zm
 
 LUMBER 
 AND ITS USES 
 
 BY 
 
 R. S. KELLOGG 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPANY 
 CHICAGO, ILL.
 
 Copyright, 1914 
 by 
 
 R. S. KELLOGG 
 
 Wausau, Wisconsin
 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS 
 USES 
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD 
 
 FEW of either the makers or the users of 
 forest products and this includes all of 
 us have any conception of the real struc- 
 ture of the material with which they deal. The 
 botanist tells one tree from another by differ- 
 ences in foliage, flowers, fruits, and bark; the 
 microscopist, by differences in the structure and 
 arrangement of cells which may be visible only 
 through a high-powered microscope ; the woods- 
 man, by general notions of appearance ; the car- 
 penter, by characteristics of texture and weight 
 learned in the working of wood; and the ordi- 
 nary user, by any combination of these methods 
 that may have impressed him in the course of 
 his experience. While the botanist and the 
 microscopist use scientifically exact means of 
 determining species of trees and kinds of wood, 
 the lumberman, the cabinet-maker, and the man 
 in the street use methods which, while unsci- 
 entific and even impossible to describe, never- 
 theless often suffice for their own particular 
 needs. 
 
 3
 
 4 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Wood is bought, sold, and used with far less 
 knowledge of its composition, strength, stiff- 
 ness, density, and other qualities than is any 
 other substance that enters largely into our daily 
 life. A steel rail is made according to a for- 
 mula prepared by the metallurgist; there are 
 standard mixtures for cement and concrete ; the 
 physical properties of metals and stone are ac- 
 curately known; but even the best grading rules 
 of the manufacturers are only approximations 
 to the actual values of the different classes of 
 lumber. To a large extent this is an unavoidable 
 condition. A tree is not made according to any 
 chemical or mechanical formula. It is the prod- 
 uct of soil, moisture, and sunshine in constantly 
 varying combinations. Buffeted by storms and 
 subjected to extremes of heat and cold, drouth, 
 and flood for a century or more, each year's 
 growth is different from that which precedes or 
 follows; and the resulting mass of wood is a 
 highly complex substance of which we know far 
 too little. 
 
 But the problems of modern construction and 
 utilization demand that our knowledge of wood 
 be increased in scope and accuracy. Therefore 
 the timber-testing engineer, with his ponderous 
 machines, determines the strength, stiffness, and 
 elasticity of beams of a specified size and kind; 
 the timber-treating expert, with cylinders and 
 pressure pumps, finds out the best means of im- 
 pregnating wood with creosote, zinc chloride, 
 and other decay-preventing substances ; the pulp-
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD 5 
 
 maker cooks and grinds different woods to get 
 the best kind of paper; the chemist puts wood 
 into his retort, and gets alcohol, turpentine, 
 acid, and many other products; but all of these 
 problems go back to the fundamental one of the 
 structure of the wood itself. 
 
 Porous and Non-Porous Woods 
 
 The unit of woody structure, as of all vege- 
 table and animal growth, is the cell; and the sci- 
 entific classification of woods is based upon the 
 properties and combinations of these ultimate 
 units. When cross-sections of certain woods 
 are examined, they are seen to contain relatively 
 large, irregularly placed openings called 
 "pores." Other woods, even under the micro- 
 scope, show no such openings. A natural, funda- 
 mental division, therefore, is into " porous " and 
 " non-porous " woods. Of porous woods, the 
 common hardwoods are familiar examples; while 
 the pines, firs, spruces, cedars, etc., are non- 
 porous. Again, the porous woods are divided 
 into two classes according to the arrangement 
 of the pores in the yearly ring of wood. In some 
 woods, very large pores develop early in the sea- 
 son; while only small pores or none at all appear 
 later, so that a cross-section of such a wood 
 shows, even to the naked eye, concentric circles 
 of openings. These woods are called "ring- 
 porous" woods. In other woods, pores of small 
 and approximately equal size are scattered 
 throughout, with little if any discernible group- 
 ing. Such woods are called "diffuse-porous"
 
 6 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 woods. Common ring-porous woods are ash, 
 oak, elm, and hickory. Among the diffuse- 
 porous woods are birch, beech, basswood, maple, 
 and walnut. 
 
 Pith Bays 
 
 In addition to the cells whose length is paral- 
 lel to the trunk of the tree, wood also contains 
 other layers of cells of a different character 
 whose length is at right angles to the trunk of 
 the tree. These cells occur in thin sheets radiat- 
 ing from the bark toward the pith, and form what 
 are called the "pith rays" or "medullary rays" 
 of wood. They are best seen on a quartered 
 section, and are what gives the beautiful, flaky 
 appearance to quartered oak and sycamore. 
 The pith rays are less conspicuous in beech, 
 maple, and birch, and are scarcely or not at all 
 visible to the naked eye in the pines and many 
 other woods. 
 
 Springwood and Summerwood 
 
 When growth begins in the spring, the new 
 cells are large and thin-walled. As the season 
 progresses, smaller and thicker-walled cells are 
 produced, until the last growth of the summer 
 is much denser than the spring growth. It is 
 this contrast between early spring and late 
 summer wood that enables us to distinguish the 
 rings of yearly growth upon a stump or cross- 
 section of a piece of timber. The transition 
 from the large, thin-walled cells of spring to
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD 7 
 
 the small, thick-walled cells of summer may be 
 abrupt, as in the yellow pines, or very gradual, 
 as in the white pines and the firs. In the for- 
 mer, the bands of dense wood are very conspic- 
 uous; in the latter, they are sometimes scarcely 
 visible to the naked eye. Counting these annual 
 rings on the stump affords an easy and practi- 
 cally accurate means of determining the age of 
 our common trees. Trees which grow in warm 
 climates where there are no fixed cycles of 
 growth and inactivity, do not develop annual 
 rings. 
 
 Among the softest, most easily worked woods 
 are white pine, spruce, basswood, and yellow 
 poplar. The first two are non-porous; the last 
 two, diffuse-porous. In all, the transition from 
 springwood to summerwood is very gradual; 
 the cells are thin- walled; and the texture is 
 remarkably uniform. None of these woods, 
 however, has great strength. Hickory and 
 osage orange, two of our strongest native woods, 
 contain such large pores that, at first glance, 
 one might think they were not strong; but 
 closer examination under the microscope shows 
 a multitude of very small, thick-walled cells 
 which are the source of their . remarkable 
 strength. 
 
 Sapwood and Heartwood 
 
 A cross-section of the trunk of a living tree 
 will show on the outside a belt of wood of vary- 
 ing width, in which the vital processes of the
 
 8 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 tree are carried on. Within this belt is a cylin- 
 der of older cells, no longer of importance in 
 the growth of the tree, whose function is chiefly 
 that of a support for the great weight of the 
 crown. The outer belt is called the "sap- 
 wood;" and the inner cylinder, the " heart- 
 wood." The sapwood is light-colored. When 
 tapped, sap flows from it, as in the maples; or 
 resin, as in the pines. As the cells become older, 
 their functions are assumed by newer ones 
 closer to the bark. The living matter of the 
 older cells is gradually changed by deposits of 
 mineral or other matter, generally of darker 
 color, which produce what is called "heart- 
 wood." 
 
 It is the dark, richly colored heart of birch, 
 red gum, black walnut, red cedar, redwood, dog- 
 wood, persimmon, and other trees that yields 
 the beautiful woods for which these species are 
 noted. 
 
 Heartwood develops very early in some spe- 
 cies, like black locust, osage orange, and catalpa, 
 and very slowly in other species. Black wal- 
 nut is likely to reach an age of fifty years before 
 much dark heartwood the valuable portion of 
 the tree is formed. 
 
 The heartwood in some species basswood 
 and hemlock, for example is often not clearly 
 distinguishable from the sapwood, and the older 
 cells seem to retain the ability to transmit sap. 
 That the outer portion of the trunk is the main 
 seat of vital activity, however, is proved by the
 
 THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD 9 
 
 continued growth of trees for many years after 
 they become hollow at the base through decay. 
 Heartwood is generally heavier than sapwood, 
 and fully as strong if equally free from defects. 
 Moreover, it is usually much more resistant to 
 decay. On the other hand, since its cells are 
 more open, sapwood usually absorbs wood pre- 
 servatives better than heartwood. 
 
 The Figure of Wood 
 
 The varying combinations of cells of differ- 
 ent kinds, of springwood and summerwood, of 
 heartwood and sapwood, of slow and rapid 
 growth, of knots, burls, dormant buds, and 
 spiral or " curly" grain, produce the many 
 beautiful and characteristic figures which give 
 wood a unique position as a decorative material. 
 These natural variations are still more accen- 
 tuated by methods of sawing and working, so 
 that the artificer of wood can produce an end- 
 less variety of effects without monotony. 
 
 Weight and Strength 
 
 Other factors being equal, the strength of 
 wood is roughly proportional to the dry weight. 
 Hence heavy, thick-walled cells are stronger 
 than light, thin- walled cells; and summerwood 
 stronger than springwood. Given two pieces 
 of wood of the same kind and equally free from 
 defects, the one which is the heavier and con- 
 tains the larger proportion of summerwood is 
 the stronger. This affords a ready and fairly
 
 10 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 accurate means of selecting certain kinds of 
 timber. Comparisons of the weight and 
 strength of a number of woods are given on 
 page 19. 
 
 What the Microscope Shows 
 
 Cross-sections of four common woods, mag- 
 nified to the same degree, are shown in the 
 illustrations. Since the magnification is the 
 same throughout, the character and size of the 
 cells in these woods are readily compared. Bal- 
 sam fir and longleaf pine are non-porous woods ; 
 birch, diffuse-porous; and oak, ring-porous. In 
 longleaf pine, the transition from spring to 
 summer wood is abrupt, resulting in alternat- 
 ing light and dark bands. In the other woods, 
 the transition is very gradual, and often not 
 conspicuous to the naked eye. Comparing size 
 and thickness of cell walls, it is seen that, for 
 the entire season's growth, the cells of balsam 
 average the largest and thinnest- walled; those 
 of longleaf pine rank next; those of birch next; 
 and that the oak cells are the smallest and 
 thickest-walled. The ragged openings in the 
 longleaf pine are not pores; they are ducts in 
 which the resin forms.
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 
 OF WOOD 
 
 THE physical properties of wood which 
 determine its usefulness, vary with the 
 species, the rate and place of growth, the 
 seasoning condition, and even with individual 
 trees. Two trees are no more exactly alike in 
 either botanical or physical characteristics than 
 are two human beings; hence tabulations pur- 
 porting to compare the weight, strength, stiff- 
 ness, or other properties of various woods can 
 be accepted as true only within rather wide 
 limits, and this caution especially applies to the 
 tables in this chapter. 
 
 Similar variability, however, is found in other 
 construction materials; and the factors of safety 
 allowed for their use are as great as, or greater 
 than, those for wood. 
 
 The commercial terms, " hardwood' ' and 
 "softwood" do not correspond to the physical 
 characteristics of hardness or softness, and are 
 of little real value in this respect. As ordi- 
 narily used, the term "softwood" is given to 
 all trees of the family that the botanists call 
 "coniferous" or "needle-leaved." These are 
 the pines, firs, spruces, hemlocks, cypress, larch, 
 redwood, tamarack, cedars, etc. The term 
 "hardwood" is commonly applied to the spe- 
 cies which botanists call "broad-leaved," rep- 
 resented by the oaks, maples, hickories, elms, 
 11
 
 12 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 ashes, basswood, beech, birches, walnut, etc. 
 The slightest experience with wood shows that 
 these terms give little indication of the physical 
 properties of the species to which they refer. 
 There are hardwoods softer than the so-called 
 softwoods, and softwoods harder than the so- 
 called hardwoods, although as a group the soft- 
 woods average much softer than the hardwoods. 
 Comparisons of this sort may be readily made 
 from the tables given in this chapter. 
 
 Useful Properties of Wood 
 
 The properties of wood most important from 
 the standpoint of the ordinary user are: 
 Weight, strength, stiffness, toughness, hard- 
 ness, and shrinkage. For some purposes, light 
 weight and stiffness are essential where neither 
 great strength nor toughness is required. For 
 other purposes, strength is by far the most 
 important consideration; and for still other 
 uses, hardness is the determining quality. In 
 some places, it makes little difference how much 
 a piece of wood shrinks; in other places, even 
 a little shrinkage will impair the usefulness of 
 the article. Toughness is essential for many 
 purposes, but not at all necessary for other uses. 
 There is, thus, a very wide range in the require- 
 ments of wood users, which is met by a great 
 diversity of species and physical properties. 
 
 The statements in this chapter regarding the 
 physical properties of wood are based upon a 
 series of tests bv the United States Forest Serv-
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 13 
 
 ice to obtain data for the comparison of the 
 more important species. All the figures are 
 derived from tests of small, clear pieces of wood 
 in green condition. Tests of this character 
 afford the best basis for the comparison of 
 various woods; but the figures obtained in this 
 manner do not correspond with the results of 
 tests upon larger-sized material or upon mate- 
 rial in the various stages of seasoning ranging 
 from air-dried to kiln-dried. Neither is it safe 
 to assume that the rank of the several species 
 as to weight, strength, stiffness, toughness, and 
 hardness is exactly as indicated by the tables, 
 since many factors such as growth, situation, 
 length of fiber, etc., influence the properties of 
 a given piece of wood. In a broad sense, how- 
 ever, the figures do have a real comparative 
 value, and they are of especial interest since it 
 is the first time that they have been presented 
 in this fashion. 
 
 Weight 
 
 The weight of wood is usually expressed by 
 a comparison of the weight of a given volume 
 of wood with that of an equal volume of water, 
 or by what is known as "specific gravity." If 
 the specific gravity of a certain kind of wood is 
 stated as .30, it means that a given volume of 
 this wood weighs .30 times as much as an equal 
 volume of water. Since a cubic foot of water 
 weighs 62.5 pounds, a cubic foot of wood of 
 specific gravity .30 weighs .30X62.5=18.75
 
 14 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 pounds. A piece of wood whose specific gravity 
 is .50 weighs .50x62.531.25 pounds per cubic 
 foot. Similarly, the weight per cubic foot of 
 any kind of wood may be quickly ascertained 
 when the specific gravity is known. 
 
 Table 1 gives the specific gravity of a number 
 of hardwoods and softwoods when " oven-dry, " 
 arranged in order from the lightest to the 
 heaviest in each class. By " oven-dry " is meant 
 the condition produced by drying wood at. a 
 temperature of 212 F. (the boiling point of 
 water) until it ceases to lose moisture. 
 
 The average specific gravity of the softwoods 
 is .39; and that of the hardwoods, .53; hence 
 these hardwoods average 36 per cent heavier 
 than the softwoods. Several of the softwoods 
 are lighter than any of the hardwoods; but the 
 heaviest of the softwoods, as larch, shortleaf 
 pine, tamarack, and longleaf pine, are heavier 
 than many hardwoods. On the other hand, 
 Table 1 contains 17 hardwoods which are at 
 least twice, or more than twice, as heavy as the 
 lightest of the softwoods. Any of these woods, 
 of course, is much heavier when green. For 
 example, the weight of thoroughly dried north- 
 ern white cedar is 18 Ibs. per cubic foot, com- 
 pared with 28 Ibs. when green; and that of osage 
 orange, 48 Ibs. per cubic foot, compared with 62 
 Ibs. when green. 
 
 STRENGTH OP WOODS 
 
 It is most important that the users of timber
 
 TABLE 1 
 
 1 
 
 Specific Gravity of Various Woods 
 
 (Test pieces "oven-dry") 
 SOFTWOODS 
 
 Cedar, Northern White. . .29 
 
 Cedar, Western Red 29 
 
 Spruce, Englemann 31 
 
 Fir, Alpine 31 
 
 Spruce, White 32 
 
 Redwood 35 
 
 Fir, White 35 
 
 Pine, Sugar 36 
 
 Pine, White 36 
 
 Cedar, Incense 36 
 
 Pine, Western Yellow. . . .37 
 
 Pine, Lodgepole 37 
 
 Fir, Grand 38 
 
 Average Specific Gravity 
 
 Fir, Amabilis 38 
 
 Hemlock, Eastern 38 
 
 Spruce, Red 38 
 
 Pine, Table Mountain . . .".39 
 
 Douglas Fir 42 
 
 Hemlock, Black 42 
 
 Hemlock, Western 42 
 
 Pine, Norway 44 
 
 Cypress 45 
 
 Larch, Western 46 
 
 Pine, Shortleaf 48 
 
 Tamarack 49 
 
 Pine, Longleaf 53 
 
 of Softwoods 39 
 
 HARDWOODS 
 Buckeye, Yellow 33 Hickory, Nutmeg 56 
 
 Willow, Black 33 
 
 Basswood 34 
 
 Aspen, Largetooth 35 
 
 Butternut 36 
 
 Cherry, Red 36 
 
 Elm, White 43 
 
 Gum, Red 43 
 
 Maple, Silver 44 
 
 Cucumber 44 
 
 Sumac 45 
 
 Sycamore 45 
 
 Ash, Black 47 
 
 Cherry, Black 47 
 
 Elm, Slippery 47 
 
 Tupelo 48 
 
 Hackberry 48 
 
 Ash, Pumpkin 49 
 
 Maple, Red 49 
 
 Ash, Blue 53 
 
 Ash, Green 53 
 
 Beech 54 
 
 Ash, White 55 
 
 Witch Hazel 56 
 
 Maple, Hard 56 
 
 Oak, Tanbark 56 
 
 Oak, Yellow 56 
 
 Oak, Red 57 
 
 Elm, Rock 58 
 
 Oak, Bur 58 
 
 Birch, Sweet 59 
 
 Oak, Post 59 
 
 Oak, White 60 
 
 Laurel, Mountain 62 
 
 Hickory, Bitternut 62 
 
 Hickory, Water 63 
 
 Hickory, Shagbark 63 
 
 Hickory, Big Shellbark. . .63 
 
 Oak, Swamp White 64 
 
 Dogwood 64 
 
 Hickory, Mockernut 65 
 
 Hickory, Pignut 66 
 
 Locust, Black 66 
 
 Locust, Honey 70 
 
 Osage Orange 76 
 
 Birch, Yellow 55 
 
 Average Specific Gravity of Hardwoods 53 
 
 15
 
 16 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 have some idea of the resistance which the com- 
 mon woods offer to cross-breakage, to crushing, 
 and to what is called ''shearing." The cross- 
 breaking strength of a piece of timber is the 
 force which is required to break it when it is 
 supported at the ends and loaded between these 
 points. The crushing strength is the resistance 
 which a stick offers to crushing when loaded as 
 in the case of a railroad tie. The shearing 
 strength is the resistance offered to a force which 
 tends to make the fibers shear or slide past one 
 another. 
 
 Breaking or Bending Strength. The cross- 
 breaking strength of timber is tested in the 
 laboratory by placing a stick on supports at 
 each end, and loading it at a uniform rate until 
 it breaks. Accurate notation is made of the size 
 of the stick; length of span; the amount of de- 
 flection, or the extent to which the stick bends, 
 under various loads ; and the weight which finally 
 breaks it. From this information, several fac- 
 tors are determined one, which best represents 
 the resistance to cross-breakage, being called the 
 " modulus of rupture" and expressed in pounds 
 per square inch. 
 
 The cross-breaking strength of a piece of 
 wood varies directly with the length of the 
 stick, and inversely with the square of the thick- 
 ness; thus, if a weight of 400 pounds breaks a 
 stick 4 feet long, a weight of 200 pounds will 
 break a stick 8 feet long, all other factors being 
 the same. On the other hand, if a weight of
 
 TABLE 2 
 
 Modulus of Rupture of Various Woods 
 
 Test pieces 2 in. square, 28 in. span, of green, clear wood 
 
 Average results 
 
 SOFTWOODS 
 
 Spruce, Englemann. . . 4,200 Cedar, Incense 6,040 
 
 Cedar, Northern White 4,250 Fir, Grand 6,090 
 
 Fir, Alpine 4,450 
 
 Cedar, Western Red. . 4,750 
 
 Pine, Western Yellow. 5,090 
 
 Pine, Lodgepole 5,150 
 
 Spruce, White 5,200 
 
 Pine, Sugar 5,270 
 
 Pine, White 5,310 
 
 Pine, Table Mountain. 5,700 
 
 Spruce, Red 5,710 
 
 Fir, White 5,970 
 
 Hemlock, Black 6,030 
 
 Hemlock, Eastern .... 6,180 
 
 Douglas Fir 6,340 
 
 Pine, Norway 6,430 
 
 Fir, Amabilis 6,570 
 
 Redwood 7,000 
 
 Cypress 7,110 
 
 Tamarack 7,170 
 
 Larch, Western 7,250 
 
 Hemlock, Western . . . 7,290 
 
 Pine, Shortleaf 7,710 
 
 Pine, Longleaf 8,630 
 
 Average Modulus of Rupture of Softwoods. . . .6,040 
 HARDWOODS 
 
 Willow, Black 3,340 
 
 Buckeye, Yellow 4,820 
 
 Basswood 4,860 
 
 Cherry, Red 5,040 
 
 Butternut 5,370 
 
 Maple, Silver 5,820 
 
 Sumac 5,845 
 
 Aspen, Largetooth . . . 5,850 
 
 Ash, Black 6,000 
 
 Hackberry 6,210 
 
 Sycamore 6,300 
 
 Gum, Red 6,450 
 
 Elm, White 6,950 
 
 Oak, Bur 7,180 
 
 Tupelo 7,380 
 
 Oak, Post 7,380 
 
 Cucumber 7,420 
 
 Ash, Pumpkin 7,600 
 
 Elm, Slippery 7,710 
 
 Maple, Red 7,890 
 
 Oak, Red 8,000 
 
 Cherry, Black 8,030 
 
 Oak, Yellow 8,110 
 
 Beech 8,160 
 
 Witch Hazel 8,280 
 
 Laurel, Mountain .... 8,440 
 
 Birch, Sweet 8,590 
 
 Birch, Yellow 8,600 
 
 Dogwood 8,790 
 
 Hickory, Nutmeg 9,060 
 
 Maple, Hard 9,060 
 
 Elm, Rock 9,430 
 
 Ash, Blue 9,650 
 
 Ash, White 9,853 
 
 Oak, Swamp White. . . 9,860 
 
 Ash, Green 10,040 
 
 Hickory, Bitternut 10,280 
 
 Hickory, Big Shellbark.10,490 
 
 Oak, Tanbark 10,710 
 
 Hickory, Water 10,740 
 
 Hickory, Shagbark ...10,870 
 Hickory, Mockernut. . 11,560 
 
 Hickory, Pignut 11,850 
 
 Locust, Honey 12,360 
 
 Osage Orange 13,660 
 
 Locust, Black 13,800 
 
 Oak, White 8,160 
 
 Average Modulus of Rupture of Hardwoods. . .8,350 
 17
 
 18 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 400 pounds breaks a stick 2 inches thick, it will 
 require a weight of 400x2 2 =l,600 pounds to 
 break a stick of the same material 4 inches 
 thick. 
 
 The modulus of rupture for green sticks of 
 clear wood is indicated in Table 2, which gives 
 the average results of tests upon pieces 2 inches 
 square, with a span of 28 inches. It will be 
 noted that the strength of these woods varies 
 much the same as the weights given in Table 1 
 (page 15). There is a very general rule that 
 light wood is weak and heavy wood strong, or 
 that strength is proportional to weight. There 
 are individual exceptions to this rule, but it 
 holds true for most woods. 
 
 The softwoods are not generally so strong as 
 the hardwoods ; but some hardwoods are weaker 
 than some softwoods; and some softwoods, nota- 
 bly longleaf pine, are stronger than many hard- 
 woods. The ratio of bending strength to weight 
 is about the same for hardwoods and softwoods. 
 Dividing the modulus of rupture by the specific 
 gravity (ciphers being dropped) gives the 
 results shown in Table 3. 
 
 It appears that, among the hardwoods, black 
 locust is the strongest in proportion to its 
 weight, and willow the weakest. Redwood is 
 the strongest softwood in proportion to its 
 weight. In fact, redwood appears to be the 
 strongest in proportion to weight of any wood 
 yet tested at the Forest Service Laboratory, 
 with the exception of black locust.
 
 TABLE 8 
 
 Ratio of Bending Strength to Weight of Various Woods 
 
 (Modulus of Rupture Divided by Specific Gravity) 
 SOFTWOODS 
 
 Redwood 200 
 
 Hemlock, Western 174 
 
 Fir, Amabilis 173 
 
 Fir, White 171 
 
 Cedar, Incense 168 
 
 Cedar, Western Red 164 
 
 Spruce, White 163 
 
 Pine, Longleaf 163 
 
 Hemlock, Eastern 162 
 
 Pine, Shortleaf 161 
 
 Fir, Grand 160 
 
 Cypress 158 
 
 Larch, Western 158 
 
 Average Ratio of Bending 
 
 Douglas Fir 151 
 
 Spruce, Red 150 
 
 Pine, White 147 
 
 Pine, Norway 14 
 
 Tamarack 146 
 
 Pine, Sugar 146 
 
 Cedar, Northern White. . 146 
 
 Pine, Table Mountain... 146 
 
 Fir, Alpine 143 
 
 Hemlock, Black 143 
 
 Pine, Lodgepole 139 
 
 Pine, Western Yellow. . . 137 
 
 Spruce, Englemann 135 
 
 Strength to Weight. . 155 
 
 HARDWOODS 
 
 Locust, Black 204 
 
 Oak, Tanbark 191 
 
 Ash, Green 189 
 
 Ash, Blue 182 
 
 Osage Orange 180 
 
 Ash, White 179 
 
 Hickory, Pignut 179 
 
 Hickory, Mockernut ... 178 
 
 Locust, Honey 177 
 
 Hickory, Shagbark 173 
 
 Cherry, Black 171 
 
 Hickory, Water 170 
 
 Cucumber 169 
 
 Hickory, Big Shellbark. . 167 
 
 Aspen, Largetooth 167 
 
 Hickory, Bitternut 166 
 
 Elm, Slippery 164 
 
 Elm, White 162 
 
 Hickory, Nutmeg 162 
 
 Maple, Hard 162 
 
 Elm, Rock 162 
 
 Maple, Red 161 
 
 Beech . . 156 
 
 Ash, Pumpkin 155 
 
 Tupelo 154 
 
 Oak, Swamp White 154 
 
 Gum, Red 150 
 
 Butternut 149 
 
 Witch Hazel 148 
 
 Buckeye, Yellow 146 
 
 Oak, Yellow 145 
 
 Birch, Sweet 145 
 
 Basswood 143 
 
 Cherry, Red 140 
 
 Sycamore 140 
 
 Oak, Red 140 
 
 Dogwood 137 
 
 Laurel, Mountain 136 
 
 Oak, White 136 
 
 Maple, Silver 132 
 
 Sumac 130 
 
 Hackberry 129 
 
 Ash, Black 128 
 
 Oak, Post 125 
 
 Oak, Bur 124 
 
 Willow, Black 101 
 
 Birch, Yellow 156 
 
 Average Ratio of Bending Strength to Weight. . 156 
 19
 
 y 
 
 TABLE 4 
 
 Crashing Strength of Various Woods 
 
 (Pounds per Square Inch; Pressure Applied Parallel to Grain) 
 SOFTWOODS 
 
 Spruce, White 
 
 1,940 Fir, Grand 
 
 3,030 
 
 Spruce, Englemann . . 
 
 1,980 Cedar, Incense 
 
 3,030 
 
 Cedar, Northern White 
 
 1,990 Fir, Amabilis 
 
 3,040 
 
 Fir, Alpine 
 
 2,060 Pine, Table Mountain. 
 
 3,070 
 
 Pine, Western Yellow. 
 
 2,400 Pine, Norway 
 
 3,080 
 
 
 2,460 Hemlock, Eastern .... 
 
 3,270 
 
 Pine, Sugar 
 
 2,600 Hemlock, Western . . . 
 
 3,390 
 
 Cedar, Western Red. . . 
 
 2,630 Tamarack 
 
 3,480 
 
 Pine, White 
 
 2,720 Pine, Shortleaf 
 
 3,570 
 
 Spruce, Red 
 
 2,760 Larch, Western 
 
 3,700 
 
 Fir, White 
 
 2,800 Cypress 
 
 3,960 
 
 Hemlock, Black 
 
 2,890 Redwood 
 
 3,990 
 
 Douglas Fir 
 
 2,920 Pine, Longleaf 
 
 4,280 
 
 Average Crushing Strength 2,960 
 
 
 HARDWOODS 
 
 
 Willow, Black 
 
 1,320 Oak, White 
 
 3,510 
 
 Buckeye, Yellow 
 
 2,050 Cherry, Black 
 
 3,540 
 
 Basswood 
 
 2,140 Tupelo 
 
 3,550 
 
 Cherry, Red 
 
 2,170 Birch, Sweet 
 
 3,560 
 
 Ash, Black 
 
 2,300 Dogwood 
 
 3,640 
 
 Butternut 
 
 2,410 Elm, Rock 
 
 3,740 
 
 Maple, Silver 
 
 2,490 Maple, Hard 
 
 3,850 
 
 Hackberry 
 
 2,520 Hickory, Big Shellbark 
 
 3,890 
 
 Sumac 
 
 2,680 Hickory, Nutmeg 
 
 3,980 
 
 Gum, Red 
 
 2,690 Ash, Blue 
 
 ,180 
 
 Aspen, Largetooth .... 
 
 2,720 Ash, White 
 
 ,300 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 2,790 Laurel, Mountain .... 
 
 ,310 
 
 Elm, White 
 
 2,810 Oak, Swamp White. . . 
 
 ,360 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 3,140 Ash, Green 
 
 ,360 
 
 Elm, Slippery 
 
 3,180 Hickory, Bitternut . . . 
 
 ,570 
 
 Beech 
 
 3,280 Hickory, Shagbark . . . 
 
 ,600 
 
 Oak, Bur 
 
 3,280 Hickory, Water 
 
 ,660 
 
 Oak, Post 
 
 3,330 Hickory, Mockernut... 
 
 ,720 
 
 Ash, Pumpkin 
 
 3,360 Hickory, Pignut 
 
 ,820 
 
 Oak, Red 
 
 3,370 Oak, Tanbark 
 
 ,840 
 
 Oak, Yellow 
 
 3,390 Locust, Honey 
 
 ,970 
 
 Maple, Red 
 
 3,390 Osage Orange 
 
 5,810 
 
 Witch Hazel 
 
 3,400 Locust, Black 
 
 6,800 
 
 Birch, Yellow 
 
 3,460 
 
 
 Average Crushing Strength 3,580 
 
 
 20 

 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 21 
 
 As with the other tables in this chapter, these 
 results are to be taken only in a broad sense. 
 
 Crushing Strength. The resistance which a 
 short post or a column offers to a weight placed 
 on top is called its end-crushing strength, or 
 strength in compression parallel to the grain. 
 The crushing strength is expressed in terms of 
 the weight required to crush a stick 1 inch 
 square in cross-section, or in pounds per square 
 inch. 
 
 The crushing strength of green wood of the 
 principal species is approximately as indicated 
 in Table 4. 
 
 Tensile Strength. Tensile strength is the 
 opposite of crushing strength, or the force re- 
 quired to pull a substance apart. The tensile 
 strength of wood parallel to the grain is from 
 two to four times as great as the corresponding 
 crushing strength, and considerably greater for 
 hardwoods than for softwoods. When placed 
 under compression, the fibers of wood tend to 
 buckle or bend, and thus give way; but they of- 
 fer great resistance to a force which tends to 
 pull them apart. 
 
 Although the tensile strength of wood is many 
 times referred to, in popular statements, as 
 being a most important property, it is really not 
 so necessary to determine, for most uses, as the 
 resistance to bending and crushing. For all 
 ordinary purposes, the tensile strength of wood 
 is greater than stress of this sort to which it 
 will be subjected, and hence no detailed discus- 
 sion of the topic' is necessary.
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 5 
 
 Shearing Strength of Various Woods 
 
 Pounds per Square Inch 
 
 SOFTWOODS 
 
 Fir, Amabilis 
 
 678 Pine, Table Mountain. 
 
 712 
 
 Spruce, Englemann . , . 
 
 692 Spruce, Eastern 
 
 721 
 
 Fir, Alpine 
 
 614 Fir, White 
 
 732 
 
 Cedar, Northern White 
 
 616 Fir, Grand 
 
 736 
 
 Cedar, Incense 
 
 638 Pine, Norway 
 
 776 
 
 Pine, White 
 
 644 Cypress 
 
 818 
 
 Pine, Western Yellow. 
 
 684 Douglas Fir 
 
 856 
 
 Cedar, Western Red. . . 
 
 698 Tamarack 
 
 863 
 
 Pine, Sugar 
 
 708 Hemlock, Eastern .... 
 
 876 
 
 Pine, Shortleaf 
 
 708 Pine, Longleaf 
 
 1,006 
 
 Pine, Lodgepole 
 
 712 
 
 
 Average Shearing 
 
 Strength 730 
 
 
 HARDWOODS 
 
 Willow 
 
 
 1,214 
 
 Basswood 
 
 607 Birch, Sweet 
 
 1,220 
 
 Buckeye, Yellow 
 
 662 Oak, Yellow 
 
 1,237 
 
 Cherry, Red 
 
 678 Hickory, Bitternut 
 
 1,237 
 
 Butternut 
 
 756 Oak, White 
 
 1,251 
 
 Aspen 
 
 813 Elm, Rock 
 
 1,270 
 
 Ash, Black 
 
 860 Hickory, Mockernut. . . 
 
 1,276 
 
 Elm, White 
 
 873 Oak, Swamp White. . . 
 
 1,296 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 991 Oak, Post 
 
 1,299 
 
 Sycamore 1 
 
 ,001 Ash, Green 
 
 1,318 
 
 Tupelo 1 
 
 ,031 Hickory, Pignut 
 
 1,348 
 
 Hickory, Nutmeg 
 
 ,032 Oak, Bur 
 
 1,354 
 
 Maple, Silver 
 
 ,053 Maple, Sugar 
 
 1,380 
 
 Hackberry 
 
 ,093 Ash, White 
 
 1,380 
 
 Birch, Yellow 
 
 ,115 Hickory, Shagbark . . . 
 
 1,298 
 
 Witch Hazel 
 
 ,118 Oak, Tanbark 
 
 1,414 
 
 Cherry, Black 
 
 ,127 Hickory, Water 
 
 ,440 
 
 Oak, Red 
 
 ,146 Dogwood 
 
 ,516 
 
 Elm, Slippery 1 
 
 ,148 Ash, Blue 
 
 ,544 
 
 Maple, Red 1 
 
 ,157 Laurel, Mountain 
 
 ,669 
 
 Hickory, Big Shellbark 1 
 
 ,187 Locust, Black 
 
 ,755 
 
 Beech 1 
 
 ,210 Locust, Honey 
 
 ,990 
 
 Average Shearing Strength 1,180
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 23 
 
 Shearing Strength. The resistance which 
 wood offers to a force which tends to make the 
 fibers slip on one another, is called " shearing 
 strength," and for many uses it is important 
 that the shearing strength parallel to the grain 
 be determined. This will be discussed later in 
 the chapter on Paving Blocks. At this point it 
 is necessary only to insert the tables which 
 show the comparative shearing strength of the 
 various species of wood, as determined by tests 
 upon small pieces. The results, shown in Table 
 5, are given in pounds per square inch. 
 
 STIFFNESS 
 
 Stiffness is the resistance which a stick offers 
 to a force that tends to change its shape. The 
 stiffness of a stick of wood varies directly with 
 the cube of its thickness, and inversely with the 
 cube of its length. In other words, doubling the 
 length of a stick makes it only one-eighth as stiff 
 as previously; doubling the thickness makes it 
 eight times as stiff as before. 
 
 Timber testing engineers express the stiffness 
 of wood by what is called the " modulus of elas- 
 ticity," which is stated in 1,000 pounds per 
 square inch. The modulus of elasticity for the 
 principal woods tested in a green condition is 
 as indicated in Table 6. 
 
 The softwoods are nearly as stiff as the hard- 
 woods, and, in comparison with their weights, 
 much stiffer than the hardwoods. For exam- 
 ple, Western red cedar, with a specific gravity
 
 TABLE 6 
 
 Modulus of Elasticity of Various Woods 
 
 (Wood Tested in Green Condition; Modulus Given in Thousands 
 
 of Pounds per Square Inch) 
 
 SOFTWOODS 
 
 Cedar, Northern White 643 
 
 Cedar, Incense 754 
 
 Spruce, Englemann ... 832 
 
 Fir, Alpine 861 
 
 Cedar, Western Red. . . 886 
 
 Hemlock, Black 936 
 
 Pine, Sugar 966 
 
 Spruce, White 968 
 
 Pine, Western Yellow. 977 
 
 Pine, Lodgepole 993 
 
 Redwood 1,062 
 
 Pine, White 1,073 
 
 Hemlock, Eastern .... 1,123 
 
 Fir, White 1,131 
 
 Spruce, Red 1,179 
 
 Tamarack 1,236 
 
 Douglas Fir 1,242 
 
 Larch, Western 1,310 
 
 Fir, Grand 1,311 
 
 Fir, Amabilis 1,323 
 
 Pine, Table Mountain. . 1,329 
 
 Cypress 1,378 
 
 Pine, Norway 1,384 
 
 Pine, Shortleaf 1,395 
 
 Hemlock, Western .... 1,428 
 
 Pine, Longleaf 1,662 
 
 Average Modulus of Elasticity 1,130 
 
 HARDWOODS 
 
 Willow, Black 489 
 
 Sumac 809 
 
 Oak, Bur 877 
 
 Oak, Post 913 
 
 Laurel, Mountain .... 924 
 
 Maple, Silver 943 
 
 Sycamore 964 
 
 Butternut 969 
 
 Buckeye, Yellow 981 
 
 Basswood . . 995 
 
 Beech 1,242 
 
 Elm, Slippery 1,264 
 
 Hickory, Nutmeg 1,289 
 
 Cherry, Black 1,308 
 
 Osage Orange 1,329 
 
 Hickory, Big Shellbark 1,330 
 
 Oak, Red 1,330 
 
 Ash, Black 
 
 Hackberry 
 
 Elm, White 
 
 Cherry, Red 
 
 Ash, Pumpkin 
 
 Tupelo 
 
 Witch Hazel 
 
 Gum, Red 
 
 Oak, Yellow 
 
 Dogwood , 
 
 Aspen, Largetooth 
 
 ,033 
 ,040 
 ,040 
 ,042 
 ,043 
 ,045 
 ,112 
 ,138 
 ,170 
 ,175 
 1,185 
 
 Hickory, Bitternut 
 
 Maple, Red 
 
 Ash, White 
 
 Maple, Hard 
 
 Ash, Green 
 
 1,399 
 1,420 
 1,457 
 1,474 
 1,480 
 
 Birch, Sweet 1,490 
 
 1,532 
 1,543 
 
 Oak, White 1,214 
 
 Elm, Rock 1,222 
 
 Ash, Blue 1,241 
 
 Average Modulus of Elasticity . . . 
 24 
 
 Hickory, Shagbark. 
 
 Birch, Yellow 
 
 Hickory, Water 1,563 
 
 Cucumber 1,565 
 
 Oak, Swamp White... 1,593 
 
 Hickory, Pignut 1,648 
 
 Hickory, Mockernut. . 1,672 
 
 Oak, Tanbark 1,678 
 
 Locust, Honey 1,732 
 
 Locust, Black 1,849 
 
 1,250
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 25 
 
 of only .29, has a modulus of elasticity of 886,000 
 pounds per square inch; while bur oak, which is 
 twice as heavy, is not quite so stiff as western 
 red cedar. A study of the tables affords many 
 interesting comparisons of this sort. 
 
 TOUGHNESS 
 
 Toughness is the reverse of stiffness, or the 
 ability to bend without breaking. Toughness 
 is one of the most useful properties of wood, 
 and is especially desirable in handles, spokes, 
 and various other articles. 
 
 The toughness of wood is not exactly deter- 
 mined by any single mechanical test. Perhaps 
 it is best indicated by two tests which the engi- 
 neers designate as the "work to maximum 
 load/' and "resistance to impact." The work 
 to maximum load is expressed in inch-pounds 
 per cubic inch; and the resistance to impact, in 
 the height in inches necessary to drop a 50-pound 
 hammer to cause complete breakage of the stick 
 tested. The results of tests of this character 
 are given in Table 7. 
 
 As a class, the hardwoods are nearly three 
 times as tough as the softwoods, although, as 
 in previous tests, there is an overlapping of the 
 two groups. Alpine fir is the least tough of the 
 softwoods, and longleaf pine the toughest, the 
 latter being tougher than a number of hard- 
 woods. Basswood and buckeye have the least 
 toughness among the hardwoods; and hickory 
 and osage orange are the toughest, the range 
 being very wide.
 
 26 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 7 
 
 Toughness Tests of Various Woods 
 
 WOEK TO MAXIMUM LOAD 
 
 (Inch-pounds per Cubic Inch) 
 
 SOFTWOODS 
 
 Fir, Alpine 
 
 4.4 Pine, Norway 
 
 6.8 
 
 Cedar, Western Red. 
 
 . . 4.5 Pine, White 
 
 6.9 
 
 Spruce, Englemann. . 
 
 4.9 Spruce, Red 
 
 6.1 
 
 Pine, Sugar 
 
 . . 5.0 Fir, Grand 
 
 6.2 
 
 Cypress 
 
 . . 5.1 Spruce, White 
 
 6.6 
 
 Pine, Table Mountain 
 
 5.1 Douglas Fir 
 
 6.6 
 
 Pine, Western Yellow 
 
 5.1 Hemlock, Eastern 
 
 6.7 
 
 Pine, Lodgepole .... 
 
 5.2 Tamarack 
 
 7.2 
 
 Fir, White 
 
 5.2 Pine, Longleaf 
 
 8.1 
 
 Cedar, Northern White. 5.7 
 
 Average Work 
 
 to Maximum Load 5.7 
 
 
 
 HARDWOODS 
 
 
 Basswood 
 
 . . 5.3 Willow 
 
 12.9 
 
 Buckeye 
 
 5.4 Ash, Green 
 
 13.0 
 
 Aspen, Largetooth . . . 
 
 6.1 Elm, Slippery 
 
 13.9 
 
 Cherry, Red 
 
 . . 6.2 Oak, Swamp White 
 
 14.5 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 .. 7.1 Ash, Blue 
 
 14.7 
 
 Tupelo 
 
 . . 7.8 Locust, Black 
 
 15.4 
 
 Butternut 
 
 . . 8.1 Birch, Sweet 
 
 15.6 
 
 Oak, Post 
 
 . . 9.1 Ash, White 
 
 15.6 
 
 Ash, Pumpkin 
 
 9.4 Hackberry 
 
 16.5 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 . . 10.0 Birch, Yellow 
 
 16.6 
 
 Maple, Red 
 
 . . 10.6 Locust, Honey 
 
 17.3 
 
 Oak, Bur 
 
 . . 10.7 Hickory, Water 
 
 18.8 
 
 Sumac 
 
 . . 10.8 Elm, Rock 
 
 19.4 
 
 Maple, Silver 
 
 .. 11.0 Witch Hazel 
 
 19.5 
 
 Elm, White 
 
 . . 11.3 Hickory, Bitternut 
 
 20.0 
 
 Oak, Red 
 
 . . 11.3 Hickory, Shagbark 
 
 20.2 
 
 Oak, White 
 
 . . 11.4 Dogwood 
 
 21.0 
 
 Maple, Sugar 
 
 . . 12.0 Hickory, Nutmeg 
 
 22.8 
 
 Ash, Black 
 
 . . 12.2 Hickory, Mockernut... . 
 
 24.8 
 
 Oak, Yellow 
 
 . . 12.4 Hickory, Pignut 
 
 29.5 
 
 Laurel, Mountain . . . 
 
 . . 12.6 Hickory, Big Shellbark . 
 
 30.2 
 
 Beech 
 
 . . 12.5 Osage Orange 
 
 37.9 
 
 Cherry, Black 
 
 . . 12.8 
 
 
 Average Work 
 

 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OP WOOD 27 
 
 TABLE 7 (Concluded) 
 
 RESISTANCE TO IMPACT 
 
 (Height in inches at which drop of a 50-lb. hammer caused 
 breakage of test piece) 
 
 SOFTWOODS 
 
 Fir, Alpine 9 
 
 Pine, Table Mountain 10 
 
 Spruce, Englemann 14 
 
 Cedar, Northern White. .. 15 
 
 Cedar, Western Red 16 
 
 Pine, Lodgepole 16 
 
 Pine, Sugar 17 
 
 Fir, White 18 
 
 Pine, White 18 
 
 Pine, Western Yellow. ... 19 
 
 Hemlock, Eastern 20 
 
 Douglas Fir 20 
 
 Cypress 23 
 
 Fir, Grand 25 
 
 Tamarack 28 
 
 Pine, Norway 28 
 
 Pine, Longleaf 35 
 
 Average Resistance to Impact 19 
 
 HARDWOODS 
 
 Basswood 16 
 
 Buckeye, Yellow 18 
 
 Aspen 18 
 
 Cherry, Red 22 
 
 Butternut 23 
 
 Sycamore 24 
 
 Tupelo 25 
 
 Maple, Red 29 
 
 Maple, Silver 29 
 
 Cucumber 30 
 
 Ash, Pumpkin 31 
 
 Ash, Black 32 
 
 Laurel, Mountain 32 
 
 Cherry, Black 33 
 
 Elm, White 34 
 
 Maple, Sugar 36 
 
 Ash, Green 37 
 
 Ash, White 37 
 
 Oak, Post 38 
 
 Oak, Yellow 39 
 
 Beech 40 
 
 Birch, Yellow 40 
 
 Average Resistance to 
 
 Oak, White 40 
 
 Witch Hazel 40 
 
 Oak, Red 40 
 
 Ash, Blue 43 
 
 Birch, Sweet 44 
 
 Elm, Slippery 44 
 
 Locust, Black 44 
 
 Oak, Bur 44 
 
 Willow 44 
 
 Elm, Rock 48 
 
 Oak, Swamp White 60 
 
 Hackberry 53 
 
 Hickory, Nutmeg 54 
 
 Hickory, Water 56 
 
 Locust, Honey 56 
 
 Dogwood 58 
 
 Hickory, Bitternut 66 
 
 Hickory, Shagbark . 71 
 
 Hickory, Mockernut 82 
 
 Hickory, Pignut 91 
 
 Hickory, Big Shellbark. . .105 
 
 Osage Orange 120 
 
 Impact 45
 
 28 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 HARDNESS 
 
 Hardness is a most important property of 
 wood, since resistance to wear is necessary for 
 a large number of purposes. In the Forest 
 Service tests, hardness is determined by the 
 weight required to force a steel ball .444 of an 
 inch in diameter one-half its diameter into the 
 wood. The tests upon green wood give the 
 results shown in Table 8, the species being 
 arranged from the softest to the hardest as 
 expressed by the pressure in pounds necessary 
 to make the required indentation. 
 
 The hardwoods as a class average from two 
 to three times as hard as the softwoods. The 
 hardest softwood, longleaf pine, is harder than 
 basswood, buckeye, willow, butternut, and red 
 cherry; but it is only about one-fourth as hard 
 as osage orange, the hardest hardwood in the 
 list. Their softness and ease of working make 
 the softwoods as valuable for many purposes as 
 are the hardwoods for other purposes. 
 
 EFFECT OF MOISTURE 
 
 The comparative properties of the various 
 species of wood as indicated in the foregoing 
 tables (Tables 2-8) are based upon tests of green 
 timber, which give decidedly different results 
 from tests upon dry timber. 
 
 Water occurs in wood in two forms: First, 
 the water which fills the spaces between the 
 cells in green wood; and second, that which sat- 
 urates the walls of the cells. Often half the
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 29 
 
 TABLES 
 
 Hardness of Various Woods 
 
 (Pressure in pounds required to indent specimen to depth of 
 one-half diameter of a .444-inch diameter steel ball) 
 
 SOFTWOODS 
 
 Fir, Alpine 219 Pine, Norway 342 
 
 Spruce, Englemann. ... 243 Spruce, Red 346 
 
 Cedar, Western Red. . . . 246 Cypress 354 
 
 Cedar, Northern White. 266 Tamarack 375 
 
 Pine, White 296 Fir, Grand 375 
 
 Pine, Lodgepole 315 Hemlock, Eastern 406 
 
 Pine, Western Yellow.. 320 Douglas Fir 408 
 
 Pine, Sugar 324 Hemlock, Black 464 
 
 Fir, White 328 Pine, Longleaf 512 
 
 Pine, Table Mountain. . 333 
 
 Average Hardness 340 
 
 HARDWOODS 
 
 Basswood 242 Beech 824 
 
 Buckeye, Yellow 286 Maple, Hard 882 
 
 Willow, Black 334 Elm, Rock 888 
 
 Aspen, Largetooth .... 366 Birch, Sweet 894 
 
 Butternut 386 Oak, Yellow 926 
 
 Cherry, Red 386 Ash, White 941 
 
 Elm, White 511 Witch Hazel 977 
 
 Cucumber 515 Oak, Red 982 
 
 Ash, Black 548 Ash, Green ,007 
 
 Sycamore 580 Ash, Blue ,028 
 
 Sumac 590 Oak, White ,063 
 
 Maple, Silver 592 Oak, Post ,074 
 
 Maple, Red 612 Oak, Bur ,108 
 
 Elm, Slippery 653 Oak, Swamp White ,158 
 
 Cherry, Black 664 Laurel, Mountain ,299 
 
 Hackberry 677 Dogwood ,408 
 
 Tupelo 700 Locust, Black 1,568 
 
 Birch, Yellow 745 Locust, Honey 1,846 
 
 Ash, Pumpkin 752 Osage Orange 2,037 
 
 Average Hardness 844
 
 30 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 weight of green wood, and sometimes more, con- 
 sists of water. The amount of water required 
 to saturate the walls of the cells is from 25 to 
 30 per cent of the weight of the wood when 
 absolutely dry. This is called the "fiber satura- 
 tion point. " The amount of water in wood 
 above this point has no effect upon the strength 
 of wood; but, of course, it makes the wood heav- 
 ier. When wood is dried below the fiber satura- 
 tion point, its mechanical properties change 
 rapidly, and the extent to which they change 
 depends upon the degree to which the water 
 is removed from the cell walls. Seasoned wood 
 is stronger, stiffer, and harder than green wood. 
 On the other hand, it may not be so tough as 
 green wood, since dry wood is more likely to 
 break than to bend and subsequently regain its 
 form., Small pieces of thoroughly seasoned 
 wood may be twice as strong as pieces of the 
 same wood in green condition. Owing to the 
 checks which frequently develop in the season- 
 ing of large timbers, it is not safe to count upon 
 any such great increase in strength in them as 
 occurs in the seasoning of small timbers. This 
 question is further discussed in the chapter on 
 Structural Timbers. 
 
 Tests of small, clear pieces of wood dried to 
 a moisture content of 12 per cent give the re- 
 sults shown in Table 9. 
 
 A comparison of the specific gravity of these 
 woods at 12 per cent moisture, with the specific 
 gravity of " oven-dry" woods given in Table
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD 
 
 31 
 
 1 (page 15), shows that the latter are much 
 lighter. On the other hand, the strength at 12 
 per cent moisture is much greater than for green 
 timber as given in Table 2 (page 17). 
 
 TABLE 9 
 
 Weight and Strength of Wood with Moisture Content of 
 12 per Cent 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 
 
 MODULUS OF RUPTUBE 
 
 Cedar, Southern White. . 
 
 .37 
 
 Cedar, Southern White 
 
 6,300 
 
 Pine, White 
 
 .38 
 
 Douglas Fir 
 
 7,900 
 
 Cypress 
 
 .46 
 
 Cypress 
 
 7,900 
 
 Pine, Norway 
 
 .50 
 
 Pine, White 
 
 7,900 
 
 Douglas Fir 
 
 .51 
 
 
 9,100 
 
 Pine, Shortleaf 
 
 .51 
 
 Gum, Red 
 
 9,500 
 
 Gum, Red 
 
 .59 
 
 Pine, Shortleaf 
 
 10,100 
 
 Pine, Longleaf 
 
 .61 
 
 ^Im, White 
 
 10,300 
 
 Ash, White 
 
 .62 
 
 Oak, Willow 
 
 10,400 
 
 Ash, Green 
 
 6?l 
 
 Oak, Yellow 
 
 10,800 
 
 Pine, Loblolly 
 
 .63 
 
 Ash, White 
 
 10,800 
 
 Pine, Cuban 
 
 .63 
 
 Pine, Loblolly 
 
 11,300 
 
 Elm, White 
 
 .64 
 
 Oak, Overcup 
 
 11,300 
 
 Oak, Willow 
 
 .72 
 
 Oak, Red 
 
 11,400 
 
 Oak, Yellow 
 
 .72 
 
 Oak, Cow 
 
 11,500 
 
 Oak, Red 
 
 .73 
 
 Ash, Green 
 
 11,600 
 
 Oak, Spanish 
 
 .73 
 
 Oak, Spanish 
 
 12,000 
 
 Oak, Water 
 
 .73 
 
 Oak, Post 
 
 12,300 
 
 Hickory, Water 
 
 .73 
 
 Oak, Water 
 
 12,400 
 
 Oak, Texan 
 
 .73 
 
 Hickory, Nutmeg . . . 
 
 12,500 
 
 Elm, Cedar 
 
 .74 
 
 Hickory, Water 
 
 12,500 
 
 Oak, Cow 
 
 .74 
 
 Pine, Longleaf 
 
 12,600 
 
 Oak, Overcup 
 
 .74 
 
 Oak, White 
 
 13,100 
 
 Hickory, Bitternut 
 
 .77 
 
 Oak, Texan 
 
 13,100 
 
 Pecan 
 
 .78 
 
 Elm, Cedar 
 
 13,500 
 
 Hickory, Nutmeg 
 
 .78 
 
 Pine, Cuban 
 
 13,600 
 
 Oak, Post 
 
 .80 
 
 Hickory, Bitternut . . 
 
 15,000 
 
 Oak, White 
 
 .80 
 
 Hickory, Mockernut . . 
 
 15,200 
 
 Hickory, Shagbark 
 
 .81 
 
 Pecan 
 
 15,300 
 
 Hickory, Mockernut .... 
 
 .85 
 
 Hickory, Shagbark. . . 
 
 16,000 
 
 Hickory, Pignut 
 
 .89 
 
 Hickory, Pignut 
 
 18,700
 
 32 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 SHRINKAGE OF WOOD 
 
 The amount which wood shrinks in passing 
 from green to dry condition, is one of its most 
 important properties. Shrinkage varies with the 
 kind of timber, degree of seasoning, method of 
 drying, and manner in which the piece is cut 
 from the tree. Quarter-sawed timber shrinks 
 less than slash-sawed; some methods of drying 
 cause much greater shrinkage than others ; and, 
 as a class, the softwoods shrink less than the 
 hardwoods. Moreover, shrinkage is chiefly 
 across the grain; that is, a board loses breadth 
 and thickness, but practically nothing in length, 
 when it seasons. 
 
 Among softwoods, the cedars and white pines 
 shrink the least. The spruces, firs, and softer 
 pines shrink a medium amount; and longleaf 
 pine and tamarack, the most. Among hard- 
 woods, locust, osage orange, butternut, and black 
 cherry shrink little; ash, elm, and maple, an 
 average amount; and basswood, white oak, 
 birch, and hickory, the most. Because of their 
 more complex structure, the hardwoods also re- 
 quire greater care in seasoning than do the soft- 
 woods, to prevent warping and checking.
 
 
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 iff
 
 LUMBER GRADES 
 
 E~MBER is made a standard commercial 
 product through its separation into 
 grades according to quality and size. The 
 grading of lumber is a commercial necessity for 
 two reasons : First, to make it possible for the 
 manufacturers to maintain a uniformity of pro- 
 duction; and second, to adapt the product to 
 the needs of many classes of customers. 
 
 PURPOSE OF GRADING 
 
 The aim of a grading system is excellently 
 stated in one of the association rule books as 
 being to make lumber of the same grade of 
 approximately equal value when produced at 
 different points, whether the logs from which 
 the lumber is cut are large or small, coarse- 
 knotted, fine-knotted, black-knotted, red-knot- 
 ted, sound, or shaky. In other words, the pur- 
 pose of the system is to enable each manufac- 
 turer to classify his product into grades of prac- 
 tically the same value to the customer as are 
 the corresponding grades of lumber made by 
 other manufacturers from the same kind of tim- 
 ber. The advantage to the customer in being 
 thus enabled to obtain a standard product is 
 too obvious to need any discussion. 
 
 In the early days of lumbering in the United 
 States, the manufacturer paid little or no atten- 
 tion to grades. In fact, about all he did was 
 
 33
 
 34 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 to separate his product into broad classes, 
 known as "merchantable" and "cull" lumber. 
 The former contained lumber of a character fit 
 for general use; the latter, lumber of much 
 poorer quality, which sold for a low price and 
 was fit for little but temporary use or for the 
 manufacture of boxes in the process of which 
 the worst of the defects could be cut out. Under 
 this system, or lack of system, the dealer pur- 
 chased large stocks of lumber, and roughly sep- 
 arated them into classes adapted to the needs 
 of his customers. 
 
 It was not until the later eighties that the 
 manufacturers of lumber seriously undertook 
 the establishment of a thorough-going system 
 of grades for their products. By that time the 
 annual output of lumber, and especially of white 
 pine, had become so large that the adoption of 
 uniform grades was really a necessity for both 
 producer and consumer. And it was only 
 through the organization of lumber manufactur- 
 ers in a common territory and into an associa- 
 tion, that standardization of product became 
 possible. The first effective organization of 
 this sort was that of the white pine manufactur- 
 ers in the upper Mississippi Valley; and the 
 plan which they adopted has been the essential 
 basis upon which nearly all other organizations 
 of lumber manufacturers have been built up. 
 
 The first thing the white pine manufacturers 
 did was to agree upon the grades of lumber 
 which should be recognized as standard, and
 
 LUMBER GRADES 35 
 
 to take measures to make these standards known 
 to both producers and consumers. This re- 
 quired that specifications be carefully drawn 
 and published, and that experts be employed to 
 apply them. The manufacturers therefore or- 
 ganized an inspection bureau composed of ex- 
 perienced lumber graders, whose duty it was to 
 travel from mill to mill, instructing the manu- 
 facturers how to conform the product to stand- 
 ard grades. Moreover, these inspectors were 
 sent to reinspect a shipment whenever the buyer 
 complained that the manufacturers did not ship 
 the grades named in the invoice. Work of this 
 kind proved so beneficial that the example 
 spread until, in every large manufacturing re- 
 gion in the United States, there is now an or- 
 ganization which determines the standard grades 
 for each of the principal kinds of lumber, and 
 whose authority in this respect is generally rec- 
 ognized. The development and general accept- 
 ance of these grading systems is one of the best 
 examples we have of the growth of commercial 
 usages which for all practical purposes are as 
 binding as legal enactment. 
 
 THE BASIS FOR GRADES 
 
 Lumber is separated into grades on the basis 
 of the defects which it contains; and the first 
 step in the formulation of a grading system is 
 to define the admissible defects. Defects us- 
 ually recognized are: knots, knot-holes, shake, 
 wane, rot, stain, etc. Poor manufacture is also
 
 36 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 a defect; and grading rules generally require 
 that lumber must be properly manufactured, 
 with parallel edges and square ends. 
 
 In the determination of lumber grades, two 
 general classes of usage are considered: First, 
 those in which the lumber is used in its entirety; 
 and second, those in which the lumber is cut to 
 new dimensions in the process of re-working 
 into other products. Into the first class falls 
 the larger proportion of the softwood lumber 
 used for general construction. Dimension, for 
 example, is used for studding, joists, sills, raft- 
 ers, etc. ; and boards are used for siding, sheath- 
 ing, roof-boards, partitions, and the like. In 
 either case, the lumber is used in essentially the 
 form and size in which it is first manufactured; 
 and the grades provided for it require that the 
 defects shall not be of such character or in such 
 quantity as to impair the usefulness of the piece 
 as a whole. In other words, a piece of dimen- 
 sion may contain knots, shake, pitch streaks, or 
 decay; but these defects must not be so located 
 or so numerous as to render the piece too weak 
 to be used for studding, joists, and similar pur- 
 poses. 
 
 The cutting grades of lumber find their 
 largest use in factories where they are cut to 
 smaller dimensions and re-worked into a multi- 
 tude of articles, such as furniture, sash, doors, 
 interior finish, packing boxes, etc. Many of 
 the products of these factories contain only 
 sound, clear lumber when finished; but, since
 
 LUMBER GRADES 
 
 37 
 
 the lumber is cut 
 into very different 
 sizes from those in 
 which it was orig- 
 inally manufactur- 
 ed, it is possible to 
 cut out the por- 
 tions which con- 
 tain knots, rot, and 
 other defects, and 
 to obtain clear, 
 sound pieces of the 
 sizes needed for the 
 finished articles. A 
 common require- 
 ment in grades of 
 this sort, therefore, 
 is that a certain 
 grade of lumber 
 must contain a 
 specified percent- 
 age of clear stock 
 in sections of speci- 
 fied sizes. For ex- 
 ample, the grade of 
 No. 1 Shop Com- 
 mon in white pine 
 must contain not 
 less than 50 per 
 cent nor more than 
 70 per cent of cut- 
 tings suitable for
 
 38 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 use in the manufacture of doors, these cuttings 
 to be of specified lengths and widths. Again, the 
 rules of the National Hardwood Lumber Asso- 
 ciation require that the grade of No. 1 Common 
 must contain clear stock in pieces 3 and 4 inches 
 wide and 6 and 7 feet long; and that the larger 
 boards of this grade must be of a character 
 which will permit their being cut into a certain 
 number of clear pieces equivalent in total size 
 to two-thirds the area of the original board. 
 
 PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS OF GRADING 
 
 The principal associations of lumber manu- 
 facturers in the United States which have 
 adopted standard grading rules for their prod- 
 ucts and for the woods which the members of 
 each organization chiefly manufacture, are as 
 follows: 
 
 California Sugar and White Pine Association, San Francisco, 
 Cal. Sugar pine, California white pine, Western yellow pine. 
 
 Georgia-Florida Sawmill Association, Jacksonville, Fla. 
 Yellow pine (chiefly longleaf, shortleaf, and Cuban pine). 
 
 Hardwood Manufacturers Association of the United States, 
 Cincinnati, Ohio. Ash, basswood, beech, buckeye, butternut, 
 cherry, chestnut, cottonwood, elm, gum, hickory, maple, wal- 
 nut, poplar, sycamore, tupelo. 
 
 Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association, Chicago, 111. 
 Maple, beech, and birch flooring. 
 
 Michigan Hardwood Manufacturers Association, Cadillac, 
 Mich. Hemlock. Hardwood rules the same as the National 
 Hardwood Lumber Association. 
 
 National Hardwood Lumber Association, Chicago, 111. Ash, 
 basswood, beech, birch, buckeye, butternut, cherry, chestnut, 
 cottonwood, sassafras, elm, gum, hickory, locust, magnolia, 
 maple, oak, pecan, poplar, sycamore, walnut. 
 
 Northern Hemlock and Hardwood Manufacturers Associa- 
 tion, Wausau, Wis. Hemlock. Hardwood rules the same as 
 the National Hardwood Lumber Association.
 
 LUMBER GRADES 39 
 
 Northern Pine Manufacturers Association, Minneapolis, 
 Minn. White pine, Norway pine, spruce, tamarack. 
 
 North Carolina Pine Manufacturers Association, Norfolk, Va. 
 North Carolina pine (mostly loblolly; some shortleaf pine). 
 
 Oak Flooring Manufacturers Association, Detroit, Mich. 
 Oak flooring. 
 
 Redwood Manufacturers Association, San Francisco, Cal. 
 Redwood. 
 
 Southern Cypress Manufacturers Association, New Orleans, 
 La. Cypress, tupelo. 
 
 Spruce Manufacturers Association, New York, N. Y. East- 
 ern spruce. 
 
 West Coast Lumber Manufacturers Association, Tacoma, 
 Wash. Douglas fir, Western spruce, cedar, and hemlock. 
 
 Western Pine Manufacturers Association, Spokane, Wash. 
 Western pine, Idaho white pine, fir, and larch. 
 
 Yellow Pine Manufacturers Association, St. Louis, Mo. 
 Longleaf pine, shortleaf pine. 
 
 Copies of their complete grading rules are 
 supplied by these associations upon application, 
 free of charge, or at a nominal price. The as- 
 sociations are generally anxious to make their 
 grades as widely known and used as possible. 
 
 Diversity of Grades 
 
 A few illustrations will suffice to show the 
 extent to which the lumber manufacturers have 
 gone in establishing grades suitable for a wide 
 diversity of purposes. The rules of the North- 
 ern Pine Manufacturers Association provide 
 for 7 grades of thick finishing lumber in thick- 
 nesses of 1*4 inches, 1% inches, and 2 inches. 
 There are also 9 grades of inch finishing lumber, 
 5 grades of siding and flooring, 3 grades of ship- 
 lap, 5 grades of shop lumber, 3 grades of factory 
 select lumber, 6 grades of thick common lum- 
 ber, 5 grades of common boards, 4 grades of
 
 40 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 fencing, 3 grades of dimension, and 2 grades of 
 lath. Under these rules the upper grades in 
 the various classes are designated by letters as 
 A, B, C, D, and the lower grades by numerals 
 as No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, and No. 5. 
 
 The rules for hardwoods adopted by the Na- 
 tional Hardwood Lumber Association and the 
 Hardwood Manufacturers Association provide 
 in most cases for the following grades, begin- 
 ning with the highest: Firsts and Seconds, No. 
 1 Common, No. 2 Common, and No. 3 Common. 
 No. 4 Common is also provided for many woods. 
 In addition to these general grades, there are 
 a large number of special grades for the various 
 hardwoods, covering box lumber, vehicle and 
 wagon stock, furniture stock, flooring stock, 
 quarter-sawed lumber, panel material, etc. 
 
 In the softwoods most largely used for gen- 
 eral building purposes, there are usually three 
 grades of common lumber generally known as 
 No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3, or by terms of equiva- 
 lent value. For example: No. 1 Dimension, 
 Boards, etc., consist of sound, strong lumber 
 suitable for first-class, all-round building pur- 
 poses. The defects allowed in this lumber are 
 not of a character which will materially impair 
 the strength of the piece for the purpose in- 
 tended. No. 2 stock contains more defects than 
 No. 1, but is useful for the same general pur- 
 poses in places where less strength is required. 
 For example, studding of No. 2 Dimension is 
 often as satisfactory as of No. 1 Dimension,
 
 LUMBER GRADES 41 
 
 while No. 2 Boards make excellent sheathing, 
 under-floors, roof-boards, etc. The No. 3 stock 
 in Dimension and Boards is the lowest grade 
 generally used for building purposes. It is 
 mostly employed for very cheap, light, or tem- 
 porary structures, and for these purposes affords 
 a very economical building material. 
 
