by blowing the 
 breath into one glass of lime water, and blowing 
 
PRINCIPLE 5. CABBON, 
 
 common air into another from a clean tube fitted 
 to the pipe of a hand bellows. 
 
 Application. It was observed under oxygen, 
 that the pure oxygen was given off from vegeta- 
 bles by the action of light; which oxygen is es- 
 sential to the health and even to the existence of 
 animals. Here we perceive, by this experiment, 
 that animals inreturn ^ive off carbonic acid, which 
 is most important to the growth of vegetables. 
 Therefore animals and vegetables ought to live 
 near each other. 
 
 Prop. 8. Carbon and hydrogen may be united, 
 forming the light carburetted hydrogen gas, by de- 
 composing water with charcoal. This is called 
 the blue gas 9 from the colour of its flame, 
 
 Illustration. Collect some pieces of charcoal 
 from an old coalpit bed, or from some other place, 
 where the coal has been exposed to the weather 
 several years, and become intimately combined 
 with water. Dry it, pulverize it, and heat it in a 
 gun-barrel, as directed in procuring oxygen from 
 manganese. The 'beat must be raised suddenly 5 
 for a slow heat will evaporate the water with but 
 very little combination. Collect it in the cistern, 
 and put some into a gas-holder and burn it as di=- 
 lected in burning hydrogen. It will burn with 9. 
 blue flame, without giving much light. 
 
 Rationale. Water being intimately mixed witfe 
 the charcoal and held in union with it by the at- 
 traction of adhesion, by the application of heat 
 the oxygen of the water unites with a portion of 
 the carbon. The water being thus decomposed, 
 its hydrogen unites with another portion of carbon* 
 forming the compound gas. 
 
 10* 
 
114 CLASS III. OXIDABLE9* 
 
 Application. As in this case the charcoal de 
 composes the water which it held in combination, 
 and a part of it unites to the hydrogen ; so decay- 
 ing or putrifying vegetables in swamps, &c. de- 
 compose water and form the same gas, which is 
 generally called marsh miasmata. It appears too 
 in the bottom of stagnant ponds, &c. which may 
 be collected in bubbles by pressing upon the mul- 
 chy sediment. 
 
 Prop. 9. Carburetted hydrogen gas will ex- 
 plode when inflamed with oxygen. 
 
 Illustration. Mix the gases in equal volumes 
 in a bell-glass or tumbler. Pour this into a nar- 
 row mouthed bottle or decanter. Sink the bottle 
 under the water of the cistern, holding the thumb 
 over the mouth. Having wet a roll of paper iti 
 spirits of turpentine, light it and hold it close to 
 the water over the bottle, and let up the gas in 
 small bubbles. When the bubbles come in con- 
 tact with the blaze of the turpentine taper, they 
 will explode, exhibiting the cracking of musquet- 
 ry, firing from under the water. 
 
 Rationale. Hydrogen and carbon being both 
 combustible substances, when presented to pure 
 oxygen in the subtle states of a gas, they become 
 inflamed so suddenly as to cause the explosion. 
 
 Application. A similar gas mixed with olifi- 
 ant gas, is sometimes generated in coal mines, 
 which coming in contact with the oxygen of the 
 air, often explodes when the workmen go into the 
 pits with candles. But it is found, that if the can- 
 dle is enclosed by fine wire gauze, called Davy's 
 safety lamp, the gas will not explode. If the in- 
 structor has such a net, the class will be highly 
 
 
PRINCIPLE 5. CARBON. 115 
 
 gratified with its exhibition, which may be easily 
 made in a large glass jar filled with the mixture 
 of gases just mentioned. 
 
 Prop. 10. Carbon and hydrogen may be unit 
 ed, forming a heavy carburetted hydrogen gas? 
 Killed olifiant gas, by heating alcohol and sulphu 
 ric acid together. TJiis is called the white gas., 
 from the colour of its flame. 
 
 Illustration. Put half a wine-glass of alcohol 
 in to a deep tubulated retort, pour upon it in a small 
 steady stream about twice as much by measure of 
 strong sulphuric acid* Put in the stopper and ap- 
 ply the candle to the retort, approaching it gradu- 
 ally. The alcohol at first becomes somewhat 
 charred and turns black, soon afterwards the gas 
 comes over. Let a little of the first escape, which 
 consists of atmospheric air and ether. Collect the 
 gas over water. If it contains considerable sul- 
 phurous acid it will generally disappear soon 
 while standing over water ; but lime water will 
 entirely purify it, if necessary. 
 
 Mix it with double its volume of oxygen, and 
 explode it as directed with the light carburetted 
 hydrogen. Also burn it pure in a stream, as di- 
 rected in burning hydrogen gas, and it will give a 
 very luminous blaze. 
 
 Fill a glass cylinder or opodeldoc vial with li- 
 quid chlorine. Pass this gas up into it, until 
 about two thirds of the liquid chlorine is displaced. 
 The volume of the gas will be diminished on stand- 
 ing a few seconds^ and water will ascend. On 
 the surface of the water will be seen oily masses 
 resembling small drops of tallow. These oily 
 masses give the name, olifiant. 
 
ilB CLASS III. OX1DABLES. 
 
 Rationale. The rationale for the light cartm- 
 retted hydrogen, applies to the heavy also, with 
 this addition : Alcohol being a vegetable sub- 
 stance, whose chief constituent is carbon, the ac- 
 tion of sulphuric acid chars the carbonaceous part. 
 This imperfect charcoal is of a soft yielding tex- 
 ture, and unites more freely with the hydrogen. 
 Thus the higher definite compound is produced. 
 
 Application. Both the formation of this gas, 
 when the alcohol becomes charred and its pro- 
 ducing an oil when mixed with chlorine, present 
 a curious exhibition of changes produced upon 
 vegetable matter, while passing through different 
 states of combination. 
 
 Prop. 11. Carbon and hydrogen will unite, 
 yartly as in the light, and partly as in the heavy 
 carburetted hydrogen gas, by distilling pit coal 
 with a red heat. This produces the gas used fov 
 what is called the gas-light. It is called coal 
 gas. 
 
 Illustration. Pulverize some pit-coal, common- 
 ly called sea-coal, and heat it in a gun-barrel, as 
 directed in using charcoal, and obtain the gas ia 
 the same manner, with the following exceptions : 
 Fit a piece of wood in the form of a half-cylin- 
 der, so that it will fill one half of the gun- barrel 
 from end to end. Set it in an oblique position 
 \vith the empty side downwards, and in this posi- 
 tion put in the pulverized coal, so as to fill it about 
 one third of its length. Now put it into the fire 
 with the same side downwards, and after it is 
 placed in the situation in which it is to remain, 
 draw out the piece of wood, leaving the barrel but 
 half filled. When the heat is raised the coal will 
 and fill the barrel, which it would burst if 
 
PRINCIPLE 5. CAIiBON. 117 
 
 filled at first. The gas will soon come over hi 
 abundance, and briny; over with it great quantities 
 of mineral tar and bitumen. It should stand over 
 water several hours to let these substances sub- 
 side. If it is received into the gasholder of the 
 cistern, the water must be drawn off*, the cistern 
 washed and filled with clean water before it is 
 used for other purposes. The gas ma> be ex- 
 ploded with oxygen, and burned in a stream, as 
 directed with light carburetted hydrogen. The 
 blaze will be less white and luminous than of the 
 olifiant gas, and more so than of the carburetted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Rationale. After reading the rationale of the 
 light and heavy carburetted hydrogen, it may be 
 added ; that pit coal always contains a sufficient 
 proportion of water in combination to furnish the 
 necessary proportions of hydrogen. The water 
 being chemically combined in the pit-coal, the gas 
 comes over in a higher state of combination in 
 part ; constituting a mixture of the light and the 
 heavy carburets. 
 
 Application. This is the principle on which 
 the gas for the gas-lights is obtained. But the ap- 
 paratus is so arranged as to obtain it very eco- 
 nomically, and purify it without expense. The 
 mineral pitch is preserved for useful purposes In 
 London seventy-six thousand lights are supported 
 by this gas with 28 chaldrons of coal per day. 
 Messrs. Taylors of England, have lately contrived 
 a method for obtaining a gas for gas-lights very 
 economically from every kind of oil. 
 
 A mixed gas consisting of different proportions 
 of the light and heavy, constitutes a large propor- 
 tion of the fuel of our wood fires. When a billet 
 
118 CLASS III. OXIDABLES. 
 
 of wood is laid upon the fire and becomes heated, 
 the water of the wood is decomposed by the car- 
 bon, and carburetted hydrogen gas issues from it 
 at its pores and cleavages. Though it is often 
 mixed with steam, it takes fire and burns with a 
 flame more or less bright according to its propor- 
 tions of light and heavy carburet. Birch bark, 
 (or rather the cuticle) gives out the heavy carbu- 
 retted hydrogen almost pure. The fla^ne of the 
 gas may be known by its not extending down to 
 the wood. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 6. BORON. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Boron is the basis of boracic acid. The acid 
 is found in the East Indies, Persia, Thibet, &c. 
 combined with soda ; forming the salt called bo- 
 rax or tinka!. It is generally found in lakes. It 
 gives the alkaline test, and is therefore called a 
 sub borate of soda. 
 
 Boron combined with oxygen in the state of bo- 
 racic acid, is united to a base of soda, forming bo- 
 rax, from which it may be obtained in solid scales 
 by elective affinity. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve common borax in about 
 six dates its bulk of hot water in a gallipot Then 
 pour into it ab nit half its weight of sulphuric acid. 
 After stirring it on pretty hot coals for five or six 
 minutes, set it by to cool. A decomposition takes 
 place, sulphate of soda is formed which remains 
 in solution, and the boracic acid is disengaged and 
 appears in solid shining scales Pour off the li- 
 quid solution of sulphate of soda, and rince the 
 scales several times in cold water. Every time 
 
] RINCIPLE 7. SELENIUM. 119 
 
 wait for them to separate from the water, in which 
 they can hardly he dissolved. When well wash- 
 ed they are nearly tasteless. Now dissolve some 
 of the boracic acid scales in alcohol on an earthen 
 plate, and set the alcohol on fire with a lighted 
 roll of paper, and as it hums, the points and 
 sides of the flame will he tinged with a beautiful 
 green. 
 
 Rationale. Soda has a stronger affinity for sul- 
 phuric than fir boracic acid. But the difference 
 is not great enough to effect a ready de< omposi- 
 tion cold. When heat is applied, the decompo- 
 sition is effected. The new compound, sulphate 
 of soda, is soluble in water moderately cool, in 
 which boracic acid is solid. This diiiVrence in 
 the solubility of the two substances affords the 
 means of separating them as given in the last 
 paragraph. 
 
 Application. This experiment exhibits one 
 mineral acid in the solid state when pure. The 
 salt, which this acid forms in combination with 
 soda, is much used in brazing, under the name of 
 borax. It brings brass to the liquid state when 
 thrown upon it, at a temperature considerably be- 
 low its fusing point. Borax becomes a soluble 
 glass after parting with its water of crystallization 
 before the blow pipe. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 7. SELENIUM. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Selenium is an extremely rare substance ; hav- 
 ing been found by Berzelius in very minute quan- 
 tities in pyrites from Fahlun, in Sweden. It re- 
 
120 CLASS III. OXLDABLES. 
 
 sembles sulphur more than it does any other sub- 
 stance ; though it approaches the nature of tellu- 
 rium. It is reddish in minute pieces ; but its 
 fracture is like lead in larger masses. It melts a 
 a little above the boiling heat of water. After 
 melting, it becomes soft and adhesive like wax. 
 On being heated more highly it is volatilized in 
 the state of a gaseous oxid of the odour of horse 
 radish. 
 
121 
 
 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 At this point of a course of instruction in chem- 
 istry, the subject takes an essential change. Pneu- 
 matic chemistry is chiefly terminated here ; though 
 not wholly. We now enter upon that part of the 
 course, which embraces most of what is usually 
 denominated assaying. The preceding and fol 
 lowing parts of the course are sometimes given in 
 distinct laboratories. The latter often requires 
 very high heat and more earthy and metallic ap- 
 paratus. Fewer new laws are introduced with 
 the introduction of a new principle There is 
 more labor and less science, or, as some would 
 say, more of art and less of science presented at 
 every succeeding exercise. Our nomenclature 
 must be further explained before we proceed. 
 The rationale, as a distinct paragraph, will not 
 be given in the remainder of this book. Having 
 been so far instructed, the student should be ex- 
 ercised in furnishing his own rationale, through 
 the remainder of the course. In difficult and in 
 doubtful cases, the teacher should discuss the sub- 
 ject in his lectures. 
 
 NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 When a salt is composed of a base united with 
 an acid in its highest state of acidification, the 
 name of the acid ends in ate if the acid is in the 
 lowest state of acidification, its name ends in ite. 
 As saltpetre is composed of nitric acid and pot- 
 ash, it is called nitrate of potash potash and ni- 
 trous acid would be called nitrite of potash. 
 
 11 
 
122 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 Sometimes the state of the oxidation of the base 
 is expressed by prefixing its degree to the name 
 of the acid. As copperas is sulphuric acid com 
 bined with the protoxid of iron, it would be pro- 
 to-sulphate of iron. As blue vitriol is sulphuric 
 acid combined with the deutoxid of copper, it 
 would be deuto- sulphate of copper. 
 
 When an acidifiable substance is united to a 
 base without being acidified, it ends in uret. As 
 sulphur and iron melted together form sulphuret 
 of iron sulphur and potash, sulphuret of potash, 
 When the compounds are both acidifiable substan- 
 ces not metallic or in the state of gas, uretted is 
 generally the termination. As phosphuretted hy- 
 drogen gas, sulphuretted hydrogen gas, carburet- 
 ted hydrogen gas. 
 
 When two or more metals are combined, they 
 are called alloys ; unless one of the metals is mer- 
 cury, when the mixture is called an amalgam. 
 When a metal is combined with any substance, 
 excepting another metal, it is said to be mineraliz- 
 ed with it. This, however, is a term appertaining 
 rather to mineralogy than to chemistry. 
 
 SECTION I. BASES OF ALKALIES AND OF ALKA- 
 LINE EARTHS. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 It is now established, that these alkalies consist 
 of peculiar bases, united to oxygen. These bases 
 have some properties in common with metals; but 
 they differ so widely in other properties, particu- 
 larly in their specific gravity, that they are de- 
 nominated metalloids. The oxygen may be sepa- 
 rated from the bases by a very powerful galvanic 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. OF POTASH. 123 
 
 battery, and some of them by other means. And 
 though such experiments are brilliant and very 
 amusing, they have no practical application to the 
 purposes of life. They would be introduced here, 
 however, as well calculated to illustrate principle^ 
 were they not attended with too much difficulty 
 and expense for the course proposed in this work. 
 The alkalies and alkaline earths consist of pe- 
 culiar metalloidal bases, chemically combined with 
 definite proportions of oxygen. They all give 
 the common alkaline tests. That is, they give a 
 green colour to blue and generally to red vegeta- 
 ble infusions ; such as of red cabbage, blue and 
 purple petals of violets, &c. They are all caus 
 tic to the taste. They constitute the bases of ma- 
 ny important salts, both natural and artificial, as 
 will be shown under each of them respectively. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 1. OF POTASH. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 As potash is one of the constituents of felspar, 
 a homogeneous mineral aggregated with quartz 
 and mica in granite) it exists in the oldest of the 
 primitive rocks, as well as in animals ami vegeta- 
 bles. It is chiefly obtained by lixiviation from 
 the ashes of burned vegetables. It is also a very 
 abundant production of nature in the state of the 
 basis of saltpetre. 
 
 Prop. 1. Potash may be obtained tolerably pure 
 by abstracting the carbonic acid from pearlash by 
 the aid of quick lime. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve pearlash in about twice 
 its weight of boiling water. Mix this with about 
 as much newly slacked quick linie. Let this stand 
 
124 CLASS IV* METALLOIDS. 
 
 about a week corked closely in a bottle, occasion- 
 ally shaking the mixture. At last let the lime set- 
 tle to the bottom, and carefully pour off the super- 
 natant liquid, which is the pure caustic potash in 
 solution. But if it be wanted for immediate use, 
 boil the mixture about an hour in an iron kettle, 
 adding water enough to keep it in the state of a 
 cream-like liquid, and the decomposition will be 
 effected. If the potash is wanted in a crystallized 
 state, evaporate the liquid very slowly, just keep- 
 ing the steam rising frotu it. 
 
 Application. Pearlash, the sub-carbonate of 
 potash, is made while a high heat is applied. Con- 
 sequently vegetable impurities and most substan- 
 ces contained in common potash are driven out. 
 [Now the carbonic acid being withdrawn also, the 
 potash is left nearly pure and severely caustic. 
 A quantity should always be in readiness in the 
 laboratory, both liquid and solid. 
 
 Prop. 2. Potash has a strong affinity for all 
 animal matter. 
 
 Illustration. Melt a little common potash in 
 an iron ladle, then put into it small bits of fresh 
 meat and woollen rags and boil them a short time. 
 The rags and, meat will be dissolved and soap will 
 be formed. 
 
 Application. On this principle soap is made 
 by boiling any animal substance with ley, which 
 is a solution of potash. It requires very strong 
 ley, or rather melted potash, to convert rags and 
 some other animal substances into soap. As pot- 
 ash readily becomes diliquescent, as shewn by nu- 
 merous experiments, soap is always soft or in the 
 state of an imperfect liquid when potash is used. 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. OF POTASH. 125 
 
 Prop. 3. Potash will unite directly with sul- 
 phur, and form sulphuret of potash. 
 
 Illustration. Take some dry pearlash and half 
 as much sulphur, mix them and rub them well to- 
 gether. Melt them together in a crucible covered 
 with another crucible, as directed in making sul- 
 phuret of iron, excepting that it must be poured 
 out when melted. It must also be corked up in a 
 vial to prevent its diliquescing. 
 
 Application. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas may 
 be made with this, as with the sulphuret of iron. 
 It is also used in medicine, and was called liver 
 of sulphur or hepar sulphuris. 
 
 Prop. 4. Potash may be combined with nitric 
 acid, and form nitrate of potash, called saltpetre. 
 
 Illustration. Fill a tumbler half full of diluted 
 nitric acid, consisting of one part of nitric acid to 
 six parts of water, firop in pearlash, a little at a 
 time, to the point of saturation ; that is, until if 
 ceases to effervesce. This will be the nitrate of 
 potash in solution. Now if it is wanted in the 
 state of crystals, evaporate it as heretofore direct- 
 ed. 
 
 Application. Saltpetre is found in abundance 
 in nature, combined with a little common salt ; 
 therefore it is never made in this way, excepting 
 by way of experiment. 
 
 Prop. 5. Nitrate of potash may be reduced to 
 the nitrite of potash by heating it. 
 
 Illustration. Throw saltpetre upon hot coals. . 
 The coals will burn brilliantly a short time. Some 
 of the residue of the saltpetre may be scraped 
 from the coajs, This is the nitrite of potash, and 
 
 41* 
 
126 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 will not cause the brilliant combustion of coals ; 
 because the highest proportion of oxygen is elim- 
 inated from the acid and the lower proportions 
 are held by stronger affinity. 
 
 Application. The use of saltpetre in the man- 
 ufactory of gunpowder depends on the easy dis- 
 engagement of the highest proportion of oxygen 
 from its nitric acid. The oxygen being in imme- 
 diate contact with the combustible ingredients of 
 the gunpowder (charcoal and sulphur) these sol- 
 ids suddenly become elastic gases. 
 
 Prop. 6 Potash combined with an acid in the 
 definite proportion which constitutes a neutral 
 salty causes no change in the colour of vegetable 
 Hues ; but when the proportion is varied, changes 
 are produced. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve a piece of saltpetre, of 
 the size of half a pea, in a wine-glass of pure wa- 
 ier, Four a little of it into another glass, contain- 
 ing the blue infusion of red cabbage ; and no change 
 of colour will be produced. Add a drop from a 
 weak solution of potash, to the saltpetre solution, 
 and it will now change the cabbage infusion to 
 green. If dilute nitric acid be added gradually 
 to the saltpetre solution, and stopped at the pre- 
 cise point of saturation, it will not change the co- 
 lour of the infusion. But ever so small a quantity 
 of the acid in exbess will produce a red colour. 
 Thus the saltpetre solution may be made to give 
 red and green colours to the infusion, alternately^ 
 any number of times. 
 
 The same experiment, if performed with any 
 neutral salt, and the alternate additions of its acid 
 and base ; will produce the same xesult. 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. OF POTASH. 127 
 
 Application. When clothes are spotted with 
 acids or alkalies, neutral salts may be produced on 
 the cloth, and the ill effects prevented, if attend- 
 ed to immediately. Thus if a black coat be spot- 
 ted with sulphuric acid, any of the alkalies will 
 extinguish the spot by neutralizing the acid. 
 Pearlash, or some other sub-carbonate, is prefer- 
 able to the strong alkalies. The spot where the 
 .application is made must be washed immediately 
 with pure water. 
 
 Rein irk. The infusion of red cabbage only is 
 mentioned above as the test for acids and alka- 
 lies ; though blue violets, elder berries, and sev- 
 eral other vegetable substances may be used. 
 These infusions are sure tests, excepting that wa- 
 ter, charged with sulphuretted hydrogen, will 
 change them to red, like acids. 
 
 Prop. 7. Salts of potash are insoluble in pure 
 alcohol. 
 
 Illustration. Drop a hard lump of pearlash 
 into good alcohol, and it will remain in the solid 
 state any length of time. 
 
 Application. The common alcohol of the shops 
 always contains considerable water. If perfectly 
 dry pearlash is put into it, some of it will be dis- 
 solved by the water. The nearly pure superna- 
 tant alcohol may then be poured off for use. 
 
 Prop. 8. Potash may be combined with chlo- 
 rine, or oxymuriatic acid, and form the oxymuri- 
 ate of potash. 
 
 Illustration. Fill a two quart bladder with 
 chlorine, oroxymuriatic acid gas. Fit to the stop- 
 cock of the bladder a small glass tube. Dissolve 
 about an ounce and a half of pearlash in a pint of 
 
128 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 water, and put it into a receiver. Immerse the 
 end of the tube in the solution, and close the tu- 
 bulature where it enters with beeswax. Lay a 
 light weight upon the bladder, which will press 
 it gently, and turn the stop so as to let out a very 
 minute stream of the gas, so small that the whole 
 shall not run out in less time than an hour or two. 
 Let the receiver be almost air tight, leaving only 
 a hole a little larger than a pin in the wax by the 
 side of the tube where it enters the receiver, for 
 the carbonic acid to escape, which will be driven 
 from its connexion with the pearlash. After the 
 gas is all pressed out of the bladder, draw out the 
 tube, close up the receiver, and place it in a cool 
 dark cellar. After a day or two, crystals of oxy- 
 Wiuriate of potash will be found deposited in the 
 bottom of the receiver. Pour off the liquid, scrape 
 out the crystals arid drain them. They must then 
 be dissolved in considerable hot water. Set it 
 away to cool, and the crystals will be formed 
 again, which may be drained, dried, and put up 
 in a vial for use. 
 
 Application. This preparation will explain 
 much of the doctrine of affinity, &c. to the opera- 
 tor ; but so little of it can be performed while big 
 class is present^ that it is preferable to purchase 
 this salt of those who manufacture it in the large 
 way in Woulf ? s apparatus. 
 
 Prop. 9. Oxymuriate of potash will communi- 
 cate oxygen to some combustible substances by com- 
 pression, sufficient to inflame them and to produce 
 explosion. 
 
 Illustration. Scatter some thin shavings of 
 phosphorus over the bottom of a broad iron mortar. 
 Hpriukle crystals of oxymuriate of potash among 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. OF POTASH. 129 
 
 them. Now, putting a leathern glove upon the 
 hand, rub the iron pestle smartly around among 
 the shavings of phosphorus, and a succession of 
 explosions will be made, resembling the irregular 
 discharges of militia musketry. It is probable 
 that these explosions are caused by the sudden 
 conversion of two solids into vapour. Oxygen is 
 combined in the salt in the solid state. Phospho- 
 rus is also a solid. By being closely compressed^ 
 they instantly become phosphoric acid in a va- 
 pourous state. 
 
 Application. To the same principle all explo- 
 sive powders owe their powers. Gunpowder is 
 essentially composed of about 75 per cent of ni- 
 trate of potash, 15 per cent of charcoal, and 10 per 
 cent of sulphur. These substances are finely pul- 
 verized separately, and then intimately mixed. 
 The nitric acid of the nitrate of potash, on being 
 inflamed, parts with so much of its oxygen as to 
 be reduced to nitric oxid gas, and part of it to ni- 
 trogen gas. In doing this, oxygen is furnished to 
 the charcoal sufficient to convert it into carbonic 
 acid gas, and to the sulphur to convert it into sul 
 phurous acid gas These solid constituents of gun- 
 powder, springing suddenly into the state of these 
 four gases, expand their volume to such a vast ex- 
 tent, as to produce a violent concussion upon the 
 atmosphere, and to impel a leaden ball, or other 
 opposing body, with great velocity. 
 
 The same principle may be further illustrated 
 by finely pulverizing and rubbing well together 
 three parts of dried saltpetre, two of well dried 
 pearlash, and one of sulphur. Melt the mixture 
 in an iron ladle, with a degree of heat a little below 
 the red heat of iron 5 and immediately after melt* 
 
130 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 ing, the mixture will explode with violence. Here 
 the three solid substances spring into several gases 
 on the same principle as before explained. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 2. OF SODA. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Soda often constitutes a part of felspar. There- 
 fore, like potash, it is contained in the oldest pri- 
 mitive rocks. It is found in animals and vegeta- 
 bles ; but is not so abundant in vegetables as pot- 
 ash. It is very abundant in nature as the basis of 
 common salt. For commerce it is mostly obtain- 
 ed by lixiviation, from the ashes of burned sea- 
 weeds, and sold under the name of barilla. It is 
 sometimes called natron. 
 
 Soda has many properties in common with pot- 
 ash. It gives the alkaline test, is obtained pure 
 in the same manner, unites with acids, animal 
 matter, &c. But its affinity for the acids and ani- 
 inal matter, is more feeble ; and it does not dili- 
 quesce by attracting vapour from the atmosphere. 
 Combined with oils it forms hard soap, whereas 
 potash always forms soft soap. 
 
 Prop. I. Soda may be combined with muriatic 
 acid, and form common table salt, muriate of soda. 
 
 Illustration. Put muriatic acid in a tumbler, 
 diluted with about six times its measure of water. 
 Drop in carbonate of soda till effervescence ceases. 
 Proceed in all respects as directed in making salt- 
 petre. Pass some of the solution among the class, 
 and they will recognize the table salt. 
 
 Application. This salt is found so abundant 
 in/ nature, that it is never produced in this way. 
 excepting for the purpose of shewing its constitu 
 
PRINCIPLE 2. OF SODA. 131 
 
 ents. The ocean abounds in it, the western salt- 
 springs, the mines of Poland, &c. 
 
 Prop. 2. Common salt may be decomposed bij 
 potash, and soda obtained. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve an ounce of common salt 
 (muriate of soda) in hot water. Add three fourths 
 of an ounce of common potash. Keep the solu- 
 tion at a moderate heat until it is evaporated to 
 dry ness. Let it he evaporated on a broad plate 
 that it may be very thinly spread over the bottom, 
 Now expose it, in the open plate, to the atmos- 
 phere a <hiy or two, and the muriate of potash will 
 diliquesce, while the soda will assume the form of 
 powder, or dust. 
 
 Application. Dissolve good soft soap by heat- 
 ing it in a clean tin basin with about twice its mea- 
 sure of rain or river water. Then put in about 
 half a gill of fine common salt to a quart of this 
 solution. The muriatic acid of the salt will unite 
 with the potash of the soap, and leave the soda of 
 the salt to unite with the oil of the soap. This 
 latter compound after a little boiling, will become 
 somewhat dense and float on the surface of the li- 
 quid. On draining out the liquid, which is chiefly 
 muriate of potash, and drying the floating com- 
 pound, the latter will be found to be common hard 
 soap. 
 
 Thus soap-boilers make the common hard soap. 
 The liquid muriate of potash they call waste-ley 
 or dead-ley. The fine hard soap is made direct- 
 ly from the barilla or kelp, which is a rough sub- 
 carbonate of soda made from the leached ashes of 
 sea- weeds. 
 
 Prop. 3. tioda may be combined with sulphuric 
 acid and form Glauber's salts. 
 
132 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 Illustration. Put some sulphuric acid into a 
 tumbler, diluted with six times as much water. 
 Drop in carbonate of soda, until effervescence 
 ceases Now pass some of the liquid in wine 
 glasses and the members of the class will recog- 
 nize the nauseous taste of Glauber's salts. It 
 may be crystallized by slow evaporation in the 
 usual way. 
 
 Application. This salt is produced for the 
 shops at the manufactories of muriatic acid. For 
 the sulphuric acid which is poured upon common 
 salt to disengage the muriatic acid, combines with 
 the soda of the salt, and forms sulphate of soda. 
 After purifying, it is sold to the druggists. 
 
 PRINCIPLE ? OF AMMONIA. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 This substance is one of the compounds under 
 Nitrogen. But it was referred to this place for a 
 description of its properties, on account of its near 
 relation to the fixed alkalies. This is usually call- 
 ed the volatile alkali. On account of its salts 
 forming with mercury, under galvanic influence, 
 a compound resembling the amalgams of mercury 
 and other metals, Berzelius supposed it might be 
 a metal, to be called ammonium. As ammonia is 
 known to be a compound, and as it forms an amal- 
 gam with mercury, it goes far towards proving 
 that potassium, sodium, &c. are compound bodies. 
 The proof, however, is of that kind, called ana- 
 logy. And there is some want of correct analogy; 
 though it has a stronger bearing upon the subject, 
 than that upon which the hypothesis of the basis 
 of alumine is founded. 
 
PRINCIPLE ?. OF AMMONIUM. 133 
 
 It seems to be proved by Gay Lussac, that it 
 consists of 75 per cent of hydrogen and 25 per cent 
 of nitrogen. 
 
 It is mostly found in the state of sal ammoniac 
 (the muriate of ammonia) in Egypt. It is chiefly 
 manufactured hy the lixiviation process from the 
 excrements of animals which feed on plants grow- 
 ing near salt water. It ha,s been found near several 
 extinct, or nearly extinct, volcanoes. The pure 
 gaseous ammonia, and the various salts, are obtain- 
 ed from the muriate. 
 
 Prop. I. Ammonia is obtained in the state of 
 gas from sal ammoniac 'by elective affinity. 
 
 Illustration. Pulverize a table spoonful of sal 
 ammoniac, (muriate of ammonia) and put the dry 
 powder into a half pint retort. Put in with it 
 about twice as much fine quicklime. Now mix 
 them well by shaking the retort. Having luted 
 on a pipe-bowl, with half an inch of the stem, up- 
 on the beak of the retort, as directed in obtaining 
 muriatic acid gas and for the same reason ; now 
 immerse the beak in the mercurial trough, and ap 
 ply the heat of a candle to the retort. The ammo- 
 niacal gas will immediately o.ue over. Let it es- 
 cape a little while, that the atmospheric air may 
 be driven out. Now collect it as directed in col 
 lecting muriatic acid gas. 
 
 Application. Hartshorn vials may be prepared 
 upon this principle. Put pulverized sal ammoni- 
 ac and quicklime into a vial and cork it closely. 
 Whenever the scent of the ammonia is wanted, 
 shake the mixture before pulling out the cork. 
 The same effect will be produced by rubbing dry 
 quicklime upon the surface of a piece of sal ammo- 
 niac, and applying it to the nose, la all these 
 
 12 
 
134 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 experiments, the muriatic acid of the muriate of 
 ammonia elects the lime, and the ammonia is dis- 
 charged ; and ammonia when pure is in the state 
 of gas. 
 
 Prop. 2. Ammonia extinguishes flame after a 
 momentary enlargement of it, and destroys life 
 when breathed. 
 
 Illustration. Immerse a short piece of a hum- 
 ing candle in a small cyliridric glass of the gas. 
 The blaze will he enlarged a little for an instant 
 and then he extinguished. Put a mouse into it 
 and it will soon expire. 
 
 Application. Though the action of this gas, by 
 stimulating the olfactory nerves, revives a fainting 
 patient ; yet it will destroy life if respired several 
 times. If oxy muriatic acid is inhaled by accident, 
 let some ammoniacal gas be instantly inhaled after 
 it, and it will correct its destructive effects. The 
 two gases probably form an imperfect oxymuriate 
 of ammonia in the lungs. That this effect is pro- 
 duced, I had an opportunity to demonstrate by 
 most painful experience, while giving a course of 
 lectures in the capitol, before the New- York state 
 legislature. 
 
