Cfoto.AJfift Okraid LATIN GRAMMAR. PRPNTHO BV WOTTISWOODK AND CO., NEW-STRHET StJVAKI THE PUBLIC SCHOOL LATIN GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS, BY BENJAMIN HALL KENNEDY, D.D. HONORARY FELLOW OF ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE ; REGIUS PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN THE UNIVERSITY ; AND CANON OF ELY. Nihil ex grammatica nocuerit nisi quod supervacuum est ; neque niHi obstant hae discipliruc per illas euntibus, sed circa illas haerentibus. QUINTIL. Inst. Orat. lib. i. cap. iv. SEVENTH EDITION. LONDON: LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. AND NEW YORK : 15 EAST i6< SI'RLET. 1890. PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION i. BY AN AGREEMENT between the Proprietors and Mr. John Peile, Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge, it is arranged that the ' Public School Latin Grammar,' with the books akin to it, shall hereafter be revised by Mr. Peile as joint and, in due time, sole Editor. Mr. Peile's merits as a classical and Sanskrit scholar, and as an able teacher, are widely known. Those who have the advantage of nearer acquaintance with him will be assured that the maintenance and improvement ol these books, as means of public instruction, could not be placed in safer keeping. 2. The First Edition of this Grammar, published in January 1871, was introduced by the following Preface : 'The " Public School Latin Grammar" is simply a develop- ment of the Primer, in conformity with the design of those, who, after accepting the latter book, entrusted to the same Editor the preparation of the former. The difference between the elementary compendium and the higher work is such as might be justly expected. Whilst the general principles and many of the paradigms are in both the same, in the Grammar the subject-matter is arranged more systematically, the body of examples very much increased, the illustration wider, and a large amount of information is added, which in the Primer does not appear at all. 088 vi Preface. 1 Yet a Grammar of this size does not profess to be an exhaus- tive treatise on its subject. Competent and careful students, who combine its use with the reading of authors and the prac- tice of composition, so as to master its contents, ought indeed to become Latin scholars of considerable width and power; but they will still find much to learn in the field of Latin, which must be gathered from special monographies by eminent scholars, some of whom are occasionally cited in the following pages. 'At the present lime, when the science of Comparative Philology has made such advance, that good living scholars know far more of the history and organism of the Latin lan- guage than was known to Quintilian and the old grammarians, the publication of a Higher Latin Grammar, without reference to the facts and principles of that science, would be a retro- gressive and senseless act. It must, however, be remembered that the chief end and aim of a Classical Latin Grammar is, to impress upon the minds of students the forms and construc- tions found in classical authors. Its office, therefore, is to use Comparative Philology as a guide and auxiliary in teaching Latin, not to teach Comparative Philology itself through the medium of Latin. This principle has been kept in view by the Editor throughout his work. The just mean is always hard to observe ; but he may venture to say that he has not strayed from it wilfully. In the Appendix, indeed, and in a few other places, he has thought it not inexpedient to cite some of the most important affinities between Latin and other Aryan languages and dial cts ; but only with a view to point the path of future study, not to furnish the student with a sufficient knowledge of the several subjects there noticed.' 3. The following passages are taken from the Preface to the Second Edition, published in 1874 : ' Competent and candid critics are aware that a book of this size, in spite of its title, is not meant for school use in the same sense as the Primer and other lesson-books of a similar kind. As a school-book (for there is no limit to its use by any students who are capable of good private reading) masters can use it in two ways : (i) by enforcing general or occasional reference to its principles and rules in reading Latin authors ; Preface. vii (2) by requiring definite portions to be prepared for periodical examinations conducted on paper as well as orally. 'The present opportunity has been used to enlarge and improve several d partments of the Grammar, especially those of Soundlore and Derivation. To discuss the physiology of articulate sound has never entered into my plan. Were I competent to undertake this, which is not the case, I should hardly deem it suited to a book applying specially to Latin, but rather appropriate to a more general work treating of the Prolegomena to Grammar. ' On the other hand, I have striven to bring out somewhat more prominently than before the leading facts of Comparative Philology, so far as they concern three kindred languages- latin, Greek, and Sanskrit The Sanskrit words in this Edition are generally cited in their modern form. The term Primitive Root is, however, used; in what sense, and by what right, ap- pears in a Supplementary Note at the close of the Appendix. ' As I am now, by the kindness of those whom I was bound to consult, authorised to attach my name to this Pre- face, I think it right to notice the chief objections made to the books on I -atin Grammar with which I have been occupied. ' When the Primer was published, seven years ago, it was right that it should be criticised, and certain that it would be impugned ; nor could we expect that all criticism would be equally candid and intelligent, or that every assailant would choose his weapons from the armories of truth and reason only. ' The chief objection urged against the Primer was this : that it was too abstract and difficult for the use of children beginning Latin. There would have been some weight in this argument, if the purpose of the book had been rightly de- scribed. But it was really designed as a class-book, not for Llementary .Schools and First Forms, but for all Forms in Public Schools below the grade of those boys who could pass with advantage to the use of a fuller Grammar. Other com- panion books were in preparation for the instruction of children at home or under private care ; and these have since been published. ' It was, secondly, stated as a charge against the Primer, and subsequently against this Grammar (in which the teaching of the Primer is contained), that they " bristle with new, hard, and viii Preface. uninviting terms." This charge, urged as it has been with much persistence, and little concern for truth, must now be met by some remarks on the terminology of Grammar, together with a statement of my own feelings and practice in regard to it. 4. 'Every science must have its own terminology. Grammar is a science; and in Latin Grammar, as one of its departments, there exist, I believe, more than three hundred technical terms. Most of these are either actually Greek words, as Syntax, Prosody, &c., or translated from Greek into Latin, as the names of the Cases and Parts of Speech. Others are purely Latin, as Gerund, Supine, Active, Passive Voice. Of these various terms, whatever the original unfitness of some, the larger number have struck their roots in literature so deeply and widely that any attempt to extirpate them would be quixotic. Many, indeed, are in themselves unmeaning or inadequate (as Gerund, Supine, Deponent, Accusative, Genitive, Ablative); but the learner by- gradual experience is enabled to use them practically, which is after all the end we wish to reach, though the road to it might at several points have been improved. A few terms, which are not only vicious, but really confusing, and at the same time unessential, I have exchanged for better substitutes. Among those so rejected are Neuter Verb, Neutropassiva, Neutralia Passiva, Substantive Verb. Again, we find a considerable number of cumbersome Greek terms (Heteroclita, Heterogenea, Aptota, Diptota, Triptota, Tetraptota, with many of the names given to what are called Figures of Speech), which are of little use to learners. These may either be omitted, or, at least, dismissed to some unconspicuous corner. 'This statement affords ample proof that no disposition existed to place in the student's hands a Grammar " bristling with hard and uninviting terms," though it is not unnatural to ask what those " inviting " terms are which, like the " crustula " of the " blandi doctores " in Horace's time, have msgic power enough to attract young learners, ' k elementa veiint ut discere prima." ' But there is one important truth which many would-be critics either ignore or forget. Grammar is not only a science, but a science capable of constant improvement; and improve- ment in science usually brings with it some change in termino- logy, or some addition to it. Now, in every division of Grammar, Soundlore, Wordlore, Syntax, and Prosody, vast Preface. ix strides have been made in this century through the fruitful kibours of scholars, chiefly German, some English ; whom I would gladly recount here, were I not afraid of omitting some name or names from so large a list. Accordingly it will be found by those who study the works to which I allude, that the terminology in each division has been more or less modified, more or less enriched. 