nfMpMlllllllllIll STATE -SERIES GJED €^ 8 1 VAxLOUuk/vNi 1 oJ-udUi / ?«»•* \.. N' i Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/advancedgeographOOcalirich CA.LIFORNIA. STA.TB SBRIBS OB SCHOOL TBXT-BOOKS. ADVANCED COISdF'ILED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE STATE BOARD OF KDUCATION. SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA. PRINTED AX THE STATE PRINTING OKKICE. c:i3 Entered according to Act of Congress in the year iSgj, BY THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 0/ the State of California, for the People of the State of California. EDUCATIOH DEPT, * " • * t • t 1 PRBFACE. Geography has been taken from the list of memory studies and now occupies a place in the front rank of thought studies. It is generally conceded that an intelligent consideration of the relation of facts as causes and effects is essential in the study of geography. The most important facts of political geography depend upon the configuration of the earth's surface and upon climate. In this book, therefore, physical precedes political geogfraphy; first, in the treatment of the earth as a whole, and, afterward, in the lessons upon its divisions. The carefully classified questions are designed not only to aid the pupil in his search for facts, but to help him to see how these facts depend upon one another. The growing commerce of the world increases the importance of correct knowledge concerning the relative positions of countries and great trade-centers. Pupils should find out the direction of important cities from the metropolis of this State; and they should be able to trace the direct routes between widely separated points. Since this work cannot be done by the aid of maps alone, globe exercises often accompany map exercises. In the Home Geography the plan of basing the maps of country districts upon the government surveys has a twofold use; it is the easiest way to make a nearly correct map, and it is the best way to learn how land is measured, divided, and described in our country. The maps throughout this book represent the physical geog- raphy of the world according to the most recent discoveries and conclusions; and political boundaries are correct to date. Each map is designed to serve one purpose above all others; thus em- phasizing the kind of knowledge which it is intended to convey, iy' There are so many considerations of importance to man, such as climate, fertility, commercial facilities, etc., that depend directly or indirectly upon the trend, elevation, and relative position of mountain-systems, that much stress has been laid upon the relief of the continents. The ability to comprehend and retain the essential facts of geography consists, in a large measure, in being able to form a general and yet definite conception of the various portions of the earth's surface, "^he questions and text upon the continents have been prepared with the object constantly in view of helping the learner so to study the maps as to aid in the systematic development of such mental conceptions. Especial attention is called to the plan of map-sketching and sand-modeling, briefly outlined on page 142, as a necessary aid to the text and questions in accomplishing this end. It is generally conceded that .sand- modeling is far more efficient in the formation of vivid and clear conceptions of actual geography than elaborate map-drawing; and it is hoped that the modeling-board will be constantly used in connection with this text-book. The physical and relief maps, and the questions pertaining to them, are designed so to stimulate the imagination that the representation of the continents, by means of sand-modeling, shall be the easiest and most natural expression of the learner's developing conceptions. / It has been deemed better to treat of the separate States of our own country in physical groups rather than as isolated geographical units. Much needless repetition of facts common to several States is thereby saved; and it is believed that this plan will commend itself to thoughtful teachers, because it will not only make it easier for the pupil to learn the information conveyed, but also because the commercial and industrial data of the various States thus obtained can be more certainly retained. The general index, with which the volume closes, has been prepared with special reference to its value as a guide to topical study and review. A new feature in a school geography, it is believed that it will suggest fresh and inspiring methods of studying the subject, through which the facts presented will be brought into new and suggestive relations. I W^2^i)o26 CONTENTS PAGE. Our Side of the World 5 General View of the Earth 6 Local, or Home, Geography 8 Changes in the Surface of the Earth 1 1 Land-Surface of the Earth 14 Water 16 Climate (heat, winds, moisture, ocean-currents) 19 The Organic World 28 Mankind 31 Physical North America 43 Political North America 48 Physical United States 49 Political United States 54 Northeastern States '. 58 North Central States 62 Middle Belt States 64 The Southern States ; 65 Western Plateau States 71 The Pacific Coast States 74 California — Physical Description 77 California — Natural Resources 82 PAOB. California — Political Description 86 Commercial and Industrial United States 89 Dominion of Canada, and Newfoundland 92 Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies 95 South America — Physical Description loi South America — Political Description 103 Eurasia — Physical Description 108 Eurasia — Political Description no Western Eurasia, or Europe — Physical Description 113 Western Eurasia, or Europe — Political Description 115 British Isles li5 Southwestern Europe 119 The Empire of Turkey 123 Southeastern Eurasia 125 Japan 128 Africa — Physical Description 130 Africa — Political Description -. 133 Oceania 135 Commercial Study of the World 139 Pronunciations 142 General Index 143 LIST OF MAPS. PAGE. The Hemispheres 6-7 Townships and their Subdivisions 8-9 Mississippi Drainage Basin 16 Ocean Depths and Land Elevations 19 Mathematical Zones . 21 Thermal Zones 22 Showing Barometric Pressure 25 Showing Rainfall 26 Ocean-Currents 27 Showing Origin of Cultivated Plants 29 Locality of the Races of Men 34 Locality of the Religions of Men 37 North America — Political 42 North America — Physical 43 North America — Relief 44 United States — Physical 50 United States — Political 52-53 Northeastern, North Central, and Middle Belt States S6-57 New York and Vicinity 57 Chicago and Vicinity 57 Southern and Middle Belt States 66-67 Western Plateau and Pacific Coast States 70-71 California — Drainage Map 76 Yosemite Valley 79 PAOB. California — Forest Map 81 .California — County Map 84-85 Commercial and Industrial United States 90-91 Dominion of Canada 93 Mexico, Central America, and West Indies 96 South America — Political 98 South America — Physical 100 South America — Relief 100 Eurasia — Relief 105 Eurasia — Political 106-107 Eurasia — Physical 109 Europe 114 British Isles 117 Southwestern Europe 120 Turkish Empire 124 Southeastern Eurasia 126 Japan 128 Africa— Relief 129 Africa — Physical 129 Africa— Political 131 Oceania — Physical 136 Oceania — Relief 136 Oceania — Political 137 Routes of Commerce over the World 140-141 1 ^J>3 i?>''l*»»l ,^v ^^ ^ OUR SIDE OF THE WORLD. 1. Viewed from a Great Distance Over- head. — If we could view the world from a point in space fifty or sixty thousand miles directly above the center of California, it would, at noon, for a few days about the 20th of June, appear very nearly as shown above. Perhaps the coast- lines would not be so clearly seen as in the picture, and clouds or fogs might hide more of the surface; but it is quite certain that the earth would look like a full moon, and that we should be able to distinguish part of the American continent. On the days sup- posed, all this side of the earth, except a slender crescent on AT NOON, CHRISTMAS. the north, would be in the sunlight at noon. This nearly full earth of the long June days would grow less from day to day, until on the short days of Christmas time we shoula, from our sup- posed position, see the earth at noon, as shown in the small picture. At midnight, in June, the northern part of our hemisphere would be seen as a crescent; and at midnight, in December, a very slender cres- cent, like the new moon, would be visible. Our side of the world, then, is never entirely in the sunshine, nor is it ever quite all in the dark. 6 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. GENERAL VIEW OF THE EARTH. INTRODUCTORY EXBRCISMS. 2. Rotation of the Earth.— Whirl a ball on a table, or toss it with a whirling motion until you see that there are two opposite points around which the surface moves. These points are called poles. Imagine a line running straight through the ball from one pole to the other. Such a line is called an axis. The whirling ball turns, or rotates, on its axis. The earth has a motion like that of the ball, but it rotates much more slowly. 3. Lines on the Surface of the Earth. — Imagine your ball to be a little world. Mark points on it to represent the poles. Stretch a thread from one pole to the other. It lies upon a Une called a meridian, and thus marks its position. Draw several meridians. Pass a thread from any point on the ball, directly around the center of it. The position of a great circle is thus shown. Mark several points just halfway between the poles. These points are on a great circle, called the Equator. Draw the Equator. Draw several lines parallel with the Equator. Such lines are small circles, ca.\\&A. parallels of latitude. The me- ridians are north and south lines. The parallels are east and west lines. Meridian Unes on a map show whether a given place is east or west of another. Places on the same meridian are said to be in the same longitude. Longitude is distance measured in degrees, east or west, from a selected meridian to the opposite meridian. We usually count longitude from the meridian which passes through a marked point at Greenwich (grJn'ij), near London. Parallel lines on the map show distance north or south from the Equator. Places on the same parallel are in the same latitude. Latitude is distance measured in degrees, from the Equator to the poles.' 4. Hemispheres. — Since we can see but half a ball or sphere at a time, it is natural to treat the earth as made up of hemispheres. Evidently any great circle is the boundary of two hemispheres. Such a circle always limits our view of a globe. Let us first trace the great circle which bounds 5. "Our Hemisphere."— Beginning on the 120th meridian at the bottom of the map, move your finger to the right and onward along the boundary' to the starting point. Observe that it crosses, in order, South America, the Atlantic Ocean, northwestern Africa, southern Europe, northern Asia, and the Pacific Ocean. Valparrti'go in Chile,Romein Italy, and Shanghai in China, are near our border, and are therefore about equally distant from us. Notice that Siberia is nearer to us than Australia, and that Spain is nearer than southern Chile. 6. Eastern and Western Hem- ispheres. — It is customary for geographers to divide the earth into hemispheres bounded by a great circle passing through the poles in such a way as to separate America from the other large bodies of land. The 20th meridian west of Green- wich and the i6oth meridian east form this circle. Such a division gives, as you see, a better view of the eastern continents than the hemi- spheres east and west of the meridian of Greenwich, which show Africa and Europe cut through by the boundary meridian. 7. Land and Water Hemispheres.— This division of the earth into hemispheres shows that nearly all the land is on one side of the earth. It is interesting and instructive to note that England and Holland^whose people have carried on niost of the far-reaching commerce of the world — are in the middle of the land hemisphere. 8. Northern and Southern Hemispheres. — The Equator is the boundary and the poles are the centers of these views of the earth. Think of the cold centers, the hot border, and the temperate 1. We can teU where a place is by ^ving its latitude and longitude. For example ; Lake Tft ho'tf is in latitude 39P north, longitude 130° west, from Greenwich. Or, when ottr hearers know that the lake is in North America, it is enough to say it is where the 39th parallel crosses the isoth meridian. GENERAL VIEW OF THE EARTH. regions between. Observe that nearly three-fourths of the land is in the Northern Hemisphere. Notice how the meridians and the parallels appear. between two points on the Equator. Note that the thread lies upon the Equator. The shortest distance between those points, then, is meas- ured along the Equator. Stretch the same length of thread tightly between two points on any parallel. It does not lie upon the parallel, and that part of the parallel which is between the points is longer than the thread. Evidently the shortest distance between points on the same parallel is not measured along the parallel. The shortest route to a place due east of your home is not along an east and west line, but along a great circle. A straight line on the surface of the earth is part or all of a great circle. Meridians and the Equator are geographical straight lines. On the Equator, your course due east or west will be straight, but on a parallel it will bend. From 9. Map Exercises.— Which hemispheres are bounded by meridian circles ? What great circle cuts the meridians in halves ? In what direction is the center of the Northern Hemisphere from its boundary ? Of the Southern ? Can you properly speak of this boundary as having eastern or western parts ? All the circles on the maps of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres are parallels of latitude, and their direction is exactly east and west. Move a pin eastward around the North Pole on the first parallel shown on the map north of the Equator. Move it eastward around the South Pole on the first parallel south of the Equator. Move the pin from any point on the Northern Hemisphere around and around eastward. Move it the same way on the Southern Hemisphere. Do you see that east on the upper side of the Northern Hemi- sphere is toward the left, while on the lower side it is toward the right; and that in the Southern Hemisphere the reverse is true? Nor does it matter how you hold the map. A ball or globe will help us to understand this. 10. Globe Exercises.— Turn a globe on its axis— the North Pole up — so that the surface moves toward the right. While it is rotating, look down upon the North Pole, or tip the globe so that only the Northern Hemisphere is seen. The motion is now toward the right below and toward the left above; or the reverse of that shown by the hands of a clock. Set the globe whirling again, and turn it over so that you see the Southern Hemisphere. The motion seems to be reversed, because you reversed the globe. The earth rotates toward the east just as you have turned the globe. The parallels are true east and west lines. Stretch a thread tightly all points between the poles, your course due north or south will be straight. Stretch your thread from San Francisco to London, and note how it crosses the meridians and parallels marked on the globe. Do you see that in traveling directly, or straight, to London, you would at first go north of east, and that near the end of the journey you would go south of east? Work in this way on the globe, until you know just what is meant by east, west, north, and south. Hold the globe so that you can see " the hemisphere east of us," as shown in the figure. Your home is near the point marked C, and the point on the earth opposite your home is near A. Observe that this point (called our antip'odal poitit) is the most dis- tant point on the earth.' All the surface you see ' is east of us. Notice what countries are east of us. Turn the globe so that you see only the hemisphere west of us. Is all of Asia west of us ? Place the globe so that our antipodal THE HEMISPHERE EAST OF US. 1. Obsarrs that all direct, or straight, lines from any point on the globe lead to the antipodal point. Such lines continued return to the point of beginning. 8 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. point is in the center of the visible hemisphere. You now see our antipodal hemisphere, all parts of which are farther awaj' than the most distant parts of our hemisphere. 11. Exercises on the Globe and the Maps. — Find on the maps and globe the lines that show the positions of meridians and parallels. Compare the lines of latitude on the maps with those on the globe. On the latter they are parallel, while on the former they are farther apart at their ends than at their centers. Take half an orange peel, and, cutting it nearly to the center in eight or ten places, flatten it on a piece of paper. This experi- ment shows you that it is impossible to make a flat map perfectly represent half a sphere. The distance across the map of the Western Hemisphere represents the same distance as the much longer line around the border from one pole to the other. In looking at maps of large areas, we must think of the real curved surfaces which they represent. Even a globe will deceive us, unless we realize that the countries near the border of our view are seen edgewise. Compare each of the maps with the side of the globe which represents the same half of the earth. Note that on the map the border countries are out of shape and too large, while on the globe they seem out of shape in a different way, and too small. QUESTIONS. What are the poles? What is an axis? What is a meridian? What is a great circle? What is the Equator? What are parallels of latitude? What is longitude? When are places said to be in the same longitude? What is latitude? When are places said to be in the same latitude? What sort of line always bounds a hemisphere? Through what continents and oceans would a line bounding the hemi- sphere of which we are the center, pass? What three cities near the border of our hemisphere are about equally distant from us? What meridians make the great circle that divides the Eastern from the Western Hemisphere? If j-ou wish to go in a straight line to a point due east of you, will you travel directly east? In what direction will you travel in the first part of your journey? In what direction, the latter part? Explain this. Describe our antipodal point on the globe. Will it be found in any part of China? LOCAL, OR HOME, GEOGRAPHY. FOB COUNTRY SCHOOI^S. 12. How Land is Surveyed. — Before beginning to work upon the geography of your home, it will be best, if you live in the countr)', to learn how land in the United States is measured and described. The art of measuring the surface of the earth is called surveying. Nearly all the land west of the Alleghany Mountains has been measured by government sur\'eyors. The starting point for the surveys of most of the land in this State, and for all in Nevada, is marked by a monument on the summit of Monte Diablo. The meridian passing through this point is called the Monte Diablo Meridian, and the parallel is called the Monte Diablo Base-Line. The surveyors first estab- Ushed these two lines, then lines were run parallel to these six miles apart, thus dividing the countr>- into squares, called town- ships. They next subdi\'ided the townships into sections, each a mile square. 13. How Land is Described.— Land in the first north and south row of townships east of the principal meridian is said to be in " Range i East; " land in the second row, in " Range 2 East," and so on. The range numbers are marked along the base-line' T.^N. \f(-.6-W: IM'o-n .AS. o'PcolleJO ,2.2' West from C^ye-erLiA/^clv JL cu-bi te JP-Uizilo 2^a.\re JLin.&- 4- tizS-e, 3 fTa/nTraTb CISCO 5^ z T.Z S. R.ZW. J)tun.ville ^ m f^3 / o L Antxoc.h- .Bren, 3 in.j oooL Exercises. — After reading a description of land survej-s, and before taking up i "Geography of the Home-Place," try the /xx° following: J^on^. In what range is Antioch, Brentwood, Stockton, Tracy, Martinez? In what town- ship is Stockton? Tracy? What places in more than one township? What four townships comer at the starting point of surveys? How many miles long is each side of a township? How far is the northwest comer of section one, in town one south, range four east, from Monte Diablo? How far is Monte Diablo from the N.W. comer of Sec. 19, T. 5 S., R. i E.? The northeastern township of the State of Nevada is T. 47 N., R. 70 E. How far east of Monte Diablo is the N.E. corner of Nevada? How far north? How many square miles in a township? How many sections in a town- ship? Draw a township, divide it into sections, and number them. MAP SHOWTNG HOW TOWNSHIPS ARE DESIGNATED BY TOWN AND RANGE. SfocT: S Xo.iTlTopa olrcc 1: 7:2/1/. ton. T R.6 E. s s 4- J Z 1 7 a 9 10 II 12 la n IS IS 14- 13 19 20 Zl zs S3 24 30 zs za 27 26 ZS 31 3Z 33 34- 3S 36 MAP OF A TOWNSHIP. What is the length of one side of a section of land? There are 320 rods in one mile; how many square rods in a section of land? how many acres in a section? how many acres in the space bf a i J/.'/2 ofJVE. 'k c s.r'U of e / °f S.'/e o/J.w:f* ^ A SECTION SUBDIVIDED. There are 160 square rods in an acre; In the diagram, "A Section Subdivided," Describe the space c. The space d. In the " Map of a Township," bound sections i, 6, 31, 36. Draw a square, and divide it into nine squares. Write in the center square any possible section number, and then number the other squares correctly. LOCAL, OR HOME, GEOGRAPHY. on the map. Land in the first east and west row north of the base-Une is in "Township i North;" land in the third row south is in "Township 3 South." The township numbers are shown along the principal meridian, which is the Monte Diablo meridian on our map. The sections are numbered as shown on the " Map of a Town- ship." Sections are often subdivided into halves, quarters, halves of quarters, quarters of quarters, etc. Suppose the diagram, "A Section Subdivided," represents the section which is shaded on the map, then the square marked c would be in the northwest quarter of section 35, and it would be in the southwest quarter of that quarter. The full description of it would be: "The southwest quarter of the northwest quarter of section thirty-five, town three south, range five east, Monte Diablo base and meridian." This would usually be written in an abbreviated form, thus: "The S.W. }i of the N.W. % of Sec. 35, T. 3 S., R. 5 E., Monte Diablo B. and M." The space marked / would be: "The W. >^ of the S.E. X of Sec. 35." 14. Surveys in Southern and Northwestern California. — In southern California the surveys are based upon the San Bernar- dino Base and Meridian. In the northwestern part of the State the principal meridian is called the Hmnboldt Meridian, and the standard base-line is the Hmnboldt Base. GEOGRAPHY OF THM HOMn-PLACB. 15. Mapping Your Home. — Survey and map your home. This is easy, because most of the work has been done by the government surveyors and the county surveyor. You have only to find the position of buildings and other objects; the position, size, and shape of orchards, gardens, swamps, and whatever you wish to put on your map. It is not necessary to make careful measurements. You can estimate distances by counting trees, fence panels, or by stepping. Measure with the eye the course of streams and water-partings. First find out the surveyor's descrip- tion of the land. It will be in the deed, which, perhaps, your father can show you. Suppose it reads: "The S. yi of the N.E. ^ of Sec. 3, T. 4 N., R. 7 E., Mt. Diablo B. and M." Then the position of the land described would be shown on a map, as here given in the " Map of Section 3." Your map should be larger. Rule two parallel lines four or five inches apart, and six or seven inches long; then across these rule two more lines, so as to inclose a square, which is to represent the section on which you live. Next mark distinctly the boundaries of the home-farm; then put in the orchard, garden, houses, etc. 16. Physical Features.* — Write a description of the sur- face of the land. Find out all you can about rocks or layers of earth, and make diagrams* like those given here, which will show what has been found out by digging wells, or what the wear- ing work of a water-course has revealed. Describe the soil, g^iving its color, depth, etc. 17. Climate. — Tell all you know about the weather. How much rain? Does it ever snow ? How thick a coat of ice have * diagrams: outline drawings of anything; the drawings on this and the preceding page are all diagrams. A- Jac. J+ Jcc 10 MAP OF SECTION 3. Se,o 2 you seen on pools of water? summer? 18. Productions. — Write down the estimated weight of each kind of crop produced on the farm in one season, the value or number of chickens or other animals raised, etc. 19. Inhabitants. — Put down the facts about the nativity and ages of the living members of your family who reside at your home, in this way: Father and Mother, bom in Ireland; Aunt Mary, bom in New York; Brother John, age 22, bom in Iowa; Jane, age 19, bom in Nevada, James, age 17, bom in Califomia; Kate, age 14, bom in California; Henry, age 12, bom in Cahfomia. Recapitulation. — Adults: Men, 2; women, 2; bom in Califomia, none; born in other States, 2; born in Europe, 2. Children: Boys, 2; girls, 2; bom in Cali- fomia, 3; born in other States, i. When foggy? How hot in the Soil. K- Yellow clay, 8 ft. 1 1 Sand. '. 1 Blue clay, Clay. STRATA PIERCED BY A WELL. Granite. SECTION BLUE CREEK BLUFF. 20. History. — Find out, if possible, who first owned the land on which you live; who first cultivated it, and what was raised; who built the house; what old improvements have disappeared, etc. Give dates as nearly correct as possible. When you and your classmates have in this way completed your home geographies, you are ready to combine and condense them into a GEOGRAPHY OF THE SCHOOL-DTSTRICT. 21. Mapping the School-District. — Lay off a square of seven inches on a piece of unruled paper, and divide it into squares of one inch, each to represent a section of land; or, if you have larger paper, make the scale one and a half inches, or more, to the mile. Let the central square represent the section on which the school- house stands. Ascertain from j'our father or the school trustees the number of this section and write it in the square. By counting from this section north, south, east, and west, determine* the township * physical features: natural features; in geography, mountains, oceans, lakes, rivers, etc dtttrmint: ascertain, find location of. 10 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. R6.£. lines, and make them heavier or line them with red. For example, if the school-house is on Sec. 8, T. 4 N., R. 7 E., there would be two township lines, as here shown. The school-house may stand on such a section as to show four township lines on your map. Number the sections (with light-colored ink, if practicable*), and indicate on the margins the town and range. Next trace the boundaries of the district. Color (paint, ink, or berry-juice) may be used. Finally, put in the school-house and its grounds. You are now ready to copy, on this map, all the details of the home-maps made by the class, first copying your own. When this work is finished, youi map will show all the homes represented in your class. 22. Physical Features.' — Read all that has been written by your class about physical features, geology, and climate. Thus assisted, write under these heads for your district geography. 23. Productions. — Copy all the figures of your classmates, showing the quantity or value of the different kinds of crops or live-stock raised in the district, add all productions of the same kind, and make a table, like the following, of the result: 1- 26 25 SO 29 28 21 26 55 36 31 32 33 34 35 2 1 6 5 4 3 Z II 12 7 B 9 10 II « xt K 14- IS 18 n 16 IS 14 23 24 IS so 21 22 23 26 25 50 29 28 27 26 SCHOOL-DISTRICT MAP. Products. Cwt. Products. Value. Wheat Chickens Eees $ • . Oats Potatoes Butter Beans 24. Inhabitants. — Put the result of your combined reports upon inhabitants in a table like this: Adults. Number. Childrkn (Under 21 Years). Number. Men ......... Women Girls Born in California .... Born in California. Born in other States . . . Born in Europe Born in Europe 25. Occupations. — In a similar way make a table of occupa- tions in the school-district. 26. History. — Write a brief history of the district, using the home-histories and other reliable sources for authority. MXSRCISMS FOR CITY OR VILltAGS SCHOOI^S. 27. Mapping Your Block. — Measure as accurately as you can the length and breadth of the lot on which you live. Often you will be able to determine the size of a block by counting the lots. Measure the width of the streets by counting your steps. Indeed, you can survey your block, and the home-lot very well, by counting steps. Make a map of the block on a scale of so many feet or so many steps to an inch. Your map should show the 1. To aid In making observations of physical features to be described with your map, the following suggestions may be helpful : /ft connection with a Hill or Mountain, observe — its slope, whether gradual or abrupt, and its length; height of hill or mountain; character of its top, whether flat or a peak; vegeta- tion at top and along the sides; blufifs; precipices; whether of a range and of what range. In connection with a Valley, observe — whether it is meadow, marsh, swamp, plain, gorge, pass, canon, and the extent of each. In connection with a Brook or River, observe — the line of its banks, right and left; character of its bed, channel, current, rapids; any water-fall in it; any delta, estuary, alluvial plain, or bottom-land made by it; any tributary or water-parting. J L OLEMA ST. i <^lh ~] r RACE ST. MAP OF BLOCK. r bounding streets as indicated in the diagram. Leave all except the home-lot blank, unless there is a church or some other notable building. 28. Family Census. — Write out the family census,* as directed in paragraph nineteen (19). 29. History of the Block.— Find out all you can about the history of your block. When and where was the first house built? When was the house in which you live built? When this is all written and your map is made, you can, with the help of the similar work of your classmates, prepare the neighbor- hood geography. 30. Mapping the Neighbor- hood. — If, as is commonly the case, the streets are straight and the blocks rectangular* and of equal size, you can easily lay off the paper into blocks, separated by streets. Decide how many blocks long and wide your map must be to include all the homes of 3'our class. Draw the map on a scale as large as your paper will permit. Put in the names of the streets. Copy on the proper block your home- map ; then, by exchanging home-maps with your classmates, you can put down all homes and notable buildings. These should be numbered to correspond* with an index of names, unless the scale of your map is large enough to admit of printing the names on the home-lots. 31. Physical Features. — Write a description of the physical features of your part of town, in which you should tell, among other things, the position of the highest part, or point, the lowest place, the direction and steepness of slopes, source of water-supply, etc. Describe the climate, as indicated in paragraph seventeen (17). 32. Inhabitants. — Make a table of the census reports, as shown in paragraph twenty-four (24). 33. Occupations. — Make a table showing occupations of adults. 34. History. — Write a brief history of your neighborhood, using the facts given in the home-block histories. qu:estions. What is surveying? From what point do most surveys start in this State? What is the Monte Diablo meridian? What is the Monte Diablo base-line? In what part of California is Monte Diablo? In what county is it? (See map of California.) In surveying the land what was the first thing done by the government surveyor? The second? The third? What is a town- ship of land? What is a section of land? What is meant by "Range i East?" By "Township i North?" If a farm is in the 6th north and south row of townships east of the Monte Diablo meridian, and in the loth east and west row north of the Monte Diablo base-line, how would you describe it? How are sections subdivided? What is the starting point for surveys in southern California? In north- western California? Ascertain, if you can, what part the county surveyor has in surveying the land. In connection with a Pond or Lake, observe— bed, basin, shore, head, foot, inlet, ouUet. Of a Plateau, observe whether desert or fertile. Of a Volcano, observe crater and lava. Of the Coast, observe— the direction and regularity of the shore-line; the character of the beach; any cape or promontory. * practicable: that which can be done with the means at command. census: the numbering of people, and the registering of certain facts concerning them, as age, place of birth, value of property, etc. rectangular: the cover of this geography is rectangular, and each column on the page \» rectangular. correspond: fit ; agree. CHANGES IN THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. U CHANGES IN THE STJRFACE OF THE EARTH.^ Geography is in part a description of the earth's surface ; but as the surface features of the earth are constantly changing, it is desirable to consider first how these changes are brought about. EROSION. 35. Observations Near the School-House. — Observe the ground in the vicinity of the school-house during and after a rain- storm, and see the streams of muddy rain-water cut channels for themselves in the slopes down which they flow, in some cases washing out deep gullies in a few hours. The effects produced upon the earth's surface by the little streams in any neighborhood resemble closely effects produced by running water everywhere else; for creeks and rivers differ from brooks only in size, and the greater work of rivers is due only to their greater volume of water. 36. Defining Erosion and Detritus. — The wearing away of the surface of the earth by falling rain and running water is called erosion; and the mud, sand, gravel, etc., resulting from erosion, and carried away by running water, are called detrVtus. Where streams flow down steep slopes their current is swiftest, and they have the gfreatest power to erode the surface and carry away detritus. Wherever the velocity* of a stream is decreased by the slope becoming less steep or by a bend in the river, or by flowing into a body of water, some of the detritus settles to the bottom and forms layers of mud, sand, and gravel. Such deposits are called sediment. Very fine sediment is called silt. 37. Effect on Rock, of Heat, Cold, and Air.