zm LUMBER AND ITS USES BY R. S. KELLOGG ILLUSTRATED THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPANY CHICAGO, ILL. Copyright, 1914 by R. S. KELLOGG Wausau, Wisconsin LUMBER AND ITS USES THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD FEW of either the makers or the users of forest products and this includes all of us have any conception of the real struc- ture of the material with which they deal. The botanist tells one tree from another by differ- ences in foliage, flowers, fruits, and bark; the microscopist, by differences in the structure and arrangement of cells which may be visible only through a high-powered microscope ; the woods- man, by general notions of appearance ; the car- penter, by characteristics of texture and weight learned in the working of wood; and the ordi- nary user, by any combination of these methods that may have impressed him in the course of his experience. While the botanist and the microscopist use scientifically exact means of determining species of trees and kinds of wood, the lumberman, the cabinet-maker, and the man in the street use methods which, while unsci- entific and even impossible to describe, never- theless often suffice for their own particular needs. 3 4 LUMBER AND ITS USES Wood is bought, sold, and used with far less knowledge of its composition, strength, stiff- ness, density, and other qualities than is any other substance that enters largely into our daily life. A steel rail is made according to a for- mula prepared by the metallurgist; there are standard mixtures for cement and concrete ; the physical properties of metals and stone are ac- curately known; but even the best grading rules of the manufacturers are only approximations to the actual values of the different classes of lumber. To a large extent this is an unavoidable condition. A tree is not made according to any chemical or mechanical formula. It is the prod- uct of soil, moisture, and sunshine in constantly varying combinations. Buffeted by storms and subjected to extremes of heat and cold, drouth, and flood for a century or more, each year's growth is different from that which precedes or follows; and the resulting mass of wood is a highly complex substance of which we know far too little. But the problems of modern construction and utilization demand that our knowledge of wood be increased in scope and accuracy. Therefore the timber-testing engineer, with his ponderous machines, determines the strength, stiffness, and elasticity of beams of a specified size and kind; the timber-treating expert, with cylinders and pressure pumps, finds out the best means of im- pregnating wood with creosote, zinc chloride, and other decay-preventing substances ; the pulp- THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD 5 maker cooks and grinds different woods to get the best kind of paper; the chemist puts wood into his retort, and gets alcohol, turpentine, acid, and many other products; but all of these problems go back to the fundamental one of the structure of the wood itself. Porous and Non-Porous Woods The unit of woody structure, as of all vege- table and animal growth, is the cell; and the sci- entific classification of woods is based upon the properties and combinations of these ultimate units. When cross-sections of certain woods are examined, they are seen to contain relatively large, irregularly placed openings called "pores." Other woods, even under the micro- scope, show no such openings. A natural, funda- mental division, therefore, is into " porous " and " non-porous " woods. Of porous woods, the common hardwoods are familiar examples; while the pines, firs, spruces, cedars, etc., are non- porous. Again, the porous woods are divided into two classes according to the arrangement of the pores in the yearly ring of wood. In some woods, very large pores develop early in the sea- son; while only small pores or none at all appear later, so that a cross-section of such a wood shows, even to the naked eye, concentric circles of openings. These woods are called "ring- porous" woods. In other woods, pores of small and approximately equal size are scattered throughout, with little if any discernible group- ing. Such woods are called "diffuse-porous" 6 LUMBER AND ITS USES woods. Common ring-porous woods are ash, oak, elm, and hickory. Among the diffuse- porous woods are birch, beech, basswood, maple, and walnut. Pith Bays In addition to the cells whose length is paral- lel to the trunk of the tree, wood also contains other layers of cells of a different character whose length is at right angles to the trunk of the tree. These cells occur in thin sheets radiat- ing from the bark toward the pith, and form what are called the "pith rays" or "medullary rays" of wood. They are best seen on a quartered section, and are what gives the beautiful, flaky appearance to quartered oak and sycamore. The pith rays are less conspicuous in beech, maple, and birch, and are scarcely or not at all visible to the naked eye in the pines and many other woods. Springwood and Summerwood When growth begins in the spring, the new cells are large and thin-walled. As the season progresses, smaller and thicker-walled cells are produced, until the last growth of the summer is much denser than the spring growth. It is this contrast between early spring and late summer wood that enables us to distinguish the rings of yearly growth upon a stump or cross- section of a piece of timber. The transition from the large, thin-walled cells of spring to THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD 7 the small, thick-walled cells of summer may be abrupt, as in the yellow pines, or very gradual, as in the white pines and the firs. In the for- mer, the bands of dense wood are very conspic- uous; in the latter, they are sometimes scarcely visible to the naked eye. Counting these annual rings on the stump affords an easy and practi- cally accurate means of determining the age of our common trees. Trees which grow in warm climates where there are no fixed cycles of growth and inactivity, do not develop annual rings. Among the softest, most easily worked woods are white pine, spruce, basswood, and yellow poplar. The first two are non-porous; the last two, diffuse-porous. In all, the transition from springwood to summerwood is very gradual; the cells are thin- walled; and the texture is remarkably uniform. None of these woods, however, has great strength. Hickory and osage orange, two of our strongest native woods, contain such large pores that, at first glance, one might think they were not strong; but closer examination under the microscope shows a multitude of very small, thick-walled cells which are the source of their . remarkable strength. Sapwood and Heartwood A cross-section of the trunk of a living tree will show on the outside a belt of wood of vary- ing width, in which the vital processes of the 8 LUMBER AND ITS USES tree are carried on. Within this belt is a cylin- der of older cells, no longer of importance in the growth of the tree, whose function is chiefly that of a support for the great weight of the crown. The outer belt is called the "sap- wood;" and the inner cylinder, the " heart- wood." The sapwood is light-colored. When tapped, sap flows from it, as in the maples; or resin, as in the pines. As the cells become older, their functions are assumed by newer ones closer to the bark. The living matter of the older cells is gradually changed by deposits of mineral or other matter, generally of darker color, which produce what is called "heart- wood." It is the dark, richly colored heart of birch, red gum, black walnut, red cedar, redwood, dog- wood, persimmon, and other trees that yields the beautiful woods for which these species are noted. Heartwood develops very early in some spe- cies, like black locust, osage orange, and catalpa, and very slowly in other species. Black wal- nut is likely to reach an age of fifty years before much dark heartwood the valuable portion of the tree is formed. The heartwood in some species basswood and hemlock, for example is often not clearly distinguishable from the sapwood, and the older cells seem to retain the ability to transmit sap. That the outer portion of the trunk is the main seat of vital activity, however, is proved by the THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD 9 continued growth of trees for many years after they become hollow at the base through decay. Heartwood is generally heavier than sapwood, and fully as strong if equally free from defects. Moreover, it is usually much more resistant to decay. On the other hand, since its cells are more open, sapwood usually absorbs wood pre- servatives better than heartwood. The Figure of Wood The varying combinations of cells of differ- ent kinds, of springwood and summerwood, of heartwood and sapwood, of slow and rapid growth, of knots, burls, dormant buds, and spiral or " curly" grain, produce the many beautiful and characteristic figures which give wood a unique position as a decorative material. These natural variations are still more accen- tuated by methods of sawing and working, so that the artificer of wood can produce an end- less variety of effects without monotony. Weight and Strength Other factors being equal, the strength of wood is roughly proportional to the dry weight. Hence heavy, thick-walled cells are stronger than light, thin- walled cells; and summerwood stronger than springwood. Given two pieces of wood of the same kind and equally free from defects, the one which is the heavier and con- tains the larger proportion of summerwood is the stronger. This affords a ready and fairly 10 LUMBER AND ITS USES accurate means of selecting certain kinds of timber. Comparisons of the weight and strength of a number of woods are given on page 19. What the Microscope Shows Cross-sections of four common woods, mag- nified to the same degree, are shown in the illustrations. Since the magnification is the same throughout, the character and size of the cells in these woods are readily compared. Bal- sam fir and longleaf pine are non-porous woods ; birch, diffuse-porous; and oak, ring-porous. In longleaf pine, the transition from spring to summer wood is abrupt, resulting in alternat- ing light and dark bands. In the other woods, the transition is very gradual, and often not conspicuous to the naked eye. Comparing size and thickness of cell walls, it is seen that, for the entire season's growth, the cells of balsam average the largest and thinnest- walled; those of longleaf pine rank next; those of birch next; and that the oak cells are the smallest and thickest-walled. The ragged openings in the longleaf pine are not pores; they are ducts in which the resin forms. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD THE physical properties of wood which determine its usefulness, vary with the species, the rate and place of growth, the seasoning condition, and even with individual trees. Two trees are no more exactly alike in either botanical or physical characteristics than are two human beings; hence tabulations pur- porting to compare the weight, strength, stiff- ness, or other properties of various woods can be accepted as true only within rather wide limits, and this caution especially applies to the tables in this chapter. Similar variability, however, is found in other construction materials; and the factors of safety allowed for their use are as great as, or greater than, those for wood. The commercial terms, " hardwood' ' and "softwood" do not correspond to the physical characteristics of hardness or softness, and are of little real value in this respect. As ordi- narily used, the term "softwood" is given to all trees of the family that the botanists call "coniferous" or "needle-leaved." These are the pines, firs, spruces, hemlocks, cypress, larch, redwood, tamarack, cedars, etc. The term "hardwood" is commonly applied to the spe- cies which botanists call "broad-leaved," rep- resented by the oaks, maples, hickories, elms, 11 12 LUMBER AND ITS USES ashes, basswood, beech, birches, walnut, etc. The slightest experience with wood shows that these terms give little indication of the physical properties of the species to which they refer. There are hardwoods softer than the so-called softwoods, and softwoods harder than the so- called hardwoods, although as a group the soft- woods average much softer than the hardwoods. Comparisons of this sort may be readily made from the tables given in this chapter. Useful Properties of Wood The properties of wood most important from the standpoint of the ordinary user are: Weight, strength, stiffness, toughness, hard- ness, and shrinkage. For some purposes, light weight and stiffness are essential where neither great strength nor toughness is required. For other purposes, strength is by far the most important consideration; and for still other uses, hardness is the determining quality. In some places, it makes little difference how much a piece of wood shrinks; in other places, even a little shrinkage will impair the usefulness of the article. Toughness is essential for many purposes, but not at all necessary for other uses. There is, thus, a very wide range in the require- ments of wood users, which is met by a great diversity of species and physical properties. The statements in this chapter regarding the physical properties of wood are based upon a series of tests bv the United States Forest Serv- PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 13 ice to obtain data for the comparison of the more important species. All the figures are derived from tests of small, clear pieces of wood in green condition. Tests of this character afford the best basis for the comparison of various woods; but the figures obtained in this manner do not correspond with the results of tests upon larger-sized material or upon mate- rial in the various stages of seasoning ranging from air-dried to kiln-dried. Neither is it safe to assume that the rank of the several species as to weight, strength, stiffness, toughness, and hardness is exactly as indicated by the tables, since many factors such as growth, situation, length of fiber, etc., influence the properties of a given piece of wood. In a broad sense, how- ever, the figures do have a real comparative value, and they are of especial interest since it is the first time that they have been presented in this fashion. Weight The weight of wood is usually expressed by a comparison of the weight of a given volume of wood with that of an equal volume of water, or by what is known as "specific gravity." If the specific gravity of a certain kind of wood is stated as .30, it means that a given volume of this wood weighs .30 times as much as an equal volume of water. Since a cubic foot of water weighs 62.5 pounds, a cubic foot of wood of specific gravity .30 weighs .30X62.5=18.75 14 LUMBER AND ITS USES pounds. A piece of wood whose specific gravity is .50 weighs .50x62.531.25 pounds per cubic foot. Similarly, the weight per cubic foot of any kind of wood may be quickly ascertained when the specific gravity is known. Table 1 gives the specific gravity of a number of hardwoods and softwoods when " oven-dry, " arranged in order from the lightest to the heaviest in each class. By " oven-dry " is meant the condition produced by drying wood at. a temperature of 212 F. (the boiling point of water) until it ceases to lose moisture. The average specific gravity of the softwoods is .39; and that of the hardwoods, .53; hence these hardwoods average 36 per cent heavier than the softwoods. Several of the softwoods are lighter than any of the hardwoods; but the heaviest of the softwoods, as larch, shortleaf pine, tamarack, and longleaf pine, are heavier than many hardwoods. On the other hand, Table 1 contains 17 hardwoods which are at least twice, or more than twice, as heavy as the lightest of the softwoods. Any of these woods, of course, is much heavier when green. For example, the weight of thoroughly dried north- ern white cedar is 18 Ibs. per cubic foot, com- pared with 28 Ibs. when green; and that of osage orange, 48 Ibs. per cubic foot, compared with 62 Ibs. when green. STRENGTH OP WOODS It is most important that the users of timber TABLE 1 1 Specific Gravity of Various Woods (Test pieces "oven-dry") SOFTWOODS Cedar, Northern White. . .29 Cedar, Western Red 29 Spruce, Englemann 31 Fir, Alpine 31 Spruce, White 32 Redwood 35 Fir, White 35 Pine, Sugar 36 Pine, White 36 Cedar, Incense 36 Pine, Western Yellow. . . .37 Pine, Lodgepole 37 Fir, Grand 38 Average Specific Gravity Fir, Amabilis 38 Hemlock, Eastern 38 Spruce, Red 38 Pine, Table Mountain . . .".39 Douglas Fir 42 Hemlock, Black 42 Hemlock, Western 42 Pine, Norway 44 Cypress 45 Larch, Western 46 Pine, Shortleaf 48 Tamarack 49 Pine, Longleaf 53 of Softwoods 39 HARDWOODS Buckeye, Yellow 33 Hickory, Nutmeg 56 Willow, Black 33 Basswood 34 Aspen, Largetooth 35 Butternut 36 Cherry, Red 36 Elm, White 43 Gum, Red 43 Maple, Silver 44 Cucumber 44 Sumac 45 Sycamore 45 Ash, Black 47 Cherry, Black 47 Elm, Slippery 47 Tupelo 48 Hackberry 48 Ash, Pumpkin 49 Maple, Red 49 Ash, Blue 53 Ash, Green 53 Beech 54 Ash, White 55 Witch Hazel 56 Maple, Hard 56 Oak, Tanbark 56 Oak, Yellow 56 Oak, Red 57 Elm, Rock 58 Oak, Bur 58 Birch, Sweet 59 Oak, Post 59 Oak, White 60 Laurel, Mountain 62 Hickory, Bitternut 62 Hickory, Water 63 Hickory, Shagbark 63 Hickory, Big Shellbark. . .63 Oak, Swamp White 64 Dogwood 64 Hickory, Mockernut 65 Hickory, Pignut 66 Locust, Black 66 Locust, Honey 70 Osage Orange 76 Birch, Yellow 55 Average Specific Gravity of Hardwoods 53 15 16 LUMBER AND ITS USES have some idea of the resistance which the com- mon woods offer to cross-breakage, to crushing, and to what is called ''shearing." The cross- breaking strength of a piece of timber is the force which is required to break it when it is supported at the ends and loaded between these points. The crushing strength is the resistance which a stick offers to crushing when loaded as in the case of a railroad tie. The shearing strength is the resistance offered to a force which tends to make the fibers shear or slide past one another. Breaking or Bending Strength. The cross- breaking strength of timber is tested in the laboratory by placing a stick on supports at each end, and loading it at a uniform rate until it breaks. Accurate notation is made of the size of the stick; length of span; the amount of de- flection, or the extent to which the stick bends, under various loads ; and the weight which finally breaks it. From this information, several fac- tors are determined one, which best represents the resistance to cross-breakage, being called the " modulus of rupture" and expressed in pounds per square inch. The cross-breaking strength of a piece of wood varies directly with the length of the stick, and inversely with the square of the thick- ness; thus, if a weight of 400 pounds breaks a stick 4 feet long, a weight of 200 pounds will break a stick 8 feet long, all other factors being the same. On the other hand, if a weight of TABLE 2 Modulus of Rupture of Various Woods Test pieces 2 in. square, 28 in. span, of green, clear wood Average results SOFTWOODS Spruce, Englemann. . . 4,200 Cedar, Incense 6,040 Cedar, Northern White 4,250 Fir, Grand 6,090 Fir, Alpine 4,450 Cedar, Western Red. . 4,750 Pine, Western Yellow. 5,090 Pine, Lodgepole 5,150 Spruce, White 5,200 Pine, Sugar 5,270 Pine, White 5,310 Pine, Table Mountain. 5,700 Spruce, Red 5,710 Fir, White 5,970 Hemlock, Black 6,030 Hemlock, Eastern .... 6,180 Douglas Fir 6,340 Pine, Norway 6,430 Fir, Amabilis 6,570 Redwood 7,000 Cypress 7,110 Tamarack 7,170 Larch, Western 7,250 Hemlock, Western . . . 7,290 Pine, Shortleaf 7,710 Pine, Longleaf 8,630 Average Modulus of Rupture of Softwoods. . . .6,040 HARDWOODS Willow, Black 3,340 Buckeye, Yellow 4,820 Basswood 4,860 Cherry, Red 5,040 Butternut 5,370 Maple, Silver 5,820 Sumac 5,845 Aspen, Largetooth . . . 5,850 Ash, Black 6,000 Hackberry 6,210 Sycamore 6,300 Gum, Red 6,450 Elm, White 6,950 Oak, Bur 7,180 Tupelo 7,380 Oak, Post 7,380 Cucumber 7,420 Ash, Pumpkin 7,600 Elm, Slippery 7,710 Maple, Red 7,890 Oak, Red 8,000 Cherry, Black 8,030 Oak, Yellow 8,110 Beech 8,160 Witch Hazel 8,280 Laurel, Mountain .... 8,440 Birch, Sweet 8,590 Birch, Yellow 8,600 Dogwood 8,790 Hickory, Nutmeg 9,060 Maple, Hard 9,060 Elm, Rock 9,430 Ash, Blue 9,650 Ash, White 9,853 Oak, Swamp White. . . 9,860 Ash, Green 10,040 Hickory, Bitternut 10,280 Hickory, Big Shellbark.10,490 Oak, Tanbark 10,710 Hickory, Water 10,740 Hickory, Shagbark ...10,870 Hickory, Mockernut. . 11,560 Hickory, Pignut 11,850 Locust, Honey 12,360 Osage Orange 13,660 Locust, Black 13,800 Oak, White 8,160 Average Modulus of Rupture of Hardwoods. . .8,350 17 18 LUMBER AND ITS USES 400 pounds breaks a stick 2 inches thick, it will require a weight of 400x2 2 =l,600 pounds to break a stick of the same material 4 inches thick. The modulus of rupture for green sticks of clear wood is indicated in Table 2, which gives the average results of tests upon pieces 2 inches square, with a span of 28 inches. It will be noted that the strength of these woods varies much the same as the weights given in Table 1 (page 15). There is a very general rule that light wood is weak and heavy wood strong, or that strength is proportional to weight. There are individual exceptions to this rule, but it holds true for most woods. The softwoods are not generally so strong as the hardwoods ; but some hardwoods are weaker than some softwoods; and some softwoods, nota- bly longleaf pine, are stronger than many hard- woods. The ratio of bending strength to weight is about the same for hardwoods and softwoods. Dividing the modulus of rupture by the specific gravity (ciphers being dropped) gives the results shown in Table 3. It appears that, among the hardwoods, black locust is the strongest in proportion to its weight, and willow the weakest. Redwood is the strongest softwood in proportion to its weight. In fact, redwood appears to be the strongest in proportion to weight of any wood yet tested at the Forest Service Laboratory, with the exception of black locust. TABLE 8 Ratio of Bending Strength to Weight of Various Woods (Modulus of Rupture Divided by Specific Gravity) SOFTWOODS Redwood 200 Hemlock, Western 174 Fir, Amabilis 173 Fir, White 171 Cedar, Incense 168 Cedar, Western Red 164 Spruce, White 163 Pine, Longleaf 163 Hemlock, Eastern 162 Pine, Shortleaf 161 Fir, Grand 160 Cypress 158 Larch, Western 158 Average Ratio of Bending Douglas Fir 151 Spruce, Red 150 Pine, White 147 Pine, Norway 14 Tamarack 146 Pine, Sugar 146 Cedar, Northern White. . 146 Pine, Table Mountain... 146 Fir, Alpine 143 Hemlock, Black 143 Pine, Lodgepole 139 Pine, Western Yellow. . . 137 Spruce, Englemann 135 Strength to Weight. . 155 HARDWOODS Locust, Black 204 Oak, Tanbark 191 Ash, Green 189 Ash, Blue 182 Osage Orange 180 Ash, White 179 Hickory, Pignut 179 Hickory, Mockernut ... 178 Locust, Honey 177 Hickory, Shagbark 173 Cherry, Black 171 Hickory, Water 170 Cucumber 169 Hickory, Big Shellbark. . 167 Aspen, Largetooth 167 Hickory, Bitternut 166 Elm, Slippery 164 Elm, White 162 Hickory, Nutmeg 162 Maple, Hard 162 Elm, Rock 162 Maple, Red 161 Beech . . 156 Ash, Pumpkin 155 Tupelo 154 Oak, Swamp White 154 Gum, Red 150 Butternut 149 Witch Hazel 148 Buckeye, Yellow 146 Oak, Yellow 145 Birch, Sweet 145 Basswood 143 Cherry, Red 140 Sycamore 140 Oak, Red 140 Dogwood 137 Laurel, Mountain 136 Oak, White 136 Maple, Silver 132 Sumac 130 Hackberry 129 Ash, Black 128 Oak, Post 125 Oak, Bur 124 Willow, Black 101 Birch, Yellow 156 Average Ratio of Bending Strength to Weight. . 156 19 y TABLE 4 Crashing Strength of Various Woods (Pounds per Square Inch; Pressure Applied Parallel to Grain) SOFTWOODS Spruce, White 1,940 Fir, Grand 3,030 Spruce, Englemann . . 1,980 Cedar, Incense 3,030 Cedar, Northern White 1,990 Fir, Amabilis 3,040 Fir, Alpine 2,060 Pine, Table Mountain. 3,070 Pine, Western Yellow. 2,400 Pine, Norway 3,080 2,460 Hemlock, Eastern .... 3,270 Pine, Sugar 2,600 Hemlock, Western . . . 3,390 Cedar, Western Red. . . 2,630 Tamarack 3,480 Pine, White 2,720 Pine, Shortleaf 3,570 Spruce, Red 2,760 Larch, Western 3,700 Fir, White 2,800 Cypress 3,960 Hemlock, Black 2,890 Redwood 3,990 Douglas Fir 2,920 Pine, Longleaf 4,280 Average Crushing Strength 2,960 HARDWOODS Willow, Black 1,320 Oak, White 3,510 Buckeye, Yellow 2,050 Cherry, Black 3,540 Basswood 2,140 Tupelo 3,550 Cherry, Red 2,170 Birch, Sweet 3,560 Ash, Black 2,300 Dogwood 3,640 Butternut 2,410 Elm, Rock 3,740 Maple, Silver 2,490 Maple, Hard 3,850 Hackberry 2,520 Hickory, Big Shellbark 3,890 Sumac 2,680 Hickory, Nutmeg 3,980 Gum, Red 2,690 Ash, Blue ,180 Aspen, Largetooth .... 2,720 Ash, White ,300 Sycamore 2,790 Laurel, Mountain .... ,310 Elm, White 2,810 Oak, Swamp White. . . ,360 Cucumber 3,140 Ash, Green ,360 Elm, Slippery 3,180 Hickory, Bitternut . . . ,570 Beech 3,280 Hickory, Shagbark . . . ,600 Oak, Bur 3,280 Hickory, Water ,660 Oak, Post 3,330 Hickory, Mockernut... ,720 Ash, Pumpkin 3,360 Hickory, Pignut ,820 Oak, Red 3,370 Oak, Tanbark ,840 Oak, Yellow 3,390 Locust, Honey ,970 Maple, Red 3,390 Osage Orange 5,810 Witch Hazel 3,400 Locust, Black 6,800 Birch, Yellow 3,460 Average Crushing Strength 3,580 20 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 21 As with the other tables in this chapter, these results are to be taken only in a broad sense. Crushing Strength. The resistance which a short post or a column offers to a weight placed on top is called its end-crushing strength, or strength in compression parallel to the grain. The crushing strength is expressed in terms of the weight required to crush a stick 1 inch square in cross-section, or in pounds per square inch. The crushing strength of green wood of the principal species is approximately as indicated in Table 4. Tensile Strength. Tensile strength is the opposite of crushing strength, or the force re- quired to pull a substance apart. The tensile strength of wood parallel to the grain is from two to four times as great as the corresponding crushing strength, and considerably greater for hardwoods than for softwoods. When placed under compression, the fibers of wood tend to buckle or bend, and thus give way; but they of- fer great resistance to a force which tends to pull them apart. Although the tensile strength of wood is many times referred to, in popular statements, as being a most important property, it is really not so necessary to determine, for most uses, as the resistance to bending and crushing. For all ordinary purposes, the tensile strength of wood is greater than stress of this sort to which it will be subjected, and hence no detailed discus- sion of the topic' is necessary. LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 5 Shearing Strength of Various Woods Pounds per Square Inch SOFTWOODS Fir, Amabilis 678 Pine, Table Mountain. 712 Spruce, Englemann . , . 692 Spruce, Eastern 721 Fir, Alpine 614 Fir, White 732 Cedar, Northern White 616 Fir, Grand 736 Cedar, Incense 638 Pine, Norway 776 Pine, White 644 Cypress 818 Pine, Western Yellow. 684 Douglas Fir 856 Cedar, Western Red. . . 698 Tamarack 863 Pine, Sugar 708 Hemlock, Eastern .... 876 Pine, Shortleaf 708 Pine, Longleaf 1,006 Pine, Lodgepole 712 Average Shearing Strength 730 HARDWOODS Willow 1,214 Basswood 607 Birch, Sweet 1,220 Buckeye, Yellow 662 Oak, Yellow 1,237 Cherry, Red 678 Hickory, Bitternut 1,237 Butternut 756 Oak, White 1,251 Aspen 813 Elm, Rock 1,270 Ash, Black 860 Hickory, Mockernut. . . 1,276 Elm, White 873 Oak, Swamp White. . . 1,296 Cucumber 991 Oak, Post 1,299 Sycamore 1 ,001 Ash, Green 1,318 Tupelo 1 ,031 Hickory, Pignut 1,348 Hickory, Nutmeg ,032 Oak, Bur 1,354 Maple, Silver ,053 Maple, Sugar 1,380 Hackberry ,093 Ash, White 1,380 Birch, Yellow ,115 Hickory, Shagbark . . . 1,298 Witch Hazel ,118 Oak, Tanbark 1,414 Cherry, Black ,127 Hickory, Water ,440 Oak, Red ,146 Dogwood ,516 Elm, Slippery 1 ,148 Ash, Blue ,544 Maple, Red 1 ,157 Laurel, Mountain ,669 Hickory, Big Shellbark 1 ,187 Locust, Black ,755 Beech 1 ,210 Locust, Honey ,990 Average Shearing Strength 1,180 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 23 Shearing Strength. The resistance which wood offers to a force which tends to make the fibers slip on one another, is called " shearing strength," and for many uses it is important that the shearing strength parallel to the grain be determined. This will be discussed later in the chapter on Paving Blocks. At this point it is necessary only to insert the tables which show the comparative shearing strength of the various species of wood, as determined by tests upon small pieces. The results, shown in Table 5, are given in pounds per square inch. STIFFNESS Stiffness is the resistance which a stick offers to a force that tends to change its shape. The stiffness of a stick of wood varies directly with the cube of its thickness, and inversely with the cube of its length. In other words, doubling the length of a stick makes it only one-eighth as stiff as previously; doubling the thickness makes it eight times as stiff as before. Timber testing engineers express the stiffness of wood by what is called the " modulus of elas- ticity," which is stated in 1,000 pounds per square inch. The modulus of elasticity for the principal woods tested in a green condition is as indicated in Table 6. The softwoods are nearly as stiff as the hard- woods, and, in comparison with their weights, much stiffer than the hardwoods. For exam- ple, Western red cedar, with a specific gravity TABLE 6 Modulus of Elasticity of Various Woods (Wood Tested in Green Condition; Modulus Given in Thousands of Pounds per Square Inch) SOFTWOODS Cedar, Northern White 643 Cedar, Incense 754 Spruce, Englemann ... 832 Fir, Alpine 861 Cedar, Western Red. . . 886 Hemlock, Black 936 Pine, Sugar 966 Spruce, White 968 Pine, Western Yellow. 977 Pine, Lodgepole 993 Redwood 1,062 Pine, White 1,073 Hemlock, Eastern .... 1,123 Fir, White 1,131 Spruce, Red 1,179 Tamarack 1,236 Douglas Fir 1,242 Larch, Western 1,310 Fir, Grand 1,311 Fir, Amabilis 1,323 Pine, Table Mountain. . 1,329 Cypress 1,378 Pine, Norway 1,384 Pine, Shortleaf 1,395 Hemlock, Western .... 1,428 Pine, Longleaf 1,662 Average Modulus of Elasticity 1,130 HARDWOODS Willow, Black 489 Sumac 809 Oak, Bur 877 Oak, Post 913 Laurel, Mountain .... 924 Maple, Silver 943 Sycamore 964 Butternut 969 Buckeye, Yellow 981 Basswood . . 995 Beech 1,242 Elm, Slippery 1,264 Hickory, Nutmeg 1,289 Cherry, Black 1,308 Osage Orange 1,329 Hickory, Big Shellbark 1,330 Oak, Red 1,330 Ash, Black Hackberry Elm, White Cherry, Red Ash, Pumpkin Tupelo Witch Hazel Gum, Red Oak, Yellow Dogwood , Aspen, Largetooth ,033 ,040 ,040 ,042 ,043 ,045 ,112 ,138 ,170 ,175 1,185 Hickory, Bitternut Maple, Red Ash, White Maple, Hard Ash, Green 1,399 1,420 1,457 1,474 1,480 Birch, Sweet 1,490 1,532 1,543 Oak, White 1,214 Elm, Rock 1,222 Ash, Blue 1,241 Average Modulus of Elasticity . . . 24 Hickory, Shagbark. Birch, Yellow Hickory, Water 1,563 Cucumber 1,565 Oak, Swamp White... 1,593 Hickory, Pignut 1,648 Hickory, Mockernut. . 1,672 Oak, Tanbark 1,678 Locust, Honey 1,732 Locust, Black 1,849 1,250 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 25 of only .29, has a modulus of elasticity of 886,000 pounds per square inch; while bur oak, which is twice as heavy, is not quite so stiff as western red cedar. A study of the tables affords many interesting comparisons of this sort. TOUGHNESS Toughness is the reverse of stiffness, or the ability to bend without breaking. Toughness is one of the most useful properties of wood, and is especially desirable in handles, spokes, and various other articles. The toughness of wood is not exactly deter- mined by any single mechanical test. Perhaps it is best indicated by two tests which the engi- neers designate as the "work to maximum load/' and "resistance to impact." The work to maximum load is expressed in inch-pounds per cubic inch; and the resistance to impact, in the height in inches necessary to drop a 50-pound hammer to cause complete breakage of the stick tested. The results of tests of this character are given in Table 7. As a class, the hardwoods are nearly three times as tough as the softwoods, although, as in previous tests, there is an overlapping of the two groups. Alpine fir is the least tough of the softwoods, and longleaf pine the toughest, the latter being tougher than a number of hard- woods. Basswood and buckeye have the least toughness among the hardwoods; and hickory and osage orange are the toughest, the range being very wide. 26 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 7 Toughness Tests of Various Woods WOEK TO MAXIMUM LOAD (Inch-pounds per Cubic Inch) SOFTWOODS Fir, Alpine 4.4 Pine, Norway 6.8 Cedar, Western Red. . . 4.5 Pine, White 6.9 Spruce, Englemann. . 4.9 Spruce, Red 6.1 Pine, Sugar . . 5.0 Fir, Grand 6.2 Cypress . . 5.1 Spruce, White 6.6 Pine, Table Mountain 5.1 Douglas Fir 6.6 Pine, Western Yellow 5.1 Hemlock, Eastern 6.7 Pine, Lodgepole .... 5.2 Tamarack 7.2 Fir, White 5.2 Pine, Longleaf 8.1 Cedar, Northern White. 5.7 Average Work to Maximum Load 5.7 HARDWOODS Basswood . . 5.3 Willow 12.9 Buckeye 5.4 Ash, Green 13.0 Aspen, Largetooth . . . 6.1 Elm, Slippery 13.9 Cherry, Red . . 6.2 Oak, Swamp White 14.5 Sycamore .. 7.1 Ash, Blue 14.7 Tupelo . . 7.8 Locust, Black 15.4 Butternut . . 8.1 Birch, Sweet 15.6 Oak, Post . . 9.1 Ash, White 15.6 Ash, Pumpkin 9.4 Hackberry 16.5 Cucumber . . 10.0 Birch, Yellow 16.6 Maple, Red . . 10.6 Locust, Honey 17.3 Oak, Bur . . 10.7 Hickory, Water 18.8 Sumac . . 10.8 Elm, Rock 19.4 Maple, Silver .. 11.0 Witch Hazel 19.5 Elm, White . . 11.3 Hickory, Bitternut 20.0 Oak, Red . . 11.3 Hickory, Shagbark 20.2 Oak, White . . 11.4 Dogwood 21.0 Maple, Sugar . . 12.0 Hickory, Nutmeg 22.8 Ash, Black . . 12.2 Hickory, Mockernut... . 24.8 Oak, Yellow . . 12.4 Hickory, Pignut 29.5 Laurel, Mountain . . . . . 12.6 Hickory, Big Shellbark . 30.2 Beech . . 12.5 Osage Orange 37.9 Cherry, Black . . 12.8 Average Work PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OP WOOD 27 TABLE 7 (Concluded) RESISTANCE TO IMPACT (Height in inches at which drop of a 50-lb. hammer caused breakage of test piece) SOFTWOODS Fir, Alpine 9 Pine, Table Mountain 10 Spruce, Englemann 14 Cedar, Northern White. .. 15 Cedar, Western Red 16 Pine, Lodgepole 16 Pine, Sugar 17 Fir, White 18 Pine, White 18 Pine, Western Yellow. ... 19 Hemlock, Eastern 20 Douglas Fir 20 Cypress 23 Fir, Grand 25 Tamarack 28 Pine, Norway 28 Pine, Longleaf 35 Average Resistance to Impact 19 HARDWOODS Basswood 16 Buckeye, Yellow 18 Aspen 18 Cherry, Red 22 Butternut 23 Sycamore 24 Tupelo 25 Maple, Red 29 Maple, Silver 29 Cucumber 30 Ash, Pumpkin 31 Ash, Black 32 Laurel, Mountain 32 Cherry, Black 33 Elm, White 34 Maple, Sugar 36 Ash, Green 37 Ash, White 37 Oak, Post 38 Oak, Yellow 39 Beech 40 Birch, Yellow 40 Average Resistance to Oak, White 40 Witch Hazel 40 Oak, Red 40 Ash, Blue 43 Birch, Sweet 44 Elm, Slippery 44 Locust, Black 44 Oak, Bur 44 Willow 44 Elm, Rock 48 Oak, Swamp White 60 Hackberry 53 Hickory, Nutmeg 54 Hickory, Water 56 Locust, Honey 56 Dogwood 58 Hickory, Bitternut 66 Hickory, Shagbark . 71 Hickory, Mockernut 82 Hickory, Pignut 91 Hickory, Big Shellbark. . .105 Osage Orange 120 Impact 45 28 LUMBER AND ITS USES HARDNESS Hardness is a most important property of wood, since resistance to wear is necessary for a large number of purposes. In the Forest Service tests, hardness is determined by the weight required to force a steel ball .444 of an inch in diameter one-half its diameter into the wood. The tests upon green wood give the results shown in Table 8, the species being arranged from the softest to the hardest as expressed by the pressure in pounds necessary to make the required indentation. The hardwoods as a class average from two to three times as hard as the softwoods. The hardest softwood, longleaf pine, is harder than basswood, buckeye, willow, butternut, and red cherry; but it is only about one-fourth as hard as osage orange, the hardest hardwood in the list. Their softness and ease of working make the softwoods as valuable for many purposes as are the hardwoods for other purposes. EFFECT OF MOISTURE The comparative properties of the various species of wood as indicated in the foregoing tables (Tables 2-8) are based upon tests of green timber, which give decidedly different results from tests upon dry timber. Water occurs in wood in two forms: First, the water which fills the spaces between the cells in green wood; and second, that which sat- urates the walls of the cells. Often half the PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 29 TABLES Hardness of Various Woods (Pressure in pounds required to indent specimen to depth of one-half diameter of a .444-inch diameter steel ball) SOFTWOODS Fir, Alpine 219 Pine, Norway 342 Spruce, Englemann. ... 243 Spruce, Red 346 Cedar, Western Red. . . . 246 Cypress 354 Cedar, Northern White. 266 Tamarack 375 Pine, White 296 Fir, Grand 375 Pine, Lodgepole 315 Hemlock, Eastern 406 Pine, Western Yellow.. 320 Douglas Fir 408 Pine, Sugar 324 Hemlock, Black 464 Fir, White 328 Pine, Longleaf 512 Pine, Table Mountain. . 333 Average Hardness 340 HARDWOODS Basswood 242 Beech 824 Buckeye, Yellow 286 Maple, Hard 882 Willow, Black 334 Elm, Rock 888 Aspen, Largetooth .... 366 Birch, Sweet 894 Butternut 386 Oak, Yellow 926 Cherry, Red 386 Ash, White 941 Elm, White 511 Witch Hazel 977 Cucumber 515 Oak, Red 982 Ash, Black 548 Ash, Green ,007 Sycamore 580 Ash, Blue ,028 Sumac 590 Oak, White ,063 Maple, Silver 592 Oak, Post ,074 Maple, Red 612 Oak, Bur ,108 Elm, Slippery 653 Oak, Swamp White ,158 Cherry, Black 664 Laurel, Mountain ,299 Hackberry 677 Dogwood ,408 Tupelo 700 Locust, Black 1,568 Birch, Yellow 745 Locust, Honey 1,846 Ash, Pumpkin 752 Osage Orange 2,037 Average Hardness 844 30 LUMBER AND ITS USES weight of green wood, and sometimes more, con- sists of water. The amount of water required to saturate the walls of the cells is from 25 to 30 per cent of the weight of the wood when absolutely dry. This is called the "fiber satura- tion point. " The amount of water in wood above this point has no effect upon the strength of wood; but, of course, it makes the wood heav- ier. When wood is dried below the fiber satura- tion point, its mechanical properties change rapidly, and the extent to which they change depends upon the degree to which the water is removed from the cell walls. Seasoned wood is stronger, stiffer, and harder than green wood. On the other hand, it may not be so tough as green wood, since dry wood is more likely to break than to bend and subsequently regain its form., Small pieces of thoroughly seasoned wood may be twice as strong as pieces of the same wood in green condition. Owing to the checks which frequently develop in the season- ing of large timbers, it is not safe to count upon any such great increase in strength in them as occurs in the seasoning of small timbers. This question is further discussed in the chapter on Structural Timbers. Tests of small, clear pieces of wood dried to a moisture content of 12 per cent give the re- sults shown in Table 9. A comparison of the specific gravity of these woods at 12 per cent moisture, with the specific gravity of " oven-dry" woods given in Table PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 31 1 (page 15), shows that the latter are much lighter. On the other hand, the strength at 12 per cent moisture is much greater than for green timber as given in Table 2 (page 17). TABLE 9 Weight and Strength of Wood with Moisture Content of 12 per Cent SPECIFIC GRAVITY MODULUS OF RUPTUBE Cedar, Southern White. . .37 Cedar, Southern White 6,300 Pine, White .38 Douglas Fir 7,900 Cypress .46 Cypress 7,900 Pine, Norway .50 Pine, White 7,900 Douglas Fir .51 9,100 Pine, Shortleaf .51 Gum, Red 9,500 Gum, Red .59 Pine, Shortleaf 10,100 Pine, Longleaf .61 ^Im, White 10,300 Ash, White .62 Oak, Willow 10,400 Ash, Green 6?l Oak, Yellow 10,800 Pine, Loblolly .63 Ash, White 10,800 Pine, Cuban .63 Pine, Loblolly 11,300 Elm, White .64 Oak, Overcup 11,300 Oak, Willow .72 Oak, Red 11,400 Oak, Yellow .72 Oak, Cow 11,500 Oak, Red .73 Ash, Green 11,600 Oak, Spanish .73 Oak, Spanish 12,000 Oak, Water .73 Oak, Post 12,300 Hickory, Water .73 Oak, Water 12,400 Oak, Texan .73 Hickory, Nutmeg . . . 12,500 Elm, Cedar .74 Hickory, Water 12,500 Oak, Cow .74 Pine, Longleaf 12,600 Oak, Overcup .74 Oak, White 13,100 Hickory, Bitternut .77 Oak, Texan 13,100 Pecan .78 Elm, Cedar 13,500 Hickory, Nutmeg .78 Pine, Cuban 13,600 Oak, Post .80 Hickory, Bitternut . . 15,000 Oak, White .80 Hickory, Mockernut . . 15,200 Hickory, Shagbark .81 Pecan 15,300 Hickory, Mockernut .... .85 Hickory, Shagbark. . . 16,000 Hickory, Pignut .89 Hickory, Pignut 18,700 32 LUMBER AND ITS USES SHRINKAGE OF WOOD The amount which wood shrinks in passing from green to dry condition, is one of its most important properties. Shrinkage varies with the kind of timber, degree of seasoning, method of drying, and manner in which the piece is cut from the tree. Quarter-sawed timber shrinks less than slash-sawed; some methods of drying cause much greater shrinkage than others ; and, as a class, the softwoods shrink less than the hardwoods. Moreover, shrinkage is chiefly across the grain; that is, a board loses breadth and thickness, but practically nothing in length, when it seasons. Among softwoods, the cedars and white pines shrink the least. The spruces, firs, and softer pines shrink a medium amount; and longleaf pine and tamarack, the most. Among hard- woods, locust, osage orange, butternut, and black cherry shrink little; ash, elm, and maple, an average amount; and basswood, white oak, birch, and hickory, the most. Because of their more complex structure, the hardwoods also re- quire greater care in seasoning than do the soft- woods, to prevent warping and checking. "O O -O O apq fj o 2 *o fl CD o o a I S * << 2 w M S CS S ' - CO rl O) 3 B S .j 002 ? iff LUMBER GRADES E~MBER is made a standard commercial product through its separation into grades according to quality and size. The grading of lumber is a commercial necessity for two reasons : First, to make it possible for the manufacturers to maintain a uniformity of pro- duction; and second, to adapt the product to the needs of many classes of customers. PURPOSE OF GRADING The aim of a grading system is excellently stated in one of the association rule books as being to make lumber of the same grade of approximately equal value when produced at different points, whether the logs from which the lumber is cut are large or small, coarse- knotted, fine-knotted, black-knotted, red-knot- ted, sound, or shaky. In other words, the pur- pose of the system is to enable each manufac- turer to classify his product into grades of prac- tically the same value to the customer as are the corresponding grades of lumber made by other manufacturers from the same kind of tim- ber. The advantage to the customer in being thus enabled to obtain a standard product is too obvious to need any discussion. In the early days of lumbering in the United States, the manufacturer paid little or no atten- tion to grades. In fact, about all he did was 33 34 LUMBER AND ITS USES to separate his product into broad classes, known as "merchantable" and "cull" lumber. The former contained lumber of a character fit for general use; the latter, lumber of much poorer quality, which sold for a low price and was fit for little but temporary use or for the manufacture of boxes in the process of which the worst of the defects could be cut out. Under this system, or lack of system, the dealer pur- chased large stocks of lumber, and roughly sep- arated them into classes adapted to the needs of his customers. It was not until the later eighties that the manufacturers of lumber seriously undertook the establishment of a thorough-going system of grades for their products. By that time the annual output of lumber, and especially of white pine, had become so large that the adoption of uniform grades was really a necessity for both producer and consumer. And it was only through the organization of lumber manufactur- ers in a common territory and into an associa- tion, that standardization of product became possible. The first effective organization of this sort was that of the white pine manufactur- ers in the upper Mississippi Valley; and the plan which they adopted has been the essential basis upon which nearly all other organizations of lumber manufacturers have been built up. The first thing the white pine manufacturers did was to agree upon the grades of lumber which should be recognized as standard, and LUMBER GRADES 35 to take measures to make these standards known to both producers and consumers. This re- quired that specifications be carefully drawn and published, and that experts be employed to apply them. The manufacturers therefore or- ganized an inspection bureau composed of ex- perienced lumber graders, whose duty it was to travel from mill to mill, instructing the manu- facturers how to conform the product to stand- ard grades. Moreover, these inspectors were sent to reinspect a shipment whenever the buyer complained that the manufacturers did not ship the grades named in the invoice. Work of this kind proved so beneficial that the example spread until, in every large manufacturing re- gion in the United States, there is now an or- ganization which determines the standard grades for each of the principal kinds of lumber, and whose authority in this respect is generally rec- ognized. The development and general accept- ance of these grading systems is one of the best examples we have of the growth of commercial usages which for all practical purposes are as binding as legal enactment. THE BASIS FOR GRADES Lumber is separated into grades on the basis of the defects which it contains; and the first step in the formulation of a grading system is to define the admissible defects. Defects us- ually recognized are: knots, knot-holes, shake, wane, rot, stain, etc. Poor manufacture is also 36 LUMBER AND ITS USES a defect; and grading rules generally require that lumber must be properly manufactured, with parallel edges and square ends. In the determination of lumber grades, two general classes of usage are considered: First, those in which the lumber is used in its entirety; and second, those in which the lumber is cut to new dimensions in the process of re-working into other products. Into the first class falls the larger proportion of the softwood lumber used for general construction. Dimension, for example, is used for studding, joists, sills, raft- ers, etc. ; and boards are used for siding, sheath- ing, roof-boards, partitions, and the like. In either case, the lumber is used in essentially the form and size in which it is first manufactured; and the grades provided for it require that the defects shall not be of such character or in such quantity as to impair the usefulness of the piece as a whole. In other words, a piece of dimen- sion may contain knots, shake, pitch streaks, or decay; but these defects must not be so located or so numerous as to render the piece too weak to be used for studding, joists, and similar pur- poses. The cutting grades of lumber find their largest use in factories where they are cut to smaller dimensions and re-worked into a multi- tude of articles, such as furniture, sash, doors, interior finish, packing boxes, etc. Many of the products of these factories contain only sound, clear lumber when finished; but, since LUMBER GRADES 37 the lumber is cut into very different sizes from those in which it was orig- inally manufactur- ed, it is possible to cut out the por- tions which con- tain knots, rot, and other defects, and to obtain clear, sound pieces of the sizes needed for the finished articles. A common require- ment in grades of this sort, therefore, is that a certain grade of lumber must contain a specified percent- age of clear stock in sections of speci- fied sizes. For ex- ample, the grade of No. 1 Shop Com- mon in white pine must contain not less than 50 per cent nor more than 70 per cent of cut- tings suitable for 38 LUMBER AND ITS USES use in the manufacture of doors, these cuttings to be of specified lengths and widths. Again, the rules of the National Hardwood Lumber Asso- ciation require that the grade of No. 1 Common must contain clear stock in pieces 3 and 4 inches wide and 6 and 7 feet long; and that the larger boards of this grade must be of a character which will permit their being cut into a certain number of clear pieces equivalent in total size to two-thirds the area of the original board. PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS OF GRADING The principal associations of lumber manu- facturers in the United States which have adopted standard grading rules for their prod- ucts and for the woods which the members of each organization chiefly manufacture, are as follows: California Sugar and White Pine Association, San Francisco, Cal. Sugar pine, California white pine, Western yellow pine. Georgia-Florida Sawmill Association, Jacksonville, Fla. Yellow pine (chiefly longleaf, shortleaf, and Cuban pine). Hardwood Manufacturers Association of the United States, Cincinnati, Ohio. Ash, basswood, beech, buckeye, butternut, cherry, chestnut, cottonwood, elm, gum, hickory, maple, wal- nut, poplar, sycamore, tupelo. Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association, Chicago, 111. Maple, beech, and birch flooring. Michigan Hardwood Manufacturers Association, Cadillac, Mich. Hemlock. Hardwood rules the same as the National Hardwood Lumber Association. National Hardwood Lumber Association, Chicago, 111. Ash, basswood, beech, birch, buckeye, butternut, cherry, chestnut, cottonwood, sassafras, elm, gum, hickory, locust, magnolia, maple, oak, pecan, poplar, sycamore, walnut. Northern Hemlock and Hardwood Manufacturers Associa- tion, Wausau, Wis. Hemlock. Hardwood rules the same as the National Hardwood Lumber Association. LUMBER GRADES 39 Northern Pine Manufacturers Association, Minneapolis, Minn. White pine, Norway pine, spruce, tamarack. North Carolina Pine Manufacturers Association, Norfolk, Va. North Carolina pine (mostly loblolly; some shortleaf pine). Oak Flooring Manufacturers Association, Detroit, Mich. Oak flooring. Redwood Manufacturers Association, San Francisco, Cal. Redwood. Southern Cypress Manufacturers Association, New Orleans, La. Cypress, tupelo. Spruce Manufacturers Association, New York, N. Y. East- ern spruce. West Coast Lumber Manufacturers Association, Tacoma, Wash. Douglas fir, Western spruce, cedar, and hemlock. Western Pine Manufacturers Association, Spokane, Wash. Western pine, Idaho white pine, fir, and larch. Yellow Pine Manufacturers Association, St. Louis, Mo. Longleaf pine, shortleaf pine. Copies of their complete grading rules are supplied by these associations upon application, free of charge, or at a nominal price. The as- sociations are generally anxious to make their grades as widely known and used as possible. Diversity of Grades A few illustrations will suffice to show the extent to which the lumber manufacturers have gone in establishing grades suitable for a wide diversity of purposes. The rules of the North- ern Pine Manufacturers Association provide for 7 grades of thick finishing lumber in thick- nesses of 1*4 inches, 1% inches, and 2 inches. There are also 9 grades of inch finishing lumber, 5 grades of siding and flooring, 3 grades of ship- lap, 5 grades of shop lumber, 3 grades of factory select lumber, 6 grades of thick common lum- ber, 5 grades of common boards, 4 grades of 40 LUMBER AND ITS USES fencing, 3 grades of dimension, and 2 grades of lath. Under these rules the upper grades in the various classes are designated by letters as A, B, C, D, and the lower grades by numerals as No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, and No. 5. The rules for hardwoods adopted by the Na- tional Hardwood Lumber Association and the Hardwood Manufacturers Association provide in most cases for the following grades, begin- ning with the highest: Firsts and Seconds, No. 1 Common, No. 2 Common, and No. 3 Common. No. 4 Common is also provided for many woods. In addition to these general grades, there are a large number of special grades for the various hardwoods, covering box lumber, vehicle and wagon stock, furniture stock, flooring stock, quarter-sawed lumber, panel material, etc. In the softwoods most largely used for gen- eral building purposes, there are usually three grades of common lumber generally known as No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3, or by terms of equiva- lent value. For example: No. 1 Dimension, Boards, etc., consist of sound, strong lumber suitable for first-class, all-round building pur- poses. The defects allowed in this lumber are not of a character which will materially impair the strength of the piece for the purpose in- tended. No. 2 stock contains more defects than No. 1, but is useful for the same general pur- poses in places where less strength is required. For example, studding of No. 2 Dimension is often as satisfactory as of No. 1 Dimension, LUMBER GRADES 41 while No. 2 Boards make excellent sheathing, under-floors, roof-boards, etc. The No. 3 stock in Dimension and Boards is the lowest grade generally used for building purposes. It is mostly employed for very cheap, light, or tem- porary structures, and for these purposes affords a very economical building material. Special grades in any item are put up by the manufacturers whenever ordered; but they cost more than regular grades, depending upon qual- ity and handling charges. Any large user of lumber will be well repaid if he familiarizes himself wtih the principal grades of the leading kinds of timber. By so doing he will be able to build better and more cheaply than if he specifies material without a full knowledge of its character and value. STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER A i THERE were no well-defined grades in the early lumber manufacturing opera- tions, so also was there little uniformity in the sizes to which the various classes of lum- ber were cut. In the early days, boards and larger material were shipped in the rough to planing mills at points of consumption, where they were dressed and worked to the desired sizes. With the development of the lumber in- dustry and the greatly increased variety and efficiency of machinery, the manufacturers grad- ually began to work their products into forms suitable for final use. This process has gone on until to-day nearly every large sawmill which supplies car trade has a fully equipped planing mill in which lumber is dressed and worked into flooring, ceiling, shiplap, siding, partition, mold- ing, etc., so that a practically complete bill of materials for a house can be shipped from the mill. This advance in the development of lumber manufacturing makes the question of standard sizes as important as that of standard grades. In fact, the two naturally go hand in hand; and specifications for widths and thicknesses of dressed lumber are commonly a part of the grad- ing rules of the associations of manufacturers. There is some variation, according to species, in the lengths and widths of rough lumber made 42 STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 43 in the sawmills. Since the softwoods are the more common structural material, and hence used in the entire piece, the dimensions vary somewhat from those of the hardwoods, of which the bulk are cut to new sizes in the process of re-manufacturing. The standard lengths of soft- woods are commonly in multiples of 2 feet, be- ginning at 4 or 6 feet; and standard widths, in multiples of 2 inches, beginning at 4 inches. This is upon the theory that these dimensions are best adapted to the requirements of ordinary building operations for the placing of studding, joists, etc. In the hardwoods, standard lengths are usually in both odd and even feet, and stand- ard widths in both odd and even inches. The most notable exception to these rules is in the manufacture of hardwood flooring, in which di- mensions as small as 1 inch in width, 7 inches in length, and % inch in thickness are produced. While each association of lumber manufactur- ers has standards for working lumber, which are recognized within its territory, these standards frequently do not coincide with the standards of other associations. There is a much greater diversity in this respect than is desirable from the standpoint of the consumer; and doubtless in time, a greater uniformity will be brought about in standard sizes for all the more com- mon kinds of lumber. The present standards for flooring, ceiling, shiplap, partition, boards, etc., for the principal commercial woods, are given in Table 10, in which the nominal dimen^ 44 LUMBER AND ITS USES sion is named, together with the actual size of the finished product. The nominal dimension is the size which is figured in calculating the quantity of lumber sold, and is based upon rough stock; while the actual dimension indicates the actual width and thickness of the final product. For example, a piece of 1x4 Norway pine floor- ing is 13/16 inch thick, with a 314-inch face. That is, allowing for tongue and groove, each piece of flooring covers 3% inches of floor space. Since it is important that the user of lumber should know the exact sizes specified for the principal woods, the table is made as complete as the information at hand permits. In several cases where standard sizes have not been offi- cially incorporated in association rules, the sizes made by the leading manufacturers are given. TABLE 10 Standard Sizes of Different Kinds of Lumber FLOORING (INCH) F=Face. Width and thickness of tongue is i inch, and di- mensions of groove 1/32 inch greater. Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) White and Norway Pine (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is 13/16x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16 x5i F. North Carolina Pine (North Car. Pine Ass'n) 1x3 is 13/16x2$ F; 1x4 is 13/16 x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16x5* F. Longleaf Pine (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . . 1x3 is 13/16x2} F; 1x4 is 13/16 x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16x5* F. Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .1x3 is 13/16x2* F; 1x4 is 13/16 x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16x5* F. STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER Standard Yellow Pine Ceiling, %-Inch, D. & M. V y,;* 'I9& Standard Yellow Pine Ceiling, %-Inch, Shiplapped J& Standard Yellow Pine Ceiling, W** Standard Yellow Pine Partition, Ix4-Inch m* -3^" ~T" i / Standard Yellow Pine Flooring, Ix4-Inch FIG. 3. STANDARD PATTERNS 46 LUMBER AND ITS USES Cypress and Tupelo (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .1x3 is 13/16x2* F; 1x4 is 13/16 x34 F; 1x6 is 13/16x54 F. Douglas Fir, Western Hem- lock, Cedar, and Spruce (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x3 is 13/16x24 F; 1x4 is 13/16 x34 F; 1x6 is 13/16x5|. Oak (Oak Flooring Mfrs. Ass'n) . 