BY EDWARD DICKINSON MUSIC IN THE HISTOBY OF THE WESTERN CHURCH THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC THE EDUCATION OF A MUSIC LOVEB MUSIC AND THE HIGHER EDUCATION CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC I > ' ► I • > » * * * » • • > . * , ' » > » » I > i , t ' ' , THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC fVITir AN ANNOTATED GUIDE TO MUSIC LITERATURE BY EDWARD DICKINSON Professor of the History of Music, Oberlin Consematory, Oberlin Collegg^ Author of •* Music in the History of tht Western Church " Revised and Enlarged Edition NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1921 Copyright, igo^, iqo8 I5Y Charles Scribner's Sons ^S^336i To MY Aunt MARTHA DICKINSON MORGAN 4 D a ^ t5 ^ INTRODUCTION This book is based upon the plan and method that are followed in the courses of lectures on the history and criticism of music given in the Oberlin Conservatory of Music. The only rational aim of such instruction is to aid the student to examine, think, and conclude for himself. The material for study is found in musical compositions and the critical and historical work of recognized authorities. The time has gone by when the representations of a single book or a single author can meet the demands of an intelligent curiosity. In every department of inquiry in which books are employed it is now taken for granted that many authorities must be examined, and that the teacher's work consists largely in providing abstracts, topics, references, and similar guides. Such assistance the present author endeavors to furnish to those who are interested in the history of musical art. The importance of this subject is now universally recognized by the musical fraternity. It is in accord with the whole modern method of art study that a true critical appreciation should be based upon a knowledge of the nature of historic musical movements, and their relations to each other and to the general intellectual currents of their periods. There is not a single musical Viii INTRODUCTION critic of eminence in Europe or America who is not also an authority on the history of the art. That this should be Bo lies in the very logic of interpretative criticism. To comprehend and appreciate, not to praise or blame, is the music student's first business. Before a work of art the first question should be, " What is it ? " not " Do I like it ? " Only when the work is understood in all its bearings — its author's standpoint, its motive, its place in the chain of development — may the second question come, '* What is it to me f " The vastness and complexity of the study of the history of music are bewildering to those who enter upon it unassisted. This volume is intended to clear the way by indicating the problems, the method, and the materials. The narrative and critical portion gives a terse and com- prehensive summary of music history, showing what are the important subjects involved and their connections and relations. The bibliographical sections lead the student to the best critical commentaries in the English language on every phase and detail of the subject. These reference divisions will perhaps be more subject to criticism than any other portion of the book. No other teacher of this subject would make quite the same selection or arrange the references in the same way. To some the number of books cited will seem large beyond all reason. The author is, of course, aware that the thorough reading of so many books can be undertaken only by one who makes tlie subject a specialty and is willing to give many years to its mastery. But in such a case excess is less culpable than paucity, and the systematic marshalling before the student of all the INTRODUCTION Ix forces at his disposal will give him more satisfaction than if he were to find the book at any point inadequate. Moreover, the majority of those who will use it will not attempt to cover all music history with equal thorough- ness, but will wish to read upon certain particular composers, periods, or forms. It was the interest of this class especially that compelled the author to make his references so voluminous. Another obvious criticism should be considered here. The basis of the true study of the history and meaning of any art is not the reading of books about works of art, but the direct first-hand examination of the works them- selves. This dogma needs to be incessantly hammered into the heads of amateur students of music. If this book encouraged any one to substitute critics and historians for the actual compositions of the masters, then the author's intention would be grossly perverted and his hopes dis- appointed. The first aim of the music lover should be to make himself acquainted with the largest possible number of the best musical compositions. Tliis book and the books recommended are to be used merely as aids to the broadest critical understanding. Every one knows, however, that this first-hand study of scores is in a multitude of cases impossible. How many representative works of the Mid- dle Ages and of the seventeenth century are accessible to the student, especially the American student? How many operas, how many orchestral and chamber-music scores of even the later period are within his reach ? In respect to the majority of composers and schools he must depend upon the reports of special European investigators. Those composers of the first order whose works exist in X INTRODUCTION modern inexpensive editions must, little by little, be known to him by means of private reading and attendance upon concerts, but even here he must not go to the extreme of personal independence and neglect the commentaries of those of far greater expeiience and acumen than himself. These commentaries will not merely inform, they will suggest and stimulate, and prevent or correct false direction and narrow views. It is hoped that public and school libraries will give more assistance to this important branch of study than they have afforded in the past. Musical art should receive as much attention from them as painting, and for precisely the same reason. Every library that makes any pretention to meet the needs of the community it serves should contain at least Grove's Dictionary/ of Music and Musicians, both series of Famous Composers and Their Works, and the Oxford History of Music. These are especially mentioned because their cost keeps them out of the hands of perhaps the majority of students. But the library should not stop with them. Copies of the chief musical works should also be added to as great an extent as the library's means permit. Musicians and students may properly combine to enforce this most reasonable demand. The references to Grove's Dictionary apply to the first edition of 1879-1890. The new edition now appearing will eventually supplant the other, but the phin and list of subjects will be so nearly the same that the references given in this book will require little or no modification. INTRODUCTION xi References to periodicals might properly have been omitted altogether, but a few have been included on account of the special importance of the articles cited. E. D. Obsrlin Collsgb, June, 1905. CONTENTS Pass I. Primitive Music 1 II. Music of the Ancieit' Citjtured Nations: Assyrians, Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, AND Romans 6 III. Song in the Early Christian Church . . 14 ^ rV. The Catholic Liturgy 19 t^ V. The Catholic Liturgic Chant 22 ' '" VI. Beginnings of Polyphonic Music. Popular Music in the Middle Ages 29 VII. The Age of the Netherlanders, 1400-1550 38 VIII. Choral Music of the Sixteenth Century . 42 IX. Early German Protestant Music . . . 50 X. Protestant Church Music in England • . 56 XL The Madrigal — Ths Opera — Modern To- nality 64 '^ XII. Early Growth of Instrumental Music . . 72 XIII. The Violin and its Music: First Stages of the Suite and Sonata 77 - XIV. Keyed Chamber Instruments : Progress op the Clavier Suite and Sonata ... 82 XV. The Italian Opera in the Seventeenth Century 90 . C' u ^V CONTENTS Paob XVI. The Opera Buffa, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 96 XVII. Rise of the Opera in France, Seven- teenth Century 100 XVm. Italian Opera Seria in the Eighteenth Century 105 XIX. Introduction of the Italian Dramatic Forms into German Religious Music iio XX. JoHANN Sebastian Bach, 1685-1750 . . 119 XXI. George Frederick Handel, 1685-1759 . 131 XXII. Opj&ra-Comique in the Eighteenth Cen- tury 142 XXin. Christoph Willibald Gluck, 1714-1787 146 XXIV. Joseph Haydn, 1732-1809 153 XXV. Wolfgang Amade Mozart, 1756-1791 . 162 XXVI. LuDwiG VAN Beethoven, 1770-1827 . . Ml XXVII. The German Romantic Opera. Carl Maria von Weber, 1786-1826 ... 185 XXVIIL The German Lied. Franz Schubert, 1797-1828 198 XXIX. Piano Playing to about 1830 .... 211 XXX. Robert Schumann, 1810-1856 .... 220 XXXI. Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdt, 1809- 1847 232 XXXII. Frederic Chopin, 1810-1849 .... 243 XXXIII. Programme Music 251 XXXIV. Hector Berlioz, 1803-1869 260 XXXV. Franz Liszt. 1811-1886 271 CONTENTS XV Paqb XXXVI. The Opera in the Nineteenth Century to ABOUT 1850. I. Italian Opera .... 283 »^ XXXVII. The Opera in the Nineteenth Century to ABOUT 1850. II. French Opera .... 293 XXXVIII. Richard Wagner, 1813-1883 308 XXXIX. Recent Music in Germany and Austria . . 331 XL. Recent Music in France 349 XLI. Recent Music in Italy 366 XLII. Recent Music in Russia, Bohemla., and Scan- dinavia 374 XLIII. Recent Music in England and America . . 389 Bibliographical List 397 Bibliographical Supplement 410 Inde^ 417 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC PRIMITIVE MUSIC The origin of music is a speculative and not properly an historical question, since in the natui-e of the case records must be lacking. Framers of philosophic sys- tems and special writers upon aesthetics have offered explanations of the primitive musical impulse under the guise of corollaries from the known facts of mind. Others have sought light upon the subject through ob- servations upon the musical practices of savages. In both methods the first stage of musical effort can be conceived and described only by inference. No theory of the origin of music has yet been suggested that is acceptable to all students of the problem. The question is of interest on account of its bearing upon musical psychology and aesthetics, for such is the continuity of intellectual progress that certain of the most essential elements in the most advanced stages of musical experi- ence may be found in embryo in the musical operations of rude races, and each of these extreme phases of musical culture contains facts that help to throw light upon the other. I 2 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Among the numerous theories of the origin of music the most prominent in recent discussions are those of Darwin in The Descent of Man, vol. ii, chap. 19, and Spencer in Illustrations of Universal Progress : The Origin and Function of Music, and Professional Institv^ tions : Dancer and Musician. Darwin holds that mu- sical notes and rhythm were first acquired by the mal<3 and female progenitors of mankind for the sake of charm- ing the opposite sex. This theory, although advocated by the eminent psychologist, Edmund Gurney (see Gur- ney, 7^e Power of Sound, chap. 6), has now little follow- ing among scholars. For objections to Darwin's theory see Wallaschek, Primitive Music, chap. 9; Rowbotham, History of Music, toL i; Knight, The Philosophy of the Beautiful, part ii. Herbert Spencer tries to show that " song employs and exaggerates the natural language of the emotions " ; that " vocal music, and by consequence all music, is an ideal- ization of the natural language of passion." This theory, known as " the speech theory," has been effectively combated by Wallaschek, Primitive Music, chap. 9 ; by Gurney, T^e Power of Sound, chap. 21 ; and by F»?i^ht, The Philosophy of the Beautiful, part ii. The most accredited of the more recent theories is that of Wallaschek, in his Primitive Music. He derives music from the rhythmical impulse in man, — melody comes from rhythm and not rhythm from melody. In^ strumental musio^precedes vocal. An interesting discussion of this subject may be found in Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music. See also Riemann, Catechism oj Musical Aesthetics. PRIMITIVE MUSIC 8 As a matter of fact, the history of music cannot be led back to a priority of either melody or rhythm. The ques- tion turns upon the definition of music. Not until sen- sible differences of pitch co-exist with definite groupings of notes under some recognized principle of order does music properly begin. The subject of primitive music — i.e. the musical practices of savages and ancient and modern cultured nations whose music appears in its simpler unprogressive states, such as the Assyrians, Egyptians, Hindus and Chinese — can be followed to any extent to which the curiosity of the student may lead him by means of books of travel, treatises on folk music, etc. Time might eas- ily be wasted in this field, but a few generalizations are important. In the first place, musical instruments may be classi- fied and their uses noted. The three modern orders of instruments, viz. stringed, wind and percussive instru- ments, exist among savages. Wallaschek asserts, con- trary to the general supposition, that the pipe form is the oldest. Wallaschek, Primitive Music, gives a long account of primitive instruments and their uses. See also Engel, Musical Instruments (^South Kensington Art Handbooks) ; Elson, Curiosities of Music, The history of primitive music is of interest only as a department of culture history. Note (1) that music in this stage is a social art ; (2) that it has a definite utilita- rian pui-pose over and above the mere pleasing of the ear ; (3) that it is not a free independent art, but is connected with poetic recitation and dancing, usually under the stimulation of religious emotion. Music and the dance 4 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC are almost inseparable ; the dance is usually dramatic or ceremonial ; the symbolic dance and the choral ode are the foundation of music and the drama. " The festival creates the arHst " (Baldwin Brown). On the festal origin of art see Brown, The Fine Arts; Popular Science Monthly, April, 1893, The Festal Development of Art; Popih lar Science Monthly, September, 1893, The Origin of Literary Forms Spencer, Professional Institutions : Dancer and Musician, in last edi- tion of Principles of Sociology ; more particularly in regard to the practice of music in connection with dancing and ceremony, Wal- laschek, Primitive MusiCy chaps. 7 and 8. " The features which give folk music its chief artistic and historic importance are those which manifest the working of the perfectly unconscious instinct for de- sign, and those in which the emotional and intellectual basis of the art is illustrated by the qualities of the times which correspond with the known characters of the na- tions and peoples who invent them. . . . Folk music is an epitome of the principles upon which musical art is founded " (Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music), The standard work on the music of the lower races is Wallaschek, Primitive Music. Parry's chapter in The Evolution of the Art of Music is an excellent summary of the subject. Interesting and valuable studies upon the songs of North American Indians, par- ticularly the Omaha tribe, have been made by Miss Alice C. Fletcher and Prof. John C. Fillmore, and the results published in vol. i, no. 5, of the archaeological and ethnological papers of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University ; also in the Century Magazine, MusiCf and other periodicals. A popular book on this subject by Miss Fletchor is Indian Song and Story from North America. Tylor's Anthropology contains a chapter on the music of savages. See also Grosse, The Beginnings of Art. A large number of primitive and national songs may be found in The National, Patriotic, and Typical Songs of all Lands, compiled by John Philip Sousa. PRIMITIVE MUSIC 5 Printed examples of savage music must always be taken with caution, for in many cases it is probable that they have not been correctly transcribed by reason of lack of precision on the part of the reporter. Neither is it to be supposed that the savage singer always realizes his own intention. The scale systems of the lower races form a subject of great interest and difficulty. " The history of the scale is essentially the history of music itself in its early ex- istence " (Pole, The Philosophy of Music). The question arises, is there such a thing as a " natural " scale, or are all scales alike artificial ? How are the great varieties of scales among different peoples and in different times to be explained ? Have regular scales ever been developed by meana cf the ear and voice alone, or is some instrument always necessary ? Are the primitive melodies based on melodic successions merely, or are harmonic relations implied ? Were scales in most cases developed upward or downward ? On what principles is the selection of sounds made to form an allowable musical scale ? Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone, English translation with copious notes by A. J. Ellis. A briefer, but valuable work, based on Helmholt25, is Pole, The Philosophy of Music. Parry gives large attention to the subject in The Evolution of the Art of Music, chap. 2. See also Wallaschek, Primitive Music, chap. 4. For rhythm in primitive music see Wallaschek, chap. 4; Pole, chap. 13. For in- stances of harmony among savages, Wallaschek, chap. 4. A book of special interest at present is Piggott, Music and Musical Instrw ments of Japan. n MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT CULTURED NATIONS: ASSYRIANS, EGYPTIANS; HEBREWS, GREEKS AND ROMANS Music in ancient times, with the possible exception of that of the Greeks and Romans just before and after the beginning of the Christian era, belongs to culture history rather than to the history of art. With the exception of a few fragments, some of them doubtful, no melodies of the pre-Christian period have come down to us. No theoretical treatises have survived from any nation older in civilization than the Greeks. There is no reason to suppose that music among the Oriental monarchies ever progressed much beyond its condition among barbarous peoples of the present day. Music was not a free art, but was held in almost complete dependence upon poetry, dancing and religious cere- mony. The general principles established by the study of savage music (chap, i) would apply equally to the music of the ancient civilized nations. No distinctive national styles can be inferred among the Assyrians, Egyptians and Hebrews. All these nations paid ex- treme reverence to music. The laws of musical practice were largely under the control of the priestly class. Music was rude, simple and un progressive. Harmony was evidently unknown. Musical rhythm conformed to THE ANCIENT CULTURED NATIONS 7 that of verse and the dance step. The effect of music upon the mind, and its efficiency in education and worship, were largely due to the association of certain melodies and instruments with moral, religious and patriotic ideas. The most direct evidence in respect to the musical practice of the most ancient nations is derived from the representations of instruments and players upon the Assyrian and Egyptian monuments. The subject of Egyptian music is especially interesting on account of the influence exerted by Egypt upon the art and science of Greece. Knowledge of many of tlie laws of acoustics, the division of the monochord, etc., besides certain musi- cal practices, were probably transmitted to Greece from Egypt. Pictures of Assyrian, Egyptian and Hebrew instruments, with descriptions of their construction and use, may be found in Nau- mann, History of Music, vol. i; Engel, Music of the Most Ancient Nations; Chappell, History of Music ; Engel, Musical Instruments (South. Kensington Art Handbooks). The numerous works on As- syrian and Egyptian archaeology, dictionaries of the Bible, etc., give space to music and musical instruments. Chappell emphasizes the connection between the Greek and Egyptian musical systems. For obvious reasons the student will turn to the music of the Hebrews with greater interest than to that of any other ancient nation except the Greeks. The common supposition that the Hebrews had highly developed music in connection with their worship may easily be shown to have no foundation. There is no reason to suppose that music with them was any farther advanced than among the Assyrians and Egyptians. It was un- harmonic, simple and inclined to be coarse and noisy; it had a place in military operations, at feasts, private 8 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC meny-makings, etc., but its chief value lay in its availa bility for religious uses. *' The music of the Hebrews was divine service, not art " (Ambros, G-eschichte der Muiik). Their instruments were plainly identical with those of their neighbors, the Assyrians and Egyptians. They had probably about twenty different instruments, but there is much confusion in regard to their names and character. Stainer, The Music of the Bible, gives an extended discussion of Hebrew instruments, with references to passages in the Old Testa- ment where instruments are mentioned ; this interesting work is unfortunately out of print. References in the Bible to instruments : Gen. iv. 21 ; Num. x. 2-8 ; 1 Sam. x. 5 ; 1 Chron. xiii. 8 ; 2 Chron. V. 11-14, ixix. 26-28..] See also Engel, The Music of the Most Ancient Nations, and Musical Instruments ; Naumann, History of Music, vol. i ; McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, article Musical Instruments ; standard dic- tionaries of the Bible. There is no proof that any of the ancient Hebrew melodies have come down to us. Hebrew poetry, like that of all ancient nations, was always intoned or chanted. The cantillation of the modern Jewish synagogue is a traditional survival of the ancient usage. Lyric poetiy predominated in ancient Hebrew literature. The pe- culiar structure of Hebrew poetry known as parallelism may be noted as probably indicating an antiphonal manner of singing, as in the Church of England to-day. Superscriptions (not retained in the King James or the revised versions) such as, ''After the song beginning. Hind of the Dawn," and " After lilies," suggest that some of the psalms may have been set to secular tunes. An elaborate musical service, both vocal and instru- THE ANCIENT CULTURED NATIONS 9 mental, was organized in connection with the temple worship. The female voice was evidently not employed, — the allusions to " women singers " apply to other occasions than the temple ceremony. Stain er, The Music of the Bible ; Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church. The organization of priests and Levites for the temple music is described in 1 Chron. xvi. 4-6, xiiii. 5, and XXV. See 2 Chron. v. 11-14. Revival of the musical service under Hezekiah, 2 Chron. xxix. 25-30 ; and under Ezra and Nehemiah, Ezra iii. 10, 11 ; Neh. xii. The archaic melodies and tonalities found in the modern synagogue song books of many countries have much interest, but their connection with the music of the old Jewish monarchy or with the synagogue worship of the time of Christ cannot be proved or disproved. The adoption of ancient Jewish melodies by the early Christians, and their influence upon the Plain Song of the Catholic church, is also mere conjecture. The Music of the Greeks is distinguished from that of all the other ancient nations not only by its greater refinement and scientific_ elaboration, bat also by the fact that the Greeks first began to divine its powers as a free independent art. They developed a rational scale system based on a knowledge of acoustic laws, their philosophers subjected the aesthetics of music to a minute examination, they devised a tolerably accurate system of notation which has survived. The Greek musical system was the precursor of that of the early Christian church, and the line of descent is unbroken from Greece, through Rome, to the Middle Ages and modern times. 10 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC The tendency of music, especially instrumental, to break away from the constraints in which it was held in antiquity, and develop laws and powers of expression peculiarly its own, belongs to a late period of Greek history. During the great literaiy period, from about 1000 to 400 B.C., Greek music conformed to the general law of ancient music in its subjection to poetry and pantomime. Extreme reverence was paid to it ; it waa believed to have had a superhuman origin ; it was indispensable in religious ceremony, festivals and all the functions of social life. It was universally con- sidered a necessary element in the education of youth, and was believed to have a direct influence for good and also, in certain of its manifestations, for evil. Musical contests were a marked feature of the national games, especially the Pythian. All classes of society, all employments of labor or amusement, had their appro- priate songs. The religious cults, particularly those of Apollo and Dionysos, gave powerful stimulus to special phases of musical practice. The different stages of Greek vocal music are coin- cident with the several poetic periods, viz. the epic, lyrio and dramatic. Poetiy, even the gnomic, was always musically rendered. Classes of melodies called nomoi were derived from certain conspicuous musicians, associ- ated with particular occasions and uses, or traced to the pubhc practice of certain nations or tribes that had endowed them with traditional qualities of expression. Music in the poetic age tended to become s^nnbolic and conventional, although to a much less extent than in Egypt. Vocal music was simplest in the intoned recita- THE ANCIENT CULTURED NATIONS 11 tions of the rhapsodists, becoming more tuneful in the rendering of lyric poetry and the choruses of the drama. The arts of music, poetry and action were united in the drama, rhythm being their common element. Melody was less important than rhythm ; the elaborate metrical system in poetry was applied to music, the two forming a single composite art. The object of vocal music was simply to add force and emotional quality to verse. (Note the contrast in modem song, in which verse rhythm yields to musical rhythm, the latter being the dominating power.) The Greek ideal of the arts of poetry, music and action, first exemplified in the Athenian theatre, greatly influenced the experiments out of which came the modern opera, particularly the dramas of Gluck and Wagner. Greek music in the classic age was reserved and deli- cate. Rhythm was more studied than tune. The ex- tent to which harmony was known and practised is a vexed question. There is no doubt that Greek music was essentially melodic, but there were occasional de- partures from unison and octave relations in the com- bination of voices and instruments, especially at final cadences. In spite of the labors of modern scholarship, Greek theory remains a perplexing subject. How far the elaborate systems of the later theorists, such as Aris" toxenus, Euclid and Ptolemy, corresponded to actual practice, and how far mathematics was allowed to be- wilder the natural musical sense, cannot be certainly known. A regulated modal system, based upon the tetrachord, existed in very early times, but no definite 12 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC information concerning it can be obtained until we reach the time of Pythagoras, sixth century B.C. Seven modes, or octave species, were developed — the diatonic system. A chromatic and an enharmonic system are recognized by the later theorists. A system of notation has been recorded. The study of Greek music divides into two departments : (1) ita place in culture history, its relation to religion and social life, the views held by the Greek sages in regard to its action upon emotion and character ; (2) Greek musical theory, comprising rhythm and the scale and notation systems. For general views of the various aspects of Greek music see the musical histories, such as those of Chappell, Naumann and Rowbotham, and the Oxford History of Musicy vol. i. There are more condensed accounts in Riemann's Catechism of Musical History^ part ii, and Langhans' History of Music in Twelve Lectures. Chappell's single volume is almost wholly devoted to Greek music. Rowbotham, in his earlier history, is very full and minute, but his style is inflated and diffuse. His work has been improved by condensation into one volume. The histories of Greek poetry, especially those devoted to the drama, give more or less attention to music. Among those es- pecially to be recommended are Haigh, The Attic Theatre, and Moulton, The Ancient Classical Drama. The student will find the Greek scale system bewildering on account of lack of clearness on the pai't of many writers, and their frequent disagreement. For a condensed and lucid treatment of the subject see Williams, The Story of Notation ; also Parry, The Evo- lution of the Art of Music. For more detail, Oxford History of Music, vol. i ; Pole, Philosophy of Music ; Stainer and Barrett's Dictionary of Musical Terms; Riemann's Dictionary of Music. For a still more elaborate treatment, Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone ; Chap- pell, History of Music; Rowbotham, History of Music. The typical instruments of the Greeks were the lyre and the flute. Harsh, noisy insti-UDients were avoided except in some of the orgiastic worships which came into Greece from Asia. During the classic age instrumental THE ANCIENT CULTURED NATIONS IS music was subordinate to vocal ; it was used to accom- pany poetic recitation and lead the measures of the dance. Independent solo playing gradually developed ; the virtuoso age closed the era of Greek artistic music. Love of technical display and increase in the size and complexity of instruments were considered by the more serious thinkers a sign of degeneracy. For Greek instruments, the histories above mentioned; wood- cuts in Naumann and Chappell. Also Engel, Musical Instruments ; Riemann, Catechism of Musical History, part i. A faint light has been thrown upon the nature of Greek melody by the discovery at Delphi in 1893 of hymns with musical notation. These have been published in modern notation by Novello, Lon- don, and Reinach, Paris. See also The Musical Times (London), May 1 and June 1, 1894, and Williams, The Story of Notation. Pagan Rome made no contribution to musical prog- ress. The Romans derived their instruments, melodies and musical methods chiefly from the Etruscans and Greeks, particularly the latter. It was a degenerate form of music that was used in temple, theatre and cir- cus in the time of the empire. The domestic music, essentially Greek, was of a somewhat purer character. The only important musical treatise for which we are indebted to Rome is the Be Musiea of Boethius (died 524 A.D.), which had great influence upon the muiic of the medieeval church. Histories by Naumann and Rowbotham. in SONG IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH The age of the apostles and the fathers of the Chri«- tian church possesses an interest for the student of church music analogous to that which the same period offers to students of doctrine, liturgiology and church government. The subjects of inquiry include the rise of liturgies, rites and ceremonies, and their alliance with music ; the origin and use of hymns ; the founda- tion of the litui-gic chant; the degree of participation enjoyed by the laity at the beginning, and the causes of the abandonment of congregational singing in the eu- charistic service and the transference of this office to a choir of minor clericals. The tendency by which church music became essentially ritualistic and clerical was a phase of the transition from the simple and homo- geneous system of the apostolic age to the hierarchical organization which became consolidated under the Western popes and Eastern patriarchs. A thorough study of this subject involves a general view of chl.ch history and liturgies in the early Christian centuries. Among the great number of authorities may be mentioned : Sohaff, History of the Christian Church ; Milman, History of Latin Christianity; Pressens^, Early Years of Christianity ; Fisher, His- tory of the Christian Church; Alzog, Universal Church History (a standard work written from the Catholic standpoint) ; Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church. These works con- SONG IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH 15 tain general accounts of pre-Gregorian liturgies. For the liturgies themselves, or a more detailed account of them : the licargies of St. Mark, St. James, etc., translated into English in the Anie- Nicene Christian Library, Edinburgh, Clark; the Constitutions of the Apostles, translated, same series ; McClintock and Strong's Cyclo- pedia, article Liturgies ; Encyclopcedia Britannica, article Liturgies ; Neale, Lectures on Liturgiology and Church History. For the synagogue worship as the basis of that of the churches of Jerusalem and Syria: McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, ar- ticle Synagogue; Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. i, chap. 9. There are but scanty allusions in contemporary rec- ords to the practice of singing among the Christians of the first two or three centuries. St. Paul alludes to " psalms, hymns and spiritual songs " (Eph. v. 19 ; Col. iii. 16). The exact meaning of this division is not clear. The -glossolaha, or "speaking with tongues," upon which St. Paul discourses in 1 Cor. xiv., was a sort of textless vocal ebullition poured forth under the stress of religious excitement. This practice may be traced back to ancient times in Greece and Egypt; it was analogous to the long flourishes still common in Oriental music, and has perhaps survived in the " jubi- lations," or " melismas," of the Catholic chant. SchafE has a full discussion of the glossolalia in his History of the Christian Church, vol. i, sec. 24. The early Christian hymnody may receive some at- tention here, although no trace or description of the primitive melodies remains. It is probable that at first the psalms were exclusively used. Original hymns were soon composed. Fragments of early hymns are supposed to exist imbedded in the Pauline epistles and 16 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC the Book of Revelation: e. g. Eph. v. 14; 1 Tim. ill. 16; 2 Tim. ii. 11; Rev. iv. 11, v. 9-13, xi. 15-18, XV. 3, 4. The origin and early form of the great un- metrical hymns is important, viz. Q-loria in ezcehis, Gloria patrii Te Deum^ Magnificat^ Benedictus and Nunc dimittis* Julian's Dictionary of Hymnology is the standard authority on this and kindred subjects. See also the Encyclopcedia Britannica, article Hymns ; McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia ; Smith and Cheet- ham's Dictionary of Christian Antiquities ; Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church. For translations of some of the early Syrian and Greek hymns: Neale, Hymns of the Eastern Church. The most important fact in the history of the music of the church in the first four or five centuries is the transfer of the office of song from the laity to a choir composed of clericals. (It must be understood that this applies to the eucharistic service; a distinction should be made between liturgic and non-liturgic song.) This change took place everywhere, but at different periods, and was necessarily involved in the develop- ment of sacerdotalism. Song was conceived as a part of the office of prayer, therefore a clerical prerogative. Another motjve, perhaps, was the necessity of prevent- ing the intrusion of heretical doctrines, for the numerous lieretics of the time depended much upon hymn sing- ing for the propagation of their ideas. The partici- pation of the people was eventually confined to brief responses and ejaculations. A few of these, notably Kyrie eleison^ survive to-day in the Catholic liturgy. A few scattered allusions antedating this change de- icribe the Christians as singing psalms and hymns an- SONG IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH 17 tiphonally ; e. g. the letter of the younger Pliny to the emperor Trajan from Bithynia, 112 a.d. A similar pi-actice existed in the church of Antioch, second cen- tury. This custom of alternate singing was carried from Syria to Milan and Rome. A decree of the Council of Laodicea, fourth century, forbidding the laity to share in the liturgic song, is given by Hefele, History of the Councils of the Church to 451 A.D., trans, by Clarke. See also McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, articles Music and Sing' ing ; Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church, chap. 2. A new era in the history of church worship begins with the edicts of Constantine, fourth century, officially recognizing the religion of Christ. The history of church music and poetry in the East ends with the separation of the Eastern and Western churches. Prog- ress continued in Italy and Western Europe, keeping pace with the growth of ceremonialism, the multipli- cation of festivals and the organization of the canonical year. The music of the Italian church became a litur- gic music ; its methods were derived directly or indi- rectly from Eastern practice. Syrian as well as Greek influences must be reckoned, the spread of the Moslem power having driven many Syrian monks into Italy. A noted example of the transference of Oriental practice to the church in Italy is the establishment of antiphonal singing at Milan by St. Ambrose, bishop of that cit}^ about 386, as described by St. Augustine in the Con- fessions^ bk. ix. A musical system rival to that of Rome and called the Ambrosian sprang up at this time, but its peculiar nature is not certainly known. The ascription to St. Ambrose of tiie four " authentic ** 18 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC scales, the basis of the mediaeval system, is not correct. Antiphonal psalmody after the Milan pattern was intro- duced into Rome by Pope Celestine I., 422-432. The history of the papal choir goes back to the fifth century. The first singing schools were founded in this period. By the close of the sixth century the Roman liturgy had become essentially completed, and had been given a musical setting in the form of a system of unison chants, and this system had been made a law of the church equally with the liturgy itself. The available information coucerning this period relates to musical usages and not at all to musical examples. The general character of the church chant is known from its virtual identity ^ith that of the subsequent period. (See chap, v.) Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church, IV THE CATHOLIC LITURGY An acquaintance with the liturgy of the Catholic church should precede the study of Catholic music. This liturgy as it exists to-day was essentially com- pleted by the year 600. The central place in the whole Catholic system of worship is held by the Mass, the most solemn and au- gust of the rites of the church, the chief sacrament which in its constant renewal is the means by which the channel of grace is kept open between God and his church. There are several kinds of Masses, varying according to the occasions to which they are appropri- ated and the manner of performance, such as the High Mass, Solemn High Mass, Low Mass, Requiem Mass, Nuptial Mass, etc. The High Mass, in which every- thing is chanted and sung by the celebrant and choir, may be taken as a type of the whole. The Requiem Mass is the only one which departs from the type in any marked degree so far as the text is concerned. The office of the Mass is a perpetual mystical renewal of the atonement upon Calvary, and not, like the Protes- tant Communion, a mere memorial of that event. To the Protestant Christ was offered once for all upon the cross ; to the Catholic this sacrifice is mysteriously re- peated whenever the eucharistic elements are presented 20 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC at the altar. To those who administer the rite and those who participate in it through faith it is a sacrament of praise, supplication and propitiation. The-JMass is not simply a prayer, but also a semi-dramatic action, having in itself an objective efficacy. " The sacrifice of the Mass is the consecration of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ, and the oblation of the body and blood to God, by the ministry of the priest, for a perpetual memorial of Christ's sacrifice on the cross. The only difference consists in the manner of the ob- lation. Christ was offered up on the cross in a bloody manner, and in the Mass he is offered up in an unbloody manner. On the cross he purchased our ransom, and in the eucharistic sacrifice the price of that ransom is ap- plied to our souls " (Cardinal Gibbons, The Faith of our Fathers, p. 355). The order of the Mass is contained in the Missal, English translations of which have been published for the benefit of the laity. The offices of the seven canonical hours are contained in the Breviary ; English translation by the Marquis of Bute. There are separate books containing the order for Vespers. For the history, analysis and symbolic significance of the Mass: O'Brien, History of the Mass, a full and authoritative work. The mood of mystical enthusiasm which the Catholic ritual inspires in the mind of the Catholic devotee is well shown in Oakeley's Order and Ceremonial of the Most Holy and Adorable Sacrifice of the Mass. There is an illuminating article in the Catholic World, vol. iv, The Catholic Ceremonial. The meaning of the Mass is also ex- plained for non-Catholics by Cardinal Gibbons, The Faith of our Fathers. See also Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church. A book of great interest, now unfortunately out of print and rare, is Cardinal Wiseman's Lectures on the Offices and Ceremonies of Holy Week, as performed in the Papal Chapels. See also Alzog, Universal Church History; Addis and Arnold's Catholic Dictionary, a storehouse of information on all liturgical THE CATHOLIC LITURGY 21 subjects; SchafF, History of the Christian Churchy vol. i; McClin- tock and Strong's Cyclopedia^ articles Liturgies, Mass, Breviary, Hours. The Requiem Mass, or Mass for the Dead, omits the Gloria and Credo, and substitutes the Sequence Dies Irae. The Dies Irae, the greatest of the mediaeval Latin hymis, has been many times trans- lated, but an adequate metrical rendering into English is impos- sible. The Latin text may be found in the Missal. There are interesting notes upon it in March's Latin Hymns with English Notes. The student must guard against the error of con- founding the word " mass," as applied to a certain form of musical composition, with the eucharistic office. As a musical composition by any particular composer, as for instance Beethoven's " Mass in D " or Gounod's "St. Cecilia Mass," a mass is simply a part of the larger office of worship called by the same name, and consists of the Kjjrie^ Gloria^ Credo^ Sanctus, Bene' dictvs^ 3.nd Agnus Dei — that is, the portions that are sung by the choir and that do not change from day to day. For the history of the mass (musical composition) see Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church, chaps, v. and vi. The Requiem, as a form of musical composition, for example Verdi's *' Manzoni Requiem," consists of the Introit, Kyrie^ Gradual, Tract, Dies Irae, Offertory, Sanctus and Benedictus, Agnus Dei and Communion. To these is sometimes added the Responsorium, Libera me. THE CATHOLIC LITURGIC CHANT The entire ritual of the Catholic church was origi- nally rendered in a peculiar form of musical utterance known as Plain Song, Gregorian Chant, or Choral. And although many portions are now usually sung by the choir in settings by modern composers, the words pronounced by the priest at the altar, and certain por- tions assigned to the choir, such as the psahns and responses, are intoned or chanted in the ancient melodies. The liturgic chant is therefore as ancient, as universal and as invariable as the Hturgy itself. It is the only form of music that has been officially recognized by the church. In most of the portions of the liturgy that are assigned to the choir modern musical settings are per- mitted. There is nothing, however, to prevent the performance of the entire ritual in the ancient chant; in fact there are churches and convents that use no other form of music throughout the entire office, what- ever the occasion. The Catholic chants may be divided into two classes, ►'-J I the syllabic and the florid. The general use of modern music in the Mass has had the effect of keeping the more elaborate and beautiful of the vast number of Catholic chants away from the knowledge of the musical world at large. The real wealth of Gregorian melody is \ THE CATHOLIC LITURGIC CHANT 23 known only to one who attends churches in which it is used throughout the service, or who studies the Gradual and Antiphonary (chant books supplementary to the Missal and the Breviary) and harmonized selections from Gregorian masses, hymns, etc., which have been put forth by publishers of old Catholic music. / Chief among the simple chants are the " Gregorian / tones," — eight melodies, most of them with variable endings, which are appointed to be used in the singing of the psalms. The ritual chant has its special laws of execution; countless treatises have been written upon the subject and large attention is given in the seminaries to the purest manner of delivery. These laws govern pronun- ciation, vocalism, rhythm and all the special elements of expression, such as crescendo and diminuendo, changes of quality of voice, etc., taking into account conditions of time and place. The student of this subject must clearly distinguish the idea of the chant from that of other forms of melody, the length and rate of movement of the notes being controlled by the laws of text emphasis and rhythm, and not by any time value inherent in the notes themselves. The chant, therefore, conforms to the law of subordination of music to text rhythm which charac- terized ancient music, and the Catholic chant is actually the projection of the musical principle of antiquity over into modern times. The remarkable multiplication of technical, historic and ex- pository treatises upon the Catholic chant is due to its liturgic and historic importance. For the forms of the chant, methods 24 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC of rendering, etc. : Haberl, Magister Choralis (especially recon> mended) ; Helraore, Plain Song (Novello's Music Primers) • Helmore, Psalter and Canticles Noted ; Helmore, Hymnal Noted. See also Grove's Dictionary, articles Plain Song, Gregorian Tones (Appendix, vol. iii). An important book is The Roman Hymnal, a manual of English and Latin hymns and Latin chants, compiled by J. B. Young, published by Pustet & Co., New York. There are two editions, one with accompaniments, the other with- out ; both are needed by the student. There are cheap editions of the Gradual and Antiphonary in the mediaBval notation. Editions of the melodies appointed for the Mass and Vespers, with organ accompaniments, are published by Pustet & Co., New York. For the history of the uses and development of the ritual chant in the first millennium of the Catholic church, and for its religious and aesthetic ideal and impression : the histories of music ; Dick- inson, Music in the History of the Western Church ; Catholic World^ vol. xxi. The Roman Ritual and its Chant ; Catholic Worlds vol. xxviii, Plain Chant in its Relation to the Liturgy, One of the most interesting, and also one of the most puzzling questions in the history of music is tliat of the origin and primitive form of the Roman system of Plain Song. A tradition that has been accepted as historic fact for a thousand years derives the title " Gregorian " from Gregory I. (pope 690-604). John the Deacon, who wrote a biography of Gregory about 872, is chiefly responsible for the statement that this pope revised, selected, com- posed and noted a great number of chant melodies which became the authorized model for the whole Western church, and that he also added four new scales — the plagal — to the four ascribed (also by tradition) to St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, in the fourth century. These assertions, which have been universally accepted and are still given a prominent place in most of the histories of music, at last came under suspicion. *wi '^ THE CATHOLIC LITURGIC CHANT 25 Gevaert, director of the Brussels Conservatory of Music, has given them what now appears a mortal blow. Gevaert's conclusion is that "the tradition that makes St. Gregory the legislator of the liturgic chant, and the compiler of the melodies of the Antiphonary, has no historic basis. . . . The Christian chant took its modal scales to the number of four, and its melodic themes from the musical practice of the Roman empire, and particularly from the song given to the accompaniment of the kithara, the special style of music cultivated in private life. The most ancient monuments of the liturgic chant go back to the boundary of the fourth and fifth < r\ centuries, when the forms of worship began to be J^ arrested in their present shape. . . . The composition and compilation of the liturgic songs, which was tra- ditionally ascribed to St. Gregory I., is in truth a work of the Hellenic popes at the end of the seventh and beginning of the eighth centuries." Grevaert first announced his conclusions in a public discourse, which was published in 1890 under the title of Les Origines du Chant liturgique de VEglise latine. This essay was afterwards amplified into a volume entitled La Melop^e antique dans le Chant de VEglise latine. This latter work now stands as the highest authority on the early history of the Catholic chant, and has performed the service of filling the gap which formerly existed between ancient and modern music history. See also The Oxford History of Music, vol. i, pp. 26 £f. The Christian chants were, however, no mere repro- duction of profane melodies. The ground-work of the chant is allied to the Greco-Roman melody, but the Christian song is of a much richer melodic movement. The pagan melody was sung to an instrument, the 26 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Christian was unaccompanied, and was therefore free to develop a special rhythmic and melodic character, uncon- ditioned by any laws except those involved in pure vocal expression. In spite of the researches of Grevaert, confirmed as they are by the general principles that hold in all forms of art development, it must be remembered that most of the details of this transition from antique to mediaeval music must be left to conjecture. The lack of living examples of Greek and Roman music, the vagueness of the antique records, and the impossibility of establishing the exact original forms of the Catholic chants, owing to the inadequacy of the mediaeval system of notation, will always forbid any exact knowledge of this period. The system of eight, afterwards ten modal scales — the so-called " Gregorian " or church modes, which were the foundation of the whole mediaeval music down to about the year 1600, with their relations of " authentic " and " plagal," their finals and dominants, etc., — must be thoroughly comprehended at this point. They are repre- sented and explained in all the histories. See also Grove's Dictionary, article Modes; Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone ; Pole, The Philosophy of Music (more concise than Helmholtz) ; Stainer and Barrett's Dictionary of Musical Terms, article Plain Song ; Parry, The Evolution of the Art of MusiCy chap. 2 ; Riemann, Catechism of Musical History y part i. The slowness of musical progress for the first thou- sand years or more of the Christian era, and the impossi- bility of identifying the precise original forms of the chant melodies, are due to the rude and indefinite system of notation in use during that period. Our modern system of notes dates from the neumae — arbitrary points, dashes, hooks, etc., somewhat suggesting stenographic signs. In THE CATHOLIC LITURGIC CHANT 27 the absence of a line or staff system the neumse could not indicate pitch ; they suggested merely the rising and falling of the voice, and were only intended as helps to the memory. The history of modern notation is the development of notes, both solid and open headed, out of the neumae, with the establishment of staffs, clefs, measure signs, etc. Several centuries were occupied in this process. The subject of mediaeval notation is very perplexing, and most of the histories are unsatisfactory in their treatment of it, owing chiefly to the fact that experiments and methods differed in dif- ferent places, and progress was not uniform. For thorough eluci- dation of the subject see the Oxford History of Music ^ vol. i; Riemann, Catechism of Musical History, part i. For more compact statement : Grove's Dictionary, article Notation ; Williams, The Story of Notation; Helmore, Plain Song (Novello's Music Primers). Beautiful facsimiles of mediseval manuscripts, illustrating the his- tory of notation, are published by the Plain Song Society of London. The history of Plain Song, during the period of its exclusive use in the church down to about the eleventh century, is bound up with the proselyting labors of the Roman missionaries in Northern and Western Europe, and the generally successful efforts of the Roman see to produce uniformity in the liturgy and its musical render- ing according to the Roman model. The centres of the culture of church music were the convents. Chief of these music schools in the eighth, ninth and tenth centuries was the monastery of St. Gall in Switzerland. Here probably arose the Sequence or Prose, which began in a setting of words to the long vocal flourishes on the last vowel of the Alleluia, between 28 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC the Epistle aad the Gospel in the office of the Mass. This idea is ascribed to Notker Balbulus, ninth century. Out of this practice grew hymns, taking at last a metrical form. German as well as Latin texts were employed, and the Sequence became a sort of people's song. The number of Sequences greatly multiplied in later centuries, and they were used in the Mass in all the dominions of the church. In the sixteenth century the number was restricted by the Council of Trent to five, viz. Dies Iraty Stahat Mater^ Victimae Pasohali, Vent Sancte Spiritus^ and Lauda Sion. These hymns are of great importance in the liistory of religious poetry. The histories of music ; Riemann, Catechism of Musical History^ part ii; Grove's Dictionary, article Sequentia; Dickinson, Alusie in the History of the Western Church, VI BEGINNINGS OF POLYPHONIC MUSIC • POPULAR MUSIC IN THE MIDDLE AGES The music of the Christian church has passed through three great typical phases, each complete in itself, yet the product of an orderly, never-ceasing development, and each directed and moulded by the religious and social ideas of the age which produced it. I. The liturgic chant (Plain Song), unharmonized, employed exclusively in every portion of the ritual down to the introduction of part singing in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. It is still the only permitted form of music in certain portions of the ceremony of the Catholic church. II. The contrapuntal unaccompanied chorus, based on the Gregorian key and melodic system, employed in those portions of the service in which the Plain Song is not obligatory. This phase of church music occupies the period from the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries inclusive. III. The form now dominant in the church at large, viz. mixed solo and chorus music, with free instrumental accompaniment, obeying chiefly the homophonic as dis- tinct from the polyphonic method of structure, and based on the modern major and minor transposing scales. The second epoch in the history of European church 30 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC music opens with the first rude beginnings of the practice of singing two or more parts at the same time. The first steps in the use of concurrent sounds consisted in adding one part or more to a Plain Song melody. The earliest departure from unison chanting of which we have definite record is in a strange barbaric con- trivance called organum or diaphony. A manuscript of the eleventh century gives the first distinct account of this method of singing. There were two forms of organum : (1) the parts moved in parallel intervals of the octave, fifth or fourth ; the parts might be two, three or four; (2) a freer form, in which the parts, two or three in number, did not move throughout in absolute parallelism, but an oblique motion, with a resulting mixture of intervals, was permitted near the close of the line. There has been much discussion over the origin of this manner of singing. It was probably a survival of an ancient usage, and may have been known to a very limited degree to the Greeks. It must be noted that parallel empty fifths and fourths are not necessarily unpleasant to ears not habituated to modern harmony. The importance of the first form of organum in the history of music has been exaggerated by historians. Properly speaking it is not harmony at all, but only an- other kind of unison (see Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music, chap. 4). The second form suggests more promising possibilities. Examples dating from the latter part of the eleventh century contain passages in contrary motion, not merely at the closes, as had been permitted earlier, but in the course of the composition. In the BEGINNINGS OF POLYPHONIC MUSIC 31 primitive strict organum only the intervals recognized as concords, viz. fifths and fourths, were allowed in connec- tion with unisons and octaves. The freer form admitted transient thirds and sixths, although held as dissonances. The transition from organum to discant consists in a more ^j^.<_^ ^^, liberal use of contrary motion, and the rise of a system of time valuations, by which certain notes were made j equivalent to an established number of others. The { standard system for a time was that of one unit to three ; that is, a long note was equal to three equal notes or two unequal of the shorter species. The prevailing intervals in the twelfth-century discant were still I fifths, fourths, unisons and octaves, but the so-called dissonances became more and more frequent. Parallel, oblique and contrary motion was employed in the same composition, but the value and interest of contrary motion was more and more recognized. In contrary motion, in the mixture, however unsystematic, of discord with concord, and in the perception of some definite relation of time values, all the possibilities of the art of polyphony were faintly foreshadowed. The basis J9f_ music in this period, therefore, was chant melody, accompanied by a discanting part. In the twelfth century we find a third part, and afterwards a fourth. The theoretical superiority of fifths and fourths to all other intervals for a time hampered con- trapuntal development. There was no thought of a free invention of the cantus firmus ; at fu'st the chief melody was borrowed from the chant books ; soon secu- lar songs were drafted into use. In some of the early experiments the discanting part was also borrowed, the 32 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC words, which were often secular, being likewise re- tained. This even happened in three-part discant, with, of course, modification of the added tunes. A step of great importance was that of bringing parts in one after another, instead of always together. Still more momentous, as the history of music down to our own time shows, was the invention of the device of making one part follow another by similar intervals — the method known as " imitation," upon which the arts of fugue and canon and the free employment of coun- terpoint rest. The woid counterpoint (punctus contra piinctum, point against point) eventually took the place of discant. The progress of musical combination was doubtless promoted by the practice on the part of the singers of extemporizing the discanting parts. How general this liberty was, or how long it continued, is not certainly known. It brought in many abuses, and theorists and prelates often fulminated against it ; but it acted in the interest of experiment and advancement, and doubtless counteracted the obstructive tendencies of theory by en- forcing the rights of the ear. It is certain, too, that chromatic alteration of notes, not indicated in the score, was permitted in practice. The basis of the tonal art of the Middle Ages was therefore counterpoint, not harmony. The modern con- ception of a chord and progression of chords did not enter the mind of the mediaeval theorist. The homo- phonic principle of musical structure properly dates only from the seventeenth century, although foreshad- owed in the sixteenth. (See chap, xi.) BEGINNINGS OF POLYPHONIC MUSIC 33 The text books and dictionaries give definitions of counterpoint, polyphony, harmony and horaophony. These distinctions must be ♦iioroughly grasped at this point. The history of music from the eleventh to the four- teenth centuries inclusive is that of the slow mastery of the art of pure vocal counterpoint. Beginning with the two-part discant, we trace the discovery and application of the various methods of interweaving_mfilQdic parts so as^to^roduce a smooth, coherent, musical tissue, A melody borrowed from the Plain Song, or from a secular song, and called cantus firmus, forms the leading part, to which counterpoints are added. The historic process consisted in gradually increasing the number of parts, eliminating consecutive octaves, fifths and fourths, mas- tering the different species from *' note against note " counterpoint to " florid," the varieties of double, triple and quadruple counterpoint, and counterpoints in con- trary motion, augmentation, diminution and retrogres- sion. The necessities of figural music also required more exact methods of notation. A very different form called faux-bourdon (false bass) was known as early as the fourteenth century. Against every note of the cantus firmus it placed two others, the intervals being thirds and sixths. Adaptations of the principle of the faux-bourdon appear in the works of the subsequent period, often with beautiful effect. The term contrapunctus took the place of discantus in the thirteenth century. Four-part writing was at- tempted as early as the first half of the twelfth century at Paris. Imitations were in use in the twelfth cen- tury; double counterpoint in the thirteenth. The 34 THE STUDY OF THE HISTOKl :0P MUSIC ^ oldest theoretical treatises upon counterpoint date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. ProgT-ess in this art was not equally rapid in all places. Communication between the church centres was still very irregular. In tracing the development of polyphony we are led first to Paris, where a school of theorists and practical contrapuntists existed in the twelfth and thirteenth cen- turies, antedating the so-Called Netherland school. The kings of the Capetian dynasty were usually munifi- cent patrons of music and maintained establishments for the practice of both ecclesiastical and secular song. The art gradually extended over Northern France, Flanders, the Low Countries and Germany. It was taken to Rome in the fourteenth century. Polyphonic chorus music is therefore the creation of the same time and place as the Gothic architecture. An English contrapuntal school appears to have be- come established at almost the same time as the Paris- ian and Flemish, but to what extent its progress was independent of the continental movement cannot be certainly known. The most remarkable example of early contrapuntal music known to exist is the four-part canon " Sumer is icumen in," a " round " constructed on a popular song with a two-part ground bass. This remarkable composition is clearly proved to belong to the thirteenth century. Among the more eminent theorists of this early epoch are Guido of Arezzo (the chief name in the or- ganum period, the supposed inventor of "solmization " and the four-lined staff), Franco of Cologne, Franco of Paris, twelfth century, Walter Odington (English), POPULAR MUSIC IN THE MIDDLE AGES 85 thirteen th century, Marchettus of Padua, thirteenth century, Phillippe de Vitry, thirteenth century, Jo- hannes de Muris, fourteenth century, Guillaume de Mechault, fourteenth century, John Dunstable (Eng- lish), early in the fifteenth century. The study of the early phases of mediaeval music is one of peculiar difficulty, and the ordinary student can only accept certain general conclusions from data that have been unearthed by musical archae- ologists. The obstacles in the way of a coherent narrative consist in the scantiness of the early musi-^al examples, the bewilderments of a crude notation, gaps in the records and chiefly the fact of the lack of uniformity in method and progress in different countries and even in neighboring districts. The modern writers, even the best, do not always follow the same lines, or emphasize the same facts, hence it is hardly possible for the reader to escape a dis- couraging confusion in respect to details. There is no better sum- mary than Parry's, in the fourth chapter of his Evolution of the Art of Music. There is a very full account, especially valuable for its copious examples in modern notation, in the Oxford History of Music J vol. i. See also Henderson, Hotv Music Developed ; Grove's Dictionary y articles Schools of Composition, Mass, Motet ; Pole, Phi- losophy of Music ; Riemann, Catechism of Musical History ; Dickin- son, Music in the History of the Western Church (a popular review of the subject). The round, " Sumer is icumen in," is exhaustively discussed in Grove's Dictionary, article under that head. The Secular Music of the People merits attention at this point, although but little remains in a shape that can be identified. Its historic importance chiefly lies in the maintenance of the practice of solo melody with instrumental accompaniment, and a free use of instrumental music, while neither had any share in the contemporary music of the church. More decided rhythm and more regular form, simpler key relations and free 36 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC invention of melody were the features of the folk song and dance. The idea of individual expression, however rude and simple, was thus preserved. The courtly poetry and song of the Middle Ages, so important in the history of literature and manners, merits a passing notice in the history of music. The Ti'oubadours of Provence (eleventh to thu'teenth centu- ries) and the Minnesingers and court epic poets of Germany (latter part of the thirteenth century), united the verse to a simple and refined form of melody, accom- panied by a single instrument. The Mastersingers — guilds of artisans in the German cities in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries — culti- vated music and poetry by means of quaint and pedan- tic rules and graded orders of merit. A large variety of instruments was used in the popu- lar practice of music in the Middle Ages. They were clumsy and very limited in efficiency. The types most capable of development survive in the perfected orcties- tral and domestic instruments of the present day. In spite of the scantiness of musical remains a great deal of atten- tion has been bestowed upon this rather unproductive theme. Its importance is greater in culture history than in the history of music. Naumann has a very interesting chapter upon it in the first volume of his History, with illustrations. See also Rowbotham, History of Music, vol. iii ; Lacroix, The Arts of the Middle Ages, chapter on music, illustrated ; Engel, Musical Instruments ; Grove's Dictionary, article Song ; Riemann, Catechism of Musical History, part i ; Chappel, Old English Popular Music ; Henderson, How Music De- veloped, chap. 5; Elson, History of German Song; Wagner, text of *' Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg," trans, by H. and F. Corder. The histories of the early poetry of France and Germany contain allusions to musical customs. POPULAR MUSIC IN THE MIDDLE AGES 37 The folk song of France comes more directly into the current of art history through the adoption of popular tunes by the masters of the Netherland school as canti firmi in their masses and motets. This custom but rarely obtained among the Italian church composers, who used melodies taken from the ritual books and sometimes original themes. Professor Spitta (^Deut- Bche Rundschau, April, 1894) goes so far as to say that the non-Italian composers " rested upon the foundation of the folk song." "The polyphonic music developed out of the folk song, and was not untrue to it in its (the former's) highest development." These composers also set to music a vast number of French chansons in con- trapuntal style, as purely secular pieces, the result being a form of composition much simpler and more definitely expressive than the masses and motets. vn THE AGE OF THE NETHERLANDERS, 1400-1550 The period of slow experiment, of apprentice work, in the development of mediaeval vocal counterpoint ended about 1400. The art from that time on was in the hands of men worthy to be called masters. Contra- puntal structural devices, although still cultivated as an end in themselves, also became refined into means of expression, and musicians came in sight of what must always be the supreme aim of stylistic progress. The completion of vocal counterpoint on its technical side was achieved by musicians of Northern France and the Low Countries. The Netherlanders became the teachers of Europe and supplied almost all the church centres of their own districts, France, Italy, Austria and Spain, with composers, choir leaders and instructors. When complete knowledge of contrapuntal devices had been attained two tendencies appeared in conflict with each other. One was in the direction of complex- ity and difficulty. Music became an exercise ground for scholastic ingenuity. Counterpoint single, double, quadruple, augmented and diminished, direct, retrograde and inverted, became the joy of composers. The nota- tion became equally bewildering. To increase the so- phistication of musical science a cabalistic system, THE AGE OF THE NETHERLANDEllS 39 known as " riddle canons," was devised to indicate to the initiated the manner of construction that was ex- pected of him. Rhythm was obscured and the words hopelessly lost in the web of crossing parts. Composers largely occupied themselves with the mechanical side of their art. Technical cleverness was the uppermost aim, rather than beauty or devotional expression. The second tendency was toward simplicity. It is a common error to suppose that labored artifice was the sole characteristic of the scientific music of this period. A great amount of music in four, five and six parts was also produced in which there was a striving for devo- tional effect, a clear leading of the voices and an adjust- ment of phrases into more condensed patterns. The " familiar style," in which the music moves note against note, syllable against syllable, suggesting modern chord progressions — a style so frequent in Palestrina — ap- pears in a multitude of instances in the works of the Netherland masters. It should be borne in mind that the mediaeval chorus composers were tune setters, not tune makers. The cantus firmuswas borrowed, either from a liturgic chant or from a popular song. The latter practice became exceedingly common. In such cases the words con- nected with the secular tune were often introduced at the beginning of a movement of mass or motet. The secular words often gave the name to the mass, hence the " Mass of the Armed Man," the " Adieu my Love Mass," etc. No irreverence was intended and to the generality of worshippers, even the most pious, no of- fence was given. This practice declined in the sixteenth iO THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC century and disappeared as composers gradually acquired the habit of inventing themes for the cantus firmus. The grotesque effect of this usage, as well as the prevalence of this custom of introducing secular words, has been exaggerated by historians. About three hundred and seventy prominent Nether- land composers of this period have been enumerated. Among the most eminent are Dufay (first half of the fifteenth century), Binchois (same period), Okeghem, orOckenheim (died about 1520), Ilobrecht (1430-1506), Josquin des Pr^s (about 1450-1521), Pierre de la Rue (died early in the sixteenth century^), Gombert (flourished middle of the sixteenth century), Clemens non Papa (died about 1558), Arcadelt (about 1514-1559), Verdelot (died about 1560), Willaert (about 1490-1562), Goudimel, teacher of Palestrina (about 1505-1572). Germans eminent in this style, of whom the most prominent were Finck, Hofhaimer and Isaak, flourished in this period. Among the eminent theorists were Tinctoris, Gafor and Glarean. The art of constructing musical labyrinths ran to its full length with Okeghem. The work of such as he was necessary however, since a complete mastery of tech- nical material must precede and condition expression. Josquin des Prfes is the greatest name before the culmi- nating period of Willaert, Lassus and Palestrina. He was an adept in all the lore of the Netherlanders, and produced a great deal of work that is of a bewildering intricacy ; but he also understood the value of modera- tion, and often sought to make science minister to beauty of tone and expression. He surpassed his pre- THE AGE OF THE NETHERLAXDERS 41 decessors in agreeableness and originality of melody, ease of movement and clarity of harmony. Naumann, HUtory of Music, vol. i; Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music; Riemann, Catechism of Musical History ; Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church ; Famous Composers and their Works, series i, article The Netherland Masters ; Grove's Dic- tionary, articles Schools, Mass, Motet ; Langhans, History of Music in Twelve Lectures; Henderson, How Music Developed. For the development of notation : Williams, The Sioiy of Notation. vin CHORAL MUSIC OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY The form of church music whose progress has been outlined in the two preceding chapters reached its per- fection with Palestrina and the Roman school, Orlandus Lassus in Munich, and the Venetian school founded by Willaert and culminating in Giovanni Gabrieli. The period itself demands attention, for it was the time of the fruition of Renaissance art, of the Protestant Refor- mation and the Counter-Reformation in the Catholic church, — all of which movements influenced church music through their action upon the religious sentiment and tlie ecclesiastical conception of art. Although the connection of sixteenth-century Catholic music with the intellectual movements above mentioned may not be obvious at first sight, this music may justly be considered as an expression of that vein of impassioned devotion which remained uncorrupted in the heart of Catholicism, and manifested itself in the Catholic Reaction and the founding of the great missionary and philanthropic orders. Among the books which possess a sympathetic insight into the nobler Catholic spirit of the time may be especially mentioned Symonds, The Catholic Reactioriy and Alzog, Universal Church History (Catholic). See also Dickinson, Music in the History of the Western Church, No injustice will be done to the other great musicians of the time if Palestrina is taken as the highest repre- sentative of the mediseval polyphonic school. Although CHORAL MUSIC OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 43 the student should avoid the common error of ignoring his numerous contemporaries who produced works in the same style as his and almost as perfect, yet there need be no doubt that Palestrina's fame is deserved, and that he completed the style in respect to grace, sweetness and devotional exaltation. Giovanni Pierluigi, called Palestrina, from the place of his birth near Rome, was born probably in 1526 (authority of Haberl), died 1594. He spent almost the whole of his art life in Rome in the service of the popes. He enriched every portion of the ritual with music, his works including ninety-five masses. Among his compo- sitions that have attained the widest celebrity are the " Stabat Mater " and the " Improperia." Among his contemporaries in Rome were such men as Vittoria, Marenzio, the Anerios and the Naninis. Together they compose '' the Roman school " or " the Palestrina school," and all that could be said in description of Palestrina's style might be applied to theirs without essential altera- tion. The characteristics of Palestrina's art can easily be learned by analyzing a movement from one of his larger works. Three general modes of treatment will be dis- covered : (1) the intricate texture, canonic imitation, etc., of the Netherland work; (2) the "familiar style "(stile famigliare) in which the voices move together, usually one note to a syllable, suggesting simple chord progres- sions ; (3) a blending of the two, the " Palestrina style " par excellence. Analysis will show the student the dif- ference between the key and harmonic systems of the Palestrina time and the modern ; a lack of the modern 44 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC architectonic principle of sections and periods; the ab- sence of definite rhythm in the music as a whole, since the melodic constituents do not, as a rule, begin and end together ; the frequent crossing of the voices ; the prev- alence of plain triads with an occasional seventh ; the preparation of all dissonances, — in a word, a vagueness of design and a certain monotony of melody and har- mony. This music does not lack dynamic change or alteration of speed, but these contrasts, which depend upon the will of the conductor, are moderate and subtly graded. There are no modulations, the key remains the same throughout the work. Within these limitations the sixteenth-century masters attained a purity of sound, a grace of movement and a calm, ethereal quality of ex- pression which have made their works to many minds the most perfect ideal of devotional music that has ever been achieved. It must be remembered that the effect of this form of music depends not entirely upon its artistic qualities, but largely upon its religious and historic associations. It is liturgic, confessional music ; it reveals its tr^ " The changing and transforming of a theme is nothing new. fBut the variation of a theme arising from a perceptible reason — I might say the dramatic- psychological variation — was first used by Berlioz in tlxife symphony, and is absolutely his own creation^ It is the same kind of variation which Liszt expanHs and perfects in his symphonic poems, and which Wagner at last uses as an intense means of expression in his dramas (' leading-motives ')" ( Weingartner, The Sym- phony since BeetJioven'). Detailed programme of the " Symphonic fantastique " in Ra- mann, Franz Lisztj vol. i, p. 295 ; Upton, The Standard Symphonies. A foiTQ of music cultivated in France in the nine- teenth century consists of a medley of orchestral music and vocal solo and chorus — a sort of mixture of sj^m- phony and cantata. This is known as the " ode sym- phony" or "dramatic symphony." The scheme was doubtless suggested by Beethoven's ninth symphony, HECTOR BERLIOZ, 1803-1869 267 but the French ode symphony is something very differ- ent from this. The ode symphony is representative throughout, each division having its poetic or scenic sub- ject. The most noted example is Berlioz' " Romdo et Juliette " symphony, in which scenes from Shakspeare's tragedy are illustrated by solos, choruses and instru- mental numbers. Of the latter, the ball at the house of the Capulets and the Queen Mab scherzo show Berlioz at his highest attainment in musical invention and orchestral coloration. In the scene at the tomb he wrecks the programme principle by forcing it to a point where it gives no definite impression of any kind, musi- cal or other. The connection between the imagined actions of the lovers in their last moments and purely arbitrary musical figures is wholly artificial. These fig- ures have no organic connection among themselves. To one who does not have the programme in his memory down to the smallest detail the whole would convey no meaning. It must be observed that the true theory of programme music does not imply the possibility of mi- nute description of action by means of music alone. Another notable work is the symphony " Harold en ItaUe," — not a detailed programme work, but four sepa- rate movements, each illustrating a picture or idea, viz. Harold among the mountains ; pilgrims' song of praise ; a mountaineer's serenade ; orgy of brigands. The sym- phony is unique in that it is an orchestral work with a leading viola part. Like the " Symphonic fantastique " it has a theme common to all the movements, but with- out elaborate psychologic relations. By general consent Berlioz' greatest work is "La 268 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Damnation de Faust," founded on a French adaptation of Goethe's poem. It consists of a selection of scenes, vocal and instrumental, including Faust on the plains of Hungary (introducing a Hungarian march), Faust in his study, the Easter song, the meeting of Faust and Mephistopheles, scene in Auerbach's cellar, dances of gnomes and sylphs, scenes between Faust and Gretchen, Faust's invocation to nature, the course to the abyss, pandemonium, chorus of the damned and of demons, heaven, chorus of celestial spirits, redemption of Gretchen. Berlioz does not linger upon the spiritual import of Goethe's work, but rather upon the emotional, especially the spectacular elements. The task is per- fectly congenial, and he produces in this work some of his most tender, passionate and original music. There are noble passages in his " Requiem," one of the most permanently satisfying of all his compositions. His operas never succeeded. In the two Trojan operas and in the oratorio, " L'Enfance du Christ," he often attains a truly classic purity, simplicity and sweetness. Berlioz, who was so bold an innovator in independent in- strumental music, was timid and conservative in his work for the stage. His operas are now not heard, even in Paris. It has been