 Prop. 3. Jlmmonia in the state of gas, will unite 
 with muriatic acid gas 9 and with carbonic acid 
 gas ; and with the former produce the solid mu- 
 riate, and with the latter the solid carbonate of am- 
 monia. 
 
 Illustration. Produce carbonic acid gas in the 
 common way and ammoniacal gas as before di- 
 rected. Let the two gases meet in the same globe 
 receiver at different apertures, or at opposite ends 
 of a cylinder or adopter, and the receiver will soon 
 
PRINCIPLE ?. OF AMMONIUM, 135 
 
 be lined with carbonate of ammonia. If muriatic 
 acid be substituted for carbonic, the muriate of 
 ammonia will be produced. Or fill two small glass 
 cylinders balf full of ammoniacal gas over mercu- 
 ry. Pass muriatic acid gas into one from a vial 
 which is small enough to turn under the cylinder, 
 and carbonic acid gas into the other. Both cylinders 
 will be lined with thin layers of salt, and the mer- 
 cury will ascend to fill the vacancy. On passing 
 the cylinders among the class with tasting rods, 
 they will recognize the sal ammoniac (muriate of 
 ammonia) in one, and the salts of hartshorn (car- 
 bonate of ammonia) in the other. Lest some of the 
 class should not recollect the taste of these salts, 
 it will be best to pass around specimens of each 
 \vith the cylinders. 
 
 Application. These salts are not manufactured 
 in this manner for the shops. The muriate of am- 
 monia is produced in nature. The carbonate of 
 ammonia is manufactured by heating chalk, (car- 
 bonate of lime) and muriate of ammonia together. 
 A double decomposition takes place ; carbonate oi* 
 ammonia arid muriate of lime are formed. 
 
 The experiments described in this illustration 
 exhibit the reduction of gases to the solid state as 
 clearly as any experiment of the laboratory. 
 
 Prop. 4. Carbonate of ammonia may be manu- 
 factured by double elective affinity, with carbonate 
 of lime and muriate of ammonia. 
 
 Illustration. Put into a florence flask, or a re 
 tort, dry pulverized chalk (carbonate of lime) 
 with half as much sal ammonia, (muriate of am- 
 monia.) Heat the flask in a lead pot, and dry 
 carbonate of ammonia will be sublimed and line 
 
136 CLASS IV, METALLOIDS. 
 
 the neck, The heat must be considerable, some- 
 limes requiring the retort to be coated with clay. 
 
 Application. Carbonate of ammonia is prepar- 
 ed in this manner for accurate experiments in the 
 laboratory only. For commerce, it is prepared 
 upon the same principle, but in a coarser manner. 
 
 Prop. 5. Ammonia may be combined with ni- 
 tric avid, and nitrate of ammonia be formed. 
 
 Illustration. Put nitric acid into a tumbler di- 
 luted with about six times as much water. Drop 
 Into it coarsely pulverized carbonate of ammonia 
 until, effervescence ceases ; or until pieces of the 
 carbonate will fall to the bottom without efferves- 
 cence. A solution of nitrate of ammonia will then 
 be formed. If it be required in Crystals, evapo- 
 rate it slowly, until a drop spread on cold glass is 
 instantly crystallized. Then set it by to cool, and 
 crystals will form on the top. Pour out the li- 
 quid part and evaporate it more, and so on as be- 
 fore directed. If the dry salt is required, evapo- 
 rate it with a degree of heat a little below boiling, 
 until the salt is dry, without removing it from the 
 fire. 
 
 Application. This salt is chiefly employed for 
 the purpose of procuring the nitrous oxid or ex- 
 hilarating gas. It is much the best fur that use, 
 to dry the salt down without crystallizing. Or if 
 it is first made in crystals, it ought to be melted 
 and dried down in open plates, before it is used. 
 But if it is dried with a degree of heat as high as 
 the boiling point, considerable of the salt will be 
 lost. 
 
 , Prop. 6. Ammonia is strongly absorbed by wa- 
 ter^ forming the liquid ammonia. 
 
PRINCIPLE ?. OF AMMONIUM. 13? 
 
 Illustration. Pour from a vial a little cold wa- 
 ter under a glass cylinder of ammoniac al gas 
 standing over mercury. It will rapidly absorb 
 the gas, and the mercury will ascend to fill the 
 vacancy. 
 
 Put newly slacked lime into a tubulated retort 
 which had been previously luted into a receiver, 
 and set in a suitable lead pot. Put in about two- 
 thirds as much pulverized muriate of ammonia. 
 !Now put in water, about six times the weight 
 (call a pint a pound) of the muriate of ammonia. 
 The muriatic acid will elect the lime as before ob- 
 served, and the ammonia will be discharged ; but 
 it will immediately lie arrested by the water, form- 
 ing the liquid ammonia, called also spirits of harts- 
 liorn and aqua amnonia But being combined 
 with the newly formed muriate of lime and some 
 lime water, it must be distilled over. Raise the 
 heat moderately by applying the hand bellows to 
 the coals in the lead pot ; at the same time s,ur* 
 round the receiver with snow or cold water. Con- 
 tinue the process until the liquid, condensed in 
 the receiver, is equal in measure to about one third 
 of the water put in. 
 
 Pure ammoniacal gas may be disengaged, with- 
 out any water, by duly regulating the temperature, 
 either during the above process or from the aqua 
 ammonia of the shops. 
 
 Application. The first experiment proves, that 
 as water absorbs ammonia, which is the basis of 
 many impure gases that arise from putrid sub- 
 stances, falling rains cleanse the atmosphere by 
 carrying such impure effluvia to the earth, where 
 they serve to nourish vegetation, The last ex- 
 
 12* 
 
138 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 pcriraeut is an exhibition of the method of pre 
 paring the aqua ammonias of the shops, 
 
 Prop. 7. Liquid ammonia will unite with sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen gas, and form the hydro-sul- 
 'pliuret of ammonia. 
 
 Illustration. Let a stream of sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen gas pass into a vial of liquid ammonia. 
 The best method is to put the ammonia into a 
 broad mouthed vial, filling it about half full. 
 Turn the vial in an oblique position and extend 
 the beak of the retort to the bottom of it. Wet 
 tow may be wound about the neck of the retort 
 where it enters the mouth of the vial to prevent 
 the escape of the gas ; or if a little does escape 
 it is immaterial, for the class ought to become suf- 
 ficiently acquainted with this gas to be able to de- 
 tecrit by the smell. Now pour some of the liquid 
 Into a solution of copperas and another of blue 
 vitriol. 
 
 Application. This is the most universal test 
 for the metals known to chemists. It precipitates 
 all metallic solutions with such different colours, 
 when applied as a test, that, with collateral tests, 
 almost any metal may be detected. For many 
 metals it is a perfect test. It may be added that 
 all the other alkalies will form hydro-sulphurets 
 also. But ammonia forms the most delicate test 
 and is generally used. 
 
 Prop. 8. Ammonia may be decomposed and re- 
 duced to its constituent elements by heat. See 
 Prop. 9. under Nitrogen. 
 
 Illustration. Put quick lime and sal ammoniac 
 into a florence flask, as before directed in produc- 
 ing ammonia. Fit a long tobacco pipe, (a small 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. OF LIME. 139 
 
 iron tube will do) perfectly tight into the mouth of 
 the flask. Pass the pipe through a lead pot, near 
 its middle. Attach, so as to be tight, to the op- 
 posite end of the pipe, a glass or lead tube, bent 
 down into a bowl of water. Raise the heat in the 
 lead pot, until the pipe is red hot. Then com- 
 mence heating the flask with a candle. As the 
 ammoniacal gas is disengaged and passes through 
 the red hot pipe, it will be decomposed, and its 
 two constituent gases, hydrogen and nitrogen, 
 will pass into the bowl of water, where it may be 
 collected in small vials. 
 
 To test the received gases, pour them into a long 
 slender tube. A long test glass will do. Let 
 them stand about half an hour, and they will sepa- 
 rate the hydrogen rising to the top. Pour small 
 portions at a time into a very small test glass and 
 let down a minute burning taper into it. Do this 
 several times. The nitrogen being at the bottom, 
 the taper will be extinguished at first. At last 
 the hydrogen will show itself by burning. 
 
 Application. This experiment gives a very 
 satisfactory illustration of the essential changes 
 which may be produced by chemical combination ; 
 as the ammoniacal gas differs so widely in its 
 properties from hydrogen or nitrogen. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 3. OF LIME, 
 
 Natural Histonj and general Remarks. 
 
 Lime is very abundant. It forms the basis of 
 all lime rocks which are combined with carbonic 
 acid, whether primitive, transition or secondary ; 
 from those which receive a polish called marble, 
 to the roughest of the common lime stone. It is 
 
140 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 the basis of chalk, corol rocks and shells. Com- 
 bined with sulphuric acid, it forms the vast plas- 
 ter beds of Nova- Scotia and our western districts. 
 Combined with phosphoric acid, it forms the bones 
 of animals. 
 
 When carbonate of lime is heated about as high 
 as the white heat of iron, the carbonic acid is con- 
 verted into a gas and passes oft*. This process is 
 conducted in large kilns, where quicklime is man- 
 ufactured. 
 
 Prop. 1. Pure lime has a strong affinity for 
 water. 
 
 Illustration. Put a wine-glass full of newly 
 slacked lime into a quart decanter, and fill it with 
 water After shaking it about a minute, let it- 
 stand fifteen or twenty hours to settle. Now 
 pour oft' the colourless liquid into large vials for 
 use. 
 
 Pour some of the lime water into a wine glass 
 and test it by a few drops of the infusion of red 
 cabbage. It will become green, which is the al- 
 kaline test ; proving that the water, though lim- 
 pid, is chemically combined with lime. 
 
 Application. Stone lime, as it is called, dur- 
 ing the process of slacking, attracts water so pow- 
 erfully as to convert some of it into a solid, while 
 other portions are converted into vapour, by the 
 caloric disengaged from the solidified portion. 
 The same slacked lime continues to attract and to 
 solidify water for a long time when in the state of 
 mortar. It is said that mortar grows stronger for 
 centuries by the slow additions of water and car* 
 feonic acid. 
 
 The strong affinity of quicklime for water ren- 
 ders it an excellent drying material.. Aa enclosed 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. OF LIME. 141 
 
 portion of atmospheric air or of any other gas may 
 be dried by standing over unslacked lime. Col. 
 Glbbs greatly improved the strength of gun-pow- 
 der by mixing it with quicklime, and thereby ef 
 iectually drying it. Vid. Ainer. Jour. Science, 
 vol. I, p. 87. 
 
 Prop. 2. Lime water strongly absorbs sulphu- 
 retted hydrogen gas, and forms the hydro-sulphu- 
 ret of lime. 
 
 Illustration. Pass sulphuretted hydrogen gas 
 into lime water, as directed with ammonia, and 
 the hydro-sulphuret will be formed. 
 
 Application. This forms a good test for met- 
 als, but not so delicate as the hydro-sulphuret of 
 ammonia. This experiment, showing the affinity 
 of lime for sulphuretted hydrogen gas, demon- 
 strates its utility in cleansing putrid sinks, &c. 
 For sulphuretted hydrogen being the essential 
 part of most of the nauseous effluvia, if absorbed 
 by lime the most disagreeable nuisance will here- 
 moved. For the same reason lime water is useful 
 in cleansing offensive ulcers, &c. 
 
 Prop. 3. Most salts of lime have a strong at- 
 traction for water. 
 
 Illustration. The salt of lime called gypsum, 
 (sulphate of limcj becomes a powerful cement by 
 its attraction for water, after its native portion of 
 water has been disengaged by heat. Pulverize a 
 portion of gypsum and heat it in a crucible, cov- 
 ered by the next smaller crucible in the nest, in- 
 verted, until it is to a white heat. Cork it close 
 in a bottle to exclude moisture. Wet up a portion 
 of this powder to the state of a paste,,and in about 
 five minutes it will become solid. Bricks, stones. 
 &c. may be joined by it very firmly. 
 
142 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 Application. On this principle a cement is 
 made in a large way for busts, for the manufacture 
 of buhr millstones, for hard-finished walls, &c. If 
 it hardens too quick, a weak solution of animal 
 glue added to the paste, will postpone the hard- 
 ening. 
 
 Prop. 4. Lime will combine with carbonic acid s 
 and form carbonate of lime. 
 
 Illustration. Set a tumbler of carbonic acid 
 gas on the table, covered with a piece of paste- 
 board. After filling a low small glass cup with 
 limpid lime-water, remove the pasteboard and let 
 it down into the tumbler. Now stir it two or three 
 minutes with a rod, and it will absorb so much 
 carbonic acid that part of the lime will be carbon- 
 ated, and become milky. Now take out the cup 
 and set it by a few minutes to settle. On careful- 
 ly pouring off the liquid, fine carbonate of lime, 
 wh}cb may properly be called fine chalk, will be 
 left. This may be tested by its effervescing on 
 pouring upon it a little diluted sulphuric acid. 
 
 Application. Thus we see from this experi- 
 ment, that carbonic acid may be driven from lime- 
 stone by heat, rendering it pure quicklime ; and it 
 may be absorbed from the atmosphere, re-united, 
 and form the carbonate again. Thus lime mortar 
 in walls becomes solid like marble, on exposure 
 to air. On this principle a bowl of lime-water set 
 in a room and occasionally agitated, would absorb 
 the carbonic acid gas when a large quantity had 
 been produced by the breaths of a crowd. 
 
 Prop. 5. Carbonate of lime is dissolved in car- 
 bonated water, and will be deposited ivhen the car 
 Ionic acid is abstracted. 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. OF LIME. 143 
 
 Illustration. Prepare some carbonate of lime 
 as directed under Prop. 4, for native carbonate 
 cannot be used without occupying too much time 
 for a lecture. Drop a few grains into a florence 
 flask or half-pint matrass or bolthead, half filled 
 with carbonated water. It will give a cloudy ap- 
 pearance to the water at first ; but it will be en- 
 tirely dissolved and the water will become limpid 
 again in a few seconds. Now set the flask into the 
 lead pot, and boil the water four or five minutes. 
 Take it out, wipe it clean and set it by to cool. 
 After it is cool the fine carbonate of lime will ap- 
 pear again in the bottom of the flask. For the 
 carbonic acid being driven out of the water by 
 heat; the carbonate of lime is deposited. 
 
 Application. This experiment explains the 
 manner in which the calcareous tufa, called the 
 high rock at Saratoga, is formed, and numerous 
 other similar deposites. The carbonate of lime 
 is brought along chemically combined with the 
 carbonated water, until it comes out to be exposed 
 to the atmosphere. Then a part of the carbonic 
 acid escapes, and a part of the lime is deposited. 
 Probably the numerous deposites of this mineral 
 were made by carbonated waters which have ceas- 
 ed to fUw for ages. The most remarkable local- 
 ity within my knowledge, is at the head of Ots- 
 quago creek, ten miles south of the canal at Fort- 
 Plain. There is another on the Erie canal, a few 
 miles east of Salina. 
 
 Remarks. A vacuum almost as perfect as can 
 be obtained by the air-pump, may be produced by 
 lime-water and carbonic acid gas. Fill a cologne 
 bottle, decanter, bolthead, or other suitable ves- 
 sel, with carbonic acid gas. Introduce very cold 
 
144 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 well-prepared lime water to the bottom of the ves- 
 sel through a tube, sufficient to equal one-eighth 
 of the measure of the gas. It must be introduced 
 without any agitation. Cork the vessel perfectly 
 tight. Now shake it violently. The lime water 
 will absorb the gas and produce a vacuum. If 
 the vessel is shaken, the water will strike against 
 the sides with a clinking sound. But if the tem- 
 perature of the water is raised a very little, it will 
 fill the vessel with vapour, as in other cases when 
 atmospheric pressure is removed. 
 
 Prop. 6. Lime has a strong affinity for oily 
 substances. 
 
 Illustration. Pour olive oil into a wine-glass of 
 lime water, and the white liquid soap will be form- 
 ed, by the union of the oil and lime^ which is used 
 as a remedy for burns. 
 
 Application. Lime is used in connection with 
 potash, &c. by the soap boilers. It absorbs oils 
 feebly in the state of a carbonate. The leaves of 
 a book are often spotted with candle grease, lamp 
 oil, &c. These spots may be totally removed by 
 finely pulverized chalk or marble. Let the leaf of 
 a book be placed between two pieces of white pa- 
 per, with pulverized chalk interposed on both 
 sides. Then set a common smoothing iron upon 
 it, sufficiently heated to melt the grease. As soon 
 as it is melted, the chalk will absorb it. 
 
 Prop. 7. Lime, when mixed with silexoralu- 
 mine, renders the mixture fusible. 
 
 Illustration. Put a little potter's clay paste into 
 a crucible, and heat it in the forge as high as the 
 white heat of iron. Now pour it out upon a brick 
 on the table, and the class will see that it is not 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. OF LIME. 145 
 
 melted. Mix some of the same kind of clay inti- 
 mately with about an equal quantity of pulverized 
 marble or chalk, and heat it again as hot as be 
 fore. Pour it out, and the whole mass will spread 
 upon the brick in the state of melted cinder. 
 
 Application. On this principle potters reject 
 all clay which contains lime. About Albany and 
 other places along the banks of the Hudson, there 
 is an abundance of the finest clay ; but it contains 
 about fifteen per cent of carbonate of lime. This 
 would be sufficient to cause a kiln of potter's ware 
 to melt, and of course cannot be used. The car- 
 bonate of lime can always be detected by pouring 
 on a few drops of diluted muriatic acid. Ever so 
 small a proportion of the lime will cause an effer- 
 vescence, and prove the mass to be clay-marl, un- 
 fit for pottery. 
 
 Prop. 8. Lime will combine with muriatic acid 
 and form muriate of lime ; which salt in solution 
 will change to solid gypsum on adding sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 Illustration. Pour diluted muriatic acid into a 
 tumbler, consisting of about three times as much 
 water as acid. Drop in pulverized chalk or mar 
 ble until effervescence ceases, and muriate of lime 
 in solution will be formed. Now pour a spoonful 
 into a wine-glass, and pour into it sulphuric acid ; 
 solid gypsum, sulphate of lime, will be instantly 
 formed if it is not stirred. 
 
 Application. Most of the hard waters, as they 
 are called, contain muriate of lime in solution. 
 From this experiment it appears, that muriate of 
 lime may be decomposed, and other salts of lime 
 formed which are insoluble. Some of these salts 
 
 13 
 
146 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 adhere to the bottoms and sides of vessels, as tea 
 kettles, &c. 
 
 Prop. 9. Lime will combine with oxymuriatic 
 acid and form the oxy muriate of lime. 
 
 Illustration. Let a stream of oxymuriatic acid 
 pass into water, in which finely pulverized and 
 recently slacked lime is suspended by continual 
 agitation. In the large way, a dry powder of 
 newly slacked lime is agitated in a strong cask, 
 and the gas passed into the cask, which is absorb- 
 ed by the lime. Others, however, prefer passing 
 the gas into hogsheads of water, in which the lime 
 is suspended by agitation. For an experiment, 
 it ma^ be pressed from a bladder, as directed in 
 making oxy muriate of potash. But the bladder 
 maj he held in the hands and the receiver shaken 
 continually. 
 
 Application. This is the bleaching salt, now 
 used at the great factories. The mariner of ap- 
 plying the salt is described in treatises on bleach- 
 ing. It would be too long an article to introduce 
 here. Students are referred to the factories. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 4. OF BARYTES. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Barytes possesses many properties in common 
 with lime. It is found in the United States in the 
 state of a sulphate, in considerable quantities. 
 The most extensive locality perhaps yet discov- 
 ered in the world, is that in Carlisle, Schoharie 
 county, New- York. This is a fibrous variety, 
 but differs widely in its external characters from 
 the fibrous varieties of Europe. It is called Scho- 
 harite, from its local situation, being near the 
 
PRINCIPLE 4. OF SARYTES. 147 
 
 western bank of the Schoharie kill. This varie- 
 ty is an excellent flux for brazing, &c. Perhaps 
 every variety is equally good ; hut this has been 
 proved to be so by abundant trials. All the salts 
 of barytes, excepting the sulphate, are most dead- 
 ly poi&ons. 
 
 Prop. I. Carbonate of barytes may be obtained 
 from the native sulphate, by exchanging acids with 
 2)earlash, the sub-carbonate of potash. 
 
 Illustration. Put into a gallipot or florence 
 flask, pulverized sulphate of barytes with about 
 three times as much pearlash, and apply heat .suf- 
 ficient first to melt the pearlash and then to boil 
 the mixture for about three hours. Water may 
 be added from time to time. Now put in consid- 
 erable water so as to make a very diluted solution. 
 Let it stand awhile, and the carbonate of b irytes, 
 "which is produced by this double decomposition, 
 will settle to the bottom, and the sulphate of pot- 
 ash will remain in solution. Pour off the liquid 
 and put in water again, and thus wash it two or 
 three times, and it will be ready for use. 
 
 Application. Having obtained carbonate of 
 barytes, it is in a situation to be readily brought 
 into any other state. As it has a stronger affinity 
 for nitric, muriatic or sulphuric acid, than it has 
 for the carbonic, either of those salts may be form- 
 ed in the common way. Or if it be kept at a white 
 beat in a crucible about half an hour, the pure ba- 
 rytes will be obtained. This will combine with 
 water like lime, and form the barytic water, an 
 excellent test. 
 
 Prop. 2. Barytes will combine with muriatic 
 or nitric acid, and form a test for the presence of 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
148 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 Illustration. Put muriatic or nitric acid into 
 a tumbler diluted with about six times as much 
 water. Drop in the carbonate of barytes, until 
 effervescence ceases. 
 
 Application. This forms a perfect tesf for sul- 
 phuric acid in any state of combination. But it is 
 a most deadly poison. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 5. OF STRONTIAN. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Strontian has lately been found by Professor 
 Douglass and W. A. Bird, in great abundance on 
 an island in Lake Erie, in the state of a sulphate. 
 It was passed from hand to hand among mineralo- 
 gists in New- York as crystallized sulphate of ba- 
 rytes for a considerable time. I first analyzed it 
 before the members of the Troy Lyceum, and there 
 demonstrated it to be sulphate of strontian. I 
 have since examined its geological relations. It 
 is found only in a kind of swine-stone or geodifer 
 ous limestone. It is found in geodes in* this rock 
 at Rochester, Lockport, Niagara Falls, on most 
 of the islands in Lake Erie, &c. 
 
 It possesses many properties in common with 
 barytes, and its salts are obtained as directed un- 
 der barytes ; but none of its salts are poisonous. 
 
 Prop. 1. The salts of strontian may be distin- 
 guished from those of barytes by the colour of its 
 flame when burned with alcohol. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve a little of the muriate or 
 nitrate of barytes arid of strontian in separate por- 
 tions of alcohol. Drop a little of each into the 
 burning wicks of separate candles, The barytic 
 
PRINCIPLE 6. OF MAGNESIA. 149 
 
 salt will burn with a yellow, the strontian with a 
 deep red, flame. The solutions may be held in the 
 blaze in silver tea-spoons, and they will burn more 
 elegantly. 
 
 Application. These two heavy minerals great- 
 ly resemble each other. They are both used for 
 tests, and probably may both be useful as fluxes. 
 They will both combine with sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen, forming hydro-sulphurets ; and by heating 
 with sulphur, form sulphurets like all other al- 
 kalies, 
 
 PRINCIPLE 6, OF MAGNESIA. 
 
 Natural History and general Re?narks. 
 
 Magnesia forms one of the constituents of the 
 soapstone or talcose rocks, of asbestos, and some 
 other minerals. It is found pure, or merely com- 
 bined with water, in connexion with soapstone 
 and serpentine rocks, at Hoboken, opposite to 
 New-York. It is found in the state of a carbo- 
 nate in the same range of soapstone or talcose 
 rock on Staten Island. It is found in the state of 
 an efflorescent sulphate;, (called Epsom salts) in 
 great quantities six miles north of Troy, on the 
 east bank of the Hudson ; also in the same situa- 
 tion at Coeymans, on the west side of the Hudson. 
 Near the latter place is a spring highly charged 
 with it. But magnivsia is generally obtained from, 
 sea- water, after it is separated from the common 
 salt. It exists in the state of a muriate and sul- 
 phate in sea- water, from which it is obtained by 
 mixing with it a solution of common pearlash. A 
 double decomposition takes place ; and while the 
 sulphate of potash remains in solution, the 
 
 IB* 
 
150 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS* 
 
 bonate of magnesia falls down. The carbonate 
 of magnesia thus obtained, is the white magnesia 
 of the shops. 
 
 Prop. 1. The carbonic acid may be driven 
 from its connexion with the magnesia of the shops 
 by caloric. 
 
 Illustration. Drop diluted sulphuric acid upon 
 carbonate of magnesia of the shops and it will ef 
 fervesce violently ; that is, a bubbling will be 
 caused by the escape of carbonic acid in the state 
 of gas. Put a little of the same carbonate of mag- 
 nesia into a crucible and keep it about the white 
 heat of iron fifteen minutes. Now, after it cools, 
 drop on it diluted sulphuric acid and it will scarce- 
 ly effervesce, because the carbonic acid is driven 
 out. If a little of it be dissolved with water it 
 will give the alkaline test with red cabbage much 
 stronger than before heating. I have never suc- 
 ceeded in driving off all the carbonic acid by heat, 
 so that no effervescence can be produced by the 
 application of sulphuric acid. 
 
 Application. This is called the calcined mag- 
 nesia ; and is considered as a more efficient reme- 
 dy in some diseases than the carbonate. 
 
 Prop. 2. Magnesia will combine with sulphur- 
 ic acid and form the Epsom salts. 
 
 Illustration. Put sulphuric acid into a tum- 
 bler, diluted with about six times as much water. 
 Drop in carbonate of magnesia until effervescence 
 ceases. This will form Epsom salts in solution. 
 Pass some of it around, and the class will recog- 
 nize the bitter taste of the Epsom salts. 
 
 Application. This salt is so abundant in na- 
 ture, that it is never prepared in this way, except 
 
PRINCIPLE 8. OF SILEX. 151 
 
 ing by way of experiment, or when a practising 
 physician happens to be in want of this article of 
 materia medica. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 7. OF LITHIA. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Lithia is an alkali found in a rare mineral, call- 
 ed petalite, by Arfvedson, Berzelius' assistant, 
 in the proportion of 5 or 6 per cent, with about 79 
 of silex and 16 of alumine. It approaches soda 
 in its characters ; as it forms a salt with muriatic 
 acid resembling common salt in taste and in its 
 crystalline form. It dissolves very slowly in wa- 
 ter, giving off heat like lime when slacking. It 
 is almost as caustic to the taste as potash. 
 
 SECTION 2. EARTHS WHICH ARE NOT ALKA- 
 LINE. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 It is conjectured from analogy, that these earths 
 consist of peculiar bases united to oxygen. These 
 imaginary bases may be called metalloids also. 
 Some chemists, however, have placed silex among 
 oxidable substances not metallic, and denominate 
 it silicon. Gorham has followed that arrange- 
 ment, but Brande has not. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 8. OF SILEX. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks, 
 
 Silex is the most abundant substance known te 
 us. It constitutes the largest proportion of most 
 
152 CLASS IV* METALLOIDS* 
 
 rocks and soils. No rock stratum, excepting some 
 lime rocks, is destitute of silex. Quartz crystals 
 are almost pure silex. Most gems, excepting the 
 diamond, the pearl, and the sapphire family, are 
 chiefly composed of silex. The common gun-flint, 
 the carneliou, and the quartz crystal, are of very 
 common use in the arts. 
 
 Prop. 1. Silex may be obtained pure from its 
 earthy compounds, by combining it with an alkali 
 and then separating the alkali with an add. 
 
 Illustration. Previous to the commencement of 
 the lecture, heat a gun-flint red hot and throw it 
 into cold water in order to render it brittle. Pul- 
 verize it very fine and mix the powder with about 
 five times its bulk of pearlash, melt the mixture 
 and keep it in the state of fusion fifteen minutes. 
 ]SFow dissolve it in two or three times its bulk of 
 water. At the lecture pour in diluted sulphuric 
 or muriatic acid, a little at a time, as long as it 
 continues to cause a precipitation. After it stands 
 a little while to settle, pour off the liquid part, and 
 wash or rinse the precipitate in hot water several 
 times until the water poured off is tasteless. This 
 powder is pure silex. 
 
 Application. This substance is the basis, or 
 rather the principal ingredient in gun-flints, rock 
 crystal, carnelion, &c. It forms much the larg- 
 est proportion of soils and rocks. It is soluble in, 
 fluoric acid, as shewn under fluorine, but in no 
 other acid. Heat rock crystal red hot and plunge 
 it into water, and then pulverize it, and it will be 
 almost pure silex; for crystallized quartz consists 
 almost entirely of pure silex and the water of crys- 
 tallization. 
 
 From the experiment described under tins illus- 
 
PRINCIPLE 8. OF S1LEX. 153 
 
 tration, it appears, that silex is readily dissolved 
 when heated with potash. On this principle glass 
 is manufactured. A due proportion of potash and 
 quartzose sand are heated together and fused into 
 liquid glass. This substance is then blown, while 
 it adheres to the end of a tube, into the various 
 forms required. 
 
 Prop. 2. Glass sometimes contains the oxid 
 of a metal, which may be tarnished by hydro-sul- 
 phuret of ammonia. 
 
 Illustration. Pour some hydro-sulphuret of am- 
 monia into any vessel of flint glass, (which always 
 contains red lead) and it will become dark colour- 
 ed and cloudy within, after standing one hour. 
 At the same time pour seme into a vessel of crown 
 glass, bottle glass, or on common window glass, 
 and it will not be tarnished. But the flint glass 
 vessel ought to be new ; for if it has been used, 
 the lead which is near the inner surface of the glass 
 will probably be worn off or dissolved, so that 
 none will be left to receive the tarnish. 
 
 Application. False gems made in imitation of 
 true ones are always coloured with the oxid of a 
 metal. Oxid of cobalt colours a glass gem smalt 
 blue black oxid ,of manganese, violet oxid of 
 chrome, emerald green, &c. If any such imitation 
 gem be put into the hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, 
 it will soon become tarnished. 
 
 The most convenient method for detecting frauds 
 of artists, practised with false gems, is the follow- 
 ing : Let gems be divided into four classes, ac- 
 cording to their hardness, i. Diamonds. 2. The 
 sapphire class. 3. The rock crystal class. 4. 
 Glass imitation gems. When a gem is to be ex- 
 aruinedj look out a smooth face upon it with a 
 
154 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 magnifying glass. Apply to that face a point or 
 atigle of a quartz crystal and attempt to scratch it. 
 If any scratch is made, attempt to scratch the 
 quartz with the gem. If the quartz cannot be 
 scratched by it, it is glass; if it can, it is quartz. 
 Minerals of equal hardness will scratch each oth- 
 er; therefore quartz will scratch quartz, &c. If 
 it cannot be scratched with a quartz crystal, it 
 may be considered as belonging either to the sap- 
 phire or to the diamond class. In this class are 
 included oriental ruby, oriental amathyst, oriental 
 topaz, corundurns, emery, &c. Select a large 
 smooth grain of unground emery, and apply it to 
 the face of the gem as before directed. If it can be 
 scratched with emery, but with great difficulty, 
 and not by the quartz crystal, it may be consider- 
 ed as belonging to the sapphire class. But if it 
 cannot possibly be scratched with emery, after the 
 most careful trials, with severe pressure, it is a 
 diamond. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 9. ALUMINE. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Alumine is the most generally known as the ba- 
 sis of clay; though common clay soil contains 
 more silex than alumine. It constitutes the chief 
 of the basis of alum. It is a constituent of every 
 rock stratum, excepting some lime rocks. It has 
 been found in a pure uncombined state in but one 
 locality. Dr. E. Emmons discovered it in the sum- 
 mer of 1819, in an iron mine in Richmond, Mass. 
 He demonstrated it to be a new mineral by the 
 Wernerian external characters, without a chemi- 
 cal analysis. Professor Dewey was the first who 
 
PRINCIPLE 9. ALUMINE. 155 
 
 proved that it consisted of pure alutnine and wa- 
 ter. 
 
 Clay beds are generally divided into the marly 
 clay (according to Pierce,) and the plastic clay. 
 The clay-beds of the United States are chiefly of 
 the marly kind, and contain from ten to twenty 
 per cent of carbonate of lime. These beds are un- 
 lit for potter bakers' stone ware ; because such a 
 compound fuses before it is sufficiently baked. 
 Plastic ; lay, which is often destitute of any car- 
 bonate of lime, is of great value in the arts. It is 
 not only essential to the potter baker, but is neces- 
 sary for the construction of all furnaces^ where a 
 high heat is required. 
 
 The celebrated Wedgewood's ware depends, 
 for its peculiarity, on the clay being burned and 
 pulverized previous to its final manufacture. 
 