 Special grades in any item are put up by the 
 manufacturers whenever ordered; but they cost 
 more than regular grades, depending upon qual- 
 ity and handling charges. 
 
 Any large user of lumber will be well repaid 
 if he familiarizes himself wtih the principal 
 grades of the leading kinds of timber. By so 
 doing he will be able to build better and more 
 cheaply than if he specifies material without a 
 full knowledge of its character and value.
 
 STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 
 
 A i THERE were no well-defined grades in 
 the early lumber manufacturing opera- 
 tions, so also was there little uniformity 
 in the sizes to which the various classes of lum- 
 ber were cut. In the early days, boards and 
 larger material were shipped in the rough to 
 planing mills at points of consumption, where 
 they were dressed and worked to the desired 
 sizes. With the development of the lumber in- 
 dustry and the greatly increased variety and 
 efficiency of machinery, the manufacturers grad- 
 ually began to work their products into forms 
 suitable for final use. This process has gone on 
 until to-day nearly every large sawmill which 
 supplies car trade has a fully equipped planing 
 mill in which lumber is dressed and worked into 
 flooring, ceiling, shiplap, siding, partition, mold- 
 ing, etc., so that a practically complete bill of 
 materials for a house can be shipped from the 
 mill. 
 
 This advance in the development of lumber 
 manufacturing makes the question of standard 
 sizes as important as that of standard grades. 
 In fact, the two naturally go hand in hand; and 
 specifications for widths and thicknesses of 
 dressed lumber are commonly a part of the grad- 
 ing rules of the associations of manufacturers. 
 
 There is some variation, according to species, 
 in the lengths and widths of rough lumber made 
 
 42
 
 STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 43 
 
 in the sawmills. Since the softwoods are the 
 more common structural material, and hence 
 used in the entire piece, the dimensions vary 
 somewhat from those of the hardwoods, of which 
 the bulk are cut to new sizes in the process of 
 re-manufacturing. The standard lengths of soft- 
 woods are commonly in multiples of 2 feet, be- 
 ginning at 4 or 6 feet; and standard widths, in 
 multiples of 2 inches, beginning at 4 inches. This 
 is upon the theory that these dimensions are 
 best adapted to the requirements of ordinary 
 building operations for the placing of studding, 
 joists, etc. In the hardwoods, standard lengths 
 are usually in both odd and even feet, and stand- 
 ard widths in both odd and even inches. The 
 most notable exception to these rules is in the 
 manufacture of hardwood flooring, in which di- 
 mensions as small as 1 inch in width, 7 inches 
 in length, and % inch in thickness are produced. 
 While each association of lumber manufactur- 
 ers has standards for working lumber, which are 
 recognized within its territory, these standards 
 frequently do not coincide with the standards 
 of other associations. There is a much greater 
 diversity in this respect than is desirable from 
 the standpoint of the consumer; and doubtless 
 in time, a greater uniformity will be brought 
 about in standard sizes for all the more com- 
 mon kinds of lumber. The present standards 
 for flooring, ceiling, shiplap, partition, boards, 
 etc., for the principal commercial woods, are 
 given in Table 10, in which the nominal dimen^
 
 44 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 sion is named, together with the actual size 
 of the finished product. The nominal dimension 
 is the size which is figured in calculating the 
 quantity of lumber sold, and is based upon rough 
 stock; while the actual dimension indicates the 
 actual width and thickness of the final product. 
 For example, a piece of 1x4 Norway pine floor- 
 ing is 13/16 inch thick, with a 314-inch face. 
 That is, allowing for tongue and groove, each 
 piece of flooring covers 3% inches of floor space. 
 Since it is important that the user of lumber 
 should know the exact sizes specified for the 
 principal woods, the table is made as complete 
 as the information at hand permits. In several 
 cases where standard sizes have not been offi- 
 cially incorporated in association rules, the sizes 
 made by the leading manufacturers are given. 
 
 TABLE 10 
 
 Standard Sizes of Different Kinds of Lumber 
 FLOORING (INCH) 
 
 F=Face. Width and thickness of tongue is i inch, and di- 
 mensions of groove 1/32 inch greater. 
 
 Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) 
 
 White and Norway Pine 
 
 (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is 13/16x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16 
 
 x5i F. 
 North Carolina Pine 
 
 (North Car. Pine Ass'n) 1x3 is 13/16x2$ F; 1x4 is 13/16 
 
 x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16x5* F. 
 Longleaf Pine 
 
 (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . . 1x3 is 13/16x2} F; 1x4 is 13/16 
 
 x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16x5* F. 
 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine 
 
 (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .1x3 is 13/16x2* F; 1x4 is 13/16 
 x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16x5* F.
 
 STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 
 
 Standard Yellow Pine Ceiling, %-Inch, D. & M. 
 
 V y,;* 'I9& 
 
 Standard Yellow Pine Ceiling, %-Inch, Shiplapped 
 
 J& 
 
 Standard Yellow Pine Ceiling, 
 
 W** 
 
 Standard Yellow Pine Partition, Ix4-Inch 
 m* -3^" 
 
 ~T" 
 i / 
 
 Standard Yellow Pine Flooring, Ix4-Inch 
 FIG. 3. STANDARD PATTERNS
 
 46 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Cypress and Tupelo 
 
 (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .1x3 is 13/16x2* F; 1x4 is 13/16 
 
 x34 F; 1x6 is 13/16x54 F. 
 Douglas Fir, Western Hem- 
 lock, Cedar, and Spruce 
 (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 1x3 is 13/16x24 F; 1x4 is 13/16 
 
 x34 F; 1x6 is 13/16x5|. 
 Oak 
 
 (Oak Flooring Mfrs. Ass'n) . 13/16xli, 2, or 24 F; xl} or 2 
 
 F. 
 
 Maple, Beech, and Birch 
 (Maple Flooring Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) Thicknesses f , }, f , 13/16, 
 
 1 1/16, 1 5/16, 1 11/16. 
 Faces J, 1, 1}, 2, 24, 3i, 4, 4}. 
 Hemlock and Tamarack 
 (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 1x4 is 13/16x34 F; 1x6 is 13/16 
 
 x54 F. 
 Idaho White Pine, Western 
 
 Pine, Fir, and Larch 
 (Western Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . 1x4 Is Jx3J F; 1x6 is fx5 F; 
 
 1x8 is 3x7} F. 
 Gum and Yellow Poplar 
 
 (Nat. Hardwood Lbr. Ass'n) .1x3 is 13/16x2}; 1x4 is 13/16x 
 3J F; 1x5 is 13/16x44 F; 1x6 
 is 13/16x54 F. 
 
 CEILING (INCH) 
 
 Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) 
 
 White and Norway Pine 
 
 (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is fx34 F; 1x6 is |x54 F. 
 
 North Carolina Pine 
 
 (North Car. Pine Mfrs. 
 Ass'n) fx4 is fx3 F; fx6 is 3x5} F. 
 
 Longleaf Pine 
 
 (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . .fx4 is 11/16x34 F; fx6 is 11/16 
 
 x54 F. 
 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine 
 
 (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . |x4 is 11/16x34 F; Jx6 is 11/16 
 x54F.
 
 STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 
 
 47 
 
 Novelty Rustic" Siding, I"x6", No. 117 (Standard) 
 (West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Association) 
 
 Double-Beaded Ceiling or Partition 
 (West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Association) 
 
 Double V Ceiling, %"x4" (Standard) 
 (West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Association) 
 
 r *- 
 
 Vertical-Grain Flooring, I"x3" (Standard) 
 (West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Association) 
 
 FIG. 4. STANDARD PATTERNS
 
 48 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 n 
 
 it 
 
 t r**t 
 
 . 
 
 '/ 
 
 
 r 
 
 li 
 
 M*J 
 
 Heavy Yellow Pine Shiplap 
 (Yellow Pine Manufacturers Association) 
 
 1 1 J 
 
 ^ 
 
 6" j / 
 
 1 hpa 
 
 i _ x T 
 
 ,"* 
 
 aaB t i 
 
 Vertical-Grain Flooring, I%"x3" (Standard) 
 (West Coast Lumber Mfrs. Association) 
 
 FIG. 5. STANDARD PATTERNS 
 CEILING (Continued) 
 
 Cypress and Tupelo 
 
 (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .fx4 is 11/16x3* F; |x6 is 11/16 
 
 x5i F. 
 
 Douglas Fir, Western Hem- 
 lock, Cedar, and Spruce 
 (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 1x4 is 11/16x3* F; 1x6 is 11/16 
 
 x5J F. 
 
 Hemlock and Tamarack 
 (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 1x4 is 13/16x3* F; 1x6 is 13/16 
 
 x5i F. 
 Northern Hardwoods 
 
 (Mich. Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) ... 1x4 is 13/16x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16 
 x5* F.
 
 Bending Test of a Beam of Air-Dry Shortleaf Pine 
 
 Method of Making Impact Test of Bridge Tie 
 
 1: 
 
 P 
 
 Torsion Tests of Soaked Hickory 
 
 FOREST SERVICE TESTS 
 Plate 6 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 Old Sawmills in Maine 
 These mills, located on tidewater, began operations in 1833 
 
 Pnuu> uy courtesy or Boiling Arthur Johnson 
 
 Modern Sawmill at Everett, Washington 
 A CONTRAST IN MILLING METHODS 
 Plate 7 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 49 
 
 Idaho White Pine, Western 
 Pine, Fir, and Larch 
 
 (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) ... 1x4 is Jx3J F; 1x6 is Jx5i F; 
 1x8 is |x7J F. 
 
 Redwood 1x4 is 1 3/16x3* F; 1x6 is 
 
 13/16x5i F. 
 Gum 
 
 (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) Jx3 is Il/16x2i F; fx4 is 11/16 
 
 x3i F; Jx5 is Il/16x5i F; 
 fx6 is Il/16x5i F. 
 Yellow Poplar 
 
 (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) .... Same as Flooring. 
 
 Tongues and grooves in inch Ceiling are usually of same 
 
 dimensions as in inch Flooring. Ceiling is also often made in 
 
 so-called thicknesses of f, $, and f inch, corresponding to 
 
 dressed thicknesses of 5/16, 7/16, and 9/16 inch, respectively. 
 
 PARTITION (INCH) 
 
 Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) 
 
 White and Norway Pine 
 
 (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n.) ... 1x4 is |x3i F; 1x6 is |x5* F. 
 North Carolina Pine 
 
 (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . 1x4 is 13/16x3* F; 1x6 is 13/18 
 
 x5i F. 
 Longleaf Pine 
 
 (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) ... 1x4 is Jx3i F; 1x6 is fx5i F. 
 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine 
 
 (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above. 
 Cypress and Tupelo 
 
 (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .Same as above. 
 Douglas Fir, Western Hem- 
 lock, Cedar and Spruce 
 (West Coast Lbr. Mfra. 
 
 Ass'n) 1x4 is Il/16x3i F; 1x6 is 11/16 
 
 x5JF. 
 
 Hemlock and Tamarack 
 (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 1x4 is 13/16x31 F; 1x6 is 13/16 
 
 x5i F. 
 Gum and Yellow Poplar 
 
 (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) Same as Flooring. 
 
 DROP SIDING (INCH) 
 Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) 
 
 White and Norway Pine 
 
 (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) 1x4 is 25/32x3g F; 1x6 is 25/32 
 
 x5i F; 1x8 is 25/32x?i F.
 
 50 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 PATTERNS OP 
 
 Yellow Pine Drop Siding 
 
 Adopted at Memphis, Ten., Jan. 16, 1901. 
 Revised at New Orleans, La., Jan. 25, 1906. 
 
 Worked Shlplap fcrSJf orer Worked Tongue and Groove 
 11; allow X inch for Lap. fcxSK over all; 5K In . Face 
 
 101 
 
 102 
 
 
 p 
 
 Orders for Stock Should Conform to above Numbers 
 
 FIG. 6 
 
 Note: With the exception of Nos. 117 and 118, the above patterns 
 are similar In style to the "Universal" Patterns of Drop Siding and Ship- 
 lap used by the manufacturers of Northern Pine and Hemlock.
 
 STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 51 
 
 North Carolina Pine 
 
 (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . 1x4 Is fx3* F; 1x6 is Jx5i F. 
 Longleaf Pine 
 
 (Ga.*Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . .Same as above. 
 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine 
 
 (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above. 
 Cypress and Tupelo 
 
 (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .1x4 is Jx3i F; 1x6 is Jx5i F; 
 
 1x8 is Jx7i F. 
 
 Douglas Fir, Western Hem- 
 lock, Cedar and Spruce. . . 
 (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 1x4 is fx3i F; 1x6 is fx5* F; 
 
 1x8 is *x7 F. 
 Hemlock and Tamarack 
 
 (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 1x4 is 13/16x3J F; 1x6 is 13/16 
 
 x5i F; 1x8 is 13/16x7i F. 
 Northern Hardwoods 
 
 (Mich. Hdw. Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .1x4 is 13/16x3i F; 1x6 is 13/16 
 
 x5JF. 
 Idaho White Pine, Western 
 
 Pine, Fir and Larch 
 
 (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .1x4 is fx3 F; 1x6 is Jx5J F; 
 1x8 is |x7i F. 
 
 Redwood 1x4 is 1 3/16x3* F; 1x6 is 13/16 
 
 x5i F; 1x8 is 13/16x7* F. 
 Yellow Poplar 
 
 (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) ... .1x4 is Jx3i F; 1x5 is Jx4i F; 
 1x6 is |x5i F. 
 
 FINISH S-l-S OR S-2-S 
 
 S-l-S = Surfaced one side; S-2-S = Surfaced two sides. 
 
 Woods Thickness 
 
 White and Norway Pine 
 
 (Nor. Pine L^rs. Ass'n) ... .1" is 25/32"; U" Is 1J"; li" is 
 
 1|*; 2" is 1}". 
 North Carolina Pine 
 
 (Nor. Car. Pine Ass'n) 1" is 13/16"; 1|" is 1 1/16"; 
 
 li w is li"; 2" is 12". 
 Longleaf Pine 
 
 (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n)... 1" is 13/16"; li" is 11/16"; 
 1*" is 1 5/16"; 2" Is li".
 
 52 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine 
 
 (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above. 
 Cypress and Tupelo 
 
 (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n)...!" is 13/16"; 1" is 1 1/16"; 
 
 li" is 1 5/16"; 2" is 1}". 
 Douglas Fir, Western Hem- 
 lock, Cedar and Spruce 
 (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) V is }" J li" is 1 1/16"; 1*" is 
 
 1 6/16*. 
 
 Hemlock and Tamarack 
 (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 1" is 13/16". 
 
 Idaho White Pine, Western 
 
 Pine, Fir and Larch 
 (Western Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . 1" is |". 
 
 Redwood 1", li", li", and 2" are 3/16" 
 
 scant for S-l-S and i' f scant 
 for S-2-S. 
 Gum and Yellow Poplar 
 
 (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) 1" is 13/16". 
 
 FINISH S-l-E OR S-2-E 
 
 S-l-E = Surfaced one edge; S-2-E = Surfaced two edges. 
 Woods Widths 
 
 White and Norway Pine 
 
 (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) 4" ig 3i"; 6" is 5i". 
 
 North Carolina Pine 
 
 (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n). 4" is 3f"; 6" is 5J"; 8" is 7J"; 
 
 10" is 9|"; 12" is llf". 
 Longleaf Pine 
 
 (Ga,-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . .4" is 3*"; 6" is 51"; 8" is 7*"; 
 
 10" is 9}"; 12" is Hi". 
 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine 
 
 (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above when S-4-S. 
 Cypress and Tupelo 
 
 (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . . 4" is 3i"; 6" is ej"; 8" is 7J"; 
 
 10" is 9i"; 12" is llf. 
 Douglas Fir, Western Hem- 
 lock, Cedar and Spruce 
 (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 4" is 3i; 6" is 6J"; 8" is 7J"; 
 
 10" is 9i"; 12" is Hi".
 
 STANDARD SIZES OP LUMBEB 53 
 
 Hemlock and Tamarack 
 (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 4" is 3i"; 6" is 6i". 
 
 Idaho White Pine, Western 
 
 Pine, Fir and Larch 
 (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .$" scant. 
 
 Redwood i" scant. 
 
 Gum and Yellow Poplar 
 
 (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n) Same as Cypress and Tupelo. 
 
 SHIPLAP (INCH) 
 
 Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) 
 
 White and Norway Pine 
 
 (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n). . ..1x8 is 25/32x7| F; 1x10 is 
 25/32x9 F; 1x12 is 25/32x 
 Hi F. 
 North Carolina Pine 
 
 (Nor. Car. Pine Ass'n) 1x8 is 13/16x7i F; 1x10 is 
 
 13/16x9i F. 
 Longleaf Pine 
 
 (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) ... 1x8 is 25/32x7i F; 1x10 is 
 
 25/32x9 F. 
 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine 
 
 (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .1x8 is fx7J F; 1x10 is x9$ F; 
 
 1x12 is fxlH F. 
 Cypress and Tupelo 
 
 (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . .1x8 is 13/16x7 F; 1x10 is 13/16 
 
 x9 F; 1x12 is 13/16x11 F. 
 Douglas Fir, Western Hem- 
 lock, Cedar and Spruce 
 (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 1x8 is fx7 F; 1x10 is 2x9 F; Ix 
 
 12 is fxll F. 
 Hemlock and Tamarack 
 (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 1x8 is 13/16x7i F; 1x10 is 
 
 13/16x9i F; 1x12 is 13/16x 
 Hi F. 
 Idaho White Pine, Western 
 
 Pine, Fir and Larch 
 (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) ... 1x8 Is }x7 F; 1x10 is |x9 F; 
 
 1x12 is fxll F. 
 Redwood 1x4 is 13/16x3 i F.
 
 j54 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 BOARDS (INCH) 
 
 Woods Thickness 
 
 White and Norway Pine 
 
 (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 25/32*. 
 
 North Carolina Pine 
 
 (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) S-l-S to I", S-2-S to 13/16". 
 
 Longleaf Pine 
 
 (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . .S-l-S or S-2-S to 13/16". 
 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine 
 
 (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above. 
 Cypress 
 
 (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . .Same as above. 
 Douglas Fir, Western Hem- 
 lock, Cedar and Spruce 
 (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to f ". 
 
 Hemlock and Tamarack 
 (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. 
 Ass'n; Mich. Hdw. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 13/16". 
 
 Redwood S-l-S to 13/16". 
 
 Sugar and California White 
 
 Pine S-2-S to J". 
 
 Eastern Hardwoods 
 
 (Nat. Hdw. Lbr. Ass'n; 
 Hardwood Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .S-2-S to 13/16". 
 
 DIMENSION (2-INCH, S-1-S-l-E) 
 S-1-S-l-E = Surfaced one side and one edge. 
 
 Woods Thickness and Width (Inches) 
 
 White and Norway Pine 
 
 (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) 2x4, 6, 8, 10 and 12, S-1-S-l-E 
 
 to IfxSg, 5|, 7ft, 9f and 
 Hi- 
 North Carolina Pine 
 
 (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . 2x4, 6, 8, 10. and 12, S-1-S-l-B 
 to IJxSJ, 6J, 7|. 9i, and 11J. 
 Longleaf Pine 
 
 (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . ..2x4, , 8, 10, and 12, S-1-S-l-E 
 to I*x3$, 6, 7, 8ft, and 111. 
 Cypress 
 
 (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . -Same as above.
 
 STANDARD SIZES OF LUMBER 55 
 
 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine 
 
 (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . 2x4, 6, 8, 10 and 12, S-1-S-l-E 
 to IfxSfi, 5f, 71, 91 and 111. 
 Douglas Fir and Western 
 
 Hemlock 
 (West Coast Lbr. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 2x4, 6, 8, 10 and 12, S-1-S-l-E 
 
 to I|x3f, 5f, 71, 91 and Hi. 
 Hemlock and Tamarack 
 (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) 2x4, 6, 8, 10 and 12, S-1-S-l-E 
 
 to IfzSi, 5|, 7f, 9f and 
 HI- 
 Idaho White Pine, Western 
 
 Pine, Fir and Larch 
 
 (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . . Jx4, 8, 8, 10, 12 and 14, S- 
 1-S-l-E to IfxSf, 51, 71, 91, 
 111 and 131. 
 
 Sugar and California White 
 Pine S-2-S to If". 
 
 DIMENSION (3-INCH, S-l-S OR S-2-S) 
 
 Woods Thickness 
 
 White and Norway Pine 
 
 (Nor. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 2|". 
 
 North Carolina Pine 
 
 (Nor. Car. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 2f. 
 Longleaf Pine 
 
 (Ga.-Fla. Sawmill Ass'n) . . .S-l-S or S-2-S to 2f. 
 Longleaf and Shortleaf Pine 
 
 (Yellow Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . S-l-S to 2J" ; S-2-S to 21". 
 Cypress 
 
 (So. Cypress Mfrs. Ass'n) . . .S-l-S or S-2-S to 2J". 
 Douglas Fir and Western 
 Hemlock 
 
 (West. Coast Lbr. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 21". 
 
 Hemlock and Tamarack 
 
 (Nor. Hem. & Hdw. Mfrs. 
 
 Ass'n) S-l-S or S-2-S to 2f. 
 
 Western Pine, Fir and Larch 
 
 (West. Pine Mfrs. Ass'n) . . . S-l-S or S-2-S to 21". 
 Sugar and California White 
 
 Pine S-2-S to 2f.
 
 56 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 HARDWOOD SIZES 
 
 The standard sizes adopted by the National 
 Hardwood Lumber Association are as follows: 
 
 Standard Lengths 
 
 Standard lengths are 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 
 13, 14, 15, and 16 feet; but not over 15 per cent 
 of odd lengths are admitted. 
 
 In the grade of Firsts and Seconds the lengths 
 are 8 to 16 feet; but there must not be more than 
 20 per cent under 12 feet, and not to exceed 10 
 per cent of 8 and 9-feet lengths. 
 
 Standard Thicknesses 
 
 The standard thicknesses of hardwood lum- 
 ber are: %, %, %, %, %, 1, 1%, 1%, 1%, 2, 2%, 
 3, 3i/ 2 , 4, 4i/ 2 , 5, 51/2, and 6 inches. 
 
 The standard thicknesses for surfaced lum- 
 ber are as follows: 
 
 Rough Surfaced Rough Surfaced 
 
 %" S-2-S to A" 1%" S-2-S to 1%* 
 
 %" S-2-S to A" 2 " S-2-S to 1%" 
 
 %" S-2-S to -ft* 2%* S-2-S to 2&" 
 
 %" S-2-S to A* 3 " S-2-S to 2%" 
 
 1 * S-2-S to H " 3 % " S-2-S to 3 % 
 
 1% S-2-S to 1& 4 * S-2-S to 3%" 
 
 1%" S-2-S to IJi" 
 
 Lumber surfaced one side only must be 1/16 
 inch full of the above thicknesses. 
 
 The standard sizes for hardwood lumber sur- 
 faced two sides adopted by the Hardwood Man- 
 ufacturers Association are as above, except that 
 these manufacturers work %-inch stock to 7/32 
 inch instead of 3/16 inch.
 
 SHIPPING WEIGHTS 
 
 THE lumber manufacturer usually makes 
 quotations upon the basis of delivery of 
 the lumber to any point desired. To do 
 this, it is necessary for him to know the weight 
 of the product, in order to figure freight charges 
 and add them to his f. o. b. mill price. For this 
 reason, the grading rules of practically all lum- 
 ber manufacturers' associations carry tables of 
 estimated weights of lumber when dried to what 
 is called " shipping condition." These weights 
 are, of course, somewhat arbitrary; but they are 
 based upon long experience, and are fair ap- 
 proximations of the weights of the commercial 
 products which they represent. So far as they 
 vary from actual weights, the estimated weights 
 are likely to be a little higher than the exact 
 weights. On the other hand, there is so much 
 difference in the weight of wood depending upon 
 the amount of seasoning, that not infrequently 
 lumber is shipped when it is decidedly heavier 
 than the estimated weights. 
 
 Softwoods 
 
 Estimated shipping weights of typical prod- 
 ucts of the principal softwoods in air-dry con- 
 dition are indicated in Table 11. 
 
 57
 
 58 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
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 SHIPPING WEIGHTS 59 
 
 Hardwoods 
 
 The estimated shipping weights for rough 
 inch lumber of the common hardwoods in air- 
 dry condition, are indicated in Table 12. 
 
 TABLE 12 
 
 Shipping Weights of Hardwoods 
 
 (Rough Inch Lumber In Lbs. per 1,000 Feet, Board Measure) 
 
 Ash, Black ... 3,200 Gum, Red ... 3,30.0 
 
 Ash, White... 3,500 to 3,800 Gum, Sap 3,000 to 3,100 
 
 Basswood 2,500 to 2,600 Hickory 4,500 to 5,000 
 
 Beech 4,000 Mahogany .... 3,500 
 
 Birch 4,000 Maple, Hard. 3,900 to 4,000 
 
 Buckeye 2,600 Maple, Soft. . . 3,000 to 3,300 
 
 Butternut 2,500 to 2,800 Oak 3,900 to 4,000 
 
 Cherry 3,800 to 4,000 Poplar, Yellow 2,800 
 
 Chestnut .... 2,800 Sycamore .... 3,000 to 3,200 
 
 Cottonwood . . 2,800 Tupelo 2,800 
 
 Elm, Rock . . . 3,800 to 4,000 Walnut 4,000 
 
 Elm, Soft 3, 000 to 3, 300 
 
 Kiln-Dried 
 
 Oak Flooring, f'xli", 1,000 Ibs.; 3"x2", 1,200 Ibs.; 13/16"x 
 li". 2,000 Ibs.; 13/16"x2", 2,100 Ibs.; 13/16"x2i", 2,200 Ibs. 
 
 Maple, Beech, and Birch Flooring, f'xli" or 2i", 1,000 Ibs.; 
 13/16"xli" or 2i", 2,100 Ibs.
 
 STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 
 
 TIMBERS are usually sawed from the heart 
 of the log. It pays the lumber manu- 
 facturer better to cut the clear, outside 
 portions of the log into higher classes of material 
 than it does to cut them into timbers which 
 bring a lower market price. For this reason, 
 timbers may contain many or all of the defects 
 common to the species from which they are cut. 
 Since, however, timbers are large pieces of wood 
 which are used as a whole, some small defects 
 do not greatly reduce the strength, and larger 
 defects of certain kinds may not be serious un- 
 less located at the points where the greatest 
 strength is required. 
 
 The most serious defects in structural tim- 
 bers are rot, knots, shake, and cross-grain. 
 Sometimes a beam or timber may be so placed 
 that these defects will not seriously interfere 
 with strength, whereas in a reverse position, 
 they would be very detrimental. For example, 
 knots near the center or ends have practically 
 no effect upon the strength of a beam. 
 
 The rate of growth is often thought to have 
 much effect upon the strength of large timbers; 
 but they are so likely to have defects of greater 
 importance that the rate of growth alone cannot 
 be depended upon to indicate the strength. In 
 the same way, while seasoning small sticks 
 
 60
 
 STRUCTURAL TIMBER^ 61 
 
 greatly increases their strength, it is not safe to 
 assume that large timbers when seasoned are 
 much stronger than when green. This is be- 
 cause checks which develop in seasoning are 
 likely to offset the increase in strength due to 
 the drying of the wood. For this reason, engi- 
 neers do not ordinarily consider it advisable to 
 figure upon a greater load for seasoned timbers 
 than would be safe for timbers of the same size 
 when green. 
 
 The Forest Service experiments in seasoning 
 large timbers lead to these conclusions: 
 
 (1) In general, timber 8 by 16 inches in cross-section 
 must season through, two entire summers before it reaches 
 a thoroughly air-dry condition. 
 
 (2) The weight of thoroughly air-seasoned timbers will 
 vary appreciably during the year, due to the alternate 
 evaporation and absorption of moisture. This change in 
 moisture content is accompanied by a corresponding 
 ghrinking and swelling which tends to increase the size 
 and number of checks formed through the seasoning pro- 
 cess. These hygroscopic changes, however, do not seem 
 to affect the interior of the timbers. 
 
 (3) If seasoning is started in the hot summer months, 
 the loss of moisture is at first very rapid, even though 
 the timber is protected from the sun and wind. The 
 rapid loss in weight is associated with a marked shrink- 
 age in the outer portion of the timber, which invariably 
 induces checking. The loss in weight in a stringer 8 by 
 16 inches in cross-section and 16 feet long, in three 
 months, varies from 40 to 60 pounds, the loss being pro- 
 portional in a general way to the amount of sapwood the 
 timber contains. Checking is less serious, however, when 
 the timbers contain a considerable amount of sapwood 
 than when they are practically all heartwood.
 
 62 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 (4) The best results are obtained when the air-season- 
 ing is started in the late fall or early winter months. 
 At this time of the year, the air is usually moist enough 
 to prevent rapid drying on the surface, and, in conse- 
 quence, serious checking. 
 
 (5) The absence of shrinkage in redwood timbers is 
 very noticeable, although redwood contains a large 
 amount of moisture when cut. On account of its low- 
 shrinkage factor, it can be seasoned without serious 
 checking. 
 
 ASSOCIATION RULES FOR STRUCTURAL 
 TIMBERS 
 
 Yellow Pine 
 
 The rules or specifications for structural tim- 
 bers adopted by the Yellow Pine Manufacturers 
 Association are: 
 
 No. 1 Common Timbers 
 
 Sizes. Common Timber shall be worked to the fol- 
 lowing: 4x4, 4x6, 6x6, %-inch off side and edge. Sur- 
 faced 4 sides, i/4-inch off each side; 6x8 and larger, 
 S-3-S or S-4-S, 1,4-inch off each side surfaced. 
 
 Rough Timbers, 4x4 and larger, shall not be more than 
 ^-inch scant at any point when green, and be well manu- 
 factured, with not less than three square edges, and will 
 admit sound knots that do not occupy more than one- 
 third the cross-section of the piece or small defective 
 knots. 
 
 Timbers 10x10 in size may have a 2-inch wane on one 
 corner, measured on faces, or its equivalent on two or 
 more corners one-third the length of the piece. Larger 
 sizes may have proportionately greater defects. 
 
 Shakes extending not over one-eighth of the length of 
 the piece are admissible, and seasoning checks shall not 
 be considered a defect.
 
 STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 63 
 
 Dressed Timbers shall conform in grading to the spec- 
 ifications applying to rough timbers of same size. 
 
 Rough Timbers, if thicker than specified thickness for 
 dry or green stock, may be dressed to such standard 
 thickness, and when so dressed shall be considered as 
 rough stock. 
 
 West Coast Timber 
 
 The grades for structural timbers adopted by 
 the West Coast Lumber Manufacturers Associ- 
 ation (applying chiefly to Douglas fir) are as 
 follows : 
 
 Clears Shall be sound lumber well sawed, one side 
 and two edges free from knots and other defects impair- 
 ing its use for the probable purpose intended. Will 
 allow in dimensions larger than 6 by 10 inches pitch 
 pockets when not extending through the piece; light- 
 colored sap on corners not exceeding 3 inches on face 
 and edge, knots 2 inches and less in diameter, according 
 to size of piece, when on one face and one-half of each 
 corresponding edge, leaving one face and upper half of 
 each edge clear. 
 
 Selects Shall be sound, strong lumber, well sawed. 
 Will allow in sizes over 6 by 6 inch, knots, not to exceed 
 2 inches in diameter, varying according to the size of 
 the piece; sap on corner not to exceed 2 inches on both 
 face and edge; pitch pockets not to exceed 6 inches in 
 length. Defects in all cases to be considered in connec- 
 tion with the size of the piece and its general quality. 
 
 Merchantable This grade shall consist of sound, 
 strong lumber, free from shakes, large, loose, or rotten 
 knots, and defects that materially impair its strength, 
 well manufactured, and suitable for good, substantial 
 constructional purposes. Will allow slight variations in 
 sawing, sound knots, pitch pockets, and sap on corners, 
 one-third the width and one-half the thickness, or its 
 equivalent. Defects in all cases to be considered in con-
 
 64 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 nection with the size of the piece and its general quality. 
 In timber 10 by 10 inches and over, sap shall not be con- 
 sidered a defect. Discolorations through exposure to 
 elements, other than black sap, shall not be deemed a 
 defect excluding lumber from this grade if otherwise 
 conforming to merchantable grade. 
 
 Common This grade shall consist of lumber having 
 knots, sap, and other defects which exclude it from grad- 
 ing as merchantable, but of a quality suitable for rough 
 kinds of work. 
 
 American Society for Testing Materials 
 
 The American Society for Testing Materials 
 has been working for many years to establish 
 commercial standards for all structural materials 
 upon a scientific basis. The specifications which 
 it has adopted for structural timber are as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 I. Definition of Structural Timber 
 
 By the term "Structural Timber" the Committee 
 understands all such products of wood in ' which the 
 strength of the timber is the controlling element in their 
 selection and use. The following is a list of products 
 which are recommended for consideration as structural 
 timbers : 
 
 Trestle Timbers Stringers, caps, posts, mud sills, brac- 
 ing, bridge ties, guard rails. 
 
 Car Timbers Car framing, including upper framing; 
 car sills. 
 
 Framing for Building's Posts, mud sills, girders, fram- 
 ing, joists. 
 
 Ship Timbers Ship timbers, ship decking. 
 
 Cross-Arms for Poles. 
 
 II. Standard Defects 
 
 Measurements which refer to the diameter of knots or
 
 Standard Knot 
 
 Large Knot 
 
 Plate 8 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 Loose Knot 
 
 Encased Knot 
 
 Pith Knot 
 Plate 9 Lumber and Its Uses 
 
 Rotten Knot
 
 STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 65 
 
 holes should be considered as referring to the mean or 
 average diameter. 
 
 1. Sound Knot A sound knot is one which is solid 
 across its face, and which is as hard as the wood sur- 
 rounding it ; it may be either red or black, and is so fixed 
 by growth or position that it will retain its place in the 
 piece. 
 
 2. Loose Knot A loose knot is one not firmly held in 
 place by growth or position. 
 
 3. Pith Knot A pith knot is a sound knot with a 
 pith hole not more than 14 inch in diameter in the center. 
 
 4. Encased Knot An encased knot is one which is 
 surrounded wholly or in part by bark or pitch. Where 
 the encasement is less than % of an inch in width on 
 both sides, not exceeding one-half the circumference of 
 the knot, it shall be considered a sound knot. 
 
 5. Rotten Knot A rotten knot is one not as hard as 
 the wood it is in. 
 
 6. Pin Knot A pin knot is a sound knot not over % 
 inch in diameter. 
 
 7. Standard Knot A standard knot is a sound knot 
 not over 1^2 inches in diameter. 
 
 8. Large Knot A large knot is a sound knot more 
 than iy 2 inches in diameter. 
 
 9. Round Knot A round knot is one which is oval 
 or circular in form. 
 
 10. Spike Knot A spike knot is one sawn in a length- 
 wise direction; the mean or average width shall be con- 
 sidered in measuring these knots. 
 
 11. Pitch Pockets Pitch pockets are openings be- 
 tween the grain of the wood containing more or less 
 pitch or bark. These shall be classified as " small," 
 "standard," and "large" pitch pockets. 
 
 (a) Small Pitch Pocket. A small pitch pocket is one 
 not over % of an inch wide. 
 
 (b) Standard Pitch Pocket. A standard pitch pocket 
 is one not over % of an inch wide or 3 inches in length.
 
 66 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 (c) Large Pitch Pocket. A large pitch pocket is one 
 over % of an inch wide or over 3 inches in length. 
 
 12. Pitch Streak A pitch streak is a well-defined 
 accumulation of pitch at one point in the piece. When 
 not sufficient to develop a well-defined streak, or where 
 the fiber between grains that is, the coarse-grained fiber, 
 usually termed "Spring wood" is not saturated with 
 pitch, it shall not be considered a defect. 
 
 13. Wane Wane is bark, or the lack of wood from 
 any cause, on edges of timbers. 
 
 14. Shades Shakes are splits or checks in timbers 
 which usually cause a separation of the wood between 
 annual rings. 
 
 15. Rot, Dote, and Red Heart Any form of decay 
 which may be evident either as a dark red discoloration 
 not found in the sound wood, or the presence of white 
 or red rotten spots, shall be considered as a defect. 
 
 16. Ring Shake An opening between the annual 
 rings. 
 
 17. Through Shake A shake which extends between 
 two faces of a timber. 
 
 III. Standard Names for Structural Timbers 
 
 1. Southern Yellow Pine Under this heading, two 
 classes of timber are used: (1) Longleaf Pine; (2) Short- 
 leaf Pine. 
 
 It is understood that these two terms are descriptive 
 of quality, rather than of botanical species. Thus, 
 "Shortleaf Pine" would cover such species as are now 
 known as North Carolina pine, loblolly pine, and short- 
 leaf pine. "Longleaf Pine" is descriptive of quality; 
 and if Cuban, shortleaf, or loblolly pine is grown under 
 such conditions that it produces a large percentage of 
 hard summer wood, so as to be equivalent to the wood 
 produced by the true longleaf, it would be covered by 
 the term "Longleaf Pine."
 
 STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 67 
 
 2. Douglas Fir The term "Douglas Fir" to cover 
 the timber known likewise as yellow fir, red fir, Western 
 fir, Washington fir, Oregon or Puget Sound fir or pine, 
 norwest and west coast fir. 
 
 3. Norway Pine, to cover what is known also as "Red 
 Pine." 
 
 4. Hemlock, to cover Southern or Eastern hemlock 
 that is, hemlock from all States east of and including 
 Minnesota. 
 
 5. Western Hemlock, to cover hemlock from the 
 Pacific coast. 
 
 6. Spruce, to cover Eastern spruce that is, the spruce 
 timber coming from points east of Minnesota. 
 
 7. Western Spruce, to cover the spruce timber from 
 the Pacific coast. 
 
 8. White Pine, to cover the timber which has hitherto 
 been known as white pine, from Maine, Michigan, Wis- 
 consin, and Minnesota. 
 
 9. Idaho White Pine, the variety of white pine from 
 western Montana, northern Idaho, and eastern Washing- 
 ton. 
 
 10. Western Pine, to cover the timber sold as white 
 pine coming from Arizona, California, New Mexico, Colo- 
 rado, Oregon, and Washington. This is the timber some- 
 times known as "Western Yellow Pine," or "Ponderosa 
 Pine," or "California White Pine," or "Western White 
 Pine." 
 
 11. Western Larch, to cover the species of larch or 
 tamarack from the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast 
 regions. 
 
 12. Tamarack, to cover the timber known as "Tama- 
 rack," or "Eastern Tamarack," from States east of and 
 including Minnesota. 
 
 13. Redwood, to include the California wood usually 
 known by that name.
 
 68 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 IV. Standard Specifications for Bridge and Trestle 
 Timbers 
 
 (To be applied to solid members and not to composite members) 
 
 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 
 
 Except as noted, all timber shall be cut from sound 
 trees and sawed standard size; close-grained and solid; 
 free from defects such as injurious ring shakes and 
 crooked grain, unsound knots, knots in groups, decay, 
 large pitch pockets, or other defects that will materially 
 impair its strength. 
 
 Standard Size of Sawed Timber Rough timbers when 
 sawed to standard size, shall mean that they shall not be 
 over y in. scant from actual size specified. For instance, 
 a 12 in. x 12 in. shall measure not less than 11% in. x 
 1134 in. 
 
 Standard Dressing of Sawed Timbers Standard dress- 
 ing means that not more than 14 in. shall be allowed for 
 dressing each surface. For instance, a 12 in. x 12 in. 
 shall, after dressing four sides, not measure less than 
 Hi/2 in. x ll^j in. 
 
 STRINGERS 
 
 No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Shall 
 show not less than 80 per cent of heart on each of the 
 four sides, measured across the sides anywhere in the 
 length of the piece; loose knots, or knots greater than 
 1^ in. in diameter, will not be permitted at points within 
 4 inches of the edges of the piece. 
 
 No. 2. Longleaf Yellow Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Douglas 
 Fir, and Western Hemlock Shall be square edged, ex- 
 cept it may have 1 in. wane on one corner. Knots must 
 not exceed in their largest diameter ^4 the width of the 
 face of the stick in which they occur. Ring shakes 
 extending not over % of the length of the piece are 
 admissible. 
 
 CAPS AND SILLS 
 
 No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Shall 
 show 85 per cent heart on each of the four sides, meas-
 
 STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 69 
 
 ured across the sides anywhere in the length of the piece ; 
 to be free from knots over 2y% in. in diameter; knots 
 must not be in groups. 
 
 No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas 
 Fir, and Western Hemlock Shall be square-edged, ex- 
 cept it may have 1 in. wane on one corner, or % in. 
 wane on two corners. Knots must not exceed in their 
 largest diameter !/4 the width of the face of the stick in 
 which they occur. Ring shakes extending not over ^ 
 the length of the piece are admissible. 
 POSTS 
 
 No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Shall 
 show not less than 75 per cent heart, measured across the 
 face anywhere on the length of the piece ; to be free from 
 knots over 2y z in. in diameter, and must not be in 
 groups. 
 
 No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas 
 Fir, and Western Hemlock Shall be square-edged, ex- 
 cept it may have 1 in. wane on one corner, or y z in. 
 wane on two corners. Knots must not exceed, in their 
 largest diameter, y^ the width of the face of the stick in 
 which they occur. Ring shakes shall not extend over 
 % of the length of the piece. 
 
 LONGITUDINAL STRUTS OR GIRTS 
 
 No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Shall 
 show one face all heart; the other face and two sides 
 shall show not less than 85 per cent heart, measured 
 across the face or side anywhere in the piece; to be free 
 from knots 1% in. in diameter and over. 
 
 No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas 
 Fir, and Western Hemlock Shall be square-edged and 
 sound; to be free from knots l*/2 in. in diameter and 
 over. 
 
 LONGITUDINAL X-BRACES, SASH BRACES, AND SWAY BRACES 
 
 No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir Shall 
 
 show not less than 80 per cent heart on two faces and
 
 70 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 four square edges; to be free from knots over iy 2 in. in 
 diameter. 
 
 No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas 
 Fir, and Western Hemlock Shall be square-edged and 
 sound; to be free from knots 2y% in. in diameter and 
 over. 
 
 FOREST SERVICE RULES 
 
 As the result of tests upon structural timbers, 
 the Forest Service proposes the following 
 grades : 
 
 Grade 1 Timbers having a modulus of rup- 
 ture over 4,000 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Grade 2 Serviceable timbers having a modu- 
 lus of rupture under 4,000 pounds per square 
 inch. 
 
 Culls Timbers having visible defects which 
 render them unfit for structural purposes. 
 
 The practical application of these grades is 
 illustrated by the following definitions of terms 
 and tentative rules for timbers, based upon a 
 long series of tests: 
 
 DEFINITIONS 
 
 Snakes 
 
 A shake is a separation of one annual ring from an- 
 other, in some cases only a few degrees in length, in 
 others entirely separating two rings. It is thought that 
 shakes are produced in the living tree by stresses caused, 
 by winds and changes of temperature. They are most 
 common in woods that split easily. Shakes are difficult 
 to detect in green timber, and usually do not become 
 visible until the timber is at least partly seasoned. A
 
 STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 71 
 
 shake decreases the strength of timber in proportion as 
 a plane tangent to it approaches parallelism with the 
 neutral plane in the beam, since the more nearly parallel 
 the two planes the smaller is the area resisting horizontal 
 shear. 
 
 Checks 
 
 Checks are radial cracks or splits produced, almost 
 without exception, by uneven shrinkage during season- 
 ing. Occasionally, however, they are present in green 
 timber. 
 
 Cross-Grains 
 
 Cross-grain may be divided into three general classes: 
 
 Diagonal Grain In sawing lumber, if the plane of the 
 saw is not approximately parallel to the axis of the log, 
 the grain of the lumber cut is not parallel to the edges, 
 and is termed diagonal. 
 
 Spiral Grain In many trees the fibers composing each 
 year's growth are ranged spirally instead of vertically. 
 The greater the pitch of the spiral, the greater is the 
 defect. Spiral grain usually cannot be detected from a 
 casual inspection of the piece, since it does not show in 
 the so-called visible grain of the wood, which in softwood 
 lumber is nothing but a sectional view of the annual rings 
 cut longitudinally. A careful inspection, however, of the 
 medullary rays on the tangential or bastard section, will 
 invariably reveal spiral grain, since the rays necessarily 
 incline with the spiral direction of the fibers around the 
 trunk, and therefore, in section, appear obliquely on the 
 face of the timber. Spiral grain may readily be detected 
 also by splitting a small piece radially. 
 
 Burls Burls are local disturbances in the grain of tim- 
 ber, usually associated with knots or produced by the 
 healing of wounds during the life of the tree. 
 
 Pitch Pockets 
 
 Pitch pockets are cavities between annual rings, 
 usually filled with resin. They are rarely large enough 
 to affect seriously the strength of structural timbers.
 
 72 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Knots 
 
 Knots are portions of branches which have been encased 
 in the growing trunk of the tree. In judging their effect 
 upon the strength of timber, it should be borne in mind 
 that the axis of a knot always extends to the center or 
 pith of the tree, and that the visible part of the knot is 
 a section of a somewhat conical mass of wood, the apex 
 of the cone being at the pith of the tree, and the knot, 
 as a whole, more or less intertwined with the wood sur- 
 rounding it. A spike knot is a longitudinal section of a 
 whole knot; and a round or elliptical knot is a section, 
 respectively at right angles or at some oblique angle, to 
 the axis of the knot. Sound knots, as a rule, are stronger 
 and harder than the wood fiber surrounding them. Their 
 effect, therefore, upon the strength of the timber depends 
 to a large extent upon the manner in which they are 
 connected to the surrounding wood and upon the degree 
 of stress to which the connecting fibers are subjected. If 
 the knots disturb the grain so that it is decidedly oblique 
 to the edges of the timber, the wood will be subjected 
 to stresses in tension at right angles to the grain, the 
 kind to which it offers the least resistance. In such cases 
 early failure in cross-grain tension almost invariably 
 results. 
 
 Class 1 Knots Class 1 knots must be solid, firmly 
 attached to the surrounding wood, and must cause no 
 marked irregularity in the grain of the timber. Small 
 spike knots will be included in this class. 
 
 Class 2 Knots Class 2 knots must be solid, but are 
 insecurely attached to the surrounding wood, or associ- 
 ated with burl or other irregularity in the grain. 
 
 Class 3 Knots Class 3 knots are unsound knots; that 
 is, they are softer than the surrounding wood. 
 
 Dimensions of Knots The dimension of a knot on the 
 narrow face of a timber will be the projection of the knot
 
 STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 73 
 
 on a line perpendicular to an edge of the timber. On 
 the wide, or vertical, faces the smallest diameter of a 
 knot is to be taken as its dimension. 
 
 Small Knots Knots less than iy 2 inches in diameter. 
 
 Large Knots Knots iy 2 inches or more in diameter. 
 
 7cL.3 h 
 
 i 
 
 .* 1 JSTo 
 
 Vol.9 
 
 J&l \ VtL.I 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 7. Diagram Showing Method of Locating 
 Defects in Stringers 
 
 Position of Defects The position of defects is desig- 
 nated by means of the three volumes indicated in the 
 diagram (Fig. 7). 
 
 Dense Wood 
 
 The term "dense wood" is used to define the quality 
 of wood which is desirable in timbers subjected to 
 stresses such as occur in frame structures. The term 
 applies to the wood itself, irrespective of defects. Since 
 dry weight, which is the most accurate index to the 
 mechanical properties of wood, cannot be determined 
 from a casual inspection of the timber, dense or, in 
 other words, comparatively heavy wood will be de- 
 fined as: 
 
 (1) Wood that shows more than eight rings per inch, or the 
 rings of which contain more than 30 per cent summerwood. 
 
 (2) Wood which is resilient that is, which, when struck 
 with a hammer or similar blunt instrument, gives a sharp, 
 clear sound, while the hammer shows a marked tendency to 
 rebound and the wood to recover from the effects of the blow. 
 
 These properties are to be judged from an inspection 
 of the cross-section of the timber.
 
 74 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TENTATIVE GRADING RULES 
 
 The following tentative rules are for the purpose of 
 strength classification only, and do not take into account 
 requirements of a general nature such as conformity to 
 dimensions, proportion of sap, or other requirements 
 made necessary by peculiarities of certain species. 
 Grade 1 Timbers 
 
 (a) Must contain only dense wood. 
 
 (b) Must not have Class 2 or large Class 1 knots in volume 1. 
 
 (c) Must not have large Class 2 knots in volume 2. 
 
 (d) The aggregate diameter of knots on any face within 
 the center half of the length shall not exceed the width of the 
 face. 
 
 (e) Must not have shakes or deep checks. 
 
 (f) Must not have diagonal grain with a slope greater than 
 
 1 inch in 20. 
 
 Grade 2 Timbers 
 
 (a) Must contain only dense wood. 
 
 (b) Must not have large Class 2 knots in volume 1. 
 
 (c) The aggregate diameter of knots on any face in the 
 center half of the length shall not exceed two times the width 
 of the face. 
 
 (d) Must not have shakes which extend along an annual 
 ring a distance greater than the width of the piece. 
 
 Classification of Timbers 
 
 As the result of the application of the pro- 
 posed grades to the species tested, the Forest 
 Service classifies them in order of strength as 
 follows : 
 
 Class 1 Timbers To include Grade 1 timbers for longleaf 
 pine, shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, and Douglas fir. Shortleaf 
 pine and loblolly pine, however, generally contain quite a large 
 proportion of sapwood, which is not nearly so durable as the 
 heartwood. Therefore unless these species were treated with 
 a preservative, they should be excluded from this class and 
 put into Class 2. 
 
 Class 2 Timbers To consist of Grade 2 longleaf pine, Grade 
 
 2 Douglas fir, Grade 1 western larch and hemlock, and Grade 
 1 tamarack. 
 
 Class 3 Timbers To include Grade 1 redwood, Grade 1 Nor-
 
 STRUCTURAL TIMBERS 75 
 
 way pine, Grade 2 shortleaf pine, Grade 2 loblolly pine, Grade 2 
 tamarack, Grade 2 western hemlock. 
 
 This classification is based entirely upon the strength 
 developed by the timbers tested, and does not take into 
 consideration other properties which may be desirable 
 for any particular use. For example, the durability of 
 the different species is influenced greatly by the amount 
 of sapwood which the timbers contain. Shortleaf pine, 
 loblolly pine, Norway pine, and tamarack usually con- 
 tain a considerable proportion of sapwood. All of the 
 other species mentioned can be secured, as a rule, in 
 dimension sizes practically free from sapwood. If, how- 
 ever, the timbers are to be given a preservative treat- 
 ment, sapwood may be an advantage, since it readily 
 absorbs creosote and other preservatives. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 The tests of the Forest Service upon struc- 
 tural timbers lead to these conclusions: 
 
 (1) The mechanical properties of timber beams are depend- 
 ent upon: a, The quality of the wood irrespective of defects; 
 
 . b, the character and location of defects. 
 
 (2) The mechanical properties of wood free from defects 
 vary directly with its dry weight. The relative dry weight of 
 the different pieces of wood of any species can be approximated 
 by comparing the proportion of summerwood in each. 
 
 (3) The only defects which materially decrease the break- 
 ing strength of timber beams are the more serious ones, such as 
 large knots and cross-grains occurring where fibers are sub- 
 jected to comparatively high stresses. 
 
 (4) All the species tested seem to be subject to the same 
 general laws regarding the relation of mechanical to physical 
 properties.
 
 SEASONING OF TIMBER 
 
 T"1RESHLY cut timber frequently contains 
 [^ half its weight of water, or, stated other- 
 wise, it contains 100 per cent of water 
 based upon the absolutely dry weight of the 
 wood. A large proportion of this excess water 
 must be removed before the timber is in shape 
 to use, and the process by which it is removed 
 is called "seasoning." Seasoning usually in- 
 creases the strength, stiffness, and hardness of 
 timber, greatly reduces its weight, and renders 
 it less likely to shrink in subsequent usage. 
 Timber is used green only when absolutely nec- 
 essary, since, among other undesirable quali- 
 ties, it is more likely to decay than is seasoned 
 timber. 
 
 There are two general methods of seasoning 
 timber the natural and the artificial, or air- 
 drying and kiln-drying. Air-dried timber may 
 contain from 15 to 30 per cent of moisture, de- 
 pending upon kind, size, climate, and other fac- 
 tors. Kiln-dried timber usually contains 5 to 
 10 per cent of moisture; while in what is called 
 " oven-dry" or "bone-dry" wood, the moisture 
 content is less than 1 per cent of the absolutely 
 dry weight of the wood. 
 
 For ordinary structural timber, studding, 
 sheathing, and the like, air-drying is sufficient. 
 For the more refined uses of timber where it is 
 
 76
 
 SEASONING OF TIMBER 77 
 
 re-worked into flooring, finish, furniture, and 
 other articles, thorough kiln-drying is necessary 
 to reduce as much as possible the tendency to 
 swell and shrink with atmospheric changes. 
 Heavy material like vehicle stock may be air- 
 dried for two or three years, and then kiln-dried 
 slowly for a long time to obtain the necessary 
 seasoning with the least checking and warping. 
 
 Thin boards of any kind of lumber exhibit 
 more or less tendency to check and twist dur- 
 ing seasoning processes. This tendency is 
 greater in the hardwoods than in the softwoods, 
 because of the much more complex structure of 
 the hardwoods. Commercial practice has, how- 
 ever, made such rapid strides in the last few 
 years that almost any kind of timber is now suc- 
 cessfully seasoned by either natural or artificial 
 means. For many years, cottonwood and gum 
 were rejected by sawmill operators, because of 
 the general belief that they could not be satis- 
 factorily seasoned. Now the manufacturers 
 handle these woods with comparatively little 
 trouble; and their products are popular for a 
 multitude of purposes, some of which are most 
 exacting. 
 
 Since most of the softwoods are very easily 
 kiln-dried with little damage, many of them are 
 artificially seasoned to reduce the shipping 
 weight and save the time required for air-sea- 
 soning. Much of the Southern yellow pine and 
 the Western fir and cedar go straight from the 
 sawmill to the dry-kiln, and then into cars for
 
 78 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 shipment to market. As the hardwoods are 
 more difficult to handle, they are ordinarily air- 
 dried by the lumber manufacturer, and kiln- 
 dried at the factory where they are re-worked 
 into flooring, finish, and other products. 
 
 AIR-DRYING 
 
 Lumber may be air-dried at the sawmill for a 
 few months to a year, before it is ready to ship 
 to consuming points. The time required to 
 reach shipping condition depends upon weather, 
 season of the year, kind of timber, and climate. 
 Inch pine lumber may dry to shipping condition 
 in two months in the Southwest in summer; 
 while, in the damp climate of the Gulf Coast, 
 cypress manufacturers may find it necessary to 
 hold lumber in their yards for a year to bring 
 it to shipping condition. 
 
 Quick and satisfactory air-drying of lumber 
 is secured by following certain principles which 
 are recognized by all experienced lumbermen. 
 These are to have solid foundations so that the 
 piles will not settle out of shape ; to have a good 
 clearance above ground, and the piles sufficiently 
 open to give free circulation of air; to have 
 enough cross-pieces regularly placed to hold the 
 boards straight while they are seasoning; and 
 to give sufficient slope to the piles, and have 
 them well covered so that water will run off 
 quickly. A careful observance of these princi- 
 ples will produce straight, bright stock under
 
 SEASONING OF TIMBER 79 
 
 conditions which would result in very poor stock 
 if the lumber were not properly piled. 
 
 There is a common theory that if timber is cut 
 in the winter "while the sap is down," it is much 
 superior to summer-cut timber in strength, re- 
 sistance to decay, and other desirable qualities. 
 As a matter of fact, while there are certain ad- 
 vantages in winter cutting, there is absolutely 
 nothing to the notion that the sap is "down" 
 in winter and "up" in summer. There is prac- 
 tically no difference between winter and sum- 
 mer in the amount of water which the wood of 
 a tree contains. Winter-cut wood seasons best 
 because it dries out more slowly and evenly, with 
 less checking and warping, than summer-cut 
 wood. It is also less liable to attacks of fungi, 
 which produce decay or stain. Since the hard- 
 woods are more difficult to season than the soft- 
 woods, the latter are less likely to sustain inju- 
 rious effects from summer cutting. In the North, 
 therefore, many operators saw mostly hard- 
 woods in the winter and spring, and softwoods 
 pine and hemlock in the summer and fall. 
 However, many lumbermen cut timber the year 
 round as it runs in the forest, and experience 
 no special difficulty in either handling or mar- 
 keting their stock. 
 
 A recent innovation in lumber seasoning for 
 which much is claimed is a preliminary steam- 
 ing in a tight cylinder before the lumber is piled 
 in the yard to air-dry in the usual fashion. It 
 is said that the steamed lumber air-dries much
 
 V 
 
 80 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 more quickly and with less checking and warp- 
 ing than does unsteamed lumber. It is also 
 claimed that lumber cut from logs which have 
 been in the water for some time, seasons better 
 than lumber cut from logs which go straight 
 from the stump to the mill. Both the steaming 
 and the water-soaking seem to dissolve some of 
 the contents of the cells in the sapwood, and 
 open the wood up so that it subsequently sea- 
 sons more uniformly. 
 
 KILN-DRYING 
 
 The artificial seasoning of lumber has made 
 such rapid strides in recent years that it is now 
 claimed, on good authority, that lumber of al- 
 most any kind can be kiln-dried in compara- 
 tively short time, with less damage than 
 results from air-drying. However, many users 
 insist that only air-dried lumber is fit for the 
 most exacting purposes. This opinion is due 
 very largely to the poor work done by the early 
 types of kilns, which were neither scientifically 
 constructed nor properly operated. 
 
 The rate at which lumber seasons is deter- 
 mined by three factors temperature, humidity, 
 and air circulation. All of these factors admit 
 of regulation in a kiln; hence it is fair to assume 
 that it is feasible to obtain favorable combina- 
 tions of them which will rarely be found under 
 natural conditions. 
 
 Kinds of Kilns. Kilns for drying lumber are 
 of three general types:
 
 Pin Knot 
 
 Pitch Streak 
 
 Spike Knot 
 ;'Plate 10 Lumber and Its Uses 
 
 Pitch Pocket
 
 A Douglas Fir Forest 
 Plate 11 Lumber and Its 'Uses
 
 SEASONING OP TIMBER 81 
 
 (1) The dry air kiln, which is now generally 
 obsolete because it produced so much case-hard- 
 ened and honeycombed lumber.* 
 
 (2) The moist air kiln, of which there are 
 several modifications according to the methods 
 used to regulate circulation and humidity. 
 
 (3) The kiln which uses superheated steam. 
 Whatever make or type of kiln is used, its 
 
 successful operation requires adherence to the 
 following principles according to the authority 
 of the United States Forest Service: 
 
 (1) The timber should be heated through before drying 
 begins. 
 
 (2) The air should be very humid at the beginning of 
 the drying process, and be made drier only gradually. 
 
 (3) The temperature of the lumber must be main- 
 tained uniformly throughout the entire pile. For this 
 an exceedingly large circulation of air is essential. 
 
 (4) Control of the drying process at any given tem- 
 perature must be secured by controlling the relative 
 humidity, not by decreasing the circulation. 
 
 * Case-hardening and honeycombing may be explained thus: 
 Suppose a block of wood is very wet, and is placed in a kiln at 
 too high a temperature and too low a humidity. The surface 
 begins to dry and tends to shrink, but is prevented from doing 
 so by the wet interior. Being plastic, it yields to this resistance 
 and becomes stretched. If not plastic, it will check open. As 
 drying proceeds, the surface hardens and sets in an expanded 
 condition, and acts as a strong shell. The interior now dries 
 very slowly, does not become set, but shrinks; and, as the 
 exterior is already hard, it opens up or "honeycombs." When 
 the exterior once becomes set or "case-hardened," the interior 
 is almost certain to become honeycombed, whether the drying 
 takes places in the kiln or a long time afterward. The only 
 remedy is to moisten the exterior by steaming or soaking before 
 it is too late. Air-dried material may also case-harden and 
 honeycomb.
 
 82 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 (5) In general, high temperatures permit more rapid 
 drying than do lower ones. The higher the temperature 
 of the lumber, the more efficient is the kiln. It is believed 
 that temperatures as high as the boiling point are not 
 injurious to most woods, provided the humidity of the 
 surrounding air is great enough. Some species, however, 
 may not be able to stand as high temperatures as others. 
 
 (6) The degree of dryness attained, where strength is 
 the prime requisite, should not exceed that at which the 
 wood is to be used. 
 
 Kilns which most nearly conform to these 
 principles of operation yield a product which is 
 superior to ordinary air-dried lumber, since it 
 warps, checks, and stains less in the seasoning 
 process, and will reabsorb from the air from 15 
 to 25 per cent less moisture than air-dried lum- 
 ber. This reduction in the ability of the wood 
 to absorb moisture or, as it is technically 
 called, its "hygroscopicity" is very important, 
 because it means a reduction in the extent to 
 which the wood will swell or shrink under at- 
 mospheric changes.
 
 WOOD PRESERVATION 
 
 SOME kinds of timber rot quickly after cut- 
 ting; others last for many years, even un- 
 der severe conditions. No hard and fast 
 line can be drawn between woods which are 
 durable and those which are not, since much de- 
 pends upon the proportions of sapwood and 
 heartwood, the amount of seasoning, and the 
 situation in which the timber is used. Neither 
 is it possible to say that any one kind of tim- 
 ber is superior to all other kinds in durability, 
 or that the softwoods as a group resist decay 
 better than the hardwoods, or vice versa. 
 
 Among the woods which are generally rec- 
 ognized as possessing much natural durability, 
 are the cedars, redwood, cypress, osage orange, 
 and black locust. Posts, poles, and ties made 
 of these woods are often sound after many years 
 of service under conditions favorable to decay. 
 On the other hand, timber of naturally durable 
 woods which is not seasoned before it is used, or 
 which contains a very large amount of sapwood, 
 may rot quickly; while properly handled timber 
 of the less durable woods may last a long time. 
 Timber like maple, gum, or birch rots quickly if 
 used for a post or railroad tie without preserva- 
 tive treatment, while, if seasoned and used for 
 house finish, it lasts indefinitely. 
 
 83
 
 84 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 WHAT DECAY IS 
 
 Authorities estimate that the equivalent of 
 nearly eight billion board feet of timber is an- 
 nually destroyed by decay in the United States. 
 This consists chiefly of lumber used for building 
 purposes in places where most likely to decay, 
 together with railroad ties, posts, poles, and 
 mine timbers. 
 
 The decay of timber is caused by minute or- 
 ganisms called bacteria and fungi. They feed 
 upon wood, and change it as completely as the 
 digestive processes change the material upon 
 which the higher forms of life feed. Sapwood 
 is the most liable to decay, because it contains 
 much more food for bacteria and fungi than 
 does heartwood. The conditions which permit 
 the growth of decay-causing organisms in wood 
 are requisite amounts of heat, air, and moisture. 
 These conditions usually exist in the most fa- 
 vorable combination at or just below the surface 
 of the ground; so it is at these points that tim- 
 ber rots most quickly. The entire absence of 
 either heat, air, or moisture, makes decay im- 
 possible. Timber kept either absolutely dry or 
 absolutely wet lasts indefinitely, if not subject 
 to wear. Sound timber found in the tombs of 
 Egypt is an example of the former; and sound 
 timber found in the Thames, dating from the 
 Roman occupation of England, is an example 
 of the latter. 
 
 HOW DECAY IS PREVENTED 
 
 Decay of timber is prevented by treating it
 
 WOOD PRESERVATION 85 
 
 with antiseptics, or substances which are poi- 
 sonous to bacteria and fungi. There are, of 
 course, many such substances; but practical con- 
 siderations make only a few of them suitable 
 for commercial use. One of the first essentials 
 of a good wood preservative is that it shall not 
 dissolve out when the wood gets wet or is 
 placed in water. For this purpose the best ma- 
 terial so far discovered is creosote, a complex 
 product of the distillation of coal tar. For 
 comparatively dry situations, zinc chloride is 
 a cheap and effective preservative; but it can- 
 not be used for the treatment of timbers which 
 are placed in water or in wet situations, be- 
 cause it leaches out quickly. Many experiments 
 have been and are being made with various oils 
 and distillation products; and, no doubt, other 
 wood preservatives will be developed. 
 
 Paint lengthens the life of wood because it 
 keeps out moisture and closes openings through 
 which fungi might enter; but it is essential that 
 wood be well seasoned before it is painted. 
 
 The rapid growth of the timber-treating in- 
 dustry may be judged from the fact that the 
 first successful wood-preserving plants in the 
 United States were built about 1870. In 1904 
 there were 35 such plants; and at present there 
 are more than 90, with an annual output in 
 excess of 125 million cubic feet of treated tim- 
 ber, of which by far the larger portion consists 
 of railway ties and telegraph and telephone 
 poles.
 
 86 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 How Preservatives Are Applied 
 There are three general methods of applying 
 wood preservatives the brush method, the 
 pressure method, and the open-tank method. 
 
 Brush Method. The brush method consists 
 in applying the preservative with a brush in 
 the same manner as paint. It is the least ef- 
 fective method, because of the very slight pene- 
 tration obtained. It is useful, however, in cases 
 where the preservatives cannot be forced into 
 the wood, in painting the joints in timbers, the 
 bottom of barges, etc. 
 
 Pressure Method. In the pressure process, 
 the general features are practically the same, 
 irrespective of the kind of preservative used. 
 The timber to be treated is placed upon small 
 cars, and run into large steel cylinders that are 
 fitted with swinging doors. When the wood is 
 in the cylinder, the doors are bolted fast, and 
 the whole made practically air-tight. Saturated 
 steam is then forced into the cylinder; and the 
 wood is heated for five to fifteen hours, depend- 
 ing chiefly upon the amount of moisture it con- 
 tains. It is claimed that by this steaming proc- 
 ess the sap in the wood is heated and all the 
 germs of decay destroyed. At the conclusion of 
 the steaming, a powerful vacuum is applied, 
 and held for one to three hours. This vacuum 
 draws out the moisture and sap in the wood, 
 and leaves it in a condition ready for the recep- 
 tion of the preservative. As soon as the moist- 
 ure has been withdrawn, a valve is opened, and
 
 WOOD PRESERVATION 87 
 
 the preservative material is permitted to flow 
 in. When the cylinder is completely filled with 
 the preservative solution, force pumps are 
 started and pressure applied until the gages in- 
 dicate that the amount of solution required has 
 been absorbed by the wood. The liquid is then 
 run out of the cylinder, the doors opened, and 
 the treated material removed. 
 
 The pressure method is the one in general use 
 throughout the country for treating timber thor- 
 oughly and on a large scale. 
 
 Open-Tank Method. A plant for the treating 
 of timber by the pressure process is expensive, 
 and can be erected only by firms of considerable 
 capital. In order to devise means whereby the 
 smaller sizes of timber, and especially posts, 
 can be cheaply treated, the Forest Service has 
 for many years been experimenting with what 
 is known as the " open-tank " method. 
 