— The heat of summer and the frost of winter are constantly at work, especially upon mountain tops, breaking rock-masses into fragments; and by the action of vapor and other gases in the air the hardest rocks — like granite even — are caused to " rot " and crumble into sand and clay. 38. Loosened Rock Aids the Water in Cutting Channels. The rock-materials thus loosened upon the mountain tops aid the water, which carries them down the mountain side, to cut constantly deepening and widening gulches* and canons.* The clearest mountain brook always carries some detritus ; and in times of rain or of melting snow, great quantities of mud, sand, cobbles, and even bowlders* are carried down the steep beds of gor'ges* and canons in mountainous regions. 39. Different Parts of a River-Course. — That part of a river near its source is called the upper course ; it is usually in mount- ainous country, though the upper course of the Mississippi River is in a comparatively level region. That part lying near its mouth is called the lo-wer course; it is always in very low plain regions. Connecting the upper and lower courses is the middle course — • usually lying in hilly country. 40. Erosion and Deposition In Different Parts of the River- Course. — In the upper course of a river that rises in mountains the slope is very steep and the velocity great. Rapid and extensive erosion takes place, and all the detritus is carried away ; and the channel is consequently deep and narrow with steep banks, and the bed is generally in solid rock. In the middle course the slope 1. Before reading tWe chapter find, on the proper maps, the location of the following: The Mississippi River; the Ganges; the Nile; the Great Basin of Utah; the Coast Range; STfir'ra Neva'da Mountains; Rocky Mountains; Andes Mountains; Him gl'la ya Mountains; Pyr'enees Mountains; the Alps; Appala'chiau Mountains; Mount Vesuvius; Popocat'epetl; St. Hele'na. 2. When overflows ooour in such a river the flood-waters are not able to return to the and the velocity are not so great, and there is, therefore, much less erosion. The channel is wider and shallower, and the banks less steep ; and the bed of the stream consists of deposits of most of the coarser detritus — gravel, cobbles, and bowlders — while only the finer material is carried farther on. In the lower course the slope and velocity are still less, and there is little or no erosion. The channel is very shallow and often wide, and the bed of the channel is of mud, as most of the finer sediment is deposited here. If possible, observe the above facts in some stream near your home. 41. Alluvial Plains. — In seasons of melting snow or heavy rain around the upper course of a river the shallow channel in the lower course is often insuflScient to carry the gpreat volume of muddy DIAGRAM OF A RIVER-CHANNEL SUBJECT TO FLOODS, i. b. High-water level, e, Low-water level, c. c, c. Alluvial deposits, a, a, a. Bed-rock. water poured into it. When this occurs the river overflows its banks and deposits sediment upon the adjacent plain. The deposits so made are called alluvial, or river, deposits; and the plain so built up is called an alluvial plain. These alluvial plains are regions of great fertility, as they have a sediment soil often several hundred feet deep. The lower part of the Mississippi Valley and the central valley of California are plains of this kind. Alluvial deposits are generally deepest in the bed and along the banks of a river ; and after a long time the channel becomes in some cases a raised trough several feet higher than the surface of the valley through which the river flows. The lower course of the Nile furnishes a good example of such an elevated river- channel.' DIAGRAM OF A RIVER-CHANNEL HIGHER THAN THE VALLEY THROUGH WHICH IT FLOWS. ^,5. Level of the valley. C. Water level. /4, ^. Bed-rock. 42. Forming a Delta. — Where a river empties into a lake or bay its velocity is much retarded,* and it deposits mud and sand in the mouth of the channel in such quantities as to cause the water to overflow its banks and seek outlet through several branches and mouths. A triangular area cut by interlacing streams* is thus formed. It is called a delta, because it resembles in shape the Greek letter delta {A). 43. Exterior and Interior Deltas. — If the velocity of the river at its mouth is not great enough to overcome the force of ocean tides which it meets there, deltas are formed reaching far river-channel when the flood goes down, and therefore cut new channels or outlets to the ocean, • velocity: swiftness. gulches-caflons: very narrow and deep valleys caused by erosion, bowlders: masses of rock that have been carried from their native bed by the forces of nature. gorges: narrow passages between mountains. retarded: made slower, interlacing streams: streams apparently crossing one another. 12 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. inland. The delta of the Ganges is thus formed. But if the velocity of the river does overcome the force of the tides, a delta IDEAL DELTA. I. Outlet of the pond. 2. Formation of the delta. projecting beyond the coast-line is formed. The delta of the Mississippi is of this character. DELTA OF THE GANGES. 44. Layers of Sand and Mud Along the Sea-Shore. — Much sediment is deposited outside of the mouths of the great rivers of the world, slowly but surely filling the adjacent* portions of the DELTA OP THE UISSISSIFPI. bay, or other body of water, into which they empty. Ocean currents and waves aid in distributing this sediment along the sea-shores in horizontal layers of mud, sand, and gravel. Imbedded in the sediment are the shells, bones, and other hard parts of animals and of plants that live along the sea-shores, or are brought down with the detritus of the river. 45. Formation of Rock-Layers. — In the course of time the sea-shore sediment becomes consolidated in much the same way that mortar hardens, and is then called stratified rock — each layer of mud or sand becoming a layer, or stratum (plural, strata'), of 1. The force that lifts and folds rock-strata to form continents and mountains is called lattral pressure. It is supposed to originate as follows: The interior of the earth is very hot, and is constantly giving off some of its heat to the surrounding crust,* which in turn gives off heat into space As a consequence the interior is losing heat, and getting grad- ually cooler; while the crust receives as much heat as it gives off and changes but little, if any , in temperature. As cooling bodies decrease in size, the interior of the earth becomes constantly smaller; and as the crust fits itself to the shrinking interior, its particles crowd each other sidewise. or laterally fllustraiions. — If a number of persons form a circle, each individual standing close to each adjoining one, they may be considered as representing particles in the earth's crust. Now, let each take one step toward the center of the circle, and each will crowd his rock. As sediment is always deposited in horizontal layers, it follows that stratified rocks are always horizontal when first formed. The remains of plants and animals found in these rocks are caWeA fossils; and these fossils tell us what plants and animals lived at the time that any rock-stratum was being formed. PICTnUE OF FOSSILIFEROnS ROCK. 46. Extension of Land-Areas.* — The stratified rocks formed along sea-shores gradually emerge above the surface of the water, first, as mud-flats at low tide; next, as sea-shore marshes; finally, as low coast plains. Thus, through the agency of running water, the elevated portions of continents are eroded; and the detritus so obtained serves to increase the size of the land-areas by building the coast-lines farther out into the sea. 47. Former Position of the Sea. — Wherever stratified rocks containing fossils of sea-animals are now found it is certain that the sea once held sway. Such rocks form nearly all the land- ,77T7TT777TTT7ff77 HOW LAND-ARBAS ARE EXTENDED. >. I.and-building. «. Outlet of the pond. surface of the earth, and they are found on the sides of every mountain-range in the world. MOUNTAIN-MAKING, EARTHQUAKES, AND VOLCANOES. 48. How Strata Came to be Inclined. — Where stratified rocks occur on mountain sides the strata are usually inclined* instead of horizontal. It is supposed that some mighty force' has lifted the rock-strata above the surface of the ocean to help form continents and islands. 49. Elevation of Plains and Plateaus. — Large areas of stratified rocks have been raised but little above the sea-level, with but little change from their horizontal position, thus forming the great low-plain regions of the world. The Great Central Plain of North America, lying between the Rocky and the Appalachian neighbor sidewise, producing lateral pressure, and the row of persons constituting the circle must bend in yielding to this pressure. In like manner, the lateral pressure developed in the earth's cru-'t produces a bending or folding of the crust as it falls toward the shrinking interior, very much as the skin of a baked apple becomes wrinkled as the expanded juices of the hot apple contract on cooling. Lay several sheets of paper in a pile upon a table, and press two opposite edges of the paper laterally toward each other. The paper will be caused to wrinkle and fold, thus illustrating how lateral pressure has caused the wrinkles, which we call mountains, upon the earth's surface. * adjacent: \yitig near. arMj: surfaces. (Mr/iif/rf: slanting. erusi of the earth: all of the solid part of the earth to the depth of several thousand feet CHANGES IN THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 13 mountains, is an example. Other large areas have been lifted, with but little change from their horizontal position, to more than one thousand feet elevation, forming plateau regions. The Great Basin of Utah is an example. 50. Elevation of Mountain-Ranges. — Where thick deposits of newly made rock occurred along sea-shores, the crust of the earth was weakest and yielded most easily to the forces of upheaval; and there the rock-strata have been bent and folded, and broken and left inclined at various angles. The great ridges CONTINUOUS STRATA OVER THK MOUNTAIN TOP.* thus formed are the mountain-ranges of the world at present, and they represent the position of the sea-shores of the past.' Study the maps of the continents, and observe that most mountain-ranges are more or less parallel to the sea-shores of the present. 51. Oldest Mountains Farthest from the Sea. — As the low plains between mountains and the sea have been built up of material resulting from erosion, it follows that those mountains farthest removed from the sea are the oldest. The Coast Range Mountains are younger than the Sierra Nevada, and the latter are younger than the Rockj' Mountains. AN OLD ERODED MOUNTAIN-RANGE.' 52. Oldest Mountains Lowest. — It is also true generally that the oldest mountains are the lowest, because longest subjected to erosion. The Andes, Himalaya, Pyrenees, Sierra Nevada,* and Alps, are all recently-formed, or young, mountains, and they are the highest mountain-ranges in the world. The Appalachians, on the other hand, are but 2,000 or 3,000 feet high, and they are among the oldest mountains in the world. Geologists say that the Appalachian Mountains would be about 20,000 feet high, if they had not been eroded. 53. Earthquakes. — The upfolding of the earth's crust to form mountains is a very slow process, as rocks can be made to bend and fold only very slowly. But the mountain-making force is so irresistibly great that all rocks yield to the strain in time, and either bend or break. Wherever mountain-making is still in progress, the strata some- times yield or break so suddenly as to cause a trembling, or shock, which is transmitted through the rocks in all directions, often with 1. The figure shows a young mountain-range in which the strata of rock are continuous up one side, over the summit, and down the other side. 2. Stratified rocks are being formed along the sea-shores of the present just as they were formed in the past, and these newly made rocks are yielding to the great forces within the earth's crust now, just as in the past. In some places the sea-shores are rising slowly— a few inches in a century, perhaps — to make new mountain-ranges, and to increase the height of others recently formed. The western coast of South America and the eastern coast of Asia are undergoing such a slow elevation. In other places the rock-strata seem to bend downward instead of upward, and the coast- line is sinking instead of rising. The coasts of Greenland, Holland, and the eastern coast of the United States are gradually sinking, and the ocean is slowly submerging* the land. Land-areas are increased by the elevation of coast-lines, and decreased by their sub- sidence.* In past times there have been many changes of level along the sea-shores of the g^eat violence. A trembling of the earth's surface, due to such internal causes, is called an earthquake. Mountain-making occurs principally along sea-shores; and, therefore, earthquake shocks also are most frequent on mountainous islands, and along the coast regions of continents. 54. Volcanoes. — When rock -strata are broken in the process of mountain-making, intensely hot, molten rock-material some- times flows out through the fractures. This molten rock-material is called la'va. As it flows out it gradually cools and hardens to form a porous rock, which is also called lava ; and successive outflows of lava gradually build up a mountain, called a volcano. The top of a volcano is a cup-shaped depression, called a crater. SUCCESSIVELY FORMED CRATERS OF VE.SUVTUS. In this crater is usually a small lake of molten rock-material, which is supposed to be the upper end of a column of lava extending down through the rocks several thousand feet. 55. Active Volcanoes. — When water soaks through the porous lava of which a volcano is composed, it sometimes comes into contact with the column of molten lava. Steam is thus suddenly produced with such great expansive force that it blows the contents of the crater and portions of the top of the volcano hundreds or thousands of feet into the air. Such an explosion is called a volcanic eruption, and a volcano in this condition is said to be active.' Nearly all the active volcanoes in the world are near VESUVIUS IN ACTION. world — the land sometimes rising and sometimes sinking, but on the whole the rising has been greater than the sinking, as land-areas have greatly increased since stratified rocks began to form. 3. The figure shows a section across an old mountain-range that has been much eroded since its upheaval; and the stratified rocks that once formed its summit have been carried away piecemeal* to form new rocks. 4. Though the Coast Range Mountains are younger than the Sierra Nevada, they are. much lower — probably because they are still undergoing elevation, and have not reached their greatest height. 5. Mount Vesuvius in Italy is a volcano built upon a plain by outflows of lava; Popo- catepetl in Mexico is a volcano built upon a plateau by outflows of lava and by the materials thrown into the air during eruption; and St. Helena is an island composed of volcanic matter in the Atlantic west of Africa and rises from the bed of the deep ocean. • subnurgingi covering with water. subsidence', sinking. piecemeal', piece by piece. 14 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. sea-shores in recently formed mountains, or where mountain- making is now taking place. 56. Extinct Volcanoes. — Mountains with crater-shaped sum- mits, and composed whollj' or partly of solid lava, are found in nearly all mountain- ranges, even where active volcanoes do not now exist. Such mountains are called extinct volcanoes. SECTION OF A VOLCANO. 57. Hot Springs and Geysers. — The rocks of some extinct volcanoes are still very hot even quite near the surface; and the water that soaks into the ground on such mountains comes to the surface as hot springs and geysers — the last expiring efforts of a volcano that is becoming extinct. 58. Summary. — From what is presented in this chapter, it is seen that erosion is tending to destroy the mountains, and lower the elevation of continents, while increasing their extent; and that, in the course of time, if nothing interferes, the mountains would all be carried down to the sea. But forces that originate in the unequal contraction of the earth's interior and its crust, are constantly producing upheavals along sea-shores, thus making new mountains to take the place of the old. QUESTIONS. What is meant by erosion? Define detritus, sediment, silt. Explain how the mountains are carried to the sea by rivers. Describe the upper course of a river. The lower course. The middle course. What is an alluvial plain? Give an example. What is a delta? How formed? What is the difference between the delta of the Ganges and that of the Mississippi? Explain the cause of the difiference. Explain how stratified rocks are formed. What is a stratum? Why are rock-strata horizontal when first formed? What is a fossil? Explain how mountains are made. What is a plain? A plateau? Where is the Great Central Plain of North America? Why are mountain-ranges parallel to sea-coasts? Which are nearer to the sea, old mountains or young mountains? What is an earthquake? How is it caused? What is a volcano? A crater? Define lava. What is an active volcana What is the cause of a volcanic eruption? What is an extinct volcano? What is the cause of hot springs and geysers? Give a summary of the results of erosion and how they are counteracted. LAND-SURFACE OF THE EARTH/ 59. Extent. — About one fourth of the earth's surface is land, in many separate areas, each inclosed by the waters of the ocean. The land-surface is varied by highlands and lowlands. HIGHLANDS. 60. Importance of Highlands. — Highlands are of great impor- tance in the study of geography, because the position and extent of nearly all other surface features of the earth — capes, peninsulas, islands, valleys, plains, seas, gulfs, baj-s, lakes, and rivers — depend upon the position, direction, and extent of mountains. Mountains give direction to rivers, and furnish the material with which the rivers enrich plains and valleys; and they also act as barriers to the winds, and thereby affect the temperature and rainfall of adjacent lowlands. The highlands thus often ser\-e to make of one section a barren desert, and of another a fertile plain, where prosperous nations build great cities, and where civilization most rapidly develops. 61. Mountain-Chains. — A long and narrow tract of country of 2, GOO feet or more in elevation, constitutes a mountain-range. The direction in which a mountain-range extends is called its trend. The highest part of a mountain-range is called the crest, or summit. By erosion the slopes of a mountain-range are usually cut into mountain- masses more or less conical,* called peaks. A chain or row of well-marked peaks is called a sierra. The Sierra Nevada Mountains are a typical* mountain-range. When two mountain-ranges are joined together and trend in quite diflFerent directions, the less extensive of the two is called a spur. 62. Mountain-Systems. — As mountains are formed by the upheaval of sea-coasts, the ranges situated near each other are generally parallel to each other, and to the adjacent sea-coast. Such a series of parallel ranges taken together constitutes a mountain- system. The Appalachian Mountains, consisting of the Alleghany, Blue Ridge, and other ranges in the eastern part of the United States, are a tj'pical mountain-system. The R6cky Mountains, Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the Coast Range, in the western part of North America, form another. 63. Plateaus. — Highlands are, in some cases, broad tracts of country called plateaus, elevated i ,ooo feet or more, and extending over a width of several hundred miles. A plateau is usually more or less entirely inclosed by mountain- ranges. The Great Basin of Utah and Nevada is a typical plateau. A plateau may be comparatively level; but, like mountains, these highlands are generally eroded into irregularities by rivers. LOWLANDS. 64. Plains. — Broad tracts of land, less than i,ooo feet in eleva- tion, are ca^tA. plains. They occur between two mountain-systems, or between a mountain-system and the ocean. They are com- posed of stratified rocks formed by detritus from the adjoining mountain-systems. Plains of considerable extent are diversified by hills, producing rolling countrj-; and generally rise almost imperceptibly into plateaus or mountains. The Great Central Plain of North America is a typical plain. 65. Kinds of Plains. — Densely* wooded plains are called selvas and jungles; grassy plains are called prairies and llanos; plains and plateaus, nearly, or entirely, devoid of life, are called deserts and steppes; wet plains are called swamps and tundras. 66. Valleys. — The lowland between two mountain-ranges, or between mountain-peaks, is called a valley. A valley between two mountain-ranges maj' have been formed by the upfolding of the mountains. It may be partly filled by sediment, and be quite level. Such a valley is often called a. plain. The Sacramento and Salinas valleys are good examples of valley plains. A valley between two mountain-peaks is always the result of erosion. A valley is generally traversed* by a stream fed by tributaries from the adjacent mountains. A true plain region that has one prominent river is often called a valley; as the Mississippi Valley. 1. Before reading tiU chapter find, on the proper maps, the location of the following: 'conicat: shaped like a cone. densely: thickly. traversed: crossed. Indo-China; Australia; Sumatra; Java; BOr'neo; Ascension Island: Cape Cod; the Gulf typical: having the most important qualities of a thing; possessing very fully the of California; the Gulf of Mexico; the Alra'tian (shl'anl Islands. qualities by which a thing is known. LAND-SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 15 Very narrow and deep valleys caused by erosion are called canons, gulches, and arroy'os. The Colorado River flows in such a caiion more than one mile in depth. A valley that cuts across a mountain-range is called 2. pass, and is usually formed by the gradual erosion of the crest of a mountain- range separating two caiions. Mountain-valleys present some of the grandest scenery in the world. CONTINENTS AND ISI^ANDS. 67. Distinction between Continents and Islands. — Bodies of land are called either continetits or islands, according to their size and the arrangement of their highlands and lowlands. Islands differ from continents in being smaller, and in having the greatest elevation in the central part. Greenland is supposed to have a central mountain-range, and hence is an island. A continent is not only a large body of land, but its highlands are generally near the border, and inclose an extensive interior plain or plateau. North America is a typical continent. 68. Number and Names of Continents. — The continents are five in number: North America, South America, Eurasia,' Africa, and Australia. 69. Continental Axes. — Each mountain-system in a continent is a continental axis, or line of elevation. The longest and highest system is called \hQ primary axis; the others are called secondary axes. The Andes are the primary axis of South America, and the Rocky Mountains, of North America. 70. Arrangement of Islands. — Islands are usually arranged in elongated* groups, continuous with mountain-ranges on the adjacent continents, as in the case of the Aleutian Islands; or parallel to such mountain-ranges, as in the case of the islands a,long the west coast of Canada. They are in reality mountain- peaks, and the straits that separate them from each other, or from the mainland, are submerged valleys between the peaks. 71. Elevation of Islands. — Turn to the map of ocean depths (p. 19), and observe that islands are generally in the shallow parts of the ocean. An elevation of the ocean-bed 1,000 feet would show many of them as mountain-peaks in the mountain-systems of adjoining continents. For example, an elevation of 600 feet would extend Indo-China almost to Australia, and upon the new peninsula thus formed the present islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo would appear as mountain-ranges. (See Physical Map of Eurasia.) Some islands — as the islands in the Arctic Ocean north of North America — are merely detached* portions of a plain, separated from the continent by shallow straits. 72. Volcanic Islands. — A few islands, like Ascension Island, and St. Helena, west of Africa, are of volcanic origin. They rise with steep slopes from the bottom of deep oceans, and have no connection with continental mountains. 73. Island Plants and Animals. — The plants and animals on some islands are quite similar to those of the adjacent continent. Such islands and continent may have been one continuous body of land at some time past, and a gradual sinking has resulted in the submergence of the valleys.' CHARACTER OF COAST-I,INBS. 74. Regular Coast-Lines. — The character of the coast-line of a continent depends upon the position of the continental high- 1. Europe and Asia are usually considered as separate continents; but as they constitute one continuous body of land, they are frequently treated of as one continent — Eurasia — and are so called in this book. 2. Islands rising from shallow oceans near shore are called continental islands; those lands. Where mountain-ranges are parallel to some coast-line, and are also near the coast — especially if they are high mountains — the coast-line is regular. (See western coast of South America.) The slope into and beneath the adjoining sea is steep. The few rivers that enter the ocean along such a coast are generally short and swift, and their valleys do not extend out into the ocean; hence, there are few seas, gulfs, and bays, and consequently few capes, peninsulas, and islands. 75. Irregular Coast-Lines. — Where the mountains are farther removed from the ocean, the rivers are longer, have a more definite lower course, and deposit much sediment at their mouths. In this way are formed outside of the river mouths sand-bars, sand- banks, sandy spits, sandy islands, and sandy peninsulas, making what was a regular coast, irreg- ular. (See eastern coast of the United States, from Cape Cod to Florida.) 76. Capes and Peninsulas. — Where systems of highlands are not parallel to the coast, but extend toward the sea-shore, the valleys between the mount- ain-ranges or systems often extend a considerable distance beyond the actual shore-line. The highlands themselves jut out into the pcean as capes or peninsulas, and the submerged end of the valley, which they partly inclose, is covered by a body of water called a sea, gulf, «*«"-=*"« ^^■'^'^^ °^ "'ver mouths. or bay. The Gulf of California and the Gulf of Mexico are typical gulfs of this character. A jutting highland-chain that forms such a peninsula may be partially submerged at its outer end, leaving only its peaks visible. These peaks will then appear as a chain of islands. The Aleutian Islands are a good example of such a chain. QUESTIONS. What portion of the earth's surface is land? Highlands. — Why is the study of highlands important? What is a mount- ain-range? A mountain-peak? A sierra? A spur? A mountain-system? What is the trend of a mountain-range? What is a plateau? How is a plateau usually situated? Name a typical plateau. Lowlands. — What is a plain? What are selvas? Jungles? Prairies and llanos? Deserts? Steppes? Swamps? Tundras? What are valleys? Canons? What is a pass? State two ways in which valleys are formed. How was the Caiion of the Colorado formed? Continents and Islands. — What is a continent? An island? A continental axis? What is the difference between a primary axis and a secondary axis? Name all the continents. What is the relation of islands to mountains? Of straits to valleys? What is a volcanic island? A continental island? An oceanic island? Coast-Lines. — Upon what does the character of the coast-line of a conti- nent depend? Name four positions that mountain-ranges may occupy with reference to the coast-line. From which two of these do regular coast-lines result? From which do capes and peninsulas result? What is the relation of highlands to seas, gulfs, and bays? What is the relation of seas, gulfs, and bays to valleys? Explain how sand-bars and sandy peninsulas are produced. rising from deep oceans are called oceanic islands. Volcanic islands, rising from the bottom of deep oceans, differ from continental islands in the rocks that compose them and in their native animals. No four-footed animals are natives of oceanic islands. * elongated: lengthened, extended: stretched out. detached: separated. 16 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. WATER/ RIVERS. 77. Origin of Rivers.— The rain and snow that fall upon the earth are the source of the water of rivers and smaller streams; hence, it follows that, other things being equal, there will be the greatest niunber of rivers where there is most rainfall or snowfall. As mountains serve to condense the moisture of the air, thus producing great rainfall, many streams originate in mountainous regions. Nearly all of the largest rivers have their source in high mountains; as the Amazon, Missouri, Indus. 78. Direction of Rivers. — The slope of the surface where a rive'r originates determines the direction in which it will flow. As a mountain-range has two opposite slopes, the streams that rise upon it flow in two directions more or less opposite. 79. Water - Sheds. — The mountain -range is therefore called a divide, or water-shed, or water -parting; and the streams upon opposite sides of a water-shed are said to belong to difierent drainage-systems. The Rocky Mountains are the great continental divide of North America. They divide the continent into an eastern slope and a western slope. A water-shed, or divide, is not always mountainous, but is sometimes comparatively low land. That between the head- waters of the Mississippi and Saskatchewan has an elevation of less than i,ooo feet. 80. Drainage-Centers. — A high mountain - region, from which rivers flow in all direc- tions, is called a drainage- center. 81. Drainage-Basins. — The slopes and plain-region lying between two divides constitute a drainage-basin. 82. River-Systems. — Each great continental drainage-basin is usually drained by one large river formed by many tributaries that rise in the surrounding water-sheds. A river and its tributaries constitute a river-system; each tributary is itself a smaller river- system, and drains a basin of its own. The Mississippi Vallej' is a typical continental drainage-basin, and the Mississippi River and its tributaries constitute a t^-pical river-system. The lower end of a drainage-basin is often submerged, forming a gulf or bay, into which the river-system discharges its water and detritus; as the Gulf of Mexico and San Francisco Bay. 83. Plateau River-System. — As plateaus are generally bor- dered by mountain-chains, the rivers in a plateau-region usually flow into a lake — either salt or alkaline* — situated upon the plateau; and unless there is an excessive rainfall, the waters of the lake do not overflow the borders of the plateau and reach the 1. Before reading this chapter find, on the proper maps. Uie location of the following: Amazon River; Missouri River; Indus River; Saskatchewan River; Norway; Newfound- land: lakes Seneca and Cayuga; Minnesota; Wisconsin; Lake Tulare; Great Salt Lake; Lake Superior; Caspian Sea; Mackenzie River; Dead Sea: Black Sea; Adriatic Sea; Chesa- peake Bay ; Gulf of California; Japan Sea; Yellow Sea; China Sea. ocean. Such an area is called an interior drainage-basin; as the Great Basin of Utah and Nevada. 84. Oceanic Drainage-Areas.— The slope of a water-shed directly toward the nearest ocean is called a drainage-area; and is usually drained by many distinct rivers discharging directly into bays, the submerged ends of small river-basins. The Atlantic slope of North America is a tjpical drainage-area of that kind. 85. Rivers in Commerce and Manufactures.— The power of a river to do work is often used by man. In its lower course, the river transports boats and barges;* in its middle course, where the slope is too great to admit of navigation, it gives power to the machinery of manufactories. GI^ACIERS. 86. Origin of Glaciers.— In some parts of the world more snow falls in winter than is melted during the summer. In consequence, there is a con- stantly accumulating mass of snow, sometimes several hun- dred, or even thousand, feet in depth. If this occurs upon a mountain top, the weight of the packed snow and ice causes it to move slowly down the mountain sides and valleys with a sort of flowing motion, thus forming a river of ice, called a glacier. 87. Action of Glaciers.- A glacier, by its great weight, aided by rocks imbedded in its front and base, erodes its channel much more rapidly than a river does. By their immense eroding power glaciers are able to cut deep and steep-walled canons even in the hardest granite. Yosemite ^'alley is supposed to have been formed by a glacier, and numerous lakes in high mountains, especially in the Alps, are in basins scooped out of solid granite by glaciers. 88. Fiords. — Glaciers that reach down to the ocean erode the coast-line into deep and narrow bays, called ^or-; for it loses as much by evaporation as it receives from rivers and storms. Like steppe-lakes, it has no outlet excepting evaporation, and consequently its waters become constantly more salty.' 106. Surface of the Ocean-Bed. — The bed of the ocean, Uke the land-surface, is diversified by plains, valleys, plateaus, mount- ains, etc.; and mountain-systems and ranges in the sea are generally parallel, or nearly so, to those on land. Islands are but the projecting summits of partly submerged mountains. 1. The procen by wUch a fresh-water lake becomes salt or alkaline can be illustrated by boiling down some sweetened water, or some brine, to show that as the amount of water becomes less, the taste of the sugrar or the salt is stronger. 2. The proportion of salt and other mineral substances dissolved in sea-water is about three and one half per cent: in the water of Great Salt Lake, fifteen per cent; of the Dead Sea, twenty-four per cent; of the Black Sea, one and four fifths per cent; of the Caspian The section of the Atlantic Ocean from Ireland to Newfound- land shows a great submerged plateau; while the section at the Tropics and the Equator shows great variation in depth. THK TELEGRAPHIC PLATEAP. 107. Slope of the Ocean-Bed.— The slope of the ocean-bed below a shore-line is about the same as that of the land adjacent. This is shown on the map of land elevations and ocean depths. It will be seen, also, that the largest deep-ocean areas lie adjacent to the highest mountains, and that the shallower sea-bottoms lie nearest to the lower mountains. 108. Shore-Line of the Ocean.