observed that French romanticism, in spite of its air of revolt, was after all an evolution, and that the spell of academicism in French art has never really been broken. So with Berlioz ; he could not or would not abandon traditional form ; his technical con- structive power could not keep pace with his imagination. Neither was his melodic creativeness of the first order ; HECTOR BERLIOZ, 1803-1869 269 in his passion for inventing surprising instrumental combinations the really basic elements in music were often neglected. His compositions often have a patchy effect ; passages of great brilliancy alternate with those that are bald and uninteresting. Repetitions abound, his harmony is often forced, he often seems to strain after effect with a painful lack of spontaneity. It is as though Berlioz forgot that the power of music Hes not in the instant effect of individual sounds, but in their relations, their combination and development. Berlioz, nevertheless, often rises to greatness, and such moments are usually those in which an external action is to be represented. This preponderance of the panoramic does not, however, permanently satisfy. It excites admira- tion for its cleverness, but the note of genuine passion is too often wanting. Berlioz has never been able to create a strong and permanent body of admirers. Occasional revivals of interest in his works there are, but they are spasmodic. Certain of these compositions will probably endure. They are the work of a man of remarkable originahty and force of character, they have had great influence in many ways, they propound questions in musical aesthetics which will always be discussed and they furnish the illustrative material for both sides of the argument. " His collected works have exerted a weighty influ- ence upon musical art. He stands as the real originator and founder of the modern school, which is the leading one to-day, and whose advocates are striving to attain new aims and the highest possible success. Berlioz will 270 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC always represent a milestone in the development of nuisic, however that school may grow. He did not ap- proach, by any means, that ethical depth, that ideal per- fection and purity, which surround Beethoven's name with such unspeakable glory; but no composer since Beethoven — except Wagner — has enriched music with so many new means of expression, has pointed to so many new paths, as did this great Frenchman, whose sheer inexhaustible fantasy only appears the more pow- erful and rich the more we try to appreciate his compo- sitions." ** Berlioz and Liszt are, with Wagner, the great stars in the new musical epoch, the heroes of the last half of the nineteenth century, just as Haydn, Mo- zart, Beethoven, Weber and Schubert were the heroes of the first '* (Weingartner, The Symphony since Beethoven) . The critical literature in English on Berlioz is not very exten- sive, but a sense of the importance of the French master appears to be growing. Among the most instructive discussions are Weingartner, The Symphony since Beethoven ; Hadow, Studies in Modern Music^ vol. i ; Famous Composers and their Works, series i ; Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music ; Schumann, Music and Musicians, vol. i, article on the " Symphonie f autastique " ; Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century. XXXV FRANZ LISZT, 1811-1886 PRINCIPAL WORKS, — Notwithstanding Liszt' i epoch-miaking labors as pianist, teacher and conductor, he was the most prolific composer of modern times except possibly Schubert. Many of his works are so novel that they are difficult to classify. The most important groups are as follows : Orchestral works (original)^ including the '•'' FausV and " Dante " symphonies, 13 symphonic poems ; marches; orchestral works (^arrangements and transcrip- tions), including Hungarian rhapsodies and marches by Schubert ; 2 concertos for piano and orchestra ; arrange- ments for piano and orchestra^ including Schubert^s fantasie in C ; original works for piano solo, — etudes, " Harmonies poetiques et religieuses,''^ " Anri^es de pele- rinage,^^ '•'' L^gendes,^"* waltzes, ballades^ fantasies, etc.; arrajigements, transcriptions and paraphrases for piano solo, — songs, marches and waltzes by Schubert, songs by Rossini, Schumann, Franz, Beethoven, Cfhopin and others^ organ p>reludes and fugues by Bach, opera fantasies, 15 Hungarian rhapsodies, transcriptions of orchestral works by Beethoven (all the symphonies'), Berlioz, Wagner, Rossini, Weber and others ; a few original pieces and arrangements for organ ; masses y psalms and other church compositions, including the " Gran Mass " and the " Hungarian Coronation Mass " ; oratorios, — " Christus'* 272 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC and " Die Legenden von der heiligen Elizabeth ; " cantatas and other choral works ; choruses for merCs voices; songs for single voice and piano. The greatest single forces in nineteenth-century music are Beethoven, Wagner, Berlioz and Liszt. In versatility and all-around practical capacity Liszt may be considered the most compelling personal influence of his time. He was great as composer, pianist, conductor and teacher. His personal fascination and authority made him the creator of permanent schools in all depart- ments of his activity. As critic also his influence was positive. As a creative intellect and as a supreme inter- preter of the masters of his own and of preceding times his activity covered well-nigh the whole range of modern musical effort. Without him the musical culture of the present day would be different from what it is. With Berlioz he divides the honor of the headship of the pro- gramme school. He was not only the greatest pianist in history, but the whole school of piano playing of the present day takes its style and direction from him. His championship of certain rising and struggling composers of his day, especially of Wagner, was a service whose results cannot be over-estimated. In view of his in- flexible adherence to the highest ideals in art, and an unsellish generosity towards all worthy persons and causes unexampled among the great musicians, he has done more than perhaps any other to raise the honor of music in the sight of the world. The life of Liszt is of varied and constant interest. He was born near Oedenburg, Hungary. His father FRANZ LISZT, 1811-1886 273 was Hungarian, his mother of German descent. The father, a steward on the Esterhazy estate, gave his pre- cocious boy his first piano lessons. A brilUant appear- ance in public at the age of nine decided his future career. He then studied a year and a half wdth Carl Czerny in Vienna. After the age of twelve he took no lessons of anyone. In December, 1823, Liszt made his home in Paris, where he was acknowledged to be the equal of any living pianist. He continued his studies in composition which had been begun in Vienna. The shock caused by the death of his father, united with a strong bent toward religious contemplation (Liszt was always a consistent Catholic), caused his retirement from public life. He was aroused by the visit of Pa- ganini to Paris in 1831, and he conceived the ambition of becoming the Paganini of the piano. In 1834, after devoting three years to almost constant study of the re- sources of the piano, he again appeared before the Paris public. His rivalry with Thalberg (chap, xxix) is famous in musical annals. From 1834 to about 1847 he lived the life of a travelling concert pianist, and was hailed everywhere as the one supreme master of the in- strument. He gradually made it his purpose to bring the works of the best piano composers to the com- prehension of the public. He abandoned the life of a wandering virtuoso in 1847 and took a position as music director at Weimar under the patronage of the duke, in order that he might have leisure to follow his genius as composer, and also to work for the highest interests of music as opera and concert conductor and manager. In this double capacity his work at Weimar was in the high- 274 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC est degree fruitful. Among the performances of impor- tant works, new and old, under his direction, the first production of Wagner's " Lohengrin " in 1850 is of prime historic importance. Most of Liszt's best works in the larger forms date from his Weimar period. Weimar became one of the chief musical centres of Europe, important as a rally ing-point for the new tendencies. Conservative opposition to Liszt's innovations at last became strong enough to defeat his ultimate purposes, and he resigned his post in 1861. For the remainder of his life he divided his residence among Rome, Buda-Pesth and Weimar, for many years spending the summer in the latter city, surrounded by a crowd of brilliant young pianists whom he instructed gratuitously in the higher arts of interpretation. He died at Bayreuth while attending the Wagner festival. The friendship of Liszt with Wagner and Chopin, and the influence he exerted upon men like BUlow, Tausig, Saint-Saens, Raff and many others were of direct effect upon important musical movements. The remarkable ascendancy exercised over Liszt himself by the Princess Seyn- Wittgenstein was felt in his work as musical man- ager and as critic. The difficulties in the way of a proper estimate of the character and work of such a man as Liszt are doubtless very great. There is no satisfactory critical biography. The most ambitious attempt is that of Lina Ramann, Franz Liszt, Artist and Man; two volumes only, extending to 1840, have been translated. This book, although diffuse and disfigured by sentimental hero-worship, is a much better one than most of the commentators seem to think. The author is hardly able to judge the value of Liszt's works, but she gives on the whole a truthful representation of the conditions, social and artistic, in which he lived and to which he contributed. FRANZ LISZT, 1811-1886 275 Interesting and accurate accounts in Famous Composers and their Works, series i ; Grove's Dictionary, two articles, Liszt, in vol. ii, and vol. iv, appendix; Hueffer, Half a Century of Music in England; Amy Fay, Music Study in Germany, giving a lively account of Liszt's manner of teaching ; Mason, Memories of a Musical Life ; Niecks, Frederick Chopin ; Glasenapp-Ellis, Life of Wagner, treats fully Liszt's work at Weimar and the personality and influence upon Liszt of the Princess Seyn- Wittgenstein ; Finck, Wagner and his Works. Two volumes of. letters, trans, by Constance Bache, have been published. A clear light is thrown upon some inter- esting traits in Liszt's character in the Correspondence of Wagner and Liszt, 2 vols., trans, by Hueffer. Competent opinions all agree that Liszt was the great- est pianist the world has yet seen. Both in respect to technic and interpretation he created a new epoch. He closed the " virtuoso " period (chap, xxix) and in- augurated the interpretative period. In respect to technic his inspiration was the thought of bringing the capacity of the piano as near as possible to that of the violin, the voice and the orchestra. His transcriptions of Paganini's caprices, of songs of Schubert and others and of orchestral works were largely designed to reveal the higher powers of the piano which he was the first to divine. His technical contributions had for their aim increased fulness and grandeur of tone, greater variety of color and the throwing into relief of the inner melody in polyphonic work. The technic of the present day as compared with that of the classic period demands greater development of strength and flexibility in the fingers, wrist and the whole arm, peculiar fingerings due to the broader and more dispersed harmonies in chords and figuration, wider stretches and longer skips. The position of the hand and arm changes to suit the effect required ; every possible way of putting down a key is 276 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC employed, from the loose pressure touch to the most elastic staccato ; different touches are combined ; trills are played with changing figures, or for intensest brilliancy with both hands in single notes or in chords and octaves; the hands are interlocked and alternated in runs and octave effects ; by means of novel unions of high and low notes, dynamic adjustments, and by the refined study of both pedals the harmonic overtones are unveiled for the charming of the ear. In all this Liszt was a discoverer and revolutionary. He rose above his predecessors also in that he conceived technic as a means of expression. The greatest of techni- cians, he was also the first and still remains the greatest of the modern school of emotional, " dramatic " performers, whose aim is to reveal all the possibilities of beauty in the works of the great composers. He learned and taught the world that the fascinations of a supreme technic do not alone satisfy ; the pianist, like any other artist, must appeal to the intellect and the emotional sensibility. Liszt's achievements as a pianist have been exhaustively dis- cussed. The student is particularly referred to Ramann, Franz Liszt, for the fullest accounts of his playing and contemporary judgments upon it; Bie, History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players ; Fillmore, History of Piano Music ; Henderson, Preludes and Studies. There is an article of special interest by Saint-Saeus in the Century Magazine, February, 1893. Liszt's piano compositions are divided into original works and transcriptions. The line is not a completely separative one, for the transcriptions of songs, orchestral works, etc., are full of original material and are cast in a mould that was wholly Liszt's invention. In such cases as the Hungarian rhapsodies and the Schubert " Soirees FRANZ LISZT, 1811-1886 277 de Vienne" they are as original as, for instance, the chorale preludes of Bach. The whole scheme and motive of these transcriptions should be carefully noted. In no case are they mere transfers of the notes of the original composition ; as Bie says, " They are poetical resettings, seen through the medium of the piano." The song paraphrases are expansions and illuminations, the melodic theme is endowed with every conceivable variety of adornment and glory of tone. It cannot be denied that in many cases the song is made to surrender its vocal character and even its poetic meaning to the honor of the piano as a sound-producing agent. In the orchestral transcriptions, however, there can be no question of an expansion. Liszt in such cases (e. g. Beethoven's sym- phonies) holds in his mind the whole orchestral picture and then recasts the score to suit the requirements of the key-board and the possibilities of the ten fingers as he had developed them, letting his vast ingenuity act to produce all possible fulness, variety of tone and clearness in the leading of parts. In these "orchestral effects," which are also realized in his original works, piano tech- nic entered what is apparently its final stage. Among the transcriptions the Hungarian rhapsodies have a special interest, for they bring a new element into modern music. The themes and many of the rhythms are native ; the harmonies and decoration are Liszt's, at the same time modelled after the manner of the gypsy per- formers. They are not mere display pieces. Liszt, as he tells us, intended them as a sort of national epic, in- strumental ballads in which the spirit and the peculiar mode of expression of an interesting people are reflected. 278 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Liszt's wholly original works for the piano are thor- oughly individual. Opinions differ, however, in respect to the sheer musical value of their contents. They are of the advanced romantic school and most of them bear titles. Their author's love of nature, hterature and art, and often his religious feeling, are shown in them. Among those most held in honor by concert players are the sonata, the etudes (especially those in D fiat, F minor, " Waldesrauschen " and " Gnomenreigen "), a few of the " Annies de pelerinage " (especially the lovely " Au bord d'une source "), the polonaise in E flat, " L^- gendes," "Sonnets" and " Harmonies," and the concerto in E flat. The latter, in one movement, is thoroughly novel in form and treatment and in its relation to the orchestra. Liszt has challenged the criticism of the world in his orchestral works not less than in liis method of writing for the piano. His Weimar period was distinguished by his symphonies and symphonic poems. The compiler, who gives crude native materials an artistic form, is also seen in his Hungarian rhapsodies and marches for or- chestra. In Liszt's original orchestral works he casts in his lot completely with the programme school, holding essentially the same views as Berlioz concerning the de- scriptive value of music. As compared with Berlioz he gives more effort to the delineation of mood, character and subjective elements generally, less to the panoramic and imitative. He is also a more consistent romanticist than Berlioz in that he is less held by respect for old forms, and he compels form as well as color and detail to submit to the guidance of the poetic subject. He is also FRANZ LISZT, 1811-1886 279 a master of the resources of the modern orchestra, although ]ess ingenious and startling than Berlioz ; superior to his rival in musical science and in plastic shaping power. The " Faust " and " Dante " sjonphonies are in many respects unique. The former suggests no allusion, save by remote implication, to the events of the Faust story, but is purely psychologic. The first movement is a development of four leading themes which characterize Faust in his contending passions and aspirations, hopes and despairs. The second movement portrays the inno- cent, loving spirit of Gretchen in suitable melodies and harmonies. The third movement deals with Mephis- topheles, who, as the representative of irony and negation, and who strives to turn natural impulses to an evil end, has no symbolical theme of his own, but caricatures and distorts the motives of Faust in the first movement. At the close the spirit of evil is driven away in the tender Gretchen motive, and the work concludes with the mystic hymn that closes the second part of Goethe's " Faust," sung by a male chorus. The '' Dante " symphony consists of two parts, the "Inferno" and the " Purgatorio," closing with the Magnificat, sung by female voices. In the first move- ment the terrors of hell are depicted in the harshest and most vivid figures and colors, interrupted by the episode of Paolo and Francesca (canto v of Dante's "Inferno,"), one of Liszt's most beautiful inspirations. The second movement is peaceful and tender, rising to a triumphant close. In the "symphonic poem" Liszt contributed a new form. The symphonic poem is a work in a single movQ- 280 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC ment, in which sometimes a continuous series of ideas or occurrences is illustrated by the music, sometimes a single conception is revealed in changing lights. This form is a sort of compromise between the poetic overture of Berlioz and Mendelssohn and the programme symphony of Berlioz. The structure is fragmentary and episodic, the classic sonata form being abjured ; there is complete freedom in changes of key, tempo and style, the music following the programme implicitly. In certain of Liszt's works of this class, however, the various sections are based upon a single theme, or it may be two themes are alternated ; a constructive unity is thus attained. This device was doubtless suggested by Berlioz' " Symplionie fantastique." Pohl, in Franz Liszt, has classified Liszt's symphonic poems, — " Orpheus," " Prometheus," " Tasso," " Mazeppa " and " Hamlet," portraying " the struggle and pain of a powerful spirit, his striving for light, his combat with hostile powers " ; " The Pre- ludes," "Festal Sounds," "What is Heard upon the Mountains " (Victor Hugo) and "The Ideals" (Schiller), more reflective and general in their meaning ; " Lament for a Hero," " Hungaria," " The Battle of the Huns " (Kaulbach's painting), works of a patriotic suggestion. The programmes of Liszt's symphonies and several of the symphonic poems are given by Upton, The Standard Symphonies. For discussions : Famous Composers and their Works, article LL^zt ; Weingartner, The Symphony since Beethoven ; Saint-Saens, Franz Liszty Century Magazine, February, 1893. Of special interest is Wagner's article on Liszt's symphonic poems, Prose Works (Ellis), vol. iii. Still another group of works consists of religious com- positions for chorus, solos and orchestra, including ora- FRANZ LISZT, 1811-1886 281 torios, masses and psalms. The most important of the church works are the mass for the dedication of the cathedral at Gran, and the "Hungarian Coronation Mass." Liszt was throughout his life a loyal Catholic and was always strongly inclined towards religious mys- ticism. This disposition unites with his musical roman- ticism and love of tonal splendor to give his masses certain traits peculiarly their own. Some of his most melodious and forcible music is to be found in them. The oratorio "St. Elizabeth" is a setting of scenes from the legendary life of EUzabeth of the Wartburg. It is often performed and is considered Liszt's most successful choral work. The " Christus " does not represent the personality of the Saviour, but the idea embodied in his life and teaching. The work is divided into three parts, comprising the Nativity, Christ's life and work and his Passion and Resurrection. The musical style and arrange- ment are altogether novel, including a capella hymns, de- clamatory passages and elaborate choruses. The text is taken from the Scriptures and the Catholic liturgy. The rank of Liszt as a composer cannot be considered settled; opinions greatly differ, and the controversy bids fair to last a long time yet. His disciples are con- fident that he will finally be reckoned among the great- est of composers. Those who doubt assert that Liszt was deficient in melodic invention, that his power of framing and expanding an idea was greatly in excess of his power of origination, that his music lacks spontaneity, that he was constantly laboring for an effect, and was fatally possessed by his musical theories. Of Liszt's literary writings only the life of Chopin 282 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC has been translated into English. His book on the gypsies and their music in Hungary, his essays on " Der fliegende Hollander," " Tannhauser " and " Lohengrin " (highly important in calling the attention of the world to Wagner's genius), the essays on Berlioz and Schumann, and on conducting, the letters to friends during his concert tours, are extremely interesting as criticism and also in the light they throw on the high-minded and generous character of their author. The over-exuberant literary style, so frequent in Liszt's writing, is attributed by Glasenapp {Life of Wagner) to the officious assist- ance of the Princess Wittgenstein. As orchestral conductor Liszt was one of the leaders of the later school. The conductor of the present day, unlike the old-school time beater, applies to orches- tral performance the principles that bold in the most advanced interpretation in piano or violin playing. He follows not tradition but his own feeling, he offers a thoroughly individual reading, he seeks every means of expression attainable by modifications of tempo, refined phrasing and nuance in the ensemble and the individual parts. He beats the rhythm rather than the measure ; he strives to attain in every way a rendering that is characteristic and the disclosure of new beauties. We now have the virtuoso conductor, as well as the vii'tuoso pianist. The principles and methods of the higher interpretation in orchestral playing have been laid down by Wagner in his essay On Conducting^ trans, by Dannreuther and also by Ellis in Wag- ner's Prose Works. An excellent historical and critical essay on conducting and conductors has been written by Rupert Hughes in Famous Composers and their Works, series 11. XXXVI THE OPERA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY TO ABOUT 1850. I. ITALIAN OPERA The clue to the history of the opera since its beginning is found in the struggle for control on the part of its two essential elements, viz. the musical and the dramatic. What is the function of each in relation to the other ? Is the opera in theory a drama, with music tributary to poetry, scene and action ; or does it exist solely for mu- sical enjoyment, the dramatic element serviceable merely for giving direction to the music ? On one side we have the conviction commonly held by philosophic critics and the literary class, — that the opera is properly a drama with music, that its justifying value lies first in the plot and the development of character in action, the music a means for the expression of character and intensifying the dramatic situation. This behef implies that the form and style of the music should be controlled by the poetic subject. Reality, truth, genuineness in the ex- pression of human feeling, should shape and control action, scene and music alike. The practical tendency of the opera, however, has usually been strongly in the opposite direction, and dramatic values have been sacri- ficed to musical charm and virtuosity, especially in stage singing. It is notorious that the opera public has, as a rule, cared little for dramatic quality, but has been satis- ^ 284 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC fied with delectable melody and brilliant singing, regard- less of musical appropriateness. A similar shallowness of judgment has been shown in a general childlike delight in sensational scenic effect. Composers have been complaisant to public taste, and composers and public alike have been subjugated by the singers. In the great majority of operas, therefore, the plot has been . weak and artificial, the characters conventional, action disregarded for the sake of vocaHsm and stage tableaux." The history of the opem, until a recent date at least, has on the whole been such as to bring it into disrepute with serious minds. As a consequence of these tenden- cies, allied with public fickleness, the opera has proved the most ephemeral of all forms of art. It has been held as simply a means of amusement, not a means of encouraging reflection or stirring deep and noble emotion. On the other hand there have always been composers, poets, managers and critics who have felt that it is not only possible, but in every way desirable, that strong and worthy subject and action should be united with powerful and truly expressive music on equal terms, and the opera take its place beside the spoken drama in its best estate. There must be a form of drama, so good in itself that intelligent people will respect it, which at the same time can be wedded to music without losing its force. And there must be a kind of music, beautiful and impressive in itself, which is well adapted to the needs of dramatic expression, and can strengthen poetry and action without distracting the mind from them. Throughout the history of the opera this conviction has ITALIAN OPERA TO 1850 285 been gaining ground. The higher view of dramatic claims in opera, exemplified consciously or uncon- sciously, with more or less of inconsistency and com- promise, by the greatest minds among opera composers, has at last prevailed in opera production, and seems destined to conquer the public judgment also. The chief force in this elevation of the opera and the establishment of the true theory concerning it is, of course, the works and teachings of Wagner. Yet Wagner is only the frui- tion of a movement, the sign of the triumph of an idea which had been held by many reformers before his time. The most serious difficulty in the way of the re- formers of the opera has lain in the composite nature of the opera as a form of art. Poetry, action, scenery, vocal music and instrumental music are attacking the listener*s attention at the same instant. The human powers of reception are limited ; several impressions may be received at the same time, but not with equal intensity. The most vivid and immediate impression is doubtless made by the music ; the complete subordina- tion of music to poetry which existed in the Greek drama is, of course, out of the question. If one element must be partially or wholly sacrificed, must it not be the one that appeals most to the reflection and logical judg- ment, viz. text, development of plot and delineation of character ? The only solution of this difficulty is found in bringing about so far as possible a unity of impression among all the factors, — moulding the music in accord- ance with the dramatic movement, bringing it in struc- ture and style into the greatest possible harmony with sentiment and event. 286 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Here then is the student's guide in the maze of opera history in the nineteenth century, — the shifting for- tunes of the two contending principles in opera, the struggle to unite music and the drama to the higher glory of both. That such unity should exist and that stage music finds its true mission in dramatic expression is no longer called in question by the leaders in creation and criticism; the controversy that still goes on, and probably will go on forever, is over the means by which this desired end can best be attained. The Italian opera, with a few notable exceptions, has always been controlled by the effort to give pleasure by means of abstract melody and seductive vocalism. Its prevailing characteristics have been artificiality and feebleness of plot, comparative neglect of the orchestral part, subordination of every other feature to tunefulness and vocal display. The Italian bel canto has been the ruling power. The Italian operatic revival under Ros- sini and his followers was based on practically the same principle as the eighteenth-century opera seria. Its extraordinaiy success for a time was due to the luscious- ness of its melody and the cleverness of its devices to tickle the sensibilities of a public that cared only for novelty and excitement. The decline of the Rossini school in the latter part of the century was due to the awakening of a higher demand under the influence of the French and German composers. As compared with the old Italian opera, however, the school of Rossini and bis followers possessed merits which must be recognized. An advance dramatically and musically over its prede- 1 ITALIAN OPERA TO 1850 287 cesser, it was at the same time a reactionary obstacle to the progress of still higher ideals emanating from Ger- man and French sources. The Italian grand opera of the eighteenth century had faded to an extent that seemed to forebode extinc- tion in the hands of such men as Paisiello, Paer and Zingarelli. It suddenly burst forth with new splendor under Rossini, swept public taste along with it, and the Italian bel canto once more gave the law to the lyric stage. GiOACHiNO Rossini (1792-1868), born in Pesaro, Italy, gained a European fame with "Tancredi" (1813). Italy, Austria, Germany and Paris became successively the scenes of his conquests. Operas ran from his pen in an incessant stream. About forty, including farces, were produced between 1810 and 1829. The most im- portant are "II Barbiere di Siviglia," "La Cenerentola," " La Gazza Ladra," " Guillaume Tell," " LTtaliana in Algeri," "Mosd in Egitto," " OteUo," " Semiramide," "Le Si%e de Corinthe " and "Tancredi." Only "II Barbiere di Siviglia " and " GuiUaume Tell " still keep the stage. No other composer of recent times ever had so instant and complete a success. His triumph was the triumph of the Italian aria in its most seductive form. Considerations of dramatic truth, interest of sub- ject and character, appropriateness of music to text and situation were often lost sight of. Rossini had the spirit of a showman, not of a teacher or reformer. His aim was immediate success before an unreflecting public, and he cared little for the lasting value of the means employed. For about twenty years he was entertainer-in-chief for 288 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC all Western Europe. He came at a time when the aver- age musical taste was at a low ebb in all countries ; he took the taste for what is showy and superficial as he found it, and exploited it with consummate skill. It is, however, unjust to Rossini to hold him respon- sible for the shallowness of musical culture and the neglect of the great masters. His influence was not altogether corrupting; in some respects and in many- quarters it was salutary. That he poured new life into the stagnant veins of the Italian opera is undeniable. He introduced a higher grade of melody and a nobler style of singing. He curbed the ancient license of the singers to alter the notes and improvise flourishes and cadenzas at will. His arias are profusely adorned, often to the complete destruction of dramatic expression, but these passages Rossini wrote himself and insisted that the singers follow the notes as he gave them. He re- stored the bass voice to its rights in grand opera and, best of all, brought to an end the disgraceful reign of the artificial male soprano. He varied the unbroken succession of arias and recitatives of the old opera seria with concerted pieces and finales. He broke the monotony of the old secco recitative and made use of the strings, sometimes the wind also, in its accompani- ment. He vastly enlarged the importance of the orches- tra as compared with his Italian forerunners, and showed decided skill and taste in orchestration. His subjects took a wider range and his plots and person- ages were endowed with greater human interest. His weakness lay in tricks and mannerisms, and in his will- ingness to sacrifice dramatic propriety to melodious ITALIAN OPERA TO 1850 289 fascination and vocal fireworks. His melody, at times voluptuous, often brilliant beyond all precedent, is that of a genius in melodic invention, and of one who per- fectly understood the capacities of the human voice. His strongest qualities lay in opera buffa. Hardty less noted as a wit and hon vivant than as a musician, he has given in " II Barbiere di Siviglia " a real master- piece of its class. It still remains unsurpassed; its popularity has hardly abated ; its spontaneity, liveliness and vigor of characterization are genuine and as much enjoyed in one epoch as another. " Guillaume Tell," Rossini's masterpiece in the serious vein, belongs to the French school of grand opera (see chap, xxxvii). After Rossini's unaccountable abandonment of the theatre in 1829, he wrote his "Stabat Mater" and " Messe Solennelle." In brilliancy and variety of melody these works are no whit inferior to his operas ; as church works the purified taste of the present day condemns them. They are a strange mixture of sincerity and clap-trap. The inappropriateness to the text of the famous " Cujus animam " and "- Inflammatus " of the " Stabat Mater " might almost be called sacrilege. The true balance of Rossini's faults and merits is still disputed, although the controversy has now lost most of its interest. The best that can be said for him is found in Chouquet's article in Grove's Dictionary. Other valuable criticisms by Apthorp, The Opera, Past and Present; Famous Composers and their Works, series i, article Rossini. A brilliant group of composers gathered around Ros- sini, continuing his methods and principles, contributing 290 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC nothing essentially new. The most accomplished were Gaetano Donizetti (1798-1848) and Vincenzo Bellini (1802-1835). They were almost as gifted as theii master in the invention of melody of the bewitching, often cloying Italian type, and although their immense popularity has declined and the taste disciplined by nobler models now slights them, they still have a loyal body of adherents. Donizetti is at his best in comic opera. The most important among his more than sixty-five operas are '* Anna Bolena," *' L'Elisir d*Amore," " Lucrezia Borgia," *' Lucia di Lammer- moor," '' La Fille du Regiment" (opdra-comique), "La Favorita," " Linda di Chamouni " and *' Don Pasquale " (opera buffa). The chief works of Bellini are " La Somnambula," *' Norma " and " I Puritani." In Bellini, the Sicilian, a soft, effeminate, sentimental and luxurious tone prevails. In ^' Norma," however, there is real dramatic passion, which seems to show that with longer life Bellini would have risen above the debilitating influences of his school. We must not deny genuine emotion to Donizetti and Bellini, as well as some high gifts. That they are still admired by so many art patrons shows that there is sub- stance in their works. Their faults are those of their genre and their education; their merits, although of a light and volatile order, may still be tolerated when they give opportunity for the display of the exquisite art of a Marcella Sembrich and an Enrico Caruso. Verdi, although having many traits in common with those of the Rossini school, at least in his earlier operas, must not be classed with it (see chap. xli). ITALIAN OPERA TO 1850 291 In accounting for the success of the works of Rossini, Bellini and Donizetti, large account must be taken of the extraordinary group of singers identified with them. The nineteenth century, especially the fii-st half, saw vocalism raised to a height of splendor never before equalled, unless in some particulars by a few of the notabilities of the eighteenth centuiy. They were the adored of all Europe ; their wonderful voices and fault- less execution are among the bright traditions of music history. In purity, power, finish and flexibility these singers stand as models for all time. Their names, many of which are almost household words, include Jenny Lind, Grisi, Malibran, Sontag, Patti, Sembrich, sopranos ; Alboni and Scalchi, contraltos ; Rubini, Tam- berlik, Mario, Tamagno, Campanini and Caruso, tenors ; Lablache, bass. Many of these singers and others not inferior shone also in the French opera. The interest in the study of the history of the art of song in the nineteenth century now chiefly centres in the change of ideal in opera singing, the comparison between the Italian bel canto and the style demanded in the German and French opera, and created by the lyric dramas of Wagner. On the one hand vocalism for the sheer, sensnous pleasure of the ear, — abstract vocalism for its own sake ; on the other, vocalism shorn of redundancies and ornaments, existing solely or chiefly for interpreta- tion of every shade of emotion as dictated by the text and situation. Add to the standard writings on the opera as already given ; Grove's Dictionary, articles Opera, Schools and especially Singing. But little time need be spent over the numerous t^ossinv %unals 292 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC and reminiscences in which opera heroes flourish, such as Ferris, Great Singers ; Edwards, The Prima Donna ; Hogarth, Memoirs of the Musical Drama; Mapleson, Memoirs, etc. Mr. Apthorp is right in saying that this opera "became the theme of probably the worst musical literature (written by amateurs) the world has ever had to blush for." An admirable comparison between the ideals of the old operatic school of singing and the new may be found in the chapter, Italian and German Vocal Styles, in Finck's Chopin and other Musical Essays. Mr. Apthorp, treating a similar subject in the chapter, The Art of the Opera Singer, in The Opera, Past and Present, calls attention to technical defects in the new style. The development of the libretto is a subject to be considered in opera history. Note in the operas of Donizetti and Bellini the adoption of romantic subjects, with an attempt at portrayal of reality and true passion, in place of the inane "gods and heroes " of the old opera seria. There is an interesting essay on the opera libretto in Studies in Music, ed. by Gray. Plots may be found in Upton, The Standard Operas, and Annesley, The Standard Opera Glass. Piano and vocal scores of the chief operas of Rossini, Donizetti and Bellini are published by Novello, Boosey and others. XXXVII THE OPERA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY TO ABOUT 1850. 