 The theory of this method of treatment is as 
 follows: All wood is of a more or less porous 
 nature, and contains a considerable amount of 
 air. When placed in hot oil, for example, and 
 heated, a part of the air and moisture contained 
 in the wood is driven out. If the wood, while 
 still hot, is plunged quickly into a bath of cold 
 liquid, the small amount of air and moisture 
 remaining in the wood will contract, and in so 
 doing draw in the liquid. 
 
 If it is desired to save the expense of hav- 
 ing two tanks one for the hot and the other 
 for the cold preservative substantially the
 
 88 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 same results can be obtained more slowly by 
 withdrawing the heat and allowing the hot tank 
 to get cold. 
 
 A simple open-tank device successfully used 
 by the Forest Service in treating fence posts is 
 described as follows: 
 
 3/0 VIEW 
 
 Fig. 8. Details of Construction of Tank for 
 Treatment of Fence-Posts 
 
 The apparatus consists of a rectangular galvanized- 
 iron tank 5 feet 4 inches long, 2 feet 3 inches wide, and 
 3 feet 6 inches high. This tank is set snugly into a 
 wooden box built of 1-inch planks and open at the top. 
 The object of this box is to keep the tank from bulging
 
 WOOD PRESERVATION 89 
 
 when filled with creosote, to protect the tank from injury, 
 and to keep the creosote from cooling too rapidly. When 
 the posts are treated in winter or in cold regions, it is 
 best to build an additional casing around the inner box, 
 leaving a space of about 4 inches between them, and 
 firmly packing this space with sawdust. The creosote 
 will then seldom solidify over night, and may be more 
 quickly heated. 
 
 The creosote is heated by fitting a series of seven 
 1-inch steam pipes in the bottom of the tank, coupled to 
 the boiler of an engine. The amount of steam passing 
 through the pipes is controlled by two valves one placed 
 between the tank and the boiler, to regulate the amount 
 of steam entering the coils; and the other at the outlet 
 of the coils, to control the pressure. By raising or lower- 
 ing the pressure of steam in the coils, the creosote can 
 be heated to any temperature desired. An apparatus of 
 this kind makes it possible to keep the temperature of 
 the creosote fairly constant, and gives very satisfactory 
 results. It can of course be used only when some kind 
 of steam boiler is available. It costs about $30. 
 
 Tanks built along the lines indicated give best results ; 
 but if means are not available for their construction, an 
 old iron boiler or like vessel may be used. The essential 
 requirements are that the creosote shall be heated in the 
 vessel to about 215 F., and that the butts of the posts 
 shall be submerged up to about 6 inches above their 
 ground line. In special eases, where a thorough top 
 treatment is necessary, the vessel should be of sufficient 
 size to allow the whole post to be submerged. 
 
 The principal advantages of the open-tank 
 method are that it is simple, comparatively 
 cheap, especially adapted to the treating of 
 small-sized material such as fence-posts, cross- 
 ties, and mine timbers, and that with it prac-
 
 90 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 tically .any timber which has a fair amount of 
 sapwood can be successfuUy treated. 
 
 The cost of an open-tank equipment for the 
 treatment of posts, ties, and small timbers may 
 range anywhere from $50 to $500, depending 
 upon its completeness. 
 
 Bluing of Timber 
 
 The sapwood of timber or lumber cut in warm, 
 damp weather is very likely to "blue" or stain 
 while air-drying. This discoloration does not les- 
 sen the strength of the wood; but it does damage 
 the appearance, and affects the market value for 
 many purposes. Sap stain is supposed to be 
 caused by fungi of a different kind from those 
 which produce decay, and is preventable by com- 
 paratively simple means. If the freshly cut 
 lumber is dipped in a 6 to 12 per cent solution of 
 bicarbonate of soda, and then piled in open fash- 
 ion so that air circulates freely among the 
 boards, there will be practically no bluing. There 
 are few bad effects from the soda treatment, and 
 it is not expensive; so it has been adopted by 
 many lumber manufacturers especially in the 
 South, where staining is most likely to occur. A 
 simple device carries the lumber on an endless 
 chain through a tank of soda solution at the tail 
 of the sawmill. 
 
 Protection from Marine Borers 
 
 On the seacoast, piling and dock timbers are 
 often destroyed by marine borers (usually teredo
 
 WOOD PRESERVATION 91 
 
 or shipworms), even more quickly than timber 
 on land is destroyed by decay. The annual loss 
 from this source is very great. In fact, in many 
 places it is almost impossible to use wooden piles 
 unless they are protected from borers. The best 
 method of giving such protection is to apply a 
 creosote treatment, since creosote is as distaste- 
 ful to marine borers as it is to decay producing 
 fungi. Well-creosoted yellow pine piles have 
 been known to give 30 years or more of service 
 in situations where, if unprotected, they would 
 have been destroyed in a single year. The fierce- 
 ness of the attack of these borers is indi- 
 cated by the examples shown in the illustra- 
 tion (Plate 24). 
 
 SAVINGS DUE TO WOOD PRESERVATION 
 
 The following, based on estimates of the For- 
 est Service, are typical examples of the financial 
 saving which may be made by wood preserva- 
 tion: 
 
 Fence-Posts. An untreated loblolly pine fence-post costs 
 about 8 cents, or, including the cost of setting, 14 cents. Its 
 length of life in this condition is about two years. Compound- 
 ing interest at 5 per cent, the annual charge on such a post is 
 7.53 cents; that is, it costs 7.53 cents a year to keep such a 
 post in service. If given a preservative treatment, which costs 
 about 10 cents, the length of life of the post is increased to 
 about eighteen years. The total cost of such post, set, is then 
 24 cents, which, compounded at the above interest rate, gives 
 an annual charge of 2.04 cents. Thus the saving due to treat- 
 ment is 5.49 cents a year. Assuming that there are 200 posts 
 per mile, there is a saving each year for every mile of fence of 
 a sum equivalent to the interest on $219.60. 
 
 Railroad Ties. A loblolly pine tie untreated is worth about 
 30 cents, and its length of life in this condition is about five
 
 92 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 years. To this first cost should be added the cost of laying, 
 which is about 20 cents. The annual charge, figured as above, 
 is then 11.52 cents. If treated, it will last for about twelve 
 years. Its cost of treatment is about 35 cents. A treated tie 
 in the track, therefore, costs about 85 cents. Compounded at 
 6 per cent, as in the above example, the annual charge is 9.48 
 cents. The saving per year is therefore 2.04 cents per tie. 
 Assuming 2,880 ties per mile of track, the saving due to treat- 
 ment alone amounts to $58.75 per mile, which corresponds to 
 an investment of $1,175 per mile. 
 
 Poles. Assuming that the cost of an untreated oldfield or 
 loblolly pine pole, including hauling and setting, is $5, and that 
 it lasts five years a fair estimate for many portions of the 
 United States the annual charge, compounding interest at 5 
 per cent, amounts to $1.15. In other words, it costs the owner 
 $1.15 a year for every such pole in his lines. This corresponds 
 to a capital of $23 invested at 5 per cent interest, or, for a 
 mile of 40 poles, to $920. Again, assuming that the butt of 
 such a pole can be treated for $1, the first cost of the pole, set 
 in the ground, is $6. The treatment may reasonably be ex- 
 pected to secure a service from the pole of twenty years, instead 
 of five years when untreated. Thus the annual charge on the 
 treated pole, with the same rate of compound interest, is only 
 $0.48 per pole, which corresponds to an investment of $9.60 
 or $384 per mile, as compared with the $920 per mile in the 
 other case. Thus, during the life of the treated pole, a yearly 
 saving of the interest on $536 will be effected for every mile 
 of line. 
 
 There is abundant evidence of the long life 
 of creosoted wood. Even in this country, there 
 are many examples of poles and other timbers 
 creosoted 20 and even 30 years ago, which to- 
 day are apparently as sound as when first set 
 in the ground. In Europe, where wood preser- 
 vation is an older industry, the results are still 
 more marked. There have been failures; but 
 in every instance they can be traced to incom- 
 petent or fraudulent work, insufficient impreg- 
 nation, improper preparation of the timber, or 
 some similar cause.
 
 PAINTS AND STAINF 
 
 PAINTS and stains are used for two pur- 
 poses first, to preserve timber; and sec- 
 ond, to secure decorative effects. Paint 
 acts as a wood preservative because it closes the 
 openings in the wood and prevents the entrance 
 of moisture and decay-producing organisms. A 
 thoroughly seasoned piece of wood will last in- 
 definitely if kept well painted. 
 
 The general distinction between paints and 
 stains is that a paint is an opaque covering 
 which to a greater or less degree conceals the 
 natural appearance of the surface to which it is 
 applied. A stain or varnish on the other hand, 
 either brings out more strongly the natural ap- 
 pearance of the wood, or modifies it to a degree 
 depending upon the character of the stain with- 
 out obliterating the natural figure. Paints are 
 more largely used for exteriors, where protec- 
 tion is the chief object; and stains for interiors, 
 where decorative features are the main consid- 
 eration, although paints are also much used for 
 interior work. 
 
 PAINTS 
 
 Paint is made by mixing and grinding cer- 
 tain solid substances in linseed oil or other 
 liquids. The solids are termed "pigments," and 
 the liquid in which they are ground is called the 
 
 93
 
 94 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 " vehicle." To these are added a wide variety 
 of colored pigments if colored paints are de- 
 sired. 
 
 The most common and the best pigments are 
 white lead and zinc oxide; and the most useful 
 vehicle, linseed oil these forming the basis of 
 nearly all the best paints. Turpentine is gen- 
 erally added to paint to make it more fluid, and 
 hence easier to spread. Several substances 
 called " driers," usually lead or manganese salts 
 dissolved in oil or turepntine, are also used with 
 paint to make it dry more rapidly. Colored 
 paints made upon a white lead or zinc white 
 base are most serviceable, and last longer than 
 pure white paints. 
 
 A number of important points must be ob- 
 served, or good results will not be secured in 
 painting, no matter how good the paint may 
 be. In the first place, the surface to be painted 
 should be thoroughly cleaned and dry; and, if 
 it has been painted previously, every bit of old, 
 loose paint should be completely removed. All 
 nail holes and cracks should be well filled with 
 pure whiting and linseed oil putty. Knots or 
 sappy places in the wood should be coated with 
 some material which will prevent any matter in 
 the wood from exuding and causing blisters. 
 The best coating for this purpose is pure orange 
 shellac. Paint should always be applied in thin 
 coats well distributed. Three thin coats of paint 
 will give much more wear than two heavy coats, 
 although they require less material. Moreover,
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 95 
 
 ample time should be allowed between coats, for 
 thorough drying. Autumn is usually consid- 
 ered the best season of the year for painting, be- 
 cause of slower drying and less likelihood of 
 blisters forming in the hot sun; but with propel* 
 care, good exterior painting can be done at any 
 time of the year. 
 
 STAINS 
 
 The finishing of interior woodwork, and par- 
 ticularly of the finer woods, calls for good knowl- 
 edge of materials and careful workmanship. All 
 high-class jobs of this sort require several ap- 
 plications and manipulations. Moreover, the 
 finishing must be varied according to the char- 
 acter of the wood used. The more porous or 
 open-grained woods are usually given a paste 
 filler carrying some color before stains are ap- 
 plied, while the less porous or close-grained 
 woods can be brought to a state of fine finish 
 without the use of fillers. 
 
 Wood finishers usually classify oak, walnut, 
 ash, butternut, chestnut, and mahogany as open- 
 grained woods with which a paste filler is advis- 
 able for a fine finish; while in the class of close- 
 grained woods, where such a filler is not neces- 
 sary although sometimes used, they put birch, 
 cherry, maple, Circassian walnut, gum, white 
 and yellow pine, basswood, spruce, fir, redwood, 
 cedar, and yellow poplar. 
 
 Stains are usually designated as " spirit," 
 "oil," or " water" stains, depending upon the
 
 96 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 vehicle in which the colors are mixed. Spirit 
 stains are usually made with alcohol. It is 
 claimed that the alcohol evaporates so quickly 
 that it is impossible to apply spirit stains evenly 
 on a large surface. Oil stains are used most 
 largely on close-grained woods, and give a 
 smooth finish with excellent effect, but are said 
 to be somewhat less transparent than water 
 stains. The users of water stains claim that they 
 produce clear, transparent colors, and that they 
 can be evenly and quickly applied on all kinds 
 of wood, and also are susceptible to any subse- 
 quent method of finishing. 
 
 After the wood is stained, the next step is the 
 application of a finishing coat or varnish to pre- 
 serve the stain. The number of coats of var- 
 nish applied depends upon the fineness of finish 
 desired. It may be two or three on woodwork, 
 or a large number on a high-class article like a 
 piano case. Finishes may be gloss finishes, 
 rubbed finishes, or rubbed and polished finishes, 
 depending upon the manner in which applied. 
 Moreover, there are flat finishes which produce 
 the effect of a mission or rubbed finish without 
 rubbing, and so are often used at a material 
 saving in cost. 
 
 In the finishing of interior woodwork, it is es- 
 pecially important that the surface be abso- 
 lutely clean and dry. It is also necessary that 
 the room in which varnish is used be kept as 
 nearly as possible to a temperature of 70 ; for 
 if it is cold, the varnish will not set properly.
 
 Dense Stand of Longleaf Pine 
 Plate 12 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 Second-Growth White Pin< 
 Plate 13 Lumber and Its Uses 
 
 -Trees 50 to 60 Years Old
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 97 
 
 There are many manufacturers of reliable 
 paints and stains of all kinds, who will promptly 
 supply samples of their products upon applica- 
 tion. 
 
 FLOOR FINISHES 
 
 One of the most notable developments of lum- 
 ber manufacture in recent years has been the 
 production of flooring materials of great service- 
 ability from many different woods, the most 
 prominent of which are maple, beech, birch, oak, 
 edge-grain yellow pine, and Douglas fir. The 
 use of such floors has become so popular and 
 widespread that it is worth while to quote from 
 Radford's "Estimating and Contracting" as 
 follows, upon the finishing of floors: 
 
 "The first thing necessary in order to obtain a good 
 job of floor finishing, is to get a perfectly smooth surface. 
 Until recently the only way to do this was the tedious, 
 back-breaking method of planing and scraping, the lat- 
 ter being done usually with the edge of a freshly cut 
 piece of glass. When the cutting edge wears down, a 
 fresh piece must be taken. Sandpaper, bent over a flat 
 wooden block, is also used to cut down any roughness 
 or raised grain. Steel wool is preferable for this pur- 
 pose, on account of the greater rapidity with which it 
 cuts. While this method is still very generally practiced, 
 modern invention has come to the aid of the floor fin- 
 isher and has produced a planing machine or surfacer 
 that is pushed across the floor like a lawn mower. 
 
 "The first operation is filling the wood. Oak and other 
 open-grained woods require filling with a paste filler; 
 and while many painters laugh at the idea of a paste 
 filler upon such woods as yellow pine and maple, experi- 
 enced floor finishers say that a better job can be done
 
 98 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 by using paste filler as a surf acer. The method of using 
 is to apply the filler to a strip, say six or eight boards 
 wide, running the entire length of the room. Use a 
 short, stiff brush, and apply across the grain. By the 
 time this strip has been completed, the filler will prob- 
 ably have set sufficiently to rub. It must not be rubbed 
 before setting, or it will be rubbed off the wood; nor 
 must it be allowed to set too hard, or it will be impos- 
 sible to rub it at all or even to scrape off the filler. 
 When the strip has set just enough, it must be rubbed 
 well into the grain of the wood. After the filler has 
 been thoroughly rubbed, any surplus material must be 
 carefully wiped off with a soft rag. Before anything 
 further can be done, the filler must be given time to dry 
 not less than 24 hours, and preferably two days. 
 
 "If the natural color of the floor boards is not satis- 
 factory, they should be stained before filling; and the 
 filler should be colored with pigment ground in oil, to 
 bring it to the same color tone. 
 
 "If there are cracks or nail-holes in the floor, they 
 must next be filled, in order to make a smooth and per- 
 fectly uniform surface. This filling may be done by using 
 a pure whiting and linseed oil putty, tinted to match the 
 floor boards; or it may be done better with a whiting 
 and white lead putty made by mixing one part of white 
 lead in oil with two or three parts of bolted whiting and 
 enough coach varnish to make a stiff paste. This putty 
 will resist moisture ; and, when dry and hard, it may be 
 sandpapered or rubbed. For large cracks, an excellent 
 unshrinkable putty can be made by soaking blotting 
 paper in boiling water until it forms a pulp, then mixing 
 it with glue dissolved in water. To this, bolted whiting 
 is added in sufficient quantities to make a fairly stiff 
 paste, and thoroughly kneaded. This paste must be 
 pressed into the cracks and smoothed off with a putty 
 knife. 
 
 "For those who do not care to make their own putty,
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 99 
 
 there are excellent prepared crack-fillers on the market. 
 
 "Wax Finish. By far the best material for finishing 
 hardwood floors is wax, although this involves a little 
 more trouble to keep in good condition. It gives a 
 smooth, satiny luster, without the glaring effect of new 
 varnish, and is not marred by heel-prints such as varnish 
 is subject to. When wax grows dim, it can readily be 
 polished again. 
 
 ./"Some painters advocate the application of the wax 
 / ' directly upon the paste filler ; but the best practice is first 
 to give one or two thin coats of pure shellac varnish. 
 Where a slight darkening of the tone of the wood is no 
 objection, orange or brown shellac is preferable to the 
 bleached, since it is stronger. Shellac should be cut with 
 grain alcohol, and not with wood alcohol. It is espe- 
 cially adapted where a hard and quick-drying undercoat 
 is required. On a close-grained wood where a paste filler 
 has not been used, either a thin coat of a first-class liquid 
 filler, or a coat of one part of linseed oil to which from 
 five to ten parts of turpentine have been added, should 
 be given before applying the shellac. Unless there is an 
 underrating of some kind, it is very difficult to apply 
 the shellac so that it does not show the lap. Even then 
 it requires skill and rapidity of work. In shellacing a 
 floor, the plan of following down a space one or two 
 boards wide should always be followed. The shellac 
 coat should be put on before the oil or liquid filler coat 
 is absolutely dry. 
 
 "After shellac has become dry, the wax, in paste form, 
 is applied with a rag or a brush, and, after a short time, 
 is brought to a polish by means of a weighted brush or 
 by rubbing with a cloth. Only a very thin coat of wax 
 is necessary, a very little more being occasionally added. 
 
 "Quite a large number of specially prepared floor-pol- 
 ishing waxes are on the market, and care should be taken 
 to select a material of this kind that will give a hard 
 polish and will not remain soft and sticky. It was the
 
 100 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 softness of the old-fashioned beeswax and turpentine that 
 caused the almost endless labor needed to keep floors in 
 perfect condition. Modern wax finishes are made by 
 combining beeswax or paraffine with some of the fossil 
 waxes, or from the latter alone, giving a much harder 
 surface. In general, the wax which has the highest melt- 
 ing point is best for the manufacture of floor waxes, 
 because it is the hardest after application. Carnauba 
 wax has a high melting point (185 F.), and may be 
 used alone as a floor wax by melting it in a suitable 
 kettle and thinning it with spirits of turpentine so that, 
 in cooling, it has the consistency of soft taFow. In this 
 condition it can be applied with a large brush. 
 
 "Two coats of wax on a new floor are better than one 
 the first coat being required to fill up, and the second 
 to give luster although, if sufficient polish is obtained 
 by the first coat, the second will be found unnecessary. 
 
 "The preparation of wax finish is attended with so 
 much risk from fire that it should be undertaken only 
 over a water bath. Even then, it is wiser for the ordi- 
 nary painter to buy the prepared wax than to undertake 
 to make it. 
 
 "Varnish Finish. A large number of floor varnishes 
 are on the market. These varnishes, as a rule, are 
 designed to harden over night. The surface should be 
 prepared in the same way as for wax finish; and after 
 the filler is bone-dry, two or more coats of varnish should 
 be applied. If desired, the varnish may be rubbed to a 
 dead surface with pumice stone and kerosene. Practi- 
 cally every varnish will show heel marks, and will mar 
 white by use. When the surface becomes worn, the old 
 varnish requires to be either scraped off or removed with 
 a varnish remover before a new coat of varnish can be 
 applied ; while, with a wax, all that is necessary to restore 
 the surface to a good condition is to apply a little more 
 wax and use the polishing brush. 
 
 "When a waxed floor gets dirty and shabby, it can
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 101 
 
 be cleaned down to the shellac with turpentine, and 
 rewaxed at a small cost. It is well to give a special 
 caution against using a wax finish over a varnish coating, 
 since the wax will soften up the varnish and cause 
 trouble. 
 
 ' ' Oil Finish. A very satisfactory finish for rooms that 
 have hard wear, such as schoolrooms, stores, and rooms 
 in public buildings, is first to fill the floors, and then give 
 them two thin coats of shellac, finally applying a very 
 thin coat of paraffine oil, or of a rubbing and polishing 
 oil, with a brush or a rag, and thoroughly wiping off 
 any surplus remaining on the surface. This oiling should 
 be repeated every few days, according to the amount of 
 wear that the floor gets. This same treatment is spe- 
 cially adapted for kitchen floors, dining rooms, and other 
 floors in private houses that are subject to hard wear. It 
 is also well adapted to the cheaper floors, such as yellow 
 pine or spruce. If mud has been tracked on the floor, it 
 should first be mopped up with water, and this should be 
 allowed to dry before oiling. One advantage of the oiled 
 floor is that it is ready for use as soon as the oiling is 
 finished. This same method of oiling can be used over 
 a varnished floor, and will preserve it from marring. 
 
 "Besides paraffine oil, crude petroleum may be used, 
 or any of the so-called polishing oils or furniture pol- 
 ishes. Such oils can be made from machine oil or sweet 
 oil and oil of lemon. 
 
 "Painted Floors. A floor finish not in such general 
 use as it deserves, is the painted floor. Paint has the 
 advantage of hiding inferior floor boards and being cheap. 
 There are a number of special floor paints on the mar- 
 ket for use on kitchen floors and other rooms having a 
 good deal of wear. 
 
 "A painted floor can be made quite ornamental by the 
 use of a stenciled border, which should be put on before 
 the varnish coats. The most appropriate designs are 
 those which resemble mosaic work in their effects, or
 
 102 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 interlacing strap work. When the colors are properly 
 chosen, care being taken to avoid glaring contrasts, a 
 painted and stenciled floor is fully as effective as a hard- 
 wood floor; and it possesses one distinct advantage in 
 that it can be adapted to any decorative color scheme 
 for the room. 
 
 "A floor that is grained, especially one grained in oak, 
 has one of the most durable finishes that can be given, 
 requiring very little attention other than wiping up with 
 damp cloth or mop. If well done, it is fully as effective 
 as a hardwood floor." 
 
 SHINGLE STAINS 
 
 The popularity of bungalows and drop shingle 
 construction has greatly increased the use of 
 shingle stains. There are many such stains on 
 the market, of good quality, made by various 
 manufacturers. Several of them contain some 
 creosote, which incerases their preservative 
 power; while any desired effect is produced by 
 the addition of coloring matter. Shingles are 
 often dipped in stains before laying. This is the 
 best method of application, since the stain or 
 preservative thus reaches all parts of the sur- 
 face, and also penetrates any openings in the 
 shingles. A large number of shingles can be 
 dipped in a short time, so that the cost is not 
 great, while both the lasting qualities of the 
 shingle and the appearance are greatly im- 
 proved. (For specifications for staining shin- 
 gles, see page 108.) 
 
 If a shingle stain which has a lead base is de- 
 sired, the following preparation published by 
 Radford will be found useful:
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 103 
 
 A good shingle stain may be made by using pure white 
 lead (in oil), strong chrome green (in oil), raw umber, 
 and a little lampblack, mixed until the desired shade 
 is reached, thinning with boiled linseed oil and a little 
 japan. To 1 quart of this paint, add, for dipping pur- 
 poses, 5 quarts creosote oil; and for application with 
 the brush, mix 1 quart of the oil paint and 3 quarts of 
 creosote oil. A common estimate is that 3% gallons of 
 stain will be sufficient for 1,000 shingles, dipping two- 
 thirds of the shingle. 
 
 The following estimate of the covering ca- 
 pacity of shingle stain is based on the average 
 cedar shingle, size 4 by 16 in. 
 
 One gallon of stain will cover 150 sq. ft. one brush 
 coat, or 100 sq. ft. two brush coats. 
 
 Two and one-half to 3% gallons of stain will dip 1,000 
 shingles, two-thirds of length of shingle to be dipped. 
 
 Three gallons of stain will dip and brush-coat 1,000 
 shingles in some eases. 
 
 The covering capacity of creosote bleaching oil is 
 about one-fifth less than the above figures. 
 
 The protection of shingles from fire by means 
 of special paints is discussed in the chapter on 
 "Fire Besistance." 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR 
 PAINTING, STAINING, ETC. 
 
 Architectural specifications for the painting, 
 enameling, staining, and finishing of woods for 
 first-class and medium grades of work, prepared 
 by Mr. John Dewar at the request of the Master 
 House Painters and Decorators of Pennsylva- 
 nia, were endorsed by that Association, January 
 15, 1913. The essential portions of these speci- 
 fications are quoted as follows:
 
 104 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Painting New Exterior Woodwork 
 
 Medium All knots, rosin, and sap portions shall be 
 properly shellaced. Paint one coat white priming 
 brushed well into the wood, after which all nail-holes, 
 open joints, and other imperfections shall be closed solid 
 with putty containing 20 per cent white lead; then ap- 
 ply two coats of paint, colors to be selected. Each coat 
 must be thoroughly dry before the application of an- 
 other. Paint the back of all window and door frames 
 one coat before setting, sash runners of window frames 
 to receive two coats of oil, stained if required, the last 
 coat to be applied at completion. No paint to be ap- 
 plied during wet or foggy weather. (See Note 1, be- 
 low.) 
 
 First-Class Woodwork should be painted as above 
 specified, using one additional coat. 
 
 NOTE 1 All authorities agree that pure raw lin- 
 seed oil and pure spirits of turpentine are the best ve- 
 hicles for exterior paints. The vehicle of first or prim- 
 ing coat on new wood, also second coat, should consist of 
 80 per cent pure raw linseed oil and 20 per cent pure 
 spirits of turpentine, the final coat 90 per cent pure raw 
 linseed oil and 10 per cent pure spirits of turpentine, 
 all to contain necessary driers. When four coats are 
 used, the first, second, and third coats should be com- 
 posed of 80 per cent oil and 20 per cent turpentine, the 
 fourth coat 90 per cent oil and 10 per cent turpentine. 
 
 There exists some diversity of opinion as to the best 
 paint pigment or pigments in combination. How neces- 
 sary it should be that the construction of a paint film 
 be as near perfect as possible. The necessity of this 
 should be apparent to us all, especially when we are 
 confronted with the fact that "the average paint coating 
 is only three one-thousands of an inch thick, and yet this 
 thin coating is required to withstand expansion and 
 contraction of the underlying surface, abrasion or wear 
 from storms of dust and sand, or rain, sleet, hail, and 
 absorbing, drawing, and expanding influences of the 
 summer's sun, and contraction from the cold of win- 
 ter. It must have both hardness, to withstand to a rea-
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 105 
 
 sonable extent this surface wear, and yet enough elas- 
 ticity to meet internal strain and to conform to changes 
 in the underlying surface; and it must penetrate and 
 cling to the surface upon which it is applied. It must 
 also retard and prevent from access to the underlying 
 surface both the moisture and atmospheric gases which 
 cause decay;" and, if possessing the virtues of a good 
 paint, it must in the course of time, when repainting be- 
 comes necessary, present a suitable foundation for the 
 new paint coatings. 
 
 It is generally accepted that a white or tinted base 
 paint containing about 75 per cent white lead and 25 per 
 cent zinc oxide is of a high standard. When used near 
 or at the sea shore, also in the Southern States, it can 
 be improved by a change to the following: 60 per cent 
 white lead and 40 per cent zinc oxide. The purpose in 
 combining these two best paint pigments are, that the 
 one makes strong the weak points of the other, giving us 
 an ideal paint coating. The zinc makes the film stronger 
 and harder, also practically non-absorbent by reason of 
 these qualities, and, with its fineness of texture, fills up 
 the voids caused by the coarser pigment. After a most 
 thorough and practical personal investigation as to re- 
 sults, I recommended the above combination, having used 
 them in my practice for years. I have the manufacturer 
 combine and grind the two pigments together, thereby 
 getting a thorough amalgamation. 
 
 When the result required is a white or color-tinted 
 paint, it is advisable to use the same percentage of dif- 
 ferent basic pigments and coloring matter in all of the 
 coats, on account of obtaining a uniform expansion and 
 contraction, solidity of color, etc. 
 
 When "Prepared Mixed Paints" in paste form are 
 used, the limit of inert pigments should be 15 per cent. 
 This percentage may be composed of barytes, silica, or 
 asbestine, or a mixture of such pigments. To this amount 
 there should be no objection, as, up to that extent, these 
 inerts have their values as part of a good paint film ; but 
 vehicle proportions as set forth should be followed. 
 
 The use of asbestine is principally to hold up in sus- 
 pension the heavier pigments in the paint, its fluffy and 
 rod-like form being valuable for this purpose. It is 
 also said to act as a reinforcing pigment in the same way 
 that iron bars act in reinforcing concrete structures.
 
 106 PAINTS AND STAINS 
 
 Straight white lead makes a splendid primer. Ochre 
 should never be used, nor boiled linseed oil for under- 
 coatings. When the color of the finishing coat is re- 
 quired to be a strong solid color such as green, red, etc., 
 by using these strong colored paints from the foundation 
 up, you will not get a solidity of body ; therefore I would 
 suggest the use of a strong tinted white base for under- 
 coatings. 
 
 In the painting of cypress and Southern yellow pine, 
 the vehicle in the priming coat, and priming coat only, 
 should be 40 per cent of 160 degree benzole, 10 per 
 cent pure spirits of turpentine, and 50 per cent pure 
 raw linseed oil, proceeding with the subsequent coat as 
 specified above. The character of these woods is such 
 as will not permit of the penetration of paint made by 
 the usual vehicle practice. With the turpentine and the 
 addition of benzole, which is one of the greatest pene- 
 trating solvents of rosin, gums, and grease known, they 
 carry the oil and pigment, when well brushed out, into 
 the wood; and it there finds a lodgment, forming a sub- 
 stantial and permanent foundation for the subsequent 
 coatings. The benzole, like turpentine, after perform- 
 ing its mission, evaporates entirely, leaving no residue. 
 
 From the beginning to the finish of a first-class resi- 
 dence, or other important operation, considerable time 
 may elapse, not infrequently a year or more, therefore 
 a necessity for the additional or fourth coat of paint. 
 I would recommend for their distribution, after the prim- 
 ing or first coat and the necessary puttying up, that 
 the second coat be applied, the third and fourth coats 
 about the time of completion of building. Another sub- 
 stantial reason for the fourth coat is that the householder, 
 realizing that he has a new residence, is usually less 
 watchful as to any necessity for repainting for a term 
 of years. 
 
 With the application of the priming coat when the 
 work is first put in place, followed by the two coats 
 probably six months or a year after, such a condition 
 will of necessity require repainting in probably less than 
 four years. This proves the economy of the fourth coat, 
 which, under average conditions, lasts as a protective 
 agency for probably six or seven years before the neces- 
 sity for repainting arises.
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 107 
 
 Repainting of Exterior Woodwork 
 
 Remove such old paint as may be necessary from ex- 
 terior woodwork by scraping, burning, or with paint 
 remover as conditions may require. Sandpaper and 
 touch up with paint one or two coats as found neces- 
 sary, all of that portion from which the old paint has 
 been removed. Paint all woodwork two coats, colors to 
 be selected. Do all necessary sandpapering and putty- 
 ing. (See Note 2.) 
 
 NOTE 2 In the work of repainting, it is practically 
 impossible to specify intelligently without being familiar 
 with conditions, as so much depends upon them. 
 
 The basic paint pigments should be as specified in 
 "Note 1." The proportions of vehicles for first coat 
 must be determined by conditions. For instance, if the 
 vehicle of the old paint coatings is dried out, leaving an 
 absorbing surface, hungry as it were, the vehicle for 
 first coat should consist of about 75 per cent raw lin- 
 seed oil and 25 per cent turpentine, second or final coat 
 90 per cent raw linseed oil and 10 per cent turpentine; 
 or, if the surface be hard and non-absorbing, the proper 
 proportions of vehicle for first coat should be about 50 
 per cent oil and 50 per cent turpentine, the final coat 
 90 per cent oil and 10 per cent turpentine. Not infre- 
 quently I have found it necessary in repainting, from 
 a number of causes, to give all of the woodwork three 
 coats. 
 
 The overcoming of these imperfect conditions and pro- 
 ducing the best results possible, is largely a work of 
 diagnosis consisting of about 75 per cent man and 25 
 per cent material. The remedy for the different ailments 
 consists in the different proportions of the vehicle to 
 meet the diversified conditions, and not with the pig- 
 ments. 
 
 The paint burner ever being a menace, I would dis- 
 courage its use where possible. In every instance I would 
 have the owner of the building give his consent to its use ; 
 also that he notify his insurance company, and get a 
 permit from it consenting to its use. 
 
 Staining of Exterior Woodwork 
 Medium All exterior woodwork (or a portion as the
 
 108 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 case may be) to receive one coat of linseed oil stain, 
 brushed well and uniformly into the wood. Color to be 
 as required. Pigments to be selected for their perma- 
 nency of color. Vehicle to consist of 4C per cent of 160 
 degree benzole and 60 per cent raw linseed oil; all nail- 
 holes and other imperfections to be closed with lead 
 putty colored to match stain; then apply one good coat 
 of raw linseed oil containing 10 per cent turpentine. 
 (See Note 3.) 
 
 First-Class Specify one additional coat of oil contain- 
 ing 10 per cent turpentine. (See Note 3.) 
 
 Staining Shingles Dip shingles two-thirds their length 
 in stain specified as above, color to be determined. After 
 shingles are in position, touch up and apply one coat of 
 linseed oil containing 10 per cent turpentine. (See 
 Note 3.) 
 
 NOTE 3 This stain is suitable for all kinds of wood 
 used for exterior finish. It must be remembered that a 
 stain implies a transparent coloring, and not a paint 
 coating which is opaque. If it is desired to stain oak 
 or cypress to a dark green or a dark brown color usually 
 used on the timbering and finish of houses designed after 
 the old English period, two coats of stain should be 
 specified to get the necessary depth of color. To at- 
 tempt this with one coat would result practically in a 
 paint coating, with a covering or hiding of the figure of 
 the wood. If it is desired to stain oak silver grey or 
 other light colors, but one coat is necessary. Shingles, 
 owing to depth of color required, frequently require a 
 second coat of stain after they are set in place. The 
 use of benzole in the stain becomes the active penetrat- 
 ing factor, carrying the coloring matter and oil into the 
 woods. It has about the same evaporating consistency as 
 turpentine. 
 
 There being a substantial difference between a paint 
 coating and a stain, therefore the stain specified can be 
 used when necessary for both coats. 
 
 Where a perfectly flat surface is desired, the second 
 coat of oil may be an objection; but for durability I 
 would recommend it, also for the reason that the oil gloss 
 shortly flattens down.
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 109 
 
 There are a number of very good shingle stains on the 
 market. 
 
 Re-Staining of Exterior Woodwork 
 
 Prepare and re-stain all or such portion of exterior 
 woodwork as may be found necessary, color conforming 
 closely to original stain. Coat all stained woodwork with 
 two coats of linseed oil containing 10 per cent turpentine. 
 Between first and second coats, close up all imperfections 
 with putty colored to match stain. (See Note 4.) 
 
 NOTE 4 Re-staining is also a work of diagnosis as 
 to whether the entire work should be gone over with a 
 light coat of stain, or a portion, where the former is 
 badly used up, and whether it should have one or two 
 coats of oil. In this case an examination will quickly 
 speak for itself. A coat of oil over the old stain will 
 make quite a difference in appearance of old color. 
 
 Plain Painting for Interior New Woodwork 
 
 Shellac all knots and sapwood; paint woodwork (lo- 
 cating same) three good coats, color to be selected. After 
 the first or priming coat, close up with lead putty all nail- 
 holes and other imperfections. Do all necessary sand- 
 papering between coats. (See Note 13.) 
 
 NOTE 13 If color required be white or lightly tinted, 
 the wood work should first receive one coat of shellac 
 to prevent discolorations from resin and sapwood. If 
 varnish coat should be required over paint, specify all 
 painted work to receive one coat of a good wearing light 
 color varnish, evenly applied. 
 
 Painting and Graining Interior New Woodwork 
 
 Shellac all knots and sapwood; paint all woodwork 
 (locating same) two coats, no oil to be used in this 
 paint other than that in which the lead is ground. In 
 mixing, use a small quantity of a good mixing varnish, 
 thinning with a turpentine so that the paint will dry 
 with a flat eggshell gloss, sandpapering each coat per- 
 fectly smooth. 
 
 Grain in best manner in imitation of hardwood to b 
 selected, the graining color to be used as flat as possible,
 
 110 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 consistent with working out. Varnish all grained work 
 one coat of a good wearing body varnish. (See Note 14.) 
 
 NOTE 14 If a first-class job is required, specify one 
 additional coat of varnish to be full and evenly applied, 
 each coat to be thoroughly dried before the application 
 of another. If a flat finish is required, specify the last 
 coat of varnish to be rubbed evenly to a flat finish with 
 crude oil and pumice stone, all oil and pumice stone to 
 be thoroughly cleaned off at completion. 
 
 A flat finish may be secured by using what is termed 
 a "flat varnish." In the use of a flat varnish, two coats 
 are required, the first being a gloss varnish. About 50 
 per cent of these varnishes contain a large percentage 
 of wax over which you cannot apply at any future time 
 paint or varnish, as neither will adhere permanently to 
 a wax surface. The use of some of these flat varnishes 
 is commendable, especially in producing certain results 
 on natural hardwoods. 
 
 Graining is practically becoming a lost art, owing to 
 the general use of hardwoods. Where the work is well 
 done, this specification should produce splendid results. 
 Some painters may not agreed with me in the number of 
 coats and manner of mixing the ground coating; let them 
 try it, and they will find no cracking or crazing of their 
 varnish; but of course the varnish must be good, and 
 undercoating perfectly dry. 
 
 Woods best adapted to painting and graining are birch, 
 cherry, maple, poplar, and white pine. 
 
 Natural Finish for New Interior Softwoods 
 
 All woodwork shall be thoroughly gone over, cleaned 
 up, and sandpapered where necessary, after which apply 
 one coat of white shellac and two coats of a good wear- 
 ing body varnish, the last coat to be evenly flowed on. 
 After shellacing, close up all nail-holes and other imper- 
 fections with putty colored to match wood, being care- 
 ful to rub off any surplus putty. Sandpaper thoroughly 
 between coats. (See Note 15.) 
 
 NOTE 15 This would apply to white pine, poplar, 
 yellow pine, cypress, etc. Sometimes a flat finish is re- 
 quired; in that case, specify rubbing with oil and pum-
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 111 
 
 ice stone to a dull even finish. I do not recommend close 
 rubbing on two coats of varnish, as it must be kept in 
 mind that close rubbing will practically remove one 
 coat of varnish. I do not recommend any rubbing for 
 servants' quarters, nor yet for the average medium job. 
 
 The natural color of these woods is sometimes an ob- 
 jection. In that case I add a "touch" of burnt sienna, 
 or burnt and raw sienna, to the first coat of varnish, not 
 sufficient to produce a stain, simply giving the wood a 
 warm pleasing glow, removing the harshness of the nat- 
 ural color. 
 
 Staining and Varnishing New Interior Softwoods 
 
 All woodwork shall receive one light coat of 25 per 
 cent linseed oil and 75 per cent turpentine. Sandpaper 
 and stain in best manner, with an oil stain containing 
 about 50 per cent turpentine ; color to be selected. Close 
 up all nail-holes and other imperfections with lead putty 
 colored to match stain, being careful to wipe off any sur- 
 plus putty marks. Varnish all stained work two good 
 coats of a strong wearing body varnish, the last coat to be 
 evenly flowed on. Sandpaper between coats, each coat 
 to be thoroughly dry before another is applied. (See 
 Note 16.) 
 
 NOTE 16 The purpose of applying a thin coat of oil 
 to the woodwork before staining is that certain portions 
 of the surface may be very much softer than others; in 
 fact it may appear in spots, all .over. With the appli- 
 cation of the oil as specified, you in a measure stop the 
 suction of those soft places, and get a practically uni- 
 form surface on which to work the stain. A thin coat 
 of shellac instead of the oil might be used, but I prefer 
 the oil as thinned with the turpentine, as I get a more 
 uniform absorption into the wood for the stain, the shel- 
 lac in a measure stopping absorption. 
 
 For a flat surface I would specify rubbing with oil and 
 pumice stone to a dull finish; for close rubbing I would 
 specify one additional coat of varnish. This specifica- 
 tion would apply to white and yellow pine, poplar, cy- 
 press, etc.
 
 112 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Painting and Enameling Interior New Woodwork 
 
 Medium All woodwork (specify location) shall be 
 gone over carefully. Shellac all knots and sap portions. 
 Prime with one thin coat of white paint, well brushed 
 into the wood, after which sandpaper thoroughly, clos- 
 ing up all nail-holes and other imperfections with lead 
 putty. Apply one medium coat of pure grain alcohol 
 white shellac. Sandpaper lightly. Apply three coats 
 of white paint consisting of about 60 per cent white 
 lead and 40 per cent zinc oxide, and one coat of straight 
 pure zinc oxide, followed by one coat of best enamel, 
 freely and evenly applied, all coats to be tinted as re- 
 quired. Each coat must be thoroughly dry and well 
 sandpapered before the application of another. (See 
 Note 17.) 
 
 First-Class Apply one additional coat to the above 
 specification (four coats) after the shellac, followed by 
 the straight zinc and two coats of best enamel, the last 
 coat of enamel to be evenly rubbed with water and 
 powdered pumice stone to a satin or china gloss finish. 
 (See Notes 17 and 18.) 
 
 NOTE 17 "With the application of a second coat of 
 enamel, this specification may be rubbed with water and 
 powdered pumice stone to a very good finish. If a semi- 
 gloss or flat finish is desired with but one coat of enamel, 
 reduce the enamel by mixing into it a portion of the 
 straight zinc coater necessary to give the condition re- 
 quired. To fully obtain this result requires very care- 
 ful brushing, so as not to show laps, brush marks, and 
 cording; but it can be accomplished very nicely. 
 
 With the exception of the priming coat no oil should be 
 used except such as may be found in the stiff lead and 
 zinc; the priming coat should consist of about 40 per 
 cent oil and 60 per cent turpentine, light of body and 
 well brushed into the wood. I have my zinc for enamel- 
 ing purposes ground in poppy oil, which greatly min- 
 imizes the chances of the work turning yellow when con- 
 fined to a dark room. The use of linseed oil is a strong 
 factor in the work turning yellow when excluded from a
 
 Mature Western Yellow Pine 
 
 Large, Clear White Pine Logs 
 Plate 14 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 113 
 
 strong light. In the preparation of my several under 
 paint coatings, I use, instead of oil as a binder, a por- 
 tion of a good mixing enamel varnish; each coat must 
 be worked flat. In using the straight zinc oxide for a 
 final coat of paint on this class of work, I find that I 
 can get purer tints of greater variety, without the dan- 
 ger from chemical action that would result if I were 
 to use some white leads. 
 
 The straight zinc coat, should have an "eggshell gloss" 
 for the reason that, if it were perfectly flat such as the 
 under paint coatings should be, it would absorb and draw 
 the liquid properties from the enamel coat, leaving a sur- 
 face of questionable uniformity. 
 
 The different coats of paint from the shellac up should 
 be tinted as required for the finish, for by so doing you 
 get a solidity of tint that you otherwise would not. For 
 a perfect white job, we oftentimes "draw the lead;" 
 that is, we break up the lead in turpentine to a thin 
 consistency, permitting it to stand 24 hours, then pour 
 the surface liquid off; and you have remaining lead prac- 
 tically free from oil. With the percentage of zinc ox- 
 ide specified, and with the use of a good white enamel 
 varnish, or which is better a portion of the enamel 
 as a binder-reduced with pure turpentine to a working 
 consistency, you have a ground work for enameling that 
 will be satisfactory in every respect. 
 
 NOTE 18 This specification, if faithfully carried out, 
 will produce splendid results. For this high class work, 
 cherry, birch, or plain maple should be used; good re- 
 sults can be secured on white pine or poplar. 
 
 Varnishing and Finishing of Hardwoods 
 
 Medium Sandpaper and remove all surface defects. 
 Stain if desired. Fill with best paste filler, colored if 
 necessary, thoroughly cleaning surface and moldings. 
 Shellac one coat, and varnish two coats of a good var- 
 nish suitable for this purpose. After the shellac coat, 
 close up all nail-holes and other imperfections with lead 
 putty, colored as required, all surplus putty to be care- 
 fully wiped off. Sandpaper between each coat. Care 
 must be taken during varnishing to keep the premises 
 as free from dust as possible. (See Note 22.)
 
 114 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 First-Class Sandpaper and remove all surface defects. 
 Stain if required. Fill with best paste filler, colored if 
 necessary. Thoroughly clean all surfaces and moldings. 
 Shellac one coat pure grain alcohol shellac, and varnish 
 four coats of a first-class varnish designed for this class 
 of work. Rub all varnish surfaces true and even, with 
 oil and pumice stone, to a dull satin finish. Thoroughly 
 clean all oil and pumice stone from surface. Each coat 
 must be thoroughly dry and sandpapered before the ap- 
 plication of another. Care must be taken during var- 
 nishing, to keep premises as free from dust as possible. 
 (See Note 23.) 
 
 NOTE 22 If the location of the finish justifies addi- 
 tional expense and a flat surface is desired, specify that 
 the last coat of varnish be lightly rubbed with oil and 
 pumice stone to a uniform dull finish, thoroughly cleans- 
 ing surface from all oil and pumice stone. In servants' 
 portions of residences, this is not justifiable. 
 
 This specification pertains to all open-grained woods 
 such as oak, ash, chestnut, black walnut, etc. If cherry, 
 birch, maple, and such woods are used, frequently the 
 filling with paste filler is eliminated, the shellac coating 
 filling requirements. In my own operations, I invariably 
 use the filler as specified, but quite thin in body, care- 
 fully wiping off filler from surface. For birch stained 
 in imitation of mahogany, I always omit the filler, shel- 
 lacing direct on the stain, as frequently chemical action 
 takes place when oil is brought in direct contact with 
 mahogany stain used on birch. 
 
 NOTE 23 This specification applies to the finishing 
 of red or white mahogany, cherry, birch, walnut, rose- 
 wood, etc. 
 
 Frequently, in finishing mahogany or other woods 
 stained with a water stain in imitation of mahogany or 
 otherwise, after lightly sandpapering the stain, I apply 
 a light coat of shellac directly on the stain, sandpaper 
 lightly, then proceed with the filler and varnish as speci- 
 fied. White shellac should never be used on dark ma- 
 hogany or mahogany stained, as it will in time bleach 
 out white, showing a milky film under the varnish. I
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 115 
 
 also frequently omit both the shellac and filler, apply- 
 ing directly to the stain a coat of linseed oil reduced one 
 half with turpentine containing a little dryer. After this 
 has remained on for some time, wipe off carefully any 
 oil that may remain on the surface ; allow that which the 
 wood has absorbed to get perfectly dry; then proceed 
 with the varnishing as specified. In this latter case, four 
 coats of varnish should be applied. 
 
 For white or bird's-eye maple, holly, satinwood, etc., 
 eliminate the filler and stain, specify two coats of pure 
 grain alcohol white shellac and three coats of an extra 
 pale varnish designed for this class of work, rubbing 
 and finishing as specified. In bringing oil into contact 
 with these and similar woods, it has a tendency to darken, 
 whereas the purpose is to keep them as light and natural 
 as possible. 
 
 For Italian or French walnut, Circassian walnut, and 
 similar woods, where it is so important that the natural 
 colors and shading be preserved, eliminate the filler, and 
 apply as above two coats of pure grain alcohol white 
 shellac and three coats of a light varnish, rubbing and 
 finishing as specified. 
 
 Fine carved work should never be varnished and rubbed 
 as specified. Specify stain if necessary to conform with 
 balance of wood; apply one light coat of shellac and two 
 thin coats of wax rubbed to a hard surface with stiff 
 bristle brush. One medium or light coat of a good flat 
 varnish in place of wax, will answer very nicely. The 
 filler with the several coats of varnish will have a ten- 
 dency to filling up and rounding the sharp edges, and 
 clean cutting so desirable in good carvings. 
 
 Staining and Waxing of Hardwoods 
 
 Medium Stain all work with an approved stain, color 
 to be selected. Do necessary sandpapering, after which 
 apply one coat of paste filler, colored to conform with 
 stain. Thoroughly clean all surfaces, and apply one 
 medium coat of shellac. Sandpaper lightly, and apply 
 one good coat of an approved finishing wax, permitting 
 it to stand until semi-hard; then to be thoroughly rubbed 
 and polished to a hard surface. (See Note 24.) 
 
 First-Class Coat all surfaces (specify location) with
 
 116 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 one medium coat of clean water (this for oak only). 
 When thoroughly dry, sandpaper to a perfectly smooth 
 finish; after which stain uniformly and in best manner 
 with an approved water stain, color to be selected. Sand- 
 paper lightly, and fill with paste filler, colored to con- 
 form with stain. Apply one coat of pure grain alcohol 
 shellac; sandpaper lightly; after which apply two coats 
 of an approved finishing wax, giving three days between 
 coats. Permit each coat to become semi-hard; then to 
 be thoroughly rubbed and polished to a hard surface. 
 (See Note 25.) 
 
 NOTE 24 This specification will apply to oak, ash, 
 chestnut, mahogany, cherry, etc. If a finish with open 
 wood pores is desired, eliminate the filling, but add one 
 additional coat of wax. 
 
 NOTE 25 This specification applies to oak, ash, chest- 
 nut, red and white mahogany, cherry, black walnut, etc., 
 and calls for splendid results. A water stain is men- 
 tioned, it being the best and most satisfactory in showing 
 up to advantage the general beauty of the natural shad- 
 ings and figure of the woods. In staining, it should be 
 emphasized that it does not mean a covering up, but 
 rather the bringing out. In oil stains, the coloring mat- 
 ter is largely composed of pigments of a different char- 
 acter; and, as a rule, they are permanent; but they 
 have a strong tendency to cover up. Spirit stains are 
 hard to apply, and the results unsatisfactory, the color- 
 ing matter very often being fugitive. Where it is pos- 
 sible to attain the color requirements by the use of a 
 water stain and their number is legion I would rec- 
 ommend it above all other. All water stains raise the 
 grain of the wood more or less; spirit stains, very little; 
 and oil stains, practically none. In connection with the 
 use of water stain, I specify an application of clear 
 water to the oak wood directly (in my practice I find 
 no harm to a good job of cabinet work accruing from 
 its use), so that the surface particles may be raised; 
 and then cut off with sandpaper, so that the application 
 of the water stain has no tendency to farther raise the 
 grain. When the water coating is not used, and the water 
 stain is applied directly, it requires so much sandpapering
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 117 
 
 to recover again a smooth surface that much of the stain 
 and its effects are removed by the sandpapering. The 
 water coating is very frequently omitted on less impor- 
 tant work. When oil and spirit stains are used, the water 
 coat should be omitted ; for other than oak wood, it may 
 also be omitted in the use of the water stain. 
 
 Very frequently, to get desired results, I apply a light 
 coat of shellac directly on top of stain, after which I 
 proceed with the filling as specified. I also frequently 
 eliminate the shellac coating from on top of filler, apply- 
 ing wax directly on filler. The results desired must regu- 
 late the procedure. 
 
 When an open-grain or pore effect is desired, omit the 
 filler, but add one additional light coat of shellac. It is 
 very essential in this class of work that the shellac be 
 applied thin and even, showing no laps or brush marks. 
 If a perfectly flat or dead finish is required, omit both 
 filler and shellac coatings, waxing as specified directly 
 on the stain, although I would recommend the one coat 
 of shellac. If the natural colors of the woods are to be 
 retained, omit the staining, and proceed as specified and 
 observing above notes. 
 
 For white and bird's-eye maple, satinwood, holly, 
 French, Italian, and Circassian walnut, or any other 
 similar woods, when required to be finished showing 
 their natural colors, eliminate the water coat, stain, and 
 filler ; specify two thin coats of pure grain alcohol white 
 shellac evenly applied directly on the wood, without 
 showing laps or brush marks, sandpapering thoroughly 
 each coat; then proceed with waxing as specified. When 
 well done, this will give splendid results. Frequently 
 mahogany and other woods than those specified above 
 are finished after this manner. It is not unusual in pro- 
 curing results to eliminate the shellac coatings, waxing as 
 specified directly on the raw wood. When stain is neces- 
 sary, apply wax directly on same. 
 
 Often pleasing results can be obtained by using a first- 
 class dead or flat varnish. For instance, if a perfectly 
 dead finish is required on open-pore surfaces, after ap- 
 plying the stain, sandpaper and apply one thin coat of 
 shellac; sandpaper lightly and apply one coat of a good 
 flat or dead varnish; eliminate the waxing. To get a 
 still flatter effect, eliminate the shellac also. This proc- 
 ess is not recommended for durability, simply for its
 
 118 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 effect, and should be used only on open-pore woods such 
 as oak, where the broken effect of the wood surface de- 
 stroys the varnish coating effect. In this, window sash 
 and sills should be protected with a coat of good body 
 varnish ; when dry, the gloss can be removed by rubbing. 
 
 Finishing Pine Floors 
 
 Thoroughly cleanse and remove all surface imperfec- 
 tions; shellac one coat, and varnish two coats of a good 
 varnish designed for this purpose. Each coat must be 
 thoroughly dry before the application of another. All 
 necessary care must be taken to protect this work from 
 damage. (See Note 26.) 
 
 NOTE 26 This specification applies to white and yel- 
 low pine, also to maple. If this class of flooring is re- 
 quired to be stained, specify, instead of the shellac, floors 
 to receive one coat consisting of 25 per cent linseed oil 
 and 75 per cent turpentine ; sandpaper and close up all 
 imperfections. Apply one coat of stain consisting of 40 
 per cent linseed oil and 60 per cent turpentine, evenly 
 brushed into the wood, color to be selected. Follow this 
 with varnish as specified. 
 
 The so-called "liquid fillers" that is, prepared fill- 
 ers sometimes used to coat over the surface and permit- 
 ted to remain there without rubbing off should never be 
 used, for the reason that they do not dry thoroughly 
 throughout. Many of them also have a tendency to dis- 
 color the wood, especially when they begin to bleach out 
 by reason of age, etc. 
 
 The object in going over this work with a very thin 
 coating of oil and turpentine is, that, if you were to apply 
 the stain directly to the wood, the result would be a 
 clouded or mottled surface, owing to the natural charac- 
 teristics of these different woods to absorb more in one 
 spot or place than in another. Very little if any stain 
 should be left on the surface. It should be absorbed uni- 
 formly by the wood, and be thoroughly dry before the 
 application of the varnish coatings. 
 
 Where a dull finish is required, specify to be rubbed 
 lightly with oil and pumice stone to a dull finish. A dull 
 or flat varnish should never be used on floors.
 
 PAINTS AND STAINS 119 
 
 Varnish Finish for Hardwood Floors 
 
 Thoroughly cleanse and remove all surface imperfec- 
 tions. Fill all woodwork with a good paste filler, clean- 
 ing thoroughly from surface. Stain if required. Shel- 
 lac one coat, and varnish two coats of best varnish de- 
 signed for floor use. Each coat must be thoroughly dry 
 before the application of another. Care must be taken 
 to protect floors from damage. (See Note 27.) 
 
 NOTE 27 Very frequently the color desired for these 
 floors can be obtained by adding necessary coloring mat- 
 ter to the filler. The color of the shellac (white or orange) 
 should be determined by the color required. 
 
 If a flat finish is desired, specify to be rubbed with 
 oil and pumice stone to an even, dull surface. A dull 
 rubbed surface does not show surface scratches or abra- 
 sions as readily as a bright varnish gloss. Under no con- 
 sideration use a flat or ''dead" varnish to procure this 
 result. 
 
 For first-class results you may eliminate the shellac 
 coating and substitute one additional coat of varnish. It 
 is very essential for best results, that each coat be thor- 
 oughly dry before the application of another. 
 
 This style of finish is suitable for residences ; but proper 
 care must be exercised that it be not abused, for at best 
 a varnished floor surface, from its very nature, is more or 
 less fragile. 
 
 Wax Finishing of Hardwood Floors 
 
 Thoroughly cleanse and remove all surface imperfec- 
 tions. Fill all wood surface with one coat of best paste 
 filler, thoroughly cleansing same when semi-dry, from 
 surface. Stain if required. Apply one thin, even coat 
 of pure grain alcohol shellac. Sandpaper lightly with- 
 out showing laps, after which apply two coats of best 
 "prepared floor wax," giving two or three days between 
 coats. Each coat must be thoroughly rubbed to a hard, 
 dry surface. Care must be taken to protect floors from 
 damage. (See Note 28.) 
 
 NOTE 28 This specification applies to practically all
 
 120 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 class of flooring woods, and produces splendid results 
 as a wax finish, being easily cared for by the housekeeper 
 simply going over the surface lightly with turpentine, 
 removing any surface dirt or imperfections, after which 
 repolish with one coat of wax as specified. Especial 
 care of the floor should be observed in front of the dif- 
 ferent doorways, as that portion receives the greatest 
 amount of wear. 
 
 The whole secret of the success in obtaining a thor- 
 oughly practical waxed floor finish, is the recognition of 
 the necessity of using a known good "floor wax." Then 
 thoroughly harden each coat with the friction caused by 
 good, honest, hard rubbing. 
 
 This manner of finishing as specified, while it pro- 
 duces the best-appearing wax-finished floor, has that 
 which oftentimes is an objection, it being quite "slip- 
 pery." To remove in a large measure this objection, 
 eliminate the coat of shellac from the specifications. 
 
 For dancing or ballroom floors, I would apply the 
 two coats of wax directly to the floor. Of necessity, the 
 wax must be good and the rubbing hard, allowing two 
 days between coats.
 
 WOOD PAVING BLOCKS 
 
 THE round, untreated white cedar block was 
 very largely used for paving in Northern 
 cities many years ago, but it developed so 
 many defects that wood paving came very much 
 into disrepute. Within the last few years, the 
 introduction of sawed, rectangular creosoted 
 blocks has given such excellent results that they 
 are rapidly becoming a most popular pavement 
 throughout the United States, and especially 
 where traffic is heavy or where a clean and com- 
 paratively noiseless pavement is desired. A 
 well-creosoted block does not decay; and, if set 
 upon a solid concrete foundation with a good 
 sand cushion, the wear, even under the heaviest 
 traffic, is very little, because the ends of fibers 
 which are exposed simply mat down and do not 
 shatter as do stone or brick. It is estimated 
 that there are more than ten million square 
 yards of streets paved with wooden blocks in 
 the United States, and the total is rapidly in- 
 creasing. The wood most largely used, because 
 of its general availability, is longleaf pine; but 
 Norway pine and tamarack have also been used 
 for some time with good results, and there is a 
 strong disposition on the part of paving engi- 
 neers to experiment with numerous other 
 woods. So, doubtless, the list will be much ex- 
 tended. 
 
 121
 
 122 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 ESSENTIALS FOE A GOOD PAVEMENT 
 
 The best method of laying a wood block pave- 
 ment to withstand heavy traffic was so well set 
 forth by K. S. Manley, at the last annual meet- 
 ing of the American Wood Preservers Associa- 
 tion, that we quote as follows: 
 
 A creosoted wood block pavement should show no 
 evidences of wear for many years, if the proper materials 
 are used, and if they are assembled in the proper way. 
 
 The correct depth of base or foundation varies with 
 the soil conditions; but the materials forming this con- 
 crete foundation, and the methods of mixing, are in such 
 common use as to be standard and easily secured. 
 
 "We are interested principally in the construction placed 
 on top of the concrete. The principal causes of defects 
 of more or less serious nature, are: (1) irregular or un- 
 even surface due (a) to careless laying, (b) to shifting 
 of sand cushion, (c) to breaking or settling of concrete. 
 (2) Expansion difficulties due to the entrance of water 
 into the blocks either by way of the joints or from be- 
 low. 
 
 The first (irregular or uneven surface) is death to any 
 paving material, because a depression in the surface 
 holds water, and repeated churnings of wagon wheels 
 in the depression are bound to cause an enlargement and 
 deepening of the depression. 
 
 To avoid (a), the concrete should be mixed quite wet, 
 and finished smoothly with a flat wooden spreader, which 
 gives a surface practically as even and uniform as could 
 be obtained by templet. On this should be spread from 
 one-half to one inch of clean sand, making the sand 
 cushion conform to the contour of the finished street. 
 On this, place the blocks quite closely together; roll 
 thoroughly until a perfect surface with no inequalities 
 has been obtained, and until the blocks are firmly in
 
 WOOD PAVING BLOCKS 123 
 
 place. It will require a great deal of rolling to accom- 
 plish this, but the end justifies the means. After this, 
 fill all joints two-thirds full of hot bituminous filler of 
 such melting point as is suited to climatic conditions; 
 and spread a thin coating of sand thereon. The use of 
 the bituminous filler is, in my estimation, the most im- 
 portant of all. It converts the street into an effective 
 watershed which, without absorbing any of the water, 
 directs it into storm sewers or other drainage paths. 
 Should any water remain on the surface, the wind and 
 the sun, both good evaporative agencies, will rapidly 
 dissipate it. 
 
 Now you have an absolutely even surface waterproofed 
 and converted into a watershed. This surface cannot 
 be worn by traffic, because the pressure of wheels is even 
 and regular, and there is no dropping or jolting of wheels 
 entering and leaving low spots. The blocks are laid 
 tightly together, so that there is no wearing at the joints. 
 There can be no change in the sand cushion as long as 
 the surface remains intact, a solid sheet, in fact, of wood 
 block cemented together by the filler; and consequently 
 the difficulty of shifting cushion is avoided. It is as- 
 sumed that the concrete is sufficiently strong so that it 
 will not break or settle. In planning the depth, any 
 error should be on the side of too great, rather than too 
 little depth. 
 
 Expansion difficulties are eliminated by the use of 
 bituminous filler, for there can be no expansion without 
 absorption of water, and no absorption of water when 
 all rainfall is conducted quickly to drainage sewers. 
 In addition to this, it must be remembered that with the 
 bituminous filler each block is surrounded by an in- 
 dividual expansion joint. 
 
 The other way of constructing wood block surface 
 which is sometimes recommended, is to provide a mixed 
 sand and cement cushion and sand-filled joints or in- 
 terstices. The sand and cement cushion does not give
 
 124 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 the opportunity for absolutely smooth surface that the 
 sand cushion gives, and is considerably more costly. The 
 sand filler in the joints allows moisture to be absorbed 
 in the pavement; and ultimately this moisture gets into 
 the blocks, and trouble ensues. It is only on extremely 
 heavy traffic streets that sand can be used as a filler 
 without expecting some expansion difficulties sooner or 
 later. The proof of the pudding is the eating; and the 
 proof of theories of wood block construction lie in the 
 actual occurrences on the street. 
 
 It can be stated without fear of successful contradic- 
 tion, that every sand-filled pavement in the South has at 
 one time or other given trouble from uncompensated ex- 
 pansion; that with equal confidence it can be stated that 
 not one bituminous-filled pavement has given trouble 
 from this cause. 
 
 Now, there have been objections put forward to the 
 bituminous filler because of the belief that it would pro- 
 duce a sticky surface, disagreeable in warm weather; 
 but if the proper filler is secured, and it is correctly ap- 
 plied, there can be no such objection. The suitable filler 
 has a consistency of rubber, and can be taken in the 
 fingers, bent and twisted without soiling the fingers. In 
 applying this filler, a spreader with squegee attachment 
 places the filler in the joints where it is needed, and not 
 on the surface of the blocks where it is not needed. 
 
 It is proper also to use less creosote oil per cubic foot 
 of timber when bituminous filler is used, for the pri- 
 mary function of the creosote oil in this case is to pre- 
 serve against decay, instead of trying to make the cre- 
 osote oil fill the double role of preservative and abso- 
 lute waterproofer. No one familiar with preservative 
 methods and their history will question the efficacy of 
 sixteen pounds of creosote oil per cubic foot in preserv- 
 ing against decay for an indefinite period. "We there- 
 fore see that bituminous filler can be used carefully, and 
 without inconvenience because of stickiness.
 
 WOOD PAVING BLOCKS 125 
 
 To sum up, therefore, provide adequate, smooth, con- 
 crete foundation; use enough sand to cover any inequal- 
 ities in the concrete or depth of blocks (except in rail- 
 way areas and on grades, when use sand and cement 
 mixed) ; lay blocks tightly; roll until smooth; fill joints 
 with bituminous filler ; spread coating of sand ; and turn 
 on traffic. 
 
 DEPTH OF PAVING BLOCKS 
 
 The proper depth of wooden paving blocks is 
 a matter yet to be determined. ^ShallpwJ)locks 
 are likely to split because the pressure upon 
 them under heavy traffic is so great that the 
 fibers are pulled apart, or, as technically stated, 
 the wood fails in longitudinal shear. Deeper 
 blocks will not fail so easily; that is, a block 
 three inches deep may soon give way under 
 heavy traffic, while one four inches deep may 
 stand up well. 
 
 Since longleaf pine has so far been regarded 
 as the standard paving block wood, the Di- 
 rector of the Government Forest Products La- 
 boratory recently made an interesting compar- 
 ison of its longitudinal shearing strength with 
 that of a number of other woods, and also indi- 
 cated the depth it would be necessary to have 
 blocks of these woods to give the same shearing 
 strength as a longleaf pine block 3% inches 
 deep. The results of the comparison are given 
 in Table 13. 
 
 Of course, as the Director states, the depth of 
 a block is not the only thing to be considered 
 in wood pavement. Other conditions such as
 
 126 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 cost of material, and ability to take creosote 
 eliminate some of the woods listed in Table 13 
 from practical consideration for paving blocks. 
 