— The shore- line of the ocean is the coast-line of the land, and has like irregularities that fit the coast-line of the land. 109. Seas, Gulfs, and Bays.— Seas, gulfs, and bays are bodies of water submerging the lower ends of river-basins, and are bounded by the same lines of elevation; as the Adriatic Sea, Gulf of California, and Chesapeake Bay. Some seas are areas that though submerged now will finally become land-.surface by eleva- tions now in progress; as the Japan, Yellow, and China seas.' QUESTIONS. Orig^ and Direction of Rivers. — Name the sources of rivers and smaller streams. What follows from this? Why do so many streams originate in high moimtains? How may you know the direction in which a river will flow? Divides. — What is a divide? Give two other names for a divide. Name and locate two great rivers separated by a low divide. Three great rivers that have their sources in high divides. What and where is the great conti- nental divide of North America? What is a drainage-center? How does it dififer from a divide? Drainage-Basins and River- Systems. — What is a drainage-basin? A river- system? Name and locate a drainage-basin. A river-system. What part of a drainage-basin is usually submerged by the sea? What name is given to a body of water that submerges the lower end of a drainage-basin? Name and locate two such bodies of water. Name, locate, and describe an interior drainage-basin. An oceanic drainage-area. Of what uses are rivers to man? Glaciers. — ^\^lat is a glacier? How does it originate? Compare erosion by a glacier and erosion by a river. Where is Yosemite Valley? How was it formed? What are fiords? Name and locate four sea-coasts where there are fiords. What are lateral moraines? Medial moraines? Terminal moraines? What is a morainal dam? A glacial lake? What are glacial markings? Name and locate two countries where glaciers now exist. Explain how icebergs are formed. Lakes. — What is a lake? What is the head of a lake? The foot of a lake? Under what conditions does a lake have an outlet? What is a steppe-l^e? Why has it no outlet? Explain how lake-beds become swamps. How swamps become meadows. Explain how fresh-water lakes become salt. How salt lakes become fresh. What is supposed to be the origin of the basins of Great Salt Lake, Lake Superior, and the Caspian Sea? What is the probable origin of most lat^e lakes? What is the origin of most lakes in high mountains? Descrilie them. Oceans. — How much of the earth's surface is covered by the ocean? What different names are given to different parts of the ocean? Why is the ocean water salt? Wliat is the character of the ocean-bed? Describe a section of the ocean-bed from Newfoundland to Ireland. Seas, Gulfs, and Bays. — What are seas, gulfs, and bays? How are they bounded? Name three seas whose beds are now being elevated into land- surfaces? Sea, one and three tenths per cent; of fresh-water lakes and rivers, less than two one- hundredths per cent. 3 Paget Sound, The Valley of the WillSm ette, and the Sacramento and San Joaquin (wah keen') Valley. Salton Sea, and the Gulf of California were probably once a similar chain of seas, partially inclosed by islands and peninsulas. * (Mali: a substance resembling soda and potash. CLIMATE. 19 MAP QUESTIONS.— ill Uiu map of oceau-bed, what is the greatest depth shown by the white? By the lightest blue? The least depth indicated by the darker blue? By the solid blue? Where is Dolphin Rise? Tusca- rora Deep? Compare the slope of the ocean-bed near shore with that of the adjacent land-surface on the western coast of North America. On the eastern. On which side of North America, eastern or western, are the mountains highest? On which side are the ocean waters shallowest? Is the oceau-bed surrounding Icelanii higher or lower than the ocean-bed of Tuscarora Deep? How much? What is the lowest depth of the ocean- bed surrounding the islands of the Japanese Empire? If you could stand on the ocean-bed in the western part of Tuscarora Deep, how do you think the Japanese islands would appear? Which of the three profile lines crosses the deepest water? On this profile which ocean has the longest stretch of deep sea-bed? CLIMATE. HEAT. 110. Source of Heat. — The earth receives its heat principally from the sun. The sun's rays warm the surface of the earth, and the warmed surface radiates, that is, throws out, heat into space. The heat rays from the sun are accompanied by light, and are called "lu/ninotis" heat; that radiated by the earth is dark heat. The atmosphere is heated by both luminous and dark heat passing through it, but principally by the latter. The temperature of any place is the temperature of the atmosphere as shown by a thermometer. HI. Vapor Retains Heat. — Vapor of water in the air, like glass, allows luminous, or sun, heat to pass through it with little loss, but retains most of the dark heat it receives. Moist air therefore allows most of the sun's heat to reach the surface of the earth, but retains, and is warmed by, the dark heat escaping from the earth.' 1. An ordinary hot-liouae illustrates the same principle. The glass roof allows sun heat your face and the sun and observe whether it shuts off much or little heat. Try the same to enter the hot-house, where it becomes dark heat and is unable to escape through the experiment with a lamp-flame instead of the sun, then with a red-hot stove, and then with glass. This can be illustrated by the following experiments: Hold a piece of glass between a dark-hot stove. 20 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. 1 12. Why Mountain Tops Are Cold.— There is generally more or less vapor in the air near the earth's surface, but verj' little at the elevation of mountain tops. Hence, the heat received by a mountain top is rapidly radiated without warming the air, while that which reaches a lowland surface is shut in by invisible vapor. In consequence of this, the higher we ascend in a balloon, or upon a mountain, the colder is the atmosphere. Also, mountain-peaks have relatively more radi- ating surface than plateaus have, and are hence colder. 113. The Snow-Line. — Even at the Equator the mountain tops are permanently covered with snow at an elevation of i6,ooo feet, and in going north or south from the Equator, the snow-line, or altitude* of perpetual snow, gradually descends to the sea-level. 114. Heat of Land- and Water-Surfaces. — Land-surface is wanned more rapidly than water-surface by the sun's heat, but water radiates its heat more slowly. It follows from this that continents become hotter than oceans in summer, and oceans remain the warmer in winter. Also, sandy and rocky surfaces become hotter than if covered with vegetation; hence, the scorch- ing heat of deserts and rocky plateaus in summer time. 115. Oceanic Climates. — The presence of large bodies of water, which become heated by the sun's rays very slowly, and radiate their heat very slowly, serves to make the summers cooler and the winters warmer, and lowers the mean annual temperature per- ceptibly. Such a climate is called a sea-shore, or oceanic, climate; it is marked by a nearly uniform temperature throughout the year. Southwestern Europe has such a climate, its winter and summer temperatures differing from each other by but 1 5°. 116. Continental Climate. — Large land-areas heat up very rapidl}' in summer, and then cool by radiation very rapidly, pro- ducing an inland, or continental, climate, marked by great extremes of temperature. The interior of great continents like North America and Eurasia have exceedingly cold winters and hot summers. 117. Heat Unequally Distributed. — All parts of the earth's surface do not receive an equal amount of the sun's heat — equa- torial regions receiving most and polar regions least. In order to illustrate this, perform the following experiments: 118. Experiment to Show Distribution of Heat and Light. — Each pupil may hold an orange (or ball) in the light of a candle, and observe that one half of it is lighted and warmed — the greatest light and heat being at the center of the side toward the candle. Rotate the orange upon its vertical* axis* — a hat-pin thrust through the orange will serve conveniently for an axi.s — and see that all parts of the orange are successively light and dark. Observe also that the Equator is most heated and lighted, and the poles least. This is because the rays of light and heat fall vertically, or perpendicularly, upon the surface at the Equator, and strike more and more slantingly as we recede from the Equator toward the poles. This experiment shows why it is warmer at the Equator than it is at the poles, and also illustrates the cause of the alternation* of day and night.' 1. Let Siulight pass through a hole in a piece of paper and fall first upon a surface per- pendicular to the beam of light and then upon a slanting surface. Observe in which case the given amount of light— and the heat which accompanies it— is spread over the greater surface. In like manner the heat of the sun is spread over a greater surface near the poles, where it falls slantingly, than at the Equator, where it falls vertically, and hence any area in equatorial regions receives more heat than an equal area in polar regions. 2. If in the above ezperlment the candle-flame be floated on a cork on the surface of a tub of water, and the orange be half submerged in the water while performing its revolution, the surface of the water will represent to ua the plane of the earth's orbit— that is, the 119. To Show Heat Constant the Year Round.— Now carry the orange around the candle, making it rotate upon the same axis as before, and keeping the orange and candle-flame at the same dis- tance above the table. This will represent the annual revolution of the earth about the sun, if its axis were perpendicular to the plane oi its orbit, as the axis of the orange is perpendicular to the surface of the table, which is parallel to the plane of its orbit. Observe that if the axis of the earth were perpendicular to the plane of its orbit the Equator would be the only portion of the earth receiving vertical rays, and that the heat would consequently be constant throughout the year for each point upon the earth- greatest at the Equator, and growing less toward each pole. There would be alternation of day and night for all parts of the earth, but there would be no change of seasons, excepting a slight change due to the fact that the earth is nearest to the sun in January and farthest away from it in July.* 120. To Show Change of Seasons.— Now represent the revolution of the earth with the axis of the orange inclined* 23>^° (as nearly as you can) from the perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. At one time the North Pole of the axis is turned toward the can- dle. Obser\'e that the vertical rays then fall north of the Equator. Rotate the orange upon its inclined axis, and observe that a circle about the North Pole has constant day, while an equal circle about the South Pole has constant night. This represents summer — ^June 20th — for the Northern Hemisphere and winter for the Southern. Next carry the orange one fourth of the way around the candle, keeping its axis constantly parallel to its first position. Observe that the vertical rays fall upon the Equator, and all parts of the earth have day and night when the orange is rotated. This repre- sents September 20th. Next carry the orange around until directly opposite its first position. Here the South Pole of the axis will be turned toward the sun. Observe that the vertical rays fall south of the Equator; that the North Pole has constant night and the South Pole constant day. The Southern Hemisphere has summer, and the Northern, winter. Carry the orange to a fourth position, opposite the second, and see that the vertical rays are again at the Equator, and all parts of the earth again have day and night. This experiment shows that the seasonal changes of temperature on the earth are due to the fact that the earth revolves about the sun, rotating upon an axis inclined 2^)4° from the perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. 121. The Tropics and Polar Circles. — If jou have held the axis inclined exactly 23^°, the vertical rays of the candle, when the North Pole of the axis is turned toward it, will fall 23^^ north of the Equator. Draw a circle here parallel to the Equator; it will represent the Tropic of Cancer. When the South Pole of the axis is turned toward the candle, its vertical rays will fall 23^° south of the Equator. Draw a circle here parallel to the Equator; it will represent the Tropic of Capricorn. Also, the areas that have constant day or constant night are bounded by lines 23^° from the poles. Draw these boundary circles; they represent the polar circles. plane in which lies the triit, at path, of the earth as it moves aronnd the sun. The water- surface is not the plane — it merely shows us where the plane is. Remove the water and the plane is still there and must be thought of by the aid of the imagination. 'altitude: height. vertical: directly toward the centerof the earth. A ball dropped from the hand will fall in a vertical line. A vertical line is perpendicular to a horizontal line. vertical ajris: the vertical line that passes through the center of a body and npon which it is supposed to turn, or rotate. allcmatum: following each other by turns. inclintd: slanting. CLIMATE. 21 122. Torrid Zone. — All that portion of the earth that receives the vertical rays at some time during the year, and at all other times receives rays nearly vertical, is the Torrid, or hot, Zone. 123. Frigid Zones. — All portions having constant night or day for twenty-four hours at some time during each year, and receiving only very slanting rays from the sun at any time, constitute the Frigid Zones. 124. Temperate Zones. — All portions that never have verti- cal sun's rays, nor twenty-four hours of continuous night or day, constitute the Temperate Zones. 125. Mathematical Zones. — The zones described above, bounded by the polar circles and tropics, are called mathematical zones. Their width de- pends upon the amount of inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit. 126. Heat Zones Not Regular.— If the earth's surface were all water, or if it were all land of uniform char- acter of soil, and equally elevated at all points, there would be regular heat zones, as described above, separated from each other by parallels of latitude; but because of the alternation of land- and water-areas, and of difference in elevation and character of land- surface, the boundaries of thermal, or real heat, zones are very irregular, as shown in the map of mean annual isotherms on the following page. 127. Mean Temperature. — The mean daily temperature of any place is the average of its temperature at morning, noon, and evening. The mean annual temperature is the average of mean daily temperatures. 128. isother'mal Lines. — A line joining places having the same mean annual temperature, is called an isotherm, or an iso- thermal line. The isotherms of 70° — that is, lines touching all places whose mean annual temperature is 70° Fahrenheit — are the isothermal tropics. Between these isothermal tropics lies the actual, or thermal, Torrid Zone. The regions lying between the isotherms of 70° and 30° are the Thermal Temperate Zones. Beyond the isotherms of 30° lie the Thermal Frigid Zones. 129. Change of Position of Isotherms. — By examining the map of the mathematical zones it will be seen that the lines which bound them do not change in position, while the lines that bound the isothermal zones move north and south with the seasons. This change of position in the thermal zones and isotherms will be studied on the maps of the thermal zones. QUESTIONS. Heat. — ^What is the principal source of the earth's heat? What is lumin- ous heat? Dark heat? What is meant when we say a surface radiates heat? How is the atmosphere heated? How is the temperature of a place known? (What is a thermometer? If there is one in the school-house, learn to read it.) What effect has vapor of water in the air upon luminous heat passing through it? Upon dark heat? MAP QUESTIONS.— What lines bound the Torrid Zone? What zones bound it? How wide is it? What would be its width if the earth's axis were inclined to the plane of its orbit 30° instead of 23>^° ? Answer the same questions respecting the North. Temperate Zone. The South Temperate Zone. The North Frigid Zone. The South Frigid Zone. Distribution of Heat. — Give two reasons why mountain tops are colder than valleys. How does it appear that mountain-peaks have relatively more radiating surface than plateaus? What is the snow-line? What is its elevation at the Equator? Is its ele- vation greater or less as we go north or south from the Equator? Which becomes heated more rapidly, land or water? Which cools more rapidly? Are continents in summer hotter or colder than oceans in the same latitude? Which is colder in winter? What is meant by an oceanic climate? A continental climate? Mention a region having an oceanic climate. In that region how much colder is the winter than the summer? How do the winters in a continental climate compare with the summers? What part of the earth's surface receives most heat? What part least? Perform the experiment described in Sec. 118. That described in the note. That described in Sec. 1 19. Illustrate, if you can, what is meant by the plane of an orbit? By a line perpendicular to it? By a line inclined to it? Explain the change of the seasons. When is it winter in the Southern Hemisphere? Summer? How many degrees is the earth's axis inclined to the plane of its orbit ? Explain how to determine the posi- tion of the tropical circles on the globe. Of the polar circles. Zones. — What is meant by the Torrid Zone? The Frigid Zones? The Tem- perate Zones? What are mathematical zones? Upon what does their width depend? Under what conditions v?ould heat zones be regular? Name three things that make the heat zones of the earth irregular. What do you think is meant by " character of land-surface" in respect to its effect upon the temperature of a place? Will a grassy or a sandy surface give the warmer climate? What is meant by alternations of land- and water-areas? Isotherms and Thermal Zones. — How would you find the mean daily temperature of a place? The mean annual temperature? Suppose the tem- perature of a place is 50° Fahrenheit in the morning, 85° at noon, and 65° in the evening, what is the mean daily temperature? What are isotherms? What isotherms are the isothermal tropics? What are the boundaries of the Thermal Torrid Zone? Of the Thermal Temperate Zones? Of the Thermal Frigid Zones? [See maps of Thermal Zones on next page,] , MAP QUESTIONS.— What do the figures on the maps of the thermal zones indicate? The lines? The different shades of pink? The gray? The white? Are the isotherms straight or crooked? Why? Does the isotherm of 30° bend north or south in the North Atlantic Ocean? Does that indicate that the North Atlantic Ocean is warmer or colder than the land-areas in the same latitude? Does the Thermal Torrid Zone coincide exactly in position with the Mathematical Torrid Zone? Which extends farther north in July? Why? In January? Why? In which hemisphere, Northern or Southern, does the isotherm of 30° approach nearer to the Equator? The isotherm of 70°? Which hemisphere has the largest land-areas? Which hemisphere shows the greatest difference in position of isotherms from July to January? T/ie following questions may be omitted until taking up the study of the several continents to which they relate: North America. — What countries of North America lie principally in the Thermal Torrid Zone in January? In July? In the Thermal Frigid Zone in January? What part of North America lies in the Thermal Torrid Zone in July and in the Thermal F'rigid Zone in January? In what thermal zone is most of the Pacific coast of North America throughout the year? Why are the extremes of heat and cold so great in the Temperate Zone of North America east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains? (See Sec. 116.) In January is the Pacific coast of North America warmer or colder than equal latitudes on the Atlantic coast? Why does the January isotherm of 30" bend 22 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. MAPS OF THERMAL ZONES • southward in crossing the continent from west to east? Why does the July isotherm of 70° bend northward? Is the mean annual temperature of the northern part of the continent higher or lower than that of the same lati- tudes in the Atlantic Ocean? (See Sec. 115.) South America. — In which thermal zone is the greater part of South America in January? In July? Is any of South America in the Thermal Frigid Zone during any part of the year? Where is the hottest part of South America? What is its mean annual temperature? Which has the greater area in the Thermal Torrid Zone in July, North America or South America? In January? Which has the greater area in the Thermal Tem- perate Zone in July? In January? Is South America as a whole hotter or colder than North America? Which has the colder winters, Cape Horn or equal latitudes in North America? Does the Thermal Temperate Zone in North America vary in width during the year more than the Thermal 1. TiB flguroa on these maps indicate the average temperature in the localities where they occur. The straight lines bound mathematical zones. The crooked lines bound thermal zones. The darker pink indicates high temperature; and the lighter shades, and the gray and vFhite, indicate successively lower temperatures. The star indicates the coldest inhab- ited part of the globe. 2. Before reading what Is said of winds, find, on the proper maps, the location of the following: Hindoostan'; East Indies; West Indies. 3. As we ascend above the earth's surface, there is less air above us; hence, its pressure la less. At iH miles elevation, the pressure is 7J4 pounds; at 7 miles, 3K pounds, etc. Temperate Zone in South America? Does that indicate the extremes of temperature in North America to be greater or less than in South America? Eurasia.— In what thermal zone does most of Eurasia lie in January? Between what two thermal zones is it nearly equally divided in July? What countries of Eurasia are partly in the Thermal Torrid Zone throughout the year? In the Thermal Temperate Zone throughout the year? What portion of the continent is in the Thermal Torrid Zone in July and in the Thermal I'rigid Zone in January? Are the greatest extremes of temperature in Eurasia in low, middle, or high latitudes? Where in Eurasia is the highest mean annual temperature? Compare with the highest in South America. Where is the lowest mean annual temperature in the world? Why is the January temperature of northern and central Eurasia lower than that of the same latitudes in the Atlantic Ocean? Why does the July isotherm of 70° bend northward over Eurasia? Compare the thermal zones of Eurasia with those of the same latitudes in North America in July. In January. Africa. — In what thermal zone is most of Africa throughout the year? Where is the highest mean annual temperature in A'frica? Compare it with the highest mean annual temperature in South America. What part of Africa is always in the Thermal Temperate Zone? When during the year is northern Africa in the Thermal Torrid Zone? When in the Thermal Tem- perate Zone? Which do you think is hotter as a whole, Africa or South America? Which has greater extremes of heat and cold, Africa or North America? Compare Africa with South America in regard to extremes of heat and cold. With Eurasia. Australia. — In what thermal zone is nearly all of Australia in January? In July? What part of Australia is always in the Thermal Torrid Zone? Is the mean annual temperature of Australia higher or lower than that of the same latitudes in South America? In Africa? Where in Australia is the highest mean annual temperature? Compare it with the highest mean annual temperature in South America. In Africa. WINDS' 130. Definition. — Wind is air in motion. 131. Air-Pressure.— The earth is surrounded by air, which, like all matter, has weight. Due to its weight, air presses down- ward upon the earth's surface with a pressure of about 15 pounds upon every square inch; for a column of air, one inch square and reaching to the upper limits of the atmos- phere, weighs 15 pounds. A column of mercur>% one inch square, and 30 inches high, has the same weight, and exerts the same downward pressure. The downward pressure of the air causes pressure in all directions, just as pressure downward upon the surface of water forces the surrounding water sidewise and upward. The pressure of the air is not always and everywhere the same; it decreases as the elevation, the temperature, and the amount of moisture in the air increase. Dry air, at 60° temperature, at the sea-level, has a pressure of 15 pounds.' 132. The Barom'eter. — Fill with mercury- a glass tube, about 36 inches long, and closed at one end. Invert* the tube carefully, holding a finger upon the open end, so as to let none of its contents escape, and insert the open end into a cup partly filled with mercury. The mercury in the tube will sink until its upper surface is about 30 inches above the surface of the mercur>' in the cup, because the downward pressure of the air upon the mercury in the cup just equals the downward pressure of a column of mercury 30 inches high in the tube. As When air is warmed it expands, and becomes thinner— that is, its mOl'ecules* go farther apart— so that there is 'less matter, and hence less weight, in a given space; hence, the warmer the air, if it is not inclosed, the less the pressure. When air is moist, its molecules are forced farther apart, and the places of some of them are filled by molecules of vapor. The molecules of vapor are lighter than those of oxygen or nitrogen, of which dry air is chiefly composed; hence, moist air is lighter than dry air. 'nielecules: invisible particles supposed to constitute every kind of matter. invert: turn upside down. II CLIMATE. 23 the atmospheric pressure varies because of variations in temper- ature, moisture, and elevation, this column of mercury will lengthen or shorten to show it. An instrument like that just described is called a barometer, and it is used to measure the pressure of the air. 133. Barometric Pressure. — The height to which the air lifts a column of mercury is called its barometric pressure. Low pressure, or low barometer, means that the mercury stands in the tube at a height of less than 30 inches; high pressure, or high barometer, means that the mercury stands at a height of 30 inches or more. 134. Causes of Wind. — When the pressure of the air is greater at one place than at some adjoining place, the air begins to move from the place of higher -toward that of lower pressure, thus producing a wind; hence, winds blow from high-pressure areas toward low-pressure areas. At a place of low pressure the air is forced upward by the heavier air from all sides that is taking its place. Hence, in low-pressure areas there is an upward current, and in high-pressure areas there is a downward current; and the two areas are connected by a surface wind. Where the upward and downward currents occur there is no apparent motion of the air, and a calm prevails. 135. Surface Currents and Upper Currents. — As high temperature is one of the causes of low pressure, it is plain that the thermal zones are zones differing in barometric pressure — the Torrid being a zone of low pressure. Observe upon the maps of barometric pressure that low pressures prevail in equatorial regions and polar regions, and high pressures in middle latitudes. In consequence there is a general flow of cold air from north and south toward the thermal Equator, while the hot equatorial air is forced upward and flows outward as upper currents toward the low-pressure areas of the polar regions. 136. Cause of Change of Direction of Surface Currents. — Owing to the general flow of air from north and south toward the Equator, we might expect north and south winds to prevail in N LM 60. / / / / / / -^ f w equatorial regions. This, however, is not the case. Winds that approach the Equator are constantly arriving at latitudes having a greater velocity of rotation, and are hence left behind; that is, they appear to blow westward.' 137. Trade- Winds, or Winds of the Torrid Zone.— In consequence of the earth's rotation, winds approaching the Equator from the north are northeast winds instead of north winds; and 1. Air at the Equator moves easterly with the surface of the earth at the rate of 1,000 miles per hour; in latitude 60° the rate is 500 miles; at the poles it is zero. Suppose that at A, in the illustration above, the velocity of rotation is 500 miles per hour, and at B, due south of A, it is 600 miles per hour. Suppose that air starts from A toward B with such velocity that it would travel the distance from A to B in one hour. At the end of the hour the air from A would not be at B, but 100 miles behind B, and hence would seem to have taken the curved path from A southwesterly to B^ those approaching the Equator from the south are southeast winds instead of south. Within the Torrid Zone these winds blow almost due westerly (see arrows on maps of barometric pressure) with great regularity; and as they are of great aid to sailing vessels, they are called trade-winds. 138. Equatorial Belt of Calms. — The ascending air along the thermal Equator causes a belt of calms known as the eqtiatorial calms. This belt of calms shifts northerly and southerly with the vertical sun. It separates the trade-winds into a northern belt and a southern belt. 139. Causes of Change in Direction of Upper Currents. — The upper air, blowing northerly or southerly from the Equator, is constantly arriving at latitudes having a less velocity of rotation, and hence turns easterly — becoming southwest winds north of the Equator, and northwest winds south of the Equator. 140. Winds of the Temperate Zones — Anti-Trades. — The" upper currents of tropical regions become the principal winds of the Temperate Zones. They become sufficiently cooled, and con- sequently heavier, on reaching the latitude of 30°, to sink to the earth's surface and struggle with the polar winds for the mastery.' Over the oceans of the Temperate Zones these winds from equato- rial regions prevail, and as they are nearly opposite the trade-winds in direction, the}' are called anti-trades. In the North Temperate Zone the anti-trades are southwest winds, and in the South Temperate Zone they are northwest winds. 141. Variable Winds. — The Temperate Zones of continents are zones of variable winds, as local causes, elevations, season of the year, etc., determine which shall prevail, the anti-trades or the polar winds. 142. Winds of the Frigid Zones. — The winds of Frigid Zones are of but little importance. 143. Monsoons. — In the North Indian Ocean, and in other places similarly situated, the winds blow in opposite directions at diflFerent seasons of the year. Such winds are called monsoons. In July when the sun's vertical rays fall far north, there is low pressure over Hindoostan; hence, the summer monsoon blows from the southwest. In the winter of the Northern Hemisphere, when the vertical rays fall south of the Equator, the low-pressure area is in the southern Indian Ocean, and the monsoon blows from the northeast. (See direction of arrows on Barometric Map. ) If, on the other hand, the wind blows from B toward A, at the end of the hour it would have reached A', loo miles east of A, and would have taken a northeasterly path. In the Northern Hemisphere winds blowing either toward or from the Equator are turned to the right by the earth's rotation; in the Southern Hemisphere they are turned toward the left. 2. A belt of calms occurs in the region of each tropic, due to the descending air in that latitude. 24 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. 144. Land- and Sea-Breezes.— A daily change in the direction of the wind occurs along all sea-coasts, because the sea is wanner than the land at night, and cooler than the land by day. Hence, "land-breezes" blow toward the sea in the forenoon, and "sea- breezes " blow toward the land in the afternoon.' 145. Storms. — A violent wind, usually accompanied by rain, hail, or snow, is called a storm. A storm- wind is generally a part of a great, whirling wind called a cyclone, often several hundred miles in diameter. Cyclones are caused by the inrush of air from all sides toward an area of low pressure. Air flowing in from the north is turned westerly, and that from the south easterly; and, in consequence, a whirling motion results. The direction of the whirl is opposite to the motion of the hands of a watch in the Northern Hemisphere, and the reverse in the Southern. Besides the whirling motion, cyclones have a forward motion of several hun- dred miles daily in the direction of the prevaihng winds — westerly in the Torrid Zone, and easterly in the Temperate Zones. Nearly all rain, hail, snow, and thunder storms occur during the passage of a cj'clone. 146. Tornadoes, Hurricanes, and Typhoons. — Small and exceedingly violent cyclones,' due to local causes and of only a few hours' duration, are called tornadoes, hurricanes, and typhoons. They are especially frequent in the West Indies, East Indies, and the Mississippi Valley. QUnSTIONS. Air Pressure. — Why does air exert pressure? How much pressure does air exert at the sea-level? How high a colunm of mercury has the same weight? What effect has moisture upon the pressure of the air? Heat? Altitude? The Barometer. — Perform, if practicable, the experiment described in Sec. 132. What is a barometer? What is meant by barometric pressure? By low barometer? By high barometer? Wind. — What is wind? How is it caused? Why is the Torrid Zone a zone of low pressure? Why do winds blow toward the Equator? What effect has the rotation of the earth upon the direction of winds blowing toward the Equator? Blowing from the Equator? What are the trade-winds? The anti-trades? Why are anti-trade-winds southwest winds north of the Equator and northwest winds south of the Equator? What is the cause of the equatorial belt of calms? Of the tropical calm belts? What winds prevail in the Torrid Zone? In the Temperate Zones over the oceans? Over the continents? What are monsoons? Explain how the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are caused. Explain land- and sea-breezes. Storms. — ^What is a storm? A cyclone? How is a cyclone caused? In what direction do cyclones whirl in the Northern Hemisphere? In what direction do they travel in the Torrid Zone? In what direction do they travel in the Temperate Zones? Can you tell why in each case? What are tornadoes? Name and locate three regions where they occur. Thought Questions. — If the pressure of the air upon a square inch, when the mercurj' in the barometer stands at 30 inches, is 15 pounds, what is it when the mercury stands at 20 inches? At 15 inches? When the air has a pressure of 10 pounds per square inch, how high does the mercury stand in the barometer? If the pressure is 12 pounds? 