woe.r 
 
 CO 
 

 
 UNIVERSITY of CALIFORN//- 
 
 AT 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Y.B. Separate 634. 
 
 CLEAN WATER AND HOW TO GET 
 IT ON THE FARM. 
 
 EGBERT W. TRULLINGER, 
 
 Specialist in Rural Engineering, Office of Experiment Stations. 
 
 [FROM YEARBOOK OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR 1914.] 
 
 9444<J 15 1 . WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915
 
 -a 7 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 The difference between clean water and merely clear water 139 
 
 Stream water unsafe to use 140 
 
 The farm well 140 
 
 How to keep the well water clean 142 
 
 How springs are polluted and how to keep them clean 144 
 
 How to get running water in the house 147 
 
 Conclusion . . 155 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PLATE VII. Some types of well surroundings 146 
 
 VIII. Some types of well and spring surroundings 146 
 
 IX. Some types of well and spring surroundings 146 
 
 TEXT FIGURES. 
 
 FIG. 3. A common type of cistern and filter 147 
 
 4. Pneumatic tank supply system with tank in basement 
 
 supplied by hand force pump 152 
 
 5. Hydraulic ram pumping into a pneumatic tank supply 
 
 system 153 
 
 6. Two methods of securing the necessary fall in drive pipe. 154 
 
 in
 
 CLEAN WATER AND HOW TO GET IT ON THE FARM. 
 
 By ROBERT W. TRULLINGER, 
 Specialist in Rural Engineering, Office of Experiment Stations. 
 
 THE improvement of farm water supplies, a matter 
 long neglected by American farmers, is now in some 
 degree attracting the consideration it merits. It is becom- 
 ing widely recognized that in many cases the farm water 
 supplies are perhaps dangerously polluted. In addition, 
 those who are so unfortunately situated as to be required 
 to carry water from the well to the house are becoming 
 extremely weary of this drudgery. Every farm must have 
 a water supply, and it is safe to say that a plentiful supply 
 of clean water, made available where most used by the mere 
 turning of a faucet, or at the worst by pumping without 
 carrying, is one of the main factors in making modern farm 
 home life desirable. 
 
 Securing clean water in the farm house is a somewhat 
 different problem from that of providing a city or town 
 supply. In the latter case the purity and availability of 
 the water supply is taken care of by engineering and public- 
 health officials; in the former a personal understanding of 
 the dangers which lie in a polluted water supply is neces- 
 sary, and a great deal of resourcefulness is often required 
 to secure an unpolluted supply and to prevent the drudgery 
 of carrying water. 
 
 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLEAN WATER AND MERELY 
 CLEAR WATER. 
 
 Perhaps the most important consideration in connection 
 with the farm water supply is to get clean water. In the 
 past clean water has usually meant clear water. But it 
 is now known that water to be clean must not only be clear, 
 but it must be pure. Water may be vilely polluted and 
 at the same time be beautifully clear and sparkling. It 
 may be clear and yet contain the invisible and deadly 
 germs of typhoid fever or other intestinal disorders. It 
 
 139
 
 140 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 may also contain considerable poisonous matter in solu- 
 tion. A polluted water supply is evidence of the existence 
 of bad sanitary conditions which it is of the utmost impor- 
 tance to remedy. 
 
 The main sources of water for farm use are streams, 
 springs, cisterns, and wells. Perhaps the majority of sup- 
 plies are derived from wells and cisterns, although springs 
 are often used. In rarer instances, where other supplies 
 are difficult to obtain, stream water is used. 
 
 STREAM WATER UNSAFE TO USE. 
 
 With the growth of population an'd development of 
 industries there is progressive pollution of streams, so that 
 in the more thickly settled regions streams not already 
 contaminated or subject to pollution are very rare. Surface- 
 water supplies from small streams should, therefore, never 
 be used for household purposes unless no other supply is 
 available. In the event that it must be used such water 
 should be clear and should be thoroughly boiled. Other 
 processes of purification, such as filtering, treating with 
 chemicals, or distilling, are also sometimes used, but are 
 generally impracticable from the farm standpoint. Under 
 ordinary conditions surface water of any kind should be 
 looked upon with considerable suspicion. 
 
 THE FARM WELL. 
 