 TABLE 13 
 
 Longitudinal Shearing Strength of Wood Blocks 
 
 Depth Necessary 
 earing Strength to Equal 
 
 Parallel to Strength of Long- 
 
 Sheartne Strength 
 
 Grain leaf Pine 
 
 Species of Wood (Lbs. per sq. In.) (Inches) 
 
 Pignut hickory 2,710 2.18 
 
 Sugar maple 2,385 2.48 
 
 Rock elm 2,154 2.74 
 
 Beech 1,908 3.1 
 
 Red maple 1,789 3.3 
 
 Longleaf pine 1,688 3.5 
 
 Tupelo ,577 3.75 
 
 Sycamore ,554 3.8 
 
 Yellow hirch ,428 4.14 
 
 Tamarack ,372 4.31 
 
 Western yellow pine ,300 4.54 
 
 Norway pine 1,262 4.68 
 
 Douglas fir 1,180 5.01 
 
 Eastern hemlock 1,148 5.15 
 
 Shortleaf pine 1,135 5.2 
 
 White spruce 1,134 5.21 
 
 Lodgepole pine 974 6.07 
 
 Redwood 674 8.78 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR WOOD BLOCK 
 PAVING 
 
 The Association for Standardizing Paving 
 Specifications has adopted the following speci- 
 fications for paving with creosoted wood blocks: 
 
 Timber. The wood to be treated shall be Southern 
 yellow pine, Norway pine, Douglas fir, or tamarack; but 
 only one kind of wood shall be used in any one con- 
 tract. 
 
 Yellow pine blocks shall be made from what is known 
 as Southern yellow pine ; and shall be well manufactured,
 
 WOOD PAVING BLOCKS 127 
 
 full size, saw-butted, all square edges, and free from all 
 defects, such as checks, unsound, loose or hollow knots, 
 knot-holes, worm-holes, through shakes, and round shakes 
 that show on the surface. In yellow pine timber, the 
 annular rings shall average not less than 7 to the inch, 
 and shall in no case be less than 5 to the inch, measured 
 radially from the heart so as to include the greatest 
 number of rings possible. 
 
 Norway pine, Douglas fir, and tamarack blocks shall 
 be cut from timber that is first-class in every respect, and 
 shall be of the same grade as that defined for Southern 
 yellow pine. 
 
 Size of Blocks. The blocks shall be from 5 to 10 inches 
 long, but shall average 8 inches; they shall be from 3 
 to 4 inches in width ; and they shall be 4 inches in depth.* 
 The blocks used in any one street or improvement, how- 
 ever, shall be of uniform width; and there shall be al- 
 ways a difference between the width and depth of the 
 blocks of not less than % inch. 
 
 A variation of tV i ncn shall be allowed in the depth, 
 and y 8 inch in the width, of the blocks. 
 
 Treatment. The blocks shall be treated with the pre- 
 servative under pressure, and shall at no time be sub* 
 jected to a temperature of over 240 degrees F. They 
 shall, after treatment, show satisfactory penetration of 
 the preservative; and all blocks that have been warped, 
 checked, or otherwise injured in the process of treat- 
 ment, shall be rejected. 
 
 The blocks shall be treated with the preservative so 
 that they shall contain not less than 18 pounds per cubic 
 foot. 
 
 * Note The depth of the blocks may be reduced to 3^ inches 
 in medium-traffic streets, and to 3 inches on light-traffic streets 
 or alleys. The width and depth of the blocks, however, must 
 never be equal. In case blocks 3 inches in depth are used, they 
 shall not exceed 8 inches in length.
 
 128 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 (Note This amount may range from sixteen to twenty 
 pounds, at the discretion of the Engineer, dependent on local 
 conditions.) 
 
 Foundation. The base shall be of concrete made of 
 the materials and in accordance with the methods pre- 
 scribed in the specifications for cement and concrete 
 adopted at the 1913 meeting, and shall be not less than 
 6 inches thick at all points. 
 
 (Note The thickness of the concrete base may be reduced 
 to 5 inches on light-traffic streets, and, in exceptional cases, to 
 4 inches, at the discretion of the Engineer.) 
 
 Sand Cushion. The blocks shall be laid on a cushion 
 of clean, coarse sand 1 inch in thickness, which shall 
 be struck to a surface parallel with the grade and con- 
 tour of the finished pavement. 
 
 Mortar Cushion. Before placing the cushion, the sur- 
 face of the concrete shall be cleaned and thoroughly 
 dampened. A layer of sand and cement 1 inch in thick- 
 ness, mixed dry in the proportion of 1 part Portland 
 cement to 4 parts sand, shall be spread upon the con- 
 crete foundation, and struck to a surface parallel to the 
 grade and contour of the finished pavement. 
 
 This cushion of sand and cement, unless previously 
 moistened, shall be lightly sprinkled with water; and 
 the blocks shall be immediately set thereon. 
 
 (Note Under special conditions, particularly where vibra- 
 tion may be expected, the sand or mortar cushion may be 
 omitted, and a bituminous coating, spread upon a smoothly 
 finished and thoroughly dry concrete base, substituted there- 
 for.) 
 
 Filler. "When the blocks are laid upon the sand cush- 
 ion, the joints between the blocks shall be filled with a 
 suitable bituminous filler. When the blocks are laid upon 
 a mortar or bituminous cushion, the joints may be filled 
 with sand. 
 
 Expansion Joints. A longitudinal expansion joint not 
 less than % inch in width, and filled with a suitable 
 bituminous filler, shall be placed along the curbs.
 
 Redwoods in California 
 Plate 16 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 WOOD PAVING BLOCKS 129 
 
 The specifications for the creosote to be used 
 are also defined very closely. The city engi- 
 neer who follows throughout the standards set 
 by the Association can be certain of a superior 
 pavement of great durability.
 
 HARDWOOD FLOORING 
 
 ONE of the most notable and useful de- 
 velopments of modern lumber manufac- 
 turing is the production of high-grade 
 flooring of maple, beech, birch, oak, tupelo, yel- 
 low pine, Douglas fir, and other woods. This 
 flooring is manufactured to exact standard sizes 
 from selected, thoroughly seasoned stock, and is 
 as carefully handled as is interior finish. In 
 fact, a beautiful and durable hardwood floor is 
 an important part of the inside finish of a build- 
 ing, now that carpets have been replaced by 
 rugs. 
 
 Since hardwood flooring is manufactured from 
 kiln-dried stock, is stored by the maker in dry 
 sheds, and is shipped in closed cars so as to 
 prevent the absorption of moisture, the user 
 should make every effort to have the flooring 
 carefully handled, correctly laid, and properly 
 finished. Some of the points to bear in mind 
 are to avoid unloading the flooring in damp 
 weather; not to store it in open sheds or in 
 newly plastered buildings; nor to lay it until 
 the building is thoroughly dried out. When an 
 under-floor is used, as is advisable with the thin- 
 ner sizes, the hardwood flooring should be laid 
 diagonally or across the sub-floor, and the lat- 
 ter should be dressed to even thickness. 
 
 The best practice indicates the use of steel 
 
 130
 
 HARDWOOD FLOORING 131 
 
 cut nails for hardwood flooring. These nails are 
 manufactured especially for this purpose. They 
 should be driven at an angle of 45 degrees ; and 
 it is stated that better results are obtained if no 
 nails are placed within six inches of the end of 
 the flooring pieces. 
 
 Maple, beech, and birch are close-grained 
 woods of similar structure which give equally 
 good appearance and service for flooring, 
 whether slash- or quarter-sawed. Red and 
 white oak floors are popular in both the plain 
 and quartered forms, depending upon the figure 
 desired; while quarter-sawed or edge-grain yel- 
 low pine and Douglas fir are very much better 
 than slash-sawed floors of these woods. Strictly 
 speaking, yellow pine and Douglas fir are soft- 
 woods, but edge-grain flooring made from them 
 gives such good service that it is widely used 
 for the same purposes as hardwood flooring. 
 
 MAPLE, BEECH, AND BIRCH FLOORING 
 
 The Maple Flooring Manufacturers Associ- 
 ation has the following rules for maple, beech, 
 and birch flooring: 
 
 Clear Grade 
 
 Clear f inch and thicker, shall have one face prac- 
 tically free of all defects, but the question of color shall 
 not be considered. Standard lengths in all widths in 
 this grade shall be trimmed 2 to 16 feet; the proportion 
 of lengths 2 to 3y 2 feet shall be what the stock will pro- 
 duce up to 15 per cent. 
 
 This grade combines appearance and durability and 
 has a face free of defects that would materially mar the
 
 132 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 appearance of the finished floor or impair its durability. 
 It will be noted that the standard of appearance is that 
 of a finished floor, not the top of a piano. A practical 
 application of this rule will admit an occasional small 
 sound pin knot not over % inch in diameter; dark 
 green or black spots or streaks not over % inch wide 
 and 3 inches long or its equivalent; birdeyes and small 
 burls; a slightly torn grain or similar defect which can 
 be readily removed by the ordinary method of smooth- 
 ing the floor when it is laid ; a slightly shallow place not 
 over 12 inches long on under side of flooring if it does 
 not extend to either end of the piece. An otherwise per- 
 fect tongue which is one-half short for 25% of length of 
 piece is admissible; but the face must be free of checks 
 or shake, and the wood must be live and sound. 
 
 No. 1 Grade 
 
 No. 1 }f inch and thicker, will admit of tight, sound 
 knots and slight imperfections in dressing, but must lay 
 without waste. Standard lengths in all widths in this 
 grade shall be trimmed 1% to 16 feet; the proportion 
 of lengths 1% to 3V 2 feet shall be what the stock will 
 produce up to 30 per cent. 
 
 This grade is made for service rather than appearance. 
 It admits of tight, sound knots ; prominent discolorations ; 
 numerous dark green or black spots or streaks; slight 
 checks not exceeding 3 inches in length and running 
 parallel with and well inside of the edges of the strip; 
 dark spots or streaks with slight checks in center; small 
 rough spots which cannot be wholly removed by the or- 
 dinary method of smoothing the floor when it is laid ; 
 slightly torn edges; short tongue if sufficient to hold 
 properly in the floor; shallow or waney back if piece 
 has sufficient bearings of full thickness to support it in 
 floor; and slight variation in angle of end matching. 
 While these and similar features are admissible, sufficient 
 attention is given to appearance to make this grade de- 
 sirable and satisfactory for use in stores, schoolhouses, 
 and similar places where a waxed or varnished floor is 
 not required. 
 
 Factory Grade 
 
 Factory \% inch and thicker, must be of such char- 
 acter as will lay and give a good serviceable floor, with
 
 HARDWOOD FLOORING 133 
 
 some cutting. Standard lengths in all widths in this 
 grade shall be trimmed 1 to 16 feet; the proportion of 
 lengths 1 to 3 l / 2 feet shall be what the stock will pro- 
 duce up to 50 per cent. 
 
 This grade is suitable for factory, warehouse and 
 kindred uses, and where a low-priced floor is wanted for 
 wear, nothing better or cheaper can be obtained than 
 the Factory grade. 
 
 Special Grades 
 
 White Clear is special stock manufactured from white 
 clear maple lumber from the outside of the log, winter- 
 sawed, and end-piled in sheds to prevent staining; is 
 almost ivory white ; and is the finest grade of Maple floor- 
 ing it is possible to produce. 
 
 Red Clear Beech and Red Clear Birch are manufactured 
 from all-red face stock, especially selected for color, and 
 are free from all defects. The color is a rich, warm 
 tint peculiar to no other wood. 
 
 The standard sizes for maple, beech, and birch 
 flooring are indicated in Table 14. 
 
 TABLE 14 
 
 Standard Sizes for Maple, Beech, and Birch Flooring 
 
 Standard Thickness Faces Grades 
 
 il" 1%", 2", 2^4", 3&" Clear, No. 1, Factory 
 
 Special Thicknesses 
 
 W. 1&", Itt*. 2", 2^4", 3%" Clear, No. 1, Factory 
 
 %" %", 1", 1%", 2", 
 
 2^4" Clear and No. 1 only 
 
 %", %" 1%", 2", 2^4" Clear and No. 1 only 
 
 % " and thicker, all Faces, is measured % " waste for matching. 
 %" and thinner, all Faces, is measured W waste for matching. 
 
 The Association makes the following recom- 
 mendation for the use of the different grades: 
 
 Clear, or first quality, is suitable for apart- 
 ment buildings, churches, clubs, dancing floors, 
 gymnasiums, hospitals, hotels, office buildings, 
 public buildings, residences, roller-skating
 
 134 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 rinks, schoolhouses, stores, and similar build- 
 ings. 
 
 No. 1, or second quality, is a common grade, 
 and its relation to Clear is similar to that 
 between second and first grade of finish. It is 
 just as serviceable as Clear, and equally as 
 desirable when there is no objection to the 
 appearance ; and it can be used in the same class 
 of buildings as the Clear grade, at a material 
 saving in the cost of construction. 
 
 Factory, or third grade, will give excellent 
 satisfaction in factories, creameries, granaries, 
 mills, warehouses, workshops, and in other 
 buildings, at mines, on farms, etc. Where a 
 low-priced floor is wanted for wear, nothing bet- 
 ter or cheaper can be obtained than this grade. 
 
 Laying 1 and Finishing Hardwood Floors 
 
 One of the largest, manufacturers of maple, 
 beech, and birch flooring gives these directions 
 for the laying and finishing of his products: 
 
 To get the best results, hardwood floors should be laid 
 when the building is thoroughly dry, and in as dry 
 weather as possible. Care should be taken that the sur- 
 face upon which the floor is laid is clean and smooth. 
 Drive the flooring up well, both side and end, being 
 careful not to break the tongue. 
 
 Nail H-inch thick flooring with an eight-penny floor- 
 ing brad. For %-inch thick flooring, a li/4-mch finishing 
 brad No. 15 is recommended. 
 
 Maple flooring for ordinary purposes should be left 
 as it comes from the factory. Even for kitchen floors 
 it is not well to fill it, for the oil tends to make it look 
 dirty and greasy. If, however, a finish on a maple floor 
 is desired, omit the filler. By doing this, the natural 
 color of the wood is preserved.
 
 HARDWOOD FLOORING 135 
 
 After being laid, if it is needed, scrape until perfectly 
 smooth. If a wax finish is desired, apply two light coats 
 of wood alcohol shellac. Let the first coat stand one 
 hour before putting on the second. When the second 
 coat stands about two hours, sandpaper with No. sand- 
 paper, and the floor is ready for the wax, an article 
 made expressly for this purpose and ready for use. Put 
 on this wax as thin as possible, and let it stand half an 
 hour. Then, with a weighted brush (made especially 
 for the purpose), brush first across the grain of the 
 wood, and again lengthwise, until the brush slips easily 
 over the floor. When this result is effected, place a piece 
 of soft carpet under the brush and rub until the desired 
 polish is derived. This finish, when complete, is very 
 desirable, but it requires quite an amount of labor to 
 keep properly. When there are many and large rooms 
 and sufficient help to do the work, it is doubtless the 
 best. 
 
 To those, however, whose dwellings are not large and 
 spacious and who desire a modern floor, we recommend 
 the following as a convenient and durable finish: Ap- 
 ply two coats of good floor varnish, and the floor is com- 
 plete. Should the gloss, which is the result of a varnish 
 finish, be not desirable, rub the floor with a good rub- 
 bing oil and pumice stone, with a piece of burlap, lightly ; 
 wipe dry, and the gloss will disappear. The last coat of 
 varnish should stand 48 hours before rubbing. 
 
 Floors that have been finished in shellac should be 
 kept clean by thoroughly brushing off the dust with a 
 soft hair or feather brush, or by wiping with a cloth of 
 soft texture. If the cloth is slightly moist, the dust will 
 adhere to it more readily, but wipe with a dry clotk 
 afterward. If any dirt that will not wipe off with a 
 moist cloth should be deposited on the floor, wash it off 
 thoroughly with clean, warm water (not hot), using 
 soap, if necessary, which also cleanse off with water 
 as quickly as possible, and wipe dry.
 
 136 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 When the face of the floor begins to look worn and 
 shabby, after cleansing off the dirt and wiping dry, if 
 water has been used, rub the surface all over nicely with 
 a mixture two-thirds turpentine and one-third raw lin- 
 seed oil. To do this, saturate a soft cloth of any kind 
 with the mixture, wring out half-dry, and rub the floor 
 with it evenly. Do not use the oil so freely as to leave 
 it standing on the surface to catch dust. To prevent 
 this, wipe off with a clean, dry cloth. After the shellac 
 is worn down to the surface of the wood, sandpaper it 
 all over evenly with a No. 1 sandpaper, and give it 
 another coat of shellac, after which continue to keep as 
 before. 
 
 Floors finished in a plain oil only, should be kept in 
 the same manner as above, more soap and water being 
 required and more frequent rubbing with the mixture 
 of turpentine and linseed oil spoken of above. 
 
 "Waxed floors can be cleansed by washing off thor- 
 oughly with turpentine and benzine, after which they 
 can be re-waxed if desired. 
 
 Floors finished in "hard oil" should be kept like floors 
 finished with shellac. A maple floor for a kitchen that 
 has not been finished in wax or oil, is best taken care of 
 by being scrubbed or rubbed with any of the scouring 
 preparations now in the market for that purpose. 
 
 Every prospective user of maple, beech, and 
 birch flooring will find it to his advantage to 
 write to the Maple Flooring Manufacturers 
 Association, Chicago, 111., for a copy of the 
 "Official Maple Flooring Book." 
 
 OAK FLOORING 
 
 The Oak Floor Manufacturers Association, 
 whose office is in Detroit, Mich., distributes an
 
 HARDWOOD FLOORING 137 
 
 excellent booklet upon oak flooring, from which 
 the following information is taken: 
 
 GRADING RULES 
 Quarter-Sawed Oak Flooring 
 
 Clear Shall have one face practically free of defects, 
 except % of an inch of bright sap; the question of color 
 shall not be considered; lengths in this grade to be 2 
 feet and up, not to exceed 15 per cent under 4 feet. 
 
 Sap Clear Shall have one face practically free of 
 defects, but will admit unlimited bright sap. The ques- 
 tion of color shall not be considered. Lengths in this 
 grade to be 1 foot and up. 
 
 Select May contain bright sap, and will admit pin- 
 worm holes, slight imperfections in dressing, or a small 
 tight knot, not to exceed 1 to every 3 feet in length; 
 lengths to be 1 foot and up. 
 
 Plain-Sawed Oak Flooring 
 
 Clear Shall have one face practically free from 
 defects, except % of an inch of bright sap ; the question 
 of color shall not be considered; lengths in this grade 
 to be 2 feet and up, not to exceed 15 per cent under 4 
 feet. 
 
 Select May contain bright sap, and will admit pin- 
 worm holes, slight imperfections in dressing, or a small, 
 tight knot, not to exceed 1 to every 3 feet in length; 
 lengths to be 1 foot and up. 
 
 No. 1 Common Shall be of such nature as will make 
 and lay a sound floor without cutting. Lengths 1 foot 
 and up. 
 
 Factory May contain every character of defects, but 
 will lay a serviceable floor with some cutting. Lengths 
 1 foot and up. 
 
 Standard Thicknesses and Widths of Oak Flooring 
 
 Jf-inch thickness; widths l^-inch face and 2 1 / 4-inch 
 face.
 
 138 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 %-inch thickness ; widths l^-inch face and 2-inch face. 
 
 The 1^-inch face makes a better, more serviceable, 
 and handsomer floor than any other width. The shad- 
 ing of the figure of the wood may be blended more har- 
 moniously than when the wider strips are used. The 
 laying waste in the {fxl^-inch f ac e is less than 2-inch 
 face, as it is counted y 2 inch for the tongue and groove ; 
 whereas, in the broader widths, it is counted % inch. The 
 cost per thousand feet is less than in the wider widths, 
 which offsets additional cost for labor in laying. 
 
 The 2-inch and 2 1 / 4-inch faces are the widths more 
 generally used in H-inch thickness ; and in %-inch thick- 
 ness, either 1^-inch or 2-inch face, as conditions 
 demand it. 
 
 Use of Different Grades of Oak Flooring 
 
 Clear, Quarter-Sawed, Red or White High-class resi- 
 dences, hotels, apartment houses, and club houses. 
 
 Sap Clear, Select; Quartered, Red or White An 
 economical substitute for Clear Quartered where a dark 
 finish is desired. These grades make a flooring equally 
 as durable as the first grade. 
 
 Clear, Plain-Sawed, Redi or White High-class resi- 
 dences, hotels, apartment houses^ churches, and club 
 houses. 
 
 Select Plain-Sawed, Red or White Medium-priced 
 residences, hotels and apartments; schools, office build- 
 ings, and stores. 
 
 No. 1 Common Cheap dwellings, tenements, stores, 
 high-class factories and manufacturers' buildings. 
 
 Factory Warehouses, factories, and cheap tenements. 
 
 How to Determine Amount of Flooring Required 
 To cover a certain space, figure the number of square 
 feet, which means the width multiplied by the length; 
 for instance, a room 12 feet wide by 15 feet long would 
 contain 12x15180 square feet. Add to the square feet 
 of surface to be covered, the following percentages:
 
 HARDWOOD FLOORING 139 
 
 33 1/3% for ii x 1% inch 
 
 37 1/2% for it x 2 inch. 
 
 33 1/3% for i x 2 & inch 
 
 33 1/3% for %x iy 2 inch 
 
 25% for . . . , %x 2 inch 
 
 The above figures are based on laying flooring straight 
 across the room. Where there are bay windows, hearths, 
 and other projections, allowance should be made for ex- 
 cessive cutting. 
 
 Laying Oak Floors 
 
 The laying of oak flooring is not very difficult. Any 
 first-class carpenter can make a good job. Some judg- 
 ment and care is very necessary in order to produce the 
 best results. 
 
 A sub-floor should be used under both the ^f-inch and 
 %-inch thicknesses. The sub-floor should be reasonably 
 dry and laid diagonally. Boards about 6 inches wide 
 are preferred. These boards should not be put down 
 too tight, and should be thoroughly dried off and cleaned 
 before the oak flooring is laid. 
 
 It is well to use a damp-proof paper between the oak 
 flooring and the sub-floor. Where sound-proof results 
 are desired, a heavy deadening felt is recommended. 
 
 Oak flooring should be laid at an angle to the sub-floor. 
 After laying and nailing three or four pieces, use a short 
 piece of hardwood 2x4 placed against the tongue, and 
 drive it up. 
 
 The nailing of oak flooring is very important. All 
 tongued-and-grooved oak flooring should be blind-nailed. 
 The best floor made can be spoiled by the use of improper 
 nails. The steel cut variety is recommended for all blind- 
 nailing. 
 
 For ^f-inch use 8 penny steel cut flooring nail. 
 
 For %-inch, use 3 penny wire finishing nail. 
 
 The maximum distance between the nails should be: 
 
 For ^f-inch thickness, 16 inches. 
 
 For %-inch thickness, 10 inches.
 
 140 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 For even better results, it is recommended that the 
 nails be driven closer than indicated. 
 
 Scraping Oak Floors 
 
 After the oak flooring is laid and thoroughly swept, it 
 is better to scrape it, in order to get the best results for 
 a nicely polished surface. This scraping process can be 
 done by the ordinary scrapers, such as used by cabinet- 
 makers, or by one of the many types of power or hand 
 scraping machines that are generally used by contractors 
 and carpenters. Always scrape lengthwise of the wood, 
 and not across the grain. A floor properly scraped 
 looks very smooth, but it should be thoroughly gone 
 over with No. 1^ sandpaper to obtain the best results 
 in finishing. After this, the floor should be swept clean, 
 and the dust removed with a soft cloth. The floor is 
 now ready for the finish. 
 
 Finishing Oak Floors 
 
 The finishing of an oak floor is a very important fea- 
 ture, upon which authorities fail to agree ; but the ques- 
 tion resolves into a matter of cost, as to the color or 
 brilliancy of finish desired. Personal taste and artistic 
 or decorative effects are the guide for the floor finisher. 
 
 The "Clear" grade of oak flooring should have a nat- 
 ural oak filler color of oak. For the "Select" and 
 "Sap Clear" grades, a light golden oak filler should be 
 used ; and, after the floor is filled, it should be gone over 
 with a little burnt umber mixed with turpentine, to 
 darken light streaks. This will make the "Select" and 
 "Sap Clear" grades look like the "Clear" grade, ex- 
 cept that it will be slightly darker in color. In filling 
 the "No. 1 Common" grade, a dark golden oak filler 
 should be employed; and the light streaks should be 
 darkened in the same manner as the "Select" and "Sap 
 Clear" grades. If a little care is used in laying this 
 grade, splendid results can be obtained.
 
 HARDWOOD FLOORING 141 
 
 First, treat the floor with a paste filler of desired tone, 
 to fill up the pores and crevices. To thin the filler for 
 application, one has a choice of using turpentine, ben- 
 zine, wood alcohol, or gasoline to get the right consist- 
 ency. When the gloss has left the filler, rub off with 
 excelsior or cloth, rubbing against the grain of the 
 wood. This will make a perfectly smooth and level sur- 
 face. It keeps out dirt and forms a good foundation, 
 which is the keynote for successful treatment of floors. 
 Allow the filler twelve hours to set or dry before apply- 
 ing a wax or varnish finish. Never use a liquid filler on 
 any floor. 
 
 A wax or varnish finish can be used. The wax finish 
 is preferred by many, due to economy and ease of 
 renewing places that show the wear. The renewing can 
 be easily applied by housekeeper or servant. 
 
 Wax Finish The best method for applying the wax 
 is to take cheesecloth, and double it to get a little more 
 thickness ; then make it into a sort of bag. Put a hand- 
 ful of wax inside of this, and go over the floor thoroughly. 
 You will find that you can work the wax through the 
 meshes of the cheesecloth to give an even coating over 
 the floor. This prevents too much wax in spots and 
 wasting it. After the floor has been gone over with 
 the wax and allowed to dry say about twenty minutes, 
 it is ready for polishing. Rub to a polish with a weighted 
 floor brush, first across the grain of the wood, then 
 with it. (A clean, soft cloth can be used in place of the 
 brush if desired.) Then a piece of woolen felt or car- 
 pet should be placed under the brush to give the finish- 
 ing gloss. After waiting an hour, a second coat of wax 
 should be applied in the same way as the first, and 
 rubbed to a polish. 
 
 Varnish Finish This is usually more expensive than 
 the wax finish; but it gives a very hard surface, yet at 
 the same time it is elastic. Two or three coats should be 
 applied after the application of the paste filler. Each
 
 142 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 coat should be thoroughly rubbed with oil and pumice. 
 Any of the standard hardwood flooring varnishes are 
 recommended. 
 
 Floor Oil Finish When a high-class finish is not 
 desired, a very economical finish can be had by the use of 
 a light flooring oil that is made expressly for this pur- 
 pose by many paint and varnish houses and oil makers, 
 It serves as a filler as well as a finish, and is strongly 
 recommended for oak flooring in public institutions, 
 office buildings and stores. This oil keeps the dust from 
 rising and preserves the floor. 
 
 Care of Oak Floors 
 
 If one only knows how, nothing is easier than the care 
 of a well-finished oak floor. Water should never be used 
 on a waxed or varnished floor. The surface may safely 
 be wiped with a cloth dampened in tepid water to re- 
 move dirt and dust ; but the dampness should be imme- 
 diately taken up with a dry cloth. 
 
 One of the best mixtures for keeping a floor in good 
 condition is the use of equal parts of sweet oil, tur- 
 pentine, and vinegar well mixed, and rubbed on the 
 floor with waste or a cotton or woolen rag. The vine- 
 gar will cut the dirt or grime worked into the finish 
 from shoes j the sweet oil produces a luster and the 
 turpentine promptly dries the moisture. 
 
 The above mixture need not be applied oftener than 
 once a month to insure a floor finish that will resemble 
 the sheen of a piano. 
 
 Should wax finish become worn in spots from hard 
 usage, a little of this mixture thoroughly rubbed will 
 renew the finish quickly. 
 
 The occasional use of a weighted floor brush, alone or 
 with a piece of Brussels carpet placed beneath it, will 
 assist in keeping the finish of an oak floor in good con- 
 dition. 
 
 Once a year, it is well to use a good floor wax, and
 
 HARDWOOD FLOORING 143 
 
 nib it into the floor with the aid of a brush, with or with- 
 out a piece of carpet attached. Before the finish is worn 
 down to the wood, an additional coat of wax should be 
 applied and thoroughly rubbed. 
 
 Economical Use of Oak Flooring 
 
 As rugs are used almost universally in homes and 
 offices, an economical plan is to have the center section of 
 the room laid with oak flooring of a cheaper grade, and 
 to employ the better grade in the border. After the rug 
 is laid, all parts of the floor will have the same appear- 
 ance. A room, say 10 by 12 feet, can have a 2-foot border 
 of Clear (first quality), either Plain or Quartered; and 
 in the center section 6x8-inch Select Plain could be em- 
 ployed. In a center section of this size, 15 per cent of 
 the cost could be saved by using Select Plain. By using 
 a little care in finishing up the Select, this grade can be 
 made to look very much like the Clear grade. This 
 makes quite a saving, and is being done very exten- 
 sively. 
 
 Oak flooring of %-inch thickness by l^-ineh or 2-inch 
 faces can be laid over old floors in old homes, or over 
 cheap sub-floors in new homes very economically. It is 
 cheaper than carpets, and will improve the appearance 
 and sanitation of an old or new house more than the 
 expenditure of double the amount of money any other 
 way. 
 
 YELLOW PINE AND DOUGLAS FIR 
 FLOORS 
 
 Edge-grain or quarter-sawed yellow pine and 
 Douglas fir flooring are widely used for many 
 of the same purposes as hardwood flooring. The 
 Yellow Pine Manufacturers' Association rec- 
 ommends a hard oil finish for yellow pine floors 
 in stores; a shellaced, varnished, and rubbed, or 
 shellaced and rubbed finish for yellow pine
 
 144 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 floors in apartments, residences, hospitals, etc.; 
 and for bowling alleys and dance halls, several 
 coats of varnish, rubbed and sanded between 
 each coat, while sometimes the varnished sur- 
 face is also waxed very lightly and rubbed down. 
 For the treatment of yellow pine floors, the As- 
 sociation gives the following directions which 
 are based upon the experience of many archi- 
 tects: 
 
 Finishing of Yellow Pine Floors 
 
 Never lay a yellow pine floor until the plastering in 
 the building is on the wall and thoroughly dry. Yellow 
 pine floors should be smoothed, hand-scraped, and sand- 
 papered with the grain of the wood, and left in perfect 
 condition to receive the work of the painter the same 
 as any other hardwood floor. 
 
 To make a good finish, use only the best materials and 
 skilled labor. 
 
 The close, hard fiber of Southern yellow pine renders 
 a paste filler undesirable. Use the very best liquid 
 wood filler; a thin shellac filler is more desirable how- 
 ever, although the cost is somewhat greater. Shellac 
 requires several hours to dry perfectly. 
 
 The finishing coat for a varnished floor should be of 
 the best elastic floor varnish. 
 
 Varnished and Polished Floor. Prepare a clean, 
 smooth surface; and, if stain is required, apply a coat 
 of the desired stain on the bare surface of the wood. 
 Wipe off with cotton waste or cheesecloth to prevent 
 raise of grain. Sand lightly with No. sandpaper, and 
 apply a thin coat of white shellac dissolved in grain al- 
 cohol; then sand again with fine sandpaper, and pro- 
 ceed with the finish in the regular way, by the appli- 
 cation of floor varnish. To produce as fine a surface as
 
 $ 
 b I
 
 HARDWOOD FLOORING 145 
 
 on oak, each coat of floor varnish, should be rubbed. 
 Wax may be applied to the varnish surface if desired. 
 
 Dull or Waxed Floor. After a clean, smooth sur- 
 face of the wood has been obtained, apply a coat of the 
 desired stain (a neutral tint preferred),. Wipe off with 
 cotton waste or cheesecloth, to prevent the wood ab- 
 sorbing too much moisture. When the stain is thor- 
 oughly dry, seal the surface of the wood with a thin 
 coat of white shellac. When dry, sand lightly with No. 
 sandpaper, apply second coat of thin shellac, and, when 
 dry apply with a soft, dry cloth a generous coat of wax. 
 Rub wax thoroughly into the surface with dry cloth or 
 regular floor polisher. 
 
 The former way of waxing a floor omitted wood filler, 
 shellac, or varnish, but included several coats of wax or 
 oil thoroughly rubbed into the surface of the wood. The 
 effect produced a polished but not a hard surface, and 
 soon discolored from dust and dirt. 
 
 Hard Oil Floor. Properly clean and carefully smooth 
 the floor surface; coat it over with boiling hot linseed 
 oil, tinted such shade as will bring the sap and lighter 
 shades to the heart color, allowing it to stand until 
 thoroughly hardened before being exposed; give a sec- 
 ond coat of the same materials, tinted as above men- 
 tioned; sandpaper, and finish with floor wax or first- 
 class floor varnish. If wax is used, it must be thor- 
 oughly rubbed into the surface. If varnish is used, each 
 coat should be carefully rubbed down. 
 
 Varnished Floor. Properly clean, scrape, and dust 
 the floor surface insisting upon same a^ention as is 
 given to hardwood. Apply one coat of ?;0- quality floor 
 varnish ; slightly cut with turpentine, allow mg it to set 48 
 hours. When thoroughly dry, sandpaper lightly with 
 No. paper, and remove dust; apply second coat of the 
 same good floor varnish, full strength, this in turn to 
 stand until dry and hard; sandpaper lightly, and clean 
 floor as before. Apply a third coat of varnish, full
 
 146 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 strength; and either leave in gloss, or rub to a dull 
 finish, as owner may direct. 
 
 The specifications for finishing yellow pine 
 floors apply equally well to Douglas fir floors.
 
 FIRE-RESISTANCE 
 
 THE fact that wood will burn if heated hot 
 enough, has been the basis of a great hue 
 and cry against wood by certain interests 
 whose purposes would be better served were 
 wood completely banished from all forms of 
 construction. Just at present the agitation 
 against the use of shingles in cities has gone 
 so far that an individual whose main business 
 is propaganda declares that a shingle roof is 
 "not a covering but a crime." As a matter of 
 fact, however, the records generally show that 
 a larger proportion of fires in the United States 
 are due to carelessness than to any one form or 
 material of construction. Moreover, for many 
 medium-sized factory buildings, what is called 
 "standard mill construction" is more desirable 
 than so-called "fireproof" construction. With 
 proper safeguards, there is little danger from 
 fire in mill-constructed buildings; and struc- 
 tures of this type have been known in a num- 
 ber of instances to stand up better under fire 
 than have buildings of similar character with 
 steel framework. 
 
 NATURAL FIRE-RESISTANCE 
 
 Not all woods are susceptible to fire in the 
 same degree. Indeed, at the lower tempera- 
 tures, there is a considerable range between 
 
 147
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 3 S 8 8 
 
 UmilN-OUIini S333U 3HOJ31 3MI1 39VH3AV
 
 FIRE-RESISTANCE 149 
 
 the different woods in the resistance which they 
 offer to ignition. Still further, the ease with 
 which wood burns depends upon its moisture 
 content, a piece of dry wood catching fire, of 
 course, much more quickly than a moist piece. 
 The United States Forest Service has recently 
 concluded an interesting series of tests upon 
 the natural fire-resistance of a number of spe- 
 cies of timber. The results of these tests are 
 shown graphically in charts on pages 148 and 
 150. It will be noted from these tests, that in 
 the case of the Western woods, Western larch 
 resisted ignition longest; and that among the 
 Eastern woods, tamarack or Eastern larch held 
 the same position. In fact, tamarack seems to 
 be the most fire-resistant of eight woods tested. 
 Curve A shows for example, that it was neces- 
 sary to expose a piece of air-dry tamarack to 
 a temperature above 205 C. (or 401 F.) for 
 40 minutes, in order to make it burn; while 
 Curve F shows that a piece of oven-dry longleaf 
 pine ignited in 15 minutes at a temperature of 
 175 C. (or 347 F.). On the other hand, air- 
 dry tamarack and air-dry longleaf pine were 
 both held at a temperature of 180 C. (or 356 
 F.) for 40 minutes, without ignition. When, 
 however, the temperature became as great as 
 350 C. (or 662 F.), there was little difference 
 in any of the species in resistance to ignition. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL FIRE-RESISTANCE 
 
 The attacks which have been made upon wood
 
 150 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Ill 
 
 : 
 
 g k. I I T T
 
 FIRE-RESISTANCE 151 
 
 as a building material, and the desire to increase 
 its fire-resistance, have greatly stimulated stud- 
 ies to devise a cheap and effective means of 
 fireproofing timber. It has been known, of 
 course, for many years, that wood can be impreg- 
 nated with salts which will make it practically 
 incombustible; and such fireproof ed wood has 
 been used to a considerable extent for interior 
 work for a long time. This, however, is quite 
 different from the general fireproofing of shin- 
 gles and of wood used in building exteriors 
 where it is subject to all the action of the ele- 
 ments. It is not so much a question of the dis- 
 covery of a fire-resisting material as it is the 
 invention of processes by which large quanti- 
 ties of lumber can be quickly and cheaply fire- 
 proofed. Both private and governmental agen- 
 cies are actively at work on the subject, and no 
 doubt important results will soon be forthcom- 
 ing. 
 
 The Forest Service experiments with chem- 
 ical fire retardants have included tests of sodium 
 carbonate, soda bicarbonate, oxalic acid, borax, 
 and ammonium chloride. The first three did 
 not prove efficient in retarding combustion, and 
 they also weakened the wood. Borax has been 
 found to have considerable value for fireproof- 
 ing purposes, while wood thoroughly impreg- 
 nated with ammonium salts could not be ignited 
 under the Service conditions of test. The prog- 
 ress which has been made along this line as the 
 result of only a short period of experimenta-
 
 152 t LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 tion, leads the Forest Service engineers to the 
 conclusion that it is possible to devise a reason- 
 ably inexpensive method of fireproofing wood, 
 while firms already in the market claim that it 
 is possible to do this on a commercial scale. It 
 is not likely, therefore, that the opponents of 
 wood construction will much longer be able to 
 maintain that it is impossible to make wood 
 resistant to fire where fireproof construction is 
 necessary. 
 
 COMMERCIAL FIREPROOFING 
 
 The fireproofing of wood on a commercial 
 scale is thus described by Mr. F. C. Schmitz, 
 Vice-President of the Standard Wood Treating 
 Company, New York, N. Y. : 
 
 The fireproofing of wood, as at present practiced com- 
 mercially, is accomplished by saturating its fibers with a 
 water solution of chemicals which, in the presence of fire, 
 emit a gas that prevents combustion. To accomplish this, 
 the wood to be treated is loaded on suitable cars, and 
 placed in a cylinder from which the air is exhausted. 
 The above-mentioned solution is then let into and com- 
 pletely fills the cylinder. Hydraulic pressure is then 
 applied, by means of a pump, of such a degree and for 
 sufficient time to force the chemical solution into and 
 through the wood, to the point of saturation. Upon 
 reaching this latter point, the cylinder is drained of solu- 
 tion, and the lumber removed. 
 
 When it is necessary that the treated lumber shall be 
 thoroughly dry before it can be used, it is kiln-dried to 
 evaporate the water in the solution, leaving the chemicals 
 in the pores of the wood in dry crystal form. 
 
 It is not claimed for the product that it is fireproof in
 
 FIRE-RESISTANCE 153 
 
 the sense of being, like firebrick, indestructible in the 
 presence of fire, but that it will not support or communi- 
 cate combustion. Any organic substance will be de- 
 stroyed by fire if left in its presence for a sufficient length 
 of time. 
 
 An important fact in connection with the use of fire- 
 proof wood, is that it is fireproofed with water-soluble 
 chemicals ; and therefore, if, after treatment, it is exposed 
 to water (such as rain), the chemicals again dissolve and 
 are removed from the wood, with a consequent reduction 
 in its resistance to fire. Any wood, therefore, intended 
 for outside use, should be protected from the weather 
 by a waterproof coating, such as paint or varnish. 
 
 Fireproof wood has been used largely for interior work, 
 and principally in the city of New York, where the 
 Building Code provides for its use in all buildings over 
 150 feet or twelve stories in height. It has, however, had 
 a considerable use in residences and in various trades, for 
 special purposes. 
 
 The treatment is permanent so long as no water is 
 permitted to soak into the wood ; and samples taken from 
 buildings after fifteen years' service show as good re- 
 sults as freshly treated lumber. The treatment slightly 
 hardens and in some cases darkens the wood. It does not, 
 however, affect its strength or impair its beauty. 
 
 The process is comparatively inexpensive, when results 
 are considered; and ultimately its use must be wide- 
 spread, especially in isolated buildings where fire-fight- 
 ing facilities are not of the best, and where fire would 
 result in large damage to business. 
 
 Many corporations and firms in the East are now be- 
 ginning to realize this point, and there is a constantly 
 increasing demand for the product for such uses. 
 
 FIRE-RETARDANT PAINTS FOR 
 SHINGLES 
 
 Under this title, Henry A. Gardner, Assistant
 
 154 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Director of the Institute of Industrial Research, 
 Washington, D. C., discusses the latest results 
 of his tests of fire-resistant paints as applied to 
 shingles. In the first place, he calls attention 
 to the low heat conductivity of a shingle roof 
 in the following language: 
 
 "The writer conducted a series of laboratory tests 
 to determine the heat deflecting properties of various 
 types of roofing materials. Miniature houses were roofed 
 with bare shingles, painted shingles, tin, and stone. Ther- 
 mometers were inserted in the end of each house. The 
 houses were placed in an oven heated to 150 C. At the 
 end of 15 minutes, thermometric readings were taken. 
 The interior of the houses roofed with stone and tin 
 showed a much higher temperature than those roofed 
 with shingles. The house with the roof covered with 
 painted shingles showed the lowest temperature. On 
 account of the heat deflecting properties of shingles, 
 they will probably always find a wide application in 
 warm climates. Shingled dwellings are much cooler in 
 the summer than iron-clad or stone-roofed dwellings." 
 
 After mentioning the usual objections that 
 are made to shingle roofs as sources of fire dan- 
 ger, Mr. Gardner continues: 
 
 "Although the writer has pointed out in the forego- 
 ing discussion, the many disadvantages of the wooden 
 shingle, the situation is not as serious as it might at first 
 appear. Very few structural materials have ever been 
 made which have proved satisfactory for roofing or other 
 building purposes, without some surface treatment. If 
 iron or steel sheets are exposed to the weather, they will 
 rapidly corrode and rust away to a mere -lace-like skel- 
 eton of their original form. The application of suit-
 
 FIRE-RESISTANCE 155 
 
 able paint coatings at proper intervals, will, however, 
 preserve such metal sheets for an indefinite period of 
 time. Nearly all forms of cement or stone work will 
 check, crack, absorb large quantities of moisture, 
 and become unpleasing in appearance, unless properly 
 treated with protective paints. The weather-boarding 
 and wooden trim of all kinds of structures would soon 
 rot and decay if left in an unpainted condition. It is 
 evident that "paint is the preserver of all things struc- 
 tural," and that we must look to the use of paint for 
 the solution of the problems under consideration. 
 
 Two Groups of Fire-Retarding Paints 
 
 "Fire-retarding paints may properly be divided into 
 two groups, one of which is represented by oil-mineral 
 paints, and the other by paints which do not contain 
 oil. The term "mineral paint" refers to that type of 
 paint which is so widely used throughout the rural dis- 
 tricts to decorate and preserve dwellings, barns, and 
 similar outbuildings. In the manufacture of these pre- 
 pared mineral paints, various mineral pigments in a 
 finely divided and carefully prepared form are ground 
 in linseed oil, and mixed with the proper driers and thin- 
 ners. The content of mineral pigment in such paints 
 varies from 50 per cent to 70 per cent of the total. 
 When such paints are applied to shingles, a very dura- 
 ble, waterproof film results. This film of dried paint 
 upon the surface of a shingle has the effect of laying 
 or smoothing down the rough, fuzzy surface of the wood, 
 thus eliminating at once an important source of fire 
 danger. The paint film, moreover, is quite as resistant 
 to moisture as a sheet of India rubber. The shingled 
 dwelling upon which such paint has been used is practi- 
 cally rain-proof. It is, moreover, made very attractive 
 in appearance. 
 
 "Another important function is performed by the. 
 paint, in preventing the warping of shingles at the edge,
 
 156 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 thus doing away with, the formation of pockets in which 
 hot cinders might lodge and burn. 
 
 "The fourth and most valuable characteristic of min- 
 eral paint is its resistance to fire. While the oil content 
 is more or less combustible, there is present in the dried 
 paint film a minor proportion of oil, the major propor- 
 tion consisting of mineral pigments which are unaf- 
 fected by fire. A hot cinder or spark, falling upon a 
 roof properly treated with a high-grade mineral paint, 
 would, in most instances, roll from the roof to the ground. 
 There would be no pockets in which to lodge and burn. 
 In the event of hot cinders falling with great force 
 upon relatively flat roofs, the cinders would probably 
 lodge upon the surface and burn away the superficial 
 coating of dried oil, gradually dying out as they reached 
 the fire-resisting mineral pigment. 
 
 "Prepared mineral paints of good grade may be ob- 
 tained at a moderate price at any modern paint shop. 
 They are, therefore, within the reach of anyone who 
 desires to use them for protecting shingled structures. If 
 made by a reputable manufacturer, the purchaser may 
 be sure that they are prepared from properly selected 
 mineral pigments, carefully mixed with oil, and finely 
 ground, through rapidly revolving stone and steel mills, 
 to a smooth condition. For coating shingles by dipping, 
 such paints could be furnished in a thinner condition 
 than for brushing. It is the writer's belief, however, 
 that better results will be obtained if a heavy coat of 
 paint is brushed upon the shingles, as in this case a 
 greater amount of paint will become embedded within 
 the surface of the wood, and the dried coating will con- 
 tain a greater percentage of fire-resisting mineral. 
 
 Value of Impregnation Process 
 
 "It is obvious that the application of brush coats of 
 any of the above named salts to wooden shingles would 
 not result in the formation of weather-resisting surfaces.
 
 FIRE-RESISTANCE 157 
 
 It is the writer's belief, however, that a shingle manu- 
 facturer can at moderate cost impregnate shingles with 
 certain mineral salts which will make them more re- 
 sistant to fire. "Wooden beams and railroad ties are 
 often rendered more durable by treatment with preser- 
 vatives possessed of fungicidal properties, such, for 
 instance, as creosote or zinc chloride. These chemical sub- 
 stances are forced deeply into the wood by special proc- 
 esses. It would, in the writer's opinion, be practicable 
 for the shingle manufacturer to adopt a similar process 
 for mineralizing shingles. Mineral salts having a high 
 resistance to fire could be used for the impregnation 
 base. Shingles thus mineralized could be rendered still 
 more resistant to fire by subsequently applying a coat 
 of mineral paint. The writer has experimented with 
 various salts for this purpose, and has treated shingles 
 with their solutions, both by brushing and by dipping. 
 
 "Shingles thus treated have shown much greater 
 resistance to fire. The best results were obtained by 
 mineralizing the shingles and subsequently coating 
 them with mineral paint. The mineralizing process of 
 making the wooden shingle thoroughly safe as a roofing 
 material should be carried out in two steps. The shin- 
 gle manufacturer should undertake the first process of 
 treating the shingle with fire-resisting salts. If shingles 
 thus impregnated are furnished the builder, it is quite 
 certain that he will carry out the second and most 
 important part of the process, which consists in applying 
 a decorative and waterproof coating of fire-resistant 
 mineral paint. It will, of course, be possible to use the 
 old-style creosote shingle stain over the mineralized shin- 
 gle, in place of a mineral paint. However, the mineral 
 paint will give much more satisfaction, as it forms a 
 durable, waterproof film which is more resistant to fire 
 than an ordinary stain." 
 
 Mr. Gardner outlines in detail methods for
 
 158 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 making and testing fire-retardant paints, and 
 concludes the discussion with these statements: 
 
 "The shingled roof is highly desirable on account of 
 its durability, light weight, low cost, and non-conduct- 
 ing properties. 
 
 " Shingled roofs are subject to conflagration when they 
 become dry. Hot cinders from chimneys or glowing 
 sparks carried by the wind from nearby fires, are com- 
 mon causes of roof fires. 
 
 "The use of high-grade mineral paints upon shingled 
 roofs eliminates such fire danger. Shingled structures 
 of all types, when properly painted, are not only fire- 
 resistant, but they are moisture-proof and highly orna- 
 mental. 
 
 "The painted shingle dwelling constitutes one of the 
 most desirable types of modern suburban homes."
 
 LUMBER PRICES 
 
 MANY well-informed people have the 
 impression that lumber has become so 
 scarce and high-priced that the ordinary 
 man can no longer afford to build a wooden 
 house. This impression, like the agitation 
 against wood construction on account of fire 
 risk, has been assiduously cultivated by the 
 vendors of substitute materials. It is true that 
 certain grades of some species of timber are 
 high-priced, compared with the price at which 
 the same grades could be obtained 20 to 30 years 
 ago; but, on the other hand, there is still much 
 good building material available for every pur- 
 pose, at reasonable cost. While some kinds are 
 scarcer than they once were, we are now using 
 many valuable woods which were formerly 
 wholly neglected. The last ten years has seen 
 tremendous advances in the appreciation of red 
 gum, beech, birch, maple, and the West Coast 
 woods. While the highest grades of nearly all 
 kinds of timber command high prices, because 
 only a small amount of high-grade lumber is 
 produced, we must remember that the ordinary 
 structural materials consist of the medium 
 grades, of which there is a much greater supply 
 than of the higher grades. These medium 
 grades have not had the same advance in price 
 as the upper grades, owing both to their abun- 
 
 159
 
 160 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 15 
 Average Mill Prices of Principal Kinds of Lumber 
 
 (Per thousand feet, board measure) 
 
 1912 1911 1910 1908 1908 1907 1906 1904 1899 
 
 11.05 
 
 S3 
 
 is.se 
 
 16.16 
 24.71 
 12.26 
 
 15.39 
 
 16.91 
 20. 46 
 14.80 
 19.95 
 12.39 
 
 13.10 
 13.18 
 18.14 
 
 20.50 
 
 2 
 
 13.20 
 16.12 
 
 24.44 
 18.05 
 11.87 
 14.77 
 42.79 
 
 ftS? 
 
 15.03 
 
 16.25 
 21.30 
 15.66 
 
 8 
 
 11.38 
 
 as 
 
 21.23 
 16.30 
 
 5 
 
 16.27 
 
 18.42 
 13.50 
 20.50 
 
 2 
 
 13.38 
 
 14.87 
 42.53 
 
 14.02 
 14.12 
 19.41 
 15.53 
 15.67 
 
 17.26 
 22.12 
 17.70 
 19.14 
 13.07 
 
 15.45 
 15.71 
 19.84 
 16.16 
 
 17.37 
 14.30 
 20.03 
 
 15.02 
 14.20 
 18.32 
 15.31 
 14.01 
 
 17.33 
 21.94 
 16.64 
 18.12 
 1L91 
 
 8.4fl 
 
 if:S 
 
 9.98 
 9.70 
 
 11.27 
 
 13.32 
 
 17.24 
 14.05 
 
 IS. 66 
 30.42 
 
 Not reported separately. 
 
 dance and to the competition of other materials. 
 The same causes will prevent their advance to 
 excessive prices for many years to come ; hence 
 these grades will continue for a long time to be 
 the chief reliance of builders in many parts of 
 the country. 
 
 That the price of lumber has not advanced 
 more than that of many other commodities, and 
 in fact, is scarcely as high now as it was several 
 years ago, is shown by Table 15, which gives a 
 tabulation, compiled by the Census Bureau and 
 the Forest Service, of the average values per
 
 House 150 years old, built of Southern Yellow 
 Pine throughout, including siding, and still in a 
 state of good preservation 
 
 House at Salem, Mass., sided with White Pine in 
 1684, and well preserved after 230 years 
 
 Old English Blockhouse on San Juan Island. 
 Built in 1856. Roof of Western Red Cedar shingles 
 still in good condition, after nearly 60 years' serv- 
 ice without paint or repairs 
 
 Plate 20 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 2 
 
 .8 P 
 
 m ta 
 
 ft S 
 
 I 1
 
 LUMBER PRICES 
 
 161 
 
 thousand feet at the sawmill, of the principal 
 kinds of lumber. 
 
 The statement that lumber has reached such 
 an exorbitant price that it can no longer be used, 
 
 FARM PRODUCTS FOOD ETC- LUMBER AND BUILDING. MATERIALS 
 
 Fig. 11. Chart Showing Price Fluctuations of Lumber 
 
 and Building Materials as Compared with. 
 
 Farm Products, Food, etc. 
 
 is best met by the records of the United States 
 Bureau of Labor, the authority on the whole- 
 sale prices of all commodities. On page 149 of 
 Bulletin 114 of the Bureau is given a table of 
 the relative prices of nine groups of commodi- 
 ties from 1860 to 1912, the average price from 
 1890 to 1899 being taken as 100. The chart
 
 162 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 (Fig. 11) shows in graphic form the record of 
 the Bureau for three of the most important 
 groups of commodities farm products, food, 
 and lumber and building materials. On the 
 chart, farm products are indicated by a dotted 
 line, food by a line of dashes, and lumber and 
 building materials by a solid line. A single 
 glance at the chart completely answers the 
 statement as to the undue advance in lumber 
 prices. On an average, these prices have run 
 between the prices of farm products and of food 
 for the last 50 years, and with neither as high 
 points nor as low points as the two other groups. 
 Still further, it will be noted that the prices of 
 lumber and building materials are relatively 
 lower now than they were 40 years ago; yet at 
 that time no one thought that lumber was too 
 expensive to build with. 
 
 COMPARATIVE BUILDING COSTS 
 
 Another way of approaching the same prob- 
 lem is through a comparison of the cost of wood 
 construction with that of other materials; and 
 here, again, lumber has nothing to fear. An 
 article on this subject by Mr. H. W. Butterfield 
 was recently published in " House and Garden." 
 Plans were drawn for an average substantial 
 house for a large family, to include all modern 
 conveniences and to be built of first-class mate- 
 rials and of thorough construction. The plans 
 and specifications were sent to architects in 
 typical sections of the country, with a request 
 that they submit cost figures for the house if
 
 LUMBER PRICES 163 
 
 built of various materials in their localities. 
 These estimates were carefully averaged and 
 tabulated as follows: 
 
 Cost of a Typical House 
 
 New York City (suburban) $4,300.00 
 
 Per cubic foot, frame 17 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, brick 21$ cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stone 22$ cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath. 18 cents 
 
 Vicinity of Philadelphia, 10 per cent to 15 per cent less than 
 near New York. 
 
 Maine $3,400.00 
 
 Per cubic foot, frame 14 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, brick 17 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stone 20 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 15 cents 
 
 In the southern New England States, the cost would be 
 slightly in excess of the above. 
 
 Middle South (Kentucky, Maryland, etc.) $3,000.00 
 
 Per cubic foot, frame 10 to 12 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, brick 12 to 14 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stone 15 to 20 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 11 to 14 cents 
 
 Chicago (Vicinity of) $3,800.00 
 
 Per cubic foot, frame 15 to 16 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, brick 18 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stone 20 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 16 to 17 cents 
 
 Middle Western States (such as Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, 
 
 and Wisconsin) $2,550.00 to $4,000.00 
 
 Per cubic foot, frame 10 to 12 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, brick 12$ to 20 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stone 16 to 25 cents up 
 
 Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath. ... 12 to 18 cents up
 
 164 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Pacific Coast (Northwest) $2,000.00 to $3,200.00 
 
 Per cubic foot, frame 8$ to 13 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, brick 9i to 14 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stone 14 to 16 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 9 to 14 cents 
 
 Colorado (average) $3,100.00 to $3,200.00 
 
 Per cubic foot, frame 12 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, brick 14 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stone 15 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 13 cents 
 
 Southwest (Arizona and New Mexico) . . .$2,900.00 to $3,000.00 
 
 Per cubic foot, frame 12 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, brick 13$ to 14 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stone 16 cents 
 
 Per cubic foot, stucco on metal lath 13$ to 14 cents 
 
 Radford discusses the same problem on the 
 basis of construction cost, per square yard of 
 finished wall surface, of frame, of plain brick 
 veneer, and solid brick construction, on the 
 theory that the roof, foundations, floors, win- 
 dows, interior finish, etc., are practically the 
 same in each type, save that in brick construc- 
 tion the cost of stonework for sills, lintels, etc., 
 must be added. His estimates for the cost of 
 plain wall construction of the three types are 
 as follows: 
 
 Frame Construction 
 
 (Per square yard of finished wall surface) 
 
 Dimension lumber, 8 ft. B. M., at 4c per ft. (in wall) $0.32 
 
 Sheathing, 10 ft. B. M., at 4c per ft. (in wall) 40 
 
 Siding, 12 ft. B. M., at 4*c per ft. (in wall) 54 
 
 Building paper, put on, per yard 03 
 
 Painting, two coats, per yd 18 
 
 Plastering, three coats, per yd 26 
 
 Total, per sq. yd $1.73
 
 LUMBER PRICES 165 
 
 Brick Veneer Construction 
 
 (Based on cost of face brick at $21.00 per 1,000) 
 
 Dimension lumber, 8 ft. B. M., at 4c per ft. (in wall) $0.32 
 
 Sheathing, 10 ft. B. M., at 4c per ft. (in wall) 40 
 
 Building paper, put on, per yd 03 
 
 63 face brick, at 3}c each (in wall) 2.21 
 
 Plastering, three coats, per yd 26 
 
 Total, per sq. yd $3.22 
 
 Solid Brick Construction 
 
 (12 in. wall) 
 
 63 face brick, at 3$c each (in wall) $2.21 
 
 126 common brick, at $14 per 1,000 (in wall) 1.76 
 
 Furring walls, per yard 06 
 
 Plastering, three coats, per yd 26 
 
 Total, per sq. yd $4.29 
 
 In conclusion, Kadford states that, adding to 
 each type of construction the cost of floors, 
 doors, roofs, interior finish, etc., and dividing 
 by the total number of square yards of wall sur- 
 face, it is found that the cost of brick veneer 
 construction is often 20 to 25 per cent greater 
 than of frame construction, and that solid brick 
 construction is about 40 per cent more expen- 
 sive than frame construction. 
 
 It is often claimed that stucco on metal lath 
 is now cheaper than lumber, for the exterior of 
 houses. There may be cases in which the first 
 costs compare favorably. It must be remem- 
 bered, however, that stucco is not waterproof, 
 that metal lath will rust sooner or later, and 
 that this type of construction has not had a
 
 166 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 long enough period of service behind it so that 
 we can be at all sure of its permanence. The 
 builder of wood can point to numberless 
 instances of wooden siding on houses which has 
 given good service for 50 years or more, and to 
 many cases of durability of more than 100 years. 
 So he does not begrudge the occasional coat of 
 paint that the substitute advocate claims is not 
 necessary for his own particular product.
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 
 
 FOR several years the United States Forest 
 Service, in many cases with the assist- 
 ance of State authorities, has been mak- 
 ing studies of the more important wood-using 
 industries, so that there are now available 
 printed reports covering nearly every State in 
 which there are large industries of this kind. 
 These reports deal chiefly with the consumption 
 of sawed lumber; but a few industries are 
 included, in which raw material goes to the fac- 
 tory in log or bolt form. For such industries, 
 the wood consumed has been reduced to board 
 feet, to afford a proper basis for comparison 
 with the requirements of other industries. 
 Although both the total lumber consumption 
 and the uses of the various species are unques- 
 tionably greater than is indicated by the avail- 
 able statistics, the figures presented are valua- 
 ble for purposes of estimate and comparison. 
 
 Grouped in order of magnitude and stated in 
 round numbers, it appears that the present 
 annual wood consumption (chiefly in the form 
 of lumber) for various special purposes, in the 
 United States, is not less than the amount shown 
 in Table 16. 
 
 1. General Building and Construction. Prob- 
 ably more than 40 per cent of the total lumber 
 
 167
 
 168 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 16 
 
 Annual Wood Consumption for Various Special Purposes 
 
 Million 
 Purpose Board Feet 
 
 1. General Building and Construction 19,000 
 
 2. Planing Mill Products 15,000 
 
 3. Boxes and Crates 4,600 
 
 4. Furniture and Fixtures 1,400 
 
 5. Car Construction 1,260 
 
 6. Vehicles 740 
 
 7. Woodenware, Novelties, etc 400 
 
 8. Agricultural Implements 320 
 
 9. Handles 280 
 
 10. Musical Instruments 260 
 
 11. Tanks and Silos 225 
 
 12. Ship and Boat Building 200 
 
 13. Caskets and Coffins 150 
 
 14. Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 140 
 
 15. Excelsior 100 
 
 16. Matches and Toothpicks 85 
 
 17. Laundry Appliances 80 
 
 18. Shade and Map Rollers 79 
 
 19. Paving Materials and Conduits 76 
 
 20. Trunks and Valises 75 
 
 21. Machine Construction 69 
 
 22. Boot and Shoe Findings 66 
 
 23. Picture Frames and Moldings 65 
 
 24. Shuttles, Spools, and Bobbins 65 
 
 25. Tobacco Boxes 63 
 
 26. Sewing Machines 60 
 
 27. Pumps and Wood Pipe 56 
 
 28. Automobiles 37 
 
 29. Pulleys and Conveyors 36 
 
 30. Professional and Scientific Instruments 35 
 
 31. Toys 29 
 
 32. Sporting and Athletic Goods 25 
 
 33. Patterns and Flasks 24 
 
 34. Bungs and Faucets 21 
 
 85. Plumbers' Woodwork 20 
 
 36. Electrical Machinery and Apparatus 18 
 
 87. Brushes 13 
 
 88. Dowels 12 
 
 39. Elevators 10
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 169 
 
 40. Saddles and Harness 9 
 
 41. Playground Equipment 9 
 
 42. Insulator Pins and Brackets 9 
 
 43. Butcher Blocks and Skewers 8 
 
 44. Clocks 8 
 
 45. Signs and Supplies 7 
 
 46. Printing Materials 5 
 
 47. Weighing Apparatus 5 
 
 48. Whips, Canes, and Umbrella Sticks 5 
 
 49. Brooms and Carpet-Sweepers 2 
 
 60. Firearms 2 
 
 61. Other and Minor Uses 37 
 
 Total 45,300 
 
 production of the United States goes directly 
 from the sawmill into general building and con- 
 struction, without passage through an interme- 
 diate wood-working factory. This includes all 
 ordinary lumber used for structural work, 
 sheathing, roofing, fencing, etc. Almost every 
 kind of wood is used to some extent for these 
 purposes ; but the chief building material is the 
 softwoods, because they are more easily worked, 
 lighter, and usually cheaper than the hardwoods 
 in the grades suitable for building purposes. 
 
 2. Planing Mill Products. Planing mill prod- 
 ucts (flooring and finishing lumber, sash, doors, 
 blinds, etc.) are closely connected with the use 
 of general building material, and consist of 
 almost every kind of native and foreign timber. 
 The softwoods especially yellow pine, Douglas 
 fir, and white pine are the principal woods 
 used for sashes and doors, while almost every 
 kind of hardwood is used for flooring and inte- 
 rior finish.
 
 170 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Among the more costly native and imported 
 woods which are improved by mill work, are 
 mahogany, black walnut, cherry, Circassian wal- 
 nut, padouk, prima vera, teak, ebony, sandal- 
 wood, Spanish cedar, rosewood, koa, and holly. 
 Some of these are used chiefly for inlaid work, 
 and others for panels. Altogether, the govern- 
 ment reports indicate the use of more than 60 
 kinds of wood in the planing mills and sash and 
 door factories of the United States. The States 
 in which these factories are most largely oper- 
 ated are New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minne- 
 sota, and Michigan, although they are found to 
 some extent in every State of the Union. 
 
 3. Boxes and Crates. The manufacture of 
 boxes and crates consumes 10 per cent of the 
 annual lumber output of the United States; and 
 while no other industry can use a larger variety 
 of woods, it is noteworthy that white pine and 
 yellow pine supply 50 per cent of the box mate- 
 rial. 
 
 Among the most desirable qualities in box- 
 making woods are lightness, strength, nail-hold- 
 ing power, and a surface upon which names and 
 descriptions can be easily printed. For this 
 reason the softwoods and the softer hardwoods 
 have always been in demand for box making. 
 The lower grades of lumber are mostly used, 
 since they are cheap and their defects can be 
 cut out in the process of manufacture. 
 
 Virginia is the leading box-making State, 
 with a consumption of more than 400 million
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 171 
 
 feet of lumber annually for this purpose. Illi- 
 nois, New York, Massachusetts, and California 
 are rather close competitors in the quantity of 
 material used for box making. Next in order 
 come Michigan, New Hampshire, and Ohio; and 
 other States also are large producers of boxes. 
 The percentage of the total quantity of lum- 
 ber used in the manufacture of boxes and crates, 
 supplied by the leading species, is indicated in 
 Table 17. 
 
 TABLE 17 
 Boxes and Crates 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 4,600 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 White Pine 25 
 
 Yellow Pine 25 
 
 Red Gum 9 
 
 Spruce 7 
 
 Western Pine 6 
 
 Cottonwood 5 
 
 Hemlock 4 
 
 Yellow Poplar 4 
 
 Maple 2 
 
 Birch 2 
 
 Basswood 2 
 
 Beech 2 
 
 Tupelo 2 
 
 Elm 1 
 
 Oak I 
 
 Balsam Fir 1 
 
 Cypress 1 
 
 Other Woods 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 4. Furniture and Fixtures. Next to box mak- 
 ing, the manufacture of furniture and fixtures 
 requires more lumber than any other industry,
 
 172 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 although less than one-third as much as for 
 boxes. The percentage of the total supplied by 
 the more important woods is shown in Table 18. 
 
 TABLE 18 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 1,400 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Oak 38 
 
 Maple 11 
 
 Red Gum 8 
 
 Birch 7 
 
 Yellow Poplar 5 
 
 Chestnut 4 
 
 Beech 4 
 
 Elm 3 
 
 Basswood 3 
 
 Yellow Pine 2 
 
 Mahogany 2 
 
 Others 13 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Because of its beautiful figure, hardness, 
 wearing qualities, and susceptibility to finishes 
 and polish, oak has always been a leading fur- 
 niture wood. The strength and hardness of 
 maple likewise place it high as a furniture 
 wood; while the figure, color, and receptivity to 
 stains give red gum and birch a large field of 
 usefulness in furniture making. Many beauti- 
 ful and rare imported woods from all quarters 
 of the earth are also used to secure especially 
 rich and decorative effects. 
 
 A large number of woods are used in furni- 
 ture making which do not appear in the finished
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 173 
 
 article. These are for backing, lining, and 
 interior reinforcement to give strength and to 
 furnish the foundation for the more expensive 
 woods, which are generally used as veneer in 
 order to reduce cost or to get better effects than 
 are possible with solid stock. 
 
 At present, North Carolina is the largest fur- 
 niture and fixture producing State in the Union. 
 Next in importance ranks Illinois, closely fol- 
 lowed by New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
 Indiana, and Pennsylvania. 
 
 5. Car Construction. Some forty kinds of 
 wood are used in the construction of freight, 
 passenger, parlor, sleeping, and dining cars ; but 
 over half the total quantity is supplied by yel- 
 low pine, and nearly one-fourth by oak. Yellow 
 pine, oak, and Douglas fir are used where great 
 strength is required for sills, brake-beams, 
 posts, bolsters, plates, etc. Yellow pine, Doug- 
 las fir, Norway pine, and cypress are used for 
 car siding, roofing, and similar purposes ; yellow 
 poplar, for panels; and ash, oak, red gum, 
 mahogany, birch, cherry, walnut, and several 
 imported woods, for inside finish. 
 