 Prop. 1. The alum of commerce consists of 
 alumine combined with sulphuric acid, and a little 
 potash ; from this salt the alumine may be precip- 
 itated by ammonia. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve common alum in water 
 before the lecture hour. In time of lecture, pour 
 into it liquid ammonia and a dense precipitate will 
 appear. ISow let it settle several hours and pour 
 off the liquid, and wash this precipitate several 
 times in water. This will be the pure, or nearly 
 pure, alumine. 
 
 Application. This is the basis of clay, used in 
 the laboratory only. 
 
 Prop. 2. Alumine mixed with silex, forms the 
 chief part of soils ; which mixture when moisten- 
 ed with water,, will absorb ammonia, carbonic acid 
 gas, carburetted hydrogen gas, and all other gases 
 which are nutritious to growing vegetables. 
 
156 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 Illustration. Prepare opodeldoc vials of these 
 gases over mercury, and pass into them separately 
 balls of moistened earth. Some portion of each 
 gas will be absorbed, with more or less rapidity. 
 Some of them must stand several hours. 
 
 Application. From this experiment it appears, 
 that the more frequently the moist earth is present- 
 ed to the atmosphere by frequent hoeing, harrow- 
 ing or ploughing, the more of the nutritious gases 
 will be absorbed from it This absorption, while 
 it enriches the soil, purifies the air and renders it 
 better fitted for respiration. This experiment ex- 
 plains the cause of the superior fertility of soils in 
 the vicinity of large towns, compared with similar 
 soils in different situations. The various impuri- 
 ties generated in large towns, the vast quantities 
 of carbonic acid gas given off in respiration, the 
 carburetied hydrogen and carbonic acid gases 
 from a multitude of chimnies, &c. so highly charge 
 the atmosphere with gases which are favourable 
 to the growth of vegetables, that the very winds 
 become the fanners' manure carters. 
 
 Prop. 3. Acetate ofalumine is made by double 
 elective affinity, with alum and sugar of lead. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve equal parts of alum and 
 sugar of lead in water in separate wine-glasses, 
 before lecture hour. At the lecture, mix these so- 
 lutions. The acids exchange bases ; and the sul- 
 phate of lead falls down, while the acetate of alu- 
 inine remains over it in a liquid state. This li- 
 quid may be poured off for use. 
 
 Application. Though by this process we do 
 not obtain a perfectly pure salt, Dr. Cooper says 
 that it is manufactured in this way by the calico 
 
PRINCIPLE 9. OF ALUMINE. 157 
 
 printers. It is an important mordant, much used 
 in dying. 
 
 Prop. 4. JLlumin& attracts water powerfully, 
 by ichich its bulk is much enlarged ; and its bulk 
 becomes greatly diminished by forcing out the wa- 
 ter with caloric. 
 
 Illustration. Make small clay cakes and dry 
 them in the sun. Now bring them before the 
 class, and mark their dimensions upon a board. 
 Heat them in a crucible, to the white heat of iron. 
 Cool them and apply them to the measure, and 
 they will be found to be greatly diminished in 
 size. 
 
 Application. On this principle Wedgcwood 
 constructed his pyrometer. Nail down two thirty 
 inch rulers on a board, half an inch apart at one 
 end and an inch apart at the other. Graduate one 
 of the rulers with marked degrees. If the sun 
 dried cakes of clay would just enter the large (Hid, 
 after heating they would enter considerable far- 
 ther. The distance to which they would enter 
 would indicate the degree of heat which had been 
 applied to the crucible containing the clay cake 
 and the metal, or other substance to be fused. 
 
 On this principle some bricks burned at a kiln 
 are smaller than others, though all were made in 
 the same mould. 
 
 Prop. 5. JMumine Jias a strong affinity for tlie 
 alkalies, whether they are simple or in the state of 
 salts, 
 
 Illustration. Lay a sun-dried plastic or re- 
 fractory clay cake obliquely across a crucible, of 
 such a length as to go entirely into the crucible, 
 but not let it reach the bottom. Heat the crucible 
 
 14 
 
158 CLASS IV. METALLOIDS. 
 
 until the clay cake is at a white heat. Then 
 throw a little common salt, muriate of soda, into 
 the crucible, and continue to raise the heat. On 
 taking out the clay cake its surface will be found 
 covered with a glazing, made up of the soda and 
 alumine fused together. 
 
 Dip a dried cake into mortar, sufficiently dilut- 
 ed with water to become a free liquid, which is 
 made of marly clay. Then heat it as before, and 
 it will become glazed. This is caused by the fu- 
 sion of the marly clay upon the surface of the re- 
 fractory clay cake. 
 
 Application. The affinity between lime and 
 alumine has an useful application in forming plas- 
 tering for walls, &c. The experiment of glazing 
 the clay cake is an exhibition of the process adopt- 
 ed by potter bakers for glazing their ware, by 
 throwing salt into the kilns when the ware is 
 burning. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 10. OF GLYGINE. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Glycine is found in emerald or beryl. The 
 beryl of Haddam, in Connecticut, yields about 
 fourteen per cent of glycine. It is capable of be- 
 coming a slightly adhesive paste in water. It is 
 dissolved in the alkalies. All the salts, of which 
 it forms the basis, are sweetish and somewhat as- 
 tringent. Not used in the arts. 
 
 i 
 PRINCIPLE 11. OF ZIRCON. 
 
 Natural History and general RemarJcs. 
 Zircon is found in granite and in gneiss, in the 
 
PRINCIPLE ?. OF THORINA, 159 
 
 form of four-sided prisms. It is found in several 
 localities in the United States. The crystals con- 
 tain about twenty-five to thirty- live per cent of si- 
 lex and a little oxid of iron. The pure zircon is 
 insoluble in water, but unites with all the acids. 
 Soluble in no pure alkali, but is soluble in their 
 carbonates. Not used in the arts. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 12. OF YTTRIA. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 V 7 ttria is found in gadolinite from Sweden. It 
 is combined with silex, oxid of cerium and oxid 
 of iron. When pure it is insoluble in water, so- 
 luble in most acids, also in the carbonate of am- 
 monia. Some chemists consider it as a metal. 
 It is a doubtful substance^ and not used in the 
 .arts. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 13. OF THORINA. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Thorina was lately discovered by Berzelius, in 
 the gadolinite of Sweden. It resembles zircon. 
 Its salts are astringent but not sweet. It is ex- 
 iremely rare and not used in the arts. 
 
160 
 
 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 The specific gravity of all pure metals is above 
 live. They all reflect light brilliantly, which re- 
 flection is called the metallic lustre. Most of them 
 are found in the earth combined with oxygen or 
 sulphur. All are capable of becoming sulphurets 
 by heating with sulphur, as directed in preparing 
 sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Metals may be com- 
 bined or alloyed together, in which state their fu 
 sibility is increased. 
 
 Many experiments upon metals require so much 
 time that they cannot be commenced and complet 
 ed in the course of a lecture, or of one meeting of 
 the class. Others are of a difficult or rather dan 
 gerous nature. These may be passed over in a 
 short course of lectures, after giving very particu- 
 lar explanations of their principles ; and shewing, 
 as well as can be done conveniently without actu 
 ally performing the experiments, the necessary 
 manipulations. These are distinguished by au 
 asterisk (*) prefixed to the illustration. 
 
 Prop. 1. Ml metals must be in the state of 
 oxids before they can combine with acids and form 
 salts. 
 
 Illustration. 1. Put a drop of mercury into a 
 wine-glass and pour muriatic acid upon it. Mu- 
 riatic acid cannot be decomposed by any metal, 
 and mercury cannot decompose the water which is 
 combined with the muriatic acid. Consequently 
 the mercury will not be oxidated, and of course 
 cannot become the base of a salt in this experi- 
 ment. 
 
GENERAL EXPERIMENTS. 161 
 
 2. Put a drop of mercury into a wine-glass and 
 pour nitric acid upon it. Though the water, 
 which is combined with the nitric acid, cannot be 
 decomposed by mercury, nitric acid can. Con- 
 sequently the mercury will be oxidated in succes- 
 sive atoms by successive atoms of nitric acid : 
 which will be reduced thereby to nitrous acid, 
 and rise up in a deep orange gas, as described 
 under nitrogen. As fast as the successive atoms 
 of mercury are oxidated, they unite with the near- 
 est atoms of undecomposed nitric acid, and nitrate 
 of mercury is formed. 
 
 3. Pour muriatic acid upon nitrate of mercury, 
 and the acid will take up the base of the nitrate ; 
 because the mercury, having been oxidated by 
 decomposing the nitric acid, readily elects the mu- 
 riatic acid, for which it has the stronger affinity. 
 
 4. Put a small quantity of iron filings into a 
 wine-glass, and pour muriatic acid upon it. 
 Though the muriatic acid cannot be decomposed 
 by the iron nor by any other metal, as before ob- 
 served ; the water which is combined with the 
 muriatic acid is readily decomposed by the iron. 
 That the iron is oxidated by the oxygen of the 
 water, is manifest from the disengagement of hy- 
 drogen gas which arises out of the wine-glass 
 The iron being thus oxidated, immediately unites 
 with the muriatic acid and forms muriate of iron. 
 
 Hemark. In the second and fourth experiments 
 considerable effervescence appears in the wine- 
 glass. In the second, it is caused by the escape 
 of the nitrous acid gas, (or rather nitric oxid which 
 becomes nitrous acid when it comes in contact with 
 atmospheric air,) and in the fourth by the escape 
 of hydrogen,, 
 
 14* 
 
162 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 Application. Metals may be thus oxidated by 
 the decomposition of acids or of water, or they may 
 have been previously oxidated by some other pro- 
 cess. In some cases a metal is first oxidated by 
 an acid which it can decompose, and then united 
 to a different one by double decomposition. For 
 example, in preparing muriate of mercury of tho 
 shops, the mercury is first combined with sulphu- 
 ric acid, because it will decompose that acid and 
 become oxidated. Then its oxid is combined 
 with muriatic acid, by heating the sulphate of mer- 
 cury with the muriate of soda. This process of 
 double decomposition will be particularly explain- 
 ed under mercury. 
 
 Prop. 2. Several of the metals may be burned 
 with a brilliant flame, in a current of oxygen gas. 
 
 Illustration. Make a hole in the side of a large 
 piece of charcoal, and put into the hole some iron 
 filings, iron wire, zinc shavings, lead shavings, 
 &c. Having filled a gas-holder with oxygen, pro- 
 vided with a tin or lead tube, terminating in a 
 pipe-stem, as described in the introduction ; hold 
 the charcoal in a suitable position for receiving 
 the current of oxygen upon the metals. Let an 
 assistant hold the flame of a candle between the 
 inetals and the pipe, until the current of oxygen 
 drives the flame into the coal. Then remove the 
 candle and continue the current of oxygen, en- 
 larging or contracting it at pleasure by turning the 
 stop. The metals will burn very brilliantly, each 
 exhibiting its own peculiar flame. 
 
 Application. This experiment demonstrates 
 the combustibility of metals ; and shows the ne- 
 cessity of adding to the words acidifiable substan* 
 ees ia the title of the third class, the words not me* 
 
GENERAL EXPERIMENTS. 16S 
 
 tatlic. For all combustible substances are capa- 
 ble of uniting with oxygen, and do unite with it 
 during the process of combustion. 
 
 Prop. 3. JL very intense heat for burning met- 
 als may be produced by a current of oxygen and 
 hydrogen gases combined. 
 
 Illustration. Fit the ends of two tobacco pipe- 
 stems together at right angles, by filing them with 
 a small three cornered file in the following man- 
 ner. File the hydrogen pipe flat on one side at 
 the end, and file a groove across the end at right 
 angles with the flat side. File the oxygen pipe at 
 the end so as to make a shoulder to fit against the 
 flat side of the hydrogen pipe, and file it so deep 
 as to leave but half of the hollow of the pipe-stem ; 
 which, when the pipes are put together, will ex- 
 actly coincide with the groove across the end of 
 the hydrogen pipe. Now bore two holes in a slip 
 of a pine board, in a direction to fit in the pipes 
 firmly, with their ends meeting in a joint at right 
 angles as before described ; but they ought to meet 
 3 or 4 inches from the board. Fasten the board 
 in an upright position to support the pipes steadi- 
 ly. Having filled one gas- holder with oxygen and 
 another with hydrogen, with stop-cocks fitted m 
 them as usual, attach two leaden tubes to the stop- 
 cocks at one end, and to the pipe-stems at the oth* 
 er, so as to conduct the proper gas to its respective 
 pipe. Now turn the stop of the hydrogen gas- 
 holder and let out a very small stream and inflame 
 it with a candle. Then turn the stop of the oxy- 
 gen gas-holder, and let out a stream of oxygen 
 rather larger than that of the hydrogen. A small 
 faint blaze will be produced, but its heat will be 
 very intense. Having previously providedi the 
 
164 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 different metals intended to be burned, now apply 
 them. Small rods of iron, lead, copper, &c. and 
 gold and silver leaf, will burn like tinder. A very 
 thin file with a long wooden handle, will burn 
 beautifully. 
 
 Application. On this principle minerals can be 
 burned or fused which resist the strongest furnace 
 heat. This is called the oxi-hydrogen blow-pipe 
 of Hare & Silliman. 
 
 Prop. 4. Metals, when cold as it is possible to 
 make them, give off calorie if their particles art 
 made to approach each other. 
 
 Illustration. Anneal a common nail- rod, and 
 when cold, hammer a small portion of it very 
 briskly upon an anvil, and it will become hot if 
 continued until it is drawn out very small, it will 
 become red hot. The stme rod, or a large anneal- 
 ed wire, will become hot by frequent bending back 
 and forward. 
 
 Application. A fire may be kindled by violent- 
 ly compressing a metal, while in contact with any 
 highly combustible substance. 
 
 Prop. 5. Letters may be etched upon metals by 
 converting the surface, ivhere the strokes are to be 
 etched, or the interstices betiveen them, into oxids, 
 or salts. 
 
 Illustration. Dip a clean copper cent into melt 
 ed white wax. On taking it out the wax will im- 
 mediately harden upon it. Mark out the form of 
 a letter or figure upon it. Then immerse the cent 
 in the nitric acid, and let it remain fifteen minutes. 
 Now take it out, scrape off the wax, and wash the 
 \vhole clean. The letter will be etched upon the 
 cent. 
 
GENERAL EXPERIMENTS. 165 
 
 Application. On this principle the etching up- 
 on razors, sword blades, &c. is performed. But 
 the artists have various methods for preparing com- 
 positions for applying to the metals before the acid 
 is applied. They generally make use of some- 
 thing for writing the letters, which will flow from 
 the pen like ink. Then they surround the whole 
 space to be acted upon, by an edging to confine the 
 acid, and pour on the, acid instead of immersing 
 the metal in it. This is called etching in basso- 
 relievo. 
 
 Prop. 6. Metallic salts maybe decomposed very 
 readily by alkalies and alkaline salts, unless the 
 acid is metallic. ~ 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve in separate wine-glasses 
 a little copperas, blue vitriol, white vitriol, and su- 
 gar of lead. Pour into each a small quantity of 
 the solution of either potash, soda, or ammonia., 
 and the metallic oxid of the salt will be precipit- 
 ated, and an alkaline salt formed in each glass. 
 But if chromate of potash be dissolved, and sugar 
 of lead in solution be poured into it, chromate of 
 lead will be produced. For the acid, being me- 
 tallic, has the strongest affinity for metallic oxidso 
 
 Application. This principle is of much use in 
 the manufacture of articles used in medicine and 
 the arts, as will appear by attending to the daily 
 business of every laboratory. 
 
 SECTION 1. METALS WHICH ABSORB OXYGEN 
 WITH SUCH FORCE AS TO DECOMPOSE WATER^ 
 WHEN HEATED TO REDNESS. 
 
 Illustration. The distinctive character of this 
 section may be illustrated by heating an iron roc 
 to a high red heat arid plunging it into a narrow 
 
166 " CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 mouthed tin cup of water. The smell of hydro- 
 gen will immediately be perceptible at the mouth 
 of the cu;;, proving the decomposition of water; 
 and on taking out the rod it will be covered with 
 scales of protoxid of iron. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 1. IRON. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Iron is distinguished in the arts by three gener- 
 al kinds : Cast iron, wrought iron and steel. Cast 
 iron contains a proportion of carbon, and is of a 
 brittle granulated structure. By melting cast iron 
 and stirring it while in fusion, part of the carbon 
 is burned out. Then by hammering or rolling, il 
 becomes almost pure, fibrous and tough, and is then 
 called wrought iron. After it is brought to the 
 state of wrought iron, it may be converted into steel 
 by heating in a confined place in contact with char- 
 coal, with which it combines. It will then become 
 hard on heating and plunging into cold water, and 
 is more fusible. 
 
 Besides the cast iron and steel, iron enters into 
 another state of combination with carbon, forming 
 the plumbago or black lead, as it is called. This 
 is considered as the true carburet of iron, consist- 
 ing of 95 per cent of carbon with 5 of iron, accord* 
 ing to Allen and Pepys. 
 
 Oxids of iron form the basis of most colours in 
 minerals and vegetables. Gorham quotes from 
 Hauy this elegant and appropriate expression 
 (( when nature takes the pencil, iron is the colour- 
 ing she always uses." 
 
 Iron is rarely found pure. It is most generally 
 found in the state of an oxid or of a sulphuret : 
 though it is found in the state of a carbonate, sul- 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. IRON, 167 
 
 phate, phosphate, arseniate, chromate, muriate, 
 &c. In the oldest primitive rocks it is generally 
 found in the state of a protoxid, and is consider- 
 ably magnetic. In secondary rocks and in allu- 
 vial deposites, it is often founti in the state of a pe~ 
 roxid, and compounded with clay : It is then 
 called argillaceous iron ore. In the more recent 
 primitive formations, it is found in a mixed state, 
 consisting of the protoxid and peroxid, in various 
 proportions. It is then called hematitic oxid of 
 iron. 
 
 Iron is the most abundant and the most useful of 
 all the metals. 
 
 Prop. 1. Steel may be distinguished from iron 
 by the action of an acid upon its carbon. 
 
 Illustration. Let fall one drop of nitric acid 
 upon a piece of polished iron, and another upon a 
 piece of polished steel. The acid on the iron will 
 be limpid or whitish, that on the steel will become 
 dark brown or black. 
 
 Application. It is often very convenient to have 
 a more ready method for distinguishing between 
 iron and steel than the usual method of trying its 
 hardening quality. It is not necessary to polish 
 the iron or steel to make the trial. If a small spot 
 on a coarse bar of iron or steel be filed bright it 
 will be sufficient. 
 
 Prop. 2. Iron becomes oxidated, on exposure 
 to air and water; and the red oxid, or iron rusty 
 thus made, always contains some carbonate of iron 
 in combination. 
 
 Illustration. Collect some red iron rust and 
 pour muriatic acid upon it, and carbonic acid will 
 escape. Or heat it in a gun-barrel, as in obtain- 
 
168 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 ing oxygen from manganese, and carbonic acid 
 may be collected. 
 
 Application. Iron rust, prepared by exposing 
 very fine iron filings to water and air, is often used 
 in medicine as a tonic. But it is a mistake to call 
 this oxid of iron ; as it is a mixture of oxid of iron 
 and carbonate of iron. 
 
 Prop. 3. Pure red oxid of iron may be obtain- 
 ed by driving out, with caloric, the reduced acid 
 from a salt of iron. 
 
 Illustration. Put some copperas, sulphate of 
 iron, into an unglazed crucible, and heat it moder- 
 ately until it becomes a dry white mass. Then 
 put it into a crucible which will bear a high heat, 
 and raise the heat until it becomes very red. 
 Though copperas consists of the protoxid of iron 
 and sulphuric acid, we obtain the peroxid. For 
 a part of the sulphuric acid is decomposed, and 
 thereby furnishes an other proportion of oxygen to 
 the iron. 
 
 Application. Here the iron is left in the state 
 of a peroxid, after the sulphuric acid is driven oft* 
 in the state of gas. Sulphuric acid was at first ob- 
 tained by heating copperas in earthen retorts, and 
 bringing over most of the acid. Copperas being 
 called green vitriol, this acid was called vitriolic 
 acid; and by some, the oil of vitriol, on account 
 of its flowing like oil. 
 
 Prop. 4. Sulphate of iron, (copperas,) is form- 
 ed by the chemical combination of iron and sulphur- 
 ic acid. 
 
 Illustration. Put dilated sulphuric acid into a 
 florence flask, consisting of about five times as 
 much water as acid. Apply a very little heat, so 
 
PRINCIPLE 1. IHOX. 
 
 as rather to warm than heat the acid. Drop in 
 iron filings until they will fall to the bottom quiet 
 ly. Pour off the clear liquid into earthen plates. 
 This is copperas in solution ; and by a slow eva- 
 poration it may be crystallized. 
 
 Application. On this principle the copperas of 
 commerce is manufactured ; but the process is ve- 
 ry different. Iron pyrites is moistened and ex- 
 posed to the atmosphere a considerable time in a 
 shallow vat or box. After it becomes covered 
 with a crust it is dissolved in wafer, or leached, 
 and evaporated. There is an extensive rnanufac 
 tory in Vermont; and a profitable one might be 
 established on the east face of the Helderberg, 14 
 miles from Albany. 
 
 Prop. 5. Iron will combine directly with sul* 
 phur % the agency of caloric, and form sulphuret 
 of iron. 
 
 Illustration. Perform this experiment as di 
 rected in preparing sulphuretted hydrogen gas. 
 Or heat the end of a bar of iron almost to a white 
 heat. Apply the hot end to a common roll of 
 brimstone. The iron and sulphur will unite and 
 form iron pyrites. A small roll of brimstone has 
 been made to perforate a large bar of iron, ivhcn 
 highly heated. 
 
 Application. Vast quantities of -sulphuret of 
 iron are found in the earth ; but *ese substances 
 seem to be more perfectly united than they can be 
 by art. The native sulpbaret is rarely used for 
 composing sulphuretted Hydrogen. 
 
 Sulphur and iron, *v'hen in combination, seem 
 to be strongly predisposed to combine with oxy- 
 gen. On this principle the oxygen is taken from 
 an enclosed portion of atmospheric air, as direct- 
 
 15 
 
170 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 ed under nitrogen. Lemery produced artificial 
 volcanoes, by ramming with force into a large pot, 
 a paste, made of 100 Ib. of iron filings, intimately 
 mixed with 100 Ib. of pulverized sulphur, and just 
 water enough to make a dense paste. This pot is 
 then buried to a considerable depth in the earth, 
 and between ten and twenty hours afterwards, it 
 bursts out and burns with great force. I do not 
 know that tHs experiment was ever repeated in 
 America. L is said that no effect can be produc- 
 ed without a xery large quantity of the mixture. 
 
 Though iron is mineralized with sulphur, oxy- 
 gen and carbonic acid, it does not enter into many 
 alloys. The principal alloy of iron known in the 
 arts, is that of the sheet tin. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 2. MANGANESE. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Manganese is found in the state of a peroxid at 
 various intervals along the west side of the Green 
 Mountain range from Canada to the southwest 
 corner of Massachusetts. It often accompanies 
 the hematitic iron ore. It is generally found in 
 the most recent primitive rocks, or in alluvial de- 
 posites consisting of these rocks, in a state of dis- 
 integration. In small quantities it is very exten- 
 sively diffused in both continents ; and is often 
 found in quantities sufficient for workinr. No 
 preparation is retired ; it is merely dug from the 
 earth and sent to thb bleachers. It is extremely 
 difficult to reduce it to tije pure metallic state. 
 
 Prop. 1. The peroxid of manganese (usually 
 called the black oxid) readily gives off its highest 
 portion of oxygen on being subjected to the red 
 neat of iron. 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. TIN. 
 
 Illustration. Produce oxygen from it as direct- 
 ed under oxygen. 
 
 Application. On this principle the manganese? 
 as found in Trainer's mines at Bennington, Da- 
 vey's mine near Whitehall, and other places, is 
 very useful for converting muriatic acid into chlo- 
 rine for making the bleaching liquor, as explained 
 under chlorine. 
 
 Prop. 2. The yeroxid of manganese is reduced 
 to the protoxid 9 and oxygen given off, by the appli- 
 cation of an acid which combines with the protoxid 
 only. 
 
 Illustration. Pulverize some manganese very 
 finely, and put it into a retort. Pour on it just 
 enough strong sulphuric acid to moisten it, or 
 to wet it moderately. Set the retort into the lead 
 pot, and raise the heat, but not to a degree by any 
 means sufficient to drive out the oxygen in the 
 usual way, and oxygen gas will soon come over. 
 
 In this experiment the sulphuric acid, on being 
 heated in contact with the manganese, combines 
 with the protoxid, forming sulphate of manga- 
 nese, and presses out the oxygen above that pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Application. On this principle oxygen is fur- 
 nished to the muriatic acid in the production of 
 chlorine, as described under chlorine, at the in- 
 stant of its disengagement from the soda of the ta- 
 ble salt. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 3. TIN. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Tin has not yet been found on the continent of 
 America, excepting a small quantity in Mexico, 
 
*** CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 The most extensive mine is that of Cornwall, in 
 England. It is found in small quantities (always 
 in granite or gneiss) in Spain, France, Ireland, 
 Sweden, Bohemia, Saxony and the East Indies. 
 It is mostly in the state of an oxid. 
 
 The tin foil is pretty pure, and the grain tin 
 considerably so. What is called block tin was 
 chiefly tin half a century ago. Now it is gener 
 ally much alloyed with lead. 
 
 Tin alloyed with lead forms pewter. But it is 
 most extensively used for covering the surface of 
 thin sheets of iron, called sheet tin. When tin is 
 thus applied in a pure state, it forms very useful 
 ware. But the high price of tin encourages manu- 
 facturers to alloy the tin with lead and thus injure 
 the ware. 
 
 Prop. i. Tin is not oxidated at the common 
 temperature. 
 
 Illustration. Wet a piece of tin foil and a case 
 knife blade, and put them by, under the cistern or 
 elsewhere, in a damp place. The next day show 
 them to the class the knife blade will be covered 
 with rust, (or oxid of iron and carbonate of iron) 
 but the surface of the tin will not be affected by 
 oxygen. 
 
 Application. On account of this property of 
 tin, iron plates are covered with tin, forming the 
 tin-plate ware. Lightning rods are tipped with 
 tin to prevent the points from rusting. Copper 
 vessels are tinned inside for the same reason. 
 
 Prop. 2. Tin is oxidated, when heated so as 
 to be brought to the state of fusion. 
 
 Illustration. Put some tin in an iron ladle, and 
 Iieat it no higher than merely to melt it. The 
 
PRINCIPLE 3. TIN. 173 
 
 surface will immediately absorb oxygen from the 
 atmosphere sufficient to form the protoxid of tin, 
 called the yellow oxid. This may be scraped off 
 with an iron poker, when another similar pellicle 
 will be formed ; and the succession may be con- 
 tinued until the whole mass is a yellow oxid. 
 
 If the protoxid of tin is put into a crucible,, 
 heated to redness, and continually stirred with an 
 iron rod for some time, it will absorb another defi- 
 nite proportion of oxygen. It then becomes the 
 peroxid of tin, called the white oxid, or putty of 
 tin. 
 
 Application. The white oxid of tin is an ex- 
 cellent powder for sharpening edge tools, as 
 knives, razors, &c. Also for polishing burnish- 
 ers' glass tenses, &c. When this oxid is melted 
 with glass it forms the white enamel used for clock 
 and watch faces, &c. 
 
 Prop. 3. Tin combines with mercury at the 
 common temperature ; and at the time of its amal- 
 gamation with mercury will adhere to glass. 
 
 Illustration. Put a drop of mercury into a wine 
 glass, and drop into it small pieces of tin foil, 
 which will become liquified and unite with the 
 mercury. Continue these additions until the amal- 
 
 fim contains about half as much tin as mercury, 
 ext spread a small piece of tin foil very evenly 
 on the face of a smoothing iron or a piece of pol- 
 ished marble. Pour the amalgam upon k and rub 
 it over the tin foil with the finger for about two 
 minutes. Now press- upon it a piece of dry clean 
 glass. Press it down with such fcrce as to press 
 out all the uncombined mercury. Lay a weight 
 the glass and leave it half an hour 5 
 
 is* 
 
174 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 
 
 it may be taken up, and will be found to be a 
 mirror. 
 
 Application. All looking glasses are made in 
 this way. lA the large way a marble slab is plac- 
 ed in an inclined position, so that the excess of 
 mercury runs off and is saved for the next, &c. 
 
 Prop. 4. Tin will form an imperfect alloy 
 with iron. 
 
 Illustration. Prepare a very thin slip of iron 
 and scour it bright, dipping it several times, while 
 scouring it, in very dilute sulphuric acid. Bend 
 one end of it, so that it will fit the inside of the 
 bottom of a crucible. Melt some tin in the cruci- 
 ble, and dip the bent end of the slip of iron into it. 
 The tin will combine with the surface of the iron, 
 and, if it is very thin, it will penetrate entirely 
 through it. 
 
 Application. On this principle the sheet tin is 
 manufactured. We may often find sheets of tin, 
 which, on cutting them across, appear to be al- 
 loyed entirely through with the tin ; and may be 
 soldered after considerable is worn from the sur- 
 face. 
 
 Prop. 5. Tin will adhere to the surface of cop ^ 
 yer, if perfectly cleaned and heated. 
 
 Illustration. Prepare a slip of copper by scrap 
 ing it well with a knife and rubbing it over with 
 sal ammoniac, (muriate of ammonia.) Now heat 
 the copper over clean coals, which do not mit 
 smoke ; at the same time rubbing it over with ros- 
 in. While hot, and thus cleaned with the sal am- 
 moniac and rosin, rub tin upon it in the solid state, 
 which, being melted by the heat of the copper will 
 Adhere to it, giving it a silvery white surface. 
 
PRINCIPLE 4. ZINC:. 175 
 
 Application. By a similar process copper ket- 
 tles and other copper vessels are tinned inside. 
 When the tin has worn off, any ingenious house- 
 keeper jaight repair it in this way. 
 
 Prop. 6. Tin dissolved in nitr^-muriatic acid 
 (aqua regia) forms the muriate of tin ; used for 
 giving cochineal the scarlet colour, 
 
 Illustration. Prepare the nitro-muriatic acid 
 by mixing one part of muriatic acid with two of 
 nitric acid, and put a very small quantity into a 
 florence flask. Drop tin into it by small quanti- 
 ties, that it may not become too hot by the rapid 
 union of the tin and acid. After the acid is satu- 
 rated, dissolve some of it in water. 
 
 Application. Dissolve in water in a wine-glass 
 a single cochineal insect of the shops, and drop in 
 a little muriate of tin ; and it will become of a 
 bright scarlet. 
 
 It may be made by dissolving the tin in strong 
 muriatic acid, and then exposing it some time to 
 the atmosphere. When muriatic acid is used, the 
 tin takes the lowest portion of oxygen. It is then 
 the proto-muriate of tin. When the nitro-murj- 
 atic acid is used, the tin takes the highest portion 
 of oxygen. It is then the per-muriate of tin. 
 But if the proto-muriate of tin is exposed to the 
 atmospheric air, the tin takes another portion of 
 oxygen, becoming the peroxid; and the salt is of 
 course the per-muriate of tin, which is used by 
 dyers. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 4. ZINC. 
 Natural History and general MemarJcs. 
 Zinc is mostly found in the state of a sulphuret. 
 It accompanies lead in most mines. It is found in 
 
176 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 the Southampton lead mines in granite and gneiss. 
 It is found in crystals of a waxy hue and almost 
 transparent in the geodiferous lime rock (or swine- 
 stone) every where from Genesee river to 20 or 30 
 miles west of Niagara falls. 
 
 Alloyed with copper it forms brass. It has a 
 strong attraction for oxygen by the aid of sul- 
 phuric acid, it rapidly decomposes water. On 
 account of its strong attraction for oxygen, it is 
 used for the positive sides of the pairs of metallic 
 plates in a galvanic battery. 
 
 Prop. i. Zinc forms a white oxid, very light 
 andflocculent, on being melted and lolled in con- 
 tact with atmospheric air. 
 
 Illustration. Put into a crucible one ounce of 
 zinc. Raise the heat so as to melt it, and then 
 boil it a short time. Now raise the heat still high- 
 er and stir it with a rod. Flocculent flakes of 
 the white oxid will begin to fly out of the crucible. 
 Take the crucible out of the fire and hold it in fair 
 view of the class, continually stirring it. The 
 room will now be filled with the oxid, which is 
 carried about by the air like fine down. 
 
 Application. This is the substance which was 
 formerly called white nothing, (nihi.1 album,) phi- 
 losopher's wool and pompholiw. In medicine it 
 was called flowers of zinc. When intended for 
 medical use it is collected from the sides of the 
 crucible, put into water, and stirred up awhile ; 
 then suffered to settle. Afterwards the water is 
 poured offend the oxid is dried and put up for 
 use. 
 