8 pounds? When the mer- cury rises in the barometer tube, does it show an increase or a decrease in the pressure of the air? When it falls? If air at 60° temperature has a pressure of 15 pounds to the square inch, what would be the effect upon the height of the mercury if the temperature of the air should rise? If it should fall? If there is no change of temperature nor of position of the barometer, 1. In like manner a daily change in the direction of the wind may be seen on an eastern mountain-slope, which becomes highly heated every forenoon, and is. hence, at that time an area of low pressure, while after noonday it cools off rapidly, and becomes an area of high pressure. *wimiiiian/: the side from which the wind blow& and the mercury rises, what does that indicate in regard to the moisture in the air? If the mercury falls? Would the mercury in the barometer rise 01 fall just before a rain? Why? In ascending a mountain? Why? If the mercury in the barometer tube on a mountain top stands at 15 inches, what is the height of the mountain? MAP QUESTIONS. — ^What do the figures on the maps of barometric pressure indicate? The light pink spots? The white spots? What do the arrows on these maps indicate? Thought Questions. — Observe that there is a constant low-pressure area in the North Atlantic Ocean. Does that show the temperature there to be high or low for that latitude? Why is the air pressure low there? Do the winds approaching this area from the south turn easterly or westerly? Why? (See Sec. 139.) Why do winds approaching the low-pressure area in Africa from the south turn westerly? (See Sec. 136.) Why do the low-pressure areas that occur in July change to high-pressure areas in January? Do changes from low pressure to high, or from high to low, occur more commonly on land- or on water-areas? Why? (See Sees. 115, 116.) Do cyclones originate in low-pressure areas or high-pressure areas? When are cyclones more likely to originate in the interior of North Amer- ica — in January or July? Are the trade- and anti-trade-winds more constant over large bodies of land or over large bodies of water? In sailing from Liverpool to New York, which wind-zone should a ship captain seek, that of the trade-winds or that of the anti-trades? Which in sailing from America to Europe? ne following questions may be omitted until taking, up the study of the several continents to which they relate: North America. — Is the central part of North America an area of low pressure or of high pressure in July? In January? Compare the pressure over the continent with that over the North Pacific Ocean in January. In July. How do you account for the difference? (See Sees. 115, 116.) Is most of North America in the zone of trade-winds or in that of the anti-trades? What is the prevailing direction of the wind in Mexico and Central America, easterly or westerly? Why? What is the prevailing direction in middle latitudes? In the Mississippi Valley in July? In the interior of the continent in January? Are the anti-trade-winds on the Pacific coast more constant throughout the year toward the north or toward the south? South America. — Does the greater portion of South America lie in the zone of trade-winds or of anti-trades? In what part of South America do the trade-winds prevail? The anti-trades? Over what ocean does each blow before reaching South America? Over what countries does each blow? Observe that a low-pressure area exists in South America in January. In what thermal zone does it occur? What wind prevails in that region in July? Can you tell why? Eurasia. — Is most of Eurasia in the zone of trade-winds or of anti-trades? Where are the anti-trades most constant throughout the year, on the coast of Europe or in the interior of Asia? From what ocean do the anti-trades of Eurasia come? In what thermal zone is southeastern Asia in July? (See Map of Isotherms.) What winds prevail there then? Is southern Asia an area of low pressure or of high pressure in July? Why? At that season of the year in what direction do the winds in the northern part of the Indian Ocean blow? Why? In what direction do they blow in January? Why? Is Asia an area of low pressure or of high pressure at that time? Africa. — Is most of Africa in the zone of trade-winds or of anti-trades? In what wind-zone is the northern coast of Africa in Jul)'? (See Map of Iso- therms.) WTiy? In January? Why? In what wind-zone is South Africa? Central Africa? Are the trade-winds of the Indian Ocean south of the Equator constant or inconstant in their direction throughout the year? North of the Equator? What name is given to the winds in the northern part of the Indian Ocean? (See Sec. 143.) In what direction do they blow in January? Why? In July? Why? Is eastern Africa a region of low pressure or of high pressure in January? Why? Oceania. — Is the interior of Australia an area of low pressure or of high pressure in January? What is the direction of the winds on the northern coast of Australia at that time? Why? On the southern coast. Why? In what wind-zone is most of Oceania? Which side of the islands, the eastern or western, is the windward* side? 2. By the term "<^clone," as commonly used, is generally meant a tornado or hurricane; but the word more appropriately applies to those greater whirling storms that often last for several days, and cross continents and oceans before they disappear, but which are not destructive, like the tornado or the hurricane. CLIMATE. 25 RAIN, SNOW, FOG, CI^OUDS, ETC. 147. Invisible Moisture in the Air. — Vapor of water is contin- ually rising into the air from all parts of the land- and water-surface of the earth. This is due to its lightness. Being but half as heavy as air, it is easily lifted and carried about by the currents of the atmosphere. The amount of vapor in the air is greatest over bodies of water in warm climates, and least over desert regions.' 148. Fog and Clouds. — The vapor in the air is ordinarily invisible, but, under certain conditions, it becomes visible, and 150. Distribution of Vapor.— The moist air over oceans is carried to continents by the aid of winds, and produces rain only when the temperature is lowered by (i) coming in conilict with cooler winds, (2) being carried to higher altitudes, or (3) to higher latitudes.* 151. Effect of Mountains on Moisture. — Low mountain- ranges hft winds to higher altitudes, and thereby cause rainfall, not only upon the mountains, but upon the country beyond. High mountains lift winds to so great an elevation as to rob them of all their moisture, and pass them on as dry winds. Hence, high plateaus are rainless regions. 152. Effect of Cold Winds.— Polar or other cold winds, entering warmer latitudes, do not precipitate their own vapor. On the other hand, they become warmer and are capable of holding more moisture than before. They cause rain, however, by cooling the warm air they enter until it passes the saturation point, when its moisture is precipitated. 153. Effect of Trade- Winds and of Anti- Trade-Winds. — The northeast and the south- east trade-winds blow across the continents from east to west, and, being cooled on their passage MAPS OK BAROMETRIC PRESSURE.^ then forms fog, clouds, dew, rain, hail, frost, or snow. Warm air can hold more of this invisible vapor than cold air can. At any given temper- ature air can hold only a certain amount of invisible vapor, and when that amount is present the air is said to be saturated, or at the satura- tion point; just as a sponge or piece of cloth is saturated when it is so wet that it can take up no more water. If saturated air be heated to a higher temper- ature, it can take up more vapor; but if it be cooled a little, it cannot hold all of its vapor, and some of it condenses; that is, becomes visible moisture, made up of minute bubbles of water floating in the air. If very near the surface, such visible moisture is called fog; if several hundred feet above the earth, clouds. Persons upon mountain tops frequently iind fogs at their feet cutting off a view of the valley below. To the inhabitants of the valley these fogs are clouds floating about the mountain summits. 149. Rain, Snow, and Dew. — If the air be cooled sufficiently, enough of its vapor becomes condensed to form drops of water, which fall to the earth as rain; or if cooled below the freezing point delicate crystals of ice are formed, which fall as snow or hail. In many localities water which falls as rain is often first formed as snow at high elevations — a snow-storm over mountain-peaks frequently becoming a rain-storm as it passes through the warmer atmosphere of the valley below. Vapor condensed and precipitated from the air upon cool bodies — such as grass and leaves — with which it comes in contact, is called dew. Frost is frozen dew.' 1. Put a little water into a pan, and set it in the sun. After a few hours the water will all have disappeared: it will have evaporated, or gone into the air as invisible vapor. If the water be heated over a stove, it will evaporate more rapidly; if kept in a cool p^ace, it will evaporate more slowly. 2. On these maps the figures indicate the barometric pressure at the places where they occur. The bright pink spots show high-pressure areas. The light and white spots show low-pressure areas. The arrows indicate the direction of the prevailing winds. 3. Very hot vapor, or true steam, is constantly coming out of the spout of a hot tea-kettle, but this vapor is invisible at the end of the spout, because its temperature is so high that the saturation point is not reached. At a short distance from the end of the spout the up the eastern slopes, precipitate their moisture before passing over the mountain tops. Hence, in tropical regions the greatest rainfall is on the eastern side of mountain-ma.sses; but in the Temperate Zones, where the southwest and northwest anti-trades prevail over the oceans, the heaviest rainfall is on the western slopes. QVnSTIONS. How does vapor get into the air? What is meant by saturated air? What happens when air passes the saturation point? Explain how invisible vapor may become visible. How are fog and clouds formed? What is the difference between fog and clouds? Explain how rain is caused. How is the moist air that rises over oceans carried over the land? Mention three ways in which moist winds become cooled. Why are high plateaus rainless? Is the heavier rainfall on the eastern or western side of the Andes Mountains in the South Temperate Zone? (See Sec. 153.) At 40° south? Why in each case? (See Sec. 153.) vapor becomes cooled by expansion and by contact with the cooler air, and then condenses into visible vapor, also, but less properly, called steam. At this stage it may be compared to cloud or fog, and if the escaping steam be made to strike against a cold surface — as a plate — it condenses into drops of water, which may be compared to dew formed upon the cold surfaces of plants, rocks, etc. 4. As air rises to a higher elevation, it expands to occupy greater space, and is thereby cooled. This can be illustrated by the way in which we cool hot coffee, by blowing upon it: The cheeks are filled with air, which is slightly compressed and forced out through a small opening. As it escapes into the outer air, it becomes so cooled by expansion that it serves to cool the hot cbfiee. 26 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. MAP QUESTIONS.— What is the greatest rainfall represented on the map by white areas? By the different shades of red? What is the least rainfall represented by each shade of red? In what zone are most of the areas of heaviest rainfall? In what zones do the areas of light rainfall principally lie? Is the rainfall principally heavy or is it light on land-areas crossed by the Tropic of Cancer? By the Tropic of Capricorn? On which side of land-areas between 40° south and 40° north is the rainfall heavier, the eastern or the western? Why? On which side is the rainfall heavier in latitudes between 40° and 70°? Why? The following questions may be omitted until taking up the study of the several continents to which they relate: North America. — Where is the heaviest rainfall along the Pacific coast of North America? Is it in the zone of trade-winds or of anti-trades? Is it on the east or the west side of the mountain-axis? Why? (See Sec. 286.) Is the rainfall heavier at Sitka or at San Francisco? Is the rainfall light or heavy in the Mackenzie Basin? On the Rocky Mountain Plateau? Why in each case? (See Sees. 151 and 286.) Where is the rainfall heaviest on the Atlantic coast of North America? Id what wind-zone? On which side of the mountain-axis is the heavier rainfall in Mexico and Central America? Why? (See Sec. 286.) United States.— Which half of the United States has the more abundant rainfall, the eastern or the western? Why has California less rainfall than Washington has? Is the rainfall of the Great Basin of Utah heavy or light? Why? What winds bring rain to the Gulf Jk ^ I * * -i Plain? What winds prevail in the \^r|f ^^^ " Mississippi Valley in July ? From ^ " what body of water do they carry moisture? Is the rainfall of southern Alaska heavy or light? Why? (See Barometric Map.) South America. — Is the heaviei rainfall in the southern part of South America on the eastern or western side of the mountains? Why? Why is the rainfall light in Argentine Re- public? Which has the heavier rainfall, Patagonia or the La Plata Basin? Why? Upon which side of the Andes is the rainfall heavier in the latitudes of the Amazon Basin? Why? Is the rainfall of the Orinoco Basin heavy or light? Why? Why is the rainfall heavier along the coast of Brazil than in the interior? Eurasia. — Is the rainfall heavy or light in the central part of Asia? Why? Why is the rainfall heavier on the western side of Scandinavia and Spain? What winds bring moisture to southeastern Asia? To southwestern Hin- doostan? (See Sec. 143.) Africa. — Is the rainfall of tropical Africa heavy or light? Why? In pass- ing from the Equator toward the tropics in Africa, does the rainfall increase or decrease? Do the anti-trade-winds become warmer or cooler over the Sahara? Will they take up or precipitate moisture? Oceania. — In what thermal zone is Australia during most of the year? In what wind-zone? Where is the rainfall heavier, in the east or in the west? Why? Have the islands of Oceania much or little rainfall? OCEAN- C URRENTS.' 1 54. The ocean, like the air, is never at rest. Due to its weight, water, like air, is exerting a downward pressure; and this downward pressure becomes pressure in all directions. Cold .sea-water is heavier than the same bulk of warm sea-water, and hence exerts gfreater pressure; therefore, just as in the case of cold and warm air, cold ocean-water flows toward and under warmer ocean-water, causing it to rise at the surface. Also, as in the case of the air-currents, the ocean-currents change their direction because of the earth's rotation — the currents that flow from equatorial regions toward the poles turning easterly, and those approaching equatorial regions turning westerly. (See Sees. 135, I36> I37-) 155. Importance of Ocean-Currents. — The ocean-currents thus caused are of great importance, as they carry Arctic cold into tropical regions, and tropical heat toward the poles, thus greatly modifying the climate of the coasts past which they flow by giving coolness to the breezes of the Torrid Zone and tempering the severity of the cold in northern lands. 1. Before reading what is said of ooean-onrrents, find on tbe proper maps tbe following: Cape St. Roque; British Isles; Iceland; Spain. 2. This current Is called the Gulf-Stream, because it wasibrmerly supposed to enter and 156. Equatorial Currents. — The warm water of tropical oceans is forced upward by colder water from higher latitudes; and the two belts of trade-winds carry the warm surface-water westerly in two great currents — the North Equatorial Current and the South Equatorial Current — in each of the three great oceans: the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian. (See Map of Ocean-Currents.) 157. The Atlantic Equatorial Currents. — The South Equa- torial Current of the Atlantic is divided by Cape St. Roque, on the east coast of South America. One branch, the Brazilian Current, flows southeasterly until like winds blowing from the Equator toward the poles, it is turned easterly by reaching latitudes that have less easterly velocitj- of rotation than itself. The other branch flows northwesterly, and joins the North Equatorial Current in the region of the West Indies, to form the Gulf-Stream} 158. The Gulf-Stream. — This well-marked warm current flows northeasterly along the eastern coast of North America to make the circuit* of the Gulf of Mexico before passing Florida; but later investigations have shown that this is not the case. • circuit: journey round the border of, CLIMATE. 27 n 4) o ■S o « w « '3 rt D y ^ U Ph iH « t « o a ! S^ p^ 1: . e «; ii I V J3 to ■ § S = o a o 3 (U O -4-) Q O rt ^ -13 -^^ 3 w 3 ■^ S « f a o 3 IS - O O ^ I 51 O 3 •^ i3 ^j • '^- £f ♦J 4j 3 3 o- S O o t! •=^ b :S so 3 *^ 3 W (U O c/1 - iH a tj *j a "" *j o 3 a 3 3 o ■S « t; a !> =^1 .^ij (D -r-l .^ a A< <; a d o a a g -a s a S fl Ji u3 ,2. a o o a „ o U P4 a oj M « ^ J3 3 (U lu ^ >^ a ■J3 a fe a ■^ ja o "u a V' a 5 M 8 5-s a-3 3*5 'p. a g .•^ ja o ^ o ■ a iT ^ a ■w ja ■M.SP a ja t a* •S a a o ^ ^. ^. • en u 13 ^ t: OJ ja a („ a 3 o a o ^ CO ^ ^ S '=' a "s .2 >;^ -^ j; cfl M rt - nj - .1 oj M J '^ )-. ^ |a5 P " b !8 o 8 5; Id a ,a -*-» a ■^ a o a K C - 3 a a u ^ t! 2 ja ? 8s a a Iz; o o o •-1 Vl CO 'a 0) (U a a „ a iSts ° f S -e •s^J^ £ S S § ^ p. <^ \ ^^ o a Ph ij ^ " 5 ^ iJ ° 1 2 '^a a §1 ag o 3 a t? a fe w 13 ^ CO 3 * <1 O "« ■S a a a v g a ^ te S ^ ^Bl a o o o< t! 3 a «-§ about 40° north latitude, thence more easterly toward the British Isles, and divides in mid-ocean into two branches. The northern branch carries warmth northeasterly to the British Isles, Norway, and Iceland, and is finally lost in the North Atlantic. The southern branch carries heat southerly along the coast of Spain. On reaching equatorial regions it is turned westerly by the earth's rotation and the trade-winds, and merges into the North Equatorial Current, in which it partly originated. S to ^ ■e £ •3 ^ 9 O u ■c » u "C -e 159. Cold Currents. — To compensate for the waters flowing from equatorial to polar regions, a cold return current flows from the polar toward tropical regions. As it approaches the Equator its slower velocity of rotation causes it to flow westerly. 160. Labrador Current.— In the North Atlantic, the principal cold current is the Labrador Current, which flows close inshore along the eastern coast of North America, as far south as latitude 40°, where it sinks underneath the wanner Gulf-Stream. 28 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. 9& 60 30 90 6i W av.'. -?t*- ■%^??5^,^ .lis"- 3 ^=»~«\ %5;^,A„.^^kv1CkP' 30' 90* 50" SO- SO" 90f GENERAI. OCBANIC CIB.CULATION.I 161. The Japan Current. — In the North Pacific, the Japan Current corresponds to the Gulf-Stream of the Atlantic; but no well-marked polar current, corresponding to the Labra- dor Current on the eastern coast of North America, enters the Pacific through Bering Strait. 162. Currents that Change with the Wind. — In the northern Indian Ocean the currents are so strongly afiected by the winds that they change their direction with the monsoons, and flow in opposite directions at diflerent seasons — northeast in July and southwest in January. (See Map of Ocean- Currents.) The currents of greatest importance to the world are those of the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans, because they afiect the climate of countries occupied by the most highly civilized nations of the earth. QUESTIONS. Explain why polar waters flow toward and beneath equatorial waters. Explain how the equatorial currents are produced. Describe the South Equatorial Current of the Atlantic. The Brazilian Current. The Gulf- Stream. Why does the Gulf-Stream turn easterly as it flows north? What effect does the Gulf-Stream have upon the temperature of the North Atlantic? Describe the Labrador Current. The Japan Ciirrent. THE ORGANIC WORLD. 163. Organic Matter. — Plants and animals, together with their products, make up the organic matter of the world. Organic matter thus comes into existence through the growth of things that live. Living things are everywhere. Land, water, and air teem with life. Neither the cold of Greenland's ice-fields, nor the heat of Sahara's sand, can destroy all life. The invisible germs* of molds,' rust,* mildews, and the microscopic organisms* which cause fermentation, decay, and disease, are ever floating in the atmos- phere. 164. How Life is Su'stained. — Plants live upon inorganic* substances which they take from the earth and the air or water which surrounds them. Animals feed upon plants or other animals. Since animals depend for their existence upon plants, we will first consider the DISTRIBUTION OF PI, ANTS. 165. Abundance of Vegetation Depends upon Climate. — Every country has in its soil and atmosphere ample supplies of all the kinds of food required by plants except water. This, the chief food of plants, can reach the greater mass of vegetation only in the form of rain. Besides food, plants require heat and light. The abundance of natural vegetation, then, depends upon the amount of rain and the intensity of the sunshine; in other words, upon the climate. 166. Effect of Much and Little Rain and Heat.— Where the rainfall is heavy, and the temperature like that of our summer weather, vegetation is rank. Where there is little rain, even though the warmth be tropical, we find the sparse vegetation of a desert. Where there is little heat, vegetation will not follow the most abundant moisture, and we find a dreary field of glacier-ice covered with snow, made perpetual by constant renewal. 167. Where Plants are Most Abundant. — In the chapter on climate, we learned that the weather is hot throughout the year 1. The Gulf-Stream and the other currents of the North Atlantic form the type of oceanic circulation, as shown in the figure. A somewhat similar set of currents is repeated in the southern half of the Atlantic Ocean, and in the northern and southern halves of the Pacific and Indian oceans. 2. The mold found sometimes on bread or fruit, when examined under a microscope, is found to consist of small plants. 3. The declduouB forests of southern Canada and the northern United States present, successively, during the year, the somber brown of leafless branches above the winter snow, the tender green of opening buds in spring, the darker green of summer foliage, and the beautiful hues of autumn leaves. Even the coniferous* forests undergo seasonal on the plains of equatorial regions, and that the rainfall is heavy there. Owing to this, the densest vegetation is usually found on the lowlands of the tropical belts. The forests of the Amazon, in South America, of the Congo, in Africa, and of the islands southeast of Asia, are the most luxuriant in the world. Since there is usually the most vegetation where the rainfall is heaviest, a rain map shows fairly well the relative amount of vegetation in difler- ent parts of the world. 168. The Nature of Vegetation in the Tropics. — Though rain and heat determine the quantity of vegetation anywhere, the general character of plant-life in any country depends upon the extent of seasonal variations in heat and moisture, rather than upon the average temperature and rainfall. Between the Tropics the temperature varies but little from day to day, and where the rain also is evenly distributed throughout the year, the lowlands are covered with dense forests of constantly growing, broad-leaved evergreens; but where there are long intervals of drought, as in the Valley of the Orinoco, in South America, all vegetation dies to the ground during the hot, dry season. Hence, only grasses and other herbs grow in such places. 169. Vegetation Outside of the Tropics. — As the distance from the Equator increases vegetation changes to fit the seasons, which gradually become more contrasted in temperature until, in the middle latitudes, the hot summers are followed by winters so cold that all vegetable growth ceases. The tender-leaved trees of the tropics first give place to trees or shrubs like laurel and man- zani'ta, whose tough, leathery leaves can withstand the frosts of mild winters. Those, in turn, are mostly displaced by trees and shrubs which shed all their leaves upon the approach of winter. The only evergreens of the middle latitudes are cone-bearers, like pine and cedar, whose needle-like or scale-like leaves can resist great cold. At the close of summer the deciduous* trees' of the temperate and cold regions form winter buds with which to begin the next season's growth. When these are matured and seeds are changes. The rapid growth of early summer tips each branchlet with a leafy plume of a livelier green than the somber hue of the winter foliage. * rust: a dust-like substance that grows on the leaves and stalks of wheat and other grains and destroys them. germ: the starting point of a growth. microscopic organisms: tittle living things, whether plants or animals, that can be seen only by the aid of a microscope. inorganic substances: substances that do not pow through being alive, as the minerals and air and water. deciduous tries: trees that shed their leaves in the fall— deciduous means falling ofiT, not permanent. coni/erous: cone-bearing. \ THE ORGANIC WORLD. 29 ripened, the leaves, which have taken on tints of yellow and red, neatly cut themselves loose from the twigs whose growth began in the winter buds of the preceding season. « 170. Vegetation of the Frigid Zone. — As we proceed to higher latitudes, trees become fewer and smaller. The more than one hundred kinds which make up the forests between the fortieth and fiftieth parallels of latitude are left behind, one by one, till, near the mouth of the Mackenzie River, in North America, only poplar, willow, birch, alder, and spruce are left. These trees also grow two or three degrees beyond the Arctic Circle, in Siberia and Lapland. Mosses, li'chens,* and a few flowering herbs grow along the Arctic coasts far into the regions of perpetual ice and for example, between the plants of South America and Australia than there is between those of North America and Europe. 174. Man's Work in the Distribution of Plants.— The kind of vegetation in populous regions is principally controlled by man, who cultivates plants which are very different from the native herbage. For example, most of the vegetation of Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas has been changed since i860. The carpet of prairie-grass has been replaced by wheat, com, and other cereals.* The orchards and vineyards of California clothe the valleys in a midsummer coat of green, in place of the natural brown coat of dust and dry herbs. Forests covering hundreds of square miles in the Atlantic States have been destroyed by ax and fire to clear fields for the farmer's crops. Even the weeds, which take haUHa, Calaviba, and afnt ntAer variaia t>f Grape* ar* cuitivaUd/ornu vftht two tpteiti knav* 04 F)m Grape4: Ktuiwm qf 8otit\-*aA North America CULTITATED PLANTS ORIGINATED . 171. Proportion of Forests to Herbage.— Far less than half the land-surface of the earth is covered with forests. Herbs, which grow each year from seeds or underground root-stocks, cover with a low growth vast areas of treeless level land in many parts of the world. These plains of herbage are called, in North America, prairies; in South America, llanos ox pampas ; in Russia, steppes. Low, woody plants like the sage-brush of America and the heath of Europe also cover large areas. 172. Distribution of the Kinds of Plants.— While the general character of vegetation is largely dependent upon clirnate, the kinds of plants inhabiting two countries of similar climate are often very different. The nearly two hundred kinds of eucalyptus, which form so large a part of the forest and " scrub"* growth of Australia, are none of them natives of the other continents. There are no pines, oaks, or poplars in the forests south of the Equator. The oaks and pines of Europe are not just like those of North America; nor are those of the Atlantic Coast the same as the species of the Pacific Coast. 173. Distribution of Kinds Affected by Natural Causes. — Natural barriers to the transportation of seeds, such as bodies of water, lofty mountains, or rainless districts, separate regions whose plants differ in kind. This difference is greatest where the natural distribution of seeds is most obstructed. There is more difference, 1. Man lias also changed the nature of most cultivated plants. The wild cabbage does not form a head. Wild parsnip is poisonous. Wild beets have slender roots, which contain no sugar. Perhaps some of our cultivated plants have been saved from extinction by man. Wheat and Indian corn, for example, are not known to exist in a wild state. possession of uncultivated ground, and crowd the crops of the shiftless, are mostly not natives, but have been brought from other countries.' 175. Oceanic Plants. — Large areas in mid-ocean, called sargasso seas, are covered with floating sea-weeds. Sea-weeds are also abundant on most coasts. A few coast species, as Irish moss, are used for food. DISTRIBUTION OP LAND ANIMAIS. 176. Animals of the Tropics. — The abundance and char- acter of animal life depend chiefly upon climate and the kind of vegetation. Large reptiles, such as alligators, crocodiles, and boa-constrictors, abound in the tropics, where the forests are full of noisy monkeys, harsh-voiced birds of beautiful plumage, and insects of rich hues. 177. Animals of the Temperate Zones. — As we approach the middle latitudes, reptiles decrease in size and numbers; wolves, bears, and deer become common; squirrels take the place of monkeys; song birds of plain plumage, instead of gaudy parrots and cockatoos, break the silence of forests, where honey bees are more common than butterflies. 178. Arctic Animals. — As we approach the Arctic regions, fur-bearing animals abound. Otter and beaver frequent the water- * lichens: irregular-shaped patches, usually of greenish or yellowish color, found on rocks and trees and sometimes improperly called rock-moss or tree-moss. scrub: dwarfed, stunted. cereals: grains used for food, such as corn, wheat, rice, etc 30 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. courses; foxes, martins, and ermine glide through the silent woods, and finally, beyond the range of the musk-ox and reindeer, along the ice-fringed coast of the polar seas, we find the white bear and the ^i'der-duck. 179. Distribution of Kinds of Animals. — The kinds, or species, of animals are kept from spreading over the earth by the same natural barriers which limit the range of plants. The animals of North America, Europe, and Siberia are so much alike that the popular names of those best known in one of these regions are applied to most of the familiar species in each of the other regions. But none of these common animals, such as deer, beavers, rabbits, hare, squirrels, wolves, foxes, cats, bears, robins, crows, grouse, or quail, are natives of Australia; nor are these animals common in South America or Africa. 180. Man's Influence in the Distribution of Animals. — As cultivated plants displace native vegetation, so domestic animals increase in numbers and wild animals decrease as the world comes more and more under the dominion of man.' DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANIC ANIMAI,S. 181. Near the Coast-Line in the Tropics. — The fixed, or sluggish, animals inhabiting the shallow water of tropical sea-coasts, are marked by the same ejuTserant* growth and brilliant coloring that characterize the plants and animals of the adjacent land. In their brilliant hues coral polyps mimic flowers; and the polished shells of mollusks rival, in beauty of color, the plumage of birds. • 182. Near the Coast-Line of Temperate Regions. — Beyond the torrid belt corals disappear; giant mollusks,* whose shells weigh several hundred pounds, give way to ordinary clams and oysters, and the numerous colored shells are replaced by brown periwinkles.* 183. Deep-Sea Animals. — The little known life of the ocean depths is probably nearly the same in all latitudes, since, a few hundred feet below the surface, an uniformly low temperature prevails from the Equator to the polar circles. 184. Surface Animals. — The active animals, which swim on or near the surface, being less confined by natural barriers, have a greater range than land animals; but temperature limits the sperm- whale,* flying-fish, and sharks to tropical or sub-tropical seas. In the cool, shallow water of middle latitudes, codfish, mackerel, herring, and other food-fish abound. The right-whale* and fur- bearing seals are at home in the polar seas.' WORK OF PI^ANTS IN BUILDING THE EARTH. 185. Peat-forming Plants. — There are many swamps in the northern portions of America, Europe, and Asia in which mosses, rushes, and other plants have been growing for hundreds of years. The growth of each season sinks beneath the water, where it slowly becomes a compact mass called peat, which is used for fuel. About one tenth of Ireland is covered with bogs, in which the 1. Few, If any, species of animals or plants, however, have become extinct by man's agency alone; and he has never succeeded in extirpating* a single weed or animal pest. Indeed, many of those which he fights most persistently, are helped more by the conditions which his presence supplies, than they are injured by his warfare. Rats and mice, fbr example, are the unwelcome companions of man in all his migrations; while house flies are his unbidden, though well-fed, guests. 2. Whales are by far the largest of animals. A large whale weighs as much as fifty elephants. 3. In this State a rush, called tuU, covers large areas with an imperfect peat, or muck, in which the vegetable matter is mixed with a sediment of fine clay. Similar formations are found in the deltas of rivers in other parts of the world, and in the lagoons* and mangrove swamps of sea-coasts. The polishing earths sold under the names Tripoli powder, electro-silicon, calustro, etc., are composed of the silicious* skeletons of microscopic plants called Ji'a toms. These plants are now forming extensive deposits in some parts of the ocedn. Bog-iron ore is formed by the agency of plant-life. Some geologists think that all the iron ores of the world were so formed. peat-beds are from 2 or 3, to 20 or 30, feet in depth. One of these bogs has an area of 270 square miles, and an average depth of 25 feet. • 186. Coal-forming Plants.