11. FRENCH OPERA With the triumphant close of the campaign of Gluck, Paris became the head centre of European opera, and remained so throughout the greater part of the nineteenth century. No reputation could be considered satisfac- torily established until Paris had affixed the seal of its approval. Notwithstanding what we now see to be the world-wide significance of Mozart's " Figaro " and " Don Giovanni," Beethoven's " Fidelio " and Weber's " Der Freischiitz " and "Euryanthe," their success was at first local and temporary. The opera must pass through several important stages before the lyric drama of Wagner could effect its conquest, and the history of the opera in Paris may be considered as an inevitable preliminary so far at least as the education of public appreciation is concerned. The old Italian "god and hero " opera and the French grand opera of Lully had been drained by Gluck of whatever vitality the}'- pos- sessed ; the old forms were but shells and could be discarded, and styles more suited to the needs of the new age appeared in their stead. It is somewhat diffi- cult to classify the numerous French operas of the nineteenth century among the several genres. Theoreti- cally there are two categories, — the grand opera or 294 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC trag^die-lyrique, performed at the Acad^mie de Musique, and the op^ra-comique, performed at the theatre of that name. The confusion lies in the second class, for the op^ra-comique, originating in the eighteenth century in the vaudeville, gradually expanded and elevated its music and its subjects, and reduced the space given to the spoken dialogue, until in certain later works pathetic and cheerful scenes are mingled as in the higher grade of spoken comedy, and in some instances the subject is even tragic and the dialogue given in recitative. In such cases there is no apparent distinction between the grand opera and the op^ra-comique, and their desig- nation depends merely upon the theatre — Academic de Musique or Op6ra-comique — in which they are per- formed. This breaking down of the hard and fast dis- tinction between the serious and the comic orders resulted in that form of opera of " middle character " which has been one of the most important art contribu- tions of the nineteenth century. Another striking fact in the history of the French opera of the nineteenth century is the great share given to its development by foreign musicians. Among the most distinguished writers of French opera beginning with Gluck, a German, are Cherubini, Spontini and Ros- sini, Italians, and Meyerbeer and Offenbach, Germans. An opera always takes the national name of the language in which it is written ; there are national types of melody, because vocal melody is born of speech ; moreover, the works of these men are based on French forms and their style is colored in accordance with the requirements of the French spirit and French taste. Nevertheless, the FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 295 early education and the native habit of these Italian and German composers could not be outgrown, and the re- sult of all the influences involved has been a form of music which, if not cosmopolitan, is eclectic rather than strictly French. Even in the most original composers of French birth, such as Boieldieu, Auber and, later, Gounod and Bizet, the form and tone of their works have been to a large extent guided by the ideas of Gluck, Mozart, Meyerbeer and, in recent times, of Wagner. On the other hand the reconstituted French opera has re- acted upon Italy and Germany, its influence being unmistakable in the later works of Verdi and even in the dramas of Wagner. The rapid development of German instrumental music, and the powers of dramatic expression revealed in the orchestra of Mozart, Beethoven and Weber, must be recognized as one of the chief vitalizing forces in the creation of the new French opera. Add to these influences the strongly developed dra- matic sense of the French people which, from the days of Lully, separated the whole conception and treatment of the French opera from the Italian. The first of the naturalized Italians to contribute im- portant works to the modern French school was LuiGi Cherubini (1760-1842). He was born in Florence, enjoyed a strict training in the counterpoint of the Palestrina school, went to Paris in 1788 and became conspicuous as a writer of serious operas. He was successful with the public and was recognized as the most learned musician in France. His stem, uncom- promising, patrician character aroused the dislike of the 296 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC emperor Napoleon, who appreciated only the shallowest of Italian operas, his advancement was thereby hin- dered and he twice withdrew from the Paris stage The latter part of his career is distinguished by his masses and other religious works, which have gained him a place in the front rank of composers for the Cath- olic church. His sound early training in the severe ecclesiastical style, his experience in stage vocal music and his mastery of orchestral writing derived from his study of his favorite German models, Haydn and Mozart, are all apparent in these massive and brilliant compositions. The chief of these are the requiems in C minor and D (the latter for men's voices), the masses in D minor, A and C and the a capella Credo for eight voices. His most famous dramatic works are : " Demo- phon" (1788), "Lodoiska" (1791)," Med^e" (1797), " Les deux Journ^es " (known in English as " The Water Carrier," 1800), " Anacr^on" (1803) and ^'Faniska" (1806). In 1822 he became director of the Paris Con- servatoire, and in this post showed great ability as teacher and administrator. In his later years he wrote symphonies, quartets and other instrumental works which have not added to his fame. " Les deux Journdes " is still rarely performed ; Cheru- bini's other operas have been abandoned. His works display his accomplished musicianship ; they are wrought with earnestness ; the chief stress is laid upon the con- certed scenes and the choruses. He is a disciple of Gluck and the Germans ; not deficient in melody, yet he relied not upon the arts of the singer but upon character- ization. His works only lack that spark of genius which FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 297 alone is preservative. His importance is mainly historic as one of the founders of that higher form of French opera, technically classed as opdra-comique, in which serious subjects are treated in a manner similar to that employed in the grand opera, preserving only the spoken dialogue. Cherubini is best known to the general musi- cal public by certain of his very effective opera overtures, which are often given on the concert platform in Ger- many and France. The spirit of Gluck survived also in his disciple, Etienne- Henri Mj^hul (1763-1817), who shares with Cherubini the honor of leading the op^ra-comique into that path of dramatic earnestness and musical breadth in which it has won such distinction. Aban- doning the mythological machinery which had long ago lost all interest, and rising above the levity and superfici- ality of the comic opera, this new order chose themes lying nearer to contemporary concerns, mingling the serious and playful, aiming at a truthful characterization of ideas and feelings that act in the general life of humanity. M^hul had less learning than Cherubini, but more grace and spontaneity. He excelled in charac- ter drawing ; with moderate means he attained dignity and penetration in the expression of genuine feeling. His fame rests chiefly upon his *' Joseph," in which, although lacking a leading female role, the impression of patriarchal life is imparted with great skill and charm. A remarkable career was that of Gasparo Spon- TINI (1774-1851), an Italian who came to Paris in 1803, threw himself into the current of opera set in motion by Gluck, and opened still another vein by seiz- 298 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC .ng subjects of an heroic, martial nature, and setting them forth with an unprecedented pomp of scenic parade and orchestral splendor. Such themes also hit a ruling taste during the Napoleonic regime, and Spontini has been gen- erally described as the dramatic interpreter of the spirit of French imperiahsm. He enjoyed a complete triumph in " La Vestale," a romantic Roman subject, in 1807. *' Fer- nand Cortez," a Spanish and Mexican subject, followed in 1809, and " Olympic," a Greek subject, in 1819. Ap- pointed director of the royal opera in Berlin in 1820, he produced several operas, the chief of which is " Agnes von Hohenstaufen," a subject taken from medisevai German life. Spontini's example in choosing heroic themes, based more or less on historic fact, and em- bellishing them with every means of scenic and orches- tral display, was followed by Rossini in " Guillaurae Tell,*' Auber in *' La Muette de Portici," Meyerbeer in " Les Huguenots " and " Le Prophete " and Wagner in "Rienzi." Spontini's purposes were always noble and he strove consciously to elevate the opera dramatically and musically; but in spite of some great gifts, his pathos is strained, his martial parade rings hollow. His operas have not depth and reality enough to maintain them in view of the elaborate equipment necessary to perform them. Their popularity never recovered from the heavy blow dealt by Weber's " Der Freischiitz " at its first performance at Berlin in 1821. The original conception of the op(?ra-comique as a portrayal of the humorous side of life was maintained by a brilliant company of writers, the most racy of whom before Auber was Francois- Adrien Boieldieu FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 299 (1775-1834). Beginning with light operas in which a large amount of spoken dialogue was interspersed with song-like numbers, Boieldieu developed a style in which an earnest tone is often employed, and a music more continuous and developed with a view to the expression of a considerable range of sentiment. Boieldieu has abundant wit and sparkle, a characteristically French lightness of touch, and a gift of very dehghtful melody. His most successful operas are " Le Calife de Bagdad,'* " Jean de Paris" and " La Dame blanche." The latter is a classic of the op^ra-comique, thoroughly French in spite of its Scotch subject, an admirable specimen of refined musical comedy. The king of op^ra-comique in the generation follow- ing Boieldieu was DANiEL-FRANgois-EsPRiT Auber (1782-1871). In habit and temperament Auber was a genuine Parisian, and the pleasure-loving public of the gay city never possessed an entertainer more to their heart. His works combine in a representative degree those qualities of wit, grace and vivacity that especially characterize the lighter French drama. He was slow in " finding himself," and his first decided success was won only at the age of thirty-eight. From that time he rode on the top wave of popularity. His most important op^ras-comiques are "Le Ma9on," "La Fiancee," " Fra Diavolo," " Le Cheval de bronze," " Le Domino noir " and " Les Diamants de la Couronne." The latter work approaches near to grand opera in largeness of scale and dramatic and orchestral force. Through Auber's talent for characterization he succeeded in giving an air of reality to his stage personages, amon^ whom we find mai^ 800 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Parisian types. He was very successful in seeking local color. He has an inexhaustible fund of piquant melody, while his cleverness in orchestration gives a raciness to his scores that has never lost its savor. Among other writers of op^ra-comique the most successful in this period were Louis-Joseph-Ferdinand Harold (1791-1833) and Adolphe-Charles Adam (1803- 1856). Harold's best-known works are " Zampa " and " Le Pr^ aux Clercs." The latter, which tends toward the grand opera style, is preferred in France. Hdrold is especially rich in orchestration. Adam, who is remem- bered chiefly for a few brilliant tenor songs in " Le Pos- tilion de Longjumeau," rarely rose above triviality. The French grand opera entered upon a new career of glory under the guidance of Rossini, Auber and Meyer- beer. Rossini made his permanent residence in Paris in 1824, revived some of his earlier works and modified them out of deference to French taste by pruning away some of their vocal redundancies, broadening the recitative and giving more space to concerted scenes and choruses. The climax of his effort to naturalize himself as a French composer was in his " Guillaume Tell," produced in the Academic in 1829. This work is still considered Rossini's masterpiece, one in which his wonderful melodic gifts are held to the service of dramatic expression so far as such an achievement was in Rossini's nature. The way in which " Tell " appealed to the French musical judgment of the time and since is expressed by Chouquet, who calls attention to the freshness and grace with whicli Rossini has depicted the Alps and their pastoral inhabitants ; " the FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 301 notes which convey the distress of the agonized father ; the enthusiastic expression of the heroes of Switzerland ; the harrowing phrases which convey the anguish of a son renouncing all that he holds most dear ; the astonishing variety of the colors in which the conspiracy is painted ; the grandeur of the outlines ; the severity of the style ; the co-existence of so much variety with such admirable unity ; the truly Olympian dignity which reigns through- out " (Grove's Dictionary^ article Rossini'). Later events have served to dim the colors of this much-lauded work and a good deal of the substratum is found to be unstable ; but there is much in it that is strong and sincere, with melody that appeals to a lasting taste. The rather over- rated overture is still popular. The complete abandon- ment of the stage by Rossini after the production of this opera, at the age of thirty-seven, has never been satisfac- torily explained. In the development of the French heroic opera, on the way to its culmination in the hands of Meyerbeer, " Tell '* is a transition work. So also was its famous rival of 1828, Auber's " La Muette de Portici," known in Eng- land and America as '' Masaniello." This opera is based upon a revolt of the populace of the kingdom of Naples against the oppression of a tyrannical viceroy in 1647. Auber and his librettist, Scribe, made several departures from historic verity, particularly in the introduction of Fenella, the chief female character, who is dumb. The difficulty of finding at that time a soprano qualified for a leading role in the opera was thus cleverly surmounted. Auber's genius for piquant melody and orchestral color- ation, elsewhere so effectively displayed in op^ra-comique, 302 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC is used here for dignified ends and with brilliant success. He does not yield to the temptation to throw his weight upon theatrical pomp and show, but strives to individ- ualize his characters and to give the work local color. The latter purpose he effects by a liberal use of imitations of Italian folk songs and dances, such as the tarantella and barcarolle. This opera has a place in political history, for the revolution by which Belgium gained independence of Holland in 1830, although long preparing, came to an outbreak in Brussels under the excitement produced by a performance of " La Muette." This opera still holds its popularity. The history of the French grand opera culminates in GiACOMO Meyerbeer (1791-1864). He was a German Jew, born in Berlin; was a fellow pupil of Weber at Munich for a time and wrote one or two German operas; then went to Italy and adopted the Rossini manner; went to Paris in 1826, changed his direction a second time and built up the style by wLich he is now known. His chief works are "Robert le Diable " (1831), " Les Huguenots " (1836), " Le Pro- phete " (1849), " L^Etoile du Nord " (1854), " Le iPar- don de Ploermel " (1859), known also as " Dinorah," and " L' Africaine " (1864). The first three in this Hst are those which have given him his fame. Few composers have been so much eulogized and so much reviled as Meyerbeer. The opinion of Wagner and Schumann, who denounced him as an unmitigated charlatan and trickster, may be set off against the view of his French admirers, many of them able critics, who pronounce him one of the greatest of musico-dramatic FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 303 geniuses. The truth doubtless lies between these two estimates. While in sheer musical imagination and science he cannot be called one of the greatest of musi- cians, yet he was not lacking in ideas, and was deficient in sustained development rather than in thematic inven- tion. His ingenuity and command in the matter of orchestral combination for dramatic purposes is unques- tioned. He had many great inspirations, and there are pages in his works that will always rank among the most powerful in opera history. Meyerbeer is usually spoken of as an eclectic. In music, as in literature and painting, there was at this time in France a chaos of opinion and a ferment in pro- duction, subjects and styles, the most incongruous jostling each other and contending for supremacy. The most sensational as well as the most normal features that had been developed in the French, Italian and Ger- man schools were seized by Meyerbeer and flung together, without regard to any lack of consistency that might result. The product, however, was something that had in an indescribable way the stamp of Meyerbeer's cwn personality. No operatic composer was ever more un- even, and this is due not only to a lack of spontaneity in creation, but still more to his intense desire to make " effect " at every point, no matter at what loss of musi- cal unity. A work of his is, therefore, as Mrs. Julian Marshall says (Grove's Dictionary^ article Meyerbeer)^ a consummate piece of mosaic rather than an organic struc- ture. Yet this mosaic is undeniably brilliant, often keen and convincing in characterization, often shallow and pretentious. The accusation seems well grounded that 304 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Meyerbeer's one overweening desire was to gratify the taste of his audience, and that, not the most intelligent and reflective portion, but the mob of theatre-goers who crave novelty and sensation at all cost. To gain this end he did not spare himself the most exhausting labors. The apparent slowness of his composition is chiefly due to the endless revision to which he subjected his work, — not to make it more true and more worthy of the high- est dramatic demands, but more fetching at the first hearing. He often disfigured his arias by excessive colorature, catering thus to the vanity of singers and the love of portions of his audiences for Italian frippery. He is, of course, not to be held responsible for the public passion for gaudy and blatant scenic and musical effects, but instead of striving to bring theatrical pageantry under the control of a lofty poetic aim, he was careful to choose subjects and arrange scenes that would lend themselves most readily to fantastic and overloaded spectacle. Yet Meyerbeer was certainly an innovator in legitimate ways, his scores contain many beauties, he often shows an extraordinary dramatic imaginative power, his range of expression was very wide, he en- larged the scope of dramatic portrayal and in many ways influenced French opera, and German and Italian opera also, for good. At his best he is a melodist and harmo- nist of a high order, and in the use of the orchestra for dramatic characterization he showed an originality and versatility that have rarely been equalled. If his operas eventually disappear from the stage it will, perhaps, be not on account of unworthiness of their music to sur- vive, but because such subjects and characters as tbost FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 305 of " Robert le Diable," " L' Africaine," " Le Proph^te " and even '^ Les Huguenots " are no longer enjoyed by a public which is coming to demand greater simplicity and a finer psychologic interpretation. Meyerbeer's greatest work is unquestionably " Les Huguenots," and while portions are tawdry and coarse, others deserve all the praise that has been lavished upon them. Such scenes as the consecration of the swords and the last interview between Valentine and Raoul are not only the high- water mark of their author's genius, but seem destined to hold their place among the noblest pages in the literature of the opera. Even Wagner could pause in his denunciation of the arch-corruptor of dramatic taste, as he deemed him, to pay enthusiastic tribute to the genius that conceived these two powerful scenes. The success of Meyerbeer's three chief operas was hardly less in Germany than in France. From the first appearance of " Robert le Diable " until the opening of the Bayreuth theatre Meyerbeer dominated the German stage. The only composer in Meyerbeer's genre who could be called a rival was Jacques-FrauQois-Elias Hal^vy (1T99-1862), whose grand opera, "La Juive " (1835), compounded of elements very similar to those of Meyer- beer's *' historic " operas, contains enough of dramatic force and musical beauty to give it an honored place upon the French stage. Of Hal^vy's numerous opdras- comiques only one, *' L'^clair," is considered worthy of the fame of the author of " La Juive." " In spite of its numerous defects the grand opera has 20 306 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC exercised an important influence upon the further de- velopment of the music drama. By a more productive drawing together of orchestral, mimetic and decorative means of effect, it pointed the way to a unified work of art. It effected a significant increase of the expressive power of the orchestra as compared with the classic heroic opera. It pointed the way to a blending of detached ' numbers * into solid scenes and acts. It held the opera singers — and this is perhaps its chief service — to actual dramatic tasks, and made at least a beginning in the education of singers to be actors. Thus the grand opera in its way helped to prepare the new music drama" (Merian, Geschichte der Musik im neunzehnten Jahrhunderf), The critical literature in English upon this very important phase of music history is not so ample as it should be. Hervey's French Music in the Nineteenth Century is sketchy, but sound and interesting, and written sympathetically. Apthorp's The Opera, Past and Present, also brief and cursory, is trustworthy. See also Famous Composers and their Works, series i, article Music in France; Henderson, How Music Developed; Parry, The Evolution of the Art of Music ; Grove's Dictio7iary, articles Opera, Schools. For the individual composers : Grove's Dictionary and Famous Composers and their Works are usually full and judicious. More than enough on Spontini is given by Spitta in his Grove's Dic- tionary article. Meyerbeer has received more attention from the critics than any other French composer. Mr. Apthorp's detailed and very able article in Musicians and Music Lovers is especially recommended. The strong points in Meyerbeer's work are also well brought out by Mr. Hervey in French Music in the Nineteenth Century. The article in Famous Composers, series i, by Pougin, an authoritative French historian, is also favorable. Schumann's unqualified condemnation of Meyerbeer's aii; may be found in Music and Musicians (trans, by F. R. Ricter), series i, article Meyerbeer's ^^ Huguenots.^' Wagner's much quoted charac- terization of Meyerbeer in Opera and Drama (Ellis* trans.), FRENCH OPERA TO 1850 307 although malignant, is very entertaining and contains a good deal of truth. The biographies of Wagner, especially that by Glasenapp- Ellis, give much space to Meyerbeer and his relation to Wagner. Wagner's recollections of Spontini (Prose Works, Ellis, vol. iii) and of Auber (vol. v) are interesting. For famous singers of the French stage see allusions and references in the preceding chapter of this book. The part played by Scribe, the celebrated playwright and librettist for Auber, Meyerbeer and Hal^vy, in the shaping of the grand opera must be recognized. There is an interesting chapter on him by Brander Matthews in French Dramatists of the Nineteenth Century. Some of the most important works of the French writers of grand opera and opera-comique in this period are published in vocal and piano score by Novello, Boosey and others. Plots will be found in the books by Upton and Annesley. XXXVIII RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 LIST OF WORKS, ---Dramatic: ''Die Feen'' (^1833)^ first performed at Munich, 1888 ; '•^ Das Liebes- verhot^^ {1835-6)^ 'performed hut once,, at Magdeburg,, 1836 ; "Rienzi " {1838-40'), first performed at Dresden, 1842; '' Der fliegende Hollander ^^ (^184-1), first per- formed at Dresden, 181^3; ' ' Tannhduser ^^ (1844-^) y first performed at Dresden, 1845 ; ' ' Lohengrin " {184^-8), first performed at Weimar, 1850 ; " Das Bheingold^' (part i of '* Der Ming des Nibelungen" ; 1853-4), first performed at Munich, 1869; ''Die Walkure " {part ii of " Der Ring " ; finished 1856), first performed at Munich, 1870; '' Siegfried ^^ (^part Hi of " Der Ring " ; finished 1869), first performed at Bay- reuth, 1876 ; " Die G-otterddmmerung " {part iv of " Der Ring " ; completed 187 Ii), first performed at Bayreuth, 1876 ; " Tristan und Isolde " {completed 1859), first per- formed at Munich, 1865 ; "Die Meistersiriger von Nilrn- herg " {completed 1867), first performed at Munich, 1868 ; ' * Parsifal " {completed 1882), first performed at Bayreuth, 1882. Orchestral and choral works, the most important oj which are the symphony in C, '' Faust ^' overture, '' Sieg- fried Idyll,^^ ''Kaiser^'' march and '^Das Liehesmahl der Apostel " {for male chorus and orchestra) ; a few piano pieces and songs. RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 809 Prose worJeSy German edition, ten volumes, English translation hy William Ashton Ellis, eight volumes. There is no other composer whose study involves so wide a range of inquiry as Richard Wagner. He was both composer and philosophic thinker, and the form and character of his dramas can be understood only in the light of the principles and motives which their author has himself expressed in his critical writings. The views which controlled him as a musical dramatist concern problems of music, poetry, ethics, history, sociology and politics, so that a comprehensive study of them would lead us into many of the leading intel- lectual movements of the nineteenth century. Wagner not only professed to be a reformer of the opera, but also tried to show how dramatic art might I be made the mirror of the forces that work for progress \ in human life, and at the same time contribute to the elevation of society through its convincing presentation / of the loftiest ideals. He conceived the music drama/ to be the highest form of art, — a means by which man; may be revealed to man as he is and as he may be. - Wagner's musical works were created under the stimu- lus of this enthusiasm, and his critical writings were designed to make his purpose apparent to the world and to prepare the public properly to comprehend his works in their every detail. This recognition of Wagner's purpose is necessary to a proper understanding of the man and his life. Although his music and poetry must stand or fall, like all art work, by their own inherent quality as pure art, yet judgment cannot be justly i^N 310 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC passed without taking, for the moment at least, the com- poser's own point of view, and comparing the product with the motive. As respects the character of Wagner's works his aim was (1) to make the opera a serious and noble form of art, instead of a mere plaything or a means of pro- ducing temporary excitement; (2) to treat upon the stage subjects which had moral and intellectual as well as aesthetic value, and to create personages who could be recognized as genuine and representative, and (3) to raise poetry, music, action and scenery to the highest possible completeness and power, and to unite them all on equal terms for the production of a concentrated and immediate impression upon the emotion. The important events of Wagner's life may be hastily sketched as follows: Born at Leipzig, May 22, 1813, the youngest of a family of seven children, a number of whom became actors and singers. His father dying in Richard's infancy, his mother soon after married Ludwig Geyer, a successful actor and singer and writer of comedies. Wagner's earliest experience was in the shadow of the theatre. His first inclinations were towards literature ; his musical genius was slow in as- serting itself, but an impulse once received he mastered musical science with extraordinary speed. His few months of study in counterpoint with Weinlig were of great value, but the greater part of his musical knowl- edge was acquired by practice under his own direction and the study of the orchestral works of the older masters. His chief musical influences were drawn from the opera performances under Weber at Dresden and RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 311 the orchestral concerts at the Leipzig Gewandhaus. He became familiar with the dramatic works of the Greeks, Shakspeare, Goethe and Schiller. His early- orchestral and piano compositions may be called appren- tice work. His first salaried position was at the Wlirz- burg theatre as chorus master, where he wrote "Die Feen" (1833). He next became opera director at Magdeburg, where " Das Liebesverbot " was written. After a short stay at Konigsberg, where he married Wilhelmine Planer, an actress, he was appointed opera director at Riga in 1837. Ill success and ambition drove him to Paris in 1839 in the hope of bringing out " Rienzi." His life in Paris was one of disillusion and extreme privation, from which he was rescued by an appointment as second director at the Royal Opera of Dresden. He remained in this position seven years. His plans for the improvement of the Dresden opera were constantly thwarted ; " Tannhauser " was unappreciated ; *' Lohengrin " could not obtain a performance ; the natural development of his genius and the realization of his reform plans were made impossible. A supposed participation in the futile attempt at revolution in Saxony in 1849 (the exact facts in the matter are not yet established) drove Wagner into precipitate flight to avoid arrest and he took refuge in Switzerland. Here he spent thirteen distressful years, supported chiefly by an annuity from a certain Frau Wille, occasional gifts from Liszt and others, and meagre proceeds from performances of his operas. The creative work of his years of exile includes " Tristan und L>olde," " Das Rheingold," " Die Walkiire," the first act of " Siegfried " 812 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC and a large part of his prose writings. His condem- nation was revoked by the Saxon authorities and he returned to Germany in 1861. Disappointment con- tinued and he was saved from apparent ruin by King Ludwig II. of Bavaria, who summoned him to Munich to continue his work under the royal bounty. In spite of the king's favor and the production of " Tristan und Isolde," "Die Meistersinger," "Das Rheingold" and " Die Walkiire " a cabal of musicians and critics defeated the plan of founding a Wagner dramatic estabhshment at Munich, and arrangements were soon made for the building of a theatre at Bayreuth. The corner-stone was laid in 1873 and the work was completed in 1876 and dedicated by the first complete performance of "Der Ring des Nibelungen." The project for the establishment of a training school for actors and singers according to the new Wagnerian principles and for model performances of the masterpieces of German art was never fulfilled. Wagner married Cosima Liszt-von BUlow in 1870. " Parsifal " was produced at Bayreuth in 1882. Wagner died at Venice, February 13, 1883. Wagner's life cannot, of course, be studied apart from the criticism of his works, but the standard biographies may be men- tioned here. First in authority and bulk is the Life of Richard Wagner by Glasenapp, translated and enlarged by Wm. Ash ton Ellis. It is still incomplete, four volumes having appeared (Janu- ary, 1905). It is a mine of trustworthy information, and is clear and interesting in spite of the vast amount of detail. Finck's Wagner and his Works, 2 vols., although not so judicial as might be wished, is the work of an able scholar and brilliant writer. An admirable book for its size is Henderson's Richard Wagner^ his Life and his Dramas. The beautifully illustrated Life of Wagner^ by H. S. Chamberlain, gives much valuable information. Jullien'f KICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 313 Richard Wagner , his Life and Works, 2 vols., trans, by Florence Hall, is the work of a well-known French authority. The small works by Kobbe and Muncker are well written, but not especially necessary to the student. Praeger's Wagner as I Knew him has been discredited. All that is certainly known concerning Wagner's connection with the Dresden revolutionary agitation is given by Ellis, 1849: A Vindication. Among the numerous dictionary and magazine articles particu- lar mention need be made only of the excellent article Wagner in Grove's Dictionary, and the chapter on Wagner in Famous Composers and their Works. As sources of first-hand information important material was contributed by Wagner's own pen. There is a brief Autobio- graphical Sketch in Prose Works (Ellis), vol. i, extending to the year 1842, and an elaborate account of the development of his art and theories in A Communication to my Friends, 1851, Prose Works (Ellis), vol. i. Of the highest interest and value are the Corre- spondence of Wagner and Liszt, 2 vols., trans, by Hueffer ; Letters of Richard Wagner to his Dresden Friends: Uhlig, Fischer, and Heine, trans, by Shedlock ; Wagnerh Letters to Roeckel, trans, by Sellar ; Wagner's Letters to Wesendonck et al., trans, by Ellis ; Wagner's Letters to Heckel, trans, by Ellis; Letters of Wagner to Mathilde Wesendonck, trans, by Ellis. Nothing is more remarkable in the annals of music than the expansion of Wagner's powers as composer and dramatist, leading to a complete transformation of style. From " Rienzi " to " Tristan und Isolde " the musical progress of a century would almost seem to be concen- trated ; in the latter work there is absolutely no sugges- tion of the former, they appear as if they might belong to two different composers as they certainly do to two different epochs. The real Wagner begins with " Der fliegende Hollander," for while this work is like a sketch, or a statue blocked out in the rough, and still showing the influence of the French and Italian schools, the effort is apparent to fuse the musical and dramatic ele- 314 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC ments together and unify the work by a single consistent dramatic conception. The study of Wagner's develop- ment may well begin with this opera. The goal for which Wagner was more or less consciously aiming is indicated already in his Remarks on Performing " The Flying Dutchman^'* (^Prose Works, Ellis, vol. iii). Wagner's discovery that in bringing the music of a drama under the direct shaping control of the poetry he must recast the traditional forms is the clue to " Tann- hauser," for in this work we see him for the first time capable of grappling with his problem. His song becomes vastly more varied, pliable and expressive, and he shows a strength in the handling of the orchestra which is very significant in view of future results. Poetically " Tannhauser " is one of the most satisfactory of his works: it has dignity, unity, symmetry of plot, distinctness and consistency of characters and a vivid human interest sustained to the end. Three elements, not originally united in the sources from which Wagner drew, are skilfully combined, viz. the medisBval story of Venus, Tannhauser and the pope's staff, the legend of the con- test of the minstrels, and the character of Elizabeth of the Wartburg (St. Elizabeth of mediaeval history). The ethical purport of the plan is unmistakable, although, as Wagner himself says, he had no intention of conveying a pious, sentimental lesson. "Tannhauser" is, however, a transition work ; there are musical " numbers " capable of detachment (Wolfram's invocation, Elizabeth's prayer, the pilgrims' choruses, the march, etc.), and there are passages, such as the duet between Tannhauser and RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 315 Elizabeth in the second act, which in their conven- tional cut and orchestral thinness seem strangely re- actionary. On the other hand in the renunciation of vocal display in the contest of the minstrels, and espe- cially in Tannhauser's narrative in the last act, we find the prophecy of the Wagner of the later dramas. The latter scene should be especially studied; it is mature Wagnerianism in embryo. In the study of this opera Wagner's Remarks on the Performing of " Tannhduser " in the Prose Works, vol. iii (Ellis), are illuminating. In " Lohengrin " is seen a still more consistent effort to merge and interpenetrate the poetic and musical fac- tors ; the conventional periodic structure is broken up, and the aria and recitative distinctions are thrown aside in the attainment of a continuous and entirely flexible musical current. The bridal chorus and an occasional emptiness in transition passages betray a vanishing sur- vival of the old operatic habit. The musical invention is more sustained than in " Tannhauser," the orchestra- tion richer. The subject is more remote from human interest than in most of Wagner's works ; the psychologic motive does not seem adequate to the catastrophe. The great popularity of " Lohengrin " is probably due to the tone of mediaeval chivalric and religious mysticism, which is diffused throughout a large part of the work. In " Lohengrin " the use of " leading-motives " becomes more prominent. The prelude is highly original in con- ception and treatment. It is interesting to note that " Der Ring des Nibe- lungen " was developed by Wagner out of the notion of a dramatic ballad on Siegfried's deeth. The text, there- 316 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC fore, was, we may say, composed backward and the music forward. This gradual expansion of a simple germ, and the growth of Wagner's mind with its hasty adoption of philosophic ideas from Feuerbach and Schopenhauer, not sufficiently thought out or assimi- lated, the number of years, with long interruptions, occupied with the work, — all will explain the dramatic confusions and inconsistencies which have made " Der Ring des Nibelungen " a stumbling-block to commenta- tors. The large space given in a drama to elements that are altogether epic, the almost complete withdrawal of Wotan, the hero of the play, before the work is half over, the complete change in Siegfried's character and his pitiable failure to carry out the mission which the conception of the first part of the play lays upon him, the bewildering mixture of allegory and straightforward representation, are all due to the impossibility of clearly setting forth in dramatic form the modern problem of social restriction and individual freedom, by means of a literal presentation of the events in an ancient, crude nature myth. In individual scenes, however, Wagner rises to his highest pitch in this work ; and in the power with which it expresses every shade of human emotion, in the consummate skill with which its author shapes, directs and develops his vast material, it is a master- piece without parallel in the history of music. " Tristan und Isolde " and " Die Meistersinger," on the other hand, are clear and simple. Poetically they are Wagner's most consistent and perfect works, admi- rably adapted to musical treatment. The second, classed by its author as comedy, is of the French " middle char- RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 317 acter," the humorous scenes are accessory to the serious meaning of the work, which may be called a plea for liberality and progress in art production and art judg- ment. In Hans Sachs, the hero of the piece, Wagner has created one of the most poetic and attractive charac- ters in modern opera. " Tristan und Isolde " is simply a tragedy of love. In sheer luxury of tone, amazing variety in playing upon a single theme and in the sublimity of the expres- sion of passion Wagner in this work not only surpasses all other dramatic composers, but even rises above him- self. In " Tristan " his reform theories of musical and poetic amalgamation are carried out to the furthest possible completeness. There is not a single word repetition ; there is not the sHghtest concession to tradi- tional operatic structure. " Parsifal," like " Der Ring " and " Lohengrin," is an allegory, and shares the weaknesses of allegory, especially when put into dramatic form. The curious blend of religious mysticism and sensuousness has given rise to the most contradictory estimates of this work. Some look upon it as an act of worship, and the purest mod- ern portrayal of the essential principle in Christianity ; to others it is morbid and sensual, corrupt in its concep- tion and degrading in its effect. Musically there is a shght falling off in "Parsifal" as compared with its predecessors ; there is less spontaneity, less impression of endless resource in development of themes. Its panora- mas are the most beautiful in the history of the modern stage, and to them the overpowering effect of the work is largely due. 318 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC The stories of Wagner's plots have been told over and over with wholly needless repetition, in every conceivable manner, from the coolly analytic to the rhapsodical. There is even a " Wagner for Infants." We also have a multitude of " interpretations," from the sane and philosophic to the sentimental and ecstatic. The amount and diversity of the Wagner literature are bewildering ; the books and pamphlets in the various languages on Wagner and his teachings perhaps equal in number those on all the other nineteenth-century composers combined. The student will find difficulty in keeping his head clear. The simplest statements should be read first, and