 Fine filings of zinc may be oxidated and inflam- 
 ed with explosion, by mixing it with oxymuriate 
 of potash and striking the mixture with a hammer 
 ou an anvil, 
 
PRINCIPLE 5. CADMIUM. 177 
 
 Prop. 2. Kinc combines with sulphuric acid 
 and form* sulphate oj zinc, called white vitriol. 
 
 Illustration. Pour diluted sulphuric acid upon 
 zinc, leaving the zinc in excess. After the action 
 ceases, pour off the clear liquid, which is the white 
 vitriol in solution. If this be evaporated slowly, 
 crystals will he formed. 
 
 Application. By a similar process the white 
 vitriol of the shops is manufactured. 
 
 The sulphuret of zinc, blende, is found in South 
 Hampton mines and other parts of New-England 
 and the calamine is found in New-Jersey. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 5. CADMIUM. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Cadmium was lately discovered by Stromeger 
 in carbonate of zinc. It has been found in silici- 
 ous oxid of zinc in Derbyshire. Probably it may 
 be found in the silicious oxid in Massachusetts. 
 It resembles tin in not being oxidated at the com- 
 mon temperature, in being flexible and ductile. It 
 is harder, however, and more tenaceous. It is 
 precipitated by zinc in a foliacious form; like 
 lead. 
 
 Should it ever be found in large quantities, it 
 would be useful as a paint in the state pf a sulphu- 
 ret, of a lemon yellow colour. 
 
 SECTION 2. METALS WHICH ABSORB OXYGEN, 
 BUT NOT WITH SUFFICIENT FORCE TO DECOMPOSE 
 WATER ; AND FROM WHICH OXYGEN CANNOT BE 
 EXTRICATED BY HEAT ALONE. 
 
 (May become acids capable of combining with 
 salifiable bases. ) 
 
ITS CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 Five of the metals of this section may themselves 
 become acids, and unite with other metals anil 
 with metalloids ; not as alloys, but as acids form- 
 ing salts with them. The other seven cannot be- 
 come acids. Copper is more, useful in the arts, 
 than all the other eleven metals of the section. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 6. ARSENIC. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Arseniate of cobalt is not uncommon in the horn 
 blend rocks of this country. It is found in Hun- 
 gary, &c. in the state of a red sulphuret, called 
 realgar ; and in the state of a yellow sulphuret. 
 called orpiment. Numerous combinations of this 
 metal in the state of arsenious and arsenic acids, 
 are given in the large works on chemistry. It is 
 a deadly poison in the state of arsenious acid, 
 which is the solid substance commonly called the 
 white oxid of arsenic. 
 
 Prop. I. Arsenic may be united with sulphur, 
 forming artificial orpiment. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve the arsenious acid in mu- 
 riatic acid. Pour into this solution water well 
 charged with sulphuretted hydrogen. A yellow 
 precipitate of that variety of sulphuret of arsenic, 
 called orpiment, falls down in a powder. 
 
 Application. Orpiment is used in the arts for 
 an orange pigment. It is a beautiful mineral, 
 either native or artificial. 
 
 Prop. 2. Jlrsenious acid when thrown on ignit- 
 ed charcoaly gives off the scent of garlic. 
 
PRINCIPLE 6. ARSENIC. 179 
 
 Illustration. Take burning coals upon a shov- 
 el, and sprinkle pulverized common arsenic of the 
 shops upon it. White fumes will arise, which 
 give the smell of garlic. 
 
 It is now well understood, that before the smell 
 of garlic can be produced, the arsenious acid must 
 be converted into metallic arsenic, and in a state 
 of sublimation. Its projection on red hot char- 
 coal will produce this effect, by its giving off its 
 oxygen to the charcoal and becoming heated by 
 it. 
 
 Application. As no metal gives a similar odour, 
 this is a conclusive test, when we are sure that no 
 animal or vegetable matter is present. 
 
 Prop. 3. Arsenious acid may be detected lyj)e- 
 ing reduced to the solid metallic state, or by tests 
 in the liquid state.* 
 
 Illustration. 1. Mix arsenious acid, in the pul- 
 verized state, with three times its weight of black 
 flux, and put the mixture into a glass tube closed 
 at one end, (a long test glass is best) from three to 
 six inches long, and the fourth of an inch in dia- 
 metre. Apply the heat of spirit or of an Argand's 
 lamp (hot coals will do) to the closed end. In a 
 short time the metallic arsenic will appear in a 
 brilliant form on the inner surface of the tube. 
 
 2. Dissolve arsenious acid in pure water by the 
 application of a gentle heat. To the solution add 
 sulphuretted hydrogen gas in solution, which has 
 been made but a few minutes. An orange colour- 
 ed precipitate will be produced. 
 
 "This proposition, together with its illustration and application, 
 were obligingly furnished by Dr.T. Romeyn Beck, author of the work 
 on Medical Jurisprudence. I sake the liberty to add, that no physi- 
 cian, lawyer or judge, who has any respect for his own reputation, or 
 for truth, ought to undertake any investigation, where human life or 
 liberty is concerned, without studying that work. 
 
180 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 3. To a similar solution of the arsenioas acid, 
 add a solution of carbonate of potash, to this mix- 
 ture add a solution of sulphate of .copper. A pre- 
 cipitate of a peculiar green will appear, called 
 Scheele's green. [See Copper.] 
 
 4. In a similar solution of arsenious acid, bring 
 two glass rods into contact, the one having been 
 dipped in pure liquid ammonia and the other into 
 a solution of nitrate of silver. A bright yellow 
 precipitate will appear at the point of contact. 
 
 Application. These are the leading decisive 
 tests of the presence of the deadly poison, called 
 arsenic or ratsbane. It should be remarked, 
 that great difficulties occur in the examination of 
 it, when mixed with human fluids. This is gen- 
 erally the case in accusations of poisoning. The 
 usual articles of food and drink often impair the 
 correctness and vary the result of these tests. It 
 must also be observed, that in some cases of real 
 poisoning, none can be detected ; owing probably, 
 to its having been evacuated by vomiting. 
 
 No one ought ever to undertake the investiga- 
 tion of a case of supposed poisoning, who is not 
 perfectly familiar with the ordinary effects of tests 
 on arsenic nor even then should he proceed to 
 an examination without accompanying every step 
 with a similar collateral experiment upon a speci- 
 men known to be arsenic. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 7. CHROME. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Chrome is found in the state of an acid, com- 
 bined with iron, called chromate of iron. It is 
 generally found in talcose rocks,- or in granular 
 
PRINCIPLE S. MOLYBDENA. 181 
 
 lime rocks, which contain serpentine. It is most 
 abundant near Baltimore in Maryland ; but is 
 found in the granular lime rock at different inter- 
 vals from near New-Haven in Connecticut to 
 Canada. 
 
 When chromate of iron is pulverized and mixed 
 with nitrate of potash, and heated to redness, a 
 double decomposition takes place, and the chro- 
 mate of potash is produced. 
 
 Chromate of potash is decomposed ly metallic 
 salts. ' 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve chromate of potash in 
 pure water. Pour some of it in a solution of sugar 
 of lead, and the beautiful yellow pigment, chro- 
 mate of lead, will be precipitated. Pour it into 
 nitrate of mercury, cinnabar red is produced. 
 Into nitrate of silver, and carmine red is produc- 
 ed. 
 
 Application. The chromate of lead is now in 
 general use as a yellow paint. An exceedingly 
 small quantity of the chromate of lead mixed with 
 white lead, gives the whole a beautiful yellow 
 colour. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 8. MOLYBDENA. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Molybdena is found in the state of a sulphuret 
 in rocks of granite and gneiss in numerous locali- 
 ties in the United States. It has the appearance 
 of plumbago, but may be easily distinguished 
 from that mineral with the blow-pipe. It gives 
 off the smell of sulphur, and does not burn ; 
 whereas plumbago burns under a strong flame 
 
 16 
 
182 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 from the blow-pipe, and does not give off the sul- 
 phurous smell. It is reduced to the metallic state 
 with much difficulty. It is then soluble in no acid 
 but nitric and nitro-muriatic. It is not used in 
 the arts. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 9. TUNGSTEN. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 It is found in rocks of granite and gneiss in 
 Huntington in Connecticut, in the state of an oxid. 
 Also in Sweden and other places. It is scarcely 
 soluble in nitric acid, and not at all in any other 
 acid. It is scarcely fusible in very high heat. It 
 is capable of uniting with most other metals in the 
 state of an acid. It is not used in the arts. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 10. COLUMBIUM. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Columbhim has been found in the state of an 
 oxid in Sweden and in America. Berzelius has 
 lately discovered it in the granite of Haddam in 
 Connecticut, which was sent to him by Mr. P ierce. 
 The small black or very dark brown specks, which 
 we have considered as a very singular kind of 
 shorl, he has analyzed and found it to be the ore 
 of Columbium. Though it may be alloyed with 
 iron and tungsten, it has not hitherto been dissolv- 
 ed in any acid. It is not used in the arts. 
 
 (Not capable of becoming acids.} 
 
 PRINCIPLE 11. COPPER. 
 Ntttural History and general Remarks. 
 Copper is found native in many places. It i ft 
 
PRINCIPLE 11. COPPER. 183 
 
 pretty common in the state of a sulplmret and 
 a carbonate. It is chiefly manufactured from the 
 copper pyrites, found in primitive rocks. But it is 
 found in all the geological classes of rocks. Cop- 
 per alloyed with from 12 to 18 per cent of zinc 
 forms brass. When the proportion of copper is 
 larger it forms pinchbeck. Six parts of copper, 
 two of tin, and one of arsenic, form speculem met- 
 al. Three parts of copper with one of tin, form 
 bell metal ; and for little shrill sleigh-bells, &c. a 
 little zinc is added. Copper and tin form bronze 
 also, consisting of ten parts of copper to one of tin, 
 Jt is much used in the arts. 
 
 Prop. 1. Copper long exposed to moisture in 
 a damp place, becomes a green carbonate at the 
 surface. 
 
 Illustration. Scrape off the green crust from a 
 piece of copper and pour muriatic acid upon it, 
 and it will effervesce, by the escape of carbonic 
 acid. Pure copper will not effervesce, which may 
 be shown also. 
 
 Application. All copper and brass utensils 
 should be defended from moisture by tinning or 
 by careful cleaning ; for the carbonate of copper 
 is very injurious if taken into the stomach. 
 
 Prop. 2. Copper combines with sulphuric acid 
 and forms sulphate of copper, called blue vitriol or 
 lloman vitriol. 
 
 Illustration. Boil copper filings in sulphuric 
 acid, and the salt will be formed in the liquid 
 state. This may be evaporated in the usual way. 
 
 Application. On this principle the blue vitriol 
 of the shops is made ; but not by a similar opera- 
 tion. The native sulplmret is heated and expos- 
 
184 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 ed to air and moisture, and thereby the peroxid is 
 obtained. Then the salt is readily formed by 
 pouring sulphuric acid upon it. 
 
 Prop. 3. Vinegar will both oxidate copper and 
 form with it the salt called verdigris, (or acetate 
 of copper. ) 
 
 Illustration. Cover a gallipot of warm vinegar 
 \vith a polished piece of sheet topper. After some 
 time it will be covered with a thin crust of verdi- 
 gris. It is best for standing several hours, after 
 cooling. 
 
 Application, Upon this principle, though with 
 very different apparatus, the verdigris of the shops 
 is made. 
 
 Prop. 4. Copper has a strong affinity for am- 
 monia, with which it will combine when in the state 
 of salts or otherwise, and form various coloured 
 compounds. 
 
 Illustration. Rub together in a mortar about 
 equal bulks of sulphate of copper and carbonate 
 of ammonia. A purple compound will be formed. 
 
 Application. This is the ammoniuret of cop 
 per used in medicine. 
 
 Prop. 5. Copper combines with arsenipus acid 
 and forms Scheele's green. 
 
 Illustration. This may be effected by a double 
 decomposition. Form arseniate of potash by dis- 
 solving pearlash in water and heating it, then by 
 dropping in any quantity of common arsenic. * 
 Dissolve sulphate of copper in hot water also. 
 Let this preparation be made before lecture hour. 
 At the time of lecture, pour the solution of sul 
 phate of copper into the arseniate of potash. Ar 
 eeniate of copper and sulphate of potash will be 
 
PRINCIPLE 12. ANTIMONY. 185 
 
 formed. The arseniate of copper will precipitate, 
 and the sulphate of potash, with the excess of 
 pearlash or of arsenious acid, if any, will remain 
 in the liquid state. Pour off the liquid, and wash 
 the precipitate several times. This will be the 
 true Schecle's green. 
 
 Application. So much reliance is placed on 
 this process as a test for arsenic, that every stu- 
 dent in chemistry ought to he well acquainted with 
 this colour. See article Arsenic. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 12. ANTIMONY. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks,. 
 
 Antimony sold at the shops is in the state of a 
 sulplmret generally. It exhibits a crystalline 
 form ; being mostly in needle form crystals. It 
 lias been found in very small quantities in differ- 
 ent parts of the United States. In Europe it is 
 found mostly in primitive rocks. It unites with 
 three or four proportions of oxygen, according to 
 lire ; the peroxid being the crocus of antimony of 
 the shops. 
 
 When taken into the stomach in almost any 
 form it causes vomiting. It does not contract so 
 much on cooling as most other metals ; it is there- 
 fore useful in the manufacture of printers' types. 
 
 Prop. 1. S.ulphuret of antimony will decom-> 
 pose water and form sulphuretted hydrogen gas. 
 
 Illustration. Pulverize the common sulphtiret 
 of antimony, and put it into a retort. Pour in wa^ 
 ter and dilute muriatic acid, apply heat and col- 
 lect the gas ; as directed under sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen gas. 
 
186 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 Application. When we wish for a test in haste, 
 it is often a convenience to apply the sulphuret of 
 antimony, without the trouble of preparing the 
 sulphuret of iron. 
 
 Prop. 2. Sulphuret of antimony may be reduc- 
 ed to the state of the peroxid of antimony by heat 
 ing with saltpetre and sulphuric acid. 
 
 Illustration, Pulverize very finely sulphuret 
 of antimony and saltpetre. After pulverizing, mix 
 the two powders very intimately in the proportion 
 of one of antimony to five or six of the salt. Throw 
 the mixture all at once, into a crucible previously 
 heated to whiteness. Deflagration will immedi- 
 ately take place, during which oxygen will be giv- 
 en oft* by the saltpetre to the sulphur and convert 
 chief of it into sulphurous acid ; and to the auti 
 mony, and convert most of it into an oxid. Now 
 take off the crucible, let it cool, select all the orange 
 yellow part of its contents and reject the rest. 
 This is what is called in medicine crocus of anti- 
 inonij) or sometimes the metallic antimony. Though 
 it is not entirely separated from the sulphur, it is 
 sufficiently pure for common purposes. 
 
 Now mix this crocus of antimony with about 
 twice its weight of sulphuric acid in a gallipot or 
 tea-cup. After mixing and remaining a little 
 while, put it into a clean iron ladle, and boil it 
 down to a perfectly dry mass, frequently stirring 
 it with an iron rod. This dry powder, when well 
 washed, is nearly pure peroxid of antimony. 
 
 Application. When antimony is brought to the 
 state of an oxid, it is in a convenient state for ap- 
 plying to various uses. It may easily be prepared 
 for alloying with lead for the manufacture of print 
 ing types, &c. 
 
PRINCIPLE 13. BISMUTH. 187 
 
 Prop. 3. Oxid of antimony will combine with 
 iartaric acid, and form the tartrate of antimony ; 
 called tartar -emetic. 
 
 ^Illustration. Dissolve some supertartratc of 
 potash (to be described under vegetable acids) in 
 water, and put into it an equal weight of dry oxid 
 of antimony. Pour this mixture into a clean iron 
 ladle, and boil it about fifteen minutes. Let it 
 stand about a minute to settle any impurities, and 
 then pour the liquid into any clean vessel to set by 
 to crystallize. Or it may be cleaner to strain it 
 through paper. After it cools and stands awhile 
 crystals of tartrate of antimony will be formed. 
 The supernatant liquid may be poured off and 
 evaporated a little, and set away to crystallize 
 again. These crystals may be washed and put 
 up for use. 
 
 Application. This is the important medicine so 
 long in use, under the name, tartar- emetic. It is 
 rendered more pleasant, by dissolving the crystals 
 in boiling water, equal to about fifty times their 
 weight. Then adding about a third more good 
 wine than to equal the quantity of boiling water, 
 This is called tartarized wine. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 13, BISMUTH, 
 Natural History and general Re?narks. 
 
 Bismuth is found in a pure metallic state in Hun- 
 tington, Connecticut. A pretty large specimen 
 was found among the pebbles in a stream of water 
 near Lake George. It is found in mines of .gold;' 
 with copper, &c. but is not very abundant. 
 
 Prop. 1. JBismnth combines with nitric acid, 
 
188 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 find forms nitrate of bismuth ; the most delicate 
 sympathetic ink. 
 
 Illustration. Whittle off a little bismuth into 
 a wine-glass. Drop in a little common nitric acid 
 diluted with half as much water. Violent action 
 will commence ; when it ceases the nitrate will be 
 found in the liquid state. 
 
 Dip a dean pen into it and write as with ink. 
 Hold the paper near a fire, but not so near as to 
 heat it, the letters will become invisible. Having 
 shewn the paper to the class without any visible 
 letters, now dip it into water, or hold it in steam 
 over boiling water, and on taking it out the letters 
 will become visible and appear as if, written with 
 pale ink. 
 
 Application. If a letter be written on ordinary 
 subjects with ink, sentiments of a more delicate 
 nature, expressive of sympathies which it is desir- 
 able to conceal from prying post-office clerks, &c 
 may be expressed in this liquid between the ink 
 lines. The confidential correspondent has only 
 to dip the letter in water before he may catch the 
 fugitive sigh and feast his fervid imagination on 
 the half- told assurances. Hut the writing will 
 soon disappear, and leave not a vestige to prove n, 
 forgotten promise. 
 
 Prop. 2. Water precipitates oxid of bismuth 
 from liquid nitrate of bismuth.* 
 
 Illustration. Pour into the liquid nitrate of bis- 
 jnuth, prepared as in the last experiment, eight or 
 ten times its bulk of water, and the white oxid 
 will be precipitated in a fine powder. 
 
 Application. This white oxid, after being wash" 
 eil and dried, is put up for medical use. It is 
 
 * This experiment with antimony will give the same result. 
 
PRINCIPLE 14. COBALT. 189 
 
 said to be an excellent tonic. It forms the basis 
 of the most delicate face paints, or pigments for 
 other uses. But it is so readily tarnished by sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, that a painted face, where it 
 has been applied, will become tawny at the ap- 
 proach of a small quantity of that gas. Conse- 
 quently those who wear painted faces have two 
 good reasons for retreating from the attack of nan 
 seous scents. 
 
 Remark. * The other five metals belonging to 
 this division of the second section, need not be in- 
 troduced for experiments in the course proposed. 
 Instructors who think proper to experiment upon 
 them, are referred to larger works. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 14. COBALT. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Cobalt is found combined with arsenic and with 
 sulphur in hornblende rock, and in the same rock 
 passing into gneiss, from Vermont to Long Island 
 sound, passing down on the east side of Connec- 
 ticut river to near Haddam in Connecticut, and 
 then crossing to the west side. Though this range 
 is very extensive, it has never been found in it in 
 sufficient quantities for working. 
 
 It is sold in the shops in the state of an imper- 
 fect oxid, called zaffre. The pure metal s red- 
 dish grey. 
 
 Prop. 1. The xaffre gives to .glass or to an al 
 kali a violet blue colour. 
 
 Illustration. Mix finely pulverized flint and 
 borax and put in a small quantity of zaffre. Melt 
 this mixture with pretty strong heat in a crucible ; 
 
190 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 and a small blue glass will be produced. Or put 
 a little zaffre in borax alone, or in pearlash, and 
 melt the mixture. 
 
 Application. The smalt sold in the shops in 
 powder, is merely pulverized glass prepared as 
 above. 
 
 Prop. 2. JL blue or green sympathetic ink is 
 made with zaffre and muriatic acid. 
 
 Illustration. Drop a tea-spoon of zaffre into 
 the third of a wine-glass of nitro-muriatic acid. 
 After standing a while, write on paper. The writ- 
 ing will he invisible cold, but on heating the paper 
 the writing will be blue unless there is a little iron 
 in the zaffre, which will give it a green hue. If a 
 little common salt in solution had been added, the 
 writing would disappear on removing from the 
 fire. 
 
 Application. This has no farther application, 
 than as it illustrates the colouring properties of 
 the oxids of metals. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 15. TITANIUM. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 * Titanium is always found in the state of an oxid 
 in primitive rocks, particularly with tremolite in 
 granular limestone. It was considered as a sub- 
 species of shorl until within twenty or twenty-five 
 years. It is always brownish red, very difficult 
 to reduce, and its properties little known. Excel- 
 lent crystals are found between Greenfield, Mas- 
 sachusetts, and the Green Mountain range. Sev- 
 eral localities have been discovered in that dis- 
 trict, 
 
PRINCIPLE 19. GOLD. 191 
 
 PRINCIPLE 16. TELLURIUM. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 Tellurium is found in Huntington in Connect! 
 cut, associated with tungsten, bismuth and silver. 
 It is always more or less alloyed with other met- 
 als. It is chiefly found in Transylvania. 
 
 It resembles antimony considerably. It burns 
 with a bluish flame before. the blow-pipe, giving 
 the odour of horse radish. Not used in the arts, 
 
 PRINCIPLE 17. CERIUM. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Cerium is found in Sweden in the state of an 
 oxid. The protoxid is white, the peroxid is red. 
 It has scarcely ever been reduced to the metallic 
 state. The peroxid is generally combined with 
 silex. It is not used in the arts ; and scarcely 
 known in the laboratory or the cabinet. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 18. URANIUM. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 Uranium is found in the state of a black oxid 
 and of a green oxid. It is found hi small masses 
 in veins of ores in primitive rocks in Maryland 
 and in some parts of Europe. The green oxid is 
 a beautiful mineral ; but it is extremely difficult to 
 reduce either of the oxids to the metallic state. It 
 is not used in the arts. 
 
 SECTION 3. METALS WHICH DO NOT RECEIVE 
 OXYGEN, EXCEPTING FROM STRONG ACIDS. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 19. GOLD. 
 
 Natural History and general tiemarks. 
 Gold is never found mineralized; but almost al- 
 
192 CLASS Y. METALS. 
 
 /ways in the state of an alloy with silver or with 
 some other metal. It is found in most countries 
 in the sands of rivers ; but when found in place 
 it is generally contained in primitive rocks. It has 
 lately been found in considerable quantities in 
 "North Carolina ; a particular description of that 
 locality has been communicated to Silliman's 
 Journal by Professor Olmsted. Gold cannot be 
 tarnished by oxidation on exposure to water or 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 Prop. 1. (fold may be dissolved by nitro-mnri- 
 atic and by oxy-muriatic acids, and by no other 
 acid. 
 
 Illustration. Put a little muriatic acid into a 
 wine-glass, and twice as much nitric acid in anoth- 
 er wine-glass. Drop into each a small piece of 
 gold leaf, and neither of the pieces will be dissolv- 
 ed. Now pour the contents of one glass into the 
 other, and both pieces of gold will be immediately 
 dissolved. 
 
 Application. This mixture is the aquaregia 
 of old authors. The new compound formed is 
 muriate of gold ; but it seems that gold requires 
 the joint action of the two acids, the nitric acid 
 affording oxygen for oxidating the gold, and then 
 the muriatic acid unites with it. 
 
 Prop. 2. Iron, silver and copper may be cov- 
 ered with a thin coat of gold, which is called gild- 
 ing. 
 
 ^Illustration. Pour into a saturated solution of 
 muriate of gold (that is, where there is no excess 
 of acid) about twice as much sulphuric ether. 
 Now brush upon a clean polished surface of iron 
 or steel some of this liquid. The ether will soon 
 
PRINCIPLE 19. GOLD. 193 
 
 evaporate and leave the gold covering the sur- 
 face. 
 
 To gild silver or copper, heat gold and mercu- 
 ry together in a crucible, one part of gold to about 
 eight of mercury, until they are completely alloy- 
 ed ; then throw the hot alloy into cold water. 
 Having wet the silver or copper with diluted ni- 
 tric acid, brush on the alloy with a fine brush (a 
 wire brush is best) as uniformly as possible. 
 Then drive off the mercury with heat, placing the 
 gilded metal over hot coals. Afterwards the sur- 
 iace must be polished with a burnisher. The only 
 objection made to this method by artists is, that it 
 is very difficult to lay on the alloy evenly. But 
 old artists learn to brush over the bare spots while 
 it is heating, being careful to avoid inhaling the 
 mercurial fumes. 
 
 Application; This method of gilding iron is 
 undoubtedly very perfect ; but it is desirable that 
 some better method for gilding the other medals 
 should be devised. Most substances to be gilded 
 may be conveniently covered with gold leaf. Gold 
 is so very ductile, that the leaves are made very 
 thin. It is said that about a pound of gold may 
 be hammered out between beater's skins so very 
 thin, as to furnish enough to gild a wire of suffi- 
 cient length to surround the earth. 
 
 Prop. 7. Adulterations of gold coin may be de- 
 tected, without an analysis, by taking the specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Illustration. Take the specific gravity of a 
 piece of gold coin, according to the directions giv- 
 en in the introduction. If its specific gravity is 
 17.157, it is lawful coin. 
 
 17 
 
194 CLASS V, METALS* 
 
 Application. There is no metal so heavy as 
 gold, excepting platina. And such is the value of 
 platina, that there is no danger of its being alloy- 
 ed with that metal. Standard gold coin is an al- 
 loy of one of copper to eleven of gold, in order to 
 make the coin harder, that it may wear the better. 
 The specific gravity of perfectly pure gold is 19.3. 
 Copper, silver, and most other metals, which are 
 alloyed with gold, may be easily separated from' 
 gold by nitric acid. For if the alloy be in fine 
 filings, the nitric acid will dissolve the other met- 
 als, and leave the gold in a black powder. This 
 powder may be separated and melted down into a 
 pure mass. But the most common method adopt- 
 ed by artists is, to melt the alloy with sulphuret of 
 antimony. The other metals become sulphurets, 
 and the gold will unite with the antimony and fall 
 to the bottom of the crucible. After cooling it may 
 be separated. Now melt the alloy of gold and an- 
 timony, boil it at a white heat, and the antimony 
 will become volatilized and fly off. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 20. SILVER. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Silver is found alloyed and mineralized with 
 numerous substances. Sulphur, aluruine, anti* 
 mony, lead, arsenic, silver, copper, mercury, car- 
 bonic acid, muriatic acid, &c. have been found 
 combined with silver. A little silver appears in 
 most lead mines ; with this exception silver is a 
 rare ore in North America. It is very abundant 
 in South America, where it is found in the metal- 
 liferous limestone. 
 
 Silver cannot be tarnished with oxygen by any 
 
PRINCIPLE 20. SILVER. 195 
 
 exposure at the common temperature. It is very 
 malleable and ductile, but not so ductile as gold. 
 
 Prop. 1. Silver coin is alloyed with copper, as 
 12 J to 1 ; from which alloy silver may be obtained 
 pure, by forming a nitrate of it, and then precipit- 
 ating it by solid metallic copper. 
 
 Illustration. Put some nitric acid into a wine- 
 glass diluted with an equal bulk of water. Drop 
 into it a six cent piece, and let it remain until ac- 
 tion ceases. Now takeout the undissolved silver, 
 and put in a plate, or a cent, of perfectly clean 
 bright copper. The silver will be precipitated 
 after a short time. Wash the powder several 
 times ; and put a little liquid ammonia into the 
 water for the first washings. Now melt down 
 ihe powder into a solid mass, which will be pure 
 silver. 
 
 Application. It is very convenient to have a 
 ready method for obtaining pure silver from coin 
 when it is wanted for a particular purpose. But 
 silver is harder and will wear longer if it contains 
 a little copper. Ever so small a quantity of cop- 
 per, however, in a finger ring or in any jewelry, 
 which comes in contact with the skin, will tarnish, 
 
 Prop. 2. Silver will combine with nitric acid 
 and form the nitrate of silver, called lunar caustic? 
 or lapis infernalis. 
 
 Illustration. Put nitric acid into a wine-glass 
 diluted as before. Drop in a piece of pure silver, 
 and let it remain till action ceases. Take out the 
 remainder of the silver. Evaporate the solution to 
 a solid salt. 
 
 Application. This salt is used in medicine, and 
 for a test of the presence of muriatic acid in miu- 
 
196 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 eral waters, &c. An indelible ink is also made, 
 by dissolving it in pure water and then adding a 
 little vinegar, also adding a little gum-arabic to 
 give it consistency. If a piece of cotton or linen 
 be dipped into a weak solution of pearlasb, and 
 then dried under a moderately heated smoothing 
 iron, it may be written on with a clean pen dipped 
 In this solution, and the writing will never wash 
 out. Those who do not wish to take the trouble 
 to make the lunar caustic, may always iind it at 
 every druggist's shop. 
 
 Prop, 3. Copper may be coated with silver, if 
 nMed with it when in the state of a powder com- 
 bined with some of the salts. 
 
 ^Illustration. Make a powder as follows : take 
 a few grains of silver in powder, as precipitated by- 
 copper In the first experiment, after it is washed 
 and before melting about an equal weight of 
 alum or a little more six times as much table 
 salt also six times as much tartrate of potash. 
 Pulverize all these articles and rub them well to- 
 gether. Rub the clean bright surface of a piece of 
 copper with this powder and it will be silvered. 
 
 Application. Though this silvering is not very 
 durable, it will defend the surface of copper from 
 tarnishing while it lasts ; and it may be easily re- 
 newed. Plating copper is much preferable. This 
 is done by brazing on a thin bar of silver upon a 
 thick bar of copper. Then both are rolled out 
 Into the proper thickness for use. 
 
 Prop. 4. Horn-silver of the shops is formed lij 
 an oxid of silver and muriatic acid. 
 
 Illustration. Pour muriatic acid into a solution 
 of nitrate of silver, 
 
PRINCIPLE 20. SILVER. 197 
 
 Application. If this salt is well prepared, so 
 as to be almost a pearl white, it will become violet 
 and then black, if exposed to the sun's rays in a 
 thin test-glass a good illustration of the decom- 
 posing power of light. 
 
 Prop. 5. Nitrate of silver heated with alcohol 
 and an additional portion of nitric acid, may be 
 formed into an explosive or fulminating powder. 
 
 ^Illustration. Pulverize a very few grains of 
 lunar caustic of the shops. Put it into a florence 
 flask, and add about live times as mm h alcohol 
 and about five times as much strong nitric acid. 
 If a pretty violent effervescence does not commence 
 soon, apply the heat of a candle. As soon as it 
 does commence, remove the candle. As soon as a 
 thick white precipitate commences, the efferves- 
 cence may be regulated by occasionally pouring 
 in a little pure water. After the action has ceased 
 let it stand and settle a short time ; then pour off 
 the supernatant liquid and wash the powder sev- 
 eral times in pure water. Spread it on paper and 
 let it dry and drain awhile. Now put a grain of 
 it on the blade of a case knife and hold it over a 
 candle. As soon as the knife is a little heated it 
 will explode. It will also explode violently by 
 compression or friction. 
 
 Application. This is an interesting illustration 
 of the wonderful force exerted when solids are sud- 
 denly converted into gases. But this preparation 
 ought not to be made before a class ; neither ought 
 it to be exhibited in the course proposedhere. I 
 give the description of Mr. Silliman's method, for 
 the amusement of those who have leisure to attend 
 to it in a private office. It is the most powerful 
 
 ,17* 
 
198 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 and the most dangerous of all known fulminating 
 substances. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 21. PLATINA. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Platina has always been found in small grains 
 in alluvial formations ; but from the character of 
 the sands in which it is found, it is probable that 
 its original associations are in primitive rocks. It 
 Is mostly found in South America. It is never 
 found pure, but is alloyed with iron, copper, lead, 
 osmium, rhodium, iridium and palladium ; though 
 these alloys constitute but a small part of the mass 
 of the ore. 
 
 Platina is the heaviest of all metals, least ex- 
 pansible by heat, most difficult to melt or to unite 
 to oxygen. It is therefore preferable to all met- 
 als for pendulum rods, for inch measures, for cru- 
 cibles, for reflecting telescopes, and conductors for 
 the galvanic battery. 
 
 It will be very difficult to experiment much up- 
 on platina in the proposed course. It being the 
 most fixed and infusible of all metals, it is pol- 
 ished and used as a concave reflector in the most 
 powerful telescopes, where glass would melt or 
 break. For crucibles and other uses it is employ- 
 ed in the laboratory. It has not been much used 
 in the arts, on account of its scarcity. 
 
 Platina may be dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid, 
 and will then form muriate of platina, which is a 
 test for potash. 
 