13/16xli, 2, or 24 F; xl} or 2 F. Maple, Beech, and Birch (Maple Flooring Mfrs. Ass'n) Thicknesses f , }, f , 13/16, 1 1/16, 1 5/16, 1 11/16. Faces J, 1, 1}, 2, 24, 3i, 4, 4}. Hemlock and Tamarack (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is 13/16x34 F; 1x6 is 13/16 x54 F. Idaho White Pine, Western Pine, Fir, and Larch (Western Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . 1x4 Is Jx3J F; 1x6 is fx5 F; 1x8 is 3x7} F. Gum and Yellow Poplar (Nat. Hardwood Lbr. Ass'n) .1x3 is 13/16x2}; 1x4 is 13/16x 3J F; 1x5 is 13/16x44 F; 1x6 is 13/16x54 F. CEILING (INCH) Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) White and Norway Pine (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is fx34 F; 1x6 is |x54 F. North Carolina Pine (North Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) fx4 is fx3 F; fx6 is 3x5} F. Longleaf Pine (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . .fx4 is 11/16x34 F; fx6 is 11/16 x54 F. Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . |x4 is 11/16x34 F; Jx6 is 11/16 x54F. STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 47 Novelty Rustic" Siding, I"x6", No. 117 (Standard) (West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Association) Double-Beaded Ceiling or Partition (West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Association) Double V Ceiling, %"x4" (Standard) (West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Association) r *- Vertical-Grain Flooring, I"x3" (Standard) (West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Association) FIG. 4. STANDARD PATTERNS 48 LUMBER AND ITS USES n it t r**t . '/ r li M*J Heavy Yellow Pine Shiplap (Yellow Pine Manufacturers Association) 1 1 J ^ 6" j / 1 hpa i _ x T ,"* aaB t i Vertical-Grain Flooring, I%"x3" (Standard) (West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Association) FIG. 5. STANDARD PATTERNS CEILING (Continued) Cypress and Tupelo (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .fx4 is 11/16x3* F; |x6 is 11/16 x5i F. Douglas Fir, Western Hem- lock, Cedar, and Spruce (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is 11/16x3* F; 1x6 is 11/16 x5J F. Hemlock and Tamarack (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is 13/16x3* F; 1x6 is 13/16 x5i F. Northern Hardwoods (Mich. Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) ... 1x4 is 13/16x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16 x5* F. Bending Test of a Beam of Air-Dry Shortleaf Pine Method of Making Impact Test of Bridge Tie 1: P Torsion Tests of Soaked Hickory FOREST SERVICE TESTS Plate 6 Lumber and Its Uses Old Sawmills in Maine These mills, located on tidewater, began operations in 1833 Pnuu> uy courtesy or Boiling Arthur Johnson Modern Sawmill at Everett, Washington A CONTRAST IN MILLING METHODS Plate 7 Lumber and Its Uses STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 49 Idaho White Pine, Western Pine, Fir, and Larch (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) ... 1x4 is Jx3J F; 1x6 is Jx5i F; 1x8 is |x7J F. Redwood 1x4 is 1 3/16x3* F; 1x6 is 13/16x5i F. Gum (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) Jx3 is Il/16x2i F; fx4 is 11/16 x3i F; Jx5 is Il/16x5i F; fx6 is Il/16x5i F. Yellow Poplar (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) .... Same as Flooring. Tongues and grooves in inch Ceiling are usually of same dimensions as in inch Flooring. Ceiling is also often made in so-called thicknesses of f, $, and f inch, corresponding to dressed thicknesses of 5/16, 7/16, and 9/16 inch, respectively. PARTITION (INCH) Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) White and Norway Pine (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n.) ... 1x4 is |x3i F; 1x6 is |x5* F. North Carolina Pine (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . 1x4 is 13/16x3* F; 1x6 is 13/18 x5i F. Longleaf Pine (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) ... 1x4 is Jx3i F; 1x6 is fx5i F. Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above. Cypress and Tupelo (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .Same as above. Douglas Fir, Western Hem- lock, Cedar and Spruce (West Coast Lbr. Mfra. Ass'n) 1x4 is Il/16x3i F; 1x6 is 11/16 x5JF. Hemlock and Tamarack (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is 13/16x31 F; 1x6 is 13/16 x5i F. Gum and Yellow Poplar (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) Same as Flooring. DROP SIDING (INCH) Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) White and Norway Pine (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is 25/32x3g F; 1x6 is 25/32 x5i F; 1x8 is 25/32x?i F. 50 LUMBER AND ITS USES PATTERNS OP Yellow Pine Drop Siding Adopted at Memphis, Ten., Jan. 16, 1901. Revised at New Orleans, La., Jan. 25, 1906. Worked Shlplap fcrSJf orer Worked Tongue and Groove 11; allow X inch for Lap. fcxSK over all; 5K In . Face 101 102 p Orders for Stock Should Conform to above Numbers FIG. 6 Note: With the exception of Nos. 117 and 118, the above patterns are similar In style to the "Universal" Patterns of Drop Siding and Ship- lap used by the manufacturers of Northern Pine and Hemlock. STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 51 North Carolina Pine (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . 1x4 Is fx3* F; 1x6 is Jx5i F. Longleaf Pine (Ga.*Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . .Same as above. Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above. Cypress and Tupelo (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .1x4 is Jx3i F; 1x6 is Jx5i F; 1x8 is Jx7i F. Douglas Fir, Western Hem- lock, Cedar and Spruce. . . (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is fx3i F; 1x6 is fx5* F; 1x8 is *x7 F. Hemlock and Tamarack (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is 13/16x3J F; 1x6 is 13/16 x5i F; 1x8 is 13/16x7i F. Northern Hardwoods (Mich. Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .1x4 is 13/16x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16 x5JF. Idaho White Pine, Western Pine, Fir and Larch (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .1x4 is fx3 F; 1x6 is Jx5J F; 1x8 is |x7i F. Redwood 1x4 is 1 3/16x3* F; 1x6 is 13/16 x5i F; 1x8 is 13/16x7* F. Yellow Poplar (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) ... .1x4 is Jx3i F; 1x5 is Jx4i F; 1x6 is |x5i F. FINISH S-l-S OR S-2-S S-l-S = Surfaced one side; S-2-S = Surfaced two sides. Woods Thickness White and Norway Pine (Nor. Pine L^rs. Ass'n) ... .1" is 25/32"; U" Is 1J"; li" is 1|*; 2" is 1}". North Carolina Pine (Nor. Car. Pine Ass'n) 1" is 13/16"; 1|" is 1 1/16"; li w is li"; 2" is 12". Longleaf Pine (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n)... 1" is 13/16"; li" is 11/16"; 1*" is 1 5/16"; 2" Is li". 52 LUMBER AND ITS USES Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above. Cypress and Tupelo (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n)...!" is 13/16"; 1" is 1 1/16"; li" is 1 5/16"; 2" is 1}". Douglas Fir, Western Hem- lock, Cedar and Spruce (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. Ass'n) V is }" J li" is 1 1/16"; 1*" is 1 6/16*. Hemlock and Tamarack (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) 1" is 13/16". Idaho White Pine, Western Pine, Fir and Larch (Western Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . 1" is |". Redwood 1", li", li", and 2" are 3/16" scant for S-l-S and i' f scant for S-2-S. Gum and Yellow Poplar (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) 1" is 13/16". FINISH S-l-E OR S-2-E S-l-E = Surfaced one edge; S-2-E = Surfaced two edges. Woods Widths White and Norway Pine (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) 4" ig 3i"; 6" is 5i". North Carolina Pine (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n). 4" is 3f"; 6" is 5J"; 8" is 7J"; 10" is 9|"; 12" is llf". Longleaf Pine (Ga,-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . .4" is 3*"; 6" is 51"; 8" is 7*"; 10" is 9}"; 12" is Hi". Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above when S-4-S. Cypress and Tupelo (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . . 4" is 3i"; 6" is ej"; 8" is 7J"; 10" is 9i"; 12" is llf. Douglas Fir, Western Hem- lock, Cedar and Spruce (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. Ass'n) 4" is 3i; 6" is 6J"; 8" is 7J"; 10" is 9i"; 12" is Hi". STANDARD SIZES OP LUMBEB 53 Hemlock and Tamarack (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) 4" is 3i"; 6" is 6i". Idaho White Pine, Western Pine, Fir and Larch (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .$" scant. Redwood i" scant. Gum and Yellow Poplar (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) Same as Cypress and Tupelo. SHIPLAP (INCH) Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) White and Norway Pine (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n). . ..1x8 is 25/32x7| F; 1x10 is 25/32x9 F; 1x12 is 25/32x Hi F. North Carolina Pine (Nor. Car. Pine Ass'n) 1x8 is 13/16x7i F; 1x10 is 13/16x9i F. Longleaf Pine (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) ... 1x8 is 25/32x7i F; 1x10 is 25/32x9 F. Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .1x8 is fx7J F; 1x10 is x9$ F; 1x12 is fxlH F. Cypress and Tupelo (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . .1x8 is 13/16x7 F; 1x10 is 13/16 x9 F; 1x12 is 13/16x11 F. Douglas Fir, Western Hem- lock, Cedar and Spruce (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x8 is fx7 F; 1x10 is 2x9 F; Ix 12 is fxll F. Hemlock and Tamarack (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x8 is 13/16x7i F; 1x10 is 13/16x9i F; 1x12 is 13/16x Hi F. Idaho White Pine, Western Pine, Fir and Larch (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) ... 1x8 Is }x7 F; 1x10 is |x9 F; 1x12 is fxll F. Redwood 1x4 is 13/16x3 i F. j54 LUMBER AND ITS USES BOARDS (INCH) Woods Thickness White and Norway Pine (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 25/32*. North Carolina Pine (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S to I", S-2-S to 13/16". Longleaf Pine (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . .S-l-S or S-2-S to 13/16". Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above. Cypress (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above. Douglas Fir, Western Hem- lock, Cedar and Spruce (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to f ". Hemlock and Tamarack (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n; Mich. Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 13/16". Redwood S-l-S to 13/16". Sugar and California White Pine S-2-S to J". Eastern Hardwoods (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n; Hardwood Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .S-2-S to 13/16". DIMENSION (2-INCH, S-1-S-l-E) S-1-S-l-E = Surfaced one side and one edge. Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) White and Norway Pine (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) 2x4, 6, 8, 10 and 12, S-1-S-l-E to IfxSg, 5|, 7ft, 9f and Hi- North Carolina Pine (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . 2x4, 6, 8, 10. and 12, S-1-S-l-B to IJxSJ, 6J, 7|. 9i, and 11J. Longleaf Pine (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . ..2x4, , 8, 10, and 12, S-1-S-l-E to I*x3$, 6, 7, 8ft, and 111. Cypress (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . -Same as above. STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 55 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . 2x4, 6, 8, 10 and 12, S-1-S-l-E to IfxSfi, 5f, 71, 91 and 111. Douglas Fir and Western Hemlock (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. Ass'n) 2x4, 6, 8, 10 and 12, S-1-S-l-E to I|x3f, 5f, 71, 91 and Hi. Hemlock and Tamarack (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) 2x4, 6, 8, 10 and 12, S-1-S-l-E to IfzSi, 5|, 7f, 9f and HI- Idaho White Pine, Western Pine, Fir and Larch (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . . Jx4, 8, 8, 10, 12 and 14, S- 1-S-l-E to IfxSf, 51, 71, 91, 111 and 131. Sugar and California White Pine S-2-S to If". DIMENSION (3-INCH, S-l-S OR S-2-S) Woods Thickness White and Norway Pine (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 2|". North Carolina Pine (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 2f. Longleaf Pine (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . .S-l-S or S-2-S to 2f. Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . S-l-S to 2J" ; S-2-S to 21". Cypress (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .S-l-S or S-2-S to 2J". Douglas Fir and Western Hemlock (West. Coast Lbr. Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 21". Hemlock and Tamarack (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 2f. Western Pine, Fir and Larch (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . . S-l-S or S-2-S to 21". Sugar and California White Pine S-2-S to 2f. 56 LUMBER AND ITS USES HARDWOOD SIZES The standard sizes adopted by the National Hardwood Lumber Association are as follows: Standard Lengths Standard lengths are 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 feet; but not over 15 per cent of odd lengths are admitted. In the grade of Firsts and Seconds the lengths are 8 to 16 feet; but there must not be more than 20 per cent under 12 feet, and not to exceed 10 per cent of 8 and 9-feet lengths. Standard Thicknesses The standard thicknesses of hardwood lum- ber are: %, %, %, %, %, 1, 1%, 1%, 1%, 2, 2%, 3, 3i/ 2 , 4, 4i/ 2 , 5, 51/2, and 6 inches. The standard thicknesses for surfaced lum- ber are as follows: Rough Surfaced Rough Surfaced %" S-2-S to A" 1%" S-2-S to 1%* %" S-2-S to A" 2 " S-2-S to 1%" %" S-2-S to -ft* 2%* S-2-S to 2&" %" S-2-S to A* 3 " S-2-S to 2%" 1 * S-2-S to H " 3 % " S-2-S to 3 % 1% S-2-S to 1& 4 * S-2-S to 3%" 1%" S-2-S to IJi" Lumber surfaced one side only must be 1/16 inch full of the above thicknesses. The standard sizes for hardwood lumber sur- faced two sides adopted by the Hardwood Man- ufacturers Association are as above, except that these manufacturers work %-inch stock to 7/32 inch instead of 3/16 inch. SHIPPING WEIGHTS THE lumber manufacturer usually makes quotations upon the basis of delivery of the lumber to any point desired. To do this, it is necessary for him to know the weight of the product, in order to figure freight charges and add them to his f. o. b. mill price. For this reason, the grading rules of practically all lum- ber manufacturers' associations carry tables of estimated weights of lumber when dried to what is called " shipping condition." These weights are, of course, somewhat arbitrary; but they are based upon long experience, and are fair ap- proximations of the weights of the commercial products which they represent. So far as they vary from actual weights, the estimated weights are likely to be a little higher than the exact weights. On the other hand, there is so much difference in the weight of wood depending upon the amount of seasoning, that not infrequently lumber is shipped when it is decidedly heavier than the estimated weights. Softwoods Estimated shipping weights of typical prod- ucts of the principal softwoods in air-dry con- dition are indicated in Table 11. 57 58 LUMBER AND ITS USES 1 1 a tt, O O O . . O O O O I , o o o ..o.ooo.. *j*22 ; ^ w > o o oo oo a* 00 i-< >-T c<f e<r c T-T i-T o t O . O O > O o S&!<=> oo. ...o.. ftfifte : : : . : : : : n : : f _J'" ia2 lH . . . C-J <M . . M . . Q. ^>J3 00000-0.. "Sro o o o ujoooo-o.. ^ ^g oo N o^ <N i *i . . o. : . o "^s t-f e^ <f fri e<TrQ<re<r<r.<ri o5 S-o o o o ooooooooo O oDM OOOOOOOOO -2 si* N " S N" S w' S S N~ ej S S S 2 O c ^ OD .;g;-i.o . . ooo..oooo 2Mrt'S < = 000- -0000 "" o 5 * : : : H o w : * * 10 ^ ww ^ co'eoeo^-cJcaco'cvr A S W)Wo O O O -OO-'OOOO ^'Sc"^ O O 'OO-'OOOO E4 K ^ *t ^ "* "3 -o>..MMicq ^ i^ ^ ^ *^ *^ -cic<r^^evrc<re<r*q 1 r .9^ O . . . 000- -0000 O<^j'O OOO'-OOIOO ftrf 'S US . : ' USNCO..IOIU3>D 13 W W *** * * co eo co" w cq c<T eq * o .2 a o o o . . o 1 84 o o o o E It * % 1 : ::::::::: ^5^^ ' : : : : * : i ::::::::: ^ i s i- IS ::::::,:: g |S :! :| :;::::: :E : : 5. a=3 := :^ :| | Sb:b^:^ a li?|gi-i 1 s s s s .5 2 fl <},_,<) Srt 7 fed.g . < S^^ M 2flfl^flS' ** (D a) !n ^ CQ tt),^ Ij5fifio <l ^ > M!"St!'wi : 25'n'w'-2*'S-^d^ ^ ^flSoSflajHTJftSgg^gu)^ ^3^51 o25 SHIPPING WEIGHTS 59 Hardwoods The estimated shipping weights for rough inch lumber of the common hardwoods in air- dry condition, are indicated in Table 12. TABLE 12 Shipping Weights of Hardwoods (Rough Inch Lumber In Lbs. per 1,000 Feet, Board Measure) Ash, Black ... 3,200 Gum, Red ... 3,30.0 Ash, White... 3,500 to 3,800 Gum, Sap 3,000 to 3,100 Basswood 2,500 to 2,600 Hickory 4,500 to 5,000 Beech 4,000 Mahogany .... 3,500 Birch 4,000 Maple, Hard. 3,900 to 4,000 Buckeye 2,600 Maple, Soft. . . 3,000 to 3,300 Butternut 2,500 to 2,800 Oak 3,900 to 4,000 Cherry 3,800 to 4,000 Poplar, Yellow 2,800 Chestnut .... 2,800 Sycamore .... 3,000 to 3,200 Cottonwood . . 2,800 Tupelo 2,800 Elm, Rock . . . 3,800 to 4,000 Walnut 4,000 Elm, Soft 3, 000 to 3, 300 Kiln-Dried Oak Flooring, f'xli", 1,000 Ibs.; 3"x2", 1,200 Ibs.; 13/16"x li". 2,000 Ibs.; 13/16"x2", 2,100 Ibs.; 13/16"x2i", 2,200 Ibs. Maple, Beech, and Birch Flooring, f'xli" or 2i", 1,000 Ibs.; 13/16"xli" or 2i", 2,100 Ibs. STRUCTURAL TIMBERS TIMBERS are usually sawed from the heart of the log. It pays the lumber manu- facturer better to cut the clear, outside portions of the log into higher classes of material than it does to cut them into timbers which bring a lower market price. For this reason, timbers may contain many or all of the defects common to the species from which they are cut. Since, however, timbers are large pieces of wood which are used as a whole, some small defects do not greatly reduce the strength, and larger defects of certain kinds may not be serious un- less located at the points where the greatest strength is required. The most serious defects in structural tim- bers are rot, knots, shake, and cross-grain. Sometimes a beam or timber may be so placed that these defects will not seriously interfere with strength, whereas in a reverse position, they would be very detrimental. For example, knots near the center or ends have practically no effect upon the strength of a beam. The rate of growth is often thought to have much effect upon the strength of large timbers; but they are so likely to have defects of greater importance that the rate of growth alone cannot be depended upon to indicate the strength. In the same way, while seasoning small sticks 60 STRUCTURAL TIMBER^ 61 greatly increases their strength, it is not safe to assume that large timbers when seasoned are much stronger than when green. This is be- cause checks which develop in seasoning are likely to offset the increase in strength due to the drying of the wood. For this reason, engi- neers do not ordinarily consider it advisable to figure upon a greater load for seasoned timbers than would be safe for timbers of the same size when green. The Forest Service experiments in seasoning large timbers lead to these conclusions: (1) In general, timber 8 by 16 inches in cross-section must season through, two entire summers before it reaches a thoroughly air-dry condition. (2) The weight of thoroughly air-seasoned timbers will vary appreciably during the year, due to the alternate evaporation and absorption of moisture. This change in moisture content is accompanied by a corresponding ghrinking and swelling which tends to increase the size and number of checks formed through the seasoning pro- cess. These hygroscopic changes, however, do not seem to affect the interior of the timbers. (3) If seasoning is started in the hot summer months, the loss of moisture is at first very rapid, even though the timber is protected from the sun and wind. The rapid loss in weight is associated with a marked shrink- age in the outer portion of the timber, which invariably induces checking. The loss in weight in a stringer 8 by 16 inches in cross-section and 16 feet long, in three months, varies from 40 to 60 pounds, the loss being pro- portional in a general way to the amount of sapwood the timber contains. Checking is less serious, however, when the timbers contain a considerable amount of sapwood than when they are practically all heartwood. 62 LUMBER AND ITS USES (4) The best results are obtained when the air-season- ing is started in the late fall or early winter months. At this time of the year, the air is usually moist enough to prevent rapid drying on the surface, and, in conse- quence, serious checking. (5) The absence of shrinkage in redwood timbers is very noticeable, although redwood contains a large amount of moisture when cut. On account of its low- shrinkage factor, it can be seasoned without serious checking. ASSOCIATION RULES FOR STRUCTURAL TIMBERS Yellow Pine The rules or specifications for structural tim- bers adopted by the Yellow Pine Manufacturers Association are: No. 1 Common Timbers Sizes. Common Timber shall be worked to the fol- lowing: 4x4, 4x6, 6x6, %-inch off side and edge. Sur- faced 4 sides, i/4-inch off each side; 6x8 and larger, S-3-S or S-4-S, 1,4-inch off each side surfaced. Rough Timbers, 4x4 and larger, shall not be more than ^-inch scant at any point when green, and be well manu- factured, with not less than three square edges, and will admit sound knots that do not occupy more than one- third the cross-section of the piece or small defective knots. Timbers 10x10 in size may have a 2-inch wane on one corner, measured on faces, or its equivalent on two or more corners one-third the length of the piece. Larger sizes may have proportionately greater defects. Shakes extending not over one-eighth of the length of the piece are admissible, and seasoning checks shall not be considered a defect. STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 63 Dressed Timbers shall conform in grading to the spec- ifications applying to rough timbers of same size. Rough Timbers, if thicker than specified thickness for dry or green stock, may be dressed to such standard thickness, and when so dressed shall be considered as rough stock. West Coast Timber The grades for structural timbers adopted by the West Coast Lumber Manufacturers Associ- ation (applying chiefly to Douglas fir) are as follows : Clears Shall be sound lumber well sawed, one side and two edges free from knots and other defects impair- ing its use for the probable purpose intended. Will allow in dimensions larger than 6 by 10 inches pitch pockets when not extending through the piece; light- colored sap on corners not exceeding 3 inches on face and edge, knots 2 inches and less in diameter, according to size of piece, when on one face and one-half of each corresponding edge, leaving one face and upper half of each edge clear. Selects Shall be sound, strong lumber, well sawed. Will allow in sizes over 6 by 6 inch, knots, not to exceed 2 inches in diameter, varying according to the size of the piece; sap on corner not to exceed 2 inches on both face and edge; pitch pockets not to exceed 6 inches in length. Defects in all cases to be considered in connec- tion with the size of the piece and its general quality. Merchantable This grade shall consist of sound, strong lumber, free from shakes, large, loose, or rotten knots, and defects that materially impair its strength, well manufactured, and suitable for good, substantial constructional purposes. Will allow slight variations in sawing, sound knots, pitch pockets, and sap on corners, one-third the width and one-half the thickness, or its equivalent. Defects in all cases to be considered in con- 64 LUMBER AND ITS USES nection with the size of the piece and its general quality. In timber 10 by 10 inches and over, sap shall not be con- sidered a defect. Discolorations through exposure to elements, other than black sap, shall not be deemed a defect excluding lumber from this grade if otherwise conforming to merchantable grade. Common This grade shall consist of lumber having knots, sap, and other defects which exclude it from grad- ing as merchantable, but of a quality suitable for rough kinds of work. American Society for Testing Materials The American Society for Testing Materials has been working for many years to establish commercial standards for all structural materials upon a scientific basis. The specifications which it has adopted for structural timber are as fol- lows: I. Definition of Structural Timber By the term "Structural Timber" the Committee understands all such products of wood in ' which the strength of the timber is the controlling element in their selection and use. The following is a list of products which are recommended for consideration as structural timbers : Trestle Timbers Stringers, caps, posts, mud sills, brac- ing, bridge ties, guard rails. Car Timbers Car framing, including upper framing; car sills. Framing for Building's Posts, mud sills, girders, fram- ing, joists. Ship Timbers Ship timbers, ship decking. Cross-Arms for Poles. II. Standard Defects Measurements which refer to the diameter of knots or Standard Knot Large Knot Plate 8 Lumber and Its Uses Loose Knot Encased Knot Pith Knot Plate 9 Lumber and Its Uses Rotten Knot STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 65 holes should be considered as referring to the mean or average diameter. 1. Sound Knot A sound knot is one which is solid across its face, and which is as hard as the wood sur- rounding it ; it may be either red or black, and is so fixed by growth or position that it will retain its place in the piece. 2. Loose Knot A loose knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or position. 3. Pith Knot A pith knot is a sound knot with a pith hole not more than 14 inch in diameter in the center. 4. Encased Knot An encased knot is one which is surrounded wholly or in part by bark or pitch. Where the encasement is less than % of an inch in width on both sides, not exceeding one-half the circumference of the knot, it shall be considered a sound knot. 5. Rotten Knot A rotten knot is one not as hard as the wood it is in. 6. Pin Knot A pin knot is a sound knot not over % inch in diameter. 7. Standard Knot A standard knot is a sound knot not over 1^2 inches in diameter. 8. Large Knot A large knot is a sound knot more than iy 2 inches in diameter. 9. Round Knot A round knot is one which is oval or circular in form. 10. Spike Knot A spike knot is one sawn in a length- wise direction; the mean or average width shall be con- sidered in measuring these knots. 11. Pitch Pockets Pitch pockets are openings be- tween the grain of the wood containing more or less pitch or bark. These shall be classified as " small," "standard," and "large" pitch pockets. (a) Small Pitch Pocket. A small pitch pocket is one not over % of an inch wide. (b) Standard Pitch Pocket. A standard pitch pocket is one not over % of an inch wide or 3 inches in length. 66 LUMBER AND ITS USES (c) Large Pitch Pocket. A large pitch pocket is one over % of an inch wide or over 3 inches in length. 12. Pitch Streak A pitch streak is a well-defined accumulation of pitch at one point in the piece. When not sufficient to develop a well-defined streak, or where the fiber between grains that is, the coarse-grained fiber, usually termed "Spring wood" is not saturated with pitch, it shall not be considered a defect. 13. Wane Wane is bark, or the lack of wood from any cause, on edges of timbers. 14. Shades Shakes are splits or checks in timbers which usually cause a separation of the wood between annual rings. 15. Rot, Dote, and Red Heart Any form of decay which may be evident either as a dark red discoloration not found in the sound wood, or the presence of white or red rotten spots, shall be considered as a defect. 16. Ring Shake An opening between the annual rings. 17. Through Shake A shake which extends between two faces of a timber. III. Standard Names for Structural Timbers 1. Southern Yellow Pine Under this heading, two classes of timber are used: (1) Longleaf Pine; (2) Short- leaf Pine. It is understood that these two terms are descriptive of quality, rather than of botanical species. Thus, "Shortleaf Pine" would cover such species as are now known as North Carolina pine, loblolly pine, and short- leaf pine. "Longleaf Pine" is descriptive of quality; and if Cuban, shortleaf, or loblolly pine is grown under such conditions that it produces a large percentage of hard summer wood, so as to be equivalent to the wood produced by the true longleaf, it would be covered by the term "Longleaf Pine." STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 67 2. Douglas Fir The term "Douglas Fir" to cover the timber known likewise as yellow fir, red fir, Western fir, Washington fir, Oregon or Puget Sound fir or pine, norwest and west coast fir. 3. Norway Pine, to cover what is known also as "Red Pine." 4. Hemlock, to cover Southern or Eastern hemlock that is, hemlock from all States east of and including Minnesota. 5. Western Hemlock, to cover hemlock from the Pacific coast. 6. Spruce, to cover Eastern spruce that is, the spruce timber coming from points east of Minnesota. 7. Western Spruce, to cover the spruce timber from the Pacific coast. 8. White Pine, to cover the timber which has hitherto been known as white pine, from Maine, Michigan, Wis- consin, and Minnesota. 9. Idaho White Pine, the variety of white pine from western Montana, northern Idaho, and eastern Washing- ton. 10. Western Pine, to cover the timber sold as white pine coming from Arizona, California, New Mexico, Colo- rado, Oregon, and Washington. This is the timber some- times known as "Western Yellow Pine," or "Ponderosa Pine," or "California White Pine," or "Western White Pine." 11. Western Larch, to cover the species of larch or tamarack from the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast regions. 12. Tamarack, to cover the timber known as "Tama- rack," or "Eastern Tamarack," from States east of and including Minnesota. 13. Redwood, to include the California wood usually known by that name. 68 LUMBER AND ITS USES IV. Standard Specifications for Bridge and Trestle Timbers (To be applied to solid members and not to composite members) GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Except as noted, all timber shall be cut from sound trees and sawed standard size; close-grained and solid; free from defects such as injurious ring shakes and crooked grain, unsound knots, knots in groups, decay, large pitch pockets, or other defects that will materially impair its strength. Standard Size of Sawed Timber Rough timbers when sawed to standard size, shall mean that they shall not be over y in. scant from actual size specified. For instance, a 12 in. x 12 in. shall measure not less than 11% in. x 1134 in. Standard Dressing of Sawed Timbers Standard dress- ing means that not more than 14 in. shall be allowed for dressing each surface. For instance, a 12 in. x 12 in. shall, after dressing four sides, not measure less than Hi/2 in. x ll^j in. STRINGERS No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Shall show not less than 80 per cent of heart on each of the four sides, measured across the sides anywhere in the length of the piece; loose knots, or knots greater than 1^ in. in diameter, will not be permitted at points within 4 inches of the edges of the piece. No. 2. Longleaf Yellow Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Douglas Fir, and Western Hemlock Shall be square edged, ex- cept it may have 1 in. wane on one corner. Knots must not exceed in their largest diameter ^4 the width of the face of the stick in which they occur. Ring shakes extending not over % of the length of the piece are admissible. CAPS AND SILLS No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Shall show 85 per cent heart on each of the four sides, meas- STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 69 ured across the sides anywhere in the length of the piece ; to be free from knots over 2y% in. in diameter; knots must not be in groups. No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir, and Western Hemlock Shall be square-edged, ex- cept it may have 1 in. wane on one corner, or % in. wane on two corners. Knots must not exceed in their largest diameter !/4 the width of the face of the stick in which they occur. Ring shakes extending not over ^ the length of the piece are admissible. POSTS No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Shall show not less than 75 per cent heart, measured across the face anywhere on the length of the piece ; to be free from knots over 2y z in. in diameter, and must not be in groups. No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir, and Western Hemlock Shall be square-edged, ex- cept it may have 1 in. wane on one corner, or y z in. wane on two corners. Knots must not exceed, in their largest diameter, y^ the width of the face of the stick in which they occur. Ring shakes shall not extend over % of the length of the piece. LONGITUDINAL STRUTS OR GIRTS No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Shall show one face all heart; the other face and two sides shall show not less than 85 per cent heart, measured across the face or side anywhere in the piece; to be free from knots 1% in. in diameter and over. No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir, and Western Hemlock Shall be square-edged and sound; to be free from knots l*/2 in. in diameter and over. LONGITUDINAL X-BRACES, SASH BRACES, AND SWAY BRACES No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Shall show not less than 80 per cent heart on two faces and 70 LUMBER AND ITS USES four square edges; to be free from knots over iy 2 in. in diameter. No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir, and Western Hemlock Shall be square-edged and sound; to be free from knots 2y% in. in diameter and over. FOREST SERVICE RULES As the result of tests upon structural timbers, the Forest Service proposes the following grades : Grade 1 Timbers having a modulus of rup- ture over 4,000 pounds per square inch. Grade 2 Serviceable timbers having a modu- lus of rupture under 4,000 pounds per square inch. Culls Timbers having visible defects which render them unfit for structural purposes. The practical application of these grades is illustrated by the following definitions of terms and tentative rules for timbers, based upon a long series of tests: DEFINITIONS Snakes A shake is a separation of one annual ring from an- other, in some cases only a few degrees in length, in others entirely separating two rings. It is thought that shakes are produced in the living tree by stresses caused, by winds and changes of temperature. They are most common in woods that split easily. Shakes are difficult to detect in green timber, and usually do not become visible until the timber is at least partly seasoned. A STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 71 shake decreases the strength of timber in proportion as a plane tangent to it approaches parallelism with the neutral plane in the beam, since the more nearly parallel the two planes the smaller is the area resisting horizontal shear. Checks Checks are radial cracks or splits produced, almost without exception, by uneven shrinkage during season- ing. Occasionally, however, they are present in green timber. Cross-Grains Cross-grain may be divided into three general classes: Diagonal Grain In sawing lumber, if the plane of the saw is not approximately parallel to the axis of the log, the grain of the lumber cut is not parallel to the edges, and is termed diagonal. Spiral Grain In many trees the fibers composing each year's growth are ranged spirally instead of vertically. The greater the pitch of the spiral, the greater is the defect. Spiral grain usually cannot be detected from a casual inspection of the piece, since it does not show in the so-called visible grain of the wood, which in softwood lumber is nothing but a sectional view of the annual rings cut longitudinally. A careful inspection, however, of the medullary rays on the tangential or bastard section, will invariably reveal spiral grain, since the rays necessarily incline with the spiral direction of the fibers around the trunk, and therefore, in section, appear obliquely on the face of the timber. Spiral grain may readily be detected also by splitting a small piece radially. Burls Burls are local disturbances in the grain of tim- ber, usually associated with knots or produced by the healing of wounds during the life of the tree. Pitch Pockets Pitch pockets are cavities between annual rings, usually filled with resin. They are rarely large enough to affect seriously the strength of structural timbers. 72 LUMBER AND ITS USES Knots Knots are portions of branches which have been encased in the growing trunk of the tree. In judging their effect upon the strength of timber, it should be borne in mind that the axis of a knot always extends to the center or pith of the tree, and that the visible part of the knot is a section of a somewhat conical mass of wood, the apex of the cone being at the pith of the tree, and the knot, as a whole, more or less intertwined with the wood sur- rounding it. A spike knot is a longitudinal section of a whole knot; and a round or elliptical knot is a section, respectively at right angles or at some oblique angle, to the axis of the knot. Sound knots, as a rule, are stronger and harder than the wood fiber surrounding them. Their effect, therefore, upon the strength of the timber depends to a large extent upon the manner in which they are connected to the surrounding wood and upon the degree of stress to which the connecting fibers are subjected. If the knots disturb the grain so that it is decidedly oblique to the edges of the timber, the wood will be subjected to stresses in tension at right angles to the grain, the kind to which it offers the least resistance. In such cases early failure in cross-grain tension almost invariably results. Class 1 Knots Class 1 knots must be solid, firmly attached to the surrounding wood, and must cause no marked irregularity in the grain of the timber. Small spike knots will be included in this class. Class 2 Knots Class 2 knots must be solid, but are insecurely attached to the surrounding wood, or associ- ated with burl or other irregularity in the grain. Class 3 Knots Class 3 knots are unsound knots; that is, they are softer than the surrounding wood. Dimensions of Knots The dimension of a knot on the narrow face of a timber will be the projection of the knot STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 73 on a line perpendicular to an edge of the timber. On the wide, or vertical, faces the smallest diameter of a knot is to be taken as its dimension. Small Knots Knots less than iy 2 inches in diameter. Large Knots Knots iy 2 inches or more in diameter. 7cL.3 h i .* 1 JSTo Vol.9 J&l \ VtL.I I ^ Fig. 7. Diagram Showing Method of Locating Defects in Stringers Position of Defects The position of defects is desig- nated by means of the three volumes indicated in the diagram (Fig. 7). Dense Wood The term "dense wood" is used to define the quality of wood which is desirable in timbers subjected to stresses such as occur in frame structures. The term applies to the wood itself, irrespective of defects. Since dry weight, which is the most accurate index to the mechanical properties of wood, cannot be determined from a casual inspection of the timber, dense or, in other words, comparatively heavy wood will be de- fined as: (1) Wood that shows more than eight rings per inch, or the rings of which contain more than 30 per cent summerwood. (2) Wood which is resilient that is, which, when struck with a hammer or similar blunt instrument, gives a sharp, clear sound, while the hammer shows a marked tendency to rebound and the wood to recover from the effects of the blow. These properties are to be judged from an inspection of the cross-section of the timber. 74 LUMBER AND ITS USES TENTATIVE GRADING RULES The following tentative rules are for the purpose of strength classification only, and do not take into account requirements of a general nature such as conformity to dimensions, proportion of sap, or other requirements made necessary by peculiarities of certain species. Grade 1 Timbers (a) Must contain only dense wood. (b) Must not have Class 2 or large Class 1 knots in volume 1. (c) Must not have large Class 2 knots in volume 2. (d) The aggregate diameter of knots on any face within the center half of the length shall not exceed the width of the face. (e) Must not have shakes or deep checks. (f) Must not have diagonal grain with a slope greater than 1 inch in 20. Grade 2 Timbers (a) Must contain only dense wood. (b) Must not have large Class 2 knots in volume 1. (c) The aggregate diameter of knots on any face in the center half of the length shall not exceed two times the width of the face. (d) Must not have shakes which extend along an annual ring a distance greater than the width of the piece. Classification of Timbers As the result of the application of the pro- posed grades to the species tested, the Forest Service classifies them in order of strength as follows : Class 1 Timbers To include Grade 1 timbers for longleaf pine, shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, and Douglas fir. Shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, however, generally contain quite a large proportion of sapwood, which is not nearly so durable as the heartwood. Therefore unless these species were treated with a preservative, they should be excluded from this class and put into Class 2. Class 2 Timbers To consist of Grade 2 longleaf pine, Grade 2 Douglas fir, Grade 1 western larch and hemlock, and Grade 1 tamarack. Class 3 Timbers To include Grade 1 redwood, Grade 1 Nor- STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 75 way pine, Grade 2 shortleaf pine, Grade 2 loblolly pine, Grade 2 tamarack, Grade 2 western hemlock. This classification is based entirely upon the strength developed by the timbers tested, and does not take into consideration other properties which may be desirable for any particular use. For example, the durability of the different species is influenced greatly by the amount of sapwood which the timbers contain. Shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, Norway pine, and tamarack usually con- tain a considerable proportion of sapwood. All of the other species mentioned can be secured, as a rule, in dimension sizes practically free from sapwood. If, how- ever, the timbers are to be given a preservative treat- ment, sapwood may be an advantage, since it readily absorbs creosote and other preservatives. CONCLUSIONS The tests of the Forest Service upon struc- tural timbers lead to these conclusions: (1) The mechanical properties of timber beams are depend- ent upon: a, The quality of the wood irrespective of defects; . b, the character and location of defects. (2) The mechanical properties of wood free from defects vary directly with its dry weight. The relative dry weight of the different pieces of wood of any species can be approximated by comparing the proportion of summerwood in each. (3) The only defects which materially decrease the break- ing strength of timber beams are the more serious ones, such as large knots and cross-grains occurring where fibers are sub- jected to comparatively high stresses. (4) All the species tested seem to be subject to the same general laws regarding the relation of mechanical to physical properties. SEASONING OF TIMBER T"1RESHLY cut timber frequently contains [^ half its weight of water, or, stated other- wise, it contains 100 per cent of water based upon the absolutely dry weight of the wood. A large proportion of this excess water must be removed before the timber is in shape to use, and the process by which it is removed is called "seasoning." Seasoning usually in- creases the strength, stiffness, and hardness of timber, greatly reduces its weight, and renders it less likely to shrink in subsequent usage. Timber is used green only when absolutely nec- essary, since, among other undesirable quali- ties, it is more likely to decay than is seasoned timber. There are two general methods of seasoning timber the natural and the artificial, or air- drying and kiln-drying. Air-dried timber may contain from 15 to 30 per cent of moisture, de- pending upon kind, size, climate, and other fac- tors. Kiln-dried timber usually contains 5 to 10 per cent of moisture; while in what is called " oven-dry" or "bone-dry" wood, the moisture content is less than 1 per cent of the absolutely dry weight of the wood. For ordinary structural timber, studding, sheathing, and the like, air-drying is sufficient. For the more refined uses of timber where it is 76 SEASONING OF TIMBER 77 re-worked into flooring, finish, furniture, and other articles, thorough kiln-drying is necessary to reduce as much as possible the tendency to swell and shrink with atmospheric changes. Heavy material like vehicle stock may be air- dried for two or three years, and then kiln-dried slowly for a long time to obtain the necessary seasoning with the least checking and warping. Thin boards of any kind of lumber exhibit more or less tendency to check and twist dur- ing seasoning processes. This tendency is greater in the hardwoods than in the softwoods, because of the much more complex structure of the hardwoods. Commercial practice has, how- ever, made such rapid strides in the last few years that almost any kind of timber is now suc- cessfully seasoned by either natural or artificial means. For many years, cottonwood and gum were rejected by sawmill operators, because of the general belief that they could not be satis- factorily seasoned. Now the manufacturers handle these woods with comparatively little trouble; and their products are popular for a multitude of purposes, some of which are most exacting. Since most of the softwoods are very easily kiln-dried with little damage, many of them are artificially seasoned to reduce the shipping weight and save the time required for air-sea- soning. Much of the Southern yellow pine and the Western fir and cedar go straight from the sawmill to the dry-kiln, and then into cars for 78 LUMBER AND ITS USES shipment to market. As the hardwoods are more difficult to handle, they are ordinarily air- dried by the lumber manufacturer, and kiln- dried at the factory where they are re-worked into flooring, finish, and other products. AIR-DRYING Lumber may be air-dried at the sawmill for a few months to a year, before it is ready to ship to consuming points. The time required to reach shipping condition depends upon weather, season of the year, kind of timber, and climate. Inch pine lumber may dry to shipping condition in two months in the Southwest in summer; while, in the damp climate of the Gulf Coast, cypress manufacturers may find it necessary to hold lumber in their yards for a year to bring it to shipping condition. Quick and satisfactory air-drying of lumber is secured by following certain principles which are recognized by all experienced lumbermen. These are to have solid foundations so that the piles will not settle out of shape ; to have a good clearance above ground, and the piles sufficiently open to give free circulation of air; to have enough cross-pieces regularly placed to hold the boards straight while they are seasoning; and to give sufficient slope to the piles, and have them well covered so that water will run off quickly. A careful observance of these princi- ples will produce straight, bright stock under SEASONING OF TIMBER 79 conditions which would result in very poor stock if the lumber were not properly piled. There is a common theory that if timber is cut in the winter "while the sap is down," it is much superior to summer-cut timber in strength, re- sistance to decay, and other desirable qualities. As a matter of fact, while there are certain ad- vantages in winter cutting, there is absolutely nothing to the notion that the sap is "down" in winter and "up" in summer. There is prac- tically no difference between winter and sum- mer in the amount of water which the wood of a tree contains. Winter-cut wood seasons best because it dries out more slowly and evenly, with less checking and warping, than summer-cut wood. It is also less liable to attacks of fungi, which produce decay or stain. Since the hard- woods are more difficult to season than the soft- woods, the latter are less likely to sustain inju- rious effects from summer cutting. In the North, therefore, many operators saw mostly hard- woods in the winter and spring, and softwoods pine and hemlock in the summer and fall. However, many lumbermen cut timber the year round as it runs in the forest, and experience no special difficulty in either handling or mar- keting their stock. A recent innovation in lumber seasoning for which much is claimed is a preliminary steam- ing in a tight cylinder before the lumber is piled in the yard to air-dry in the usual fashion. It is said that the steamed lumber air-dries much V 80 LUMBER AND ITS USES more quickly and with less checking and warp- ing than does unsteamed lumber. It is also claimed that lumber cut from logs which have been in the water for some time, seasons better than lumber cut from logs which go straight from the stump to the mill. Both the steaming and the water-soaking seem to dissolve some of the contents of the cells in the sapwood, and open the wood up so that it subsequently sea- sons more uniformly. KILN-DRYING The artificial seasoning of lumber has made such rapid strides in recent years that it is now claimed, on good authority, that lumber of al- most any kind can be kiln-dried in compara- tively short time, with less damage than results from air-drying. However, many users insist that only air-dried lumber is fit for the most exacting purposes. This opinion is due very largely to the poor work done by the early types of kilns, which were neither scientifically constructed nor properly operated. The rate at which lumber seasons is deter- mined by three factors temperature, humidity, and air circulation. All of these factors admit of regulation in a kiln; hence it is fair to assume that it is feasible to obtain favorable combina- tions of them which will rarely be found under natural conditions. Kinds of Kilns. Kilns for drying lumber are of three general types: Pin Knot Pitch Streak Spike Knot ;'Plate 10 Lumber and Its Uses Pitch Pocket A Douglas Fir Forest Plate 11 Lumber and Its 'Uses SEASONING OP TIMBER 81 (1) The dry air kiln, which is now generally obsolete because it produced so much case-hard- ened and honeycombed lumber.* (2) The moist air kiln, of which there are several modifications according to the methods used to regulate circulation and humidity. (3) The kiln which uses superheated steam. Whatever make or type of kiln is used, its successful operation requires adherence to the following principles according to the authority of the United States Forest Service: (1) The timber should be heated through before drying begins. (2) The air should be very humid at the beginning of the drying process, and be made drier only gradually. (3) The temperature of the lumber must be main- tained uniformly throughout the entire pile. For this an exceedingly large circulation of air is essential. (4) Control of the drying process at any given tem- perature must be secured by controlling the relative humidity, not by decreasing the circulation. * Case-hardening and honeycombing may be explained thus: Suppose a block of wood is very wet, and is placed in a kiln at too high a temperature and too low a humidity. The surface begins to dry and tends to shrink, but is prevented from doing so by the wet interior. Being plastic, it yields to this resistance and becomes stretched. If not plastic, it will check open. As drying proceeds, the surface hardens and sets in an expanded condition, and acts as a strong shell. The interior now dries very slowly, does not become set, but shrinks; and, as the exterior is already hard, it opens up or "honeycombs." When the exterior once becomes set or "case-hardened," the interior is almost certain to become honeycombed, whether the drying takes places in the kiln or a long time afterward. The only remedy is to moisten the exterior by steaming or soaking before it is too late. Air-dried material may also case-harden and honeycomb. 82 LUMBER AND ITS USES (5) In general, high temperatures permit more rapid drying than do lower ones. The higher the temperature of the lumber, the more efficient is the kiln. It is believed that temperatures as high as the boiling point are not injurious to most woods, provided the humidity of the surrounding air is great enough. Some species, however, may not be able to stand as high temperatures as others. (6) The degree of dryness attained, where strength is the prime requisite, should not exceed that at which the wood is to be used. Kilns which most nearly conform to these principles of operation yield a product which is superior to ordinary air-dried lumber, since it warps, checks, and stains less in the seasoning process, and will reabsorb from the air from 15 to 25 per cent less moisture than air-dried lum- ber. This reduction in the ability of the wood to absorb moisture or, as it is technically called, its "hygroscopicity" is very important, because it means a reduction in the extent to which the wood will swell or shrink under at- mospheric changes. WOOD PRESERVATION SOME kinds of timber rot quickly after cut- ting; others last for many years, even un- der severe conditions. No hard and fast line can be drawn between woods which are durable and those which are not, since much de- pends upon the proportions of sapwood and heartwood, the amount of seasoning, and the situation in which the timber is used. Neither is it possible to say that any one kind of tim- ber is superior to all other kinds in durability, or that the softwoods as a group resist decay better than the hardwoods, or vice versa. Among the woods which are generally rec- ognized as possessing much natural durability, are the cedars, redwood, cypress, osage orange, and black locust. Posts, poles, and ties made of these woods are often sound after many years of service under conditions favorable to decay. On the other hand, timber of naturally durable woods which is not seasoned before it is used, or which contains a very large amount of sapwood, may rot quickly; while properly handled timber of the less durable woods may last a long time. Timber like maple, gum, or birch rots quickly if used for a post or railroad tie without preserva- tive treatment, while, if seasoned and used for house finish, it lasts indefinitely. 83 84 LUMBER AND ITS USES WHAT DECAY IS Authorities estimate that the equivalent of nearly eight billion board feet of timber is an- nually destroyed by decay in the United States. This consists chiefly of lumber used for building purposes in places where most likely to decay, together with railroad ties, posts, poles, and mine timbers. The decay of timber is caused by minute or- ganisms called bacteria and fungi. They feed upon wood, and change it as completely as the digestive processes change the material upon which the higher forms of life feed. Sapwood is the most liable to decay, because it contains much more food for bacteria and fungi than does heartwood. The conditions which permit the growth of decay-causing organisms in wood are requisite amounts of heat, air, and moisture. These conditions usually exist in the most fa- vorable combination at or just below the surface of the ground; so it is at these points that tim- ber rots most quickly. The entire absence of either heat, air, or moisture, makes decay im- possible. Timber kept either absolutely dry or absolutely wet lasts indefinitely, if not subject to wear. Sound timber found in the tombs of Egypt is an example of the former; and sound timber found in the Thames, dating from the Roman occupation of England, is an example of the latter. HOW DECAY IS PREVENTED Decay of timber is prevented by treating it WOOD PRESERVATION 85 with antiseptics, or substances which are poi- sonous to bacteria and fungi. There are, of course, many such substances; but practical con- siderations make only a few of them suitable for commercial use. One of the first essentials of a good wood preservative is that it shall not dissolve out when the wood gets wet or is placed in water. For this purpose the best ma- terial so far discovered is creosote, a complex product of the distillation of coal tar. For comparatively dry situations, zinc chloride is a cheap and effective preservative; but it can- not be used for the treatment of timbers which are placed in water or in wet situations, be- cause it leaches out quickly. Many experiments have been and are being made with various oils and distillation products; and, no doubt, other wood preservatives will be developed. Paint lengthens the life of wood because it keeps out moisture and closes openings through which fungi might enter; but it is essential that wood be well seasoned before it is painted. The rapid growth of the timber-treating in- dustry may be judged from the fact that the first successful wood-preserving plants in the United States were built about 1870. In 1904 there were 35 such plants; and at present there are more than 90, with an annual output in excess of 125 million cubic feet of treated tim- ber, of which by far the larger portion consists of railway ties and telegraph and telephone poles. 