 There is such a wide variety of steam and 
 electric cars for both freight and passenger pur- 
 poses that the car-building ships furnish one of 
 the best markets for many kinds of lumber. 
 Illinois is far in the lead in car construction; 
 Pennsylvania and Virginia are nearly equal; 
 while much car-building is done in New York, 
 Ohio, Indiana, and Missouri.
 
 174 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 10 
 Car Construction 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 1,260 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Yellow Pine 54 
 
 Oak 24 
 
 Douglas Fir 7 
 
 White Pine 6 
 
 Yellow Poplar 3 
 
 Ash 1 
 
 Hemlock 1 
 
 Other Woods 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 6. Vehicles. The making of vehicles and 
 vehicle parts is an important industry in many 
 of the Central and Eastern States. The more 
 southerly States of the group, particularly 
 Arkansas, Kentucky, and Tennessee, furnish the 
 bulk of the raw material; while in Indiana, 
 Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, New 
 York, and Michigan, are located many large 
 vehicle factories. 
 
 Many woods find some use in vehicle con- 
 struction; but hickory and oak compete closely 
 for the lead, and, taken together, supply over 
 60 per cent of the raw material. Hickory is 
 used most largely for the spokes and rims of 
 buggy wheels, for gear parts, and for felloes, 
 hubs, axles, hounds, and bolsters. Wagon hubs 
 are made of elm and birch; and in addition to 
 hickory and oak hard maple, white ash, beech, 
 and other hard, strong woods are used for gear 
 parts. Yellow poplar has been much used for 
 the bodies of carriages, delivery wagons, and
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 175 
 
 automobiles, since it can be obtained in large, 
 clear sizes, works well, and takes paint and pol- 
 ishes easily. Wagon-box boards are largely 
 made from cottonwood, red gum, basswood, and 
 yellow poplar. Bottoms are made of longleaf 
 and shortleaf pine, and also of maple, gum, and 
 oak. Ash is used for frames ; while osage orange 
 is used for felloes, especially in the Southwest, 
 where, under severe climatic conditions, the 
 ordinary woods shrink too much. 
 
 The proportion of the total consumption of 
 wood for vehicles, contributed by the more 
 important species, is shown in Table 20. 
 
 TABLE 20 
 
 Vehicles 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 740 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Hickory 32 
 
 Oak 29 
 
 Yellow Poplar 7 
 
 Ash 6 
 
 Maple 5 
 
 Cottonwood 4 
 
 Elm 4 
 
 Yellow Pine 4 
 
 Red Gum 4 
 
 Birch 2 
 
 Other Woods 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 7. Woodenware, Novelties, etc. The manu- 
 facture of woodenware, novelties, and similar 
 articles requires more than 400 million feet of 
 wood annually, of which ash, basswood, and
 
 176 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TAJBJLJj] 21 
 
 Woodenware, Novelties, etc. 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 400 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Ash 15 
 
 Basswood 14 
 
 White Pine 12 
 
 Maple 9 
 
 Birch 7 
 
 Spruce 7 
 
 Chestnut 5 
 
 Yellow Pine 5 
 
 Elm ' 4 
 
 Beech 3 
 
 Cottonwood 3 
 
 Cypress 2 
 
 Red Gum 2 
 
 Oak 2 
 
 Yellow Pine 2 
 
 Cedar 2 
 
 Tupelo 1 
 
 Other Woods 5 
 
 Total '. 100 
 
 white pine supply nearly equal parts, with the 
 balance contributed by over fifty other species. 
 Much of the material for woodenware goes to 
 the factory in log form, without passing through 
 the sawmill. Wooden pie and picnic plates, but- 
 ter trays, and dishes are largely made from ro- 
 tary cut maple, beech, and birch veneers. Many 
 more substantial kinds of woodenware are 
 turned on lathes, among which are dishes, bowls, 
 platters, and trays made from basswood, cotton- 
 wood, and maple. Butter paddles and trays are 
 made of ash and beech; and bread-boards, of 
 basswood, cottonwood, white cedar, silver ma-
 
 Creosoted Cross-Arms Shortly after Removal from Treating Cylinder 
 
 Portable Plant of Cylinder Type for Creosote Treatment of 
 Railroad Ties 
 
 Plate 22 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 Photo by courtesy of Boiling Arthur Johnson 
 
 Cypress Shingles after Long Service on Washington's Home at 
 Mount Vernon 
 
 All removed in 1913. No. 1 Laid in 1743, giving 170 years' 
 service; No. 2 Laid in 1785, 85 years; and No. 3 Laid in 1860, 
 53 years. 
 
 Open-Tank Method of Creosote Treatment 
 Here applied to butts of chestnut poles 
 Plate 23 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 177 
 
 pie, and birch. Pails, buckets, and small tubs 
 make up no small proportion of the woodenware 
 output, and they often have white pine staves. 
 Hoops for these articles are made from elm, ash, 
 birch, and red oak. Peck, half-peck, bushel, 
 and half-bushel measures are commonly made 
 with bodies of oak, birch, maple, or white pine, 
 and bottoms of white pine, basswood, or ash. 
 
 Novelties include wooden candlesticks, pin 
 trays, paper weights, etc., and are frequently 
 made of the higher-grade and more expensive 
 native and imported woods. 
 
 Wisconsin produces the most woodenware of 
 any State, with Michigan ranking second; while 
 New Hampshire, Iowa, Vermont, and New York 
 supply many articles of this class. 
 
 8. Agricultural Implements. Notwithstanding 
 a greatly increased use of iron and steel in the 
 manufacture of agricultural implements, such 
 as plows, harrows, cultivators, drills, planters, 
 threshing machines, rakes, and other articles, 
 more than 300 million feet of lumber is annually 
 used in this industry. Yellow pine supplies over 
 30 per cent of the lumber required for agricul- 
 tural implements; oak, more than 20 per cent; 
 and maple, 15 per cent, with relatively small 
 quantities of cottonwood, red gum, ash, hickory, 
 white pine, basswood, elm, beech, birch, and 
 nearly twenty other species. 
 
 Longleaf pine is used in agricultural imple- 
 ments where strength but not necessarily tough- 
 ness is required. Oak finds a large use for plow
 
 178 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 beams and handles; beech, hickory, and oak, for 
 neck-yokes and single trees; while cottonwood, 
 yellow poplar, red gum, white elm, beech, tu- 
 pelo, cypress, and Douglas fir are used for seed- 
 ing and drill boxes. Douglas fir and longleaf 
 pine are also used for poles and tongues of agri- 
 cultural implements. 
 
 Illinois is by far the most important State in 
 the manufacture of agricultural implements, 
 while next in order are Ohio, New York, and In- 
 diana. 
 
 TABLE 22 
 
 Agricultural Implements 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 320 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Yellow Pine 31 
 
 Oak 22 
 
 Maple li 
 
 Cottonwood 
 
 Red Gum 
 
 Ash 
 
 Hickory 
 
 White Pine 
 
 Basswood 
 
 Elm 2 
 
 Beech 2 
 
 Birch 1 
 
 Other Woods 7 
 
 Total 100 
 
 9. Handles. Handle manufacture is nearly as 
 important as agricultural implement making in 
 regard to the quantity of wood required; and 
 hickory supplies more than two-fifths of all the 
 handle material. Next to hickory, ash espe-
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 179 
 
 cially white ash furnishes some 23 per cent of 
 the handle wood; and maple, 15 per cent; 
 while beech, oak, and birch are important han- 
 dle woods for certain purposes. 
 
 TABLE 23 
 
 Handles 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 280 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Hickory 43 
 
 Ash 23 
 
 Maple 15 
 
 Beech 6 
 
 Oak 4 
 
 Birch 4 
 
 Red Gum 2 
 
 Elm 1 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Hoe, rake, spade, shovel, and fork handles 
 are chiefly made of ash; sledge and ax handles, 
 of hickory; broom handles, most largely of ma- 
 ple, beech, and birch; cant-hook handles, of hick- 
 ory and hard maple ; pump handles, of oak, ash, 
 and maple; and handles for wire stretchers, of 
 white and rock elm. 
 
 Small handles for chisels, mallets, planes, 
 awls, saws, etc., are often made from apple 
 wood; while the handles for many small articles 
 in which good appearance is desired are made 
 from boxwood, walnut, mahogany, rosewood, 
 and ebony. 
 
 Like the vehicle woods, much of the handle 
 material is produced in the South, and worked 
 up in the North. Arkansas and Kentucky sup-
 
 180 LUMBER AND IT& USES 
 
 ply large amounts of hickory for handles ; while 
 among the States in which handles are most 
 largely manufactured are Michigan, Ohio, Mis- 
 souri, Illinois, and Indiana. 
 
 10. Musical Instruments. The manufacture 
 of musical instruments consumes a large amount 
 of both native and foreign woods. Of the native 
 woods, nearly equal quantities of maple, yel- 
 low poplar, and chestnut are used; while spruce, 
 oak, elm, birch, basswood, white pine, and red 
 gum are largely drawn upon. 
 
 The making of cases for pianos and organs re- 
 quires a great deal of lumber, maple being used 
 to give strength, yellow poplar and chest- 
 nut as the backing for veneer, spruce for sound- 
 ing boards, the finer hardwoods and imported 
 woods for the keys, red gum and maple for ac- 
 tion parts, birch for key rails and hammers, and 
 beech and elm for backs. Many woods are used 
 to give a varied and beautiful effect in the 
 smaller musical instruments. Spanish cedar is 
 used for the necks of banjos, guitars, and man- 
 dolins; boxwood, for inlay work; mahogany, 
 bird's-eye maple, rosewood, yellow poplar, birch, 
 walnut, and oak, for drums; bird's-eye and curly 
 maple, and rosewood, for harp boxes, etc. 
 
 Illinois uses more wood than any other State 
 for the manufacture of musical instruments, and 
 New York ranks second; while Massachusetts, 
 New Jersey, and Michigan are large consumers 
 of material for this purpose.
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 181 
 
 TABLE 24 
 
 Musical Instruments 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 260 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Maple 17 
 
 Yellow Poplar 16 
 
 Chestnut 15 
 
 Spruce , 11 
 
 Oak 8 
 
 Elm 6 
 
 Birch 5 
 
 Basswood 4 
 
 White Pine 3 
 
 Red Gum 3 
 
 Mahogany 3 
 
 Black Walnut 2 
 
 Beech 2 
 
 Ash 1 
 
 Other Woods 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 11. Tanks and Silos. Wooden tanks and silos 
 require straight-grained, easily-worked, dura- 
 ble material which can be obtained in good sizes 
 and which will not impart any objectionable 
 taste to the contents. The woods most largely 
 used for these purposes are Douglas fir, yellow 
 pine, cypress, white pine, spruce, redwood, and 
 larch or tamarack. Douglas fir and yellow pine 
 are used to a very large extent for silos, because 
 of their abundance; while, to a lesser extent, 
 silos are made from cypress, tamarack, redwood, 
 and hemlock. Tanks and vats for holding oil, 
 water, and distillery and brewery products are 
 largely made from cypress and redwood, Oak 
 is also used for distillery tanks.
 
 182 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 In the manufacture of tanks and silos, Indi- 
 ana has the leading place, followed closely by 
 Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, and California. How- 
 ever, silos are not necessarily factory products, 
 since material for them is often produced at saw- 
 mills and sold through lumber dealers in the 
 localities where silos are erected. For this rea- 
 son, the figures given in Table 25 are less than 
 the total lumber consumption for tanks and silos. 
 
 TABLE 25 
 
 Tanks and Silos 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 225 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Douglas Fir 40 
 
 Yellow Pine 18 
 
 Cypress 16 
 
 White Pine 8 
 
 Spruce 5 
 
 Larch 4 
 
 Redwood 4 
 
 Oak 2 
 
 Cedar 2 
 
 Other Woods 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 12. Ship and Boat Building. The ship and 
 boat industry in the United States annually con- 
 sumes some 200 million feet of lumber, of which 
 yellow pine supplies one-third, Douglas fir about 
 one-fifth, and oak about one-sixth. Important 
 woods in this industry are also white pine, ash, 
 spruce, cedar, and cypress; while nearly forty 
 other woods are used to a less extent, including 
 such imported specdes as mahogany, teak, prima
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 183 
 
 vera, Spanish cedar, Circassian walnut, balsam, 
 lignum vitae, padouk, and rosewood. 
 
 TABLE 26 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 200 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Yellow Pine 33 
 
 Douglas Fir 22 
 
 Oak . . ." 16 
 
 White Pine 7 
 
 Ash 4 
 
 Spruce 4 
 
 Cedar 4 
 
 Cypress 3 
 
 Hemlock 2 
 
 Other Woods 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Yellow pine and Douglas fir are the most 
 important shipbuilding woods because of their 
 strength and their availability in large struc- 
 tural sizes. Both longleaf pine and Douglas fir 
 are used for spars, decking, keels, keel-blocks, 
 rails, guards, and the like. Cypress, white pine, 
 oak, yellow pine, and Douglas fir are also used 
 for inside finish, as well as for ceiling and deck- 
 ing; while numerous hardwoods and imported 
 woods are used for inside finish. Teak is used 
 for armor backing; and balsa, or corkwood, for 
 life preservers. 
 
 On the Pacific Coast, Douglas fir, Port Or- 
 ford cedar, redwood, and Sitka spruce find a 
 large use in ship and boat building; while in 
 Maine and some of the Eastern States, the man- 
 ufacture of high-grade pleasure canoes has as-
 
 184 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 sinned large proportions, these canoes being 
 often made with white cedar ribs, planking of 
 Western red cedar, gunwales of spruce or ma- 
 hogany, thwarts of birch or maple, and seats of 
 birch, maple, or ash. 
 
 New York is the largest ship and boat building 
 State, due to the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Penn- 
 sylvania takes second rank because of its large 
 shipbuilding plants; while California, Oregon, 
 New Jersey, and Maine are also large producers 
 of ships and boats. 
 
 13. Caskets and Coffins. About 150 million 
 feet of lumber are used annually in the manu- 
 facture of caskets and coffins, of which chestnut 
 supplies 30 per cent, white pine 32 per cent, and 
 cypress 13 per cent, the balance being made up 
 by nearly thirty other woods. 
 
 Chestnut and white pine are most largely used 
 in the manufacture of cloth-covered caskets 
 and coffins. Chestnut is also much used as the 
 backing for a veneer of more expensive woods 
 of ornamental appearance. The exterior often 
 consists of mahogany, yellow poplar, white oak, 
 red oak, or birch. Cypress, cedar, and redwood 
 are used because of their resistance to decay; 
 while white pine, shortleaf pine, and yellow pop- 
 lar are common woods for outer boxes and ship- 
 ping cases. 
 
 In the manufacture of caskets and coffins, 
 New York ranks first, followed by Pennsylva- 
 nia, Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois.
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 185 
 
 TABLE 27 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 150 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Chestnut 30 
 
 White Pine 22 
 
 Cypress 13 
 
 Yellow Pine 8 
 
 Yellow Poplar 6 
 
 Oak 5 
 
 Red Gum 5 
 
 Cedar 4 
 
 Basswood 2 
 
 Hemlock 1 
 
 Other Woods 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 14. Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets. 
 
 Nearly 20 species of wood are used in the manu- 
 facture of refrigerators and kitchen cabinets; 
 but oak supplies 23 per cent of the total, ash 14 
 per cent, and red gum 10 per cent. Other woods 
 used to a considerable degree for this purpose 
 are cln^ white and yellow pine, hemlock, ma- 
 ple, yellow poplar, spruce, basswood, cotton- 
 wood, and birch. 
 
 Woods for refrigerators and kitchen cabinets 
 must meet a wide variety of requirements. The 
 outside finish must look well, and here the usual 
 cabinet woods are employed. Strong, stiff ma- 
 terial for frames is supplied by hemlock and 
 shortleaf pine; elm and beech stand up well 
 under dampness, and scour well when washed. 
 It is also essential that, in certain places, woods 
 shall be used which impart no odors to food;
 
 186 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 for these purposes, elm, maple, basswood, cot- 
 tonwood, and cypress are satisfactory. Ice- 
 boxes are often made of spruce, refrigerator 
 backs of white pine, and ice cream freezers of 
 redwood. 
 
 In the manufacture of refrigerators and 
 kitchen cabinets, Michigan ranks first, and In- 
 diana second, followed by New York, Wiscon- 
 sin, and Indiana. 
 
 TABLE 28 
 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 140 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Oak 23 
 
 Ash 14 
 
 Red Gum 10 
 
 Elm 9 
 
 White Pine 6 
 
 Yellow Pine 6 
 
 Hemlock 5 
 
 Maple 6 
 
 Yellow Poplar 4 
 
 Spruce 4 
 
 Basswood 4 
 
 Cottonwood 3 
 
 Birch 3 
 
 Cypress 1 
 
 Chestnut 1 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 15. Excelsior. Excelsior finds a large use for 
 packing, mattresses, and upholstering. It is 
 made in a number of grades based on quality 
 and fineness ; and the best requires a wood which, 
 in addition to working easily, gives a tough, 
 flexible product. The finest grade called
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 187 
 
 "wood wool" has a strand less than 1/100 of 
 an inch in thickness. 
 
 The true poplars, including the various aspens 
 and cottonwoods, supply more than half of the 
 excelsior manufactured in the United States. 
 Basswood and yellow poplar give a product of 
 similar character, while coarser grades are made 
 from yellow pine and several other woods. 
 Among the States in which excelsior is most 
 largely produced, are New York, Virginia, Wis- 
 consin, and New Hampshire. 
 
 TABLE 29 
 
 Excelsior 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 100 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Cottonwood 54 
 
 Yellow Pine 15 
 
 Basswood 14 
 
 Willow 4 
 
 Red Gum 3 
 
 Maple 3 
 
 White Pine 2 
 
 Yellow Poplar 2 
 
 Buckeye 1 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 16. Matches and Toothpicks. Although put 
 into one table in the statistical reports, matches 
 and toothpicks are by no means made from the 
 same woods. White pine has long been a stand- 
 ard match material, and basswood is used to 
 some extent for this purpose in the Eastern fac- 
 tories. On the Pacific Coast, sugar pine and
 
 188 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Port Orford cedar are used for match sticks; 
 while in Virginia yellow poplar and soft maple 
 are also used. Spruce is employed for the mak- 
 ing of match cases. 
 
 Toothpicks are made almost exclusively from 
 birch and maple and are chiefly produced in 
 Michigan and New England. 
 
 TABLE 30 
 
 Matches and Toothpicks 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 85 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 White Pine 86 
 
 Basswood 
 
 Birch 
 
 Maple 
 
 Spruce 
 
 Other Woods 
 
 Total 100 
 
 17. Laundry Appliances. Laundry appliances 
 include washing machines, washboards, ironing 
 boards, clothes wringers, mangles, tubs, clothes- 
 pins, and similar articles. Cypress and maple 
 compete closely for the lead in the manufacture 
 of laundry appliances, while nearly equal quan- 
 tities of beech and cottonwood are required. 
 More than twenty other woods contribute to the 
 total of some 80 million feet of lumber annually 
 consumed in this industry. 
 
 Cottonwood, basswood, and Sitka spruce are 
 much used for washboards. Frames of ironing 
 boards are often made of maple; and the tops, 
 of cypress, cottonwood, spruce, basswood, and
 
 THE USES OF LUMfeEft 18$ 
 
 witite pine. Wooden mangles are usually made 
 of elm, beech, or maple; and wooden tubs fre- 
 quently have cypress staves. Laundry machine' 
 construction uses cypress, maple, basswood, yel- 
 low poplar, and red and white oak. Clothes-ping 
 are most largely made of basswood, beech, and 
 maple, and also to some extent of birch, elm, 
 and ash. 
 
 In manufacture of laundry appliances, Mich- 
 igan has a large lead, with Indiana, Iowa, New 
 York, and Ohio ranking next in importance. 
 
 TABLE 31 
 
 Laundry Appliances 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 80 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Cypress 19 
 
 Maple 18 
 
 Beech 12 
 
 Cottonwood 10 
 
 Basswood 
 
 Cedar 
 
 Birch 
 
 Tupelo 
 
 Red Gum 
 
 White Pine 
 
 Spruce 
 
 Yellow Pine 2 
 
 Elm 2 
 
 Hemlock 2 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 18. Shade and Map Rollers. Nearly four- 
 fifths of all the shade and map rollers are made 
 from white pine; and one-seventh, from spruce
 
 190 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 and other softwoods. Such hardwoods as are 
 credited to this industry are used chiefly for 
 curtain poles and trim. 
 
 TABLE 32 
 
 Shade and Map Rollers 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 79 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 White Pine 78 
 
 Spruce 9 
 
 Douglas Fir 4 
 
 Red Gum 3 
 
 Yellow Pine 1 
 
 Tupelo 1 
 
 Maple 1 
 
 Other Woods 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 19. Paving Materials and Conduits. The man- 
 ufacture of paving materials and conduits of 
 wood which is given a chemical treatment to 
 prevent decay, is one of the more recently de- 
 veloped industries; but it has already reached 
 a considerable size, requiring about 76 million 
 feet of lumber annually. As is brought out in 
 the discussion of wood block pavements, yellow 
 pine is by far the most largely used wood for this 
 purpose; but larch or tamarack, Douglas fir, 
 Norway pine, and tupelo are also used, the lat- 
 ter more especially for conduits to carry under- 
 ground telegraph or telephone lines. These ma- 
 terials are prepared wherever creosoting plants 
 may be located, of which there are now nearly 
 100 in the United States, as shown by the map 
 in Plate 21.
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 11 
 
 TABLE S3 
 
 Paving Materials and Conduits 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 76 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Yellow Pine 86 
 
 Larch 6 
 
 Douglas Fir 5 
 
 Tupelo 1 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 20. Trunks and Valises. The manufacture of 
 trunks and valises annually consumes about 75 
 million feet of twenty-four different woods, of 
 which basswood supplies 28 per cent, yellow 
 pine 20 per cent, and white pine 10 per cent. 
 
 Trunks and valises are usually made from 
 softwoods which offer a desirable combination 
 of light weight and strength, or from veneer of 
 hardwoods, in which strength can be secured 
 without much weight. Trunk slats are gener- 
 ally of maple, beech, or elm; and here strength 
 is an important property. Trunk trays are 
 largely made from basswood and yellow pine; 
 while the box of the trunk is either of thin lum- 
 ber with some kind of outside covering, or, in 
 the better grades, of built-up veneer, which 
 gives much strength and resistance to hard 
 knocks. 
 
 Trunks and valises are largely made in Vir- 
 ginia, Michigan, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and 
 Ohio.
 
 192 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 34 
 
 Trunks and Valises 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 75 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Basswood 28 
 
 Yellow Pine 20 
 
 White Pine 10 
 
 Hemlock 9 
 
 Elm 9 
 
 Maple 7 
 
 Yellow Poplar 4 
 
 Cottonwood 3 
 
 Red Gum 2 
 
 Spruce 2 
 
 Cypress 2 
 
 Other Woods 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 21. Machine Construction. Under this head- 
 ing are grouped such machines as steam shov- 
 els, cranes, hoists, well drills, dredges, crushers, 
 presses, etc., in which much of the wood used 
 must possess strength, toughness, and durabil- 
 ity. Yellow pine supplies one-third of the wood 
 required for machine construction; cypress, 23 
 per cent; and oak, 12 per cent; while nearly 
 thirty other woods are used in smaller amounts. 
 
 The manufacture of machinery of this charac- 
 ter is scattered over a number of States, and 
 not so centralized as are many other industries. 
 Among the States in which machine construc- 
 tion attains considerable magnitude, however, 
 are Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Illinois. 
 
 22. Boot and Shoe Findings. By boot and 
 shoe findings are chiefly meant lasts, last blocks, 
 shoe forms, shoe trees, shoe pegs, and wooden
 
 Courtesy of C. J. Humphrey 
 
 Wood-Destroying Fungi Growing on an Oak Railroad Tie 
 
 I 
 
 Simple Method of Treating Butts of Fence-Posts with Creosote 
 Plate 25 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 193 
 
 TABLE 35 
 
 Machine Construction 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 69 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Yellow Pine 33 
 
 Cypress 23 
 
 Oak 12 
 
 White Pine 8 
 
 Maple 5 
 
 Hemlock 5 
 
 Yellow Poplar 3 
 
 Ash 2 
 
 Basswood 2 
 
 Hickory 2 
 
 Douglas Fir . . v 1 
 
 Elm 1 
 
 Spruce 1 
 
 Beech 1 
 
 Other Woods 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 heels. The material for these articles goes to 
 the factory in log or bolt form; and the amount 
 annually required is equivalent to about 66 mil- 
 lion board feet of lumber. That the manufac- 
 ture of these small articles is after all no mean 
 industry, is proved by the fact that the amount 
 of wood used for boot and shoe findings in the 
 State of Maine is greater than that used by the 
 shipyards and boat and canoe builders of that 
 State. 
 
 Shoe lasts are made very largely from maple; 
 while basswood is used for forms or fillers. 
 A small amount of birch is also used for lasts, 
 and shoe pegs and shanks are made of it. Wooden 
 heels are made of maple.
 
 194 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 The manufacture of lasts is one of the most 
 painstaking operations in the wood-using in- 
 dustries. The last blocks are air dried for a long 
 time, and then very slowly dried by artificial 
 heat for as much as two years before they are 
 turned to the finished pattern. Maple is pre- 
 ferred for lasts, because it is hard, smooth, and 
 tough, takes a high polish, does not warp or 
 shrink, and stands up well under the severe wear 
 to which lasts are subjected. 
 
 Among the more important States in the man- 
 ufacture of boot and shoe findings, are New 
 York, Michigan, Massachusetts, and Maine. 
 
 TABLE 36 
 
 Boot and Shoe Findings 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 66 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Maple 82 
 
 Birch 11 
 
 Basswood 5 
 
 Beech 1 
 
 Other Woods 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 23. Picture Frames and Moldings. Although 
 small articles in themselves, the manufacture of 
 picture frames and moldings in the United 
 States annually consumes about 65 million feet 
 of lumber of more than thirty species. Of this 
 total, basswood, oak, and red gum supply two- 
 thirds; and of the remainder, white and yellow 
 pine, birch, yellow poplar, chestnut, and beech 
 are the more important woods.
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 195 
 
 Oak is largely used for picture frames because 
 of its ornamental value; white pine, basswood, 
 and yellow poplar, because they are light, easily 
 worked, and take finishes and enamel well; while 
 such woods as birch, red gum, mahogany, wal- 
 nut, rosewood, etc., are used for hand mirrors, 
 where both facing and backing must present 
 an ornamental appearance. 
 
 Illinois uses by far the largest quantity of 
 wood of any State in the manufacture of pic- 
 ture frames and moldings; while other impor- 
 tant States in the production of these articles 
 are New York, Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio. 
 
 TABLE 37 
 
 Picture Frames and Moldings 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 65 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Basswood 31 
 
 Oak 25 
 
 Red Gum 12 
 
 White Pine 9 
 
 Yellow Pine 8 
 
 Birch 5 
 
 Yellow Poplar 3 
 
 Chestnut 2 
 
 Beech I. 2 
 
 Other Woods 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 24. Shuttles, Spools, and Bobbins. The man- 
 ufacture of shuttles, spools, and bobbins requires 
 practically as much wood as do picture frames 
 and moldings. It constitutes an important in- 
 dustry in many States, and especially in Maine.
 
 196 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 88 
 
 Shuttles, Spools, and Bobbins 
 (Annual wood consumption, 65 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Birch 51 
 
 Maple 21 
 
 Dogwood 11 
 
 Beech 5 
 
 Persimmon 4 
 
 Basswood 3 
 
 Hickory 1 
 
 Yellow Poplar 1 
 
 Other Woods 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Spools are made chiefly from paper birch; and, 
 in addition to the quantity used at home, several 
 million feet of spool stock are annually exported 
 from Maine to Scotland. Only birch is used in 
 the manufacture of small, one-piece spools. 
 Three-piece spools are also made of yellow pop- 
 lar and red gum. Bobbins are made from maple, 
 birch, and beech; while shuttles which, for fac- 
 tory purposes, must be exceedingly resistant to 
 wear, are made almost entirely from dogwood 
 and persimmon. These woods are very dense, 
 hard, and strong, and become extremely smooth 
 with wear. 
 
 Maine uses nearly one-third of all the material 
 consumed in the United States for shuttles, 
 spools, and bobbins ; New Hampshire, about one- 
 eighth; while Massachusetts, Vermont, and New 
 York produce the articles in lesser quantities. 
 Tennessee is perhaps the most important State 
 in supplying the dogwood and persimmon used
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 197 
 
 in the Northern factories for the manufacture 
 of shuttles. 
 
 25. Tobacco Boxes. The standard material 
 for cigar boxes is Spanish cedar. The highest- 
 grade boxes are made entirely of this wood, 
 while the cheaper boxes often have a veneer of 
 Spanish cedar laid over a backing of tupelo, yel- 
 low poplar, red gum, or some cheaper wood. 
 These latter woods are sometimes stained to 
 imitate Spanish cedar without the application 
 of the more costly veneer. In addition to the 
 woods shown in Table 39, smaller quantities of 
 oak, cedar, sycamore, white pine, mahogany, 
 magnolia, redwood, African cedar, maple, cot- 
 tonwood, Circassian walnut, and rosewood are 
 also used. 
 
 Containers for plug, smoking, and chewing 
 tobacco are largely made from sycamore and 
 red gum, usually in the form of three-ply 
 veneer. 
 
 TABLE 30 
 
 Tobacco Boxes 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 63 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Spanish Cedar 47 
 
 Tupelo 16 
 
 Yellow Poplar 12 
 
 Red Gum 11 
 
 Basswood 7 
 
 Elm 3 
 
 Cypress 2 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Among the more prominent States in the
 
 198 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 manufacture of cigar and tobacco boxes, are 
 Missouri, Wisconsin, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and 
 Alabama. 
 
 26. Sewing Machines. The manufacture of 
 sewing machines annually requires about 60 
 million feet of lumber, of which oak and red 
 gum each supply nearly one-third, and yellow 
 poplar and black walnut each a little more than 
 one-eighth, the balance being made up of tupelo, 
 chestnut, cottonwood, maple, basswood, birch, 
 sycamore, mahogany, yellow pine, and redwood. 
 
 Tops of sewing machines are usually made 
 of hardwood veneer such as oak or walnut, or 
 of other woods stained to imitate mahogany. 
 In addition to its use for veneered tops, red gum 
 is used in sewing machine parts and for veneer 
 backing, as is also tupelo. The sewing machine 
 industry is rather local, and centered most 
 largely in Indiana and Illinois. 
 
 TABLE 40 
 
 Sewing Machines 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 60 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Oak 32 
 
 / Red Gum 32 
 
 Yellow Poplar 13 
 
 Black Walnut 13 
 
 Tupelo 7 
 
 Chestnut 1 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 27. Pumps and Wood Pipe. While many
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 199 
 
 more pumps and parts of pumps are made of 
 other materials than was once the case, the 
 pump-making industry consumes a considerable 
 quantity of wood in the form of piping, tubing, 
 rods, handles, platforms, buckets, cylinders, etc. 
 
 TABJLE 41 
 
 Pumps and Wood Pipe 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 56 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Douglas Fir 38 
 
 White Pine 22 
 
 Redwood 16 
 
 Red Gum 6 
 
 Cypress 4 
 
 Yellow Poplar 3 
 
 Maple ' 3 
 
 Ash 2 
 
 Hickory 2 
 
 Oak 1 
 
 Tupelo 1 
 
 Larch 1 
 
 Other Woods 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 White pine is largely used for piping, 
 tubing, siding, curbing, and covering. Well 
 buckets are made of maple, ash, beech, and oak; 
 pump handles and rods, of oak, ash, and beech; 
 water pipes, of yellow poplar, maple, and white 
 pine ; and platforms, of cypress. Shortleaf pine 
 and cypress are used for boxes for chain and 
 bucket pumps; tupelo, for pump stocks; and 
 short and longleaf pine, for pump poles. In the 
 West, Douglas fir and redwood are largely used 
 for pumps, and more especially for wood pipe,
 
 200 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 where some exceptionally large pipes of this 
 character carry city water supplies. 
 
 28. Automobiles. Statistics of the consump- 
 tion of wood in automobile manufacture are by 
 no means complete, since, in many cases, the re- 
 ports do not distinguish between the manufac- 
 ture of automobiles and that of other vehicles. 
 Such figures as are available, however, indicate 
 the percentage of various woods used as shown 
 in Table 42. 
 
 Automobile manufacturers generally demand 
 high grades of lumber. Ash, oak, longleaf pine, 
 and birch are employed for frames; hickory, for 
 wheels; elm, for the interior of bodies; yellow 
 poplar, black and Circassian walnut, birch, and 
 red gum, for the finish of tops and bodies. The 
 wood finisher employs his highest art in giving 
 a fine appearance to automobiles, and he must 
 have good materials with which to work. 
 
 TABLE 42 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 37 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Ash 22 
 
 Hickory 19 
 
 Yellow Poplar 19 
 
 Birch 11 
 
 Maple 11 
 
 Elm 8 
 
 Oak 2 
 
 Other Woods 8 
 
 Total . ..100
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 201 
 
 29. Pulleys and Conveyors. The manufacture 
 of pulleys and conveyors requires about 36 mil- 
 lion feet of wood annually, of which red gum 
 supplies more than one-half, and oak one-fifth, 
 the balance being made up of some twenty spe- 
 cies, of which maple, birch, beech, tupelo, and 
 basswood are the most important. 
 
 Pulleys and conveyors are manufactured in 
 many different places; but such statistics as are 
 available indicate that by far the largest pro- 
 portion of the output comes from Kentucky, 
 with a decidedly smaller amount from Indiana 
 and Michigan. 
 
 TABLE 43 
 
 Pulleys and Conveyors 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 36 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Red Gum 55 
 
 Oak 20 
 
 Maple 7 
 
 Birch 6 
 
 Beech. 2 
 
 Tupelo 2 
 
 Basswood 2 
 
 Ash 1 
 
 Yellow Poplar 1 
 
 Other Woods 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 30. Professional and Scientific Instruments. 
 The manufacture of professional and scientific 
 instruments of a wide variety requires more than 
 thirty domestic and foreign woods amounting to 
 an annual total of about 35 million feet. Pencils
 
 202 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 44 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruments 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 35 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Cedar 57 
 
 Maple 14 
 
 Basswood 7 
 
 Beech 4 
 
 Birch 3 
 
 Yellow Poplar 3 
 
 Hickory 3 
 
 Cherry 2 
 
 Boxwood 2 
 
 White Pine 2 
 
 Other Woods 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 are included, however, in this classification; and 
 for them Southern red cedar is chiefly used, be- 
 cause of its softness, straight, even grain, and 
 good whittling qualities. Maple is largely used 
 in the manufacture of rulers, yard sticks, cam- 
 era boxes, and other articles. Basswood finds a 
 large use in the making of yard sticks, drafting 
 tables, alphabet blocks, and advertising novel- 
 ties. Penholders are chiefly made from red 
 gum; level blocks, from cherry; thermometers, 
 from oak; planes, from beech; surveyors' stakes, 
 from oak, longleaf pine, chestnut, and hickory; 
 drafting tables and equipment, from ash, bass- 
 wood, beech, mahogany, birch, and white pine; 
 and camera boxes and parts, from basswood, 
 beech, butternut, cypress, hickory, mahogany, 
 spruce, maple, oak, and yellow poplar. 
 The State of New York is by far the largest
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 203 
 
 producer of professional and scientific instru- 
 ments. New Jersey comes next; and Michigan, 
 third. 
 
 31. Toys. Basswood and maple supply more 
 than two-fifths of the wood used in toy making, 
 basswood being often used for the bottoms of 
 children's wagons and carts, while the seats and 
 rims are made from maple. Axles, spokes, and 
 rims are made from oak; spokes and frames, 
 from ash; and sled tops, from chestnut. Domi- 
 noes and checkers are made from both maple 
 and basswood, while toy blocks are made chiefly 
 from basswood and some yellow poplar. Toy 
 wagons and sleds are also made from birch; doll 
 furniture, from white pine, birch, maple, and 
 beech; doll houses, from birch and basswood; 
 while many turned toys are made from birch. 
 
 TABLE 45 
 
 Toys 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 29 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Basswood 30 
 
 Maple 14 
 
 Beech 11 
 
 Birch 11 
 
 White Pine 8 
 
 Elm 7 
 
 Oak 5 
 
 Chestnut 3 
 
 Ash 3 
 
 Yellow Poplar 3 
 
 Red Gum 2 
 
 Cottonwood 1 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total . ..100
 
 204 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 In the manufacture of toys, Pennsylvania is 
 the leading State, followed very closely by Wis- 
 consin, Maine, and New York. 
 
 32. Sporting and Athletic Goods. More than 
 30 different woods contribute to the total of 25 
 million feet of timber annually required in the 
 manufacture of sporting and athletic goods. Of 
 this quantity, hickory and maple supply 40 per 
 cent; elm and ash, each 13 per cent; and oak, 10 
 per cent. 
 
 These goods comprise a long list of articles, 
 including baseball bats, bowling balls, dumb- 
 bells, fishing rods, golf clubs, Indian clubs, skis, 
 snowshoes, tenpins, tennis rackets and many 
 others. Among other purposes, hickory, maple, 
 beech, and ash are used for baseball bats; elm, 
 for gymnasium goods; and maple, for tenpins. 
 A great deal of oak is used for billiard and pool 
 tables, and rosewood for the exterior finish. Ma- 
 ple is used for billiard cues, with black walnut, 
 ebony, Circassian walnut, and rosewood for the 
 decorative parts. Yellow pine is used in the 
 manufacture of bowling alleys ; and also a great 
 deal of maple. Lignum vitae is the preferred 
 wood for bowling balls. Golf clubs are usually 
 made with hickory handles and persimmon 
 heads. Climbing poles may be made of yellow 
 pine ; and vaulting poles, of spruce. Altogether, 
 the demands upon the woods used for sporting 
 and athletic goods are many and varied, but the 
 qualities of strength and toughness are the ones 
 most largely required.
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 205 
 
 In the manufacture of these goods, Michigan 
 holds first place, with New York, Tennessee, and 
 Illinois following in close order. 
 
 TABLE 46 
 
 Sporting and Athletic Goods 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 25 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Hickory 20 
 
 Maple 20 
 
 Elm 13 
 
 Ash 13 
 
 Oak 10 
 
 Birch 4 
 
 Yellow Poplar 4 
 
 Yellow Pine 4 
 
 White Pine 3 
 
 Basswood 1 
 
 Other Woods 8 
 
 Total 100 
 
 33. Patterns and Flasks. The reports group 
 the woods used for patterns and flasks, although 
 they really have no property in common, and 
 very different grades of material are required 
 for the two purposes. For pattern making, soft, 
 even-grained, easily worked woods which swell 
 and shrink very little are required; while, for 
 the foundry flasks which hold the sand and pat- 
 terns, almost any wood will do. 
 
 By far the larger proportion of patterns are 
 made from white pine, although, for specially 
 fine castings in which it is important to have 
 durable patterns that can be used many times 
 without wear or swelling and shrinkingexpen- 
 sive woods like mahogany and cherry are used.
 
 206 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Because of its resistance to wear, white oak is 
 also employed to -some extent for patterns. 
 Flasks are made from yellow pine, white pine, 
 hemlock, redwood, and a number of other woods. 
 In the manufacture of patterns and flasks, 
 Pennsylvania seems to have a decided lead; 
 while New Jersey and Ohio use more wood for 
 these purposes than any other State except 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 TABLE 47 
 
 Patterns and Flasks 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 24 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 White Pine 75 
 
 Yellow Pine 8 
 
 Redwood 4 
 
 Hemlock 2 
 
 Spruce 2 
 
 Yellow Poplar 1 
 
 Sugar Pine 1 
 
 Mahogany 1 
 
 Cedar 1 
 
 Other Woods 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 34. Bungs and Faucets. The manufacture of 
 such apparently insignificant articles as bungs 
 and faucets annually requires more than 20 mil- 
 lion board feet of wood, of which yellow poplar 
 supplies 85 per cent. This wood is preferred be- 
 cause it is straight-grained, soft, and easily 
 worked, and because it contracts and expands 
 evenly. The even expansion of the bung is what 
 causes it to fit tightly and prevent leakage.
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 207 
 
 By far the larger proportion of the bungs man- 
 ufactured are produced in the State of Ohio, 
 and especially in Cincinnati, although the yel- 
 low poplar from which they are made comes 
 mainly from Kentucky, Tennessee, and West 
 Virginia. 
 
 TABLE 48 
 
 Bungs and Faucets 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 21 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Yellow Poplar 85 
 
 Maple 4 
 
 Beech 4 
 
 Red Gum 2 
 
 Birch 1 
 
 White Pine 1 
 
 Oak 1 
 
 Other woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 35. Plumbers' Woodwork. For plumbers' 
 woodwork, about the same quantity of wood is 
 required as for bungs and faucets. Under this 
 heading is included the wood used in the manu- 
 facture of bathtubs, toilet tanks, seats, bath- 
 room cabinets, and other plumbers' equipment. 
 Oak is the chief wood for these purposes, with 
 birch second, and much smaller quantities of 
 a dozen other woods consumed. For exterior 
 work where a fine appearance is desired, oak is 
 most largely used, together with birch, cherry, 
 and mahogany. Maple and yellow poplar are 
 employed for painted or enameled work; and 
 yellow poplar, chestnut, red gum, and shortleaf
 
 208 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 pine, for tank backing. Ash is often used for 
 wash-tray frames. 
 
 TABLE 49 
 Plumbers' Woodwork 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 20 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Oak 70 
 
 Birch 12 
 
 Yellow Poplar 4 
 
 White Pine 4 
 
 Ash 3 
 
 Red Gum 2 
 
 Maple ... 2 
 
 Yellow Pine 1 
 
 Basswood 1 
 
 Other Woods 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 36. Electrical Machinery and Apparatus. Oak 
 
 is the leading wood in the manufacture of elec- 
 trical machinery and apparatus, while white 
 pine and spruce are also of much importance. 
 The three supply 55 per cent of the annual re- 
 quirement of about 18 million feet. Many other 
 woods are used in smaller quantity. 
 
 Much of the spruce is used in the manufacture 
 of conduits, reels, and spools for wire; while 
 some birch, white pine, yellow poplar, red gum, 
 and basswood are also used for this purpose. 
 Railway signal devices require most of the white 
 cedar and cypress used in this industry, since 
 these woods offer good resistance to the ele- 
 ments. Rough telephone boxes are made of 
 hemlock, oak, yellow poplar, and maple; while
 
 Creosoted Block of Longleaf Pine after Five Years' Service in 
 Congress Street Pavement, Chicago, 111. 
 
 Photo by courtesy of U. 8. Wood Preserring Co. 
 
 Laying Creosoted Wood Block Pavement in Chicago 
 Plate 26 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 Interior of a Sawmill, Showing Method of Timber Construction 
 
 Maple Flooring in a Dancing Hall 
 Plate 27 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 209 
 
 telephone booths in which appearance is im- 
 portant are made from such woods as oak and 
 birch. Yellow poplar and oak are used for the 
 base blocks for electrical devices; while many 
 high-grade woods are used in switchboards and 
 telephone cabinets. 
 
 Illinois seems to be the most prominent State 
 in the manufacture of electrical machinery and 
 apparatus, but large quantities are also pro- 
 duced in New York and Pennsylvania. 
 
 TABLE 50 
 
 Electrical Machinery and Apparatus 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 18 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Oak 27 
 
 White Pine 17 
 
 Spruce 11 
 
 Yellow Pine 7 
 
 Maple 7 
 
 Birch 4 
 
 Cedar 4 
 
 Larch 4 
 
 Yellow Poplar 3 
 
 Elm 3 
 
 Walnut 3 
 
 Beech 2 
 
 Mahogany 2 
 
 Basswood 2 
 
 Hemlock 1 
 
 Red Gum 1 
 
 Cypress 1 
 
 Other Woods 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 37. Brushes. The manufacture of brushes 
 consumes about 13 million feet of wood annually 
 of more than thirty species, of which beech sup-
 
 210 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 plies nearly half, and birch and maple each 15 
 per cent. 
 
 There are so many different kinds, grades, and 
 sizes of brashes and brooms that there is a wide 
 range in the quality of material employed. The 
 more expensive hand brushes have backs artis- 
 tically turned from ebony, mahogany, rosewood, 
 maple, cherry, walnut, and birch; while, for 
 scrubbing and whitewash brushes, beech is very 
 largely used. Maple, beech, and birch are em- 
 ployed for paint brushes, as well as for duster 
 handles. For many of the cheaper brushes, va- 
 rious woods are used. 
 
 Pennsylvania uses more wood than any other 
 State in the manufacture of brushes ; while Ohio, 
 New York, Maryland, Maine, and Massachu- 
 setts are also prominent in the production of 
 these articles. 
 
 TABLE 51 
 
 Brushes 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 13 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Beech 49 
 
 Birch 15 
 
 Maple 15 
 
 Basswood 6 
 
 Cherry 4 
 
 Red Gum 2 
 
 Yellow Poplar 2 
 
 Elm 1 
 
 Hickory 1 
 
 Other Woods 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 38. Dowels. Dowels are wooden pegs used to
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 211 
 
 hold boards together, edge to edge, in the man- 
 ufacture of table tops and counters, or to hold 
 the parts of sash, doors, and similar articles to- 
 gether. They are usually made of the strong- 
 est hardwoods, and are driven tightly into auger 
 or gimlet holes to make strong, close-fitting 
 joints. More than 90 per cent of the dowels are 
 made from birch, beech, and maple, and espe- 
 cially from paper birch. Dowels are occasion- 
 ally made from oak, hickory, or ash. 
 
 Dowel rods are also used in the manufacture 
 of chairs, children's beds, and cribs, and for 
 coops in which poultry is shipped. 
 
 The equivalent of about 12 million board feet 
 of lumber is annually consumed in dowel mak- 
 ing, and nearly two-thirds of it in the State of 
 Maine. Michigan and New York also produce 
 dowels in considerable quantities. 
 
 TABLE 52 
 Dowels 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 12 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Birch 68 
 
 Beech 15 
 
 Maple 11 
 
 Elm 1 
 
 Basswood 1 
 
 Other Woods 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 39. Elevators. Under this heading is included 
 the wood used in the manufacture of elevators 
 and elevator parts, including gates, dumb wait- 
 ers, platforms, guides, and frames.
 
 212 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Ash and oak are frequently used for the 
 framework and heavy platforms of freight and 
 passenger elevators. Maple is principally used 
 for elevator floors and guides; while white and 
 yellow pine are also used for guides, frames, and 
 platforms in places where great strength is not 
 required. Dumb-waiter cars are made from ma- 
 ple, ash, birch, and some of the lighter woods. 
 Elevator finish is often made of yellow poplar. 
 In the more highly finished elevators, mahog- 
 any, ash, birch, and oak are used for interior 
 trim. 
 
 New York appears to be the leading State in 
 the manufacture of elevators, while this indus- 
 try is about of equal magnitude in Illinois and 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 TABLE 53 
 
 Elevators 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 10 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Yellow Pine 36 
 
 White Pine 17 
 
 Maple 16 
 
 Hemlock 10 
 
 Oak 10 
 
 Douglas Fir 4 
 
 Yellow Poplar 3 
 
 Ash 1 
 
 Other Woods 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 40. Saddles and Harness. Strength is an es- 
 sential element in the woods used in saddle and 
 harness making; so 98 per cent of them are hard-
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 213 
 
 woods, among which beech and ash are the most 
 prominent. 
 
 The principal parts in which wood is used are 
 saddle trees, stirrups, and hames. Ash is largely 
 used for hames, and to some extent, also, are 
 beech, maple, and oak. Stirrups are made of 
 elm or hackberry, with the best ones of oak. In 
 the West, Douglas fir, as well as Oregon maple, 
 is used for saddle trees. Pack saddles are made 
 from Oregon cottonwood, alder, or ash. 
 
 TABLE 54 
 
 Saddles and Harness 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 9 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Beech 30 
 
 Ash : 23 
 
 Maple 16 
 
 Oak 14 
 
 Red Gum 12 
 
 Elm 3 
 
 Douglas Fir 1 
 
 Other Woods 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 41. Playground Equipment. Under this head- 
 ing are included merry-go-rounds, lawn and 
 other swings, athletic platforms, and various 
 field appliances. Since nearly all such equip- 
 ment requires strength and wearing qualities, 
 it is not surprising that almost 90 per cent of the 
 9 million feet of wood annually used for this 
 purpose consists of beech, oak, yellow pine, and 
 maple. 
 
 Because of its strength and toughness, beech
 
 214 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 is much used for swings where subject to vibra- 
 tion and irregular strains. Longleaf pine is 
 much used for the platform sills of merry-go- 
 rounds; and so are also Douglas fir and oak. 
 Birch and other woods are used for lawn swings 
 and settees; and black ash, for porch swings. 
 Elm is frequently used for bent parts in play- 
 ground equipment; and maple, for the exterior 
 finish of merry-go-rounds. 
 
 Among the more prominent States in the man- 
 ufacture of such equipment are Indiana, Penn- 
 sylvania, Ohio, and New York. 
 
 TABLE 55 
 
 Playground Equipment 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 9 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Beech 34 
 
 Oak 28 
 
 Yellow Pine 16 
 
 Maple 9 
 
 Elm 4 
 
 Ash 2 
 
 Birch 2 
 
 Spruce 1 
 
 Hickory 1 
 
 Yellow Poplar 1 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 42. Insulator Pins and Brackets. Practically 
 the only woods used in the manufacture of insu- 
 lator pins and brackets are black locust and 
 white or chestnut oak. Because of its exceed- 
 ingly great strength and durability, black lo- 
 cust has always been the favorite wood for this
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 215 
 
 purpose; but the demand for pins and brackets 
 has become so great that much oak also is now 
 used, the pins and brackets of this wood being 
 given a treatment with a preservative to pre- 
 vent decay. On high-power lines with large 
 porcelain insulators, hickory pins are used to 
 some extent. 
 
 Nearly all of the insulator pins and brackets 
 are manufactured in North Carolina and Vir- 
 ginia, where suitable raw material is most 
 abundant. 
 
 TABLE 56 
 
 Insulator Pins and Brackets 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 9 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Locust 53 
 
 Oak 47 
 
 Total 100 
 
 43. Butcher Blocks and Skewers. Butcher 
 blocks are chiefly made from maple, red gum, 
 and sycamore; while skewers are made most 
 largely from hickory, beech, and birch. Strength, 
 and toughness are essential qualities in skew- 
 ers, since they must be of small size; while a 
 dense fiber that resists chopping and does not 
 splinter up is required for meat blocks. In the 
 earlier days, these blocks were chiefly made 
 from solid sections of sycamore, but the prac- 
 tice at present is to build them up from ordi- 
 nary sizes of lumber.
 
 216 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 57 
 
 Butcher Blocks and Skewers 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 8 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Maple 26 
 
 Red Gum 22 
 
 Sycamore 20 
 
 Hickory 16 
 
 Beech 11 
 
 Birch 3 
 
 White Pine 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 44. Clocks. The clock-making industry in 
 the United States requires annually the equiva- 
 lent of about 8 million feet of lumber, used 
 chiefly for cases. Large clocks of the "grand- 
 father" type are now much in fashion; and in 
 the making of such cases, some of the finer woods 
 and the highest class of work are employed. 
 Oak is much used for clock frames; birch, for 
 turnery; and walnut, mahogany, and cherry, for 
 decorative effects in the higher-priced articles. 
 Clock bottoms are made of pine ; while the ship- 
 ping cases are frequently made from yellow 
 pine, which accounts for much of this wood 
 shown in Table 58. Red oak is much used in the 
 manufacture of cases for wall clocks; and bass- 
 wood and yellow poplar, for backs and also for 
 cases which are to be enameled. Red gum is 
 used to a considerable extent for cases in which 
 a Circassian walnut effect is desired. 
 
 About 60 per cent of the wood used in clock 
 manufacture is consumed in Connecticut, and
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 217 
 
 nearly all the rest in New York, these two States 
 being the only ones in which clock-making is 
 an extensive industry. 
 
 TABLE 58 
 
 Clocks 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 8 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Oak 33 
 
 Basswood 18 
 
 Yellow Poplar 14 
 
 Yellow Pine 12 
 
 White Pine 6 
 
 Tupelo 4 
 
 Cherry 4 
 
 Chestnut 4 
 
 Mahogany 3 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 45. Signs and Supplies. Under this heading 
 are included the manufacture of professional 
 display boards, stretcher strips for oil paintings, 
 window display racks, and similar articles. 
 White pine, hemlock, and Western yellow pine 
 are much used for these purposes because of 
 their light weight and color, ease of working, 
 and capacity to take paints and oils, the latter 
 being specially required for many kinds of signs. 
 The hardwoods grouped in this classification 
 are chiefly used for display racks and hangers. 
 
 Many of the large bill posting boards are not 
 special factory products, but are simply made 
 by nailing up tongued-and-grooved flooring on 
 supports.
 
 218 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 59 
 
 Signs and Supplies 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 7 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 White Pine 47 
 
 Hemlock 15 
 
 Western Yellow Pine 15 
 
 Yellow Pine 6 
 
 Red Gum 3 
 
 Elm 3 
 
 Redwood 2 
 
 Maple 1 
 
 Yellow Poplar 1 
 
 Basswood 1 
 
 Cottonwood 1 
 
 Buckeye 1 
 
 Other Woods 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 46. Printing Materials. The equivalent of 
 more than 5 million board feet of lumber is an- 
 nually used in the manufacture of printing ma- 
 terials, of which cherry supplies nearly two- 
 fifths. This classification includes engraving 
 blocks, electrotype blocks, engraving boards, 
 and printing press attachments. Engraving and 
 electrotype blocks and bases are generally made 
 of cherry, basswood, oak, birch, maple, or beech, 
 and sometimes of mahogany. Engravers' boards 
 are generally made of basswood; and the long 
 wooden fingers on cylinder presses, from chest- 
 nut. For large wood type which must stand up 
 under heavy service, the hardest of hard maple 
 is used. 
 
 Among the more prominent States in the con- 
 sumption of wood for printing materials, are
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 219 
 
 New York, Pennsylvania, Maine, and Wiscon- 
 sin. 
 
 TABLE 60 
 Printing Materials 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 5 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Cherry 39 
 
 Maple 13 
 
 Ash 7 
 
 Basswood 7 
 
 Yellow Pine 6 
 
 Beech 6 
 
 Oak 5 
 
 Chestnut 5 
 
 Birch 5 
 
 Yellow Poplar 3 
 
 Elm 2 
 
 Mahogany 1 
 
 Other Woods 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 47. Weighing Apparatus. Approximately the 
 same amount of wood is used in the manufacture 
 of weighing apparatus or scales of various kinds 
 as is required for printing devices and machines. 
 The qualities required are different, however; 
 and consequently we find that three-fifths of the 
 wood used in the manufacture of weighing ap- 
 paratus consists of spruce and yellow pine, 
 which offer desirable combinations of light 
 weight and strength. Three other harder and 
 stronger woods used to less extent are maple, 
 birch, and beech; while white pine, oak, Doug- 
 las fir, yellow poplar, and a half-dozen others 
 make up the remaining 10 per cent of wood 
 material consumed in this industry.
 
 220 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 61 
 
 Weighing Apparatus 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 5 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Spruce 36 
 
 Yellow Pine 24 
 
 Birch 14 
 
 Maple 9 
 
 Beech 7 
 
 White Pine 3 
 
 Oak 3 
 
 Douglas Fir 2 
 
 Yellow Poplar 1 
 
 Other Woods 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 48. Whips, Canes, and Umbrella Sticks. The 
 manufacture of such apparently small articles 
 as whips, canes, and umbrella sticks annually 
 requires the equivalent of 5 million board feet 
 of lumber, although much of the material is 
 never put into lumber form, and the rarer im- 
 ported kinds are purchased by the piece or 
 pound. 
 
 Among the native woods used for this pur- 
 pose, beech supplies 57 per cent of the total 
 consumption; and maple and birch, 33 per cent 
 more, leaving only 10 per cent for some twenty 
 other species. Beech is largely used for whip 
 stocks and umbrella sticks, as are also maple 
 and birch. Handles are frequently made from 
 ebony, while many imported woods and roots 
 are used for the more expensive cane and um- 
 brella sticks.
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 221 
 
 TABLE 62 
 
 Whips, Canes and Umbrella Sticks 
 
 (Annual wood consumption, 5 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Beech 57 
 
 Maple 22 
 
 Birch 11 
 
 Ebony 4 
 
 Hickory 2 
 
 Other Woods 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 In the manufacture of these articles, New 
 York and Massachusetts hold equal rank, each 
 supplying about 40 per cent of the total prod- 
 uct, while the bulk of the remainder comes from 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 49. Brooms and Carpet-Sweepers. Ordinary 
 broom handles are listed with handles ; hence this 
 classification relates chiefly to carpet-sweepers. 
 
 TABLE 63 
 
 Brooms and Carpet-Sweepers 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 2 million board feet) 
 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Maple 25 
 
 Birch 23 
 
 Oak 18 
 
 Sycamore 12 
 
 Ash 10 
 
 Red Gum 5 
 
 Beech 4 
 
 Mahogany 2 
 
 Circassian Walnut 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The manufacture of carpet-sweepers on a large
 
 222 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 scale is a strictly modern industry, and is cen- 
 tered in Michigan. The making of carpet- 
 sweepers has come to be quite an art; and these 
 articles are finished in a wide variety of durable 
 and ornamental woods, in order to match many 
 styles of house finish and furniture. In addi- 
 tion to the nine woods listed in Table 63, rose- 
 wood, laurel, and black walnut are recorded as 
 being used to some extent in the manufacture 
 of carpet-sweepers. 
 
 50. Firearms. Black walnut has been the fa- 
 vorite gun-stock wood for many years, and still 
 supplies four-fifths of the wood used in the man- 
 ufacture of firearms. More recently, however, 
 red gum has come into prominence for stocks 
 in which a Circassian walnut effect is desired, 
 while a small percentage of the more expen- 
 sive firearms carry stocks of the true imported 
 walnut. A small amount of English walnut is 
 also used for pistol stocks, and birch occasion- 
 ally for gun stocks, while boxwood is a favorite 
 material for gun rods. 
 
 Most of the firearms used in this country are 
 made in Connecticut and New York. 
 
 TABLE 64 
 
 Firearms 
 
 (Annual lumber consumption, 2 million board feet) 
 Woods Used Per Cent 
 
 Black Walnut 81 
 
 Red Gum 17 
 
 Circassian Walnut : 2 
 
 Total . ..100
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 223 
 
 51. Minor Uses. There are three smaller but 
 important wood-using industries which in the 
 aggregate do not consume much more than the 
 equivalent of 1 million board feet of wood 
 yearly. These are the manufacture of artificial 
 limbs, tobacco pipes, and aeroplanes. 
 
 TABLE 65 
 
 Minor Uses of Wood in Manufacturing 
 (Total annual wood consumption, 1 million board feet) 
 
 Artificial Limbs Per Cent 
 
 Birch 61 
 
 Maple 21 
 
 Willow 8 
 
 Hickory 6 
 
 Yucca 6 
 
 Lancewood 4 
 
 Other Woods 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Tobacco Pipes Per Cent 
 
 French Brier 66 
 
 Apple 25 
 
 Kalmia 4 
 
 Red Gum 2 
 
 Other Woods 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Aeroplanes Per Cent 
 
 Spruce 63 
 
 Ash 16 
 
 Mahogany 8 
 
 Yellow Poplar 6 
 
 Oak 5 
 
 Hickory 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The requirements for aeroplane wood are
 
 224 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 most exacting. Above all, it must be straight- 
 grained, strong, light, and perfectly free from 
 defects. The upright posts which hold the 
 planes apart are chiefly made from spruce; the 
 planes are also made of strips of spruce glued to- 
 gether, or " laminated," which form of construc- 
 tion gives added strength and freedom from 
 splitting under stress. Aeroplane beams are 
 generally of spruce. Ash is often used for the 
 laminated propellers, while hickory is used for 
 the axles and the braces over them. Propellers 
 are also made either wholly of spruce or of 
 built-up layers of ash and mahogany. Mahog- 
 any is used in the steering wheels. The skids 
 which hold the landing wheels are usually of 
 oak, ash, or hickory. 
 
 WOOD-USING INDUSTRY REPORTS 
 
 The reports of the United States Forest Serv- 
 ice upon the wood-using industries of 24 States 
 are now available, some of the reports being al- 
 ready out of print. Since these reports are 
 mainly of local value, they have been printed 
 by some department of the government of the 
 particular State interested, or by an associa- 
 tion or periodical devoted to the interests of 
 lumbering or conservation. The bulletins listed 
 below may be secured in each case from the ad- 
 dress given. In writing for those for which 
 there is no charge, postage should accompany 
 the request.
 
 i
 
 A B C D 
 
 Torch Tests Showing Effect of Paint in Preventing Spread of 
 
 Fire and Retarding Charring of Wood 
 
 Effect at end of 1-minute test on untreated shingle (A) and 
 painted shingle (B); 3-minute test, untreated (C), and painted 
 (D). 
 
 Forest Service Method of Making Test to Determine End-Crushing 
 Strength, or Strength in Compression Parallel to the Grain 
 
 Plate 29 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 THE USES OF LUMBER 225 
 
 BULLETINS ON WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES OF VARIOUS STATES 
 
 State Obtained from Price 
 
 Alabama The Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La $ 0.25 
 
 California G. M. Homans, State Forester, Sacramento, Gal 
 
 Connecticut W. O. Filley, State Forester, New Haven, Conn 
 
 Florida W. A. McRae, Com'r of Agric., Tallahassee, Fla 
 
 Illinois J. C. Blair, Univ. of 111., Urbana, 111 
 
 Iowa Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa 
 
 Kentucky J. B. Barton, State Forester, Frankfort, Ky 
 
 Louisiana The Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La 25 
 
 Maine State Forest Commissioner, Augusta, Me 
 
 Michigan Public Domain Commission, Lansing, Mich 
 
 Minnesota W. T. Cox, State Forester, St. Paul, Minn 
 
 Mississippi The Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La 25 
 
 Missouri St. Louis Lumberman, St. Louis, Mo 25 
 
 New Hampshire E. A. Hirst, State Forester, Concord, N. H 
 
 New Jersey Alfred Gaskill, State Forester. Trenton, N. J 
 
 New York N. Y. State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. T 
 
 North Carolina J. S. Holmes, State Forester, Chapel Hill, N. C 
 
 Ohio Edmund Secrest, State Forester, Wooster, Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania R_ S. Conklin, Com'r of Forestry, Harrisburg, Pa 
 
 Tennessee Southern Lumberman, Nashville, Tenn 25 
 
 Texas The Lumber Trade Journal, New Orleans, La 25 
 
 Vermont F. A. Hawes, State Forester, Burlington, Vt 
 
 Virginia G. W. Koiner, Com'r of Agric., Richmond, Va 
 
 Wisconsin E. M. Griffith, State Forester, Madison, Wit
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 fT^HE properties and uses of the principal 
 kinds of timber that are manufactured 
 into lumber in the United States, are 
 briefly mentioned in this chapter; also those of 
 the more important imported woods. The va- 
 rious species are referred to by the names by; 
 which they are most widely known; and the or- 
 der is alphabetic, without regard to the impor- 
 tance of any species in point of lumber produc- 
 tion. 
 
 Table 107, on page 318, shows the present an- 
 nual lumber production in the United States. 
 A large percentage of the lumber output goes 
 directly into general building and construction, 
 and there is no way in which the specific uses of 
 such material can be ascertained. The figures 
 given in this chapter upon the consumption of 
 lumber represent chiefly the results of the state 
 and government studies of the wood-using in- 
 dustries, during the course of which a great deal 
 of valuable information has been accumulated 
 upon the factory uses of wood. In order to avoid 
 tiresome figures and to show the true propor- 
 tions more readily, the tables made up from the 
 statistical reports are in percentages; that is, 
 the percentage of the total factory consumption 
 of each species is shown for each industry in 
 which the species is used, the total factory con- 
 sumption in each case being 100 per cent. 
 
 226
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 227 
 
 RED ALDER 
 
 Red alder (Alnus oregona) is a Pacific Coast 
 hardwood, found chiefly west of the Cascade 
 mountains, in Oregon and Washington. The 
 wood is reddish brown in color, with rather fine, 
 even grain, compact, and hard. It works and 
 polishes well, and makes a good imitation of 
 mahogany when desired. 
 
 The main factory uses of red alder are shown 
 in Table 66. 
 
 TABLE 66 
 
 Factory Uses of Bed Alder 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Furniture 63 
 
 Mill Work 19 
 
 Handles 16 
 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The specific uses reported for red alder are 
 for archery bows, broom handles, columns, ta- 
 bles, interior finish, pack saddles, pulleys, and 
 turnery. 
 
 APPLE 
 
 The domestic apple tree supplies a very com- 
 pact hardwood that is much prized for a number 
 of small articles. While apple wood is generally 
 cut only when old orchards are cleaned out, the 
 reports indicate a factory consumption of about 
 300,000 board feet of this wood yearly. The 
 main items of use are as indicated in Table 67.
 
 228 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 67 
 Factory Uses of Apple Wood 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Handles 48 
 
 Tobacco Pipes 38 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruments 8 
 
 Boxes and Crates 4 
 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 More specifically, applewood is used in the 
 manufacture of planes, mallets, saw handles, 
 rules, canes, whips, and umbrella handles. 
 
 ASH 
 
 Botanists distinguish a number of species of 
 ash in the United States; but, for commercial 
 purposes, only three are usually specified 
 white ash, black ash, and Oregon ash. 
 
 White ash (Fraxinus americana) is slightly 
 under the average weight and hardness of hard- 
 woods, but of more than average strength and 
 stiffness, which makes it very (useful for many 
 purposes. 
 
 Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) is somewhat 
 softer and weaker than white ash. It is much 
 less generally distributed throughout the East- 
 ern States than the former, and is most largely 
 manufactured in Wisconsin and Michigan. The 
 toughness of black ash made it popular wood for 
 split hoops for many years. 
 
 Oregon ash (Fraxinus oregona), while not 
 very abundant in that State, yields a hard, 
 strong, tough wood which takes an excellent pol-
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 229 
 
 ish and hence is useful for fixtures and furni- 
 ture in addition to its main use for handles. 
 
 The statistical reports do not separate the 
 various species of ash, and their uses are sum- 
 marized in Table 68. 
 