 ^Illustration. Put a grain or two of platina 
 into a florence flask, and pour in a small quantity 
 of nitro-muriatic acid and apply a little heat. It 
 
PRINCIPLE 23. IRIDIUM. 199 
 
 \vill dissolve very slowly ; but in a few days mu- 
 riate of platina will be formed. Dissolve a little 
 muriate of soda (common salt) in a wine-glass, and 
 a little saltpetre in another. Put a few drops of 
 the muriate of platiua into each ; and it will pro- 
 duce no effect on the solution of muriate of soda, 
 but will give a yellow precipitate from the solution 
 of saltpetre. 
 
 Application. It is often a convenience to be 
 able to distinguish potash from soda, without go- 
 ing the round of evaporation to dryness, and then 
 waiting to see whether it will deliquesce or efflo- 
 resce, 
 
 PRINCIPLE 22. OSMIUM. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Osmium is found in small quantities alloyed 
 with platina. A black powder remains after dis- 
 solving the grains of platina in nitro- muriatic acid. 
 If this powder be heated with saltpetre, the oxid 
 of osmium is sublimed ; which gives a very pun- 
 gent odour. It is very soluble in water, and be- 
 comes purple with an infusion of galls. It gives 
 up its oxygen to all the metals but gold and pla- 
 tina. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 23. IRIDIUM. 
 
 Natural History and general Itemarfts. 
 
 Iridium is always alloyed with osmium and as- 
 sociated with native platina of South America. 
 It is scarcely acted upon, or not at all, by nitro- 
 inuriatic acid. By fusion with potash it becomes 
 oxidated ; and then it is soluble in the three strong 
 acids. Not used in the arts. 
 
CLASS v. METALS- 
 PRINCIPLE 24. PALLADIUM. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Palladium is found ingrains of platina and gold 
 in Brazil. It resembles platina more nearly than 
 any other metal. But its specific gravity is but 
 about half that of platina. With nitro-niuriatic 
 acid it forms a deep red solution. Not used in 
 Oie arts. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 25. RHODIUM. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 Hhodium is a doubtful metal ; though Wallas- 
 ion and Descatils suppose they find it sufficiently 
 characterized. Its specific gravity is about, half 
 that of platina. It is not malleable, is infusible 
 and insoluble in acids ; but it is soluble in nitro- 
 muriatic acid when alloyed with copper, lead or 
 platina. Not used in the arts. 
 
 SECTION 4. METALS WHICH ABSORB OXYGEN, 
 
 AT LIMITED TEMPERATURES, AND GIVE IT WHOL- 
 LY OFF AT HIGHER TEMPERATURES. 
 
 Hemark. The character of this section will be 
 shown by heating red lead. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 26. MERCURY. 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 
 This' is the quicksilver or argentum vivum of 
 old authors. It is generally found in secondary 
 rocks, in the state of a sulphuret, called cinnibar* 
 It is in the solid state at about 40 degrees below 
 
PRINCIPLE 26. MERCURY. 201 
 
 zero, that is, about 72 below freezing it is in the 
 liquid state to about 600 above freezing, when it 
 is evaporated. It is much used in medicine and 
 in the arts. Though its most general effect upon 
 the human system, when used as a medicine, is to 
 correct the morbid, and restore the healthy, secre- 
 tions ; yet some of its operations have not hitherto 
 been explained. 
 
 Prop. I. The black oxid or protoxid of mer- 
 cury is produced by agitating mercury in contact 
 with atmospheric air, or by precipitating it from 
 calomel with potash. 
 
 Illustration. The easiest method of producing 
 the blac k oxid is, to put about a gill by measure 
 of mercury in a strong quart stone jug, and let 
 some person take it into a carriage, who is about 
 io travel forty or fifty miles over a rough road, 
 A considerable quantity of the black oxid will be 
 formed in the jug. But the mercury of the shops 
 is often alloyed with lead, which will produce a 
 black powder in abundance, resembling protoxid 
 of mercury. The most perfect protoxid of mercu- 
 ry is obtained by dropping calomel into a solution 
 of potash. 
 
 Application. The black oxid formed in this 
 way illustrates the principle of oxidation very sat 
 isfactorily. This is the Ethiops per se of old au- 
 thors. 
 
 Prop. 2. The red oxid or per -oxid of mercury 
 is produced, by heating mercury in contact with at- 
 mospheric air, or by precipitating it from corrosive 
 sublimate. 
 
 Illustration. Put a little mercury in a florence 
 flask and keep it at a beat a little below boiling 
 or subliming in a sand bath, for several IIOUFS. M 
 
202 CLASS v. METALS. 
 
 the temperature is managed cautiously it will be- 
 come a red oxid in the form of scales at first ; but 
 if the heat is carried a very few degrees too high, 
 it will sublime in the pure metallic state, accord- 
 ing to the character of this section. The per-oxid 
 of mercury is best obtained by precipitating it from 
 a solution of corrosive sublimate by lime water. 
 
 Application. This was formerly called precipi- 
 tate per se 9 as distinguished from the red precipi- 
 tate. It is now called hydrargyri oxydum rubrum 
 in the pharmacopoeias. 
 
 Prop. 3. Mercury combines with nitric acid 
 and forms nitrate of mercury. 
 
 Illustration, Put some mercury into a wine- 
 glass and pour in nitric acid diluted with about 
 one fourth its measure of water. Let the mercury 
 be in excess and nitrate of mercury will form and 
 crystallize, without any evaporation. 
 
 Application. This salt is used in medicine by 
 some physicians. It is also used as a test, and in 
 several chemical experiments. 
 
 Prop. 4. If a solution of nitrate of mercury be 
 poured into a solution of phosphate of soda, a pre 
 cipitate of phosphate of mercury will be formed. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve the common phosphate 
 of soda of the shops in water. Pour into it a so- 
 lution of nitrate of mercury, which will instantly 
 produce an almost solid precipitate of phosphate 
 of mercury. For the phosphoric acid has a strong- 
 er affinity for mercury than nitric acid, and nitric 
 acid has a stronger affinity for soda than phospho- 
 ric acid ; consequently the double decomposition 
 is very rapid. 
 
 Application. The phosphate of mercury is used 
 in medicine. 
 
PRINCIPLE 26. MERCURY. 
 
 Prop. 5. The nitrate of mercury may be reduc- 
 ed by heat to the nitric oxid of mercury, called red' 
 precipitate. 
 
 Illustration. Put the salt into a gallipot and 
 apply a moderate heat, until it is reduced to a dry 
 white or yellowish mass. Then pulverize it very 
 finely in Wedgewood's mortar, and put it into a la- 
 dle. Raise'the heat moderately, until the powder 
 becomes bright red ; it will then assume the ap- 
 pearance of scales. It may be heated to a degree 
 at which it will be red, then yellow on . cooling^ 
 then red again, &c. 
 
 Application. This is the red precipitate used 
 in medicine. This is the substance which is boil- 
 ed with prussian blue to obtain the prussiate of 
 mercury, from which theprussic acid is disengag- 
 ed. 
 
 Prop. 6. Sulphur and mercury will unite with- 
 out heat by being rubbed together, and form the 
 black sulphuret, called Jlethiops mineral. 
 
 Illustration. Put equal quantities by weight of 
 mercury and pulverized sulphur in Wedgewood's 
 mortar, and rub them with the pestle until there is 
 no appearance of liquid mercury. 
 
 Application. This sulphuret is used in medi- 
 cine. 
 
 Prop. 7. Mercury will combine with sulphuric 
 acid by heat, and form the per- sulphate of mer- 
 cury. 
 
 ^Illustration. Put some mercury into a flor- 
 ence flask and pour in about as much strong sul- 
 phuric acid ; it is better to put in about one eighth 
 more of the acid by weight. Set the flask into the 
 lead pot or over coals and boil the contents mo- 
 
204 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 derately, until it becomes a dry white mass. Now 
 take the flask from the fire and cork it up tight, or 
 it will absorb water very soon, from the atmos 
 phere and become liquid. 
 
 Application. This caustic salt is not much used 
 in this state ; but it is used for making corrosive 
 sublimate and calomel. An article in the materia 
 medica called turpetk mineral is made by merely 
 throwing this salt into boiling water, after it is fine- 
 ly powdered. It ifttined lately becomes a yellow 
 powder, and must be washed several times in 
 warm water before it is put up for use. 
 
 Prop. 8. If per -sulphate of mercury and mu- 
 riate of soda be rubbed together ; a double decompo 
 sition will take place, and per- muriate of mercury y 
 called corrosive sublimate, will be produced. 
 
 ^Illustration. Put dry per-sulphate of mercury 
 into Wedgewood's mortar and about a third more 
 by weight of common table salt. Hub them well 
 together, and put the mixed powder into a florence 
 flask, stopping it loosely with a glass stopper. 
 Set the flask into the lead pot and apply heat. A 
 decomposition will take place, and the corrosive 
 sublimate will be sublimed : That is, by raising 
 the heat gradually it will shoot up in crystals 
 along the sides and into the- neck of the flask. Af- 
 ter the crystals stop shooting up, take out the flask 
 and break a hole through the- bottom carefully, 
 still keeping it in an upright position. The hole 
 must be about as large as the whole bottom of the 
 flask, through which all the black residue must be 
 discharged. ISow scrape out the crystals, and 
 put them up for use. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate may be produced by mak- 
 ing nitrate of mercury with heat, (that is, by drop- 
 
PRINCIPLE 26. MERCURY. 205 
 
 ping very small globules of mercury at a time into 
 boiling nitric acid) and then pouring into a solu- 
 tion of it, a solution of common salt. 
 
 Application. The first method exhibits the 
 principle in a cheap way. But a very different 
 apparatus is adopted, for manufacturing corrosive 
 sublimate in a large way. It is called oxymuri- 
 ate of mercury ; but as it consists of muriatic acid 
 combined with the peroxid of mercury, without 
 any oxy muriatic acid, it is properly the per- muri- 
 ate of mercury. It is a deadly poison. 
 
 Prop. 9. Per- muriate of mercury may be re- 
 duced to the proto-muriate, f called calomel ) by be- 
 ing rubbed with an additional portion of mercury, 
 and the mixture heated to the state of sublimation. 
 
 ^Illustration. Put corrosive sublimate into 
 Wedgewood's mortar, and add about half as much 
 by weight of mercury. (It is rather more safe to 
 add about an eighth more mercury.) Rub them 
 well together, until there is no appearance of mer- 
 cury ; it having all become a powder. Now put 
 it into a florence flask and sublime it, as when 
 making the corrosive sublimate. After subliming 
 once, it ought to be scraped out, powdered in the, 
 mortar and sublimed again, in order to be pure and 
 fit for use. 
 
 Calomel may be .made by pouring a solution of 
 common salt into a solution of nitrate of mercury 
 made cold. It is best to add a little muriatic acid 
 to the solution of common salt. 
 
 Application. This is the calomel used in medi- 
 cine. It is called sub-muriate of mercury. But 
 as it consists of muriatic acid combined with the 
 protoxid of mercury, its true name, according to 
 
 18 
 
206 CLASS V* METALS. 
 
 correct nomenclature, is proto-muriate of mercury. 
 But if we adopt the chlorine doctrine, the subli- 
 mate of mercury is per chloride of mercury, and 
 the calomel is proto- chloride of mercury. 
 
 This method of preparing those salts appears 
 wasteful ; but the florence flasks can be had for 
 half a dollar per dozen, and there is no other me- 
 thod within my knowledge of experimenting so 
 cheaply. 
 
 Prop. 10. Nitrate of mercury, heated with al 
 cohol, may be formed into an explosive, or fulmi- 
 nating powder. 
 
 ^Illustration. Make the nitrate of mercury by 
 heating the mercury with about ten times as much 
 nitric acid, by weight \ which will be in a liquid 
 state. After it is cool, pour it into a florence flask 
 with about one fourth more alcohol. Apply a 
 moderate heat until effervescence commences, and 
 no longer. After effervescing awhile, and pro- 
 ducing fumes on the surface, a powder will begin 
 to be precipitated. When the process ceases, pour 
 off the liquid, wash the powder several times im- 
 mediately in pure water, and then dry it on paper, 
 It must be dried without exposing to much heat, 
 or it will explode while drying. 
 
 Application. By striking a small quantity of 
 this powder with a hammer on an anvil, it will ex- 
 plode violently. It will explode by compression 
 under the feet on a pavement, if well dried. It is 
 used in various mixtures for small fire- works, &c. 
 Though it is not so dangerous an article as fulmi- 
 nating silver, it ought to be made in very small 
 quantities only, and very little exploded at once. 
 As it explains no principle, which cannot as well 
 be explained by experiments of less danger, it 
 
PRINCIPLE 27. LEAD. 207 
 
 will generally be most advisable to omit it in the 
 course here proposed. 
 
 Prop. 11. Corrosive sublimate may be reduced 
 to imperfect calomel by animal albumen. 
 
 Illustration. Beat the white of an egg in water 
 until it is well mixed with it. Then pour it into 
 a solution of corrosive sublimate ; and a precipi- 
 tate of calomel will soon appear. 
 
 Application, When a person takes corrosive 
 sublimate into the stomach by accident, if it is im- 
 mediately discovered, and the white of several 
 eggs is swallowed, the poisonous effect will pro- 
 bably be checked. Milk or blood, if taken in the 
 stomach freely, may check its operation. 
 
 Prop. 12. Corrosive sublimate, the per-murir 
 ate of mercury, may be detected by an orange-yel- 
 low precipitate, made with lime-water, 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve some of this corrosive 
 salt in water, and then pour into it some lime wa- 
 ter ^immediately an orange-yellow precipitate 
 will appear. 
 
 Application. Although this is a good test, 
 ihere is so much difficulty in obtaining the salt 
 from the stomach of a dead body, that circumstan- 
 tial evidence ought rather to be relied on, than the 
 opinions of physicians founded on such an exami- 
 nation. It is more soluble than arsenic ; conse- 
 quently more difficult to obtain from among the 
 liquid contents of the stomach. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 27. LEAD. 
 
 Natural History and general Remarks. 
 Lead is generally found mineralized with sul- 
 
208 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 phur, in an oar called galena. It is mncli used 
 in the arts in the metallic state. It is alloyed with 
 tin, forming pewter. Good pewter consists of one 
 part lead to four of tin ; but most of the pewter of 
 the present day is chiefly lead. Solder, called 
 plumber's solder, consists of equal parts of lead 
 and tin melted together. 
 
 Prop. i. Lead receives its lowest proportion 
 of oxygen at a low red heat, while exposed to at- 
 mospheric air ; also from the decomposition of an 
 acid, with which it is combined as the base of a salt. 
 
 ^Illustration. Melt some lead in a ladle, and 
 scrape off the pellicle which forms on its sur- 
 face several times, or until a sufficient quantity is 
 obtained. Part of this is oxidated, and part is not. 
 Now put this into the ladle by itself and expose it 
 to a low red heat, continually stirring it with a 
 rod until it becomes of a yellow colour. This is 
 the protoxid, yellow oxid, or massicot. 
 
 Or it may be obtained by forming the nitrate of 
 lead in the same manner as .directed for forming 
 the nitrate of mercury, and then by heating the 
 salt to redness in a ladle, covered over pretty close- 
 ly 5 the acid is driven out, leaving the protoxid of 
 lead. 
 
 Application. This is the massicot used in the 
 arts. It is also an useful powder for setting a fine 
 edge to razors, for polishing burnishers, &c. 
 
 Prop. 2. The protoxid of lead will become the 
 deutoxid, by exposing it to atmospheric air in a 
 strong heat, not quite bringing the powder to a 
 state of fusion. 
 
 ^Illustration. Put some massicot into a ladle, 
 and cover it over loosely with an earthen or iron 
 
PRINCIPLE 27. LEAD. 209 
 
 plate, and raise the heat. Raise up one end of 
 the plate and stir it often, until it becomes of a 
 bright red. Care must be taken not to raise the 
 heat so high as to drive off the previously acquir- 
 ed oxygen, and thereby bring it again to the state 
 of pure melted lead. It is, in fact, difficult to per- 
 form this operation with small quantities. 
 
 Application. This is red lead or minium, used 
 by painters. On this principle, though with very 
 different apparatus, red lead is manufactured for 
 the shops. But the red lead of the shops is gen- 
 erally very impure. It often contains red ochre, 
 silex, alu mine, muriate of lead, sulphate of lead, 
 .&c. 
 
 Prop. 3. Minium becomes litharge by heating 
 a considerable time in as high a heat as it can bear, 
 without parting with its oxygen. 
 
 ^Illustration. Put some red lead into a ladle, 
 and heat it until it is partly melted, so that it be- 
 gins to be agglutinated in a kind of scales. 
 
 Application. This is the semi-vitreous oxid of 
 lead, usually called litharge. It is not so bright 
 a red, but is a more durable colour. 
 
 Prop. 4. By raising the heat very high, oxid 
 of lead gives its oxygen wholly off, and becomes 
 pure had again. 
 
 Illustration. Put some red lead into a cruci- 
 ble and raise the heat as high as the white heat of 
 iron ; and pure metallic lead will be found in the 
 crucible. 
 
 Application. This last experiment is an illus- 
 tration of the distinctive character of this section* 
 
 16* 
 
CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 Prop. 5. Red oxid of lead will decompose mu 
 riate of soda, with heat, and form the patent yet 
 low. 
 
 Illustration. Pulverize common table salt very 
 finely and put it into Wedgewood's mortar. Put 
 in with it twice as much finely pulverized red lead 
 after it had been heated until it become yellowish, 
 or the same quantity of litharge. Rub them well 
 together first ; then add water, a very little at a 
 time, and continue rubbing until a paste is formed. 
 Muriate of lead will now be formed, and the soda 
 will be disengaged. Pour in a large quantity of 
 "Water and wash it several times. The soda will 
 wash out and leave a white mass. Dry this mass 
 and then melt it in a crucible ; and a beautiful sub- 
 stance will be formed, called patent yellow. 
 
 Application. The patent yellow is one of the 
 most durable pigments, and may be made very 
 good in this way. 
 
 Prop. 6. Carbonate of lead, called white lead, 
 28 formed by double decomposition on mixing ni- 
 trate of lead and pearlash. 
 
 Illustration. Make nitrate of lead as before di- 
 rected, and dissolve it in water in a wine-glass. 
 Pour into it a solution of pearlash, and a white 
 insoluble precipitate will fall down. Let the li- 
 quid be poured off, and the powder washed sev- 
 eral times. 
 
 Application. This is the white lead of painters 
 in its purest state. It is generally made in the 
 large way by applying the vapour of vinegar to 
 sheet lead. It will of course contain some acetate 
 of lead and other impurities. 
 
 Prop. 7. White lead, carbonate of lead, dis 
 solved in vinegar, forms sugw of 
 
PRINCIPLE 28. NICKEL. 211 
 
 ^Illustration. Put some white lead into a for- 
 cnce flask. Put in about ten times as much good 
 sharp vinegar, (distilled vinegar is best.) Shake 
 it up several times and let it stand until the vine- 
 gar tastes sweet. Add more vinegar and continue 
 adding by littles, until it will remain sour. Evap- 
 orate and crystallize in the usual way. 
 
 Application. This is the acetate of lead, or su- 
 gar of lead, used in medicine. It is called sugar 
 of lead on account of its sweet taste. 
 
 Prop. 8. Lead is precipitated from the state of 
 a salt in the metallic state by metallic %inc. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve sugar of lead in thirty 
 or forty times its weight of water. Fill a decan- 
 ter with this solution. Suspend a small clean 
 bright piece of zinc in the liquid by a thread, 
 which is held by being compressed by the side of 
 the stopper. Set the decanter in a conspicuous 
 place in the class-room where it may remain a day 
 or two undisturbed. The acetate of lead will be 
 decomposed. The lead will cover the zinc with 
 leaves shooting out in a curious manner, while the 
 sour taste of the vinegar is partly restored. 
 
 Application. Zinc having a stronger affinity 
 for oxygen than lead, it takes so much from it, 
 that it cannot hold the vinegar any longer in com* 
 bination with it. 
 
 PRINCIPLE 28. NICKEL. 
 Natural History and general Remarks* 
 
 Nickel is generally obtained from the sulphu- 
 ret. It is found alloyed with iron in meteoric 
 stones. Its colour, when pure, is between those 
 
212 CLASS V. METALS. 
 
 of silv r er and tin 5 but it generally exhibits a pale 
 Hesh coloured tinge, tire says it is magnetic : 
 Accum is just as positive that it is not magnetic. 
 Others differ in opinion on this subject. Accum, 
 Chenevix and others say, it is the iron which is 
 alloyed with the nickel, that attracts the magnet. 
 It is a rare metal. 
 
 Nickel forms a salt with nitric acid, which may 
 be made to exhibit several colours. 
 
 Illustration. Put an excess of nickel into a 
 strong solution of nitric acid, and let it remain un- 
 til the acid is saturated. The liquid will be the 
 green nitrate of nickel in solution. Pour in liquid 
 ammonia in excess and a blue precipitate is form- 
 ed ; and this will become reddish purple in a few 
 hours, which may be brought back to a green co- 
 lour by an acid* 
 
 Application. Nickel is not much used, except- 
 ing as a subject of philosophic speculation in re- 
 gard to its magnetism, its presence in all meteoric 
 stones, and its varying hues as the basis of a salt, 
 
213 
 
 OEGANIC SUBSTANCES. 
 
 General Remarks. 
 
 Under organic substances are included the sub- 
 jects of the vegetable and animal kingdoms. The 
 ultimate elements, constituting all vegetable and 
 animal substances, have been described, and their 
 chief properties illustrated by experiments, in the 
 preceding part of this work. But when those 
 simple substances are arranged according to the 
 laws of organization, and endowed with the living 
 principle, phenomena are induced which elude the 
 researches of the chemist. 
 
 The constituents of vegetable and animal mat- 
 ter are properly divided into proximate and ulti- 
 mate elements. The proximate elements are those, 
 compounds into which animal and vegetable mat- 
 ter may be resolved, and still retain properties 
 most nearly resembling these organic substances, 
 before they were subjected to the process of de- 
 composition. Such asjesin, starch, gum, glue, 
 albumen, oil, &c. The ultimate elements are the 
 simple substances into which they may be resolv- 
 ed, by a thorough analysis. Such as oxygen, car 
 bon, &c. 
 
 Much progress has been made in this depart 
 inent of chemistry within a few years. But the 
 complex nature of organic matter presents many 
 difficulties, and the analyses are very slow and te- 
 dious. By following the directions given by such 
 extensive and learned works as those of Thomp- 
 son, Ure, M'Neven's Brand, Grorham, Silliman's 
 Henry, &c. we may succeed in repeating the ex- 
 periments, necessary for demonstrating the truth 
 of those principles, adopted by the great philoso- 
 
214 ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 
 
 pliers of the age. But such a course of experi- 
 ments would require the labour of many months, 
 or perhaps of years. 
 
 Having become practically acquainted with the 
 most important properties of all the elementary 
 constituents of animal and vegetable matter, we 
 are now prepared to understand the descriptions 
 given us by those, who have patiently and labori- 
 ously investigated them. We must therefore con- 
 tent ourselves with the history of their labours^ 
 and rely upon the truth of their experiments ; as 
 we do upon the astronomical calculations of New- 
 ton, Le Lande, Herschel and others. 
 
 While animals and vegetables are in the living 
 state, that undescribed something, called the liv- 
 ing principle, renders their operations intricate 
 and complicated. Two active principles, the liv- 
 ing principle, and ihe principle of chemical affini- 
 ty) are perpetually at war with each other. The 
 latter is disposed to derange the organic structure, 
 and to form new chemical compounds. But the 
 former is the more powerful, and resists the inces- 
 sant attacks of the latter. Chemical affinity is ex- 
 erting its energies every moment of our lives to 
 convert our bodies into the most odious gases, and 
 inorganic liquids and solids. But the living prin- 
 ciple maintains its empire for a few years. A( 
 last yielding to the unabating efforts of chemical 
 affinity, the most beautiful face loses its youthful 
 glow, and the speaking eye loses its brilliancy. 
 They are given over to form the constituent ele- 
 ments of sulphuretted hydrogen, carburetted hy- 
 drogen, ammonia, carbonic acid, and other inor- 
 ganic substances. What now constitutes the sym- 
 metry and all the fascinations of beauty, may be 
 
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 215 
 
 converted into the various gases; which, after 
 floating a while at the pleasure of the winds, are 
 absorbed by the earth, and re-appear in the form 
 of a rose, an ear of corn, or the deadly nightshade. 
 The well known fact, that the living principle is 
 at variance with the laws of matter, demonstrates 
 conclusively that every living being, whether ani- 
 mal or vegetable, is essentially composed of mat- 
 ter, and of a substance distinct from matter. The 
 existence of one substance being proved, with 
 properties not only distinct from matter but direct- 
 ly opposed to the laws of matter, completely over- 
 throws every argument of the materialist. For af- 
 ter the existence of one immaterial substance is 
 proved by sensible properties, the existence of an- 
 other may be reasonably inferred from its proper- 
 ties also. Therefore the faculty of thinking points 
 to an intellectual substance ; though its existence 
 has not been demonstrated by actual experiment, 
 like that of the living principle. 
 
 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 ULTIMATE ELEMENTS. 
 
 Vegetable matter is essentially composed of car- 
 bon) oxygen and hydrogen. 
 
 The cruciform family of plants, such as cabbage, 
 mustard, radishes, &c. contain a little nitrogen. 
 In some few plants, sulphur has been detected. 
 Potash, lime, soda, magnesia, and silex, have been 
 found in plants. 
 
 When vegetable matter is heated in a retort to 
 that degree which is called destructive distillation, 
 the constituent elements assume new arrange* 
 
216 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 ments; and carbonic acid, carbonic oxid,carbu~ 
 retted hydrogen, empyneumatic oil, water, 8c. 
 come over, leaving charcoal, and generally some 
 earths and salts, in the retort. 
 
 After these products are separated, each is an- 
 alyzed. From the result of these analyses, the 
 proportions of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are 
 ascertained. Or if we rely upon the analyses of 
 these products, which have been made by chem- 
 ists, we have only to ascertain the proportions of 
 these products to be enabled to calculate the quan 
 tity of the ultimate elements contained in any ve- 
 getable substance under examination. 
 
 PROXIMATE ELEMENTS* 
 
 These elements may be distributed into Jive di- 
 visions by a trial of their solubility. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve, or attempt to dissolve, 
 one or more of the elements of each division ; if 
 the solution is made, precipitate it by adding an 
 excess of a substance which is not its solvent. 
 
 Application. When any of the proximate ele- 
 ments, enumerated below, are to be used, let them 
 be brought to the liquid state, or precipitated, as 
 their application may require. 
 
 First Division. 
 
 Proximate elements, which are soluble in cold 
 water. 
 
 Acids, sugar, gum, jelly, colouring principle^ 
 bitter principle, nicotin, extractive matter, emetin, 
 
 Second Division. 
 
 Proximate elements, which are insoluble in cold 
 water, but partially soluble in hot water. 
 
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 217 
 
 Morphia, cerasin, starch, indigo, glutin, polle 
 mn, fibrin. 
 
 Third Division. 
 
 Proximate elements which are insoluble in wa- 
 ter and melt and burn when heated. Most oJ" 
 them are soluble in alcohol. 
 
 Fixed oil, wax, volatile oil, camphor, resin, 
 guaiacum, balsam, gum-resin, caoutchouc, bitu 
 men. 
 
 Fourth Division. 
 
 Proximate elements, which are not soluble ei- 
 ther in water, alcohol, or ether ; having a fibrous 
 or woody texture. 
 
 Cotton, cork, pitch, wood, fungus. 
 
 fifth Division. 
 
 Extraneous substances sometimes found in vc 
 getables. 
 
 Mineral acids, alkalies, earths, metals. 
 
 DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS. 
 
 First Division. 
 JLcids. 
 
 Acetic acid is distinguished by the well known 
 odour of vinegar. It is generally produced by fer- 
 mentation from wine, cider, &c. But it is found 
 ready made in the fruit of rhus typhinum and somo 
 other plants. 
 
 Oxalic acid decomposes all salts of lime. It is 
 found in the oxalis stricta, and other plants. Heat 
 destroys it. 
 
 Tartaric acid forms the common tartar if a little 
 potash is dropped cautiously into a solution of itv 
 
 19 
 
218 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 It is found in rhus typhinum, oxycoccus, &c. But 
 is generally obtained from the lees of wine. Heat 
 destroys it. 
 
 Citric acid does not form tartar with potash. It 
 is found in the juice of oranges, lemons, in oxy- 
 coccus, &c. Heat destroys it 
 
 Malic acid does not form tartar with potash, 
 and it forms a salt with lime, which is soluble in 
 water and decomposed by citric acid. It is found 
 in green sour apples, the barberry, &c. 
 
 Benzole acid is volatile in moderate heat and is 
 aromatic. It is found in the styrax tree chiefly 5 
 but it is also found in the laurus benzoin, origan- 
 um majorana, &c. 
 
 Prussic acid forms the prussian blue when pour- 
 ed into a solution of copperas. It is found in 
 peach meats and blossoms, &c. It is called the 
 hydrocyanic acid by some chemists. See this ar- 
 ticle under animal substances, from which it is ob- 
 tained for use in the arts. 
 
 Kinic acid, on burning coals, froths, melts and 
 turns black, and finally is exhaled in acid vapour. 
 It does not precipitate nitrate of mercury or silver. 
 It is obtained from Peruvian bark. 
 
 Gallic acid produces a black colour with the 
 oxid of iron. It is found chiefly in most species 
 of oak ; but many other trees contain it also. 
 
 Tannin unites with a solution of animal jelly 
 (rather prefers the isinglass) and forms a dense 
 precipitate. It is found is every species of oak, 
 and in the pinus canadensis. It is most abundant 
 in the bark of trees. 
 
 Its use in the manufacture of leather depends 
 on its affinity for animal gelatin. 
 
 Sugar dissolves rapidly in water, more espe- 
 cially if heated, and dissolves slowly in alcohol. 
 
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 219 
 
 It is combustible, and, when mixed witb oxy muri- 
 ate of potash, if a little sulphuric acid be applied, 
 it burns spontaneously. 
 
 Sugar preserves fruits from putrefaction, but 
 tends to promote the decay of human teeth. It is 
 nutritive as a diet, and assimulates kindly with 
 human fluids. 
 
 It is chiefly obtained from the common sugar 
 cane and the sugar maple. It may be obtained 
 from the stalks of indian corn, pumpkins, beets, 
 &c. 
 
 Sugar is purified by boiling with blood of cattle, 
 which brings to the surface all impurities. By 
 heating sugar with nitric acid, oxalic acid is form 
 ed. Alkalies in solution mixed with sugar in so- 
 lution, destroy its sweetness ; which is restored 
 by a due portion of acid. Consists of 51.3 oxy- 
 gen, 6.8 hydrogen, 41.9 carbon. 
 
 Gum is highly soluble in water, forming a mu- 
 cilage ; but is insoluble in alcohol. Gum is con- 
 verted into citric acid, by chlorine. It oozes from 
 wounds in cherry trees, peach trees, &c. Some 
 of the chief gums of commerce are gum arable and 
 gum Senegal. 
 
 Jelly is scarcely soluble in cold water. It readi- 
 ly assumes a kind of half coagulated tremulous 
 state. It exists in currants, gooseberries and many- 
 other fruits. 
 
 Colouring principle, is found in many of the 
 proximate elements of vegetables. The logwood, 
 nickaragua, madder, &c. of the shops are well 
 known. We find it abundant in the common but- 
 ternut tree, the walnut tree, &c. Most vegetable 
 colouring materials require a mordant to fix the 
 colouring in the stuffs 5 some of which fix the col- 
 
320 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 our without change, others produce a change in 
 the colour. 
 
 Bitter principle is known by the taste. It is 
 generally very soluble in water or alcohol. It is 
 generally precipitated by nitrate of silver and by 
 acetate of lead. It is found in numerous vegeta 
 foles. 
 
 Extractive principle is chiefly applied to all 
 substances which are extracted from plants by the 
 aid of water and remain in the state of a dry mass 
 after the water is evaporated. Therefore sugar,, 
 liquorice, gum, jelly, &c. are included in it. But 
 Thompson proposes a more narrow and more de 
 Unite limit to the term. 
 
 Emitin is supposed to be a peculiar principle 
 iin ipecacuanha and most other plants, which cause 
 the stomach to throw up its contents. 
 
 Second Division. 
 
 Morphia, a principle contained in the poppy 
 and some other plants, which induces sleep. 
 
 Cerasin is a principle which has been confound- 
 ed with the gums. But it* differs from gum in 
 swelling and becoming transparent in cold water, 
 without actually becoming dissolved until the wa 
 ter is heated. The gum tragacanth is pure cera- 
 sin. 
 
 Starch 9 though it does not dissolve in cold wa- 
 ter, it falls into powder. With boiling water it 
 forms a kind of jelly. It does not even fall into 
 powder in alcohol. When dried it becomes a 
 white brittle mass. 
 