5. * As respects my own contributions to Latin Grammar, in the treatment of Soundlore and Word lore I claim little origi- nality. If 1 have compiled judiciously and correctly from the works of great comparative philologers, so as to explain and illustrate usefully the received facts of Latin word-formation, I shall be amply satisfied with such credit. Again, in the Prosody of this Grammar I have no share beyond the Table of Metres and one of the Notes on Metre, containing little more than tabular enumeration. The rest I owe to the kindness of my friend Mr. Munro, whose recognised eminence as a scholar needs no praise from me to enhance it. ' But the Analysis of Sentences (Simple and Compound) which constitutes the Syntax of this book, has been, to a great extent, the fruit of personal study, personal thought, personal labour. Sketched out in the Syntax of my " Elementary Latin Grammar," it is filled in, though far from reaching the fullness of perfection, in the present Grammar. ' I speak from long personal experience when I say that any capable mind, which has fully mastered the principles ot those pages (348-500, especially 348-359 and 434-500), will be able, in reading any part of Horace, Cicero, Livy, or Tacitus, to move through their longest periods with a firm intellectual step, realising, and, if need be, stating the raison d'etre of every constructed word, especially (for this is the most crucial test) the raison d'etre of mood and tense in every Subjunctive Verb. The same mind, so prepared, and applying itself to write Latin, will be free from the risk of using any wrong construction. Not that the mastery of a grammatical Syntax alone will give the student stylistic power and skill in composition. These belong to the vis divinior, to inspiration drawn by a gifted nature from the study of the best Latin authors themselves. To such study, combined with practice, no scholar will hesitate to assign by far the largest share in the formation of a good style whether of prose or of poetry. But, in the course of reading, the student x Preface. cannot afford to neglect any valuable help ; and of all appli- ances none is so valuable, none so indispensable, as a sound, well-arranged, and lucid Grammar. 6. ' The study of any language with its grammar contains more or less, according to the character of the language chosen, the study of every language and its grammar, the study of language in general and its grammar. The Greek and Latin languages (illustrated by their sister, the Sanskrit) are best adapted for this purpose, because their forms and constructions, themselves grand, are fixed in two grand literatures. One who studies these languages and their grammars cannot help studying to a great extent, coordinately with them, his or her own native language and its grammar. And the best mode and course of study will be that which is so conducted as to make such co- ordination as effectual and as widely instructive as possible. The principal reason why translation into Greek and Latin Verse as well as Prose deserves to be retained in the practice of classical instruction I hold to be this, that it is a valu- able exercise in the acquirement not only of those two dead languages, but of the learner's native living language at the same time. 7. ' A book like the " Public School Latin Grammar " does not pretend to exhaust the subjects of which it treats subjects on which many large volumes may be, and have been, written but it carries the student very far on his road, and points and smooths the path of future acquirement. 8. ( I return to speak of my Latin Syntax, by which alone, so far as I know, my works on Grammar have obtained the favour and confidence of eminent scholars engaged in public instruction. ' The treatment of Latin Syntax has in the present century passed through a revolution scarcely less considerable than the treatment of Etymology. ( The means by which this revolution has been wrought are: (i) the application to the whole doctrine of Syntax of trie cor- relative logical terms Subject- Predicate and Subject- Object, with the principles they imply ; (2) the distinction between the Simple and Compound Sentence, and between the several kinds of each, with the consecution of tenses in them ; (3) the distinction between Oratio Recti and Oratio Obliqui, with the various affections which clauses subordinate to Oratio Cbliqua receive. Preface. xi 'We owe to the perspicacity and learned labours of various writers, chiefly German, the reforms made in Latin Syntax. I cannot assign to each his due share. The Grote- fends. Kriiger, Zumpt, O. Schulz, Ramshorn, Kuhner, Madvig, Key, have each their special merits. Of these I place Raphael Kuhner in the first rank ; and I am much indebted to Grieben's " Lateinische Satzverbindungen." In cur own country the scholastic study of this part of Grammar was usefully promoted by the Exercise-books of T. Kerchever Arnold. ' These reforms brought into the teaching of Latin Syntax, besides the terms already named, a certain number more, per- haps from forty to fifty, including the names given to the seve- ral varieties of the Simple and Compound Sentence, with their subdivisions ; including also the terms Protasis and Apodosis in sentences which, like the Conditional, take these parts. 9. ' As regards the new terms which my own improvements have suggested, three alone have frequent and important prac- tical use ; the value of which I insist on as very great. These are, (i) Prolative (Infinitive) ; (2) Copulative Verbs, introduced first in my <; Elementary Grammar"; (3) Suboblique (clause or verb), a convenient abridgment of the necessary phrase " Subordinate to Oratio Obliqua." ' Further, it appeared that the doctrine of copulative predi- cation in Grammar required, for its clear statement, the use of some terminology from which the term predicate itself should be excluded ; and this was at length found in the term used by Mr. C. P. Mason, (predicative) Complement. 1 1 say then, generally, that a new term proposed in Grammar is not to be condemned because it is new; but, if at all, for one of three reasons: that it is superfluous ; or that it is in- adequate ; or because a better term is suggested. As respects myself, I repeat that I have not the least disposition to use hard terms ; and I say that those which I have introduced are unjustly so described. But I cannot adopt the poor pedantry which refuses to facilittte and abridge discourse by the use of suitable terms ; to write, for instance (after due explanation) "Collective Subject" rather than "Nominative Singular of a Substantive which implies a multitude of persons or things ": and " Composite Subject " rather than " two or more singular Nominatives agreeing With one plural Verb." xii Preface. 10. 'My "Elementary Latin Grammar," first published in 1843, obtained, after twenty years, approval so wide, that its circu- lation approached 8,000 copies annually : and, during those years, not a single complaint affecting its terminology was heard either from the public press or from the eminent teachers who used it in their schools. Such attacks broke out when it was adopted as the groundwork of a new school grammar; and their justice may be tested both by this fact, and by comparing the imaginary difficulty imputed to a few new terms in the Primer, with the many and great obstacles existing in its chief predecessor, Lilly's Grammar.' 11. In the Preface to the Third and Fourth Editions certain portions of Syntax were discussed. Those discussions, being of signal importance to the right appreciation of Latin Com- pound Construction, will here be repeated generally: but with partial suppression of some topics and enlargement of others. I. The Doctrine of Predication. 