 TABLE 68 
 
 Factory Uses of Ash 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Handles 22 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 21 
 
 Vehicles 15 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 8 
 
 Mill Work 7 
 
 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 6 
 
 Car Construction 6 
 
 Agricultural Implements 4 
 
 Boxes and Crates 4 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 3 
 
 Sporting and Athletic Goods 1 
 
 Other Uses 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 In addition to the above, particular uses for 
 white ash are for: 
 
 Aeroplanes Car repairing 
 
 Automobiles (running boards) Chairs 
 
 Bars (vehicle) Church pews 
 
 Baseball bats Churns 
 
 Bent panels (light vehicle Churn lids 
 
 bodies) Corn planters 
 
 Beams (cultivators) Cylinders (cider mill) 
 
 Baby perambulators Doors 
 
 Bobsleds Dowels 
 
 Bows Electrical apparatus 
 
 Boxes Elevator parts 
 
 Butter tubs (heading) Engine cabs 
 
 Butter tubs (staves) Felloes 
 
 Cabinet work Flooring 
 
 Car construction (framing) Frames (automobile bodies)
 
 230 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Frames (buggy and carriage 
 
 bodies) 
 
 Frames (light vehicle seats) 
 Frames (wagon boxes) 
 Furniture 
 Gears (coach) 
 Handles 
 
 Handles (edge tool) 
 Hames (wood) 
 Harrows 
 Hoe handles 
 Hose truck bodies 
 Hounds (vehicles) 
 Interior finish 
 Machinery (construction) 
 Kitchen cabinets 
 Keels (boat) 
 Moldings 
 Panels 
 
 Parallel bars 
 Patterns 
 Piano parts 
 Planing mill products 
 
 Plow beams 
 
 Pokes (animal) 
 
 Poles (heavy vehicles) 
 
 Posts (vehicles) 
 
 Plumbers' woodwork 
 
 Pump rods 
 
 Rails 
 
 Rake heads 
 
 Rake (garden) handles 
 
 Rims (vehicle) 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Sash 
 
 Shovel handles 
 
 Soil rollers 
 
 Staves 
 
 Tables 
 
 Tools 
 
 Trunks 
 
 Vehicle bodies and parts 
 
 Yokes 
 
 Wagon parts 
 
 Well-digging machines 
 
 Windmills 
 
 Black ash enters into the manufacture of: 
 
 Auto seats 
 
 Baseball bats 
 
 Boat finish 
 
 Box shocks 
 
 Buffets (exterior work) 
 
 Buffets (inside work) 
 
 Butter tubs 
 
 Candy pails 
 
 Chairs (kitchen) 
 
 Commodes 
 
 Cooperage stock 
 
 Desks (inside work) 
 
 Fixtures 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Furniture (interior) 
 
 Handles (garden tools) 
 
 Handles (small tools) 
 
 Hayloader parts 
 
 Hoops (butter tubs) 
 
 Hoppers (fruit and vegetable) 
 
 Ice chests 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Kitchen cabinets 
 
 Lard tubs 
 
 Moldings (piano) 
 
 Music cabinets (inside work) 
 
 Music cabinets (exterior work) 
 
 Picture moldings 
 
 Pike poles 
 
 Racked hoops 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Sills (vehicle) 
 
 Spice kegs 
 
 Slats (bed) 
 
 Sugar buckets 
 
 Trunk slats 
 
 Washboards
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 231 
 
 Oregon ash is used on the Pacific Coast in 
 making boats, book cases, chairs, desks, tables, 
 handles, saddles, and vehicles. 
 ASPEN 
 
 The aspens, of which there two species the 
 common popple or quaking aspen (Populus 
 tremuloides), and the large-tooth aspen (Pop- 
 ulus grandidentata) are widely distributed 
 throughout the United States, and belong to the 
 family of true poplars, of which the cottonwoods 
 are the largest representatives. The wood of 
 the aspens is light in weight and color, soft, and 
 not strong. In stiffness, however, it ranks with 
 many heavier hardwoods. 
 
 Aspen is not separately tabulated in many 
 state reports ; but probably its largest use is for 
 the making of boxes and crates, to which pur- 
 pose it is excellently suited. Some of the spe- 
 cific uses listed for aspen are as follows : 
 
 Basket bottoms Handles (oyster knife) 
 
 Basket hoops Jelly buckets 
 
 Boxes Novelties 
 
 Boxes (piano) Pails 
 
 Boxes (shoe pegs) Shoe fillers 
 
 Boxes (veneer) Shoe forms 
 
 Brushes Shoe lasts 
 
 Buckets Shoe trees 
 
 Casing Spice kegs 
 
 Ceiling Spool heads 
 
 Crates Spools 
 
 Dowels Sugar buckets 
 
 Excelsior Toothpicks 
 
 Fish kits Toys 
 
 Frames (door) Toy wheelbarrows (bodies) 
 
 Frames (window) Vehicle body parts 
 
 Furniture (hidden work) Wood wool 
 
 Handles (dipper)
 
 232 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 BALM OF GILEAD 
 
 Balm of Gilead (Populus balsamifera) is also 
 a true poplar; and the wood is much like that 
 of its relatives with respect to weight, strength, 
 and uses. The supply is not large, since the 
 tree occurs but infrequently in the Northern 
 States. 
 
 Balm of Gilead is used chiefly in the manu- 
 facture of boxes and crates, but also has a place 
 in the making of the following articles : 
 
 Berry buckets Grape baskets 
 
 Built-up panels Handles 
 
 Card-table tops Hat racks 
 
 Ceiling Novelties 
 
 Druggist barrels Pails 
 
 Egg-cases Spindles 
 
 Excelsior Tubs 
 
 Furniture shelving Wood wool 
 
 BASSWOOD 
 
 With the possible exception of willow and 
 buckeye, basswood (Tilia americana) is the 
 lightest, softest, and weakest of the hardwoods. 
 It is neither stiff nor tough, but, because of its 
 even grain, white color, and extreme ease of 
 working, is one of the most widely used woods. 
 The more important factory uses reported are 
 as shown in Table 69. 
 
 TABLE 69 
 
 Factory Uses of Basswood 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Boxes and Crates 23 
 
 Mill Work 16 
 
 Woodwork and Novelties 15 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 11
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 233 
 
 Trunks and Valises 6 
 
 Picture Frames and Molding 5 
 
 Excelsior 4 
 
 Musical Instruments 3 
 
 Toys 2 
 
 Agricultural Implements 2 
 
 Vehicles 2 
 
 Matches 1 
 
 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 1 
 
 Car Construction 1 
 
 Laundry Appliances 1 
 
 Tobacco Boxes 1 
 
 Other Uses . . 6 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The diversity of the uses of basswood is indi- 
 cated by the following list of articles in the 
 manufacture of which this wood is used to a 
 greater or less degree : 
 
 Agricultural implements 
 
 Altars 
 
 Apparatus parts (electric) 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 Backings (furniture) 
 
 Backs (organ) 
 
 Baseboards 
 
 Baskets (fruit and vegetable) 
 
 Bellows (organ) 
 
 Boats 
 
 Bookcases (inside work) 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Breadboards 
 
 Bureaus (inside work) 
 
 Butter ladles 
 
 Cabinets (kitchen) 
 
 Cameras 
 
 Candy pails 
 
 Car construction 
 
 Car repairing 
 
 Casings (building) 
 
 China closets (interior work) 
 
 Church pews 
 
 Circus seats 
 
 Cigar boxes 
 
 Cleats (organ) 
 
 Clothes bars 
 
 Commodes 
 
 Coops (poultry) 
 
 Cornice 
 
 Corn shellers 
 
 Couches (box) 
 
 Crating 
 
 Cupboards 
 
 Desks (school) 
 
 Drawer bottoms 
 
 Engraving boards 
 
 Fans (electric) 
 
 Feed mills 
 
 File cases 
 
 Fixtures (bar) 
 
 Fixtures (barber shop) 
 
 Fixtures (store and office) 
 
 Flag poles 
 
 Frames (couches)
 
 234 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Frames (davenports) 
 
 Frames (hand mirror) 
 
 Frames (lounges) 
 
 Furniture (church) 
 
 Furniture (interior) 
 
 Gameboards 
 
 Games of chance 
 
 Go-carts 
 
 Grain separators 
 
 Guitars 
 
 Handles 
 
 Hayloader parts 
 
 Heading (barrels) 
 
 Hoppers (fruit and vegetable) 
 
 Incubators (bodies) 
 
 Ironing boards 
 
 Interior finish (building) 
 
 Kitchen cabinets 
 
 Ladders (extension) 
 
 Laundry machinery 
 
 Lodge furniture 
 
 Machinery construction 
 
 Mandolins 
 
 Millwork 
 
 Moldings (casket) 
 
 Music cabinets (interior) 
 
 Organ cases (folding organ) 
 
 Organ frames 
 
 Pails 
 
 Parlor furniture (frames) 
 Pastry boards 
 Patterns 
 Piano keys 
 Picture molding 
 Pipe organs (interior parts) 
 Pyrography boards 
 Refrigerators 
 Sample cases 
 
 Seeder boxes (farm imple- 
 ments) 
 
 Sheathing (building) 
 Shoe forms 
 Siding (house) 
 Signboards 
 Staves 
 
 Stirrups (head blocks) 
 Stirrups (neck blocks) 
 Swing seats 
 Tables 
 
 Thermometers 
 Threshing machines 
 Toys 
 Trunks 
 
 Vehicle bodies 
 Violin cases 
 Washboards 
 Washing machines 
 Yardsticks 
 
 BEECH 
 
 Beech (Fagus atropunicea) is a moderately 
 hard, strong, heavy hardwood that has a wide 
 range of usefulness for many purposes. While 
 the reports indicate a larger consumption of 
 beech in the manufacture of boxes and crates 
 than in any other industry, a large amount is 
 used in general mill work, including flooring 
 and finishing, and for furniture and fixtures, 
 for which purposes the hardness and wear-
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 235 
 
 resisting qualities of beech are especially desir- 
 able. 
 
 TABLE 70 
 
 Factory Uses of Beech 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Boxes and Crates 28 
 
 Mill Work 21 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 18 
 
 Handles 6 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 5 
 
 Laundry Appliances 3 
 
 Brushes 2 
 
 Vehicles 2 
 
 Agricultural Implements 2 
 
 Musical Instruments 1 
 
 Spools and Bobbins 1 
 
 Toys 1 
 
 Playground Equipment 1 
 
 Whips, Canes, etc 1 
 
 Saddles and Hames 1 
 
 Other Uses 7 
 
 Total 100 
 
 A still better idea of the varied uses of beech 
 is obtained from the following partial list of 
 articles into the manufacture of which this wood 
 enters : 
 
 Agricultural implements Brushes 
 
 Auto-seat frames Built-up panels 
 
 Balls Bungs 
 
 Barber chairs Butcher blocks 
 
 Baseball bats Butter dishes 
 
 Baskets Butter tubs 
 
 Beds' (folding) Cable reels 
 
 Boats Candy pails 
 
 Bobbins Cars 
 
 Boxes Chair bottoms 
 
 Brick molds Chair rods 
 
 Broom handles Cheese boxes
 
 236 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Churns 
 
 Cider mills 
 
 Clocks 
 
 Clothes pins 
 
 Coat hangers 
 
 Coops 
 
 Crating 
 
 Dowels 
 
 Drafting tables 
 
 Electrotype plates 
 
 Faucets 
 
 Filing cabinets 
 
 Fixtures 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Hames 
 
 Handles 
 
 Hand sleds 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Ironing boards 
 
 Ladders 
 
 Lawn swings 
 
 Measures 
 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Mouse traps 
 
 Neck yokes 
 
 Novelties 
 
 Pails 
 
 Panels 
 
 Piano cases 
 
 Pipe organs 
 
 Plane stocks 
 
 Printers' cabinets 
 
 Pulleys 
 
 Pumphandles 
 
 Pump buckets 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Rims (bicycle) 
 
 Rope reels 
 
 Sash 
 
 Sectional bookcases 
 
 Show cases 
 
 Skates 
 
 Sounding boards 
 
 Spindles 
 
 Spools 
 
 Stanchions 
 
 Staves 
 
 Stepladders 
 
 Tables 
 
 Tie plugs 
 
 Toys 
 
 Trunks 
 
 Tubs 
 
 Vehicles 
 
 Wardrobes 
 
 Washing machines 
 
 Washboards 
 
 Weighing machines 
 
 Wheelbarrows 
 
 Window screens 
 
 Woodenware 
 
 BIRCH 
 
 Several birches are recognized by botanists 
 and foresters; but from the standpoint of the 
 practical wood user, there are only three import- 
 ant kinds the paper or white birch (Betula 
 papyrifera), the yellow birch (Betula lutea), 
 and the red or cherry birch (Betula lent a). 
 Paper birch is found across the northern part of 
 the United States and Canada, but is most abun-
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 237 
 
 dant and commercially important in New Eng- 
 land, and especially in Maine. The red or cherry 
 birch occurs in smaller quantity from New York 
 southward through West Virginia; while the 
 yellow birch is common in New York, New Eng- 
 land, and the Lake States, but most abundant in 
 the latter region. The heartwood of yellow 
 birch is reddish, and much of it is marketed and 
 used for the same purposes as cherry birch, and, 
 without distinction from the latter, for the man- 
 ufacture of furniture, interior finish, and the 
 like. The principal uses of the paper or white 
 birch are for spool stock, box lumber, wooden- 
 ware, dowels, shoe pegs, and other small articles. 
 Closely related to the paper birch is the West- 
 ern birch (Betula occidentalis), a small amount 
 of which is used for interior finish in Oregon 
 and Washington. 
 
 The wood of red and yellow birch is heavy; 
 of average hardness, stiffness, and strength for 
 hardwood; and above the average in toughness. 
 For this reason, birch makes a good wagon hub ; 
 and much yellow birch is used for this purpose. 
 
 The factory uses of the various birches are 
 summarized in Table 71. 
 
 TABLE 71 
 
 Factory Uses of Birch 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 28 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 21 
 
 Boxes and Crates 19 
 
 Spools and Bobbins 7 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 6 
 
 Vehicles . 3
 
 238 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Musical Instruments 3 
 
 Handles 2 
 
 Dowels 2 
 
 Boot and Shoe Findings 2 
 
 Car Construction 1 
 
 Agricultural Implements 1 
 
 Other Uses . 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 A tabulation of the uses reported for red and 
 yellow birch gives the following list: 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 Backgrounds (display win- 
 dows) 
 
 Balusters 
 
 Barber chairs 
 
 Barber shop furnishings 
 
 Barrel starchers (laundry) 
 
 Baseboards 
 
 Baskets (fruit and vegetable) 
 
 Billiard tables 
 
 Boat parts 
 
 Bobbins 
 
 Bodies (light vehicles) 
 
 Bookcases (exterior) 
 
 Bookcases (interior) 
 
 Bookracks 
 
 Bottoms (heavy vehicle bod- 
 ies) 
 
 Bottoms (wagons) 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Boxes (cheese) 
 
 Boxes (veneer) 
 
 Box shooks 
 
 Brackets 
 
 Broom handles 
 
 Brush blocks 
 
 Buffets (bar fixtures) 
 
 Bureaus (exterior) 
 
 Butter churns (frames) 
 
 Butter molds 
 
 Cabinets (music rolls) 
 
 Cabinets (phonograph rec- 
 ords) 
 
 Cabinets (toilets) 
 
 Cabinet work 
 
 Cameras 
 
 Canes 
 
 Capitals 
 
 Carpet sweepers 
 
 Carvings 
 
 Cases (medicine) 
 
 Cases (railroad tickets) 
 
 Casing 
 
 Caskets 
 
 Chair frames (upholstered 
 furniture) 
 
 Chairs 
 
 Chairs (adjustable) 
 
 Chairs (dining room) 
 
 Chair seats 
 
 Chairs (office) 
 
 China closets 
 
 Clocks 
 
 Coffins 
 
 Columns (porch) 
 
 Consoles 
 
 Cooperage stock (slack) 
 
 Cores (veneer) 
 
 Counters (bar) 
 
 Counters (store and office 
 fixtures) 
 
 Cradles
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 239 
 
 Crating 
 
 Creamery accessories 
 Crutches 
 
 Cutting boards (meat) 
 Doors 
 Dowels 
 Dressers 
 Dressing tables 
 Electrotype bases 
 Elevator cars 
 Equipment (playground) 
 Farm implement parts 
 Farm machinery parts 
 Fixtures (bank) 
 Fixtures (laboratory) 
 Fixtures (soda fountain) 
 Fixtures (store and office) 
 Flooring 
 Folding beds 
 Frames (cheval mirror) 
 Frames (couches) 
 Frames (davenports) 
 Frames (light vehicle bodies) 
 Frames (light vehicle seats) 
 Frames (lounges) 
 Gameboards 
 
 Gear parts (light vehicles) 
 Glove boxes 
 Grain doors 
 Grilles 
 Grille work 
 Guitars 
 Hallracks 
 Handrails (porch) 
 Handrails (stairworks) 
 Harp sides (musical instru- 
 ment) 
 
 Hoppers (fruit and vegetable) 
 Hubs 
 
 Interior finish 
 Key racks 
 Launch parts 
 
 Laundry machines (steam) 
 Lawn swings 
 
 Leaves (table) 
 
 Lining (motor boats) 
 
 Mandolins 
 
 Mantels 
 
 Match safes 
 
 Match strikers 
 
 Mirror backs 
 
 Moldings (house) 
 
 Moldings (piano) 
 
 Newels (stairwork) 
 
 Organ cases 
 
 Organ cases (exterior pipe 
 organ) 
 
 Organ keys 
 
 Ornaments (furniture) 
 
 Panels (veneered) 
 
 Paper plugs 
 
 Parlor cabinets (exterior) 
 
 Parlor furniture (frames) 
 
 Parlor rockers 
 
 Parquetry flooring 
 
 Passenger cars (interior fin- 
 ish) 
 
 Patterns (machine parts) 
 
 Pedestals 
 
 Pen racks 
 
 Pen trays 
 
 Piano benches 
 
 Piano cases 
 
 Piano chairs 
 
 Piano keys 
 
 Piano players (exterior) 
 
 Piano stools 
 
 Picture mouldings 
 
 Plane handles 
 
 Plumbers' woodwork 
 
 Pool tables 
 
 Pulleys 
 
 Posts (stairwork) 
 
 Reels (fence wire) 
 
 Reels (insulated wire) 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Risers (stairwork) 
 
 Road machinery parts
 
 240 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Rocker frames (upholstered 
 furniture) 
 
 Sash (window) 
 
 Screen doors 
 
 Seats (water closets) 
 
 Sewing machine parts 
 
 Sewing tables 
 
 Shells (drum) 
 
 Shoe pegs 
 
 Shoe trees 
 
 Show cases 
 
 Sideboards (exterior) 
 
 Sills (road carts) 
 
 Skewers 
 
 Skis 
 
 Sleds 
 
 Slides (tables) 
 
 Sofa frames (parlor furni- 
 ture) 
 
 Somnols 
 
 Spools 
 
 Stairwork 
 
 Steering wheels 
 
 Step ladders 
 
 Steps (stairwork) 
 
 Switchboards (telephone) 
 
 Tables 
 
 Tables (dressing) 
 
 Tables (library) 
 
 Tabourets 
 
 Tanks (water closets) 
 
 Telephones 
 
 Telephones (accessories) 
 
 Toboggans 
 
 Tool chests 
 
 Toys 
 
 Trunks 
 
 Umbrella handles 
 
 Veneer cores (piano cases) 
 
 Wainscoting 
 
 Wall cases (store) 
 
 Wardrobes (exterior) 
 
 Window screens 
 
 Wind shields (automobile) 
 
 Woodenware 
 
 Work benches 
 
 Zither bodies 
 
 Among the uses reported for paper or white 
 birch are: 
 
 Bails (bucket and pail) 
 
 Bobbins 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Brushes 
 
 Camp stools (parts) 
 
 Chairs (porch) 
 
 Chairs (turned parts) 
 
 Checkers 
 
 Clothespins 
 
 Crates 
 
 Crutches 
 
 Dowels 
 
 Drawer sides 
 
 Dry measures 
 
 Duster brush blocks 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Handles (awl) 
 Handles (cant hook) 
 Handles (corkscrew) 
 Handles (feather curlers) 
 Handles (hair curlers) 
 Handles (hay rake) 
 Handles (long handle 
 
 brushes) 
 
 Handles (paint brushes) 
 Handles (shovel) 
 Handles (toy garden tools) 
 Hosiery boards 
 Hoops 
 
 Interior finish 
 Knobs 
 Liquor logs 
 Molding (window)
 
 Interior View of a Table Factory in Virginia 
 
 Interior of a Box Factory 
 
 Finished sides, tops, and bottoms are bundled ready to be shipped 
 to the user who will assemble them 
 
 Plate 30 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 Drying Room in a Vehicle Factory 
 Showing oak and hickory spokes and elm hubs 
 
 Drying Room in a Vehicle Factory 
 
 Showing oak and hickory 
 Plate 31 Lumber and Its Uses 
 
 rims for buggy wheels; 
 elm hubs 
 
 also birch and
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 241 
 
 Novelties Spool barrels 
 
 Paint brushes Spool heads 
 
 Paper plugs Table slides 
 
 Piano stools Toothpicks 
 
 Quills Toy parts (iron toys) 
 
 Rungs (turned chair) Toy wheelbarrows 
 
 Sawhorses Twisters 
 
 Shoe pegs Vehicle parts 
 
 Skewers Wash benches 
 
 Speeders Wash boards 
 
 Spindles (turned chair) Wheels (toy wagons) 
 
 Spinning wheels Wheels (toy wheelbarrows) 
 
 Spools 
 
 BUCKEYE 
 
 Buckeye (Aesculus octandra) is a species of 
 the horse-chestnut family from which about 20 
 million feet of lumber are annually manufac- 
 tured in Ohio, Kentucky, and adjacent States. 
 The wood is very much like basswood as regards 
 lightness in weight, softness, and lack of tough- 
 ness or strength. That these qualities make 
 buckeye useful for very many of the purposes 
 for which basswood is desired, will be seen from 
 the summary of its factory uses given in 
 Table 72. 
 
 TABLE 72 
 
 Factory Uses of Buckeye 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Boxes and Crates 47 
 
 Excelsior 19 
 
 Mill Work 10 
 
 Furniture 6 
 
 Trunks and Valises 6 
 
 Frames and Molding 3 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 3 
 
 Laundry Appliances 2 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 1
 
 242 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Signs and Supplies 1 
 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total . . . . 100 
 
 Some of the specific uses reported for buck- 
 eye include doors, piano panels, interior finish, 
 sample cases, candy and chocolate boxes, and 
 wooden bowls and dishes. 
 
 BUTTERNUT 
 
 Butternut (Juglans cinerea) is in much the 
 same class as basswood and buckeye in respect 
 to mechanical qualities, but is slightly heavier, 
 harder, stronger, and tougher than these woods. 
 It also has a figure considerably like black wal- 
 nut, of which it is a close relative, but lacks the 
 rich color of the more valuable wood. 
 
 Butternut finds its largest usefulness in the 
 manufacture of furniture and fixtures, and, 
 next, for boxes and crates, as is indicated in 
 Table 73. 
 
 TABLE 73 
 
 Factory Uses of Butternut 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 39 
 
 Boxes and Crates 22 
 
 Excelsior 11 
 
 Mill Work 9 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 6 
 
 Musical Instruments 4 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 3 
 
 Patterns and Flasks 2 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruments. ... 1 
 Other Uses 3 
 
 Total . ..100
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 243 
 
 Specific articles in which butternut is used 
 are: 
 
 Altars Moulding 
 
 Boat decks Patterns 
 
 Boat finish Piano cases 
 
 Boat seats Piano molding 
 
 Cabinets Screen frames 
 
 Cameras Show cases 
 
 Caskets Store fixtures 
 
 Cheese box heading Tables 
 
 Church pews Threshing machines 
 
 Doll carriages Toys 
 
 Furniture Vehicles 
 Interior finish 
 
 CEDAR 
 
 There are so many woods popularly known 
 by the name " cedar," that this name conveys 
 little idea of the qualities of the timber referred 
 to. Some of these woods are correctly known 
 as cedar, while entirely different names are 
 applied by botanists to the others. In this dis- 
 cussion, it is sufficient to mention seven species 
 which go by the name of cedar, and which have 
 a considerable commercial usefulness the 
 Southern white cedar (Cliamaecyparis fhyoides) 
 of the Atlantic Coast States; the Northern 
 white cedar or arbor vitae (Thuja americana),. 
 chiefly important in New England and the Lake 
 States; the red or pencil cedar (Juniperus vir- 
 giniana), which is most abundant in Tennessee 
 and Florida; the Western red cedar or giant 
 arbor vitae (Thuja plicata) of the Northern ~ 
 Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest; the 
 Port Or ford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsonianaf' 
 of Oregon ; the Alaska or yellow cedar (Chamae-
 
 244 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 ^-' 
 
 cyparis nootkatensis) of the North Pacific Coast 
 from Oregon to Alaska; and the incense cedar 
 (Librocedrus decurrens.) of Southern Oregon 
 and California. All of these so-called cedars 
 have in common a certain lightness in weight, 
 softness, evenness of grain, and resistance to 
 decay, but in varying degrees. 
 
 Both the Northern and Southern white cedars 
 are among the lightest of woods in weight, and 
 are soft and easily worked. They are much 
 used for woodenware and in canoe and boat 
 building, and also for shingles, posts, and poles, 
 by far the larger part of the Northern white 
 cedar being used for the latter purpose. The 
 true red or pencil cedar has always been the 
 standard wood for lead pencils, because it is 
 very soft, with a fine, even grain that whittles 
 nicely. It is also among the most durable of 
 woods when exposed to decay-producing influ- 
 ences. 
 
 The Western red cedar is much like the North- 
 ern white cedar or arbor vitae, but is a larger 
 tree and produces more red heartwood. At the 
 present time, Western red cedar, in addition to 
 supplying a considerable quantity of lumber, 
 posts, and poles, furnishes about two-thirds of 
 all the shingles made in the United States. 
 
 The wood of the incense cedar is considerably 
 heavier and stronger than that of the white or 
 red cedar. In fact, in this respect it compares 
 favorably with Southern yellow pine. Incense 
 cedar wood is close-grained, and has a reddish,
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 245 
 
 durable, heartwood useful for many purposes. 
 
 Port Orford cedar is a wood which is heavy, 
 strong, and stiff. It has a good figure, and pol- 
 ishes well. 
 
 The Alaska or yellow cedar has perhaps the 
 hardest wood of any of the so-called cedars. It 
 is light, stiff, and strong, has a good figure, and 
 takes a good polish. 
 
 Without distinction as to species, the factory 
 uses of cedar in the United States are summar- 
 ized in Table 74. 
 
 TABLE 74 
 
 Factory Uses of Cedar 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 44 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruments. ... 20 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 7 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 6 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 6 
 
 Laundry Appliances 5 
 
 Tanks and Silos 4 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 3 
 
 Boxes and Crates 2 
 
 Other Uses 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 In Table 74 the millwork that is, the manu- 
 facture of sash, door, blinds, interior finish, etc. 
 takes chiefly the Western cedars ; while under 
 the heading of professional and scientific instru- 
 ments is included much of the Eastern red 
 cedar used in pencil making. Smaller uses of 
 Eastern red cedar are for: 
 
 Canes Chairs 
 
 Caskets Chests
 
 246 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Fixtures Silos 
 
 Furniture Tanks 
 
 Interior finish Umbrella handles 
 
 Musical instruments Vehicles 
 
 Sash Woodenware 
 
 Siding 
 
 Uses reported for the Eastern white cedars 
 are in the manufacture of : 
 
 Boat bottoms Planing mill products 
 
 Boat decking Roof tanks 
 
 Canoes Rowboats 
 
 Cigar boxes Shiplap 
 
 Dairymen's supplies Siding 
 
 General millwork Signal devices 
 
 Ice cream freezers Silos 
 
 Interior finish Tanks 
 
 Oars Yachts 
 
 Pails 
 
 A recent compilation by the Forest Service 
 lists the following uses for Western red cedar: 
 
 Barrel bungs Carving 
 
 Battens Caskets 
 
 Blinds Coffins 
 
 Boards Coffin boxes 
 
 Boats Ceiling 
 
 Cabins Chests 
 
 Canoes Cigar boxes 
 
 Ceiling Closet linings 
 
 Decking Columns 
 
 Finish Conservatories 
 
 Launches Sash 
 
 Planking Stands 
 
 Rails Trays 
 
 Roofs Cooperage 
 
 Skiffs Buckets 
 
 Trim Tubs 
 
 Car construction Cores 
 
 Finish Veneer 
 
 Roofing Decking 
 
 Siding Doors 
 
 Trim Drain boards
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 247 
 
 Drawing boards 
 Faucets 
 Finish 
 Fixtures 
 
 Drawers 
 
 Mirror backs 
 
 Panels 
 
 Shelves 
 
 Show cases 
 Flooring 
 Flume stock 
 Framing 
 Furniture 
 
 Bottoms 
 
 Cabinets 
 
 Drawer bottoms 
 
 Frames 
 
 Panels 
 
 Hot house trays 
 Incubators 
 Interior work 
 
 Ceiling 
 
 Finish 
 
 Trim 
 Lath 
 Lattice 
 Lintels 
 Moldings 
 Organs (action) 
 Panels 
 Patterns 
 
 Foundry 
 
 Machine shop 
 Piano shanks 
 Pickets 
 
 Picture frames 
 Piling 
 Poles 
 
 Pontoon floats 
 Porch columns 
 
 Built-up 
 
 Turned 
 Posts 
 
 Hot house 
 
 Window 
 Scroll work 
 Shingles 
 Shiplap 
 Shop lumber 
 Siding 
 
 Bevel 
 
 Drop 
 Silos 
 Spigots 
 Spindles 
 Tanks 
 
 Covers 
 
 Staves 
 Tennis rackets 
 
 Handles 
 Tent poles 
 Ties 
 
 Totem poles 
 Trays 
 
 Fruit dryer 
 
 Hot house 
 
 Trunk 
 Turning 
 
 Balusters 
 
 Novelties 
 
 Squares 
 
 Veneers (cores) 
 Washing machines 
 Window frames 
 Window sills 
 
 According to the Oregon reports, Port Orford 
 cedar is used for boats (finish, frames, plank- 
 ing, skiffs), columns, fixtures, furniture (cabi- 
 nets, moth-proof drawers, stools, tables), moth-
 
 248 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 proof chests, matches, sash and doors, and turn- 
 ery. 
 
 Alaska or yellow cedar is used for boat cabins, 
 interior finish, carvings, patterns, and pyrog- 
 raphy. In addition to serving many other pur- 
 poses, incense cedar is now being used for pencil 
 making, because of the shortness of the supply 
 of Southern red cedar. 
 
 CHEERY 
 
 The wild black cherry (Prunus serotina) is 
 somewhat lighter in weight and a little softer 
 than beech and birch; but it is nevertheless a 
 dense, strong, hardwood of excellent wearing 
 qualities, and with a color and figure which make 
 it highly prized in the manufacture of excep- 
 tionally fine furniture and interior finish. The 
 supply is not large, and Table 75 indicates that 
 
 TABLE 75 
 
 Factory Uses of Cherry 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 24 
 
 Printing Material 17 
 
 Car Construction 16 
 
 Mill Work 14 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruments. ... 6 
 
 Handles 5 
 
 Brushes ' 4 
 
 Musical Instruments 3 
 
 Clocks 3 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 2 
 
 Boxes and Crates 1 
 
 Patterns 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total . ..100
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 249 
 
 nearly all the cherry is used for high-grade 
 work. 
 
 Specific uses reported for cherry are for: 
 
 Baskets 
 
 Beds 
 
 Boat finish 
 
 Bookcases 
 
 Brick molds 
 
 Brushes 
 
 Bushel crates 
 
 Butter dishes 
 
 Cabinets 
 
 Camera boxes 
 
 Card trays 
 
 Cars (finish) 
 
 Casing 
 
 Caskets 
 
 Chairs (posts, rounds) 
 
 Clock cases 
 
 Coffins 
 
 Collar trays 
 
 Counters 
 
 Desks 
 
 Dooii 
 
 Dowels 
 
 Dressers 
 
 Flasks 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Electrotype blocks 
 
 Engraving blocks 
 
 Glove stretchers 
 
 Handles (duster brush) 
 
 Handles (saw) 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Last blocks 
 
 Level blocks 
 
 Level sticks 
 
 Library furniture 
 
 Machine boxes 
 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Office fixtures 
 
 Panels 
 
 Partitions 
 
 Parquetry 
 
 Passenger cars 
 
 Patterns 
 
 Piano actions 
 
 Piano cases 
 
 Piano players 
 
 Piano rails 
 
 Picture moldings 
 
 Pilot wheels 
 
 Pipe organ (cases, actions) 
 
 Plumbers' woodwork 
 
 Plane handles 
 
 Road machines (cabs, boxes) 
 
 Sash 
 
 School furniture 
 
 Settees 
 
 Shoe lasts 
 
 Siding 
 
 Spindle stock 
 
 Spoons 
 
 Store fixtures 
 
 Swings 
 
 Switchboards 
 
 Tables 
 
 Table drawers 
 
 Table legs 
 
 Tobacco pipes 
 
 Trays (jewelry) 
 
 Trim 
 
 Woodenware 
 
 CHESTNUT 
 
 The wood of chestnut (Castanea dentata) is 
 rather light, soft, and durable. It is easily
 
 250 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 worked, and appears well in furniture and fix- 
 tures, in many cases rather closely resembling 
 white ash. The larger factory uses reported 
 for chestnut are indicated in Table 76. 
 
 TABLE 76 
 
 Factory Uses of Chestnut 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 28 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 19 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 16 
 
 Musical Instruments 13 
 
 Boxes and Crates 12 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 7 
 
 Other Uses 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Articles in which chestnut is used are : 
 
 Boxes (cheese) Furniture (kitchen) 
 
 Boxes (glass bottles) Ice chests 
 
 Boxes (handle) Interior finish (house) 
 
 Boxes (meat) Library tables 
 
 Brushes Mantels 
 
 Cabbage crates Molding 
 
 Casing Outer cases (caskets) 
 
 Casket moulding Panel work (house) 
 
 Casket shells Picture frames 
 
 Casket tops Pool table sides 
 
 Church pews Refrigerators 
 
 Cores (veneer) Ribs (poultry coops) 
 
 Crating Sash 
 
 Doors Siding 
 
 Fence pickets Stair balusters 
 
 Fence stubs Stair rails 
 
 Flooring Stair rises 
 
 Furniture (backs) Store and office partitions 
 
 Furniture frames (case Veneer backing 
 
 goods) Wardrobes
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 251 
 
 COTTONWOOD 
 
 The cottonwoods or true poplars yield light, 
 soft, even-grained, easily worked woods, more 
 closely resembling basswood than any other 
 species. Cottonwopd, however, is tougher and 
 stiffer than basswood, and, because of its inter- 
 woven fibers, resists wear extremely well for 
 such a soft wood. The bulk of the cottonwood 
 lumber is manufactured from the common East- 
 ern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), which is 
 most abundant in the lower Mississippi valley. 
 In Oregon and Washington, the black cotton- 
 Wood (Populus trichocarpa) yields a lumber 
 which is used for the same purposes as that of 
 the Eastern species. 
 
 Because of its lightness and strength, cotton- 
 wood is a favorite material with box makers, as 
 will be seen from Table 77. 
 
 TABLE 77 
 Factory Uses of Cottonwood 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Boxes and Crates 56 
 
 Excelsior 14 
 
 Vehicles 9 
 
 Mill Work 6 
 
 Agricultural Implements 4 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 4 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 2 
 
 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Particular uses reported for Eastern cotton- 
 wood are for:
 
 252 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Agricultural implements 
 Backs (washboards) 
 Baskets 
 Berry boxes 
 Bevel siding 
 
 Bookcases (inside work) 
 Boxboards (heavy vehicles) 
 Boxes 
 
 Boxes (manure spreaders) 
 Box shooks 
 Brooders (poultry) 
 Buggy backs 
 
 Car construction (rafters) 
 Car repairing parts 
 Carts 
 
 China closets 
 Clothboards 
 Coffins 
 Commodes 
 Corn binder parts 
 Corn shellers 
 Cornice 
 
 Cultivator parts 
 Cupboards (kitchen) 
 Crating 
 
 Dowels (chair) 
 Drawers 
 
 Drill boxes (farm imple- 
 ments) 
 
 Drills (farm implements) 
 Drop siding 
 Egg cases 
 Ensilage cutters 
 Envelope cutters 
 Eveners (harrow) 
 Fixtures (bar) 
 Fixtures (store and office) 
 Fodder shredders 
 
 Frames (canopy) 
 
 Furniture (inside work) 
 
 Incubators 
 
 Interior trimmings 
 
 Ironing-boards 
 
 Kitchen cabinets 
 
 Ladders 
 
 Manure spreaders (beds) 
 
 Millwork 
 
 Mortar boards 
 
 Music cabinets (inside work) 
 
 Packages (fruit and vege- 
 table) 
 
 Panels (light vehicle bodies) 
 
 Panels (spring wagon 
 bodies) 
 
 Piano cases (veneer cases) 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Saddle trees 
 
 Sample cases 
 
 Seeders, boxes (farm imple- 
 ments ) 
 
 Self-feeders (threshing ma- 
 chines) 
 
 Separator sides (threshers) 
 
 Shelving 
 
 Shipping cases (butter) 
 
 Siding (washboards) 
 
 Stacker parts (farm ma- 
 chinery) 
 
 Tables 
 
 Trunks 
 
 Vehicle bodies 
 
 Vehicle seat backs 
 
 Vending machines 
 
 Wagon beds 
 
 Wheelbarrows 
 
 Woodenware 
 
 The Oregon or black cottonwood is used in 
 Oregon and Washington for: 
 
 Baskets, boxes, candy barrels, caskets, cores of veneered 
 products, excelsior, farm machinery, furniture (chair seats, 
 couch heads, drawer bottoms, shelving), fixtures (drawer bot-
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 253 
 
 toms, shelving), pack saddles, pulleys, trunks, veneer, wood- 
 enware. 
 
 CUCUMBER 
 
 The tree commonly known as cucumber is one 
 of the magnolias (Magnolia acuminata). The 
 wood is soft, light, easily worked, durable, and 
 very similar to yellow poplar, with which lum- 
 ber much of it is marketed. 
 
 So far as separate uses are reported for 
 cucumber, they are as indicated in Table 78. 
 
 TABLE 78 
 
 Factory Uses of Cucumber 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 50 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 23 
 
 Boxes and Crates 18 
 
 Excelsior 6 
 
 Other Uses 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Cucumber enters into the manufacture of: 
 
 Agricultural implements Hay racks 
 
 Cabinets Molding 
 
 Casing Pails 
 
 Casket trim Partition 
 
 Ceiling Porch columns 
 
 Cheese boxes (heads) Siding 
 
 Doors Stairs 
 
 Flooring Trim 
 
 Frames Tubs 
 Furniture 
 
 CYPRESS 
 
 Cypress (Taxodium distichum) is one of the 
 stronger and heavier softwoods, which, with the
 
 254 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 exception of greater weight, perhaps resembles 
 redwood more closely than it does any other 
 conifer. Cypress is one of the more durable 
 woods; and some remarkable records of the 
 longevity of cypress lumber and shingles are 
 claimed by the manufacturers of this wood. 
 Cypress works well, has a good figure, and a 
 rich color in the red variety. The largest use- 
 fulness of cypress is in mill work, so far as fac- 
 tory purposes are concerned, as will be seen 
 from Table 79. 
 
 TABLE 79 
 
 Factory Uses of Cypress 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 76 
 
 Boxes and Crates 6 
 
 Tanks and Silos 5 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 3 
 
 Machine Construction 2 
 
 Laundry Appliances 2 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 1 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Because of its durability, cypress is also much 
 used for siding, shingles, railroad ties, and other 
 purposes where it is exposed to decay-produc- 
 ing influences among these latter uses being 
 greenhouse construction. 
 
 The wide range of usefulness of cypress is 
 indicated by the following list of articles into 
 the manufacture of which this wood enters : 
 
 Agricultural Implements Balusters (porch) 
 
 Altars Baseboards
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 Beehives 
 
 Blinds 
 
 Boat parts 
 
 Boat siding 
 
 Bottoms (oil tanks) 
 
 Bottoms (water tanks) 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Butter tubs 
 
 Cabinets (ice cream) 
 
 Cabinet work 
 
 Candy pails 
 
 Carvings 
 
 Casing (house) 
 
 Casing (incubators) 
 
 Caskets 
 
 Churns 
 
 Cisterns 
 
 Cold frames (hotbeds) 
 
 Colonnades 
 
 Columns (porches) 
 
 Conservatories 
 
 Conveyors 
 
 Cornice 
 
 Covers (laundry machines) 
 
 Crating 
 
 Decking 
 
 Discs (laundry machines) 
 
 Door frames 
 
 Doors 
 
 Drawers (bottoms) 
 
 Drawers (ends) 
 
 Drawer sides (furniture) 
 
 Dropboards (poultry) 
 
 Dust arrester parts 
 
 Electric cars (interior work) 
 
 Feed mills 
 
 Finish (boats) 
 
 Fixtures (bank) 
 
 Fixtures (soda fountains) 
 
 Fixtures (store and office) 
 
 Flasks 
 
 Flour mills (machine parts) 
 
 Frames (vapor bath tubs) 
 
 Frames (window tents) 
 
 Grain elevators 
 
 Greenhouses 
 
 Hay baler parts 
 
 Hay loader parts 
 
 Hoppers (poultry houses) 
 
 Ice cream freezers 
 
 Incubator parts 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Knifeboards (mowers) 
 
 Launch parts 
 
 Lodge furniture 
 
 Mantels 
 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Nests (poultry houses) 
 
 Pails 
 
 Panels (delivery wagons) 
 
 Panels (doors) 
 
 Panels (light vehicle bodies) 
 
 Patterns 
 
 Picture moldings 
 
 Porch work 
 
 Pumps 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Road rollers 
 
 Roof slats (light vehicle beds) 
 
 Sash (storm) 
 
 Screen doors 
 
 Siding 
 
 Signal devices 
 
 Silos 
 
 Spindles 
 
 Spraying apparatus 
 
 Stairwork 
 
 Starchers (laundry) 
 
 Staves (oil tanks) 
 
 Staves (water tanks) 
 
 Stepping 
 
 Store fronts 
 
 Tanks 
 
 Tanks (water closets) 
 
 Towers (tanks) 
 
 Trunks 
 
 Tubs (laundry) 
 
 Vats
 
 256 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Vats (vinegar) Well machinery 
 
 Washers (hydraulic) Well tubing 
 
 Washing machines (hand) Window frames 
 
 Water closets (unexposed Window screens 
 
 parts) Windmills 
 
 Water pipes Wringers (laundry) 
 
 DOGWOOD 
 
 Dogwood (Cornus florida) is very hard, heavy, 
 close-grained, and wear-resistant, and is used 
 in places where hard service would quickly 
 destroy softer woods. As brought out else- 
 where, the limited supply of dogwood is nearly 
 all consumed in the manufacture of shuttles for 
 the great cotton mills of the East. 
 
 Dogwood is also used to some extent for small 
 handles, mauls, spindles, wedges, and mine rol- 
 lers. 
 
 DOUGLAS FIE 
 
 Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is an 
 interesting timber because there is more of it 
 than any other species in the United States, the 
 greater proportion being in the northern Rocky 
 Mountain and Pacific States. With the excep- 
 tion of redwood, Douglas fir trees are larger 
 than any other in our forests; and they are 
 capable of yielding timbers of practically any 
 length and size desired. 
 
 The wood of Douglas fir is of medium weight, 
 strength, stiffness, and toughness among the 
 softwoods. It is used for the same general pur- 
 poses as Southern yellow pine; and specifica-
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 257 
 
 tions for structural timbers often carry the two 
 woods on the same basis. 
 
 More than half of the total output of Douglas 
 fir lumber goes into general building operations 
 and heavy construction. The more important 
 factory uses reported are indicated in Table 80. 
 
 TABLE 80 
 
 Factory Uses of Douglas Fir 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 87 
 
 Tanks and Silos 4 
 
 Car Construction 4 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 2 
 
 Pumps and Wood Pipe 1 
 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 More specifically Douglas fir is used for: 
 
 Boats (beams, cabins, decking, finish, frames, keelsons, 
 knees, masts, planking, spars, stems), boxes, bridge timbers, 
 broom handles, car construction, cement pipe jackets, columns, 
 crates, crossarms, decoy ducks, dump cars, elevator equipment, 
 and mission furniture, mirrors, spring frames, tables), fencing, 
 fixtures (backs, counters, facings, shelves), furniture (book 
 cases, cabinets, chairs, cots, couch frames, drawers, kitchen 
 foundry flasks, gutters, hop baskets, interior work (casing, 
 ceiling, finish, flooring, moulding, stair work, veneered doors, 
 wainscoting), ladders, musical instruments, panels, patterns, 
 paving blocks, pulleys, refrigerators, rug poles, saddles, sash 
 and doors, silo and tank stock, slack and tight cooperage, sur- 
 veyors' stakes, turnery, veneer, vehicles, washing machines, 
 windmill parts, wood stave pipe. 
 
 ELM 
 
 There are several species of elm in the United 
 States, by far the most abundant being the com- 
 mon or white elm (Ulmus americana). Other
 
 258 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 elms are rock or cork elm (Ulmus racemosa); 
 slippery or red elm (Ulmus pubescens); cedar 
 elm (Ulmus crassifolia) of the South; and wing 
 elm (Ulmus alata), which is most common in 
 Texas. 
 
 White elm is among the lighter of the hard- 
 woods in weight, is not so strong as many of 
 them, and is not very hard. It is, however, a 
 tough, fibrous wood of varied usefulness. Bock 
 elm is heavy, hard, tough, and strong ; and ranks 
 next to hickory for many purposes, especially 
 in the line of vehicle manufacture. Slippery 
 elm is somewhat darker in color than white or 
 rock elm, and is about midway between these 
 two woods in mechanical properties. Wing and 
 cedar elm are used for the same general pur- 
 poses as white elm. 
 
 TABLE 81 
 
 Factory Uses of Elm 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Boxes and Crates 29 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 19 
 
 Vehicles 14 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 7 
 
 Musical Instruments 7 
 
 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 6 
 
 Agricultural Implements 3 
 
 Trunks and Valises 3 
 
 Mill Work 3 
 
 Sporting and Athletic Goods 1 
 
 Handles 1 
 
 Other Uses 7 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The statistical reports do not distinguish
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 259 
 
 between the various elms. The combined uses 
 are summarized in Table 81. 
 Uses reported for white elm are: 
 
 Automobile bodies 
 
 Automobile doors 
 
 Bails 
 
 Banana hampers 
 
 Baskets 
 
 Basket handles 
 
 Bicycle rims 
 
 Billiard tables 
 
 Bobsleds 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Bushel measures 
 
 Cant-hook handles 
 
 Canoe-boat bottom boards 
 
 Chairs 
 
 Chair bottoms 
 
 Cheesebox rims 
 
 Communion tables 
 
 Crating 
 
 Cultivators 
 
 Doubletrees 
 
 Drawstops 
 
 Eveners 
 
 Fish backs 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Folding machines 
 
 Grapples 
 
 Hand sleds 
 
 Hoops (coiled) 
 
 Hose menders 
 
 Hubs 
 
 Ice chests 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Kitchen cabinets 
 
 Ladders 
 
 Mission furniture 
 
 Pails 
 
 Peavy handles 
 
 Pews 
 
 Pianos 
 
 Pikepoles 
 
 Potato crates 
 
 Power-pump skids 
 
 Press racks 
 
 Printers' cabinets 
 
 Pulpits 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Riddle rims 
 
 Roll-paper cutters 
 
 Root cutters 
 
 Seed cabinets 
 
 Shipping baskets 
 
 Showcases 
 
 Sieve rims 
 
 Singletrees 
 
 Sleigh runners 
 
 Spraying machines 
 
 Stone boats 
 
 Store fixtures 
 
 Tanner liquor logs (pipe) 
 
 Toys 
 
 Trunks 
 
 Tubs 
 
 Wall cases 
 
 Washboards 
 
 Washing-machine parts 
 
 Waste baskets 
 
 Wheelbarrows 
 
 Woven boxes 
 
 Rock elm is used in the manufacture of: 
 
 Agricultural implements Bentwood 
 
 Automobile bodies and seats Boxes 
 Bails Crating
 
 260 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Doubletrees (plow and bar- Ladders 
 
 rows) Machine handles 
 
 Dowels Platforms 
 
 Eveners (plow and harrow) Posts (seat) 
 
 Feed cutters Rims (trucks) 
 
 Handles Rockers (chairs) 
 
 Hay loader parts Singletrees 
 
 Hounds (vehicles) Sleigh runners and bodies 
 
 Hoppers Stirrups 
 
 Horizontal bars Trunks 
 
 Hubs (light vehicle wheels) Trunk slats 
 
 Interior finish Wheelbarrows 
 
 EUCALYPTUS 
 
 The eucalyptus family is a native of Australia. 
 A number of species were early introduced into- 
 California, and more recently considerable plan- 
 tations of eucalyptus have been established in 
 that State. The one commonly planted is the 
 blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus), although the 
 wood of this species is said to have fewer desir- 
 able qualities than that of some other less widely 
 planted eucalyptus. 
 
 Eucalyptus wood is generally very hard, 
 heavy, tough, and strong, even surpassing hick- 
 ory in some respects. However, it is much more 
 difficult to season without serious warping and 
 checking than is any other wood used in this 
 country. Much of this difficulty is apparently 
 due to the fact that practically all the eucalyp- 
 tus lumber so far manufactured in the United 
 States is necessarily produced from young trees 
 of extremely rapid growth. The wood of the 
 large, mature, native Australian eucalyptus is
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 261 
 
 said to work much better than that from the 
 young planted trees in this country. 
 
 Unfortunately, unscrupulous promoters whose 
 object has been to sell stock in eucalyptus com- 
 panies have disseminated a vast amount of mis- 
 leading information about the properties of the 
 wood and the fabulous returns to be expected 
 from eucalyptus plantations. Only a small 
 amount of eucalyptus lumber is manufactured, 
 and the uses for it are chiefly as shown in 
 Table 82. 
 
 TABLE 82 
 
 Factory Uses of Eucalyptus 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 80 
 
 Vehicles 12 
 
 Agricultural Implements 3 
 
 Furniture 2 
 
 Mill Work 1 
 
 Machine Construction 1 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 FIB 
 
 Under this heading are grouped the true firs 
 of the botanical genus Abies. Douglas fir, which 
 is known by a wide variety of names, is a dis- 
 tinct genus, and not a fir at all; neither does it 
 have much in common with the true firs since 
 it is much heavier and stronger than these 
 woods. 
 
 Of the various true firs, the most important
 
 262 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 83 
 
 Factory Uses of Fir 
 RED FIR 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Boxes and Crates 72 
 
 Mill Work 28 
 
 Total 100 
 
 ALPINE FIR 
 
 Boxes and Crates 62 
 
 Mill Work 33 
 
 Excelsior 3 
 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 BALSAM FIR 
 
 Boxes and Crates 76 
 
 Mill Work 20 
 
 Car Construction 1 
 
 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 1 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 1 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 WHITE FIR 
 
 Mill Work 72 
 
 Boxes and Crates 27 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 are the balsam fir (Abies balsamifera) of the 
 Northern States; the white fir (Abies concolor) 
 of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast region ; 
 the Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), which grows 
 in high altitudes in the Western mountains ; the
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 263 
 
 noble fir (Abies nobilis), which is most abundant 
 in Oregon; and the red fir (Abies magnified) of 
 California. The balsam fir of the East, and the 
 Alpine fir of the West, are small trees of very 
 similar character. The white, noble, and red 
 firs are among the large trees of the regions in 
 which they are found. The wood of all the firs 
 is very light in weight, soft, not strong, brittle, 
 and even-grained, with no great variations in 
 texture. The firs are not largely sawed at pres- 
 ent. Fir lumber is chiefly used for boxes and 
 crates, for which purpose the light weight and 
 softness especially fits these woods. The firs 
 also furnish much material for wood pulp. 
 
 So far as reported, the factory uses of the firs 
 are summarized in Table 83. 
 
 The noble fir is used for the same general pur- 
 poses as are the other true firs. 
 
 Uses reported for balsam fir include : 
 
 Boxes Frames (door) 
 
 Boxes (herring) Frames (window) 
 
 Cases Ironing-table tops 
 
 Cases (packing) Molding 
 
 Cases (sardines) Refrigerators 
 
 Ceiling Sash 
 
 Clapboards Sheathing 
 
 Cloth boards Shooks 
 
 Crates Siding j* w' 
 
 Dairy supplies Suit-case frames 
 
 Flooring Trim 
 
 BLACK GUM 
 
 Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), although gener- 
 ally called "gum," is in no way related botanic-
 
 264 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 ally to red gum. It is a member of the same 
 genus as tupelo, and much of it is included in 
 the statistics of that wood. 
 
 Black gum is somewhat heavier than red gum. 
 The wood is moderately strong and stiff, tough, 
 and very difficult to split properties which are 
 often desirable. Separate uses reported for 
 black gum are in the manufacture of: 
 
 Baskets Mauls 
 
 Berry cups Mine rollers 
 
 Boxes Paving blocks 
 
 Conduits Ox yokes 
 
 Chucks Reshippers (bottle crates) 
 
 Hoppers Rollers (boats) 
 
 Hubs Rug pr.les 
 
 Keels Table legs 
 
 Lard dishes Veneer barrels 
 
 RED GUM 
 
 Bed gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is one of 
 the softer hardwoods of medium weight and 
 strength. It has a good figure and a reddish 
 heartwood that make it useful for many pur- 
 poses. Red gum works easily and is fairly 
 tough ; so the lower grades are in large demand 
 for boxes and crates; while the figured wood, 
 properly stained, gives perhaps the closest dup- 
 lication of Circassian walnut obtainable with any 
 timber. Stained differently, red gum is also 
 much used to give mahogany effects. 
 
 In addition to being the wood most largely 
 used for slack barrel staves and heading, the 
 statistical reports give the information embodied 
 in Table 84, upon the other factory uses of red 
 gum.
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 265 
 
 TABLE 84 
 
 Factory Uses of Red Gum 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Boxes and Crates 50 
 
 Mill Work 15 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 15 
 
 Vehicles 3 
 
 Pulleys and Conveyors 2 
 
 Sewing Machines 2 
 
 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 2 
 
 Agricultural Implements 1 
 
 Musical Instruments 1 
 
 Woodenware, Novelties, etc 1 
 
 Picture Frames and Moldings 1 
 
 Other Uses 7 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Red gum and sap gum (the sapwood of red 
 gum) enter to some extent into the manufacture 
 of the following articles: 
 
 Alfalfa grinder parts Chair frames (upholstered 
 Ballot boxes furniture) 
 
 Barrels (veneer) Chairs 
 
 Baskets (fruit) Chairs (folding) 
 
 Baskets (vegetable) Chairs (kitchen) 
 
 Berry cups Chairs, official (lodge fur- 
 Bookcases (exterior work) niture) 
 
 Bottom boards (piano) Chairs (parlor) 
 
 Bottoms (heavy vehicle Cheese boxes 
 
 seats) China closets (extension) 
 
 Boxboards (dump carts) Cigar boxes 
 
 Boxes Cigar wheels (wheel-of- 
 Boxes (delivery wagons) chance) 
 
 Boxes (veneer) Coffee drums 
 
 Boxes (wire bound) Columns (porch) 
 
 Box shocks Commodes 
 
 Brush blocks Consoles 
 
 Cabinets Cooperage stock (slack) 
 
 Carvings Cooperage stock (tight) 
 
 Caskets Corn graders 
 
 Casing Cradles 
 Cattle guards (railway cars) Crates (fruit and vegetable)
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Crating 
 
 Cultivator handles 
 
 Cupboards (backing) 
 
 Cupboards (kitchen) 
 
 Curtain poles 
 
 Desks (house) 
 
 Desks (office) 
 
 Dining tables 
 
 Drawer bottoms 
 
 Dressers (exterior) 
 
 Egg cases 
 
 Elevator cars 
 
 Eraser blocks (blackboard) 
 
 Fanning mills 
 
 Faucets 
 
 Fixtures (bank) 
 
 Fixtures (soda fountains) 
 
 Fixtures (store and office) 
 
 Flour mills (machinery 
 
 parts) 
 
 Folding beds 
 Frames (couches) 
 Frames (davenports) 
 Frames (lounges) 
 Furniture (exposed) 
 Furniture (interior work) 
 Game traps 
 Grain weighers 
 Guitar bodies 
 Handles 
 
 Handrails (stairwork) 
 Hay-baler parts 
 Hobby horses 
 Interior finish 
 Ironing boards 
 Kitchen cabinets 
 Kitchen cabinets (backing) 
 Lawn swings 
 Legs (incubator) 
 Library cases 
 Lining (inside coat boxes) 
 Litter carrier parts 
 Manure spreaders 
 Mop handles 
 Moldings (piano) 
 
 Music cabinets (exterior) 
 
 Neck yokes (cultivator) 
 
 Ornaments (furniture) 
 
 Packages (vegetable) 
 
 Panels (light vehicle bodies) 
 
 Panels (veneered) 
 
 Parlor cabinets (inside work) 
 
 Pedestals 
 
 Pens 
 
 Piano benches 
 
 Picture moldings 
 
 Posts (stairworks) 
 
 Reed organs (interior parts) 
 
 Reed organs (exterior) 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Reshippers (boxes) 
 
 Rims (guitars) 
 
 Runners (sleighs and sleds) 
 
 Saddletrees 
 
 Sandboards (heavy vehicles) 
 
 Scale parts (platform scale) 
 
 Screen doors 
 
 Seats (water closets) 
 
 Seed-cleaner parts 
 
 Self-feeders (threshing 
 machines) 
 
 Sewing machine parts 
 
 Sideboards (built in) 
 
 Sideboards (exterior work) 
 
 Sideboards (interior work) 
 
 Signs (advertising) 
 
 Singletrees (cultivators) 
 
 Small gun stocks 
 
 Sofa frames (upholstered fur- 
 niture) 
 
 Spigots 
 
 Stepping (stairwork) 
 
 Tables 
 
 Tables (extension) 
 
 Tables (kitchen) 
 
 Tables (library) 
 
 Tabourets 
 
 Tanks (water closets) 
 
 Thresher parts 
 
 Tight cooperage stock
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 267 
 
 Trimmings (piano) Wardrobes (exterior work) 
 
 Trunks Wardrobes (interior work) 
 
 Type cabinets Washboards (laundry) 
 
 Vane slats (windmill) Washing machine parts 
 
 Vehicle bottoms Weather strippings 
 
 Vending machines Wheel slats (windmill) 
 Vending machines (matches) Window screens 
 
 Veneer cores Woodenware 
 Veneer doors 
 
 HACKBERRY 
 
 Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), although not 
 an abundant forest tree, has a wide range ; and 
 small quantities are manufactured into lumber 
 and also into cooperage. The wood is heavy, 
 moderately hard, strong, and tough. In prop- 
 erties it is most like white elm, while in appear- 
 ance the lumber resembles ash. 
 
 Statistical reports do not distinguish between 
 the ordinary hackberry and the Southern form 
 or sugarberry (Celtis mississippiensis). 
 
 TABLE 85 
 Factory Uses of Hackberry 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 39 
 
 Boxes and Crates 28 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 13 
 
 Vehicles 9 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 7 
 
 Saddles and Hames 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Specific uses reported for hackberry include : 
 
 Buggy bodies, cart trees, farm implements, handles, furni- 
 ture, hoe handles, interior finish, kegs, rakes, saddle trees, 
 stair rails, steps, table legs and tops, tubs, wagon parts.
 
 268 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 The Louisiana factories use sugarberry for: 
 
 Car finish, furniture, railing, slack cooperage, stair steps, 
 table frames, tool handles, and vehicle bodies. 
 
 HEMLOCK 
 
 Commercially, there are two important spe- 
 cies of hemlock the Eastern hemlock (Tsuga 
 canadensis), which is most abundant in the Lake 
 States, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York, 
 and New England; and Western hemlock 
 (Tsuga heterophylla) , the largest stands of 
 which are in the Pacific Northwest. 
 
 The Eastern hemlock is among the lighter 
 woods in weight, fairly stiff and strong, and 
 tougher than most softwoods. The Western 
 hemlock is heavier, stronger, and stiffer than the 
 Eastern, and, in mechanical properties, rather 
 closely approaches Douglas fir. A large pro- 
 portion of the hemlock lumber goes directly 
 from the sawmill into general building opera- 
 tions. 
 
 Without distinction between species, the 
 
 TABLE 86 
 
 Factory Uses of Hemlock 
 Purpose Per cent 
 
 Mill Work 62 
 
 Boxes and Crates 29 
 
 Car Construction 2 
 
 Furniture I ' 
 
 Trunks and Valises 1 
 
 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total.. 100
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 269 
 
 reports indicate the factory uses of hemlock as 
 given in Table 86. 
 
 More specifically, Eastern hemlock enters into 
 the manufacture of the following articles: 
 
 Bakers' machinery Refrigerators 
 
 Beamboxes (weighing Sash 
 
 machines) Seed boxes (machines) 
 
 Boat parts Shop patterns (boats) 
 
 Boxes Siding 
 
 Car decking Signs 
 
 Car doors Silos 
 
 Crating Tobacco cases 
 
 Flasks Trunks 
 
 Flooring Tubs 
 
 Ice boxes Vehicles 
 
 Interior finish. Washboards 
 
 Pails Well machine parts 
 
 Piano boxes Window frames 
 
 Portable farm forges 
 
 According to the Oregon and Washington 
 reports, Western hemlock is used on the Pacific 
 Coast for: 
 
 Boat finish, boxes, caskets, cooperage, crates, fixtures 
 (drawers, shelves), furniture (backing, couches, kitchen table 
 tops), interior work (casing, ceiling, finish, flooring, moulding, 
 wainscoting), pulp, sash and doors, screens and veneer. 
 
 HICKORY 
 
 There are a number of species of hickory ; but 
 those of greatest commercial importance are 
 five, as follows: Shellbark (Hicoria laciniosa), 
 shagbark (Hicoria ovata), mockernut (Hicoria 
 alba), bitternut (Hicoria minima), and pignut 
 (Hicoria glabra). The pecan (Hicoria pecan) 
 is also a hickory, and is used to some extent for 
 the same purposes as the other species.
 
 270 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 The hickories, with the exception of black 
 locust and osage orange, are the heaviest, strong- 
 est, and toughest of our native woods. It is the 
 remarkable toughness of hickory, and its ability 
 to withstand shocks, that make it the wood above 
 all others for vehicle work. 
 
 All the hickories are used in the manufacture 
 of vehicles, handles, and other articles where 
 strength and toughness are the main considera- 
 tion; but pignut perhaps possesses these prop- 
 erties in greater degree than any of the other 
 species. 
 
 The factory uses of hickory are indicated in 
 Table 87. 
 
 TABLE 87 
 
 Factory Uses of Hickory 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Vehicles 61 
 
 Handles 31 
 
 Agricultural Implements 3 
 
 Sporting and Athletic Goods 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 A great deal of hickory, instead of being man- 
 ufactured into lumber, goes in bolt form directly 
 to the factory in which it is to be fashioned into 
 some useful article. According to the reports, 
 hickory enters more or less into the construc- 
 tion of: 
 
 Agricultural implements Baseball bats 
 
 Axles (light vehicles) Binder parts 
 
 Baskets Board rules
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 271 
 
 Bottoms (wagon boxes) 
 
 Brake bars 
 
 Cabinet work 
 
 Calking hammers 
 
 Canes 
 
 Car repairing 
 
 Car construction 
 
 Carvings 
 
 Chairs 
 
 Corn binder parts 
 
 Crossbars (light vehicles) 
 
 Crutches 
 
 Cultivator handles 
 
 Doubletrees 
 
 Dowels 
 
 Eveners (farm implements) 
 
 Felloes 
 
 Freight cars 
 
 Gear woods (light vehicles) 
 
 Golf sticks (handles) 
 
 Hammer handles 
 
 Handles 
 
 Handles (broom) 
 
 Handles (edge tools) 
 
 Hay baler parts 
 
 Hay loader parts 
 
 Header parts 
 
 Hounds (heavy vehicles) 
 
 Ladders 
 
 Ladder rungs 
 
 Log rules 
 
 Machinery handles 
 
 Mallets 
 
 Manure spreader parts 
 
 Maul handles 
 
 Molds (brick) 
 
 Neck yokes (implement) 
 
 Neck yokes (plows) 
 
 Neck yokes (vehicles) 
 
 Patterns 
 
 Pike poles 
 
 Pins 
 
 Picture molding 
 
 Picker sticks 
 
 Pick handles 
 
 Pitmans (farm implements) 
 
 Plow beams 
 
 Plow handles 
 
 Poles (light vehicle) 
 
 Rake teeth 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Revolving rakes 
 
 Rims (automobile wheels) 
 
 Rims (vehicle wheels) 
 
 Road-scrapers 
 
 Shafts (vehicle) 
 
 Singletrees 
 
 Sledge handles 
 
 Small tool handles 
 
 Spokes (automobile) 
 
 Spokes (light and heavy 
 
 vehicles) 
 
 Spring bars (light vehicles) 
 Sucker rods 
 Threshing machines 
 Tongues (light vehicles) 
 Tongues (wagon) 
 Tongues (wheel scrapers) 
 Trapeze (gymnasium) 
 Trucks 
 Trunk slats 
 Turnings 
 Wagon stock 
 Wagon jacks 
 Whiffletrees 
 Windmill rods 
 
 HOLLY 
 
 Holly (Ilex opaca) is a tough, close-grained 
 wood of ivory-like appearance, which makes it 
 especially valuable for inlay work and in the 
 manufacture of many small articles. Since
 
 272 LUMBER AND ITS USES ' 
 
 holly trees are neither large nor abundant, only 
 small quantities of this wood are available. The 
 factory uses reported are indicated in Table 88. 
 
 TABLE 88 
 
 Factory Uses of Holly 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 69 
 
 Brushes 24 
 
 Musical Instruments 4 
 
 Other Uses 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 HORNBEAM 
 
 Hornbeam or ironwood (Ostrya virginiana) 
 is one of the heaviest, hardest, and toughest 
 American woods, ranking very closely to the 
 hickories in these respects. It is not available 
 in such large quantities as the hickories, but is 
 used for much the same purposes, as Table 89 
 indicates. 
 
 Specific uses for hornbeam includes axles, fel- 
 loes, tongues, levers, canes, umbrella sticks, and 
 whipstocks. 
 
 TABLE 89 
 
 Factory Uses of Hornbeam 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Handles 68 
 
 Vehicles 21 
 
 Mill Work 3 
 
 Furniture 2 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 2 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total.. ..100
 
 Making Bicycle Rims of Hard Maple in a New Hampshire Factory 
 
 Successive Stages in Making Shuttles from Dogwood and Persimmon 
 
 Paint-Brush Handles Made from Birch and Maple 
 Plate 32 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 Interior of a Chair Factory in North Carolina 
 
 Boxes, Spools, Shoe Shanks, and Other Articles Made from Paper 
 Birch 
 
 Plate 33 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 273 
 
 LARCH 
 
 See Tamarack (page 305). 
 