— The greatest geological work of plants was begun, not hundreds of years ago, but ages ago, when the morasses* of continental borders and inland sea-coasts sup- ported a rank growth of plants similar to the mosses, ferns, and rushes of this age, but very much larger, and nourished by an atmosphere probably richer in the plant-foods — carbon-dioxide and water — as well as wanner, than the air which now feeds the peat- forming plants of the same localities. These peat-bogs of former ages have become changed into anthracite* and bituminous* coals, whose beds, often many feet in thickness, underlie areas in North America alone, which, taken together, exceed the area of California and Nevada.' WORK OF ANIMALS IN BUILDING THE EARTH. 187. Limestone-, Marble-, and Chalk-Builders.— The ocean is the home of rock-making animals. Coral polyps built reefs, and mollusks formed beds of shells long before the higher animals came into existence. Chalk-making foraminifers* swarmed in the ancient ocean; and then, as now, their microscopic shells drifted in banks as fine sand. The coral reefs and shells, broken and mixed by waves and currents, as well as changed by chemical action and the pressure of later-formed strata, became limestone; or, when melted by volcanic heat, crystallized into marble. The banks of chalky mud or sand became white limestone or chalk. These Ume-rocks, often in successive strata, forming together a thickness of many feet, underlie a great part of the land-surface of the earth. 188. Land Animals. — Land animals, and the higher forms of oceanic life, have done little more than leave the skeleton records of their existence imbedded in rocks, which, in their time, were layers of mud or sand.* QUESTIONS. Oral. — Give three examples of organic life. Give three examples of organic substances not alive. Give three examples of inorganic substances. Is water an organic or an inorganic substance? How does a plant differ from an animal in its mode of living? Distribution of Plants. — What is the chief food of plants? What do plants require besides food? Upon what two things does abundance of vegetation depend? Under what conditions ■ will vegetation be rank? Under what thin? Where, on the earth, is vegetation most abundant? Why? State, as well as you can, what you understand by "the general character of plant-life," and illustrate it by examples. What is the difference between the "general character" of the vegetation of the Torrid Zone apd that of the Frigid Zone? What proportion of the earth's surface is covered by forests? What other covering has the earth? What names are given to herbage-regions in differ- ent parts of the world? State, as well as you can, the difference between "the general character of vegetation" and "the kinds of plants." Illustrate your statement by examples. 4, The skeletons of mammoth reptiles, birds, and elephants have been found imbedded in the earth in many parts of the United States, and have been dug up and placed in muse- ums for the inspection of the curious and the study of scholars. Also, prints of skeletons are sometimes found in solid rocks. (See illustration on p. 12.) * extirpating, rooting out. *j-«^^ra«<; over-abundant. moUusks: animals with soft, boneless bodies inclosed by shells, as snails and oysters. periwinkles: sea-shore snails. sperTTKvhale: a whale whose head yields the fatty matter from which sperm candles are made. right-^vhale: the common whale, whose mouth yields whalebone. morasses: tracts of soft, wet ground; marshes. anthracite coal: a hard coal with a shining surface, that burns without flame, because wanting in bltu'men. bituminous coat: the common coal, softer than anthracite and containing a mineral pitch called bitumen. lagoon: a lake or morass communicating with the sea by a strait. silicious: partaking of the nature of flint, sand, or quartz. foraminifers: a low order of minute animals, having lime-like or chalky shells, which are perforated by pores like those of the skin. MANKIND." 31 How do natural causes affect the distribution of the kinds of plants? Give examples of the distribution of plants by man? What is Irish moss? Distribution of Animals. — Is animal life more or less abundant in the tropics than in the Temperate and Frigid Zones? What difference is noted between the plumage of birds in tropical regions and that of birds in the Temperate Zones? What difference in voices? What animal in the Temperate Zones may be said to take the place of monkeys in the Torrid Zone? Name the chief animals of the Torrid Zone. Of the Temperate Zones. Of the Arctic regions. What natural causes affect the distribution of the kinds of animals? What difference is noticed between the kinds of animals in the North Temperate and North Frigid Zones and those in the South Temperate Zone? How is the proportion between wild and domestic animals being affected? What animals are found in tropical ocean-waters? In the waters of the Temperate Zones? Of the Frigid Zones? Work of Plants and Animals in Building the Earth. — Name three impor- tant minerals that are the product of plants. How is peat produced and where chiefly found? How is coal produced? What minerals are the result of animal life? . MANKIND. CONDITIONS OF MEN. 189. When we read or hear about the people of Africa and their hut villages, and learn about the wandering tribes in Asia who go from place to place with their flocks and herds, and live in tents; and learn, also, that there are still wilder people who scarcely have any houses, but who merely live by hunting and fishing, we realize that the people who dwell on the earth diSer very much among themselves. 190. Degrees of Development. — On account of this difference in the condition of men, they are sometimes divided into three great classes to mark their several stages of development — the savage class, the barbarous class, and the civilized class. 191. Savages. — The lowest, or savage, state is that in which men subsist on wild plants and animals, neither tilling the soil nor domesticating creatures for their food. Some of the American Indians, and many of the natives of Africa, Australia, and the Pacific islands, are savages. 192. Barbarians. — Men may be considered to have risen into the next, or barbarous, state when they engage in agriculture. They then supply food for their flocks and herds, and make some simple provision of milk and meat for themselves and their families. Many of the higher tribes of Africa, Australia, and Asia are barba- rians. Some of the Arabs and American Indians also belong to this class. 193. Civilized Life. — Civilized life begins with the art of writing, which records history, law, knowledge, and reUgions for the guidance of the people and the service of ages to come, and thus binds together the past and the future in a life of intellectual and moral progress. 1 94. Changes in Condition. — Civilized men to-day see about them such conveniences as the railroad, the telegraph, the telephone, shops, factories, and schools. This was not always so. Many a man can remember, as he flies from town to town on an express- train, that he took the same journey years before in a stage-coach; and the message that he sends by telegraph with lightning speed he once trusted to the fleetness of man or horse. 195. Development in Civilization. — This growth or develop- ment in civilization, so rapid in our own time, has been going on more or less actively since the early ages of man. Proof of this comes in several different ways. One way is by studying the customs and habits of nations where we find the remains of older conditions out of which the new ones arose. Another way is by means of history, which, so far as it reaches back, shows man in a rude state becoming more and more intelligent and expert in providing for his comfort and happiness. The history of any nation like the English or French shows how men grow, in the course of ages, from a savage state to the civilized condition of the present. And in comparing the.se nations with older civilizations, like those of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, we see that the newer civilizations are in advance of the older, showing a constant progress in mankind as a whole. 196. Ancient Relics. — One of the most valuable aids in tracing the development of mankind is a study of the implements that are buried beneath the earth's surface. If there are found buried anywhere weapons of bronze or iron, bits of fine pottery, bones of domestic cattle, charred com, and scraps of cloth, this indicates that the people who lived there were well advanced toward civil- ization. If there are found only rude implements of stone and bone, but no metal, no earthen-ware, no remains to show that cattle were kept, this is evidence that -the country was once inhabited by some savage tribe. It is an important fact that in every region of the inhabited world ancient stone implements are found in the ground, showing that at some time the inhabitants were savage. 197. The First Tools. — The first need of man, in his work of progress, was for some kind of tool with which to strike and cut, in order that he might fashion the rough implements with which to obtain food and to protect himself from the beasts around him. Rough, almond-shaped axes and rude knives were made by clip- ping stones until edges for cutting were formed. How do we know this ? 198. Drift Men. — In nearly all parts of the world rough, unground, unpolished stone implements have been found many feet below the surface, in the layers of clay, sand, gravel, and stone, formed by the detritus of streams. As these tools must have been made by men, the conclusion is that at some very remote age these localities were occupied by such men as use these tools. These people are known as drift men, because the only traces of their existence are found in the deposits made by rivers. These deposits are known as river-drift. The age in which they lived is called the stone age, from the kind of tools employed by the men of that time. 199. Cave Men. — Many relics of human handiwork, together with bones of extinct animals, have been found in caves in England, France, and other parts of Europe. Careful study of these remains has led to the supposition that these caves were, in a past age, the dwelling-places of the men of that age, who are called cave men. 200. How Relics Show Progress. — The cave reUcs, like those of the river-drift, lie many feet below the surface, in strata whose formation has t^ken an inconceivable length of time. The more recently-formed strata contain implements of a much higher and better order, showing a steady advance toward civilization. 32 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. 201 . Present Examples of Drift and Cave Men. — Examples of man in the same stage of human progress as'the drift men and cave men of the stone age are now found among the natives of Africa, Australia, some of the Pacific islands, and in the ver>' cold regions of the north. They possess but little intelligence, seek shelter in caves and rude huts, and their only occupation is hunt- ing for sufficient food to last from day to day.' QUESTIONS. Describe the difference between the savage and the barbarous condition. What are the characteristics of the civilized condition? What relics buried in the earth afford evidence that civilized people once occupied that region? What relics are evidence of the former presence there of savage tribes? How extensive has the savage condition been as shown by the relics of past races? Who were the drift men? What name Jvgiven to the age in which they lived? Why? Who were the cave men? How do the relics found show that progress was made in the ages before history began? Where may present examples of drift and cave men be found? What is their character and how do they live? Original Studies. — Write in one column the names of all the savage tribes that you remember reading or hearing about, and, opposite each, write the name of the continent in which they lived or live. Make a similar list of the names and locality of barbarians. Have you ever seen arrow- or spear-heads? Of what were they made? Where were they found? Have you ever seen any stone implements of any kind? What were thej' like? For what were they used? Make a sketch of those that you remember. On which continent do you think you would find most savages? Why do you think so? What are flocks? What are herds? Make a list of con- veniences used by civilized man that savages and barbarians do not have. Write the names of six civilized nations. In which one do we live? Are there any savage or barbarian tribes in our nation? What histories have you read? Which did you like best? Why? How do people travel from where you live to San Francisco? Find out how they traveled twenty-five years ago. Make a list of implements used by the farmers near you. Put a cross after the ones that were not invented in your grandfather's time. Make a list of things used in the house to make work easy and rapid. What did your grandmother use in place of some of these things? . TYPES OF MEN. 202. Difficulty of Classification. — The color, features, and habits of the various races and tribes of men have been so changed by the influence of climate and by the intermarrying of individuals of difierent tribes that it is difficult to separate mankind into distinct types. 203. Schemes of Classification. — Various schemes, such as continental location, physical characteristics, and similarity of language, have been used by scientific men as a basis for classi- fication.' 204. Division into Five Races. — One classification, very extensively used, divides the human family into five races: the Caucasian, or white, race; the Mongolian, or yellow, race; the Malay, or brown, race; the Ethiopian, or black, race; the Amer- ican, or copper-colored, race. 205. Three Types. — Another basis of classification now quite commonly employed by students of this subject, and which is adopted in this book, gives three types: the wAiie type, fh^ yellow type, and the black type. 206. Characteristics of the White Type. — The distinguish- ing characteristics of the white type are oval skull, perpendicular face line, complexion varying from light brown to white, eyes t. In some caves in southern Africa there are streams of running water. The walls have the appearance of pumice stone; and limestone is also found. In the caves and around their mouths live thousands of natives. They till their millet fields in front of their sub- terranean homes, and store their food in them. They are found to be a wild but peace- loving people. brown, black, blue, or gray, and fine hair, var>'ing from black to straw color. 207. Location of White Type. — The peoples of this type originally occupied southwestern Asia, Europe, and northern Africa, but they have spread until some of them are to be found in nearly every habitable part of the world. The difference in their complexion and habits divides the white type into fair- whites and dark-whites. 208. Fair- Whites.— The fair-whites occupy nearly all of central and northern Europe, western Asia, Great Britain, a large portion of North America, and a portion of Australia. While the people of this division can live under the most varied conditions, from the frigid climate of Greenland to the tropics of India, they reach their highest state of civilization in temperate regions, where they at present embrace the most intellectual, progressive, and powerful nations of the world. To this division belong the French, Ger- man, English, and their American descendants. 209. Dark -Whites. — The dark-whites thrive in tropical climates. They predominate in southern Europe, northern Africa; southwestern Asia, Mexico, and the parts of South America inhabited b}' white men. 210. Characteristics of the Yellow Type. — The yellow type is characterized by a complexion varying from a leather-like yellow in the Chinese to a deep brown in the Malay, or a tendencj' to red in the American tribes. The hair is straight and black, and the beard almost entirely wanting. The eyes are black, sometimes obliquely set, and the cheek-bones are high. The Mongolian, American, and Malay races belong to this type. 211. Number of the Yellow Type. — In numbers this type surpasses everj- other. Not only is it more widely scattered, but in the region occupied by its most important branches the popula- tion is more thickly crowded together than in any other part of the globe. 212. Locality of Yellow Type. — It includes the inhabitants of southeastern and eastern Asia; of Tibet; the many tribes of northern Asia; their neighbors, the Lapps, of northern Europe; the original inhabitants found by the whites throughout all North and South America — the ancient populous and civilized' nations of Mexico and Peru, as well as the wild and scattered tribes of other localities. 213. Civilization of the Yellow Type. — As a whole, this type, though containing the savage tribes of North and South American Indians, and the barbarous tribes of Siberia, Labrador, and Greenland, ranks next to the whites in civilization. The Chinese, Japanese, Coreans, and the natives of Indo-China, are its best representatives. 214. Characteristics of the Black Type. — The black type is distinguished by black or dark-brown complexion, projecting jaws, retreating forehead, thick lips, black eyes, broad, flat noses, and black, woolly or frizzly hair. 215. Locality of the Black Type. — The black type occupies the southern half of Africa, central Australia, southern Hindoostan, a part of Madagascar, New Guinea, and some of the adjacent islands. Those living in and about Africa are called Negroid blacks, and those living in and about Australia are called Austra- loid blacks. The Australoid blacks differ from the Negroid blacks in being lighter in color and in having bushy instead of frizzly or woolly hair. 2. Many people think that the whole human family originally sprung from one source, which is supposed to have been somewhere in Asia, and that the various changes in color, habits, and intelligence have been the result of geographical surroundings. Many others think that the distinct types sprung from entirely different sources, and that these types have intermingled until it is difficult to tell where one leaves off and another begins. ' MANKIND. 38 34 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. 216. Civilization of the Black Type. — The black races have never of themselves produced a civilized nation; but the negroes of Africa readily absorb civilization, proving themselves capable of discipline and social order, and easily adapting themselves to the manners, language, and customs of more enlightened people MAP QUESTIONS. — Which type occupies the largest portion of the earth's surface? Which the smallest? Which is nearly all within tropical regions? To which type do the Eskimos belong? The Patagonians? The Aztecs? The Papuans? The Arabs? The Lapps? The Tartars? The Persians? The Hindoos? Which type occupies most of the United States? Europe? Asia? Australia? with whom they come in contact. This has been especially shown in the association of blacks with the white races in the United States. In their own country, while civilization is of a low degree, it is more uniform than that of the yellow type in America — hus- bandry and cattle-breeding being almost universal. QUMSTIONS. Into what three t3rpes is mankind divided for study in this book? Describe the first. What is meant by ' ' perpen- dicular face line?" Where did this type originate? Into what two divis- ions is it divided? What nations belong to the first of these two divisions? What to the second? What races belong to the yellow type? Describe the ph3'sical characteristics of this type. Where is it located? How does it rank with the other types in civilization? What prominent nations belong to it? What of its number and locality? Give the physical characteristics of the black type. Give the names of its di\-isions. Give the locality of each. Describe the civilisation of this tj-pe. Original Studies. — How many types of man have you seen? Where did you see them? Did they always live where they do now? If not, where did they come from? Do these different types dress alike? Are their homes alike? DWMLLINGS OF MEN. 217. Ancient Savage Houses. — The first habitations of men were the rough caves and rock-shelters formed by nature. Their next dwellings were rude huts of some sort. One of the earliest of these of which any examples are found, is the circular hut built by driving slender tree-trunks into the ground, sometimes on land but oftener in shallow lake-bottoms, the water affording a means of protection from surrounding enemies. These tree- trunks were bound together with rushes or slender twigs. The roofs were of bark, straw, or rushes. Remains of whole villages of such huts thus supported upon piles have been excavated* in the bottoms of lakes in Europe. The practice of building their dwellings on platforms erected over the water, must have been kept up by the villagers through long periods of time. This is seen in the progressive character of the implements found among the remains of these early habitations. In the older lake-dwellings stone blades are found, polished but not made for handles; in later dwellings the sharpened stone is found pierced for handles, and in the most recent bronze imple- ments are added. Among these early people, whose history is thus written in the earth and not in books, agriculture was followed to a considerable extent. There is evidence that the ancient Swiss lake-dwellers practiced husbandry', ate bread, planted fruit-trees, and dried apples. Nearly all the domestic animals of the present time were raised, and were sheltered under the same roof that covered their owners. 218. Modern Savage Houses. — This method of erecting dwellings is at present used by the Papuans, of New Guinea; the 1. Traveler* have recently found that much larger numbers of people still live like these lake-dwellers of ancient times than was formerly supposed. For hundreds of miles along the south and east coasts of New Guinea, in many a sheltered inlet and bay, are large villages built on piles in the water, and reached from the shore only by canoes. In central Africa large collections of hats are thus built over the lakes, from which the natives issue Dyaks, of Borneo, and many of the African savages. The Indian wigwam and the snow-house of the Eskimo are also examples of the present habitations of savage man.' 219. The Houses of Civilization. — When men discovered how to use metals, and implements of bronze replaced those of stone, thej- are said to have advanced into the metal age. The use of better tools developed g^eat changes in the houses of mankind. The rude circular huts were put aside for spacious houses with roofs carried on lofty posts with cross-beams, or on solid walls of earth or stone. In fact, these next houses began to be somewhat like our own. There are at the present time in different parts of the world, examples of dwellings in all grades of development. There are the caves of south and central Africa, Russia, and Scandinavia; the lake settlements and huts of the Pacific islands and Africa, the wigwams of America, the log-cabins of first settlers in the wooded countries, and the sod-houses of the early settlers on the prairie; afterwards the more substantial farm- and town-houses, and finally the palatial residences of thrifty and cultured civiUzation. CI^OTHING. 220. Ornaments. — Man is supposed to have first lived in a warm climate, where clothing was not needed, and instead of covering himself, he endeavored only to ornament his body. He loaded his ankles, his neck, and his hair, with stone, bone, shell, and, later, with metal trinkets. Holes were made in his ears, in his nose, and in his lips, in order to improve his appearance by further possibilities of ornamentation, and among many savages the body was scarred by being cut or tattooed in many curious designs. in the morning to till their fields on shore and to which they retire at night or when danger threatens. From discoveries recently made it is thought that hundreds of thousands of .Africans thus moor their canoes under their huts at night and reach the rude floor above by means of ladders, *€xcwoaied: dug up. MANKIND. 86 221. First Clothing.— The tribes that wan- dered to colder regions found it necessary to pro- tect themselves from the extremes of climate. The skins of animals were fashioned into coarse gar- ments that an- swered this purpose. The Eskimos, Lapps and other peoples of northern Europe and Asia still use this style of garment. In warm climates, the savage who first wanted garments got them in a very simple way by taking the covering off from a tree and putting it on himself. The bark of trcc^ provides clothes for rude races in man\ districts. In the Brazilian forests there i-^ what is known as the "shirt-tree." A man cuts a four- or five-foot length of the tree, or a large branch, and gets the bark off in an entire tube. He then .soaks and beats the bark soft and cuts slits for arm- holes, when he is able to slip it on as a ready-made garment 222. Leather and Cloth. — The use of bark and skins for clothing led to the dressing of leather. The early general use of leather garments may be seen when we note the vast numbci-^ of skin-dressing implements of sharjj stone found in the ground. Some of the Indians of North America still prepare deer-skin for clothing so that it is something like chamois (shSni'mx ' leather, and in Polynesia the natives use a cloth made by beat- ing the bark of the paper-mulberry, on which they stamp colored patterns for ornament. 223. Woven Cloth. — Plaiting and matting became earh known to savages. In hot countries matting is much used b\ the tribes, as in case of the South Sea Islander, who makes his gowns of plaited grass. Now, if we pull a scrap of woven cloth to pieces, we see that it is, in fact, a piece of matting done with thread, so we can readily perceive how man learned to weave, first by plaiting matting and then by twisting some kind of fiber, as cotton, or wool, or hemp, into a string or thread and weaving it into cloth. This was first done by rolling the fiber in the hands, then came the spindle, after it the spinning-wheel, and continued im- provements have given us the machine used in cloth factories where a hundred spindles in a row are driven rapidly by steam-power. 36 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. for lighting purposes. Gas and electricity are the best of illuminating agents, and are used chiefly in towns and cities. QUMSTIONS. Dwellings. — Describe the first habitations of men. Describe the lake-dwellings. What tribes now use dwellings of this sort? In what part of the world are cave- dwellings still found? Of what are the houses of first settlers in wooded countries usually made? In prairie countries? Clothing. — Of what material is clothing made among savage tribes in the Arctic regions? In the tropical latitudes? What is said about the use of leather for clothing? Of bark? How is it supposed men learned tO weave? What influence has the desire for food and clothing on the industry and development of the race? Lighting. — When was kerosene oil discovered? n/^ When did gas for lighting come into use? Original Studies. — Have you ever seen any \S\ Indian huts or wigwams? Of what were •^ they made? Make a sketch of them, as well as you can. Look for some pictures of huts of savages that live FOOD AND COOKING. 224. Progress in the Art of Cooking. — The food of savages must be such as is near at hand and easy to obtain. ^^^^ First, the native vegetable products supply their ^'^o"ove^ wants; then they learn to hunt and fish. After the discovery of the use of fire they learn to cook their meats over an open, ' outdoor fire, such as is now used by campers. With better houses and metal implements come the open fire-place and bake- oven in the house. With the utilization of iron the fire-place is replaced by the old-fashioned cooking-stove, and modem invention has supplanted this with the elaborate range adapted to the preparation of food for large numbers of persons at one time. 225. Influence of the Desire for Food and Clothing.— The desire to obtain food and clothing is a powerful agent in the development of men. The energy directed toward obtaining, manufacturing, and transporting food-products from place to place gives rise to the leading industries of the world. I^IGHTJNG. 226. Early Modes of Lighting. — With cooking, clothing, and houses came methods of lighting the dwellings of men. The open fire lighted the Mi£ke^ house of a single room. As other rooms were added a piece ol cloth, or wick, in a vessel that held some kind of animal oil, constituted the first lamp. Next, candles were used to drive away the darkness. 227. Present Mode of Lighting. — Kerosene oil, obtained from coal fields, was discovered during the present centurj', and has almost everywhere taken the place of the candle. Illuminating gas, usually extracted from coal, came into use about one hundred years ago, and within a few years electricity has been employed in other countries. Of what are Eskimo huts made? How do you Know this? Why are they made of this material? Why should the houses in wooded countries be log-houses? Why in prairie countries sod-houses? Write in one column a list of all the materials you can think of that go into a frame- house, and opposite each sort write the part of the house for which it is used. In a similar manner make a list of materials emplo}'ed in constructing the best brick-house you were ever in. Have j-ou camped or been where you have seen campers? How was the cooking done? Make a list similar to those above, of different cloths that you know, and tell of what they are made, and for what used. Boys, make a list of cloth for male wear. Tell which MANKIND. 37 kind costs most and which wears best. Girls, in a similar way, make a list for female wear. Make a list of ornaments worn by civilized people. What do you wear that is made of leather? What kind of leather is it? Do you know where it was made? Can you learn where? Can you learn how leather is manufactured from hides? RELIGIONS. 228. Religion Universal. — Belief in powers superior to himself is universal with man. Nowhere has he yet been found without a religion of some sort. 229. Pagan Religions.— The simple savage, impressed with fear and wonder at the surrounding phenomena* of nature, in his helplessness imagines that the wind, the lightning, and the thunder are demonstrations of invisible beings, who may overcome him at any moment. To gain the favor of these beings, many practices and ceremonies are devised. The sun, moon, stars, and images made to represent invisible powers, are wor- shipped in extremely varied fashions. Religions of this class are called pagan religions. All savages are pagans. 230. Religions of Civilization. — The present religions of civilization are Brah- minism, Bud'dhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism. 231. Brahminism is one of the oldest of the religions of civil- ization, and is mostly confined to the people of India. MirJAKET, FAGODA, DOMES, SPIRE, 232. Buddhism is an attempted refor- mation of Brahminism. It is the religion of most of the people of the Chinese Empire, the Japanese Empire, and Indo-China. 233. Judaism developed in northeast- ern Africa and southwestern Asia. It does not now prevail extensively in any one part of the world, but its followers are scattered over many parts of the earth. 234. Christianity, which is an out- growth of Judaism, also had its origin in southwestern Asia. It is the religion of the nations most advanced in civilization, culture, and progress. 235. Mohammedanism was first pro- mulgated in Arabia. It is now the prevail- ing religion of that and the surrounding countries. 236. Influence of Religion upon Civilization and the Arts. — Religion has at all times had a wonderful influence in shaping and developing mankind, both as nations and as individuals. To religion, more than to anything else, is due the growth of architecture, sculpture, painting, and literature. The buildings erected for purposes of religious observances consti- tute the best specimens of architecture in the world. The finest works of sculpture and painting were made to adorn their interiors, and some of the choicest literature of the world has been written in the interest of religion. MAP QUESTIONS. — In what continents and islands is the Christian church? Where does the Mohammedan religion prevail? In what parts of religion found? In what countries is it the prevailing religion? Where is 'the world is paganism still found? Which of the religions of civilization ar« the Catholic church most largely found? The Greek church? The Protestant most widely scattered? 'fketumtna: remarkable appearances. 38 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY in^ •^^ I OCCUPATIONS. 237. Development of Occupations. — The wants of savage life are few, and the occupations of the savage are correspondingly limited; but as man advances in culture and intelligence, he continually finds more for his brain to coutrive and for his hands to execute. First, comes the solitary hunter and fisher, bent upon catching his food for the day; next, the shepherd, who drives his flocks from pasture to pasture; and next, the farmer, cultivating the land about him. 238. Metals. — As time advances, the use of metals is discovered. It is not known how men first learned to smelt ores so as to extract the metal, but the first copper and iron implements are supposed to have been made from metal found in a pure state. Thus the native copper near Lake Superior was used in long-past ages by the tribes then living in the country. Iron, also, is sometimes found pure. Gradually, from the use of these, men learned in some way to extract metals from ores. 239. Bronze. — Bronze was one of the articles early used most extensively in the manufacture of all kinds of wares. This bronze is an alloy of copper with tin, in different proportions, to harden it. It is used now chiefly for statues, bells, and cannon. The ease with which it could be melted and such things as hatchets cast in stone molds, made it more convenient than iron to the ancient artificer. Thus, one by one the great manufacturing and mining industries by which we are surrounded grew from these rude beginnings. 240. Growth of Commerce. — We see trade in its lowest form among such tribes as those of Australia, where the tough green-stone, valuable for making hatchets, is carried hundreds of miles by natives, who receive from other tribes in return the red ochre with which they paint their bodies. From such exchange we pass to more extensive trade, as men become more civilized and their products increase, until we arrive at a commerce which gives !S tea from China, sugar from the Hawaiian Kingdom, wool from Australia, silks from Europe, and ivory from Africa. :s MANKIND. 