 The well is the most commonly used source of farm 
 water supply. It may be a shallow dug or driven well or 
 a deep dug or bored well. It may be said, however, that 
 the majority of shallow dug wells on farms where contamina- 
 tion is present are contaminated. . This has been abundantly 
 proved by investigations made by this department and 
 by other Federal and State institutions. The State of 
 Illinois has made rather extended surveys of its farm water 
 supplies, and the report of these surveys shows that out of 
 a large number of typical shallow wells examined three- 
 fourths were dangerously polluted. The boards of health 
 of Indiana, Minnesota, Missouri, North Carolina, Virginia, 
 and other States have published official statements no less 
 startling. In a large number of cases it is stated that pol-
 
 Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 141 
 
 lution might have been prevented by proper precautionary 
 measures. 
 
 Contaminated water is, however, by no means confined to 
 shallow wells. Contaminated surface water often gains 
 access to deep wells at the top in the same manner that it 
 gains access to shallow wells. Poorly protected shallow 
 wells are sometimes polluted through the soil, although this 
 does not occur as often as is commonly thought. Deep 
 wells, if not cased, may be likewise polluted through the soil 
 or through rock fissures, and if cased, surface water may 
 follow the casing to the bottom and thus enter the well. 
 However, deep wells are as a rule less likely to be polluted 
 than are shallow wells. 
 
 A more vivid impression of common causes of unclean 
 farm wells can perhaps be gained from the accompanying 
 illustrations. These represent existing conditions, most of 
 which were photographed by the writer. 
 
 Plate VII, figure 1, shows the back yard of a local health 
 officer in a farming community. The rather small area 
 shown comprised a hogpen, chicken yard, and cow lot, and 
 contained a barn, manure pile, open privy, chicken house, 
 and shallow dug well. The pump is of the old wooden type 
 and is located at the foot of the stairs to the back porch. 
 Waste water and slops are dumped into a small ditch pre- 
 sumably intended to drain away from the house and well, but 
 which as a matter of fact fails to drain at all. 
 
 The open well shown in Plate VII, figure 2, is located much 
 lower than, and within 25 feet of, the barn and chicken yard. 
 The well in Plate VII, figure 3, contained water dogs, and in 
 fact any small animal could crawl under the loose curbing 
 and fall into the well. Plate VII, figure 4, represents a back 
 yard as photographed by the Indiana State Board of Health. 
 An examination of the water from the well showed it to be 
 dangerously polluted. Plate VII, figure 5, shows an open well 
 with old-fashioned wooden curb, pulley, and buckets which 
 is subject to surface wash from several sources of pollution. 
 The well is a shallow well about 15 feet deep, loosely lined 
 with stones. An inspection of the inside revealed moss and 
 slime hanging down into the water, probably resulting from 
 surface wash.
 
 142 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 The soil in which a well is sunk may more or less affect the 
 extent to which it is polluted. Often a shallow well in a 
 tough clay or hardpan soil which extends to the water- 
 bearing stratum is fairly safe from pollution if protected at 
 the surface. Deep wells in very sandy soils, if protected at 
 the top, are not often polluted. Perhaps the most dangerous 
 wells are those in a limestone region. The limestone often 
 contains open underground passages or channels. These 
 channels frequently lead to open fissures or sinks at the 
 surface, into which filth, sewage, garbage, and other contami- 
 nating matter is dumped. Rain water can carry these 
 impurities directly to wells through the channels. 
 
 HOW TO KEEP THE WELL WATER CLEAN. 
 PRELIMINARY MEASURES. 
 
 Obviously the logical first step in seeming a clean well- 
 water supply is to remove all the sources of possible contami- 
 nation. Among the worst of these are the open privy vault, 
 the leaching cesspool, and barnyard filth. A well in ordinary 
 pervious soil located lower than, and within 100 feet of, any 
 of these is almost certain to be polluted. Even though the 
 well is located on higher ground than these sources of con- 
 tamination, heavy pumping or dry weather may so lower the 
 ground-water level that it will reach the zone of contamina- 
 tion and thus pollute the well. It is evident, therefore, that 
 the open privy vault and leaching cesspool should be dis- 
 carded and a sewage purification system, or at least a sani- 
 tary privy, be used instead. Sewage, garbage, manure, or 
 other waste should never be dumped into sinks or fissures, 
 and most certainly never into old abandoned wells. An old 
 well used for this purpose is very likely to communicate 
 directly with the water-bearing stratum from which other 
 wells in the immediate vicinity draw their supply. Slops 
 or waste water should never be thrown out of the back door 
 or window onto the ground. If the pigs and chickens must 
 run at large they should at least be kept away from the well. 
 A box built around the pump and filled with manure in 
 whiter is an extremely unsafe way to prevent the pump from 
 freezing.
 
 Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 143 
 
 Concrete manure pits, impervious floors, and water-tight 
 drains are desirable features for farm buildings. If these 
 are beyond the farmer's purse the manure pile should at 
 least be placed a safe distance away from the well. 
 
 The well itself should be located as high as possible with 
 respect to buildings, stock pens, and chicken yards, and as 
 far away from all sources of contamination as convenience 
 and local surroundings will permit. 
 
 FIXAL MEASURES. 
 
 The final safeguards to a well-water supply are to give 
 the well an impervious lining of tile, cemented brick, iron 
 casing, or concrete, and to provide a water-tight curb, not 
 only to keep out surface wash, animals, and vermin, but to 
 prevent the pump drip and dirt from shoes and buckets from 
 entering the well. It is well here to suggest that those who 
 use the well should attempt to remove the most of the dirt 
 from their shoes before stepping onto the well curb. 
 
 Plate VIII, figure 1, shows a well-protected dug well. It is 
 located on high ground and has an impervious lining of 30- 
 inch vitrified tile with tightly cemented joints. The top tile 
 extends a foot above the ground and is capped with concrete. 
 The barns, pens, etc., are located at a safe distance and on 
 lower ground, the farmer preferring to pipe or carry the water 
 to these places. 
 
 Concrete makes a good lining for a dug well, owing to the 
 fact that if a mixture of mushy consistency is used an almost 
 water-tight bond can be effected between the soil and the 
 concrete, thus preventing in a measure the entrance of surface 
 water to the well by this route. A concrete well curb, as 
 shown in Plate VIII, figure 2, can always be used with ad- 
 vantage. Concrete drains to carry away the pump drip and 
 surface wash, as shown in Plate VIII, figure 4, are desirable. 
 Note the clean-looking surroundings of this well. 
 
 Deep wells are usually lined with smaller tile or with iron 
 casing. Small tile casings, however, where the joints are 
 not cemented, allow contaminated surface and soil water to 
 enter the well. The iron casing is more frequently used in 
 deep bored or punched wells of smaller diameter, being 
 usually driven into place. With such a casing the well can 
 be polluted only at the bottom. 
 
 94449 15 2
 
 144 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Ordinarily for shallow water supplies a driven well is 
 safest and the most satisfactory, particularly if the soil is 
 sandy. It consists mainly of a point and screen attached to 
 a pipe which is driven until the water-bearing stratum is 
 encountered. The screen on the point prevents coarse 
 matter from being pumped up. 
 
 From what has been said regarding wells it may be con- 
 cluded that the watchword should be ''Keep the surround- 
 ings clean and protect the well from surface wash and soil 
 drainage." For further safety it is a good idea to have the 
 water tested occasionally for signs of pollution. 
 
 HOW SPRINGS ARE POLLUTED AND HOW TO KEEP THEM 
 CLEAN. 
 
 The farmer who has a good spring which can be piped to 
 the house is fortunate indeed. Springs are, however, subject 
 to contamination from the same sources as wells, although 
 more often contaminated by surface wash and because ani- 
 mals have access to them. 
 
 The water from springs which are open and unprotected 
 from surface wash and from stock is often used for drinking 
 purposes. Plate IX, figure 1, shows a spring the water from 
 which is commonly used for drinking, especially by pic-nickel's 
 and wayf arers. This spring, as can be seen, is located directly 
 under a very popular roadway, and although walled in, has 
 inadequate protection from the filth which during rains will 
 wash from the roadway. Plate VIII, figure 3, is a historic farm 
 spring which is carefully walled in but forms an excellent 
 catch basin for the surface wash from the surrounding hog- 
 pens, chicken yards, barns, etc., located on higher ground. 
 
 The proper location for a spring is the same as for a well. 
 If it occurs in a good location it should first be fenced off from 
 stock and then walled in with tile or concrete to form a reser- 
 voir, which should be well covered. 
 
 Plate IX, figure 4, is an example of a well-protected small 
 spring which is located just above the foot of a hill. A 36-inch 
 vitrified tile was placed around the spring so as to form a 
 reservoir, and it was then covered as is shown. Owing to the 
 location and manner of protection there is little chance for 
 this spring to become polluted from surface wash. Small
 
 Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 145 
 
 springs can frequently be protected in this way, and if so 
 treated are often the best of water supplies. 
 