12. This Doctrine is treated ( 100-106) in agreement with the principles now received in all Continental Latin Grammars, and in most Grammars of the English language, but with some slight variations in the mode of treatment. Logic and Grammar are akin to one another , but their spheres are different. Logic is the Grammar of reasoning : it develops * the laws of thought.' Grammar is the Logic of language : it displays the rules and idioms of discourse. The Correlation and the Terms Subject-Predicate are necessary to both sciences. But the scope of these terms is not the same in both. If we take a Simple Sentence, such as ' beneficium male collocatum nocet (noxium est) hominum societati,' we see that the Logical Subject of this proposition is 'beneficium male collocatum,' but the Grammatical Subject of the sentence is ' beneficium,' of which ' male collocatum ' is an adjunct. Again, the Logical Predicate is 'noxium,' the Grammatical Predicate ' nocet ' or * noxium est,' of which ' hominum socie- tati ' is an adjunct. Hence appears the propriety and necessity (if confusion is a tiling proper and necessary to be avoided) of distinguishing the terms Subject and Predicate in Grammar by the epithet ' Grammatical.' As for the terms Subject- Preface. xiii Predicate themselves, they have now so firm a footing in the science of Grammar that they cannot be excluder! from it, if their exclusion were desirable. See ' Predicate' in Index I. The Subject is 'id quod Praedicato subjectum est' : the Predicate is ' id quod de Subjecto praedicatum est.' The com- bination of the two (as Kiihner says: * AusfiihrlicheGrammatk der Lat. Spr.,' Part iii. i) is rightly called the Predicative Relation, because the Predicate (or Verbal notion) is the kernel of speech, to which the Substantival notion stands in subjection, and is therefore called Subject ; often indeed expressed by the endings of the Verb (am-o, ama-s, c.). When I was preparing my ' Elementary Latin Grammar ' forty years ago, being in some dread of interference with Logic, I took for my type of simple predication, 'homo est mortalis.' But, when the Primer was compiled in 1866, the four Oxford scholars engaged in that work unanimously held that (in Grammar) Subject and Finite Verb are the true norm (homo morilur), and that Incomplete Predication (of the form homo est mortalis) should be taken afterwards as the large exception. This settled the question then, in accordance (as before noticed) with the practice of all continental writers : and a verdict thus authoritatively and generally pronounced is surely entitled to acceptance. II. Complement (of Predication). 13. This suitable and useful term was first suggested by Mr. C. P. Mason in his * English Grammar,' to designate that which completes the sense of a Simple Sentence when the verb is one ' of incomplete Predication ' (called ' Copulative ' in this Grammar, p. 351). In sentences such as 'homo moritur (est mortalis)/ we have seen above that the Grammatical Predicate is (not 4 mortalis,' but) ' moritur ' or ' est mortalis.' Donaldson's expedient, of using the terms ' primary, secondary, tertiary ' predicate, I cannot approve. It confounds confusion, invades the domain of Logic gratuitously, and carries into the rules of Grammar the use of a word (predicate), which, however necessary to the preamble of Syntax, as the correlative of Subject, may be replaced afterwards by the term Finite Verb (or Verb of the Sentence) with great advantage. All confusion is happily avoided by the term ' Complement/ which is wide xiv Preface. enough to include every word or phrase capable of completing the construction of a Copulative Verb, whether finite or infinitive. See the Examples on p. 352. III. Relations in the Simple Sentence. 14. Mr. Mason, in his * English Grammar,' following Becker's ' Organism der Sprache,' treats of the Relations of Words in the Simple Sentence. The * Public School Latin Grammar ' does the same. One of our critics regards these Relations as 4 spurious children of Logic and Grammar.' But he has failed to interpret the procedure rightly. It is as purely grammatical as any procedure can be, which admits (what no grammarian can now exclude) the correlations Subject- Predicate and Subject-Object. Two of Mr. Mason's * Relations,' the Predicative (I.) and the Objective (III.), are the same, in title and extent, as those of this Grammar. His * Attributive ' Relation contains the Qualitative (II.), but is more extensive : his * Adverbial ' Relation contains the Circumstantive (V.), but is more extensive. Mr. Mason was dealing with English, a language of rare inflexions, using Prepositions in their stead. I deal with T^atm, a largely inflected language. But even in English the Genitive should not be merged in the Attributive Relation, and the Dative Case in the Adverbial (Circumstantive): much less in Latin. For, true as it is that numerous instances of the Genitive are attributive in character, and that many Datives might be replaced by Preposition with case (i.e. adverbially) ; still there remain very many examples of each case which cannot be so represented, and this fact, combined with that signal distinction between forms of construction, which merits* distinct treatment in Grammar, leads to the conclusion that the Dative and Genitive Cases ought to rank as separate Relations. The Dative is therefore classed here under the ' Receptive ' (IV.), and the Genitive under the * Proprietive ' Relation (VI.). Relation VII., that of ' the Prolative Infinitive,' appeared lor tne nrst time in the ' Public School Latin Primer.' It com- prises all the instances in which the Infinitive extends (profert ) the construction of words capable of being followed in de- pendence by a Copulative Infinitive with Nominative Com- Preface. xv p'ement. See 180. In the 'Elementary Latin Grammar' the Infinitive with some of these Verbs (soleo, possum, &c.) was called Objective ; with others (videor, dicor, &c.) Predi- cative (i.e. complemental). But these shifts never satisfied: for if, in 'soleo errare,' the Infinitive is Object of ' soleo/ it is an unique Object : and if, in * videor errare,' the Infinitive is predi- catively complemental (which in some sense it is), its character as a * Complement ' is widely distinct from that of an Adjective or Substantive (which qualify the Subject), and from every other instance in p. 352. And how, on the.. same principle, can we analyse without the most unpleasant contusion such sentences as these ? Marcus putatur velle fieri philosophus. Sapientis est velle fieri doctiorem. At length a conviction was reached, that this usage of Grammar (common to all Aryan languages at least) deserves separate classification as a specialty of the Infinitive Verb-noun. Madvig's mode o treating this construction is not essentially different in principle. Under one head ( 180) this Grammar gives what he sets forth in three places ( 389, 393, 400). He 1 1 eats in one and the same chapter of the Infinitive in Oratio Recta and Oratio Obliqua. Deeming it right and important to keep Simple and Compound Construction apart, we consider in Chapter III. the Infinitive of Oratio Recta, in Chapter IV. that of Oratio Obliqua. But when Madvig speaks of the Infinitive as joined to these (extensible) Verbs 'um den Begriff zu erganzen tind die Handlung zu ergeben ' (to complete the idea and supply the action), this is exactly what is meant by the Prolative Relation of the Infinitive : and it is very much the same as the use of the Infinitive, in German and English, with those Verbs which some grammarians have very inade- quately called 'auxiliary' (ich will, soil, kann, muss, &c. kommen : I will shall can must, &c. come). The con- struction belongs also to French, a Romance (latinistic) language. For though French inflects (with Latin) / will come, I would come, by 'je viendrai, je viendrais,' it falls in with Latin, German, English, in saying je peux je veux je desire j'ose, &c. venir. It is unquestionably true that after many of these Verbs the Infinitive may be called an Object by anybody who wishes to do so, as in 'vincere scis, tu sais vaincre,' ' cupis abire, tu de'sires partir,' &c. The use of the xvi Preface. Verb noun as an Object is recognised in 179. But the reasons in favour of accepting a distinct Relation wherever the test of ' esse/ &c. with Nominative will apply are decidedly preponderant. If an example be adduced like this in Horace, C. i. 2. 49 : hie magnos potius triumphos hie ames did pater atque princeps, and if it be asked whether, as triumphos is Object of ames, did does not also stand in the same construction, the reply is- that Latin writers, especially poets, often construct one Verb with dependence of two kinds : so Verjj. A en. iii. 234 : sociis tune arma capessanf edico et dira bellum cum gente gerendum. ' Ames,' in the lines of Horace, first takes an Accus. Object triumphos, and then a Prolative Infin. did, with its comple- ments. The example belongs to that kind of construction which grammarians have called Zeugma. See 61. Our last Relation, the Annexive (VIII. ), is in kind dif- ferent from the other seven. It is really no more than a com- pendious method, by which a word B is noted as assignable to the same Relation with a preceding word A. It is a con- venient substitute for those cumbersome and yet incomplete rules which in the old School Grammars were meant to account for the cases, moods, &c. of words linked to others by various conjunctions. See Supplementary Note II. p. 579. 15. There are two great facts in Grammar which the student of language should always bear in mind : (1) Few Definitions are free from examples which occa- sionally stray beyond the precincts there laid down, to enter those of another Definition. For instance : a Substantive may sometimes become an Adjective (rex, regina, raptor, victor, victrix, &c.) : an Adjective or Participle often becomes a Substantive (sapiens, utile, utilia, adulescens, sponsus, dictum, &c.) : a Verb contains a Noun among its forms : a Noun somenmes takes the functions of a Verb : an Adverb becomes a Preposition, a Preposition an Adverb : Declensions encroach upon one another ; and so on. (2) A Norm or Rule may be liable to numerous exceptions: Preface. xvii and yet, even if the excepted instances could be shewn to equal or even exceed in number the instances which obey the rule, the Norm ought to remain paramount, and not to be extended in order to recognise such instances as normal. See 101. Thus, referring to (i), all Annexed Words belong to some one or more of the other Relations also. Every Complement, belonging, as such, to I. will fall under some other Relation also. Of those which occur in the examples, p. 352, the first six fall under II., the seventh and eighth under VI., the tenth under IV., the ninth and eleventh under V. Most examples of Relation VI. and some of IV. V. are akin to II., being attributive in sense, but excluded from II. because thev appear as caseforms, and not in attributive concord. 