89 243, How the Industries of a Country are Determined. — Most of the imports of a country are of such articles as are not extensively produced at home, and the things exported are those which the country produces in quantities greater than are needed 40 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. for the home supply. California gets tea and coffee from distant countries, but sends away great quantities of fruit, wheat, lumber, gold, and silver. The natural resources, climate, and location of a country determine the occupation of the people. Where there are large tracts of fertile land agriculture is extensive; if the land is stored with rich ores and precious metals, mining is carried on, and the character of the products depends upon the kind of ores, minerals, and other things found in that country. Where the streams are of a character to furnish water-power, or where fuel for steam-power is abundant and cheap, manufactures flourish; good harbors furnish facilities for foreign commerce; and extensive interior waterways, as rivers and lakes, together with long stretches of level land on which railroads may be cheaply built, tend to promote domestic commerce. All industries have been greatly promoted during modern times by the wonderful inventions which enable men to apply steam and electricity in so many ways. QUESTIONS. What is the difference between pure metal and ore? What is bronze? For what is it now chiefly used? What example of commerce among native Australian tribes can you give? How is commerce facilitated by the use of money? What is chiefly used for money among civilized nations? What other things have been also used for money? Describe the mode of transportation among savages. Among barbarians. Among civilized nations. Under what conditions will agriculture be carried on extensively? Mining? Manufactures? Commerce? Original Studies. — Make a list of occupations of your neighborhood. What occupation w^ould you prefer? Why? Name some implements used in each of the occupations that you named. Of what are they made? What is an "alloy?" What ores do you know that are used now? For what are they used? Has the population of yom- neighborhood increased or decreased during the last ten years? What was the cause? What changes, if any, in occupations have resulted? What things do the people of your neighbor- hood sell most of? Make a list of things that they buy. Why are nearly all of the people in some districts engaged in farming? Why are those of other districts miners? Do all countries use the same kinds of money? Are the gold and silver coins of different countries the same? How do the stores near where you live receive their goods? How do the people around you travel from place to place? How many different methods of transportation have you seen? Which was cheapest and most rapid? GOVERNMENT. 244. Government by Chiefs. — When men unite for purposes of mutual convenience and protection, they must agree upon some simple forms of government. At first the rules were few, and usually full power was vested in some one person, who was chosen on account of strength, courage, or executive power. This is the form of government used among savages and barbarians, and their chiefs are called by various names, such as the s/ieik of the Arab tribes, and the sachem of the North American Indians. 245. Government and Religion. — As men advanced in civiliza- tion, their duties and obligations to each other increased, until the simple ruling of a chief was no longer sufficient. The perception of these obligations was the result of a higher sense of right and wrong; therefore, at this period, man's government and his religion were closely allied, and hence in all of the early civilizations the religious organizations had much to do in formulating the laws that governed the people. 246. The Growth of Nations. — In fertile valleys, river-deltas, or on coast islands, where food was plentiful, and where natural boundaries such as mountains, deserts, rivers, or seas, served as protection from hostile enemies, grew the first nations of which history tells us. Among these were the Babylonians, who, in the protected valley of the Euphrates, became a mighty nation whose history survives, though the nation itself was long since swept away. The ancient civilization of Egypt grew and thrived in the fertile Nile Valley, protected on one side by the great Sahara Desert and on the other by the waters of the surrounding seas. As the population of the world increased, civilization extended, and com- merce brought nations into closer relations with one another, the boundaries were determined by the people, sometimes peaceably but more often through wars. These boundaries constantly change as a country' acquires or loses territory. 247. Laws. — As nations progressed, laws adapted to the needs of the people were made until some regular sj'stem of government was formed, and as the outgrowth of this all the civilized nations of the present time have a definite form of government. Every government has three separate offices to perform: to make the laws; to interpret the laws when called upon; and to enforce obedience to the laws. The first is called the Legislative office, the second the Judicial office, and the third the Exeaitive office. 248. Kinds of Government. — The forms of government most common among civilized people are the Monarchy and the Democracy. 249. A Monarchy is a government in which the head, or chief executive officer, inherits the right to rule. These officers are called by various names, as King, Czar, Emperdr, Queen, Empress, and many more. There are two kinds of monarchies. Absolute and Limited. 2.50. An Absolute Monarchy is one in which the ruler has sole right to control and is unrestricted in his powers. Russia, Persia, and Turkey are examples. 251. A Limited Monarchy is one in which the ruler is required to govern according to principles contained in a con- stitution, and the law-making power is shared by the crown and a popular assembly. Germany and Great Britain have such governments. 252. A Democracy is a government by the whole people. In a large or populous country- not all of the people can meet together to make the laws, hence this power is bestowed upon men elected by the people to serve for a limited time. The chief executive officer is also elected by the people, and serves for a limited period. Government of this kind is called a Representative Democracy, or Republic. The United States, France, Switzerland, and most of the South American countries are republics. QUESTIONS. What names are given to the rulers of savage and barbarons tribes? Where is each employed? In what kind of country arose the first nations of history? Mention two of these early nations, and tell where they were located. What are the two most common forms of government? What is a mon- archy? An absolute monarchy? A limited monarchy? A democracy? A representative democracy? What is a representative democracy called? Give examples of a democracy. Original Studies. — Find the Euphrates River on the map of Turkey. Measure by the scale of miles three hundred miles from the mouth, and you will see about where Babylon was. Find the Nile River and Egypt on the same map. Do you know any laws that affect you? What would happen if you violate them? What is the name of the nation in which you live? What kind of gov- ernment has it? What is the chief executive oflicer called? Is our country an old or a new civilization? Are there any people near you who came from other countries? Can you find out anything about the government of the countries from which they came? Have any of your acquaintances traveled in foreign countries? Can they tell you some of the ways in which their governments differ from ours? NORTH AMERICA. 41 "■'V'VlErMt §«> 3> G /e,?.* ) tv»l-^ -^Z^'^. ^ 1^ 5^ \ r-v'V/r^jTN O *,/ '.^;S^^S'"''"-' -'^^^ ' \Polt. \ 'l^V III.StE < V # u <;;^' ►iiOcillCtE- ^ Al ^/^\I'\1\!ah-l: H D e A h K6 PHYSICAL NORTH AMERICA. 43 PHYSICAL NORTH AMERICA. MAP QUESTIONS.' Position. — [See Political Map of North America on opposite page.] In which hemisphere is North America, Eastern or Western? Northern or Southern? What direction from South America? From Eurasia? From Africa? (See Maps of Eurasia and Africa.) What isthmus joins it to South Amer- ica? From what continent is it separated by a strait? Wliat oceans touch North America? What tliree oceans separate it from Eurasia? What is the latitude of Point Barrow? Of the Isthmus of Panama? What is the greatest range of latitude of the main- land of North America? In what zones does North America lie? In what zone is most of it? Shape. — What shape is North America? Is it broadest toward the north or toward the south? Is its greatest length from east to west or from north to south? Mountains. — What mountains in the eastern part of the United States? In what direction do they trend? What mountains in the eastern part of Canada? In what direction do they trend? Begin at the southern extremity, and, going northerly, name in their order all the mountain-ranges on the western side of the continent from Mexico to Bering Strait. What is the general trend of these ranges? What range is continuous with the Sierra Nevada at the north? At the south? Which range is nearest the Pacific coast? Is the region between the Rocky Mountains and the' Sierra Ne- vada mountainous or level? The region at the eastern base of the Sierra Madre Mountains? In what country and in what mountain-range is each of the following peaks: Popocatepetl' ? Ori za'ba? Pikes Peak ? Fremont Peak ? Blanca Peak ? Mount Hooker? Mount Brown? Mount Whitney? Mount Rainier? Mount Shasta? Mount Fairweather? Mount Saint Elias? Mount Hecla? Mount Mitchell. Take next, questions on Relief Map of North America, p. 44. [See Physical Map of North America.] What is the greatest elevation represented on this map by green color? By light-buflF? By the darker buflF? What is the least elevation represented by white? By the darker buff? By light-buff? What is the greatest ocean depth represented by the lighter shade of blue? What is the least depth represented by the darker blue? Do the green areas represent mountains or plains? The darker buff areas? What do red spots indicate? Which side of the map shows more land above 5,000 feet in elevation, the eastern or the western? Which shows more land below 800 feet? Which coast shows the wider strip of ocean less than 1,000 feet deep? What high- land-system in the west? In the east? Which is the higher? In which system are there active volcanoes? In what three directions do rivers flow from the region at the head of Lake Superior? Would the elevation increase or decrease in going westward from the head of Lake Superior? Northward? Southward? Eastward? Give reasons for your answers. Which slope of the Pacific Highland is longer, the eastern or the western? Which has more rivers? The larger rivers? Is the Arctic Ocean represented as deep or shallow? Bering Sea? Which is represented as deeper, Hudson Bay or Baffin Bay? If the sea-bottom were elevated 1,000 feet what would be the effect on Hudson Bay? On Greenland? On the West Indies? Rivers. — [See Political Map of North America.] Begin at Mexico, and name in order, going northerly, all the rivers of North America west of 1. It is desirable that the map should be open before the pupil while reciting these map studies, their chief object being to teach the study of the map. the Rocky Mountains. Which of these lie wholly in valleys west of the Sierra Nevada? Which rise in the Rocky Mountains? Begin at Florida, and name in order, going northerly, the rivers of North America east of the Appalachian Mountains. What great river flows into the Arctic Ocean? Into Hudson Bay? Into the Gulf of Mexico? What river-basin between the Appalachian Mountains and The Height of Land? What two great river-systems in Canada? What one between Canada and the United States? What highlands bound the Mississippi Basin? Name all the rivers of the Mississippi River System. Where does the Missouri River rise? The Arkansas? The Ohio? Into what do they empty? Describe the Ri'o GrSn'de. The Colorado. The Columbia. The Yukon.' Lakes. — What lakes in the Basin of the St. Lawrence? Of the Nelson? Of the Mackenzie? Where is Great Salt Lake? Has it an outlet? Coast-Line. — Begin at Panama, and, going northerly, name in order and locate all the capes of tlie Pacific coast of North America. All the peninsulas. All the islands. All the seas, gulfs, bays, and straits. Begin at the Isthmus of Panama, and, going northerly, name in order and locate all capes on the Atlantic coast. All peninsulas. All islands. All seas, gulfs, bays, and straits. Where is Greenland? What island east of it? What islands west of it? Where is Cape Farewell? Point Barrow? Bafiin Bay? Hudson Bay? Hudson Strait? The peninsula of Labra- dor? What peninsula in line with the Coast Range Mountains at the south? . What islands and peninsula continue the Coast Range northerly? What two islands in line with the peninsula of Nova Scotia? What islands in line with Florida? With what mountains is Yucatan almost in line? What peninsulas, capes, and islands help to inclose the Gulf of Mexico? The Caribbe'an Sea? The Guff of St. Lawrence? Bering Sea? The Gulf of California? Take up next, the map exercises on North America in connection with: (i) The map of Ocean-Currents, p. 27. (2) The maps of Thermal Zones, p. 22. (3) The maps of Barometric Pressure, p. 25. (4) The map of Rainfall, p. 26. Omit the following until taking up Political North America, page 48: Describe the situation of each political division of North America, by telling in what part of the continent it is located, and naming the divisions of land and water surrounding it. Of what two islands is Da'nish America composed? Which extends farther north? How can you tell? In which part of Greenland are its settlements? What country separates the United States from Alaska? In what direction from the United States is this country? In what direction is Alaska? In which country do you find most railroads? Most cities? On which coast are cities most numerous? Beginning at Minneapolis, find and name the cities located on the Mississippi River. Which one of these cities has most railroads entering it? Beginning at Duluth, find and name the cities located on the Great Lakes between Canada and the United States. In which one of these cities do the largest number of railroads center? By what two different methods of transportation can goods be sent from Chicago to Montreal? New Or le an§ to Vera Cruz? (va'ra kroos.) At what city on the western coast do nearly all the trans-continental railroads terminate? 2. To describe a river, state the locality of its source, the direction of its flow, and the water into which it runs. 44 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. MAP QUESTIONS. — Is the interior of the continent a mountainous or a plain region? The eastern border? The western border? Which mountain-system is the longer, the eastern or the western? Which is the wider? Which appears on the map to be the higher? Which appears the more complicated system? On which do you see plateaus represented? Which system extends nearer to the coast? Compare the trend of the ranges in both systems with the trend of the nearest sea-shore. DESCRIPTION.' 253. Structure. — North America is a typical continent in point of structure, as it has elevated borders. It has two axes of elevation diverging toward the north, and making the continent triangular in shape. 2.54. Area.— The greatest width of the mainland of North America is about 3,250 miles, in latitude 52° north. The greatest length from north to south is 4,500 miles; but its longest axis, from Bering Strait to Panama, is nearly 5,500. The area is nearly 9,000,000 square miles — more than double that of Europe and not quite half that of Eurasia.' HIGHI^ANDS.' 2.55. The Pacific Highland. — The primary axis of elevation in North America is the Pacific Highland, trending* southeasterly 1. The foUowlng chapter is not intended merely to be committed to memory, but is designed also to indicate to the teacher the iimi of geographical facts that the pupil should be led to discover from the accompanying maps and other sources. 2. North America is separated from Asia at the northwest by Bering Strait, only 40 mites wide and less than 300 feet deep; and it is joined to South America at the southeast by the Isthmus of Panama, 28 miles wide and 250 feet high. 3. Before taking up this topic it will be well carefully to read again Sees. 44 to 67. from Bering Sea to Panama.* It is narrowest at each end and widens to about i,ooo miles in latitude 40° north. It is lowest at the extremities, and reaches its highest point in the Mexican Plateau, which is from 8,000 to 9,000 feet high, and has peaks rising to nearly 18,000 feet. 256. The Rocky Mountains comprise some of the highest mountain-chains on the continent, rising into numerous peaks from 10,000 feet to 18,000 feet high. They form the great continental divide, with a short, abrupt* western slope, and a long and gentle descent to the east. 257. The Sierra Nevada Mountains almost equal the Rocky Mountains in height, but are much simpler in structure. They consist of a single lofty range with steep and abrupt slopes. Numerous high peaks from 8,000 feet to 14,000 feet in elevation give this range its character as a sierra. 258. The Coast Range Mountains lie west of the Sierra Nevada, and closely skirt the coast from Lower California to Alaska. They are much lower than the Sierra Nevada, rising in general from 2,000 feet to 8,000 feet; but they contain a few lofty peaks. Among these are Mount Fairweather and Mount St. Elias in Ala.ska. The latter is about 18,000 feet in height, and is supposed to be the highes'- peak in North America.' 259. The Rocky Mountain Plateau comprises a large part of the Pacific Highland, and is one of the most extensive plateaus in the world. It is bordered on the east by ranges of the Rocky Mountains, and on the west by the Sierra Madre, Sierra Nevada, and Cascade ranges, and- reaches from Mexico to Alaska. The surface is in general much broken, and is crossed by numerous mount- ain-ranges. Its elevation varies from 2,000 feet in the north to 8,000 feet in Mexico. The part of this plateau lying directly east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains is called the Great Basin of Utah and Nevada. It is several hundred miles wide from east to west, and rises from an elevation of 5,000 feet at the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, to an elevation of 8,000 feet at the western base of the Rocky Mountains, and, unlike other parts of this great plateau, it has no outlet to the sea. 260. The Atlantic Highland. — The Appalachian System, or Atlantic Highland, is the secondary axis of North America. It trends southwesterly from the Gulf of St. Lawrence nearly to the Gulf of Mexico, and consists of several low ranges — seldom more than 2,000 feet high — parallel to one another and to the Atlantic coast. Its highest peaks are from 4.000 feet to 6.700 feet. This system forms a secondary continental water-parting, and slopes gently both to the interior and to the Atlantic. 4. In this highland there are three parallel sets or systems of ranges: (r) The various ranges of the Rocky Mountains, beginning at Cape Prince of Wales and terminating at Panama; (2) the Sierra Miid re, Sierra Nevada, and Cascade ranges; (3) the Coast Range and the coast Islands. 5. The Tarlons ranges of the Pacific Highland are more or less parallel to one another and to the Pacific coast-line; and the youngest ranges are those nearest the sea. * trending: tending in a direction. abrupt: steep. PHYSICAL NORTH AMERICA. 46 261. The Height of Land. — A third water-parting, giving a northerly and a southerly continental slope, is called The Height of Land, and extends westerly from Labrador to the Rocky Mountains. It nowhere exceeds 2,000 feet, and is, in places, below 1,000 feet. In Canada it is called the Laurentian Mountains; and a low arm from it extends northwesterly to the Arctic Ocean, separating the Mackenzie River Basin from the Hudson Bay Basin." VOLCANOES AND MARTHQUAKMS. 262. Volcanoes. — There are numerous active volcanoes in the Pacific Highland, principally in Mexico and Alaska; but there are none east of the Rocky Mountains excepting in Iceland and the West Indies. 263. Earthquakes. — The regions of active volcanoes are also the regions where earthquakes are most frequent. PVequent but not violent earthquakes occur in the whole Pacific Coast region. LOWI^ANDS. 264. The Atlantic Plain. — East of the Appalachian Mountains is a narrow, sandy coast-plain, formed by the gradual elevation of the gently sloping sea-bed. 265. Valley Plains of the Pacific Slope. — West of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountains are numerous alluvial plains of limited extent. They were probably formed by the gradual depo- sition of river sediment in narrow arms of the sea — like the Gulf of California — that filled depressions* resulting from the recent upfolding of the Coast Range.' 266. The Great Central Plain. — The Great Central Plain of North America extends from the Appalachian to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, and is one of the largest continuous plains in the world. It has been formed by the gradual elevation of shallow sea-beds, and has been subsequently enriched by alluvial deposits from the overflow of numerous rivers.' (See Sees. 35 to 47.) DRAINAGE.* 267. The Northerly Slope of the Great Central Plain is divided by a low water-parting into two drainage-basins, drained, respectively, by the Mackenzie River and the rivers flowing into Hudson Bay. 268. The Southerly Slope of the Great Central Plain comprises the Mississippi drainage-basin and numerous smaller ones along the Gulf Plain. 269. The St. Lawrence Basin. — Lying between The Height of Land and the Appalachian Mountains, and opening to the north- east, is the basin of the St. Lawrence. 270. The Atlantic Slope of the Appalachian Mountains is drained by numerous small and distinct river-systems flowing directly into the Atlantic. 271. Division of the Western Continental Slope. — The western continental slope is divided lengthwise by the Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountains into the Rocky Mountain Plateau and the Pacific Slope. 272. The Plateau Region is divided by cross elevations into 1. The youngest mountains of the continent are the coast ranges of the Pacific Highland. They are supposed to be still undergoing elevation. The Arctic coast is gradually rising, and the Atlantic coast is slowly sinking. 2. The Sacramento and San Joaquin Valley and the Valley of the Willamette were undoubtedly once bays; and the Gulf of California and Puget Sound will likewise become filled with .sediment, and so converted into fertile plains in the future. 3. Though, within this great plain, divides more or less elevated separate the many river- basins which compose it, they are not of sufficient extent or ruggeduess to afford any marked highland region, and the slope of the plain into the great highland regions on the east and west is so gradual as to be scarcely perceptible. several drainage-basins, giving rise, respectively, to the Yukon, Fra'ger, Columbia, Colorado, and Gila (he'la) river-systems, to the interior drainage of the Great Basin of Utah and Nevada, and to the drainage of the Mexican Plateau. 273. The Pacific Slope comprises numerous small river-basins lying parallel to the coast. Each basin is usually drained by a distinct river-system. The Willamette and the Sacramento and San Joaquin are the most important of these systems. 274. Centers of Elevation and Drainage. — There are two great centers of elevation and drainage in the Rocky Mountain System — one in latitude 40° to 45° north, the other in latitude 55° to 60° north. The former has more than forty peaks exceeding 12,000 feet in elevation, among which are Blanca Peak, Pikes Peak, Long's Peak, and Fremont Peak. It gives rise to the headwaters of the Missouri, Yellowstone, Platte, Arkansas, Rio Grande, Colo- rado, and Snake rivers. The latter culminates* in Mounts Brown (16,000 feet) and Hooker (16,750 feet), and gives rise to the Sas- katchewan, Peace, Mackenzie, Yukon, Eraser, and Columbia. I,AKES. 275. Position. — The lakes of North America lie principally upon the northern slope, and many of them owe their origin to glacial action. 276. The Great Lakes. — Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, Erie, and Ontario are called the Great Lakes. Thej- are situated upon The Height of Land, and occupy depressions in the upper part of the channel of the St. Lawrence.' The bed of Lake Superior was probably a depression in the shallow sea-bottom that was elevated to form the Great Central Plain, but the basins of the other Great Lakes are supposed to have been formed by glacial erosion." 277. Great Salt Lake and the lakes of Nevada are the remains of a series of great fresh-water lakes that once existed in the Great Basin, and that were drained into the basin of the Columbia. By the elevation of the Sierra Nevada Mountains the moist winds from the Pacific were partially excluded from the Great Basin; and as a result the rainfall became less than the evaporation, and the lakes — Lake Bonneville in Utah and Lake Lahontan in Nevada — were reduced in size and became salty or alkaUne.' OCEANS. 278. Position. — North America is inclosed and separated from Eurasia by three oceans — the Arctic on the north, the Atlantic on the east, and the Pacific on the west. 279. Relation of Ocean-Beds to. Continental Slopes. — As is the case with all continents, the largest ocean, the Pacific, is adjacent to the greatest development of mountains, the Pacific Highland; and the degree of inclination* of each seaward* slope of the land is continued beneath the shore-line of the sea. (See profile section of North America and Ocean-Depth Map, p. ig.) The steep slopes of the Coast Range rise abruptly* from deep .sea; the almost level Arctic Plain' is continued as the shallow sea-bottom of the Arctic Ocean; and the gently sloping coast-plain of the Atlantic is continued from 100 to 200 miles beyond the shore. 4. Before taking up this topic read carefully the chapter on water, p. i6. 5. A similar series of lakes extends along the divide between the Mackenzie and Hudson Bay basins. 0. These lakes ser\*e as reser\*oirs for the surplus of water in times of melting snow and excessive rain, and thus prevent floods in the lower course of the St. Lawrence. They also serve as "settlers," leaving the St. Lawrence a river of comparatively clear water. 7. The ancient lake-shore of these lakes may be plainly seen as a horizontal line along the mountain sides of Nevada and Utah, several hundred feet above the present shore-line. * degressions: hollows. culminates: reaches its highest point. inclination: slant. seaward: toward the sea. abruptly: precipitously; steeply. 46 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. COAST-lINBS.^ 280. The Pacific Coast-Line. — As there are no western spurs to the Pacific Highland the Pacific coast is little broken, and has but few capes and peninsulas. The projecting ends of mountain- ranges inclose Bering Sea, and form the capes, peninsulas, islands, bays, and sounds of Alaska and Lower CaUfomia; and the Pacific Coast islands are partially submerged portions of the Coast Range. 281. The Arctic Coast-Line. — The Arctic Archipelago is a low plateau with numerous submerged valleys forming shallow baj's and sounds. Greenland is a glacier-covered plateau trending parallel to the Rockj- Mountains, and its western coast is cut into numerous fiords by glaciers that push down its steep slopes to the sea and form icebergs. Baffin Bay is the valley between Greenland and the Arctic Plateau.' 282. The Atlantic Coast-Line. — Hudson Bay and the gulfs of St. Lawrence and Mexico are the submerged ends of drainage- basins, and the capes, peninsulas, and islands inclosing them are the projecting ends of highlands that form the bounding water- partings. Nova Scotia and Newfoundland are outlying portions of the Appalachian Mountains. Yucatan and Cuba form one side- spur to the Rocky Mountain System, and Cajie Gra'd os a Di'os and Jamaica, another; while Florida and the Bahamas form a line of elevation that intersects* the Appalachian axis. Iceland is an oceanic island of volcanic origin. The islands, capes, and peninsulas along the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Florida are low and sandj-, and have been formed by the action of the ocean- tides and -currents upon the sands dej)osited at the river-mouths; the bays thej' inclose are shallow, and are only preserved from rapidly filling up with sediment by the action of the tides.' CI^IMATE.* 283. In the Frigid Zone. — The great extent of North America in latitude gives it wide extremes of climate. Within the Arctic Circle the sun's rays strike the earth verj- slantingly, even in mid- summer, and a continuous night, varj'ing from twentj'-four hours at the Polar Circle to nearly six months at the North Pole, makes the winters cold extreme.' Ice and snow prevail nearly every- where throughout the year. 284. In the Torrid Zone. — In Mexico and Central America, where the sun's rays are alwa j-s either vertical or nearly so,iitropical heat prevails perpetuallj' in the lowlands; but every variety of climate from tropical heat to frigid cold may be experienced in ascending the high mountains and table-lands. ) Popocatepetl and Orizaba, surrounded by tropical fruits at their base, bear aloft a summit of barren snow. (See Sees. 112, 113.) 285. In the Temperate Zone. — The wide expanse of land in the Temperate Zone causes great seasonal extremes of temperature, from almost frigid cold under the slanting ra3"S of the winter sun to almost tropical heat under the nearly vertical rays of summer.* 286. Influence of Winds and Mountains. — The warm and moist trade-winds cause an abundant' rainfall in the West Indies, 1. Before taking up this topic read carefully Sees. 67 to 76. 2. An elevation of 1,000 feet would make land-surface of Bering; Sea and much of the Arctic Ocean ; would add Newfoundland, Greenland, the Arctic Archipelago, and the Pacific Coast islands to the continent, and make lakes of Melville Sound and Hudson Bay; would connect North .\merica to .^sia by an isthmus i.ooo miles wide, and leave Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Savannah 200 miles from the sea'olite, a mineral from which soda is made. The chief trading-stations are Godthaab and Godhaven, where the governors reside. 313. Iceland is of volcanic formation, and is celebrated for its volcanoes, geysers, and hot springs.* The interior is a barren, rocky plateau, sloping toward the north and south. The lowlands produce grasses and dwarf shrubs. Rivers are numerous; but are short, rapid, and innavigable. The climate is greatly modified by a branch from the Gulf-Stream. It is much warmer than that of Greenland and North America in the same latitude, and greatly resembles that of Norway. 4. The chief volcano. Mount Hecla, is one of the celebrated volcanoes of the world. Near it is the chief geyser region. Within a circuit of two miles there are more than one hundred hot springs and geysers. The principal one, Great Geyser, periodically ejects a column of water to the height of nearly loo feeL • kieroglypkic ttiriting: a writing by pictures. $yvaiid: extremely dirty. PHYSICAL UNITED STATES. 49 The Arctic fox is the only native land animal, but the shores swarm with water-fowl, chief among which is the eider-duck. Iceland ponies, cattle, and sheep thrive in the coast valleys. The island belongs to Denmark, and its laws are made at Copenhagen and enforced by a governor-general appointed by the king. The people, who are chiefly of Scandinavian* descent, live near the coast, and are farmers and fishers. In summer, all work at hay-making. In winter, the men fish and the women spin and weave wool. The exports are fish, oil, wool, and feathers. Within the island, all travel and trade are carried on entirely by means of pack ponies. All exports are sent to Denmark in government vessels. The chief town is R^i'kiavik, which has about 2,500 inhabitants. QUESTIONS. Aborigines. — By what type of men was North America occupied at the time of its discovery? Where were the Pueblos found? The Aztecs? The Zunis? Of what were their houses made? Have you ever seen an adobe house? If so, where? How did it look? By whom was it made? Which of the natives occupying North America at the time of its discovery were savage? What has become of most of them? Where were the Eskimos found? Describe their dwellings. Their occupation. Why are they not better educated and more refined? Why have they not railroads? Why do they not build stone-, brick-, or wood-houses? Present Population. — Who constitute the present population of North America? What of Europeans in North America? Of Asiatics? Of Africans? Industries. — Where is agriculture the leading occupation? Why? Where is manufacturing most largely pursued? Why? Find on the map the par- allels of 39° and 44°. Where is stock-raising the leading industry? Mining? Why? Where is lumbering chiefly carried on? Religion. — Describe the religion of the people of North America. Political Divisions. — Name the political divisions of North America. Danish America. — Of Greenland, describe; The government; the habit- able part; locality of population; exports. 0/ Iceland, Aescrihe: Formation; distinction; interior; vegetation; climate; animals; inhabitants; occupa- tions; exports; towns. Original Studies — Aborigines. —Have you ever seen any Indians? How did they look? How did they live? Were they friendly to white people? Look on the map of types of men and find in what part of North America the Eskimos live. Have you read anything about Eskimos? What animals do you think they hunt? What do they eat? Of what do you think their clothing is made? Industries. — What kind of land is best for farming purposes? Make a list of as many different kinds of farming as you know. Have you ever been in a mine or in a lumbering camp? Tell about them. What kinds offish have you eaten? Where did they come from? Write the names of as many fish products as you know. PHYSICAL UNITED STATES. DESCRIPTION.' 314. Position and Extent.— The United States constitutes the central third of North America, and has an area of a little more than 3,500,000 square miles, equal to that of all Europe. It com- prises nearly all of the Appalachian Highland and Atlantic Plain, all the southern slope of the Great Central Plain, the grandest development of the Pacific Highland, and nearly all the Pacific Slope valleys.