 Springs, especially those occurring in limestone regions, 
 should be kept under close observation and should be par- 
 ticularly noticed after rains for any signs of turbidity, which 
 may indicate pollution from near or distant surface sources. 
 Frequent examinations for pollution may prevent trouble, 
 and if there is any doubt whatever about the purity of the 
 spring, the water 'should be boiled carefully before drinking. 
 
 RAIX WATER AXD CISTERXS. 
 
 In many cases rain water is used for laundry purposes and 
 sometimes for drinking and cooking. It is often the only 
 available source of soft water. If rain water is to be used, 
 a cistern for storage purposes and usually a filter for par- 
 tially purifying the water are necessary. 
 
 Roofs, particularly shingled roofs, collect much dust and 
 dirt from the roads, and gutters and eave troughs are often 
 filled with leaves, dirt, and bird droppings. It is well to 
 keep the gutters clean, even though the rain water is not used, 
 but if it is used the importance of clean gutters is vastly 
 increased. However careful one may be, the roof is certain 
 to be dirty when dry. It is therefore extremely important 
 that a switch and by-pass be provided on the rain-water 
 pipe, so that at the beginning of rains the filth from the roof 
 may be washed to the outside before any rain water is 
 admitted to the cistern. 
 
 The necessary size of the cistern will depend on the amount 
 of water used daily by the family, the annual rainfall in the 
 locality, and the size of the contributing roof area. If the 
 rainfall is well distributed throughout the year, the capacity 
 of the cistern may be only sufficient for one or two weeks' 
 supply. In localities where long intervals often occur be- 
 tween periods of rainfall, and where much dependence is 
 placed on the rain water, it is advisable to provide a cistern 
 of sufficient capacity to hold half or three-fourths of the rain 
 which falls annually on the average roof area. The amount 
 available in gallons may be computed approximately by 
 multiplying the roof area in square inches by the rainfall in 
 inches and dividing the product by 231. To take greater
 
 146 Year-book of tlic Department of Agriculture. 
 
 advantage of rains, the contributing roof area may be ex- 
 tended by means of proper piping to include roofs of other 
 buildings besides the house. 
 
 The cistern may be built of concrete or cemented brick, 
 but in any event if placed underground it should be water- 
 tight, not only to prevent the loss of the stored water, but 
 to prevent the entrance of ground water. If the cistern is 
 constructed of concrete and the surrounding soil is loose and 
 exerts a decided pressure on the walls, the latter should be 
 reinforced close to the inside surface. A mixture of 1 part 
 cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts gravel or broken stone 
 may be used in cistern construction. The concrete mixture 
 may be made more waterproof by adding 10 per cent of 
 petroleum residuum oil based on the weight of the cement, 
 or by replacing about 15 per cent of the cement with 
 hydrated lime. Whatever the type of construction, one or 
 two coatings of a strong cement grout, preferably containing 
 about 3 per cent oil, will aid in waterproofing the walls. An 
 overflow pipe, well screened, should be provided in the side, 
 and the cover should be water-tight. 
 
 The filtering arrangement may either be in a separate 
 chamber or inside the cistern. 
 
 In the first case, a filter bed of sand and gravel is placed 
 in a brick or concrete tank or in a good barrel located pref- 
 erably close to the cistern. The rain water should be made 
 to spread over the surface of the filter and come in contact 
 with all parts of it, passing completely through before enter- 
 ing the cistern. Figure 3 shows a common type of filter 
 connected with an underground concrete cistern. Such a 
 filter should, in a large measure, purify rain water which 
 passes through it. The filtering material should be renewed 
 at intervals and the collected sediment cleaned out fre- 
 quently. The cistern shown has a capacity of about 3,800 
 gallons. . 
 
 In the second case, the filter usually consists of two walls 
 of brick, 8 to 10 inches apart, the intervening space being 
 filled with coarse sand, fine gravel, or both. Only the ver- 
 tical j obits between the bricks are cemented. A number of 
 loose bricks are placed at several points at the base to permit 
 the removal of the sand or gravel when it becomes clogged; 
 The filter wall should be built in an arch shape to give it
 
 Yearbook U. S. Dept 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 
 SOME TYPES OF WELL SURROUNDINGS. 
 
 Fig. 1. The back yard of a local health officer's residence. Fig. 2. A well which the surface 
 wash from the barn during rains will pollute. Fig. 3. A loose curbing which permits 
 small animals and vermin to fall into the well. Fig. 4. Well in which the water was 
 badly polluted. Fig. 5. An old-fashioned open well subject to surface wash.
 
 Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. 
 
 PLATE VIII, 
 
 SOME TYPES OF WELL AND SPRING SURROUNDINGS. 
 
 Fig. 1. A good protection for a dug well. Fig. 2. Curb good and tight, with pump frame 
 tigntly fastened to it. Fig. 3. Catch-basin type of spring, which one should usually 
 avoid, regardless of its history or popularity. Fig. 4. A nicely kept well with concrete 
 
 drains and clean satroundings.
 
 Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 SOME TYPES OF WELL AND SPRING SURROUNDINGS. 
 
 Fig. 1. Spring inadequately protected from surface wash from the road; should be looked 
 on with suspicion. Fig. 2. An excellent outside elevated tank system. Fig. 3. Small 
 gas engine directly connected to the pump. Fig. 4. Spring well protected, and can be 
 tightly covered.
 
 Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 
 
 147 
 
 strength. The raw-water compartment should be made 
 much larger than the filtered-water compartment to obtain 
 the benefit of sedimentation before filtration. 
 
 Sometimes the filter wall in a cistern consists merely of a 
 wall of porous brick with vertical cemented joints. This 
 type of filter is apt to become clogged and ineffective in time, 
 as far as purification is concerned. 
 
 In some localities it is necessary, owing to the height of 
 ground-water level, to build the cistern above ground. In 
 
 FIG. 3. A common type of cistern and filter. 
 
 such cases the cistern should be well protected to prevent 
 the entrance of filth and the breeding of mosquitoes. 
 
 The method of having the filter separate from the cistern, 
 although usually the more expensive, is perhaps the more 
 efficient. There are other simpler and perhaps less expen- 
 sive cistern arrangements which serve the purpose. The 
 main idea is, however, to purify the water as much as pos- 
 sible before it is used, and to provide effective storage. 
 
 HOW TO GET RUNNING WATER IN THE HOUSE. 
 
 From the standpoint of convenience, comfort, and refine- 
 ment, the most important consideration in connection with 
 the farm water-supply problem is to have the water under
 
 148 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 pressure in an elevated tank or in a hydropneumatic tank 
 and available at the turning of a faucet, or at least available 
 by merely pumping. 
 
 The method of hoisting water from the well or spring, 
 pouring it into buckets, and carrying it up porch steps and 
 through doors into the kitchen and to other parts of the 
 house is tiresome and wasteful of energy, and is cruelly and 
 in most cases inexcusably primitive, especially as the task of 
 obtaining the water generally falls in such cases upon the 
 women of the household. 
 
 It is desirable, therefore, that running water be available 
 at least in the kitchen, and in a bathroom if possible. 
 
 THE SIMPLEST WAY. 
 
 Almost any system of obtaining running water in the 
 kitchen is better than none at all. If the well or cistern is 
 located within a short distance of the house, about the sim- 
 plest and perhaps the cheapest method is to place a pitcher 
 or other pump over a sink in the kitchen. The suction pipe of 
 the pump may be extended to the well and water be obtained 
 when desired merely by pumping; that is, provided the dis- 
 tance to water in the well is not too great. Under ordinary 
 circumstances a pump will lif t water only to a height of about 
 20 feet. One should be careful, therefore, not to place the 
 pump in such a position that the suction lift will exceed 20 
 feet, for in that event the pump will not operate satisfactorily 
 and likely not at all. It should also be remembered that 
 water flowing through a pipe meets with considerable resist- 
 ance due to friction, which increases as the velocity of the 
 water and the length of the pipe increase and as the diameter 
 of the pipe decreases. Elbows and bends in the pipe also 
 increase the friction. Pump manufacturers give information 
 in regard to this frictional loss which should always be con- 
 sidered in arranging a pumping system in the kitchen or 
 elsewhere. The allowable distance from the well to the 
 pump for this arrangement will vary with local conditions. 
 The writer has seen cases in which this distance was as high 
 as 150 to 200 feet. 
 
 When the housewife is unusually busy in the kitchen it is 
 a waste of time and energy, and perhaps a strain on pat ience,
 
 Clean Water and How to Get It on the Fat^m. 149 
 
 to stop to pump water. Also the most water is usually 
 needed when she is the busiest. For this reason a water 
 supply under pressure is a great convenience, as it makes it 
 possible to obtain the needed water merely by turning a 
 faucet. 
 