86 LUMBER AND ITS USES How Preservatives Are Applied There are three general methods of applying wood preservatives the brush method, the pressure method, and the open-tank method. Brush Method. The brush method consists in applying the preservative with a brush in the same manner as paint. It is the least ef- fective method, because of the very slight pene- tration obtained. It is useful, however, in cases where the preservatives cannot be forced into the wood, in painting the joints in timbers, the bottom of barges, etc. Pressure Method. In the pressure process, the general features are practically the same, irrespective of the kind of preservative used. The timber to be treated is placed upon small cars, and run into large steel cylinders that are fitted with swinging doors. When the wood is in the cylinder, the doors are bolted fast, and the whole made practically air-tight. Saturated steam is then forced into the cylinder; and the wood is heated for five to fifteen hours, depend- ing chiefly upon the amount of moisture it con- tains. It is claimed that by this steaming proc- ess the sap in the wood is heated and all the germs of decay destroyed. At the conclusion of the steaming, a powerful vacuum is applied, and held for one to three hours. This vacuum draws out the moisture and sap in the wood, and leaves it in a condition ready for the recep- tion of the preservative. As soon as the moist- ure has been withdrawn, a valve is opened, and WOOD PRESERVATION 87 the preservative material is permitted to flow in. When the cylinder is completely filled with the preservative solution, force pumps are started and pressure applied until the gages in- dicate that the amount of solution required has been absorbed by the wood. The liquid is then run out of the cylinder, the doors opened, and the treated material removed. The pressure method is the one in general use throughout the country for treating timber thor- oughly and on a large scale. Open-Tank Method. A plant for the treating of timber by the pressure process is expensive, and can be erected only by firms of considerable capital. In order to devise means whereby the smaller sizes of timber, and especially posts, can be cheaply treated, the Forest Service has for many years been experimenting with what is known as the " open-tank " method. The theory of this method of treatment is as follows: All wood is of a more or less porous nature, and contains a considerable amount of air. When placed in hot oil, for example, and heated, a part of the air and moisture contained in the wood is driven out. If the wood, while still hot, is plunged quickly into a bath of cold liquid, the small amount of air and moisture remaining in the wood will contract, and in so doing draw in the liquid. If it is desired to save the expense of hav- ing two tanks one for the hot and the other for the cold preservative substantially the 88 LUMBER AND ITS USES same results can be obtained more slowly by withdrawing the heat and allowing the hot tank to get cold. A simple open-tank device successfully used by the Forest Service in treating fence posts is described as follows: 3/0 VIEW Fig. 8. Details of Construction of Tank for Treatment of Fence-Posts The apparatus consists of a rectangular galvanized- iron tank 5 feet 4 inches long, 2 feet 3 inches wide, and 3 feet 6 inches high. This tank is set snugly into a wooden box built of 1-inch planks and open at the top. The object of this box is to keep the tank from bulging WOOD PRESERVATION 89 when filled with creosote, to protect the tank from injury, and to keep the creosote from cooling too rapidly. When the posts are treated in winter or in cold regions, it is best to build an additional casing around the inner box, leaving a space of about 4 inches between them, and firmly packing this space with sawdust. The creosote will then seldom solidify over night, and may be more quickly heated. The creosote is heated by fitting a series of seven 1-inch steam pipes in the bottom of the tank, coupled to the boiler of an engine. The amount of steam passing through the pipes is controlled by two valves one placed between the tank and the boiler, to regulate the amount of steam entering the coils; and the other at the outlet of the coils, to control the pressure. By raising or lower- ing the pressure of steam in the coils, the creosote can be heated to any temperature desired. An apparatus of this kind makes it possible to keep the temperature of the creosote fairly constant, and gives very satisfactory results. It can of course be used only when some kind of steam boiler is available. It costs about $30. Tanks built along the lines indicated give best results ; but if means are not available for their construction, an old iron boiler or like vessel may be used. The essential requirements are that the creosote shall be heated in the vessel to about 215 F., and that the butts of the posts shall be submerged up to about 6 inches above their ground line. In special eases, where a thorough top treatment is necessary, the vessel should be of sufficient size to allow the whole post to be submerged. The principal advantages of the open-tank method are that it is simple, comparatively cheap, especially adapted to the treating of small-sized material such as fence-posts, cross- ties, and mine timbers, and that with it prac- 90 LUMBER AND ITS USES tically .any timber which has a fair amount of sapwood can be successfuUy treated. The cost of an open-tank equipment for the treatment of posts, ties, and small timbers may range anywhere from $50 to $500, depending upon its completeness. Bluing of Timber The sapwood of timber or lumber cut in warm, damp weather is very likely to "blue" or stain while air-drying. This discoloration does not les- sen the strength of the wood; but it does damage the appearance, and affects the market value for many purposes. Sap stain is supposed to be caused by fungi of a different kind from those which produce decay, and is preventable by com- paratively simple means. If the freshly cut lumber is dipped in a 6 to 12 per cent solution of bicarbonate of soda, and then piled in open fash- ion so that air circulates freely among the boards, there will be practically no bluing. There are few bad effects from the soda treatment, and it is not expensive; so it has been adopted by many lumber manufacturers especially in the South, where staining is most likely to occur. A simple device carries the lumber on an endless chain through a tank of soda solution at the tail of the sawmill. Protection from Marine Borers On the seacoast, piling and dock timbers are often destroyed by marine borers (usually teredo WOOD PRESERVATION 91 or shipworms), even more quickly than timber on land is destroyed by decay. The annual loss from this source is very great. In fact, in many places it is almost impossible to use wooden piles unless they are protected from borers. The best method of giving such protection is to apply a creosote treatment, since creosote is as distaste- ful to marine borers as it is to decay producing fungi. Well-creosoted yellow pine piles have been known to give 30 years or more of service in situations where, if unprotected, they would have been destroyed in a single year. The fierce- ness of the attack of these borers is indi- cated by the examples shown in the illustra- tion (Plate 24). SAVINGS DUE TO WOOD PRESERVATION The following, based on estimates of the For- est Service, are typical examples of the financial saving which may be made by wood preserva- tion: Fence-Posts. An untreated loblolly pine fence-post costs about 8 cents, or, including the cost of setting, 14 cents. Its length of life in this condition is about two years. Compound- ing interest at 5 per cent, the annual charge on such a post is 7.53 cents; that is, it costs 7.53 cents a year to keep such a post in service. If given a preservative treatment, which costs about 10 cents, the length of life of the post is increased to about eighteen years. The total cost of such post, set, is then 24 cents, which, compounded at the above interest rate, gives an annual charge of 2.04 cents. Thus the saving due to treat- ment is 5.49 cents a year. Assuming that there are 200 posts per mile, there is a saving each year for every mile of fence of a sum equivalent to the interest on $219.60. Railroad Ties. A loblolly pine tie untreated is worth about 30 cents, and its length of life in this condition is about five 92 LUMBER AND ITS USES years. To this first cost should be added the cost of laying, which is about 20 cents. The annual charge, figured as above, is then 11.52 cents. If treated, it will last for about twelve years. Its cost of treatment is about 35 cents. A treated tie in the track, therefore, costs about 85 cents. Compounded at 6 per cent, as in the above example, the annual charge is 9.48 cents. The saving per year is therefore 2.04 cents per tie. Assuming 2,880 ties per mile of track, the saving due to treat- ment alone amounts to $58.75 per mile, which corresponds to an investment of $1,175 per mile. Poles. Assuming that the cost of an untreated oldfield or loblolly pine pole, including hauling and setting, is $5, and that it lasts five years a fair estimate for many portions of the United States the annual charge, compounding interest at 5 per cent, amounts to $1.15. In other words, it costs the owner $1.15 a year for every such pole in his lines. This corresponds to a capital of $23 invested at 5 per cent interest, or, for a mile of 40 poles, to $920. Again, assuming that the butt of such a pole can be treated for $1, the first cost of the pole, set in the ground, is $6. The treatment may reasonably be ex- pected to secure a service from the pole of twenty years, instead of five years when untreated. Thus the annual charge on the treated pole, with the same rate of compound interest, is only $0.48 per pole, which corresponds to an investment of $9.60 or $384 per mile, as compared with the $920 per mile in the other case. Thus, during the life of the treated pole, a yearly saving of the interest on $536 will be effected for every mile of line. There is abundant evidence of the long life of creosoted wood. Even in this country, there are many examples of poles and other timbers creosoted 20 and even 30 years ago, which to- day are apparently as sound as when first set in the ground. In Europe, where wood preser- vation is an older industry, the results are still more marked. There have been failures; but in every instance they can be traced to incom- petent or fraudulent work, insufficient impreg- nation, improper preparation of the timber, or some similar cause. PAINTS AND STAINF PAINTS and stains are used for two pur- poses first, to preserve timber; and sec- ond, to secure decorative effects. Paint acts as a wood preservative because it closes the openings in the wood and prevents the entrance of moisture and decay-producing organisms. A thoroughly seasoned piece of wood will last in- definitely if kept well painted. The general distinction between paints and stains is that a paint is an opaque covering which to a greater or less degree conceals the natural appearance of the surface to which it is applied. A stain or varnish on the other hand, either brings out more strongly the natural ap- pearance of the wood, or modifies it to a degree depending upon the character of the stain with- out obliterating the natural figure. Paints are more largely used for exteriors, where protec- tion is the chief object; and stains for interiors, where decorative features are the main consid- eration, although paints are also much used for interior work. PAINTS Paint is made by mixing and grinding cer- tain solid substances in linseed oil or other liquids. The solids are termed "pigments," and the liquid in which they are ground is called the 93 94 LUMBER AND ITS USES " vehicle." To these are added a wide variety of colored pigments if colored paints are de- sired. The most common and the best pigments are white lead and zinc oxide; and the most useful vehicle, linseed oil these forming the basis of nearly all the best paints. Turpentine is gen- erally added to paint to make it more fluid, and hence easier to spread. Several substances called " driers," usually lead or manganese salts dissolved in oil or turepntine, are also used with paint to make it dry more rapidly. Colored paints made upon a white lead or zinc white base are most serviceable, and last longer than pure white paints. A number of important points must be ob- served, or good results will not be secured in painting, no matter how good the paint may be. In the first place, the surface to be painted should be thoroughly cleaned and dry; and, if it has been painted previously, every bit of old, loose paint should be completely removed. All nail holes and cracks should be well filled with pure whiting and linseed oil putty. Knots or sappy places in the wood should be coated with some material which will prevent any matter in the wood from exuding and causing blisters. The best coating for this purpose is pure orange shellac. Paint should always be applied in thin coats well distributed. Three thin coats of paint will give much more wear than two heavy coats, although they require less material. Moreover, PAINTS AND STAINS 95 ample time should be allowed between coats, for thorough drying. Autumn is usually consid- ered the best season of the year for painting, be- cause of slower drying and less likelihood of blisters forming in the hot sun; but with propel* care, good exterior painting can be done at any time of the year. STAINS The finishing of interior woodwork, and par- ticularly of the finer woods, calls for good knowl- edge of materials and careful workmanship. All high-class jobs of this sort require several ap- plications and manipulations. Moreover, the finishing must be varied according to the char- acter of the wood used. The more porous or open-grained woods are usually given a paste filler carrying some color before stains are ap- plied, while the less porous or close-grained woods can be brought to a state of fine finish without the use of fillers. Wood finishers usually classify oak, walnut, ash, butternut, chestnut, and mahogany as open- grained woods with which a paste filler is advis- able for a fine finish; while in the class of close- grained woods, where such a filler is not neces- sary although sometimes used, they put birch, cherry, maple, Circassian walnut, gum, white and yellow pine, basswood, spruce, fir, redwood, cedar, and yellow poplar. Stains are usually designated as " spirit," "oil," or " water" stains, depending upon the 96 LUMBER AND ITS USES vehicle in which the colors are mixed. Spirit stains are usually made with alcohol. It is claimed that the alcohol evaporates so quickly that it is impossible to apply spirit stains evenly on a large surface. Oil stains are used most largely on close-grained woods, and give a smooth finish with excellent effect, but are said to be somewhat less transparent than water stains. The users of water stains claim that they produce clear, transparent colors, and that they can be evenly and quickly applied on all kinds of wood, and also are susceptible to any subse- quent method of finishing. After the wood is stained, the next step is the application of a finishing coat or varnish to pre- serve the stain. The number of coats of var- nish applied depends upon the fineness of finish desired. It may be two or three on woodwork, or a large number on a high-class article like a piano case. Finishes may be gloss finishes, rubbed finishes, or rubbed and polished finishes, depending upon the manner in which applied. Moreover, there are flat finishes which produce the effect of a mission or rubbed finish without rubbing, and so are often used at a material saving in cost. In the finishing of interior woodwork, it is es- pecially important that the surface be abso- lutely clean and dry. It is also necessary that the room in which varnish is used be kept as nearly as possible to a temperature of 70 ; for if it is cold, the varnish will not set properly. Dense Stand of Longleaf Pine Plate 12 Lumber and Its Uses Second-Growth White Pin< Plate 13 Lumber and Its Uses -Trees 50 to 60 Years Old PAINTS AND STAINS 97 There are many manufacturers of reliable paints and stains of all kinds, who will promptly supply samples of their products upon applica- tion. FLOOR FINISHES One of the most notable developments of lum- ber manufacture in recent years has been the production of flooring materials of great service- ability from many different woods, the most prominent of which are maple, beech, birch, oak, edge-grain yellow pine, and Douglas fir. The use of such floors has become so popular and widespread that it is worth while to quote from Radford's "Estimating and Contracting" as follows, upon the finishing of floors: "The first thing necessary in order to obtain a good job of floor finishing, is to get a perfectly smooth surface. Until recently the only way to do this was the tedious, back-breaking method of planing and scraping, the lat- ter being done usually with the edge of a freshly cut piece of glass. When the cutting edge wears down, a fresh piece must be taken. Sandpaper, bent over a flat wooden block, is also used to cut down any roughness or raised grain. Steel wool is preferable for this pur- pose, on account of the greater rapidity with which it cuts. While this method is still very generally practiced, modern invention has come to the aid of the floor fin- isher and has produced a planing machine or surfacer that is pushed across the floor like a lawn mower. "The first operation is filling the wood. Oak and other open-grained woods require filling with a paste filler; and while many painters laugh at the idea of a paste filler upon such woods as yellow pine and maple, experi- enced floor finishers say that a better job can be done 98 LUMBER AND ITS USES by using paste filler as a surf acer. The method of using is to apply the filler to a strip, say six or eight boards wide, running the entire length of the room. Use a short, stiff brush, and apply across the grain. By the time this strip has been completed, the filler will prob- ably have set sufficiently to rub. It must not be rubbed before setting, or it will be rubbed off the wood; nor must it be allowed to set too hard, or it will be impos- sible to rub it at all or even to scrape off the filler. When the strip has set just enough, it must be rubbed well into the grain of the wood. After the filler has been thoroughly rubbed, any surplus material must be carefully wiped off with a soft rag. Before anything further can be done, the filler must be given time to dry not less than 24 hours, and preferably two days. "If the natural color of the floor boards is not satis- factory, they should be stained before filling; and the filler should be colored with pigment ground in oil, to bring it to the same color tone. "If there are cracks or nail-holes in the floor, they must next be filled, in order to make a smooth and per- fectly uniform surface. This filling may be done by using a pure whiting and linseed oil putty, tinted to match the floor boards; or it may be done better with a whiting and white lead putty made by mixing one part of white lead in oil with two or three parts of bolted whiting and enough coach varnish to make a stiff paste. This putty will resist moisture ; and, when dry and hard, it may be sandpapered or rubbed. For large cracks, an excellent unshrinkable putty can be made by soaking blotting paper in boiling water until it forms a pulp, then mixing it with glue dissolved in water. To this, bolted whiting is added in sufficient quantities to make a fairly stiff paste, and thoroughly kneaded. This paste must be pressed into the cracks and smoothed off with a putty knife. "For those who do not care to make their own putty, PAINTS AND STAINS 99 there are excellent prepared crack-fillers on the market. "Wax Finish. By far the best material for finishing hardwood floors is wax, although this involves a little more trouble to keep in good condition. It gives a smooth, satiny luster, without the glaring effect of new varnish, and is not marred by heel-prints such as varnish is subject to. When wax grows dim, it can readily be polished again. ./"Some painters advocate the application of the wax / ' directly upon the paste filler ; but the best practice is first to give one or two thin coats of pure shellac varnish. Where a slight darkening of the tone of the wood is no objection, orange or brown shellac is preferable to the bleached, since it is stronger. Shellac should be cut with grain alcohol, and not with wood alcohol. It is espe- cially adapted where a hard and quick-drying undercoat is required. On a close-grained wood where a paste filler has not been used, either a thin coat of a first-class liquid filler, or a coat of one part of linseed oil to which from five to ten parts of turpentine have been added, should be given before applying the shellac. Unless there is an underrating of some kind, it is very difficult to apply the shellac so that it does not show the lap. Even then it requires skill and rapidity of work. In shellacing a floor, the plan of following down a space one or two boards wide should always be followed. The shellac coat should be put on before the oil or liquid filler coat is absolutely dry. "After shellac has become dry, the wax, in paste form, is applied with a rag or a brush, and, after a short time, is brought to a polish by means of a weighted brush or by rubbing with a cloth. Only a very thin coat of wax is necessary, a very little more being occasionally added. "Quite a large number of specially prepared floor-pol- ishing waxes are on the market, and care should be taken to select a material of this kind that will give a hard polish and will not remain soft and sticky. It was the 100 LUMBER AND ITS USES softness of the old-fashioned beeswax and turpentine that caused the almost endless labor needed to keep floors in perfect condition. Modern wax finishes are made by combining beeswax or paraffine with some of the fossil waxes, or from the latter alone, giving a much harder surface. In general, the wax which has the highest melt- ing point is best for the manufacture of floor waxes, because it is the hardest after application. Carnauba wax has a high melting point (185 F.), and may be used alone as a floor wax by melting it in a suitable kettle and thinning it with spirits of turpentine so that, in cooling, it has the consistency of soft taFow. In this condition it can be applied with a large brush. "Two coats of wax on a new floor are better than one the first coat being required to fill up, and the second to give luster although, if sufficient polish is obtained by the first coat, the second will be found unnecessary. "The preparation of wax finish is attended with so much risk from fire that it should be undertaken only over a water bath. Even then, it is wiser for the ordi- nary painter to buy the prepared wax than to undertake to make it. "Varnish Finish. A large number of floor varnishes are on the market. These varnishes, as a rule, are designed to harden over night. The surface should be prepared in the same way as for wax finish; and after the filler is bone-dry, two or more coats of varnish should be applied. If desired, the varnish may be rubbed to a dead surface with pumice stone and kerosene. Practi- cally every varnish will show heel marks, and will mar white by use. When the surface becomes worn, the old varnish requires to be either scraped off or removed with a varnish remover before a new coat of varnish can be applied ; while, with a wax, all that is necessary to restore the surface to a good condition is to apply a little more wax and use the polishing brush. "When a waxed floor gets dirty and shabby, it can PAINTS AND STAINS 101 be cleaned down to the shellac with turpentine, and rewaxed at a small cost. It is well to give a special caution against using a wax finish over a varnish coating, since the wax will soften up the varnish and cause trouble. ' ' Oil Finish. A very satisfactory finish for rooms that have hard wear, such as schoolrooms, stores, and rooms in public buildings, is first to fill the floors, and then give them two thin coats of shellac, finally applying a very thin coat of paraffine oil, or of a rubbing and polishing oil, with a brush or a rag, and thoroughly wiping off any surplus remaining on the surface. This oiling should be repeated every few days, according to the amount of wear that the floor gets. This same treatment is spe- cially adapted for kitchen floors, dining rooms, and other floors in private houses that are subject to hard wear. It is also well adapted to the cheaper floors, such as yellow pine or spruce. If mud has been tracked on the floor, it should first be mopped up with water, and this should be allowed to dry before oiling. One advantage of the oiled floor is that it is ready for use as soon as the oiling is finished. This same method of oiling can be used over a varnished floor, and will preserve it from marring. "Besides paraffine oil, crude petroleum may be used, or any of the so-called polishing oils or furniture pol- ishes. Such oils can be made from machine oil or sweet oil and oil of lemon. "Painted Floors. A floor finish not in such general use as it deserves, is the painted floor. Paint has the advantage of hiding inferior floor boards and being cheap. There are a number of special floor paints on the mar- ket for use on kitchen floors and other rooms having a good deal of wear. "A painted floor can be made quite ornamental by the use of a stenciled border, which should be put on before the varnish coats. The most appropriate designs are those which resemble mosaic work in their effects, or 102 LUMBER AND ITS USES interlacing strap work. When the colors are properly chosen, care being taken to avoid glaring contrasts, a painted and stenciled floor is fully as effective as a hard- wood floor; and it possesses one distinct advantage in that it can be adapted to any decorative color scheme for the room. "A floor that is grained, especially one grained in oak, has one of the most durable finishes that can be given, requiring very little attention other than wiping up with damp cloth or mop. If well done, it is fully as effective as a hardwood floor." SHINGLE STAINS The popularity of bungalows and drop shingle construction has greatly increased the use of shingle stains. There are many such stains on the market, of good quality, made by various manufacturers. Several of them contain some creosote, which incerases their preservative power; while any desired effect is produced by the addition of coloring matter. Shingles are often dipped in stains before laying. This is the best method of application, since the stain or preservative thus reaches all parts of the sur- face, and also penetrates any openings in the shingles. A large number of shingles can be dipped in a short time, so that the cost is not great, while both the lasting qualities of the shingle and the appearance are greatly im- proved. (For specifications for staining shin- gles, see page 108.) If a shingle stain which has a lead base is de- sired, the following preparation published by Radford will be found useful: PAINTS AND STAINS 103 A good shingle stain may be made by using pure white lead (in oil), strong chrome green (in oil), raw umber, and a little lampblack, mixed until the desired shade is reached, thinning with boiled linseed oil and a little japan. To 1 quart of this paint, add, for dipping pur- poses, 5 quarts creosote oil; and for application with the brush, mix 1 quart of the oil paint and 3 quarts of creosote oil. A common estimate is that 3% gallons of stain will be sufficient for 1,000 shingles, dipping two- thirds of the shingle. The following estimate of the covering ca- pacity of shingle stain is based on the average cedar shingle, size 4 by 16 in. One gallon of stain will cover 150 sq. ft. one brush coat, or 100 sq. ft. two brush coats. Two and one-half to 3% gallons of stain will dip 1,000 shingles, two-thirds of length of shingle to be dipped. Three gallons of stain will dip and brush-coat 1,000 shingles in some eases. The covering capacity of creosote bleaching oil is about one-fifth less than the above figures. The protection of shingles from fire by means of special paints is discussed in the chapter on "Fire Besistance." ARCHITECTURAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR PAINTING, STAINING, ETC. Architectural specifications for the painting, enameling, staining, and finishing of woods for first-class and medium grades of work, prepared by Mr. John Dewar at the request of the Master House Painters and Decorators of Pennsylva- nia, were endorsed by that Association, January 15, 1913. The essential portions of these speci- fications are quoted as follows: 104 LUMBER AND ITS USES Painting New Exterior Woodwork Medium All knots, rosin, and sap portions shall be properly shellaced. Paint one coat white priming brushed well into the wood, after which all nail-holes, open joints, and other imperfections shall be closed solid with putty containing 20 per cent white lead; then ap- ply two coats of paint, colors to be selected. Each coat must be thoroughly dry before the application of an- other. Paint the back of all window and door frames one coat before setting, sash runners of window frames to receive two coats of oil, stained if required, the last coat to be applied at completion. No paint to be ap- plied during wet or foggy weather. (See Note 1, be- low.) First-Class Woodwork should be painted as above specified, using one additional coat. NOTE 1 All authorities agree that pure raw lin- seed oil and pure spirits of turpentine are the best ve- hicles for exterior paints. The vehicle of first or prim- ing coat on new wood, also second coat, should consist of 80 per cent pure raw linseed oil and 20 per cent pure spirits of turpentine, the final coat 90 per cent pure raw linseed oil and 10 per cent pure spirits of turpentine, all to contain necessary driers. When four coats are used, the first, second, and third coats should be com- posed of 80 per cent oil and 20 per cent turpentine, the fourth coat 90 per cent oil and 10 per cent turpentine. There exists some diversity of opinion as to the best paint pigment or pigments in combination. How neces- sary it should be that the construction of a paint film be as near perfect as possible. The necessity of this should be apparent to us all, especially when we are confronted with the fact that "the average paint coating is only three one-thousands of an inch thick, and yet this thin coating is required to withstand expansion and contraction of the underlying surface, abrasion or wear from storms of dust and sand, or rain, sleet, hail, and absorbing, drawing, and expanding influences of the summer's sun, and contraction from the cold of win- ter. It must have both hardness, to withstand to a rea- PAINTS AND STAINS 105 sonable extent this surface wear, and yet enough elas- ticity to meet internal strain and to conform to changes in the underlying surface; and it must penetrate and cling to the surface upon which it is applied. It must also retard and prevent from access to the underlying surface both the moisture and atmospheric gases which cause decay;" and, if possessing the virtues of a good paint, it must in the course of time, when repainting be- comes necessary, present a suitable foundation for the new paint coatings. It is generally accepted that a white or tinted base paint containing about 75 per cent white lead and 25 per cent zinc oxide is of a high standard. When used near or at the sea shore, also in the Southern States, it can be improved by a change to the following: 60 per cent white lead and 40 per cent zinc oxide. The purpose in combining these two best paint pigments are, that the one makes strong the weak points of the other, giving us an ideal paint coating. The zinc makes the film stronger and harder, also practically non-absorbent by reason of these qualities, and, with its fineness of texture, fills up the voids caused by the coarser pigment. After a most thorough and practical personal investigation as to re- sults, I recommended the above combination, having used them in my practice for years. I have the manufacturer combine and grind the two pigments together, thereby getting a thorough amalgamation. When the result required is a white or color-tinted paint, it is advisable to use the same percentage of dif- ferent basic pigments and coloring matter in all of the coats, on account of obtaining a uniform expansion and contraction, solidity of color, etc. When "Prepared Mixed Paints" in paste form are used, the limit of inert pigments should be 15 per cent. This percentage may be composed of barytes, silica, or asbestine, or a mixture of such pigments. To this amount there should be no objection, as, up to that extent, these inerts have their values as part of a good paint film ; but vehicle proportions as set forth should be followed. The use of asbestine is principally to hold up in sus- pension the heavier pigments in the paint, its fluffy and rod-like form being valuable for this purpose. It is also said to act as a reinforcing pigment in the same way that iron bars act in reinforcing concrete structures. 106 PAINTS AND STAINS Straight white lead makes a splendid primer. Ochre should never be used, nor boiled linseed oil for under- coatings. When the color of the finishing coat is re- quired to be a strong solid color such as green, red, etc., by using these strong colored paints from the foundation up, you will not get a solidity of body ; therefore I would suggest the use of a strong tinted white base for under- coatings. In the painting of cypress and Southern yellow pine, the vehicle in the priming coat, and priming coat only, should be 40 per cent of 160 degree benzole, 10 per cent pure spirits of turpentine, and 50 per cent pure raw linseed oil, proceeding with the subsequent coat as specified above. The character of these woods is such as will not permit of the penetration of paint made by the usual vehicle practice. With the turpentine and the addition of benzole, which is one of the greatest pene- trating solvents of rosin, gums, and grease known, they carry the oil and pigment, when well brushed out, into the wood; and it there finds a lodgment, forming a sub- stantial and permanent foundation for the subsequent coatings. The benzole, like turpentine, after perform- ing its mission, evaporates entirely, leaving no residue. From the beginning to the finish of a first-class resi- dence, or other important operation, considerable time may elapse, not infrequently a year or more, therefore a necessity for the additional or fourth coat of paint. I would recommend for their distribution, after the prim- ing or first coat and the necessary puttying up, that the second coat be applied, the third and fourth coats about the time of completion of building. Another sub- stantial reason for the fourth coat is that the householder, realizing that he has a new residence, is usually less watchful as to any necessity for repainting for a term of years. With the application of the priming coat when the work is first put in place, followed by the two coats probably six months or a year after, such a condition will of necessity require repainting in probably less than four years. This proves the economy of the fourth coat, which, under average conditions, lasts as a protective agency for probably six or seven years before the neces- sity for repainting arises. PAINTS AND STAINS 107 Repainting of Exterior Woodwork Remove such old paint as may be necessary from ex- terior woodwork by scraping, burning, or with paint remover as conditions may require. Sandpaper and touch up with paint one or two coats as found neces- sary, all of that portion from which the old paint has been removed. Paint all woodwork two coats, colors to be selected. Do all necessary sandpapering and putty- ing. (See Note 2.) NOTE 2 In the work of repainting, it is practically impossible to specify intelligently without being familiar with conditions, as so much depends upon them. The basic paint pigments should be as specified in "Note 1." The proportions of vehicles for first coat must be determined by conditions. For instance, if the vehicle of the old paint coatings is dried out, leaving an absorbing surface, hungry as it were, the vehicle for first coat should consist of about 75 per cent raw lin- seed oil and 25 per cent turpentine, second or final coat 90 per cent raw linseed oil and 10 per cent turpentine; or, if the surface be hard and non-absorbing, the proper proportions of vehicle for first coat should be about 50 per cent oil and 50 per cent turpentine, the final coat 90 per cent oil and 10 per cent turpentine. Not infre- quently I have found it necessary in repainting, from a number of causes, to give all of the woodwork three coats. The overcoming of these imperfect conditions and pro- ducing the best results possible, is largely a work of diagnosis consisting of about 75 per cent man and 25 per cent material. The remedy for the different ailments consists in the different proportions of the vehicle to meet the diversified conditions, and not with the pig- ments. The paint burner ever being a menace, I would dis- courage its use where possible. In every instance I would have the owner of the building give his consent to its use ; also that he notify his insurance company, and get a permit from it consenting to its use. Staining of Exterior Woodwork Medium All exterior woodwork (or a portion as the 108 LUMBER AND ITS USES case may be) to receive one coat of linseed oil stain, brushed well and uniformly into the wood. Color to be as required. Pigments to be selected for their perma- nency of color. Vehicle to consist of 4C per cent of 160 degree benzole and 60 per cent raw linseed oil; all nail- holes and other imperfections to be closed with lead putty colored to match stain; then apply one good coat of raw linseed oil containing 10 per cent turpentine. (See Note 3.) First-Class Specify one additional coat of oil contain- ing 10 per cent turpentine. (See Note 3.) Staining Shingles Dip shingles two-thirds their length in stain specified as above, color to be determined. After shingles are in position, touch up and apply one coat of linseed oil containing 10 per cent turpentine. (See Note 3.) NOTE 3 This stain is suitable for all kinds of wood used for exterior finish. It must be remembered that a stain implies a transparent coloring, and not a paint coating which is opaque. If it is desired to stain oak or cypress to a dark green or a dark brown color usually used on the timbering and finish of houses designed after the old English period, two coats of stain should be specified to get the necessary depth of color. To at- tempt this with one coat would result practically in a paint coating, with a covering or hiding of the figure of the wood. If it is desired to stain oak silver grey or other light colors, but one coat is necessary. Shingles, owing to depth of color required, frequently require a second coat of stain after they are set in place. The use of benzole in the stain becomes the active penetrat- ing factor, carrying the coloring matter and oil into the woods. It has about the same evaporating consistency as turpentine. There being a substantial difference between a paint coating and a stain, therefore the stain specified can be used when necessary for both coats. Where a perfectly flat surface is desired, the second coat of oil may be an objection; but for durability I would recommend it, also for the reason that the oil gloss shortly flattens down. PAINTS AND STAINS 109 There are a number of very good shingle stains on the market. Re-Staining of Exterior Woodwork Prepare and re-stain all or such portion of exterior woodwork as may be found necessary, color conforming closely to original stain. Coat all stained woodwork with two coats of linseed oil containing 10 per cent turpentine. Between first and second coats, close up all imperfections with putty colored to match stain. (See Note 4.) NOTE 4 Re-staining is also a work of diagnosis as to whether the entire work should be gone over with a light coat of stain, or a portion, where the former is badly used up, and whether it should have one or two coats of oil. In this case an examination will quickly speak for itself. A coat of oil over the old stain will make quite a difference in appearance of old color. Plain Painting for Interior New Woodwork Shellac all knots and sapwood; paint woodwork (lo- cating same) three good coats, color to be selected. After the first or priming coat, close up with lead putty all nail- holes and other imperfections. Do all necessary sand- papering between coats. (See Note 13.) NOTE 13 If color required be white or lightly tinted, the wood work should first receive one coat of shellac to prevent discolorations from resin and sapwood. If varnish coat should be required over paint, specify all painted work to receive one coat of a good wearing light color varnish, evenly applied. Painting and Graining Interior New Woodwork Shellac all knots and sapwood; paint all woodwork (locating same) two coats, no oil to be used in this paint other than that in which the lead is ground. In mixing, use a small quantity of a good mixing varnish, thinning with a turpentine so that the paint will dry with a flat eggshell gloss, sandpapering each coat per- fectly smooth. Grain in best manner in imitation of hardwood to b selected, the graining color to be used as flat as possible, 110 LUMBER AND ITS USES consistent with working out. Varnish all grained work one coat of a good wearing body varnish. (See Note 14.) NOTE 14 If a first-class job is required, specify one additional coat of varnish to be full and evenly applied, each coat to be thoroughly dried before the application of another. If a flat finish is required, specify the last coat of varnish to be rubbed evenly to a flat finish with crude oil and pumice stone, all oil and pumice stone to be thoroughly cleaned off at completion. A flat finish may be secured by using what is termed a "flat varnish." In the use of a flat varnish, two coats are required, the first being a gloss varnish. About 50 per cent of these varnishes contain a large percentage of wax over which you cannot apply at any future time paint or varnish, as neither will adhere permanently to a wax surface. The use of some of these flat varnishes is commendable, especially in producing certain results on natural hardwoods. Graining is practically becoming a lost art, owing to the general use of hardwoods. Where the work is well done, this specification should produce splendid results. Some painters may not agreed with me in the number of coats and manner of mixing the ground coating; let them try it, and they will find no cracking or crazing of their varnish; but of course the varnish must be good, and undercoating perfectly dry. Woods best adapted to painting and graining are birch, cherry, maple, poplar, and white pine. Natural Finish for New Interior Softwoods All woodwork shall be thoroughly gone over, cleaned up, and sandpapered where necessary, after which apply one coat of white shellac and two coats of a good wear- ing body varnish, the last coat to be evenly flowed on. After shellacing, close up all nail-holes and other imper- fections with putty colored to match wood, being care- ful to rub off any surplus putty. Sandpaper thoroughly between coats. (See Note 15.) NOTE 15 This would apply to white pine, poplar, yellow pine, cypress, etc. Sometimes a flat finish is re- quired; in that case, specify rubbing with oil and pum- PAINTS AND STAINS 111 ice stone to a dull even finish. I do not recommend close rubbing on two coats of varnish, as it must be kept in mind that close rubbing will practically remove one coat of varnish. I do not recommend any rubbing for servants' quarters, nor yet for the average medium job. The natural color of these woods is sometimes an ob- jection. In that case I add a "touch" of burnt sienna, or burnt and raw sienna, to the first coat of varnish, not sufficient to produce a stain, simply giving the wood a warm pleasing glow, removing the harshness of the nat- ural color. Staining and Varnishing New Interior Softwoods All woodwork shall receive one light coat of 25 per cent linseed oil and 75 per cent turpentine. Sandpaper and stain in best manner, with an oil stain containing about 50 per cent turpentine ; color to be selected. Close up all nail-holes and other imperfections with lead putty colored to match stain, being careful to wipe off any sur- plus putty marks. Varnish all stained work two good coats of a strong wearing body varnish, the last coat to be evenly flowed on. Sandpaper between coats, each coat to be thoroughly dry before another is applied. (See Note 16.) NOTE 16 The purpose of applying a thin coat of oil to the woodwork before staining is that certain portions of the surface may be very much softer than others; in fact it may appear in spots, all .over. With the appli- cation of the oil as specified, you in a measure stop the suction of those soft places, and get a practically uni- form surface on which to work the stain. A thin coat of shellac instead of the oil might be used, but I prefer the oil as thinned with the turpentine, as I get a more uniform absorption into the wood for the stain, the shel- lac in a measure stopping absorption. For a flat surface I would specify rubbing with oil and pumice stone to a dull finish; for close rubbing I would specify one additional coat of varnish. This specifica- tion would apply to white and yellow pine, poplar, cy- press, etc. 112 LUMBER AND ITS USES Painting and Enameling Interior New Woodwork Medium All woodwork (specify location) shall be gone over carefully. Shellac all knots and sap portions. Prime with one thin coat of white paint, well brushed into the wood, after which sandpaper thoroughly, clos- ing up all nail-holes and other imperfections with lead putty. Apply one medium coat of pure grain alcohol white shellac. Sandpaper lightly. Apply three coats of white paint consisting of about 60 per cent white lead and 40 per cent zinc oxide, and one coat of straight pure zinc oxide, followed by one coat of best enamel, freely and evenly applied, all coats to be tinted as re- quired. Each coat must be thoroughly dry and well sandpapered before the application of another. (See Note 17.) First-Class Apply one additional coat to the above specification (four coats) after the shellac, followed by the straight zinc and two coats of best enamel, the last coat of enamel to be evenly rubbed with water and powdered pumice stone to a satin or china gloss finish. (See Notes 17 and 18.) NOTE 17 "With the application of a second coat of enamel, this specification may be rubbed with water and powdered pumice stone to a very good finish. If a semi- gloss or flat finish is desired with but one coat of enamel, reduce the enamel by mixing into it a portion of the straight zinc coater necessary to give the condition re- quired. To fully obtain this result requires very care- ful brushing, so as not to show laps, brush marks, and cording; but it can be accomplished very nicely. With the exception of the priming coat no oil should be used except such as may be found in the stiff lead and zinc; the priming coat should consist of about 40 per cent oil and 60 per cent turpentine, light of body and well brushed into the wood. I have my zinc for enamel- ing purposes ground in poppy oil, which greatly min- imizes the chances of the work turning yellow when con- fined to a dark room. The use of linseed oil is a strong factor in the work turning yellow when excluded from a Mature Western Yellow Pine Large, Clear White Pine Logs Plate 14 Lumber and Its Uses PAINTS AND STAINS 113 strong light. In the preparation of my several under paint coatings, I use, instead of oil as a binder, a por- tion of a good mixing enamel varnish; each coat must be worked flat. In using the straight zinc oxide for a final coat of paint on this class of work, I find that I can get purer tints of greater variety, without the dan- ger from chemical action that would result if I were to use some white leads. The straight zinc coat, should have an "eggshell gloss" for the reason that, if it were perfectly flat such as the under paint coatings should be, it would absorb and draw the liquid properties from the enamel coat, leaving a sur- face of questionable uniformity. The different coats of paint from the shellac up should be tinted as required for the finish, for by so doing you get a solidity of tint that you otherwise would not. For a perfect white job, we oftentimes "draw the lead;" that is, we break up the lead in turpentine to a thin consistency, permitting it to stand 24 hours, then pour the surface liquid off; and you have remaining lead prac- tically free from oil. With the percentage of zinc ox- ide specified, and with the use of a good white enamel varnish, or which is better a portion of the enamel as a binder-reduced with pure turpentine to a working consistency, you have a ground work for enameling that will be satisfactory in every respect. NOTE 18 This specification, if faithfully carried out, will produce splendid results. For this high class work, cherry, birch, or plain maple should be used; good re- sults can be secured on white pine or poplar. Varnishing and Finishing of Hardwoods Medium Sandpaper and remove all surface defects. Stain if desired. Fill with best paste filler, colored if necessary, thoroughly cleaning surface and moldings. Shellac one coat, and varnish two coats of a good var- nish suitable for this purpose. After the shellac coat, close up all nail-holes and other imperfections with lead putty, colored as required, all surplus putty to be care- fully wiped off. Sandpaper between each coat. Care must be taken during varnishing to keep the premises as free from dust as possible. (See Note 22.) 114 LUMBER AND ITS USES First-Class Sandpaper and remove all surface defects. Stain if required. Fill with best paste filler, colored if necessary. Thoroughly clean all surfaces and moldings. Shellac one coat pure grain alcohol shellac, and varnish four coats of a first-class varnish designed for this class of work. Rub all varnish surfaces true and even, with oil and pumice stone, to a dull satin finish. Thoroughly clean all oil and pumice stone from surface. Each coat must be thoroughly dry and sandpapered before the ap- plication of another. Care must be taken during var- nishing, to keep premises as free from dust as possible. (See Note 23.) NOTE 22 If the location of the finish justifies addi- tional expense and a flat surface is desired, specify that the last coat of varnish be lightly rubbed with oil and pumice stone to a uniform dull finish, thoroughly cleans- ing surface from all oil and pumice stone. In servants' portions of residences, this is not justifiable. This specification pertains to all open-grained woods such as oak, ash, chestnut, black walnut, etc. If cherry, birch, maple, and such woods are used, frequently the filling with paste filler is eliminated, the shellac coating filling requirements. In my own operations, I invariably use the filler as specified, but quite thin in body, care- fully wiping off filler from surface. For birch stained in imitation of mahogany, I always omit the filler, shel- lacing direct on the stain, as frequently chemical action takes place when oil is brought in direct contact with mahogany stain used on birch. NOTE 23 This specification applies to the finishing of red or white mahogany, cherry, birch, walnut, rose- wood, etc. Frequently, in finishing mahogany or other woods stained with a water stain in imitation of mahogany or otherwise, after lightly sandpapering the stain, I apply a light coat of shellac directly on the stain, sandpaper lightly, then proceed with the filler and varnish as speci- fied. White shellac should never be used on dark ma- hogany or mahogany stained, as it will in time bleach out white, showing a milky film under the varnish. I PAINTS AND STAINS 115 also frequently omit both the shellac and filler, apply- ing directly to the stain a coat of linseed oil reduced one half with turpentine containing a little dryer. After this has remained on for some time, wipe off carefully any oil that may remain on the surface ; allow that which the wood has absorbed to get perfectly dry; then proceed with the varnishing as specified. In this latter case, four coats of varnish should be applied. For white or bird's-eye maple, holly, satinwood, etc., eliminate the filler and stain, specify two coats of pure grain alcohol white shellac and three coats of an extra pale varnish designed for this class of work, rubbing and finishing as specified. In bringing oil into contact with these and similar woods, it has a tendency to darken, whereas the purpose is to keep them as light and natural as possible. For Italian or French walnut, Circassian walnut, and similar woods, where it is so important that the natural colors and shading be preserved, eliminate the filler, and apply as above two coats of pure grain alcohol white shellac and three coats of a light varnish, rubbing and finishing as specified. Fine carved work should never be varnished and rubbed as specified. Specify stain if necessary to conform with balance of wood; apply one light coat of shellac and two thin coats of wax rubbed to a hard surface with stiff bristle brush. One medium or light coat of a good flat varnish in place of wax, will answer very nicely. The filler with the several coats of varnish will have a ten- dency to filling up and rounding the sharp edges, and clean cutting so desirable in good carvings. Staining and Waxing of Hardwoods Medium Stain all work with an approved stain, color to be selected. Do necessary sandpapering, after which apply one coat of paste filler, colored to conform with stain. Thoroughly clean all surfaces, and apply one medium coat of shellac. Sandpaper lightly, and apply one good coat of an approved finishing wax, permitting it to stand until semi-hard; then to be thoroughly rubbed and polished to a hard surface. (See Note 24.) First-Class Coat all surfaces (specify location) with 116 LUMBER AND ITS USES one medium coat of clean water (this for oak only). When thoroughly dry, sandpaper to a perfectly smooth finish; after which stain uniformly and in best manner with an approved water stain, color to be selected. Sand- paper lightly, and fill with paste filler, colored to con- form with stain. Apply one coat of pure grain alcohol shellac; sandpaper lightly; after which apply two coats of an approved finishing wax, giving three days between coats. Permit each coat to become semi-hard; then to be thoroughly rubbed and polished to a hard surface. (See Note 25.) NOTE 24 This specification will apply to oak, ash, chestnut, mahogany, cherry, etc. If a finish with open wood pores is desired, eliminate the filling, but add one additional coat of wax. NOTE 25 This specification applies to oak, ash, chest- nut, red and white mahogany, cherry, black walnut, etc., and calls for splendid results. A water stain is men- tioned, it being the best and most satisfactory in showing up to advantage the general beauty of the natural shad- ings and figure of the woods. In staining, it should be emphasized that it does not mean a covering up, but rather the bringing out. In oil stains, the coloring mat- ter is largely composed of pigments of a different char- acter; and, as a rule, they are permanent; but they have a strong tendency to cover up. Spirit stains are hard to apply, and the results unsatisfactory, the color- ing matter very often being fugitive. Where it is pos- sible to attain the color requirements by the use of a water stain and their number is legion I would rec- ommend it above all other. All water stains raise the grain of the wood more or less; spirit stains, very little; and oil stains, practically none. In connection with the use of water stain, I specify an application of clear water to the oak wood directly (in my practice I find no harm to a good job of cabinet work accruing from its use), so that the surface particles may be raised; and then cut off with sandpaper, so that the application of the water stain has no tendency to farther raise the grain. When the water coating is not used, and the water stain is applied directly, it requires so much sandpapering PAINTS AND STAINS 117 to recover again a smooth surface that much of the stain and its effects are removed by the sandpapering. The water coating is very frequently omitted on less impor- tant work. When oil and spirit stains are used, the water coat should be omitted ; for other than oak wood, it may also be omitted in the use of the water stain. Very frequently, to get desired results, I apply a light coat of shellac directly on top of stain, after which I proceed with the filling as specified. I also frequently eliminate the shellac coating from on top of filler, apply- ing wax directly on filler. The results desired must regu- late the procedure. When an open-grain or pore effect is desired, omit the filler, but add one additional light coat of shellac. It is very essential in this class of work that the shellac be applied thin and even, showing no laps or brush marks. If a perfectly flat or dead finish is required, omit both filler and shellac coatings, waxing as specified directly on the stain, although I would recommend the one coat of shellac. If the natural colors of the woods are to be retained, omit the staining, and proceed as specified and observing above notes. For white and bird's-eye maple, satinwood, holly, French, Italian, and Circassian walnut, or any other similar woods, when required to be finished showing their natural colors, eliminate the water coat, stain, and filler ; specify two thin coats of pure grain alcohol white shellac evenly applied directly on the wood, without showing laps or brush marks, sandpapering thoroughly each coat; then proceed with waxing as specified. When well done, this will give splendid results. Frequently mahogany and other woods than those specified above are finished after this manner. It is not unusual in pro- curing results to eliminate the shellac coatings, waxing as specified directly on the raw wood. When stain is neces- sary, apply wax directly on same. Often pleasing results can be obtained by using a first- class dead or flat varnish. For instance, if a perfectly dead finish is required on open-pore surfaces, after ap- plying the stain, sandpaper and apply one thin coat of shellac; sandpaper lightly and apply one coat of a good flat or dead varnish; eliminate the waxing. To get a still flatter effect, eliminate the shellac also. This proc- ess is not recommended for durability, simply for its 118 LUMBER AND ITS USES effect, and should be used only on open-pore woods such as oak, where the broken effect of the wood surface de- stroys the varnish coating effect. In this, window sash and sills should be protected with a coat of good body varnish ; when dry, the gloss can be removed by rubbing. Finishing Pine Floors Thoroughly cleanse and remove all surface imperfec- tions; shellac one coat, and varnish two coats of a good varnish designed for this purpose. Each coat must be thoroughly dry before the application of another. All necessary care must be taken to protect this work from damage. (See Note 26.) NOTE 26 This specification applies to white and yel- low pine, also to maple. If this class of flooring is re- quired to be stained, specify, instead of the shellac, floors to receive one coat consisting of 25 per cent linseed oil and 75 per cent turpentine ; sandpaper and close up all imperfections. Apply one coat of stain consisting of 40 per cent linseed oil and 60 per cent turpentine, evenly brushed into the wood, color to be selected. Follow this with varnish as specified. The so-called "liquid fillers" that is, prepared fill- ers sometimes used to coat over the surface and permit- ted to remain there without rubbing off should never be used, for the reason that they do not dry thoroughly throughout. Many of them also have a tendency to dis- color the wood, especially when they begin to bleach out by reason of age, etc. The object in going over this work with a very thin coating of oil and turpentine is, that, if you were to apply the stain directly to the wood, the result would be a clouded or mottled surface, owing to the natural charac- teristics of these different woods to absorb more in one spot or place than in another. Very little if any stain should be left on the surface. It should be absorbed uni- formly by the wood, and be thoroughly dry before the application of the varnish coatings. Where a dull finish is required, specify to be rubbed lightly with oil and pumice stone to a dull finish. A dull or flat varnish should never be used on floors. PAINTS AND STAINS 119 Varnish Finish for Hardwood Floors Thoroughly cleanse and remove all surface imperfec- tions. Fill all woodwork with a good paste filler, clean- ing thoroughly from surface. Stain if required. Shel- lac one coat, and varnish two coats of best varnish de- signed for floor use. Each coat must be thoroughly dry before the application of another. Care must be taken to protect floors from damage. (See Note 27.) NOTE 27 Very frequently the color desired for these floors can be obtained by adding necessary coloring mat- ter to the filler. The color of the shellac (white or orange) should be determined by the color required. If a flat finish is desired, specify to be rubbed with oil and pumice stone to an even, dull surface. A dull rubbed surface does not show surface scratches or abra- sions as readily as a bright varnish gloss. Under no con- sideration use a flat or ''dead" varnish to procure this result. For first-class results you may eliminate the shellac coating and substitute one additional coat of varnish. It is very essential for best results, that each coat be thor- oughly dry before the application of another. This style of finish is suitable for residences ; but proper care must be exercised that it be not abused, for at best a varnished floor surface, from its very nature, is more or less fragile. Wax Finishing of Hardwood Floors Thoroughly cleanse and remove all surface imperfec- tions. Fill all wood surface with one coat of best paste filler, thoroughly cleansing same when semi-dry, from surface. Stain if required. Apply one thin, even coat of pure grain alcohol shellac. Sandpaper lightly with- out showing laps, after which apply two coats of best "prepared floor wax," giving two or three days between coats. Each coat must be thoroughly rubbed to a hard, dry surface. Care must be taken to protect floors from damage. (See Note 28.) NOTE 28 This specification applies to practically all 120 LUMBER AND ITS USES class of flooring woods, and produces splendid results as a wax finish, being easily cared for by the housekeeper simply going over the surface lightly with turpentine, removing any surface dirt or imperfections, after which repolish with one coat of wax as specified. Especial care of the floor should be observed in front of the dif- ferent doorways, as that portion receives the greatest amount of wear. The whole secret of the success in obtaining a thor- oughly practical waxed floor finish, is the recognition of the necessity of using a known good "floor wax." Then thoroughly harden each coat with the friction caused by good, honest, hard rubbing. This manner of finishing as specified, while it pro- duces the best-appearing wax-finished floor, has that which oftentimes is an objection, it being quite "slip- pery." To remove in a large measure this objection, eliminate the coat of shellac from the specifications. For dancing or ballroom floors, I would apply the two coats of wax directly to the floor. Of necessity, the wax must be good and the rubbing hard, allowing two days between coats. WOOD PAVING BLOCKS THE round, untreated white cedar block was very largely used for paving in Northern cities many years ago, but it developed so many defects that wood paving came very much into disrepute. Within the last few years, the introduction of sawed, rectangular creosoted blocks has given such excellent results that they are rapidly becoming a most popular pavement throughout the United States, and especially where traffic is heavy or where a clean and com- paratively noiseless pavement is desired. A well-creosoted block does not decay; and, if set upon a solid concrete foundation with a good sand cushion, the wear, even under the heaviest traffic, is very little, because the ends of fibers which are exposed simply mat down and do not shatter as do stone or brick. It is estimated that there are more than ten million square yards of streets paved with wooden blocks in the United States, and the total is rapidly in- creasing. The wood most largely used, because of its general availability, is longleaf pine; but Norway pine and tamarack have also been used for some time with good results, and there is a strong disposition on the part of paving engi- neers to experiment with numerous other woods. So, doubtless, the list will be much ex- tended. 