^ 315. The Atlantic Plain is generally not highly fertile, and is rocky at the north and sandy or swampy toward the south. Its rivers are short and rapid and carry their detritus beyond their mouths, where it is built by tidal action into long, narrow sand- banks parallel to the shore; and these become in turn islands and peninsulas, inclosing shallow bays or sounds, which by gradual filling become lagoons, then salt marshes, and finally firm land. 816. The Appalachian Mountains are the oldest mountains of the continent, and have been subjected to great erosion, furnish- ing materials for the Atlantic Plain and the Mississippi Basin. 317. The Central Plain.— Nearly one halfof the United States proper lies in the Great Central Plain; and this portion of the plain is one of the most extensive productive regions of the world. The Red River of the North and a few small streams draining into the St. L,awrence Basin are on the northern slope of the almost im- perceptible water-shed; while the southern slope comprises the Mississippi Basin and the eastern and western gulf slopes. 318. The Mississippi River Basin is triangular in shape, the Ohio draining one angle, the Missouri another, and the apex* is at the Gulf It comprises more than 1,000,000 square miles, and among the river-basins of the world is second only to that of the Amazon in extent. It contains the longest river in the world — the Missouri-Mississippi — which is 4,200 miles long; and it has 35,000 miles of navigable water. The lower course of the Mississippi, for 1,000 miles from its mouth, has little fall, and its annual overflows have built rich alluvial plains and a delta covering 1 2,000 square miles. The three principal mouths of the delta project far into the Gulf of Mexico, which is being rapidly converted into land-surface by the immense quantity of detritus carried itito it.' 319. The Pacific Highland. — One third of the territory of the United States lies in the Pacific Highland, which here attains a width of 1,000 miles, and rises into numerous peaks from 10,000 feet to 15,000 feet in height. Upon the Great Rocky Mountain Plateau lie the basins of the Columbia and the Colorado, and the Great Interior Basin of Utah and Nevada. The surface of this plateau is much broken and generally barren;' and it is valuable principally for its extensive deposit of minerals. 320. The Pacific Slope region of the United States is mostly mountainous, but contains numerous large and fertile valley-plains. The influence of the Japan Current renders its climate much more genial* than that of any other portion of the United States in equal latitudes. 1. Before reading the description, take map studies on page 51. 2. The United States has so wide a range in latitude and longitude, and such varied con- ditions of surface, that it is in a high degree self-sustaining* Every necessity of life and almost every comfort and luxury of tropic, temperate, or polar production are found within its territory. Two thirds of its boundary line is contiguous* to vast bodies of water that protect it from foreign invasion and facilitate commerce with other nations. With few exceptions, its rivers lie wholly within its boundaries, and furnish more than 50,000 miles of navigable waters opening directly or indirectly upon the Atlantic — the great commer- cial highway of the world. 3. The banks of the Mississippi are built up by sediment above the level of the adjoining plain ; and continuous embankments, called levees, have been made at great expense to prevent the river from overflowing in times of flood. When level with the top of the levees, the water is as high as the second floor of houses on the plain. Whenever a break in the levee occurs at time of floods, vast tracts of l:ind are covered with water, and great loss of property— and sometimes of life—results. The amount of .sediment carried into the Gulf of Mexico annually by the Mississippi River would cover an area of one square mile to a depth of 27 feet. 4. The barrenness of the plateau region is due to lack of rainfall rather than because the soil is infertile. Where irrigation is possible much of this country will probably be rendered productive in the future. * Scandinavian: pertaining to Sweden and Norway, whose people are called Scandinavians. amtiguous: touching. afex: the tip, or point. genial: agreeable, pleasant. 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JitSa^Fr, 7<:hcJ ^a* i K "^L./^ ^' X jK c o |/„ - I LLfeNO iiSocorro estacIado LoDjcitude 77 Z'-J^ -sJ nerd Arthur 1">J-,.„ < V— ^ X i '^4/ ■f V y^^' &**^ r^,. *»«»■»» .61W '^'^0 lO •o^. %, W«»»jj V STlPMJU LA 'rW J^ — \ \ ■'^Vl /colli"'" coto.ro,--^ KjLy J ^ .,| \£VijJv-ia? t'-' 1_8I01^ CITY I Jaaw 1^! oueuQUE>r-^^' I' DE8 MOINES ^^ P V/ ,,-i*Ml0CK P]. -g^t-^^EBlt PCotiBeU3lDft> -QiJ Be»trlee' >^ Vrr8-.fo» . „a> * J^ /** *iBO~ ■°./"° vt^ U>,^» to/ "* *• ^^.v '<-.. JtON "■H KichV . ) ■* Pilot" (/ Knob •'i^^ThvN X.iS^ , w<- .HA fe. ItootM^' 1 3v*T^^- 4^-" "n ^'.^f"7^!:^fc^^^^^^^5Z$^;"* "''w^^^ ^ t1^ ^.r^-> TM-sy ^„E».«^._(^«^— ,, PinilB li// ^ o \tocheB »*^ Llexandrja^ H TomMiCoJJ ^ '"c.f'"! ^ ATLANTA ffARLtS- TO" /^ C ^ •^£u/0| <:* /"C TJIVITED STATES ail* Ije MILES TO ONE INCH. SCALE OF MILES ' ' jw aw aflo JJ 7*TaUulu3 ,0 *«■•>"• Capita]«, EXPLANATION-; '■'^of"' L^N9 ^V(»aii!r<^ Capitals & Iju-^st Citius,- Ijargvat Cities, _-. -« a, -s? A»^ I r«ii»p*^ «-8iy Bay M -eX X I c Q O V Towns with over 25,000 pop., OAKLAND • Towns "between lO.OW A 25,000 pop., — — 8ui I>I«b« O fc - C^apaveta^ Towns 'between 6,000 & 10,000 pop., Santa Crux n. Towns under 6,000 pop., Eureka • B A H . BBiiT^i C.Rbi ^,o;,o^»*^;- "wSbo* 'fj^» 5^. : LJ 2L D. S«TuN, £oc^^. X. 54 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. QUESTIONS ON PRECEDING MAP. Location of States. — Beginning at the north, name the States having an Atlantic sea-coast. Which States border on the Gulf of Mexico? Which have a Pacific sea-coast? Name the States crossed by the .\ppalachian Highland. The States of the Great Central Plain. The Rock)' Mountain States. The States of the Great Basin. Name the States that have the Mississippi River for an eastern boundary. For a vpestem boundary. Name the States bordering the Great Lakes. Which State has lake, river, and ocean boundaries? Map-Reading. — What mark on this map indicates towns of less than 5,000 inhabitants? Towns between 5,000 and 10,000 inhabitants? Towns between 10,000 and 25,000? Capitals? Largest towns? Capitals and largest towns? Make the sign of each. How, on this map, can you tell the population class to which a capital belongs? The largest city? To what population class does the capital of Ohio belong? The capital of Illinois? The capital of Missouri? The capital of North Dakota? What is the scale of this map? Cities.— Which half of the United States contains the greater number of cities of more than 25,000 inhabitants, the eastern or western? On which sea-coast are the larger number of cities? Name the cities with a population of over 25,000 that you find on the banks of each of the following rivers, going from their source toward their mouth: The Mississippi; Ohio; Mis- souri; Colorado; Columbia. The cities with a population between 10,000 and 25,000. Name the cities on the Great Lakes having a population of over 25,000. Between 10,000 and 25,000. What large cities in about the- same latitude as San Francisco? Are most of the great cities of the United States north or south of this latitude? Directions and Distances.— In what direction and how far from San Francisco is New York? New Orleans? Washington? Chicago? St. Paul? Duluth? Boston? St. Louis? In what direction and how far from New York is Boston? Buffalo? Chicago? New Orleans? In what direction and how far from Chicago is Cincinnati? Philadelphia? New York? New Orleans? (Ascertain distances by using the scale. ) How do the States east of the Mississippi compare in size with those west? Which half, east or west, has nearly all the navigable rivers? POLITICAL UNITED STATES. DESCRIPTION. 322. Development.— The physical features and climate of the country, together with the character of the people of the United States, have resulted in the most unparalleled development of a nation within a brief period that the world has ever known. 323. Settlement. — Permanent settlement by the whites began early in the seventeenth centur>' along the Atlantic coast. These early colonists were principally English, with the exception of the Spanish, who settled Florida, and the French, who settled Louisiana. Immigrants* from Europe^ rapidly increased the number of inhab- itants, and the center of population^ which was at first confined to the Atlantic Slope, has ever since been extending westward.* 324. Population,— The first census of the United States was taken in 1790, showing a population of a little less than 4,000,000. Every ten years has added from one fifth to two fifths of the population often years before, giving a population in 1890 of over 60,000,000. The increase between 1880 and 1890 was about one fifth, or 20 per cent. 325. Government. — In govemmept, the United States is a Federal Republic, composed of forty^wtr StateSjiSffl^^erritories, and the District of Columbia. Each State has a Constitution of 1. The greater proportion of the present white people of the United States are Anglo- American, or descendants of the early English colonists. Immigrants come from almost every part of the world. Of late years Germany has given one third of the whole annual number; Great Britain and Ireland over a fifth; Norway, Sweden, Italy, and Canada sup- plj-ing nearly all of the remainder. 2. It U Interesting to Bee how the center of population has moved westward since 1790, when the first census was taken. At that time it was about 25 miles west of Baltimore and I7ji miles north of the 39th parallel. Ten years later it had moved 41 miles west and a little over 4 miles south. In 1810 it was found 36 mileS^farther west and 5 miles farther south. In 1820 it had crept westward 50 miles more and worked southward a little over one m.ile. In 1830 it had crossed the 39th parallel and rested about 2}^ miles south of it, having gone westward 49 miles. The next decade saw it move 55 miles westward and return north to a point a little more than 2 miles above the 39th parallel. Between 1840 and 1850 it flowed westward another 55 miles, and swung south of the parallel again a little over a mile. i860 saw it 81 miles nearer the setting sun and 4% miles north of the parallel. Another ten years had carried it westward 42 miles and turned it north 954 miles. Fifty-eight miles westward, from 1S70 to iSSo, returning south again about 9 miles. In 1890 the center of population of the United States had reached a point 505 miles west of that which marked it one hundred years before, and about 3J4 miles south of it. resting about 30 miles east of Columbus, Indiana, and about 14 miles north of the 39th parallel. It will be seen that the utmost variation north and south has been only 20 miles, and that in 1S90 the center of population was within 3J4 miles of the line on which it started west- ward 100 years before, although it had traveled more than 500 miles. 3. There are three branchee of the government: the Legislative Department, or Congress, its own, a Governor, a Legislature consisting of two houses, and j State Supreme Court. The powers of the National Government* are derived from the Constitution adopted in 1788, and from vari- ' ^ ous amendments since that time. ^ i 326. The District of Columbia is a tract of land nearly square, and containing about 70 square miles on the eastern, or left, bank of the Potomac River. It is set aside by the Constitution of the United States for the use of the Government. It is under the direct charge of a local government, which is subject to the will of Congress. The people of the District have no representa- tive in Congress and do not vote on any question. 327. Washington, the capital of the United States, is situated in the District of Columbia, on the Potomac River.' 328. Territories. — The Territories of the United States are New Mexico, Arizona, ^teh, Alaska, Indian Territory, and Okla- homa. Each Territory is allowed one delegate to the House of Representatives. He may speak on any question, but has no vote. 329. Industries. — The leading industries of the tlnited States are agriculture, mining,* manufacturing, stock-raising, and lum- bering. which makes the laws; the Judicial Department, which Interprets the laws; and the Exec- utive Department, which enforces the laws. Congress, which meets everj- December at Washington, is composed of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate consists of two members from each State, chosen by the State Legislature for a terra of six years. The House of Representatives is com- posed of members elected directly by the BCo^lS'^'"4^ term of two years. Each State is entitled to one representative for everyfjSLSrinhamtauts. The President, who is the chief executive officer, is elected every four years by electors chosen only for that purpose by the people. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices, whp are appointed by the President, and approved by the Senate. 4. The Influence of mines in building up cities and in adding to the wealth and prosperity of countries is thus referred to by a writer in Goldthwaite's Geographical Magazine: " Many of the more important towns of this continent have had their origin in what seemed at the time to be a slight matter. Some prospector picked up a chip of stone with a few bright particles in it, and in consequence of this a city covers the neighborhood where the stone was found, with schools, churches, theaters, factories, newspapers, and all the other essentials and accompaniments of civilized life. Gold has civilized Australia; the same metal has worked an entire change in California; diamonds have caused the peopling of a part of South Africa and Brazil; the control of the mines and deposits of precious stones in India. Burmah, and other parts of the east by the British has led to the introduction of modern ideas and modern methods in those countries; Hungary owes much to her opals, and Poland to her salt; coal and iron have been the making of Pennsylvania; lime-stone, granite, and brown-stone are important sources of wealth in New England; the copper mines of Lake Superior supply half the world with red metal, and from the upland plains of Peru come the nitrates that are hardly less profitable than gold, though used only in agriculture and the manufacture of chemicals." • immigrants: persons coming into a country to live; the opposite of emigrants. textiles: woven goods. POLITICAL UNITED STATES. 55 VJAR D^.-'/IRTMFNT 330. The Chief Manufactures of the United States consist of flour and other grist-mill products, iron and steel, clothing, machinery, leather, boots and shoes, -,, woolen goods, and agricultural implements. In the manufacture of steel the United ^.,, S| States is now the leading nation in the world. 331. The Chief Exports, named in the order of their importance, are cotton, breadstuffs, provisions, precious metals, petroleum, and tobacco. 332. The Leading Imports are sugar, textiles, coffee, tea, silk manufactures, "hides, Unen manufactures, tin, iron, and India-rubber. 333. The Inland, or Domestic, Commerce of the United States is carried on by means of natural waterways, ^ canals, and railroads, the latter comprising two fifths of the railroads of the entire world. 334. Foreign Commerce. — The United States stands fourth among nations in the value of its foreign commerce. Great Britain being first, Germany second, and France third. The chief centers of foreign commerce are New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New Orleans on the Atlantic side, and San Francisco on the Pacific. Two thirds of all the imports and one half of the exports pass through New York City. 335. Education is carried on at public expense, but is not under the direction of the National Government. Each State regulates its own system of public schools. In addition to the common schools, provision is ^made in most States for the higher education of both sexes. 336. Religion. — As perfect religious freedom is secured by the Constitution, the United States has no established church. The Christian religion prevails. 337. Divisions of the United States.— For convenience of study the United States is usually divided into groups. In this book the States are described in six groups. The manufacturing and commercial States are described in one g^oup, entitled The Northeastern States. The agricultural States are described in three groups, corresponding to differences in produc- tions: (i) The North Central States, (2) The Middle Belt States, (3) The Southern States. The mining and grazing States constitute one group, called The Plateau States; and The Pacific Coast States constitute the remaining grroup. i It will be seen, however, that sometimes a State in one of these gfroups is distinguished also by the characteristics of another group. Thus, a State like Ohio, of great fertility and natural adaptation to agriculture, may also possess large facilities for manufactures and commerce, and be found extensively engaged in these pursuits. QUESTIONS. What has caused the rapid growth of the United States? Who were the first permanent settlers? In what part of the country did they settle? What is the District of Columbia? Where is it located? What kind of government has the United States? What is its capital? Of how many branches does the government consist? What does each do? How is Congress constituted? Of what does the Senate consist and how are its members elected? The House of Representatives? Name the Territories of the United States. Write in . column the chief manufactures of the United States, and opposite those produced in your part of the country write "Yes;" opposite the rest, "No." Make a list of exports. Opposite those from this State write "Yes." Make a list of imports. Opposite those used with you write "Yes." What proportion of railroads of the world are in the United States? How many important commercial centers on the Atlantic side? The Pacific side? Tell how education is supported and carried on. Original Studies. — Why do you think the eastern side of the United States was settled before the western? Learn how often the census is taken. How is commerce carried on where you live? Is it foreign or domestic commerce? What reasons can you give for the greater number of commercial centers on the Atlantic than on the Pacific sea-board? In what large city of the United States have the people no vote? !"*-t* I-onsritude / \\ So INDIAN LANDS ^■Jjij}^^n m ■^*^*\ *«ai(| l^br.l"'") Bair^^ ■ M "■a;;5^ Laet ' ^ N D (7 ^Mf II -fitfntwr* ^ ^ K ,APOSTLB ^ ir P £ -X 'Jyieiceenavs J ,.»>• stP "■J_PARK \ \J^"''"<'«<'»'i^g • SI r "» 1" v^ «sjM bllUw^frA + »>5y k. ^ Ishpemlng 7^ \ Owatfi >»/.. FtJIuward/,^ / . Green Ba\i "*> .et^^ Alb(.«r A s I X ,rj£^''<'okl Karltoiiiol,^ £• <^--i"^&\L. V^-^ JsUACROSSE \ tP* „ T/„ ..i I , -1 ^-"""nJlcirX S I \ ^ • ,. I J '^ Beater DanV g \! -V^-vj y\»> \ ^s S. »•»' ^h I Cloud -^^ B,..-ij.is ~^'iJ_ VTYrir — r- 'lattiuille Nj^ •■WhifcwatVr tt) « ILWAUKEE Brimt Platt^ille ' "'^-dK •■WhifcwatV- tt) HAva . — ^_&Zs;y _J«njs_/.a4j k^ ■" ..§77- niA/nuk^flan -1 ^ ^^ Otiuiuwl! _ i '-entreiTJieX N'i"'iiiStonn ROCK ISLAND "% *|4.>'1„£S» Brindu/ood^ ^v '.mmond "^fr" + 'a" _^<»tl Red Cloud ~^<^S_^ B„irtJ,U r-'-v^^ ir / / MWTnT'^^T- ■*!— l~V2i.'^''»0'i X5 *«»™»"t» i?EOm., ii_CT_ *. .1 r 1-ix/ ^ I w* ^ leolukf^** C y *-^^ QBI««D.lnglon ,k»> ■<&* f^^ Hiawatha o IC BodgeWW (^^■^,/^p. Klrksvm *' — jjiil B- "^^a//na « Beards xjm f town ^ J\ ) Sprlnjnflll ^j( Salt &^-\, [S )ec«liir|<,- ^ Paris ^'•uiiia 1 Ta Do" jSSw TERRE ai *.HAUTE ^jy ^ria 'ii^isajip/fjy ^''Xtwndencei *+ LX^i i*iMng is extensive. The most important articTes^of manufacture are agricultural imple- ments, clothing, furniture, carriages and wagons, leather, boots and shoes, and woolen goods.' 1. Before reading this description, take the map studies on North Central States, p. 58. 2. The great Appalachian coal-field extends over the eastern portion of Ohio, and covers an area of to.ooo square miles. In this region natural-gas is extensively used for illumina- tion and for fuel. NORTH CENTRAL STATES. 63 385. Indiana is a grain-producing and stock-raising State. It has no great commercial city. Farm implements are manufactured. 386. Illinois is the leading agricultural State of the Union. It is the second State in the production of com, steel, and coal. Coal- fields underlie most of its surface. Important lead mines are found in the northwestern part of the State. Aside from the products mentioned, this State yields annually vast crops of wheat, oats, flax, and rye, Irish potatoes, hay, and all kinds of garden vegetables. Its great staple is Indian com, and beef- and pork- packing is a leading industry. Illinois markets immense numbers of hogs, beef cattle, and sheep. Packed pork is sent from here to the chief commercial points of the world. 387. Michigan forms two peninsulas, known as Upper Michi- gan and Lower Michigan. Lower Michigan is agricultural. The western portion produces large quantities of fruit. Michigan peaches are famous throughout the Mississippi Valley. Upper Michigan is wild, rugged, and thinly populated. It is one of the richest copper regions of the world, and is also rich in iron ore. Michigan ranks first in the production of sawed lumber and salt, and in the wood-working industries, the most important branch of which is the manufacture of household furniture. 388. Wisconsin is a wheat and lumber State. Dairy farming is a leading industry. Iron ore, lead, and zinc are valuable mineral products. The northern part contains many clear and beautiful lakes. The rivers of this section have worn deep gorges, through which the water rushes in many picturesque cascades. 389. Minnesota is crossed by The Height of Land. Its waters flow northward through the Red River of the North, eastward through the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence, and southward through the Mississippi. Its surface is dotted by nearly io,ooo lakes, many of which are celebrated as summer resorts. Minne- sota is the first wheat- and flour-producing State. One third of the State is covered with white pine timber. Lumbering is a leading industry. 390. Iowa is more exclusively agricultural than the States east of the Mississippi. It ranks first in the United States in the production of com and hogs. It is also an extensive butter- and cheese-producing State. 391. Kansas and Nebraska occupy a portion of the lower eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. They are adapted to agri- culture, but the soil is not so fertile as that of the North Central States east of the Mississippi River, and the climate is drier. The chief industries are agriculture and stock-raising. Kansas is the geographical center of the United States. Rich mines of lead are found in the southeastern part of the State. 392. North Dakota contains the largest wheat farms in the world. A greater expanse of level plain is found here than in any other portion of the United States. Stock-raising is extensive in the western part. The climate is severe in winter. 393. South Dakota is similar to North Dakota in surface and climate. In the southwestern part are the Black Hills, which contain valuable deposits of gold, silver, and tin ore. Agriculture is the chief industry. CHIEF CITIES. 394. Chicago is the second city in population on the Western Hemisphere, and the great commercial and financial center of the interior of the United States. It possesses open water-ways through the Great Lakes and the Erie Canal to New York; through the lakes and the St. Lawrence River to European ports; and through canals to rivers connecting it with the Mississippi. More railroad lines center here than in any other city in the world, and it is the largest market for food products. The North Central States ship a large proportion of their products through this city. Its meat-packing establishments are more extensive than those of any other city. The manufactures are extensive and varied. 395. Cincinnati and Cleveland rank among the largest ten cities of the United States. Both serve as gates for mighty streams of water traflic. Cleveland is one of the handsomest cities of the Union. Cincinnati is the literary and musical center of the States of the Mississippi Valley. 39G. Detroit has the best harbor on the lakes. Its trade with Canada is extensive, and it contains many copper- and iron-smelt- ing works. 397. Milwaukee is noted for its iron and steel works and for the brewing of malt liquors. The cream-colored bricks known as " Milwaukee Brick," form the chief article of export. 398. St. Paul, located at the head of navigation on the Missis- sippi River, is an important railroad center, and contains numerous flouring-mills. 399. Minneapolis is located on the west side of the river near St. Paul. They are frequently called " Twin Cities." Minneapolis is the leading flour-producing city of the world. Wood-working is a leading industry in both of these cities. 400. Omaha is an important railroad center. The manufacture of railway supplies is the leading industry. Its silver-smelting works are the largest in the United States. It is the third pork- packing city in the Union. MINOR CITIES. 401. West Virginia. — Wheeling is an iron-manufacturing town, and produces more nails than any other city. Charleston is noted for its salt springs. 402. Indiana. — Indianapolis has excellent railroad connections and possesses extensive iron and wood manufactures. It is one of the largest cities in the Union not located on navigable water. Evansville has large and varied manufactures. It is surrounded by extensive coal-beds, which make fuel abundant and cheap. Vast quantities of agricultural products and provisions are shipped. 403. Michigan. — Grand Rapids has a fine water-power and is noted for its lumber trade. The manufacture of furniture is the leading industry. Ann Arbor is the seat of Michigan University, one of the best and most popular educational institutions in the United States. 404. Wisconsin. — Racine is noted for its extensive manufacture of agricultural implements, and has the largest threshing-machine factory in the world. 405. Minnesota. — Duluth is rapidly becoming a great commer- cial lake-port. It sends vast quantities of wheat eastward and ships westward immense supplies of coal from eastern mines. QUESTIONS. General Characteristics. — Into what groups of States is the agricultural region of the United States divided? Name the States of the North Central group. Describe their surface. State all the points of difference you can between the climate of this group and that where you live. Name three things that make this a manufacturing region as well as an agricultural. What raw materials are here changed into manufactured articles? What do you understand by "raw material?" What three things 64 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. contribute to make commerce an important industry? Which one of these also stimulates manufactures? Describe the shipping facilities of this region. Why are the railroad facil- ities so g^at? Why do you think the abundance of coal encourages the building of railroads? What is said of education? Characteristics of States. — Describe the surface of West Virginia. What of grain ? Live-stock ? Coal ? Name the States most closely resembling one another. Tell in what particulars. In what five particulars is the rank of Ohio given? What is its rank in each case? What of dairj-ing? Do j-ou know where the "Western Reserve" is? Have you ever heard of Western Reserve cheese? Name the important manufactures of Ohio. Extent of coal-fields. Give the characteristics of Indiana. In what par- ticulars is the rank of Illinois given as a producing State? What is its rank in each case? Extent of coal-fields? What is its staple agricultural product? Of what natural division of land does Michigan consist? Which part is agricultural? For what agricultural product is Michigan famed? What are its minerals? In what products does Michigan rank first? From what part of Michigan does salt come? (See Physical Map of the U. S. ) Name the chief productions of Wisconsin and describe the scenery. In what part of the State is dairying? (See Commercial Map of the U. S.) What is the peculiarity of the Minnesota drainage? In what respect are the physical features of Minnesota and Wisconsin similar? In what products does Minnesota rank first? Are they raw or manufactured products? For what products is Iowa distinguished? Which are raw and which manu- factured? In which does Iowa rank first? Give the characteristics of Kansas and Nebraska and the chief occupation of their people. Describe the surface and climate of North and South Dakota. Industries of the peo- ple. In which State and in what part are there extensive mineral deposits. Chief Cities. — Name the chief cities of this group of States. In what particulars is Chicago the first city of the world? Name any other distinc- tion of Chicago. Name the principal distinction of each of the following cities: Cincinnati; Cleveland; Milwaukee; Detroit; St. Paul; Minneapolis; Omaha. Original Studies. — Why do you think hogs are raised in corn-producing States? How many hog-products can you name? Make a list of twenty articles that are made of wood. What kind of trees in the North Central States do you find named on the physical map of the United States? What do you know that maj- be made from these trees? Why is the land of the Great Central Plain mostly fertile? What animals furnish material for boots and shoes? Cloth? From what besides animal products is cloth made? What is made of hemp? For what is copper used? Which would you rather own, a copper or an iron mine? Why? Find out, if you can, how salt is obtained and prepared for use. Why is wheat a valuable product? Name all the things that you know that are made from wheat. In which State would you prefer to live, California or Minnesota? Why? California or Kansas? Why? California or Ohio? Why? In which North Central city would you prefer to live? Why? What constitute railroad supplies? For what are threshing-machines used? MIDDLE BELT STATES. (Agricultural.) CALIF-ORNIA.— Sq. IVli., 168,380; Pop., 1,308,130; Pop. Sq. Ml., 7.e. States. Sq. Miles. I 1 Population, 189a. Pop. Sq. Mi. Sq. Miles. Population, 1S90. Pop. Sq. Mi. Virginia . , Kentucky. Tennessee 42,450 40,400 42,050 1,655,980 1,858,635 1,767,518 390 46.0 42.0 Missouri Indian Territory Oklahoma .... 69,415 31.400 39.030 2,679,184/ 74,997 61,834 38.6 2-3 1-5 DESCRIPTION.' GBNMRAJ, CHARACTERISTICS. 406. States of the Group. — \'irginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Indian Territory, and Ok la ho ma Territorj- form a belt of States and Territories lying between the Northern and Southern States. They possess the characteristics of both sections. 407. Surface and Resources. — All have a highly diversified surface except Indian and Oklahoma Territories, which are rolling prairie. Stores of iron, coal, and other minerals in the mountain- ous regions give emplo^-ment for many people; nourishing grasses on the lower mountain slopes furnish food for fine stock; and the yield of tobacco, hemp, and com on the low plains is not exceeded. 408. Forests. — Spreading over large areas of these States are wooded tracts of great extent. In the higher regions the oak, poplar, hickory, chestnut, ash, sycamore, and elm flourish. Near the sea grow the pine, oak, cypress, and cedar. CHARACTERISTICS OF STATES. 409. Virginia is excelled in the quantity and quality of its tobacco only by Kentucky. About 16,900,000 oysters from the oyster-beds along the Chesapeake are gathered and shipped to other States each year. Manufactories of agricultural implements, cotton factories, tobacco factories, and iron foundries flourish. 410. Kentucky and Tennessee are chiefly agricultural States, the vast mineral resources of the eastern portion not being exten- sively developed. The plateau region produces hemp, wheat, com. oats, rye, barley, Irish and sweet potatoes. The low western section grows fine crops of tobacco. In central Kentucky is the well-known blue-grass region, famous for grazing purposes. Kentucky is world-renowned for its fine breeds of horses and cattle. The largest cavern in the world, Mammoth Cave, is in this State. 411. Missouri is so located as to possess a variety of products and industries. Northern Missouri, like the Central States, yields com, wheat, and oats; southern Missouri produces tobacco and cotton. Its manufactures are extensive, and similar to those of other States of the Mississippi Valley. Missouri contains the most remarkable iron-ore deposits in the world. Lead is an important product of southwestern Missouri. Though one of the Middle Belt States the climate of Missouri is severe. The summers are generally very warm and the winters cold and protracted. 412. Indian Territory is set aside by the United States Gov- ernment as an Indian Reservation. The inhabitants consist of Indians who originally dwelt here or have been brought hither by the Ck)verament from other parts of the Union. Many of the Indians have become civilized. These have built towns and cultivated farms, which produce corn, oats, barley, hay, etc. The other Indians still maintain their tribal relations, and are sup' ported partly by the Government and partly by stock-raising. The several tribes each have control of a certain portion of the land. Each makes its own laws and administers its own government }. Pffon ivadlng tliK dMcrlptlon, study map qnestions on Middle Belt States, p. 58. THE SOUTHERN STATES. 65 413. Oklahoma Territory was organized out of Indian Territory by Act of Congress, April 22, 1889. It comprises 2,000,000 acres of land. The land is adapted to farm- ,„„ yi^^'^l ing, and thousands of people have located here since the Territory was opened to settlers CHJEP CITIES. 414. St. Louis, just below the junction of the Missouri and Mississippi, commands an extensive traffic both by water and by railroad. It is the first city in population and commerce in the Middla£elt States, and the^^fifccity in the Union in population. Meat packing and the manufacture of steel rails, glass, beer, flour, and brick are the leading industries. The chief exports are cattle, cattle products, tobacco, cotton, cotton-seed oil, and sugar 415. Kansas City has developed rapidly through its excellent railroad facilities. In the importance of its railroad connections, beef- and pork-packing, and its dressed beef market, it ranks next to Chicago. Kansas City, Kansas, is an important commercial suburb. 