 The simplest, and usually the cheapest, method of securing 
 a water supply under pressure is to have an elevated supply 
 tank located at some point 8 or 10 feet higher than the 
 highest faucet. 
 
 THE ELEVATED-TANK SYSTEM. 
 
 An elevated water-supply tank may be placed in the attic, 
 on the roof, on the windmill tower, on a special tower, or on 
 the silo. It must be high enough to give the desired pressure 
 at points where the water is used. The tank may be of wood 
 or galvanized metal. Its size will depend on the amount of 
 water used daily in the house. A 250 to 500 gallon tank is 
 sufficient for the average family, although some have a much 
 larger tank, so that a supply sufficient to last several days 
 may be maintained. A larger tank is also necessary where 
 water is supplied to the house and barns, 
 
 The simplest system of this kind is one with the tank in 
 the attic or on the roof supplying water to the kitchen only. 
 When the expense can be afforded a hot-water tank may be 
 placed in the kitchen and the water plumbing be extended 
 to a bathroom. 
 
 The pump for this system must be a force pump, which not 
 only raises water to its own level by suction but forces it to 
 greater heights, according to the power applied. The pump 
 may be placed over the well or in any other convenient spot 
 as long as the suction lift does not exceed 20 feet. A three- 
 way valve on such a pump permits the operator to direct the 
 water to the tank or through the pump spout, as desired. 
 The pump may be operated by hand, but where much water 
 is to be pumped to a considerable height a windmill, a small 
 gas engine, or an electric motor will save much time and 
 exertion. 
 
 Plate IX, figure 2, shows an excellent outside elevated- 
 tank system supplied by a steel windmill. This tank is of 
 about 2,500 gallons capacity and supplies water to the house
 
 150 Yearbook of tlie Department of Agriculture. 
 
 and barns. It is often possible to supply such a tank with 
 a small gas-engine pumping plant, which may be situated in 
 a shed constructed around the foot of the tower. 
 
 The great objection to an elevated-tank system is that in 
 the colder climates there is danger of the water in the tank 
 freezing. This is particularly objectionable when the tank 
 is located in the attic, where considerable damage may be 
 caused if it should burst. It is also necessary .to provide an 
 especially strong support for the tank. Another objection 
 is that if located in the attic the tank is likely to catch con- 
 siderable filth. It should, in such cases, be easily accessible 
 for more or less frequent cleaning. It is well also to cover 
 the tank to prevent, as far as possible, the entrance of dirt 
 and vermin, and when placed on a tower outside it should be 
 covered to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes. 
 
 The great advantages of this system are its cheapness and 
 simplicity. All that is needed are a force pump, a storage 
 tank, a pipe from the pump to the tank, a pipe from the tank 
 to the point at which water is used, and accompanying fix- 
 tures. The tank should have an overflow pipe, particularly 
 if located in the attic. 
 
 A number of such systems are in successful use. If well 
 constructed and maintained, they afford a satisfactory, con- 
 venient, and comparatively cheap farm water supply. 
 Although more generally successful in the wanner climates, 
 such systems may with proper protection and attention be 
 often used with success in colder climates. 
 
 An improvement over the elevated-tank system is the 
 hydropneumatic system, which does away with the dangers 
 of freezing and filth accumulation. 
 
 THE HYDROPXEUMATIC SYSTEM. 
 
 In the hydropneumatic system a water and air tight tank 
 is placed in the basement or almost anywhere in the imme- 
 diate vicinity of the house where there is no danger from 
 freezing. This tank is usually connected by a If-inch pipe to 
 the three-way valve of & force pump for the weU or cistern. 
 The pump preferably is so equipped as to pump a little air at 
 each stroke in addition to the water. At the start of pump- 
 ing the tank is full of air, but as pumping continues this ah-
 
 Clean Water and How to Get R on the Farm. 151 
 
 is gradually compressed by the entering water until the 
 required pressure, usually 25 to 40 pounds, is indicated on a 
 pressure gauge. 
 
 One pound of pressure will force the water approximately 
 2 feet high in the house, so that for the ordinary house a 
 pressure greater-. than 40 pounds is not necessary. 
 
 For the average family a tank at least 30 inches in diame- 
 ter and 6 feet long, with a capacity of 220 gallons, is required. 
 At 40 pounds' pressure this tank will be nearly three-fourths 
 full of water and will deliver about 130 gallons to the second 
 story and a greater proportion of the total capacity to the 
 kitchen. Tanks of larger or smaller capacity may be secured 
 if desired. 
 