121 122 LUMBER AND ITS USES ESSENTIALS FOE A GOOD PAVEMENT The best method of laying a wood block pave- ment to withstand heavy traffic was so well set forth by K. S. Manley, at the last annual meet- ing of the American Wood Preservers Associa- tion, that we quote as follows: A creosoted wood block pavement should show no evidences of wear for many years, if the proper materials are used, and if they are assembled in the proper way. The correct depth of base or foundation varies with the soil conditions; but the materials forming this con- crete foundation, and the methods of mixing, are in such common use as to be standard and easily secured. "We are interested principally in the construction placed on top of the concrete. The principal causes of defects of more or less serious nature, are: (1) irregular or un- even surface due (a) to careless laying, (b) to shifting of sand cushion, (c) to breaking or settling of concrete. (2) Expansion difficulties due to the entrance of water into the blocks either by way of the joints or from be- low. The first (irregular or uneven surface) is death to any paving material, because a depression in the surface holds water, and repeated churnings of wagon wheels in the depression are bound to cause an enlargement and deepening of the depression. To avoid (a), the concrete should be mixed quite wet, and finished smoothly with a flat wooden spreader, which gives a surface practically as even and uniform as could be obtained by templet. On this should be spread from one-half to one inch of clean sand, making the sand cushion conform to the contour of the finished street. On this, place the blocks quite closely together; roll thoroughly until a perfect surface with no inequalities has been obtained, and until the blocks are firmly in WOOD PAVING BLOCKS 123 place. It will require a great deal of rolling to accom- plish this, but the end justifies the means. After this, fill all joints two-thirds full of hot bituminous filler of such melting point as is suited to climatic conditions; and spread a thin coating of sand thereon. The use of the bituminous filler is, in my estimation, the most im- portant of all. It converts the street into an effective watershed which, without absorbing any of the water, directs it into storm sewers or other drainage paths. Should any water remain on the surface, the wind and the sun, both good evaporative agencies, will rapidly dissipate it. Now you have an absolutely even surface waterproofed and converted into a watershed. This surface cannot be worn by traffic, because the pressure of wheels is even and regular, and there is no dropping or jolting of wheels entering and leaving low spots. The blocks are laid tightly together, so that there is no wearing at the joints. There can be no change in the sand cushion as long as the surface remains intact, a solid sheet, in fact, of wood block cemented together by the filler; and consequently the difficulty of shifting cushion is avoided. It is as- sumed that the concrete is sufficiently strong so that it will not break or settle. In planning the depth, any error should be on the side of too great, rather than too little depth. Expansion difficulties are eliminated by the use of bituminous filler, for there can be no expansion without absorption of water, and no absorption of water when all rainfall is conducted quickly to drainage sewers. In addition to this, it must be remembered that with the bituminous filler each block is surrounded by an in- dividual expansion joint. The other way of constructing wood block surface which is sometimes recommended, is to provide a mixed sand and cement cushion and sand-filled joints or in- terstices. The sand and cement cushion does not give 124 LUMBER AND ITS USES the opportunity for absolutely smooth surface that the sand cushion gives, and is considerably more costly. The sand filler in the joints allows moisture to be absorbed in the pavement; and ultimately this moisture gets into the blocks, and trouble ensues. It is only on extremely heavy traffic streets that sand can be used as a filler without expecting some expansion difficulties sooner or later. The proof of the pudding is the eating; and the proof of theories of wood block construction lie in the actual occurrences on the street. It can be stated without fear of successful contradic- tion, that every sand-filled pavement in the South has at one time or other given trouble from uncompensated ex- pansion; that with equal confidence it can be stated that not one bituminous-filled pavement has given trouble from this cause. Now, there have been objections put forward to the bituminous filler because of the belief that it would pro- duce a sticky surface, disagreeable in warm weather; but if the proper filler is secured, and it is correctly ap- plied, there can be no such objection. The suitable filler has a consistency of rubber, and can be taken in the fingers, bent and twisted without soiling the fingers. In applying this filler, a spreader with squegee attachment places the filler in the joints where it is needed, and not on the surface of the blocks where it is not needed. It is proper also to use less creosote oil per cubic foot of timber when bituminous filler is used, for the pri- mary function of the creosote oil in this case is to pre- serve against decay, instead of trying to make the cre- osote oil fill the double role of preservative and abso- lute waterproofer. No one familiar with preservative methods and their history will question the efficacy of sixteen pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot in preserv- ing against decay for an indefinite period. "We there- fore see that bituminous filler can be used carefully, and without inconvenience because of stickiness. WOOD PAVING BLOCKS 125 To sum up, therefore, provide adequate, smooth, con- crete foundation; use enough sand to cover any inequal- ities in the concrete or depth of blocks (except in rail- way areas and on grades, when use sand and cement mixed) ; lay blocks tightly; roll until smooth; fill joints with bituminous filler ; spread coating of sand ; and turn on traffic. DEPTH OF PAVING BLOCKS The proper depth of wooden paving blocks is a matter yet to be determined. ^ShallpwJ)locks are likely to split because the pressure upon them under heavy traffic is so great that the fibers are pulled apart, or, as technically stated, the wood fails in longitudinal shear. Deeper blocks will not fail so easily; that is, a block three inches deep may soon give way under heavy traffic, while one four inches deep may stand up well. Since longleaf pine has so far been regarded as the standard paving block wood, the Di- rector of the Government Forest Products La- boratory recently made an interesting compar- ison of its longitudinal shearing strength with that of a number of other woods, and also indi- cated the depth it would be necessary to have blocks of these woods to give the same shearing strength as a longleaf pine block 3% inches deep. The results of the comparison are given in Table 13. Of course, as the Director states, the depth of a block is not the only thing to be considered in wood pavement. Other conditions such as 126 LUMBER AND ITS USES cost of material, and ability to take creosote eliminate some of the woods listed in Table 13 from practical consideration for paving blocks. TABLE 13 Longitudinal Shearing Strength of Wood Blocks Depth Necessary earing Strength to Equal Parallel to Strength of Long- Sheartne Strength Grain leaf Pine Species of Wood (Lbs. per sq. In.) (Inches) Pignut hickory 2,710 2.18 Sugar maple 2,385 2.48 Rock elm 2,154 2.74 Beech 1,908 3.1 Red maple 1,789 3.3 Longleaf pine 1,688 3.5 Tupelo ,577 3.75 Sycamore ,554 3.8 Yellow hirch ,428 4.14 Tamarack ,372 4.31 Western yellow pine ,300 4.54 Norway pine 1,262 4.68 Douglas fir 1,180 5.01 Eastern hemlock 1,148 5.15 Shortleaf pine 1,135 5.2 White spruce 1,134 5.21 Lodgepole pine 974 6.07 Redwood 674 8.78 SPECIFICATIONS FOR WOOD BLOCK PAVING The Association for Standardizing Paving Specifications has adopted the following speci- fications for paving with creosoted wood blocks: Timber. The wood to be treated shall be Southern yellow pine, Norway pine, Douglas fir, or tamarack; but only one kind of wood shall be used in any one con- tract. Yellow pine blocks shall be made from what is known as Southern yellow pine ; and shall be well manufactured, WOOD PAVING BLOCKS 127 full size, saw-butted, all square edges, and free from all defects, such as checks, unsound, loose or hollow knots, knot-holes, worm-holes, through shakes, and round shakes that show on the surface. In yellow pine timber, the annular rings shall average not less than 7 to the inch, and shall in no case be less than 5 to the inch, measured radially from the heart so as to include the greatest number of rings possible. Norway pine, Douglas fir, and tamarack blocks shall be cut from timber that is first-class in every respect, and shall be of the same grade as that defined for Southern yellow pine. Size of Blocks. The blocks shall be from 5 to 10 inches long, but shall average 8 inches; they shall be from 3 to 4 inches in width ; and they shall be 4 inches in depth.* The blocks used in any one street or improvement, how- ever, shall be of uniform width; and there shall be al- ways a difference between the width and depth of the blocks of not less than % inch. A variation of tV i ncn shall be allowed in the depth, and y 8 inch in the width, of the blocks. Treatment. The blocks shall be treated with the pre- servative under pressure, and shall at no time be sub* jected to a temperature of over 240 degrees F. They shall, after treatment, show satisfactory penetration of the preservative; and all blocks that have been warped, checked, or otherwise injured in the process of treat- ment, shall be rejected. The blocks shall be treated with the preservative so that they shall contain not less than 18 pounds per cubic foot. * Note The depth of the blocks may be reduced to 3^ inches in medium-traffic streets, and to 3 inches on light-traffic streets or alleys. The width and depth of the blocks, however, must never be equal. In case blocks 3 inches in depth are used, they shall not exceed 8 inches in length. 128 LUMBER AND ITS USES (Note This amount may range from sixteen to twenty pounds, at the discretion of the Engineer, dependent on local conditions.) Foundation. The base shall be of concrete made of the materials and in accordance with the methods pre- scribed in the specifications for cement and concrete adopted at the 1913 meeting, and shall be not less than 6 inches thick at all points. (Note The thickness of the concrete base may be reduced to 5 inches on light-traffic streets, and, in exceptional cases, to 4 inches, at the discretion of the Engineer.) Sand Cushion. The blocks shall be laid on a cushion of clean, coarse sand 1 inch in thickness, which shall be struck to a surface parallel with the grade and con- tour of the finished pavement. Mortar Cushion. Before placing the cushion, the sur- face of the concrete shall be cleaned and thoroughly dampened. A layer of sand and cement 1 inch in thick- ness, mixed dry in the proportion of 1 part Portland cement to 4 parts sand, shall be spread upon the con- crete foundation, and struck to a surface parallel to the grade and contour of the finished pavement. This cushion of sand and cement, unless previously moistened, shall be lightly sprinkled with water; and the blocks shall be immediately set thereon. (Note Under special conditions, particularly where vibra- tion may be expected, the sand or mortar cushion may be omitted, and a bituminous coating, spread upon a smoothly finished and thoroughly dry concrete base, substituted there- for.) Filler. "When the blocks are laid upon the sand cush- ion, the joints between the blocks shall be filled with a suitable bituminous filler. When the blocks are laid upon a mortar or bituminous cushion, the joints may be filled with sand. Expansion Joints. A longitudinal expansion joint not less than % inch in width, and filled with a suitable bituminous filler, shall be placed along the curbs. Redwoods in California Plate 16 Lumber and Its Uses WOOD PAVING BLOCKS 129 The specifications for the creosote to be used are also defined very closely. The city engi- neer who follows throughout the standards set by the Association can be certain of a superior pavement of great durability. HARDWOOD FLOORING ONE of the most notable and useful de- velopments of modern lumber manufac- turing is the production of high-grade flooring of maple, beech, birch, oak, tupelo, yel- low pine, Douglas fir, and other woods. This flooring is manufactured to exact standard sizes from selected, thoroughly seasoned stock, and is as carefully handled as is interior finish. In fact, a beautiful and durable hardwood floor is an important part of the inside finish of a build- ing, now that carpets have been replaced by rugs. Since hardwood flooring is manufactured from kiln-dried stock, is stored by the maker in dry sheds, and is shipped in closed cars so as to prevent the absorption of moisture, the user should make every effort to have the flooring carefully handled, correctly laid, and properly finished. Some of the points to bear in mind are to avoid unloading the flooring in damp weather; not to store it in open sheds or in newly plastered buildings; nor to lay it until the building is thoroughly dried out. When an under-floor is used, as is advisable with the thin- ner sizes, the hardwood flooring should be laid diagonally or across the sub-floor, and the lat- ter should be dressed to even thickness. The best practice indicates the use of steel 130 HARDWOOD FLOORING 131 cut nails for hardwood flooring. These nails are manufactured especially for this purpose. They should be driven at an angle of 45 degrees ; and it is stated that better results are obtained if no nails are placed within six inches of the end of the flooring pieces. Maple, beech, and birch are close-grained woods of similar structure which give equally good appearance and service for flooring, whether slash- or quarter-sawed. Red and white oak floors are popular in both the plain and quartered forms, depending upon the figure desired; while quarter-sawed or edge-grain yel- low pine and Douglas fir are very much better than slash-sawed floors of these woods. Strictly speaking, yellow pine and Douglas fir are soft- woods, but edge-grain flooring made from them gives such good service that it is widely used for the same purposes as hardwood flooring. MAPLE, BEECH, AND BIRCH FLOORING The Maple Flooring Manufacturers Associ- ation has the following rules for maple, beech, and birch flooring: Clear Grade Clear f inch and thicker, shall have one face prac- tically free of all defects, but the question of color shall not be considered. Standard lengths in all widths in this grade shall be trimmed 2 to 16 feet; the proportion of lengths 2 to 3y 2 feet shall be what the stock will pro- duce up to 15 per cent. This grade combines appearance and durability and has a face free of defects that would materially mar the 132 LUMBER AND ITS USES appearance of the finished floor or impair its durability. It will be noted that the standard of appearance is that of a finished floor, not the top of a piano. A practical application of this rule will admit an occasional small sound pin knot not over % inch in diameter; dark green or black spots or streaks not over % inch wide and 3 inches long or its equivalent; birdeyes and small burls; a slightly torn grain or similar defect which can be readily removed by the ordinary method of smooth- ing the floor when it is laid ; a slightly shallow place not over 12 inches long on under side of flooring if it does not extend to either end of the piece. An otherwise per- fect tongue which is one-half short for 25% of length of piece is admissible; but the face must be free of checks or shake, and the wood must be live and sound. No. 1 Grade No. 1 }f inch and thicker, will admit of tight, sound knots and slight imperfections in dressing, but must lay without waste. Standard lengths in all widths in this grade shall be trimmed 1% to 16 feet; the proportion of lengths 1% to 3V 2 feet shall be what the stock will produce up to 30 per cent. This grade is made for service rather than appearance. It admits of tight, sound knots ; prominent discolorations ; numerous dark green or black spots or streaks; slight checks not exceeding 3 inches in length and running parallel with and well inside of the edges of the strip; dark spots or streaks with slight checks in center; small rough spots which cannot be wholly removed by the or- dinary method of smoothing the floor when it is laid ; slightly torn edges; short tongue if sufficient to hold properly in the floor; shallow or waney back if piece has sufficient bearings of full thickness to support it in floor; and slight variation in angle of end matching. While these and similar features are admissible, sufficient attention is given to appearance to make this grade de- sirable and satisfactory for use in stores, schoolhouses, and similar places where a waxed or varnished floor is not required. Factory Grade Factory \% inch and thicker, must be of such char- acter as will lay and give a good serviceable floor, with HARDWOOD FLOORING 133 some cutting. Standard lengths in all widths in this grade shall be trimmed 1 to 16 feet; the proportion of lengths 1 to 3 l / 2 feet shall be what the stock will pro- duce up to 50 per cent. This grade is suitable for factory, warehouse and kindred uses, and where a low-priced floor is wanted for wear, nothing better or cheaper can be obtained than the Factory grade. Special Grades White Clear is special stock manufactured from white clear maple lumber from the outside of the log, winter- sawed, and end-piled in sheds to prevent staining; is almost ivory white ; and is the finest grade of Maple floor- ing it is possible to produce. Red Clear Beech and Red Clear Birch are manufactured from all-red face stock, especially selected for color, and are free from all defects. The color is a rich, warm tint peculiar to no other wood. The standard sizes for maple, beech, and birch flooring are indicated in Table 14. TABLE 14 Standard Sizes for Maple, Beech, and Birch Flooring Standard Thickness Faces Grades il" 1%", 2", 2^4", 3&" Clear, No. 1, Factory Special Thicknesses W. 1&", Itt*. 2", 2^4", 3%" Clear, No. 1, Factory %" %", 1", 1%", 2", 2^4" Clear and No. 1 only %", %" 1%", 2", 2^4" Clear and No. 1 only % " and thicker, all Faces, is measured % " waste for matching. %" and thinner, all Faces, is measured W waste for matching. The Association makes the following recom- mendation for the use of the different grades: Clear, or first quality, is suitable for apart- ment buildings, churches, clubs, dancing floors, gymnasiums, hospitals, hotels, office buildings, public buildings, residences, roller-skating 134 LUMBER AND ITS USES rinks, schoolhouses, stores, and similar build- ings. No. 1, or second quality, is a common grade, and its relation to Clear is similar to that between second and first grade of finish. It is just as serviceable as Clear, and equally as desirable when there is no objection to the appearance ; and it can be used in the same class of buildings as the Clear grade, at a material saving in the cost of construction. Factory, or third grade, will give excellent satisfaction in factories, creameries, granaries, mills, warehouses, workshops, and in other buildings, at mines, on farms, etc. Where a low-priced floor is wanted for wear, nothing bet- ter or cheaper can be obtained than this grade. Laying 1 and Finishing Hardwood Floors One of the largest, manufacturers of maple, beech, and birch flooring gives these directions for the laying and finishing of his products: To get the best results, hardwood floors should be laid when the building is thoroughly dry, and in as dry weather as possible. Care should be taken that the sur- face upon which the floor is laid is clean and smooth. Drive the flooring up well, both side and end, being careful not to break the tongue. Nail H-inch thick flooring with an eight-penny floor- ing brad. For %-inch thick flooring, a li/4-mch finishing brad No. 15 is recommended. Maple flooring for ordinary purposes should be left as it comes from the factory. Even for kitchen floors it is not well to fill it, for the oil tends to make it look dirty and greasy. If, however, a finish on a maple floor is desired, omit the filler. By doing this, the natural color of the wood is preserved. HARDWOOD FLOORING 135 After being laid, if it is needed, scrape until perfectly smooth. If a wax finish is desired, apply two light coats of wood alcohol shellac. Let the first coat stand one hour before putting on the second. When the second coat stands about two hours, sandpaper with No. sand- paper, and the floor is ready for the wax, an article made expressly for this purpose and ready for use. Put on this wax as thin as possible, and let it stand half an hour. Then, with a weighted brush (made especially for the purpose), brush first across the grain of the wood, and again lengthwise, until the brush slips easily over the floor. When this result is effected, place a piece of soft carpet under the brush and rub until the desired polish is derived. This finish, when complete, is very desirable, but it requires quite an amount of labor to keep properly. When there are many and large rooms and sufficient help to do the work, it is doubtless the best. To those, however, whose dwellings are not large and spacious and who desire a modern floor, we recommend the following as a convenient and durable finish: Ap- ply two coats of good floor varnish, and the floor is com- plete. Should the gloss, which is the result of a varnish finish, be not desirable, rub the floor with a good rub- bing oil and pumice stone, with a piece of burlap, lightly ; wipe dry, and the gloss will disappear. The last coat of varnish should stand 48 hours before rubbing. Floors that have been finished in shellac should be kept clean by thoroughly brushing off the dust with a soft hair or feather brush, or by wiping with a cloth of soft texture. If the cloth is slightly moist, the dust will adhere to it more readily, but wipe with a dry clotk afterward. If any dirt that will not wipe off with a moist cloth should be deposited on the floor, wash it off thoroughly with clean, warm water (not hot), using soap, if necessary, which also cleanse off with water as quickly as possible, and wipe dry. 136 LUMBER AND ITS USES When the face of the floor begins to look worn and shabby, after cleansing off the dirt and wiping dry, if water has been used, rub the surface all over nicely with a mixture two-thirds turpentine and one-third raw lin- seed oil. To do this, saturate a soft cloth of any kind with the mixture, wring out half-dry, and rub the floor with it evenly. Do not use the oil so freely as to leave it standing on the surface to catch dust. To prevent this, wipe off with a clean, dry cloth. After the shellac is worn down to the surface of the wood, sandpaper it all over evenly with a No. 1 sandpaper, and give it another coat of shellac, after which continue to keep as before. Floors finished in a plain oil only, should be kept in the same manner as above, more soap and water being required and more frequent rubbing with the mixture of turpentine and linseed oil spoken of above. "Waxed floors can be cleansed by washing off thor- oughly with turpentine and benzine, after which they can be re-waxed if desired. Floors finished in "hard oil" should be kept like floors finished with shellac. A maple floor for a kitchen that has not been finished in wax or oil, is best taken care of by being scrubbed or rubbed with any of the scouring preparations now in the market for that purpose. Every prospective user of maple, beech, and birch flooring will find it to his advantage to write to the Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association, Chicago, 111., for a copy of the "Official Maple Flooring Book." OAK FLOORING The Oak Floor Manufacturers Association, whose office is in Detroit, Mich., distributes an HARDWOOD FLOORING 137 excellent booklet upon oak flooring, from which the following information is taken: GRADING RULES Quarter-Sawed Oak Flooring Clear Shall have one face practically free of defects, except % of an inch of bright sap; the question of color shall not be considered; lengths in this grade to be 2 feet and up, not to exceed 15 per cent under 4 feet. Sap Clear Shall have one face practically free of defects, but will admit unlimited bright sap. The ques- tion of color shall not be considered. Lengths in this grade to be 1 foot and up. Select May contain bright sap, and will admit pin- worm holes, slight imperfections in dressing, or a small tight knot, not to exceed 1 to every 3 feet in length; lengths to be 1 foot and up. Plain-Sawed Oak Flooring Clear Shall have one face practically free from defects, except % of an inch of bright sap ; the question of color shall not be considered; lengths in this grade to be 2 feet and up, not to exceed 15 per cent under 4 feet. Select May contain bright sap, and will admit pin- worm holes, slight imperfections in dressing, or a small, tight knot, not to exceed 1 to every 3 feet in length; lengths to be 1 foot and up. No. 1 Common Shall be of such nature as will make and lay a sound floor without cutting. Lengths 1 foot and up. Factory May contain every character of defects, but will lay a serviceable floor with some cutting. Lengths 1 foot and up. Standard Thicknesses and Widths of Oak Flooring Jf-inch thickness; widths l^-inch face and 2 1 / 4-inch face. 138 LUMBER AND ITS USES %-inch thickness ; widths l^-inch face and 2-inch face. The 1^-inch face makes a better, more serviceable, and handsomer floor than any other width. The shad- ing of the figure of the wood may be blended more har- moniously than when the wider strips are used. The laying waste in the {fxl^-inch f ac e is less than 2-inch face, as it is counted y 2 inch for the tongue and groove ; whereas, in the broader widths, it is counted % inch. The cost per thousand feet is less than in the wider widths, which offsets additional cost for labor in laying. The 2-inch and 2 1 / 4-inch faces are the widths more generally used in H-inch thickness ; and in %-inch thick- ness, either 1^-inch or 2-inch face, as conditions demand it. Use of Different Grades of Oak Flooring Clear, Quarter-Sawed, Red or White High-class resi- dences, hotels, apartment houses, and club houses. Sap Clear, Select; Quartered, Red or White An economical substitute for Clear Quartered where a dark finish is desired. These grades make a flooring equally as durable as the first grade. Clear, Plain-Sawed, Redi or White High-class resi- dences, hotels, apartment houses^ churches, and club houses. Select Plain-Sawed, Red or White Medium-priced residences, hotels and apartments; schools, office build- ings, and stores. No. 1 Common Cheap dwellings, tenements, stores, high-class factories and manufacturers' buildings. Factory Warehouses, factories, and cheap tenements. How to Determine Amount of Flooring Required To cover a certain space, figure the number of square feet, which means the width multiplied by the length; for instance, a room 12 feet wide by 15 feet long would contain 12x15180 square feet. Add to the square feet of surface to be covered, the following percentages: HARDWOOD FLOORING 139 33 1/3% for ii x 1% inch 37 1/2% for it x 2 inch. 33 1/3% for i x 2 & inch 33 1/3% for %x iy 2 inch 25% for . . . , %x 2 inch The above figures are based on laying flooring straight across the room. Where there are bay windows, hearths, and other projections, allowance should be made for ex- cessive cutting. Laying Oak Floors The laying of oak flooring is not very difficult. Any first-class carpenter can make a good job. Some judg- ment and care is very necessary in order to produce the best results. A sub-floor should be used under both the ^f-inch and %-inch thicknesses. The sub-floor should be reasonably dry and laid diagonally. Boards about 6 inches wide are preferred. These boards should not be put down too tight, and should be thoroughly dried off and cleaned before the oak flooring is laid. It is well to use a damp-proof paper between the oak flooring and the sub-floor. Where sound-proof results are desired, a heavy deadening felt is recommended. Oak flooring should be laid at an angle to the sub-floor. After laying and nailing three or four pieces, use a short piece of hardwood 2x4 placed against the tongue, and drive it up. The nailing of oak flooring is very important. All tongued-and-grooved oak flooring should be blind-nailed. The best floor made can be spoiled by the use of improper nails. The steel cut variety is recommended for all blind- nailing. For ^f-inch use 8 penny steel cut flooring nail. For %-inch, use 3 penny wire finishing nail. The maximum distance between the nails should be: For ^f-inch thickness, 16 inches. For %-inch thickness, 10 inches. 140 LUMBER AND ITS USES For even better results, it is recommended that the nails be driven closer than indicated. Scraping Oak Floors After the oak flooring is laid and thoroughly swept, it is better to scrape it, in order to get the best results for a nicely polished surface. This scraping process can be done by the ordinary scrapers, such as used by cabinet- makers, or by one of the many types of power or hand scraping machines that are generally used by contractors and carpenters. Always scrape lengthwise of the wood, and not across the grain. A floor properly scraped looks very smooth, but it should be thoroughly gone over with No. 1^ sandpaper to obtain the best results in finishing. After this, the floor should be swept clean, and the dust removed with a soft cloth. The floor is now ready for the finish. Finishing Oak Floors The finishing of an oak floor is a very important fea- ture, upon which authorities fail to agree ; but the ques- tion resolves into a matter of cost, as to the color or brilliancy of finish desired. Personal taste and artistic or decorative effects are the guide for the floor finisher. The "Clear" grade of oak flooring should have a nat- ural oak filler color of oak. For the "Select" and "Sap Clear" grades, a light golden oak filler should be used ; and, after the floor is filled, it should be gone over with a little burnt umber mixed with turpentine, to darken light streaks. This will make the "Select" and "Sap Clear" grades look like the "Clear" grade, ex- cept that it will be slightly darker in color. In filling the "No. 1 Common" grade, a dark golden oak filler should be employed; and the light streaks should be darkened in the same manner as the "Select" and "Sap Clear" grades. If a little care is used in laying this grade, splendid results can be obtained. HARDWOOD FLOORING 141 First, treat the floor with a paste filler of desired tone, to fill up the pores and crevices. To thin the filler for application, one has a choice of using turpentine, ben- zine, wood alcohol, or gasoline to get the right consist- ency. When the gloss has left the filler, rub off with excelsior or cloth, rubbing against the grain of the wood. This will make a perfectly smooth and level sur- face. It keeps out dirt and forms a good foundation, which is the keynote for successful treatment of floors. Allow the filler twelve hours to set or dry before apply- ing a wax or varnish finish. Never use a liquid filler on any floor. A wax or varnish finish can be used. The wax finish is preferred by many, due to economy and ease of renewing places that show the wear. The renewing can be easily applied by housekeeper or servant. Wax Finish The best method for applying the wax is to take cheesecloth, and double it to get a little more thickness ; then make it into a sort of bag. Put a hand- ful of wax inside of this, and go over the floor thoroughly. You will find that you can work the wax through the meshes of the cheesecloth to give an even coating over the floor. This prevents too much wax in spots and wasting it. After the floor has been gone over with the wax and allowed to dry say about twenty minutes, it is ready for polishing. Rub to a polish with a weighted floor brush, first across the grain of the wood, then with it. (A clean, soft cloth can be used in place of the brush if desired.) Then a piece of woolen felt or car- pet should be placed under the brush to give the finish- ing gloss. After waiting an hour, a second coat of wax should be applied in the same way as the first, and rubbed to a polish. Varnish Finish This is usually more expensive than the wax finish; but it gives a very hard surface, yet at the same time it is elastic. Two or three coats should be applied after the application of the paste filler. Each 142 LUMBER AND ITS USES coat should be thoroughly rubbed with oil and pumice. Any of the standard hardwood flooring varnishes are recommended. Floor Oil Finish When a high-class finish is not desired, a very economical finish can be had by the use of a light flooring oil that is made expressly for this pur- pose by many paint and varnish houses and oil makers, It serves as a filler as well as a finish, and is strongly recommended for oak flooring in public institutions, office buildings and stores. This oil keeps the dust from rising and preserves the floor. Care of Oak Floors If one only knows how, nothing is easier than the care of a well-finished oak floor. Water should never be used on a waxed or varnished floor. The surface may safely be wiped with a cloth dampened in tepid water to re- move dirt and dust ; but the dampness should be imme- diately taken up with a dry cloth. One of the best mixtures for keeping a floor in good condition is the use of equal parts of sweet oil, tur- pentine, and vinegar well mixed, and rubbed on the floor with waste or a cotton or woolen rag. The vine- gar will cut the dirt or grime worked into the finish from shoes j the sweet oil produces a luster and the turpentine promptly dries the moisture. The above mixture need not be applied oftener than once a month to insure a floor finish that will resemble the sheen of a piano. Should wax finish become worn in spots from hard usage, a little of this mixture thoroughly rubbed will renew the finish quickly. The occasional use of a weighted floor brush, alone or with a piece of Brussels carpet placed beneath it, will assist in keeping the finish of an oak floor in good con- dition. Once a year, it is well to use a good floor wax, and HARDWOOD FLOORING 143 nib it into the floor with the aid of a brush, with or with- out a piece of carpet attached. Before the finish is worn down to the wood, an additional coat of wax should be applied and thoroughly rubbed. Economical Use of Oak Flooring As rugs are used almost universally in homes and offices, an economical plan is to have the center section of the room laid with oak flooring of a cheaper grade, and to employ the better grade in the border. After the rug is laid, all parts of the floor will have the same appear- ance. A room, say 10 by 12 feet, can have a 2-foot border of Clear (first quality), either Plain or Quartered; and in the center section 6x8-inch Select Plain could be em- ployed. In a center section of this size, 15 per cent of the cost could be saved by using Select Plain. By using a little care in finishing up the Select, this grade can be made to look very much like the Clear grade. This makes quite a saving, and is being done very exten- sively. Oak flooring of %-inch thickness by l^-ineh or 2-inch faces can be laid over old floors in old homes, or over cheap sub-floors in new homes very economically. It is cheaper than carpets, and will improve the appearance and sanitation of an old or new house more than the expenditure of double the amount of money any other way. YELLOW PINE AND DOUGLAS FIR FLOORS Edge-grain or quarter-sawed yellow pine and Douglas fir flooring are widely used for many of the same purposes as hardwood flooring. The Yellow Pine Manufacturers' Association rec- ommends a hard oil finish for yellow pine floors in stores; a shellaced, varnished, and rubbed, or shellaced and rubbed finish for yellow pine 144 LUMBER AND ITS USES floors in apartments, residences, hospitals, etc.; and for bowling alleys and dance halls, several coats of varnish, rubbed and sanded between each coat, while sometimes the varnished sur- face is also waxed very lightly and rubbed down. For the treatment of yellow pine floors, the As- sociation gives the following directions which are based upon the experience of many archi- tects: Finishing of Yellow Pine Floors Never lay a yellow pine floor until the plastering in the building is on the wall and thoroughly dry. Yellow pine floors should be smoothed, hand-scraped, and sand- papered with the grain of the wood, and left in perfect condition to receive the work of the painter the same as any other hardwood floor. To make a good finish, use only the best materials and skilled labor. The close, hard fiber of Southern yellow pine renders a paste filler undesirable. Use the very best liquid wood filler; a thin shellac filler is more desirable how- ever, although the cost is somewhat greater. Shellac requires several hours to dry perfectly. The finishing coat for a varnished floor should be of the best elastic floor varnish. Varnished and Polished Floor. Prepare a clean, smooth surface; and, if stain is required, apply a coat of the desired stain on the bare surface of the wood. Wipe off with cotton waste or cheesecloth to prevent raise of grain. Sand lightly with No. sandpaper, and apply a thin coat of white shellac dissolved in grain al- cohol; then sand again with fine sandpaper, and pro- ceed with the finish in the regular way, by the appli- cation of floor varnish. To produce as fine a surface as $ b I HARDWOOD FLOORING 145 on oak, each coat of floor varnish, should be rubbed. Wax may be applied to the varnish surface if desired. Dull or Waxed Floor. After a clean, smooth sur- face of the wood has been obtained, apply a coat of the desired stain (a neutral tint preferred),. Wipe off with cotton waste or cheesecloth, to prevent the wood ab- sorbing too much moisture. When the stain is thor- oughly dry, seal the surface of the wood with a thin coat of white shellac. When dry, sand lightly with No. sandpaper, apply second coat of thin shellac, and, when dry apply with a soft, dry cloth a generous coat of wax. Rub wax thoroughly into the surface with dry cloth or regular floor polisher. The former way of waxing a floor omitted wood filler, shellac, or varnish, but included several coats of wax or oil thoroughly rubbed into the surface of the wood. The effect produced a polished but not a hard surface, and soon discolored from dust and dirt. Hard Oil Floor. Properly clean and carefully smooth the floor surface; coat it over with boiling hot linseed oil, tinted such shade as will bring the sap and lighter shades to the heart color, allowing it to stand until thoroughly hardened before being exposed; give a sec- ond coat of the same materials, tinted as above men- tioned; sandpaper, and finish with floor wax or first- class floor varnish. If wax is used, it must be thor- oughly rubbed into the surface. If varnish is used, each coat should be carefully rubbed down. Varnished Floor. Properly clean, scrape, and dust the floor surface insisting upon same a^ention as is given to hardwood. Apply one coat of ?;0- quality floor varnish ; slightly cut with turpentine, allow mg it to set 48 hours. When thoroughly dry, sandpaper lightly with No. paper, and remove dust; apply second coat of the same good floor varnish, full strength, this in turn to stand until dry and hard; sandpaper lightly, and clean floor as before. Apply a third coat of varnish, full 146 LUMBER AND ITS USES strength; and either leave in gloss, or rub to a dull finish, as owner may direct. The specifications for finishing yellow pine floors apply equally well to Douglas fir floors. FIRE-RESISTANCE THE fact that wood will burn if heated hot enough, has been the basis of a great hue and cry against wood by certain interests whose purposes would be better served were wood completely banished from all forms of construction. Just at present the agitation against the use of shingles in cities has gone so far that an individual whose main business is propaganda declares that a shingle roof is "not a covering but a crime." As a matter of fact, however, the records generally show that a larger proportion of fires in the United States are due to carelessness than to any one form or material of construction. Moreover, for many medium-sized factory buildings, what is called "standard mill construction" is more desirable than so-called "fireproof" construction. With proper safeguards, there is little danger from fire in mill-constructed buildings; and struc- tures of this type have been known in a num- ber of instances to stand up better under fire than have buildings of similar character with steel framework. NATURAL FIRE-RESISTANCE Not all woods are susceptible to fire in the same degree. Indeed, at the lower tempera- tures, there is a considerable range between 147 LUMBER AND ITS USES 3 S 8 8 UmilN-OUIini S333U 3HOJ31 3MI1 39VH3AV FIRE-RESISTANCE 149 the different woods in the resistance which they offer to ignition. Still further, the ease with which wood burns depends upon its moisture content, a piece of dry wood catching fire, of course, much more quickly than a moist piece. The United States Forest Service has recently concluded an interesting series of tests upon the natural fire-resistance of a number of spe- cies of timber. The results of these tests are shown graphically in charts on pages 148 and 150. It will be noted from these tests, that in the case of the Western woods, Western larch resisted ignition longest; and that among the Eastern woods, tamarack or Eastern larch held the same position. In fact, tamarack seems to be the most fire-resistant of eight woods tested. Curve A shows for example, that it was neces- sary to expose a piece of air-dry tamarack to a temperature above 205 C. (or 401 F.) for 40 minutes, in order to make it burn; while Curve F shows that a piece of oven-dry longleaf pine ignited in 15 minutes at a temperature of 175 C. (or 347 F.). On the other hand, air- dry tamarack and air-dry longleaf pine were both held at a temperature of 180 C. (or 356 F.) for 40 minutes, without ignition. When, however, the temperature became as great as 350 C. (or 662 F.), there was little difference in any of the species in resistance to ignition. ARTIFICIAL FIRE-RESISTANCE The attacks which have been made upon wood 150 LUMBER AND ITS USES Ill : g k. I I T T FIRE-RESISTANCE 151 as a building material, and the desire to increase its fire-resistance, have greatly stimulated stud- ies to devise a cheap and effective means of fireproofing timber. It has been known, of course, for many years, that wood can be impreg- nated with salts which will make it practically incombustible; and such fireproof ed wood has been used to a considerable extent for interior work for a long time. This, however, is quite different from the general fireproofing of shin- gles and of wood used in building exteriors where it is subject to all the action of the ele- ments. It is not so much a question of the dis- covery of a fire-resisting material as it is the invention of processes by which large quanti- ties of lumber can be quickly and cheaply fire- proofed. Both private and governmental agen- cies are actively at work on the subject, and no doubt important results will soon be forthcom- ing. The Forest Service experiments with chem- ical fire retardants have included tests of sodium carbonate, soda bicarbonate, oxalic acid, borax, and ammonium chloride. The first three did not prove efficient in retarding combustion, and they also weakened the wood. Borax has been found to have considerable value for fireproof- ing purposes, while wood thoroughly impreg- nated with ammonium salts could not be ignited under the Service conditions of test. The prog- ress which has been made along this line as the result of only a short period of experimenta- 152 t LUMBER AND ITS USES tion, leads the Forest Service engineers to the conclusion that it is possible to devise a reason- ably inexpensive method of fireproofing wood, while firms already in the market claim that it is possible to do this on a commercial scale. It is not likely, therefore, that the opponents of wood construction will much longer be able to maintain that it is impossible to make wood resistant to fire where fireproof construction is necessary. COMMERCIAL FIREPROOFING The fireproofing of wood on a commercial scale is thus described by Mr. F. C. Schmitz, Vice-President of the Standard Wood Treating Company, New York, N. Y. : The fireproofing of wood, as at present practiced com- mercially, is accomplished by saturating its fibers with a water solution of chemicals which, in the presence of fire, emit a gas that prevents combustion. To accomplish this, the wood to be treated is loaded on suitable cars, and placed in a cylinder from which the air is exhausted. The above-mentioned solution is then let into and com- pletely fills the cylinder. Hydraulic pressure is then applied, by means of a pump, of such a degree and for sufficient time to force the chemical solution into and through the wood, to the point of saturation. Upon reaching this latter point, the cylinder is drained of solu- tion, and the lumber removed. When it is necessary that the treated lumber shall be thoroughly dry before it can be used, it is kiln-dried to evaporate the water in the solution, leaving the chemicals in the pores of the wood in dry crystal form. It is not claimed for the product that it is fireproof in FIRE-RESISTANCE 153 the sense of being, like firebrick, indestructible in the presence of fire, but that it will not support or communi- cate combustion. Any organic substance will be de- stroyed by fire if left in its presence for a sufficient length of time. An important fact in connection with the use of fire- proof wood, is that it is fireproofed with water-soluble chemicals ; and therefore, if, after treatment, it is exposed to water (such as rain), the chemicals again dissolve and are removed from the wood, with a consequent reduction in its resistance to fire. Any wood, therefore, intended for outside use, should be protected from the weather by a waterproof coating, such as paint or varnish. Fireproof wood has been used largely for interior work, and principally in the city of New York, where the Building Code provides for its use in all buildings over 150 feet or twelve stories in height. It has, however, had a considerable use in residences and in various trades, for special purposes. The treatment is permanent so long as no water is permitted to soak into the wood ; and samples taken from buildings after fifteen years' service show as good re- sults as freshly treated lumber. The treatment slightly hardens and in some cases darkens the wood. It does not, however, affect its strength or impair its beauty. The process is comparatively inexpensive, when results are considered; and ultimately its use must be wide- spread, especially in isolated buildings where fire-fight- ing facilities are not of the best, and where fire would result in large damage to business. Many corporations and firms in the East are now be- ginning to realize this point, and there is a constantly increasing demand for the product for such uses. FIRE-RETARDANT PAINTS FOR SHINGLES Under this title, Henry A. Gardner, Assistant 154 LUMBER AND ITS USES Director of the Institute of Industrial Research, Washington, D. C., discusses the latest results of his tests of fire-resistant paints as applied to shingles. In the first place, he calls attention to the low heat conductivity of a shingle roof in the following language: "The writer conducted a series of laboratory tests to determine the heat deflecting properties of various types of roofing materials. Miniature houses were roofed with bare shingles, painted shingles, tin, and stone. Ther- mometers were inserted in the end of each house. The houses were placed in an oven heated to 150 C. At the end of 15 minutes, thermometric readings were taken. The interior of the houses roofed with stone and tin showed a much higher temperature than those roofed with shingles. The house with the roof covered with painted shingles showed the lowest temperature. On account of the heat deflecting properties of shingles, they will probably always find a wide application in warm climates. Shingled dwellings are much cooler in the summer than iron-clad or stone-roofed dwellings." After mentioning the usual objections that are made to shingle roofs as sources of fire dan- ger, Mr. Gardner continues: "Although the writer has pointed out in the forego- ing discussion, the many disadvantages of the wooden shingle, the situation is not as serious as it might at first appear. Very few structural materials have ever been made which have proved satisfactory for roofing or other building purposes, without some surface treatment. If iron or steel sheets are exposed to the weather, they will rapidly corrode and rust away to a mere -lace-like skel- eton of their original form. The application of suit- FIRE-RESISTANCE 155 able paint coatings at proper intervals, will, however, preserve such metal sheets for an indefinite period of time. Nearly all forms of cement or stone work will check, crack, absorb large quantities of moisture, and become unpleasing in appearance, unless properly treated with protective paints. The weather-boarding and wooden trim of all kinds of structures would soon rot and decay if left in an unpainted condition. It is evident that "paint is the preserver of all things struc- tural," and that we must look to the use of paint for the solution of the problems under consideration. Two Groups of Fire-Retarding Paints "Fire-retarding paints may properly be divided into two groups, one of which is represented by oil-mineral paints, and the other by paints which do not contain oil. The term "mineral paint" refers to that type of paint which is so widely used throughout the rural dis- tricts to decorate and preserve dwellings, barns, and similar outbuildings. In the manufacture of these pre- pared mineral paints, various mineral pigments in a finely divided and carefully prepared form are ground in linseed oil, and mixed with the proper driers and thin- ners. The content of mineral pigment in such paints varies from 50 per cent to 70 per cent of the total. When such paints are applied to shingles, a very dura- ble, waterproof film results. This film of dried paint upon the surface of a shingle has the effect of laying or smoothing down the rough, fuzzy surface of the wood, thus eliminating at once an important source of fire danger. The paint film, moreover, is quite as resistant to moisture as a sheet of India rubber. The shingled dwelling upon which such paint has been used is practi- cally rain-proof. It is, moreover, made very attractive in appearance. "Another important function is performed by the. paint, in preventing the warping of shingles at the edge, 156 LUMBER AND ITS USES thus doing away with, the formation of pockets in which hot cinders might lodge and burn. "The fourth and most valuable characteristic of min- eral paint is its resistance to fire. While the oil content is more or less combustible, there is present in the dried paint film a minor proportion of oil, the major propor- tion consisting of mineral pigments which are unaf- fected by fire. A hot cinder or spark, falling upon a roof properly treated with a high-grade mineral paint, would, in most instances, roll from the roof to the ground. There would be no pockets in which to lodge and burn. In the event of hot cinders falling with great force upon relatively flat roofs, the cinders would probably lodge upon the surface and burn away the superficial coating of dried oil, gradually dying out as they reached the fire-resisting mineral pigment. "Prepared mineral paints of good grade may be ob- tained at a moderate price at any modern paint shop. They are, therefore, within the reach of anyone who desires to use them for protecting shingled structures. If made by a reputable manufacturer, the purchaser may be sure that they are prepared from properly selected mineral pigments, carefully mixed with oil, and finely ground, through rapidly revolving stone and steel mills, to a smooth condition. For coating shingles by dipping, such paints could be furnished in a thinner condition than for brushing. It is the writer's belief, however, that better results will be obtained if a heavy coat of paint is brushed upon the shingles, as in this case a greater amount of paint will become embedded within the surface of the wood, and the dried coating will con- tain a greater percentage of fire-resisting mineral. Value of Impregnation Process "It is obvious that the application of brush coats of any of the above named salts to wooden shingles would not result in the formation of weather-resisting surfaces. FIRE-RESISTANCE 157 It is the writer's belief, however, that a shingle manu- facturer can at moderate cost impregnate shingles with certain mineral salts which will make them more re- sistant to fire. "Wooden beams and railroad ties are often rendered more durable by treatment with preser- vatives possessed of fungicidal properties, such, for instance, as creosote or zinc chloride. These chemical sub- stances are forced deeply into the wood by special proc- esses. It would, in the writer's opinion, be practicable for the shingle manufacturer to adopt a similar process for mineralizing shingles. Mineral salts having a high resistance to fire could be used for the impregnation base. Shingles thus mineralized could be rendered still more resistant to fire by subsequently applying a coat of mineral paint. The writer has experimented with various salts for this purpose, and has treated shingles with their solutions, both by brushing and by dipping. "Shingles thus treated have shown much greater resistance to fire. The best results were obtained by mineralizing the shingles and subsequently coating them with mineral paint. The mineralizing process of making the wooden shingle thoroughly safe as a roofing material should be carried out in two steps. The shin- gle manufacturer should undertake the first process of treating the shingle with fire-resisting salts. If shingles thus impregnated are furnished the builder, it is quite certain that he will carry out the second and most important part of the process, which consists in applying a decorative and waterproof coating of fire-resistant mineral paint. It will, of course, be possible to use the old-style creosote shingle stain over the mineralized shin- gle, in place of a mineral paint. However, the mineral paint will give much more satisfaction, as it forms a durable, waterproof film which is more resistant to fire than an ordinary stain." Mr. Gardner outlines in detail methods for 158 LUMBER AND ITS USES making and testing fire-retardant paints, and concludes the discussion with these statements: "The shingled roof is highly desirable on account of its durability, light weight, low cost, and non-conduct- ing properties. " Shingled roofs are subject to conflagration when they become dry. Hot cinders from chimneys or glowing sparks carried by the wind from nearby fires, are com- mon causes of roof fires. "The use of high-grade mineral paints upon shingled roofs eliminates such fire danger. Shingled structures of all types, when properly painted, are not only fire- resistant, but they are moisture-proof and highly orna- mental. "The painted shingle dwelling constitutes one of the most desirable types of modern suburban homes." LUMBER PRICES MANY well-informed people have the impression that lumber has become so scarce and high-priced that the ordinary man can no longer afford to build a wooden house. This impression, like the agitation against wood construction on account of fire risk, has been assiduously cultivated by the vendors of substitute materials. It is true that certain grades of some species of timber are high-priced, compared with the price at which the same grades could be obtained 20 to 30 years ago; but, on the other hand, there is still much good building material available for every pur- pose, at reasonable cost. While some kinds are scarcer than they once were, we are now using many valuable woods which were formerly wholly neglected. The last ten years has seen tremendous advances in the appreciation of red gum, beech, birch, maple, and the West Coast woods. While the highest grades of nearly all kinds of timber command high prices, because only a small amount of high-grade lumber is produced, we must remember that the ordinary structural materials consist of the medium grades, of which there is a much greater supply than of the higher grades. These medium grades have not had the same advance in price as the upper grades, owing both to their abun- 159 160 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 15 Average Mill Prices of Principal Kinds of Lumber (Per thousand feet, board measure) 1912 1911 1910 1908 1908 1907 1906 1904 1899 11.05 S3 is.se 16.16 24.71 12.26 15.39 16.91 20. 