 Starch may be washed from its connection with 
 gluten in wheat flour in cold water, from which it 
 will soon settle in the state of powder. It is ob- 
 tained from potatoes also and numerous other 
 vegetables. 
 
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 221 
 
 Gluten forms with water a soft tenaceoiis duc- 
 tile paste. It may be obtained almost pure by 
 making bakers' dough in the usual way, and then 
 washing it in cold water, until the water comes off 
 clear. The starch being extricated in this man- 
 ner, the remainder will be nearly pure gluten. 
 Gluten, like animal gelatin, is precipitated from 
 its solution in water by an infusion of galls. 
 
 Indigo is scarcely soluble in hot water, but dis- 
 solves in alkaline leys and becomes reddish. The 
 pure colouring matter of indigo does not exceed 47 
 percent.' The other constituents are separated 
 by 1st water, 2d alcohol, 3d muriatic acid. These 
 several solutions being poured off and the sedi- 
 ment washed in succession, the last sediment is 
 the pure colouring matter, and burns with a purple 
 smoke. 
 
 Fibrin, which will be mentioned under animal 
 matter, has been detected in the juice of the papaw 
 tree in Peru. Nothing short of the authority of 
 Yauqueliri could commend our belief in such a re- 
 markable case. 
 
 Third Division* 
 
 Wax. Vegetable wax is found on the surface 
 of the fruit of the bay-berry, (Myrica cerifera.J 
 JBees-wax is also a very perfect vegetable wax, 
 when purified and in the state of white wax. it 
 is soluble in heated fixed oils, when it forms the 
 cerates of physicians. Some of the volatile oils 
 dissolve it also. It is soluble in potash and soda, 
 forming a soap-like compound. It is not much 
 affected by acids ; therefore it is useful in etching? 
 luting, &c. 
 
 19* 
 
,222 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Fixed Oils. Vegetable fixed oil is pressed 
 from the flax seed in large quantities ; and is much 
 used by painters. Castor oil, which is pressed 
 from the castor bean (Ricinus communis,) is used 
 in medicine. Fixed vegetable oil may be pressed 
 from the fruit of the walnut, butternut, &c. Olive 
 oil is also an important fixed oil. A fixed oil may 
 be separated into the concrete pwt 9 -fstearinej and 
 the fluid part (daine.J And they are more or less 
 inclined to retain the liquid state, according to the 
 proportion of elaine contained in them. 
 
 Some oils readily become hard and resinous on 
 exposure. These are called drying oils. They 
 are used in the manufacture of printer's ink. It is 
 pretty highly heated, set on fire and burned about 
 half an hour, then extinguished and boiled down 
 until it is of a suitable consistency. Afterwards 
 it is mixed with some spirits of turpentine and 
 lamp black. Nut oil is preferred for printer's ink ; 
 but linseed oil is often used. 
 
 Fixed vegetable oils combine with the alkalies 
 and form soap. The best hard soap made is of 
 olive oil and soda. 
 
 Volatile Oils. These oils are very numerous. 
 They are distinguished from fixed oils by being 
 converted into a state of vapour by heat ; where- 
 as fixed oils cannot be evaporized or volatilized 
 without combustion, and, of course, decomposi- 
 tion. Some of the most common volatile oils are, 
 spirits of turpentine, oil of lemons, juniper, rose- 
 mary, tansy, wintergreen, mint, (called pepper- 
 mint essence,); pennyroyal, fennel, cloves, cinna- 
 mon, aniseed, dill, &c. They are highly soluble 
 in alcohol, but hardly soluble in water, They 
 are mostly obtained by steeping vegetables in wa* 
 
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 223 
 
 ter, and then distilling over in common stills, 
 They are generally called essences, because they 
 contain the essence of the sensible qualities of the 
 vegetable. 
 
 The volatile oils become thick and somewhat 
 resinous by the absorption of oxygen on long ex- 
 posure to air. It is probable that volatile oils be- 
 come indurated and give strength and durability 
 to the woody fibre by drying. For when timber 
 is water- seasoned, as it is called., (that is soaked 
 in water awhile and then dried to prevent its 
 shrinking,) it is more easily broken and decays 
 sooner. Wood is found to be less valuable as 
 fuel, which is cut down while green and exposed 
 to rains. In both cases the volatile oil is extract- 
 ed more or less by water. It is therefore better 
 for fuel or timber when it is cut down in a green 
 thrifty state and dried or seasoned under a shelter. 
 If a volatile oil is adulterated by a fixed oil, it 
 may be detected by rubbing a little of it on paper, 
 and holding it near the fire. The volatile oil will 
 evaporate and leave a greasy spot on the paper, 
 which is made by the fixed oil. The essence- 
 pedlers generally purchase a small quantity of the 
 volatile oils, and then adulterate largely with alco- 
 hol. This is a very common fraud, and ought to 
 be detected and exposed, 'which may be done by 
 pouring a few drops into a wine-glass of water, 
 The pure essence will float on the water, and 
 scarcely mix with it at all. But if it is adulterat- 
 ed with alcohol, it will mix with the water, and a 
 change in colour, &c. will instantly appear. 
 
 Camphor. This substance is obtained from the 
 camphor tree of Japan, (Laurw camphora.J 
 This is a species of the same genus with theeassa- 
 
224 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES, 
 
 \ 
 
 fras and spice-bush of our country. And the 
 camphor has many properties in common with the 
 volatile oil of sassafras and other vegetables. It 
 is soluble in alcohol and hardly soluble in water 5 
 it dissolves in both the fixed and volatile oils. 
 
 Camphor may be made artificially. At least a 
 substance is deposited very similar to camphor, 
 by passing a current of muriatic acid gas through 
 spirits of turpentine. 
 
 Resins. The juice which exudes from the 
 
 white pine, and several other species of the genus 
 
 pinus, consists of the resin and the volatile oil, 
 
 called spirits of turpentine. By distilling over 
 
 Uhe latter, the former remains pretty pure. 
 
 Pure resin is insoluble in water, soluble in al- 
 cohol and the alkalies, and almost devoid of taste 
 or smell. Those which do give off an odour, are 
 combined with volatile oil ; and*are generally de- 
 nominated balsams. .Besides those resins which 
 come under the general denomination of pitch, are 
 the guaiacum, copal, mastich and others ; the two 
 last of which are hardly soluble in alcohol. There 
 are several hard resins, called lac, which are de- 
 posited by an insect in the East Indies, on twigs of 
 trees, &c. the most common of these is called shell- 
 lac. 
 
 There are compounds of gum arid resin, called 
 gum-resins. Gramboge and assafoetida are of this 
 kind. As gum is soluble in water and resin in 
 alcohol, it requires both for their solution. Jhn- 
 ber is placed under resins ; but it is hardly solu- 
 ble in alcohol or in the alkalies. 
 
 Caoutchouc. This substance is generally called 
 india rubber. It is manufactured by drying the 
 juice of an East India plant, called the Urceok 
 elastica, according to Sprengel and Roxburgh 
 
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 225 
 
 It is also obtained from a South -American plant, 
 called Siphonia elastica by Linneus ; Lamarck 
 calls it Hevea guiauensis. Both of these plants 
 belong to the same natural order with our common 
 milk- weed (Asclepias syriacus,J and the juice of 
 the milk-weed, when dried, resembles the india 
 rubber. It is very elastic and inflammable. It 
 contains nitrogen. It is insoluble in water ; but 
 may be softened and rendered very adhesive in 
 hot water, so as to be made into flexible tubes by 
 winding slips of it spirally around small cylinders 
 and uniting the edges. 
 
 Bitumen. This substance partakes something 
 of the nature of oils and resin. When pure, it is 
 a limpid liquid, and is then called naphtha. It 
 consists of about 87 per cent carbon, and 13 per 
 cent hydrogen. As it contains no oxygen, the in- 
 flammable bases of potash, &c. are kept in it. 
 When in the state of a brownish iridescent liquid, 
 as it is seen floating on stagnant waters, it is call- 
 ed petroleum. When in the solid state, as it is 
 found in Trinidad, and on the shores of Luke As- 
 phaltides, it is called asphalt. 
 
 PRODUCTS OF FERMENTATION. 
 
 Some vegetable solutions will undergo spontane 
 ous changes, whereby alcohol or vinegar is produc- 
 ed ; during this process carbonic acid %as is evolv- 
 ed. 
 
 Illustration. Put some sugar into a florencc 
 flask, and dissolve it with about five times as 
 much warm water, and add a little yeast. Set it 
 where it will continue to be warm, but not hot. 
 Let one end of a bent lead or glass tube be fitted 
 into the flask by perforating a sound cork, and let 
 
226 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 the other end pass under the moveable shelf of the 
 cistern. After standing awhile, a gas will begin 
 to come over. As soon as the atmospheric air has 
 passed out, begin to collect the gas. On testing 
 it with lime water, it will be found to be carbonic 
 acid gas. 
 
 Application. From this experiment it appears, 
 that sugar alone is sufficient to produce fermenta- 
 tion with water, when started with yeast. It is 
 found that sugar is essential by many trials. This 
 is the same gas which issues from cider, beer, &c. 
 when fermenting it is also produced in dough 
 when rising. 
 
 The intoxicating substance called alcohol, is 
 produced during fermentation. Alcohol being 
 converted into vapour with less heat than water, 
 it may be distilled over by a due degree of heat. 
 Thus rum, brandy, gin, cider-brandy, &c. are ob- 
 tained. 
 
 Cider is sometimes boiled down for family use ; 
 as for making apple preserves, &c. This should 
 always be done before fermentation commences; 
 because alcohol will then be formed, which will 
 be driven off and wasted by evaporation, while 
 boiling down the cider. 
 
 The ardent spirits of commerce consist of alco- 
 hol combined with water, and some other adulterat- 
 ing substances, giving each kind its peculiar fla- 
 vour ; from either of which pure alcohol may be 
 obtained by re- distillation, and the absorbing power 
 of potash. 
 
 Illustration. Fill a pint retort half full of com- 
 mon proof whiskey. Fit the beak to a receiver 
 and surround the neck with beeswax where it en- 
 ters the receiver 5 so that it* water is applied to 
 
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 227 
 
 the neck of the retort it cannot run into the receiv- 
 er. Let the receiver be immersed in cold water, 
 or surrounded with snow. Set the retort into the 
 lead pot over coals in the usual way, and raise the 
 heat by the hand bellows. Set the lead pot so 
 near the cistern, that cold water may be poured 
 on the neck of the retort and be renewed in the 
 vessel where the receiver is immersed, without 
 wetting the room Alcohol will rise up in vapour 
 and be condensed in the neck of the retort, and 
 run down into the receiver. After the measure 
 of the alcohol in the receiver about equals the 
 measure of what remains in the retort, stop the 
 process. 
 
 Put into a tumbler a quantity of pearlash, about 
 equal in weight to one fourth of the alcohol dis- 
 tilled over, which had been made as dry as pos- 
 sible on a plate exposed to a little heat, let the 
 pearlash be warm as can be borne by the hand 
 when put into the tumbler, and pour the alcohol 
 upon it. Stir it up and keep the alcohol in the 
 tumbler with it, about half an hour. Now let it 
 settle and pour out the alcohol for use. 
 
 Application. By this method very pure alco- 
 hol may be obtained. On the same principle, 
 with large retorts and receivers, alcohol may be 
 obtained for the use of the physicians and the ar- 
 tist. If carefully distilled and well prepared, it 
 will be so inflammable that if it be poured upon 
 an earthen plate with good gun-powder on the 
 bottom, it will burn down and inflame the powder, 
 
 Alcohol has such a strong affinity for water., 
 that on mixing them they unite so closely as to di- 
 minish their measure, or volume. 
 
228 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Illustration. Fill the bulb of a bolt-head, or 
 long- necked matrass, with water. Incline it a 
 little, and pour in alcohol to fill the neck almost 
 full. Let it glide down slowly along the inside 
 of the neck, so that it may chiefly float on the sur- 
 face of the water. Having previously tied a piece 
 of a thread around the neck, slide it to the precise 
 level of the surface of the alcohol. Now put the 
 thumb over the mouth of the bolt- head, and shake 
 it so as to mix the two liquids. It will now be 
 seen that the surface of the combined liquids is 
 considerably lower than the thread. 
 
 Application. This diminution of the measure 
 of the liquids encreases their specific gravity. 
 Consequently the reduction of alcohol by water is 
 indicated directly, by the increase of the specific 
 gravity. When perfectly pure the specific gravity 
 of alcohol is 0.79, but it can hardly be obtained 
 below 0.82. Pure alcohol consists of 34.32 
 oxygen, 13.10 hydrogen, and 51.98 earbon. 
 
 Alcohol, boiled with sulphuric acid, produces a 
 light volatile compound, called ether. 
 
 Illustration. Having fitted the beak of a retort 
 to a tubulated receiver, as directed in obtaining 
 alcohol, immerce the receiver in cold water, or 
 surround it with ice. Raise the heat in the lead 
 pot considerably ; but do not put in the retort yet. 
 Put some alcohol into a tumbler, and add the same 
 weight (or a little more than half the bulk) of sul- 
 phuric acid. The acid must be poured in gradu- 
 ally, and well stirred, as it drops in, with a glass 
 rod. If it is poured in fast it will become too hot ; 
 but it must not be so hot that the heat of the tumb- 
 ler cannot be borne by the hand. As soon as it is 
 mixed, set the retort into the lead pot, and immc 
 
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 229 
 
 diately pour into it the mixed liquids through the 
 tubulature, and put in the stopper. Raise the 
 heat to a little below the boiling point of water 
 immediately, and keep it at that temperature. 
 This may be determined by frequently dipping a 
 small stick into hot water, and touching it to the 
 hottest part of the retort. It must not be quite 
 hissing hot. If the stick is dipped into cold wa- 
 ter it may break the retort. 
 
 Continue the process until the whole liquid in 
 the retort begins to rise up. Then either stop the 
 process, or pour in half as much alcohol as at first, 
 and more may be brought over. If the vapour 
 presses too hard during the process, open the tu- 
 bulature of the receiver an instant, occasionally. 
 
 Application. By adopting this method of pre- 
 paring ether, with large retorts and receivers, phy- 
 sicians and artists may prepare the best of sul 
 phuric ether, and thereby avoid both expense and 
 imposition. 
 
 Ether is extremely volatile ; so that if a part of 
 the atmospheric pressure is taken off, it will boil 
 with the warmth of the hand. 
 
 Illustration. Put a little ether into a long-neck- 
 ed vial (a cologne vial is best.) Heat the vial so 
 that it can hardly be borne by the hand, while its 
 mouth is open. Then put in the cork perfectly 
 tight. Now if a warm hand be clasped around 
 the neck of the vial, and it be held with the bot 
 torn up, the ether will boil. 
 
 Application. This experiment is an additional 
 confirmation of the principle given under Caloric, 
 p. 30. It exhibits the volatile nature of ether also; 
 upon which much of its usefulness depends. 
 
 20 
 
230 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Fermented liquids which produce alcohol will 
 undergo a second fermentation, if exposed to warm 
 atmospheric air ; in which state the alcohol will be 
 destroyed and vinegar will be produced. 
 
 Illustration. Expose a little cider, strong beer, 
 or wine, to a summer's sun, or to the air of a warm 
 room in an open bowl or an earthen plate, and in 
 a few days, or sometimes in a few hours, it will 
 become acetous, and lose all its alcoholic princi- 
 ple. 
 
 Application. Upon this principle common vin- 
 egar is made. Oxygen is absorbed from the at- 
 mosphere, which is supposed to unite with and 
 carry off another proportion of carbon in the state 
 of carbonic acid gas. Pure acetic acid consists of 
 46.82 oxygen, 6.35 hydrogen, 48.83 carbon. 
 
 If good sound wood be heated in a confined sit- 
 uation, as in a gun-barrel, &c. the pyroligneous 
 acid comes over, which makes good vinegar when 
 separated from several impurities which come over 
 with it. Vast quantities of this acid are produced 
 in the manufacture of charcoal for making gun- 
 powder. 
 
 Acetic acid, the pure basis of vinegar, is best 
 obtained by combining common vinegar with the 
 oxid of a metal, forming a salt, as acetate of cop- 
 per (verdegris) acetate of lead, (sugar of lead) and 
 then distilling it over by heating the salt to redness. 
 
 When wine becomes partly acetous, called 
 pricked wine, the disagreeable taste is often cor- 
 rected by sugar of lead. It is then poisonous, and 
 the fraud ought to be detected. This may be done 
 by dropping it into a little water, charged with 
 sulphuretted hydrogen gas. It will immediately 
 become dark brown. 
 
231 
 
 v 
 
 ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 ULTIMATE ELEMENTS. 
 
 The essential ultimate elements of animal sub- 
 stances are, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitro 
 gen. Generally sulphur and phosphorus are 
 found in animal matter. 
 
 The addition of nitrogen causes the most im- 
 portant distinctions between animal and vegetable 
 substances. It being one of the constituents of am- 
 monia, it gives rise to that gas, during the decom- 
 position of animals, by the process called putre- 
 faction. Several other substances are frequently 
 found in animal matter ; as, oxid of iron, lime, 
 soda, potash, &c. 
 
 PROXIMATE ELEMENTS. 
 
 The most important proximate elements of ani- 
 mal substances are, gelatine, albumen, fibrin and 
 oil. 
 
 Gelatine. This substance is commonly seen in 
 the form of glue and isinglass. Gelatine consti- 
 tutes a large proportion of the skins of animals, 
 &c. It has a strong affinity for tannin. This will 
 appear by dropping an infusion of tannin (from 
 common nut galls will do) into a solution of isin- 
 glass. A pretty solid precipitate will be formed 
 of the union of tannin and gelatine. On this prin- 
 ciple leather is formed ; the gelatine of skins com- 
 bining with the infusion of tannin obtained by 
 soaking bark in water. It is not coagulated by 
 sulphuric acid diluted. 
 
 Mbumen. This substance is the most distinct- 
 ly exhibited in the white of eggs. It always con- 
 
232 ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 fains so much soda as to give the alkaline test with 
 red cabbage. This may be shown by dissolving 
 it in pure water, and dropping in the infusion of 
 red cabbage? which will give the green test of al- 
 kalies. It is immediately coagulated, and at 
 length charred by sulphuric acid. 
 
 fibrin. The constituent of the fibrous part of 
 muscles, &c. Fibrin and albumen are the princi- 
 ple constituents of blood. If a stream of blood 
 from a vein runs through a fine camel-hair brush, 
 iine fibres may be seen attached to the hairs, after 
 the red globules have, been carefully soaked off. 
 
 Oil. This appears in the form of lard, tallow, 
 spermaceti, &c. It is divided into the stearine 
 and elawe parts like fixed vegetable oil. Oil and 
 albumen are the principal constituents of milk. It 
 is slowly soluble in alcohol and not precipitated 
 by water. 
 
 Remark. Several more proximate elements 
 are described by chemists, but they are of little 
 importance to those for whom this work is intend 
 ed. 
 
 BONES AND SHELLS. 
 
 Internal bones of animals consist mostly of phos- 
 phate of lime. They contain a little carbonate of 
 lime and some animal matter. 
 
 External shells of animals are chiefly carbonate 
 of lime. They generally contain a little phos- 
 phate of lime, and some animal matter. Those 
 animals which are covered with an external crust, 
 as the lobster, &c. have their covering chiefly 
 made up of nearly equal proportions of carbonate 
 of lime and phosphate of lime, which contains % 
 larger proportion of animal matter. 
 
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 233 
 
 RESPIRATION. 
 
 Oxygen changes the dark colour of blood of the 
 veins, to the scarlet colour of arterial blood, 
 
 Illustration. Drop a small mass of dark clot- 
 ted blood into a vial of carbonic acid gas, and 
 another mass into a vial of oxygen. Place the 
 fingers over the mouth of each, and shake them 
 pretty hard. The blood in the oxygen will be- 
 come scarlet coloured, while that in the carbonic 
 acid will remain dark coloured. If atmospheric 
 air is now substituted for oxygen, and another 
 portion put in, it will become scarlet coloured, but 
 not so bright. 
 
 Application. It appears from this experiment, 
 that oxygen may affect the blood in respiration, so 
 as to produce the necessary change required (at 
 least in the colour) for rendering it a fit material 
 for supplying the waste of the system, 
 
 Atmospheric air suffers a diminution of bulk by 
 respiration ; an& the oxygen is consumed, or di- 
 minished in quantity* 
 
 Illustration. Put a mouse into a glass cylinder) 
 and invert it over mercury, pressing it down into 
 the mercury for a few minutes at first, so that the 
 pressure of the mercury may prevent the escape of 
 air by the warmth of the mouse. Let tiie mouse 
 remain until it expires ; whicli will be in about 
 lialf an hour in a half pint cylinder. The mercury 
 will now be found to have ascended a little in the 
 cylinder. If great exactness is required, let the 
 temperature be regulated by the thermometer ; so 
 that the operator may be certain, that the air is 
 not more expanded when the mouse is put in than 
 afterwards. 
 
 20* 
 
234 ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Now take out the mouse through the mercury, 
 fill a slender tube or test glass with mercury and 
 pour up the contents of the cylinder into it. Turn 
 the open end upwards and hold the finger on it 
 two or three minutes. The gases within it will 
 separate. Carbonic acid will settle at the bottom, 
 and nitrogen will rise towards the top. This may 
 be proved by immersing in the -top only, a small 
 burning taper. It will be extinguished two or 
 three times, and afterwards will continue to burn 
 near the top. Let it now stand open several min- 
 utes, and then immerse the taper to the bottom and 
 it will be extinguished. The nitrogen being light- 
 er than atmospheric air ascends, and atmospheric 
 air takes its place ; but carbonic acid being heavi- 
 er remains at the bottom. 
 
 Application. Several important principles are 
 illustrated by this experiment. A crowded as 
 sembly in a close room consume the oxygen and 
 give off carbonic acid gas. The excess of nitro 
 gen ascends to the upper ceiling, while the carbon- 
 ic acid settles down near the floor. Consequently 
 the purest air, or that which contains most oxy 
 gen, is between the two. 
 
 The diminution of the bulk of air in the cylin 
 der is a strong argument against a late theory of 
 Allen and Pepys respecting respiration. The old 
 theory, which this experiment seems to support iu 
 some measure, supposes the change produced in 
 the blood to be caused by an additional portion of 
 oxygen, which is received from the inhaled air, 
 through the thin membranes of the lungs. The 
 theory of Allen and Pepys supposes the blood to 
 be decarbonated, by the union of a portion of car- 
 bon given off in the lungs with oxygen of the in- 
 
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES* 285 
 
 lialetl air. But this theory requires that the bulk 
 of the air in the glass cylinder should neither be 
 increased nor diminished. For the addition of 
 carbon, in forming carbonic acid, although it in- 
 creases the specific gravity, does not increase nor 
 diminish the bulk of the gas. See illustration at 
 pages 107 and 108. 
 
 Animal effluvia, arising from the beds of the siclc 
 or from other sources, may be neutralized by the 
 strong acids in the state of gas. 
 
 Illustration. It seems to be proved by observa 
 tion that such effluvia are combined with aqueous 
 vapour. The. ready union of aqueous vapour and 
 the strong acids in the state of gas will appear by 
 first pouring a tea-spoon of muriatic acid upon 
 a red hot iron shovel, and then pouring a wine- 
 glass of water upon it. The acid will rise up in 
 the state of a suffocating gas, and the water will 
 follow it in the state of vapour and absorb it almost 
 instantaneously, so that the suffocating gas will 
 wholly disappear. 
 
 Application. Contagious vapour arising from 
 the beds of the sick, the marsh miasmata (carbu- 
 retted hydrogen combined with aqueous vapour) 
 and other pestilential effluvia, may be neutralized 
 as follows : Remove the sick and other persons 
 from the room. Set a tea-cup or gallipot on the 
 floor, half filled with table salt. Pour into it 
 strong sulphuric acid, and the room will be filled 
 with muriatic acid gas. After a few minutes open 
 the windows, and the air of the room will be pu- 
 rified. 
 
 ACIDS. 
 
 Animal matter highly heated in contact with pot* 
 -ash will yield the prussic acid, (the most active of 
 
236 ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 all known poisons ) and the prnssiate of potash will 
 be formed. 
 
 Illustration. Put some shavings of hides, which 
 raay be procured &i the tanners, into a crucible, 
 and invert another crucible over it, as directed at 
 page 102. Heat it until it becomes considerably 
 charred ; then take it out and reduce it to a coarse 
 powder. Boil some potash in a ladle and con- 
 tinue the heat until the potash is reduced to a dry 
 granulated mass. Mix the two substances in 
 about equal parts, and heat the mixture in a ladle 
 pretty closely covered with a sheet of iron. liaise 
 the heat until the blaze which leaks out under the 
 cover becomes whitish or nearly colourless. Now 
 pour this mass into boiling water, and continue the 
 heat some time. Skim oil' all carbonaceous and 
 other substances which rise to the surface. When 
 no more rises, stop the heat. This is the liquid 
 prussiate of potash. It may be evaporated and 
 form imperfect crystals. 
 
 Application. This is the most delicate test for 
 detecting the presence of iron. But the experi- 
 ment is difficult to be performed before a class* 
 and hardly to be recommended. Prussiate of pot- 
 ash may be purchased of the druggists. 
 
 A solution of the prussiate of potash will form 
 the prussiate of iron (prussian blue) by double de- 
 composition with a solution of sulphate of iron. 
 
 Illustration. Dissolve some copperas in a wine- 
 glass, and an extremely small piece of prussiate of 
 potash in another. Put a drop of the solution of 
 prussiate of potash into the copperas, and a prus- 
 sian blue precipitate will be formed. 
 
 Application. On the principle of the two last 
 
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 23 r 
 
 experiments, the prussian blue is manufactured in 
 the large way. 
 
 Prussiate of potash may be decomposed andprus- 
 state of mercury formed, by boiling it with nitric 
 oxid of mercury, (red precipitate.) 
 
 Illustration. Pulverize some common prussian 
 blue and put it into a floreuce flask. Put in about 
 half and one eighth as much red precipitate. Then 
 pour in about three times as much pure water 
 (calling a pint a pound) as of the prussian blue: 
 and boil the mixture until the red precipitate en- 
 tirely disappears. This will produce the prus- 
 siate of mercury in the liquid state. It may be 
 strained through paper, and about one fourth as 
 much boiling water as was put in at first may be 
 added. 
 
 Application. This salt is not much used, ex- 
 cepting for the purpose of procuring pure prussic 
 acid. For this use it is best to keep it in the liquid 
 slate, as above directed to be made, closely corked 
 up in vials. 
 
 Prussic acid may be obtained from theprussiate 
 of mercury by heat. 
 
 Illustration. Fit a long-necked tubulated retort 
 to a tubulated receiver. Surround the receiver 
 with snow or ice, and set the retort into the lead 
 pot in which the coals are but very little heated, 
 Pour into the retort some of the liquid prussiate of 
 mercury prepared as above, through the tubula- 
 ture. Pour about one eighth part as much pure 
 water through the tubulature into the receiver ; 
 and fit a waste pipe into the tubulature which may 
 conduct off, into water or elsewhere out of the 
 way, hydrogen and any other offensive gas which 
 in ay arise. 
 
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 In order duly to regulate the heat, &c. now put 
 into the retort through the tubulature about half as 
 much by weight of pure fine iron filings, as was 
 used of the prussian blue. All being ready, now 
 pour in as much strong sulphuric acid by weight 
 as of the iron filings, and instantly \vring in the 
 glass stopper very tight. Blow very lightly into 
 the air hole of the lead pot with the hand bellows, 
 so as to raise the heat a little ; but not so as to boil 
 nor even to simmer the liquid. Hydrogen gas will 
 pass into the receiver and out at the waste pipe. 
 The prussic acid will come over in a state of va- 
 pour, and being condensed by the cold of the ice, 
 c. will run down and unite with the water in the 
 receiver. After it appears that about two thirds 
 as much liquid is in the receiver as would equal 
 the weight of the prussian blue (calling a pint of 
 the liquid a pound) stop the process, cork up the 
 prussic acid in vials and put it into a dark cellar, 
 which is cool in summer and warm in winter. 
 
 Application. This substance is lately used in 
 consumptive cases. Two or three drops are dilut- 
 ed in a large quantity of water. It is the mostac 
 tive narcotic known. Two or three drops on a 
 large dog's tongue or in the corner of its eye, will 
 kill it in one or two seconds. It is too dangerous 
 an article to make or to use before a class. Let it 
 be described to the class ; but it should be made 
 in the private office only. A small quantity is 
 found in the meats of almonds, peach stones, cher- 
 ry bark, the laurus cerasus, &c. And the scent 
 of the prussic acid considerably resembles the 
 odour of these vegetables. 
 
 Some chemists place this substance among the 
 vegetable acids, because it is found in vegetables 
 
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES, 23$ 
 
 and not in animals. Since it is produced from 
 animal substance I have placed it here ; though I 
 do not contend for the propriety of this location. 
 
 The basis of this acid is found by Gay Lussac 
 to consist of carbon and nitrogen. It is the car- 
 buret of nitrogen, by some called cyanogen. 
 
 Remark. The remaining animal acids, enu- 
 merated by authors, are of little use ; and many of 
 them are not well defined. That which is most 
 worthy of the particular attention of the house- 
 keeper is the 
 
 Sebacic acid. It is this acid which is so readi- 
 ly produced by butter or fat, giving it a disagree- 
 able rancid flavour. Butter with this flavour is 
 called frowy butter in New-England. This acid 
 may be neutralized by any of the alkalies. Pearl- 
 ash or carbonate of soda will do it effectually. If 
 a little pearlash be dissolved in water, and the but- 
 ter be worked over with this water, all the sebacic 
 acid will combine with the potash and form a so- 
 luble salt. If the butter is then worked over two 
 or three times with pure water, the sebaceate of 
 potash as well as the pearlash will be worked out ; 
 leaving the butter pure. 
 
 If cakes, &c. be shortened, in the language of 
 cooks, with frowy butter, and pearlash be added, 
 the sebacic acid will decompose some of the pearl- 
 ash, and thereby furnish carbonic acid to assist in 
 raising the dough. This is the best method of 
 using rancid butter or fat. Because the alkali 
 may sometimes be tasted after it has been applied 
 for cleansing as before described 5 but when used 
 for shortening, it cannot. 
 
 DYING. 
 
 Dying materials are either substantive or adjec- 
 tive. 
 
240 ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Substantive colouring matters are those which 
 may be made permanent upon stuffs without a 
 mordant ; as indigo. 
 
 Adjective colouring matters are those which can- 
 not be made permanent without the aid of a mor-, 
 dant ; as butternut bark, logwood, &c. 
 
 Mordants are the mediating substances, which 
 are used for fixing adjective colours ; as copperas, 
 alum, muriate of tin, &c. 
 
 Some colouring matters produce different co- 
 lours when a mordant is used ; others are merely 
 fixed by a mordant without any change in colour. 
 
 Dying is too extensive a subject to be presented 
 in detail, in this Instructor. A few principles 
 may be explained which will prepare the student 
 for pursuing the subject under the head, 
 
 CALICO PRINTING. 
 
 Remarks; In the most simple operations, co- 
 louring matters and mordants are applied several 
 times in succession, giving a different colour at 
 every application. These applications are made 
 with carved blocks, (mostly cylindrical) or by the 
 aid of a defensive coat of wax, or of some other 
 material. 
 
 Illustration. Prepare madder dye in the com- 
 mon way also a dye of walnut bark also a dye 
 of indigo. Cover parts of a piece of white cotton 
 with melted white wax, and dip it into acetate of 
 alumine. Then melt off the wax in hot water, 
 !Now dip it into the madder dye. Then wash and 
 bleach it. The dye will not take where the mor- 
 dant was kept off by the wax. 
 
 Similar experiments may be performed with all 
 other colouring matters, using acetate of alumine, 
 sulphate of iron, acetate of iron, &c. Spots may 
 
ANALYSIS. 241 
 
 be made of different colours by applying a mor- 
 dant, mixed with paste, by means of carving upon 
 a block. 
 
 N. B. The teacher should put large treatises 
 Into the hands of students, if time will allow a full 
 course ; as Bancroft, Cooper, &c. For very mi- 
 iwte descriptions of particular manipulations being 
 necessary, large systems must be consulted. 
 
 ANALYSIS^ 
 
 _ 
 
 OF MINERAL WATERS, SOILS, AND MINERALS, 
 
 Remarks. To analize expertly and accurately 
 requires the practice of several years, and an ex- 
 tensive collection of the most perfect tests. The 
 presence of common metals may be detected, with- 
 out much difficulty. The substances which are 
 usually held in solution in the mineral waters of 
 our country, may be ascertained without a laborious 
 process. But to determine the proportions of the 
 parts of a compound mineral, or the quantity of 
 any substance contained in mineral waters, re- 
 quires in some cases, more practical instruction 
 than can be communicated in the course here pro- 
 posed. 
 