1 6. The foregoing observations shew that, in the mode of treating these Relations, there is no spurious intrusion of Logic into Grammar. The Dative is not merged in the category of Circumstance, nor the Genitive in that of Attri- bution (Qualitative). Each case has its own sphere : the Nomi- native (as Subject-case) and the First Concord are in I., the Accusative as Case of nearer Object is in III., the Dative as remoter Object-case in IV., the Ablative (with the Accusative depending on Prepositions) in V., the Genitive in VI. The Concords 2, 3, 4, come under II.; the peculiar use of the Infinitive under VII., the linking by Conjunctions under VIII. Afterwards, the Vocative and all Interjectional usages lying out of the Sentence are separately treated, and then the theory of the Relative. Grammar is followed, Grammar kept in view, throughout. Experience proves that such a synopsis of the Simple Sentence does materially help many students to read with more profitable appreciation the rules that follow, and, reviewed again at the close, will map the subject in their mincjs more lucidly and more enduringly. IV. Ellipse of the Finite Forms of 'Sum.' 17. This topic is considered in the note on p. 428 : see also 99, Munro on Lucr. ii. i, with the authorities there cited. The ellipse occasionally creates misinterpretation, participles finitely used being sometimes mistaken for mere participles (Hor. C. \. 37. 25: ii. 9. 15), and again mere participles having been regarded as finite : thus in Verg. B. ii. 40 : a xviii Preface. praeterea duo nee tuta mihi valle reperti capreoli, sparsis etiam mine pellibus albo, bina die siccant ovis ubera ; quos tibi servo. Wagner and Ribbeck have a semicolon after 'albo,' thus apparently making 'reperti' finite: but the tenour of the passage indicates that 'capreoli s'ccant' is the principal predi- cation, and ' reperti ' a mere participle. The ellipse of ' esse ' in oblique construction, when the par- ticiples perfect, future, or gerundive occur as accusatives in dependence, is familiar to every reader of Latin authors in prose and poetry. But the Prolative construction, by which the Nominatives of these Participles are used as Infinitives without ' esse,' is not by any means so generally and so well understood by young scholars. They are therefore advised to study with care the note on 180 in this Grammar, and to collect other examples of this construction (the Participles in the Nominative as Infinitives without ' esse '), which are not duly recognised in Madvig's Grammar. It may perhaps be more clearly exhibited by setting side by side the Accusative (Oblique) and the Nominative (Prolative) constructions in a few examples. a. T. Manlium locutum ferunt, T. Manlius locutus fertur, Liv. b. Ferunt Promethea coactum . . . Fertur Prometheus coactus . . . Hor. c. Delectum habendum putant, Delectus habendus putatur. d. Omnes secuturos verisimile est, Omnes secuturi videntur. e. Graeciam collisam narrant, Graecia collisa narratur, Hor. f. Memorant quendam solitum . . . Memcratur quidam solitus, . . . Hor. g. Credimus Athon velificatum, Creditur Athos velificatus, luv. h. Ferunt genetricem adfatam lovem, Fertur genetrix adfata lovem, Verg. ix. 82. In every one of these examples ' esse ' is to be mentally supplied its construction being Oblique ( 194) in each former Prolative ( 180) in each latter line. Preface. xix V. 1 8. Some nice points of Syntax have been either over- looked or inadequately treated. Such are the Substantival constructions with ut and quod, in place of an Infinitive Clause. See 195-6. Still more unfortunate has been the treatment of constructions ranked in this Grammar under the title Petitio Obliqua, 197. A disposition is shewn by some writers to make these mere varieties of the Adverbial (Final) Clause with ut, ne, although their prominence and importance in Narratio Obliqua ( 230) prove their just rank as one of the three varieties of dependent Substantival Clauses, which con- stitute Oratio Obliqua. The Statement (Accusative and In- finitive) and the Question assert themselves, as it were, and cannot be ignored : but the Dependent Petition has to wage a sort of rivalry with other constructions of ut, ne, in order to obtain its just place in Grammar, as representing an Oblique ' permission, command, or request/ The examples which Madvig cites in 403-4, shewing the juxtaposition in Narratio Obliqua of indirect statements, commands, and questions, might have shewn him the true order in which the three ought to be treated. * Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem ituros atque 'fol futures Helvetios, ubi eos Caesar con- stituisset atque esse voluisset : sin bello persequi perseveraret, reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romani et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum . . . quare ne committeret ut is locus, ubi constitissent, ex calamitate populi Romani . . . nomen caperet.' Caes. B. G. i. 13. 4 Cum vellet, congrederetur ; intellect urum quid invicti Germani .... virtute possent.' Caes. B. G. i. 36. 1 Duces pronuntiare iusserunt : " ne quis ab loco discederet ; illorum esse praedam atque illis reservari quaecumque Romani reliquissent : proinde omnia in victoria posita existimarent" ' Caes. B. G. v. 34. ' Cicero respondit : " non esse consuetudinem populi Romani accipere ab hoste armato condicionem : si ab armis discedere velint, se adiutore utantur legatosque ad Caesarem mittant ; sperare, pro eius iustitia quae petierint impetraturos."' Caes. B. G. v. 41. 4 Nuntia Romanis : " caelestes ita velle ut mea Roma caput orbis terrarum sit : proinde rem militarem colant ; sciantque a 2 xx Preface* et ita posteris tradant, nulhs opes humanas armis Romania resistere posse.'" Liv. i. 16. Exprobrant muititudini : " saginare plebem populares suos, lit iugulentur. hoccine patiendum fmsse, si ad nutum dictatoris non respondent vir consularis ? fingerent mentitum ante, atque ideo non habuisse quod turn responderet : cui servo umquam mendacii poenam vincula fuissel'" Liv. vi. 17. ' Blaesus multa dicendi arte, " non per seditionem et turbas desideria militum ad Caesarem/my/dfo," ait ; " neque veteres ab imperatoribus priscis neque ipsos ab divo Augusto tarn nova petivisse\ et parum in tempore incipientes principis curas onerari : si tamen tenderent in pace temptare quae ne civilium quidem bellorum victores expostulaverint, cur contra morem obsequii, contra fas disciplinae vim meditenturl decernerent legatos seque coram mandata darent" ' Tac. Ann. i. 19. 1 Eo in metu arguere Germanicum omnes, quod non ad supe- riorem exercitum pergeret, ubi obsequia et contra rebellis auxi- lium: "Satis superque missione et pecunia et mollibus consultis peccatum vel si vilis ipsi salus, cur filium parvulum, cur gravi- dam coniugem inter furentes et omnis human! iuris violatores JiaberetJ illos saltern avo et reipublicae redder et"' Tac. Ann. i. 40. See do. do. ii. 15. 1 post paulo scribit sibi milia quinque esse domi chlamydum ; partem vel toller et omnes.' Hor. Epist. i. 6. 43. Compare Verg. Aen. iv. 683 : date volnera lymphis Abluam, &c. Aen. vi. 884 : manibus date lilia plenis Purpureos spargam flores, &c. The true construction, 'date abluam,' grant me to wash away, ' date spargam/ grant me to scatter, &c, has in each place been recognised fully by no commentator except Ladewh(. If commentators who have fallen into error respecting them had been familiar with the principles of ' Petitio Obliqua,' they would have seen that the Subjunctives depend as Objects on 4 date,' like ' colamus ' in the following lines of an Inscription to Silvanus found at Aime in France : tu me meosque reduces Romam sistito Itala rura te colamus praeside. Coll. Orell. 1613. Preface. xxi Had * sinite ' been written instead of ' date ' (and there is no real difference) the mistake would not have been made. VI. 19. Chapter VI. of Part I., Division ii. ( 61-99), on the Uses of Words, though subjoined to Wordlore, may be read by those who have already studied Latin Syntax to some extent in a shorter Grammar with suitable practice. It unavoidably contains many topics (as, Ellipsis and Zeugma, Prepositions, Correlation, Mood), which belong in principle to the construc- tion of Sentences, and which many grammarians, as Madvig, intermingle with the rules of Syntax, thereby, we think, sadly breaking the continuity, and obscuring the doctrine of these latter, as intended to develop the construction of Sentences, Simple and Compound. To those who study this Grammar we strongly recommend the adoption of the following order, in studying the laws of Words constructed in Sentences; i.e. Syntax. (1) Wordlore, Division ii., Chapter VI. , Sections i.