46 14.80 19.95 12.39 13.10 13.18 18.14 20.50 2 13.20 16.12 24.44 18.05 11.87 14.77 42.79 ftS? 15.03 16.25 21.30 15.66 8 11.38 as 21.23 16.30 5 16.27 18.42 13.50 20.50 2 13.38 14.87 42.53 14.02 14.12 19.41 15.53 15.67 17.26 22.12 17.70 19.14 13.07 15.45 15.71 19.84 16.16 17.37 14.30 20.03 15.02 14.20 18.32 15.31 14.01 17.33 21.94 16.64 18.12 1L91 8.4fl if:S 9.98 9.70 11.27 13.32 17.24 14.05 IS. 66 30.42 Not reported separately. dance and to the competition of other materials. The same causes will prevent their advance to excessive prices for many years to come ; hence these grades will continue for a long time to be the chief reliance of builders in many parts of the country. That the price of lumber has not advanced more than that of many other commodities, and in fact, is scarcely as high now as it was several years ago, is shown by Table 15, which gives a tabulation, compiled by the Census Bureau and the Forest Service, of the average values per House 150 years old, built of Southern Yellow Pine throughout, including siding, and still in a state of good preservation House at Salem, Mass., sided with White Pine in 1684, and well preserved after 230 years Old English Blockhouse on San Juan Island. Built in 1856. Roof of Western Red Cedar shingles still in good condition, after nearly 60 years' serv- ice without paint or repairs Plate 20 Lumber and Its Uses 2 .8 P m ta ft S I 1 LUMBER PRICES 161 thousand feet at the sawmill, of the principal kinds of lumber. The statement that lumber has reached such an exorbitant price that it can no longer be used, FARM PRODUCTS FOOD ETC- LUMBER AND BUILDING. MATERIALS Fig. 11. Chart Showing Price Fluctuations of Lumber and Building Materials as Compared with. Farm Products, Food, etc. is best met by the records of the United States Bureau of Labor, the authority on the whole- sale prices of all commodities. On page 149 of Bulletin 114 of the Bureau is given a table of the relative prices of nine groups of commodi- ties from 1860 to 1912, the average price from 1890 to 1899 being taken as 100. The chart 162 LUMBER AND ITS USES (Fig. 11) shows in graphic form the record of the Bureau for three of the most important groups of commodities farm products, food, and lumber and building materials. On the chart, farm products are indicated by a dotted line, food by a line of dashes, and lumber and building materials by a solid line. A single glance at the chart completely answers the statement as to the undue advance in lumber prices. On an average, these prices have run between the prices of farm products and of food for the last 50 years, and with neither as high points nor as low points as the two other groups. Still further, it will be noted that the prices of lumber and building materials are relatively lower now than they were 40 years ago; yet at that time no one thought that lumber was too expensive to build with. COMPARATIVE BUILDING COSTS Another way of approaching the same prob- lem is through a comparison of the cost of wood construction with that of other materials; and here, again, lumber has nothing to fear. An article on this subject by Mr. H. W. Butterfield was recently published in " House and Garden." Plans were drawn for an average substantial house for a large family, to include all modern conveniences and to be built of first-class mate- rials and of thorough construction. The plans and specifications were sent to architects in typical sections of the country, with a request that they submit cost figures for the house if LUMBER PRICES 163 built of various materials in their localities. These estimates were carefully averaged and tabulated as follows: Cost of a Typical House New York City (suburban) $4,300.00 Per cubic foot, frame 17 cents Per cubic foot, brick 21$ cents Per cubic foot, stone 22$ cents Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath. 18 cents Vicinity of Philadelphia, 10 per cent to 15 per cent less than near New York. Maine $3,400.00 Per cubic foot, frame 14 cents Per cubic foot, brick 17 cents Per cubic foot, stone 20 cents Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 15 cents In the southern New England States, the cost would be slightly in excess of the above. Middle South (Kentucky, Maryland, etc.) $3,000.00 Per cubic foot, frame 10 to 12 cents Per cubic foot, brick 12 to 14 cents Per cubic foot, stone 15 to 20 cents Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 11 to 14 cents Chicago (Vicinity of) $3,800.00 Per cubic foot, frame 15 to 16 cents Per cubic foot, brick 18 cents Per cubic foot, stone 20 cents Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 16 to 17 cents Middle Western States (such as Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, and Wisconsin) $2,550.00 to $4,000.00 Per cubic foot, frame 10 to 12 cents Per cubic foot, brick 12$ to 20 cents Per cubic foot, stone 16 to 25 cents up Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath. ... 12 to 18 cents up 164 LUMBER AND ITS USES Pacific Coast (Northwest) $2,000.00 to $3,200.00 Per cubic foot, frame 8$ to 13 cents Per cubic foot, brick 9i to 14 cents Per cubic foot, stone 14 to 16 cents Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 9 to 14 cents Colorado (average) $3,100.00 to $3,200.00 Per cubic foot, frame 12 cents Per cubic foot, brick 14 cents Per cubic foot, stone 15 cents Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 13 cents Southwest (Arizona and New Mexico) . . .$2,900.00 to $3,000.00 Per cubic foot, frame 12 cents Per cubic foot, brick 13$ to 14 cents Per cubic foot, stone 16 cents Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 13$ to 14 cents Radford discusses the same problem on the basis of construction cost, per square yard of finished wall surface, of frame, of plain brick veneer, and solid brick construction, on the theory that the roof, foundations, floors, win- dows, interior finish, etc., are practically the same in each type, save that in brick construc- tion the cost of stonework for sills, lintels, etc., must be added. His estimates for the cost of plain wall construction of the three types are as follows: Frame Construction (Per square yard of finished wall surface) Dimension lumber, 8 ft. B. M., at 4c per ft. (in wall) $0.32 Sheathing, 10 ft. B. M., at 4c per ft. (in wall) 40 Siding, 12 ft. B. M., at 4*c per ft. (in wall) 54 Building paper, put on, per yard 03 Painting, two coats, per yd 18 Plastering, three coats, per yd 26 Total, per sq. yd $1.73 LUMBER PRICES 165 Brick Veneer Construction (Based on cost of face brick at $21.00 per 1,000) Dimension lumber, 8 ft. B. M., at 4c per ft. (in wall) $0.32 Sheathing, 10 ft. B. M., at 4c per ft. (in wall) 40 Building paper, put on, per yd 03 63 face brick, at 3}c each (in wall) 2.21 Plastering, three coats, per yd 26 Total, per sq. yd $3.22 Solid Brick Construction (12 in. wall) 63 face brick, at 3$c each (in wall) $2.21 126 common brick, at $14 per 1,000 (in wall) 1.76 Furring walls, per yard 06 Plastering, three coats, per yd 26 Total, per sq. yd $4.29 In conclusion, Kadford states that, adding to each type of construction the cost of floors, doors, roofs, interior finish, etc., and dividing by the total number of square yards of wall sur- face, it is found that the cost of brick veneer construction is often 20 to 25 per cent greater than of frame construction, and that solid brick construction is about 40 per cent more expen- sive than frame construction. It is often claimed that stucco on metal lath is now cheaper than lumber, for the exterior of houses. There may be cases in which the first costs compare favorably. It must be remem- bered, however, that stucco is not waterproof, that metal lath will rust sooner or later, and that this type of construction has not had a 166 LUMBER AND ITS USES long enough period of service behind it so that we can be at all sure of its permanence. The builder of wood can point to numberless instances of wooden siding on houses which has given good service for 50 years or more, and to many cases of durability of more than 100 years. So he does not begrudge the occasional coat of paint that the substitute advocate claims is not necessary for his own particular product. THE USES OF LUMBER FOR several years the United States Forest Service, in many cases with the assist- ance of State authorities, has been mak- ing studies of the more important wood-using industries, so that there are now available printed reports covering nearly every State in which there are large industries of this kind. These reports deal chiefly with the consumption of sawed lumber; but a few industries are included, in which raw material goes to the fac- tory in log or bolt form. For such industries, the wood consumed has been reduced to board feet, to afford a proper basis for comparison with the requirements of other industries. Although both the total lumber consumption and the uses of the various species are unques- tionably greater than is indicated by the avail- able statistics, the figures presented are valua- ble for purposes of estimate and comparison. Grouped in order of magnitude and stated in round numbers, it appears that the present annual wood consumption (chiefly in the form of lumber) for various special purposes, in the United States, is not less than the amount shown in Table 16. 1. General Building and Construction. Prob- ably more than 40 per cent of the total lumber 167 168 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 16 Annual Wood Consumption for Various Special Purposes Million Purpose Board Feet 1. General Building and Construction 19,000 2. Planing Mill Products 15,000 3. Boxes and Crates 4,600 4. Furniture and Fixtures 1,400 5. Car Construction 1,260 6. Vehicles 740 7. Woodenware, Novelties, etc 400 8. Agricultural Implements 320 9. Handles 280 10. Musical Instruments 260 11. Tanks and Silos 225 12. Ship and Boat Building 200 13. Caskets and Coffins 150 14. Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 140 15. Excelsior 100 16. Matches and Toothpicks 85 17. Laundry Appliances 80 18. Shade and Map Rollers 79 19. Paving Materials and Conduits 76 20. Trunks and Valises 75 21. Machine Construction 69 22. Boot and Shoe Findings 66 23. Picture Frames and Moldings 65 24. Shuttles, Spools, and Bobbins 65 25. Tobacco Boxes 63 26. Sewing Machines 60 27. Pumps and Wood Pipe 56 28. Automobiles 37 29. Pulleys and Conveyors 36 30. Professional and Scientific Instruments 35 31. Toys 29 32. Sporting and Athletic Goods 25 33. Patterns and Flasks 24 34. Bungs and Faucets 21 85. Plumbers' Woodwork 20 36. Electrical Machinery and Apparatus 18 87. Brushes 13 88. Dowels 12 39. Elevators 10 THE USES OF LUMBER 169 40. Saddles and Harness 9 41. Playground Equipment 9 42. Insulator Pins and Brackets 9 43. Butcher Blocks and Skewers 8 44. Clocks 8 45. Signs and Supplies 7 46. Printing Materials 5 47. Weighing Apparatus 5 48. Whips, Canes, and Umbrella Sticks 5 49. Brooms and Carpet-Sweepers 2 60. Firearms 2 61. Other and Minor Uses 37 Total 45,300 production of the United States goes directly from the sawmill into general building and con- struction, without passage through an interme- diate wood-working factory. This includes all ordinary lumber used for structural work, sheathing, roofing, fencing, etc. Almost every kind of wood is used to some extent for these purposes ; but the chief building material is the softwoods, because they are more easily worked, lighter, and usually cheaper than the hardwoods in the grades suitable for building purposes. 2. Planing Mill Products. Planing mill prod- ucts (flooring and finishing lumber, sash, doors, blinds, etc.) are closely connected with the use of general building material, and consist of almost every kind of native and foreign timber. The softwoods especially yellow pine, Douglas fir, and white pine are the principal woods used for sashes and doors, while almost every kind of hardwood is used for flooring and inte- rior finish. 170 LUMBER AND ITS USES Among the more costly native and imported woods which are improved by mill work, are mahogany, black walnut, cherry, Circassian wal- nut, padouk, prima vera, teak, ebony, sandal- wood, Spanish cedar, rosewood, koa, and holly. Some of these are used chiefly for inlaid work, and others for panels. Altogether, the govern- ment reports indicate the use of more than 60 kinds of wood in the planing mills and sash and door factories of the United States. The States in which these factories are most largely oper- ated are New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minne- sota, and Michigan, although they are found to some extent in every State of the Union. 3. Boxes and Crates. The manufacture of boxes and crates consumes 10 per cent of the annual lumber output of the United States; and while no other industry can use a larger variety of woods, it is noteworthy that white pine and yellow pine supply 50 per cent of the box mate- rial. Among the most desirable qualities in box- making woods are lightness, strength, nail-hold- ing power, and a surface upon which names and descriptions can be easily printed. For this reason the softwoods and the softer hardwoods have always been in demand for box making. The lower grades of lumber are mostly used, since they are cheap and their defects can be cut out in the process of manufacture. Virginia is the leading box-making State, with a consumption of more than 400 million THE USES OF LUMBER 171 feet of lumber annually for this purpose. Illi- nois, New York, Massachusetts, and California are rather close competitors in the quantity of material used for box making. Next in order come Michigan, New Hampshire, and Ohio; and other States also are large producers of boxes. The percentage of the total quantity of lum- ber used in the manufacture of boxes and crates, supplied by the leading species, is indicated in Table 17. TABLE 17 Boxes and Crates (Annual lumber consumption, 4,600 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent White Pine 25 Yellow Pine 25 Red Gum 9 Spruce 7 Western Pine 6 Cottonwood 5 Hemlock 4 Yellow Poplar 4 Maple 2 Birch 2 Basswood 2 Beech 2 Tupelo 2 Elm 1 Oak I Balsam Fir 1 Cypress 1 Other Woods 1 Total 100 4. Furniture and Fixtures. Next to box mak- ing, the manufacture of furniture and fixtures requires more lumber than any other industry, 172 LUMBER AND ITS USES although less than one-third as much as for boxes. The percentage of the total supplied by the more important woods is shown in Table 18. TABLE 18 Furniture and Fixtures (Annual lumber consumption, 1,400 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Oak 38 Maple 11 Red Gum 8 Birch 7 Yellow Poplar 5 Chestnut 4 Beech 4 Elm 3 Basswood 3 Yellow Pine 2 Mahogany 2 Others 13 Total 100 Because of its beautiful figure, hardness, wearing qualities, and susceptibility to finishes and polish, oak has always been a leading fur- niture wood. The strength and hardness of maple likewise place it high as a furniture wood; while the figure, color, and receptivity to stains give red gum and birch a large field of usefulness in furniture making. Many beauti- ful and rare imported woods from all quarters of the earth are also used to secure especially rich and decorative effects. A large number of woods are used in furni- ture making which do not appear in the finished THE USES OF LUMBER 173 article. These are for backing, lining, and interior reinforcement to give strength and to furnish the foundation for the more expensive woods, which are generally used as veneer in order to reduce cost or to get better effects than are possible with solid stock. At present, North Carolina is the largest fur- niture and fixture producing State in the Union. Next in importance ranks Illinois, closely fol- lowed by New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. 5. Car Construction. Some forty kinds of wood are used in the construction of freight, passenger, parlor, sleeping, and dining cars ; but over half the total quantity is supplied by yel- low pine, and nearly one-fourth by oak. Yellow pine, oak, and Douglas fir are used where great strength is required for sills, brake-beams, posts, bolsters, plates, etc. Yellow pine, Doug- las fir, Norway pine, and cypress are used for car siding, roofing, and similar purposes ; yellow poplar, for panels; and ash, oak, red gum, mahogany, birch, cherry, walnut, and several imported woods, for inside finish. There is such a wide variety of steam and electric cars for both freight and passenger pur- poses that the car-building ships furnish one of the best markets for many kinds of lumber. Illinois is far in the lead in car construction; Pennsylvania and Virginia are nearly equal; while much car-building is done in New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Missouri. 174 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 10 Car Construction (Annual lumber consumption, 1,260 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Yellow Pine 54 Oak 24 Douglas Fir 7 White Pine 6 Yellow Poplar 3 Ash 1 Hemlock 1 Other Woods 4 Total 100 6. Vehicles. The making of vehicles and vehicle parts is an important industry in many of the Central and Eastern States. The more southerly States of the group, particularly Arkansas, Kentucky, and Tennessee, furnish the bulk of the raw material; while in Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, New York, and Michigan, are located many large vehicle factories. Many woods find some use in vehicle con- struction; but hickory and oak compete closely for the lead, and, taken together, supply over 60 per cent of the raw material. Hickory is used most largely for the spokes and rims of buggy wheels, for gear parts, and for felloes, hubs, axles, hounds, and bolsters. Wagon hubs are made of elm and birch; and in addition to hickory and oak hard maple, white ash, beech, and other hard, strong woods are used for gear parts. Yellow poplar has been much used for the bodies of carriages, delivery wagons, and THE USES OF LUMBER 175 automobiles, since it can be obtained in large, clear sizes, works well, and takes paint and pol- ishes easily. Wagon-box boards are largely made from cottonwood, red gum, basswood, and yellow poplar. Bottoms are made of longleaf and shortleaf pine, and also of maple, gum, and oak. Ash is used for frames ; while osage orange is used for felloes, especially in the Southwest, where, under severe climatic conditions, the ordinary woods shrink too much. The proportion of the total consumption of wood for vehicles, contributed by the more important species, is shown in Table 20. TABLE 20 Vehicles (Annual wood consumption, 740 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Hickory 32 Oak 29 Yellow Poplar 7 Ash 6 Maple 5 Cottonwood 4 Elm 4 Yellow Pine 4 Red Gum 4 Birch 2 Other Woods 3 Total 100 7. Woodenware, Novelties, etc. The manu- facture of woodenware, novelties, and similar articles requires more than 400 million feet of wood annually, of which ash, basswood, and 176 LUMBER AND ITS USES TAJBJLJj] 21 Woodenware, Novelties, etc. (Annual wood consumption, 400 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Ash 15 Basswood 14 White Pine 12 Maple 9 Birch 7 Spruce 7 Chestnut 5 Yellow Pine 5 Elm ' 4 Beech 3 Cottonwood 3 Cypress 2 Red Gum 2 Oak 2 Yellow Pine 2 Cedar 2 Tupelo 1 Other Woods 5 Total '. 100 white pine supply nearly equal parts, with the balance contributed by over fifty other species. Much of the material for woodenware goes to the factory in log form, without passing through the sawmill. Wooden pie and picnic plates, but- ter trays, and dishes are largely made from ro- tary cut maple, beech, and birch veneers. Many more substantial kinds of woodenware are turned on lathes, among which are dishes, bowls, platters, and trays made from basswood, cotton- wood, and maple. Butter paddles and trays are made of ash and beech; and bread-boards, of basswood, cottonwood, white cedar, silver ma- Creosoted Cross-Arms Shortly after Removal from Treating Cylinder Portable Plant of Cylinder Type for Creosote Treatment of Railroad Ties Plate 22 Lumber and Its Uses Photo by courtesy of Boiling Arthur Johnson Cypress Shingles after Long Service on Washington's Home at Mount Vernon All removed in 1913. No. 1 Laid in 1743, giving 170 years' service; No. 2 Laid in 1785, 85 years; and No. 3 Laid in 1860, 53 years. Open-Tank Method of Creosote Treatment Here applied to butts of chestnut poles Plate 23 Lumber and Its Uses THE USES OF LUMBER 177 pie, and birch. Pails, buckets, and small tubs make up no small proportion of the woodenware output, and they often have white pine staves. Hoops for these articles are made from elm, ash, birch, and red oak. Peck, half-peck, bushel, and half-bushel measures are commonly made with bodies of oak, birch, maple, or white pine, and bottoms of white pine, basswood, or ash. Novelties include wooden candlesticks, pin trays, paper weights, etc., and are frequently made of the higher-grade and more expensive native and imported woods. Wisconsin produces the most woodenware of any State, with Michigan ranking second; while New Hampshire, Iowa, Vermont, and New York supply many articles of this class. 8. Agricultural Implements. Notwithstanding a greatly increased use of iron and steel in the manufacture of agricultural implements, such as plows, harrows, cultivators, drills, planters, threshing machines, rakes, and other articles, more than 300 million feet of lumber is annually used in this industry. Yellow pine supplies over 30 per cent of the lumber required for agricul- tural implements; oak, more than 20 per cent; and maple, 15 per cent, with relatively small quantities of cottonwood, red gum, ash, hickory, white pine, basswood, elm, beech, birch, and nearly twenty other species. Longleaf pine is used in agricultural imple- ments where strength but not necessarily tough- ness is required. Oak finds a large use for plow 178 LUMBER AND ITS USES beams and handles; beech, hickory, and oak, for neck-yokes and single trees; while cottonwood, yellow poplar, red gum, white elm, beech, tu- pelo, cypress, and Douglas fir are used for seed- ing and drill boxes. Douglas fir and longleaf pine are also used for poles and tongues of agri- cultural implements. Illinois is by far the most important State in the manufacture of agricultural implements, while next in order are Ohio, New York, and In- diana. TABLE 22 Agricultural Implements (Annual lumber consumption, 320 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Yellow Pine 31 Oak 22 Maple li Cottonwood Red Gum Ash Hickory White Pine Basswood Elm 2 Beech 2 Birch 1 Other Woods 7 Total 100 9. Handles. Handle manufacture is nearly as important as agricultural implement making in regard to the quantity of wood required; and hickory supplies more than two-fifths of all the handle material. Next to hickory, ash espe- THE USES OF LUMBER 179 cially white ash furnishes some 23 per cent of the handle wood; and maple, 15 per cent; while beech, oak, and birch are important han- dle woods for certain purposes. TABLE 23 Handles (Annual wood consumption, 280 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Hickory 43 Ash 23 Maple 15 Beech 6 Oak 4 Birch 4 Red Gum 2 Elm 1 Other Woods 2 Total 100 Hoe, rake, spade, shovel, and fork handles are chiefly made of ash; sledge and ax handles, of hickory; broom handles, most largely of ma- ple, beech, and birch; cant-hook handles, of hick- ory and hard maple ; pump handles, of oak, ash, and maple; and handles for wire stretchers, of white and rock elm. Small handles for chisels, mallets, planes, awls, saws, etc., are often made from apple wood; while the handles for many small articles in which good appearance is desired are made from boxwood, walnut, mahogany, rosewood, and ebony. Like the vehicle woods, much of the handle material is produced in the South, and worked up in the North. Arkansas and Kentucky sup- 180 LUMBER AND IT& USES ply large amounts of hickory for handles ; while among the States in which handles are most largely manufactured are Michigan, Ohio, Mis- souri, Illinois, and Indiana. 10. Musical Instruments. The manufacture of musical instruments consumes a large amount of both native and foreign woods. Of the native woods, nearly equal quantities of maple, yel- low poplar, and chestnut are used; while spruce, oak, elm, birch, basswood, white pine, and red gum are largely drawn upon. The making of cases for pianos and organs re- quires a great deal of lumber, maple being used to give strength, yellow poplar and chest- nut as the backing for veneer, spruce for sound- ing boards, the finer hardwoods and imported woods for the keys, red gum and maple for ac- tion parts, birch for key rails and hammers, and beech and elm for backs. Many woods are used to give a varied and beautiful effect in the smaller musical instruments. Spanish cedar is used for the necks of banjos, guitars, and man- dolins; boxwood, for inlay work; mahogany, bird's-eye maple, rosewood, yellow poplar, birch, walnut, and oak, for drums; bird's-eye and curly maple, and rosewood, for harp boxes, etc. Illinois uses more wood than any other State for the manufacture of musical instruments, and New York ranks second; while Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Michigan are large consumers of material for this purpose. THE USES OF LUMBER 181 TABLE 24 Musical Instruments (Annual lumber consumption, 260 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Maple 17 Yellow Poplar 16 Chestnut 15 Spruce , 11 Oak 8 Elm 6 Birch 5 Basswood 4 White Pine 3 Red Gum 3 Mahogany 3 Black Walnut 2 Beech 2 Ash 1 Other Woods 4 Total 100 11. Tanks and Silos. Wooden tanks and silos require straight-grained, easily-worked, dura- ble material which can be obtained in good sizes and which will not impart any objectionable taste to the contents. The woods most largely used for these purposes are Douglas fir, yellow pine, cypress, white pine, spruce, redwood, and larch or tamarack. Douglas fir and yellow pine are used to a very large extent for silos, because of their abundance; while, to a lesser extent, silos are made from cypress, tamarack, redwood, and hemlock. Tanks and vats for holding oil, water, and distillery and brewery products are largely made from cypress and redwood, Oak is also used for distillery tanks. 182 LUMBER AND ITS USES In the manufacture of tanks and silos, Indi- ana has the leading place, followed closely by Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, and California. How- ever, silos are not necessarily factory products, since material for them is often produced at saw- mills and sold through lumber dealers in the localities where silos are erected. For this rea- son, the figures given in Table 25 are less than the total lumber consumption for tanks and silos. TABLE 25 Tanks and Silos (Annual lumber consumption, 225 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Douglas Fir 40 Yellow Pine 18 Cypress 16 White Pine 8 Spruce 5 Larch 4 Redwood 4 Oak 2 Cedar 2 Other Woods 1 Total 100 12. Ship and Boat Building. The ship and boat industry in the United States annually con- sumes some 200 million feet of lumber, of which yellow pine supplies one-third, Douglas fir about one-fifth, and oak about one-sixth. Important woods in this industry are also white pine, ash, spruce, cedar, and cypress; while nearly forty other woods are used to a less extent, including such imported specdes as mahogany, teak, prima THE USES OF LUMBER 183 vera, Spanish cedar, Circassian walnut, balsam, lignum vitae, padouk, and rosewood. TABLE 26 Ship and Boat Building (Annual lumber consumption, 200 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Yellow Pine 33 Douglas Fir 22 Oak . . ." 16 White Pine 7 Ash 4 Spruce 4 Cedar 4 Cypress 3 Hemlock 2 Other Woods 5 Total 100 Yellow pine and Douglas fir are the most important shipbuilding woods because of their strength and their availability in large struc- tural sizes. Both longleaf pine and Douglas fir are used for spars, decking, keels, keel-blocks, rails, guards, and the like. Cypress, white pine, oak, yellow pine, and Douglas fir are also used for inside finish, as well as for ceiling and deck- ing; while numerous hardwoods and imported woods are used for inside finish. Teak is used for armor backing; and balsa, or corkwood, for life preservers. On the Pacific Coast, Douglas fir, Port Or- ford cedar, redwood, and Sitka spruce find a large use in ship and boat building; while in Maine and some of the Eastern States, the man- ufacture of high-grade pleasure canoes has as- 184 LUMBER AND ITS USES sinned large proportions, these canoes being often made with white cedar ribs, planking of Western red cedar, gunwales of spruce or ma- hogany, thwarts of birch or maple, and seats of birch, maple, or ash. New York is the largest ship and boat building State, due to the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Penn- sylvania takes second rank because of its large shipbuilding plants; while California, Oregon, New Jersey, and Maine are also large producers of ships and boats. 13. Caskets and Coffins. About 150 million feet of lumber are used annually in the manu- facture of caskets and coffins, of which chestnut supplies 30 per cent, white pine 32 per cent, and cypress 13 per cent, the balance being made up by nearly thirty other woods. Chestnut and white pine are most largely used in the manufacture of cloth-covered caskets and coffins. Chestnut is also much used as the backing for a veneer of more expensive woods of ornamental appearance. The exterior often consists of mahogany, yellow poplar, white oak, red oak, or birch. Cypress, cedar, and redwood are used because of their resistance to decay; while white pine, shortleaf pine, and yellow pop- lar are common woods for outer boxes and ship- ping cases. In the manufacture of caskets and coffins, New York ranks first, followed by Pennsylva- nia, Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. THE USES OF LUMBER 185 TABLE 27 Caskets and Coffins (Annual lumber consumption, 150 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Chestnut 30 White Pine 22 Cypress 13 Yellow Pine 8 Yellow Poplar 6 Oak 5 Red Gum 5 Cedar 4 Basswood 2 Hemlock 1 Other Woods 4 Total 100 14. Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets. Nearly 20 species of wood are used in the manu- facture of refrigerators and kitchen cabinets; but oak supplies 23 per cent of the total, ash 14 per cent, and red gum 10 per cent. Other woods used to a considerable degree for this purpose are cln^ white and yellow pine, hemlock, ma- ple, yellow poplar, spruce, basswood, cotton- wood, and birch. Woods for refrigerators and kitchen cabinets must meet a wide variety of requirements. The outside finish must look well, and here the usual cabinet woods are employed. Strong, stiff ma- terial for frames is supplied by hemlock and shortleaf pine; elm and beech stand up well under dampness, and scour well when washed. It is also essential that, in certain places, woods shall be used which impart no odors to food; 186 LUMBER AND ITS USES for these purposes, elm, maple, basswood, cot- tonwood, and cypress are satisfactory. Ice- boxes are often made of spruce, refrigerator backs of white pine, and ice cream freezers of redwood. In the manufacture of refrigerators and kitchen cabinets, Michigan ranks first, and In- diana second, followed by New York, Wiscon- sin, and Indiana. TABLE 28 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets (Annual lumber consumption, 140 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Oak 23 Ash 14 Red Gum 10 Elm 9 White Pine 6 Yellow Pine 6 Hemlock 5 Maple 6 Yellow Poplar 4 Spruce 4 Basswood 4 Cottonwood 3 Birch 3 Cypress 1 Chestnut 1 Other Woods 2 Total 100 15. Excelsior. Excelsior finds a large use for packing, mattresses, and upholstering. It is made in a number of grades based on quality and fineness ; and the best requires a wood which, in addition to working easily, gives a tough, flexible product. The finest grade called THE USES OF LUMBER 187 "wood wool" has a strand less than 1/100 of an inch in thickness. The true poplars, including the various aspens and cottonwoods, supply more than half of the excelsior manufactured in the United States. Basswood and yellow poplar give a product of similar character, while coarser grades are made from yellow pine and several other woods. Among the States in which excelsior is most largely produced, are New York, Virginia, Wis- consin, and New Hampshire. TABLE 29 Excelsior (Annual wood consumption, 100 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Cottonwood 54 Yellow Pine 15 Basswood 14 Willow 4 Red Gum 3 Maple 3 White Pine 2 Yellow Poplar 2 Buckeye 1 Other Woods 2 Total 100 16. Matches and Toothpicks. Although put into one table in the statistical reports, matches and toothpicks are by no means made from the same woods. White pine has long been a stand- ard match material, and basswood is used to some extent for this purpose in the Eastern fac- tories. On the Pacific Coast, sugar pine and 188 LUMBER AND ITS USES Port Orford cedar are used for match sticks; while in Virginia yellow poplar and soft maple are also used. Spruce is employed for the mak- ing of match cases. Toothpicks are made almost exclusively from birch and maple and are chiefly produced in Michigan and New England. TABLE 30 Matches and Toothpicks (Annual wood consumption, 85 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent White Pine 86 Basswood Birch Maple Spruce Other Woods Total 100 17. Laundry Appliances. Laundry appliances include washing machines, washboards, ironing boards, clothes wringers, mangles, tubs, clothes- pins, and similar articles. Cypress and maple compete closely for the lead in the manufacture of laundry appliances, while nearly equal quan- tities of beech and cottonwood are required. More than twenty other woods contribute to the total of some 80 million feet of lumber annually consumed in this industry. Cottonwood, basswood, and Sitka spruce are much used for washboards. Frames of ironing boards are often made of maple; and the tops, of cypress, cottonwood, spruce, basswood, and THE USES OF LUMfeEft 18$ witite pine. Wooden mangles are usually made of elm, beech, or maple; and wooden tubs fre- quently have cypress staves. Laundry machine' construction uses cypress, maple, basswood, yel- low poplar, and red and white oak. Clothes-ping are most largely made of basswood, beech, and maple, and also to some extent of birch, elm, and ash. In manufacture of laundry appliances, Mich- igan has a large lead, with Indiana, Iowa, New York, and Ohio ranking next in importance. TABLE 31 Laundry Appliances (Annual lumber consumption, 80 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Cypress 19 Maple 18 Beech 12 Cottonwood 10 Basswood Cedar Birch Tupelo Red Gum White Pine Spruce Yellow Pine 2 Elm 2 Hemlock 2 Other Woods 2 Total 100 18. Shade and Map Rollers. Nearly four- fifths of all the shade and map rollers are made from white pine; and one-seventh, from spruce 190 LUMBER AND ITS USES and other softwoods. Such hardwoods as are credited to this industry are used chiefly for curtain poles and trim. TABLE 32 Shade and Map Rollers (Annual lumber consumption, 79 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent White Pine 78 Spruce 9 Douglas Fir 4 Red Gum 3 Yellow Pine 1 Tupelo 1 Maple 1 Other Woods 3 Total 100 19. Paving Materials and Conduits. The man- ufacture of paving materials and conduits of wood which is given a chemical treatment to prevent decay, is one of the more recently de- veloped industries; but it has already reached a considerable size, requiring about 76 million feet of lumber annually. As is brought out in the discussion of wood block pavements, yellow pine is by far the most largely used wood for this purpose; but larch or tamarack, Douglas fir, Norway pine, and tupelo are also used, the lat- ter more especially for conduits to carry under- ground telegraph or telephone lines. These ma- terials are prepared wherever creosoting plants may be located, of which there are now nearly 100 in the United States, as shown by the map in Plate 21. THE USES OF LUMBER 11 TABLE S3 Paving Materials and Conduits (Annual lumber consumption, 76 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Yellow Pine 86 Larch 6 Douglas Fir 5 Tupelo 1 Other Woods 2 Total 100 20. Trunks and Valises. The manufacture of trunks and valises annually consumes about 75 million feet of twenty-four different woods, of which basswood supplies 28 per cent, yellow pine 20 per cent, and white pine 10 per cent. Trunks and valises are usually made from softwoods which offer a desirable combination of light weight and strength, or from veneer of hardwoods, in which strength can be secured without much weight. Trunk slats are gener- ally of maple, beech, or elm; and here strength is an important property. Trunk trays are largely made from basswood and yellow pine; while the box of the trunk is either of thin lum- ber with some kind of outside covering, or, in the better grades, of built-up veneer, which gives much strength and resistance to hard knocks. Trunks and valises are largely made in Vir- ginia, Michigan, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. 192 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 34 Trunks and Valises (Annual lumber consumption, 75 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Basswood 28 Yellow Pine 20 White Pine 10 Hemlock 9 Elm 9 Maple 7 Yellow Poplar 4 Cottonwood 3 Red Gum 2 Spruce 2 Cypress 2 Other Woods 4 Total 100 21. Machine Construction. Under this head- ing are grouped such machines as steam shov- els, cranes, hoists, well drills, dredges, crushers, presses, etc., in which much of the wood used must possess strength, toughness, and durabil- ity. Yellow pine supplies one-third of the wood required for machine construction; cypress, 23 per cent; and oak, 12 per cent; while nearly thirty other woods are used in smaller amounts. The manufacture of machinery of this charac- ter is scattered over a number of States, and not so centralized as are many other industries. Among the States in which machine construc- tion attains considerable magnitude, however, are Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Illinois. 22. Boot and Shoe Findings. By boot and shoe findings are chiefly meant lasts, last blocks, shoe forms, shoe trees, shoe pegs, and wooden Courtesy of C. J. Humphrey Wood-Destroying Fungi Growing on an Oak Railroad Tie I Simple Method of Treating Butts of Fence-Posts with Creosote Plate 25 Lumber and Its Uses THE USES OF LUMBER 193 TABLE 35 Machine Construction (Annual lumber consumption, 69 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Yellow Pine 33 Cypress 23 Oak 12 White Pine 8 Maple 5 Hemlock 5 Yellow Poplar 3 Ash 2 Basswood 2 Hickory 2 Douglas Fir . . v 1 Elm 1 Spruce 1 Beech 1 Other Woods 1 Total 100 heels. The material for these articles goes to the factory in log or bolt form; and the amount annually required is equivalent to about 66 mil- lion board feet of lumber. That the manufac- ture of these small articles is after all no mean industry, is proved by the fact that the amount of wood used for boot and shoe findings in the State of Maine is greater than that used by the shipyards and boat and canoe builders of that State. Shoe lasts are made very largely from maple; while basswood is used for forms or fillers. A small amount of birch is also used for lasts, and shoe pegs and shanks are made of it. Wooden heels are made of maple. 194 LUMBER AND ITS USES The manufacture of lasts is one of the most painstaking operations in the wood-using in- dustries. The last blocks are air dried for a long time, and then very slowly dried by artificial heat for as much as two years before they are turned to the finished pattern. Maple is pre- ferred for lasts, because it is hard, smooth, and tough, takes a high polish, does not warp or shrink, and stands up well under the severe wear to which lasts are subjected. Among the more important States in the man- ufacture of boot and shoe findings, are New York, Michigan, Massachusetts, and Maine. TABLE 36 Boot and Shoe Findings (Annual wood consumption, 66 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Maple 82 Birch 11 Basswood 5 Beech 1 Other Woods 1 Total 100 23. Picture Frames and Moldings. Although small articles in themselves, the manufacture of picture frames and moldings in the United States annually consumes about 65 million feet of lumber of more than thirty species. Of this total, basswood, oak, and red gum supply two- thirds; and of the remainder, white and yellow pine, birch, yellow poplar, chestnut, and beech are the more important woods. THE USES OF LUMBER 195 Oak is largely used for picture frames because of its ornamental value; white pine, basswood, and yellow poplar, because they are light, easily worked, and take finishes and enamel well; while such woods as birch, red gum, mahogany, wal- nut, rosewood, etc., are used for hand mirrors, where both facing and backing must present an ornamental appearance. Illinois uses by far the largest quantity of wood of any State in the manufacture of pic- ture frames and moldings; while other impor- tant States in the production of these articles are New York, Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio. TABLE 37 Picture Frames and Moldings (Annual lumber consumption, 65 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Basswood 31 Oak 25 Red Gum 12 White Pine 9 Yellow Pine 8 Birch 5 Yellow Poplar 3 Chestnut 2 Beech I. 2 Other Woods 3 Total 100 24. Shuttles, Spools, and Bobbins. The man- ufacture of shuttles, spools, and bobbins requires practically as much wood as do picture frames and moldings. It constitutes an important in- dustry in many States, and especially in Maine. 196 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 88 Shuttles, Spools, and Bobbins (Annual wood consumption, 65 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Birch 51 Maple 21 Dogwood 11 Beech 5 Persimmon 4 Basswood 3 Hickory 1 Yellow Poplar 1 Other Woods 3 Total 100 Spools are made chiefly from paper birch; and, in addition to the quantity used at home, several million feet of spool stock are annually exported from Maine to Scotland. Only birch is used in the manufacture of small, one-piece spools. Three-piece spools are also made of yellow pop- lar and red gum. Bobbins are made from maple, birch, and beech; while shuttles which, for fac- tory purposes, must be exceedingly resistant to wear, are made almost entirely from dogwood and persimmon. These woods are very dense, hard, and strong, and become extremely smooth with wear. Maine uses nearly one-third of all the material consumed in the United States for shuttles, spools, and bobbins ; New Hampshire, about one- eighth; while Massachusetts, Vermont, and New York produce the articles in lesser quantities. Tennessee is perhaps the most important State in supplying the dogwood and persimmon used THE USES OF LUMBER 197 in the Northern factories for the manufacture of shuttles. 25. Tobacco Boxes. The standard material for cigar boxes is Spanish cedar. The highest- grade boxes are made entirely of this wood, while the cheaper boxes often have a veneer of Spanish cedar laid over a backing of tupelo, yel- low poplar, red gum, or some cheaper wood. These latter woods are sometimes stained to imitate Spanish cedar without the application of the more costly veneer. In addition to the woods shown in Table 39, smaller quantities of oak, cedar, sycamore, white pine, mahogany, magnolia, redwood, African cedar, maple, cot- tonwood, Circassian walnut, and rosewood are also used. Containers for plug, smoking, and chewing tobacco are largely made from sycamore and red gum, usually in the form of three-ply veneer. TABLE 30 Tobacco Boxes (Annual lumber consumption, 63 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Spanish Cedar 47 Tupelo 16 Yellow Poplar 12 Red Gum 11 Basswood 7 Elm 3 Cypress 2 Other Woods 2 Total 100 Among the more prominent States in the 198 LUMBER AND ITS USES manufacture of cigar and tobacco boxes, are Missouri, Wisconsin, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Alabama. 26. Sewing Machines. The manufacture of sewing machines annually requires about 60 million feet of lumber, of which oak and red gum each supply nearly one-third, and yellow poplar and black walnut each a little more than one-eighth, the balance being made up of tupelo, chestnut, cottonwood, maple, basswood, birch, sycamore, mahogany, yellow pine, and redwood. Tops of sewing machines are usually made of hardwood veneer such as oak or walnut, or of other woods stained to imitate mahogany. In addition to its use for veneered tops, red gum is used in sewing machine parts and for veneer backing, as is also tupelo. The sewing machine industry is rather local, and centered most largely in Indiana and Illinois. TABLE 40 Sewing Machines (Annual lumber consumption, 60 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Oak 32 / Red Gum 32 Yellow Poplar 13 Black Walnut 13 Tupelo 7 Chestnut 1 Other Woods 2 Total 100 27. Pumps and Wood Pipe. While many THE USES OF LUMBER 199 more pumps and parts of pumps are made of other materials than was once the case, the pump-making industry consumes a considerable quantity of wood in the form of piping, tubing, rods, handles, platforms, buckets, cylinders, etc. TABJLE 41 Pumps and Wood Pipe (Annual lumber consumption, 56 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Douglas Fir 38 White Pine 22 Redwood 16 Red Gum 6 Cypress 4 Yellow Poplar 3 Maple ' 3 Ash 2 Hickory 2 Oak 1 Tupelo 1 Larch 1 Other Woods 1 Total 100 White pine is largely used for piping, tubing, siding, curbing, and covering. Well buckets are made of maple, ash, beech, and oak; pump handles and rods, of oak, ash, and beech; water pipes, of yellow poplar, maple, and white pine ; and platforms, of cypress. Shortleaf pine and cypress are used for boxes for chain and bucket pumps; tupelo, for pump stocks; and short and longleaf pine, for pump poles. In the West, Douglas fir and redwood are largely used for pumps, and more especially for wood pipe, 200 LUMBER AND ITS USES where some exceptionally large pipes of this character carry city water supplies. 28. Automobiles. Statistics of the consump- tion of wood in automobile manufacture are by no means complete, since, in many cases, the re- ports do not distinguish between the manufac- ture of automobiles and that of other vehicles. Such figures as are available, however, indicate the percentage of various woods used as shown in Table 42. Automobile manufacturers generally demand high grades of lumber. Ash, oak, longleaf pine, and birch are employed for frames; hickory, for wheels; elm, for the interior of bodies; yellow poplar, black and Circassian walnut, birch, and red gum, for the finish of tops and bodies. The wood finisher employs his highest art in giving a fine appearance to automobiles, and he must have good materials with which to work. TABLE 42 Automobiles (Annual lumber consumption, 37 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Ash 22 Hickory 19 Yellow Poplar 19 Birch 11 Maple 11 Elm 8 Oak 2 Other Woods 8 Total . ..100 THE USES OF LUMBER 201 29. Pulleys and Conveyors. The manufacture of pulleys and conveyors requires about 36 mil- lion feet of wood annually, of which red gum supplies more than one-half, and oak one-fifth, the balance being made up of some twenty spe- cies, of which maple, birch, beech, tupelo, and basswood are the most important. Pulleys and conveyors are manufactured in many different places; but such statistics as are available indicate that by far the largest pro- portion of the output comes from Kentucky, with a decidedly smaller amount from Indiana and Michigan. TABLE 43 Pulleys and Conveyors (Annual lumber consumption, 36 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Red Gum 55 Oak 20 Maple 7 Birch 6 Beech. 2 Tupelo 2 Basswood 2 Ash 1 Yellow Poplar 1 Other Woods 4 Total 100 30. Professional and Scientific Instruments. The manufacture of professional and scientific instruments of a wide variety requires more than thirty domestic and foreign woods amounting to an annual total of about 35 million feet. Pencils 202 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 44 Professional and Scientific Instruments (Annual wood consumption, 35 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Cedar 57 Maple 14 Basswood 7 Beech 4 Birch 3 Yellow Poplar 3 Hickory 3 Cherry 2 Boxwood 2 White Pine 2 Other Woods 3 Total 100 are included, however, in this classification; and for them Southern red cedar is chiefly used, be- cause of its softness, straight, even grain, and good whittling qualities. Maple is largely used in the manufacture of rulers, yard sticks, cam- era boxes, and other articles. Basswood finds a large use in the making of yard sticks, drafting tables, alphabet blocks, and advertising novel- ties. Penholders are chiefly made from red gum; level blocks, from cherry; thermometers, from oak; planes, from beech; surveyors' stakes, from oak, longleaf pine, chestnut, and hickory; drafting tables and equipment, from ash, bass- wood, beech, mahogany, birch, and white pine; and camera boxes and parts, from basswood, beech, butternut, cypress, hickory, mahogany, spruce, maple, oak, and yellow poplar. The State of New York is by far the largest THE USES OF LUMBER 203 producer of professional and scientific instru- ments. New Jersey comes next; and Michigan, third. 31. Toys. Basswood and maple supply more than two-fifths of the wood used in toy making, basswood being often used for the bottoms of children's wagons and carts, while the seats and rims are made from maple. Axles, spokes, and rims are made from oak; spokes and frames, from ash; and sled tops, from chestnut. Domi- noes and checkers are made from both maple and basswood, while toy blocks are made chiefly from basswood and some yellow poplar. Toy wagons and sleds are also made from birch; doll furniture, from white pine, birch, maple, and beech; doll houses, from birch and basswood; while many turned toys are made from birch. TABLE 45 Toys (Annual lumber consumption, 29 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Basswood 30 Maple 14 Beech 11 Birch 11 White Pine 8 Elm 7 Oak 5 Chestnut 3 Ash 3 Yellow Poplar 3 Red Gum 2 Cottonwood 1 Other Woods 2 Total . ..100 204 LUMBER AND ITS USES In the manufacture of toys, Pennsylvania is the leading State, followed very closely by Wis- consin, Maine, and New York. 32. Sporting and Athletic Goods. More than 30 different woods contribute to the total of 25 million feet of timber annually required in the manufacture of sporting and athletic goods. Of this quantity, hickory and maple supply 40 per cent; elm and ash, each 13 per cent; and oak, 10 per cent. These goods comprise a long list of articles, including baseball bats, bowling balls, dumb- bells, fishing rods, golf clubs, Indian clubs, skis, snowshoes, tenpins, tennis rackets and many others. Among other purposes, hickory, maple, beech, and ash are used for baseball bats; elm, for gymnasium goods; and maple, for tenpins. A great deal of oak is used for billiard and pool tables, and rosewood for the exterior finish. Ma- ple is used for billiard cues, with black walnut, ebony, Circassian walnut, and rosewood for the decorative parts. Yellow pine is used in the manufacture of bowling alleys ; and also a great deal of maple. Lignum vitae is the preferred wood for bowling balls. Golf clubs are usually made with hickory handles and persimmon heads. Climbing poles may be made of yellow pine ; and vaulting poles, of spruce. Altogether, the demands upon the woods used for sporting and athletic goods are many and varied, but the qualities of strength and toughness are the ones most largely required. THE USES OF LUMBER 205 In the manufacture of these goods, Michigan holds first place, with New York, Tennessee, and Illinois following in close order. TABLE 46 Sporting and Athletic Goods (Annual wood consumption, 25 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Hickory 20 Maple 20 Elm 13 Ash 13 Oak 10 Birch 4 Yellow Poplar 4 Yellow Pine 4 White Pine 3 Basswood 1 Other Woods 8 Total 100 33. Patterns and Flasks. The reports group the woods used for patterns and flasks, although they really have no property in common, and very different grades of material are required for the two purposes. For pattern making, soft, even-grained, easily worked woods which swell and shrink very little are required; while, for the foundry flasks which hold the sand and pat- terns, almost any wood will do. By far the larger proportion of patterns are made from white pine, although, for specially fine castings in which it is important to have durable patterns that can be used many times without wear or swelling and shrinkingexpen- sive woods like mahogany and cherry are used. 206 LUMBER AND ITS USES Because of its resistance to wear, white oak is also employed to -some extent for patterns. Flasks are made from yellow pine, white pine, hemlock, redwood, and a number of other woods. In the manufacture of patterns and flasks, Pennsylvania seems to have a decided lead; while New Jersey and Ohio use more wood for these purposes than any other State except Pennsylvania. TABLE 47 Patterns and Flasks (Annual lumber consumption, 24 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent White Pine 75 Yellow Pine 8 Redwood 4 Hemlock 2 Spruce 2 Yellow Poplar 1 Sugar Pine 1 Mahogany 1 Cedar 1 Other Woods 5 Total 100 34. Bungs and Faucets. The manufacture of such apparently insignificant articles as bungs and faucets annually requires more than 20 mil- lion board feet of wood, of which yellow poplar supplies 85 per cent. This wood is preferred be- cause it is straight-grained, soft, and easily worked, and because it contracts and expands evenly. The even expansion of the bung is what causes it to fit tightly and prevent leakage. THE USES OF LUMBER 207 By far the larger proportion of the bungs man- ufactured are produced in the State of Ohio, and especially in Cincinnati, although the yel- low poplar from which they are made comes mainly from Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia. TABLE 48 Bungs and Faucets (Annual wood consumption, 21 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Yellow Poplar 85 Maple 4 Beech 4 Red Gum 2 Birch 1 White Pine 1 Oak 1 Other woods 2 Total 100 35. Plumbers' Woodwork. For plumbers' woodwork, about the same quantity of wood is required as for bungs and faucets. Under this heading is included the wood used in the manu- facture of bathtubs, toilet tanks, seats, bath- room cabinets, and other plumbers' equipment. Oak is the chief wood for these purposes, with birch second, and much smaller quantities of a dozen other woods consumed. For exterior work where a fine appearance is desired, oak is most largely used, together with birch, cherry, and mahogany. Maple and yellow poplar are employed for painted or enameled work; and yellow poplar, chestnut, red gum, and shortleaf 208 LUMBER AND ITS USES pine, for tank backing. Ash is often used for wash-tray frames. TABLE 49 Plumbers' Woodwork (Annual lumber consumption, 20 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Oak 70 Birch 12 Yellow Poplar 4 White Pine 4 Ash 3 Red Gum 2 Maple ... 