here we may recommend for the begin- ning of Wagner study, Lavignac's The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner and Henderson's Richard Wagner. Fuller accounts in the larger works of Finck, Chamberlain and JuUien, mentioned above. The profuse work of Glasenapp and Ellis is the final resort for the most minute facts connected with the conception and working out of Wagner's plays. As a study of the sources from which Wagner drew his plots and characters, Miss Weston's Legends of the Wagner Drama is of the highest value. See also Dippold's books, The Great Epics of Mediceval Germany and Wagner^ s Poem : " The Ring of the Nibelung." Wagner's own statement of his in- tentions and the circumstances under which his works were con- structed may be found in his Prose Works and Letters. Wagner's religious, ethical, social and political ideas are often passed over by commentators and biographers. They are involved, however, in a complete study of the Wagner question. Whether Wagner really contributed anything to the solution of the great problems of life which agitate the present age is a disputed question. For an emphatic affirmative see Chamberlain, Richard Wagner ; for an equally emphatic negative, Newman, A Study oj Wagner. The second of these two is, in the opinion of the present writer, the ablest book on Wagner in the English language. The author is competent to discuss every phase of the difficult questions involved in the subject. While denying that Wagner had a philo- sophic mind at all, he unites with his moat ardent admirers in the assertion of his unparalleled musical gifts. As a criticism of the dramatic structure of Wagner's operas, the book is also of high value. G. Bernard Shaw's The Perfect Wagnerite, which must be read with some qualification, is brilliant and suggestive. The texts of Wagner's dramas have been translated into English, RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 319 and all after " Lohengrin " are published in separate volumes. The versions of H. & F. Corder leave much to be desired; the attemptg to preserve the alliteration in "The Ring of the Nibelung," for example, lead to almost grotesque results. Forman's translations of "Der Ring," "Tristan" and "Pai'sifal" are of a far higher order. A brief summary of the subjects involved in the analytic study of Wagner's works is all that properly comes within the scope of this volume. The student will use this outline as a guide in the study of Wagner's musical works, and in the reading of the Wagner com- mentaries. Wagner's abstruse speculations on *' the birth of the art-work out of necessity," "the Folk as the community of all who feel a common and collective want," " turning the Willed-not into the Non-existing," " the inner man finding direct communication only through tone-speech," the nature of this convincing tone-speech, music as " the bearing power and poetry the begetting," the disintegration and therefore deca- dence of the composite art of the Greeks, the relative values of alliteration and end-rhyme, man in the myth, the " error " of the state, regeneration through love, etc., may be of interest to those who enjoy wandering in such cloudy regions, made all the more shifty by Wagner's peculiar philosophic jargon, and they have a bearing upon the study of Wagner the man. But these things have little to do with the enjoyment and appreciation of Wagner's dramas as creations of dramatic and musical art. The first study at least must be simply an exam- ination of the construction and development of these works and the technical methods employed. Wagner proclaimed himself a reformer of the opera and 320 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC the creator of a new art construction, the lyric drama. Why was reform necessary ? What was the thing to be reformed ? The answer is be found in the history of the Italian, French and German opera, as indicated in pre- ceding chapters of this book. The radical error in the opera, as Wagner sums it up in his Oper und Drama, is that whereas the dramatic element should be the end and the musical element the means, in the opera the musical effect was always the end and the drama the means. Wagner conceived himself a poet first and musi- cian second. It is understood, of course, that Wagner was himself the author of all his texts. Granting that Wagner's texts and characters are superior to those of all other opera writers, was he not after all first and fore- most a musician? Do we not hear his works for the sake of their music primarily? Does he ever really subordinate music to verse except occasionally, as in some of the monologues, which are by general consent the most uninteresting passages in his works ? That there is, however, a greater unity among music, verse, action and scenery than in the operas of any other previous writer must be granted at once, and the first question should be in regard to this unity and how it is effected. We must bear in mind that from this point in the chapter to the end reference is only to Wagner's mature style, as found in " Der Ring," '* Tristan," " Die Meistersinger " and *' Parsifal." The attempt to merge poetic form and musical form, poetic rhythm and musical rhytlnn, produces a kind of melody that is, if not absolutely original, a complete logical development of a style of " continuous music ** RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 321 already found among previous composers, as for example with Weber in "Euryanthe." The instinct of composers has always been towards a loosening of strict periodic form and a freely flowing composition in highly emo- tional situations (cf. the final scene between Don Gio- vanni and the statue in Mozart's opera). In conventional opera forms the rhythmic laws are essentially those of absolute music ; Wagner directs his persistent attack upon the aria as an outcome of the dance, and as utterly inadequate to true dramatic expression. With Wagner the melody is " composed poetically." The effect upon melody of this renunciation of the traditional laws of musical form is shown upon every page of Wagner's later scores. We find a prevailing declamatory charac- ter, accompanied recitative raised to its highest poAver, absence of vocal ornamentation, avoidance of complete cadences, exclusion of set forms of tune, fusion of the recitative and melodic styles, persistent modulation. There is nothing to prevent an instant change of key or rhythm at any point; the music reflects the slight- est shift of movement, mood and situation upon the stage. This is Wagner's "endless melody," running sometimes through a whole act without a break, at times rising into the most impassioned strains of regulated tunefulness, again sinking to a monotonous intoning; a musical current without form in the established sense, but still highly organized on the basis of the poetic movement, completely pliant to the composer's will, ex- pressive to the minutest detail. There is never any pause in the action to enable the singer to deliver a vocal " number " ; he merges his own personality in the 21 322 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC scene of which he is only one of several elements. The text, it will be observed, is not contrived to allow opportunity for set musical forms ; hence a more uniform diction and a more regular and steadily progressing dramatic movement. The form of the whole is poetic, not musical, form. The tendency in later opera history to expand the power of expression that lies in the orchestra and to lead it into the heart of the situation and the text — a development inevitable in view of the progress of sym- phonic music — reached its climax with Wagner. That he entirely subordinated the voice to the orchestra is asserted by some and denied by others. He certainly enlianced the function of the orchestra beyond all prece- dent. The leading melodies are not in the voice part but in the instrumental ; the voice melody is woven into the orchestral texture, obligato fashion ; it may be below or upon the surface of the concurrent sound. The orchestra's function is twofold, — to render emotion and to depict situation and movement. Wagner does not so much attempt to suggest individual temperaments as fundamental passions and motives in all their oscilla- tions. For example, it is not Tristan or Isolde as a dis- tinct personality that he strives to depict, but love as a quality, ebbing and flowing under various conditions. As a "musical scene-painter" Wagner's supremacy is not denied even by his adversaries ; in reinforcing the effect of a striking situation or picture by the orchestra he stands alone among opera composers. His resources of melody, harmony and tone color are always com- pletely adequate ; his audacity in bringing upon the stage RICHARD WAGNER, 1815-1883 823 the tremendous catastrophes and gigantic personalities of the Norse myth is fully justified by his boundless com- mand of every orchestral resource. Take the final scenes in " Das Rheingold," " Die Walkiire," " Die Gotterdam- merung " as cases in point. His climax never fails ; musical effects accumulate until the primal forces of nature seem to have taken voice. And such music is not simply sensational and panoramic ; it is upon the sig- nificance of these scenes, the emotion with which they are surveyed, that the composer's thought is fixed. Great as these triumphs are, Wagner really rises to his climax as an orchestral composer in the portrayal of feeling. The love avowals in the second act of " Tristan und Isolde " and the anguish of Amfortas in " Parsifal," for example, have no parallels in the works of other composers. Wagner also uses the orchestra in a novel way to keep the thought and imagery in motion before the spectator's mind when the scenes are shifted and the stage shrouded, as in the transition from the first to the second act in " Das Rheingold," and from the prologue to the first scene of *' Die Gotterdammerung." The mutual relations of music, verse and action in the Wagnerian scheme are also established in a mechan- ical and systematic manner by the use of what are known as " leading-motives " (Leitmotive). A dramatic plot contains certain personal and impersonal elements, — acting personages, inanimate objects that furnish occasion or means of action (such as the caskets in " The Merchant of Venice," the sword in " Siegfried '*), con- trolhng emotions (love, anger, ambition, etc.), abstract 324 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC principles (such as justice, freedom) and so on. These dramatic elements may be called the dramatic motives. In Wagner's dramas all these dramatic motives have each a counterpart in a peculiar musical phrase, which at its first appearance is associated with the poetic mo- tive, and reappears whenever the idea is given by words, or appears before the eye, or when for any reason it is desirable to suggest the idea to the hearer's mind. These leading-motives often have an obvious appropri- ateness to the related object or conception (e. g. motive of Loge in " Das Rheingold "), often the association is arbitrary (e. g. motive of the ring). These motives are in the great majority of cases given by the orchestra, rarely by voices. In Wagner's later works the whole texture of the score is composed of developments, reit- erations and combinations of leading-motives. So far as suggesting a former idea by repeating a characteristic melody is concerned, the device is not original with Wagner. It is prominent in Weber's " Der Freischiitz," suggested even in Mozart. Wagner was the first to make the leading-motive the whole basis of his musical structure. The gist of the whole matter is, however, that these phrases are not always exactly the same ; ^\^hen the relations of their poetic counterparts are al- tered they also change in harmony, tempo, rhythm or even in some of their notes. The affinity between two ideas may be suggested by a resemblance of their lead- ing-motives. Motives are combined to express associa- tion of ideas, are broken off to indicate interruption or destruction, they are used for warning, consolation, rec- ollection, prediction, etc. In each of Wagner's greater RICHARD ^^AGKER, 1813-1883 S25 works there is a predominant leading-motive which is connected with the central dramatic factor (e. g. the ring in " Der Ring des Nibelungen," the Holy Grail in " Parsifal ")• It must not be supposed that Wagner uses leading- motives merely to tell the audience what to see with their mental eyes, as though the orchestral score were a sort of picture book. The Wagner analysis books are respon- sible for this defective notion, — they give names to the leading-motives which are in most cases merely fanciful, not thought of by Wagner. His especial aim was to give his music, otherwise vague and formless, a cohe- sion and organic plan, as a symphony writer builds up his work upon the development of leading themes. There is a close analogy here, Wagner simply using his motives in such a way that the music is tied to the words and action instead of bringing in the motives at random. In fact he distinctly announces that his music is the Beethovenian music developed, expanded and applied to dramatic purposes. In Wagner's works, therefore, the orchestra is a mir- ror which reflects everything that goes on upon the stage, — every change in scenery, every gesture, has its orchestral response. In this taking up of the action and poetry and carrying them over to the listener's emo- tion he relies not only upon melody, harmony and rhythm, but distinctively, as an advanced modern, upon tone color, in the use of which he is one of the greatest of the masters of his art. The student of harmony will find endless interest in Wagner's music. Steadily increasing in complexity, 326 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC we find in his later works (" Die Meistersinger " may be particularly cited) an unsurpassed mastery in free contrapuntal handling. Strange and bewildering com- binations often result, impossible to classify ; but where the case requires the harmony is simple, long passages even being found in which there is no change of tonal- ity. Such passages, however, are comparatively rare. Wagner's works offer the most beautiful tableaux that the history of the stage can show. He employed all the acquired skill of the scene painter and stage car- penter and machinist, and also demanded much that was novel. The scene in the Grail castle in " Parsifal,'* the mountain and forest scenes in " Der Ring," have no parallels for beauty and similitude. Wagner almost revolutionized the art of stage mounting. Many devices for producing illusion are remarkable for clev- erness. Others are in the very nature of the case un- successful, as for example the flight of the valkyrs through the clouds, the immolation of Brynhilde, the forest bird in " Siegfried." Scenic brilUancy with Wag- ner is, however, not an end in itself but a means. It is not merely decorative, it gives to the actors their nat- ural environment, it brings to the eye an impression in harmony with that conveyed by words, action and music. So with all accessories ; no other writer for the stage ever exercised so rigid a scrutiny over every detail of costume, decoration and mechanism. The im- pression upon the eye was to him no less a matter of concern than that upon the ear, and in the union of these impressions there must never be the slightest fric- tion or divergence. RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 327 As drill master and conductor Wagner was no less an adept and a law-giver to the whole modern school. His critical writings abound in complaints of the inca- pacity of opera singers to grasp the histrionic demands of the true lyric drama. The radical change that has come over the conception of the singer-actor's function and the methods of performance upon the German stage, and to a large extent upon the French and even the Italian, is mainly due to his teaching. In his essay On the Performing of " Tannhduser " (JPro%e Works^ vol. iii) will be found the credo of the new school. The great symphony conductors of the present day are also the disciples of Wagner. (See his essay On Conducting.) In the latest developments of the art of orchestration Wagner is one of the leaders and masters. The service he demanded of the orchestra required an enlargement of its powers. In his treatment of the orchestra for dramatic purposes he built on Weber and Meyerbeer, drawing many useful hints from Berlioz. For technical illustrations of his methods of obtaining tone color for the purposes of description and expression the student is referred to the text books. Certain broad features which have to do with the general expansion of orches- tral writing may be indicated here. For example, he often divides the strings into many parts ; the wind instru- ments are grouped, not in pairs, as in the classic orches- tra, but almost always in threes or fours (three flutes, two oboes and an English horn, addition of the bass clarinet), in order that full harmonies may be obtained with instruments of one tone color, attaining also greater sonority and firmness; the brass instruments are in- 328 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC creased in number, — six or eight horns, four trombones ; a complete family of tubas appears; the trumpets are reinforced by the bass trumpet. It may be said that his orchestra is composed of little orchestras containing instruments of the same timbre ; in uniting, contrasting, dividing, in novel combinations his ingenuity is exhaust- less. Instruments not commonly used in the orchestra are added for necessary effects of illustration, — his six harps are famous in operatic annals. He employs the percussive instruments — kettle and bass drums, cymbals, triangle — vi^ith moderation. It is not only a new orchestra that appears in Wagner's scores, but unheard-of pov^ers are discovered in the old instruments, and an unexampled virtuosity is presupposed on the part of the players. All of Wagner's operas, beginning with "Der fliegende Hol- lander," are published in vocal score, piano accompaniment, English and German texts, by Schott and by Schirmer (the latter's edition preferred). The orchestral scores are expensive. Schirmer pub- lishes the full scores of " Der Ring " and " Parsifal " in octavo size at a proportionally reduced cost. Wolgozen's guides through the music of *'Der Ring," "Tristan und Isolde" and "Parsifal" (thematic analyses with the leading-motives in notation) have been translated into English and are indispensable. For "Die Meis- tersinger," analysis by Heintz. For " Parsifal," Aldrich, A Guide to '' ParsifaV ; Kufferath, The '' Parsifal" of Richard Wagner. Among the commentaries Wagner's own exposition of his theories and methods takes the foremost place. The most voluminous and complete is Opera and Drama., forming vol. ii of the Prose Works (Ellis, tr.). Among the more condensed and clearer expositions are The Music of the Future (vol. iii), The Art Work of the Future (vol. i), A Communication to my Friends (vol. i). Among other essays of particular interest are Judaism in Music (vcl. iii), Preface to the ^^ Ring^^ Poem (vol. iii), Art and Revolution (vol. i), A German Musician in Paris (vol. vii), Beethoven (vol. v), On Conducting RICHARD WAGNER, 1813-1883 829 (vol. iv), A Music School /or Munich (vol. iv). A good selection has been made and translated by Burlingaine, Art Life and Theories of Richard Wagner. Great care should be exercised in the selection of Wagner reading. The literature is very voluminous, and much of it is superficial and second-hand. No better beginning could be made than with Lavignac, The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner. Among the more concentrated discussions, especially to be recom- mended, are Henderson, Richard Wagnei^ his Life and Dramas; Krehbiel, Studies in the Wagnerian Drama; Henderson, Preludes and Studies ; Grove's Dictionary, article Wagner ; Famous Compos- ers and their Works, series i, article Wagner; Hadow, Studies in Modern Music, vol. i; Parry, T%e Evolution of the Art of Music. For disparaging criticism of " Parsifal," Huneker, Overtones, and Hen- derson, Modern Musical Drift. Among the larger works, Finck, Wagner and his Works ; Glasenapp-Ellis, Life of Richard Wagner ; Newman, A Study of Wagner. For Wagner's orchestration, Henderson, The Orchestra and Orchestral Music. For Wagner's scenery, see an excellent illustrated article by Apthorp in Scribner's Magazine, November, 1887. Also Burlingame, Art Life and Theo- ries of Richard Wagner : The Opera-house at Bayreuth, The biog- raphies also contain descriptions. Hostile criticism of Wagner's theories and style : Gurney, The Power of Sound, chap. 22; Statham, My Thoughts on Music and Musicians : Richard Wagner. The most violent attack is by Nordau in Degeneration. Nietzsche's famous diatribe, The Case of Wagner j has been Englished. A very lively impression of the bitterness of the conflict over Wagner's works at their first appearance can be obtained from the quotations of hostile critics given by Finck in Wagner and his Works. The student should be familiar with the objections to Wagner's method that have been raised. The supreme greatness of Wagner's musical genius is now almost universally recognized. The question that remains concerns the value of his musical style and method as a model for other composers. It may safely be said that imitation of Wagner can only lead to fail- ure. His genius was equal to his problems, but no 330 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC other may safely wield the thunderbolts of Jove. He has not formed a school ; it is generally felt that Wag- ner's was a mind altogether exceptional, and that his theories in their details, as he carried them out, are not of universal validity. Nevertheless his works, both dramatic and literary, are an inexhaustible storehouse of instruction and suggestion to composers, whatever may be the methods and tendencies of the future. Speaking in the broadest sense, Wagner's conception of the mutual relations of music, poetry and action will henceforth remain the basis of the opera. XXXIX RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA The most conspicuous German composer, next to Wagner, in the last half of the nineteenth century, is Johannes Brabms (1833-1897). He was born at Hamburg, made a public appearance as pianist at the age of fourteen, went on a concert tour with the Hun- garian violinist, Ramenyi, in 1853, when his compositions attracted the attention of Liszt and Schumann, the latter hailing him as a genius in the now famous newspaper article entitled "New Paths." From 1854 to 1857 he was director of music at the princely court of Detmold. Several changes of residence followed until finally he made Vienna his headquarters. His European reputa- tion was established by the production of " A German Requiem " (1867). He lived essentially the quiet life of a scholarly composer. His concert tours were few. As a pianist his style is usually described as hard and dry. His compositions cover the field of modern practice with the exception of the opera. He may be called equally eminent in all the classes — symphony, chamber, choral, piano and song composition — which he cultivated. The first fact to be noted in the case of Brahms is that he stood in pronounced opposition to the ruling tendencies of the time as represented by Wagner and the ultra-romanticists in orchestral music. He wrote no 332 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC operas; his instrumental works are without titles or poetic suggestions. Brahms, therefore, appeared as the champion of the classic idea of absolute music at a time when the opinion of a large section of the musical world was running strongly in the opposite direction. Around Brahms also, as well as around Wagner, a critical con- flict has raged, and aesthetic theories and prejudices have interfered with the calm estimate of his work. It is apparent, therefore, that he must be judged in accord- ance with the tests that apply to the particular order of music which he deliberately chose. Brahms may be called a reflective rather than a naive or spontaneous composer. He was not prolific ; his works are wrought with the greatest care, and elab- orated with a profound knowledge of musical science. The gravity and complexity of his music have always 5tood in the way of what is called popularity. After his Op. 10 his style did not materially change. The Op. 10, a set of ballads for the piano, is the only work in which he showed any inclination to follow the poetic or pro- gramme school. He remained ever after a disciple of the classic masters in form and technic. He has been called an imitator of Schumann in general mould and structure, but the resemblances between the two men are superficial. Brahms rarely sought for elegance, delicacy or spright- liness ; the bright and taking tunefulness, which we find in the South German masters, and even in Schumann, is exceptional in Brahms. His style is sonorous, broad, sometimes gloomy and hollow, at others vehement and splendid, generally very intricate in harmony and rhythm, sometimes dull and unattractive, always ingen- RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 333 ious, if not always persuasive. That he was a consum- mate master of form no one disputes, neither is his original inventive power denied. The discussion turns upon the beauty and the emotional appeal of his ideas. To some he is utterly unsympathetic. The love of his music is a matter of temperament, and it is probable, therefore, that Brahmsites and anti-Brahmsites will al- ways live to misunderstand and flout each other. Brahms' piano works do not figure largely in recital programmes, but they are full of interesting matter for the student. Their difficulties are perhaps in excess of their " taking " properties. Their number is not large. They range in dimensions from the short caprices, fantasies and intermezzos to the sets of variations, sonatas and concertos. In concerted chamber works the piano is prominent. The very popular Hungarian dances for piano, four hands, are constructed on native Hungarian tunes. The comparison between these pieces and Liszt's Hungarian rhapsodies is interesting. Brahms had always a strong fondness for dance music, due probably to his highly pronounced sense of rhythm. The same side of his nature is seen in the beautiful " Liebeslieder " waltzes for four voices and piano four hands. Brahms' piano style is usually the free polyphonic, more open than Schumann's. He continues the tend- ency in piano music to the development of the left hand. His rhythm is often very complex and difficult to solve. He has an inveterate fondness for syncopa- tions, cross rhythms and sudden metrical changes. His tone effects are massive, often lacking resonance. He loves combinations of octaves and thirds and octaves 334 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC and fifths, carrying thick harmonies far down into the bass, producing gloomy and drab effects of color. The extraordinary spread of his harmonies and daring skips, combined with his polyphonic intricacy, makes his piano works very difficult to play. In musical merit they do not greatly differ. His Handel and Paganini variations are frequently played by performers of the highest rank, for their immense difficulties are of a very effective kind. Brahms cultivated the song with an unflagging affec- tion. His solo songs with piano accompaniment number about two hundred, sixty or more of which are in folk- song style. To some critics his songs are of the first order, others disparage them. He follows the method of Schumann in giving about equal importance to voice and piano part. That he is not one of the great melo- dists is apparent; although many of his songs possess melodies of haunting beauty. The accompaniment is very rich. The sentiment of the verse is always deeply felt and the writer's literary taste in selection of poems is unimpeachable. Simplicity and daintiness that seem hardly characteristic are often found (e. g. the beloved " Wiegenlied "). He does not reach the depth of pathos which Schubert often sounded ; he gives an inspiring portrayal of the joy of life in a style always dignified and noble. Brahms' most famous work is *'Eindeutsches Requiem" for chorus and orchestra. It is not a requiem mass ; it is rather a cantata, the words, chosen from the Bible and forming a sort of funeral ode, setting forth the brevity of life and the hope of immortality. It is a work of the most solemn and imposing character, containing Brahms* RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 335 most attractive qualities as well as those most frequently attacked. The second number is perhaps the most orig- inal and impressive part of the work. Other choral compositions that have found favor with singing societies are the " Schicksalshed," the " Triumphlied " (written to celebrate the victory of Germany over France in 1870-71) and " Nanie." Other choral works are motets, songs for male, female and mixed choruses, etc. A strong series of chamber works — including string quartets, piano trios, quartets and quintets, clarinet quintet, etc. — leads up to his four symphonies, which may be considered in many respects the crown of his career. They have no titles ; they are based on the Beethoven style, as found in the fifth and seventh sym- phonies. The only change in form is the substitution of a quiet allegretto for the scherzo in the first and third symphonies. The third movement of the second sym- phony may be called a modernized minuet; the third movement of the fourth is an allegro in two-four time. Each symphony has its individuality; the second is lighter, more tuneful and vivacious than the others, and is evidently the most popular. In the fourth the com- poser's learning is more consciously displayed ; the work as a whole has not held so permanent an interest as the others. His mastery of the larger forms and of thematic development on classic principles is convincingly shown in these symphonies. His harmony, for example, in such movements as the second of the second symphony, has almost the weight of Bach. His orchestration lacks the brightness and glow of the modem school ; there is often 836 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC a thickness, even muddiness. Of his profound knowledge of orchestration there is no question; he is a master in his own vein, but he cares less than the later writers in general for sensuous beauty of tone color as an end in itself. Brahms has already a place in solid critical discussion. Friendly and highly competent studies may be found in Mason, From Grieg to Brahms ; Hadow, Studies in Modern Music ; Studies in Music^ ed. by Gray (essay by Spitta) ; Famous Composers and their Works, series i. See also Deiters, Johannes Brahms ; Maitland, Masters of German Music. There is a very intelligent, on the whole unfa- vorable, criticism by Weingartner, The Symphony since Beethoven.'^ There is a thorough and able analysis of Brahms' piano music by Huneker, in Mezzotints in Modern Music : The Music of the Future. No other recent German composer looms so promi- nently as Brahms until we reach Richard Strauss. Especially conspicuous are Max Bruch and Josef Rhein- berger. They have not pushed out into new paths, but have done work that has given them honor in all coun- tries. Max Bruch (1838- ), born at Cologne, was very precocious as a composer. He is romantic in temperament, but in education an offshoot of the con- servative Leipzig school. Although he has written music in every modern form, he is best known to the world by his cantatas for solos, chorus and orchestra, and his compositions for the violin. He is dear to pro- moters of musical festivals, for his cantatas, without being of the highest grade of difficulty, are solid in musicianship, very melodious, richly orchestrated and attractive in poetic subject and treatment. The list of cantatas includes *' Odysseus " (probably the finest), * Weingartner has since modified this judgment. RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 337 " Achilleus," " Frithjof," " Arminius," " Schdn Ellen " and " Das Lied der Glocke " (Schiller). Bruch's violin concerto in G minor, Op. 26, shares the favor of the concertos of Beethoven and Mendels- sohn, and is not unworthy of the comparison. Hardly less if at aU inferior are the two concertos in D minor, Op. 44 and 58, the romance, Op. 42, and the *' Scotch fantasie," Op. 46. There is a notable fantasie on Jewish melodies, '* Kol Nidrei," for 'cello and orchestra. Bruch has consummate knowledge of the nature of the violin, and his works for this instrument have a breadth and sweep of melody, a vigor of rhythm, and a passionate fire which make them the delight of violin players and violin lovers. Josef Rheinbergee (1888-1902) was one of the most solid musicians of his time, highly esteemed by musical scholars, eminent as a teacher of composition, as well as composer. His home during the greater part of his career was Munich. Brought up in the traditions of the classic school, he did not keep himself aloof from the romantic currents of the time, showing his romanti- cism not only in ballads and cantatas, but also in orches- tral works with titles. The most important of the latter is the symphony " Wallenstein," founded on Schiller's tragedy. Rheinberger is distinguished as a composer for the Catholic church and especially as a writer for the organ. He has written thirteen masses, besides motets and hymns, all of which have the true ecclesiastical reserve without pedantic dryness. His numerous organ compositions — sonatas, concertos, etc. — which contain a wealth of ideas perfectly suited to tlie 838 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC nature of the instrument, are developed with masterly musicianship, based on the best German traditions of organ music and yet not disdaining the new discoveries in technic and style. His music in all departments is of expert workmanship, yet fuU of individual character. The Austrian Anton Bruckner (1824-1896) as- sumed to carry the Wagnerian style and the Wagnerian orchestration into symphony and church composition, producing works imposing in dimensions, highly elabo- rated in harmony and counterpoint, but whose pretension is far in excess of their sheer musical value. At one time held up by a Vienna coterie as a rival of Brahms, his vogue has declined. He wrote eight symphonies (a ninth being left unfinished), three masses, a Te Deum and the One Hundred and Fiftieth Psalm for solos, chorus and orchestra and many smaller church works. Joseph Joachim Raff (1822-1882), a composer gifted with a very prolific invention, was at one time in great favor with the public, but in spite of many excellent qualities, his charm has not proved to be solidly based, and his works are falling into neglect. Partly on account of a fatal gift of fluency, still more perhaps on account of poverty, he published a large amount of ephemeral salon music, the influence of which can be seen even in his more serious compositions. He is most favorably known by one or two symphonies of the programme school^ in which he shows himself a disciple of Liszt, whose friend and secretary he was at Weimar. The most esteemed of these symphonies are the " Leonore " (based on Burger's famous ballad) and the " Im Walde " symphony. RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 339 The central figure in musical Germany to-day is Richard Strauss (1864- ), whose huge and in every way extraordinary orchestral works and operas have set the art world agog with wonder, and precipitated a critical controversy but little less violent than the Wagner war. Although he is the man who has driven the pro- gramme method to its furthest consequences, he began his life as composer with sober pieces for orchestra and chamber instruments which were without titles and loyal to the classic traditions. Going to Meiningen as orchestral conductor in 1885, he became converted to the principles of representative orchestral music, which he has followed ever since. The first works that gave him his unique position were his symphonic poems, "Macbeth" (1887), "Don Juan" (1888), "Tod und Verklarung" (1889), "Also sprach Zarathustra" (1895), "TiU EulenspiegeFs lustige Streiche" (1895), "Don Quixote" (1898), "Ein Heldenleben" (1899) and the "Symphonia Domestica" (1904). "Don Juan" is a musical paraphrase of Lenau's poem of that title. "Tod und Verklarung" is a portrayal of the last moments of a departing soul, as it reviews the struggles, victories and defeats of its past life. "Also sprach Zarathustra" is a musical paraphrase of Nietzsche's philosophic rhap- sody of that title. " I did not intend to write philosophic music," says Mr. Strauss, "nor to portray Nietzsche's great work musically. I meant to convey musically an idea of the development of the human race from its origin through the various phases of development (re- ligious as well as scientific) up to Nietzsche's idea of 340 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC the Uebermensch, the Beyond-Man of Goethe" (quoted by Henderson in Modern Musical Drift). The exploits and fate of the old German popular hero, Till Eulen- spiegel — knave, libertine and merry good fellow — are displayed with fantastic realism in "Till Eulenspiegel's lustige Streiche." "Don Quixote" is a musical sum- mary, in the guise of theme and variations, of the crack- brained ambitions and fantastic adventures of Cervantes* hero, with his squire Sancho Panza. There is the battle with the windmills, dialogues of knight and squire, the meeting with Dulcinea, the conflict with the two magi- cians, the combat with the Knight of the Silver Moon, etc. "Ein Heldenleben," the most grandiose of Strauss* works, is in six parts, representing the Hero, the Hero*s Antagonists, the Hero's Consort, the Hero's Battlefield, the Hero's Work of Peace, the Hero's Retirement from Worldly Life and Strife and Ultimate Perfection. The cacophonous fury of the fourth part seems to have frightened the critics into a dazed condition. Strauss shrinks from no consequences of his theory; he is as con- sistent in his description of the noises of a flock of sheep in "Don Quixote," the death rattle in "Tod und Verk- larung" and the deafening tumult of a battlefield in "Ein Heldenleben," as he is in the idealization of the aspira- tions and victories of the soul in "Also sprach Zarathus- tra" and "Tod und VerklSrung." His works are con- densed and detailed dramas, novels, philosophic schemes without words or action. From the grovelling and ugly to the serene and sublime, from wit and irony to passion and beatific vision, Strauss ranges with boldest literalism RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 341 and consuming ardor. Whatever may be said of the truth or falsehood of his method and his powers of ab- stract melodic invention, no other composer has made the instruments, both singly and in combination, more pliant to his will, or handled the free modern counter- point with more amazing results. The symphonic poems of Strauss seem to force all the powers of modern musical symbolism to their utmost limit. So precise and realistic are Strauss' effects, particularly in the delineation of the grotesque and humorous and even the ugly, so audacious is he in his treatment of form, so prodigiously clever in contrapuntal manipulation, that some enthusiastic admirers proclaim him the creator of a new art, the man who is to succeed Wagner in lead- ing music into new regions of expression. Others see in him only a consummate technician with no really new ideas to give to the world, asserting that his de- fiance of order and moderation, his vast complexity without true musical imagination, will only ensure reaction toward simplicity. "His master- works are architectural marvels. In structure, in rhythmical com- plexity, in striking harmonies, ugly, bold, dissonantal, his symphonic poems are without parallel. This learn- ing, this titanic brush-work on vast and sombre can- vases, is never for music's sake: indeed one may ask if it is really music and not a new hybrid art. It is always intended to mean something, say something, paint someone's soul; it is a half-mad attempt to make music articulate. Whatever else he has done Strauss has unquestionably enlarged the territory of instru- 342 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC mental music, and dowered with new and amazing eloquence the vast orchestral host. But tonality, stereo- typed forms, thematic utterance, rhythmic life itself, are all thrown at us in a kaleidoscopic whirl" (J, G. Huneker in Famous Composers and their Works, series ii). "Richard Strauss, standing upon the vantage-ground made for him by Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner, has evi- dently tried to carry the direct expression of the orches- tra to a higher plane by utilizing the best elements of their work. He has sought to make the orchestra tell stories, but he has not made the error of supposing that he could ignore the fundamental principles of musical form which constituted the ground plan of the old sym- phony. He has utilized themes with definite meanings attached to them, as Wagner did, without confining himself to two, as the older writers did, and as Liszt did in most of his works. He has returned in his later com- positions to the fashion of clearly separated movements, while he has made them pass before the hearer with- out pauses between any two of them. He has developed his themes according to the principles laid down by the symphonic masters, and has striven to enforce their meaning with all the effects of orchestral color. And withal he has endeavored to compose only music with a purpose, never music for its own sake. In short, Strauss has shown that the principles of musical form which the earlier writers painfully evolved out of their attempts to produce nothing beyond musical beauty, not only can be, but must be, utilized by the composer who cares RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 343 nothing whatever about musical beauty, and who aims only at making music a means of expression" (W. J. Henderson, Modern Musical Drift:. Richard Strauss), These principles, asserted by Strauss In his sym- phonic poems, are a plump denial of the position, as- sumed as self-evident by the older aesthetics, that music by itself alone has no power of definite portrayal, but at the most can only symbolize the fundamental soul states, general moods such as joy, grief, hope, triumph, dejection, etc., never the events that produce them or the conditions, external or internal, by which they are in- duced. The whole history of instrumental music in the last three-quarters of the nineteenth century is a protest against the finality of this position, and the music of Strauss is the last word of this protest. The controversy over the works of Strauss turns not upon the programme principle as such, but upon the class of subjects that he chooses for delineation, and especially ujron the methods he has employed in driving the principle to its extreme consequences. He has attempted, in a word, to make music realistic, so far as it is within the power of music to become so. In some portions of his symphonic poems, and especially in the operas "Salome" and "Electra," he employs an unprecedented orchestral technique to portray the most violent passions, the most grotesque and even repulsive incidents. At times he renounces the laws of musical beauty that have been accepted up to his time, and strives to give to his music a suggestion as literal as the very words and actions can supply, being concerned only with the vividness with which every 344 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC phase of life, from the domestic or humorous to the most horrifying, is translated into sound. This effort nat- urally led Strauss from the symphonic poem to the musical drama. His "Salome" and "Electra" may be called symphonic poems on a prodigious scale, in which the human voice simply supplements and enlarges the scope of the orchestra. In the use of the voice he ranges from forms of regular melody to a use which is closely akin to the primitive and elementary outburst of violent feeling. It is all done with such an astonishing ingenuity and mastery of every means of sensational effect, that even those who condemn the result admire the boldness and skill of the effort. He has accomplished a closer unity of word, action and music than even Wagner has ^ done. He makes the drama utter itself in music, so that visible movement seems to become sound, and the impressions upon eye and ear become merged in one. In respect to exciting attacks upon the nervous system Strauss seems in "Salome" and "Electra" to have gone as far as even he can go. Perhaps he has seen that works of such a lurid character cannot retain a permanent popularity, for in his last two operas, "Der Rosen- kavalier" and "Ariadne auf Naxos," he has turned into the domain of comedy, and has shown skill in dealing with the lighter phases of life. In these works he has sacrificed a considerable part of the enormous orchestral machinery of his tragedies, and with more delicate in- strumental means and more tuneful, dance-like melodies, he has produced music that is more popular and urbane without falling into the conventional or denying his con- RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 345 victions in respect to the real character and method of dramatic music. Richard Strauss must also be rated among the fore- most song writers of his time. Among his Lieder there are a few of the first order in respect to beauty of melody and harmony and deep poetic insight. The best of these songs belong with few exceptions to the early part of his career. It is to be hoped that the style of his later operas indicates a revival of interest in the field of ex- pression which his finest Lieder so admirably represent. The Strauss literature has already become extensive. It ia, however, to be found chiefly in periodicals. Ernest Newman has written a valuable book for the Living Masters of Music series. Lawrence Oilman has a Guide to "Salome.'