 LAUREL 
 
 Laurel (Kcdmia Icttifolia) is a fine-grained 
 hardwood, produced in small quantities in the 
 Southern mountains. It is nearly as hard as 
 dogwood, and as heavy as white oak. It is not 
 available in large sizes nor in great quantity; 
 but such factory uses as are reported for the 
 small amount consumed are as indicated in 
 Table 90. 
 
 TABLE 90 
 
 Factory Uses of Laurel 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Ship and Boat Building fi6 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 19 
 
 Brooms and Carpet-Sweepers 7 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 6 
 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The California laurel (Umbellularia califor- 
 nica), or myrtle, is not very abundant, but is 
 used on the Pacific Coast for the manufacture 
 of interior finish, fixtures, furniture, musical 
 instruments, pilot wheels, turnery, and novel- 
 ties. 
 
 LOCUST 
 
 There are two native locusts found in the 
 Eastern States the honey locust (Gleditsia 
 triacanthos) and the black locust (Robinia 
 pseudacacia) . The honey locust is not abun-
 
 274 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 dant, however; and so, while possessing many 
 desirable qualities in the way of strength and 
 hardness, is little used. 
 
 Black locust and osage orange closely com- 
 pete for the honor of being the heaviest and 
 strongest American woods. In other respects 
 they split even, for osage orange is the tougher, 
 and black locust the stiffer. Both shrink less 
 in seasoning than almost any other wood, either 
 hard or soft which is also an extremely desir- 
 able quality. 
 
 Black locust finds by far its largest use in the 
 manufacture of insulator pins and brackets, 
 with a small amount used for mill work, in ship 
 and boat building, and for vehicles. In ship 
 and boat building, black locust is valuable for 
 tree nails, for the ancient method of holding two 
 pieces of wood together by means of a wooden 
 pin or nail has, for some purposes, not been 
 improved upon. 
 
 TABLE 91 
 
 Factory Uses of Locust 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Insulator Pins and Brackets 90 
 
 Mill Work 3 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 3 
 
 Vehicles 2 
 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Black locust is also used for patterns, chucks, 
 hubs, turnery, trunnels, and spokes for boat 
 wheels.
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 275 
 
 Some of the small amount of honey locust 
 manufactured is used in furniture, millwork, 
 balusters, newels, and molding. 
 
 MAGNOLIA 
 
 Two species of magnolia are cut for lumber 
 to some extent in the Southern States, in addi- 
 tion to the cucumber tree previously mentioned. 
 These are the evergreen magnolia (Magnolia 
 foetida) and the sweet magnolia (Magnolia 
 glauca) or bay tree. Most of the magnolia lum- 
 ber, however, is made from the evergreen mag- 
 nolia. 
 
 Magnolia wood is of compact structure, light, 
 soft, easily worked, with a satiny luster, and 
 creamy white to light brown in color. It goes 
 to market with yellow poplar, as well as under 
 its proper name. Such separate factory uses of 
 magnolia as are reported are shown in Table 92. 
 
 TABLE 92 
 
 Factory Uses of Magnolia 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Boxes and Crates 88 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 8 
 
 Mill Work 2 
 
 Tobacco Boxes 1 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 \ 
 
 More specific uses reported for magnolia 
 include : 
 
 Bar fixtures Boxes 
 
 Bed-room suites Broom handles 
 
 Boats Brushes
 
 276 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Cabinets Furniture 
 
 Car sheathing Interior finish 
 
 Cotton gins Molding 
 
 China closets Ox yokes 
 
 Door panels Sash 
 
 Dressers Tables 
 
 Egg cases Wagon boxes 
 
 Excelsior Wash stands 
 
 MAPLE 
 
 Four species of maple are of commercial 
 importance from the lumber standpoint. These 
 are hard or sugar maple (Acer saccharum), red 
 maple (Acer rubrum), soft or silver maple 
 (Acer saccharinum) , and Oregon maple (Acer 
 macrophyllum). Hard maple is by far the most 
 abundant and useful member of the group. 
 
 The wood of hard maple is of moderate weight 
 for a hardwood, strong, hard, and with good 
 wearing qualities. Variations in structure and 
 appearance due to peculiarities of growth give 
 curly and bird's-eye effects which are much 
 prized. The wood of soft maple is considerably 
 lighter in weight, and not so strong or stiff as 
 that of the hard maple. It has a good figure, 
 and is used for many purposes. Red maple is 
 about midway between hard and soft maple in 
 weight and strength. In hardness, it is close to 
 the soft maple; and in stiffness, not very far 
 from the hard maple. Oregon maple is the only 
 commercial maple on the Pacific Coast, and is 
 the most important hardwood of that region. 
 The wood resembles that of the Eastern maples, 
 and is used for the same general purposes.
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 277 
 
 Hard maple is the maple used in the manu- 
 facture of hardwood flooring and wherever 
 strength and resistance to wear are the deter- 
 mining qualities. 
 
 In the wood^using industry reports, all the 
 maples are grouped together with results shown 
 in Table 93. 
 
 TABLE 03 
 
 Factory Uses of Maple 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 34 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 17 
 
 Boxes and Crates 10 
 
 Boot and Shoe Findings 6 
 
 Agricultural Implements 5 
 
 Musical Instruments 5 
 
 Handles 4 
 
 Woodenware, Novelties, etc 4 
 
 Vehicles 4 
 
 Laundry Appliances 2 
 
 Other Uses 9 
 
 Total 100 
 
 These specific uses reported for hard maple 
 indicate the great serviceability of this wood: 
 
 Automobile benches Bobbins 
 
 Automobile bottoms Bobsleds 
 
 Automobile gears Bolsters 
 
 Automobile sub-floors Bowling alleys 
 
 Axles Bowls 
 
 Baggers Boxes 
 
 Baseball bats Bread boards 
 
 Baskets Brewers' chips 
 
 Bean pickers Broom handles 
 
 Bicycle rims Brush backs 
 
 Billiard cues Brush handles 
 
 Billiard rings Built-up panels 
 
 Blueprint frames Butcher blocks
 
 278 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Butter boxes 
 
 Butter ladles 
 
 Butter molds 
 
 Cameras 
 
 Canes 
 
 Cant-hook handles 
 
 Car-gallows frames 
 
 Carpet-sweepers 
 
 Carrom cues 
 
 Carrom rings 
 
 Caster rollers 
 
 Cattle guards 
 
 Center wheels 
 
 Chair bottoms 
 
 Chair rods 
 
 Checkers 
 
 Churn dashers 
 
 Clothespins 
 
 Coat hangers 
 
 Coil bases (telephone) 
 
 Corn buskers 
 
 Corn planters 
 
 Corn shelters 
 
 Costumers 
 
 Cot frames 
 
 Cranes 
 
 Croquet balls 
 
 Croquet mallets 
 
 Culm pipe (mines) 
 
 Cultivator handles 
 
 Curtain poles 
 
 Dashboards 
 
 Die blocks 
 
 Die cases 
 
 Dishes 
 
 Dominoes 
 
 Door knobs 
 
 Dowels 
 
 Drawer bottoms 
 
 Dumb-bells 
 
 Electrotype blocks 
 
 Ensilage cutters 
 
 Extension stretchers 
 
 Factory trucks 
 
 Faucets 
 
 Feed cutters 
 
 Feeders 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Games 
 
 Gas-engine skids 
 
 Girts 
 
 Go-carts 
 
 Grain doors 
 
 Grain separators 
 
 Grills 
 
 Guitars 
 
 Hand cars 
 
 Handles 
 
 Handspikes 
 
 Hay balers 
 
 Hay pressers 
 
 Hoop drums 
 
 Horizontal bars 
 
 Hose menders 
 
 Indian clubs 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Kitchen cabinets 
 
 Knobs (furniture) 
 
 Kraut cutters 
 
 Ladders 
 
 Lasts 
 
 Lemon squeezers 
 
 Levers 
 
 Log cars 
 
 Mallets 
 
 Mandolins 
 
 Mangle rollers 
 
 Manual training supplies 
 
 Manure spreaders 
 
 Meat boards 
 
 Medicine cabinets 
 
 Mission furniture 
 
 Office fixtures 
 
 Packing-house cutting tables 
 
 Paddles 
 
 Pails 
 
 Paper cutters
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 279 
 
 Parasol handles 
 
 Parquetry floors 
 
 Patterns 
 
 Peavy handles 
 
 Pianos 
 
 Piano bridges 
 
 Piano pin planks 
 
 Piano players 
 
 Plow beams 
 
 Plugs 
 
 Plumbers' woodwork 
 
 Porch swings 
 
 Portable sawmills 
 
 Potato mashers 
 
 Potato planters 
 
 Pulley spokes 
 
 Pumps 
 
 Push cars 
 
 Racks 
 
 Railroad velocipedes 
 
 Reed furniture (rods) 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Riddles 
 
 Road rollers 
 
 Roller pins 
 
 Rules 
 
 Sawmill machinery 
 
 Scythe snaths 
 
 Self feeders 
 
 Separators (grain) 
 
 Sheeting 
 
 Showcases 
 
 Shredders 
 
 Skewers 
 
 Sleighs 
 
 Spindles 
 
 Spoke wedges 
 
 Spool barrels 
 
 Spoons 
 
 Steak mauls 
 
 Steering wheels 
 
 Stonecutters' mallets 
 
 Stone boats 
 
 Store fixtures 
 
 Switch boards 
 
 Table rims 
 
 Talking machines 
 
 Tanks 
 
 Tanning drums 
 
 Tenpins 
 
 Threshing machines 
 
 Thresholds 
 
 Tie plugs 
 
 Timber grapples 
 
 Tinners' mallets 
 
 Tin-plate boxes 
 
 Toothpicks 
 
 Towel racks 
 
 Toys 
 
 Track gauge 
 
 Track levels 
 
 Trucks 
 
 Trunks 
 
 Tubs 
 
 Type cabinets 
 
 Type cases 
 
 Umbrella racks 
 
 Wall cases 
 
 Wall clocks 
 
 Washboards 
 
 Washing machines 
 
 Weighing machines 
 
 Wheelbarrows 
 
 Wind stackers 
 
 Wooden bearings 
 
 Wood knobs (grilles) 
 
 Woodtype 
 
 Yardsticks 
 
 Soft maple is used in the manufacture of: 
 
 Auto frames Berry baskets 
 
 Baby carriages Boats 
 
 Ballot boxes Bookcases
 
 280 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Brooders (poultry) 
 
 Broom handles 
 
 Butter bowls 
 
 Carpet sweepers 
 
 Chairs 
 
 Coat hangers 
 
 Corn planters 
 
 Cot frames 
 
 Cradles 
 
 Cultivators (garden) 
 
 Door frames 
 
 Egg cases 
 
 Extension-table sides 
 
 Fanning mills 
 
 Filing cabinets 
 
 Fixtures 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Grass seeders 
 
 Hall clocks 
 
 Hand sleds 
 
 Hay racks 
 
 Ice boxes 
 
 Incubators 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Ironing boards 
 
 Kitchen cabinets 
 
 Knobs (furniture) 
 
 Lap boards 
 
 Lawn swings 
 
 Manual training supplies 
 
 Music cabinets 
 
 Office fixtures 
 
 Parquet floors 
 
 Pianos 
 
 Piano benches 
 
 Pumps 
 
 Potato planters 
 
 Reels (wire) 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Root cutters 
 
 Signs 
 
 Sleeve boards 
 
 Table tops 
 
 Tabourettes 
 
 Tin-plate boxes 
 
 Umbrella racks 
 
 Vehicles 
 
 Velocipedes, railroad 
 
 Wardrobes 
 
 Woodenware 
 
 Oregon maple is used on the West Coast for 
 baskets, boat finish, building rollers, dollies, fix- 
 tures (counter tops, grill work, mirror frames, 
 show cases), furniture (bookcases, chairs, daven- 
 port frames, school furniture, spindles, tables), 
 handles, interior work (finish, flooring), pul- 
 leys, saddles, tent toggles, and trunk slats. 
 
 OAK 
 
 Botanists recognize some fifty species of oak 
 in the United States, all but a few of which 
 attain tree size, while many are among the larg-
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 281 
 
 est and finest hardwoods. With such a wealth of 
 species, it is impossible to get statistics upon 
 the consumption of the separate kinds with any 
 degree of accuracy. Moreover, most of the oak 
 is marketed under the general names of "white 
 oak" or "red oak," without further specific dis- 
 tinction. 
 
 Of the white oak group, the most important 
 are the true white oak (Quercus alba), bur oak 
 (Quercus macrocarpa), post oak (Quercus 
 minor), cow oak (Quercus michauxii), chestnut 
 oak (Quercus prinus), overcup oak (Quercus 
 lyrata), and Oregon oak (Quercus garryana). 
 Of the red oak group, the most useful species 
 are the true red oak (Quercus rubra), Texan 
 oak (Quercus Texana), chinquapin oak (Quercus 
 acuminata), yellow oak (Quercus velutina), 
 scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), turkey oak 
 (Quercus catesbaei), Spanish oak (Quercus 
 digitata), pin oak (Quercus palustris), shingle 
 oak (Quercus imbricaria), and willow oak 
 (Quercus phellos). The white and red oak 
 groups supply about equal amounts of lumber. 
 Two other important species which belong to 
 neither group are live oak (Quercus virginicma) 
 and California tanbark oak (Quercus densi- 
 flora). 
 
 The wood of nearly all the oaks is heavy, hard, 
 strong, and tough, with the characteristic figure 
 which has always made oak a standard cabinet, 
 furniture, finish, and flooring wood, in addition
 
 282 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 to its great usefulness for vehicles and in other 
 places where strength is essential. 
 
 There is, of course, considerable variation in 
 the strength, hardness, stiffness, weight, and 
 other properties of the oaks, as is shown in the 
 chapter upon the properties of wood. Among 
 all the oaks, the live oak leads in strength, hard- 
 ness, and toughness. In the days of wooden 
 ships, it was especially in demand. The supply 
 of live oak timber is much less than that of 
 many other oaks; and at present but little is 
 manufactured into lumber. 
 
 Without regard to species, the factory uses 
 of oak are summarized in Table 94. 
 
 TABLE 94 
 
 Factory Uses of Oak 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 32 
 
 Mill Work 25 
 
 Car Construction 15 
 
 Vehicles 11 
 
 Agricultural Implements 3 
 
 Boxes and Crates 3 
 
 Snip and Boat Building 2 
 
 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 2 
 
 Musical Instruments 1 
 
 Sewing Machines 1 
 
 Other Uses 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The many specific uses for white oak are illus- 
 trated by the following list of articles in which 
 this wood is used in the factories of Illinois:
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 Altars (church) 
 Art lamps 
 Axe handles 
 Backgrounds (display 
 
 windows) 
 
 Ball racks (pool and billiard? 
 Balusters 
 Barber chairs 
 Barber furniture 
 Bar fixtures 
 Bars (wooden harrows) 
 Baseboards 
 Basket parts 
 Beams (plow) 
 Beds 
 
 Beds (cot) 
 Beds (folding) 
 Billiard (tables) 
 Binder parts 
 Boat parts (row) 
 Bobsleds 
 
 Bolsters (heavy vehicles) 
 Bookcases 
 Book racks 
 
 Bottoms (baggage trucks) 
 Bottoms (delivery wagons) 
 Braces (railway car frames) 
 Brackets 
 
 Brake beams (heavy vehicles) 
 Brush blocks 
 Buffets (exterior) 
 Bumping posts (railroad) 
 Butter churn bodies 
 Butter churn bottoms 
 Cabinets (dental) 
 Cabinets (filing) 
 Cabinets (music rolls) 
 Cabinets (parlor) 
 Cabinets (phonograph 
 
 records) 
 
 Cabinets (toilet) 
 Cabinets (towels) 
 Cabins (boats) 
 Capitals 
 
 Card tables 
 
 Cases (medicine) 
 
 Cases (railroad ticket) 
 
 Casing 
 
 Caskets 
 
 Chair frames 
 
 Chairs 
 
 Chairs (adjustable) 
 
 Chairs (invalid) 
 
 Chairs (office) 
 
 Chairs, official (lodge room) 
 
 Chairs (rolling) 
 
 Chairs (stenographers) 
 
 Cheval mirrors 
 
 Chiffoniers 
 
 China closets 
 
 Church pews 
 
 Cigar wheels (wheel-of- 
 
 chance) 
 Clay gatherers (machine 
 
 parts) 
 
 Cleats (wagon boxes) 
 Coffins 
 Colonnades 
 Columns (porch) 
 Consoles 
 
 Cores (veneer doors) 
 Corn binders 
 Corn grinders 
 Costumers 
 Couches (folding) 
 Counters (bar) 
 Counters (store) 
 Cradles 
 
 Cue racks (pool and billiard) 
 Cultivator handles 
 Desks (electric switchboards) 
 Desks (house) 
 Desks (office) 
 Disc drill parts 
 Disc harrow parts 
 Door frames (Ry. box cars) 
 Doors 
 Doubletrees (farm 
 
 implements)
 
 284 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Doubletrees (vehicle) 
 
 Drags (farm implements) 
 
 Dressers 
 
 Dressing tables 
 
 Drill parts (farm implements) 
 
 Drum lagging (hoisting 
 
 engine) 
 
 Edge-tool handles 
 Electric cars (interior finish) 
 Elevator cages 
 Eveners (farm implements) 
 Felloes 
 File cases 
 Finish (boats) 
 Fixtures (bank) 
 Fixtures (barbershop) 
 Fixtures (display window) 
 Fixtures (laboratory) 
 Fixtures (soda fountain) 
 Fixtures (store and office) 
 Flooring (hardwood) 
 Folding beds 
 Folding screens 
 Frames (couches) 
 Frames (davenports) 
 Frames (dummy carts) 
 Frames (electric cars) 
 Frames (freight cars) 
 Frames (light vehicle bodies) 
 Frames (lounges) 
 Frames (motor boats) 
 Frames (upholstered 
 
 furniture) 
 Frames (vessels) 
 Frames (window) 
 Furniture 
 
 Gear woods (light vehicle) 
 Grilles 
 
 Guitar bodies 
 Hall racks 
 Hammer handles 
 Handles 
 
 Hand rails (stairwork) 
 Harrows 
 
 Hatracks 
 
 Hay baler parts 
 
 Hayrake parts 
 
 Horse powers 
 
 Hounds 
 
 Hubs (heavy vehicle wheel) 
 
 Hulls (boats) 
 
 Hydraulic jacks 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Keels (boats) 
 
 Keels (motor boats) 
 
 Keyracks 
 
 Kitchen cabinets (exterior) 
 
 Kitchen cupboards 
 
 Kitchen safes 
 
 Ladders (gymnasium) 
 
 Launch parts 
 
 Lawn swings 
 
 Leaves (table) 
 
 Legs (piano) 
 
 Library cases 
 
 Lodge furniture 
 
 Machine handles 
 
 Mandolin bodies 
 
 Mantels 
 
 Manure spreaders 
 
 Merry-go-round parts 
 
 Mirror cases 
 
 Mission furniture 
 
 Molding (house trimming) 
 
 Molding (piano) 
 
 Molding (stairwork) 
 
 Mug cases (barbershop) 
 
 Music cabinets 
 
 Necktie racks 
 
 Newels 
 
 Oil well machine frames 
 
 Organ cases 
 
 Ornaments (furniture) 
 
 Outer cases (caskets) 
 
 Panels (veneered) 
 
 Paper racks 
 
 Parallel bars 
 
 Parlor cabinets (exterior)
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 Parlor rockers 
 Parquetry flooring 
 Passenger cars (frames) 
 Passenger cars (interior 
 
 finish) 
 Pedestals 
 Pedestals (tables) 
 Pew racks 
 Piano benches 
 Piano cases 
 Piano chairs 
 Piano players (exterior) 
 Piano stools 
 Pick handles 
 Picture moldings 
 Pilasters (piano) 
 Plate racks 
 Plow beams 
 Plow handles 
 Plow rounds 
 Plow parts (gang) 
 Plows 
 
 Poles (light vehicles) 
 Pool tables 
 
 Posts (railway car frames) 
 Posts (stairwork) 
 Pulpits (church) 
 Racks (hat and coat) 
 Reaches (heavy vehicles) 
 Reels (electric light wire) 
 Refrigerators 
 Revolving chairs (office) 
 Revolving chairs (parlor cars) 
 Rims (heavy vehicle wheels) 
 Risers (stairwork) 
 Road-scrapers 
 Rocker frames (upholstered 
 
 furniture) 
 Sand boards 
 Sash 
 
 Screen doors 
 Seats (water closets) 
 Sections (wheel-scrapers) 
 Seeder parts (farm 
 
 implements) 
 
 Serving tables 
 Sewing tables 
 Shanks (cultivators) 
 Shells (drum) 
 Sideboards (built in) 
 Sideboards (exterior) 
 Siding (boats) 
 Sills (threshers) 
 Singletrees (cultivators) 
 Singletrees (vehicle) 
 Sleds (toy) 
 Sofa frames (upholstered 
 
 furniture) 
 Somnols 
 
 Spokes (heavy vehicles) 
 Spring bars 
 
 Spring blocks (Ry. tank cars) 
 Stacker parts (farm 
 
 machinery) 
 Stands 
 
 Stands (jardinieres) 
 Stands (lamps) 
 Staves (water tanks) 
 Steps (stairwork) 
 Stringers (railway cars) 
 Subscriber sets (telephone) 
 Sulky plow parts 
 Sweeps (farm machinery) 
 Sweeps (windmills) 
 Switchboards (telephone and 
 
 telegraph) 
 Tables (cafe) 
 Tables (dining) 
 Tables (extension) 
 Tables (library) 
 Tables (parlor) 
 Tables (typewriter) 
 Tables (writing) 
 Tabourets 
 Tanks (brewery) 
 Tanks (distilling) 
 Tanks (water closets) 
 Telephones 
 Threshing machines 
 Tight cooperage stock
 
 286 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Tongues (wheel-scrapers) 
 
 Tool chests 
 
 Tool handles 
 
 Trays (jewelry) 
 
 Type (cabinets) 
 
 Typewriter cabinets 
 
 Umbrella stands 
 
 Vats (distilling) 
 
 Vats (oil) 
 
 Vending machines (matches) 
 
 Vending machines (peanuts) 
 
 Vestment cases (church) 
 Wagon boxes 
 Wainscoting 
 Wall cases 
 Wardrobes (exterior) 
 Washstands 
 Water gates 
 Water wheels 
 Well-digging machines 
 Windmill parts 
 Window screens 
 
 The red oaks are used in the manufacture of ; 
 
 Agricultural implements 
 
 Art lamps 
 
 Back grounds 
 
 Balusters 
 
 Barber furniture 
 
 Barrow boxes 
 
 Baskets 
 
 Beds 
 
 Bentwood 
 
 Billiard tables 
 
 Boats 
 
 Bob sleds 
 
 Bolsters 
 
 Bottoms (wagon) 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Brackets 
 
 Brake bars 
 
 Bucket staves 
 
 Buggy bows 
 
 Cabinets 
 
 Cabin parts 
 
 Car construction 
 
 Cars (mine) 
 
 Car repairing 
 
 Casing (building) 
 
 Caskets 
 
 Chair frames (upholstered 
 
 furniture) 
 Chairs 
 
 Chairs (office) 
 Chair stock 
 
 China closets 
 
 Church pews 
 
 Clocks 
 
 Clothes props 
 
 Corn shellers 
 
 Cornices 
 
 Crating 
 
 Cultivator handles 
 
 Decking 
 
 Disc harrow parts 
 
 Doors 
 
 Double doors (farm 
 
 implements) 
 
 Drags (farm implements) 
 Dressers 
 Dressing tables 
 Elevator flooring 
 Eveners (farm implements) 
 File cases 
 Fixtures (bank) 
 Fixtures (barber shop) 
 Fixtures (display window) 
 Fixtures (soda fountain) 
 Flooring (hardwood) 
 Flag staffs 
 Folding beds 
 Folding machines 
 Frames (couches) 
 Frames (davenport) 
 Frames (light and heavy 
 
 vehicle bodies)
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 287 
 
 Frames (upholstered parlor 
 
 furniture) 
 Furniture 
 Hallracks 
 Hay-loader parts 
 Interior finish 
 Kitchen cabinets (exterior) 
 Laundry appliances 
 Lodge furniture 
 Mantels 
 
 Manure spreaders 
 Mission furniture 
 Molding (stairwork) 
 Organ (pipe) cases 
 Organ actions 
 Organs 
 
 Parquetry flooring 
 Patterns 
 Piano benches 
 Piano cases 
 Piano parts 
 Piano stools 
 Piano tops 
 Picture molding 
 Planing mill products 
 Platforms (stairwork) 
 Plow beams 
 Plow handles 
 
 Plow rounds 
 
 Plumbers' woodwork 
 
 Pokes (animal) 
 
 Porch work 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Rocker frames (upholstered 
 
 furniture) 
 Sash 
 
 Sheathing 
 Showcases 
 
 Sideboards (built in) 
 Sideboards (exterior work) 
 Signs 
 
 Sling crossbars 
 Stirrups 
 
 Sulky plow parts 
 Table legs 
 Tables (extension) 
 Tables (library) 
 Tables (writing) 
 Tabourets 
 
 Tanks (water closets) 
 Trucks 
 Toys 
 Vehicles 
 Veneer 
 Wainscoting 
 Washstands 
 Woodenware 
 
 Plow parts (gang) 
 
 Oregon oak is used on the Pacific Coast in 
 place of both white and red oak from the East, 
 and especially for baskets, boats (frames, inter- 
 ior, finish, keels, ribs, sills), fixtures, furniture 
 (cabinets, chair stock, table tops), handles, 
 interior work, insulator pins, saddles, and 
 wagons. 
 
 The tanbark oak of California is an import- 
 ant source of tanbark in that State. It has not 
 been much used for lumber so far ; but, with the 
 methods of cutting and seasoning adapted to a
 
 288 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 hardwood, it will prove useful for many pur- 
 poses. 
 
 OSAGE ORANGE 
 
 Osage orange (Toxylon pomiferum) is the 
 heaviest, hardest, and toughest American wood 
 so far tested; but in strength and stiffness it is 
 somewhat surpassed by black locust. It is one 
 of the most durable woods, and fence-posts of 
 it give very long service. Because of the poor 
 form of the tree and its rarity in native condi- 
 tion, except in a rather limited region in Okla- 
 homa and Texas, not much osage orange lumber 
 is produced. The largest use is for wagon fel- 
 loes for service in arid regions. Osage orange 
 is especially adapted to this purpose, because of 
 the very small amount which it shrinks and its 
 great toughness. 
 
 Such factory uses as are reported for osage 
 orange are summarized in Table 95. 
 
 TABLE 95 
 
 Factory Uses of Osage Orange 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Vehicles 84 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 9 
 
 Car Construction 6 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Osage orange is also used to some extent for 
 canes, clock cases, furniture parts, insulator 
 pins, hubs, inlaid work, and mauls.
 
 Bringing in the Logs Unloading Logs at the Mill 
 
 | 
 
 Hauling White Cedar Posts in Winter 
 
 Dinner Time at Camp Good Train Load of Logs 
 
 TYPICAL LUMBERING SCENES 
 Plate 34 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 289 
 
 PERSIMMON 
 
 The persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) is a 
 member of the ebony family ; and its dark heart- 
 wood resembles ebony in being very heavy, hard, 
 and strong. Persimmon wood is very fine- 
 grained, takes a high polish, and is extremely 
 resistant to wear. For this reason, persimmon 
 finds its largest use in the manufacture of shut- 
 tles, along with dogwood. The process of man- 
 ufacture for the latter is illustrated in Plate 32. 
 
 The reported uses of persimmon are indicated 
 in Table 96. 
 
 TABLE 96 
 Factory Uses of Persimmon 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Shuttles 82 
 
 Boot and Shoe Findings 11 
 
 Sporting and Athletic Goods 6 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 PINE 
 
 The pines are found to some extent in almost 
 every forest region, and, in total number of spe- 
 cies, are as numerous as the oaks. They fur- 
 nish nearly half of the annual lumber supply. 
 
 There are two large groups of pines, as there 
 are two main groups of oaks. These are the 
 white pines and the yellow pines. Aside from 
 the common white pine (Pinus strobus), of 
 which more lumber has so far been manufac-
 
 290 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 tured than of any other species in the United 
 States, other important members of the white 
 pine family are Western white pine (Pinus 
 monticola), which is most abundant in western 
 Montana and northern Idaho; and sugar pine 
 (Pinus lambertiana), of the Sierra region of 
 California and southern Oregon. 
 
 In the yellow pine group are longleaf pine 
 (Pinus palustris), shortleaf pine (Pinus echi- 
 nata), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and Cuban 
 pine (Pinus heterophylla) , of the South; pitch 
 pine (Pinus rigida), which occurs both north 
 and south in the Eastern States; Norway or red 
 pine (Pinus resinosa), of New England and the 
 Lake States; jack pine (Pinus divaricata), of 
 the Lake States; lodgepole pine (Pinus con- 
 torta), of the Rocky Mountain region; and 
 Western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), from 
 the Black Hills to the Pacific Coast. 
 
 There are so niany trade names applied to the 
 pines without distinction of species that the 
 reader is often confused. Much of the South- 
 ern pine goes to market simply as yellow pine ; 
 but the loblolly pine of the North Carolina- Vir- 
 ginia district is called " North Carolina pine," 
 while "Georgia pine" is a time-honored term 
 for the longleaf pine of that State. " Arkansas 
 soft pine" is a trade designation for the short- 
 leaf pine of Arkansas. Some of the white pine 
 and Norway pine in the Lake States is sold 
 under the common name of " Northern pine." 
 Western yellow pine is marketed under a variety
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 291 
 
 TABLE 97 
 
 Factory Uses of Pine 
 
 WHITE PINE 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 49 
 
 Boxes and Crates 36 
 
 Car Construction 2 
 
 Matches 2 
 
 Rollers, Shade and Map 2 
 
 Woodenware, Novelties, etc 1 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 1 
 
 Other Uses 7 
 
 Total 100 
 
 SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE 
 
 Mill Work 75 
 
 Boxes and Crates 12 
 
 Car Construction . . . . ! 8 
 
 Agricultural Implements 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 SUGAR PINE 
 
 Mill Work 65 
 
 Boxes and Crates 40 
 
 Musical Instruments 2 
 
 Other Uses 3 
 
 Total 100 
 
 WESTERN YELLOW PINE 
 
 Boxes and Crates 51 
 
 Mill Work 47 
 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total.. ..100
 
 292 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 of names; but the most common designation, 
 aside from " California white pine," is simply 
 " Western pine," the term applied in the Mon- 
 tana-Idaho-Washington region. 
 
 As will be seen from the comparisons in the 
 chapter on properties of wood, the weight, 
 strength, stiffness, and toughness of the pines 
 are as varied as are the numerous species. The 
 white pines are light in weight, soft, even- 
 grained, and easily worked, being in this respect 
 much like the spruces and cedars. Longleaf 
 pine is the heaviest, hardest, strongest, stiffest, 
 and toughest softwood, and, in these properties, 
 ranks ahead of a number of the hardwoods. 
 Between white pine and longleaf pine, the other 
 pines offer almost every gradation in proper- 
 ties. 
 
 All of the pines are largely in demand for 
 general building purposes. In addition to these, 
 the statistical reports furnish the data summar- 
 ized in Table 97 as to the factory uses of white 
 pine, sugar pine, Western pine, and Southern 
 yellow pine, the latter being made without ref- 
 erence to species. 
 
 The varied usefulness of the pines is still fur- 
 ther indicated by reports of their consumption 
 in the manufacture of the following articles: 
 
 WHITE PINE 
 
 Agricultural implements Automobile bodies 
 
 Actions (organ) Balusters (porch) 
 
 Actions (piano) Barrel-starchers (laundry) 
 
 Actions (piano players) Beehives
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 293 
 
 Bellows (blacksmith) 
 
 Bellows (reed organs) 
 
 Blinds 
 
 Boat parts (row) 
 
 Bookcases (inside) 
 
 Bottoms (wagon boxes) 
 
 Bottoms (water tanks) 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Boxes (organ) 
 
 Boxes (piano) 
 
 Boxes (yeast) 
 
 Box snooks 
 
 Brackets (cornice) 
 
 Brackets (porch) 
 
 Brooders (poultry) 
 
 Buckets 
 
 Cabin parts (boats) 
 
 Cabinet work (unexposed) 
 
 Capitals 
 
 Cases (beer bottles) 
 
 Cases (milk bottles) 
 
 Cases (railroad tickets) 
 
 Cases (piano parts) 
 
 Caskets 
 
 Casting patterns 
 
 Chests (organ) 
 
 China cases (inside work) 
 
 Clocks 
 
 Coffins 
 
 Columns (porch) 
 
 Coops (poultry) 
 
 Covers (door panels) 
 
 Cores (tin-clad doors) 
 
 Cornices 
 
 Corn shellers 
 
 Couches (box) 
 
 Crating 
 
 Cupolas (foundry) 
 
 Deadwood (tank towers) 
 
 Desks (tank towers) 
 
 Door frames 
 
 Doors 
 
 Elevator guide posts 
 
 Elevator platforms 
 
 Feed mills 
 
 Fixtures (barroom) 
 
 Fixtures (soda fountain) 
 
 Flooring (motor boats) 
 
 Foundry flasks 
 
 Frames (couches) 
 
 Frames (davenports) 
 
 Frames (lounges) 
 
 Freight cars 
 
 Furniture (inside) 
 
 Girdles 
 
 Grain doors 
 
 Grain elevators 
 
 Horizontal folding doors 
 
 Incubators 
 
 Insulation (Ry. refrigerator 
 
 cars) 
 
 Interior finish 
 Keys (piano) 
 Kitchen cabinets 
 Ladders 
 Launch parts 
 Laundry machines 
 
 (hydraulic) 
 
 Linings (Ry. box cars) 
 Log-car templates 
 Matches 
 Molding 
 Office fixtures 
 Pails 
 
 Passenger cars 
 Patterns 
 
 Pharmaceutical packing 
 Picture frames 
 Planking (boats) 
 Porch columns 
 Portable farm forges 
 Pumps 
 
 Refrigerators 
 Saddlery cutting boards 
 Sash 
 
 Shredders 
 Siding 
 
 91108
 
 294 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Steam-pipe casing 
 
 Tanks 
 
 Threshers 
 
 Tobacco cases 
 
 Track levels, railroad 
 
 Traction engines 
 
 Trunks 
 
 Tubs 
 
 Washing machines 
 Water pipes 
 Weighers 
 Windmills 
 Windmill tanks 
 Window frames 
 Windstackers 
 Woodenware 
 
 NORWAY PINE 
 
 Agricultural implements 
 
 Automobile blocking 
 
 Baskets 
 
 Bed slats 
 
 Beehives 
 
 Boat decking 
 
 Boat keels 
 
 Boat planking 
 
 Boat sheathing 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Brackets 
 
 Candy buckets 
 
 Ceiling 
 
 Cornice 
 
 Cornshellers 
 
 Crates 
 
 Derricks 
 
 Doors 
 
 Dump cars 
 
 Extension ladders 
 
 Fish kits 
 
 Flasks 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Frames 
 
 Freight cars 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Grass seeders 
 
 Hay presses 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Kegs for cattle powder 
 
 Ladders 
 
 Lard buckets 
 
 Log cars 
 
 Machine decking 
 
 Patterns 
 
 Piano ribs 
 
 Piano players 
 
 Porch work 
 
 Portable farm forges 
 
 Putty kegs 
 
 Sash 
 
 Sawmill frames 
 
 Separators 
 
 Shade rollers 
 
 Signs 
 
 Silos 
 
 Swings 
 
 Templets 
 
 Threshing machines 
 
 Wagon beds 
 
 Wardrobes 
 
 Windmill platforms 
 
 Window frames 
 
 LONGLEAF PINE 
 
 Awning frames 
 
 Balusters 
 
 Baseboards 
 
 Bases (gasoline engines) 
 
 Beds (coal wagons) 
 
 Binder parts 
 
 Boat decking 
 
 Bottoms (heavy vehicles)
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 295 
 
 Bottoms (light vehicles) 
 
 Boxboards (dump carts) 
 
 Boxboards (wagons) 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Box shocks 
 
 Brackets (cornice) 
 
 Brackets (interior trimmings) 
 
 Brackets (porch) 
 
 Cabinets (dental) 
 
 Cabinets (jewelry) 
 
 Cabinets (toilet) 
 
 Cabinet work 
 
 Capitals 
 
 Car sills 
 
 Cases (china) 
 
 Cases (medicine) 
 
 Casing 
 
 Ceiling 
 
 Climbing poles (gymnasium) 
 
 Cold storage rooms 
 
 Colonnades 
 
 Columns (porch) 
 
 Consoles 
 
 Cores (veneer doors) 
 
 Cores (veneer panels) 
 
 Corn husker parts 
 
 Corn pickers 
 
 Cotton pickers 
 
 Covers (water tanks) 
 
 Cradles (tank cars) 
 
 Cranes (flooring) 
 
 Crating 
 
 Cultivator parts 
 
 Decking (freight cars) 
 
 Decks (boats) 
 
 Derrick beams 
 
 Disc harrow parts 
 
 Display racks (rugs) 
 
 Door frames 
 
 Doors 
 
 Doors (railway box cars) 
 
 Drill boxes (farm implements) 
 
 Elevator guide posts 
 
 Elevators 
 
 Eveners (harrows) 
 
 Feed mills 
 
 Finish (boats) 
 
 Fixtures (laboratory) 
 
 Fixtures (office, cafe) 
 
 Flag poles 
 
 Flasks 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Flooring (freight cars) 
 
 Flooring (railway refrigerator 
 
 cars) 
 
 Flooring (scale platforms) 
 Frames (box cars) 
 Frames (motor boat hulls) 
 Frost boxes (windmills) 
 Gears (heavy wagons) 
 Grain elevators 
 Grille work 
 Hand cars 
 
 Handrails (stairwork) 
 Hayloader parts 
 Hay presses 
 Hayracks 
 Hayrake parts 
 Head blocks (tank cars) 
 Header parts 
 Hydraulic jacks (parts) 
 Ice boxes 
 Interior finish 
 Ladders (extension) 
 Ladders (step) 
 Lawn swings 
 Linings (box cars) 
 Linings (incubator bodies) 
 Mantels 
 
 Moldings (interior finish) 
 Neck yokes 
 Needle beams (railway oar 
 
 frames) 
 
 Newels (stairwork) 
 Ornaments (furniture) 
 Panels (veneered) 
 Passenger cars (frames) 
 Pianos (interior work)
 
 296 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Pickets (fence) 
 Picture moldings 
 Platforms (tank towers) 
 Plow parts (gang) 
 Poles (farm implements) 
 Poles (wagons) 
 Posts (stairwork) 
 Pump rods (windmills) 
 Railway motor car parts 
 Railway push cars 
 Refrigerators 
 Risers (stairwork) 
 Road machinery 
 Road tools 
 Roofing (box cars) 
 Screen doors 
 Seats (water closets) 
 Seed-corn driers 
 Seeder boxes (farm 
 
 implements) 
 Shoveling boards (farm 
 
 wagons) 
 
 Sideboards (built in) 
 Side plates (railway freight 
 
 cars) 
 
 Siding (box cars) 
 Signboards 
 Signs (advertising) 
 Sills (railway cars) 
 
 Silos 
 
 Skids (engine) 
 
 Slats (railway cattle cars) 
 
 Stacker parts (farm 
 
 machinery) 
 Steps (stairwork) 
 Stringers (railway cars) 
 Sulky plow parts 
 Sweeps (feed mills) 
 Sweeps (water tanks) 
 Tackle blocks 
 Tanks (acid) 
 Tent poles 
 Threshing machines 
 Tobacco cases 
 Tongues (binders) 
 Tongues (cotton planters) 
 Tongues (manure spreaders) 
 Tongues (plows and 
 
 cultivators) 
 Tongues (wagons) 
 Wagon dumps 
 Wainscoting 
 
 Washing machines (hand) 
 Washing machines 
 
 (hydraulic) 
 
 Well-digging machines 
 Window frames 
 Windmills 
 
 LOBLOLLY PINE 
 
 Agricultural implements 
 
 Balusters 
 
 Baseboards 
 
 Basket Bottoms 
 
 Blinds 
 
 Boat construction 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Boxes (coffee) 
 
 Boxes (dry goods) 
 
 Box shocks 
 
 Cabbage crates 
 
 Cabinets 
 
 Car decking 
 
 Car siding 
 
 Casing 
 
 Ceiling 
 
 Clapboards 
 
 Coffins 
 
 Conduits 
 
 Cornices 
 
 Crating 
 
 Cross-arms 
 
 Decking (freight cars) 
 
 Doors 
 
 Door frames 
 
 Dunnage (freight oars)
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 297 
 
 Excelsior Refrigerators 
 
 Fixtures Roofers 
 
 Furniture backs Sample cases 
 
 Furniture (veneer cores) Sash 
 
 Flooring Screens (door) 
 
 Flooring (factory) Screens (window) 
 
 Flooring (freight car) Siding 
 
 Grain doors Siding (freight cars) 
 
 Interior trim (house) Silos 
 
 Kitchen cabinets Stair rails 
 
 Ladders Stairways 
 
 Landing posts Store fronts 
 
 Lining (freight cars) Tanks 
 
 Moldings Trunk boxes 
 
 Newel posts Vehicles 
 
 Outer cases (casket) Wagon panels 
 
 Panels (furniture sides) Wardrobes 
 
 Partition Window frames 
 
 Pilasters Wire reels 
 
 Poultry coop (bottoms) Woodenware 
 
 Western white pine, sugar pine, and much of 
 the Western yellow pine are used for the same 
 general purposes as Eastern white pine. The 
 first two are true white pines, while the sap- 
 wood of the Western yellow pine resembles 
 white pine in several respects. 
 
 The uses of shortleaf pine are as numerous and 
 diversified as those listed for longleaf and lob- 
 lolly pine. 
 
 YELLOW POPLAR 
 
 Yellow poplar (Liriodendron tuUpifera) is a 
 light, soft, fine-grained, easily worked durable 
 wood in many respects much like basswood. It 
 has a wide range of (usefulness; and, in addition 
 to serving in its own proper form, yellow poplar 
 is also much used as a backing for veneer of 
 other woods.
 
 298 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 The factory uses most largely reported for 
 yellow poplar are indicated in Table 98. 
 
 TABLE 08 
 Factory Uses of Yellow Poplar 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 35 
 
 Boxes and Crates 24 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 10 
 
 Vehicles 7 
 
 Musical Instruments 6 
 
 Car Construction 5 
 
 Bungs and Faucets 3 
 
 Agricultural Implements 2 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 1 
 
 Sewing Machines 1 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 1 
 
 Tobacco Boxes 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The following list of articles in the manufac- 
 ture of which yellow poplar is used, gives a still 
 better idea of the varied purposes which this 
 wood serves: 
 
 Actions (piano players) Brush blocks 
 
 Aeroplanes Carvings 
 
 Agricultural implements Cabinets 
 
 Automobiles Car repairing 
 
 Backs (washboards) Car construction 
 
 Barber chairs Carpet sweepers 
 
 Baseboards Cart beds 
 
 Baskets (fruit) Cases (medicine) 
 
 Bevel siding Casing 
 
 Billiard tables Caskets 
 
 Blinds Ceiling 
 
 Bookcases Church furniture 
 
 Bowling alleys China closets (inside) 
 Boxboards (heavy vehicles) Cider mills 
 
 Boxes (veneer) Cigar boxes 
 
 Box shocks Churns
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 Coffins 
 
 Cornice 
 
 Corn shelters 
 
 Costumers 
 
 Crates (fruit and vegetable) 
 
 Crating 
 
 Desks (inside) 
 
 Drawer bottoms (furniture) 
 
 Doors 
 
 Egg cases 
 
 Elevators 
 
 Elevators (corn) 
 
 Evaporator pan sides 
 
 Exterior finish 
 
 Facia 
 
 Feedcutter tables 
 
 Fixtures (bank) 
 
 Fixtures (bar) 
 
 Fixtures (display windows) 
 
 Fixtures (laboratory) 
 
 Fixtures (store and office) 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Flour mills (machinery 
 parts) 
 
 Frames (couches) 
 
 Frames (davenports) 
 
 Frames (lounges) 
 
 Frames (organ interior) 
 
 Frames (upholstered furni- 
 ture) 
 
 Furniture (inside) 
 
 Goldleaf work 
 
 Guitar bodies 
 
 Guitar necks 
 
 Handles 
 
 Header parts 
 
 Hoppers 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Ironing-boards 
 
 Keels (boats) 
 
 Ladders 
 
 Laundry machines (hand) 
 
 Laundry machines (hydrau- 
 lic 
 
 Lawn swings 
 
 Lodge furniture 
 
 Mandolin bodies 
 
 Mandolin necks 
 
 Matches 
 
 Moldings (piano cases) 
 
 Music cabinets (inside work) 
 
 Organ parts (interior) 
 
 Organ pipes 
 
 Packages (fruit and vege- 
 table) 
 
 Panels (automobile bodies) 
 
 Panels (vehicle bodies) 
 
 Panels (veneered) 
 
 Passenger cars (interior 
 work) 
 
 Patterns 
 
 Pedestals 
 
 Peels (bakers') 
 
 Piano parts 
 
 Picture moldings 
 
 Pipe organs (interior parts) 
 
 Pool tables 
 
 Porch columns 
 
 Pulpits (church) 
 
 Pumps 
 
 Railway motor car parts 
 
 Refrigerators 
 
 Rollers (farm machinery) 
 
 Sash 
 
 Screen doors 
 
 Seats (automobile) 
 
 Seats (buggy) 
 
 Seats (carriages) 
 
 Seats (water closets) 
 
 Seeder boxes (farm imple- 
 ments) 
 
 Separator sides (threshers) 
 
 Sewing machine parts 
 
 Sideboards (built in) 
 
 Siding (grain grinders) 
 
 Siding (Ry. refrigerator 
 cars) 
 
 Siding (wagon beds) 
 
 Somnols
 
 300 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Stacker parts (farm ma- Vane slats (windmill) 
 
 chinery) Veneer cores (organ cases) 
 
 Tables (cafe) Veneer cores (piano) 
 
 Tables (dining) Wardrobes (inside) 
 
 Tables (kitchen) Washing machines (laundry) 
 
 Telephones Well machinery 
 
 Threshing machines Wheel slats (windmill) 
 
 Troughs (bakers') Window screens 
 
 Trunks Woodenware 
 
 Type cabinets Zither bodies 
 
 REDWOOD 
 
 Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is a very 
 soft, light, straight-grained softwood of great 
 size and durability. Redwood is the strongest 
 in proportion to its weight of any wood so far 
 tested by the United States Forest Service. 
 While in cross-breaking strength it is surpassed 
 by a number of the stronger softwoods, redwood 
 ranks close to longleaf pine in resistance to end- 
 crushing. 
 
 Redwood finds its largest use in general build- 
 ing, and especially for siding and shingles, 
 where its great durability is especially desir- 
 
 T ABLE 09 
 
 Factory Uses of Redwood 
 Purpose Per cent 
 
 Mill Work 78 
 
 Pumps and Wood Pipe 7 
 
 Tanks and Silos 7 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 3 
 
 Boxes and Crates 2 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 1 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 1 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 301 
 
 able. Redwood is also much used for mill work 
 because of its comparative freedom from swell- 
 ing and shrinking with atmospheric changes, 
 after it is once thoroughly seasoned. 
 
 The more important factory uses reported for 
 redwood are as indicated in Table 99. 
 
 Other common uses for redwood are for: 
 
 Boat finish Molding 
 
 Caskets Musical instruments 
 
 Cabinets Patterns 
 
 Coffins Porch columns 
 
 Dairymen's supplies Sash 
 
 Doors Signs 
 
 Flasks Silos 
 
 Fixtures Tanks 
 
 Incubators Windmills 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 SASSAFRAS 
 
 Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras) is a soft hard- 
 wood of medium weight and much durability. 
 The supply of sassafras lumber is not large, but 
 it serves good purposes where available. Nearly 
 all of it goes into various forms of mill work, 
 and a small proportion into furniture and fix- 
 tures. 
 
 The reports indicate that sassafras is also 
 used to some extent in the manufacture of novel- 
 ties, souvenirs, and woodenware. 
 
 SPRUCE 
 
 Like the term " cedar," the word "spruce" 
 covers a number of species both Eastern and 
 Western. Important from the wood-using stand-
 
 302 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 point are the red spruce (Picea rub ens), which 
 is abundant in New England, and extends south- 
 ward on the mountain ranges as far as North 
 Carolina; black spruce (Picea mariana), which 
 occurs in the northern part of the range of the 
 red spruce and in the Lake States; and white 
 spruce (Picea canadensis), which is the princi- 
 pal spruce of the Lake States. These species 
 are the largest source of wood for paper pulp, 
 and also furnish all the spruce lumber manufac- 
 tured in the East. In the Rocky Mountain 
 region, the spruce which is most manufactured 
 into lumber is Engelmann spruce (Picea engel- 
 manni); while, in the Pacific Northwest, Sitka 
 spruce (Picea sitchensis) is the chief source of 
 spruce lumber. Of all these species, red spruce 
 and Sitka spruce are by far the most abundant 
 and important. 
 
 The wood of the spruces is very light in weight, 
 soft, even-grained, and easily worked, even 
 exceeding white pine in this respect. Spruce is 
 stiff and strong in proportion to its weight. One 
 
 TABLE 100 
 
 Factory Uses of Spruce 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 44 
 
 Boxes and Crates 42 
 
 Musical Instruments 4 
 
 Woodenware, Novelties, etc 4 
 
 Tanks and Silos 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total . ..100
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 of the most exacting demands among the indus- 
 tries is that of wood for piano sounding boards ; 
 and for this purpose spruce has long been the 
 chief supply. Recently spruce has found a new 
 use in the manufacture of aeroplanes. 
 
 The factory uses reported for spruce without 
 distinction of species are indicated in Table 100. 
 
 Eastern spruce is credited in the reports with 
 being used in the manufacture of: 
 
 implements 
 
 Agricultural 
 Aeroplanes 
 Boats 
 Boat oars 
 Bowling alleys 
 
 Broom handles 
 
 Bungs 
 
 Butter tubs 
 
 Cable reels and spools 
 
 Cameras 
 
 Canoes 
 
 Car sheathing 
 
 Crates 
 
 Doors 
 
 Elevator platforms 
 
 Farm machinery 
 
 Fiber board 
 
 Fixtures, backing 
 
 Fixtures, linings 
 
 Fixtures, office 
 
 Fixtures, store 
 
 Flag poles 
 
 Flooring 
 
 Furniture (hidden parts) 
 
 Guitars 
 
 Hay presses 
 
 Ice boxes 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Keyboards 
 
 Ladder sides 
 
 Mandolins 
 Match cases 
 Moldings 
 Molding flasks 
 Musical instruments 
 Novelties 
 Organ pipes 
 Paddles 
 Patterns 
 Piano backs 
 Piano benches 
 Piano cases 
 Piano ribs 
 
 Piano sounding-boards 
 Pipe organs 
 Player actions 
 
 Refrigerators (inside parti- 
 tions) 
 Scaffolding 
 Ships 
 Shiplap 
 Silos 
 Skids 
 Sleds 
 Spars 
 
 Tables (ironing) 
 Tables (folding) 
 Tanks 
 Tubs 
 Vehicles 
 Woodenware
 
 304 LIMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Sitka spruce is used for: 
 
 Apparatus (playground) Pulleys 
 
 Balusters (porch) Refrigerator rooms 
 
 Baskets Refrigerators 
 
 Blinds Ribs (mandolin) 
 
 Boxes Ribs (piano) 
 
 Breadboards Rims (guitar) 
 
 Brooders (poultry) Sash 
 
 Caskets Scale parts 
 
 Cornice brackets Siding (wagon beds) 
 
 Decking (boats) Sounding-boards 
 
 Door frames Sounding-boards (guitar) 
 
 Doors Spars (boats) 
 
 Furniture Store fronts 
 
 Fixtures Trunks 
 
 Ironing boards Washboards 
 
 Ladders Wheel slats (windmill) 
 
 Organ parts Windmill parts 
 
 Organ pipes Window frames 
 
 Porchwork Woodenware 
 
 SYCAMORE 
 
 Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) is a tough, 
 strong wood, difficult to split. It has a beauti- 
 ful figure when quarter-sawed, and would find 
 
 TABLE 101 
 
 Factory Uses of Sycamore 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Boxes and Crates 64 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 12 
 
 Mill Work 7 
 
 Butchers' Blocks 6 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 2 
 
 Refrigerators and Kitchen Cabinets 1 
 
 Musical Instruments 1 
 
 Agricultural Implements 1 
 
 Brooms and Carpet-Sweepers 1 
 
 Other Uses 5 
 
 Total . ..100
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 305 
 
 a much larger use were not the supply so lim- 
 ited. 
 
 The chief uses reported for sycamore are indi- 
 cated in Table 101. 
 
 Sycamore is used to some extent in the manu- 
 facture of: 
 
 Barber poles Handles 
 
 Barrels (veneer) Hoppers (fruit and vegetable) 
 
 Basket parts Horses (merry-go-round) 
 
 Baskets (fruit) Ice boxes 
 
 Baskets (vegetable) Interior finish 
 
 Beds (folding) Mandolin boxes 
 
 Boat parts (row) Meat blocks 
 
 Boxes Merry-go-round parts 
 
 Box shooks Packages (fruit and vege- 
 
 Brush blocks table) 
 
 Butcher blocks Panels 
 
 Cabinet work Piano backs 
 
 Cigar boxes Picture mouldings 
 
 Cooperage stock Refrigerators 
 
 Crating Tobacco boxes 
 
 Doors Trunks 
 
 Fixtures (office) Vehicle bodies 
 
 Flooring Veneer cases (piano) 
 
 Furniture Washing machines 
 
 Guitar bodies 
 
 TAMARACK 
 
 With the exception of longleaf pine, tamarack 
 (Larix laricina) is the heaviest and one of the 
 strongest and toughest softwoods. It is rated 
 among the more durable woods, and finds its 
 largest use for general building purposes, and 
 especially for heavy timbers. 
 
 Lumber from Eastern tamarack is manufac- 
 tured chiefly in the Lake States ; while the West- 
 ern tamarack, or larch (Larix occidentalis), is
 
 306 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 produced chiefly in the region known as fee 
 "Inland Empire" a section of common com- 
 mercial interests comprising western Montana, 
 northern Idaho, and eastern Washington. 
 
 Larch is a close-grained, heavy softwood of 
 moderate strength and stiffness. 
 
 The government reports indicate that the fac- 
 tory uses for tamarack and larch, without dis- 
 tinction as to species, are as shown in Table 102. 
 
 TABLE 102 
 
 Factory Uses of Tamarack 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Mill Work 77 
 
 Tanks and Silos 8 
 
 Boxes and Crates 6 
 
 Paving and Conduits 4 
 
 Car Construction 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Eastern tamarack is used to a greater or less 
 extent for: 
 
 Car construction Molding 
 
 Boat floors Pails 
 
 Boat keels Refrigerators 
 
 Boat stringers Ship knees 
 
 Boxes Silos 
 
 Ceiling Tanks 
 
 Crating Tuhs 
 
 Culm pipe (mines) Water pipes 
 
 Excelsior Windmills 
 
 Flooring Woodwool 
 Interior finish 
 
 Western tamarack or larch is used for general 
 building purposes, interior finish, boat frames,
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 807 
 
 keels, ribs, planking, and decking, door and win- 
 dow casing, fruit and butter boxes, etc. 
 
 TUPELO 
 
 Tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) is one of the softer 
 hardwoods of medium weight, close-grained and 
 difficult to split, but with very good working qual- 
 ities. It grows chiefly in the cypress regions, 
 and is manufactured and graded by the same 
 interests as cypress. Only recently has tupelo 
 come into general notice, but its progress has 
 been rapid, as will be seen from its present fac- 
 tory uses as indicated in Table 103. 
 
 TABLE 103 
 Factory Uses of Tupelo 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Boxes and Crates 58 
 
 Mill Work 13 
 
 Tobacco Boxes 8 
 
 Woodenware and Novelties 4 
 
 Sewing Machines 3 
 
 Laundry Appliances 3 
 
 Furniture 3 
 
 Agricultural Implements 1 
 
 Other Uses 7 
 
 Total 100 
 
 More detailed uses of tupelo include : 
 
 Axles Cigar boxes 
 
 Balusters Clothespins 
 
 Baskets Coffins 
 
 Berry cups Crating 
 
 Boxes Chairs 
 
 Brushes Excelsior 
 
 Cabinets Felloes 
 
 Ceiling Flooring
 
 308 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 Furniture Panels (carriage) 
 
 Hoppers Spokes 
 
 Hubs Table legs 
 
 Interior finish Tobacco boxes 
 
 Kitchen safes Trunks 
 
 Lard dishes Wagon bottoms 
 
 Laundry appliances Wagon tongues 
 
 Molding Washboards 
 
 Musical instruments Woodenware 
 Ox yokes 
 
 BLACK WALNUT 
 
 The properties of black walnut (Juglans nigra) 
 are too well known to need detailed mention. 
 Black walnut is valued for its rich color, fine 
 figure, and susceptibility to high polish. The 
 most prized effects are produced by the careful 
 manufacture of veneer from the burls and ap- 
 parent deformities of the tree; and raw mate- 
 rial of this character is so valuable as to be sold 
 by the pound instead of the ordinary method of 
 measurement. 
 
 TABLE 104 
 
 Factory Uses of Black Walnut 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Sewing Machines 33 
 
 Musical instruments 21 
 
 Mill Work ,. . 19 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 10 
 
 Firearms 7 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 2 
 
 Electrical Machinery and Apparatus 2 
 
 Vehicles 2 
 
 Car Construction 1 
 
 Other Uses 3 
 
 Total . . . ..100
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 
 
 Considerable of the best black walnut is ex- 
 ported to Europe in log form. The factory uses 
 reported for walnut in the United States are 
 in the proportions indicated in Table 104. 
 
 Black walnut enters more or less into the 
 manufacture of these articles: 
 
 Air-gun stocks 
 
 Altars 
 
 Automobile bodies 
 
 Barber chairs 
 
 Benches 
 
 Billiard cues 
 
 Bookcases 
 
 Brush backs 
 
 Bureaus 
 
 Cabinet work 
 
 Canes 
 
 Card tables 
 
 Carpet-sweepers 
 
 Carvings 
 
 Case work 
 
 Caskets 
 
 Chairs 
 
 Chair legs 
 
 China closets 
 
 Chiffoniers 
 
 Clock cases 
 
 Coffins 
 
 Couches (legs) 
 
 Doors 
 
 Electrical appliances (bases) 
 
 Embalming boards 
 
 Fixtures (exterior parts) 
 
 Fixtures, office 
 
 Fixtures, store 
 
 Fretwood 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Gunstocks 
 
 Handles 
 
 Inlaid work 
 
 Interior finish 
 
 Machine boxes 
 
 Molding 
 
 Novelties 
 
 Organ cases 
 
 Panels (veneered) 
 
 Parquetry flooring 
 
 Patterns 
 
 Pianos 
 
 Piano actions 
 
 Piano benches 
 
 Piano cases 
 
 Piano players 
 
 Picture frames 
 
 Pipe organs 
 
 Sash 
 
 Sewing machines 
 
 Show cases 
 
 Sideboards 
 
 Side tables 
 
 Steering wheels 
 
 Stools 
 
 Tables 
 
 Tool boxes 
 
 Umbrella handles 
 
 Vehicles 
 
 Windshields (automobile) 
 
 Woodenware 
 
 WILLOW 
 
 The wood of the willows which attain tree size
 
 310 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 is very light and soft, and, while neither stiff 
 nor strong, is tougher than many heavier woods. 
 Willow lumber is nearly all made from black 
 willow (Salix nigra), and finds its largest use 
 in the manufacture of boxes and crates. In bolt 
 form, where abundant, willow is an important 
 source of material for the manufacture of ex- 
 celsior. Willow is also used in the manufacture 
 of baseball bats, boats, furniture shelving, wagon 
 beds, and artificial limbs. 
 
 YUCCA 
 
 In the Southwest, especially in Southern Cal- 
 ifornia, the yucca (Yucca arbor escens) attains 
 real tree dimensions, although this plant would 
 not ordinarily be considered a tree at all. It 
 appears that the equivalent of nearly 200,000 
 feet of lumber is annually manufactured from 
 yucca. The wood is very light in weight, fibrous, 
 tough, and, when wet, pliable and easily molded 
 into desired forms. 
 
 Yucca finds its largest use in the manufacture 
 of woodenware and novelties; but a consider- 
 able quantity is also used in mill work in Cali- 
 fornia, and, in that State, it is used very much 
 more than any other material in the manufacture 
 of artificial limbs, jackets, surgeon 's splints, and 
 corsets. 
 
 MINOR SPECIES OF NATIVE WOODS 
 
 A few of the numerous other native woods 
 used to a small extent include the following:
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 311 
 
 Ailanthus, mountain ash, and silver bell, for boxes and 
 crates; blue beech, catalpa, and china tree, for vehicle 
 parts; catalpa, china tree, kalmia, haw, mesquite, mul- 
 berry, and sumac, for furniture; manzanita, mountain 
 lilac, mountain mahogany, and orange, for novelties; 
 mulberry, silver bell, and witch-hazel, for millwork. 
 
 Since there are more than 500 tree species in 
 the United States, it is obvious that, so far as 
 numbers are concerned, only a few of them are 
 mentioned in the foregoing pages. No species, 
 however, has been omitted which is a consider- 
 able source of lumber supply or of much im- 
 portance in general commerce. Many of the 
 unmentioned woods are used in a small or local 
 way for a large number of purposes, among 
 which are novelties, turnery, etc. 
 
 FOREIGN WOODS 
 
 In the aggregate, the equivalent of about 100 
 million board feet of the more costly woods is 
 used annually in the factories of the United 
 States, principally for the manufacture of fur- 
 niture and for the finer, more expensive mill 
 work, as well as for various decorative purposes. 
 The total quantity of each of these woods im- 
 ported is divided among the various industries 
 in about the proportions which are indicated 
 in Table 105. 
 
 The only important foreign wood omitted from 
 this table is Spanish cedar, of which about 30 
 million feet is imported annually and practically 
 all used in the manufacture of cigar boxes.
 
 312 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 105 
 
 Factory Uses of Imported Woods 
 
 TURKISH BOXWOOD 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Whips, Canes, and Umbrellas 88 
 
 Firearms 6 
 
 Shuttles, Spools, and Bobbins 5 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 WEST INDIAN BOXWOOD 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruments. ... 75 
 
 Shuttles, Spools and Bobbins 12 
 
 Musical Instruments 8 
 
 Handles 4 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 COCOBOLA 
 
 Handles 75 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruments.... 23 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total 100 
 
 EBONY 
 
 Whips, Canes, and Umbrellas 37 
 
 Sporting and Athletic Goods 36 
 
 Musical Instruments 11 
 
 Mill Work 9 
 
 Brushes 2 
 
 Tobacco Pipes 2 
 
 Furniture 1 
 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total . ...100
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 313 
 
 LIGNUM VITAE 
 
 Furniture 62 
 
 Sporting and Athletic Goods 25 
 
 Pulleys and Conveyors 8 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruments 4 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 MAHOGANY 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 47 
 
 Musical Instruments 17 
 
 Mill Work 14 
 
 Car Construction 12 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 3 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 2 
 
 Vehicles 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 PADOUK 
 
 Car Construction 52 
 
 Mill Work 24 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 23 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total 100 
 
 PRIMA VERA 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 52 
 
 Mill Work 32 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 8 
 
 Car Construction 7 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total . 100
 
 314 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 ROSEWOOD 
 
 Purpose Per Cent 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruments.... 46 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 14 
 
 Musical Instruments 10 
 
 Car Construction 8 
 
 Sporting and Athletic Goods i 
 
 Handles 3 
 
 Brushes 3 
 
 Bungs and Faucets 2 
 
 Artificial Limbs 2 
 
 Mill Work 1 
 
 Carpet-Sweepers 1 
 
 Other Uses 6 
 
 Total 100 
 
 SATINWOOD 
 
 Mill Work 50 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 34 
 
 Musical Instruments 7 
 
 Caskets and Coffins 7 
 
 Other Uses 2 
 
 Total . . . 100 
 
 TEAK 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 83 
 
 Mill Work 12 
 
 Car Construction 3 
 
 Sporting and Athletic Goods 1 
 
 Other Uses 1 
 
 Total . ..100
 
 COMMERCIAL WOODS 315 
 
 CIRCASSIAN WALNUT 
 
 Mill Work 43 
 
 Furniture and Fixtures 32 
 
 Musical Instruments 15 
 
 Firearms 3 
 
 Ship and Boat Building 1 
 
 Sporting and Athletic Goods 1 
 
 Carpet-Sweepers 1 
 
 Other Uses 4 
 
 Total 100 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, there are annu- 
 ally used on the Pacific Coast several million 
 feet of foreign hardwoods, among the more im- 
 portant of which are Japanese oak and birch, 
 Siberian oak, Philippine mahogany and other 
 species, and Australian eucalyptus. Small quan- 
 tities of many other foreign woods are also used 
 for a variety of purposes. 
 
 Under normal conditions, considerable pine 
 lumber manufactured in northern Mexico is 
 shipped across the border, while a large amount 
 of Canadian white pine is marketed in the 
 United States.
 
 FOREST PRODUCTS 
 
 nMHE annual wood consumption in the 
 United States takes from our forests 
 approximately 23 billion cubic feet of 
 wood, allowing for the waste which occurs in 
 logging and milling operations. In round num- 
 bers, we use yearly 100 million cords of fire- 
 wood, 45 billion feet of lumber, nearly 15 billion 
 shingles, over a billion posts, poles, and fence 
 rails, 140 million cross-ties, over 2 billion staves, 
 more than 150 million sets of heading, nearly 
 400 million barrel hoops, 3 million cords of 
 domestic pulpwood, 165 million cubic feet of 
 round mine timbers, over 1,200,000 cords of 
 wood for distillation and more than 1,000,000 
 cords of tanbark. 
 
 LUMBER 
 
 The manufacture of lumber constitutes by 
 far the largest single use of the forest. Big and 
 little, there are nearly 50,000 sawmills in the 
 United States. The making of lumber and tim- 
 ber products gives employment to more labor 
 than any other industry in the country; while, 
 in the point of capital invested and value of 
 output, the manufacture of these products ranks 
 third in our great industries surpassed only 
 by meat packing and the foundry and machine 
 shop industries. 
 
 According to the Census of 1910, which was 
 
 316
 
 FOBEST PRODUCTS aiv 
 
 by far the best canvass ever made of the indus- 
 try, the total lumber production in 1909 was 
 44,509,761,000 board feet, by 48,112 mills. 
 Arranged in the rank of production, the output 
 of the States which cut over one billion feet 
 each, and the number of mills in operation, 
 were as indicated in Table 106. 
 