 The directions, which are given under this head, 
 are sufficient for ordinary cases in the analysis of 
 mineral waters they are still more complete for 
 the analysis of soils but the analysis of the sub- 
 stances, which belong to the classes Metalloids 
 and Metals, requires an extensive treatise. A 
 mere outline is given here. 
 
 GENERAL TESTS FOR MINERAL WATERS, SOILS 
 AND MINERALS. 
 
 Ms the hydro-sulphuret of ammonia will precipi- 
 21 
 
242 ANALYSIS. 
 
 tate the oxids of all metals, which form the basis 
 of salts, the colours of the precipitates may assist 
 in detecting metals. 
 
 Illustration. Put very dilute solutions of sev- 
 eral metallic salts (as copperas, blue vitriol, white 
 vitriol, sugar of lead, lunar caustic, &c.) into sepa- 
 rate wine-glasses, and pour in an extremely small 
 quantity of hydro-sulphuret of ammonia into each, 
 and observe the different coloured precipitates. 
 
 Application. Dissolve a supposed metal in an 
 acid as sulphuric, muriatic, nitric or nitro-mu- 
 riatic. Prepare a solution of a known metallic 
 salt, as before directed, having a base of that met- 
 al which is suspected to be under examination. 
 Pour some hydro-sulphuret of ammonia into both, 
 and compare the colours, densities and other char- 
 acters of the precipitate. Although this will not 
 always afford conclusive evidence, it will assist 
 in directing the judgment. 
 
 toi infusion of galls will precipitate the oxids of 
 many of the metals , which form the bases of salts ; 
 and the colours of the precipitates may assist in de- 
 tecting such metals. 
 
 Illustration. Rasp off a quantity of nut-gall 
 and soak it an hour or two in pure water. Strain 
 off the liquid and put it into a phial for use. Dis- 
 solve several metallic salts as directed in the last 
 experiment, and precipitate the oxids of the met- 
 als from their acids with the infusion of the nut- 
 galls, and observe the colours of the precipitates. 
 
 Application. Metals may be tested by being 
 reduced to salts and by collateral er comparison 
 experiments as directed when using the hydro-sul- 
 phuret of ammonia. It must be understood, that 
 the same metal sometimes gives different coloured 
 
ANALYSIS. 243 
 
 precipitates, when in different degrees of oxida- 
 tion. The following are some of the colours as 
 taken from Brande. With the proto-muriate of 
 manganese, dirty yellow proto-sulphate of iron, 
 purple permuriateof iron, black muriate of tin, 
 dirty yellow proto-muriate of tin, (acid) straw 
 colour per-muriate of tin, (acid) fawn colour 
 proto-muriate of copper, yellow brown per-ni- 
 trate of copper, grass green nitrate of lead, dingy 
 yellow tartrate of antimony and potash, straw 
 colour tartrate of bismuth and potash, yellow 
 sulphate of uranium, bluish black muriate of 
 titanium, (acid) brown sulphate of titanium, 
 
 blood red white oxid of arsenic, scarcely 
 
 changed any salt of molybdena, brown sulphate 
 of nickel, green proto-nitrate and per- nitrate of 
 mercury, (acid) yellow nitrate of silver, curdy 
 becoming brown muriate of platina, brownish 
 green muriate of gold, wine colour. 
 
 Though the alkalies will take the acids from me- 
 tallic oxids generally ; yet the metallic oxid will 
 take metallic acids from the alkalies. 
 
 Illustration. Pour a solution of chromate of 
 potash into solutions of several metallic salts, and 
 chromates of the metallic oxids of the salts will be 
 produced. 
 
 Application. Proceed as directed under hydro- 
 sulphuret of ammonia, and much may be learned 
 respecting the presence of metals. No precipi- 
 tates of different metals will be of a similar colour. 
 That of mercury will be cinnabar ; of silver, car- 
 mine red ; of lead, orange yellow, &c. 
 
 Several acids, alkalies, and salts, give evidence 
 of the presence of mineral substances ; and there- 
 l)y direct the student in the analysis. 
 
244 ANALYSIS. 
 
 Prussiate of potash gives the prussian blue pre 
 cipitate with iron. 
 
 Muriatic add gives the grey precipitate with 
 silver. 
 
 Cochineal in solution gives a scarlet colour to 
 muriate of tin. 
 
 Sulphuric acid will cause an escape of bubble? 
 of carbonic acid gas, if poured into carbonated wa- 
 ter. It takes barytes from any other acid, by 
 forming with it a dense grey precipitate. 
 
 Brazil wood becomes yellow with acids, and its 
 original colour is restored by an alkali. 
 
 Nitrate of silver gives a dense grey cloud in 
 any solution containing muriatic acid, whether 
 free, or combined with a salifiable base. On ex- 
 posure to the sun ? s rays, this grey cloud (preci 
 pitate) becomes blackened. 
 
 Infusion or tincture of red cabbage gives a red co- 
 lour when an acid is free, or in excess, and a green 
 colour when an alkali is free or in excess. The 
 liuman breath, if introduced into the red cabbage 
 infusions, gives a light red colour, on account of 
 the carbonic acid manufactured in the lungs. 
 
 Red cabbage infusion gives a red colour to wa- 
 ter charged with sulphuretted hydrogen gas. It 
 will give the same colour to cider, wine, ale, &c. 
 because they contain a free vegetable acid. 
 
 ^i.B. Red cabbage becomes blue tyy standing 
 a few hours, if the water in which it is mashed is 
 pure. Paper in half incli slips dipped in a strong 
 infusion of red cabbage, is better adapted to such 
 xperiments than the liquid infusion. On dipping 
 euch slips of paper into the liquid to be tested, its 
 acid or alkaline character is shewn by the colour 
 of the slip of paper. 
 
ANALYSIS. 245 
 
 Turmeric infusion is changed from yellow to 
 brick-red or orange, by alkalies, whether free or 
 combined with an acid ; but it is not affected by 
 carbonates of the alkaline, or other, earths. 
 
 JVitric acid will convert gum, sugar, mucilage, 
 or jelly, into oxalic acid by long digestion with 
 Jieat ; but heat produces no change upou resin, 
 
 It detects the presence of starch if the substan- 
 ces be digested several days $ for alcohol will then 
 precipitate it. 
 
 It detects nitrogen in meat, &c. for if poured 
 upon meat in a retort, the nitrogen will come over 
 in a state of gas. 
 
 It is the only heavy acid which dissolves sil- 
 ver alone, 
 
 Muriatic acid always forms awhile precipitate 
 with silver or lead. The silver precipitate be- 
 comes black on exposure to air. 
 
 It produces chlorine gas with per-oxid of man 
 ganese, if sulphuric acid be added. 
 
 Tartaric acid when combined with potash, 
 forming the tartrate of potash, gives a crystalline 
 precipitate ; but if the basis is. soda the liquid will 
 remain limpid, 
 
 Oxalic acid (oxalate of ammonia is better) will 
 always produce a dense cloud with lime, whether 
 free or combined. 
 
 Muriate of ammonia gives a bright yellow (or a 
 little orange) precipitate, with muriate of platina 
 
 Corrosive sublimate gives a white flocculent pre- 
 cipitate with albumen. 
 
 Phosphate of soda is a good flux with the blow- 
 pipe, when deprived of its water of crystalliza- 
 tion by heat. 
 
 Lime water* perfectly limpid, gives a grey cloud 
 <with carbonic acid, in the state of gas or in water c 
 ..31* 
 
MB ANALYSIS* 
 
 It gives a brick- dust like precipitate with corrosive 
 sublimate. It decomposes salts of magnesia, with 
 a grey precipitate. 
 
 Tannin forms a solid precipitate with animal 
 gelatin. 
 
 Muriate of platina produces a yellow precipi- 
 tate with all salts of potash ; but not with soda. 
 But the solution must be strong, and contain no 
 excess of acid. 
 
 Sulphate of iron (when perfectly green) produc- 
 es a brown precipitate with any salt of gold in so- 
 lution. It gives a dark purple, and at last black; 
 with gallic acid. 
 
 Muriate of lime produces a white precipitate 
 with oxalic, malic, and tartarous acid. 
 
 Benzoate of ammonia precipitates iron of a yel 
 lowish colour. 
 
 Tincture, or infusion, of galls produces a violet, 
 nnd at last black, precipitate, with any solution ot 
 Iron. 
 
 Liquid ammonia gives any solution of copper a 
 blue colour. Partially precipitates salts of mag- 
 aesia ; but not salts oflime. 
 
 Oxalate of ammonia produces a grey precipitate 
 with any salt of lime. 
 
 Prussiate of potash forms a precipitate with all 
 metals but platina and it alloys, gold, antimony, 
 and teliurium. As no earthy salt is affected by it, 
 this circumstance makes it an excellent test for dis- 
 criminating between metallic and earthy salts. 
 
 JBarytic water is a substitute for lime water in 
 detecting the presence of carbonic acid. It is bet- 
 ter than lime water. 
 
 Muriate of barytes forms a cloud with sulphUf 
 lie acid in any state of combination. 
 
ANALYSIS OJP MINERAL WATERS. 247 
 
 Nitrate of barytes, same as muriate ; but is pre- 
 ferable in a few cases, when muriatic acid would 
 embarrass further experiments. 
 
 odine gives a purple colour to starch. 
 
 Jllcoh ol dissolves several proximate elements oi' 
 vegetables, which water will not dissolve. See v> 
 getade matter. 
 
 Metallic %inc precipitates lead, if there is a lit- 
 tle excess of acid in the solution. 
 
 Metallic iron precipitates copper (as a knife 
 blade, &c.) if there is a little excess of acid. 
 
 Metallic copper precipitates silver, if the acid 
 is a little in excess. 
 
 Black flux and white flux are useful with the 
 blow -pipe. 
 
 Asbestos fibres are useful for wrapping around 
 minerals to be subjected to the blowpipe, for hold- 
 ing them steadily. Minute specimens may be 
 fastened to the fibres with plastic clay. 
 
 Charcoal for the blowpipe is very useful. A mi- 
 neral put into a hole made in the coal will melt 
 sooner, than if exposed to the blowpipe in the 
 common way. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MINERAL WATERS. 
 
 The following directions will be sufficient for 
 detecting those substances which most commonly 
 occur, and in the largest proportions, in the United 
 States. Prepare the following waters artificially, 
 and test them before the class. 
 
 In searching for any of these substances, it will 
 be advisable to use the test for that first which we 
 have the most reason to expect. 
 
 Mu in ATE OF LIME. Nitrate of silver in solu- 
 tion dropped into the-water gives a dense white 
 
IMS ANALYSIS OF MINERAL WATERS. 
 
 cloud if it contains muriatic acid. Oxalic acid 
 gives a light white cloud, if it contains lime. Ox- 
 alate of ammonia is better. 
 
 SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. JLcetate of lead in 
 solution is precipitated dark brown. 
 -, CARBONATE OF IRON. Tincture of galls gives 
 a dark purple, and at length a brown colour, if it 
 contains iron. Boiling will drive off the carbonic 
 acid, so that after it has stood awhile the iron will 
 be so completely precipitated, that the superna- 
 tant liquid will not give the test with the tincture 
 of galls. 
 
 SULPHATE OF IRON. Tincture of Galls gives 
 the dark colour both before and after boiling. 
 
 FREE CARBONIC ACID. Lime water gives a 
 white cloud before boiling, but produces no effect 
 after boiling. 
 
 SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA. Muriate of barytes 
 
 fives a cloud, if water contains sulphuric acid, 
 f red cabbage does not give the acid test, the sul- 
 phuric acid is combined with a base. If the tinc- 
 ture of galls and oxalic acid give no test of iron or 
 lime, we may presume the base to be magnesia. 
 To be more sure, evaporate the water by a very 
 gradual heat, and taste the dried residuum. If it 
 has a bitter taste, it will be a confirmation of the 
 tests. 
 
 MURIATE OF SODA. Test the muriatic acid 
 by nitrate of silver. If oxalic acid does not give 
 the test of lime, evaporate it slowly to dry ness and 
 taste it. No one can mistake the taste of common 
 salt. 
 
 Incompatible salts are often mentioned in books. 
 But these incompatible salts often exist together 
 while the water is cold ; but as soon as the water 
 is heated, decompositions take place. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 249 
 
 The preceding are not given according to the 
 nice directions of the books ; but they will serve 
 as a convenient guide. 
 
 If lead be suspected in water which has passed 
 through leaden aqueducts, pass sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen gas into a portion of it, and if it contains 
 lead, it will instantly exhibit a dark brown tinge. 
 
 If copper is suspected in water, or in any ar- 
 ticle of diet which has stood in a copper vessel, 
 pour into it liquid ammonia, and it will become 
 blue. 
 
 N. B. Always institute collateral experiments 
 upon known substances, which are similar to those 
 for which you are searching. In doing this, make 
 use of very minute portions ; because large quan- 
 tities may alter the appearance. 
 
 When it is required merely to know whether 
 the water is of that kind called hard-water, with- 
 out regard to the kind of substances held in solu- 
 tion, dissolve a small piece of fine hard soap in al 
 cohol, and pour a few drops of this solution into 
 the water. If it is hard water it will become 
 milky if no ^ ft w iu remain limpid, 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 
 
 The object in analysing soils is not to ascertain 
 the ultimate constituents of soils. It is to ascer- 
 tain the constituents of soils, so far as such con- 
 stituents have any influence upon the growth of 
 plants. Such constituents may be, 
 
 i. Stones above the diameter of the fourth of an 
 inch. These stones serve to prevent the soil from 
 becoming too compact, and to retain moisture on 
 their surfaces ; and, in some cases, to condense 
 floating vapour when at the surface of the soiL 
 
250 ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 
 
 2. Pebbles below the diameter of the fourth of 
 an inch. These serve for most of the uses of stones: 
 and, being of a more suitable size, are useful in 
 keeping the soil in a kind of loose porous state, 
 adapted to the extension of roots and transmission 
 of moisture. 
 
 The constituent elements of stones or pebbles 
 can have no influence on the productiveness of 
 soils ; unless reference is had to the future chang- 
 es to be effected by their disintegration. A 
 pebble of diamond, sapphire, or quartz, will have 
 the same influence upon vegetation ; though on an 
 ultimate analysis the first would give carbon, the 
 second alumine, and the third silex. 
 
 8. Siliceous soil. This has such a feeble at- 
 traction for water, that it will remain but a shod 
 time suspended in it. Such a soil scarcely suffers 
 by a wet season, and does not suffer severely by a 
 drought. It never "winterkills" wheat. But 
 it is not a rich soil. 
 
 4. Alluniinous soil. This is always in the state 
 of an impalpable powder. It attracts water so 
 strongly, that it will remain long suspended in 
 water. Such a soil is too soft in a rainy season, 
 and bakes hard in a dry season. It requires a due 
 mixture with silicious soil. 
 
 5. Lime soil. A soil which abounds in car- 
 bonate of lime. This may be considered as a per- 
 manent manure. Its ultimate disintegration en- 
 riches soils. 
 
 6. Soluble salts. Most salts of this kind pro 
 mote the speedy growth of plants. These, togeth- 
 er with some insoluble salts, as gypsum, pulver- 
 ized marble, &c. act as stimuli, and cause vege- 
 tables to seize greedily upon any nutriment with- 
 
ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 251 
 
 in their reach, as a glass of brandy excites strong 
 appetite in a healthy labourer. 
 
 7. Animal and vegetable matter. The basis of 
 these substances is chiefly carbon. But the whole, 
 not only furnishes nutriment directly to plants, 
 but absorbs from the atmosphere those gases which 
 are highly nutritive to them. This has been 
 shewn in the preceding part of this book. 
 
 8. Water. Some soils hold more water than, 
 others, between the drying heat of the sun and a 
 heat sufficient to charr dry combustible vegeta- 
 bles. Such soils will resist the ill effects of a 
 drought. 
 
 9. Oxid of iron. This is always found in soils ; 
 but its effects on vegetation seem not to be settled. 
 It is probably useful. 
 
 10. Powers of retaining water, so as to remain 
 mechanically suspended in it. This seems not to 
 depend wholly on the proportion of the alumine. 
 And when ever any soil, or any portion of it, will 
 remain suspended in water over four hours, wheat 
 sown in it is often " winter killed." 
 
 The following formula is an improvement, af- 
 ter five year's experience, upon one adopted by 
 Dr. T. llomeyn Beck, and myself, in analyzing 
 the soils of Albany and Rensselaer counties, 
 
 1. Several pounds of soil are weighed, which 
 was taken from an average of the field. The stones 
 are picked out and weighed, which are above the 
 fourth of an inch in diameter, and their percentage 
 estimated. 
 
 2. Six hundred grains of this soil is weighed 
 out, after deducting the above percentage, and put 
 into a pint of pure water, thoroughly stirred, and 
 allowed to settle one minute. All above the sed- 
 
352 ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 
 
 iment of pebbles is then poured off. The pebbles 
 are sun-dried, weighed, and their percentage esti- 
 mated. What is poured off is sun-dried, and re- 
 duced to an impalpable powder in a clean Wedge- 
 wood mortar. 
 
 3. One third part is put into a crucible and heat- 
 ed gradually, constantly stirring it with a dry pine 
 stick, until the stick becomes a little brownish from 
 the heat, on pressing it against the bottom of the 
 crucible. 
 
 4. It is then carefully poured into the scales and 
 again weighed. What is deficient is set down as 
 water. 
 
 5. The parcel is then returned into the crucible, 
 and heated to a high red heat. It is frequently 
 stirred with a glass rod, and the heat is continued 
 until the mass presents no shining sparks. After 
 
 ' allowing it to cool a little, it is returned into the 
 scales again, and what it wants of its last weight, 
 is set down for the animal and vegetable matter. 
 Part of this remainder is undoubtedly water, but 
 probably is not more than should always be con- 
 sidered as attached to this part. It may here be 
 added, that there will be no blackness in the 
 appearance of the soil, if it has been sufficiently 
 heated. 
 
 6. Let it now be poured into an assay glass, 
 and half a pint of pure water added to it. After re- 
 peated stirring for ten minutes, let it stand about 
 three minutes to allow the siliceous matter to set- 
 tle. Then pour off all which stands over the sili- 
 ceous part into another glass. Dry this sediment 
 in a high red heat, weigh it and set it down for the 
 siliceous soil. 
 
 1* Lei the part which was transferred to another 
 glass, stand until it settles, leaving the liquid clear. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 253 
 
 Pour off the liquid into another glass, dry this se- 
 diment with a high red heat, weigh it, and set it 
 down for the aluminous soil. 
 
 8. The remaining liquid is then evaporated in 
 a glass evaporating dish. The solid residuum is 
 scraped off, and weighed for soluble salts. 
 
 9. Another third part is put into a florence flask, 
 in which half a gill of equal portions of muriatic 
 acid and water Iras previously been poured, and 
 which has also been balanced by weights in the 
 scales. After allowing it to stand about three 
 hours, it is ascertained how much less than its 
 former weight is to be added to the weight, in or- 
 der to balance the flask. It must be remembered 
 that the carbonic acid is to be blowed out of the 
 flask with a bellows, before it is weighed. This 
 is considered as the weight of the carbonic acid 
 that 1ms been expelled. Then by the table of 
 component parts, as 44 is to 56, so is this weight 
 to the weight of the base. The carbonate of lime 
 In the soil is thus ascertained. The lime, how- 
 ever, must be subtracted from the silex, and the 
 weight of the carbonic acid must be deducted from 
 the animal and vegetable matter ; since the heat 
 that burnt out the animal and vegetable matter, al- 
 so expelled the carbonic acid, and left the lime 
 with the siliceous soil. 
 
 We are aware that part of the quick lime may 
 remain with the soluble salts, and part of the car- 
 bonic acid may still remain with its base and the 
 sflex. The error, however, will be of no conse- 
 quence IB agriculture. 
 
 10. Boil the last third in sulphuric acid, and 
 thus obtain a sulphate ef iron. Precipitate the 
 iroa with prussiate of gotash. Then pour off all 
 
 22 
 
254 ANALYSIS OF MINERALS. 
 
 the liquid, dry and weigh the solid blue prussiate 
 of iron. Then by the per cent tables it appears 
 that 30.80 of this salt is protoxid of iron peroxitl 
 being 34.23. 
 
 Average specimens of soil from near Albany anil 
 Troy, N. Y. 
 
 Upland loam. Silex 67 per cent Alumine 22 
 Carbonate of lime 1 Soluble salts 1 Decom- 
 posed animal and vegetable matter 5 Water 4= 
 100. Settled clear in 4 hours. 
 
 Best lowland loam. Silex f>6 Alumine 25 
 Carbonate ot lime 2 Soluble salts 1 Decompos* 
 ed animal and vegetable matter 12 Water 4= 
 100, Settled clear in 3 hours. 
 
 Best river alluvion where water stands three or 
 four feet below the surface. Silex 75 Alumine 
 7 Carbonate of lime 3 Soluble salts i Decom- 
 posed animal and vegetable matter 11 Water 3= 
 100. Settled clear in 2 hours. 
 
 Clay alluvion. Siliceous soil 48 alluminous 
 39 carbonate of lime 2 soluble salts 2 animal 
 and vegetable matter 5 water 4=100. Settles 
 clear in 26 hours. 
 
 Stones and pebbles were included under silex. 
 or siliceous soil, in all these analyses. 
 
 Note. If the oxid of iron is sought, most soils 
 will yield from 1 to 3 per cent. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MINERALS. 
 After the student has prepared or procured, the 
 general tests, and applied them in the analysis of 
 Mineral waters, and familiarized himself with 
 their appearances in artificial as well as natural 
 liquids, he should proceed to the analysis of solid 
 minerals. 
 
ANALYSIS OF MINERALS. 255 
 
 Most solid minerals must be brought to the li- 
 quid state before tests are applied. In many cases 
 a mere mechanical suspension in water will serve 
 the same purpose as a chemical solution. 
 
 Analysis of minerals is very properly divided 
 into the approximating process and the propor- 
 tioning process. 
 
 APPROXIMATING PROCESS. 
 
 1. Determine the character of the mineral, as 
 nearly as possible, by the external characters, ac- 
 cording to the most approved systems of Mineral- 
 ogy. Cleaveland and Emmons are the best now 
 in use in this country. 
 
 2. Pulverize the mineral in quantities five or 
 BIX times as great as you intend to analyse ; 4 gen 
 erally about 500 grains. Most minerals, espe 
 cially those of the silicious kind, require to be 
 heated to a high red heat and plunged into water. 
 
 All minerals must be pounded and rubbed ve- 
 ry fine. Most failures in analysis may be ascrib- 
 ed to a want of attention to this part of the pro- 
 cess. The mineral must be so fine as to become 
 somewhat of a paste or cake, when dry. 
 
 3. Stir up a little of the powder in pure cold 
 water let it settle a little, so as to become partly 
 clear. Put a little of this into several wine glass 
 es. Test it separately by hydro-sulphuret of am- 
 monia, nut-galls, prussiate of potash, chromate of 
 potash, oxalic acid, nitrate of silver, muriate of 
 barytes, acetate of lead. Write down the appear- 
 ance produced by each test ; and against each 
 write the name of the mineral substance it indi 
 cates, according to the rules set down under gen- 
 eral tests. 
 
256 ANALYSIS OF MINERALS. 
 
 4. Gk> through the same process, given undev 
 No. 3, with boiling water, if doubts still remain. 
 
 5. Gro through with same process, given under 
 No. 3, with sulphuric acid, muriatic acid, nitric 
 acid, and nitro- muriatic acid ; unless some, or al! 5 
 the trials, have demonstrated the presence of all 
 the constituents whicli can be present in the 
 mineral, without this step. 
 
 After this last step has been taken, if a consid 
 erable part of the mineral remains in a solid state* 
 proceed as follows : 
 
 6. Mix a weighed portion with three times its 
 weight of pure solid potash, and dissolve it in pure 
 water, (or rather stir it up so as to bring it to a kind 
 of mechanical suspension in it.) 
 
 7. Put this mixture into a cast-iron crucible 
 (silver or platina would be preferable) and apply 
 lieat moderately and stir it continually. Raise 
 the heat a little gradually until all the water is 
 evaporated. Now raise the heat, and keep the 
 mixture red-hot half an hour ; or until the whole, 
 or most of it, becomes liquid. The liquid part is 
 silex. But it is difficult to separate it by pouring. 
 We can only obtain a general knowledge of the 
 mineral by this step. Such as, that if it is most 
 ly liquid and limpid, it is mostly silex if it is 
 dense, opaque, and paste-like, it contains but lit- 
 tle silex if it is in a pulverized state, it is chiefly 
 alumine. 
 
 Thus far we merely approach the desired re- 
 sult. In pursuing the analysis, we depart from 
 the usual complicated method, which takes along 
 every constituent of the specimen at the same 
 time. We find it to be much more simple and 
 r convenient to seek the proportion of each constifa* 
 
ANALYSIS OF MINERALS, 
 
 257 
 
 ent of a compound separately, as though it was the 
 only ohject of research. Then proceed with an- 
 other specimen of the same mineral upon the same 
 plan ; and so on, until every substance, indicated 
 by the tests, be separately ascertained, 
 
 PROPORTIONING PROCESS, 
 
 8. Having thus, by the aid of mineralogy, and 
 general tests, either ascertained the true character 
 of the mineral, or brought it within narrow limits, 
 we enter upon the necessary analysis for ascertain-* 
 ing the proportional constituents, as follows : 
 
 9. In our district of country we are to expect in 
 a specimen some of the following minerals ; and 
 rarely any other : 
 
 6. CHROME, 
 
 ferriferous, 
 oxid of chrome, 
 chromate of iron, 
 carbonate of chrome 
 
 7. SILVER, 
 
 sulphuret with lead ., 
 
 1. IRON, 
 
 protoxid, 
 
 hematitic, 
 
 argillaceous, 
 
 (lenticular & bog) 
 carbonate, 
 sulphuret, 
 carburet, 
 sulphate. 
 
 2. LEAD, 
 
 galena. 
 
 3. ZINC, 
 
 blende, 
 
 calarnine, 
 1. COPPER, 
 
 pyrites, 
 
 carbonate. 
 5. MANGANESE, 
 
 peroxid, 
 
 argillaceous-* 
 
 8. GOLD. 
 
 9. BISMUTH. 
 
 10. COBALT, 
 
 arseniate. 
 
 11. MOLYBDENA. 
 
 sulphuret. 
 
 12. ANTIMONY. 
 
 13. TITANIUM, 
 
 red oxid. 
 
 14. LIME, 
 
 carbonate,, 
 
 sulphate, 
 
 muriate* 
 
358 ANALYSIS OF MINERALS, 
 
 fluate, 
 phosphate. 
 
 15. BARYTES, 
 
 sulphate. 
 
 16. STRONTIAN, 
 
 sulphate. 
 
 17. MAGNESIA, 
 
 sulphate. 
 
 18. SODA, 
 
 muriateo 
 
 19. POTASH, 
 
 nitrate. 
 
 20. ALUMINE, 
 
 sulphatCc 
 
 21. SILEX. 
 
 22. COAL. 
 
 23. BlTUMENo 
 
 When the presence of any df these minerals is 
 detected in a specimen under examination, by the 
 external characters given in systems of mineralo 
 gy or by the general test, a further analysis may 
 be made as follows : 
 
 10. Iron ore, whether magnetic, hematitic, ar- 
 gillaceous, or carbonate, should be dissolved in 
 muriatic acid, renewing the acid several times and 
 pouring off the clear liquid, and precipitated by 
 carbonate of soda from the liquid poured off. Dry 
 the precipitate after several washings, and the pro 
 toxid is obtained. Or the muriate may be crys 
 tallized without precipitation or dried in the amor- 
 phous state in a high heat. The tables of the ox- 
 Ids, or salts, will show the exact proportion of 
 pure iron. 
 
 N. B. Young analysts generally fail in this 
 analysis, and in some others, because they do not 
 make the powder of the ore fine enough, nor wait 
 long enough for the solution. Nothing but hard- 
 ened steel is sufficiently hard for a mortar, and 
 from three to six days are required for solution. 
 The steel face of an anvil will be sufficient, if the 
 mineral is pounded in a ring to prevent scattering* 
 with a good smooth-faced hammer. 
 
 Pyrites should be boiled in nitric acid until the 
 sulphur is converted into sulphuric acid, Tht 
 
ANALYSIS OF MINERALS, 259 
 
 sulphuric acid is then converted to sulphate of 
 barytes by introducing muriate of bary tes ; and on 
 drying the precipitated sulphate of barytes the 
 original proportion of sulphur is ascertained al- 
 lowing 14.5 of pure sulphur for 100 of this dry 
 precipitate. 
 
 Subtract the sulphur, thus ascertained, from the 
 whole mass under examination, and the remainder 
 is the pure iron, if the pyrites is a pure per-sul- 
 phuret. 
 
 But specimens are rarely pure sulphurets. 
 Therefore it is best to prove the work by pouring 
 in a solution of carbonate of soda. This precipi- 
 tate, when dried and weighed, will give the pure 
 iron after deducting the common proportion of 
 oxygen in protoxid of iron. 
 
 If manganese is suspected, or any thing else, 
 use tests for their presence respectively. If found 
 present, ascertain their proportions in the usual 
 way with such substances ; or precipitate the iron 
 with prussiate of potash, gallic acid, or benzoate 
 of ammonia, and examine the proportion of pure 
 Iron in this salt. 
 
 Carburet of iron, (plumbago) should be heated 
 in a crucible to a high white heat. The carhou 
 will be burned out, leaving the iron nearly pure. 
 
 Sulphate of iron (copperas) should be bleated in 
 a crucible to a high white heat. The peroxid of 
 iron will be left in the crucible, which may be 
 weighed in this dry state, and the common deduc- 
 tion made for the oxygen. 
 
 2. Lead, in the state of a sulphuret, or galena, 
 should be dissolved in diluted nitric acid the 
 sulphur will be left undissolved. The sulphur 
 must be dried and weighed. This deducted, will 
 probably leave the weight of pure lead. But the 
 
260 ANALYSIS OF MINERALS. 
 
 muriate of lead may be drred anil weighed, and a 
 deduction made for the proportion of muriatic acid, 
 as set down in the tables. If silver, antimony, or 
 zinc, is suspected, proceed to examine for each 
 independently as directed under these metals. 
 
 3. Ztinc, in the state of a sulphuret, (blende) 
 may be dissolved in nitric acid and precipitated 
 by soda. It is best to re-dissolve it in muriatic 
 acid and precipitate it again. If the presence of 
 copper had appeared by the general test, precipi- 
 tate it by a plate of clean soft iron. 
 
 Calamine may be dissolved in nitric acid and 
 precipitated by ammonia. But it is best to pre- 
 cipitate it and evaporate it to dryness and dissolve 
 it again before it is precipitated for weighing. 
 
 4. Copper pyrites, may be dissolved by nitro- 
 muriatic acid, and precipitated from the acid and 
 from the iron, &c. by the iron plate. 
 
 Carbonate of copper, may be dissolved in nitric 
 acid, and the copper precipitated with the iron 
 plate. 
 
 5. Manganese peroxid, is separated from its 
 oxygen with great difficulty. Its qualities may 
 be tested by making chlorine gas in the usual 
 way, with an ounce of it. See how much pure 
 gas it will produce, and compare it wifch another, 
 ounce which is known to be good. 
 
 Argillaceous manganese, is the oxid of manga- 
 nese combined with iron and clay. Try its quali- 
 ty as above. 
 
 Both kinds, on being heated in a gun-barrel, 
 give oVer carbonic acid, before the heat is raised 
 sufficiently for eliminating oxygen. This may be 
 collected ; and, as it is produced from carbonate 
 of iron, the quantity of that ore may thus be as- 
 certained by the tables. 
 
ANALYSIS OF MINERALS. 261 
 
 6. Chromate of iron must be melted with eight 
 or ten times its weight of potash, and then dissolv- 
 ed in water. This solution should be saturated 
 with nitric acid, to take up the excess of potash. 
 Then put in a solution of nitrate of lead. A double 
 decomposition will take place, and the precipitate 
 will be chromate of lead. After washing and 
 weighing, allow 35 of chromic acid for 100 of 
 chromate of lead. 
 
 7. Sulphuret of silver is heated with diluted 
 nitric acid. The silver is dissolved. But it is 
 best to heat the residuum to burn off the sulphur : 
 as some silver may still remain with the sulphur 
 residuum. 
 
 8. Gold ores may be heated with nitre-muriatic 
 acid, and, precipitated of a purple colour with mu- 
 riate of tin. 
 
 9. Bismuth may be dissolved in nitric acid, and 
 precipitated in the state of a white oxid by mere 
 water. 
 
 10. Cobalt should be dissolved in nitric acid. 
 It may then be precipitated with ammonia. The 
 .precipitate may be dissolved by acetic acid, form- 
 ing an acetate of cobalt. This metal melted with 
 borax before the blow-pipe or otherwise, produces 
 a smalt- blue glass. 
 