^ The following books contain valuable essays: Henderson, Modern Musical Drift; Baughan, Music and Musicians; Newman, Musical Studies; Oilman, Phases of Modern Music; Oilman, Stories of Symphonic Mv^ic; Orove's Dictionary (new edition), article Strauss; Huneker, Overtones, A Book of Temperaments. For the songs, see Henderson, Modem Musical Drift, and Newman, Richard Strauss. Germany has not been lacking in opera composers since Wagner, some of them following his lead, some the old methods, but no one has been able, even tem- porarily, to distract attention from the great reformer of the lyric drama. Hermaistn Goetz (1840-1876) showed great talent in his brilliant and thoroughly individual opera, "Der Widerspenstigen Zahmung" (Shakspeare's "Taming of the Shrew"), 1874. This work is quite independent of Wagner, and is one of the best comic operas of recent times. 346 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Karl Goldmark (1830- ) made himself famous in 1875 by his "Die Konigin von Saba," based on an imaginary tale of love and adventure, Solomon and the queen of Sheba being among the principal characters. The style and cast of this work show affiliation with Meyerbeer and Verdi in "Aida." "Merlin" (1886), less successful, shows more traces of the Wagner influence. Goldmark has also written symphonies and symphonic poems, among which the symphony "Landliche Hoch- zeit" has gained great favor in Germany. Goldmark belongs to the romantic school, has an abundant gift of tuneful melody and is clever in the invention of piquant orchestral effects, but lacks depth and passion. Among the younger Wagnerians the greatest stage success has been achieved by Engelbert Humper- DiNCK (1854- ), with his charming fairy opera "Hansel und Gretel," which portrays the adventures of a couple of children with a wicked witch and the destruction of the latter. Humperdinck has shown great skill in the musical setting of this story, combining racy humor with romantic coloring. This admirable work, produced in 1893, has had international success, for Humperdinck has the art so to combine children's and fairy songs with complete technical musicianship in counterpoint and orchestration as to steer clear of triviality on the one side and heaviness on the other. A fine vein of humor also lends to his work a unique attraction. Another beautiful opera on a romantic subject, "Die Koenigskinder," has been received with almost equal favor. RECENT MUSIC IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 347 A trail of Wagner is more or less distinct over a large number of the more recent German operas. In some it appears only in technical details, in others there is an obvious imitation in subjects (old German and Norse m}i;h and hero lore) and abstruse philosophic symbol- ism. But it is evident that if the public wishes these things it will go to the great original himself, for he alone has shown the ability to deal with them in a con- vincing manner. Work such as that of August Bungert (1846- ), who has planned and partly finished a huge work in six parts on subjects drawn from the Iliad and Odyssey, for which he wished to found a special festival house a la Bayreuth, excites little interest. Even bril- liant and well-constructed operas, such as Richard Strauss' "Guntram," Klughardt's "Gudrun'' and Schil- ling's "Ingwelde," are paled by the shadow of the gigantic structure under which they stand. There is great activ- ity in opera composition at the present day in Germany, but a new and promising vein has not been opened. The same may be said of recent German work in sym- phony, chamber music, cantata, piano music, song, etc. There has been an abundance of brilliant composition, in which figure such honored names as Kirchner, Reinecke, Bargiel, Herzogenburg, Hofmann, Draeseke, Nicode, Hausegger, Mahler and many more, but nothing that shows signs of leading the art into new paths, — always excepting, of course, the work of Richard Strauss. Critical writing on the post- Wagner German school is not abundant in English. Famous Composers and their Works, series i, and Grove's Dictionary are trustworthy sources of information. 348 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC J. A. Fuller Maitland has written a readable book on Masters of German Music in the series Masters of Contemporary Music. The very latest German work is well described in Arthur Elson's Modern Composers of Europe. Amid the profusion of Lieder writers at the end of the nineteenth century the name of Hugo Wolf (1860-1903) deserves especial honor. His art may properly be said to mark the final term of that tendency that began with Schubert, by which the song composer, not content with inventing beautiful tunes and harmonies, strives to inter- pret the text with the most penetrating directness and the most expressive nuance. It would probably be cor- rect to say that in no instance could a melody by Wolf be suited for service to any poem except the one to which it is set. That is to say, Wolf never aimed at general beauty merely, but at characteristic beauty. Every musical phrase is so moulded over the poetic phrase that it seems absolutely inevitable, and yet the entire song gives an impression of logical design, of proportioned artistic structure. Wolf's poetic feeling was singularly acute, and with his high endowment in respect to melody and his complete mastery of the technique of composition he is unquestionably to be ranked among the greatest song writers of the century. The standard work on Wolf is Ernest Newman's Hugo Wolf, an enthusiastic tribute to a great artist, and an admirable exposition of the principles of the art of song. Also to be recommended is Mr. Newman's introduction to his edition of fifty songs by Wolf, published by Ditson {Miisicians Library series).' XL RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE No other country at the present day shows greater musical activity or a more interesting group of com- posers than France. Although France is one of the oldest musical nations, modem harmonized music hav- ing apparently had its cradle in Paris, she has been out- stripped by her neighbors in productive genius, and even the styles that may be called French have been to a large extent fostered by foreigners. But the music produced on French soil has always had a decidedly national flavor, its vitaHty has never been exhausted and in no country at the present day is musical energy more active, ambitious and individual. It is only in comparatively recent times that France may be said to have "found herself" musically. French composers have usually shown a certain lack of self-reliance. Their work has not been sufficiently spontaneous ; it has been self-conscious, intellectual in the sense that it is guided too much by theories and traditions, academic rather than free, and so this timidity and reflectiveness have been the cause of much subjection to foreign influ- ences. The latest of these is the hypnotizing spell of Wagner, but now independence and nationalism in music is the cry, and there is a new and hopeful ferment among the younger coteries. No musicians of the pres- 350 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC ent day are more thoroughly trained in their craft, — the strict discipline and the stern traditions of the all- powerful Paris Conservatoire are chiefly responsible for that; and with the multiplication of brilliant talents and governmental and social encouragement results of importance may be expected. A striking fact in the musical history of France in the last half-century is the broadening of the range of composition. Down to about 1870 secular music of importance, with the exception of the works of Berlioz, was almost entirely opera. Rehgious music, abundant in quantity, had only one or two productions of marked importance to show. But during the past twenty-five or thirty years France has produced a remarkable num- ber of composers who have distinguished themselves in instrumental composition, especially orchestral. The concert orchestras of Paris are among the finest in the world, and the splendid concert system of the city has brought instrumental music to the front in popular regard. Whereas formerly a composer enjoyed no es- teem until he had written a successful opera, the fact now is that artists in many cases gain notice through concert music, and are no longer unknown when they make their d^but upon the stage. This condition of affairs is highly favorable to operatic music itself, for the whole tendency of modern music demands that a dramatic composer shall be a past master of musical science, including the art of orchestration. This re- quirement leads composers into study of the most serious and exhaustive character, and all tlie forms of composition profit by it and inspire each other. RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 351 Not less notable Is the attention given by the new school of French composers to chorus writing in oratorio, cantata and church music. This interest has been fos- tered by organizations which have included many of the foremost musicians of Paris. In 1853 Louis Nieder- meyer established the Ecole de musique religieuse et classique for the study of the works of the masters of the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and drew into co-operation a strong group of composers, con- ductors, organists and critics. Gradually a larger circle of musicians and amateurs was brought to an appreciation of the classic religious works, and in 1892 the Association des Chanteurs de Saint-Gervais, founded by Charles Bordes, entered upon a career which has had a marked effect in elevating and strengthening the serious musical life of the French capital. In this movement the spirit of the venerated Cesar Franck was strongly felt, and in 1894 the inspiration of his work appeared in the founding of the Schola Cantorum by three of his disciples, Alexandre Guilmant, Charles Bordes, and Vincent dlndy, whose avowed purpose was to perpetuate the teaching of their master. The function of the Schola has steadily enlarged, and developing beyond its pristine purpose of reviving the cultivation of the older religious music, it has become an institution that exerts a wide propaganda by means of concerts of music of all periods, given in the provincial cities as well as in Paris, and by its learned publica- tions. In its later activities there is plainly apparent the learning, energy and enthusiasm of its director, Yin- cent dTndy. 352 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC The French school of organ playing and composition now leads the world (Guilmant, Widor, Franck, Dubois, Gigout and others). It is based on a profound study of Sebastian Bach, and is shaped and colored under the in- fluence of the splendor of Catholic liturgical art and the French love of rhythm, color and dramatic contrast. The first public concerts (the orchestral concerts in the Conservatoire were open only to students and musicians), in which the symphonies of Mozart and Beethoven could be heard, were instituted in 1839. Still more important, because reaching a greater number, were the "popular concerts" of Pasdeloup (1861). The good work of Pasde- loup has been continued to the present day by the unsur- passed orchestras of Colonne, Lamoureux and Chevillard. A scholarly conservatism appears constantly in the pro- grammes of these orchestras, and not only is prominence given to the standard works of the classic school, but extensive research is also made for the presentation of unfamiHar productions of the old French, German and Italian composers. Abstract symphonies in classic form are still rare ex- ceptions in French music. It is inevitable, the French mind being constituted as it is, that the demand should be for representative or programme music. A favorite form is the orchestral suite, for there is more freedom admitted in it than in the orthodox symphonic form. Equally cultivated is the symphonic poem. Rhapsodies on foreign airs are much beloved. There are works in the form of symphonies with a conspicuous violin part. Great numbers of overtures have been written, based on RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 353 subjects from history, poetry and fiction. On a larger scale works have followed the plan of Berlioz in the ode symphony or dramatic symphony, — a mixed form of vocal and instrumental pieces alternating, following the scheme of some well-known play and emphasizing its most salient features. In all this we see the natural working of the French mind. It is disinclined to think music abstractly. It demands words, a subject, a programme, a definite hint of some kind to stimulate the fancy and give a picturesque character to the music. Add to this the disposition to distrust the naive instinctive impulses of the emotion, the French love of conformity and reliance upon demon- stration in art, the persistent consciousness of aesthetic theories and intellectual problems underlying art crea- tion, and we have gone a long way to explaining the peculiar phenomena of French music and the traits which still interfere with its progress towards the very highest achievements. In spite of the significant impulse towards orchestral and choral writing, the chief place in French music is still held by the opera. An immense number of works of talent have seen the light of the Paris theatres, rang- ing from the imposing and spectacular grand opera to the burlesque operetta. No longer is France dependent upon foreigners for the maintenance of her operatic dis- tinction ; everything is the work of native Frenchmen. It must be said that only rarely, as in the case of Gou- nod's *' Faust " and Bizet's " Carmen," does a French opera win international fame, but the average is high. The French writers hold to the time-honored principle 354 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC of French opera that the music shall be poetically true and the plot and scene have independent dramatic value. The effort is to depict life and character rather than to astonish by vocalism or spectacular embellishment. Only a hasty review of the most conspicuous French composers of the last half-century can be allowed here. The most widely known of all is Charles Gounod (1818-1893). Like many other composers he has distinguished himself both as writer for the theatre and for the church, the union of the mystical and the sensu- ous in his temperament producing that warm, seductive, languishing and ecstatic manner which is peculiar to him and is felt in both his religious and his secular music. There is a certain softness and effeminacy in this style which is hardly in keeping with the highest demands of dramatic music, certainly not with those of church music. Gounod's immense popularity is due to his remarkable gift of voluptuous melody, which com- pletely captivates at the first hearing, and although it may cloy at last and never sounds the lowest depths of passion, at its best it is sincere and forcible and bears the marks of genuine feeling. Gounod's masterpiece, the opera "Faust" (1859), may without much risk be called the most popular stage work of modern times. It has been given more than a thousand times in Paris, while no one pretends to estimate the number of its pro- ductions in other countries. The title given to this work in Germany, viz. " Marguerite," is more appropri- ate, for it is in fact a dramatization of one episode in Goethe's poem. The soliloquy of Faust, the people's chorus, the meeting of Faust and Mephistopheles and RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 355 the cellar scene are a mere perfunctory introduction to the real subject. Faust is little more than the tradi- tional stage lover, the attempts at characterization in the case of the mocking fiend are feeble and he is simply a vulgar go-between in an amorous escapade. The love scenes between Faust and Marguerite and the scenes in the church and the prison show Gounod's gifts of melody and dramatic expression at the highest point they ever reached. Of still greater moment in the his- tory of the French opera is the musical importance given to the portions intermediate between the arias, the ac- companied recitative, where we find some of the most characteristic and telling music in the work. In this re- spect Gounod strikes hands with the leaders of modern opera who insist upon continuity of musical movement, and a conception of style which refuses to subordinate dramatic progress to vocal display in set pieces. None of Gounod's other operas rival " Faust." The most important are " Philemon et Baucis," " La Reine de Saba," » Mireille " and " Romeo et Juliette." Of Gounod's numerous masses and hymns the "St. Cecilia Mass " (1855) has done almost as much as " Faust " to diffuse the Gounod cult. The most noted of his oratorios are " The Redemption " and " Mors et Vita.'* The former is in three parts : (1) the passion of Christ, which includes a very realistic march to Calvary ; (2) Christ's life on earth between his resurrection and ascension ; (3) the diffusion of Christianity by the apos- tles. This work is uneven ; there are portions of very mellifluous and Gounod-like melody, there are passages full of deeply felt pathos and there is much that is hollow 356 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC and pretentious. The "Mors et Vita" is long and mo- notonous. The first part is a requiem mass, the second deals with the judgment and the third with eternal life. A few of Gounod's songs are deservedly celebrated. His instrumental music is weak. Gounod, Autobiographical Reminiscences, trans, by Hutchinson; Marie de Bovet, Gounod^ his Life and Works (personal traits, opinions, etc.); Famous Composers and their Works, series i; Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Csntury^ and Masters of French Music. The most eminent French composer now living is Camille Saint-Saens (1835- ). He is one of the most accomplished and versatile of modern musicians. He is the most successful instrumental writer of France since Berlioz, he has greatly distinguished himself in opera and religious music, he is one of the fore- most pianists in Europe and has held high positions as organist. He is also a brilliant litterateur, and has pub- lished excellent critical essays besides experiments in verse. His compositions include the operas " Samson et Dalila," "Henry VHI.," ":^tienne Marcel" and " Phryn^ " — the first of which is frequently given in England and America in oratorio style ; a requiem and other church music ; a " biblical poem," " Le Deluge " ; a very strong and effective body of works for orchestra, chamber instruments and piano, of which the sym- phony in C minor, the piano concertos and the symphonic poems " Danse Macabre," " Phaeton," " La Jeunesse d'Hercule " and " Le Rouet d'Omphale " are among the most admired of all recent works of their re- spective classes ; choruses for men's voices and for mixed RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 357 voices; pieces for the organ, and many songs. Saint- Saens is one of the most learned composers of his time, a master in counterpoint and orchestration, and this learn- ing is handled with such facility that he always realizes the effect intended. He has not only distinguished himself in both vocal and instrumental music, but has achieved equal success in abstract and in programme music. Although he is unequal in his work, everything that he does has an air of distinction. He is celebrated not only for his technical ability and lucidity of style, but also for his versatility, his power of adjusting him- self to the special demands of the form of music in which he may be engaged. Lacking the depth and power of Cdsar Franck and the melodic invention of Gounod, his field is far broader than that of either of these, and in no form that he has touched has he failed to produce work that is brilliant and effective. In cleverness and in certainty of touch, mastery of form, elegance and finish he is a representative French artist. Interesting criticisms of Saint-Saens : Hervey, Masters oj French, Music, and French Music in the Nineteenth Century; Mason, From Grieg to Brahms ; Famous Composers and their Works, series i. The production of " Carmen " in 1875, the work of Georges Bizet (1838-1875), indicated that an opera composer of rare ability and promise had appeared, but the hopes thus excited were blasted by the gifted author's death in the same year. Although Bizet has written other music of marked excellence (the opera "Djami- leh," incidental music to Daudet's " L'Arldsienne "), his fame will rest upon " Carmen," which is now uni- versally recognized as one of the most individual and 358 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC powerful works that the French stage has ever pro- duced. The text, arranged from Merimee's celebrated novel, is exceedingly well adapted to musical treatment, and Bizet has succeeded in imparting an extraordinary vividness to the characters, and in finding the right notes for all shades of sentiment, pathos and passion. The score is alive from beginning to end, the culminating moments never disappoint, the intermediate sections are never dull. It is also the work of a solid and inventive musician as well as of a true dramatist. The singular charm of the work is likewise due to the pronounced Spanish color skilfully achieved in melody, rhythm and orchestration. Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century; Famous Com' posers and their Works, series i; Hueffer, Musical Studies. Conspicuous among French opera composers of the present is Jules Massenet (1842-1912), a composer of the greatest refinement and purity of style, based on profound learning and truth of feeling. His popularity is very great and deserved. He is noted for his skill in the portrayal of the tender passion, and in his clearly marked female types — Eve, Mary Magdalen, Herodias, Manon — and the lusciousness of his melody he comes into comparison with Gounod. His chief operas are "Manon Lescaut," "Herodiade," "Esclarmonde," "Werther," "Le Cid," "Le Roi de Lahore." Massenet has also distinguished himself in orchestral suites and songs. Finck, Massenet and his Operas, RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 359 Other French dramatic composers who have gained in- ternational renown are Ambroise Thomas (1811-1896) — "Mignon," "Hamlet"; Edouard Lalo (1823-1892) — "Le Roi d'Ys"; Ernest Reyer (1823-1909) — "Sigurd," "Salammbo"; Emanuel Chabrier (1841-1894) — "Gwendoline," "Le Roi malgre lui"; Gustave Charpentier (1860- ) — in his remarkable opera "Louise" he has accepted the task of portraying the lights and shadows of contemporary humble life in its every-day environment, making the opera a realistic human docu- ment; Alfred Bruneau (1857- ), — a literary and musi- cal champion of the same idea, who has collaborated with the novelist Zola in the much discussed operas "Le Reve," "L'Attaque du Moulin" and "Messidor"; Leo Delibes (1836-1891) — "Lakme," the ballets "Sylvia" and " Coppelia." Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880) deserves recognition here as one of the most marked and representative fig- ures of the Second Empire. As creator of the present type of opera-bouffe and its most original and brilliant light, he has exerted a positive influence both for good and for harm. The character of his texts and the pe- culiarly pungent kind of music with which their most salient points are spiced, have brought Offenbach under condemnation with serious minds; but his intention was to add to public gayety, not to corrupt, and as a master of burlesque and satire, a man of remarkable musical gifts, albeit turned to the uses of levity, and as the origina- tor of a type of musical farce which has been definitely adopted into French art, he must be seriously considered 360 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC by the student of music history as well as by the student of manners. In Famous Composers and their Works, series ii, vol. i, the reader will find his fullest and most authoritative account of all the con- spicuous French composers of the later day, the excellent work of Philip Hale. Saint-Sacns, Gounod, Thomas, Bizet and Massenet are treated in series i. The various movements which these com- posers represent, especially in opera, are tersely and intelligently characterized iDy Mr. Hervey in French Music in the Nineteenth Century. See also Apthorp, The Opera, Past and Present, and Her- vey, Masters of French Music, article on Bruneau. For contempo- rary French composers generally, Elson, Modern Composers of Europe. There is a very thorough and instructive essay on Offen- bach by W. F. Apthorp in Musicians and Music Lovers. The condition of the French operatic stage to-day is very hopeful. The Wagner influence so far as it re- pressed originality has been thrown off. "Nationality in music" is the cry. There is enthusiasm, self-confi- dence, a striving to express individuality which often results in the bizarre, outre and morbid, but is a sign of life and of a reaching forward. The controlling pur- pose is to bring music into closer affinity with literature in its most modern aspects, to lay stress upon the ex- pression of the soul state and the emotion that is the ground of action, rather than upon the externalities of action, and to blend drama and music according to the Wagnerian principle, though not by the Wagnerian technical formulas. A name which seems to loom larger and larger in the music of the present is that of Cii:sAR Franck (1822- 1890). He was born in Liege, Belgium, spent his musical life in Paris, a shy recluse, devout, indifferent to worldly RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 361 success, a man of rare simplicity of character, a beloved and very able teacher, a profound student, an accom- plished organist, slowly recognized as one of the greatest religious composers of the* last half-century, successful also in orchestral and chamber music. His masterpiece is "Les Beatitudes," an oratorio, published in 1880, first performed entire in 1891. It is a work of extraordinary depth and pathos, powerful in dramatic contrast, showing the highest knowledge in treatment of voices and instru- ments, devout in sentiment, exceedingly rich yet appro- priate in coloring, complex and difficult in texture yet suffuaed with exquisite melody, glowing at every point with a romantic mystical splendor. Franck's organ works, although involved and severe, reveal a wealth of power- ful and original ideas. Certain orchestral and chamber works are among the most notable of recent times. Bas- ing his work on the most solid foundations (he has been called "the French Bach"), he was singularly receptive to progressive influences and exemplified the best of them in his work. Through the extraordinary richness of his harmony and his experiments in form he became one of the leaders of the later movement in French music. His singular ability as a teacher and the attractive force of his rare character drew around him a large class of devoted pupils, many of whom are conspicuous figures in the musical life of France. Appreciative studies of Franck in Famous Composers and their Works, series ii; Mason, From Grieg to Brahms; Hervey, French Music in the Nineteenth Century; Studies in Music, edited by Grey. The standard work on Franck is the critical biography by Vincent d'Indy. 362 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Vincent d'Indy (1852- ) is one of the commanding figures in French music by reason of the superior abihty he shows in varied Hnes. He has distinguished himself as a composer of works in many forms which, if they do not show a creative mind of the first order, are marked by a rich invention, boldness in treatment and a complete mastery of the harmonic and orchestral science of his own and preceding periods. He has deep reverence for the great works of the past, and this, together with the peculiar earnestness of his character, has kept him from any strained or futile attempts. Among his most important compositions are found orchestral works ("Wallenstein," a trilogy after Schiller; "Symphonic Cevenole"; "Istar," symphonic variations; overtures, symphonic poems, fantasies, etc.), chamber works, in- cluding string quartets, duets, and piano trios and quar- tets; religious works; secular choruses; songs; piano pieces; dramatic works, including "Fervaal" (text written by himself), "Le Chant de la Cloche" (after Schiller) and "L'Etranger" (text by himself). He has also made many transcriptions and revisions of old works. He has written books and magazine articles and delivered many public discourses. His most notable works in this line of activity are the life of Cesar Franck, a book on Beethoven, and a complete course of composition. His activity as teacher, conductor and administrator is pro- digious. As leading spirit in the Societe Nationale de MiLsique and the Schola Cantorum, and as a vital influence in many departments of musical education in Paris and the provinces, d'Indy must be considered as one of thf RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 363 most urgent and healthful forces in the musical life of France. Some of the most vigorous discussions in the musical circles of the present center in the works and ideas of Ckiude-Achille Debussy (1862- ). He is one of the most interesting of the newer school of composers who are seeking new fields of expression by means of adventurous, free and wholly individual uses of harmony, rhythm and tone color. This movement, which is active in every musical country, is the natural result of the characteristic desire of the age to lead music into every possible domain of expression that its nature allows it to penetrate, and is also a natural consequence of the fact that the human ear becomes in successive generations constantly more susceptible to fine dynamic and harmonic shades. De- bussy's exquisitely sensitive organization and positive genius for subtleties of tone and rhythm has emphasized certain traits that are found in such predecessors as Chopin, Liszt, the old Italian church composers and the later Russians, and has outdone not only his forerunners but also his imitators in the delicacy and felicity of his work. At the same time he retains that French instinct for logic, system and moderation which has preserved him from vagaries and extravagance. He is thoroughly romantic in his temperament, a passionate lover of nature, happy to dwell in those regions of faery in which the idealist school of poets find their home, where every sharp outline dis- solves and the most delicate emotions of the soul find expression in vague, fantastic imagery. Debussy is thus akin in sympathy to the "impressionist" painters, who 364 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC sacrifice drawing to shimmering effects of light, and to the "symboHst" poets, who use words not for exact por- trayal but for suggestion by means of sound and associa- tion. The poets whom he has chosen for illustration in his opera, songs and instrumental tone poems are such as Rossetti, Maeterlinck, Verlaine, Baudelaire and Mal- larme. The natural objects he strives to portray are clouds, the sea, calm or running waters, gardens in the glare of sunshine where outlines melt and shift or surfaces glint and vibrate. The emotions he loves to depict are the most exquisite impressions and intimate unrealized long- ings. In the attainment of this lovely and impalpable world of fancy Debussy employs tones in wholly new combinations, basing his harmonic scheme on higher overtones, avoiding resolutions of dissonances, progres- sions in which every chord is a surprise, making frequent use of a scale of whole tones and the old Gregorian modes. There is no doubt that this style is adapted only to a certain order of ideas, and Debussy has made no attempt to employ it for subjects to which it is unsuited. It is found in piano pieces, songs, orchestral works, chief of which are "Prelude a TApres-midi d'un Faune" (after Mallarme's poem), "Nocturnes" (with sub-titles "Nu- ages," "Fetes" and "Sirenes"), "Le Mer"; a string quartet; "La Damoiselle Elue" (Rossetti's "Blessed Damosel") for female vx)ices, chorus and orthestra; the opera "Pelleas et Melisande" (Maeterlinck). The latter is perhaps his most important work so far. The voices sing a vague, somewhat monotonous, chant-like melody. RECENT MUSIC IN FRANCE 365 while a small orchestra imparts with wonderful delicacy the weird mystical atmosphere of the play. Gilman, Debudsy^s "Pelleas et Melisande" A Guide to the Opera with Musical Examples from the Score; "Pelleas et Melisande," Drarne lyrique en 5 actes et 12 tableaux de M. Maeterlinck, Mu^igue de Claude Debussy, tr. by H. G. Chapman; Gilman, Aspects of Modern Opera, chapter on Debussy; Mrs. Franz Liebich, Claude-Achille Debussy. As in Germany in the appearance of the romantic poets and the Lied composers, so in France in the nine- teenth century, the revival of lyric poetry, whici was one of the capital events in French literary history in this period, was soon followed by a group of song composers who have added new lustre to recent French art. Among the names especially to be noted are those of Faur6, Duparc, Gounod, Massenet, Godard, Franck, Debussy, Paladilhe, Saint-Saens, Bizet, Delibes, Leroux, and Hahn. In Ditson's Musicians Library there are two volumes of French songs, edited with a valuable introduction by Phihp Hale. XLI RECENT MUSIC IN ITALY Turning to modern Italy we find a colossus towering above all his contemporaries, the one opera composer of his time whose shining was not dimmed by the lustre of Wagner. Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) may fairly be called the greatest dramatic composer that Italy has ever produced. He is exceptional among musicians for an intellectual vitality so enduring and resourceful that his most elaborate and powerful works were produced ftfter he was fifty -seven years old, the last, "Falstaff,'' written at the age of eighty, being one of the freshest and most vigorous of his career. After reaching the confines of old age his development was so rapid and pronounced that all his previous work seemed but prep- aration and experiment. In his earlier period Verdi is commonly classed with Bellini and Donizetti, but hardly with justice, for although the form and technical basis of his opera* were akin to theirs in accordance with Italian tradi- tion, he showed from the first an energy and dra- matic force which set him apart. This vigor was attained at the expense of much that was thin, noisy, sensational and tasteless, but gradually his style was enriched with the growth of musical knowledge; the nature of true dramatic expression was little by little RECENT MUSIC IN ITALY 367 revealed to him; his range of emotional expression enlarged, he sought more and more to render feeling and inner motive as well as to paint outward act and situation; he gradually gained the power of moulding all elements of score and plot into a unity, aiming to make his music in form and character conform to the poetic requirements of the text and scene rather than to the old crude demand for vocal and spectacular effect. He always had a sense of dramatic claims and tried to gratify them according to his light. Since he was a man of superior intellect, of poetic feeling and artistic conscience, a larger measure of this light was constantly vouchsafed him, until in "Aida," "Otello," and " Falstaff " he virtually adopted the principles of Wagner and the later French composers. In sacrific- ing the undramatic "set piece " for the sake of continu- ous musical movement, enriching the recitative and the orchestral accompaniment, effecting a unity among all the factors — musical, poetic and scenic — there is no imitation of Wagner, as has been alleged; Verdi pre- served his own characteristic style, albeit mellowed and refined, and there is no reason to believe that he would not have achieved the same result by virtue of his mental growth and independent study of the prob- lem if Wagner had not lived. Verdi wrote twenty-seven operas, beginning with "Oberto" (18^9). "I Lombardi " (1848) and "Er- nani " (1844) gave him a European reputation. His fiery Italian patriotism during the great historic move- ment towards national consolidation and independence (see Mliller, Political History of Recent Tirnes) was 368 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC often manifest in his operas; he became the idol of the Italian people, was elected to the Italian parlia- ment in 1860 and appointed senator in 1875. In 1851 he opened a group of operas which gave him a popu- larity that has rarely been rivalled. " Rigoletto " (1851), "II Trovatore" (1853) and "La Traviata" (1853) show a great advance ; they display his wonderful melodic gift in its most brilliant light, at the same time containing scenes of great dramatic spirit. "Un Ballo in Mas- chera" (1859) and "Don Carlos" (1867) were hardly less admired. But these works were still transitional; their powerful musical material is still unorganized, there are long stretches of barrenness, poetic truth is often sacrificed to immediate sensation. The group of mature works which has given Verdi his place of honor in the hearts of those who take the musical drama most seriously comprises " Aida " (1871), "Otello" (1887) and "Falstaff" (1893). "Aida" is one of the richest of his works in vocal melody, but melody is employed not for sensuous enjoyment but for poetic expression. Interest is maintained in the recitative portions as well as in the arias, and the orchestra for the first time attains primary importance. The tendencies towards a continuous form of music and a more condensed style, and the merging of voice and orchestra parts, are carried still further in "Otello" and "Falstaff." Greater space is also given to the chorus. The old Verdian stream of fascinating melody »eem8 less affluent in these works, and for this reason some rate "Alda" above them. "Falstaff," the work of an octogenarian, is a comic opera, and one of the RECENT MUSIC IN ITALY 369 freshest and most vivacious in the history of the stage. Moreover it yields to no other of Verdi's works in solidity of substance and tone quality; it is the result of his lifelong effort to gain mastery of the scientific side of his art. In estimating the greatness of *'Otello" and '^Falstaff" full credit must be given to Verdi's collaborator, the poet-composer Arrigo Boito, who has fashioned out of Shakspeare two of the most perfect librettos ever written. Some go so far as to attribute much of Verdi's later conviction on the subject of the rights of the drama in opera music to the personal in- fluence of Boito. The "Manzoni Requiem " (1874) is one of the most beautiful works of its class, and reveals the musically mature Verdi of the " Aida " period. Objection has been taken to it on the ground of the theatricalness of certain numbers, but justice requires that it should be criticised in view of the nature and purpose of the Catholic ritual and the racial differences in religious feeling and expression between the peoples of the Latin and Teutonic stocks. Verdi, a man of genuine religious conviction, has composed a few other strongly individ- ual works for the church, including a deeply felt and musically lovely "Stabat Mater." Famous Composers and their Works, series i ; Grove's Dictionary, articles Verdi, Opera; Pougin, Verdi, An Anecdotic History of his Life and Works ; Streatfeild, Masters of Italian Music ; Huneker, Overtones : Verdi and Boito. Italy, once the standard-bearer of musical progress, shows at the beginning of the twentieth century no such vitality and promise as France. The instru- 370 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC mental and choral movement, which has given new vigor and hope to French music, has no parallel in Italy. Italian music at present means simply opera music, and it is doubtful if opera henceforth can flourish greatly unless sustained by a mastery of the orchestral and choral forms. Italian composers have been numerous enough in recent times, but few of them have made any impression outside of their own country, and these few, with the exception of Verdi and Puccini, have aroused interest more by the hints of new possibilities in art than by their actual achievements. Arbigo Boito (1842- ), Verdi's accomplished collab- orator in "Otello" and "Falstaff," excited the highest expectations by virtue of his very strong and original " Mefistof ele, " produced in 1868, remodelled and con- densed and reperformed in 1875. He was hailed as the man who was to lead Italian music into new paths. These hopes have been disappointed, for although rumors have spread from time to time of a new opera from Boito's pen, nothing more has come. He seems to have definitely turned his great talent into literature rather than music. Within a few years, however, a new school of opera has appeared in Italy, some of the products of which made a tremendous noise in the world for a short period. In fact the sensation created by Mascagni's *' Cavalleria Rusticana " (1890) and Leoncavallo's " Pa- gliacci " (1892) has had no parallel since the Rossini craze. These composers and others who pursued the same direc- tion undertook to compose dramas of real life, marked by condensed and swiftly moving action, characters taken RECENT MUSIC IN ITALY 871 from the middle and lower grades of society, events exciting and often shocking, music highly colored, im- passioned, sometimes violent and coarse. This school may be called a counterpart of the naturalistic school in fiction and the spoken drama. In the typical produc- tions of this group of writers the animal side of human nature is emphasized, the native instincts and passions are displayed in all their nakedness. There is no re- lief of noble sentiment, no suggestion of moral reaetion. The plots turn upon the basest impulses — hate, lust, jealousy — and the catastrophe is murder or suicide. A good deal of talent is displayed in some of these operas ; the plots are natural and have dramatic consistency; they follow the modern tendency by throwing chief weight upon the subject and scene, making the music exist not for vocal allurement, as in the old Italian opera, but for the sake of adding force to action and poetic development. The music is occasionally rich and effective, often blatant, shallow and sensational. This new idea of operatic realism in brief, highly electrified pieces (although suggested doubtless by features in Bizet's " Carmen ") broke suddenly upon the world in 1890, with "Cavalleria Rusticana," an opera in one act, by Pietro Mascagni (1863- ), which took the musical world of Europe by storm. "In the opera are these elements: simple means em- ployed by simple characters shake and harrow the spec- tators; dramatic touches are blows in their directness; the occasional absence of judicious art is forgotten in the exhibition of fierce truth. In his haste to tell his story Mascagni has no time to construct themes of 372 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC balanced length. Phrases are short and intense; rhythm frets; dissonances rage and scream. There is feverish unrest from beginning to end; but the fever is the fever of a sturdy, hot-blooded youth, and not the artificial flush of a jaded maker of music" (Philip Hale, preface to Schirmer's edition of the opera). From the musical side alone "Cavalleria Rusticana" is not a great work. It is easy to see that i.s success is chiefly due to the vivid action and horrifying denouement. Mascagni has since written a number of operas, but all of them have been received with indifference. A rival to "Cavalleria Rusticana" on its own ground is "Pagliacci," by Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1858- ). Its subject is very similar to that of Mas- cagni 's work, and it owes its triumph to much the same causes. It is, however, superior musically. The promise of this work has not been fulfilled. The foremost Italian composer to-day is Giacomo Puccini (1858- ). His reputation, which has steadily grown since his earlier operas, has reached its height in "La Boheme" (1897), "Tosca'^ (1900) and "Madama Butterfly" (1904). The latter work has made an es- pecial appeal to the world by reason of the delicacy and beauty with which the touching history of the deceived and forsaken Japanese girl is treated by the composer. Puc- cini's latest opera, "The Girl of the Golden West" (1912), on an American subject, has not been equally success- ful. Lively description of the "verismo" school in Famous Composers and their Works, series ii, by Torchi, an unsympathetic critic. In- RECENT MUSIC IN ITALY 373 teresting characterization by Henderson in Modem Musical Drifl. See also Streatfeild, Masters of Italian Music; Arthur Elson, Mod- ern Composers of Europe. For Puccini, Wakeling Dry, Giacoino Puccini, in Living Masters of Music series. XLII RECENT MUSIC IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA Those who look for signs of the times in the pi'esent-day activity in the world of music will observe with interest a vigorous movement in what may be called the border-lands of musical Europe, particu- larly Russia, Bohemia, Hungary and Scandinavia. Is the musical sceptre soon to slip from the grasp of Germany, Italy and France, and the primacy pass to the people of the Slavic race? Tliere has long been evidence of musical vitality in these countries. They have cultivated artistic music for a long period, but until a comparatively recent day they were under the influ- ence of the older musical nations, producing music that was not national, but an echo of Italy and Germany. But now we are met by the significant fact that these eastern and northern countries are turning their atten- tion towards their own native music, the folk song and folk dance, finding there new sources of inspiration as well as new tonalities, rhythms and melodic forms. These nations are richly endowed with racy and in- dividual forms of folk music, and from these and from peculiar qualities of national instruments they have brought into the current of European music certain very marked and original features. The freshness IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 375 and energy of this new national music have revitalized the traditional forms, some of which seemed about to enter upon a period of decadence, and appear to fore- shadow a new epoch in musical evolution. No great monumental works have as yet arisen from these sources, but the time is not yet ripe. Novel and fas- cinating melodies, harmonies, rhythms and tone colors do not of themselves promise art works of the first order, — the question is of their expressive value and the intellectual power fitted to develop and co-ordinate them. With new and pregnant material, and a wide- spread musical activity, historic analogy bids us look confidently for the coming of the masters. Of these new national schools the later Russian holds an especially conspicuous place. Russia is the great unknown quantity in the forecast of the near future; the forces stirring there are watched with mingled hope and dread. The relation of art to national life is nowhere more apparent. Just as the people's voice is heard in Russia's powerful and gloomy literature, so there is likewise a tone of struggle in its music, a consciousness of undeveloped strength, an uncertainty as to what direction shall be taken when this strength is at last set free. The clash of influences, native and foreign, that causes the turmoil in Russian social and political life, is apparent in Russian musical history. Music is always cosmopolitan, its forms and technic are common to all nations, it speaks a universal language, the cry for nationalism, so insistent at the present day, can be obeyed only under very obvious limitations; but 376 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC there are certain distinctive traits that can be identified in the music of all nations, and Russia, within a few decades, has turned upon herself and is searching for the native materials that shall give her music an in- dividuality gratifying to the national pride. No country in Europe has a richer store of folk songs than Russia. Every section has its special local melo- dies, many of which have come down from great an- tiquity, transferred from the original Asiatic homes of those who practise them. Certain general traits they have in common, — limited compass, shortness of melo- dic themes, rhythmic irregularities, abrupt interchange of major and minor tonalities. Many are based on the ancient Greek modes. In spite of the dulness and hope- lessness of the life of the Russian masses, they are a singing people, and travellers certify in surprise to their skill and the beauty of their songs. Another important feature of Russian national music is the music of the church. The Russian church has never permitted the use of instruments in worship, not even the organ. Much of the liturgic music, and in the early days the whole of it, consists of chanting in a style similar to the Gregorian chant, reaching back with but slight modification to the earliest centuries of the church. Harmonized music was introduced late in the seventeenth century. Since that time the Italian influence has been felt, but never to the degree that in the Catholic church has often led to the denial of ecclesiastical traditions in favor of conceH and dra- matic imitations. The tsars have given special atten- tion to perfecting religious music in their capitals, and IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 377 in beauty of tone and perfection of execution the music of the leading Russian choirs is not surpassed, perhaps not equalled in the world. The performances of the St. Petersburg imperial choir, with its sub-basses sing- ing in the octave below the usual bass register, excite the astonishment of all who hear them. The present condition of Russian church music is largely due to Dimitri Bortniansky (1752-1825), composer, compiler and editor, and reorganizer of the imperial choir. In spite of these native musical treasures in church and folk music, secular cultivated music in Russia was, until a comparatively recent period, controlled by foreign in- fluences, at first Italian, then French. This was espe- cially true of opera, down to the middle of the nineteenth century. Instrumental music was hardly considered at all. An Italian opera was fii*st heard in St. Petersburg in 1737, and the Italian music reigned supreme at the court until early in the nineteenth century, when French opera established a successful rivalry. The dominance of foreign fashions in opera was finally broken by Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka (1804- 1857), who, in his "Life for the Tsar "(1836), rendered a service to Russia precisely equivalent to that conferred upon Germany by Weber in his " Der FreischUtz. " Here was an opera on a national subject — the rescue of the reigning tsar from his Polish enemies by a peasant at the cost of his own life (an incident that actually oc- curred in 1613) — in which an extensive and syste- matic use of Russian and Polish types of melody was employed, attaining thereby a national coloring and pointing the way to a distinctive national form of 24 378 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC musical dramatic art. Glinka was a composer of learn- ing and genius, a master of melody, harmonj?- and or- chestration ; " Life for the Tsar '* is a work of such power that reaction was impossible and the creation of a national school of music was convincingly assured. The professional musicians as well as the enthusiastic public saw at once the historic significance of this work, and Glinka is rightly considered as the father of modern Russian music. Glinka's second opera, "Ruslan and Ludmilla," confirmed his credit as a musician. It is an ultra -romantic work; the story is of Oriental origin, and the score contains reminis- cences of Russian, Finnish, Circassian and Persian national music. Glinka was immediately followed by composers less in ability than he, but as enthusiastically Russian. The most important are Dargomizhsky and Sierov. This older group was followed by a coterie who asso- ciated themselves together under the name of the " neo- Russian " school, promulgating certain principles which they asserted a truly Russian music should follow. C^sar Cui, one of the founders of the school, has given us its doctrines in detail. Symphonic music, thanks to Beethoven, Schumann, Liszt and Berlioz, has arrived at its complete development; henceforth nothing new )an be accomplished in that field. It is otherwise with ihe opera; dramatic music is still in a transition state. Che opera is in its third stage of evolution — probabl} he last — which is that of accentuating by musical ounds the word that carries the thought. There are jertain principles in dramatic music of the highest im- IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 379 portance: (1) It should have an intrinsic value, like absolute music, apart from the text; (2) vocal music should be in perfect accord with the sense of the words; (3) the structure of the scenes ought to depend entirely upon the reciprocal situation of the personages, as well as the general movement of the piece. These rules, announced in 1856, are a protest against the musical triviality of the Italian opera and its disregard of dra- matic claims. They are, of course, the principles of Wagner, but the neo-Russians protested against what they called Wagner's sacrifice of vocal melody to the orchestra, and also rejected the "leading-motive."^ The members of this group — the chiefs of the neo-Russian school — were Alexander Borodin (1834- 1887), MiLi Bal.\kirev (1837-1910), Cesar Cui (1835- ), Modeste Moussorgsky (1839-1886) and Nicolas Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908). All of these composers have been able to extend their fame over Europe, Several have practised music in connection with other professions: Cui is a general in the Russian army and a professor of fortification in military schools; Borodin was a professor of chemistry; Rimsky-Korsakov vv'as for a time an ojQScer in the navy. The latter was the most learned of the group, and his solid culture preserved him from certain amateurish defects easily traceable in much of the work of his associates. It is rather singular that while these " new Russians '' laid down as one of their beliefs that there could be no further progress in symphonic music and that the only hope of progress was in the opera, they are far ^ Cdear Cui, La Musique en Russie, pp. 71-9. 380 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC better known by their orchestral works than by their dramatic efforts. They have usually followed the prin- ciples of the programme school — Borodin's " In the Steppes of Central Asia" and Rimsky-Korsakov's "An- tar" are famous. Borodin also excelled in absolute music. As a rule, not especially strong in melody, they have made bold experiments in harmony and rhythm, and have shown a striking command over all the re- sources of orchestral color. The novel quality of their music is largely due to the influence of the peculiar rhythms, tonalities and melodic formulas of the Russian folk song. Those who look for native and characteristic Russian elements rather than for artistic qualities of a general nature call especial attention to Moussorgsky (1839-1886) as the man whose work contains these ele- ments in the greatest simplicity and force. His very lack of musical culture which had seemed at first to stand in his way, is now held as his especial advanta^ge as a representative of the national spirit. In the opera " Boris Godounov" (first performed at St. Petersburg in 1874, revised by Rimsky-Korsakov in 1896) the elemental power of Moussorgsky is most fully apparent. This work is a series of episodes rather than a consecutive drama, and gives a realistic picture of Russian folk life in all its rough- ness and hopelessness. The psychology of the folk comes to vivid illustration in distinctively Russian mel- ody; while the remorse of the usurper and murderer Boris is set forth with intense reality. "Boris Godounov" has made a great impression upon Western Europe and IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 381 America as an exceedingly powerful portrayal of some of the most elemental passions of human nature. Probably the greatest musical genius that Russia has produced, certainly the most admired in Western Europe and America, is Peter Ilyitch Tchaikovsky (1840- 1893). He is not rated in Russia as a strictly national composer, and the "new Russian" party declares that he is more German than Russian. His music is among the most brilliant and individual of recent times, and iti boldness, varied contrasts and the strain of passionate melancholy that runs through it have seemed to mal^e it correspond to the general foreign notion of Russian life and character, and hence have given it an interest that is more than personal. He has produced notable work in orchestral music, both abstract and representa- tive, chamber music, piano music, opera, church music and song. The current impression of Tchaikovsky as a musical pessimist is due chiefly to the "Pathetic sym- phony," his last work, which has been the most pro- nounced success of recent years in orchestral concerts. There is certainly much in his music that is light and even joj^ul, but his most representative work is mani- festly pervaded by a tone of struggle and revolt. Tchaikovsky seems never to have acquired a full mastery of his genius. He often rises to a thrilling grandeur and dramatic intensity, while again he is often trivial and sensational. In mastery of orchestral color he has hardly had a superior. Like all Russians he loves capricious rhythms, minor tonality, sombre chromatic progressions. 382 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC harsh combinations, repetition of abrupt figures, but he excels his compatriots in melodic invention. He is great in vivid moments, rather than in large and developed conceptions. He is certainly one of the notable men of his time, but his place in music history is not yet determined. Anton Rubinstein (1829-1894), the most famous pianist of his time next to Liszt, is even more familiar to the musical world than Tchaikovsky by reason of his meteoric concert tours over Europe and America; but although much of his music is known in every musical household he must be held decidedly inferior to his rival as a composer. He is also less national, and little that can be called positively Russian is to be found in his work. There has been no more ambitious composer, and he has produced a great amount of music from the largest to the smallest forms, but he just fails at every point to produce work of the first order. His operas and oratorios (the latter might be called religious operas) are more pretentious than satisfying. His vein of melody, though abundant, is on the whole lacking in vigor and originality. His most admired compositions are the "Ocean symphony," ballet music from certain operas, works for the 'cello, the splendid D minor piano concerto, a few piano pieces out of a vast number and the Persian songs. The younger Russian composers show a tendency to conservatism. Their motive seems to be to produce music that is in accord with Western ideas and demands, availing themselves of the Western science and culture, IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 383 rather than to continue the revolutionary, independent and more strictly "national" direction marked out by such men as Glinka, Sierov and Moussorgsky. Glaz- ounov, Scriabine, Rachmaninov and others of the younger school have written a great deal of beautiful, often in- dividual music, but nothing so far that indicates that a new world-force is to issue from native Slavic elements. Russia and Poland have been remarkable in recent years for the production of a large number of pianists and violinists of the first rank, worthy successors of Rubinstein and Wieniawski. Among the pianists are Ignaz Jan Paderewski, Theodor Leschetizky, Annette Essipoff, Josef Hofmann, Mark Hambourg, Ossip Gabrilo- witsch, Josef Slivinski, Vladimir de Pachmann, Josef Lhevinne, I^eopold Godowski and Tina Lerna. Among the violinists are Alexander Petschnikov, Mischa Elman and Efrem Zimbalist. It should be observed that a number of these great performers are of the Jewish race. The virtuoso career of Paderewski has had no parallel since the triumphs of Liszt and Rubinstein. For an account of his achieve- ments see Baughan, Ignaz Jan Paderewski {Lmlng Masters of Music series), Finck, Paderewski and his Art, and Finck, Success in Music and how it is Won. The conservatories of St. Petersburg and Moscow offer as thorough discipline as any in Europe. From them proceeds a large and rapidly increasing company of composers who have something important to say and are trained to say it in a very effective manner. Their music is positive and individual, often experimental and 384 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC extravagant, but possessing elements of unmistakable power. The fullest history of Russian music in English is in Famous Composers and their Works, series i (H. T. Finck), and series ii (Philip Hale). See also, Elson, Modern Composers of Europe, and Borodin and Liszt, translated by Rosa Newmarch from the French of Habets. For still further information the student would be dependent upon French books, notably C^sar Cui's Musique en Russie (unfortunately out of print and scarce), and Pougin's Essai historique sur la musique en Russie. The authoritative work on the life of Tchaikovsky is the biogra- phy by his brother, Modeste Tchaikovsky, abridged and translated into English by Rosa Newmarch. See also Famous Composers and their Works, series i; Rosa Newmarch, Tchaikovsky, his Life and Works; important articles by Newman and Kelton in the Contempo- rary Review, July and September, 1900, June, 1901, and April, 1904. There is an elaborate study of Tchaikovsky's piano music by Huneker in Mezzotints in Modem Music. For Rubinstein: McArthur, Anton Rubinstein: A Biographical Sketch; Rubinstein, Autobiography, translated by Ahne Delano; Famous Composers and their Works, series i. Two albums of Russian piano music, pubhshed by Schirmer, illustrate many sahent points in the Russian musical style. The Bohemians, allied in race to the Russians, are also obeying the present tendency to seek for fresh material in national sources. Until a recent period under bondage to foreign styles, they have declared their independence. The chief of the founders of the Bohemian national school is Friedrich Smetana (1824- 1884). His operas are the first of importance to be written to Czechic texts. "The Bartered Bride" an- nounced the presence of a school of opera that is Bohe- mian in language, subjects and musical coloring. Equally important are Smetana*s instrumental works by virtue of their patriotic purpose as well as inherent merit. He IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 385 followed the Liszt-Berlioz direction, producing among many symphonic poems a notable cyclus of six on Bohe- mian subjects, — history, legend, landscape. He even carried the representative idea into the string quartet (quartet, "Out of my Life," E minor). Smetana, while not to be classed among the greatest geniuses, was a com- poser of learning, originality and force, and his permanent influence is not to be mistaken. Famous Composers and their Works, series ii. In the mind of the musical world at large the repre- sentative Bohemian composer is Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904). He was of peasant stock, his musical education was irregular, and he was forced to undergo a long and bitter struggle for recognition. At the age of thirty-six he leaped into fame with his captivating Slavic dances for orchestra. The strong Bohemian savor in these pieces pervades a large amount of his instru- mental music and also his songs. The most characteristic traits of his music are rather personal than national, and in the variety of forms which he has essayed and in his cultivation of both abstract and programme music he is decidedly cosmopolitan. He has an affluent gift of melody, great boldness and resource in harmony and is one of the greatest of the masters of orchestration. His numerous operas are not known outside of Bohemia — operas in the Eastern languages have so far been forced to pay the penalty of local restriction, — but his symphonies, chamber works and choral compositions have excited general admiration. To his several years' resi- 386 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC dence in America are due his symphony, quintet and quartet on themes suggested by the plantation songs of the Southern negroes. Dvorak's beHef that in this folk song was the foundation for a distinctively American school has not been accepted, and the works in question are considered more ingenious than convincing. Among his choral works on a large scale his noble "Stabat Mater,'* the "Requiem" and "The Spectre's Bride" have found much favor at musical festivals. Famous Composers and their Works, series i; Mason, From Grieg to Brahms, Hadow, Studies in Modern Music] Elson, Modern Com- posers of Europe. Unfavorable judgment by Runciman, Old Scores and New Readings. Some of the most delightful music of recent days has come from Scandinavia, — Norway, Sweden and Den- mark. The northern folk songs are of a peculiar and ex- quisite charm, and they have tinged all the work of the Scandinavian composers more or less, particularly since the European romantic movement threw the attention of the art world back to characteristic national subjects and racial feeling. By Scandinavian music we find that we commonly mean Norwegian, for in music, both popular and artistic, Norway far excels Denmark and Sweden. The composers that stand as the chief representatives of Scandinavian music are the Norwegians Grieg, Kjerulf, Svendsen and Sinding. One of the most beloved of modern composers is Eduard Grieg (1843-1907). He was educated at the Leipzig Conservatory, but after leaving that institution IN RUSSIA, BOHEMIA AND SCANDINAVIA 387 in 1862 he turned his attention to the music, Uterature and folk lore of his native land. In spite of frequent visits to other countries, Grieg retained his residence in Norway, devoting himself, in addition to composition, to promoting the musical interests of his people. As a composer his reputation chiefly rests upon his short, characteristic piano pieces and his songs, although his sonatas for piano and violin, piano concerto and his orchestral suites illustrating Ibsen's "Peer Gynt" are hardly less known and admired. As a musical miniature painter he has hardly had an equal since Schumann. He cultivates a peculiarly weird and vague kind of harmony and tonality, adopts the forms and rhythms of popular dances, and knows how to spread over his work an at- mosphere of mystery and melancholy which serves to bring up associations with gloomy fjords, lonely shores and mountains, with their attendant legends of strange spirits of earth and sea. Although in this style Grieg found a limited field, yet he developed it with such charm of melody and harmony, such sweetness, tender- ness and genuine feeling, that the whole world has been touched by its pathos and truth. The secret is that Grieg's music is no mere imitation of national strains, but a natural mode of expressing himself as an original artist as well as a man of the people. Halfdan Kjerulf (1815-1868) is akin to Grieg in the qualities above mentioned, and not unworthy of com- parison with him. Johann Svendsen (1840- ) and Chris- tian Sinding (1856- ) are less conspicuously national in style, in spite of their frequent employment of native / 388 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC rhythms and melodic turns. They have both done strong work in orchestral and chamber music. Grieg has the lion's share of the comparatively small amount of commentary in English on the Scandinavian composers. For the school in general, Famous Composers and their Works, series i; Elson, Modern Composers of Europe. For Grieg, Famous Composers, Mason, From Grieg to Brahms, and introduction to collection of Grieg's songa in Ditson's Musicians Library by H. T. Finck, XLIIF RECENT MUSIC IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA Musical culture among the English-speaking nations was never in so vigorous a condition as at the present day. The appreciation of what is best in musical art is extending among the masses of the people; musical instruction is recognized as a necessary branch of edu- cation ; the methods of this instruction are being estab- lished on a thoroughly scientific basis ; through schools, trained private teachers, societies and an expanding concert system music is rapidly permeating the popular life. The effect of this widening and deepening cul- ture upon musical production cannot yet be confidently predicted, but it is certain that the value as well as the amount of original creation has increased in a very- notable degree in recent years. Groups of composers in both England and America have contributed works which reveal a complete mastery of all the technical means of expression, and in many instances a decided individuality. In England the public insistence upon a continuation of the ideals and methods of Handel and Mendelssohn put composers for many years under a bondage that made progress impossible. The public refused a fair hearing to the claims of the new romantic school which was revolutionizing musical thought and production upon the continent, took its stand upon the 390 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC classic traditions in instrumental music, discouraged opera and made religious music, in the Anglican anthem and the Handel -Mendelssohn oratorio, its para- mount interest. In spite of the dignity and morally elevating influence of English religious music it has not only contained few elements of progress in itself, but the excessive deference paid to it has discouraged those tendencies in which real hope of advancement lies. England has therefore done nothing of historic value in opera, symphony or piano music. Its composers, up to a very recent period at least, have been going around in a circle, producing oratorios, cantatas and church pieces in almost incalculable quantities, to the edification of the faithful and the indifference of the rest of the world. There have been of late signs of a better time. There has been what Mr. Fuller Maitland calls with much reason a Renaissance, and a small cluster of composers, whose activity chiefly covers the past quarter of a century, has challenged the attention of the musical world at large, and brought an honor upon English music which it has not enjoyed since the days of Henry Purcell. These men are still so much under the necessity of catering to English taste that a very heavy share of their work is con- fined to oratorio and cantata — for the provincial festi- val and the choral society still dominate English musical interest — but they have felt the trend of the age and have imparted to the time-honored forms they use a vivacity, a harmonic richness and a splendor of orchestral color that not only give these works a strength and individual flavor unknown to their prede- RECENT MUSIC IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA 391 cessors, but also reveal a dramatic and instrumental talent that promises much when the conditions are favorable to greater freedom in subject and form. It is to be noticed that the British " Renaissance " is not rooted in the English, Scotch, Irish and Welsh folk music, and here we see a marked distinction between this revival and the contemporary movements among the Slavs, Czechs and Scandinavians. This may be held as militating against originality and inherent force in this new English work. This is, however, not a self-evident conclusion, for although nationality seems just now to be the cry among the ardent young leaders of continental music, yet something more than the ex- ploiting of indigenous material is required to give power and universality to works of art. The group of able men who sprang rather suddenly, as it would seem, out of the dead level of medioc- rity that had existed for one hundred and fifty years, includes Arthur Seymour Sullivan, Alexander Camp- bell Mackenzie, Charles Villiers Stanford, Frederick Hymen Cowen, Charles Hubert Hastings Parry and Edward Elgar. There are others hardly less worthy of conspicuous mention, such as Samuel Coleridge- Taylor, Arthur Goring Thomas, Hamish McCunn, Ed- ward German, Granville Bantock and Frederick Delius. The fame of Arthur Seymour Sullivan (1842- 1900) rests upon his clever and delightful comic operettas, of which " Trial by Jury," '' Pinafore," '^ Patience," "The Pirates of Penzance" and "The Mikado " have won their composer international praise. It is by no means certain, however, that their ex- 392 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC traordinary popularity is not to be attributed to the librettist, W. S. Gilbert, even more than to the musi- cal partner, for the novel vein of topsy-turvy humor and genial satire gives these texts value as literature. Alexander Campbell Mackenzie (1847- ), born in Edinburgh, has produced notable work in oratorio, ode, cantata, opera, compositions for orchestra, violin and piano. Chaeles Villiers Stanford (1852- ) is of Irish birth; his best work is in vocal music, including compositions for the church, songs, choral ballads (in which he has shown a preference for Tenny- son's poetry) and dramatic works. He has also written symphonies and of course oratorios. Especial interest attaches to his arrangements of Irish national melodies. Mr. Stanford has also contributed interesting articles to the English reviews. Frederick Hymen Cowen (1852- ) is known favorably on the continent as well as at home for his romantic " Scandinavian symphony, " one of the few instances in which English orchestral work has won consideration abroad. Five other sym- phonies have followed, besides suites in which fairy sub- jects have been treated with especial grace. The composer of routine is also shown in his operas, oratorios and songs. Charles Hubert Hastings Parry (1848- ) is, in the view of many, the ablest of this company, considered in his versatile capacity as composer, teacher, historian and critic. He is of the highest type of the university man in music, and in educated circles his scholarly attainments give him a regard which no other English musician enjoys in quite equal measure. His most important compositions in- RECENT MUSIC IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA 393 elude oratorios, cantatas, odes, orchestral and chamber works, incidental music to dramatic pieces and songs. His contributions to the history and criticism of music, particularly The Evolution of the Art of Music, Johann Sebastian Bach, the third volume of the Oxford History of Music and articles in Grove's Dictionary, by virtue of their comprehensive and accurate knowledge, philosophic grasp and clearness and force of style, are in the very front rank of their kind. Within a few years the very brilliant and challenging work of Edward Elgar (1857- ) has made him for the time being one of the most talked-of composers of the day. His setting in oratorio form of Cardinal Newman's " Dream of Gerontius " was for a time the reigning sen- sation in circles devoted to choral music. Its intense dramatic contrasts and the emphasis upon the most advanced treatment of the orchestra as the chief means of effect seem in the minds of many to announce a new epoch in the history of the oratorio. In this work, as in "The Apostles," the Wagnerian influence appears, even to the systematic use of leading-motives. His or- chestral compositions and his songs, both for mixed voices and for solo, indicate a technical knowledge of the highest order in counterpoint and orchestration, as well as a prolific vein of melody. The progress of English music in the past few decades and the achievements of its hading representatives have been summed up in a very interesting way, albeit with some extravagant claims, by J. A. Fuller Maitland in English Music in the Nineteenth Century. See also Willeby, Masters of English Music ; Elson, Modern Com- posers of Europe, and articles in Famous Composers and their Works, 394 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC series i, and in Grove's Dictionary. Elgar's oratorio work is dis. cussed in a lucid way by Henderson in Modern Musical Drift. No disparagement of the excellent and promising work of recent American musicians will be implied if they receive but scanty space in a volume whose aim is to trace the continued evolution of musical forms and styles. From the world-historic point of view it can- not be maintained that American composition has ad- vanced the development of the art, enlarged its field of expression or propounded new problems. Neither, it may be said, has English composition done this, but in a book intended for American students, there is no need of characterizing or even summarizing the work of composers whose names and achievements are al- ready familiar to all who are concerned with musical affairs. These achievements, although honorable, do not bulk very large, nor is their originality striking. American music began under English influences and has continued under those of Germany. There is little native music, few national traditions on which to build. It is noticeable that nothing of importance has been pro- duced in opera or symphony, and no people can hold a high standing among the musical nations that has not succeeded in one or both of these forms. A movement that virtually begins with such men as Paine, Buck, MacDowell, Parker, Chadwick, Foote, Huss, Gleason, Kelly and the others that are worthy to rank with them, is one that inspires confidence. The rapid development in scope and methods of musical education, the enlarging concert system, the multiplica- RECENT MUSIC IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA 395 tion of musical societies and clubs, the increasing re- wards of musical effort, the widening opportunities and rising dignity of music as a profession, all point hope- fully to the time when America, through its musical creation, will repay the debt she owes to her musical fatherlands. The strongest assurance that an atmosphere favorable to original musical creation exists in America is found in the work of EDWARD MACDOWELL (1861-1908). In his orchestral compositions, particularly the beautiful "Indian Suite," his powerful piano concertos and piano sonatas and the numerous poetic piano pieces and songs, there is a strongly individual style, vigorous and pro- foundly earnest in conception, exceedingly rich in color and masterly in technique. He has been recognized both in Europe and America as one of the most marked musical personalities of his time. In spite of all encouragements the degradation of musical taste among large sections of the people, indeed among the vast majority, is a cause for serious concern. The newspaper that recently declared that on the whole musical taste in this country is lower than it was thirty years ago, although certainly in error, had many facts on which to base its gloomy opinion. No more forcible conclusion could be given to this book than to remind students of music that the future of their art, for good or ill, is in their hands. It is their duty not only to enlarge their knowledge and discipline and confirm their taste by every means in their power, but also to use their ability and influence unselfishly for the extension of knowledge and appreciation among the people. As 25 396 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC an aid in fortifying such resolve let everyone study the noble life of Theodore Thomas. The honor which his memory now receives will be the lot in some degree of all who follow his example. Mr. L. C. Elson, in his History of American Music, has per- formed a difficult and delicate task with very great success, and his book will long remain the standard work on the subject. Hughes' Contemporary American Composers is a vivacious and gen- erally just estimate of American compositions. See also Mathews, A Hundred Years of Music in America ; Famous Composers and their Works, series i; summary by Krehbiel in appendix to Lavignac's Music and Musicians, edition of 1905. An important book is Theodore Thomas, an Autobiography, ed. by Upton. The second volume contains Mr. Thomas' complete programmes. There is an extensive bibliography in Elson 's history. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST [The books marked with a star are, in the opinion of the author, of special value.] Aldrich (Richard). A Guide to " Parsifal." Boston, Ditson, 1904. *Ambro8 (A. W.). The Boundaries of Music and Poetry. Tr. by Cornell. New York, Schirmer, 1893. *Annesley (Charles). The Standard Opera Glass. New York, Brentano's. Apthorp (W. F.). Musicians and Music Lovers. New York, Scribner, 1897. * . The Opera, Past and Present. New York, Scribner, 1901. Bach (A. B.). The Art Ballad : Loewe and Schubert. Edinbui-gh, Blackwood, 1891. ♦Baker (Theodore). A Biographical Dictionary of Musi- cians. New York, Schirmer, 1900. Barrett (W. A.). English Glee and Madrigal Writers. London, Reeves, 1877. Beethoven (Ludwig van). Letters. Tr. by Lady Wallace. 2 vols. New York, Hurd & Houghton, 1867. The same is published by Ditson, Boston. Benedict (Julius). Weber. (Great Musicians series.) New York, Scribner, 1881. Berlioz (Hector). Autobiography. Tr. by Rachel and Eleanor Holmes. 2 vols. London, Macmillan, 1884. ■ Letters. Preceded by a biography by Bernard. Tr. by Dunstan. 2 vols. London, Remington, 1882. 398 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Beklioz (Hector). Selections from his Letters and -Es- thetic, Humorous and Satirical Writings. Tr. and preceded by a biographical sketch by Apthorp. New Y^ork, Holt, 1879. *BiE (Oscar). History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players. Tr. by Kellett and Naylor. New York, Button, 1899. Brooks (H. M.). Olden Time Music. Boston, Ticknor, 1888. Chamberlain (H. S.). Richard Wagner. Tr. by Hight. Two editions, one illustrated, one popular. London, Dent, 1897. Chappell (William). Old English Popular Music. 2 vols. London, Chappell. New York, Novello, 1893. . The History of Music. London, Chappell, 1874. Chorley (H. F.). Music and Manners in France and Ger- many. 3 vols. London, Longmans, 1841. CuMMiNGS (W. H.). Purcell. (Great Musicians series.) London, Low, 1881. ♦Curwen (J. S.). Studies in Worship Music. 2 vols. London, Curwen, 1888. Davey (Henry). History of English Music. London, Curwen, 1895. Deiters (Hermann). Johannes Brahms. Tr. by Rosa New- march. London, Unwin, 1888. Devrient (Eduard). My Recollections of Felix Mendels- sohn-Bartholdy. Tr. by Natalia Macfarren. London, Bentley, 1869. Dickinson (Edward). Music in the History of the Western Church. New York, Scribner, 1902. DiPPOLD (G. T.). Richard Wagner's Poem: '^The Ring of the Nibelung." New York, Holt, 1888. Edwards (H. S.). The Prima Donna. 2 vols. London, Remington, 1888. Ehlert (Louis). From the Tone World. Tr. by Helen Tretbar. New York, C. F. Tretbar, 1885. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 399 Ellis (W. A.). 1849 : A Vindication. London, Paul, 1892. *Elson (Arthur). Modern Composers of Europe. Boston, Page, 1905. Elson (L. C). Curiosities of Music. Boston, Ditson, 1880. * . History of American Music. New York, Macmillan, 1904. . History of German Song. Boston, N. E. Conserva- tory of Music, 1888. . Editor and Author. See Famous Composers and their Works, series ii. Engel (Carl). Musical Instruments. (South Kensington Art Handbooks.) London, Chapman, 1875. . Researches into the Early History of the Violin Family. London, Novello, 1883. . The Music of the Most Ancient Nations. London, Murray, 1864. *Famou8 Composers and their Works. Series i. 3 vols., including one volume of musical illustrations. Ed. by Paine (J. K.), Thomas (Theodore) and Klauser (Karl). Boston, J. B. Millet Co., 1891. * . Series ii. 3 vols., including one volume of musical illustrations. Elson (L. C.) and Hale (Philip), authors and editors. Boston, J. B. Millet Co., 1900. Fay (Amy). Music Study in Germany. Chicago, Jansen & McClurg, 1881. Ferris (G. T.). Great Singers. 2 vols. New York, Appleton, 1893. . Great Violinists and Pianists. New York, Apple- ton, 1894. Fillmore (J. C). History of Pianoforte Music. New York, McCoun, 1884. FiNCK (H. T.). Chopin and other Musical Essays. New York, Scribner, 1894. . Paderewski and his Art. Looker-on Pub. Co., 1896. 400 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC *FiNCK (H. T.). Songs and Song Writers. New York, Scribner, 1900. . Strauss. Waltzes with Introduction. Boston, Knight * . Wagner and His Works. 2 vols. New York, Scrib- ner, 1893. Fitzwilliam Virginal Book. Ed. by Maitland (J. A. F.) and Squire (W. B.). 2 vols. Leipzig and London, Breitkopf & Haertel, 1899. Fletcher (Alice) and Fillmore (J. C). A Study of Omaha Indian Music. Cambridge (Mass.), Peabody Museum, 1893. Fletcher (Alice). Indian Song and Story from North America. Boston, Small, 1900. Foster (M. B.). Anthems and Anthem Composers. Lon- don, Novello, 1901. Frost (H. F.). Schubert. (Great Musicians series.) New York, Scribner, 1881. Gehring (F.). Mozart. (Great Musicians series.) New York, Scribner, 1883. ♦Glasenapp (C. F.). Life of Richard Wagner. Tr. and enlarged by Ellis. 4 volumes already published. Lon- don, Paul, 1900. Goethe (J. W. von). Letters to Zelter. See Zelter. Gounod (Charles). Autobiographical Reminiscences. Tr. by Hutchinson. London, Heinemann, 1896. Graeme (Elliott). Beethoven : A Memoir. London, Griffin, 1870. Gray (Robin), editor. Studies in Music by Various Authors. New York, Scribner, 1901. *Grove (George). Beethoven and His Nine Symphonies. London, Novello, 1896. *Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London, Macmillan. New edition, revised and enlarged. 5 vols. Gurnet (Edmund) . The Power of Sound. London, Smitli, Elder & Co., 1880. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 401 *Haberl (F. X.). Magister Choralis. Tr. by Donnelly. New York, Pustet, 1892. Hadden (J. C). Haydn. (Master Musicians series.) Lon- don, Dent, 1902. Hadow (W. H.). a Croatian Composer. London, Seeley, 1897. * . Studies in Modern Music. 2 vols. New York, Macmillan, 1892-3. Hale (Philip), editor and author. See Famous Compo- sers and their Works, series ii. Hanslick (Eduard). The Beautiful in Music. Tr. by Cohen. London, Novello, 1891. Harding (H. A.). Analysis of Form as displayed in Beethoven's Sonatas. London, Novello. Hart (George). The Violin: its Famous Makers and their Imitators. Large illustrated edition. London, Dulau, 1884. . The same, popular edition. London, Dulau, 1887. HEiy7 (Albert). **The Mastersingers of Nuremberg," by Richard Wagner. Tr. by Cornell. New York, Schirmer, 1890. Helmholtz (H. L. F.). On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music. Tr. by Ellis. London, Longmans, 1885. Helmore (Thomas). Plain Song. (Music Primers.) Lon- don, Novello. ♦Henderson (W. J.). How Music Developed. New York, Stokes, 1898. — . Modern Musical Drift. New York, Longmans, 1904. — . Preludes and Studies. New York, Longmans, 1891. — . The Orchestra and Orchestral Music. New York, Scribner, 1899. — . Richard Wagner, his Life and his Dramas. New York, Putnam, 1901. — . What is Good Music ? New York, Scribner, *. 1898. 402 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Hensel (Sebastian). The Mendelssohn Family. Tr. by Klingemann. 2 vols. New York, Harper, 1881. *Hervet (Arthur). French Music in the Nineteenth Cen- tury. New York, Dutton, 1903. . Masters of French Music. New York, Scribner, 1894. HiPKiNS (A. J.). Description and History of the Piano- forte and the Older Keyboard Stringed Instruments. London, Novello, 1896. Hogarth (George). Memoirs of the Musical Drama. 2 vols. London, Bentley, 1838. Holmes (Edward). Life of Mozart. London, Novello, 1878. Hueffer (Francis). Half a Century of Music in England. Philadelphia, Gebbie, 1889. . Musical Studies. Edinburgh, Black, 1880. . Richard Wagner and the Music of the Future. London, Chapman, 1894. Hughes (Rupert). Contemporary American Composers. Boston, Page, 1900. ♦Huneker (J. G.). Chopin: the Man and his Music. New York, Scribner, 1900. * . Mezzotints in Modern Music. New York, Scrib- ner, 1899. * . Overtones : a Book of Temperaments. New York, Scribner, 1904. *Jahn (Otto). Life of Mozart. Tr. by Pauline D. Towns- end. 3 vols. London, Novello, 1882. JuLLiEN (Adolphe). Richard Wagner, his Life and Works. Tr. by Florence P. Hall. 2 vols. Boston, J. B. Millet Co., 1892. Karasowski (Moritz). Frederic Chopin, his Life, Letters, and Works. Tr. by Emily Hill. 2 vols. London, Reeves, 1879. Kleczynski (Jean). Chopin's Greater Works. London, Reeves. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 403 KoBsi (GusTAv). Wagner's Life and Works. 2 vols. New York, Schirmer, 1890. ♦Krehbiel (H. E.). How to Listen to Music. New York, Scribner, 1897. . Studies in the Wagnerian Drama. New York, Harper, 1891. Kbeissle von Hellborn (Heinrich). Life of Franz Schu- bert. Tr. by Coleridge. 2 vols. London, Longmans, 1869. KuFFERATH (Maurice). "Parsifal" of Richard Wagner. Tr. by Hennermann. New York, Holt, 1904. Lampadius (W. a.). Life of Mendelssohn. Tr. by Gage. New York, Leypoldt, 1865. Langhans (Wilhelm). The History of Music in Twelve Lectures. Tr. by Cornell. New York, Schirmer, 1886. ♦L AVION AC (Albert). Music and Musicians. Tr. by Marchant; with appendix on Music in America, and the Present State of the Art of Music, by H. E. Kreh- biel. New York, Holt, latest edition 1905. — . The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner. Tr. by Esther Singleton. New York, Dodd, 1898. Musical Education. Tr. by Esther Singleton. « New York, Appleton, 1903. Lee (Vernon), pseudonym ; see Paget. Liszt (Franz). Letters. Collected and ed. by La Mara. Tr. by Constance Bache. 2 vols. New York, Scribner, 1894. . Life of Chopin. Tr. by Broadhouse. London, Reeves. Correspondence with Wagner ; see Wagner. ♦Maitland (J. A. F.). English Music in the Nineteenth Century. New York, Dutton, 1902. . Masters of German Music. New York, Scribner, 1894. . Schumann. (Great Musicians series.) London, Low, 1884. 404 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Mapleson (J. H.). Memoirs. 2 vols. London, Reming* ton, 1888. Marshall (Mrs. Julian). Handel. (Great Musicians series.) New York, Scribner, 1883. Mason (D. G.). Beethoven and his Forerunners. New York, Macmillan, 1904. . From Grieg to Brahms. New York, The Outlook Co., 1903. Mason (William). Memories of a Musical Life. New York, Century Co., 1901. Mathews (W. S. B.). A Hundred Years of Music in America. Chicago, Howe, 1889. McArthur (Alexander). Anton Rubinstein : a Biograph- ical Sketch. Edinburgh, Black, 1889. ♦Mees (Arthur). Choirs and Choral Music. New York, Scribner, 1901. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Felix). Letters from Italy and Switzerland. Tr. by Lady Wallace. Boston, Ditson. . Letters, 1833-1847. Tr. by Lady Wallace. Boston, Ditson, 1866. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Karl). Goethe and Mendels- sohn. Tr. by Glehn. London, Macmillan, 1874. Moscheles (Ignaz). Recent Music and Musicians. Adapted from the German and tr. by Coleridge. New York, Holt, 1889. Mozart (W. A.). Letters. Tr. by Lady Wallace. 2 vols. Boston, Ditson. Muncker (Franz). Richard Wagner. Tr. by Landman. Bamberg, Buchner, 1891. Musical Guide. 2 vols. Ed. by Hughes (Rupert). New York, McClure, 1903. Naumann (Emil). History of Music. 2 vols. Tr. by Praeger. Ed. with additions on English Music by Ouseley. London, Cassell. ♦Newman (Ernest). A Study of Wagner. Now York, Putnam, 1899. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 405 *Newman (Ernest). Gluck and the Opera. London, Do- bell, 1895. Newmarch (Rosa). Tchaikovsky, his Life and Works. London, Richards, 1900. ♦NiECKS (Frederick). Frederic Chopin as a Man and Musician. 2 vols. Londou, Novello, 1888. ♦Oxford History of Music. Ed. by Hadow (W. H.). Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 190L 6 vols. Paget (Violet), pseudonym, Vernon Lee. Belcaro. Lon- don, Unwin, 1887. * . Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy. London, Unwin, 1887. ♦Paert (C. H. H.). The Evolution of the Art of Music. New York, Appleton, 1896. Perkins (C. C.) and Davight (J. S.). History of the Handel and Haydn Society. Boston, Mudge, 1883-1893. PiGOTT (F. T.). The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan. London, Batsford, 1893. PiRRO (A.). Johann Sebastian Bach, the Organist, and his Works for the Organ. Tr. by Goodrich. New York, Schirmer, 1902. Pole (William). The Philosophy of Music. London, Triibner, 1879. . The Story of Mozart's Requiem. London, Novello, 1879. PouGiN (Arthur). Verdi : An Anecdotic History of his Life and Works. Tr. by Matthew. London, Grevel, 1887. ♦pROUT (Ebenezer). Applied Forms. London, Augener, 1895. * . Musical Form. London, Augener; New York, Schirmer, 1893. ♦ . The Orchestra. Vol. i. The Technique of the Instruments. Vol. ii, Orchestral Combination. Lon- don, Augener, 1897. 406 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Ramann (Lina). Franz Liszt, Artist and Man. Tr. in 2 volumes (incomplete) by E. Cowdery. London, Allen, 1882. Reissmann (August) . Life and Works of Robert Schumann. Tr. by Abby L. Alger. London, Bohn's Standard Library, 1886. RiEMANN (Hugo). Catechism of Musical -Esthetics. Tr. by Bewerunge. London, Augener. — — . Catechism of Musical History. 2 vols. London, Augener. * . Dictionary of Music (includes biographies). Tr. by Shedlock. London, Augener. RiTTER (F. L.). Music in America. New York, Scribner, 1890. . Music in England. New York, Scribner, 1890. RocKSTRO (W. S.). Life of Handel. London, Macmillan, 1883. RowBOTHAM (J. F.). History of Music. 3 vols, (extends only to the Troubadours). London, Triibner, 1885-1887. . The same, abridged. 1 vol. London, Bentley, 1893. Rubinstein (Anton). Autobiography. Tr. by Aline Delano. Boston, Little, 1892. RuDALL (H. A.). Beethoven. (Great Musicians series.) London, Low, 1890. RuNciMAN (J. F.). Old Scores and New Readings. Lon~ don. Unicorn Press, 1899. Sand (George), pseudonym. Chopin: Sketches from "A History of My Life " and ** A Winter in Majorca." Tr. by Grace Curtis. Chicago, Clayton, 1892. Sandys (William) and Foster (S. A.). History of the Violin. London, J. R. Smith, 1864. ScHiNDLER (Anton). Life of Beethoven. Ed. by Moscheles. Boston, Ditson, 1841. ScHOELCHER (Victor). Life of Handel. London, Cocks, 1857. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 407 Schumann (Robert). Early Letters. Tr. by May Herbert London, Bell, 1888. . Life of Schumann, Told in His Letters. Tr. by May Herbert. 2 vols. London, Bentley, 1890. * . Music and Musicians. Tr. by F. R. Ritter. 2 vols. New York, Schuberth, 1880. Shaw (G. B.). The Perfect Wagnerite. London, Richards, 1902. *Shedlock (J. S.). The Pianoforte Sonata, Its Origin and Development. London, Methuen, 1895. Spillane (Daniel). History of the American Pianoforte. New York, Spillane, 1890. *Spitta (Phillip). Johann Sebastian Bach. Tr. by Clara Bell and J. A. F. Maitland. 3 vols. London, Novello, 1884-1888. Spohr (Ludwig). Autobiography. Tr. from the German. London, Longmans, 1865. Stainer (John) and Barrett (W. A.). Dictionary of Musical Terms. Boston, Ditson. Stainer (John). The Music of the Bible. London, Cas- sell, 1882. Statham (H. H.). My Thoughts on Music and Musicians. London, Chapman, 1892. ♦Steinert (Morris). Steinert Collection of Keyed and Stringed Instruments. New York, Tretbar, 1893. Stobving (Paul). The Story of the Violin. London, Scott, 1904. Stratton (S. S.). Mendelssohn. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1901. Streatfeild (R. a.). Masters of Italian Music. New York, Scribner, 1895. . The Opera. London, Nimmo, 1897. Tchaikovsky (Modeste). The Life of Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky. Tr. and abiidged by Rosa NewmarcL London & New York, Lane, 1905. « 408 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC Thibaut (A. F.). Purity in Music. Tr. by Broadhousc. London, Reeves. Thomas (Theodore). Autobiography. 2 vols. Ed. by Upton. Chicago, McClurg, 1905. TowNSEND (Pauline). Haydn. (Great Musicians series.) New Y^ork, Scribner, 1884. Upton (G. P.). The Standard Operas. Chicago, McClurg, 1891. . The Standard Oratorios. Chicago, McClurg, 1893. . The Standard Symphonies. Chicago, McClurg, 1893. *Wagnee (Richard) and Liszt (Franz). Correspondence. Tr. by Hueffer. 2 vols. New York, Scribner, 1889. Wagner (Richard). Letters to Heckel. Tr. by Ellis. London, Richards, 1899. — . Letters to his Dresden Friends, Uhlig, Fischer and Heine. Tr. by Shedlock. London, Grevel, 1890. — . Letters to Roeckel. Tr. by Sellar. Bristol, Arrowsmith. — . Letters to Wesendonck, et al. Tr. by Ellis. Lon- don, Richards, 1899. — . Letters to Mathilde Wesendonck. Tr. by Ellis. New York, Scribner, 1905. — . Prose Works. Tr. by Ellis. 8 vols. London, Paul, 1892-1899. -. Text of "Parsifal." Tr. by H. and F. Corder. Mainz, Schott. — . The same. Tr. by Forman. -. Text of ''The Ring of the Nibelung." Tr. by H. & F. Corder. Mainz, Schott. — . The same. Tr. by Forman. London, Schott. — . Text of " The Mastersingers of Nuremberg." Tr. by H. & F. Corder. Mainz, Schott. -. Text of "• Tristan und Isolde." Tr. by H. & F. Corder. Mainz, Schott. — . The same. Tr. by Forman. London, Nutt, 1897. ♦. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 409 "Wagnee (Richard). Translations from prose writings, by Burlingame, under the title, Art Life and Theories of Richard Wagner. New York, Holt, 1889. ♦Wallaschek (Richard). Primitive Music. London, Longmans, 1893. Wasielewski (W. J. von). Life of Schumann. Tr. by Abby L. Alger. Boston, Ditson, 1871. Weber (Max von). C. M. von Weber : the Life of an Artist. Tr. by Simpson. 2 vols. Boston, Ditson. *Weingartner (Felix). The Symphony since Beethoven. Tr. by Maude B. Button. Boston, Ditson, 1904. Wbitzsiann (C. F.). History of Pianoforte Playing. Tr. by Baker. New York, Schirmer, 1893. *Weston (Jessie L.). Legends of the Wagner Drama. New York, Scribner, 1896. Willeby (Charles). Frederic Fran9ois Chopin. London, Low, 1892. . Masters of English Music. New York, Scribner, 1894. Williams (C. F. A.). Bach. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1900. . Handel. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1901. * . The Story of Notation. London, Scott, 1903. Wolzogen (Hans von). Guide through the Music of Wagner's "Parsifal." Tr. by Cornell. New York, Schirmer, 1891. . . Guide through the Music of Wagner's * ' Ring of the Nibelung." Tr. by Dole. New York, Schirmer. Guide to Wagner's *' Tristan and Isolde." Tr. by Mosely. Leipzig, Breitkopf & Haertel, 1884. Zelter (C. F.) and Goethe (J. W. von). Letters. Selected and tr. by Coleridge. London, Bell, 1887. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SUPPLEMENT *Baughan (E. a.). Music and Musicians. London and New York, Lane, 1906. . Paderewski. (Living Masters of Music series.) New York, Lane, 1906. Beethoven, the Man and the Artist, as Revealed in his own Words. Compiled and annotated by Kerst. Tr. by H. E. Krehbiel. New York, Huebsch, 1905. ♦Beethoven's Letters. A Critical Edition with Notes. 2 vols. Ed. by Kalischer. Tr. by Shedlock. London, Dent. Blackburn (Vernon). Mendelssohn. (Bell's Miniature series.) London, Bell, 1904. Brahms (Johannes). The Herzogenburg Correspondence. Ed. by Kalbeck. Tr. by Hannah Bryant. New York, Dutton, 1909. Breed (David R.). The History and Use of Hymns and Hymn Tunes. New York, Re veil, 1903. Britan (Halbert H.). Philosophy of Music. New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1911. Buckley (Robert J.). Edward Elgar. (Living Masters of Music series.) New York, Lane, 1905. BuMPUs (John S.). History of English Cathedral Music. London, Laurie, 1908. *Burton (Frederick R.). American Primitive Music. New York, Moffat, Yard & Co., 1909. *Coerne (L. a.). The Evolution of Modem Orchestration. New York, Macmillan, 1908. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SUPPLEMENT 411 *CoMBARiEU (Jules). Music, its Laws and Evolution. (International Scientific series.) New York, Appleton, 1910. Davison (James W.). From Mendelssohn to Wagner. London, Reeves, 1912. Dickinson (Edward). The Education of a Music Lover. New York, Scribner, 1911. Dry (Wakeling). Puccini. (Living Masters of Music series.) New York, Lane, 1906. Duncan (Edmondstoune). Schubert. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1905. . The Story of Minstrelsy. (Music Story series.) London, Scott, 1907. Elson (Louis C). The National Music of America and its Sources. Boston, Page, 1900. English Music, 1604-1904. (Music Story series.) Lon- don, Scott, 1906. Evans (Edwin). Tschaikovsky. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1906. *FiNCK (Henry T.). Grieg and his Music. New York, Lane, 1909. . Massenet and his Operas. New York, Lane, 1910. * . Success in Music and how it is Won. New York, Scribner, 1909. Contains critical studies of the artistic methods of a large number of the most famous singers, pianists and violinists of the nineteenth century, with valuable information for teachers and pupils. Gehring (Albert). The Basis of Musical Pleasure. New York, Putnam, 1910. Gilman (Lawrence). Aspects of Modem Opera. New York, Lane, 1909. . Debussy's Pell^ et M^Usande: a Guide to the Opera with Musical Examples from the Score. New York, Schirmer, 1907. 412 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC GiLMAN (Lawrence). Edward MacDowell. New York, Lane, 1909. . Phases of Modern Music. New York, Harper, 1904. * . Stories of Symphonic Music : a Guide to the Meaning of important Symphonies, Overtures and Tone Poems from Beethoven to the Present Day. New York, Harper, 1904. The Music of To-morrow. New York, Lane, 1907. GoDDARD (Joseph). The Rise of Music. New York, Scribner. Hadden (J. C). Chopin. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1903. . Haydn. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1902. *Henderson (William J.). Some Forerunners of Italian Opera. New York, Holt, 1911. Henschel (George). Personal Recollections of Brahmc. Boston, Badger, 1907. Hervey (Arthur). Bruneau. (Living Masters of Music series.) New York, Lane, 1907. . Franz Liszt and his Music. New York, Lane, 1911. Hoffman (Richard). Some Musical Recollections of Fifty Years. New York, Scribner, 1910. [HuNEKER (James G.). Franz Liszt. New York, Scrib- ner, 1911. *D*Indy (Vincent). C^sar Franck. Tr. from the French. New York, Lane, 1910. *JoNsoN (G. C. Ashton). a Handbook to Chopin's Works. New York, Doubleday, 1905. Consists largely of judg- ments of famous critics on each of Chopin's works in chronological order. *Krehbiel (Henry E.). A Book of Operas. New York, Macmillan, 1909. Contains elaborate critical studies of seventeen famous operas. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SUPPLEMENT 413 *Krehbiel (Henry E.). Chapters of Opera. New York, Holt, 1908. A full and interesting history of the opera in New York. . Review of the New York Musical Season, 1885- 1890. New York, Novello, 1886-1890. Contains much valuable information and criticism. . The Pianoforte and its Music. New York, Scrib- ner, 1911. LiEBicH (Mrs. Franz). Claude-Achille Debussy. (Liv- ing Masters of Music series.) New York, Lane, 1908. MacKinlay (Sterling). Garcia, the Centenarian, and his Times. London, Blackwood, 1908. Mason (Daniel G.). A Guide to Music for Beginners and Others. New York, Gray, 1910. An excellent "first aid" to the amateur in musical appreciation. . The Romantic Composers. New York, Macmillan, 1906. and Surette (Thomas W.). The Appreciation of Music. New York, Gray, 1907. Concerned chiefly with the explanation of the classic musical forms. Mason (Redfern). The Song Lore of Ireland. New York, Baker & Taylor, 1911. May (Florence). Life of Johannes Brahms. London, Arnold, 1902. ^ . The Girlhood of Clara Schumann. London, Arnold, 1912. Melitz (Leo). The Opera-Goer's Complete Guide. New York, Dodd, 1908. Contains plots of two hundred and nine standard operas. Mozart, the Man and the Artist, as revealed in his own Words. Compiled and annotated by Kerst. Tr. by Krehbiel. New York, Huebsch, 1905. Neumann (Angelo). Personal Recollections of Wagner. Tr. by Edith Livermore. New York, Holt, 1908. 414 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC *Newman (Ernest). Musical Studies. New York, Lane, 1905. — . Richard Strauss. (Living Masters of Music series.) New York, Lane, 1908. — . Wagner. (Music of the Masters series.) New York, 4i. Brentano, 1904. Newmarch (Rosa) and Evans (Edwin). Tchaikovsky, his Life and Works. London, Reeves, 1908. *Niecks (Frederick). Programme Music in the last Four Centuries. London, Novello, 1907. *Parry (C. Hubert H.). Johann Sebastian Bach. New York, Putnam, 1909. * . Style in Musical Art. New York, Macmillan, 1911. Patterson (Annie W.). The Story of Oratorio. (Music Story series.) New York, Scribner, 1902. . Schumann. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1903. Pelleas et Melisande. Drame lyrique en 5 actes et 12 tableaux de M. Maeterlinck. Musique de Claude- Achille Debussy. Tr. by H. G. Chapman. Paris, Durand, 1907. Petherick (Horace). Joseph Guarnerius. (Strad. Li- brary, No. 16.) London, "Strad.," 1906. *Pratt (Waldo S.). History of Music. New York, Schir- mer, 1907. *ScHWEiTZER (Albert). J. S. Bach. With a preface by Widor. 2 vols. Tr. by Ernest Newman. New York, Breitkopf & Haertel, 1911. Smith (Hermai^jn). The World*s Earliest Music. London, Reeves, 1904. *SoNNECK (O. G.). Early Concert Music in America. New York, Breitkopf & Haertel, 1907. Stratton (S. S.). Mendelssohn. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1901. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SUPPLEMENT 415 Streatfeild (R. a.). HandeL London, Methuen, 1909. Stmons (Arthur). Studies in Seven Arts. New York, Dutton, 1906. Includes essays on Beethoven, Wagner and Richard Strauss by a noted English literary critic. Towers (John). Dictionary-Catalogue of Operas and Operettas which have been performed on the Stage. Morgantown, W. Va., Acme Publishing Co., 1910, Contains only composers* names and titles of works, but valuable for reference. Upton (George P.). Standard Cantatas. Chicago, McClurg, 1903. . Standard Concert Guide. Chicago, McClurg, 1908. . Standard Light Operas. Chicago, McClurg, 1902. Wagner (Richard). Bayreuth Letters. Tr. by Caroline V. Kerr. London, Nisbet, 1913. . My Life. 2 vols. Tr. from the German. New York, Dodd, Mead & Co., 1911. This long-expected auto- biography is somewhat disappointing, as it adds but little to previous knowledge. *Walker (Ernest). History of Music in England. Oxford University Press, 1907. Wilder (Victor). Life of Mozart. Tr. by L. Liebich. London, Reeves, 1908. Williams CC. F. Abdy). Bach. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1900. . Handel. (Master Musicians series.) London, Dent, 1901. . The Story of Organ Music. (The Music Story series.) London, Scott, 1905. . The Story of the Organ. (The Music Story series.) London, Scott, 1903. The second edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians is complete in five volumes, and the Oxford His- tory of Music in six volumes. Ditson's Musicians Library 416 THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MUSIC series, now consisting of about two-score volumes, is of great value, not only on account of its judicious selection of works but also for its scholarly introductions by noted critics. The Program Books of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, edited by Philip Hale, published annually in bound volumes by C. A. Ellis, are a rich mine of information on an immense variety of musical subjects. INDEX INDEX Adam, 300. Additional accompaniments, 139. "Aida." 367, 368. "Alceste," Preface to. 148. Allegri. 47. "Also sprach Zarathustra," 339. Amati, 78. Ambrose, St., 17, 24. AneriG3, The. 43. Anglican church. Music of the, 56. Anthem, Anglican, 59. Antiphonal singing in the early church. 16. 17. Antiphonary. 23. Arcadelt. 40. Aria, 93; in Bach's works, 125. "Ariadne auf Naxos." 344. Auber. 299, 301. Augustine, St., 17. B Bach, C. P. E.. 87, 212. Bach, J. S.. 114, 119. 139, 233, 236, 352. Balakirev, 379. Ballad. 208. Ballet. 100. Bantock. 391. Bargiel. 347. Bayreuth. 312. "Beatitudes, Les," 361. Beethoven, 171. Bellini. 290. Bennett. 241. Berger, 217, 234. BerUoz. 239. 260. Beza, 61. Binchois. 40. Bizet. 357. Boieldleu, 298 Boito, 370. Bononcini, 106. Bordea, 351. Borodin. 380. 391. Bortniansky. 377. Brahma, 253. 331. Breviary. 20. Bruch, 336. Bruckner. 338. Bruneau. 359. Buck. 394. Bull. 83. Bimgert. 347. Byrd, 83. Caccini, 67. 93. Caldara, 106. Cambert, 101. Cantata. Secular. 92; church, 117; in Bach's works. 126. Oantua flrmus. 31. 33, 39. Carissimi. 92. "Carmen." 357, 371. Cassation, see Divertimento. Cavaliere. 68. "Cavalleria Rusticana," 371. CavaUi, 91. 101. Chabrier. 359. Chadwick. 394. ChambonuiSres, 84. Chant, Anglican. 58. Chant. Gregorian, 22, 29. See also Plain Song. Charpentier, 359. Cherubini. 295. Chevillard. 352. Chopin. 243. 419 420 INDEX Chorale, Lutheran, 50; Its origin, S3. 120, 123. Chorale prelude, 123. Chorallled, 55. Chouquet, quoted, 300. Christians, Singing among the early, 15, 25. "Christus," 281. Clmarosa. 98, 106. Clari, 106. Clavichord, 82. Clemens non Papa, 40. ClementI, 217. Coleridge-Taylor. 391. Colonne, 352. Common Prayer, Book of, 67. Concerto da camera, 80. Concerto grosso, 89. Conducting, Modem orchestral. 282. Congregational singing, German, 51 : English and American, 60. CoreUI, 81. Coimterpolnt, 32, 33, 38. Couperin, 84. Cowen, 391. Cramer. 217. "Creation, The." 160. Cremona, 78. CrUger, 114. Cul, 379. Cyprian de Rore, 47. Czemy. 218, 273. "Dafne," 67. "Damnation de Faust," 267. Dance, Early connection of music and, 3, 4. "Dante" symphony, 279. Dargomlzhsky, 378. Darvrln's theory of the origin of music, 2. Dauvergne, 143. Debussy, 363. Delibes, 359, 365. Delius, 391. Diaphony. 30. Dlscant, 31. Dittersdorf. 180. Divertimento, 157. "Don Giovanni." 167, 293. 321 Donizetti, 290. "Don Juan" (Strauss), 339. Draesecke, 347. "Dream of Gerontius, The." 39a Dubois, 352. Dufay, 40. Duni, 143. Dunstable, 35. Duparc, 365. Dvor&k, 253, 385. E Eccard. 55. Egyptian music, 7. Ehlert. quoted, 242. "Ein Heldenleben," 340. "Electra," 343. 344. Elgar, 393. "Elijah," 234. 237. Elman. 383. Endless melody, 321. Esslpoflf. 383. Etude, 215. "Euryanthe," 191, 194, 293, 321. "Falstafr." 368. Faur6. 365. "Faust," 354. "Faust" symphony, 279. Faux-bourbon, 33. "Fidello," 182. 293. Field. 217. Finale, Opera. 98. Finck. 40. Folk music. 4 ; In the Middle Ages, 35; In Austria, 158. Folk song, French, 37; German, 199; Kiissian, Bohemian and Scandinavian, 374. Foote, 394. Franck, 351, 352, 360. Franco of Cologne. 34. Franco of Paris. 34. Franck, 114. Franz, 230. "FrelschUtz, Der," 191, 193, 194, 293. 234. INDEX 421 Prescobaldl, 75. Fugue, 75; origin and development of, 123; in Bach's works, 123, 129. G GabrieU, Andrea, 47. 74. Gabrieli. Giovanni, 42, 47, 74. Gabrilowitsch, 383. Gade. 241. Gafor. 40. Galilei, 67. Galuppi, 98. 106. German, 391, Gevaert. quoted, 2S. Geyer, 310. Gibbons, 60, 83. Gigout. 362. Glarean, 40. 70. Glazoimov, 383. Gleason, 394. GUnka, 377. Glossolalia, 15. Gluck, 11, 107, 14P, Godard, 365. Godowskl, 383. Goetz, 345. Goldmark, 346. Gombert, 40. Goudimel, 40. Goimod, 353, 354. Gradual. 23. Graun, 107. Greeks, Music of the, 9, 30. Gregorian chant, see Chant. Gre- gorian. Gregorian modes, see Modes. Gregory I.. 24. Grgtry. 144. Grieg, 386. Guamerl. 78. Gxildo of Arezzo. 34. Gulllaume de Mechault. 35. "Guillaume Tell." 300. Guilmant, 351, 352. H Hahn. 365. Hale, quoted, 371. Hal6vy, 305. Hambourg. 383. Hammerschmidt, 114. Handel, 92, 107. 126, 131. 160, 235. 236. "Hansel imd Gretel." 346. Harmony. First theory of modem, 70. "Harold en Italle," 267. Harpsichord. 82. Hasse. 107. Hassler. 55. Hauptmann. 240. Hausegger, 347. Haydn, 163, 165. Hebrews. Music among the ancient, 7. Helmore. quoted. 58. Henderson, quoted, 342. Herold. 300. Herzogenburg. 347. Hiller. Ferdinand. 241. Hlller. J. A.. 186. Hobrecht, 40. Hofhaimer. 40. Hofmann, Helnrich. 347. Hofmann. Josef, 383. "Huguenots. Les." 305. Hummel, 217. Humperdinck. 346. Himeker, quoted. 341. Hungarian rhapsodies, Liszt's, 277. Huss, 394. Hymnody, Early Christian, 15. Imitation, 32, d'Indy, 351, 362. Instruments, Primitive, 3; Hebrew, 8; Greek, 12; mediaeval, 36. "Iphiggnie en Tauride." 149. Isaak. 40, Jahn, quoted, 104. 167.1 Johannes de Muris. 35. Jommelli, 106. Josquin des PrSs, 40. 422 INDEX Kalkbrenner, 218. Keiser. 116. KeUy, 394. KIrchner, 347. Kjerulf, 386. Klughardt. 347. " Koenigskinder. Die." 346. Kroutzer, 196. Kuhnau, 86. Lalo. 359. Lamoureux, 352. Lassus, 42, 48. Leading-motives, 323. Legrenzi, 106. Leo. 106. Ijeoncavallo, 372. Lema, 383. Leroux. 365. Leschetlzky. 383. Lesueur, 262. Lhevinne, 383. Lied. 198. 201. "Life of the Tsar." 377. Liszt, Cosima, 312. Liszt. Franz. 219, 271, 311, 333. Liturgies, Earliest Christian, 14. Liturgy, Anglican, 57. Liturgy, Catholic, 19. Loewe, 209. Logroscino, 106. "Lohengrin." 191, 315. Lortzlng, 196. Lottl. 106. Ludwig 11.. 312. Lully, 102. 142, 146. Lute, 75. Luther, 51, 52, 54. M MacDowell, 395. Mackenzie. 392. "Madama Butterfly," 372. Madrigal, 65. Mahler, 347. Maitland, quoted, 128. "Manzoni Requiem," 369. Marbecke, 58. "Marcellus, Mass of Pope," 46. Marchettus. 35. Marenzio, 43. Marot, 61. Marschner, 196. "Masaniello," 301. Mascagni, 371. Masque, 132. Mass (forrnV worship), 19, 52. Mauss (musical composition), 21, 95 Massenet, 358. Mastersingers, 36. Mattheson, 116. Mazurka, 246. McCimn, 391. Mees, quoted, 45. Mehid. 297. " Meistersinger. Die," 316. "Melody." Wagner's "endless," 321. Mendelssohn. 128, 232. Merian, quoted, 169, 199. 306. Merulo, 47, 74. Metastasio, 108. Meyerbeer, 302. Minnesingers, 36. Missal, 20. Modes, Gregorian, 26, 71. Monsigny, 144. Monteverde. 90. "Mors et Vita," 355. Moscheles, 218. 234. Moussorgsky, 380. Mozart, 98, 146. 162. "Muette de Portici, La," 301. MUller. 186. N Naninis, The. 43. "Neo-Russian" school. 370. Netherland school, 34, 37. 38. 65. Neumae, 26. Nicod6, 347. Niedermeyer, 351. Notation, Mediaeval, 26. Notker Balbulus, 28. "Nozze di Figaro. Le," 167, 293. INDEX 423 "Oberon," 192. 193, 194. Ockenheim, see Okeghem. Ode symphony, 266. Odington, 34. Offenbach, 359. Okeghem, 40. Opera, Origin of, 66; in Venice, 91; in Naples, 94; two classes of. 96; early, in France, 100, 146; opera seda, its character, 105, 107; German romantic, 185; contending forces in, 283, 320; later Italian. 288 et seq.; later French. 293; Wagner's criticism of. 320. 321. Opera buffa. 96, 143. Op6ra-comique. 142, 294. Oratorio, Origin of. 68. 117; idea of. as an art form. 134. Orchestration in the eighteenth cen- tury. 139; of Haydn and later. 158; of Beethoven, 178; of Weber. 193; modem, 255; of Berlioz, 264; of Wagner, 327. "Orfeo ed Euridice," 148. Organ, 55^^ 72, 73; early organ music, 74; in Bach's works, 120, 122. Organuin, 30. Origin of music, 1. "OteUo," 368. Overture, Early Italian, 94; early French, 102. Pachmann. 383. Paderewski, 383. Paganini. 273. Paine, 394. PaisieUo, 98, 106. Paladilhe, 365. Palestrina, 32^42. Parker, 394. Parry, 391. 392. "Parsifal," 317. Pasdeloup, 352. "Passion according to St. Mat- thew." 127. Passion music. Origin and develop- ment of, 116. Patronage, Musical, in the eigh- teenth century, 159. *'Pell6as et Melisande," 364. Pergolese, 98, 106. Peri, 67. Perrin, 101. Petschnikov, 383. Philidor, 144. PhilUppe de Vitry, 35. Pianoforte, Invention of the, 211; development of technic. 214, 275; construction of the, 216. Piccinnl. 98. 147. Pierre de la Rue. 40. Pius X.. his decree concerning church music. 49. Plain Song, 22. 27, 29, 69. Planer, Wilhelmine. 311. Polonaise. 246. Porpora, 106. Programme music. 184. 251. 278. Psalter, Geneva. 61. Puccini. 372. Purcell. 60. 133. 138. Puritans, Music among the, 61. Q QuaHet. Origin of string, 156. R Rachmaninov, 383. Raff. 338. Rameau. 71. 85. 103. 142. 146. " Rappresentatione di Anima e dl Corpo," 68. Recitative. Origin of. 67, 125. "Redemption, The," 355. Reichardt, 186. Reinecke, 347. Renaissance, 64. 65. Requiem mass. 21; Mozart's, 169, Reyer, 359. Rheinberger, 337. Richter, 240. Rieraann, quoted, 69. 70. Rimsky-Korsakov. 379. 380. "Ring des Nibelimgen, Der," 315. 42 i INDEX Romans, Music among the, 13. Romantic movement in Germany, 187; in France, 251. 261. Romantic opera, 190. " Rosenkavalier, Der," 344. Rosenmtiller, 114. Rossini, 286, 287, 300. Rousseau, 143. Rubinstein, 382. "Ruslan and Ludmllla," 378. Sacchlnl, 106. Saint-Saens, 356. 365. "Salome," 339, 343, 344. Sand, George, 244. Scales, Primitive, 5; Greek, 11, 12; Gregdrian, see Modes; mod- em, their origin, 69. Scarlatti, Alessandro, 94, IQQ. Scarlatti, Domenico. 86':^ Scenery, Wagner's, 3261 Scheldt, 114. Schein, 114. Scliilling, 347. Schola Cantorum. 49, 351. Schubert, 185, 186, 199. 241. Schumann, 220. Schtltz, 114. Scriabine, 383. Senfl, 55. Sequence, 27. "Service," Anglican, 59. Sierov, 378. Slnding. 387. Singing in the early Italian opera, 93. 108; in the later opera, 291. Singspiel, 186. Slivhisld. 383. Smetana, 384. Sonata, 79, 86, 171, 179. Song. Deflnition of, 200. Spencer's theory of the origin of music, 2. Spltta. quoted, 37. Spohr, 185, 186, 195. Spontini, 297. Stanford. 392. St. Cecilia society, 48. "St. Elizabeth," 281. St. Gall, Convent of, 27. "St. Paul," 236. StradeUa. 92. Stradivari, 78. Strauss, Joliann, the elder, 241. Strauss, Johann, the younger, 241<, Strauss, Richard, 339. Suite, 79, 85. Sullivan, 391. Svendsen, 387. Sweelincli, 75. Symphonic poem, 279. "Symphonic fantastique." 265. Symphony. Origin of, 156. Tallis, 60, 83. "Tannhauser." 314. Tchaikovsky. 381. Teleraann. 116. ' Thaltaerg. 218. Thomas, Arabroise. 359. Thomas. Arthur Goring. 391. Thomas, Theodore, 396. "Till Eulenspiegel's lustige Streiche," 340. Tinctoiis, 40. "Tod und VorklSrung," 339. Tourte, 78. Trent. Council of, 46. "Tristan und Isolde," 317. Troubadours, 36. Tye, 60. Vaude\ille, 143. Venice, Church music of, 47. Verdelot, 40. Verdi, 200, 366. Viadana, 71. Vinci. 108. Viol, 78. Violin, 78; its early music, 79. Vittoria, 43. w Wagner, 11. 197. 274. 285, 308, 349. Wallaschek'8 theory of the orlgla j of music, 2, INDEX 425 Walther. 55. Waltz, Origin of the. 241. Watts, 62. Weber, 185. 186, 188; as piano composer, 194, 218, 239. Weingartner, quoted, 266, 269. "Well-tempered Cla^ichord," 1^:9. Wesley, 62. Wldor, 352. Wieck. Clara. 221. Wieck, Frledrich, 220. Wiila«rt, 42, 47. Wille. Frau, 311. Witt. 48. Wolf, 348. Zarlino, 71. "ZauberflCte. Die." 168c Zelter. 199, 234. Zimbalist, 383. ZingareUi. 106. 1 14 DAY USE 1 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED MUSIC LIBRARY This book is due on the last date stamped below, or | on the date to which renewed. ' Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. JAN V i 1962 1 I ■ Mh^ I JAN n 1.970 .lAR ±o 1970 • j ■ 1 ! ^^?i2!To]%%' Uni^r|y^o^^^^^^ ^83 Je I "" ML mi THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY ^^ ■if -J^'