-viii. ( 61-89). (2) Wordlore, Division ii., Chapter II., Section x. (Numerals, 32-34). (3) Syntax, Chapters I., II., III., IV., Section i. ( 100-189). (4) Uses of the Verb (Wordlore, 90-99). (5) Syntax continued ( 190-250). The whole Chapter on the Uses of Words may be reperused with advantage at the close of such a course. VII. 20. The systematic order in which the Doctrine of Sentences is drawn out is the chief characteristic feature of this Grammar. Chapter I. of Part II. ( 100) sets forth : (1) The distinction of Sentences as Simple or Compound. (2) The three forms of the Simple Sentence : Statement (enuntiatio) : Will-speech (petitio) : Question (interrogate). (3) The forms which these three severally take when, being subordinated in compound construction, they become Substan- tival Clauses : Oblique Statement : Oblique Will-speech : Oblique Question. Chapter II. ( 101-106) contains : The Analysis of the Simple Sentence, and the eight Rcla- xxii Preface. tions comprised in it : adding to these the Interjectional use of the Vocative and other Cases similarly interposed. Chapter III. ( 107-188) contains: Rules and Examples of construction in the Simple Sentence (Agreement : Cases : Infinitive with Gerunds and Supines). Chapter IV. ( 189-240) treats of: The Compound Sentence, in five Sections. Section I. takes up the topic begun in Chapter I., and shews: (1) Subordinate Clauses, of three kinds ; Substantival ( 100) : Adverbial : Adjectival : (2) Adverbial Clauses, of seven kinds : (3) Adjectival Clauses, being in some kinds substitutes for Adverbial (see 204). Section II. states the laws of Mood in subordination to Oratio Obliqua, actual and virtual, with examples. Section III. contains : Rules and Examples of the construction of the three varieties of Substantival Clauses : (1) Oblique or Indirect Statement (enuntiatio obliqua). (2) Oblique or Indirect Will-speech (petitio obliqua). (3) Oblique or Indirect Question (interrogatio obliqua). Section IV. contains : Rules and Examples of Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses stated in connexion with one another. Section V. forms a Supplement, treating of: (1) Consecution of Tenses : (2) Narratio Obliqua : (3) Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses : (4) Participial Construction. VIII. 21. The scheme of Latin construction thus shewn forms an edifice of its doctrine, from which no stone can be taken away or displaced without damage to the whole fabric. 1 1 Let me here state my meaning more distinctly. I. I consider it desirable that the Uses of Words and the Rules of Construct'on should be kept generally distinct : but I deem it essential that the Uses of the Verb and the Doctrine of Moods should be learnt before the Laws of Compound Construction. This opinion is illustrated in Appendix II. to the ' Public School Latin Primer ' (years 1878 &c.). Preface. xxiii Nor can a single fact or principle laid down in it be denied by any one who is able to recognise facts in language, and to deduce principles from them correctly. 1 i ) The Simple Sentence has three Varieties : i. Vales: 2. Vale: 3. Valesne? Can this be denied ? (2) Each Variety can be subjoined (with some formal change) to a principal Predication ; such junction being a ' Compound Sentence,' the subordinate or dependent member in which we term ' the Clause.' 1. Audio (constat) te valere. 2. Opto (optandum est) ut valeas. 3. Quaero (quaeritur) (die) valeasne. Can this be denied ? (3) Each of these Clauses is related as Object or Subject to the Verb on which it depends. 1. I hear (it is evident) What? That you are well. 2. I wish (my wish must be) What ? That you be well. 3. I ask (it is asked) (say) W r hat? Whether you are well. Can this be denied ? (See it even in Madvig, 2o8b, 398a.) 2. It is essential that Syntax should take for its starting-point the three forms of a simple sentence and their transformation into clauses when they become subordinate. 3. It is essential that the study of Simple and that of Compound Sentences should be treated in distinct parts of the Grammar, and that the rules for the Simple Infinitive, with Gerunds and Supines, should be in- cluded under the Simple Sentence, leaving the Infinitive Clause (though it may be cursorily mentioned) to take its proper place at the head of Compound Construction. 4. It is essential that the Doctrine of Compound Construction should take for its starting-point the threefold distinction of Substantival, Adverbial, and Adjectival Clauses, shewing the intimate relation of the two latter classes 5. It is essential that the Substantival Ut-clause and the Substan- tival Quod -clause should be shewn in their true place as succursal to the Infinitive Clause, with due notice of the relation which they severally imply to Consecutive and Causal Construction. 6. It is highly important that (while the term Conjunctive is given to the Mood generally) the term Subjunctive should be confined to its subordinate use 7. The distinction of Compound and Complex Sentences, which some English grammarians u e, is superfluous in Latin. That of Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses ( 100) answers the purpose adequately. xxiv Preface. (4) Therefore each of these Clauses has the property of a Substantive, and is justly termed * Substantival.' Can this be denied ? (5) Of other Subordinate Clauses, those which answer the adverbial questions how, for what purpose, why, when, on what condition, &c. are justly termed Adverbial Clauses (Con- secutive, Final, &c ). See 189 B. There can be no just reason to deny this. [All Relative Clauses formed by qui or a particle expli- cable by a case of qui, as quo, unde, cur, &c., may be called Adjectival, having the attributive nature of Adjectives. But in this Grammar ( 189 C, 204, &c.) the term is applied only to those Relative Clauses which determine Mood to be Subjunc- tive : such as: Quis est tarn impius qui parentem feriat? = ut feriat ? Missi sunt qui specularentur = ut specularentur : Miseretme tui^/tantum desipias = quum . . . desipias : and the like. The larger power of the term Adjectival, as belonging to any Relative Clause, should not be forgotten, though its use is needed here alone to complete the analogy.] This classification of Clauses, as Substantival, Adverbial, and Adjectival, is recognised by the soundest German gram- marians, Kriiger, Ktihner, Feldbausch, Grieben, and many others. Its omission is among the chief faults of Madvig's Syntax. (6) Returning to Substantival Clauses (2), we observe that each of the Clauses is indirect, i.e. dependent on a Verb, which is itself direct, i.e. independent. This indirect speech is called by general consent of grammarians ' Oratio Obliqua,' and that on which it depends is called ' Oratio Recta ' (direct speech ). Thus it appears, that all three forms of the Substantival Clause constitute Oratio Obliqua. This is allowed, though haltingly and inadequately, by Madvig, 403, Obs. i. The chief reason why oblique statement (te valere) has been ' specially called ' Oratio Obliqua is this : that ordinary discourse in prose consists mainly of statements. Another reason is, that the indirect expression of the Imperative (bidding-speech or will- speech) is not so manifestly distinguishable from other forms as the Infinitive Clause (te valere), about which there can be no mistake. See what is said above of Petitio Obliqua. The student is strongly advised to keep this larger sense of the term Oratio Obliqua always in mind, and to fortify it by careful Preface. xxv study of Oblique Narration," as used by Livy, Sallust, and Tacitus. He may also consult with advantage the Syn taxis Vergiliana in our edition of Virgil, pp. 664, &c. (7) The limits of Oratio Obliqua being thus established as coincident with Substantival Clauses, we pass to the Mood of Verbs in subsequent Clauses depending on them, which we therefore call 'Suboblique,' that is, * Subordinate to Oratio Obliqua.' The rules on this subject are given in 190-193, because the constructions resulting from them occur in many of the examples cited in the sections following. The Conjunctive is, by its nature, the Thought-mood or mood of conception. Hence, when a finite verb in secondary depen- dence forms part of the same conception as the Oratio Obliqua in primary dependence, it is put in the Subjunctive (dependent Conjunctive). See Example in 190 I. So also : Apud Hypanim fluvium Aristoteles ait bestiolas quasdam nasci, quae unum diem vivant, Cic. T. D. i. 39. Perspicuum est, non esse utilia, quae sint turpia, Cic. Off. iii. 32. With the other examples on p. 437 of this Grammar, and those in * Public School Latin Primer,' p. 167. This doctrine is laid down in all Latin grammars. IX. 22. So also Rule 13, which states that a subjunc- tive is used in dependence on another Verb in the Conjunc- tive Mood, is in the nature of a corollary to Rule 190, and is not disputed. Rule 191 relates to implied or virtual Oratio Obliqua, The doctrine on this subject I have somewhere seen described as a mystery, too abstruse for anybody to understand or study. Now the differential calculus, or loga- rithms, or even decimal fractions, remain a mystery to