2 Yellow Pine 1 Basswood 1 Other Woods 1 Total 100 36. Electrical Machinery and Apparatus. Oak is the leading wood in the manufacture of elec- trical machinery and apparatus, while white pine and spruce are also of much importance. The three supply 55 per cent of the annual re- quirement of about 18 million feet. Many other woods are used in smaller quantity. Much of the spruce is used in the manufacture of conduits, reels, and spools for wire; while some birch, white pine, yellow poplar, red gum, and basswood are also used for this purpose. Railway signal devices require most of the white cedar and cypress used in this industry, since these woods offer good resistance to the ele- ments. Rough telephone boxes are made of hemlock, oak, yellow poplar, and maple; while Creosoted Block of Longleaf Pine after Five Years' Service in Congress Street Pavement, Chicago, 111. Photo by courtesy of U. 8. Wood Preserring Co. Laying Creosoted Wood Block Pavement in Chicago Plate 26 Lumber and Its Uses Interior of a Sawmill, Showing Method of Timber Construction Maple Flooring in a Dancing Hall Plate 27 Lumber and Its Uses THE USES OF LUMBER 209 telephone booths in which appearance is im- portant are made from such woods as oak and birch. Yellow poplar and oak are used for the base blocks for electrical devices; while many high-grade woods are used in switchboards and telephone cabinets. Illinois seems to be the most prominent State in the manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus, but large quantities are also pro- duced in New York and Pennsylvania. TABLE 50 Electrical Machinery and Apparatus (Annual lumber consumption, 18 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Oak 27 White Pine 17 Spruce 11 Yellow Pine 7 Maple 7 Birch 4 Cedar 4 Larch 4 Yellow Poplar 3 Elm 3 Walnut 3 Beech 2 Mahogany 2 Basswood 2 Hemlock 1 Red Gum 1 Cypress 1 Other Woods 1 Total 100 37. Brushes. The manufacture of brushes consumes about 13 million feet of wood annually of more than thirty species, of which beech sup- 210 LUMBER AND ITS USES plies nearly half, and birch and maple each 15 per cent. There are so many different kinds, grades, and sizes of brashes and brooms that there is a wide range in the quality of material employed. The more expensive hand brushes have backs artis- tically turned from ebony, mahogany, rosewood, maple, cherry, walnut, and birch; while, for scrubbing and whitewash brushes, beech is very largely used. Maple, beech, and birch are em- ployed for paint brushes, as well as for duster handles. For many of the cheaper brushes, va- rious woods are used. Pennsylvania uses more wood than any other State in the manufacture of brushes ; while Ohio, New York, Maryland, Maine, and Massachu- setts are also prominent in the production of these articles. TABLE 51 Brushes (Annual wood consumption, 13 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Beech 49 Birch 15 Maple 15 Basswood 6 Cherry 4 Red Gum 2 Yellow Poplar 2 Elm 1 Hickory 1 Other Woods 5 Total 100 38. Dowels. Dowels are wooden pegs used to THE USES OF LUMBER 211 hold boards together, edge to edge, in the man- ufacture of table tops and counters, or to hold the parts of sash, doors, and similar articles to- gether. They are usually made of the strong- est hardwoods, and are driven tightly into auger or gimlet holes to make strong, close-fitting joints. More than 90 per cent of the dowels are made from birch, beech, and maple, and espe- cially from paper birch. Dowels are occasion- ally made from oak, hickory, or ash. Dowel rods are also used in the manufacture of chairs, children's beds, and cribs, and for coops in which poultry is shipped. The equivalent of about 12 million board feet of lumber is annually consumed in dowel mak- ing, and nearly two-thirds of it in the State of Maine. Michigan and New York also produce dowels in considerable quantities. TABLE 52 Dowels (Annual wood consumption, 12 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Birch 68 Beech 15 Maple 11 Elm 1 Basswood 1 Other Woods 4 Total 100 39. Elevators. Under this heading is included the wood used in the manufacture of elevators and elevator parts, including gates, dumb wait- ers, platforms, guides, and frames. 212 LUMBER AND ITS USES Ash and oak are frequently used for the framework and heavy platforms of freight and passenger elevators. Maple is principally used for elevator floors and guides; while white and yellow pine are also used for guides, frames, and platforms in places where great strength is not required. Dumb-waiter cars are made from ma- ple, ash, birch, and some of the lighter woods. Elevator finish is often made of yellow poplar. In the more highly finished elevators, mahog- any, ash, birch, and oak are used for interior trim. New York appears to be the leading State in the manufacture of elevators, while this indus- try is about of equal magnitude in Illinois and Pennsylvania. TABLE 53 Elevators (Annual lumber consumption, 10 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Yellow Pine 36 White Pine 17 Maple 16 Hemlock 10 Oak 10 Douglas Fir 4 Yellow Poplar 3 Ash 1 Other Woods 3 Total 100 40. Saddles and Harness. Strength is an es- sential element in the woods used in saddle and harness making; so 98 per cent of them are hard- THE USES OF LUMBER 213 woods, among which beech and ash are the most prominent. The principal parts in which wood is used are saddle trees, stirrups, and hames. Ash is largely used for hames, and to some extent, also, are beech, maple, and oak. Stirrups are made of elm or hackberry, with the best ones of oak. In the West, Douglas fir, as well as Oregon maple, is used for saddle trees. Pack saddles are made from Oregon cottonwood, alder, or ash. TABLE 54 Saddles and Harness (Annual wood consumption, 9 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Beech 30 Ash : 23 Maple 16 Oak 14 Red Gum 12 Elm 3 Douglas Fir 1 Other Woods 1 Total 100 41. Playground Equipment. Under this head- ing are included merry-go-rounds, lawn and other swings, athletic platforms, and various field appliances. Since nearly all such equip- ment requires strength and wearing qualities, it is not surprising that almost 90 per cent of the 9 million feet of wood annually used for this purpose consists of beech, oak, yellow pine, and maple. Because of its strength and toughness, beech 214 LUMBER AND ITS USES is much used for swings where subject to vibra- tion and irregular strains. Longleaf pine is much used for the platform sills of merry-go- rounds; and so are also Douglas fir and oak. Birch and other woods are used for lawn swings and settees; and black ash, for porch swings. Elm is frequently used for bent parts in play- ground equipment; and maple, for the exterior finish of merry-go-rounds. Among the more prominent States in the man- ufacture of such equipment are Indiana, Penn- sylvania, Ohio, and New York. TABLE 55 Playground Equipment (Annual lumber consumption, 9 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Beech 34 Oak 28 Yellow Pine 16 Maple 9 Elm 4 Ash 2 Birch 2 Spruce 1 Hickory 1 Yellow Poplar 1 Other Woods 2 Total 100 42. Insulator Pins and Brackets. Practically the only woods used in the manufacture of insu- lator pins and brackets are black locust and white or chestnut oak. Because of its exceed- ingly great strength and durability, black lo- cust has always been the favorite wood for this THE USES OF LUMBER 215 purpose; but the demand for pins and brackets has become so great that much oak also is now used, the pins and brackets of this wood being given a treatment with a preservative to pre- vent decay. On high-power lines with large porcelain insulators, hickory pins are used to some extent. Nearly all of the insulator pins and brackets are manufactured in North Carolina and Vir- ginia, where suitable raw material is most abundant. TABLE 56 Insulator Pins and Brackets (Annual wood consumption, 9 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Locust 53 Oak 47 Total 100 43. Butcher Blocks and Skewers. Butcher blocks are chiefly made from maple, red gum, and sycamore; while skewers are made most largely from hickory, beech, and birch. Strength, and toughness are essential qualities in skew- ers, since they must be of small size; while a dense fiber that resists chopping and does not splinter up is required for meat blocks. In the earlier days, these blocks were chiefly made from solid sections of sycamore, but the prac- tice at present is to build them up from ordi- nary sizes of lumber. 216 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 57 Butcher Blocks and Skewers (Annual wood consumption, 8 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Maple 26 Red Gum 22 Sycamore 20 Hickory 16 Beech 11 Birch 3 White Pine 2 Total 100 44. Clocks. The clock-making industry in the United States requires annually the equiva- lent of about 8 million feet of lumber, used chiefly for cases. Large clocks of the "grand- father" type are now much in fashion; and in the making of such cases, some of the finer woods and the highest class of work are employed. Oak is much used for clock frames; birch, for turnery; and walnut, mahogany, and cherry, for decorative effects in the higher-priced articles. Clock bottoms are made of pine ; while the ship- ping cases are frequently made from yellow pine, which accounts for much of this wood shown in Table 58. Red oak is much used in the manufacture of cases for wall clocks; and bass- wood and yellow poplar, for backs and also for cases which are to be enameled. Red gum is used to a considerable extent for cases in which a Circassian walnut effect is desired. About 60 per cent of the wood used in clock manufacture is consumed in Connecticut, and THE USES OF LUMBER 217 nearly all the rest in New York, these two States being the only ones in which clock-making is an extensive industry. TABLE 58 Clocks (Annual lumber consumption, 8 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Oak 33 Basswood 18 Yellow Poplar 14 Yellow Pine 12 White Pine 6 Tupelo 4 Cherry 4 Chestnut 4 Mahogany 3 Other Woods 2 Total 100 45. Signs and Supplies. Under this heading are included the manufacture of professional display boards, stretcher strips for oil paintings, window display racks, and similar articles. White pine, hemlock, and Western yellow pine are much used for these purposes because of their light weight and color, ease of working, and capacity to take paints and oils, the latter being specially required for many kinds of signs. The hardwoods grouped in this classification are chiefly used for display racks and hangers. Many of the large bill posting boards are not special factory products, but are simply made by nailing up tongued-and-grooved flooring on supports. 218 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 59 Signs and Supplies (Annual lumber consumption, 7 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent White Pine 47 Hemlock 15 Western Yellow Pine 15 Yellow Pine 6 Red Gum 3 Elm 3 Redwood 2 Maple 1 Yellow Poplar 1 Basswood 1 Cottonwood 1 Buckeye 1 Other Woods 4 Total 100 46. Printing Materials. The equivalent of more than 5 million board feet of lumber is an- nually used in the manufacture of printing ma- terials, of which cherry supplies nearly two- fifths. This classification includes engraving blocks, electrotype blocks, engraving boards, and printing press attachments. Engraving and electrotype blocks and bases are generally made of cherry, basswood, oak, birch, maple, or beech, and sometimes of mahogany. Engravers' boards are generally made of basswood; and the long wooden fingers on cylinder presses, from chest- nut. For large wood type which must stand up under heavy service, the hardest of hard maple is used. Among the more prominent States in the con- sumption of wood for printing materials, are THE USES OF LUMBER 219 New York, Pennsylvania, Maine, and Wiscon- sin. TABLE 60 Printing Materials (Annual lumber consumption, 5 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Cherry 39 Maple 13 Ash 7 Basswood 7 Yellow Pine 6 Beech 6 Oak 5 Chestnut 5 Birch 5 Yellow Poplar 3 Elm 2 Mahogany 1 Other Woods 2 Total 100 47. Weighing Apparatus. Approximately the same amount of wood is used in the manufacture of weighing apparatus or scales of various kinds as is required for printing devices and machines. The qualities required are different, however; and consequently we find that three-fifths of the wood used in the manufacture of weighing ap- paratus consists of spruce and yellow pine, which offer desirable combinations of light weight and strength. Three other harder and stronger woods used to less extent are maple, birch, and beech; while white pine, oak, Doug- las fir, yellow poplar, and a half-dozen others make up the remaining 10 per cent of wood material consumed in this industry. 220 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 61 Weighing Apparatus (Annual lumber consumption, 5 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Spruce 36 Yellow Pine 24 Birch 14 Maple 9 Beech 7 White Pine 3 Oak 3 Douglas Fir 2 Yellow Poplar 1 Other Woods 1 Total 100 48. Whips, Canes, and Umbrella Sticks. The manufacture of such apparently small articles as whips, canes, and umbrella sticks annually requires the equivalent of 5 million board feet of lumber, although much of the material is never put into lumber form, and the rarer im- ported kinds are purchased by the piece or pound. Among the native woods used for this pur- pose, beech supplies 57 per cent of the total consumption; and maple and birch, 33 per cent more, leaving only 10 per cent for some twenty other species. Beech is largely used for whip stocks and umbrella sticks, as are also maple and birch. Handles are frequently made from ebony, while many imported woods and roots are used for the more expensive cane and um- brella sticks. THE USES OF LUMBER 221 TABLE 62 Whips, Canes and Umbrella Sticks (Annual wood consumption, 5 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Beech 57 Maple 22 Birch 11 Ebony 4 Hickory 2 Other Woods 4 Total 100 In the manufacture of these articles, New York and Massachusetts hold equal rank, each supplying about 40 per cent of the total prod- uct, while the bulk of the remainder comes from Pennsylvania. 49. Brooms and Carpet-Sweepers. Ordinary broom handles are listed with handles ; hence this classification relates chiefly to carpet-sweepers. TABLE 63 Brooms and Carpet-Sweepers (Annual lumber consumption, 2 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Maple 25 Birch 23 Oak 18 Sycamore 12 Ash 10 Red Gum 5 Beech 4 Mahogany 2 Circassian Walnut 1 Total 100 The manufacture of carpet-sweepers on a large 222 LUMBER AND ITS USES scale is a strictly modern industry, and is cen- tered in Michigan. The making of carpet- sweepers has come to be quite an art; and these articles are finished in a wide variety of durable and ornamental woods, in order to match many styles of house finish and furniture. In addi- tion to the nine woods listed in Table 63, rose- wood, laurel, and black walnut are recorded as being used to some extent in the manufacture of carpet-sweepers. 50. Firearms. Black walnut has been the fa- vorite gun-stock wood for many years, and still supplies four-fifths of the wood used in the man- ufacture of firearms. More recently, however, red gum has come into prominence for stocks in which a Circassian walnut effect is desired, while a small percentage of the more expen- sive firearms carry stocks of the true imported walnut. A small amount of English walnut is also used for pistol stocks, and birch occasion- ally for gun stocks, while boxwood is a favorite material for gun rods. Most of the firearms used in this country are made in Connecticut and New York. TABLE 64 Firearms (Annual lumber consumption, 2 million board feet) Woods Used Per Cent Black Walnut 81 Red Gum 17 Circassian Walnut : 2 Total . ..100 THE USES OF LUMBER 223 51. Minor Uses. There are three smaller but important wood-using industries which in the aggregate do not consume much more than the equivalent of 1 million board feet of wood yearly. These are the manufacture of artificial limbs, tobacco pipes, and aeroplanes. TABLE 65 Minor Uses of Wood in Manufacturing (Total annual wood consumption, 1 million board feet) Artificial Limbs Per Cent Birch 61 Maple 21 Willow 8 Hickory 6 Yucca 6 Lancewood 4 Other Woods 4 Total 100 Tobacco Pipes Per Cent French Brier 66 Apple 25 Kalmia 4 Red Gum 2 Other Woods 3 Total 100 Aeroplanes Per Cent Spruce 63 Ash 16 Mahogany 8 Yellow Poplar 6 Oak 5 Hickory 2 Total 100 The requirements for aeroplane wood are 224 LUMBER AND ITS USES most exacting. Above all, it must be straight- grained, strong, light, and perfectly free from defects. The upright posts which hold the planes apart are chiefly made from spruce; the planes are also made of strips of spruce glued to- gether, or " laminated," which form of construc- tion gives added strength and freedom from splitting under stress. Aeroplane beams are generally of spruce. Ash is often used for the laminated propellers, while hickory is used for the axles and the braces over them. Propellers are also made either wholly of spruce or of built-up layers of ash and mahogany. Mahog- any is used in the steering wheels. The skids which hold the landing wheels are usually of oak, ash, or hickory. WOOD-USING INDUSTRY REPORTS The reports of the United States Forest Serv- ice upon the wood-using industries of 24 States are now available, some of the reports being al- ready out of print. Since these reports are mainly of local value, they have been printed by some department of the government of the particular State interested, or by an associa- tion or periodical devoted to the interests of lumbering or conservation. The bulletins listed below may be secured in each case from the ad- dress given. In writing for those for which there is no charge, postage should accompany the request. i A B C D Torch Tests Showing Effect of Paint in Preventing Spread of Fire and Retarding Charring of Wood Effect at end of 1-minute test on untreated shingle (A) and painted shingle (B); 3-minute test, untreated (C), and painted (D). Forest Service Method of Making Test to Determine End-Crushing Strength, or Strength in Compression Parallel to the Grain Plate 29 Lumber and Its Uses THE USES OF LUMBER 225 BULLETINS ON WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF VARIOUS STATES State Obtained from Price Alabama The Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La $ 0.25 California G. M. Homans, State Forester, Sacramento, Gal Connecticut W. O. Filley, State Forester, New Haven, Conn Florida W. A. McRae, Com'r of Agric., Tallahassee, Fla Illinois J. C. Blair, Univ. of 111., Urbana, 111 Iowa Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa Kentucky J. B. Barton, State Forester, Frankfort, Ky Louisiana The Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La 25 Maine State Forest Commissioner, Augusta, Me Michigan Public Domain Commission, Lansing, Mich Minnesota W. T. Cox, State Forester, St. Paul, Minn Mississippi The Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La 25 Missouri St. Louis Lumberman, St. Louis, Mo 25 New Hampshire E. A. Hirst, State Forester, Concord, N. H New Jersey Alfred Gaskill, State Forester. Trenton, N. J New York N. Y. State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. T North Carolina J. S. Holmes, State Forester, Chapel Hill, N. C Ohio Edmund Secrest, State Forester, Wooster, Ohio Pennsylvania R_ S. Conklin, Com'r of Forestry, Harrisburg, Pa Tennessee Southern Lumberman, Nashville, Tenn 25 Texas The Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La 25 Vermont F. A. Hawes, State Forester, Burlington, Vt Virginia G. W. Koiner, Com'r of Agric., Richmond, Va Wisconsin E. M. Griffith, State Forester, Madison, Wit COMMERCIAL WOODS fT^HE properties and uses of the principal kinds of timber that are manufactured into lumber in the United States, are briefly mentioned in this chapter; also those of the more important imported woods. The va- rious species are referred to by the names by; which they are most widely known; and the or- der is alphabetic, without regard to the impor- tance of any species in point of lumber produc- tion. Table 107, on page 318, shows the present an- nual lumber production in the United States. A large percentage of the lumber output goes directly into general building and construction, and there is no way in which the specific uses of such material can be ascertained. The figures given in this chapter upon the consumption of lumber represent chiefly the results of the state and government studies of the wood-using in- dustries, during the course of which a great deal of valuable information has been accumulated upon the factory uses of wood. In order to avoid tiresome figures and to show the true propor- tions more readily, the tables made up from the statistical reports are in percentages; that is, the percentage of the total factory consumption of each species is shown for each industry in which the species is used, the total factory con- sumption in each case being 100 per cent. 226 COMMERCIAL WOODS 227 RED ALDER Red alder (Alnus oregona) is a Pacific Coast hardwood, found chiefly west of the Cascade mountains, in Oregon and Washington. The wood is reddish brown in color, with rather fine, even grain, compact, and hard. It works and polishes well, and makes a good imitation of mahogany when desired. The main factory uses of red alder are shown in Table 66. TABLE 66 Factory Uses of Bed Alder Purpose Per Cent Furniture 63 Mill Work 19 Handles 16 Other Uses 2 Total 100 The specific uses reported for red alder are for archery bows, broom handles, columns, ta- bles, interior finish, pack saddles, pulleys, and turnery. APPLE The domestic apple tree supplies a very com- pact hardwood that is much prized for a number of small articles. While apple wood is generally cut only when old orchards are cleaned out, the reports indicate a factory consumption of about 300,000 board feet of this wood yearly. The main items of use are as indicated in Table 67. 228 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 67 Factory Uses of Apple Wood Purpose Per Cent Handles 48 Tobacco Pipes 38 Professional and Scientific Instruments 8 Boxes and Crates 4 Other Uses 2 Total 100 More specifically, applewood is used in the manufacture of planes, mallets, saw handles, rules, canes, whips, and umbrella handles. ASH Botanists distinguish a number of species of ash in the United States; but, for commercial purposes, only three are usually specified white ash, black ash, and Oregon ash. White ash (Fraxinus americana) is slightly under the average weight and hardness of hard- woods, but of more than average strength and stiffness, which makes it very (useful for many purposes. Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) is somewhat softer and weaker than white ash. It is much less generally distributed throughout the East- ern States than the former, and is most largely manufactured in Wisconsin and Michigan. The toughness of black ash made it popular wood for split hoops for many years. Oregon ash (Fraxinus oregona), while not very abundant in that State, yields a hard, strong, tough wood which takes an excellent pol- COMMERCIAL WOODS 229 ish and hence is useful for fixtures and furni- ture in addition to its main use for handles. The statistical reports do not separate the various species of ash, and their uses are sum- marized in Table 68. TABLE 68 Factory Uses of Ash Purpose Per Cent Handles 22 Woodenware and Novelties 21 Vehicles 15 Furniture and Fixtures 8 Mill Work 7 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 6 Car Construction 6 Agricultural Implements 4 Boxes and Crates 4 Ship and Boat Building 3 Sporting and Athletic Goods 1 Other Uses 3 Total 100 In addition to the above, particular uses for white ash are for: Aeroplanes Car repairing Automobiles (running boards) Chairs Bars (vehicle) Church pews Baseball bats Churns Bent panels (light vehicle Churn lids bodies) Corn planters Beams (cultivators) Cylinders (cider mill) Baby perambulators Doors Bobsleds Dowels Bows Electrical apparatus Boxes Elevator parts Butter tubs (heading) Engine cabs Butter tubs (staves) Felloes Cabinet work Flooring Car construction (framing) Frames (automobile bodies) 230 LUMBER AND ITS USES Frames (buggy and carriage bodies) Frames (light vehicle seats) Frames (wagon boxes) Furniture Gears (coach) Handles Handles (edge tool) Hames (wood) Harrows Hoe handles Hose truck bodies Hounds (vehicles) Interior finish Machinery (construction) Kitchen cabinets Keels (boat) Moldings Panels Parallel bars Patterns Piano parts Planing mill products Plow beams Pokes (animal) Poles (heavy vehicles) Posts (vehicles) Plumbers' woodwork Pump rods Rails Rake heads Rake (garden) handles Rims (vehicle) Refrigerators Sash Shovel handles Soil rollers Staves Tables Tools Trunks Vehicle bodies and parts Yokes Wagon parts Well-digging machines Windmills Black ash enters into the manufacture of: Auto seats Baseball bats Boat finish Box shocks Buffets (exterior work) Buffets (inside work) Butter tubs Candy pails Chairs (kitchen) Commodes Cooperage stock Desks (inside work) Fixtures Flooring Furniture (interior) Handles (garden tools) Handles (small tools) Hayloader parts Hoops (butter tubs) Hoppers (fruit and vegetable) Ice chests Interior finish Kitchen cabinets Lard tubs Moldings (piano) Music cabinets (inside work) Music cabinets (exterior work) Picture moldings Pike poles Racked hoops Refrigerators Sills (vehicle) Spice kegs Slats (bed) Sugar buckets Trunk slats Washboards COMMERCIAL WOODS 231 Oregon ash is used on the Pacific Coast in making boats, book cases, chairs, desks, tables, handles, saddles, and vehicles. ASPEN The aspens, of which there two species the common popple or quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), and the large-tooth aspen (Pop- ulus grandidentata) are widely distributed throughout the United States, and belong to the family of true poplars, of which the cottonwoods are the largest representatives. The wood of the aspens is light in weight and color, soft, and not strong. In stiffness, however, it ranks with many heavier hardwoods. Aspen is not separately tabulated in many state reports ; but probably its largest use is for the making of boxes and crates, to which pur- pose it is excellently suited. Some of the spe- cific uses listed for aspen are as follows : Basket bottoms Handles (oyster knife) Basket hoops Jelly buckets Boxes Novelties Boxes (piano) Pails Boxes (shoe pegs) Shoe fillers Boxes (veneer) Shoe forms Brushes Shoe lasts Buckets Shoe trees Casing Spice kegs Ceiling Spool heads Crates Spools Dowels Sugar buckets Excelsior Toothpicks Fish kits Toys Frames (door) Toy wheelbarrows (bodies) Frames (window) Vehicle body parts Furniture (hidden work) Wood wool Handles (dipper) 232 LUMBER AND ITS USES BALM OF GILEAD Balm of Gilead (Populus balsamifera) is also a true poplar; and the wood is much like that of its relatives with respect to weight, strength, and uses. The supply is not large, since the tree occurs but infrequently in the Northern States. Balm of Gilead is used chiefly in the manu- facture of boxes and crates, but also has a place in the making of the following articles : Berry buckets Grape baskets Built-up panels Handles Card-table tops Hat racks Ceiling Novelties Druggist barrels Pails Egg-cases Spindles Excelsior Tubs Furniture shelving Wood wool BASSWOOD With the possible exception of willow and buckeye, basswood (Tilia americana) is the lightest, softest, and weakest of the hardwoods. It is neither stiff nor tough, but, because of its even grain, white color, and extreme ease of working, is one of the most widely used woods. The more important factory uses reported are as shown in Table 69. TABLE 69 Factory Uses of Basswood Purpose Per Cent Boxes and Crates 23 Mill Work 16 Woodwork and Novelties 15 Furniture and Fixtures 11 COMMERCIAL WOODS 233 Trunks and Valises 6 Picture Frames and Molding 5 Excelsior 4 Musical Instruments 3 Toys 2 Agricultural Implements 2 Vehicles 2 Matches 1 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 1 Car Construction 1 Laundry Appliances 1 Tobacco Boxes 1 Other Uses . . 6 Total 100 The diversity of the uses of basswood is indi- cated by the following list of articles in the manufacture of which this wood is used to a greater or less degree : Agricultural implements Altars Apparatus parts (electric) Automobiles Backings (furniture) Backs (organ) Baseboards Baskets (fruit and vegetable) Bellows (organ) Boats Bookcases (inside work) Boxes Breadboards Bureaus (inside work) Butter ladles Cabinets (kitchen) Cameras Candy pails Car construction Car repairing Casings (building) China closets (interior work) Church pews Circus seats Cigar boxes Cleats (organ) Clothes bars Commodes Coops (poultry) Cornice Corn shellers Couches (box) Crating Cupboards Desks (school) Drawer bottoms Engraving boards Fans (electric) Feed mills File cases Fixtures (bar) Fixtures (barber shop) Fixtures (store and office) Flag poles Frames (couches) 234 LUMBER AND ITS USES Frames (davenports) Frames (hand mirror) Frames (lounges) Furniture (church) Furniture (interior) Gameboards Games of chance Go-carts Grain separators Guitars Handles Hayloader parts Heading (barrels) Hoppers (fruit and vegetable) Incubators (bodies) Ironing boards Interior finish (building) Kitchen cabinets Ladders (extension) Laundry machinery Lodge furniture Machinery construction Mandolins Millwork Moldings (casket) Music cabinets (interior) Organ cases (folding organ) Organ frames Pails Parlor furniture (frames) Pastry boards Patterns Piano keys Picture molding Pipe organs (interior parts) Pyrography boards Refrigerators Sample cases Seeder boxes (farm imple- ments) Sheathing (building) Shoe forms Siding (house) Signboards Staves Stirrups (head blocks) Stirrups (neck blocks) Swing seats Tables Thermometers Threshing machines Toys Trunks Vehicle bodies Violin cases Washboards Washing machines Yardsticks BEECH Beech (Fagus atropunicea) is a moderately hard, strong, heavy hardwood that has a wide range of usefulness for many purposes. While the reports indicate a larger consumption of beech in the manufacture of boxes and crates than in any other industry, a large amount is used in general mill work, including flooring and finishing, and for furniture and fixtures, for which purposes the hardness and wear- COMMERCIAL WOODS 235 resisting qualities of beech are especially desir- able. TABLE 70 Factory Uses of Beech Purpose Per Cent Boxes and Crates 28 Mill Work 21 Furniture and Fixtures 18 Handles 6 Woodenware and Novelties 5 Laundry Appliances 3 Brushes 2 Vehicles 2 Agricultural Implements 2 Musical Instruments 1 Spools and Bobbins 1 Toys 1 Playground Equipment 1 Whips, Canes, etc 1 Saddles and Hames 1 Other Uses 7 Total 100 A still better idea of the varied uses of beech is obtained from the following partial list of articles into the manufacture of which this wood enters : Agricultural implements Brushes Auto-seat frames Built-up panels Balls Bungs Barber chairs Butcher blocks Baseball bats Butter dishes Baskets Butter tubs Beds' (folding) Cable reels Boats Candy pails Bobbins Cars Boxes Chair bottoms Brick molds Chair rods Broom handles Cheese boxes 236 LUMBER AND ITS USES Churns Cider mills Clocks Clothes pins Coat hangers Coops Crating Dowels Drafting tables Electrotype plates Faucets Filing cabinets Fixtures Furniture Hames Handles Hand sleds Interior finish Ironing boards Ladders Lawn swings Measures Musical instruments Mouse traps Neck yokes Novelties Pails Panels Piano cases Pipe organs Plane stocks Printers' cabinets Pulleys Pumphandles Pump buckets Refrigerators Rims (bicycle) Rope reels Sash Sectional bookcases Show cases Skates Sounding boards Spindles Spools Stanchions Staves Stepladders Tables Tie plugs Toys Trunks Tubs Vehicles Wardrobes Washing machines Washboards Weighing machines Wheelbarrows Window screens Woodenware BIRCH Several birches are recognized by botanists and foresters; but from the standpoint of the practical wood user, there are only three import- ant kinds the paper or white birch (Betula papyrifera), the yellow birch (Betula lutea), and the red or cherry birch (Betula lent a). Paper birch is found across the northern part of the United States and Canada, but is most abun- COMMERCIAL WOODS 237 dant and commercially important in New Eng- land, and especially in Maine. The red or cherry birch occurs in smaller quantity from New York southward through West Virginia; while the yellow birch is common in New York, New Eng- land, and the Lake States, but most abundant in the latter region. The heartwood of yellow birch is reddish, and much of it is marketed and used for the same purposes as cherry birch, and, without distinction from the latter, for the man- ufacture of furniture, interior finish, and the like. The principal uses of the paper or white birch are for spool stock, box lumber, wooden- ware, dowels, shoe pegs, and other small articles. Closely related to the paper birch is the West- ern birch (Betula occidentalis), a small amount of which is used for interior finish in Oregon and Washington. The wood of red and yellow birch is heavy; of average hardness, stiffness, and strength for hardwood; and above the average in toughness. For this reason, birch makes a good wagon hub ; and much yellow birch is used for this purpose. The factory uses of the various birches are summarized in Table 71. TABLE 71 Factory Uses of Birch Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 28 Furniture and Fixtures 21 Boxes and Crates 19 Spools and Bobbins 7 Woodenware and Novelties 6 Vehicles . 3 238 LUMBER AND ITS USES Musical Instruments 3 Handles 2 Dowels 2 Boot and Shoe Findings 2 Car Construction 1 Agricultural Implements 1 Other Uses . 5 Total 100 A tabulation of the uses reported for red and yellow birch gives the following list: Automobiles Backgrounds (display win- dows) Balusters Barber chairs Barber shop furnishings Barrel starchers (laundry) Baseboards Baskets (fruit and vegetable) Billiard tables Boat parts Bobbins Bodies (light vehicles) Bookcases (exterior) Bookcases (interior) Bookracks Bottoms (heavy vehicle bod- ies) Bottoms (wagons) Boxes Boxes (cheese) Boxes (veneer) Box shooks Brackets Broom handles Brush blocks Buffets (bar fixtures) Bureaus (exterior) Butter churns (frames) Butter molds Cabinets (music rolls) Cabinets (phonograph rec- ords) Cabinets (toilets) Cabinet work Cameras Canes Capitals Carpet sweepers Carvings Cases (medicine) Cases (railroad tickets) Casing Caskets Chair frames (upholstered furniture) Chairs Chairs (adjustable) Chairs (dining room) Chair seats Chairs (office) China closets Clocks Coffins Columns (porch) Consoles Cooperage stock (slack) Cores (veneer) Counters (bar) Counters (store and office fixtures) Cradles COMMERCIAL WOODS 239 Crating Creamery accessories Crutches Cutting boards (meat) Doors Dowels Dressers Dressing tables Electrotype bases Elevator cars Equipment (playground) Farm implement parts Farm machinery parts Fixtures (bank) Fixtures (laboratory) Fixtures (soda fountain) Fixtures (store and office) Flooring Folding beds Frames (cheval mirror) Frames (couches) Frames (davenports) Frames (light vehicle bodies) Frames (light vehicle seats) Frames (lounges) Gameboards Gear parts (light vehicles) Glove boxes Grain doors Grilles Grille work Guitars Hallracks Handrails (porch) Handrails (stairworks) Harp sides (musical instru- ment) Hoppers (fruit and vegetable) Hubs Interior finish Key racks Launch parts Laundry machines (steam) Lawn swings Leaves (table) Lining (motor boats) Mandolins Mantels Match safes Match strikers Mirror backs Moldings (house) Moldings (piano) Newels (stairwork) Organ cases Organ cases (exterior pipe organ) Organ keys Ornaments (furniture) Panels (veneered) Paper plugs Parlor cabinets (exterior) Parlor furniture (frames) Parlor rockers Parquetry flooring Passenger cars (interior fin- ish) Patterns (machine parts) Pedestals Pen racks Pen trays Piano benches Piano cases Piano chairs Piano keys Piano players (exterior) Piano stools Picture mouldings Plane handles Plumbers' woodwork Pool tables Pulleys Posts (stairwork) Reels (fence wire) Reels (insulated wire) Refrigerators Risers (stairwork) Road machinery parts 240 LUMBER AND ITS USES Rocker frames (upholstered furniture) Sash (window) Screen doors Seats (water closets) Sewing machine parts Sewing tables Shells (drum) Shoe pegs Shoe trees Show cases Sideboards (exterior) Sills (road carts) Skewers Skis Sleds Slides (tables) Sofa frames (parlor furni- ture) Somnols Spools Stairwork Steering wheels Step ladders Steps (stairwork) Switchboards (telephone) Tables Tables (dressing) Tables (library) Tabourets Tanks (water closets) Telephones Telephones (accessories) Toboggans Tool chests Toys Trunks Umbrella handles Veneer cores (piano cases) Wainscoting Wall cases (store) Wardrobes (exterior) Window screens Wind shields (automobile) Woodenware Work benches Zither bodies Among the uses reported for paper or white birch are: Bails (bucket and pail) Bobbins Boxes Brushes Camp stools (parts) Chairs (porch) Chairs (turned parts) Checkers Clothespins Crates Crutches Dowels Drawer sides Dry measures Duster brush blocks Flooring Furniture Handles (awl) Handles (cant hook) Handles (corkscrew) Handles (feather curlers) Handles (hair curlers) Handles (hay rake) Handles (long handle brushes) Handles (paint brushes) Handles (shovel) Handles (toy garden tools) Hosiery boards Hoops Interior finish Knobs Liquor logs Molding (window) Interior View of a Table Factory in Virginia Interior of a Box Factory Finished sides, tops, and bottoms are bundled ready to be shipped to the user who will assemble them Plate 30 Lumber and Its Uses Drying Room in a Vehicle Factory Showing oak and hickory spokes and elm hubs Drying Room in a Vehicle Factory Showing oak and hickory Plate 31 Lumber and Its Uses rims for buggy wheels; elm hubs also birch and COMMERCIAL WOODS 241 Novelties Spool barrels Paint brushes Spool heads Paper plugs Table slides Piano stools Toothpicks Quills Toy parts (iron toys) Rungs (turned chair) Toy wheelbarrows Sawhorses Twisters Shoe pegs Vehicle parts Skewers Wash benches Speeders Wash boards Spindles (turned chair) Wheels (toy wagons) Spinning wheels Wheels (toy wheelbarrows) Spools BUCKEYE Buckeye (Aesculus octandra) is a species of the horse-chestnut family from which about 20 million feet of lumber are annually manufac- tured in Ohio, Kentucky, and adjacent States. The wood is very much like basswood as regards lightness in weight, softness, and lack of tough- ness or strength. That these qualities make buckeye useful for very many of the purposes for which basswood is desired, will be seen from the summary of its factory uses given in Table 72. TABLE 72 Factory Uses of Buckeye Purpose Per Cent Boxes and Crates 47 Excelsior 19 Mill Work 10 Furniture 6 Trunks and Valises 6 Frames and Molding 3 Caskets and Coffins 3 Laundry Appliances 2 Woodenware and Novelties 1 242 LUMBER AND ITS USES Signs and Supplies 1 Other Uses 2 Total . . . . 100 Some of the specific uses reported for buck- eye include doors, piano panels, interior finish, sample cases, candy and chocolate boxes, and wooden bowls and dishes. BUTTERNUT Butternut (Juglans cinerea) is in much the same class as basswood and buckeye in respect to mechanical qualities, but is slightly heavier, harder, stronger, and tougher than these woods. It also has a figure considerably like black wal- nut, of which it is a close relative, but lacks the rich color of the more valuable wood. Butternut finds its largest usefulness in the manufacture of furniture and fixtures, and, next, for boxes and crates, as is indicated in Table 73. TABLE 73 Factory Uses of Butternut Purpose Per Cent Furniture and Fixtures 39 Boxes and Crates 22 Excelsior 11 Mill Work 9 Woodenware and Novelties 6 Musical Instruments 4 Ship and Boat Building 3 Patterns and Flasks 2 Professional and Scientific Instruments. ... 1 Other Uses 3 Total . ..100 COMMERCIAL WOODS 243 Specific articles in which butternut is used are: Altars Moulding Boat decks Patterns Boat finish Piano cases Boat seats Piano molding Cabinets Screen frames Cameras Show cases Caskets Store fixtures Cheese box heading Tables Church pews Threshing machines Doll carriages Toys Furniture Vehicles Interior finish CEDAR There are so many woods popularly known by the name " cedar," that this name conveys little idea of the qualities of the timber referred to. Some of these woods are correctly known as cedar, while entirely different names are applied by botanists to the others. In this dis- cussion, it is sufficient to mention seven species which go by the name of cedar, and which have a considerable commercial usefulness the Southern white cedar (Cliamaecyparis fhyoides) of the Atlantic Coast States; the Northern white cedar or arbor vitae (Thuja americana),. chiefly important in New England and the Lake States; the red or pencil cedar (Juniperus vir- giniana), which is most abundant in Tennessee and Florida; the Western red cedar or giant arbor vitae (Thuja plicata) of the Northern ~ Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest; the Port Or ford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsonianaf' of Oregon ; the Alaska or yellow cedar (Chamae- 244 LUMBER AND ITS USES ^-' cyparis nootkatensis) of the North Pacific Coast from Oregon to Alaska; and the incense cedar (Librocedrus decurrens.) of Southern Oregon and California. All of these so-called cedars have in common a certain lightness in weight, softness, evenness of grain, and resistance to decay, but in varying degrees. Both the Northern and Southern white cedars are among the lightest of woods in weight, and are soft and easily worked. They are much used for woodenware and in canoe and boat building, and also for shingles, posts, and poles, by far the larger part of the Northern white cedar being used for the latter purpose. The true red or pencil cedar has always been the standard wood for lead pencils, because it is very soft, with a fine, even grain that whittles nicely. It is also among the most durable of woods when exposed to decay-producing influ- ences. The Western red cedar is much like the North- ern white cedar or arbor vitae, but is a larger tree and produces more red heartwood. At the present time, Western red cedar, in addition to supplying a considerable quantity of lumber, posts, and poles, furnishes about two-thirds of all the shingles made in the United States. The wood of the incense cedar is considerably heavier and stronger than that of the white or red cedar. In fact, in this respect it compares favorably with Southern yellow pine. Incense cedar wood is close-grained, and has a reddish, COMMERCIAL WOODS 245 durable, heartwood useful for many purposes. Port Orford cedar is a wood which is heavy, strong, and stiff. It has a good figure, and pol- ishes well. The Alaska or yellow cedar has perhaps the hardest wood of any of the so-called cedars. It is light, stiff, and strong, has a good figure, and takes a good polish. Without distinction as to species, the factory uses of cedar in the United States are summar- ized in Table 74. TABLE 74 Factory Uses of Cedar Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 44 Professional and Scientific Instruments. ... 20 Ship and Boat Building 7 Woodenware and Novelties 6 Caskets and Coffins 6 Laundry Appliances 5 Tanks and Silos 4 Furniture and Fixtures 3 Boxes and Crates 2 Other Uses 3 Total 100 In Table 74 the millwork that is, the manu- facture of sash, door, blinds, interior finish, etc. takes chiefly the Western cedars ; while under the heading of professional and scientific instru- ments is included much of the Eastern red cedar used in pencil making. Smaller uses of Eastern red cedar are for: Canes Chairs Caskets Chests 246 LUMBER AND ITS USES Fixtures Silos Furniture Tanks Interior finish Umbrella handles Musical instruments Vehicles Sash Woodenware Siding Uses reported for the Eastern white cedars are in the manufacture of : Boat bottoms Planing mill products Boat decking Roof tanks Canoes Rowboats Cigar boxes Shiplap Dairymen's supplies Siding General millwork Signal devices Ice cream freezers Silos Interior finish Tanks Oars Yachts Pails A recent compilation by the Forest Service lists the following uses for Western red cedar: Barrel bungs Carving Battens Caskets Blinds Coffins Boards Coffin boxes Boats Ceiling Cabins Chests Canoes Cigar boxes Ceiling Closet linings Decking Columns Finish Conservatories Launches Sash Planking Stands Rails Trays Roofs Cooperage Skiffs Buckets Trim Tubs Car construction Cores Finish Veneer Roofing Decking Siding Doors Trim Drain boards COMMERCIAL WOODS 247 Drawing boards Faucets Finish Fixtures Drawers Mirror backs Panels Shelves Show cases Flooring Flume stock Framing Furniture Bottoms Cabinets Drawer bottoms Frames Panels Hot house trays Incubators Interior work Ceiling Finish Trim Lath Lattice Lintels Moldings Organs (action) Panels Patterns Foundry Machine shop Piano shanks Pickets Picture frames Piling Poles Pontoon floats Porch columns Built-up Turned Posts Hot house Window Scroll work Shingles Shiplap Shop lumber Siding Bevel Drop Silos Spigots Spindles Tanks Covers Staves Tennis rackets Handles Tent poles Ties Totem poles Trays Fruit dryer Hot house Trunk Turning Balusters Novelties Squares Veneers (cores) Washing machines Window frames Window sills According to the Oregon reports, Port Orford cedar is used for boats (finish, frames, plank- ing, skiffs), columns, fixtures, furniture (cabi- nets, moth-proof drawers, stools, tables), moth- 248 LUMBER AND ITS USES proof chests, matches, sash and doors, and turn- ery. Alaska or yellow cedar is used for boat cabins, interior finish, carvings, patterns, and pyrog- raphy. In addition to serving many other pur- poses, incense cedar is now being used for pencil making, because of the shortness of the supply of Southern red cedar. CHEERY The wild black cherry (Prunus serotina) is somewhat lighter in weight and a little softer than beech and birch; but it is nevertheless a dense, strong, hardwood of excellent wearing qualities, and with a color and figure which make it highly prized in the manufacture of excep- tionally fine furniture and interior finish. The supply is not large, and Table 75 indicates that TABLE 75 Factory Uses of Cherry Purpose Per Cent Furniture and Fixtures 24 Printing Material 17 Car Construction 16 Mill Work 14 Professional and Scientific Instruments. ... 6 Handles 5 Brushes ' 4 Musical Instruments 3 Clocks 3 Ship and Boat Building 2 Boxes and Crates 1 Patterns 1 Other Uses 4 Total . ..100 COMMERCIAL WOODS 249 nearly all the cherry is used for high-grade work. Specific uses reported for cherry are for: Baskets Beds Boat finish Bookcases Brick molds Brushes Bushel crates Butter dishes Cabinets Camera boxes Card trays Cars (finish) Casing Caskets Chairs (posts, rounds) Clock cases Coffins Collar trays Counters Desks Dooii Dowels Dressers Flasks Flooring Electrotype blocks Engraving blocks Glove stretchers Handles (duster brush) Handles (saw) Interior finish Last blocks Level blocks Level sticks Library furniture Machine boxes Musical instruments Office fixtures Panels Partitions Parquetry Passenger cars Patterns Piano actions Piano cases Piano players Piano rails Picture moldings Pilot wheels Pipe organ (cases, actions) Plumbers' woodwork Plane handles Road machines (cabs, boxes) Sash School furniture Settees Shoe lasts Siding Spindle stock Spoons Store fixtures Swings Switchboards Tables Table drawers Table legs Tobacco pipes Trays (jewelry) Trim Woodenware CHESTNUT The wood of chestnut (Castanea dentata) is rather light, soft, and durable. It is easily 250 LUMBER AND ITS USES worked, and appears well in furniture and fix- tures, in many cases rather closely resembling white ash. The larger factory uses reported for chestnut are indicated in Table 76. TABLE 76 Factory Uses of Chestnut Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 28 Furniture and Fixtures 19 Caskets and Coffins 16 Musical Instruments 13 Boxes and Crates 12 Woodenware and Novelties 7 Other Uses 5 Total 100 Articles in which chestnut is used are : Boxes (cheese) Furniture (kitchen) Boxes (glass bottles) Ice chests Boxes (handle) Interior finish (house) Boxes (meat) Library tables Brushes Mantels Cabbage crates Molding Casing Outer cases (caskets) Casket moulding Panel work (house) Casket shells Picture frames Casket tops Pool table sides Church pews Refrigerators Cores (veneer) Ribs (poultry coops) Crating Sash Doors Siding Fence pickets Stair balusters Fence stubs Stair rails Flooring Stair rises Furniture (backs) Store and office partitions Furniture frames (case Veneer backing goods) Wardrobes COMMERCIAL WOODS 251 COTTONWOOD The cottonwoods or true poplars yield light, soft, even-grained, easily worked woods, more closely resembling basswood than any other species. Cottonwopd, however, is tougher and stiffer than basswood, and, because of its inter- woven fibers, resists wear extremely well for such a soft wood. The bulk of the cottonwood lumber is manufactured from the common East- ern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), which is most abundant in the lower Mississippi valley. In Oregon and Washington, the black cotton- Wood (Populus trichocarpa) yields a lumber which is used for the same purposes as that of the Eastern species. Because of its lightness and strength, cotton- wood is a favorite material with box makers, as will be seen from Table 77. TABLE 77 Factory Uses of Cottonwood Purpose Per Cent Boxes and Crates 56 Excelsior 14 Vehicles 9 Mill Work 6 Agricultural Implements 4 Woodenware and Novelties 4 Furniture and Fixtures 2 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 1 Other Uses 4 Total 100 Particular uses reported for Eastern cotton- wood are for: 252 LUMBER AND ITS USES Agricultural implements Backs (washboards) Baskets Berry boxes Bevel siding Bookcases (inside work) Boxboards (heavy vehicles) Boxes Boxes (manure spreaders) Box shooks Brooders (poultry) Buggy backs Car construction (rafters) Car repairing parts Carts China closets Clothboards Coffins Commodes Corn binder parts Corn shellers Cornice Cultivator parts Cupboards (kitchen) Crating Dowels (chair) Drawers Drill boxes (farm imple- ments) Drills (farm implements) Drop siding Egg cases Ensilage cutters Envelope cutters Eveners (harrow) Fixtures (bar) Fixtures (store and office) Fodder shredders Frames (canopy) Furniture (inside work) Incubators Interior trimmings Ironing-boards Kitchen cabinets Ladders Manure spreaders (beds) Millwork Mortar boards Music cabinets (inside work) Packages (fruit and vege- table) Panels (light vehicle bodies) Panels (spring wagon bodies) Piano cases (veneer cases) Refrigerators Saddle trees Sample cases Seeders, boxes (farm imple- ments ) Self-feeders (threshing ma- chines) Separator sides (threshers) Shelving Shipping cases (butter) Siding (washboards) Stacker parts (farm ma- chinery) Tables Trunks Vehicle bodies Vehicle seat backs Vending machines Wagon beds Wheelbarrows Woodenware The Oregon or black cottonwood is used in Oregon and Washington for: Baskets, boxes, candy barrels, caskets, cores of veneered products, excelsior, farm machinery, furniture (chair seats, couch heads, drawer bottoms, shelving), fixtures (drawer bot- COMMERCIAL WOODS 253 toms, shelving), pack saddles, pulleys, trunks, veneer, wood- enware. CUCUMBER The tree commonly known as cucumber is one of the magnolias (Magnolia acuminata). The wood is soft, light, easily worked, durable, and very similar to yellow poplar, with which lum- ber much of it is marketed. So far as separate uses are reported for cucumber, they are as indicated in Table 78. TABLE 78 Factory Uses of Cucumber Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 50 Woodenware and Novelties 23 Boxes and Crates 18 Excelsior 6 Other Uses 3 Total 100 Cucumber enters into the manufacture of: Agricultural implements Hay racks Cabinets Molding Casing Pails Casket trim Partition Ceiling Porch columns Cheese boxes (heads) Siding Doors Stairs Flooring Trim Frames Tubs Furniture CYPRESS Cypress (Taxodium distichum) is one of the stronger and heavier softwoods, which, with the 254 LUMBER AND ITS USES exception of greater weight, perhaps resembles redwood more closely than it does any other conifer. Cypress is one of the more durable woods; and some remarkable records of the longevity of cypress lumber and shingles are claimed by the manufacturers of this wood. Cypress works well, has a good figure, and a rich color in the red variety. The largest use- fulness of cypress is in mill work, so far as fac- tory purposes are concerned, as will be seen from Table 79. TABLE 79 Factory Uses of Cypress Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 76 Boxes and Crates 6 Tanks and Silos 5 Caskets and Coffins 3 Machine Construction 2 Laundry Appliances 2 Woodenware and Novelties 1 Furniture and Fixtures 1 Other Uses 4 Total 100 Because of its durability, cypress is also much used for siding, shingles, railroad ties, and other purposes where it is exposed to decay-produc- ing influences among these latter uses being greenhouse construction. The wide range of usefulness of cypress is indicated by the following list of articles into the manufacture of which this wood enters : Agricultural Implements Balusters (porch) Altars Baseboards COMMERCIAL WOODS Beehives Blinds Boat parts Boat siding Bottoms (oil tanks) Bottoms (water tanks) Boxes Butter tubs Cabinets (ice cream) Cabinet work Candy pails Carvings Casing (house) Casing (incubators) Caskets Churns Cisterns Cold frames (hotbeds) Colonnades Columns (porches) Conservatories Conveyors Cornice Covers (laundry machines) Crating Decking Discs (laundry machines) Door frames Doors Drawers (bottoms) Drawers (ends) Drawer sides (furniture) Dropboards (poultry) Dust arrester parts Electric cars (interior work) Feed mills Finish (boats) Fixtures (bank) Fixtures (soda fountains) Fixtures (store and office) Flasks Flour mills (machine parts) Frames (vapor bath tubs) Frames (window tents) Grain elevators Greenhouses Hay baler parts Hay loader parts Hoppers (poultry houses) Ice cream freezers Incubator parts Interior finish Knifeboards (mowers) Launch parts Lodge furniture Mantels Musical instruments Nests (poultry houses) Pails Panels (delivery wagons) Panels (doors) Panels (light vehicle bodies) Patterns Picture moldings Porch work Pumps Refrigerators Road rollers Roof slats (light vehicle beds) Sash (storm) Screen doors Siding Signal devices Silos Spindles Spraying apparatus Stairwork Starchers (laundry) Staves (oil tanks) Staves (water tanks) Stepping Store fronts Tanks Tanks (water closets) Towers (tanks) Trunks Tubs (laundry) Vats 256 LUMBER AND ITS USES Vats (vinegar) Well machinery Washers (hydraulic) Well tubing Washing machines (hand) Window frames Water closets (unexposed Window screens parts) Windmills Water pipes Wringers (laundry) DOGWOOD Dogwood (Cornus florida) is very hard, heavy, close-grained, and wear-resistant, and is used in places where hard service would quickly destroy softer woods. As brought out else- where, the limited supply of dogwood is nearly all consumed in the manufacture of shuttles for the great cotton mills of the East. Dogwood is also used to some extent for small handles, mauls, spindles, wedges, and mine rol- lers. DOUGLAS FIE Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is an interesting timber because there is more of it than any other species in the United States, the greater proportion being in the northern Rocky Mountain and Pacific States. With the excep- tion of redwood, Douglas fir trees are larger than any other in our forests; and they are capable of yielding timbers of practically any length and size desired. The wood of Douglas fir is of medium weight, strength, stiffness, and toughness among the softwoods. It is used for the same general pur- poses as Southern yellow pine; and specifica- COMMERCIAL WOODS 257 tions for structural timbers often carry the two woods on the same basis. More than half of the total output of Douglas fir lumber goes into general building operations and heavy construction. The more important factory uses reported are indicated in Table 80. TABLE 80 Factory Uses of Douglas Fir Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 87 Tanks and Silos 4 Car Construction 4 Ship and Boat Building 2 Pumps and Wood Pipe 1 Other Uses 2 Total 100 More specifically Douglas fir is used for: Boats (beams, cabins, decking, finish, frames, keelsons, knees, masts, planking, spars, stems), boxes, bridge timbers, broom handles, car construction, cement pipe jackets, columns, crates, crossarms, decoy ducks, dump cars, elevator equipment, and mission furniture, mirrors, spring frames, tables), fencing, fixtures (backs, counters, facings, shelves), furniture (book cases, cabinets, chairs, cots, couch frames, drawers, kitchen foundry flasks, gutters, hop baskets, interior work (casing, ceiling, finish, flooring, moulding, stair work, veneered doors, wainscoting), ladders, musical instruments, panels, patterns, paving blocks, pulleys, refrigerators, rug poles, saddles, sash and doors, silo and tank stock, slack and tight cooperage, sur- veyors' stakes, turnery, veneer, vehicles, washing machines, windmill parts, wood stave pipe. ELM There are several species of elm in the United States, by far the most abundant being the com- mon or white elm (Ulmus americana). Other 258 LUMBER AND ITS USES elms are rock or cork elm (Ulmus racemosa); slippery or red elm (Ulmus pubescens); cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia) of the South; and wing elm (Ulmus alata), which is most common in Texas. White elm is among the lighter of the hard- woods in weight, is not so strong as many of them, and is not very hard. It is, however, a tough, fibrous wood of varied usefulness. Bock elm is heavy, hard, tough, and strong ; and ranks next to hickory for many purposes, especially in the line of vehicle manufacture. Slippery elm is somewhat darker in color than white or rock elm, and is about midway between these two woods in mechanical properties. Wing and cedar elm are used for the same general pur- poses as white elm. TABLE 81 Factory Uses of Elm Purpose Per Cent Boxes and Crates 29 Furniture and Fixtures 19 Vehicles 14 Woodenware and Novelties 7 Musical Instruments 7 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 6 Agricultural Implements 3 Trunks and Valises 3 Mill Work 3 Sporting and Athletic Goods 1 Handles 1 Other Uses 7 Total 100 The statistical reports do not distinguish COMMERCIAL WOODS 259 between the various elms. The combined uses are summarized in Table 81. Uses reported for white elm are: Automobile bodies Automobile doors Bails Banana hampers Baskets Basket handles Bicycle rims Billiard tables Bobsleds Boxes Bushel measures Cant-hook handles Canoe-boat bottom boards Chairs Chair bottoms Cheesebox rims Communion tables Crating Cultivators Doubletrees Drawstops Eveners Fish backs Flooring Folding machines Grapples Hand sleds Hoops (coiled) Hose menders Hubs Ice chests Interior finish Kitchen cabinets Ladders Mission furniture Pails Peavy handles Pews Pianos Pikepoles Potato crates Power-pump skids Press racks Printers' cabinets Pulpits Refrigerators Riddle rims Roll-paper cutters Root cutters Seed cabinets Shipping baskets Showcases Sieve rims Singletrees Sleigh runners Spraying machines Stone boats Store fixtures Tanner liquor logs (pipe) Toys Trunks Tubs Wall cases Washboards Washing-machine parts Waste baskets Wheelbarrows Woven boxes Rock elm is used in the manufacture of: Agricultural implements Bentwood Automobile bodies and seats Boxes Bails Crating 260 LUMBER AND ITS USES Doubletrees (plow and bar- Ladders rows) Machine handles Dowels Platforms Eveners (plow and harrow) Posts (seat) Feed cutters Rims (trucks) Handles Rockers (chairs) Hay loader parts Singletrees Hounds (vehicles) Sleigh runners and bodies Hoppers Stirrups Horizontal bars Trunks Hubs (light vehicle wheels) Trunk slats Interior finish Wheelbarrows EUCALYPTUS The eucalyptus family is a native of Australia. A number of species were early introduced into- California, and more recently considerable plan- tations of eucalyptus have been established in that State. The one commonly planted is the blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus), although the wood of this species is said to have fewer desir- able qualities than that of some other less widely planted eucalyptus. Eucalyptus wood is generally very hard, heavy, tough, and strong, even surpassing hick- ory in some respects. However, it is much more difficult to season without serious warping and checking than is any other wood used in this country. Much of this difficulty is apparently due to the fact that practically all the eucalyp- tus lumber so far manufactured in the United States is necessarily produced from young trees of extremely rapid growth. The wood of the large, mature, native Australian eucalyptus is COMMERCIAL WOODS 261 said to work much better than that from the young planted trees in this country. Unfortunately, unscrupulous promoters whose object has been to sell stock in eucalyptus com- panies have disseminated a vast amount of mis- leading information about the properties of the wood and the fabulous returns to be expected from eucalyptus plantations. Only a small amount of eucalyptus lumber is manufactured, and the uses for it are chiefly as shown in Table 82. TABLE 82 Factory Uses of Eucalyptus Purpose Per Cent Ship and Boat Building 80 Vehicles 12 Agricultural Implements 3 Furniture 2 Mill Work 1 Machine Construction 1 Other Uses 1 Total 100 FIB Under this heading are grouped the true firs of the botanical genus Abies. Douglas fir, which is known by a wide variety of names, is a dis- tinct genus, and not a fir at all; neither does it have much in common with the true firs since it is much heavier and stronger than these woods. Of the various true firs, the most important 262 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 83 Factory Uses of Fir RED FIR Purpose Per Cent Boxes and Crates 72 Mill Work 28 Total 100 ALPINE FIR Boxes and Crates 62 Mill Work 33 Excelsior 3 Other Uses 2 Total 100 BALSAM FIR Boxes and Crates 76 Mill Work 20 Car Construction 1 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 1 Woodenware and Novelties 1 Other Uses 1 Total 100 WHITE FIR Mill Work 72 Boxes and Crates 27 Other Uses 1 Total 100 are the balsam fir (Abies balsamifera) of the Northern States; the white fir (Abies concolor) of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast region ; the Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), which grows in high altitudes in the Western mountains ; the COMMERCIAL WOODS 263 noble fir (Abies nobilis), which is most abundant in Oregon; and the red fir (Abies magnified) of California. The balsam fir of the East, and the Alpine fir of the West, are small trees of very similar character. The white, noble, and red firs are among the large trees of the regions in which they are found. The wood of all the firs is very light in weight, soft, not strong, brittle, and even-grained, with no great variations in texture. The firs are not largely sawed at pres- ent. Fir lumber is chiefly used for boxes and crates, for which purpose the light weight and softness especially fits these woods. The firs also furnish much material for wood pulp. So far as reported, the factory uses of the firs are summarized in Table 83. The noble fir is used for the same general pur- poses as are the other true firs. Uses reported for balsam fir include : Boxes Frames (door) Boxes (herring) Frames (window) Cases Ironing-table tops Cases (packing) Molding Cases (sardines) Refrigerators Ceiling Sash Clapboards Sheathing Cloth boards Shooks Crates Siding j* w' Dairy supplies Suit-case frames Flooring Trim BLACK GUM Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), although gener- ally called "gum," is in no way related botanic- 264 LUMBER AND ITS USES ally to red gum. It is a member of the same genus as tupelo, and much of it is included in the statistics of that wood. Black gum is somewhat heavier than red gum. The wood is moderately strong and stiff, tough, and very difficult to split properties which are often desirable. Separate uses reported for black gum are in the manufacture of: Baskets Mauls Berry cups Mine rollers Boxes Paving blocks Conduits Ox yokes Chucks Reshippers (bottle crates) Hoppers Rollers (boats) Hubs Rug pr.les Keels Table legs Lard dishes Veneer barrels RED GUM Bed gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is one of the softer hardwoods of medium weight and strength. It has a good figure and a reddish heartwood that make it useful for many pur- poses. Red gum works easily and is fairly tough ; so the lower grades are in large demand for boxes and crates; while the figured wood, properly stained, gives perhaps the closest dup- lication of Circassian walnut obtainable with any timber. Stained differently, red gum is also much used to give mahogany effects. In addition to being the wood most largely used for slack barrel staves and heading, the statistical reports give the information embodied in Table 84, upon the other factory uses of red gum. COMMERCIAL WOODS 265 TABLE 84 Factory Uses of Red Gum Purpose Per Cent Boxes and Crates 50 Mill Work 15 Furniture and Fixtures 15 Vehicles 3 Pulleys and Conveyors 2 Sewing Machines 2 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 2 Agricultural Implements 1 Musical Instruments 1 Woodenware, Novelties, etc 1 Picture Frames and Moldings 1 Other Uses 7 Total 100 Red gum and sap gum (the sapwood of red gum) enter to some extent into the manufacture of the following articles: Alfalfa grinder parts Chair frames (upholstered Ballot boxes furniture) Barrels (veneer) Chairs Baskets (fruit) Chairs (folding) Baskets (vegetable) Chairs (kitchen) Berry cups Chairs, official (lodge fur- Bookcases (exterior work) niture) Bottom boards (piano) Chairs (parlor) Bottoms (heavy vehicle Cheese boxes seats) China closets (extension) Boxboards (dump carts) Cigar boxes Boxes Cigar wheels (wheel-of- Boxes (delivery wagons) chance) Boxes (veneer) Coffee drums Boxes (wire bound) Columns (porch) Box shocks Commodes Brush blocks Consoles Cabinets Cooperage stock (slack) Carvings Cooperage stock (tight) Caskets Corn graders Casing Cradles Cattle guards (railway cars) Crates (fruit and vegetable) LUMBER AND ITS USES Crating Cultivator handles Cupboards (backing) Cupboards (kitchen) Curtain poles Desks (house) Desks (office) Dining tables Drawer bottoms Dressers (exterior) Egg cases Elevator cars Eraser blocks (blackboard) Fanning mills Faucets Fixtures (bank) Fixtures (soda fountains) Fixtures (store and office) Flour mills (machinery parts) Folding beds Frames (couches) Frames (davenports) Frames (lounges) Furniture (exposed) Furniture (interior work) Game traps Grain weighers Guitar bodies Handles Handrails (stairwork) Hay-baler parts Hobby horses Interior finish Ironing boards Kitchen cabinets Kitchen cabinets (backing) Lawn swings Legs (incubator) Library cases Lining (inside coat boxes) Litter carrier parts Manure spreaders Mop handles Moldings (piano) Music cabinets (exterior) Neck yokes (cultivator) Ornaments (furniture) Packages (vegetable) Panels (light vehicle bodies) Panels (veneered) Parlor cabinets (inside work) Pedestals Pens Piano benches Picture moldings Posts (stairworks) Reed organs (interior parts) Reed organs (exterior) Refrigerators Reshippers (boxes) Rims (guitars) Runners (sleighs and sleds) Saddletrees Sandboards (heavy vehicles) Scale parts (platform scale) Screen doors Seats (water closets) Seed-cleaner parts Self-feeders (threshing machines) Sewing machine parts Sideboards (built in) Sideboards (exterior work) Sideboards (interior work) Signs (advertising) Singletrees (cultivators) Small gun stocks Sofa frames (upholstered fur- niture) Spigots Stepping (stairwork) Tables Tables (extension) Tables (kitchen) Tables (library) Tabourets Tanks (water closets) Thresher parts Tight cooperage stock COMMERCIAL WOODS 267 Trimmings (piano) Wardrobes (exterior work) Trunks Wardrobes (interior work) Type cabinets Washboards (laundry) Vane slats (windmill) Washing machine parts Vehicle bottoms Weather strippings Vending machines Wheel slats (windmill) Vending machines (matches) Window screens Veneer cores Woodenware Veneer doors HACKBERRY Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), although not an abundant forest tree, has a wide range ; and small quantities are manufactured into lumber and also into cooperage. The wood is heavy, moderately hard, strong, and tough. In prop- erties it is most like white elm, while in appear- ance the lumber resembles ash. Statistical reports do not distinguish between the ordinary hackberry and the Southern form or sugarberry (Celtis mississippiensis). TABLE 85 Factory Uses of Hackberry Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 39 Boxes and Crates 28 Woodenware and Novelties 13 Vehicles 9 Furniture and Fixtures 7 Saddles and Hames 4 Total 100 Specific uses reported for hackberry include : Buggy bodies, cart trees, farm implements, handles, furni- ture, hoe handles, interior finish, kegs, rakes, saddle trees, stair rails, steps, table legs and tops, tubs, wagon parts. 