 TABLE 106 
 
 Number and Output of Sawmills in the United States 
 (Census of 1910) 
 
 No. of Million 
 States Sawmills Board Feet 
 
 Washington 1,143 3,863 
 
 Louisiana 658 3,552 
 
 Mississippi 1,795 2,573 
 
 North Carolina 3,307 2,178 
 
 Arkansas 2,060 2,111 
 
 Virginia 3,511 2,102 
 
 Texas 719 2,099 
 
 Wisconsin 1,251 2,025 
 
 Oregon 696 1,899 
 
 Michigan 1,323 1,890 
 
 Alabama 2,188 1,691 
 
 Minnesota 745 1,562 
 
 West Virginia 1,524 1,473 
 
 Pennsylvania 3,054 1,463 
 
 Georgia 2,083 1,342 
 
 Tennessee 2,643 1,224 
 
 Florida 491 1,202 
 
 California 305 1,144 
 
 Maine 1,243 1,112 
 
 Other States 7,383 8,005 
 
 Total 48,112 44,510 
 
 As nearly as can be estimated, the present 
 annual lumber cut from the leading species of 
 timber, and the States in which each is chiefly 
 manufactured are indicated in Table 107.
 
 318 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 TABLE 107 
 Annnal Lumber Production in the United States 
 
 a 
 
 Species 
 Yellow Pine 
 
 Million Per 
 Bd. Ft. Cent 
 
 16,000 35.9 
 
 Douglas Fir ...... 6,000 13.6 
 
 Oak ............. 4,400 9.9 
 
 Northern Pine 
 
 3,000 6.7 
 
 
 Eastern Hemlock . . 
 
 2,500 
 
 5.6 
 
 ^Western Yellow Pine 
 Maple 
 
 1,4 0< 
 1,200 
 
 3.1 
 2.7 
 
 
 Eastern Spruce . . . 
 
 1,100 
 
 2.5 
 
 
 Cypress 
 
 1,100 
 
 2.5 
 
 
 Yellow Poplar 
 
 800 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 Red Gum 
 
 800 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 
 650 
 
 1.4 
 
 
 
 525 
 
 1.2 
 
 
 Beech 
 
 475 
 
 1.1 
 
 
 Birch 
 
 425 
 
 1.0 
 
 ^' 
 
 Western White Pine 
 Basswood 
 Cottonwood 
 
 400 
 375 
 350 
 
 .9 
 .8 
 .8 
 
 
 Elm 
 
 326 
 
 .7 
 
 
 Western Larch .... 
 
 300 
 
 .7 
 
 
 Western Spruce. . . 
 
 300 
 
 .7 
 
 
 Western Hemlock . . 
 
 300 
 
 .7 
 
 
 Hickory 
 
 300 
 
 .7 
 
 
 Ash 
 
 276 
 
 .6 
 
 
 Western Cedar.... 
 
 250 
 
 .6 
 
 P^ 
 
 White Fir 
 Sugar Pine 
 
 Tamarack 
 
 140 
 140 
 140 
 125 
 
 .3 
 ' .3 
 .3 
 .3 
 
 
 Eastern Cedar 
 
 125 
 
 .3 
 
 
 Balsam Fir 
 
 100 
 
 .2 
 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 65 
 
 .1 
 
 
 Walnut 
 
 45 
 
 .1 
 
 Most Largely Produced in 
 
 La., Miss., Tex., N. C., Ala., 
 
 Ark., Va., Fla., Ga., S. C. 
 Wash., Ore., Cal. 
 W. Va., Tenn., Ky., Va., 
 
 Ark., Ohio 
 Minn., Wis., Me., N. H., 
 
 Mich. 
 
 Wis., Mich., Pa., W. Va. 
 Cal., Ida., Wash., Ore. 
 Mich., Wis., Pa., N. Y. 
 Me., W. Va., N. H., Vt. 
 La., Fla., Ga., Ark. 
 W. Va., Tenn., Ky., Va. f 
 
 N. C. 
 
 Ark., Miss., Tenn., La. 
 W.Va., Pa., Va., Conn., N.C. 
 California 
 Mich., Ind., Pa., Ohio, N. 
 
 Y., W. Va. 
 
 Wis., Mich., Me., Vt., N. Y. 
 Ida., Wash., Mont. 
 Wis., Mich., W. Va., N. Y. 
 Miss., Ark., La., Mo. 
 Mich., Wis., Ohio, Ind., Mo. 
 Mont., Ida., Wash. 
 Wash., Ore., Col. 
 Wash., Ore., Ida. 
 Ark., Tenn., Ky., Ohio, Ind. 
 Ohio, Ark., Ind., Tenn., Wis. 
 Wash., Ida., Ore., Cal. 
 Cal., Ore., Ida. 
 California 
 
 La., N. C., Ala., Va. 
 Minn., Wis., Mich. 
 Tenn., Va., Mich., Ala. 
 Me., Minn., Vt., Mich. 
 Mo., Ind., Ark., Tenn. 
 Ohio, Ind., Ky., 111., Mo.
 
 FOREST PRODUCTS 
 
 319 
 
 Cherry 
 
 Buckeye 
 
 Willow 
 
 Noble Fir 
 
 Magnolia 
 
 Locust 
 
 Red Fir 
 
 Butternut 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 Dogwood 
 
 Red Alder 
 
 Persimmon 
 
 Hackberry 
 
 Alpine Fir 
 
 Silverbell 
 
 Other Woods. . 
 
 .2 
 
 W. Va., Penn., N. Y., Ohio 
 
 Tenn., W. Va., N. C., Ky. 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Va., Penn., N. C. 
 
 California 
 
 Tex., Ind., Wis. 
 
 W. Va., Va. 
 
 Tenn., N. C. 
 
 Ore., Wash. 
 
 Tenn., Miss., Ark. 
 
 111., Mo., Ind., La. 
 
 Rocky Mt. region 
 
 Total 44,550 100 
 
 The quantity of lumber produced in the four 
 leading regions since 1850 is shown graphically 
 in Fig. 12 (page 320). 
 
 VENEEE 
 
 The manufacture of veneer has developed 
 greatly in the last few years, and will undoubt- 
 edly increase in the future, since the uses for 
 thin lumber of this sort are rapidly expanding. 
 While much high-class veneer is used for furni- 
 ture, musical instruments, etc., there is a grow- 
 ing demand for heavy veneer for the manufac- 
 ture of boxes, crates, cases, drawer bottoms and 
 the like. This explains the large amount of 
 veneer made from such woods as yellow pine 
 and cottonwood. According to government 
 reports, the amount of native timber used for 
 veneer in the United States in 1910 was as indi- 
 cated in Table 108.
 
 320 
 
 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 LA 
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 art 
 
 TAL LVflBL 
 SINCE 18 
 
 :IFIC STATES 
 R7HEA5TERN 
 HE 3TATE3 
 JTHERN 37A 
 iER STATES 
 TOTAL 
 
 -R CUT 
 
 BILLION* 
 
 STATES 2 7^" 
 
 39.0 
 TES 250 
 
 <f/T7 
 
 
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 \50 i860 I&70 JSSO J970 J100 /f 
 
 10 
 
 Fig. 12. Chart Showing Amount of Lumber Cut in the 
 Various Sections of the United States since 1850 
 
 ; SHINGLES 
 
 Closely connected with lumber production is 
 that of shingle manufacture. The Census of 
 1910 reported the shingle output to be as shown 
 in Table 109.
 
 Bales of Cedar Shavings from 
 Shingle Mill 
 
 Norway Pine and Paper Bird 
 
 Veneered Door of Curly Birch 
 
 Inlaid with White Holly 
 
 and Black Walnut 
 
 Plate 36 Lumber and Its Uses
 
 TAJBLE 10& 
 
 Wood Used for Veneer in the United States 
 (Census of 1910) 
 
 M. Feet 
 
 Species (Log Scale) 
 
 Red Gum 158,157 
 
 Yellow Pine 40,324 
 
 Maple 39,812 
 
 Yellow Poplar 33,812 
 
 Cottonwood 33,149 
 
 White Oak 33,005 
 
 Birch 27,623 
 
 Tupelo 26,548 
 
 Elm 17,272 
 
 Basswood 11,003 
 
 Beech 10,550 
 
 Red Oak 9,769 
 
 Spruce 6,271 
 
 Walnut 2,724 
 
 Sycamore 2,548 
 
 Ash 2,356 
 
 Douglas Fir 2,006 
 
 Chestnut 1,736 
 
 All Others 2,611 
 
 Total 460,495 
 
 TABLE 109 
 
 Production of Shingles in the United States 
 (Census of 1910) 
 
 Shingles 
 Species (Millions) 
 
 Cedar (Chiefly Western) 10,964 
 
 Cypress 1,387 
 
 Yellow Pine 1,294 
 
 Redwood 507 
 
 White Pine 283 
 
 Spruce 147 
 
 Chestnut 92 
 
 Hemlock 76 
 
 Western Pine 69 
 
 Other . 90 
 
 Total 14,1 
 
 321
 
 322 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 OTHER PRODUCTS 
 
 Cross-ties are cut chiefly from oak, yellow 
 pine, Douglas fir, cedar, chestnut, cypress, 
 tamarack, hemlock, Western pine, and redwood, 
 in the order named, with 70 per cent of the total 
 supplied by oak, yellow pine, and Douglas fir. 
 Spruce, hemlock, and poplar form the leading 
 pulpwoods. Slack barrel staves and heads are 
 chiefly made from red gum, yellow pine, beech, 
 elm, and maple; hoops, from elm; tight barrel 
 staves and heads, from white oak. Two-thirds 
 of the telephone and electric poles are of cedar, 
 and the rest chiefly chestnut, oak, pine, and 
 cypress. Wood alcohol is made by the destruc- 
 tive distillation of birch, beech, and maple ; tur- 
 pentine and rosin, by tapping longleaf pine trees 
 and the distillation of the wood; and tannin is 
 obtained from hemlock and oak bark and chest- 
 nut wood.
 
 THE TIMBER SUPPLY 
 
 FOREST REGIONS 
 
 BOTANISTS and foresters subdivide the 
 United States into five great forest 
 " regions" characterized by fairly definite 
 forest types. These are the Northern, Central, 
 Southern, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific regions. 
 
 The Northern Forest. The Northern forest 
 type extends from Maine across New England, 
 New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin, to west- 
 ern Minnesota, with a prolongation down the 
 southern Appalachians to the northern edge of 
 Georgia. Originally the coniferous type pre- 
 dominated in the Northern forests, and by far 
 the most important species was white pine. 
 Next to white pine, ranked hemlock, which was 
 especially abundant in Pennsylvania, Michigan, 
 and Wisconsin; and associated with these spe- 
 cies was Norway pine, spruce, cedar, balsam, 
 and a large variety of hardwoods, the most 
 important of which were maple, birch, bass- 
 wood, beech, ash, and elm. 
 
 The Southern Forest. Starting in New Jer- 
 sey, and extending to the south and west over 
 practically all of the Atlantic and Gulf States 
 to Texas, with a prolongation up from Texas 
 across Arkansas to Southern Missouri, is the 
 Southern type of forest, in which the yellow 
 pines predominate, with longleaf pine the most 
 
 323
 
 324 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 abundant of any single species. In many local- 
 ities within the pine belt, hardwoods are plenti- 
 ful, especially the gums; while in the swampier 
 regions, and particularly in Louisiana and 
 Florida, large quantities of cypress are found. 
 
 The Hardwood Forest. Lying between the 
 Northern and Southern Forest, and reaching 
 from the Atlantic seaboard to the Missouri 
 river, is a great, irregular region in which the 
 hardwoods abound to the exclusion of other 
 species. It was here that the oaks, elms, hick- 
 ories, walnut, yellow poplar, sycamore and 
 other hardwoods were originally most abundant 
 and attained their finest development. It is 
 here, also, that the clearing of forests for agri- 
 cultural development has gone the farthest, 
 since hardwoods are generally found upon the 
 richest types of agricultural soils. However, 
 the farm woodlots and many areas of larger size 
 in this region still yield much timber for local 
 use, and considerable for shipment to more 
 distant markets. 
 
 The Rocky Mountain Forest. Passing over 
 the vast forestless area of the prairies and 
 plains, we come to the Rocky Mountain region, 
 with coniferous forests on most of its higher 
 mountain slopes and plateaus. The bulk of the 
 timber in these forests consists of Western 
 yellow pine, with other pines, firs, and spruces, 
 and in the northern Rocky Mountain region 
 considerable quantities of larch, Western hem- 
 lock, cedar, and Western white pine.
 
 THE TIMBER SUPPLY 325 
 
 The Pacific Forest. On the Pacific Coast are 
 found the heaviest stands of timber, and the 
 largest individual trees ever recorded in history 
 or revealed by geological strata. From the sum- 
 mits of the Cascades to the Pacific ocean in 
 Oregon and Washington, and on the Coast range 
 and the Sierras of California, are giant firs, 
 cedars, spruces, redwoods, and pines, which for 
 many years to come will be the most important 
 source of timber supply for a large portion of 
 the United States. 
 
 The forest regions are outlined in Plate 37. 
 
 AREA AND STAND 
 
 The best estimates indicate that the forest 
 areas, and the quantity of standing timber 
 available according to present standards of util- 
 ization, within these five regions, are not less 
 than the amounts shown in Table 110. 
 
 TABLE 110 
 
 Forest Areas and Quantity of Standing Timber in the 
 
 United States 
 
 Area Stumpage 
 (Million (Billion 
 Forest Regions Acres) Feet) 
 
 Northern 9Q __ 
 
 Southern 150 630 
 
 Central 130 
 
 Rocky Mountain 100 300 
 
 Pacific 80 1,300 
 
 Total 650 2,800 
 
 As nearly as can be estimated on the basis of 
 present knowledge, our 2,800 billion feet of
 
 326 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 standing timber is divided among the various 
 species as indicated in Table 111. 
 
 TABLE 111 
 
 Quantity of Standing Timber of Various Species 
 
 Species Billion Feet 
 
 Douglas Fir 650 
 
 Western Pine 475 
 
 Southern Pine f 375 
 
 Western Hemlock 150 
 
 Redwood 100 
 
 Western Cedar 75 
 
 . Sugar Pine 60 
 
 Othern Western Softwoods 85 
 
 Cypress 40 
 
 Other Eastern Softwoods 190 
 
 Hardwoods 600 
 
 Total 2,800 
 
 FOEEST OWNERSHIP 
 
 Three main types of ownership hold our 550 
 million acres of forest land. These are public 
 forests, farm woodlots, and the larger private 
 holdings. Public forests include the State and 
 National Forests and Parks, and timber on the 
 unreserved public domain and on military and 
 Indian reservations. 
 
 The National Forests aggregate about 160 mil- 
 lion acres, and are chiefly in the Rocky Moun- 
 tain and Pacific States. They were created by 
 the withdrawal of public land from private entry 
 and sale. Within the last few years, however, 
 the National Government has entered upon the 
 policy of purchasing timber lands in the Eastern 
 mountains, where forest growth is considered
 
 THE TIMBER SUPPLY 327 
 
 necessary for the protection of watersheds at 
 the heads of navigable streams. Under this 
 policy, extensive purchases of forest land 
 (chiefly cut over) are being made in the White 
 Mountains and the southern Appalachians. 
 
 The principal state forests are in the East. 
 New York has approximately 1,500,000 acres in 
 its State Park. Pennsylvania has something 
 like a million acres in forest reserves; Wiscon- 
 sin, about 400,000 acres; and a few other States, 
 comparatively small forest reservations. 
 
 The farm woodlots amount to about 190 mil- 
 lion acres. As their name implies, these tracts 
 are chiefly the smaller areas of timber land 
 owned by the fanners in the eastern half of the 
 United States. They average, perhaps, 30 acres 
 in area, and, while not a large source of com- 
 mercial timber supply, are very important for 
 local use. The Census placed the value of their 
 output in 1909 at 195 million dollars. 
 
 The third type of forest ownership is that of 
 the larger private holdings, amounting to about 
 200 million acres, and contains at least 75 per 
 cent of the merchantable standing timber in the 
 country. Naturally, these holdings in general 
 contain the best of the standing timber in the 
 United States, since private capital always 
 seeks the best investment. 
 
 A TIMBER FAMINE? 
 
 There has been much talk to the effect that 
 a timber famine is impending in the United
 
 328 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 States. Whether this is true or not depends 
 entirely upon what is meant by the term 
 "famine." If it means that our timber supply 
 will be completely exhausted in 30, 40, 50, or 
 even 100 years, then we can say positively that 
 there will be no timber famine. If, on the other 
 hand, the term means that, compared with pres- 
 ent conditions, our supply of standing timber 
 will be reduced, and the price of lumber higher 
 within the lifetime of men now living, then we 
 can say with equal truthfulness that there will 
 be a timber famine. The question is purely a 
 relative one. Up to the present time, timber 
 of almost every species and grade has been 
 cheap and abundant. In the future, some kinds 
 will be scarcer, and some grades higher priced. 
 On the other hand, there will be a comparatively 
 large supply of the common grades of building 
 lumber for many years, and the competition of 
 other materials will be a strong factor in hold- 
 ing prices to a level which will make most forest 
 products available for a multitude of purposes. 
 Such data as can be secured indicate that the 
 amount of timber now standing in the United 
 States, estimated at 2,800 billion feet, is per- 
 haps one-half the quantity that existed in the 
 country before clearing for settlement and cut- 
 ting for lumber began. Our annual consump- 
 tion of sawed timber products now averages 
 approximately 50 billion feet a year. If the 
 stand is 2,800 billion feet, it furnishes cutting 
 for 56 years at the present rate. As a matter
 
 THE TIMBER SUPPLY 329 
 
 of fact, however, more than 2,800 billion feet of 
 lumber will be sawed from the present stand of 
 timber. In some regions there will also be no 
 inconsiderable increment through natural repro- 
 duction or growth. Our annual per capita con- 
 sumption of lumber, which has been ranging 
 close to 500 board feet, will eventually drop 
 somewhere near to the German level of only 48 
 board feet. This will greatly reduce the demand 
 upon our remaining supply of timber, and help 
 make it sufficient for all legitimate needs. 
 
 These statements do not imply that there 
 should be any lack of effort to protect our forest 
 resources. On the contrary, they require the 
 expenditure of great sums of money and years 
 of patient care to bring them into proper con- 
 dition. The conservation of our natural 
 resources means making the best possible pres- 
 ent use of them, while safeguarding their repro- 
 ductive power for the future. Fortunately, our 
 forest resources are easily reproduceable. The 
 question of forestry is largely one of the best 
 utilization of land surface. Land which will 
 yield the highest return under agriculture will, 
 through economic development, find its use in 
 agriculture. Land which will yield the best 
 return when forested and this includes land 
 chiefly incapable of ordinary forms of cultiva- 
 tionwill ultimately be the source of our tim- 
 ber supply. 
 
 So far as present knowledge permits the 
 classification, it is believed that our forest area
 
 330 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 of 550 million acres contains 200 million acres 
 of practically mature timber; 250 million acres 
 partially cut and burned over, on which there is 
 sufficient natural reproduction to insure a fair 
 second growth; and, finally, 100 million acres 
 so severely cut and burned that, unless supple- 
 mented by planting, there will be no succeeding 
 forest of commercial value. 
 
 Our potential forest area is large enough to 
 supply all the timber of every kind that we need 
 if it is rightly handled. Here is a field which 
 for years to come will afford great opportunity 
 for the activities of both statesmen and forest- 
 ers. Although four-fifths of the present timber 
 supply is privately owned, it is highly probable 
 that 100 years hence the bulk of the timber then 
 existing will be in public forests. Because of 
 the long-time investment required, the hazard 
 involved, and the relatively low interest rate 
 obtained from forestry, private capital is not 
 likely to engage in timber growing on a large 
 scale. This makes it necessary that eventually 
 the National and State Governments shall 
 become the more important timber owners.
 
 PERMANENT ADVANTAGES OF 
 WOOD 
 
 rTlHE clever and persistent advertising given 
 to many substitutes for wood and timber 
 might lead the reader to think that in a 
 few years lumber will be either unnecessary or 
 unobtainable. Wooden sidewalks went out of 
 fashion long ago; wooden buildings and shingle 
 roofs are not permitted in restricted sections of 
 cities ; boxes of paper and fiber are used in place 
 of boxes formerly made of boards; steel passen- 
 ger and freight cars and concrete culverts and 
 bridges are common; while structures of con- 
 crete, brick, or tile are found on the farms, and 
 steel row-boats glide about the pleasure parks. 
 As a matter of fact, wood has been so cheap and 
 abundant in the United States that it has been 
 used for a multitude of temporary purposes, 
 and often for purposes for which other prod- 
 ucts are better suited. 
 
 Another stage of economic development has 
 now been reached. Wood is taking its place as 
 one of the finer materials, and the coarser uses 
 are being given over to coarser products. This 
 makes it possible to have a relatively larger 
 supply of wood for the purposes for which it is 
 unquestionably the most suitable material. No 
 doubt, also, some of the present use of substi- 
 tutes is a temporary fad, and public favor will 
 
 33X
 
 332 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 eventually return sensibly to the earlier mate- 
 rial. 
 
 The permanent advantages offered by wood 
 may be summed up as follows: 
 
 (1) Its general availability. Wood is a natural prod- 
 uct more widely distributed and more easily obtainable 
 than any other structural material which the earth 
 affords. The multiplicity of purposes for which it is 
 used is surprising, even to those best informed upon the 
 subject. A recent study of the wood-using industries 
 of Illinois showed that in the factories of that State 
 white oak is used for 276 distinct purposes; that hard 
 maple has 164 functions in these same factories; that 
 birch is used in the manufacture of 154 different articles ; 
 and that red oak, longleaf pine, red gum, yellow poplar, 
 white pine, and basswood are each used for 100 to 140 
 different purposes. Moreover, the new uses developed 
 for wood yearly through discovery and invention, offset 
 to some extent the lessened demand because of substi- 
 tutes in other directions. For example, the use of wood 
 block paving is rapidly increasing. 
 
 (2) Wooden structures can be altered and moved, or 
 built over, more easily and cheaply than can structures 
 of any other material. 
 
 (3) Wood is very strong for its weight, compared with 
 other structural materials. The average weight of the 
 woods ordinarily used is some 30 pounds per cubic foot; 
 that of iron and steel is 14 to 15 times as much. This 
 is a great advantage in handling. A bar of hickory 
 greatly surpasses in tensile strength a bar of steel of the 
 same weight and length. Similarly, a block of hickory 
 or longleaf pine will sustain a much greater weight in 
 compression than a block of wrought iron of the same 
 height and weight. Indeed, practically any piece of 
 sound, straight-grained, dry wood is stronger than steel, 
 weight for weight. Moreover, wood will sustain a far
 
 PERMANENT ADVANTAGES OF WOOD 333 
 
 greater distortion of shape than metal, without suffering 
 permanent injury; while, of course, no such distortion 
 can be sustained by either concrete or clay products. 
 
 (4) Wood is easily worked with common tools, while 
 to work the metals requires special tools and much 
 power and time. Anyone with saw and plane and auger 
 can build a structure of wood; an ironworker is a skilled 
 mechanic whose services come high. 
 
 (5) Wood is a non-conductor of heat and electricity, 
 as compared with metal; and of moisture, as compared 
 with ordinary concrete and brick. These are points for 
 serious consideration in home building. They also ex- 
 plain why we prefer to sit on wooden seats, work at 
 wooden desks, and eat at wooden tables. 
 
 (6) Wood does not contract and expand with changes 
 of temperature, while its tendency to shrink and swell 
 with atmospheric conditions can be completely overcome 
 by proper seasoning and painting; hence wood can be 
 made to "stay where it is put." 
 
 (7) Wood has a varied and beautiful figure with which 
 no other material can hope to compete, for furniture, 
 house trim, and general decorative purposes. It gives 
 a comfortable, homey atmosphere that can be obtained 
 in no other way. 
 
 (8) Wood offers a combination of strength, tough- 
 ness, and elasticity not possessed by any other material. 
 Imagine, if one can, a base ball bat, a golf club, or an 
 ax handle of anything but wood. 
 
 No matter how great may be the inroads of 
 substitutes, wood will continue to be an essen- 
 tial component of articles of necessity, of lux- 
 ury, and of sport. We shall always have it with 
 us, and such increase in its cost as may be 
 brought about by natural causes will only serve 
 to make the many intrinsic qualities of wood 
 more highly appreciated.
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 
 ABOUT TIMBER 
 
 THE general public has little idea of our 
 timber supply, and even the manufactur- 
 ers and users of forest products have no 
 conception of the abundance of information that 
 can be obtained simply for the asking. The 
 Forest Service of the United States Department 
 of Agriculture has for many years collected 
 information upon the forest resources of the 
 United States, and upon the properties and uses 
 of wood, which is freely given to all inquirers. 
 Moreover, the several associations of lumber 
 manufacturers throughout the country freely 
 supply information upon their own particular 
 products. 
 
 ASSOCIATIONS OF LUMBEE 
 MANUFACTURERS 
 
 The more important of the associations of 
 lumber manufacturers, together with their head- 
 quarters and the woods with which they deal, 
 are given on page 38. In addition to setting- 
 standards for lumber grades and sizes, these 
 associations are valuable sources of information 
 upon trade customs and the uses of lumber. 
 They are not selling organizations; but an 
 inquiry directed to them will promptly bring 
 
 334
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 335 
 
 a reply stating where and of whom any given 
 product may be purchased. Several of the asso- 
 ciations conduct extensive advertising cam- 
 paigns to increase the demand for their prod- 
 ucts; and from them the prospective timber 
 user may obtain a great deal of interesting infor- 
 mation put up in attractive form, as well as 
 samples of the various woods, from which their 
 quality and structure may be judged. 
 
 THE NATIONAL FORESTS 
 
 The National Forests contain one-fifth of the 
 present timber supply of the United States, and 
 will become increasingly important as time goes 
 on, since they are so managed as to insure a 
 permanent timber crop. All timber which can 
 be cut from the National Forests without 
 impairing watershed protection, or a future 
 crop of timber, is freely offered for sale. The 
 location of these forests is indicated on the map 
 in Plate 38. The magnitude of the government 
 timber holdings, and their potential supply of 
 forest products, are but little appreciated by 
 the general public. Every forest is in charge 
 of local officers, who execute the regulations as 
 to timber cutting, stock grazing, etc., and among 
 whose chief duties is the protection of the tim- 
 ber from fire. 
 
 The National Forests are divided into six main 
 groups for administrative purposes. Inquiries 
 concerning them may be addressed in each case 
 to the District Forester nearest to the locality
 
 336 LXTMBEE AND ITS USES 
 
 in question. The district offices are at the fol- 
 lowing points : Missoula, Mont. ; Denver, Colo. ; 
 Albuquerque, N. M.; Ogden, Utah; San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal.; and Portland, Ore. 
 
 FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY 
 
 At Madison, Wis., the Forest Service oper- 
 ates, in co-operation with the University of 
 Wisconsin, a large and completely equipped 
 laboratory in which are carried on many inves- 
 tigations and a great deal of research relating 
 to the properties and uses of commercial woods. 
 
 Without going into details, it can be said that 
 the laboratory is thoroughly equipped with all 
 the machinery and scientific appliances neces- 
 sary to carry on the following lines of investiga- 
 tion, as well as several others: 
 
 Mechanical Properties of Timber 
 
 Mechanical tests of timber are highly valuable to engi- 
 neers, manufacturers, and other users of wood, since 
 they enable the man who specifies timber for a partic- 
 ular purpose to know exactly the properties of the 
 material he is dealing with. 
 
 The first series of mechanical tests is upon small, clear 
 sticks of all the leading species, which gives a reliable 
 basis for the comparison of their strength, weight, and 
 other properties. 
 
 The second series of tests is upon timbers of the qual- 
 ity and sizes commonly used in bridges and general 
 building construction. The purpose of these tests is to 
 furnish engineers and architects with information which 
 may be safely used in the design of timber structures, 
 and to establish a correct basis for the grading of large 
 timbers according to their mechanical properties.
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 337 
 
 Another series of tests is upon axles, spokes, cross- 
 arms, poles, and other manufactured articles, for the 
 purpose of demonstrating the fitness of various species 
 and grades of material for these uses. 
 
 The fourth series of mechanical tests is for the pur- 
 pose of studying the effect of preservative treatments, 
 methods of seasoning, fireproofing, and similar processes, 
 upon the properties of wood. 
 
 Physical Properties of Timber 
 
 A knowledge of the physical properties of wood is 
 necessary in a large number of industries, and essential 
 to the investigation of problems relating to the season- 
 ing and preserving of timber. The physical properties 
 of wood which are given especial attention at the Madi- 
 son laboratory include density, shrinkage, heat conduc- 
 tivity, and ability to absorb water and other liquids. 
 The seasoning of timber is probably the most important 
 single step in the transformation of wood into usable 
 form, and much material is annually lost because of 
 poor seasoning methods. It is the purpose of the Serv- 
 ice investigations to assist in the introduction of better 
 methods of seasoning ; and much has been accomplished, 
 especially in the devising of a scientific dry-kiln. 
 
 Another important line of study is that of the relation 
 of the structure of wood to its physical properties. This 
 is a subject upon which there is far too little information. 
 For example: Two pieces of white oak of apparently 
 like quality, from adjacent trees, were recently received 
 at Madison. So far as could be determined by all ordi- 
 nary means, the two pieces should have been of equal 
 strength; yet, when tested, one piece was found to be 
 twice as strong as the other. There seemed to be no 
 explanation for this peculiar result until sections of the 
 two pieces of wood were put under the microscope, when 
 it was quickly discovered that the fibers of the stronger 
 piece were twice as long as the fibers of the weaker
 
 338 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 piece. This was a peculiarity of the growth of an indi- 
 vidual tree, just as one boy of a family may be stronger 
 than another, although the two are reared under exactly 
 the same conditions. 
 
 Wood Preservation 
 
 The statisticians say that 126,000,000 cubic feet of 
 wood were given preservative treatment in 1912; so 
 there is no need to discuss the importance of a thorough 
 understanding of timber-treating materials and the proc- 
 esses by which they are applied. The work of the Serv- 
 ice laboratory along this line has already been very 
 extensive, and recently it has gone a step further to 
 include a study of methods by which wood may be ren- 
 dered fireproof. Legislation against wood as a building 
 material in cities is becoming so general that it will be 
 completely banished from many places where it is most 
 useful and economical unless a method can be devised 
 of making wood fireproof at reasonable cost. 
 
 Co-Operation with the Public 
 
 It is the policy of the Forest Products Laboratory to 
 secure as fully as possible the co-operation of the indus- 
 tries most directly concerned with the problems under 
 investigation. In some cases, where the resulting work 
 is of much value to the co-operating firm, a charge to 
 cover part of the cost is made by the Service; in other 
 cases, where the investigations are of an experimental 
 nature and of general value, the services of the labora- 
 tory are entirely free. At all times, the laboratory fur- 
 nishes, either by letter or through its publications, much 
 useful information upon a wide variety of subjects. 
 
 The officers in charge of the laboratory are 
 of the highest type of public servants whom it 
 is always a pleasure to meet or to correspond 
 with. Any manufacturer of forest products or 
 consumer of wood who has difficulty of any kind
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 339 
 
 in the handling of his material, will find it worth 
 while to lay his problems before the Forest 
 Service experts. The chances are that he will 
 get help, and get it promptly. 
 
 FOREST SERVICE PUBLICATIONS 
 
 Questions relating to the quantity, kind, and 
 distribution of the timber supply of the United 
 States, to the annual output of lumber and other 
 forest products, to forest planting, to forest 
 management, and to the National Forests, should 
 be directed to the United States Forest Serv- 
 ice, Washington, D. C. Such inquiries always 
 receive prompt and courteous attention. More- 
 over, the following publications of special inter- 
 est to the users of forest products can be 
 obtained from the Government Printing Office at 
 the nominal price mentioned. 
 
 Eemittance should be made to the Superin- 
 tendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., by 
 postal money order, express order, or New York 
 draft. If currency is sent, it will be at sender's 
 risk. 
 
 Postage stamps, foreign money, uncertified 
 checks, defaced or smooth coins, will positively 
 not be accepted. 
 
 Forest Service Bulletins 
 
 No. 
 10. Timber. Elementary discussion of characteristics 
 
 and properties of wood. lOc. 
 
 13. Timber Pines of Southern United States. With 
 discussion of structure of their wood. 50c.
 
 340 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 17. Check List of Forest Trees of the United States, 
 
 their Names and Ranges. 15c. 
 33. Western Hemlock. 30c. 
 
 36. Woodsman's Handbook. 25c. 
 
 37. Hardy Catalpa. 1, Hardy catalpa in commercial 
 
 plantations; 2, Diseases of hardy catalpa. 40c. 
 
 40. New Method of Turpentine Orcharding. 20c. 
 
 41. Seasoning of Timber. 25c. 
 
 42. Woodlots. Handbook for owners of woodlands in 
 
 southern New England. 15c. 
 
 50. Cross-Tie Forms and Rail Fastenings. With spe- 
 cial reference to treated timbers. 15c. 
 
 58. Red Gum. With discussion of mechanical proper- 
 ties of red gum wood. 15c. 
 
 64. Loblolly Pine in Eastern Texas. With special ref- 
 erence to production of cross-ties. 5c. 
 
 70. Effect of Moisture upon Strength and Stiffness of 
 Wood. 15c. 
 
 73. Grades and Amount of Lumber Sawed from Yel- 
 low Poplar, Yellow Birch, Sugar Maple, and 
 Beech. lOc. 
 
 75. California Tanbark Oak. 15c. 
 
 78. Wood Preservation in the United States. lOc. 
 
 80. Commercial Hickories. 15c. 
 
 81. Forests of Alaska. 25c. 
 
 82. Protection of Forests from Fire. 15c. 
 
 83. Forest Resources of the World. lOc. 
 
 84. Preservative Treatment of Poles. 15c. 
 88. Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir. 15c. 
 
 95. Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States. 
 
 Part I Cedars, Cypresses, and Sequoias. lOc. 
 99. Uses of commercial woods of United States. Part 
 
 II Pines. 15c. 
 
 104. Principles of Drying Lumber at Atmospheric Pres- 
 
 sure. With humidity diagram. 5c. 
 
 105. Wood Turpentines. 15c. 
 
 106. Wood-Using Industries and National Forests of 
 
 Arkansas. 5c. 
 
 107. Preservation of Mine Timbers. lOc. 
 
 108. Tests of Structural Timbers. 20c. 
 
 115. Mechanical Properties of Western Hemlock. 15c. 
 
 116. Possibilities of Western Pines as Sources of Naval 
 
 Stores. lOc. 
 
 117. Forest Fires. lOc.
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 341 
 
 118. Prolonging Life of Cross-Ties. 15c. 
 122. Mechanical Properties of Western Larch. lOc. 
 126. Experiments in Preservative Treatment of Red-Oak 
 and Hard-Maple Cross-Ties. 20c. 
 
 Forest Service Circulars 
 No. 
 36. Forest Service, What It Is, and How It Deals with 
 
 Forest Problems. 5c. 
 40. Utilization of Tupelo. 5c. 
 46. Holding Force of Railroad Spikes in Wooden 
 
 Ties. 5c. 
 
 102. Production of Red Cedar for Pencil Wood. 5c. 
 111. Prolonging Life of Mine Timbers. 5c. 
 132. Seasoning and Preservative Treatment of Hemlock 
 
 and Tamarack Cross-Ties. 5c. 
 
 136. Seasoning and Preservative Treatment of Arbor 
 Vitae Poles. 5c. 
 
 140. What Forestry Has Done. 5c. 
 
 141. Wood Paving in the United States. 5c. 
 
 142. Tests of Vehicle and Implement Woods. 5c. 
 
 146. Experiments with Railway Cross-Ties. 5c. 
 
 147. Progress in Chestnut Pole Preservation. 5c. 
 
 151. Preservative Treatment of Loblolly Pine Cross- 
 
 Arms. 5c. 
 
 164. Properties and Uses of Southern Pines. 5c. 
 166. Timber Supply of the United States. 5c. 
 177. Wooden and Fiber Boxes. 5c. 
 179. Utilization of California Eucalyptus. 5c. 
 187. Manufacture and Utilization of Hickory. 5o. 
 189. Strength Values for Structural Timbers. 5c. 
 
 192. Prevention of Sap Stain in Lumber. 5c. 
 
 193. Mechanical Properties of Redwood. 5c. 
 
 194. Progress Report on Wood-Paving Experiments in 
 
 Minneapolis. 5c. 
 
 200. Absorption of Creosote by Cell Walls of Wood. 
 Forest Products Laboratory Series. 5c. 
 
 206. Commercial Creosotes. With special reference to 
 protection of wood from decay. Forest Prod- 
 ucts Laboratory Series. lOc. 
 
 210. Yield and Returns of Blue Gum, Eucalyptus, in 
 
 California. 5c. 
 
 211. Greenheart. 5c.
 
 342 LUMBER AND ITS USES 
 
 212. Circassian Walnut. 5c. 
 
 213. Mechanical Properties of Woods Grown in the 
 
 United States. Forest Products Laboratory 
 Series. 5c. 
 
 214. Tests of Packing Boxes of Various Forms. Forest 
 
 Products Laboratory Series. 5c. 
 
 There is no reason why any person who 
 intends to use wood for any purpose may not 
 learn promptly and authoritatively the best 
 wood to use, and where to get it, if he will take 
 the trouble to address a letter to either the 
 United States Forest Service or to the lumber 
 associations mentioned in this book.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Advantages of wood 331 
 
 Aeroplanes, Wood used for 223 
 Agricultural implements, 
 
 Wood used for 177 
 
 Air-drying 76, 78 
 
 Alder, Red, Factory uses. . 227 
 American Society for Test- 
 ing Materials, Struc- 
 tural standards 64 
 
 Apple, Factory uses of. . . 227 
 Artificial limbs, Wood used 223 
 
 Ash, Factory uses of 229 
 
 Species of 228 
 
 Aspen, Species and uses of 231 
 Associations of lumber 
 
 manufacturers! 38,334 
 
 Athletic goods, Wood used 204 
 Automobiles, Lumber used 200 
 
 Bobbins, Wood used for. . . 195 
 Boot and shoe findings, 
 
 Wood used for 192 
 
 Borers, Protection from.. 90 
 
 Boxes, Wood for 170 
 
 Boxwood, West Indian, 
 
 Factory uses of 312 
 
 Breaking strength of wood 16 
 Bridge timbers, Specifica- 
 tions for 68 
 
 Brooms, Lumber used for. 221 
 Brushes, Wood used for. . 209 
 Buckeye, Factory uses of. . 241 
 Building construction, Gen- 
 eral, Wood for 167 
 
 Bulletins 224,339 
 
 Bungs, Wood used for 206 
 
 Burls 71 
 
 Butcher blocks, Wood for. 215 
 Butternut, Factory uses of 242 
 
 Balm of Gilead, Uses of. . . 
 Basswood, Factory uses of 
 
 Beech, Factory uses of 
 
 Beech flooring, Grading of 
 Bending strength of wood. 
 Birch, Species and uses of 
 Birch flooring, Grading of 
 Black gum, Factory uses of 
 Black walnut, Factory uses 
 
 Blocks, Paving 
 
 See Pavements, Block 
 
 Bluing of timber 
 
 Boards, Standard sizes of. 
 Boat building, Lumber for 
 
 232 
 
 232 Canes, Wood used for 220 
 
 234 Car construction, Lumber 
 
 131 used for 173 
 
 16 Carpet-sweepers* Lumber 
 
 236 used for 221 
 
 131 Case-hardening of timber 81 
 
 263 Caskets, Lumber used for 184 
 
 308 Catalpa, Factory uses of. . 311 
 
 121 Cedar, Spanish 311 
 
 Cedar, Species and factory 
 
 90 uses of 243 
 
 54 Ceiling, Standard Sizes of 46 
 
 182 Cells, Wood 10 
 
 343
 
 344 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Checks, Defined 71 
 
 Cherry, Factory uses of. . 248 
 Chestnut, Factory uses of. 249 
 
 Circassian walnut 315 
 
 Clocks, Lumber used for. . 216 
 Cocobola, Factory uses of 312 
 Coffins, Lumber used for. 184 
 
 Commercial woods 226 
 
 Conduits, Lumber for 190, 191 
 Conveyors, Lumber for. . . 201 
 
 Cooperage 322 
 
 Cost of building with dif- 
 ferent materials 162 
 
 Cost of lumber, see Prices 
 
 Cottonwood 251 
 
 Crack filling 94 
 
 Crates, Wood for 170 
 
 Creosote as a preserva- 
 tive 85, 92 
 
 Creosote block pavement. 126 
 Creosoting Plants in U. S.. 85 
 
 Cross-grains 71 
 
 Crushing strength 20, 21 
 
 Cucumber, Factory uses of 253 
 
 Culls 34, 70 
 
 Cypress, Factory uses of. 253 
 
 Decay 83, 84 
 
 Defects 60, 64, 65 
 
 Location of 73 
 
 Dense wood, Definition of 73 
 
 Diagonal grain 71 
 
 Dimension, Sizes of 54, 55 
 
 Dogwood, Factory uses of 256 
 
 Douglas fir, Defined 67 
 
 Factory uses of 256 
 
 Grading rules 63 
 
 Dowels, Wood used for 210 
 
 Driers 94 
 
 Drop siding, Sizes of 49 
 
 Drying, see Seasoning 
 Durability of woods,,, 83, 92 
 
 Ebony, Factory uses of .. 312 
 
 Elasticity of woods 23, 24 
 
 Electrical machinery and 
 
 apparatus, Lumber for 208 
 
 Elevators, Lumber for 211 
 
 Elm 257 
 
 Enameling, see Paints 
 
 Eucalyptus 260 
 
 Excelsior, Wood used for. 186 
 
 F 
 
 Factory uses of woods 226 
 
 Faucets, Wood used for.. 206 
 Fence-posts, Economy of 
 
 treating 91 
 
 Figure of wood 9 
 
 Fillers, Paste and liquid.. 95 
 
 Fillers, Pavement 128 
 
 Finish, Sizes of.. 51, 52 
 
 Finishes for woodwork, see 
 Paints and stains 
 
 Finishing floors 
 
 97, 134, 140, 143, 144 
 
 Fir 261 
 
 Firearms, Lumber used for 222 
 
 Fireproof ing of wood 150 
 
 Fire-retardant paints. . . 153 
 Impregnating with chem- 
 icals 152, 156 
 
 Fire-resistance of wood . . . 147 
 Flasks, Lumber used for. 205 
 
 Floor finishes 
 
 . . .97, 119, 134, 143, 144, 146 
 Flooring, Amount needed. . 138 
 
 Flooring, Sizes of 44, 137 
 
 Floors, Hardwood 130 
 
 Douglas fir floors 143 
 
 Finishing yellow pine 
 and Douglas fir floors 
 
 119,143,144, 146 
 
 Laying and finishing 119, 134
 
 INDEX 
 
 345 
 
 Floors, Hardwood (Cont'd) 
 Maple, beech and birch 
 
 floors, Sizes for 133 
 
 Nailing 131, 134, 139 
 
 Oak Floors, Care of 142 
 
 Oak floors, Finishing. . . 140 
 Oak flooring, Grading of 137 
 Oak flooring, Laying.. 139 
 Oak flooring, Sizes for.. 137 
 Pine floors, Finishing. . 118 
 
 Foreign woods 311 
 
 Foresters, District 336 
 
 Forest products 316 
 
 Forest areas in U. S 325 
 
 Forest ownership 326 
 
 Forest regions of U. S. . . 323 
 
 Forests, National 326,335 
 
 Private 327 
 
 State 327 
 
 Forest Service of U. S.. .75, 334 
 Laboratory at Madison, 
 
 Wis 336 
 
 Publications of 339 
 
 Furniture and fixtures, 
 Lumber used for 171 
 
 Hardwood ( Cont'd ) 
 
 Shipping weights of ... 59 
 
 Standard sizes of 56 
 
 Harness, Wood used for. . 212 
 
 Heartwood 7 
 
 Hemlock 67, 268 
 
 Hickory 269 
 
 Holly, Factory uses of 271 
 
 Honeycombing, Causes of . . 81 
 Hornbeam, Factory uses of 272 
 Hygroscopicity 82 
 
 Illustrations, see Plates 
 Impact resistance tests... 27 
 
 Imported woods 311 
 
 Industries using wood, Re- 
 ports on 224 
 
 Information, Sources of 
 
 224, 334 
 
 Insulator pins and brack- 
 ets, Wood used for .. 214 
 
 Joints in pavements 128 
 
 Grading of lumber 33, 39 
 
 Diagrams for 37 
 
 Systems of 38 
 
 Grading maple, beech, and 
 
 birch flooring 131 
 
 Grading oak flooring 137 
 
 Grading structural tim- 
 bers 62,70, 74 
 
 Graining 1 9 
 
 Grains in wood 71, 95 
 
 Hackberry, Uses of 267 
 
 Handles, Wood used for. . 178 
 
 Hardness of woods 28, 29 
 
 Hardwood U 
 
 Kiln-drying 76, 80 
 
 Kitchen cabinets, Lumber 
 
 used for 185, 186 
 
 Knots, Covering 94 
 
 Dimensions of 72 
 
 Kinds of 65, 72 
 
 Laboratory, Forest Service 336 
 
 Larch 67,273, 305 
 
 Laundry appliances, Lum- 
 ber used for 188 
 
 Laurel, Factory uses of... 273 
 
 Lengths of hardwood 56 
 
 Lignum vitae 313 
 
 Linseed oil 9 *
 
 346 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Load tests, Maximum 26 
 
 Locust 273 
 
 Longleaf pine 66, 290, 294 
 
 Lumber, Bulletins 334 
 
 Consumption ..167, 316, 328 
 Cut in various sections. 320 
 Cut in U. S., Chart of. . 320 
 Grades of ...33, 39, 131, 137 
 Manufacturers, Associa- 
 tions of 38, 334 
 
 Prices, see Prices 
 Production of . .317, 318, 320 
 
 Sizes of 42 
 
 Lumbering in U. S. . . .316, 320 
 
 Machine construction, 
 
 Lumber used for 192 
 
 Magnolia, Factory uses of 275 
 
 Mahogany 313 
 
 Maple, Species and factory 
 
 uses of 276 
 
 Maple flooring, Grading . . 131 
 
 Matches, Wood used for. . 187 
 
 Medullary rays 6 
 
 Milling industry 316, 320 
 
 Mill products 317, 318, 320 
 
 Modulus of elasticity.. 23, 24 
 
 Modulus of rupture... 17, 31 
 
 Moisture, Effects of 28 
 
 Moldings, Lumber for 194 
 
 Mountain ash, Factory 
 
 uses of 311 
 
 Mulberry, Factory uses of 311 
 Musical instruments, Wood 
 
 used for 180 
 
 Nailing flooring . .131, 134, 139 
 
 Norway pine 67, 290, 294 
 
 Novelties, Wood used for. 175 
 
 Oak, Species and factory 
 
 uses of 280 
 
 Oak flooring, Use of 143 
 
 Grading and sizes 137 
 
 Laying j!39 
 
 Uses of grades 138 
 
 Oak floors, Care of. ..140, 142 
 Oil finish for floors 101, 142, 145 
 
 Orange wood 311 
 
 Oregon ash 231 
 
 Osage orange 288 
 
 Padouk, Factory uses of . . 313 
 
 Painting, see Paints 
 
 Paints and stains 93 
 
 Architectural specifica- 
 tions 103 
 
 Enameling 112 
 
 Fillers, Paste and liquid. 95 
 
 Fire-re tar dant paints . . . 153 
 
 Floor finishes 
 
 ..97, 101, 118, 119, 134, 142 
 
 Graining 109 
 
 Linseed oil 94 
 
 Natural finish for soft- 
 woods 110 
 
 Oil finish for floors.. 101, 142 
 
 Painting exteriors 104 
 
 Painting floors 101 
 
 Painting interiors 109 
 
 Shellac, Use of ..94, 99, 110 
 
 Shingle stains 102, 108 
 
 Staining exteriors 107 
 
 Staining hardwoods 115 
 
 Staining softwoods 111 
 
 Stains 95, 102, 108 
 
 Varnish finish 
 
 96,100,111,113, 141 
 
 Wax finish for floors 99, 141 
 
 Waxing hardwoods 115 
 
 Partition, Sizes of 49 
 
 Patterns, Lumber used for 205
 
 INDEX 
 
 347 
 
 Patterns, Standard 
 
 45,47,48, 50 
 
 Pavements, Block, in U. S. 121 
 
 Essentials 122 
 
 Expansion joints 128 
 
 Fillers 128 
 
 Foundation 128 
 
 Specifications for 126 
 
 Paving blocks, Wood, see 
 
 Pavements, Block 
 Paving materials, Lumber 
 
 used for 190 
 
 Persimmon 289 
 
 Picture frames, Lumber for 194 
 Pine, Species and factory 
 
 uses of 289 
 
 Pine floors, Finishing 118 
 
 Pipe, Lumber used for 198 
 
 Pitch pockets 65, 71 
 
 Pitch streak 66 
 
 Pith rays 6 
 
 Planing mill products 169 
 
 Plates, List of 352 
 
 Playground equipment 213 
 
 Plumbers' woodwork 207 
 
 Poles 322 
 
 Economy of treating ... 92 
 Polishing, see Paints 
 
 Poplar, Yellow 297 
 
 Porosity of wood 5 
 
 Preservation of wood... 83, 127 
 
 Bluing of timber 90 
 
 Borers, Protection from. 90 
 
 Creosote 86 
 
 Creosoting plants 85 
 
 Savings effected 91 
 
 Prices, Lumber 159 
 
 Comparative building 
 
 costs 162 
 
 Mill prices 160 
 
 Relative price fluctua- 
 tions of lumber, food, 
 
 etc 169, 161 
 
 Prima vera 313 
 
 Printing materials 218 
 
 Professional instruments.. 201 
 
 Properties of wood 11, 336 
 
 Publications, Forest Serv- 
 ice ,339 
 
 Pulleys, Lumber used for. 201 
 
 Pulpwood 322 
 
 Pumps, Lumber used for. . 198 
 
 Radford on finishing floors 97 
 
 On relative costs 164 
 
 Red gum, Factory uses of 264 
 
 Red heart 66 
 
 Redwood 67, 300 
 
 Refrigerators 185 
 
 Reports 224, 339 
 
 Rings, Annual 6 
 
 Rollers for shades and maps 189 
 Rosewood, Factory uses of 314 
 
 Rosin 322 
 
 Rot 66, 84 
 
 S 
 
 Saddles, Wood used for. . . 212 
 Sap gum, Factory uses of. 265 
 
 Sapwood 7 
 
 Sassafras, Factory uses of 301 
 Satinwood, Factory uses of 314 
 Sawmills in U. S 316, 317 
 
 Output of, Chart 320 
 
 Scientific instruments 201 
 
 Seasoning of timber 76 
 
 Air-drying and kiln-dry- 
 ing 76 
 
 Sewing machines 198, 
 
 Shakes 66, 70 
 
 Shearing strength ..22, 23, 126 
 Shellac, Uses of ...94, 99, 110 
 
 tShingle stains 102,108 
 
 Shingles, Paints for 153 
 
 Shingles, Manufacture 320, 321 
 
 Shipbuilding 182 
 
 Shiplap, Standard sizes of 63
 
 348 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Shipping weights 57 
 
 Shipworms, Protection from 90 
 Shoe lasts, Wood used for. 193 
 
 Shortleaf pine 66, 290, 297 
 
 Shrinkage of wood 32 
 
 Shuttles, Wood used for.. 195 
 Siding, Standard sizes of. . 49 
 
 Signs and supplies 217 
 
 Silos, Lumber used for 181 
 
 Silver bell, Factory uses of 311 
 
 Sizes of lumber 42, 44 
 
 Of flooring 133, 137 
 
 Skewers, Wood used for. . 215 
 
 Softwoods 11 
 
 Shipping weights of 57, 58 
 
 Southern yellow pine 
 
 66, 290, 291 
 
 Specifications for bridge 
 
 and trestle timbers 68 
 
 For structural tim- 
 bers 62, 68 
 
 For wood block paving. 126 
 Specific gravity. . . 13, 15, 31 
 
 Spools, Wood used for 195 
 
 Sporting goods 204 
 
 Springwood 6 
 
 Spruce 67, 301 
 
 Stains, see Paints 
 
 Steaming of lumber 79 
 
 Stiffness of wood 23 
 
 Strength of wood 
 
 9, 14, 19,21, 31, 60 
 
 Relation to weight... 18, 19 
 
 Of paving blocks 126 
 
 Of timbers 60 
 
 Structural timbers 60 
 
 Bridge and trestle 68 
 
 Classification of 64, 74 
 
 Grading rules ...62, 70, 74 
 
 Sizes of 62, 63 
 
 Tests, Forest Service. . . 75 
 
 Structure of wood 3 
 
 Stumpage in U. S. ...325, 330 
 Sumac, Factory uses of . . . 311 
 Summer cutting 79 
 
 Summerwood 6 
 
 Sycamore, Factory uses of 304 
 
 Tables- 
 Aeroplanes, Wood used 
 for 223 
 
 Agricultural implements, 
 
 Wood used for 178 
 
 Alder, Red, Uses of 227 
 
 Annual wood consump- 
 tion 168 
 
 Apple wood, Uses of 228 
 
 Artificial limbs, Wood 
 
 used for 223 
 
 Ash, Factory uses of ... 229 
 Athletic goods, Wood for 205 
 Automobiles, Lumber for 200 
 Balm of Gilead, Factory 
 
 uses of 232 
 
 Basswood, Uses of 232 
 
 Beech, Factory uses of . 235 
 Birch, Factory uses of. . 237 
 
 Black gum, Uses of 264 
 
 Black walnut, Uses of . . . 308 
 Boat building, Lumber 
 
 used for 183 
 
 Bobbins, Wood used for. 196 
 Boot and shoe findings, 
 
 Wood used for 194 
 
 Boxes and crates, Lum- 
 ber used for 171 
 
 Boxwood, Uses of 312 
 
 Brooms, Lumber for 221 
 
 Brushes, Wood used for 210 
 
 Buckeye, Uses of 241 
 
 Bungs, Wood used for. . 207 
 Butcher blocks, Wood for 216 
 
 Butternut, Uses of 242 
 
 Canes, Wood used for . . 221 
 Carpet-sweepers, Lumber 
 
 used for 221 
 
 Car construction, Lum- 
 ber used for 174
 
 INDEX 
 
 349 
 
 Tables ( Continued ) 
 
 Caskets, Lumber for 185 
 
 Cedar, Factory uses of. . 245 
 Cherry, Factory uses of. 248 
 
 Chestnut, Uses of 250 
 
 Circassian walnut, Fac- 
 tory uses of 315 
 
 Clocks, Lumber for 217 
 
 Cocobola, Uses of 312 
 
 Coffins, Lumber used for 185 
 Conveyors, Lumber for. . 201 
 
 Cottonwood, Uses of 251 
 
 Crushing strength of 
 
 woods 20 
 
 Cucumber, Uses of 253 
 
 Cypress, Factory uses of 254 
 
 Dogwood, Uses of 258 
 
 Douglas flr, Uses of 257 
 
 Dowels, Wood used for. . 211 
 Ebony, Factory uses of. . 312 
 
 Elasticity of woods 24 
 
 Electrical apparatus, 
 
 Lumber for 209 
 
 Elevators, Lumber for . . 212 
 Elm, Factory uses of. ... 258 
 
 Eucalyptus, Uses of 261 
 
 Excelsior, Wood used for 187 
 Faucets, Wood used for. 207 
 
 Fir, Factory uses of 262 
 
 Firearms, Lumber for. . . 222 
 Flasks, Lumber used for 206 
 Foreign woods, Uses of. . 312 
 Furniture, Lumber for. . 172 
 
 Hackberry, Uses of 267 
 
 Handles, Wood used for 179 
 
 Hardness of woods 29 
 
 Hardwoods, Sizes of ... 56 
 Hardwoods, Shipping 
 
 weights of 59 
 
 Harness, Wood used for 213 
 
 Hemlock, Uses of 268 
 
 Hickory, Factory uses of 270 
 Holly, Factory uses of. . 272 
 Hornbeam, Uses of 272 
 
 Tables (Continued) 
 
 Impact resistance tests. 27 
 Insulator pins and brack- 
 ets, Wood used for 215 
 
 Larch, Factory uses of.. 306 
 Laundry appliances, 
 
 Lumber used for 189 
 
 Laurel, Factory uses of 273 
 Lignum vitae, Uses of . . . 313 
 Load tests, Maximum.. 26 
 Locust, Factory uses of. 274 
 
 Lumber cut in U. S 320 
 
 Lumber production, An- 
 nual, in U. S 318 
 
 Machine construction, 
 
 Lumber used for 193 
 
 Magnolia, Uses of 275 
 
 Mahogany, Uses of 313 
 
 Maple, Factory uses of. 277 
 Matches, Wood used for. 188 
 Modulus of elasticity... 24 
 Modulus of rupture. . .17, 31 
 Moldings, Lumber for. . . 195 
 Musical Instruments, 
 
 Wood used for 181 
 
 Novelties, Wood for 176 
 
 Oak, Factory uses of... 282 
 Osage orange, Uses of . . . 288 
 Padouk, Factory uses of. 313 
 
 Patterns, Lumber for 206 
 
 Paving materials, Lum- 
 ber used for 191 
 
 Persimmon, Uses of 289 
 
 Picture frames, Lumber 
 
 used for 195 
 
 Pine, Factory uses of . . 291 
 Pipe, Lumber used for.. 199 
 Playgound equipment, 
 
 Lumber used for .... 214 
 Plumbers' woodwork, 
 
 Lumber used for 208 
 
 Poplar, Yellow, Uses of 298 
 Prices, Mill, of lumber.. 160 
 Prima vera, Uses of 313
 
 350 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Tables ( Continued ) 
 Printing materials, Lum- 
 ber used for 219 
 
 Professional instruments, 
 
 Wood used for 202 
 
 Pulleys, Lumber for 201 
 
 Pumps, Lumber for. . . . 199 
 Ratio of bending strength 
 to weight of woods ... 19 
 
 Red gum, Uses of 265 
 
 Redwood, Uses of 300 
 
 Refrigerators, Lumber for 186 
 Rollers for shades and 
 maps, Lumber for. . . . 190 
 
 Rosewood, Uses of 314 
 
 Saddles, Wood used for. 213 
 
 Sap gum, Uses of 265 
 
 Sassafras, Uses of 301 
 
 Satinwood, Uses of 314 
 
 Sawmills, Number and 
 
 output of, in U. S 317 
 
 Scientific instruments, 
 
 Wood used for 202 
 
 Sewing machines, Lum- 
 ber used for 198 
 
 Shearing strength 22 
 
 Shingles, Annual pro- 
 duction of 321 
 
 Shipbuilding, Lumber for 183 
 Shuttles, Wood used for 196 
 
 Signs, Lumber for 218 
 
 Silos, Lumber used for. . 182 
 
 Sizes of lumber 44 
 
 Sizes for maple, beech, 
 
 and birch flooring 133 
 
 Skewers, Wood used for 216 
 Softwoods, Shipping 
 
 weights of 58 
 
 Specific gravity of 
 
 wood 15, 31 
 
 Spools, Wood used for. . 196 
 Sporting goods, Wood for 205 
 Spruce, Factory uses of. 302 
 Standing timber 325, 326 
 
 Tables ( Concluded ) 
 Strength of moist wood. 31 
 
 Stumpage in U. S 325 
 
 Sycamore, Uses of 304 
 
 Tamarack, Uses of 306 
 
 Tanks, Lumber used for 182 
 Teak, Factory uses of . . . 314 
 
 Timber cut in U. S 320 
 
 Timber, Standing. . .325, 326 
 Tobacco boxes, Lumber 
 
 used for 197 
 
 Tobacco pipes, Wood for 223 
 Toothpicks, Wood for... 188 
 
 Toughness tests 26 
 
 Toys, Lumber used for. . 203 
 Trunks, Lumber used for 192 
 Tupelo, Factory uses of. 307 
 Turkish boxwood, Uses of 312 
 Umbrella sticks, Wood for 221 
 Valises, Lumber used for 192 
 Vehicles, Wood used for 175 
 Veneer, Production of . . . 321 
 Walnut, Black, Uses of. . 308 
 Walnut, Circassian, Uses 
 
 of ' 315 
 
 Weighing apparatus, 
 
 Lumber used for 220 
 
 Weight of moist wood. . . 31 
 Whips, Wood used for. . 221 
 Willow, Factory uses of. 310 
 Wood blocks, Longitudi- 
 nal shearing strength. 126 
 Woodenware, Wood for. . 176 
 Yucca, Factory uses of. . 310 
 
 Tamarack, Defined 67 
 
 Species and factory uses 
 
 of 305 
 
 Tannin 322 
 
 Tanks, Lumber used for. . 181 
 
 Teak, Factory uses of 314 
 
 Tensile strength of wood 21 
 Teredo, Protection from . . 90 
 
 Tests 75, 334, 336 
 
 Thicknesses of hardwood 56
 
 INDEX 
 
 351 
 
 Ties, Railroad, Treating.. 91 Weight of wood 
 
 Timber, Bulletins 334 9, 13, 15, 19, 31, 61 
 
 Consumption of. 316, 320, 328 Relation to strength 19 
 
 Famine impending? 327 Weights, Shipping 57 
 
 Mechanical properties, . . 336 West Coast Lumber Mfrs. 
 
 Physical properties .... 337 Association, Rules for 
 
 Preservation of 338 structural timbers 63 
 
 Standing 325, 326, 330 Western pine 67, 291, 292 
 
 Supply of, in U. S 323 Whips, Wood used for 220 
 
 Timbers, Structural, see White lead 94 
 
 Structural timbers. White pine 67, 289, 291 
 
 Tobacco boxes, Lumber for 197 Willow, Factory uses of. . 309 
 
 Tobacco pipes, Wood for. . 223 Winter cutting 79 
 
 Toothpicks, Wood used for 187 Wood, Consumption of 167, 316 
 
 Toughness of woods 25 Figure of 9 
 
 Toys, Lumber used for... 203 Future of 331 
 
 Trees, Growth of 6 Mechanical properties.. 336 
 
 Trestle timbers, Speciflca- Permanent advantages.. 331 
 
 tions for 68 Physical Properties . . 11, 337 
 
 Trunks, Lumber used for. 191 Porosity of 5 
 
 Tupelo, Factory uses of.. 307 Strength of 9, 19 
 
 Turpentine 322 Structure of 3 
 
 Substitutes for 331 
 
 Useful properties of 12 
 
 Umbrella sticks, Wood for 220 Weight of 9, 19 
 
 Uses of commercial woods 226 Wood alcohol 322 
 
 Uses of lumber, Special... 167 Woodenware, Wood for... 175 
 
 Woodlots, Farm 327 
 
 v Woods, Classification of.. 5, 11 
 
 Valises, Lumber used for. 191 Commercial 226 
 
 Varnish, see Paints Foreign, used in U. S... 311 
 
 Varnishing floors 141,144 Y 
 
 Vehicles, Wood used for. . 174 
 
 Veneer Manufacture.. 319, 321 Yellow pine floors, Finish 
 
 for 143, 144 
 
 W Yellow Pine Mfrs. Associa- 
 
 Walnut, Black, Uses of... 308 tion Rules for struc- 
 
 Walnut Circassian, Uses of 315 tural timbers . . . 62 
 
 ^ ne ' 66 Yucca, Factory uses of... 310 
 
 Water, Effects of, on wood . 28 2 
 Wax finish for floors.... 
 
 99, 141, 145 Zinc chloride as a preserva- 
 
 Weighing apparatus, Lum- tive I 
 
 ber used for 219 Zinc oxide 1
 
 352 
 
 INDEX 
 LIST OF PLATES 
 
 Plate No. 
 
 Ash, White, Stand of 18 
 
 Boxes, spools, etc., of paper 
 
 birch 33 
 
 Cedar posts, Hauling in 
 
 winter 34 
 
 Cedar shavings from 
 
 shingle mill 36 
 
 Creosoted red oak, Section 24 
 Creosoting by cylinder 
 
 method 22 
 
 Creosoting fence-post butts 25 
 Creosoting by open-tank 
 
 method 23, 24 
 
 Creosoting plants in U. S. . 21 
 Cross-sections of trees, 
 showing tissues, medul- 
 lary rays, etc 4, 5 
 
 Cross-sections of pine, 
 showing springwood 
 
 and summerwood 3 
 
 Cross-sections of logs, 
 showing rings, heart- 
 wood, and sapwood..2, 3 
 Cypress shingles from 
 Washington's home... 23 
 
 Douglas fir forest 11 
 
 Drying rooms in factories. 31 
 
 Dry-Kilns, Battery of 19 
 
 Factory interiors. 30, 31, 32, 33 
 
 Figures of wood 1 
 
 Flooring, Yellow pine and 
 
 oak 28 
 
 Floor, Maple, in dance hall 27 
 Forest products laboratory 39 
 
 Forest regions of U. S 37 
 
 Handles for paint brushes. 32 
 
 Knots 8, 9, 10 
 
 Laboratory, Forest prod- 
 ucts, at Madison, Wis. 39 
 Longleaf pine, Dense stand 12 
 
 Plate No. 
 
 Lumbering scenes 34, 35 
 
 Lumbering Western yellow 
 
 pine in national forest 15 
 
 Lumber piles in yard 35 
 
 Maple flooring in hall 27 
 
 National forests and drain- 
 age systems of U. S. . . 38 
 Norway pine and paper 
 
 birch 36 
 
 Oak, White, and hickory, 
 
 Mixed, forest of 17 
 
 Old wooden houses 20 
 
 Pavement, Creosoted block, 
 
 Laying 26 
 
 Paving block, Creosoted ... 26 
 
 Piling destroyed by teredo 24 
 
 Piling lumber 35 
 
 Pine, White, Second- 
 
 growth, Stand of 13 
 
 Pine logs, White, Load of 14 
 Pine, Western yellow, 
 
 Stand of 14 
 
 Pitch pocket 10 
 
 Pitch streak 10 
 
 Railroad tie attacked by 
 
 fungi 25 
 
 Redwoods in California... 16 
 Sawmill interior, Timber 
 
 construction 27 
 
 Sawmills, Old-time and 
 
 modern, contrasted. ... 7 
 Shoe last blocks, Maple... 36 
 Shuttles, Stages in mak- 
 ing 32 
 
 Tests, Forest Service 6, 29 
 
 Torch tests showing fire- 
 retarding effects of 
 
 paint 29 
 
 Veneered door 36 
 
 Wood, Figures of 1
 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
 
 JUL 24 1920 
 
 JAN 2 1930 
 
 30 
 MAY 1 7 1935 
 
 &UG5 1938 
 HOV23 193* 
 
 1946 
 
 41949 
 
 APR 4 1983 
 
 College i, ro \9 70 
 
 c 4* 
 
 Library 
 
 UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA 
 
 AT - 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 LIBRARY
 
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACIL 
 
 000953050 2 
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