those who have not taken the trouble to learn them. But Grammars are written for those who are willing to learn, and who wish to know well what they profess to know at all. It seems, therefore, that a few words here may not be wasted in the endeavour to clear up a subject which, after all, has nothing in it mysterious. For this purpose, it is best to begin with the simplest obvious examples. Compare, then, the two fol- lowing p'aces in Cicero's Treatise ' De Orficiis ' : (1) Cyrenaici . . . virtutem censuerunt esse lau- dandam, quod efficiens esset voluptatis, iii. 33. (2) Laudat Africanum Panaetius, quod fuerit abstinens, ii. 22. xxvi Preface. We say that * virtutem esse laudandam' (actually) is Oratio Obliqua, on which * quod esset ' depends, and is therefore Subjunctive, being * suboblique.' We say that * laudat ' (virtually) contains Oratio Obliqua, and that * quod fuerit,' depending on it, is 'virtually suboblique.' Such is our proposition. Let us consider it. First, as to 'quod esset' in sentence (i). ' Virtutem esse laudandam ; is Oratio Obiiqua in its principal form of Accus. with Infin, (Infinitive Clause), and a Finite Verb really depending on such a form will be Subjunctive because the reason given for virtue being praiseworthy as well as the fact itself is referred to the mind of the Cyrenaics, and for this purpose the Thought-mood (Conjunctive) is employed. Such is the rationale of a Subjunctive * actually subordinate to Oratio Obliqua,' or (for brevity's sake) 'suboblique.' Secondly, as to ' quod fuerit,' in Sentence (2). Do we utter ' a mystery ' when we say, that a person who is said to praise another, is said to think and to express some- thing; that 'laudat' necessarily contains the meaning ' putat esse laudandum ' with the meaning ' ait esse laudandum ' ? Enough that it contains the Litter. Laudat then contains ' virtual (i.e. implied) Oratio Obliqua ' : and the Finite Verb depending on it (quod fuerit), being really subordinate to a virtual Oratio Obliqua, or (for brevity's sake) ' virtually suboblique,' is referred to the mind of Panaetius by becoming Subjunctive. He gives the reason why he praises. Such is one of the simplest instances of ' virtual Oratio Gbliqu?.' X. 23. Here it will be right to deal with a plausible objec- tion, which may lead some not unintelligent minds to question the merit of the terminology used. Why, they may perhaps say, is a term which itself needs explanation, and which suggests a merely formal cause, interposed between the learner's understanding and thii true logical reason of the Thought- mood, viz. that it refers the proposition to the mind of the Subject? The answer to this objection has already been suggested in another part of this Preface. Every science is taught and learnt through the medium of terms. It is the teacher's busi- ness to see that his pupils do learn do know the meaning Preface. xxvii and force of such terms. It is a learner's business to acquire their meaning and force, either from his teacher (if he has one) or from his books (if he studies privately). If he uses terms, of which he has not learnt the true meaning, he walks in the dark, and the results can only be ignorance and error. A good teacher will be alwaj s on his guard against this danger. If he asks a question, and is answered by a correct term, which he is sure the learner understands, he may say ' quite right/ and pass on. If he doubts this, he should cross-examine. For instance, As to passage ( i ) : Q. Why is ' esset ' Subjunctive ? A. It is suboblique. Q. How so ? A. It is subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua * virtutem esse laudandam.' Q. And this Oratio Obliqua itself? A. It is subordinate to the principal sentence ' Cyrenaici censuerunt.' Q. To what then is the Clause ' quod efficiens esset volup- tatis' referred? A. To the mind of the Subject Cyrenaici. As to passage (2) : Q. Why is 'fuerit' Subjunctive? A. It is virtually suboblique. Q. How so ? A. It is subordinate to an Oratio Obliqua implied in ' laudat.' Q. How would you express this Oratio Obliqua ? A. Ait esse laudandum (or some equivalent). Q. To what then is the Clause ' quod fuerit abstinens ' referred ? A. To the mind of the Subject Panaetius. If the question were in class, and the catechumen failed to answer, the teacher would probably explain publicly, and re- examine privately, till he was sure the matter was understood. If our imaginary disputant, returning to the charge, says : May not this cross-examination be cut short? is not all cor- tained in the last question and answer? No, we reply : for we are not teaching Logic only, but also Latin : Latin construction, xxviii Preface. Latin procedure, with its rationale. The attempt to teach the rationale without the forms which lead to it would be a double failure : grammar would manifestly be sacrificed, and Logic (we believe) would gain nothing by the sacrifice. XI. 24. Some persons imagine they have solved all ' the mystery' of such constructions as (2) by saying that ' The Sub- junctive is used in Causal and Relative Sentences to denote an alleged reason or act.' These words we quote from one such writer. * ' Causal and Relative Sentences ' certainly do (for obvious reasons) supply the most numerous instances of ' virtually 1 It may be instructive to cite this writer's ' ipsissima verba, ' as an in- stance of error growing out of the attempt to defend error. He says : 'The Subjunctive is also used in Causal and Relative Sentences to de- note an alleged reason or act, as " I.audat Panaetius Africanum, quod fuerit abstinens," " Panaetius praises Africanus. because he says that he uws self- restraining." Fuit for fuerit would mean "because he actually was self-restraining," without implying that Panaetius said so. So " iniuria quae tibi facta est," "the injury which has been done you" ; but " iniuria quae tibi facta sit," "the injury which you say has been done you." Oc. in Caec. 58.' (1) The translation here marked in italic type I would rather leave to the judgment of scholars than characterise it myself. The correct version is ' alleging that he was ' or (better still) ' on th-e ground that he was.'' (2) * Fuit ' for ' fuerit ' would not have been joined by Cicero to such a context as 'laudat quod,' that is to say, where the principal verb is one which by its own nature (as laudo, queror, accuso, &c.) contains Oratio Obliqua, and is used in any person but the first. If the verb has no su-.h nature, as in the well-known passage ' Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posset,' T. D. iv. 19, Cicero could have written 'poterat,' if he had wished to refer the clause to his own statement. (3) Any good scholar, on reading this writer's next citation (from Cic, in Caec. 18) would perceive at once that it is fallacious; that the context, when supplied, must account for the use of ' quae sit facta.' And such is the case. Cicero writes : ' Hie tu, si laesum te a Verre esse dices, patiar et concedam : si iniuriam tibi factam quereris, defendam et negabo. Deinde de iniuria, quae tibi facta sit, neminem nostrum graviorem vin- dicem esse oportet quam te ipsum, cui facta dicitur.' Then, a few sen- tences later : ' Quid si ne iniuriae quidem, quae tibi ab illo facta sit, causa remanet ? ' It would be quite enough to say that for ' si iniuriam tibi factam quereris ' Cicero might have used the not less frequent ' quereris quod iniuria tibi facta sit,' and that ' de iniuria quae tibi facta sit ' is a mere abridgement of Preface. xxix suboblique ' construction : and I suppose this writer has been misled by Madvig, who, in his very faulty treatment of Mood, mentions such examples only. But the principle is general, and applies also to Temporal, Conditional, and Concessive Clauses : as witness the following examples : Darius ejus pontis, dum ipse abesset, custodes reliquit, Nep. Mtlt. 3. At memoria minuitur. Credo, nisi earn exerceas, aut si sis natura tardior, Cic. C. M. 7. Uiilitas efflorescit ex amicitia, etiamsi tu earn minus secutus sis, Cic. Lael. 27. This last example is gnomic in its nature. See xv. Moreover, it is not true that the Subjunctive, by its own independent right, * denotes an alleged reason or act.' If this were so, then the compound sentence * Laudat Africanum Panaetius, nam fuerit abstinens ' would be good Latin, and might express ' Panaetius praises Africanus, for he was self- denying': quod absurdum est, as geometricians say. The truth (overlooked by the writer in question) is that this power belongs to the Mood in subordination only, when it is truly Subjunctive ; and it belongs to it only in its relation to the previous predication, which is never to be left out of question. If such predication is itself subordinate, that is, conveys the thought of another subject going before it, as in (i), then the Subjunctive also shares that thought. If the Subjunctive, as in (2), depends on a principal Indicative (and is not Consecutive, or othe-wise controlled), its presence denotes that in that pnncipal predication the idea of Oratio Obliqua is implied. In other words, it is not the dependent mood alone which is then to be considered, but the principal predication together with its dependence. In the sentence