 Figure 4 shows the main features in the installation of 
 such a system with the tank in the house basement. The 
 hot-water pipes are shown in black. The pump may be over 
 the well as shown, or in the cellar next to the tank if the well 
 is not too deep nor too far from the house. 
 
 The equipment necessary for an installation of this kind 
 consists of a steel tank of the desired size, with pressure gauge 
 and gauge glass, an air and water force pump, pipes, and con- 
 nections, a 30 to 40 gallon hot-water tank, and the desired 
 fixtures. A system of this kind, if well installed, affords a 
 satisfactory and convenient water supply available at the 
 turning of a faucet. It is perhaps more expensive than the 
 elevated-tank system, but also does not have many of the 
 objectionable features connected with that system. Water 
 may be pumped for this system by hand, but, as in the 
 elevated-tank system, where the desired pressure is above 20 
 to 25 pounds, a windmill, small gas engine, or small electric 
 motor is necessary. 
 
 POWER FOR PUMPING. 
 
 A gas engine rated at from \ to \\ horsepower should be of 
 sufficient power for ordinary farm pumping. It may be con- 
 nected with the pump directly or by a belt. 
 
 In the first case, the engine is usually used for pumping only 
 and may be arranged about as shown in Plate IX, figure 3. 
 It is usually desirable in such a case to provide a shelter for the 
 engine, at least.
 
 152 
 
 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 In the second case the engine is more likely used for several 
 purposes about the farm and may be a portable engine, or it 
 may be located in a shed near the pump. In either event, if 
 the pump is equipped with a pumping jack and belt wheel it 
 may be operated by the engine by means of a belt. 
 
 FJG. 4. Pneumatic tank supply system with tank in basement supplied by hand force pump. 
 
 A good windmill is a cheap source of pumping power if well 
 taken care of. A steel windmill is usually preferable to the 
 wooden type. The mill itself costs considerable, it is true, 
 but wind power thereafter costs nothing, while gasoline is a 
 constant expense. The gas engine will, on the other hand, 
 pump water whether the wind blows or not. On the whole, 
 however, in localities where the wind is steadily fairly strong 
 a windmill should be a satisfactory pumping power. Where
 
 Clean Water and How to Get It on the Farm. 153 
 
 electricity is available an electric motor rated at to f 
 horsepower is usually sufficient for ordinary farm pumping. 
 If spring water is used the hydraulic ram is usually the best 
 method of pumping water to the house if the spring is so 
 located that the water can not be piped directly by gravity. 
 
 THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 
 
 The hydraulic ram is a simple, though rather wasteful, 
 machine which utilizes the momentum of a stream of water 
 falling- a small height to elevate a small part of that water to 
 a greater height. In this way a spring if properly connected 
 
 FIG. 5. Hydraulic ram pumping to a pneumatic tank supply system, showing usual rela- 
 tive positions of spring, ram, and storage tank. 
 
 with a hydraulic ram will do double duty, supplying the water 
 and also the power for pumping. 
 
 Certain conditions are necessary, however, for the proper 
 operation of such a system. The ram must be located lower 
 than the spring and at the proper distance away. The fall 
 from spring to ram must not be less than 2 feet, and the spring 
 must supply not less than one-half gallon of water per minute. 
 Most rams are, however, guaranteed to operate on not less 
 than 2 gallons per minute. Figure 5 shows the usual rela- 
 tive positions of spring, ram, and storage tank. 
 
 The drive pipe is usually twice the size of the delivery pipe 
 and the size of each depends on the size of the ram used. The 
 length of the drive pipe is usually about seven times the 
 height of fall, although this may vary between five and ten, 
 depending on the height and distance to which water is to be
 
 154 
 
 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 delivered. Its length must ordinarily be equal to the vertical 
 height to which the water is lifted and must never be less 
 than three-fourths this height. It is well to add on the aver- 
 age about 2 feet to the length of the drive pipe for every 
 100 feet the water is carried horizontally. 
 
 Where the grade is small and it is therefore necessary to 
 bring the water a long distance in order to get the desired 
 fall a standpipe or reservoir may be placed in the line of the 
 supply pipe at the proper distance from the ram, as shown 
 in figure 6, and thus bring the effective pressure nearer the 
 ram and prevent waste of pressure by friction in an unneces- 
 sarily long drive pipe. 
 