268 LUMBER AND ITS USES The Louisiana factories use sugarberry for: Car finish, furniture, railing, slack cooperage, stair steps, table frames, tool handles, and vehicle bodies. HEMLOCK Commercially, there are two important spe- cies of hemlock the Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), which is most abundant in the Lake States, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York, and New England; and Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) , the largest stands of which are in the Pacific Northwest. The Eastern hemlock is among the lighter woods in weight, fairly stiff and strong, and tougher than most softwoods. The Western hemlock is heavier, stronger, and stiffer than the Eastern, and, in mechanical properties, rather closely approaches Douglas fir. A large pro- portion of the hemlock lumber goes directly from the sawmill into general building opera- tions. Without distinction between species, the TABLE 86 Factory Uses of Hemlock Purpose Per cent Mill Work 62 Boxes and Crates 29 Car Construction 2 Furniture I ' Trunks and Valises 1 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 1 Other Uses 4 Total.. 100 COMMERCIAL WOODS 269 reports indicate the factory uses of hemlock as given in Table 86. More specifically, Eastern hemlock enters into the manufacture of the following articles: Bakers' machinery Refrigerators Beamboxes (weighing Sash machines) Seed boxes (machines) Boat parts Shop patterns (boats) Boxes Siding Car decking Signs Car doors Silos Crating Tobacco cases Flasks Trunks Flooring Tubs Ice boxes Vehicles Interior finish. Washboards Pails Well machine parts Piano boxes Window frames Portable farm forges According to the Oregon and Washington reports, Western hemlock is used on the Pacific Coast for: Boat finish, boxes, caskets, cooperage, crates, fixtures (drawers, shelves), furniture (backing, couches, kitchen table tops), interior work (casing, ceiling, finish, flooring, moulding, wainscoting), pulp, sash and doors, screens and veneer. HICKORY There are a number of species of hickory ; but those of greatest commercial importance are five, as follows: Shellbark (Hicoria laciniosa), shagbark (Hicoria ovata), mockernut (Hicoria alba), bitternut (Hicoria minima), and pignut (Hicoria glabra). The pecan (Hicoria pecan) is also a hickory, and is used to some extent for the same purposes as the other species. 270 LUMBER AND ITS USES The hickories, with the exception of black locust and osage orange, are the heaviest, strong- est, and toughest of our native woods. It is the remarkable toughness of hickory, and its ability to withstand shocks, that make it the wood above all others for vehicle work. All the hickories are used in the manufacture of vehicles, handles, and other articles where strength and toughness are the main considera- tion; but pignut perhaps possesses these prop- erties in greater degree than any of the other species. The factory uses of hickory are indicated in Table 87. TABLE 87 Factory Uses of Hickory Purpose Per Cent Vehicles 61 Handles 31 Agricultural Implements 3 Sporting and Athletic Goods 1 Other Uses 4 Total 100 A great deal of hickory, instead of being man- ufactured into lumber, goes in bolt form directly to the factory in which it is to be fashioned into some useful article. According to the reports, hickory enters more or less into the construc- tion of: Agricultural implements Baseball bats Axles (light vehicles) Binder parts Baskets Board rules COMMERCIAL WOODS 271 Bottoms (wagon boxes) Brake bars Cabinet work Calking hammers Canes Car repairing Car construction Carvings Chairs Corn binder parts Crossbars (light vehicles) Crutches Cultivator handles Doubletrees Dowels Eveners (farm implements) Felloes Freight cars Gear woods (light vehicles) Golf sticks (handles) Hammer handles Handles Handles (broom) Handles (edge tools) Hay baler parts Hay loader parts Header parts Hounds (heavy vehicles) Ladders Ladder rungs Log rules Machinery handles Mallets Manure spreader parts Maul handles Molds (brick) Neck yokes (implement) Neck yokes (plows) Neck yokes (vehicles) Patterns Pike poles Pins Picture molding Picker sticks Pick handles Pitmans (farm implements) Plow beams Plow handles Poles (light vehicle) Rake teeth Refrigerators Revolving rakes Rims (automobile wheels) Rims (vehicle wheels) Road-scrapers Shafts (vehicle) Singletrees Sledge handles Small tool handles Spokes (automobile) Spokes (light and heavy vehicles) Spring bars (light vehicles) Sucker rods Threshing machines Tongues (light vehicles) Tongues (wagon) Tongues (wheel scrapers) Trapeze (gymnasium) Trucks Trunk slats Turnings Wagon stock Wagon jacks Whiffletrees Windmill rods HOLLY Holly (Ilex opaca) is a tough, close-grained wood of ivory-like appearance, which makes it especially valuable for inlay work and in the manufacture of many small articles. Since 272 LUMBER AND ITS USES ' holly trees are neither large nor abundant, only small quantities of this wood are available. The factory uses reported are indicated in Table 88. TABLE 88 Factory Uses of Holly Purpose Per Cent Woodenware and Novelties 69 Brushes 24 Musical Instruments 4 Other Uses 3 Total 100 HORNBEAM Hornbeam or ironwood (Ostrya virginiana) is one of the heaviest, hardest, and toughest American woods, ranking very closely to the hickories in these respects. It is not available in such large quantities as the hickories, but is used for much the same purposes, as Table 89 indicates. Specific uses for hornbeam includes axles, fel- loes, tongues, levers, canes, umbrella sticks, and whipstocks. TABLE 89 Factory Uses of Hornbeam Purpose Per Cent Handles 68 Vehicles 21 Mill Work 3 Furniture 2 Woodenware and Novelties 2 Other Uses 4 Total.. ..100 Making Bicycle Rims of Hard Maple in a New Hampshire Factory Successive Stages in Making Shuttles from Dogwood and Persimmon Paint-Brush Handles Made from Birch and Maple Plate 32 Lumber and Its Uses Interior of a Chair Factory in North Carolina Boxes, Spools, Shoe Shanks, and Other Articles Made from Paper Birch Plate 33 Lumber and Its Uses COMMERCIAL WOODS 273 LARCH See Tamarack (page 305). LAUREL Laurel (Kcdmia Icttifolia) is a fine-grained hardwood, produced in small quantities in the Southern mountains. It is nearly as hard as dogwood, and as heavy as white oak. It is not available in large sizes nor in great quantity; but such factory uses as are reported for the small amount consumed are as indicated in Table 90. TABLE 90 Factory Uses of Laurel Purpose Per Cent Ship and Boat Building fi6 Furniture and Fixtures 19 Brooms and Carpet-Sweepers 7 Woodenware and Novelties 6 Other Uses 2 Total 100 The California laurel (Umbellularia califor- nica), or myrtle, is not very abundant, but is used on the Pacific Coast for the manufacture of interior finish, fixtures, furniture, musical instruments, pilot wheels, turnery, and novel- ties. LOCUST There are two native locusts found in the Eastern States the honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) and the black locust (Robinia pseudacacia) . The honey locust is not abun- 274 LUMBER AND ITS USES dant, however; and so, while possessing many desirable qualities in the way of strength and hardness, is little used. Black locust and osage orange closely com- pete for the honor of being the heaviest and strongest American woods. In other respects they split even, for osage orange is the tougher, and black locust the stiffer. Both shrink less in seasoning than almost any other wood, either hard or soft which is also an extremely desir- able quality. Black locust finds by far its largest use in the manufacture of insulator pins and brackets, with a small amount used for mill work, in ship and boat building, and for vehicles. In ship and boat building, black locust is valuable for tree nails, for the ancient method of holding two pieces of wood together by means of a wooden pin or nail has, for some purposes, not been improved upon. TABLE 91 Factory Uses of Locust Purpose Per Cent Insulator Pins and Brackets 90 Mill Work 3 Ship and Boat Building 3 Vehicles 2 Other Uses 2 Total 100 Black locust is also used for patterns, chucks, hubs, turnery, trunnels, and spokes for boat wheels. COMMERCIAL WOODS 275 Some of the small amount of honey locust manufactured is used in furniture, millwork, balusters, newels, and molding. MAGNOLIA Two species of magnolia are cut for lumber to some extent in the Southern States, in addi- tion to the cucumber tree previously mentioned. These are the evergreen magnolia (Magnolia foetida) and the sweet magnolia (Magnolia glauca) or bay tree. Most of the magnolia lum- ber, however, is made from the evergreen mag- nolia. Magnolia wood is of compact structure, light, soft, easily worked, with a satiny luster, and creamy white to light brown in color. It goes to market with yellow poplar, as well as under its proper name. Such separate factory uses of magnolia as are reported are shown in Table 92. TABLE 92 Factory Uses of Magnolia Purpose Per Cent Boxes and Crates 88 Furniture and Fixtures 8 Mill Work 2 Tobacco Boxes 1 Other Uses 1 Total 100 \ More specific uses reported for magnolia include : Bar fixtures Boxes Bed-room suites Broom handles Boats Brushes 276 LUMBER AND ITS USES Cabinets Furniture Car sheathing Interior finish Cotton gins Molding China closets Ox yokes Door panels Sash Dressers Tables Egg cases Wagon boxes Excelsior Wash stands MAPLE Four species of maple are of commercial importance from the lumber standpoint. These are hard or sugar maple (Acer saccharum), red maple (Acer rubrum), soft or silver maple (Acer saccharinum) , and Oregon maple (Acer macrophyllum). Hard maple is by far the most abundant and useful member of the group. The wood of hard maple is of moderate weight for a hardwood, strong, hard, and with good wearing qualities. Variations in structure and appearance due to peculiarities of growth give curly and bird's-eye effects which are much prized. The wood of soft maple is considerably lighter in weight, and not so strong or stiff as that of the hard maple. It has a good figure, and is used for many purposes. Red maple is about midway between hard and soft maple in weight and strength. In hardness, it is close to the soft maple; and in stiffness, not very far from the hard maple. Oregon maple is the only commercial maple on the Pacific Coast, and is the most important hardwood of that region. The wood resembles that of the Eastern maples, and is used for the same general purposes. COMMERCIAL WOODS 277 Hard maple is the maple used in the manu- facture of hardwood flooring and wherever strength and resistance to wear are the deter- mining qualities. In the wood^using industry reports, all the maples are grouped together with results shown in Table 93. TABLE 03 Factory Uses of Maple Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 34 Furniture and Fixtures 17 Boxes and Crates 10 Boot and Shoe Findings 6 Agricultural Implements 5 Musical Instruments 5 Handles 4 Woodenware, Novelties, etc 4 Vehicles 4 Laundry Appliances 2 Other Uses 9 Total 100 These specific uses reported for hard maple indicate the great serviceability of this wood: Automobile benches Bobbins Automobile bottoms Bobsleds Automobile gears Bolsters Automobile sub-floors Bowling alleys Axles Bowls Baggers Boxes Baseball bats Bread boards Baskets Brewers' chips Bean pickers Broom handles Bicycle rims Brush backs Billiard cues Brush handles Billiard rings Built-up panels Blueprint frames Butcher blocks 278 LUMBER AND ITS USES Butter boxes Butter ladles Butter molds Cameras Canes Cant-hook handles Car-gallows frames Carpet-sweepers Carrom cues Carrom rings Caster rollers Cattle guards Center wheels Chair bottoms Chair rods Checkers Churn dashers Clothespins Coat hangers Coil bases (telephone) Corn buskers Corn planters Corn shelters Costumers Cot frames Cranes Croquet balls Croquet mallets Culm pipe (mines) Cultivator handles Curtain poles Dashboards Die blocks Die cases Dishes Dominoes Door knobs Dowels Drawer bottoms Dumb-bells Electrotype blocks Ensilage cutters Extension stretchers Factory trucks Faucets Feed cutters Feeders Flooring Furniture Games Gas-engine skids Girts Go-carts Grain doors Grain separators Grills Guitars Hand cars Handles Handspikes Hay balers Hay pressers Hoop drums Horizontal bars Hose menders Indian clubs Interior finish Kitchen cabinets Knobs (furniture) Kraut cutters Ladders Lasts Lemon squeezers Levers Log cars Mallets Mandolins Mangle rollers Manual training supplies Manure spreaders Meat boards Medicine cabinets Mission furniture Office fixtures Packing-house cutting tables Paddles Pails Paper cutters COMMERCIAL WOODS 279 Parasol handles Parquetry floors Patterns Peavy handles Pianos Piano bridges Piano pin planks Piano players Plow beams Plugs Plumbers' woodwork Porch swings Portable sawmills Potato mashers Potato planters Pulley spokes Pumps Push cars Racks Railroad velocipedes Reed furniture (rods) Refrigerators Riddles Road rollers Roller pins Rules Sawmill machinery Scythe snaths Self feeders Separators (grain) Sheeting Showcases Shredders Skewers Sleighs Spindles Spoke wedges Spool barrels Spoons Steak mauls Steering wheels Stonecutters' mallets Stone boats Store fixtures Switch boards Table rims Talking machines Tanks Tanning drums Tenpins Threshing machines Thresholds Tie plugs Timber grapples Tinners' mallets Tin-plate boxes Toothpicks Towel racks Toys Track gauge Track levels Trucks Trunks Tubs Type cabinets Type cases Umbrella racks Wall cases Wall clocks Washboards Washing machines Weighing machines Wheelbarrows Wind stackers Wooden bearings Wood knobs (grilles) Woodtype Yardsticks Soft maple is used in the manufacture of: Auto frames Berry baskets Baby carriages Boats Ballot boxes Bookcases 280 LUMBER AND ITS USES Boxes Brooders (poultry) Broom handles Butter bowls Carpet sweepers Chairs Coat hangers Corn planters Cot frames Cradles Cultivators (garden) Door frames Egg cases Extension-table sides Fanning mills Filing cabinets Fixtures Flooring Furniture Grass seeders Hall clocks Hand sleds Hay racks Ice boxes Incubators Interior finish Ironing boards Kitchen cabinets Knobs (furniture) Lap boards Lawn swings Manual training supplies Music cabinets Office fixtures Parquet floors Pianos Piano benches Pumps Potato planters Reels (wire) Refrigerators Root cutters Signs Sleeve boards Table tops Tabourettes Tin-plate boxes Umbrella racks Vehicles Velocipedes, railroad Wardrobes Woodenware Oregon maple is used on the West Coast for baskets, boat finish, building rollers, dollies, fix- tures (counter tops, grill work, mirror frames, show cases), furniture (bookcases, chairs, daven- port frames, school furniture, spindles, tables), handles, interior work (finish, flooring), pul- leys, saddles, tent toggles, and trunk slats. OAK Botanists recognize some fifty species of oak in the United States, all but a few of which attain tree size, while many are among the larg- COMMERCIAL WOODS 281 est and finest hardwoods. With such a wealth of species, it is impossible to get statistics upon the consumption of the separate kinds with any degree of accuracy. Moreover, most of the oak is marketed under the general names of "white oak" or "red oak," without further specific dis- tinction. Of the white oak group, the most important are the true white oak (Quercus alba), bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), post oak (Quercus minor), cow oak (Quercus michauxii), chestnut oak (Quercus prinus), overcup oak (Quercus lyrata), and Oregon oak (Quercus garryana). Of the red oak group, the most useful species are the true red oak (Quercus rubra), Texan oak (Quercus Texana), chinquapin oak (Quercus acuminata), yellow oak (Quercus velutina), scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), turkey oak (Quercus catesbaei), Spanish oak (Quercus digitata), pin oak (Quercus palustris), shingle oak (Quercus imbricaria), and willow oak (Quercus phellos). The white and red oak groups supply about equal amounts of lumber. Two other important species which belong to neither group are live oak (Quercus virginicma) and California tanbark oak (Quercus densi- flora). The wood of nearly all the oaks is heavy, hard, strong, and tough, with the characteristic figure which has always made oak a standard cabinet, furniture, finish, and flooring wood, in addition 282 LUMBER AND ITS USES to its great usefulness for vehicles and in other places where strength is essential. There is, of course, considerable variation in the strength, hardness, stiffness, weight, and other properties of the oaks, as is shown in the chapter upon the properties of wood. Among all the oaks, the live oak leads in strength, hard- ness, and toughness. In the days of wooden ships, it was especially in demand. The supply of live oak timber is much less than that of many other oaks; and at present but little is manufactured into lumber. Without regard to species, the factory uses of oak are summarized in Table 94. TABLE 94 Factory Uses of Oak Purpose Per Cent Furniture and Fixtures 32 Mill Work 25 Car Construction 15 Vehicles 11 Agricultural Implements 3 Boxes and Crates 3 Snip and Boat Building 2 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 2 Musical Instruments 1 Sewing Machines 1 Other Uses 5 Total 100 The many specific uses for white oak are illus- trated by the following list of articles in which this wood is used in the factories of Illinois: COMMERCIAL WOODS Altars (church) Art lamps Axe handles Backgrounds (display windows) Ball racks (pool and billiard? Balusters Barber chairs Barber furniture Bar fixtures Bars (wooden harrows) Baseboards Basket parts Beams (plow) Beds Beds (cot) Beds (folding) Billiard (tables) Binder parts Boat parts (row) Bobsleds Bolsters (heavy vehicles) Bookcases Book racks Bottoms (baggage trucks) Bottoms (delivery wagons) Braces (railway car frames) Brackets Brake beams (heavy vehicles) Brush blocks Buffets (exterior) Bumping posts (railroad) Butter churn bodies Butter churn bottoms Cabinets (dental) Cabinets (filing) Cabinets (music rolls) Cabinets (parlor) Cabinets (phonograph records) Cabinets (toilet) Cabinets (towels) Cabins (boats) Capitals Card tables Cases (medicine) Cases (railroad ticket) Casing Caskets Chair frames Chairs Chairs (adjustable) Chairs (invalid) Chairs (office) Chairs, official (lodge room) Chairs (rolling) Chairs (stenographers) Cheval mirrors Chiffoniers China closets Church pews Cigar wheels (wheel-of- chance) Clay gatherers (machine parts) Cleats (wagon boxes) Coffins Colonnades Columns (porch) Consoles Cores (veneer doors) Corn binders Corn grinders Costumers Couches (folding) Counters (bar) Counters (store) Cradles Cue racks (pool and billiard) Cultivator handles Desks (electric switchboards) Desks (house) Desks (office) Disc drill parts Disc harrow parts Door frames (Ry. box cars) Doors Doubletrees (farm implements) 284 LUMBER AND ITS USES Doubletrees (vehicle) Drags (farm implements) Dressers Dressing tables Drill parts (farm implements) Drum lagging (hoisting engine) Edge-tool handles Electric cars (interior finish) Elevator cages Eveners (farm implements) Felloes File cases Finish (boats) Fixtures (bank) Fixtures (barbershop) Fixtures (display window) Fixtures (laboratory) Fixtures (soda fountain) Fixtures (store and office) Flooring (hardwood) Folding beds Folding screens Frames (couches) Frames (davenports) Frames (dummy carts) Frames (electric cars) Frames (freight cars) Frames (light vehicle bodies) Frames (lounges) Frames (motor boats) Frames (upholstered furniture) Frames (vessels) Frames (window) Furniture Gear woods (light vehicle) Grilles Guitar bodies Hall racks Hammer handles Handles Hand rails (stairwork) Harrows Hatracks Hay baler parts Hayrake parts Horse powers Hounds Hubs (heavy vehicle wheel) Hulls (boats) Hydraulic jacks Interior finish Keels (boats) Keels (motor boats) Keyracks Kitchen cabinets (exterior) Kitchen cupboards Kitchen safes Ladders (gymnasium) Launch parts Lawn swings Leaves (table) Legs (piano) Library cases Lodge furniture Machine handles Mandolin bodies Mantels Manure spreaders Merry-go-round parts Mirror cases Mission furniture Molding (house trimming) Molding (piano) Molding (stairwork) Mug cases (barbershop) Music cabinets Necktie racks Newels Oil well machine frames Organ cases Ornaments (furniture) Outer cases (caskets) Panels (veneered) Paper racks Parallel bars Parlor cabinets (exterior) COMMERCIAL WOODS Parlor rockers Parquetry flooring Passenger cars (frames) Passenger cars (interior finish) Pedestals Pedestals (tables) Pew racks Piano benches Piano cases Piano chairs Piano players (exterior) Piano stools Pick handles Picture moldings Pilasters (piano) Plate racks Plow beams Plow handles Plow rounds Plow parts (gang) Plows Poles (light vehicles) Pool tables Posts (railway car frames) Posts (stairwork) Pulpits (church) Racks (hat and coat) Reaches (heavy vehicles) Reels (electric light wire) Refrigerators Revolving chairs (office) Revolving chairs (parlor cars) Rims (heavy vehicle wheels) Risers (stairwork) Road-scrapers Rocker frames (upholstered furniture) Sand boards Sash Screen doors Seats (water closets) Sections (wheel-scrapers) Seeder parts (farm implements) Serving tables Sewing tables Shanks (cultivators) Shells (drum) Sideboards (built in) Sideboards (exterior) Siding (boats) Sills (threshers) Singletrees (cultivators) Singletrees (vehicle) Sleds (toy) Sofa frames (upholstered furniture) Somnols Spokes (heavy vehicles) Spring bars Spring blocks (Ry. tank cars) Stacker parts (farm machinery) Stands Stands (jardinieres) Stands (lamps) Staves (water tanks) Steps (stairwork) Stringers (railway cars) Subscriber sets (telephone) Sulky plow parts Sweeps (farm machinery) Sweeps (windmills) Switchboards (telephone and telegraph) Tables (cafe) Tables (dining) Tables (extension) Tables (library) Tables (parlor) Tables (typewriter) Tables (writing) Tabourets Tanks (brewery) Tanks (distilling) Tanks (water closets) Telephones Threshing machines Tight cooperage stock 286 LUMBER AND ITS USES Tongues (wheel-scrapers) Tool chests Tool handles Trays (jewelry) Type (cabinets) Typewriter cabinets Umbrella stands Vats (distilling) Vats (oil) Vending machines (matches) Vending machines (peanuts) Vestment cases (church) Wagon boxes Wainscoting Wall cases Wardrobes (exterior) Washstands Water gates Water wheels Well-digging machines Windmill parts Window screens The red oaks are used in the manufacture of ; Agricultural implements Art lamps Back grounds Balusters Barber furniture Barrow boxes Baskets Beds Bentwood Billiard tables Boats Bob sleds Bolsters Bottoms (wagon) Boxes Brackets Brake bars Bucket staves Buggy bows Cabinets Cabin parts Car construction Cars (mine) Car repairing Casing (building) Caskets Chair frames (upholstered furniture) Chairs Chairs (office) Chair stock China closets Church pews Clocks Clothes props Corn shellers Cornices Crating Cultivator handles Decking Disc harrow parts Doors Double doors (farm implements) Drags (farm implements) Dressers Dressing tables Elevator flooring Eveners (farm implements) File cases Fixtures (bank) Fixtures (barber shop) Fixtures (display window) Fixtures (soda fountain) Flooring (hardwood) Flag staffs Folding beds Folding machines Frames (couches) Frames (davenport) Frames (light and heavy vehicle bodies) COMMERCIAL WOODS 287 Frames (upholstered parlor furniture) Furniture Hallracks Hay-loader parts Interior finish Kitchen cabinets (exterior) Laundry appliances Lodge furniture Mantels Manure spreaders Mission furniture Molding (stairwork) Organ (pipe) cases Organ actions Organs Parquetry flooring Patterns Piano benches Piano cases Piano parts Piano stools Piano tops Picture molding Planing mill products Platforms (stairwork) Plow beams Plow handles Plow rounds Plumbers' woodwork Pokes (animal) Porch work Refrigerators Rocker frames (upholstered furniture) Sash Sheathing Showcases Sideboards (built in) Sideboards (exterior work) Signs Sling crossbars Stirrups Sulky plow parts Table legs Tables (extension) Tables (library) Tables (writing) Tabourets Tanks (water closets) Trucks Toys Vehicles Veneer Wainscoting Washstands Woodenware Plow parts (gang) Oregon oak is used on the Pacific Coast in place of both white and red oak from the East, and especially for baskets, boats (frames, inter- ior, finish, keels, ribs, sills), fixtures, furniture (cabinets, chair stock, table tops), handles, interior work, insulator pins, saddles, and wagons. The tanbark oak of California is an import- ant source of tanbark in that State. It has not been much used for lumber so far ; but, with the methods of cutting and seasoning adapted to a 288 LUMBER AND ITS USES hardwood, it will prove useful for many pur- poses. OSAGE ORANGE Osage orange (Toxylon pomiferum) is the heaviest, hardest, and toughest American wood so far tested; but in strength and stiffness it is somewhat surpassed by black locust. It is one of the most durable woods, and fence-posts of it give very long service. Because of the poor form of the tree and its rarity in native condi- tion, except in a rather limited region in Okla- homa and Texas, not much osage orange lumber is produced. The largest use is for wagon fel- loes for service in arid regions. Osage orange is especially adapted to this purpose, because of the very small amount which it shrinks and its great toughness. Such factory uses as are reported for osage orange are summarized in Table 95. TABLE 95 Factory Uses of Osage Orange Purpose Per Cent Vehicles 84 Woodenware and Novelties 9 Car Construction 6 Other Uses 1 Total 100 Osage orange is also used to some extent for canes, clock cases, furniture parts, insulator pins, hubs, inlaid work, and mauls. Bringing in the Logs Unloading Logs at the Mill | Hauling White Cedar Posts in Winter Dinner Time at Camp Good Train Load of Logs TYPICAL LUMBERING SCENES Plate 34 Lumber and Its Uses COMMERCIAL WOODS 289 PERSIMMON The persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) is a member of the ebony family ; and its dark heart- wood resembles ebony in being very heavy, hard, and strong. Persimmon wood is very fine- grained, takes a high polish, and is extremely resistant to wear. For this reason, persimmon finds its largest use in the manufacture of shut- tles, along with dogwood. The process of man- ufacture for the latter is illustrated in Plate 32. The reported uses of persimmon are indicated in Table 96. TABLE 96 Factory Uses of Persimmon Purpose Per Cent Shuttles 82 Boot and Shoe Findings 11 Sporting and Athletic Goods 6 Other Uses 1 Total 100 PINE The pines are found to some extent in almost every forest region, and, in total number of spe- cies, are as numerous as the oaks. They fur- nish nearly half of the annual lumber supply. There are two large groups of pines, as there are two main groups of oaks. These are the white pines and the yellow pines. Aside from the common white pine (Pinus strobus), of which more lumber has so far been manufac- 290 LUMBER AND ITS USES tured than of any other species in the United States, other important members of the white pine family are Western white pine (Pinus monticola), which is most abundant in western Montana and northern Idaho; and sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), of the Sierra region of California and southern Oregon. In the yellow pine group are longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), shortleaf pine (Pinus echi- nata), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and Cuban pine (Pinus heterophylla) , of the South; pitch pine (Pinus rigida), which occurs both north and south in the Eastern States; Norway or red pine (Pinus resinosa), of New England and the Lake States; jack pine (Pinus divaricata), of the Lake States; lodgepole pine (Pinus con- torta), of the Rocky Mountain region; and Western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), from the Black Hills to the Pacific Coast. There are so niany trade names applied to the pines without distinction of species that the reader is often confused. Much of the South- ern pine goes to market simply as yellow pine ; but the loblolly pine of the North Carolina- Vir- ginia district is called " North Carolina pine," while "Georgia pine" is a time-honored term for the longleaf pine of that State. " Arkansas soft pine" is a trade designation for the short- leaf pine of Arkansas. Some of the white pine and Norway pine in the Lake States is sold under the common name of " Northern pine." Western yellow pine is marketed under a variety COMMERCIAL WOODS 291 TABLE 97 Factory Uses of Pine WHITE PINE Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 49 Boxes and Crates 36 Car Construction 2 Matches 2 Rollers, Shade and Map 2 Woodenware, Novelties, etc 1 Caskets and Coffins 1 Other Uses 7 Total 100 SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE Mill Work 75 Boxes and Crates 12 Car Construction . . . . ! 8 Agricultural Implements 1 Other Uses 4 Total 100 SUGAR PINE Mill Work 65 Boxes and Crates 40 Musical Instruments 2 Other Uses 3 Total 100 WESTERN YELLOW PINE Boxes and Crates 51 Mill Work 47 Other Uses 2 Total.. ..100 292 LUMBER AND ITS USES of names; but the most common designation, aside from " California white pine," is simply " Western pine," the term applied in the Mon- tana-Idaho-Washington region. As will be seen from the comparisons in the chapter on properties of wood, the weight, strength, stiffness, and toughness of the pines are as varied as are the numerous species. The white pines are light in weight, soft, even- grained, and easily worked, being in this respect much like the spruces and cedars. Longleaf pine is the heaviest, hardest, strongest, stiffest, and toughest softwood, and, in these properties, ranks ahead of a number of the hardwoods. Between white pine and longleaf pine, the other pines offer almost every gradation in proper- ties. All of the pines are largely in demand for general building purposes. In addition to these, the statistical reports furnish the data summar- ized in Table 97 as to the factory uses of white pine, sugar pine, Western pine, and Southern yellow pine, the latter being made without ref- erence to species. The varied usefulness of the pines is still fur- ther indicated by reports of their consumption in the manufacture of the following articles: WHITE PINE Agricultural implements Automobile bodies Actions (organ) Balusters (porch) Actions (piano) Barrel-starchers (laundry) Actions (piano players) Beehives COMMERCIAL WOODS 293 Bellows (blacksmith) Bellows (reed organs) Blinds Boat parts (row) Bookcases (inside) Bottoms (wagon boxes) Bottoms (water tanks) Boxes Boxes (organ) Boxes (piano) Boxes (yeast) Box snooks Brackets (cornice) Brackets (porch) Brooders (poultry) Buckets Cabin parts (boats) Cabinet work (unexposed) Capitals Cases (beer bottles) Cases (milk bottles) Cases (railroad tickets) Cases (piano parts) Caskets Casting patterns Chests (organ) China cases (inside work) Clocks Coffins Columns (porch) Coops (poultry) Covers (door panels) Cores (tin-clad doors) Cornices Corn shellers Couches (box) Crating Cupolas (foundry) Deadwood (tank towers) Desks (tank towers) Door frames Doors Elevator guide posts Elevator platforms Feed mills Fixtures (barroom) Fixtures (soda fountain) Flooring (motor boats) Foundry flasks Frames (couches) Frames (davenports) Frames (lounges) Freight cars Furniture (inside) Girdles Grain doors Grain elevators Horizontal folding doors Incubators Insulation (Ry. refrigerator cars) Interior finish Keys (piano) Kitchen cabinets Ladders Launch parts Laundry machines (hydraulic) Linings (Ry. box cars) Log-car templates Matches Molding Office fixtures Pails Passenger cars Patterns Pharmaceutical packing Picture frames Planking (boats) Porch columns Portable farm forges Pumps Refrigerators Saddlery cutting boards Sash Shredders Siding 91108 294 LUMBER AND ITS USES Steam-pipe casing Tanks Threshers Tobacco cases Track levels, railroad Traction engines Trunks Tubs Washing machines Water pipes Weighers Windmills Windmill tanks Window frames Windstackers Woodenware NORWAY PINE Agricultural implements Automobile blocking Baskets Bed slats Beehives Boat decking Boat keels Boat planking Boat sheathing Boxes Brackets Candy buckets Ceiling Cornice Cornshellers Crates Derricks Doors Dump cars Extension ladders Fish kits Flasks Flooring Frames Freight cars Furniture Grass seeders Hay presses Interior finish Kegs for cattle powder Ladders Lard buckets Log cars Machine decking Patterns Piano ribs Piano players Porch work Portable farm forges Putty kegs Sash Sawmill frames Separators Shade rollers Signs Silos Swings Templets Threshing machines Wagon beds Wardrobes Windmill platforms Window frames LONGLEAF PINE Awning frames Balusters Baseboards Bases (gasoline engines) Beds (coal wagons) Binder parts Boat decking Bottoms (heavy vehicles) COMMERCIAL WOODS 295 Bottoms (light vehicles) Boxboards (dump carts) Boxboards (wagons) Boxes Box shocks Brackets (cornice) Brackets (interior trimmings) Brackets (porch) Cabinets (dental) Cabinets (jewelry) Cabinets (toilet) Cabinet work Capitals Car sills Cases (china) Cases (medicine) Casing Ceiling Climbing poles (gymnasium) Cold storage rooms Colonnades Columns (porch) Consoles Cores (veneer doors) Cores (veneer panels) Corn husker parts Corn pickers Cotton pickers Covers (water tanks) Cradles (tank cars) Cranes (flooring) Crating Cultivator parts Decking (freight cars) Decks (boats) Derrick beams Disc harrow parts Display racks (rugs) Door frames Doors Doors (railway box cars) Drill boxes (farm implements) Elevator guide posts Elevators Eveners (harrows) Feed mills Finish (boats) Fixtures (laboratory) Fixtures (office, cafe) Flag poles Flasks Flooring Flooring (freight cars) Flooring (railway refrigerator cars) Flooring (scale platforms) Frames (box cars) Frames (motor boat hulls) Frost boxes (windmills) Gears (heavy wagons) Grain elevators Grille work Hand cars Handrails (stairwork) Hayloader parts Hay presses Hayracks Hayrake parts Head blocks (tank cars) Header parts Hydraulic jacks (parts) Ice boxes Interior finish Ladders (extension) Ladders (step) Lawn swings Linings (box cars) Linings (incubator bodies) Mantels Moldings (interior finish) Neck yokes Needle beams (railway oar frames) Newels (stairwork) Ornaments (furniture) Panels (veneered) Passenger cars (frames) Pianos (interior work) 296 LUMBER AND ITS USES Pickets (fence) Picture moldings Platforms (tank towers) Plow parts (gang) Poles (farm implements) Poles (wagons) Posts (stairwork) Pump rods (windmills) Railway motor car parts Railway push cars Refrigerators Risers (stairwork) Road machinery Road tools Roofing (box cars) Screen doors Seats (water closets) Seed-corn driers Seeder boxes (farm implements) Shoveling boards (farm wagons) Sideboards (built in) Side plates (railway freight cars) Siding (box cars) Signboards Signs (advertising) Sills (railway cars) Silos Skids (engine) Slats (railway cattle cars) Stacker parts (farm machinery) Steps (stairwork) Stringers (railway cars) Sulky plow parts Sweeps (feed mills) Sweeps (water tanks) Tackle blocks Tanks (acid) Tent poles Threshing machines Tobacco cases Tongues (binders) Tongues (cotton planters) Tongues (manure spreaders) Tongues (plows and cultivators) Tongues (wagons) Wagon dumps Wainscoting Washing machines (hand) Washing machines (hydraulic) Well-digging machines Window frames Windmills LOBLOLLY PINE Agricultural implements Balusters Baseboards Basket Bottoms Blinds Boat construction Boxes Boxes (coffee) Boxes (dry goods) Box shocks Cabbage crates Cabinets Car decking Car siding Casing Ceiling Clapboards Coffins Conduits Cornices Crating Cross-arms Decking (freight cars) Doors Door frames Dunnage (freight oars) COMMERCIAL WOODS 297 Excelsior Refrigerators Fixtures Roofers Furniture backs Sample cases Furniture (veneer cores) Sash Flooring Screens (door) Flooring (factory) Screens (window) Flooring (freight car) Siding Grain doors Siding (freight cars) Interior trim (house) Silos Kitchen cabinets Stair rails Ladders Stairways Landing posts Store fronts Lining (freight cars) Tanks Moldings Trunk boxes Newel posts Vehicles Outer cases (casket) Wagon panels Panels (furniture sides) Wardrobes Partition Window frames Pilasters Wire reels Poultry coop (bottoms) Woodenware Western white pine, sugar pine, and much of the Western yellow pine are used for the same general purposes as Eastern white pine. The first two are true white pines, while the sap- wood of the Western yellow pine resembles white pine in several respects. The uses of shortleaf pine are as numerous and diversified as those listed for longleaf and lob- lolly pine. YELLOW POPLAR Yellow poplar (Liriodendron tuUpifera) is a light, soft, fine-grained, easily worked durable wood in many respects much like basswood. It has a wide range of (usefulness; and, in addition to serving in its own proper form, yellow poplar is also much used as a backing for veneer of other woods. 298 LUMBER AND ITS USES The factory uses most largely reported for yellow poplar are indicated in Table 98. TABLE 08 Factory Uses of Yellow Poplar Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 35 Boxes and Crates 24 Furniture and Fixtures 10 Vehicles 7 Musical Instruments 6 Car Construction 5 Bungs and Faucets 3 Agricultural Implements 2 Caskets and Coffins 1 Sewing Machines 1 Woodenware and Novelties 1 Tobacco Boxes 1 Other Uses 4 Total 100 The following list of articles in the manufac- ture of which yellow poplar is used, gives a still better idea of the varied purposes which this wood serves: Actions (piano players) Brush blocks Aeroplanes Carvings Agricultural implements Cabinets Automobiles Car repairing Backs (washboards) Car construction Barber chairs Carpet sweepers Baseboards Cart beds Baskets (fruit) Cases (medicine) Bevel siding Casing Billiard tables Caskets Blinds Ceiling Bookcases Church furniture Bowling alleys China closets (inside) Boxboards (heavy vehicles) Cider mills Boxes (veneer) Cigar boxes Box shocks Churns COMMERCIAL WOODS Coffins Cornice Corn shelters Costumers Crates (fruit and vegetable) Crating Desks (inside) Drawer bottoms (furniture) Doors Egg cases Elevators Elevators (corn) Evaporator pan sides Exterior finish Facia Feedcutter tables Fixtures (bank) Fixtures (bar) Fixtures (display windows) Fixtures (laboratory) Fixtures (store and office) Flooring Flour mills (machinery parts) Frames (couches) Frames (davenports) Frames (lounges) Frames (organ interior) Frames (upholstered furni- ture) Furniture (inside) Goldleaf work Guitar bodies Guitar necks Handles Header parts Hoppers Interior finish Ironing-boards Keels (boats) Ladders Laundry machines (hand) Laundry machines (hydrau- lic Lawn swings Lodge furniture Mandolin bodies Mandolin necks Matches Moldings (piano cases) Music cabinets (inside work) Organ parts (interior) Organ pipes Packages (fruit and vege- table) Panels (automobile bodies) Panels (vehicle bodies) Panels (veneered) Passenger cars (interior work) Patterns Pedestals Peels (bakers') Piano parts Picture moldings Pipe organs (interior parts) Pool tables Porch columns Pulpits (church) Pumps Railway motor car parts Refrigerators Rollers (farm machinery) Sash Screen doors Seats (automobile) Seats (buggy) Seats (carriages) Seats (water closets) Seeder boxes (farm imple- ments) Separator sides (threshers) Sewing machine parts Sideboards (built in) Siding (grain grinders) Siding (Ry. refrigerator cars) Siding (wagon beds) Somnols 300 LUMBER AND ITS USES Stacker parts (farm ma- Vane slats (windmill) chinery) Veneer cores (organ cases) Tables (cafe) Veneer cores (piano) Tables (dining) Wardrobes (inside) Tables (kitchen) Washing machines (laundry) Telephones Well machinery Threshing machines Wheel slats (windmill) Troughs (bakers') Window screens Trunks Woodenware Type cabinets Zither bodies REDWOOD Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is a very soft, light, straight-grained softwood of great size and durability. Redwood is the strongest in proportion to its weight of any wood so far tested by the United States Forest Service. While in cross-breaking strength it is surpassed by a number of the stronger softwoods, redwood ranks close to longleaf pine in resistance to end- crushing. Redwood finds its largest use in general build- ing, and especially for siding and shingles, where its great durability is especially desir- T ABLE 09 Factory Uses of Redwood Purpose Per cent Mill Work 78 Pumps and Wood Pipe 7 Tanks and Silos 7 Woodenware and Novelties 3 Boxes and Crates 2 Caskets and Coffins 1 Furniture and Fixtures 1 Other Uses 1 Total 100 COMMERCIAL WOODS 301 able. Redwood is also much used for mill work because of its comparative freedom from swell- ing and shrinking with atmospheric changes, after it is once thoroughly seasoned. The more important factory uses reported for redwood are as indicated in Table 99. Other common uses for redwood are for: Boat finish Molding Caskets Musical instruments Cabinets Patterns Coffins Porch columns Dairymen's supplies Sash Doors Signs Flasks Silos Fixtures Tanks Incubators Windmills Interior finish SASSAFRAS Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras) is a soft hard- wood of medium weight and much durability. The supply of sassafras lumber is not large, but it serves good purposes where available. Nearly all of it goes into various forms of mill work, and a small proportion into furniture and fix- tures. The reports indicate that sassafras is also used to some extent in the manufacture of novel- ties, souvenirs, and woodenware. SPRUCE Like the term " cedar," the word "spruce" covers a number of species both Eastern and Western. Important from the wood-using stand- 302 LUMBER AND ITS USES point are the red spruce (Picea rub ens), which is abundant in New England, and extends south- ward on the mountain ranges as far as North Carolina; black spruce (Picea mariana), which occurs in the northern part of the range of the red spruce and in the Lake States; and white spruce (Picea canadensis), which is the princi- pal spruce of the Lake States. These species are the largest source of wood for paper pulp, and also furnish all the spruce lumber manufac- tured in the East. In the Rocky Mountain region, the spruce which is most manufactured into lumber is Engelmann spruce (Picea engel- manni); while, in the Pacific Northwest, Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) is the chief source of spruce lumber. Of all these species, red spruce and Sitka spruce are by far the most abundant and important. The wood of the spruces is very light in weight, soft, even-grained, and easily worked, even exceeding white pine in this respect. Spruce is stiff and strong in proportion to its weight. One TABLE 100 Factory Uses of Spruce Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 44 Boxes and Crates 42 Musical Instruments 4 Woodenware, Novelties, etc 4 Tanks and Silos 1 Other Uses 4 Total . ..100 COMMERCIAL WOODS of the most exacting demands among the indus- tries is that of wood for piano sounding boards ; and for this purpose spruce has long been the chief supply. Recently spruce has found a new use in the manufacture of aeroplanes. The factory uses reported for spruce without distinction of species are indicated in Table 100. Eastern spruce is credited in the reports with being used in the manufacture of: implements Agricultural Aeroplanes Boats Boat oars Bowling alleys Broom handles Bungs Butter tubs Cable reels and spools Cameras Canoes Car sheathing Crates Doors Elevator platforms Farm machinery Fiber board Fixtures, backing Fixtures, linings Fixtures, office Fixtures, store Flag poles Flooring Furniture (hidden parts) Guitars Hay presses Ice boxes Interior finish Keyboards Ladder sides Mandolins Match cases Moldings Molding flasks Musical instruments Novelties Organ pipes Paddles Patterns Piano backs Piano benches Piano cases Piano ribs Piano sounding-boards Pipe organs Player actions Refrigerators (inside parti- tions) Scaffolding Ships Shiplap Silos Skids Sleds Spars Tables (ironing) Tables (folding) Tanks Tubs Vehicles Woodenware 304 LIMBER AND ITS USES Sitka spruce is used for: Apparatus (playground) Pulleys Balusters (porch) Refrigerator rooms Baskets Refrigerators Blinds Ribs (mandolin) Boxes Ribs (piano) Breadboards Rims (guitar) Brooders (poultry) Sash Caskets Scale parts Cornice brackets Siding (wagon beds) Decking (boats) Sounding-boards Door frames Sounding-boards (guitar) Doors Spars (boats) Furniture Store fronts Fixtures Trunks Ironing boards Washboards Ladders Wheel slats (windmill) Organ parts Windmill parts Organ pipes Window frames Porchwork Woodenware SYCAMORE Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) is a tough, strong wood, difficult to split. It has a beauti- ful figure when quarter-sawed, and would find TABLE 101 Factory Uses of Sycamore Purpose Per Cent Boxes and Crates 64 Furniture and Fixtures 12 Mill Work 7 Butchers' Blocks 6 Woodenware and Novelties 2 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 1 Musical Instruments 1 Agricultural Implements 1 Brooms and Carpet-Sweepers 1 Other Uses 5 Total . ..100 COMMERCIAL WOODS 305 a much larger use were not the supply so lim- ited. The chief uses reported for sycamore are indi- cated in Table 101. Sycamore is used to some extent in the manu- facture of: Barber poles Handles Barrels (veneer) Hoppers (fruit and vegetable) Basket parts Horses (merry-go-round) Baskets (fruit) Ice boxes Baskets (vegetable) Interior finish Beds (folding) Mandolin boxes Boat parts (row) Meat blocks Boxes Merry-go-round parts Box shooks Packages (fruit and vege- Brush blocks table) Butcher blocks Panels Cabinet work Piano backs Cigar boxes Picture mouldings Cooperage stock Refrigerators Crating Tobacco boxes Doors Trunks Fixtures (office) Vehicle bodies Flooring Veneer cases (piano) Furniture Washing machines Guitar bodies TAMARACK With the exception of longleaf pine, tamarack (Larix laricina) is the heaviest and one of the strongest and toughest softwoods. It is rated among the more durable woods, and finds its largest use for general building purposes, and especially for heavy timbers. Lumber from Eastern tamarack is manufac- tured chiefly in the Lake States ; while the West- ern tamarack, or larch (Larix occidentalis), is 306 LUMBER AND ITS USES produced chiefly in the region known as fee "Inland Empire" a section of common com- mercial interests comprising western Montana, northern Idaho, and eastern Washington. Larch is a close-grained, heavy softwood of moderate strength and stiffness. The government reports indicate that the fac- tory uses for tamarack and larch, without dis- tinction as to species, are as shown in Table 102. TABLE 102 Factory Uses of Tamarack Purpose Per Cent Mill Work 77 Tanks and Silos 8 Boxes and Crates 6 Paving and Conduits 4 Car Construction 1 Other Uses 4 Total 100 Eastern tamarack is used to a greater or less extent for: Car construction Molding Boat floors Pails Boat keels Refrigerators Boat stringers Ship knees Boxes Silos Ceiling Tanks Crating Tuhs Culm pipe (mines) Water pipes Excelsior Windmills Flooring Woodwool Interior finish Western tamarack or larch is used for general building purposes, interior finish, boat frames, COMMERCIAL WOODS 807 keels, ribs, planking, and decking, door and win- dow casing, fruit and butter boxes, etc. TUPELO Tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) is one of the softer hardwoods of medium weight, close-grained and difficult to split, but with very good working qual- ities. It grows chiefly in the cypress regions, and is manufactured and graded by the same interests as cypress. Only recently has tupelo come into general notice, but its progress has been rapid, as will be seen from its present fac- tory uses as indicated in Table 103. TABLE 103 Factory Uses of Tupelo Purpose Per Cent Boxes and Crates 58 Mill Work 13 Tobacco Boxes 8 Woodenware and Novelties 4 Sewing Machines 3 Laundry Appliances 3 Furniture 3 Agricultural Implements 1 Other Uses 7 Total 100 More detailed uses of tupelo include : Axles Cigar boxes Balusters Clothespins Baskets Coffins Berry cups Crating Boxes Chairs Brushes Excelsior Cabinets Felloes Ceiling Flooring 308 LUMBER AND ITS USES Furniture Panels (carriage) Hoppers Spokes Hubs Table legs Interior finish Tobacco boxes Kitchen safes Trunks Lard dishes Wagon bottoms Laundry appliances Wagon tongues Molding Washboards Musical instruments Woodenware Ox yokes BLACK WALNUT The properties of black walnut (Juglans nigra) are too well known to need detailed mention. Black walnut is valued for its rich color, fine figure, and susceptibility to high polish. The most prized effects are produced by the careful manufacture of veneer from the burls and ap- parent deformities of the tree; and raw mate- rial of this character is so valuable as to be sold by the pound instead of the ordinary method of measurement. TABLE 104 Factory Uses of Black Walnut Purpose Per Cent Sewing Machines 33 Musical instruments 21 Mill Work ,. . 