416. Louisville, on the Ohio River, is the largest tobacco market in the world. It is an important exchange center of food products from the north, and raw materials from the south. large quantities of whisky and metal goods. It manufactures MINOR CITmS. 417. Tennessee. — Nashville is at the head of navigation on the Cumberland River. Memphis is the most important com- mercial river-port between St. Louis and New Or- leans. 418. Missouri. — St. Joseph is an important railway center. It has considerable commercial importance, but is chiefly noted for its manufactures. QUESTIONS. ^^^"' General Characteristics. — Name the States of this group and give their location. Give the three physical regions of this group and name their products. Variety and local- ity of forest trees. Characteristics of States. — Which of these States ranks first in tobacco.? Which second? What of oysters? Blue-grass? Horses and cattle? Iron? Lead? What of climate in Missouri? Describe the condition of Indian Territory. Of Oklahoma Territory. Chief Cities. — Rank in population of St. Louis. Leading manufactures. Exports. Rank of Kansas City as a meat-packing point. THE SOUTHERN STATES. CA-LIKORNIA— Sq, Mi., 158,3SO; Pop., 1,20S,130; Pop. Sq.' Ml., r.Q. States. Sq. Miles. Population, 1890. Pop. Sq. Mi. States. Sq. Miles. PopulaUon. 1890. Pop. Sq. Mi. North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida 52,250 30,570 59,475 58,680 1,617,947 1,151,149 1,837,353 391,422 30.9 37-5 30.8 6.6 Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas 52,250 46,810 48,720 265,780 1,513,017 1,289,600 1,118,587 . 2,235,523 28.9 275 22.9 8.4 DESCRIPTION. GENERAl CHARACTERISTICS. 419. States of the Group.— The Southern States are North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkan'sas, and Texas. 420. Surface, Drainage, and Soil. — The surface consists principally of the lowlands of the South Atlantic and Gulf slopes. The highlands are formed by the extension of the Appalachian System into this section. The most elevated region east of the Mississippi is located in the western part of North Carolina. This section is drained by a multitude of rivers, which are mostly short and innavigable above tide-water. The soil is exceedingly fertile. 421. The Atlantic Plain attains its greatest width in these States, and may here be divided into three parallel belts, commonly known as the coast swamp, the pine barrens, and the foot-hill belt. Much of the coast is bordered by long, sandy islands. 422. The Gulf Slope consists mostly of lowland, much of that part near the coast being swampy. Like the South • Atlantic coast the shore is skirted by long and narrow islands. The rivers are sluggish in the low plain region, and tide-water extends inward from 200 to 300 miles. Much of the land on either side of the lower Mississippi is below the river-level at high-water periods. Levees have been built along the banks of the river to protect the land from overflow. Occasionally a break in a levee causes vast areas to become submerged. 423. The Climate of the lowlands is moist and hot. Mild winters and long, hot summers prevail. In the higher portion the climate is dry and temperate. 424. Vegetation. — Forests of yellow pine extend along the coasts, and the swamps are covered with cypress and cedar. 425. Industries. — This section is chiefly devoted to agriculture. The farms are called plantations and most of the work is done by colored laborers. The leading products are cotton, com, sugar, and rice. Coal and iron interests are rapidly developing. 426. Cotton. — Two thirds of the cotton raised in the world is produced in these States. Sea-island cotton — the finest quality of cotton grown — is raised on the islands off the coast of South Car- olina, Georgia, and Florida. It is chiefly used in the manufacture of laces and other fine goods. v^Ss^***'^^^""'' ft DENVER Akpohv N !«»■ Spring, , - ^ ' A > ''^y''^'^^^ ^ Los Animas' ''i " s-it- .J**, ST. JOSEPH ^^- • i^'v. J ffutch!nsoi\ •Xouncil Dodge* ^""^Vn^s^^ Fortf \^Girard (Win. i/ifW •^fgasS' kC*S ^--i^ 1 vJ-' I -^^sf H .. • ^ City * '•■^*ic2yx>tr «. i ■5;.r K^ Neosho _©^ ttB«y <0^' -<^* '^X^Y.^'"^" V N ::^' 7 ^Sf"■«* JWJCW:-A! i: h^N'^ .N*^ jOR 1- Uj JCIOW. COM AMCHESyl A •! D 1 /I > \ 1 X«J|| •Krebs *Vl Jont*bc "W?* ^ ^*"^ '^ ■K-v >^ 4- CHOCTAW L'--«iice« V / / /■ -J G<>/'i>«3. CT\ vD lo ^^ »o r^ CT\ CO ■* O lO lO a" a P. 4; 8 g.8 ■ TS c a S « -^ 'g 'A'i^ <'A ,^ o\ O _ •d be • !> >-< ■!? ol l| (fl h Xi '- j3 O o •^•s s c '^ o u xn a a tn 3 5 • ?4 o d ■^ 'C — ' , 00 rt ^ :^ a •2 S5 ^ ii o <^ S he 9 « - o a V - 3 -y n ° " 9 ^ i O >^ ni s«| CJ IP -^ ^ °-3 • &< CLi « u, a V .t: o I. S * pL, o "< ■V > rt §^ § ft^ ^ ►C t/3 X c a 3 o _r Ph > .« (U u -^ O. P< lU C o -^ D 5 u 3 •a o 05 H a s: n 3 -* o o •SS o w C '3 a 3 d V •^-^ O C XI « °:: v^ ° 5 o « u. .£i 5 o X o CO 5 a to rt 13 rt .5 • ol d ^~* ^ ^, lO o J* Tfi •;; > O cd U J3 tn cd a o o <3 <3J CI I? Cd •O cd t 'A cd o 't. o be Cd _; 4 4-* td C/) ffl [/) > a I a 13 1 .§ a flj O tn K^ 4-j g3 1) (^ cd ta o 9 o cd "5 f. U O ^ o- >" .a 13 I— I C cd 3 O rt .2 43 c8 ° i H 43 a> ca CJ > s ■ S b :td 3 H •a "J M a 2 ^ 'S 3 cn ■3 « ° fe o g ca j3 u S S a 5 ^ s I s a J5 o ^ •f! 43 e a a ,, u i?1 T3 M a « cd 4> a ^ 1 JS ir ^^ CJ O O 4J I— > M ,, to .2^ .. a *^ a o C5 o 8 -d ~ t; S a CL, a 03 V . 'O v) a o .2 M u .2 3 > 3 S b CJ 3 •r w- 1i ^•5 o all S CO 8 « u !5 § o n g S ° i •2 Is t». t. (A QMS •o . » (3 CJ ^ 5-° a 5 S &3 72 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. with occasional summer rains, but the winters are sometimes so cold that large herds of cattle perish on the ranges. Arizona and western New Mexico are warm and receive nearly all of their rains during the summer months. 453. Grass not cut dries into hay standing on the soil, and provides excellent food for cattle throughout the year^. 454. Mineral Wealth of the Plateau States.— This is one of the richest silver regions of the world. Coal, iron, copper, lead, salt, tin, and borax are abundant. There are j-et to be developed many of the mineral re- sources, as ' some por- tions are not con- are unequaled in number by those of all the rest of the earth. The geysers, some of which eject intermittent jets of hot water to a great height, are constantly gurgling, spitting, steaming, roaring, and exploding. ^^^^91 ■ '*^***^^|~|lj&q^ri^^g^ — * « H M|d i ^^"^^ H^^^^^ 9 ^^^1 ^^B| >>^ ' u0^ ■KC^ ^^^^^^1 x^ ^^^^^ l^fev -r ' a o :^^s»- ^^^^^ Hk^. ' — wht Ik ■K : I B Hk^ ^^B^^ ' '-' — _^B^| Bn ^^P ^■ BI^^^^SHI mi veniently accessible, **Oo owing to the insufficiency of natural facilities for transportation. 455. Industries. — Stock-raising is a leading industry throughout this entire region, but mining is the chief occupation in Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Colorado, and Arizona. 456. Population.— This is the most thinly populated portion of the United States, and the inhabitants consist largely of immigrants from other States, and Indians, who are confined to reser\'ations. 457. Transportation Facilities. — In all of this region railroads are few compared with the States east of the Rocky Mountains, and there are few navigable rivers. Traveling between places not connected by railroad is conducted b}- means of stages, and freight is carried in wagons drawn by mules or horses. 458. Education. — In the settled portions, education receives much attention, and the common schools rank favorably with schools of similar grade in other States. 459. The Yellowstone National Park is located in the north- western part of this plateau. It contains many varied examples of striking natural scenery. It is especially notable for its hot springs and geysers, which are unparalleled in magnificence, and YELLOWSTONK PARK CHARACTERISTICS OF STATES. 460. States with Like Characteristics. — Idaho, Mon- tana, and Wyoming are much alike in surface, climate, produc- tions, and occupations. All are mountainous, being crossed by the Rocky Mountains. All are mining and stock-raising States. The climate of these States is colder than that of any other portion of the Western Plateau division. 461. Idaho has verj- fertile river- valleys. Gold and silver are found in everj' county. Most of the land is devoted to grazing. 462. Montana contains some of the largest stock- ? ranches in the world. It is rich in gold, silver, iron, i^'*"* and coptjer deposits. Mining is the chief source of wealth to the State. 463. Wyoming. — Gold, silver, coal, iron, and lead are the prin- cipal mineral products of this State. 464. Nevada has a rugged surface, crossed by numerous short mountain - chains. Much of the soil is too drj- for the production of any vegetation save sage-brush. Cattle find feed in the river -vallej-s. This State contains vast deposits of rock-salt and enough borax to supply the world. The great source of Nevada's wealth lies in its silver mines, which are located princi- pally on what is called the Comstock Lode, in the western part of the State. The deepest shaft is down about 3,300 feet. The Humboldt River, in the northeastern part of Nevada, with an estimated length of 350 miles, is the longest inland river of the Western Continent. In its upper course the water is rapid and flows with a large volume. In its lower course much of the water evaporates, lea\'ing, during the summer, only a succession of alkaline pools. 465. Utah Territory contains many fertile valleys, whose farm products supply the towns of the neighboring Basin States. Utah potatoes are shipped to all parts of the United States. Much land, originally barren for want of water, has been rendered fertile by irrigation. Agriculture ranks first as an industry, and mining second. WESTERN In this 'S&i^bory is located Great Salt Lake, which receives the drainage of the portion of the Great Basin east of central Nevada. 466. Colorado is crossed near the center by the Rocky Mount- ains. The highest part of the Rocky Mountains, containing a group of lofty mountain-peaks, is located near the central part of the State. Colorado surpasses all the other States of this section in mining, commerce, and transportation facilities. It is now the leading silver State of the Union, producing three times as much silver as any other State or Territory. Gold is also a leading mineral, and iron ore and coal are abundant in many parts of the State. Among other minerals for which this State is noted are beautifully variegated marbles, amethyst, topaz, garnet, jasper, agate, and onyx. Celebrated hot springs and a dry healthful climate make some sections popular resorts for invalids. 467. Arizona has a hot, dry climate, especially in the southern part. The rainy sea- son begins about the first of July and lasts from six to eight weeks. In the lower plains the temperature is such that crops will grow and mature at any season of the year, provided there is a suffi- cient supply of moisture. The irrigable land produces an excellent quality of semi-trop- ical fruits. Cattle-raising is carried on to a considerable extent, but gold and silver mining is the chief occupation of the State.' 468. New Mexico was first settled by the Spanish, and the present inhabitants are chiefly a mixed race, descendants of the Indians and Spanish. The Spanish language is chiefly spoken. Wool - growing and cattle- raising are leading em- ployments. 474. Wyoming.- PLATEAU STATES. ' 73 ^aJCoJU . . ., , 471. Ogden is the terminus of several tijanscontinental railroads, and is a rapidly gro\ying place. MINOR CITIMS. 472. Idaho.— Boi'ge City is located at the head of a fertile valley of considerable extent, and is the seat of a United States office for assaying gold. Malad City, Lewi.ston, and Idaho City are the remaining chief towns of this State. 473. Montana. — Hel e'na is i^i the midst of a gold-mining region. Butte City is an important mining center. Fort Benton is a center of fur trade. Cheyenne (shi en') is a distributing point for a large section. Laramie City is the center of a great stock- raising region. 475. Nevada. — Virginia City is built on the site of the famous Comstock silver lode. It de- rives its support through the mining operations going on beneath and immediately about it. Gold Hill, Carson City, and' Eureka are other important towns. 476. Colorado. — Pueblo is the second city in size in this State, and is an important rail- road center. Leadville is one of the chief mining towns west of the Rocky Mountains. 477. Arizona. — Phoenix is the commercial center and dis- tributing point of the Salt River Valley. Tuc s6n', the oldest city in Arizona, was founded in 1694 by the Spanish. The town still contains many of the queer, flat-roofed adobe buildings of the early settlers. Tombstone is the leading mining town of the Territory. 478. New Mexico. — Santa Fe is one of the oldest towns on the continent. Spanish is the prevailing language. CASoN of the COLORADO. CHIEF CITIES. 469. Denver is the commercial center of one of the richest mining districts of the Union. It is a well-built and well-lighted city, with clean streets, good sewerage, and excellent public schools. It is about 5,000 feet above the level of the sea, iti an atmosphere that is dry, pure, and exhilarating. 470. Salt Lake City is the commercial center of the Great Interior Basin. It was settled by Mormons under Brigham Young in 1847, and has always been largely under their influence. The finest public buildings are for religious purposes. The great taber- nacle is an oval-shaped structure, seating about 7,000 people. 1. The Grand Cafion of the Colorado is a stupendous gorge cut through the plateau by the river. It is one of the grandest features of natural scenery in the world. Imagine a cleft in the rock over 400 miles long, with walls varying from 1,000 to 6,coo feet in height descending perpendicularly to the bed of the river, and carved in all manner of fantastic QUESTIONS. General Characteristics. — Name the States of the Plateau division. How is this region formed? Describe this group as to: Adaptation to agriculture; grazing; mining. As to: Climate; transportation facilities; education. Characteristics of States. — Which States of this group most resemble one another, and in what particulars? What is said on the following topics: Valleys of Idaho; ranches of Montana; rock-salt, borax, and silver in Nevada; potatoes and agriculture in Utah; minerals in Colorado; climate and crops in Arizona? Chief Cities. — Of Denver, describe the commerce, streets, and schools. Commerce, settlement, and religion of Salt Lake City. Railroads in Ogden. Minor Cities. — State the chief distinction of each of these cities. shapes by the action of the stream through ages, and by the storms of centuries. Imagine, at the bottom of this chasm, the river dashing along through its rocky channel, which it is still deepening. It is joined along its course by tributaries rushing down side caBons, which these little rivers hollow out for themselves in imitation of the larger stream. 74 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. THE PACIFIC COAST STATES. CA.LIB'ORNIA— Sq. Ml., 158,360; Pop., 1,208,130; Pop. Sq. Mi , 7.6. States. Sq. Miles. Population, 1890. S^°Mi. 1 STATES. Sq. Miles. Population, ■890. Pop. Sq. Mi. Oregon 96.030 313.767 3-2 Washington 69,180 349,390 50 DESCRIPTION.' GENERAL, CHARACTERISTICS. 479. The Pacific Coast States are Washington, Oregon, and California. North of these lies the Territory of Alaska.' 480. The Surface in the northern part is divided by the Cas- cade Mountains into two distinct physical regions. The eastern portion consists of high plains. The western part is mostly low- land. The princi- pal features of the southern p^rt of this group will be described in the chapter on Cali- fornia. 481. The Climate of the part east of the Cascade Mountains is similar to that of Idaho and Montana, while that west of the mountains is modified by Pacific waters and is much warmer in winter and cooler in summer than interior parts of the continent, or the Atlantic coast in corresponding latitudes. There are two seasons — one wet and one dry. During the wet season much rain falls in the section west of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada mountains. 482. Industries.-/-In all these States agricultu^ ^Vfti^ ^^'^^ industrj-.J Grain-farming and hop-raising are the mest-i mp o rt a n t pursuits in the lowlands of the north, and stock-raising of the highlands. In the south the cultivation of fruit is general and is rapidly increasing. Much of the section west of the Cascades is covered with dense forests. Austraha and many of the South 1. Before reading this description, study map questions on Pacific Coast States, p. 71. 2. Alask^ was purchased from Russia in 1867, for $7,200,000. Its principal importance is due to the ertensive seal fisheries, centering at the Pribilofif Islands, though salmon and cod fisheries are extensive. The sealing grounds are leased by the United States to a company, which has the sole right to the trade in furs. Rich gold mines are said to exist in the interior, but the great snowfall renders mining impracticable through much of the year. The mountain regions are well timbered with Sitkan spruce and yellow Alaslcan cedar. The open country of the west is covered with a heavy growth American States are largely supplied with lumber from these States. Gold and silver mining are leading pursuits in the south. . 483. Education. — Much attention is given to education, and the public schools are generally of a high order. CHARACTERISTICS OF STATES. 484. Washington is one of the last States admitted to the Union. It is rapidly growing in agriculture, commerce, and population. Wheat, barley, and oats are extensively raised in the southeastern part; hops and hay in the western. Cattle are raised in all parts and sheep husbandrj- is increasing east of the Colum- bia River and south of SpokSnV. Fruit- growing is also rapidly increasing, and is gradually becoming a leading industry'. The principal fruit -district is in the neighborhood of Puget Sound. Coal and iron mining are extensively carried on in the same region. Coal is the most valuable export of the State. Salmon is canned along the lower portion of the Columbia River. Washington possesses a majestic forest growth. The Douglas spruce, or red fir, predominates. It grows to immense proportions. White cedar is next in abundance and size, as well as in commercial importance. The immense quantity and fine quality of the timber, with the excellent facilities for direct water communication from Puget Sound, first attracted settlement in this district. The State has direct communication with the eastern portion of the United States by means of two transcontinental railroads. Puget Sound is, next to San Francisco Bay, the best harbor on the Pacific coast of North America. In 1880 the population of Washington, then a Territor>-, was only 75,000. Since that time it has gained nearly 275,000. Normal schools are established at Ellensburg and Cheney, and a State University at Seattle is supported by liberal appropria- tions. 485. Oregon. — The ocean and river waters that border Oregon produce an abundance of different kinds of food-fishes, which are an immense source of wealth to the State. Up to the present time the most successful fishing is that of salmon. The salmon export ranks next to that of wheat and flour. In one year salmon to the value of $3,000,000 have been packed in the Columbia River canneries. of weeds and grass, interspersed with small groves of alder, poplar, and willow along the water^courses. The population of Alaska is l.etween 35,000 and 38,000, of whom but one seventh are white. The native inhabitants of Alaska are Eskimos and .\leuts. Both are squalid and ignorant, and show a disposition to adopt the vices rather than the virtues of civilization. The Aleuts are superstitious in religion, and profit but little from the schools established by the government. Sitka, the capital and largest city, contains but 850 people. Alaska has a Governor appointed by the President of the United States, but has no repres«-ntative in Congress. THB PACIFIC COAST STATES. 75 Cattle- and sheep-raising are two of the most important indus- tries of the State. Wheat of the best quality is grown extensively, and is the chief crop of the State. The manu- facture of flour is the leading industry. Apples reach greater perfection here than else- where in the Coast States. The richest farming section is that of the Willamette Valley. Lum- bering is important, the west central part of Oregon being heavily timbered with pine, fir, and spruce. Commerce is carried on by means of the Columbia River, transcontinental rail- roads, and Pacific Coast railroads. Oregon has five normal schools, supported in part by the State, and a State University. : j\Vi»\Wve5 \ mil A' (jTii-s. [For cities and towns of California, see chapter on California.] 486. Portland is a fine river-port and the center of transportation in Oregon. It is located on the Willamette River, 1 2 miles from its confluence with the Columbia, and 100 miles from the ocean. It is the distributing point for an immense tract of rich farming land. Grain, flour, wool, and lumber are its exports. 487. Se at'tle and Tacoma, the most important cities of Washington, are marvels of rapid growth, having increased in popu- lation, respectively, from 3,500 and 1,000, in 1880, to 42,873 and 36,006 in i8go. Coal, lumber, and wheat are the leading articles of export. MINOR CITmS. 488. Washington. — Walla Walla is the center of a fine agricultural region. Spokane is also an agricultural center and noted for its rapid growth. Olympia is a desirable city for residence, and Port Townsend, at the foot of Puget Sound, is an important port. 489. Oregon. — Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia, ships immense quantities of canned salmon. Oregon City, Salem, the capital, Albany, Corvallis, and Eugene City, the seat of the State University, are all thriving towns on the Willamette. The Dalles is a picturesquely situated town on the Columbia, 200 miles from its mouth. QUESTIONS. General Characteristics.— Name the Pacific Coast States. Describe the surface of the northern part. Which States of the group are embraced in this description? Leading industry? Other industries? Education? Characteristics of States.— Of Washington, state the agricultural prod- ucts of the southeast; in the neighborhood of Puget Sound; the extent of cattle-raising; location of fruit industry; locality of coal and iron min- ing; extent and importance of forest resources; commercial advantages. Of Oregon, state the four chief sources of revenue ; its commercial advantages. Chief Cities. —Give the location of Portland. Exports of Portland. Exports of Seattle and Tacoma. Minor Cities.— Wliat of Walla Walla? Spokane? Astoria? Drainage and » If" Physical Map of CALIFOENIA EXPUhMATION. ' OOLOSEDARSASofUQddniai&toOwpKdnaO CKCOLORSD ABXAS dnin iulo iliiki or |Mrfodkftl Ukm, K£D LUCES dtow Um chief ntcr putiapL TKLLOW lodleatM dM nxNuuvn stopca of the OBBtnl Talkr. ,^ 6KEB3T npnaeati tb« level pUiu of the Ccntnl and ether kwT«Ue7«. PINK, 4UdraIa«itaito th«Mcu«zeepttheCMlnlTal%. (KlMHth Beeb s dM^er tfaade.) BLSZ, the oetsa and pemawutt Uua, PCBI'LI, praiodkMl lakes. — FiaOBCSlbovalttoAeitifbetaboTetlMoaeaii. LABOX 8UB8 tedkMe noDBtatn paaka oT«f 18,000 fcct bigh. BICAIL BTAB8 bidtata peaka ft«B 1UX» to ia.000 feet ki(h. ZM>T WnH A GB08B indbala Mlabk peak* &0B 8,000 to U.a)0 ftat U^ u MKX) to 8,000 CMt U^ iSECTIQN FROM DEATH VALLEY .VESTWAflP TO THE OCEAN (ALTITUDES MUCH EXAGGERATED) CALIFORNIA. 77 MAP QUESTIONS. [Answer from the open map.] Read the explanation of colors, signs, etc., in the lower left hand corner of the map. Trace with your eye one of the water-partings, and notice that it separates the sources of rivers. Do the streams generally flow directly away from the water-parting? Would water or a marble run down the sloping lid of your desk in a line at right angles to the hinged edge? How would tipping the desk to the right affect its course? Experiment with a board, the first opportunity. Beginning at the eastern extremity of San Francisco Bay, trace the bound- ary of the Sacramento and San Joaquin River System, noticing the altitudes of peaks and passes. Which rim of this basin, eastern or western, is higher? What part of each is highest? Which bordering mountain slope (colored yellow) is broadest? Do most of the streams in the pink and yellow areas run in canons? What do you know of their courses in the green areas? Find the area of this basin approximately by counting the rectangles formed by the parallels and meridians.' In the same way find the area of the valley, or plains, portion of the basin. Estimate the area of all the surface which does not drain into the ocean. Do you count the ancient bed of the Gulf of California? Why? Give the location of the following points: Mount Pi'nos; Point Conception; Mount Shasta. Trace the Coast Range through the State. The Sierra Nevada. Give the location of Goose Lake. Describe Pitt River. Give the location of Lake Ta hoV. Of Clear Lake. By what parallel of latitude are they crossed? Give the location of San Francisco Bay. Of Lake Tu li're. Describe the San Joaquin River. Kings River. Klamath River. Trace the Siskiyou Mountains. The Shasta Mountains. Describe the Salinas River. Give the location of Mount San Bernardino. Where is the Colorado River? The peninsula of Lower California? The Colorado Desert? Give the location of Death Valley. Of Mount Whitney. Of Monterey Bay. Describe the Los Angeles River. Smith River. Mo ha've River. Where is Soda Lake? Salton Lake? Lassen's Peak? Mount Dana? Mount TSm'alpais (pice)? The Yo s£m'i te Valley? (For places not on physical map, see county map of California.) CALIFORNIA. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION. THU GREAT CENTRAI, BASIN. 490. The Most Striking Physical Feature of the Pacific Coast region lying between the peninsula of California and Piiget Sound is the mountain-rimmed basin of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, whose surplus water is poured into the ocean through San Francisco Bay and the Golden Gate. 491. Position, Shape, and Dimensions. — This basin, lying parallel with the coast, extends from Mount Pinos, in the latitude of Point Conception, to Mount Shasta, seven degrees, or nearly 500 miles, farther north. The cre.st of the Coast Range, which forms its western boundary, is for three fourths of its length about 30 miles from the ocean. The snowy peaks of the Sierra Nevada, 1 70 miles from the coast, mark the greater part of the eastern boundary, lycaving out an easterly projection' at the north end, the shape is that of a slightly curved ellipse. The area of this basin is between 60,000 and 70,000 square miles. About two sevenths of its surface is occupied by the level valley- plain which forms the bottom of the basin. The lowest part of this basin lies along the western side, because the highest mount- ains are along its eastern border. 492. Depression of the Western Border to the Sea-Level. Near the 38th parallel the western rim of the basin descends to the sea-level, and the united rivers of the valley pour through the gap into San Francisco Bay. 493. Tulare Lake has a drainage-system nearly separate from the remainder of the basin. Fonnerly it emptied into the San Joaquin River, but now it loses, by evaporation, all the water poured into it by its Sierra Nevada tributaries. At times of unusually high water. Kings River empties a portion of its flood through Fresno Slough into the San Joaquin.' WEST SI,OPE OF THE COAST RANGES. 494. The Klamath is by far the largest of the coast rivers. The Siskiyou Mountains form the northern rim of the Klamath Basin. The Shasta Mountains, extending south from Mount Shasta, separate this basin from the Great Central Basin; and a 1. The distance between the halMegree parallels is nearly 35 miles; and the average distance between the meridians is about 27 miles in this State. 2. This projection is separated from the plateau of the interior drainage-system of the Western Plateau States by a water-parting so low that the Basin of Goose Lake might be included in either the Plateau Basin or in the Central Basin of California. ridge which extends northwest from the Shasta Mountains to the ocean forms the southwest boundary. Numerous spurs from the.se mountains cut the Klamath Basin into small, mostly elevated valleys. 495. West Slope South of the Klamath Valley.— Most of this slope south of the Klamath is drained by streams which flow in valleys parallel to the coast. South of San Francisco Bay to the head of the Sa li'nas kiver, near the 35th parallel, the drainage is again mostly parallel to the coast and toward the north. South of the Salinas River Basin the streams mostly run directly to the ocean from sources near the summit of the Coast Range. INTERIOR DRAINAGE-AREAS. 496. Lake Region of the Northeast. — The northeast part of the State lying outside the Great Central Basin is remarkable for its lakes. These lose by evaporation all the water that runs into them, and thus fill up with the soluble* earthy salts which hundreds of years of rain-washing and leaching have removed from their drainage-areas. A few overflow into lower lakes or sinks, thus keeping their water fresh; and some, Uke Goose Lake, have only ^pcently begun to save their salt. South of L,ake Tahoe the only permanent lakes are near the constantly melting snows of the Sierra Nevada. These lie in elevated valleys, with lofty mountains on the east as well as on the west. 497. Southeastern Drainage. — The most important mount- ain-ranges in the southeastern part of the State are indicated on the map by red water-parting lines; but there is rarely much water to part, so most of the streams, as well as the lakes, have dry beds for the greater part of the year. The water-parting which runs southeast from Mount Pinos divides at Mount San Bernardino. The eastern arm of low, barren mountains extends to the Colorado River, and the higher western arm continues on through the peninsula of Lower California. The triangular area included between these water-partings and the large Colorado River is known as the Colorado Desert, half of which is 3. The lake, having no ontlet, must necessarily vary in size. In 1884, its surface corre- sponded with the blue area on the map. Sometimes it extends over the area represented by the purple. Perhaps the lake will be much smaller or disappear entirely when its tributaries are used for irrigation, and a channel is dug to the San Joaquin. *solubUl susceptible of being dissolved in a fluid; capable of solution. 78 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. in California. A large portion of the northern part of this desert is lower than the surface of the gulf, of which it was once a part, and from which it was probably separated by the delta-building of the Colorado River. Occasionally the Colorado River breaks through its levee-like banks and sends part of its flood northward into this low, salt-covered basin, which then becomes a lake. This periodical lake is called Salton Lake. Another depression below the sea-level occurs in Death Valley, in the latitude of Mount Whitney, which is probably the highest peak in the United States. PSCUIIARITIES OF CALIFORNIA RIVSRS. 498. South of Monterey Bay. — In the dry season nearly all the rivers emptying into the ocean south of Monterey Bay sink beneath the surface of the sandy or gravelly beds of their lower courses.' Usually, however, there is a slow subterranean* flow onward to the sea. 499. Rivers of the North Coast.— The greater rainfall of the north coast, and the power of the forest-clad mountains to retain a portion of the water, to be given out through springs, keeps up a summer flow in even the smaller creeks. Los Angeles River looks larger on the map than Smith River, which flows from the Siskiyou Mountains; yet the deep, cold waters of the latter, flowing through a dense redwood forest, are scarcely fordable in July, when the bed of the former is dry. 500. Streams Flowing into the Central Valley. — As shown upon^the map, many of the streams draining the west slope of the Sierra Nevada sink upon entering the valley. The only permanent streams flowing into the Central Basin from the west rise north of Clear Lake. 501 . The Mohave River probably once flowed in a continuous stream to the lake whose dry bed is called Death Valley. Now, in the drj' season, it runs for most of its course beneath the sand and gravel which fill its channel. In places where its bed is shallow it appears above ground for a short distance. Near Soda Lake it sinks for the eighth time, after flowing ten miles above ground. Creeks of the coast ranges often behave in this "hide-and- seek" way. ARTESIAN WELL.' 1. Some of the redwood groveB in Monterey County retain water enough to supply perennial* creeks. 2. The cat represents a cross-section of the earth and rocks underlying a valley in which it is possible to have artesian wells. Streams running down the slope from a cross the upper edge of the sand-stratum at ^. More or less of the water sinks into the sand until it becomes filled. If, then, a well is bored at c, the water will rise and overflow. The well-pipe could be extended up to the level of the upper or out-cropping part of the sand-stratum and the water would fill it. Generally there are many alternating layers of sand and clay. Some of the water-bearing sand-strata may not give flowing wells, while others— generally deeper — having their upper edges higher, would yield a strong flow of water. 3. Long before the Sierra Nevada had been carved into its present form, when its rivers flowed through broad, shallow valleys into the sea where now lies the Central Valley, a period of great volcanic activity began. Volcanoes along the line from Lassen's Peak to Mount Dana poured out great quantities of ashes, which, washing into the streams, filled their channels with mud. This, hardening at the bottom and overflowing above, sometimes acquired a depth of over i.ooo feet, thus ARTSSIAN W:^IIS. 502. Number and Origin.— There are thousands of wells in this State which overflow, thus furnishing perennial streams of water like natural springs. Where such wells are possible the geological structure must be similar to that shown in the figure. VOI^CANIC ACTION IN CALIFORNIA. 503. Extinct Volcanoes.— Mount Shasta, Lassen's Peak, and other extinct volcanoes of the north have covered the larger part of the lake-region with thick beds of lava and volcanic ash. In the Mohave country, also, and along the east side of the Sierra Nevada there are many extinct volcanoes. By far the most important and interesting volcanic action on this coast is that which has preserved nearly 400 miles of ancient river-channels filled with gold-bearing gravel.' ^--*-^-''/>