 FIG. 6. Two methods of securing the necessary fall in drive pipe. 
 
 Manufacturers of hydraulic rams make certain guarantees 
 as to what their particular type of ram will accomplish under 
 certain conditions. If one knows the quantity of flow of his 
 spring, the elevation above the spring to which it is desired 
 to deliver water, and the distance from the approximate 
 location of the ram to the point of delivery, he can, by con- 
 sulting the tables which manufacturers usually furnish, 
 easily determine the size of ram, length and size of drive 
 pipe, and usually the minimum permissible fall in the drive 
 pipe to suit his particular case. Thus the smallest sizes of 
 some makes of hydraulic ram are guaranteed to operate under 
 a minimum fall of 3 feet with a supply of 2 to 3 gallons of 
 water per minute and lift 10 to 15 gallons of water per hour 
 to a height of about 20 feet. The larger sizes will deliver 150
 
 Clean Water and How to Get It on tJie Farm. 155 
 
 to 300 gallons per hour to a height of 100 to 120 feet under 
 proper working conditions. The proportion of water sup- 
 plied to the ram which is elevated to the point of use will vary 
 according to operating conditions from about two-sevenths 
 for the lower lifts to one-twentieth for the higher lifts. In 
 order to secure their guarantee it is well to follow closely the 
 directions for installation given out by the manufacturers of 
 the ram. 
 
 It is always well to house the ram in to protect it from 
 freezing and to prevent the entrance of sand and grit to the 
 drive pipe by screening the open end. Sand and grit will 
 soon prevent the proper action of the valves. The pipes 
 should also be placed below the frost line. In setting a 
 rain the foundation should be firm and level. The drive 
 pipe should be laid on a perfectly straight incline with- 
 out bends or curves except where the pipe enters the ram, 
 and this should be made by bending the pipe. Fittings 
 should be used only where absolutely necessary. The upper 
 end of the drive pipe should be sufficiently below the sur- 
 face of the water to prevent air suction at least a foot. 
 Above all things the drive pipe should be air-tight. 
 
 The delivery pipe may be laid with the necessary bends, 
 according to the usual practice in laying water pipes, but 
 all pipes should be connected before starting the ram and 
 they should be left uncovered until all leaks are stopped. 
 There should be as few bends and elbows in the delivery pipe 
 as possible in order to reduce friction. 
 
 Taken as a whole, the hydraulic-ram pumping system is a 
 very convenient one. Of course it requires a certain amount 
 of watching and care, but the ram is so simple that if properly 
 installed it is easily kept in working order. It operates day 
 and night, winter and summer, whether the wind blows or 
 not, and regardless of the price of gasoline or electricity, and 
 its operation is continuous until stopped. In some respects, 
 therefore, it has the advantage over the windmill and gas 
 engine. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Methods for safeguarding the purity of farm water sup- 
 plies are being given more and more attention by progressive 
 farmers, and the value of clean water from the standpoint of
 
 156 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture. . 
 
 health is now recognized. The rural inhabitant, therefore, 
 realizing his obligation to his family and to himself in this 
 respect, should see to it that clean and wholesome water is 
 provided for household uses. This necessitates in the main 
 the use of effective measures for protecting wells, springs, 
 and other sources of farm water supplies from surface and 
 subsurface pollution and that, above all things else, clean 
 well surroundings be maintained. Further, to avoid trouble 
 in the future, a spirit of constant watchfulness and care with 
 reference to maintaining the purity of the water supply may 
 well be developed. 
 
 In addition, simple, economical, and practical means of 
 obtaining running water in the house have been found 
 which, when properly and carefully installed, do away with 
 much of the drudgery formerly borne largely by the farm 
 housewife. 
 
 The farmer of average means can not afford to overlook 
 the advantages offered by these more modern methods and 
 arrangements for securing running water in the house; and 
 when the expenditure in time and energy for carrying water 
 is compared with the actual cost of installing the cheaper 
 and simpler means of providing a convenient water supply 
 in the house, it is believed a step in this direction by even 
 the less well-to-do farmer would be, in the long run, a 
 decided saving and advantage.
 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
 
 
 
 APR 1 7-1950 
 NOV 3 "-* 
 
 Form L-9-10wt-5,'28
 
 ^PJP.-rr.^ ' q == -'-- - BRARY FACILITY 
 
 iiVERSITY of CALIFORN* 
 
 AT 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 UBRARY