19 Furniture and Fixtures 10 Firearms 7 Caskets and Coffins 2 Electrical Machinery and Apparatus 2 Vehicles 2 Car Construction 1 Other Uses 3 Total . . . ..100 COMMERCIAL WOODS Considerable of the best black walnut is ex- ported to Europe in log form. The factory uses reported for walnut in the United States are in the proportions indicated in Table 104. Black walnut enters more or less into the manufacture of these articles: Air-gun stocks Altars Automobile bodies Barber chairs Benches Billiard cues Bookcases Brush backs Bureaus Cabinet work Canes Card tables Carpet-sweepers Carvings Case work Caskets Chairs Chair legs China closets Chiffoniers Clock cases Coffins Couches (legs) Doors Electrical appliances (bases) Embalming boards Fixtures (exterior parts) Fixtures, office Fixtures, store Fretwood Furniture Gunstocks Handles Inlaid work Interior finish Machine boxes Molding Novelties Organ cases Panels (veneered) Parquetry flooring Patterns Pianos Piano actions Piano benches Piano cases Piano players Picture frames Pipe organs Sash Sewing machines Show cases Sideboards Side tables Steering wheels Stools Tables Tool boxes Umbrella handles Vehicles Windshields (automobile) Woodenware WILLOW The wood of the willows which attain tree size 310 LUMBER AND ITS USES is very light and soft, and, while neither stiff nor strong, is tougher than many heavier woods. Willow lumber is nearly all made from black willow (Salix nigra), and finds its largest use in the manufacture of boxes and crates. In bolt form, where abundant, willow is an important source of material for the manufacture of ex- celsior. Willow is also used in the manufacture of baseball bats, boats, furniture shelving, wagon beds, and artificial limbs. YUCCA In the Southwest, especially in Southern Cal- ifornia, the yucca (Yucca arbor escens) attains real tree dimensions, although this plant would not ordinarily be considered a tree at all. It appears that the equivalent of nearly 200,000 feet of lumber is annually manufactured from yucca. The wood is very light in weight, fibrous, tough, and, when wet, pliable and easily molded into desired forms. Yucca finds its largest use in the manufacture of woodenware and novelties; but a consider- able quantity is also used in mill work in Cali- fornia, and, in that State, it is used very much more than any other material in the manufacture of artificial limbs, jackets, surgeon 's splints, and corsets. MINOR SPECIES OF NATIVE WOODS A few of the numerous other native woods used to a small extent include the following: COMMERCIAL WOODS 311 Ailanthus, mountain ash, and silver bell, for boxes and crates; blue beech, catalpa, and china tree, for vehicle parts; catalpa, china tree, kalmia, haw, mesquite, mul- berry, and sumac, for furniture; manzanita, mountain lilac, mountain mahogany, and orange, for novelties; mulberry, silver bell, and witch-hazel, for millwork. Since there are more than 500 tree species in the United States, it is obvious that, so far as numbers are concerned, only a few of them are mentioned in the foregoing pages. No species, however, has been omitted which is a consider- able source of lumber supply or of much im- portance in general commerce. Many of the unmentioned woods are used in a small or local way for a large number of purposes, among which are novelties, turnery, etc. FOREIGN WOODS In the aggregate, the equivalent of about 100 million board feet of the more costly woods is used annually in the factories of the United States, principally for the manufacture of fur- niture and for the finer, more expensive mill work, as well as for various decorative purposes. The total quantity of each of these woods im- ported is divided among the various industries in about the proportions which are indicated in Table 105. The only important foreign wood omitted from this table is Spanish cedar, of which about 30 million feet is imported annually and practically all used in the manufacture of cigar boxes. 312 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 105 Factory Uses of Imported Woods TURKISH BOXWOOD Purpose Per Cent Whips, Canes, and Umbrellas 88 Firearms 6 Shuttles, Spools, and Bobbins 5 Other Uses 1 Total 100 WEST INDIAN BOXWOOD Professional and Scientific Instruments. ... 75 Shuttles, Spools and Bobbins 12 Musical Instruments 8 Handles 4 Other Uses 1 Total 100 COCOBOLA Handles 75 Professional and Scientific Instruments.... 23 Other Uses 2 Total 100 EBONY Whips, Canes, and Umbrellas 37 Sporting and Athletic Goods 36 Musical Instruments 11 Mill Work 9 Brushes 2 Tobacco Pipes 2 Furniture 1 Other Uses 2 Total . ...100 COMMERCIAL WOODS 313 LIGNUM VITAE Furniture 62 Sporting and Athletic Goods 25 Pulleys and Conveyors 8 Professional and Scientific Instruments 4 Other Uses 1 Total 100 MAHOGANY Furniture and Fixtures 47 Musical Instruments 17 Mill Work 14 Car Construction 12 Caskets and Coffins 3 Ship and Boat Building 2 Vehicles 1 Other Uses 4 Total 100 PADOUK Car Construction 52 Mill Work 24 Furniture and Fixtures 23 Other Uses 1 Total 100 PRIMA VERA Furniture and Fixtures 52 Mill Work 32 Ship and Boat Building 8 Car Construction 7 Other Uses 1 Total . 100 314 LUMBER AND ITS USES ROSEWOOD Purpose Per Cent Professional and Scientific Instruments.... 46 Furniture and Fixtures 14 Musical Instruments 10 Car Construction 8 Sporting and Athletic Goods i Handles 3 Brushes 3 Bungs and Faucets 2 Artificial Limbs 2 Mill Work 1 Carpet-Sweepers 1 Other Uses 6 Total 100 SATINWOOD Mill Work 50 Furniture and Fixtures 34 Musical Instruments 7 Caskets and Coffins 7 Other Uses 2 Total . . . 100 TEAK Ship and Boat Building 83 Mill Work 12 Car Construction 3 Sporting and Athletic Goods 1 Other Uses 1 Total . ..100 COMMERCIAL WOODS 315 CIRCASSIAN WALNUT Mill Work 43 Furniture and Fixtures 32 Musical Instruments 15 Firearms 3 Ship and Boat Building 1 Sporting and Athletic Goods 1 Carpet-Sweepers 1 Other Uses 4 Total 100 In addition to the foregoing, there are annu- ally used on the Pacific Coast several million feet of foreign hardwoods, among the more im- portant of which are Japanese oak and birch, Siberian oak, Philippine mahogany and other species, and Australian eucalyptus. Small quan- tities of many other foreign woods are also used for a variety of purposes. Under normal conditions, considerable pine lumber manufactured in northern Mexico is shipped across the border, while a large amount of Canadian white pine is marketed in the United States. FOREST PRODUCTS nMHE annual wood consumption in the United States takes from our forests approximately 23 billion cubic feet of wood, allowing for the waste which occurs in logging and milling operations. In round num- bers, we use yearly 100 million cords of fire- wood, 45 billion feet of lumber, nearly 15 billion shingles, over a billion posts, poles, and fence rails, 140 million cross-ties, over 2 billion staves, more than 150 million sets of heading, nearly 400 million barrel hoops, 3 million cords of domestic pulpwood, 165 million cubic feet of round mine timbers, over 1,200,000 cords of wood for distillation and more than 1,000,000 cords of tanbark. LUMBER The manufacture of lumber constitutes by far the largest single use of the forest. Big and little, there are nearly 50,000 sawmills in the United States. The making of lumber and tim- ber products gives employment to more labor than any other industry in the country; while, in the point of capital invested and value of output, the manufacture of these products ranks third in our great industries surpassed only by meat packing and the foundry and machine shop industries. According to the Census of 1910, which was 316 FOBEST PRODUCTS aiv by far the best canvass ever made of the indus- try, the total lumber production in 1909 was 44,509,761,000 board feet, by 48,112 mills. Arranged in the rank of production, the output of the States which cut over one billion feet each, and the number of mills in operation, were as indicated in Table 106. TABLE 106 Number and Output of Sawmills in the United States (Census of 1910) No. of Million States Sawmills Board Feet Washington 1,143 3,863 Louisiana 658 3,552 Mississippi 1,795 2,573 North Carolina 3,307 2,178 Arkansas 2,060 2,111 Virginia 3,511 2,102 Texas 719 2,099 Wisconsin 1,251 2,025 Oregon 696 1,899 Michigan 1,323 1,890 Alabama 2,188 1,691 Minnesota 745 1,562 West Virginia 1,524 1,473 Pennsylvania 3,054 1,463 Georgia 2,083 1,342 Tennessee 2,643 1,224 Florida 491 1,202 California 305 1,144 Maine 1,243 1,112 Other States 7,383 8,005 Total 48,112 44,510 As nearly as can be estimated, the present annual lumber cut from the leading species of timber, and the States in which each is chiefly manufactured are indicated in Table 107. 318 LUMBER AND ITS USES TABLE 107 Annnal Lumber Production in the United States a Species Yellow Pine Million Per Bd. Ft. Cent 16,000 35.9 Douglas Fir ...... 6,000 13.6 Oak ............. 4,400 9.9 Northern Pine 3,000 6.7 Eastern Hemlock . . 2,500 5.6 ^Western Yellow Pine Maple 1,4 0< 1,200 3.1 2.7 Eastern Spruce . . . 1,100 2.5 Cypress 1,100 2.5 Yellow Poplar 800 1.8 Red Gum 800 1.8 650 1.4 525 1.2 Beech 475 1.1 Birch 425 1.0 ^' Western White Pine Basswood Cottonwood 400 375 350 .9 .8 .8 Elm 326 .7 Western Larch .... 300 .7 Western Spruce. . . 300 .7 Western Hemlock . . 300 .7 Hickory 300 .7 Ash 276 .6 Western Cedar.... 250 .6 P^ White Fir Sugar Pine Tamarack 140 140 140 125 .3 ' .3 .3 .3 Eastern Cedar 125 .3 Balsam Fir 100 .2 Sycamore 65 .1 Walnut 45 .1 Most Largely Produced in La., Miss., Tex., N. C., Ala., Ark., Va., Fla., Ga., S. C. Wash., Ore., Cal. W. Va., Tenn., Ky., Va., Ark., Ohio Minn., Wis., Me., N. H., Mich. Wis., Mich., Pa., W. Va. Cal., Ida., Wash., Ore. Mich., Wis., Pa., N. Y. Me., W. Va., N. H., Vt. La., Fla., Ga., Ark. W. Va., Tenn., Ky., Va. f N. C. Ark., Miss., Tenn., La. W.Va., Pa., Va., Conn., N.C. California Mich., Ind., Pa., Ohio, N. Y., W. Va. Wis., Mich., Me., Vt., N. Y. Ida., Wash., Mont. Wis., Mich., W. Va., N. Y. Miss., Ark., La., Mo. Mich., Wis., Ohio, Ind., Mo. Mont., Ida., Wash. Wash., Ore., Col. Wash., Ore., Ida. Ark., Tenn., Ky., Ohio, Ind. Ohio, Ark., Ind., Tenn., Wis. Wash., Ida., Ore., Cal. Cal., Ore., Ida. California La., N. C., Ala., Va. Minn., Wis., Mich. Tenn., Va., Mich., Ala. Me., Minn., Vt., Mich. Mo., Ind., Ark., Tenn. Ohio, Ind., Ky., 111., Mo. FOREST PRODUCTS 319 Cherry Buckeye Willow Noble Fir Magnolia Locust Red Fir Butternut Cucumber Dogwood Red Alder Persimmon Hackberry Alpine Fir Silverbell Other Woods. . .2 W. Va., Penn., N. Y., Ohio Tenn., W. Va., N. C., Ky. Mississippi Oregon Louisiana Va., Penn., N. C. California Tex., Ind., Wis. W. Va., Va. Tenn., N. C. Ore., Wash. Tenn., Miss., Ark. 111., Mo., Ind., La. Rocky Mt. region Total 44,550 100 The quantity of lumber produced in the four leading regions since 1850 is shown graphically in Fig. 12 (page 320). VENEEE The manufacture of veneer has developed greatly in the last few years, and will undoubt- edly increase in the future, since the uses for thin lumber of this sort are rapidly expanding. While much high-class veneer is used for furni- ture, musical instruments, etc., there is a grow- ing demand for heavy veneer for the manufac- ture of boxes, crates, cases, drawer bottoms and the like. This explains the large amount of veneer made from such woods as yellow pine and cottonwood. According to government reports, the amount of native timber used for veneer in the United States in 1910 was as indi- cated in Table 108. 320 LUMBER AND ITS USES /* 17 16 15 14 8" i: A rc Mi NC LA JO art TAL LVflBL SINCE 18 :IFIC STATES R7HEA5TERN HE 3TATE3 JTHERN 37A iER STATES TOTAL -R CUT BILLION* STATES 2 7^" 39.0 TES 250 <f/T7 / / / / 1J30 / 1 i '/' IQ s: ! 1 I *) S /" \ 4 ' y 1 ^ / / \J J 4 nf V, a O .- ... J v **" - F-- T^. 52 * / \_ / / / r / S. il '"' / / ' <> ' W**" ^ i- *-. ., / ^ ^ **' . ^ >^ \50 i860 I&70 JSSO J970 J100 /f 10 Fig. 12. Chart Showing Amount of Lumber Cut in the Various Sections of the United States since 1850 ; SHINGLES Closely connected with lumber production is that of shingle manufacture. The Census of 1910 reported the shingle output to be as shown in Table 109. Bales of Cedar Shavings from Shingle Mill Norway Pine and Paper Bird Veneered Door of Curly Birch Inlaid with White Holly and Black Walnut Plate 36 Lumber and Its Uses TAJBLE 10& Wood Used for Veneer in the United States (Census of 1910) M. Feet Species (Log Scale) Red Gum 158,157 Yellow Pine 40,324 Maple 39,812 Yellow Poplar 33,812 Cottonwood 33,149 White Oak 33,005 Birch 27,623 Tupelo 26,548 Elm 17,272 Basswood 11,003 Beech 10,550 Red Oak 9,769 Spruce 6,271 Walnut 2,724 Sycamore 2,548 Ash 2,356 Douglas Fir 2,006 Chestnut 1,736 All Others 2,611 Total 460,495 TABLE 109 Production of Shingles in the United States (Census of 1910) Shingles Species (Millions) Cedar (Chiefly Western) 10,964 Cypress 1,387 Yellow Pine 1,294 Redwood 507 White Pine 283 Spruce 147 Chestnut 92 Hemlock 76 Western Pine 69 Other . 90 Total 14,1 321 322 LUMBER AND ITS USES OTHER PRODUCTS Cross-ties are cut chiefly from oak, yellow pine, Douglas fir, cedar, chestnut, cypress, tamarack, hemlock, Western pine, and redwood, in the order named, with 70 per cent of the total supplied by oak, yellow pine, and Douglas fir. Spruce, hemlock, and poplar form the leading pulpwoods. Slack barrel staves and heads are chiefly made from red gum, yellow pine, beech, elm, and maple; hoops, from elm; tight barrel staves and heads, from white oak. Two-thirds of the telephone and electric poles are of cedar, and the rest chiefly chestnut, oak, pine, and cypress. Wood alcohol is made by the destruc- tive distillation of birch, beech, and maple ; tur- pentine and rosin, by tapping longleaf pine trees and the distillation of the wood; and tannin is obtained from hemlock and oak bark and chest- nut wood. THE TIMBER SUPPLY FOREST REGIONS BOTANISTS and foresters subdivide the United States into five great forest " regions" characterized by fairly definite forest types. These are the Northern, Central, Southern, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific regions. The Northern Forest. The Northern forest type extends from Maine across New England, New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin, to west- ern Minnesota, with a prolongation down the southern Appalachians to the northern edge of Georgia. Originally the coniferous type pre- dominated in the Northern forests, and by far the most important species was white pine. Next to white pine, ranked hemlock, which was especially abundant in Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin; and associated with these spe- cies was Norway pine, spruce, cedar, balsam, and a large variety of hardwoods, the most important of which were maple, birch, bass- wood, beech, ash, and elm. The Southern Forest. Starting in New Jer- sey, and extending to the south and west over practically all of the Atlantic and Gulf States to Texas, with a prolongation up from Texas across Arkansas to Southern Missouri, is the Southern type of forest, in which the yellow pines predominate, with longleaf pine the most 323 324 LUMBER AND ITS USES abundant of any single species. In many local- ities within the pine belt, hardwoods are plenti- ful, especially the gums; while in the swampier regions, and particularly in Louisiana and Florida, large quantities of cypress are found. The Hardwood Forest. Lying between the Northern and Southern Forest, and reaching from the Atlantic seaboard to the Missouri river, is a great, irregular region in which the hardwoods abound to the exclusion of other species. It was here that the oaks, elms, hick- ories, walnut, yellow poplar, sycamore and other hardwoods were originally most abundant and attained their finest development. It is here, also, that the clearing of forests for agri- cultural development has gone the farthest, since hardwoods are generally found upon the richest types of agricultural soils. However, the farm woodlots and many areas of larger size in this region still yield much timber for local use, and considerable for shipment to more distant markets. The Rocky Mountain Forest. Passing over the vast forestless area of the prairies and plains, we come to the Rocky Mountain region, with coniferous forests on most of its higher mountain slopes and plateaus. The bulk of the timber in these forests consists of Western yellow pine, with other pines, firs, and spruces, and in the northern Rocky Mountain region considerable quantities of larch, Western hem- lock, cedar, and Western white pine. THE TIMBER SUPPLY 325 The Pacific Forest. On the Pacific Coast are found the heaviest stands of timber, and the largest individual trees ever recorded in history or revealed by geological strata. From the sum- mits of the Cascades to the Pacific ocean in Oregon and Washington, and on the Coast range and the Sierras of California, are giant firs, cedars, spruces, redwoods, and pines, which for many years to come will be the most important source of timber supply for a large portion of the United States. The forest regions are outlined in Plate 37. AREA AND STAND The best estimates indicate that the forest areas, and the quantity of standing timber available according to present standards of util- ization, within these five regions, are not less than the amounts shown in Table 110. TABLE 110 Forest Areas and Quantity of Standing Timber in the United States Area Stumpage (Million (Billion Forest Regions Acres) Feet) Northern 9Q __ Southern 150 630 Central 130 Rocky Mountain 100 300 Pacific 80 1,300 Total 650 2,800 As nearly as can be estimated on the basis of present knowledge, our 2,800 billion feet of 326 LUMBER AND ITS USES standing timber is divided among the various species as indicated in Table 111. TABLE 111 Quantity of Standing Timber of Various Species Species Billion Feet Douglas Fir 650 Western Pine 475 Southern Pine f 375 Western Hemlock 150 Redwood 100 Western Cedar 75 . Sugar Pine 60 Othern Western Softwoods 85 Cypress 40 Other Eastern Softwoods 190 Hardwoods 600 Total 2,800 FOEEST OWNERSHIP Three main types of ownership hold our 550 million acres of forest land. These are public forests, farm woodlots, and the larger private holdings. Public forests include the State and National Forests and Parks, and timber on the unreserved public domain and on military and Indian reservations. The National Forests aggregate about 160 mil- lion acres, and are chiefly in the Rocky Moun- tain and Pacific States. They were created by the withdrawal of public land from private entry and sale. Within the last few years, however, the National Government has entered upon the policy of purchasing timber lands in the Eastern mountains, where forest growth is considered THE TIMBER SUPPLY 327 necessary for the protection of watersheds at the heads of navigable streams. Under this policy, extensive purchases of forest land (chiefly cut over) are being made in the White Mountains and the southern Appalachians. The principal state forests are in the East. New York has approximately 1,500,000 acres in its State Park. Pennsylvania has something like a million acres in forest reserves; Wiscon- sin, about 400,000 acres; and a few other States, comparatively small forest reservations. The farm woodlots amount to about 190 mil- lion acres. As their name implies, these tracts are chiefly the smaller areas of timber land owned by the fanners in the eastern half of the United States. They average, perhaps, 30 acres in area, and, while not a large source of com- mercial timber supply, are very important for local use. The Census placed the value of their output in 1909 at 195 million dollars. The third type of forest ownership is that of the larger private holdings, amounting to about 200 million acres, and contains at least 75 per cent of the merchantable standing timber in the country. Naturally, these holdings in general contain the best of the standing timber in the United States, since private capital always seeks the best investment. A TIMBER FAMINE? There has been much talk to the effect that a timber famine is impending in the United 328 LUMBER AND ITS USES States. Whether this is true or not depends entirely upon what is meant by the term "famine." If it means that our timber supply will be completely exhausted in 30, 40, 50, or even 100 years, then we can say positively that there will be no timber famine. If, on the other hand, the term means that, compared with pres- ent conditions, our supply of standing timber will be reduced, and the price of lumber higher within the lifetime of men now living, then we can say with equal truthfulness that there will be a timber famine. The question is purely a relative one. Up to the present time, timber of almost every species and grade has been cheap and abundant. In the future, some kinds will be scarcer, and some grades higher priced. On the other hand, there will be a comparatively large supply of the common grades of building lumber for many years, and the competition of other materials will be a strong factor in hold- ing prices to a level which will make most forest products available for a multitude of purposes. Such data as can be secured indicate that the amount of timber now standing in the United States, estimated at 2,800 billion feet, is per- haps one-half the quantity that existed in the country before clearing for settlement and cut- ting for lumber began. Our annual consump- tion of sawed timber products now averages approximately 50 billion feet a year. If the stand is 2,800 billion feet, it furnishes cutting for 56 years at the present rate. As a matter THE TIMBER SUPPLY 329 of fact, however, more than 2,800 billion feet of lumber will be sawed from the present stand of timber. In some regions there will also be no inconsiderable increment through natural repro- duction or growth. Our annual per capita con- sumption of lumber, which has been ranging close to 500 board feet, will eventually drop somewhere near to the German level of only 48 board feet. This will greatly reduce the demand upon our remaining supply of timber, and help make it sufficient for all legitimate needs. These statements do not imply that there should be any lack of effort to protect our forest resources. On the contrary, they require the expenditure of great sums of money and years of patient care to bring them into proper con- dition. The conservation of our natural resources means making the best possible pres- ent use of them, while safeguarding their repro- ductive power for the future. Fortunately, our forest resources are easily reproduceable. The question of forestry is largely one of the best utilization of land surface. Land which will yield the highest return under agriculture will, through economic development, find its use in agriculture. Land which will yield the best return when forested and this includes land chiefly incapable of ordinary forms of cultiva- tionwill ultimately be the source of our tim- ber supply. So far as present knowledge permits the classification, it is believed that our forest area 330 LUMBER AND ITS USES of 550 million acres contains 200 million acres of practically mature timber; 250 million acres partially cut and burned over, on which there is sufficient natural reproduction to insure a fair second growth; and, finally, 100 million acres so severely cut and burned that, unless supple- mented by planting, there will be no succeeding forest of commercial value. Our potential forest area is large enough to supply all the timber of every kind that we need if it is rightly handled. Here is a field which for years to come will afford great opportunity for the activities of both statesmen and forest- ers. Although four-fifths of the present timber supply is privately owned, it is highly probable that 100 years hence the bulk of the timber then existing will be in public forests. Because of the long-time investment required, the hazard involved, and the relatively low interest rate obtained from forestry, private capital is not likely to engage in timber growing on a large scale. This makes it necessary that eventually the National and State Governments shall become the more important timber owners. PERMANENT ADVANTAGES OF WOOD rTlHE clever and persistent advertising given to many substitutes for wood and timber might lead the reader to think that in a few years lumber will be either unnecessary or unobtainable. Wooden sidewalks went out of fashion long ago; wooden buildings and shingle roofs are not permitted in restricted sections of cities ; boxes of paper and fiber are used in place of boxes formerly made of boards; steel passen- ger and freight cars and concrete culverts and bridges are common; while structures of con- crete, brick, or tile are found on the farms, and steel row-boats glide about the pleasure parks. As a matter of fact, wood has been so cheap and abundant in the United States that it has been used for a multitude of temporary purposes, and often for purposes for which other prod- ucts are better suited. Another stage of economic development has now been reached. Wood is taking its place as one of the finer materials, and the coarser uses are being given over to coarser products. This makes it possible to have a relatively larger supply of wood for the purposes for which it is unquestionably the most suitable material. No doubt, also, some of the present use of substi- tutes is a temporary fad, and public favor will 33X 332 LUMBER AND ITS USES eventually return sensibly to the earlier mate- rial. The permanent advantages offered by wood may be summed up as follows: (1) Its general availability. Wood is a natural prod- uct more widely distributed and more easily obtainable than any other structural material which the earth affords. The multiplicity of purposes for which it is used is surprising, even to those best informed upon the subject. A recent study of the wood-using industries of Illinois showed that in the factories of that State white oak is used for 276 distinct purposes; that hard maple has 164 functions in these same factories; that birch is used in the manufacture of 154 different articles ; and that red oak, longleaf pine, red gum, yellow poplar, white pine, and basswood are each used for 100 to 140 different purposes. Moreover, the new uses developed for wood yearly through discovery and invention, offset to some extent the lessened demand because of substi- tutes in other directions. For example, the use of wood block paving is rapidly increasing. (2) Wooden structures can be altered and moved, or built over, more easily and cheaply than can structures of any other material. (3) Wood is very strong for its weight, compared with other structural materials. The average weight of the woods ordinarily used is some 30 pounds per cubic foot; that of iron and steel is 14 to 15 times as much. This is a great advantage in handling. A bar of hickory greatly surpasses in tensile strength a bar of steel of the same weight and length. Similarly, a block of hickory or longleaf pine will sustain a much greater weight in compression than a block of wrought iron of the same height and weight. Indeed, practically any piece of sound, straight-grained, dry wood is stronger than steel, weight for weight. Moreover, wood will sustain a far PERMANENT ADVANTAGES OF WOOD 333 greater distortion of shape than metal, without suffering permanent injury; while, of course, no such distortion can be sustained by either concrete or clay products. (4) Wood is easily worked with common tools, while to work the metals requires special tools and much power and time. Anyone with saw and plane and auger can build a structure of wood; an ironworker is a skilled mechanic whose services come high. (5) Wood is a non-conductor of heat and electricity, as compared with metal; and of moisture, as compared with ordinary concrete and brick. These are points for serious consideration in home building. They also ex- plain why we prefer to sit on wooden seats, work at wooden desks, and eat at wooden tables. (6) Wood does not contract and expand with changes of temperature, while its tendency to shrink and swell with atmospheric conditions can be completely overcome by proper seasoning and painting; hence wood can be made to "stay where it is put." (7) Wood has a varied and beautiful figure with which no other material can hope to compete, for furniture, house trim, and general decorative purposes. It gives a comfortable, homey atmosphere that can be obtained in no other way. (8) Wood offers a combination of strength, tough- ness, and elasticity not possessed by any other material. Imagine, if one can, a base ball bat, a golf club, or an ax handle of anything but wood. No matter how great may be the inroads of substitutes, wood will continue to be an essen- tial component of articles of necessity, of lux- ury, and of sport. We shall always have it with us, and such increase in its cost as may be brought about by natural causes will only serve to make the many intrinsic qualities of wood more highly appreciated. SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT TIMBER THE general public has little idea of our timber supply, and even the manufactur- ers and users of forest products have no conception of the abundance of information that can be obtained simply for the asking. The Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture has for many years collected information upon the forest resources of the United States, and upon the properties and uses of wood, which is freely given to all inquirers. Moreover, the several associations of lumber manufacturers throughout the country freely supply information upon their own particular products. ASSOCIATIONS OF LUMBEE MANUFACTURERS The more important of the associations of lumber manufacturers, together with their head- quarters and the woods with which they deal, are given on page 38. In addition to setting- standards for lumber grades and sizes, these associations are valuable sources of information upon trade customs and the uses of lumber. They are not selling organizations; but an inquiry directed to them will promptly bring 334 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 335 a reply stating where and of whom any given product may be purchased. Several of the asso- ciations conduct extensive advertising cam- paigns to increase the demand for their prod- ucts; and from them the prospective timber user may obtain a great deal of interesting infor- mation put up in attractive form, as well as samples of the various woods, from which their quality and structure may be judged. THE NATIONAL FORESTS The National Forests contain one-fifth of the present timber supply of the United States, and will become increasingly important as time goes on, since they are so managed as to insure a permanent timber crop. All timber which can be cut from the National Forests without impairing watershed protection, or a future crop of timber, is freely offered for sale. The location of these forests is indicated on the map in Plate 38. The magnitude of the government timber holdings, and their potential supply of forest products, are but little appreciated by the general public. Every forest is in charge of local officers, who execute the regulations as to timber cutting, stock grazing, etc., and among whose chief duties is the protection of the tim- ber from fire. The National Forests are divided into six main groups for administrative purposes. Inquiries concerning them may be addressed in each case to the District Forester nearest to the locality 336 LXTMBEE AND ITS USES in question. The district offices are at the fol- lowing points : Missoula, Mont. ; Denver, Colo. ; Albuquerque, N. M.; Ogden, Utah; San Fran- cisco, Cal.; and Portland, Ore. FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY At Madison, Wis., the Forest Service oper- ates, in co-operation with the University of Wisconsin, a large and completely equipped laboratory in which are carried on many inves- tigations and a great deal of research relating to the properties and uses of commercial woods. Without going into details, it can be said that the laboratory is thoroughly equipped with all the machinery and scientific appliances neces- sary to carry on the following lines of investiga- tion, as well as several others: Mechanical Properties of Timber Mechanical tests of timber are highly valuable to engi- neers, manufacturers, and other users of wood, since they enable the man who specifies timber for a partic- ular purpose to know exactly the properties of the material he is dealing with. The first series of mechanical tests is upon small, clear sticks of all the leading species, which gives a reliable basis for the comparison of their strength, weight, and other properties. The second series of tests is upon timbers of the qual- ity and sizes commonly used in bridges and general building construction. The purpose of these tests is to furnish engineers and architects with information which may be safely used in the design of timber structures, and to establish a correct basis for the grading of large timbers according to their mechanical properties. SOURCES OF INFORMATION 337 Another series of tests is upon axles, spokes, cross- arms, poles, and other manufactured articles, for the purpose of demonstrating the fitness of various species and grades of material for these uses. The fourth series of mechanical tests is for the pur- pose of studying the effect of preservative treatments, methods of seasoning, fireproofing, and similar processes, upon the properties of wood. Physical Properties of Timber A knowledge of the physical properties of wood is necessary in a large number of industries, and essential to the investigation of problems relating to the season- ing and preserving of timber. The physical properties of wood which are given especial attention at the Madi- son laboratory include density, shrinkage, heat conduc- tivity, and ability to absorb water and other liquids. The seasoning of timber is probably the most important single step in the transformation of wood into usable form, and much material is annually lost because of poor seasoning methods. It is the purpose of the Serv- ice investigations to assist in the introduction of better methods of seasoning ; and much has been accomplished, especially in the devising of a scientific dry-kiln. Another important line of study is that of the relation of the structure of wood to its physical properties. This is a subject upon which there is far too little information. For example: Two pieces of white oak of apparently like quality, from adjacent trees, were recently received at Madison. So far as could be determined by all ordi- nary means, the two pieces should have been of equal strength; yet, when tested, one piece was found to be twice as strong as the other. There seemed to be no explanation for this peculiar result until sections of the two pieces of wood were put under the microscope, when it was quickly discovered that the fibers of the stronger piece were twice as long as the fibers of the weaker 338 LUMBER AND ITS USES piece. This was a peculiarity of the growth of an indi- vidual tree, just as one boy of a family may be stronger than another, although the two are reared under exactly the same conditions. Wood Preservation The statisticians say that 126,000,000 cubic feet of wood were given preservative treatment in 1912; so there is no need to discuss the importance of a thorough understanding of timber-treating materials and the proc- esses by which they are applied. The work of the Serv- ice laboratory along this line has already been very extensive, and recently it has gone a step further to include a study of methods by which wood may be ren- dered fireproof. Legislation against wood as a building material in cities is becoming so general that it will be completely banished from many places where it is most useful and economical unless a method can be devised of making wood fireproof at reasonable cost. Co-Operation with the Public It is the policy of the Forest Products Laboratory to secure as fully as possible the co-operation of the indus- tries most directly concerned with the problems under investigation. In some cases, where the resulting work is of much value to the co-operating firm, a charge to cover part of the cost is made by the Service; in other cases, where the investigations are of an experimental nature and of general value, the services of the labora- tory are entirely free. At all times, the laboratory fur- nishes, either by letter or through its publications, much useful information upon a wide variety of subjects. The officers in charge of the laboratory are of the highest type of public servants whom it is always a pleasure to meet or to correspond with. Any manufacturer of forest products or consumer of wood who has difficulty of any kind SOURCES OF INFORMATION 339 in the handling of his material, will find it worth while to lay his problems before the Forest Service experts. The chances are that he will get help, and get it promptly. FOREST SERVICE PUBLICATIONS Questions relating to the quantity, kind, and distribution of the timber supply of the United States, to the annual output of lumber and other forest products, to forest planting, to forest management, and to the National Forests, should be directed to the United States Forest Serv- ice, Washington, D. C. Such inquiries always receive prompt and courteous attention. More- over, the following publications of special inter- est to the users of forest products can be obtained from the Government Printing Office at the nominal price mentioned. Eemittance should be made to the Superin- tendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., by postal money order, express order, or New York draft. If currency is sent, it will be at sender's risk. Postage stamps, foreign money, uncertified checks, defaced or smooth coins, will positively not be accepted. Forest Service Bulletins No. 10. Timber. Elementary discussion of characteristics and properties of wood. lOc. 13. Timber Pines of Southern United States. With discussion of structure of their wood. 50c. 340 LUMBER AND ITS USES 17. Check List of Forest Trees of the United States, their Names and Ranges. 15c. 33. Western Hemlock. 30c. 36. Woodsman's Handbook. 25c. 37. Hardy Catalpa. 1, Hardy catalpa in commercial plantations; 2, Diseases of hardy catalpa. 40c. 40. New Method of Turpentine Orcharding. 20c. 41. Seasoning of Timber. 25c. 42. Woodlots. Handbook for owners of woodlands in southern New England. 15c. 50. Cross-Tie Forms and Rail Fastenings. With spe- cial reference to treated timbers. 15c. 58. Red Gum. With discussion of mechanical proper- ties of red gum wood. 15c. 64. Loblolly Pine in Eastern Texas. With special ref- erence to production of cross-ties. 5c. 70. Effect of Moisture upon Strength and Stiffness of Wood. 15c. 73. Grades and Amount of Lumber Sawed from Yel- low Poplar, Yellow Birch, Sugar Maple, and Beech. lOc. 75. California Tanbark Oak. 15c. 78. Wood Preservation in the United States. lOc. 80. Commercial Hickories. 15c. 81. Forests of Alaska. 25c. 82. Protection of Forests from Fire. 15c. 83. Forest Resources of the World. lOc. 84. Preservative Treatment of Poles. 15c. 88. Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir. 15c. 95. Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States. Part I Cedars, Cypresses, and Sequoias. lOc. 99. Uses of commercial woods of United States. Part II Pines. 15c. 104. Principles of Drying Lumber at Atmospheric Pres- sure. With humidity diagram. 5c. 105. Wood Turpentines. 15c. 106. Wood-Using Industries and National Forests of Arkansas. 5c. 107. Preservation of Mine Timbers. lOc. 108. Tests of Structural Timbers. 20c. 115. Mechanical Properties of Western Hemlock. 15c. 116. Possibilities of Western Pines as Sources of Naval Stores. lOc. 117. Forest Fires. lOc. SOURCES OF INFORMATION 341 118. Prolonging Life of Cross-Ties. 15c. 122. Mechanical Properties of Western Larch. lOc. 126. Experiments in Preservative Treatment of Red-Oak and Hard-Maple Cross-Ties. 20c. Forest Service Circulars No. 36. Forest Service, What It Is, and How It Deals with Forest Problems. 5c. 40. Utilization of Tupelo. 5c. 46. Holding Force of Railroad Spikes in Wooden Ties. 5c. 102. Production of Red Cedar for Pencil Wood. 5c. 111. Prolonging Life of Mine Timbers. 5c. 132. Seasoning and Preservative Treatment of Hemlock and Tamarack Cross-Ties. 5c. 136. Seasoning and Preservative Treatment of Arbor Vitae Poles. 5c. 140. What Forestry Has Done. 5c. 141. Wood Paving in the United States. 5c. 142. Tests of Vehicle and Implement Woods. 5c. 146. Experiments with Railway Cross-Ties. 5c. 147. Progress in Chestnut Pole Preservation. 5c. 151. Preservative Treatment of Loblolly Pine Cross- Arms. 5c. 164. Properties and Uses of Southern Pines. 5c. 166. Timber Supply of the United States. 5c. 177. Wooden and Fiber Boxes. 5c. 179. Utilization of California Eucalyptus. 5c. 187. Manufacture and Utilization of Hickory. 5o. 189. Strength Values for Structural Timbers. 5c. 192. Prevention of Sap Stain in Lumber. 5c. 193. Mechanical Properties of Redwood. 5c. 194. Progress Report on Wood-Paving Experiments in Minneapolis. 5c. 200. Absorption of Creosote by Cell Walls of Wood. Forest Products Laboratory Series. 5c. 206. Commercial Creosotes. With special reference to protection of wood from decay. Forest Prod- ucts Laboratory Series. lOc. 210. Yield and Returns of Blue Gum, Eucalyptus, in California. 5c. 211. Greenheart. 5c. 342 LUMBER AND ITS USES 212. Circassian Walnut. 5c. 213. Mechanical Properties of Woods Grown in the United States. Forest Products Laboratory Series. 5c. 214. Tests of Packing Boxes of Various Forms. Forest Products Laboratory Series. 5c. There is no reason why any person who intends to use wood for any purpose may not learn promptly and authoritatively the best wood to use, and where to get it, if he will take the trouble to address a letter to either the United States Forest Service or to the lumber associations mentioned in this book. INDEX Advantages of wood 331 Aeroplanes, Wood used for 223 Agricultural implements, Wood used for 177 Air-drying 76, 78 Alder, Red, Factory uses. . 227 American Society for Test- ing Materials, Struc- tural standards 64 Apple, Factory uses of. . . 227 Artificial limbs, Wood used 223 Ash, Factory uses of 229 Species of 228 Aspen, Species and uses of 231 Associations of lumber manufacturers! 38,334 Athletic goods, Wood used 204 Automobiles, Lumber used 200 Bobbins, Wood used for. . . 195 Boot and shoe findings, Wood used for 192 Borers, Protection from.. 90 Boxes, Wood for 170 Boxwood, West Indian, Factory uses of 312 Breaking strength of wood 16 Bridge timbers, Specifica- tions for 68 Brooms, Lumber used for. 221 Brushes, Wood used for. . 209 Buckeye, Factory uses of. . 241 Building construction, Gen- eral, Wood for 167 Bulletins 224,339 Bungs, Wood used for 206 Burls 71 Butcher blocks, Wood for. 215 Butternut, Factory uses of 242 Balm of Gilead, Uses of. . . Basswood, Factory uses of Beech, Factory uses of Beech flooring, Grading of Bending strength of wood. Birch, Species and uses of Birch flooring, Grading of Black gum, Factory uses of Black walnut, Factory uses Blocks, Paving See Pavements, Block Bluing of timber Boards, Standard sizes of. Boat building, Lumber for 232 232 Canes, Wood used for 220 234 Car construction, Lumber 131 used for 173 16 Carpet-sweepers* Lumber 236 used for 221 131 Case-hardening of timber 81 263 Caskets, Lumber used for 184 308 Catalpa, Factory uses of. . 311 121 Cedar, Spanish 311 Cedar, Species and factory 90 uses of 243 54 Ceiling, Standard Sizes of 46 182 Cells, Wood 10 343 344 INDEX Checks, Defined 71 Cherry, Factory uses of. . 248 Chestnut, Factory uses of. 249 Circassian walnut 315 Clocks, Lumber used for. . 216 Cocobola, Factory uses of 312 Coffins, Lumber used for. 184 Commercial woods 226 Conduits, Lumber for 190, 191 Conveyors, Lumber for. . . 201 Cooperage 322 Cost of building with dif- ferent materials 162 Cost of lumber, see Prices Cottonwood 251 Crack filling 94 Crates, Wood for 170 Creosote as a preserva- tive 85, 92 Creosote block pavement. 126 Creosoting Plants in U. S.. 85 Cross-grains 71 Crushing strength 20, 21 Cucumber, Factory uses of 253 Culls 34, 70 Cypress, Factory uses of. 253 Decay 83, 84 Defects 60, 64, 65 Location of 73 Dense wood, Definition of 73 Diagonal grain 71 Dimension, Sizes of 54, 55 Dogwood, Factory uses of 256 Douglas fir, Defined 67 Factory uses of 256 Grading rules 63 Dowels, Wood used for 210 Driers 94 Drop siding, Sizes of 49 Drying, see Seasoning Durability of woods,,, 83, 92 Ebony, Factory uses of .. 312 Elasticity of woods 23, 24 Electrical machinery and apparatus, Lumber for 208 Elevators, Lumber for 211 Elm 257 Enameling, see Paints Eucalyptus 260 Excelsior, Wood used for. 186 F Factory uses of woods 226 Faucets, Wood used for.. 206 Fence-posts, Economy of treating 91 Figure of wood 9 Fillers, Paste and liquid.. 95 Fillers, Pavement 128 Finish, Sizes of.. 51, 52 Finishes for woodwork, see Paints and stains Finishing floors 97, 134, 140, 143, 144 Fir 261 Firearms, Lumber used for 222 Fireproof ing of wood 150 Fire-retardant paints. . . 153 Impregnating with chem- icals 152, 156 Fire-resistance of wood . . . 147 Flasks, Lumber used for. 205 Floor finishes . . .97, 119, 134, 143, 144, 146 Flooring, Amount needed. . 138 Flooring, Sizes of 44, 137 Floors, Hardwood 130 Douglas fir floors 143 Finishing yellow pine and Douglas fir floors 119,143,144, 146 Laying and finishing 119, 134 INDEX 345 Floors, Hardwood (Cont'd) Maple, beech and birch floors, Sizes for 133 Nailing 131, 134, 139 Oak Floors, Care of 142 Oak floors, Finishing. . . 140 Oak flooring, Grading of 137 Oak flooring, Laying.. 139 Oak flooring, Sizes for.. 137 Pine floors, Finishing. . 118 Foreign woods 311 Foresters, District 336 Forest products 316 Forest areas in U. S 325 Forest ownership 326 Forest regions of U. S. . . 323 Forests, National 326,335 Private 327 State 327 Forest Service of U. S.. .75, 334 Laboratory at Madison, Wis 336 Publications of 339 Furniture and fixtures, Lumber used for 171 Hardwood ( Cont'd ) Shipping weights of ... 59 Standard sizes of 56 Harness, Wood used for. . 212 Heartwood 7 Hemlock 67, 268 Hickory 269 Holly, Factory uses of 271 Honeycombing, Causes of . . 81 Hornbeam, Factory uses of 272 Hygroscopicity 82 Illustrations, see Plates Impact resistance tests... 27 Imported woods 311 Industries using wood, Re- ports on 224 Information, Sources of 224, 334 Insulator pins and brack- ets, Wood used for .. 214 Joints in pavements 128 Grading of lumber 33, 39 Diagrams for 37 Systems of 38 Grading maple, beech, and birch flooring 131 Grading oak flooring 137 Grading structural tim- bers 62,70, 74 Graining 1 9 Grains in wood 71, 95 Hackberry, Uses of 267 Handles, Wood used for. . 178 Hardness of woods 28, 29 Hardwood U Kiln-drying 76, 80 Kitchen cabinets, Lumber used for 185, 186 Knots, Covering 94 Dimensions of 72 Kinds of 65, 72 Laboratory, Forest Service 336 Larch 67,273, 305 Laundry appliances, Lum- ber used for 188 Laurel, Factory uses of... 273 Lengths of hardwood 56 Lignum vitae 313 Linseed oil 9 * 346 INDEX Load tests, Maximum 26 Locust 273 Longleaf pine 66, 290, 294 Lumber, Bulletins 334 Consumption ..167, 316, 328 Cut in various sections. 320 Cut in U. S., Chart of. . 320 Grades of ...33, 39, 131, 137 Manufacturers, Associa- tions of 38, 334 Prices, see Prices Production of . .317, 318, 320 Sizes of 42 Lumbering in U. S. . . .316, 320 Machine construction, Lumber used for 192 Magnolia, Factory uses of 275 Mahogany 313 Maple, Species and factory uses of 276 Maple flooring, Grading . . 131 Matches, Wood used for. . 187 Medullary rays 6 Milling industry 316, 320 Mill products 317, 318, 320 Modulus of elasticity.. 23, 24 Modulus of rupture... 17, 31 Moisture, Effects of 28 Moldings, Lumber for 194 Mountain ash, Factory uses of 311 Mulberry, Factory uses of 311 Musical instruments, Wood used for 180 Nailing flooring . .131, 134, 139 Norway pine 67, 290, 294 Novelties, Wood used for. 175 Oak, Species and factory uses of 280 Oak flooring, Use of 143 Grading and sizes 137 Laying j!39 Uses of grades 138 Oak floors, Care of. ..140, 142 Oil finish for floors 101, 142, 145 Orange wood 311 Oregon ash 231 Osage orange 288 Padouk, Factory uses of . . 313 Painting, see Paints Paints and stains 93 Architectural specifica- tions 103 Enameling 112 Fillers, Paste and liquid. 95 Fire-re tar dant paints . . . 153 Floor finishes ..97, 101, 118, 119, 134, 142 Graining 109 Linseed oil 94 Natural finish for soft- woods 110 Oil finish for floors.. 101, 142 Painting exteriors 104 Painting floors 101 Painting interiors 109 Shellac, Use of ..94, 99, 110 Shingle stains 102, 108 Staining exteriors 107 Staining hardwoods 115 Staining softwoods 111 Stains 95, 102, 108 Varnish finish 96,100,111,113, 141 Wax finish for floors 99, 141 Waxing hardwoods 115 Partition, Sizes of 49 Patterns, Lumber used for 205 INDEX 347 Patterns, Standard 45,47,48, 50 Pavements, Block, in U. S. 121 Essentials 122 Expansion joints 128 Fillers 128 Foundation 128 Specifications for 126 Paving blocks, Wood, see Pavements, Block Paving materials, Lumber used for 190 Persimmon 289 Picture frames, Lumber for 194 Pine, Species and factory uses of 289 Pine floors, Finishing 118 Pipe, Lumber used for 198 Pitch pockets 65, 71 Pitch streak 66 Pith rays 6 Planing mill products 169 Plates, List of 352 Playground equipment 213 Plumbers' woodwork 207 Poles 322 Economy of treating ... 92 Polishing, see Paints Poplar, Yellow 297 Porosity of wood 5 Preservation of wood... 83, 127 Bluing of timber 90 Borers, Protection from. 90 Creosote 86 Creosoting plants 85 Savings effected 91 Prices, Lumber 159 Comparative building costs 162 Mill prices 160 Relative price fluctua- tions of lumber, food, etc 169, 161 Prima vera 313 Printing materials 218 Professional instruments.. 201 Properties of wood 11, 336 Publications, Forest Serv- ice ,339 Pulleys, Lumber used for. 201 Pulpwood 322 Pumps, Lumber used for. . 198 Radford on finishing floors 97 On relative costs 164 Red gum, Factory uses of 264 Red heart 66 Redwood 67, 300 Refrigerators 185 Reports 224, 339 Rings, Annual 6 Rollers for shades and maps 189 Rosewood, Factory uses of 314 Rosin 322 Rot 66, 84 S Saddles, Wood used for. . . 212 Sap gum, Factory uses of. 265 Sapwood 7 Sassafras, Factory uses of 301 Satinwood, Factory uses of 314 Sawmills in U. S 316, 317 Output of, Chart 320 Scientific instruments 201 Seasoning of timber 76 Air-drying and kiln-dry- ing 76 Sewing machines 198, Shakes 66, 70 Shearing strength ..22, 23, 126 Shellac, Uses of ...94, 99, 110 tShingle stains 102,108 Shingles, Paints for 153 Shingles, Manufacture 320, 321 Shipbuilding 182 Shiplap, Standard sizes of 63 348 INDEX Shipping weights 57 Shipworms, Protection from 90 Shoe lasts, Wood used for. 193 Shortleaf pine 66, 290, 297 Shrinkage of wood 32 Shuttles, Wood used for.. 195 Siding, Standard sizes of. . 49 Signs and supplies 217 Silos, Lumber used for 181 Silver bell, Factory uses of 311 Sizes of lumber 42, 44 Of flooring 133, 137 Skewers, Wood used for. . 215 Softwoods 11 Shipping weights of 57, 58 Southern yellow pine 66, 290, 291 Specifications for bridge and trestle timbers 68 For structural tim- bers 62, 68 For wood block paving. 126 Specific gravity. . . 13, 15, 31 Spools, Wood used for 195 Sporting goods 204 Springwood 6 Spruce 67, 301 Stains, see Paints Steaming of lumber 79 Stiffness of wood 23 Strength of wood 9, 14, 19,21, 31, 60 Relation to weight... 18, 19 Of paving blocks 126 Of timbers 60 Structural timbers 60 Bridge and trestle 68 Classification of 64, 74 Grading rules ...62, 70, 74 Sizes of 62, 63 Tests, Forest Service. . . 75 Structure of wood 3 Stumpage in U. S. ...325, 330 Sumac, Factory uses of . . . 311 Summer cutting 79 Summerwood 6 Sycamore, Factory uses of 304 Tables- Aeroplanes, Wood used for 223 Agricultural implements, Wood used for 178 Alder, Red, Uses of 227 Annual wood consump- tion 168 Apple wood, Uses of 228 Artificial limbs, Wood used for 223 Ash, Factory uses of ... 229 Athletic goods, Wood for 205 Automobiles, Lumber for 200 Balm of Gilead, Factory uses of 232 Basswood, Uses of 232 Beech, Factory uses of . 235 Birch, Factory uses of. . 237 Black gum, Uses of 264 Black walnut, Uses of . . . 308 Boat building, Lumber used for 183 Bobbins, Wood used for. 196 Boot and shoe findings, Wood used for 194 Boxes and crates, Lum- ber used for 171 Boxwood, Uses of 312 Brooms, Lumber for 221 Brushes, Wood used for 210 Buckeye, Uses of 241 Bungs, Wood used for. . 207 Butcher blocks, Wood for 216 Butternut, Uses of 242 Canes, Wood used for . . 221 Carpet-sweepers, Lumber used for 221 Car construction, Lum- ber used for 174 INDEX 349 Tables ( Continued ) Caskets, Lumber for 185 Cedar, Factory uses of. . 245 Cherry, Factory uses of. 248 Chestnut, Uses of 250 Circassian walnut, Fac- tory uses of 315 Clocks, Lumber for 217 Cocobola, Uses of 312 Coffins, Lumber used for 185 Conveyors, Lumber for. . 201 Cottonwood, Uses of 251 Crushing strength of woods 20 Cucumber, Uses of 253 Cypress, Factory uses of 254 Dogwood, Uses of 258 Douglas flr, Uses of 257 Dowels, Wood used for. . 211 Ebony, Factory uses of. . 312 Elasticity of woods 24 Electrical apparatus, Lumber for 209 Elevators, Lumber for . . 212 Elm, Factory uses of. ... 258 Eucalyptus, Uses of 261 Excelsior, Wood used for 187 Faucets, Wood used for. 207 Fir, Factory uses of 262 Firearms, Lumber for. . . 222 Flasks, Lumber used for 206 Foreign woods, Uses of. . 312 Furniture, Lumber for. . 172 Hackberry, Uses of 267 Handles, Wood used for 179 Hardness of woods 29 Hardwoods, Sizes of ... 56 Hardwoods, Shipping weights of 59 Harness, Wood used for 213 Hemlock, Uses of 268 Hickory, Factory uses of 270 Holly, Factory uses of. . 272 Hornbeam, Uses of 272 Tables (Continued) Impact resistance tests. 27 Insulator pins and brack- ets, Wood used for 215 Larch, Factory uses of.. 306 Laundry appliances, Lumber used for 189 Laurel, Factory uses of 273 Lignum vitae, Uses of . . . 313 Load tests, Maximum.. 26 Locust, Factory uses of. 274 Lumber cut in U. S 320 Lumber production, An- nual, in U. S 318 Machine construction, Lumber used for 193 Magnolia, Uses of 275 Mahogany, Uses of 313 Maple, Factory uses of. 277 Matches, Wood used for. 188 Modulus of elasticity... 24 Modulus of rupture. . .17, 31 Moldings, Lumber for. . . 195 Musical Instruments, Wood used for 181 Novelties, Wood for 176 Oak, Factory uses of... 282 Osage orange, Uses of . . . 288 Padouk, Factory uses of. 313 Patterns, Lumber for 206 Paving materials, Lum- ber used for 191 Persimmon, Uses of 289 Picture frames, Lumber used for 195 Pine, Factory uses of . . 291 Pipe, Lumber used for.. 199 Playgound equipment, Lumber used for .... 214 Plumbers' woodwork, Lumber used for 208 Poplar, Yellow, Uses of 298 Prices, Mill, of lumber.. 160 Prima vera, Uses of 313 350 INDEX Tables ( Continued ) Printing materials, Lum- ber used for 219 Professional instruments, Wood used for 202 Pulleys, Lumber for 201 Pumps, Lumber for. . . . 199 Ratio of bending strength to weight of woods ... 19 Red gum, Uses of 265 Redwood, Uses of 300 Refrigerators, Lumber for 186 Rollers for shades and maps, Lumber for. . . . 190 Rosewood, Uses of 314 Saddles, Wood used for. 213 Sap gum, Uses of 265 Sassafras, Uses of 301 Satinwood, Uses of 314 Sawmills, Number and output of, in U. S 317 Scientific instruments, Wood used for 202 Sewing machines, Lum- ber used for 198 Shearing strength 22 Shingles, Annual pro- duction of 321 Shipbuilding, Lumber for 183 Shuttles, Wood used for 196 Signs, Lumber for 218 Silos, Lumber used for. . 182 Sizes of lumber 44 Sizes for maple, beech, and birch flooring 133 Skewers, Wood used for 216 Softwoods, Shipping weights of 58 Specific gravity of wood 15, 31 Spools, Wood used for. . 196 Sporting goods, Wood for 205 Spruce, Factory uses of. 302 Standing timber 325, 326 Tables ( Concluded ) Strength of moist wood. 31 Stumpage in U. S 325 Sycamore, Uses of 304 Tamarack, Uses of 306 Tanks, Lumber used for 182 Teak, Factory uses of . . . 314 Timber cut in U. S 320 Timber, Standing. . .325, 326 Tobacco boxes, Lumber used for 197 Tobacco pipes, Wood for 223 Toothpicks, Wood for... 188 Toughness tests 26 Toys, Lumber used for. . 203 Trunks, Lumber used for 192 Tupelo, Factory uses of. 307 Turkish boxwood, Uses of 312 Umbrella sticks, Wood for 221 Valises, Lumber used for 192 Vehicles, Wood used for 175 Veneer, Production of . . . 321 Walnut, Black, Uses of. . 308 Walnut, Circassian, Uses of ' 315 Weighing apparatus, Lumber used for 220 Weight of moist wood. . . 31 Whips, Wood used for. . 221 Willow, Factory uses of. 310 Wood blocks, Longitudi- nal shearing strength. 126 Woodenware, Wood for. . 176 Yucca, Factory uses of. . 310 Tamarack, Defined 67 Species and factory uses of 305 Tannin 322 Tanks, Lumber used for. . 181 Teak, Factory uses of 314 Tensile strength of wood 21 Teredo, Protection from . . 90 Tests 75, 334, 336 Thicknesses of hardwood 56 INDEX 351 Ties, Railroad, Treating.. 91 Weight of wood Timber, Bulletins 334 9, 13, 15, 19, 31, 61 Consumption of. 316, 320, 328 Relation to strength 19 Famine impending? 327 Weights, Shipping 57 Mechanical properties, . . 336 West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Physical properties .... 337 Association, Rules for Preservation of 338 structural timbers 63 Standing 325, 326, 330 Western pine 67, 291, 292 Supply of, in U. S 323 Whips, Wood used for 220 Timbers, Structural, see White lead 94 Structural timbers. White pine 67, 289, 291 Tobacco boxes, Lumber for 197 Willow, Factory uses of. . 309 Tobacco pipes, Wood for. . 223 Winter cutting 79 Toothpicks, Wood used for 187 Wood, Consumption of 167, 316 Toughness of woods 25 Figure of 9 Toys, Lumber used for... 203 Future of 331 Trees, Growth of 6 Mechanical properties.. 336 Trestle timbers, Speciflca- Permanent advantages.. 331 tions for 68 Physical Properties . . 11, 337 Trunks, Lumber used for. 191 Porosity of 5 Tupelo, Factory uses of.. 307 Strength of 9, 19 Turpentine 322 Structure of 3 Substitutes for 331 Useful properties of 12 Umbrella sticks, Wood for 220 Weight of 9, 19 Uses of commercial woods 226 Wood alcohol 322 Uses of lumber, Special... 167 Woodenware, Wood for... 175 Woodlots, Farm 327 v Woods, Classification of.. 5, 11 Valises, Lumber used for. 191 Commercial 226 Varnish, see Paints Foreign, used in U. S... 311 Varnishing floors 141,144 Y Vehicles, Wood used for. . 174 Veneer Manufacture.. 319, 321 Yellow pine floors, Finish for 143, 144 W Yellow Pine Mfrs. Associa- Walnut, Black, Uses of... 308 tion Rules for struc- Walnut Circassian, Uses of 315 tural timbers . . . 62 ^ ne ' 66 Yucca, Factory uses of... 310 Water, Effects of, on wood . 28 2 Wax finish for floors.... 99, 141, 145 Zinc chloride as a preserva- Weighing apparatus, Lum- tive I ber used for 219 Zinc oxide 1 352 INDEX LIST OF PLATES Plate No. Ash, White, Stand of 18 Boxes, spools, etc., of paper birch 33 Cedar posts, Hauling in winter 34 Cedar shavings from shingle mill 36 Creosoted red oak, Section 24 Creosoting by cylinder method 22 Creosoting fence-post butts 25 Creosoting by open-tank method 23, 24 Creosoting plants in U. S. . 21 Cross-sections of trees, showing tissues, medul- lary rays, etc 4, 5 Cross-sections of pine, showing springwood and summerwood 3 Cross-sections of logs, showing rings, heart- wood, and sapwood..2, 3 Cypress shingles from Washington's home... 23 Douglas fir forest 11 Drying rooms in factories. 31 Dry-Kilns, Battery of 19 Factory interiors. 30, 31, 32, 33 Figures of wood 1 Flooring, Yellow pine and oak 28 Floor, Maple, in dance hall 27 Forest products laboratory 39 Forest regions of U. S 37 Handles for paint brushes. 32 Knots 8, 9, 10 Laboratory, Forest prod- ucts, at Madison, Wis. 39 Longleaf pine, Dense stand 12 Plate No. Lumbering scenes 34, 35 Lumbering Western yellow pine in national forest 15 Lumber piles in yard 35 Maple flooring in hall 27 National forests and drain- age systems of U. S. . . 38 Norway pine and paper birch 36 Oak, White, and hickory, Mixed, forest of 17 Old wooden houses 20 Pavement, Creosoted block, Laying 26 Paving block, Creosoted ... 26 Piling destroyed by teredo 24 Piling lumber 35 Pine, White, Second- growth, Stand of 13 Pine logs, White, Load of 14 Pine, Western yellow, Stand of 14 Pitch pocket 10 Pitch streak 10 Railroad tie attacked by fungi 25 Redwoods in California... 16 Sawmill interior, Timber construction 27 Sawmills, Old-time and modern, contrasted. ... 7 Shoe last blocks, Maple... 36 Shuttles, Stages in mak- ing 32 Tests, Forest Service 6, 29 Torch tests showing fire- retarding effects of paint 29 Veneered door 36 Wood, Figures of 1 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below JUL 24 1920 JAN 2 1930 30 MAY 1 7 1935 &UG5 1938 HOV23 193* 1946 41949 APR 4 1983 College i, ro \9 70 c 4* Library UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA AT - LOS ANGELES LIBRARY UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACIL 000953050 2 i