 REMARKS, 
 
 All the earthy minerals and the remaining ores, 
 found in this district of country, can be analyzed 
 as far as may be required, by attending to the ex 
 ternal characters on using the common tests. But 
 if very accurate investigations are required, largei 
 works must be consulted. 
 
262 
 
 EXTEMPORANEOUS EXAMINATIONS 
 
 OF COMMON SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Sulphuric acid blackens a pine stick. 
 
 Nitric acid makes a pine stick whitish yellow. 
 
 Muriatic acid, if clean, does not colour a pine 
 stick 
 
 Common salt (muriate of soda) when thrown up 
 on burning coals, snaps and gives a yellow flame. 
 
 Glauber's salts (sulphate of sod-i) hisses like 
 water and becomes a compact efflorescence. 
 
 Saltpetre (nitrate of potash) roars and gives 
 brilliancy to the coals. 
 
 Mum (sulphate of alumine and potash) melts 
 into an inflated efflorescence. 
 
 Epsom salts (sulphate of magnesia) becomes a 
 flocculent efflorescence. 
 
 Common magnesia (carbonate of magnesia) 
 scarcely changes on ever so hot coals. 
 
 White vitriol (sulphate of zinc) snaps some- 
 what like common salt, but does not give a yellow 
 flame. 
 
 Blue vitriol, (sulphate of copper,) if the coals 
 are very hot, it gives a green flame and becomes a 
 white powder. 
 
 Copperas (sulphate of iron) extinguishes bum 
 ing coals and forms brown spots on them. 
 
 Sugar of lead (acetate of lead) gives off smoke, 
 but forms no efflorescence. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate (per-muriate of mercury) 
 gives a dense suffocating smoke; or if it is dissolv- 
 ed in water and poured into lime-water, it gives 
 an orange coloured precipitate. 
 
 Calomel, if dropped into a solution of pearlash, 
 gives a dark precipitate ; but will not give the 
 orange colour to lime water* 
 
EXTEMPORANEOUS EXAMINATIONS. 263 
 
 Verdegrls (acetate of copper) on being held in 
 the flame of a candle, presents numerous red glo- 
 bules. 
 
 Borax (sub-borate of soda) on being held in the 
 flame of a candle, boils, swells, and becomes like 
 parched corn. This salt gives a sweetish taste. 
 
 Iron, if dissolved in warm sulphuric acid, gives 
 a black colour when dropped into an infusion of 
 nut-galls. 
 
 Manganese (in its common state of a peroxid) if 
 pulverized, mixed with common salt, and made 
 into a thin paste ; then put into a wine glass, and 
 sulphuric achs is poured upon it, a suffocating gas 
 of a light green colour will be given off. If a 
 piece of calico is wet and spread over the top of 
 tbe glass, the colour of the calico will soon be ex- 
 tinguished. 
 
 Tin dissolved in nitre-muriatic acid changes a 
 purple solution of cochineal to scarlet. 
 
 Zinc, on being melted and boiled, becomes a 
 white woolly substance, lighter than air. 
 
 Common arsenic (arsenious acid) gives the. 
 smell of garlick, when thrdwn upon hot coals. 
 
 Copper, if dissolved in sulphuric acid, becomes 
 blue when dropped into liquid ammonia. 
 
 Common sulphur et of antimony, if pulverized 
 and mixed with saltpetre and thrown upon a fire- 
 shovel heated to whiteness, deflagrates and be- 
 comes a yellow mass. 
 
 Bismuth, if dissolved in nitric acid, is precipi- 
 tated in a white powder if water is added. 
 
 Gold can be dissolved in no acid, but the nitro- 
 inuriatic, and is of a yellow colour. 
 
 Platina can be dissolved in no acid but nitro* 
 muriatic, and is of a steel grey colour. 
 
264 EXTEMPORANEOUS EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Silver can be dissolved in no single acid but the 
 nitric ; and when the solution has become clear, a 
 particle of common salt will render it cloudy. 
 
 Mercury, if dissolved in cold nitric acid, will 
 throw down a white insoluble powder (calomel) 
 if a solution of common salt be poured into it. 
 
 Lead, if dissolved in hot nitric acid, becomes 
 Mack by pouring into it water which is charged 
 with sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 The following metals, when forming the bases 
 of salts, may be dissolved in pure water, and then 
 detected by their various coloured precipitates, 
 which are produced by pouring in a solution of 
 prussiate of potash. 
 
 Iron will give a blue precipitate manganese, 
 peach-bloom tin, white zinc, white chrome, 
 green columbium, olive bismuth, white co- 
 ]balt, grass-green titanium, yellowish-brown 
 cerium, white- uranium^ blood-red silver, white 
 becoming blue palladium, olive iridium, col- 
 ourless lead, white nickel, milk-white pro- 
 toxid of copper, reddish-brown^ and peroxid of 
 copper ; white. 
 
APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 
 
 20 grains 1 scruple 3 scruples 1 drachm 3 drachms 
 1 ounce 12 ounces 1 pound. 
 
 MARKS ON WEIGHTS. 
 
 o stands for grain B for scruple 3 for drachm 3 
 for ounces }fo for pound i or j for one of either, ii for 
 two, &c. 
 
 FRENCH WEIGHTS. 
 
 A millegramme is equal to .0154 of a grain- a centi- 
 gramme, 0.1544 gr. a decigramme, 1.5444 gr. a 
 gramme, 15.4440 gr. a decagramme, 154.4402 gr. 
 a hecatogramme, 1544.4023 gr. a kilogramme, 15444, 
 0234 gr. a myriogramme, 154440.2344 gr. 
 
 WEIGHT OF GASES. 
 
 Atmospheric air being assumed as the standard or uni- 
 ty, 100 cubic inches, weighing 30 grains and 20 hun- 
 ciredths of a grain. Atmospheric air, 1.000 oxygen, 
 1.117 nitrogen, 0.968 hydrogen, 0.074 carbonic 
 acid gas, 1.542 ammonia, 0.596 sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen, 1.192 carburetted hydrogen, (olifiant) 0.998 - 
 coal gas, 0.450 phosphuretted hydrogen, 0.894 chlo- 
 rine, 2.495 muriatic acid, 1.285 nitrous oxid, (exhi- 
 lerating gas) 1.527 nitric oxid, '1.043 nitrous acid, 
 2.135 sulphurous acid, 2.235 prussic acid, (hydrocy- 
 anic) 0.946 -water in vapour, 0.623 alcohol in vapour, 
 1;50G sulphuric ether in vapour, 2.396 spirits of tur* 
 pentine in vapour, 5.013. 
 
 WEIGHT op LIQUIDS, 
 Water being assumed as the standard or urtity. 
 Sulphuric ether, 0.76 nitric etlier>0.9t> alcohol, 0* 
 
 23 
 
266 TABLES. 
 
 91 proof spirits, 0.93 distilled vinegar, 1 muriatic 
 acid, concentrated, 1.17 sulphuric acid, 1.84 nitric 
 acid, 1.42 fuming nitrous and nitric acid, 1.50. 
 
 WEIGHT OF SOLIDS. 
 
 Water being assumed as the standard or unity. 
 
 Potassium, 0.85 sodium, 0.97 lime, 2,3 barytes, 
 4 strontian, 3.7 magnesia, 2.3 silex,2.66 alumine, 
 2 iron, 7.78 manganese, 6.85 tin, 7.3 zinc, 7 
 cadmium, 8.6 arsenic, 9.35 chrome, 5.9 molybdena, 
 7.4 tungsten, 17.5 columbium, 5.91 copper, 8.9 
 antimony, 6.7 bismuth, 9.8 cobalt, 8 red oxid of 
 titanium, 4.2 tellurium, 6.1 red oxid of cerium, 4.9 
 uranium, 9. gold, 19.3 silver, 10.5 platina, 21. 
 palladium, 11. rhodium, 11. iridium, 19.5? osmi~ 
 um, unknown mercury, 13.5 lead, 11.35 nickel, 8, 
 25. 
 
 SIMPLE AFFINITIES. 
 
 Each substance, printed in small capitals, has the 
 strongest affinity for the substance standing next to it*, 
 and this force is weaker for the next, and so in succes- 
 sion. 
 
 OXYGEN. Carbon, manganese, zinc, iron, tin, anti- 
 mony, hydrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, arsenic, nitrogen, 
 nickel, cobalt, copper, bismuth, mercury, silver, gold, 
 platina, muriatic acid. 
 
 OXYGEN. [Set down according to the difficulty with 
 which it is separated fr^m metals, by heat, when com- 
 bined by nature.J 
 
 Titanium, manganese, zinc, iron, tin, molybdena, co- 
 balt, antimony, nickel, arsenic, chrome, bismuth, lead, 
 copper, platina, mercury, silver, gold. 
 
 CARBON. Oxygen, iron, hydrogen. 
 
 NITROGEN. Oxygen, sulphur ? phosphorus, hydro* 
 gen. 
 
 HYDROGEN. Chlorine? oxygen, sulphur, carbon, 
 phosphorus, nitrogen. 
 
TABLES* 267 
 
 SULPHUR, PHOSPHORUS? Potash, soda, iron, cop- 
 per, tin, lead, silver, bismuth, antimony, mercury, ar- 
 senic, molybdena. 
 
 POTASH, SODA and AMMONIA. Acids. Sulphuric t 
 nitric, muriatic, phosphoric, fluoric, oxalic, tartaric, ar- 
 senic, citric, benzoic, sulphurous, acetic, boracic, car- 
 bonic, prussic, oil, water, sulphur. 
 
 BARYTES. Sulphuric, oxalic, fluoric, phosphoric, ni- 
 tric, muriatic, citric, tartaric, arsenic, benzoic, boracic, 
 carbonic, prussic. 
 
 STRONTIAN. Sulphuric, phosphoric, oxalic, tartaric, 
 fluoric, nitric, muriatic, carbonic. 
 
 LIME. Oxalic, sulphuric, tartaric, phosphoric, nitric, 
 muriatic, fluoric, arsenic, citric, malic, benzoic, boracic, 
 carbonic, prussic, sulphur, phosphorus, water, fixed oil 
 
 MAGNESIA. Oxalic, phosphoric, sulphuric, fluoric, 
 nitric, muriatic, tartaric, citric, benzoic, acetic, boracic, 
 carbonic, prussic, sulphur. 
 
 ALUMINE. Sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, oxalic, fluoric, 
 tartaric, citric, phosphoric, benzoic, acetic, boracic, car- 
 bonic, prussic. 
 
 SILEX. Fluoric, potash, 
 
 OXID OF PLATINA, OXID OF GOLD. Gallic, muri- 
 atic, nitric, sulphuric, arsenic, fluoric, tartaric, phos- 
 jphoric, acetic, prussic, ammonia- 
 
 OXID OF SILVER. Gallic, muriatic, oxalic, sulphu- 
 ric, phosphoric, nitric, arsenic, fluoric, tartaric, citric, 
 acetic, prussic, carbonic. 
 
 OXID OF MERCURY. Gallic, muriatic, oxalic, ar- 
 senic, phosphoric, sulphuric, tartaric, citric, malic, ni- 
 tric, fluoric, acetic, benzoic, boracic, prussic, carbonic-. 
 
 OXID OF LEAD. Gallic, sulphuric, oxalic, arsenic, 
 tartaric, phosphoric, muriatic, nitric, fluoric, citric, mal- 
 ic, acetic, benzoic, boracic, prussic, carbonic, fixed oils, 
 ammonia. 
 
 OXID OF COPPER. Gallic, oxalic, tartaric, muriat- 
 ic, sulphuric, nitric, arsenic, phosphoric, fluoric, citric, 
 acetic, boracic, prussic, carbonic, fixed alkalies, ammo* 
 jnia, fixed oils. 
 
268 TABLES. 
 
 / 
 
 OXID OF ARSENIC. Gallic, muriatic, oxalic, sul- 
 phuric, nitric, tartaric, phosphoric t fluoric, citric, acetic? 
 prussic, fixed alkalies, ammonia, fixed oils,, water. 
 
 Oxip QF IRON. Gallic, oxalic, tartaric, camphoric, 
 sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, phosphoric, arsenic, fluoric, 
 citric, acetic, boracic, prussic, carbonic. 
 
 OXID OF TIN. Gallic, muriatic, sulphuric, oxalic, 
 tartaric, arsenic, phosphoric, nitric, fluoric, citric, acetic, 
 boracic, ammonia, prussic. 
 
 OXID OF ZINC. Gallic, oxalic, sulphuric, muriatic, 
 nitric, tartaric, phosphoric, citric, fluoric, arsenic, acetic, 
 boracic, prussic, carbonic, fixed alkalies, ammonia. 
 
 OXTD OF ANTIMONY. Gallic, muriatic, benzoic, ox- 
 alic, sulphuric, nitric, tartaric, phosphoric, citric, fluor- 
 ic, arsenic, acetic, boracic, prussic, fixed alkalies, am- 
 monia. 
 
 SULPHURIC ACID, PRUSSIC. Barytes, strontian, pot- 
 ash, soda, lime, magnesia, ammonia? alumine, metallic 
 oxids. 
 
 PHOSPHORIC ACID, CARBONIC. Barytes, strontian 3 
 lime, potash, soda, ammonia, magnesia, (attracts car. 
 stronger than ammo.) alumine, metallic oxids. 
 
 NITRIC ACID, MURIATIC. Barytes, potash, soda, 
 strontian, lime, magnesia, ammonia, alumine, metallic oxids. 
 
 FLUORIC ACID, BORACIC, ARSENIC. Lime, barytes, 
 magnesia, potash, soda, ammonia, alumine, silex. 
 
 ACETIC ACID, LACTIC. Barytes, potash, soda, lime, 
 ammonia, magnesia, metallic oxids, alumine. 
 
 OXALIC ACID, TARTARIC, CITRIC. Lime, barytes, 
 strontian, magnesia, potash, soda, ammonia, alumine, me- 
 tallic oxids, water, alcohol. 
 
 BENZOIC ACID. White oxid of arsenic, potash, soda, 
 ammonia, barytes, lime, magnesia, alumine. 
 
 FIXED OILS. Lime, barytes, potash, soda, magnesia, 
 oxid of mercury, other metallic oxids, alumine. 
 
 ALCOHOL. Water, ether, volatile oil, alkalies, sulphur- 
 ets. 
 
 SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. Barytes, potash, soda ? 
 lime, ammonia, magnesia. 
 
TABLES. 269 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF ELEMENTARY CON* 
 STITUENTS. 
 
 BINARY COMPOUNDS. 
 
 The oxygen 10 in all, excepting ammonia. 
 
 Water, 1.32 hydrogen carbonic acid, 3.77 carb. 
 sulphuric acid, 6.66 sulphur phosphoric acid, 8.7 
 phos. nitric acid, 3.51 nit. chlorine, 31.1 mur. acid 
 ammonia, 17.54 njt. 396 hyd. soda, 29.1 sodium po- 
 tash, 49.1 potassium magnesia, 14.6 magnesium > 
 lime, 25.46 calcium red oxid of iron, 23 iron green 
 oxid of iron, 34.5 ir.- black oxid of copper, 40 cop- 
 per oxid of zinc, 41 zinc red oxid of mercury, 125.5 
 mere. black oxid of mercury, 251 mere. litharge, 
 129.5 lead oxid of silver, 135 silver. 
 
 TERNARY COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Subcarbonate of ammonia, 27.5 acid to 21.5am. 
 subcarbonate of soda, 27.5 carb. ac. to 39.1 soda sub- 
 carbonate of potash, 27.5 acid to 59.1 potash carbon- 
 ate of lime, 27.54 carb. acid to 35.46 lime carbonate 
 of barytes, 27.5 acid to 97 barytes sulphate of soda, 
 50 acid to 39.1 soda sulphate of magnesia (dry) 50 
 acid to 24.6 magn. ditto chrystallized, 74.6 sul. mag. 
 to 79.3 water sulphate of barytes, 50 acid to 97 bary- 
 tes sulphate of copper, 50 acid to 50 copper to 56.6 
 water sulphate of iron, 50 acid to 34.5 iron to 79.3 
 water sulphate of zinc, 50 acid to 51 zinc to 79. 3 water 
 nitrate of potash, 67*54 acid to 59.1 potash muriate 
 of ammonia, 34.1 acid to 21.5 am. to 1K32 water mu- 
 riate of soda, 34.1 acid to 39.1 soda muriate of pot- 
 ash, 34.1 acid to 59.1 potash oxymuriate of potash 
 93.2 mur. pot. to 60 ox. muriate of lime, 34. 1 acid to 
 35.5 lime muriate of barytes, 34 acid to 97 barytes-*- 
 cor. muriate of mercury, 34.1 acid to 10 ox. to 125.5 
 mere. submuriate of ditto, 34 acid to 10 ox. to 25 1 
 mere. sulphate of lime (dry) 50 acid to 35.5 lime dit 
 to crystallized, 85.5 sul. lime to 22.4 water. 
 
 23* 
 
270 TABLES. 
 
 EFFECTS OF HEAT AT THE DIFFERENT DEGREES OF 
 FAHRENHEIT. 
 
 90 degrees (below zero) the greatest degree of artifi- 
 cial cold 55 nitric acid freezes 50 natural cold at 
 Hudson's Bay 46 ether ? and strong liquid ammonia 
 freeze 39 mercury freezes 36 sulphuric acid freezes 
 cold produced by equal parts of snow and salt 25 
 (above zero) human blood freezes 30 milk freezes 32 
 water and oxy muriatic acid freezes 67 water boils in a, 
 vacuum 97 lurd melts 98 blood heat, ether boils 
 107 feverish heat 122 phosphorus burns 127 tallow 
 oielts 142 beeswax melts 176 alcohol boils 212 wa- 
 ter boils 442 tin melts 476 bismuth melts 540 ar- 
 senic is volatilized 590 sulphuric acid boils 612 lead 
 tnelts 644 mercury boils 700 zinc melts 809 anti- 
 mony melts 1077 iron red by daylight 1892 silver 
 melts 2205 copper melts 2517 gold melts 6508 iron 
 welding hot 8696 cast iron melts 10517 manganese 
 cnelts 1 1454 soft iron melts 23177 platina melts. 
 
 ATOMIC THEORY. 
 
 RELATIVE WEIGHT OF ATOMS. 
 
 Mr. Dalton has shewn, that if the weight of the ulti- 
 mate indivisible atom of oxygen be called one, the 
 weight of the ultimate atoms of the following substances 
 ere proportioned to it as here set down. Oxygen I 
 fiitrogen 1.8 hydrogen 0.13 carbon 0.75 phospho- 
 rus 2.6 sulphur. 2 chlorine (if simple) 4.5 -potassium 
 6 sodium 5.88 calcium 2.6 barium 8.7 magnesium 
 1.5 gold 24.9 platina 12.1 silver 13.7 mercury 25 
 copper 8 iron 7.1 tin .14.7 lead 12.9 zinc 4 
 bismuth 9 antimony 11.2 arsenic 6 manganese 7.1. 
 
 NUMBER OF CONSTITUENT ATOMS IN COMPOUND SUB- 
 STANCES. 
 
 Acids, 
 
 Water, 1 ox. 1 hyd. carbonic acid, 2 ox. 1 car. 
 oxid of nitrogen, 1 ox. 1 niu -nitrous acid, 3 ox e 1 nit 
 
TABLES. '271 
 
 --nitric, acid 5 ox. 1 nit. phosphoric acid, 3 ox. I phos. 
 sulphurous acid, 2 ox. 1 sul. sulphuric acid, 3 ox. I 
 sill, oxalic acid, 3 ox. 2 carbon and hydrogen. 
 
 Alkalies. 
 
 Potash, 1 potassium 1 ox. soda 1 sodium 2 ox. am- 
 monia, 1 nitrogen 1 hydrogen lime, 1 calcium 1 ox.- 
 magnesia, 1 magnesium 1 ox. barytes, 1 bar. 1 ox. 
 
 Oxids of Metals. 
 
 Protoxid of manganese, 1 man. 1 ox. deutoxid of 
 manganese, 1 man. 2 ox. tritoxid of manganese, 1 man, 
 3 ox. peroxid of manganese, 1 man. 4 ox. deut. of 
 iron, 1 iron 2 ox. per iron, 1 iron 3 ox. pro. copper, 1 
 cop. 2 ox. per. copper, 1 cop. 2 ox. deut. tin, 1 tin 2 
 ox. tri. tin, 1 tin 3 ox. per. tin, 1 tin 4 ox. pro. lead, 
 1 lead 1 ox. deut. lead, (red lead) 2 lead 3 ox. per. 
 lead, 1 lead 2 ox. pro. zinc, (it has but one degree) 1 
 zinc 1 ox. 
 
 Salts. 
 
 Sulphate of soda, 1 acid 2 soda sulphate of magne- 
 sia, 1 acid 1 mag. sul. lime, 1 ac. 1 lime alum 6 sul- 
 phuric acid, 5 alumine 1 potash sulphateof copper, 1 
 ac. 1 cop. sulphate of iron, 1 ac. 1 iron sulphate of 
 zinc, 1 ac. 1 zinc nitpate of potash, 1 ac. ! pot. nitrate 
 of silver, 1 ac. 1 sil. nitrate of mercury, 1 ac. 1 mer. 
 carbonate of ammonia, ] PC. i am. carbonate of lime, ! 
 ac. 1 lime carbonate of magnesia, 1 ac. 1 mag.; 
 
 'Uret*. 
 
 Sulphuret of iron (cubic) 4 sul. 1 iron sulphuret of 
 'lead, 1 sul. 1 lead sulphuret of antimony, 2 sul. 1 ant.-*- 
 sulphuret of zinc, 1 sul. 1 zinc sulphuret of copper, 1 suL 
 1 cop. carburetted hydrogen, 1 car. 2 hyd. sulphuret- 
 ted hydrogen, 1 .suL 1 hyd. phospluiretted hydrogen, I 
 phos. 3 hyd e 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A 
 
 
 Copperas 
 
 1GS 
 
 
 Pasre. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate 
 
 204 
 
 Acidifying substances 
 Aethiops mineral 
 
 48 
 203 
 
 Crocus of antimony 
 Cyanogen 
 
 186 
 216 
 
 Affinity 
 
 16 
 
 D 
 
 
 Albuirien 
 
 231 
 
 Decarbonate 
 
 233 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 227 
 
 Definite proportions 
 
 21 
 
 Alkalies 
 
 122 
 
 Diamond 
 
 104 
 
 Alum 
 
 155 
 
 Dough 
 
 2^4 
 
 Alumine 
 
 154 
 
 E 
 
 
 Ammonia 
 Ammoniurel 
 Analyses 
 Animal substances 
 Antimony 
 Apparatus 
 Arsenic 
 Atmospheric air 
 Atomic theory 
 
 89, 132 
 182 
 241 
 231 
 185 
 7 
 178 
 80 
 22 
 
 Earths 122, 
 Effluvia 
 Electricity 
 Epsom salts 
 Etching 64, 
 Ether 
 Ethiops per SB 
 Examinations 
 Exhilirating gaa 
 
 151 
 235 
 40 
 150 
 164 
 223 
 201 
 262 
 87 
 
 
 
 Extractive matter 
 
 220 
 
 Barytes 
 
 146 
 
 
 
 Bell-metal 
 Bismuth 
 
 183 
 187 
 
 Fermentation 
 
 225 
 
 Bitumen 
 Bleaching 
 Blood 
 
 225 
 58 
 232 
 
 Fibrin 
 Fixed oil 
 Fluoric acid 
 
 221 
 222 
 64 
 
 Blowpipe 
 Blue vitriol 
 
 163 
 183 
 
 Fluorine ' 
 Fluor spar 
 
 ifc. 
 ib. 
 
 Bones 
 Borax 
 Boron 
 
 232 
 118 
 ib. 
 
 Forge 
 Freezing mixtures 
 Fulminating powders 
 
 8 
 36 
 
 197 
 
 Brass 
 
 176, 183 
 
 Furnace 
 
 7 
 
 Bronze 
 
 ib. 
 
 G 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 Galvanism 
 
 76 
 
 Calomel 
 Caloric ' 
 Camphor 
 Carbon 
 Carbonic acid 
 Carburetted hydrogen 
 Charcoal 
 Chlorine 
 Chrome 
 Cistern 
 
 205 
 25 
 223 
 104 
 108 
 114 
 105 
 55 
 180 
 7 
 
 Gas-holder 
 Gas-lights 
 Gelatine 
 Gems 
 Gibbsite 
 Gilding 
 Glass 
 Glauber's salts 
 Gluten 
 Glycine 
 
 r< u 
 
 42 
 116 
 231 
 153 
 154 
 192 
 152 
 131 
 221 
 15S 
 
 Classes 
 
 13 
 
 Gold 
 
 191 
 
 Coal gas 
 
 lie 
 
 Gum 
 
 219 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 189 
 
 11 
 
 
 Colouring 
 Colours 
 
 219 
 45 
 
 Hard soap 
 Hard waters 
 
 131 
 
 243 
 
 Combustion 
 
 51 
 
 Harrowgate 
 
 9G 
 
 Conductors 
 Copper 
 
 34 
 
 132 
 
 Hydrogen 
 Hydro-sulphutct of ammonia 
 
 69 
 
 139 
 
274 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 f 
 
 Indelible ink 
 
 296 
 
 Precipitate per se 
 Proximate elements 
 
 206 
 15, 216,231 
 
 Indigo 
 
 221 
 
 Prusaic acid 
 
 218,237 
 
 Iodine 
 
 66 
 
 R 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 Isinglass 
 
 166 
 231 
 
 Red cabbage 
 Red lead 
 
 11 
 
 209 
 
 J 
 
 Jack o'Lantern 
 
 102 
 
 Red precipitate 
 Resin 
 
 203 
 224 
 
 K 
 
 
 Respiration 
 
 233 
 
 Kelp 
 
 113 
 
 S 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 Safety lamp 
 
 114 
 
 . Lead 
 
 207 
 
 Sal ammoniac 
 
 133 
 
 Light 
 
 43 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 84, 125 
 
 Lime 
 
 139 
 
 Scheele's green 
 
 184 
 
 Litharge 
 
 209 
 
 Sabacic acid 
 
 231' 
 
 Living principle 
 
 214 
 
 Shells 
 
 232 
 
 Lunar caustic 
 
 195 
 
 Shooting stars 
 
 104 
 
 M 
 
 
 Si'.ex 
 
 151 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 1 b 3 147 
 
 Silver 
 
 194 
 
 Manganese 
 
 170 
 
 Soap 
 
 124, 131 
 
 Marsh miasmata 
 
 114 
 
 Soap bubbles 
 
 7G 
 
 Massicot 
 
 208 
 
 Soda 
 
 130 
 
 Mercurial trough 
 
 9 
 
 Soda water 
 
 109 
 
 Mercury 
 
 200 
 
 Soils 
 
 241,249 
 
 Metalloids 
 
 121 
 
 Starch 
 
 220 
 
 Metals 
 
 160 
 
 Steel 
 
 166, 167 
 
 Meteors 
 
 104 
 
 Strontian 
 
 148 
 
 Mineral waters 
 
 639,247 
 
 Sugar 
 
 218 
 
 Molybdena 
 
 187 
 
 Sugar of lead 
 
 210 
 
 Mordants 
 
 219,240 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 90 
 
 Muriate of ammonia 
 
 134 
 
 Sulphuret of iron 
 
 16D 
 
 Muriatic acid 
 
 GO 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen 
 
 94, 185 
 
 N 
 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 93 
 
 Nickel 
 Nitric acid 
 
 211 
 tf 
 
 Sulphurous acid 
 Sympathetic ink 
 
 91 
 187 
 
 Nitric oxid 
 
 86 
 
 T. 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 79 
 
 Tables 
 
 265 
 
 Nitrous acid 
 
 86 
 
 Table salt 
 
 130 
 
 Nitrous oxid 
 
 86 
 
 Tannin 
 
 21 B 
 
 Nomenclature 
 
 54, 63, 121 
 
 Tartar-emetic 
 
 187 
 
 O 
 
 
 Tartaric acid 
 
 217 
 
 Oil 
 
 222, 231 
 
 Thermometer 
 
 33 
 
 lifiant gas 
 
 111 
 
 Tin 
 
 171 
 
 rganic substances 
 Orpiment 
 
 15, 213 
 178 
 
 Titanium 
 Turpeth mineral 
 
 190 
 
 20 I 
 
 Oxalic a"cid 
 
 217 
 
 U. 
 
 
 Oxydables 
 
 66 
 
 Ultimate elements 
 
 SI. 5, 231 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 49 
 
 \r 
 
 
 Oxy muriate 
 Oxymuriatic acid 
 P 
 
 u ' 7 ' i n 
 
 . 
 
 Vegetable acids 
 Vegetable substancf s 
 
 217 
 215 
 
 Patent yellow 
 
 210 
 
 W 
 
 
 Pearlash 
 
 123 
 
 Water 
 
 77 
 
 Pewter 
 
 172 
 
 Wax 
 
 221 
 
 Philosopher'^ wool 
 Phosphorus 
 Phosphuretted hydrogen 
 Pinchbeck 
 
 176 
 47 
 161 
 183 
 
 White lead 
 White nothing 
 White vitriol 
 Wood-sorrel 
 
 210 
 176 
 177 
 
 21" 
 
 Platina 
 
 198 
 
 Z. 
 
 
 Potash 
 
 123 
 
 ZaffVe 
 
 189 
 
 Powers 
 
 J2. 16 
 
 Zinc 
 
 I"' 
 
275 
 
 ADDITIONS AND CORBECTIONS. 
 
 Directions for making White Flux and Black Flux* 
 [Make a reference to this with a pencil at p. 247.] 
 White flux. Mix equal parts by weight of saltpetre an<? 
 cream of tartar (supertartrate of potash) and pulverize the mix- 
 ture very fine. Heat a crucible to a high red, or to a white, 
 heat. Drop into the hot crucible a teaspoon of the mixture at 
 a time. A detonation will ensue at every introduction of the 
 mixture. The tartaric and nitric acids will mostly fly off, leav- 
 ing potash almost pure. This must be closely corked up in a 
 vial, to be used for aiding in the fusion of some minerals, &c. 
 when no oxygen is to be diseagaged. 
 
 Black flux. Mix saltpetre with double its weight of cream 
 of tartar, and pulverize the mixture. Drop this mixture into 
 the hot crucible as directed in making white flux. In this case 
 some of the tartaric acid will be decomposed and charcoal pro- 
 duced in very intimate combination with potash. This must 
 be closely corked up in a vial, to be used when oxygen of a 
 metalic oxid is to be disengaged by ite combination with the 
 charcoal, while the potash assists the process of fusion. 
 
 Spelling. Sufficient attention has not been given, in this 
 book, to uniformity in spelling. We have authorities for dif- 
 ference in spelling several technical names. As chlorin or 
 chlorine, oxigen, oxygen, or oxygene. Some one of the author- 
 ized kinds of spelling ought to have been selected, and pursued 
 uniformly. 
 
 Page 14-line 16, " or" should be of, and be preceded by a comma. 
 
 32 line 3 from the bottom, " liquids" should be solids. 
 
 35 line 14 and 15, a comma must be placed after the words " scratch^ 
 
 and ' smoke." 
 
 102 line 5 from the bottom, " Prop. 7." should be Prop. 8. 
 
 119 line 8 from the bottom, " soluble" should be globule. 
 
 247 line 7, " vegetade" should be vegetable. On the same page, after 
 
 the word " blow-pipe" add, See Additions and Corrections, p. 275, 
 
M.amxa\ oi 
 
 A fifth edition of this work will soon be through the press of 
 Messrs. WEBSTERS and SKINNERS. It will embrace all known 
 indigenous plants growing north of the Gulf of Mexico, and the 
 common cultivated exotics. 
 
 The descriptions will be considerably improved and con- 
 densed ; so that the work will hot be much enlarged, though it 
 will embrace almost double the number of species. 
 
 So many books have been published with enlarged descrip- 
 tions of North American plants, within a few years, that a 
 portable system may be conveniently used with occasional refer- 
 ences to such books, if the descriptions are considerably con- 
 densed. It is hoped, that the price need not be materially en- 
 creased ; but this cannot be accurately ascertained, until it is 
 finished. It will contain the grammar, natural orders, &c. the 
 same as before. But the whole Botanical Dictionary, trans- 
 lated from the French of Richard, and published by Gen. 
 Howe, in New-Haven, in the year 1819, with some improve- 
 ments, will be published at the end of the book. It will contain 
 short descriptions of all the established southern and western 
 species of Elliot, Nuttall, Torrey, James, Beck, Pursh, Muh- 
 lenberg, Darlington, Baldwin, Schwimtz, Halsey, Rafinesque, 
 and others. 
 

 , 
 
Motfiester, W. T, 
 
 
 
 
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