cited in the note, ' posset ' con- veys to ' ambulabat ' the accessary no ion of a reason given for the act by Themistocles : * poterat ' would confine ' ambulabat ' to the statement of Cicero. XII. 25. I proceed to support my explanation of this doctrine by citing a large number of examples, which will be more instructive if divided into three classes : ' de iniuria, de qua quereris quod tibi facta sit.' But also 'de iniuria, quae tibi facta sit ' is really subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua * neminem . . . vindicem esse' : and, when 'facta sit' is afterwards useH, Cicero merely cites his own phrase, the import of which is known from the previous con- text. See Example 57, below. xxx Preface. First : Examples in which the text does not exhibit formal * oratio obliqua ' ; but a slight addition or a slight change of form at once exhibits it without any difference of sense. Secondly : Examples wnere ' oratio obliqua ' is implied in the meaning of the principal construction as one of expressed feeling : praise, blame, complaint, accusation, reproach, boasting, giving thanks, promising, indignation, anger, menace, regret, &c. Thirdly : Examples in which no such connexion exists be- tween the principal Sentence and the Clause as to exhibit a manifest * Oratio Obliqua ' ; but we say, on the ground of analogy, that an accessory meaning is conveyed to the principal construction from the fact of its relation to the Clause. CLASS I. 1. Ne iustitiam quidem recte quis dixerit per se optabilem, sed quia iucunditatis vel plurimum afferat. Cic. d. Fin. i. 1 6. (Dixerit only wants the dropped esse to make this an example of actual oratio obliqua.) 2. Te felicem dicis amasque Quod nusquam tibi sit potandum. Hor. S. ii. 7, 31. (Esse te felicem.} 3. Recte est igitur surgetque ? negabit, (^/latus aut renes morbo temptentur acuto. Hor. S. 11.3,162. (Negabit recte esse. ) 4. Hanc reperiebat causam, quod apud Germanos ea consuetude esset ut &c. Caes. B. G. i. 50. (Causam esse.} 5. Cum contemplor animo, reperio quattuor causas, cur senectus misera videatur : unam, quod avocet a rebus* gerendis ; alter am, quod corpus faciat infirmius ; tertiam, quod privet omnibus fere voluptatibus ; quar- tam, quod haud procul absit a morte. Cic. C. M. 5. (Esse being supplied with ' causas/ * unam ' &c., oratio obliqua exists throughout.) 6. Hie laborem Excusare Philippe et mercennaria vincla Quod non mane domum venisset, denique quod non Providisset eum. Hor. Ep. i. 7, 66. (Excusare=r licitum esse putavit. ) 44. Augebat Tyriis animos Didonis exemplum, quae Car- thagine condita tertiam partem orbis quaesisset. lust, xi. 10. (Augebat . . . exemplum animari se dicebant Didonis exemplo.) 45. Si quis erat dignus describi ^;/0r se volebant. Again * poterant ' might have been used of the mere fact. ) 48. Perdiccas rex Macedoniae moriens filio m o n s tra /i t locum quo condi -vellet. Just. vii. 2. (Monstravit implies the addition eum esse dtcens.) 49. Sapiens non dub i tat, si ita melius sit, migrare de vita. Cic. Fin. i. 19. (Non dubitat migfl&t*=ztnigrandum sibi esse dtcernit.} 50. Tribunos omnes patricios creavit populus contentus en. quod ratio plebeiorum habita esset.Liv. iv. 6. (Conten- tus eo= satis esse putans.} \i. Consulem cura anceps agitare : nolle deserere socios, nolle minuere exercitum, quod aut moram sibi ad dimicandum aut in dimicando periculum afferre posset. Liv. xxxiv. 12. (Oratio obliqua is evidently latent here: most simply we may say ' deserere f =*se deserere,' * minuere '=' se minuere.') 52. Ille nescio qui, qui in schclis nominari solet, mille et octoginta stadia quod abesset vide bat Cic. Ac. Pr. ii. 25. (i.e. videre dicebatur a nominantibus.) 53. Qiwniam Miltiades ipse pro se dicere non posstt, verba pro eo fecit frater eius Tisagoras. Nep. Milt. 7. (ecit=facienda a se putavit ; but the example is a daring one.) 54. Re nuntiata ad suos, quaeimperarcnturfzcQre. dixerunt. Caes. B. G. ii. 32. (This sentence is remarkably con- densed. At full it is : * the envoys of the Aduatuci, after reporting tfte matter to their constituents, came back and said they would do what was ordered them. ' * Facere [ is, in fact, oratio obliqua, ' suos ' being understood as sub- ject.) 55. Brutus terram osculo con tig it, scilicet quod ea com- munis mater omnium mortalium esset. Liv. i. 56. (Con- tig&=contingendam esse putavit. ) Preface. xxxv 56. Alter Sub leg it quodcumque iaceret inutile, quodque Posset cenantes offendere. Hor. S. ii. 8, 1 1. (Sublegit contains the notion, that the slave ' sublegendum esse 57. Ex his, qui arma ferre possent ad milia xcii. Caes. B. G. i. 29. (In the previous sentence we read : ' in tabulis nominatim ratio confecta erat, qui numerus domo exisset eorum, qui arma ferre ptfssent.' This reference to a construction preceding in the text, illustrates our general subject here a Latin author's habit of adapting mood to a construction existing in his mind, but only implied in his text. See note at page xxix.) 58. Numa Camenis eum lucum sacravit, quod earum ibi concilia cum coniuge sua Egeria essent. Liv. i. 21. ( Sacra vi\.=sacrum esse voluit.) 59. Non equidem extimui Danaum ^ttftfductor et Areas, Quodque a. stirpe^/w geminis coniunctus Atridis. Verg. Aen. viii. 130. (Non extimui =MW extimescendum esseputovi.) 60. Foetus omnes libros, quos frater suus reliquisset^ mihi d o n a v i t. Cic. Att. ii. i. (Dona.vit=donaresedixtt. His words would be : dono tibi libros, quos frater meus re- liquit.) XIII. 26. Looking at Example 60, we observe that the re- ference to the mind of the subject Foetus is indicated not only by the subjunctive * reliquisset,' but also by the subjective or re- flexive pronoun 'suus.' Cicero might have written, 'quos frater eius reliquerat,' if he had been satisfied with making the statement h ; s own, as in the sentence ' Themistocles ambula- bat,' &c., he might have written 'poterat' for * posset,' if he had not wished to refer the act to the mind of Themistocles. See also Examples 47, 48, 56. As to suus see 231 B. and Ex. 31, 32, 43, 51, 54. We venture to cite in illustration of it a modern version of the wo famous epigrams respecting George I., who, on coming to the English throne, sent cavalry to Oxford, and gave a library to Cambridge. Diver sis Diver sa, i. Dum populi spectat mores, et mente gemellas Mox academias invigilante notat, t. xxx vi Preface. Cur equitum mitt it tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam? Quod tu, docta licet, st's male fida sibi. Idem, Granta, libros mittit tibi, praemia iusta, Quod tu fida sibi sis, male docta tamen. Diver sis Diver sa, 2. Cur equitum mittit tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam ? Quod vis regicolis pro ratione valet. Cur mittat tibi, Granta, libros hinc collige, quod vis Unica poplicolis in ratione sita est. 1 In the first epigram the reasons are subjectively stated, being refen ed to the mind of the king. In the second they are stated as the writer's own observations. XIV. 27. Looking at Example 59, we observe that the vir- tually suboblique clause is rarely found after a principal Verb in the First Person. Thus Cic. Rose. Am. 47, quod viris forti- bus, quoium opera eximia in rebus gerendis exstitit, honos habitus est, laudo. On this account it seldom occurs after Verbs of joy, because they usually appear in that Person : gaudeo (gratulor) quod salvum te recepi-ii. But, if the writer speaks of a feeling entertained by himself in a past time, the Subjunctive may follow, as 'quod fores' in 59. It must also be remembered that the Exceptions (noticed 193, and further exemplified on p. 437) of Indicative Clauses apparently, but not really, depending on Oratio Obliqua, are very numerous, especially in Caesar. Thus too the Clause with ' quod ' depend- ing on Verbs of feeling may be Indicative, if tifefatf in the Clause is more strongly emphasised than the expression of feeling which it arousjs : as in Liv. iv. 3, quod spiratis, quod 1 The English originals are : JACOBITE EPIGRAM. The king, observing with judicious eyes The state of both his universities, To Oxford sent a troop of horse : for why? That learned body wanted loyalty. To Cambridge books he sent, as well discerning How much that loyal body wanted learning. HANOVERIAN REPLY. The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse ; For Tories own no argument but force. On the other hand to Cambridge books he sent, For Whigs allow no force but argument. Preface. xxxvii vocem mittitis, quod formas hominum habetis, indignantur. So Cic. Verr. i. 47. Utruiu r e p r e h e n d i s, quod libertus patro- num iuvabat eum, qui turn in miseriis erat, an quod alterius patroni mortui voluntatem conservabat, a quo summutn benefi- cium acceperat? To the examples in XII. may be added those which appear on pp. 437 II., 459 (foot), where ' suboblique ' should be 'virtually suboblique ' \ also the examples in the ' Public School Latin Primer,' p. 168. The construction of Subjunctives iu dependence on formal Oratio Obliqua and on other Subjunctives is not controverted, and need not therefore be here specially exemplified. Jt appears indeed in almost every page of great Latin prose writers, and is noted by italics in the examples of Compound Construction ( 194, &c.) in this Grammar. XV. 28. Madvig, whose great merit is the nice observation of particular idioms, notices ( 370), that the Second Person of the Conjunctive is used (like 'man' in German, 'on' in French) to express an undefined subject (some one, any one). Thus often in principal construction : Quern neque gloria nee pericula excitant, nequiquam hortere, Sail. Cat. 58. Canes venaticos diceres, Cic. Verr. iv. 13. It appears also in Clauses dependent on some general statement, which we call Gnomic. Cum animum ab istis imaginibus ad veritatem traduxeris, nihil relinquitur, Cic. T. D. v. 5. Bonus segnior fit, ubi neglegas, Sail. lug. 31. Cum aetas extrema advenit, turn illud quod praeteriit effluxit ; tantum reman et, quod virtute et recte factis conseattus sis, Cic. d. Or. iii. 52. Mens, quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lumini oleum instilles, extinguuntur senectute, Cic. C. M. ii. Virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas* consequitur, Cic. T. D. i. 38. Gerundive and other Imper- sonal Verbs have a gnomic character, and are sometimes used with Subjunctive clauses dependent on them. Suae cuique utilitati, quod sine alterius iniuria fiat, serviendum est. Cic. Tibi ipsi dicendum eritaliquid^*/tfJfa//&f aut faci- endum quod non probes , Cic. Fa m. iv. 9. Est en i m s a p i e n - tis, quidquid homini accidere possit t id praemeditari ferendum modice esse, si evenerit. Maioris omnino est consilii pro- videre, nequid tale accidat ; animi non minoris fortiter ferre, si evenerit, Cic. Phil. xi. 3. Dicere fortasse quae sentias y non licet; tacere plane licet, Cic Fam. iv. 9. xxxviii Preface. XVI. 29. In quitting the topic of Virtual Oratio Obliqua, on which I have dwelt longer than I expected, I have to say that this is one of the few terms for which I am responsible. I should have been equally content to call it ' contained ' or ' implied,' or ' informal ' Oratio Obliqua : all which mean one and the same thing. The point at issue is this : Are they right, who like Madvig ( 357, 368-9, 404) put forward first the usage (a) Principal Sentence (Indie.) -f Clause (Subjunct.) and follow this up with (/?) Princ. Sent. (Indie.) + O. Obliqua + Clause (Subjunct.) thus making (/?) a corollary or special case of (a) ? Or are they right, who give the converse order, and make (a) a corollary or special case of (fi) ? Having had this question in view for half a century or more, I have never for a moment doubted that the just gram- matical order is that which appears in this book ( 190-191), from (ft) to (a), not from (a) to (ft) ; that this is the order in which teachers and students ought to pursue the doctrine of Oblique Construction in Latin ; taking the Infinitive Clause (Accus. and Infin.) as its first most representative most nor- mal form ( TOO, 190, 194). XVII. ^o. Yet, although Madvig has failed to treat the doctrine in this order, I shall now cite incidental passages from his book, which indicate an inadequately developed conscious- ness of that order being the true one. (1) When treating of the Accusative ( 322) Madvig says : ' In the indefinite infinitive expression, when the connexion between the subject and predicate is not of itself asserted, the subject and the predicative noun stand in the accusative, e.g. hominem currere, that a man runs; esse dominum, to be lord' This just view, properly followed up, ought to have led him to place the Accus. and Infin. in the front of Compound Construc- tion. But he lost sight of its true importance in his Second Part. (2) In his Chapter on the Conjunctive, where most of his paragraphs are useful, as isolated remarks, but uninstructive, in so far as they are out of place and unsystematic he says ( 348, Obs. 3) : ' The same holds ' to our mind the connexion Preface. xxxix he suggests has no real existence 'of other conditional propositions, which do not contain a condition applying to the leading proposition, but complete an idea contained in it, which has the force of an infinitive or otherwise dependent pro- position, so that the conditional clause belongs to the " oratio obliqua" e.g. Metellus Centuripinis, nisi statuas Veneris restituis- sent, graviter minatur (Cic. Verr. ii. 67 minatur se iis> malum daturum nisi Minatur is stated absolutely without any condi- tion), lugurtha iram senatus timebat, ni paruisset legatis (Sail. lug. 25 ne senatus irasceretur). Nulla maior occurrebat res quam si optimarum artium vias traderem meis civibus (Cic. de Div. ii. i, e.g. Nullam rem putabam maiorem esse.)' Need I say that in this passage occurring before he has introduced those rules and examples on the Subjunctive clause before referred to Madvig does, in point of fact, though but partially, teach the very doctrine which is drawn out in this Grammar, and which in this part of the Preface I have been maintaining and exemplifying, the doctrine of Virtual Oratio Obliqua, exhibited in his three cited examples?" He has, un- happily, failed to recognise its wide scope and great im- portance, and so to give it due prominence afterwards. The late Professor Key, a learned and ingenious scholar, in his Latin Grammar (1201-1204) states first the doctrine of Oratio Obliqua (too narrowly, because he has not based it on the triple form of simple sentences and dependent Substantival clauses) and then adds (1205): * Without a formal use of the " Oratio Obliqua," a verb in a dependent clause may be in the Subjunctive Mood, when it expresses the thoughts or words or alleged reasons of another.' He then cites the example, Cic. T. D. v. 36 (given by us, p. 459) Aristides, &c. and the two following : Fabio dicta dies est, quod legatus in Gallos jbugnasset, Liv. vi. i. Aedem lovi vovit, si eo die hostes/iu&sstt, Liv. xxxi. 21 : (in which obviously: Fabio dicta dies 'est=J*afa'us accusatus est, and vovit contains se dedtcaturum). Thus, by saying * without a formal use of the Obliqua Oratio/ Key recognises -an informal (or virtual) use of it, as I do ; and postpones this rightly to the formal use. I could cite German grammarians, were it worth while, whose treat- ment implies the same principles : for instance, Middendorf and Griiter, Frei, Billroth, Ellendt, &c. But the term (Virtual O. O.) was, I repeat, introduced by me thirty-six years ago. xl Preface. It rests upon its own fitness: I can but deprecate, if it exist anywhere, the spirit complained of by Horace, when he sa ys Indignor quicquam reprehendi, non quia crasse Compositum illepideve putetur, sed quia nuper. Ep. ii. i, 76. XVIII. 31. The question, whether the (independent) Thought-mood should be called Subjunctive or Conjunctive, stands as follows: The Greek grammarians of Alexandria used the term tyK-Xtme viroroKTiKr], modus subjunctivus. Why? Because in Greek there are two forms of the Thought-mood, one of which they called event;!?, Optative, the other vn-oreu.-//, Subjunctive. Neither of these terms corresponds exactly to the uses of the respective orms. The term Optative expresses only one use of the first: that of praying or wishing, I AJo<, may it come: but it has also a dependent use, ore eX0oe, that it was come; and by the convenient accession of the modal particle ai' it gains an in- dependent or enuntiative power e'Xfloe av, like the Latin ' veni- ret,' // would come. The second form eX0p was called uTrora*:- T u) because it never did acquire enuntiative power ; the modal ft. i' was not extended to it, but only the conjunction cu-, if, the conjunctional relative OG ai' &c., whosoever, &c., in dependent construction. It has, however, an independent power as suc- cursal to the imperative, in hortative sense ist pers. plur., t\Qwptv t let us come\ and o s interrogative, in dubitative sense, TL 0w, what can I say ? In spite of these two exceptional uses, it is manifest that the term VTTOTOKTIKII, subjunctive, is, for the Greek mood, fully defensible, because its principal and (so to say) normal use is dependence. German grammarians, however, call it Conjunctive ; wisely we think, for the maintenance of analogy But for calling the Latin Thought-mood, generally, Sub- junctive, there seems to be, from a right point of view, no reason- able defence. Key, indeed, has taken a point of view, which, if it were right, would supply one. His words are (Gr. 427-8): 'The Subjunctive Mood, as its name implies, is used in secondary sentences subjoined to the main verb. In some sentences it is not uncommon to omit the main verb, and then the Subiunctive Mood seems to signify power, permission, ditty, Preface. xli wish, purpose, result, allegation, hypothesis; whereas in fact these notions belong to the verb which is not expressed. Thus the phrase "quid faciam " is translated by what should I do or what am I to do? but the full phrase is " quid vis faciam ?" what do you wish me to do ? ( !) ' This theory Key, perhaps, borrowed from Hermann, who applies it (De emendanda ratione Grammaticae Graecae) to explain the two exceptional uses before noticed of the Greek Subjunctive: supposing Va>/uEi' = a>c Vcii/icr, and ' <7>w=o7//^roi/ or OVK o?2a ri 0u>. This farfetched carfrice of an ellipsis is bad enough as used by Hermann: but when applied to all the independent usages of the Latin Thought-mood it has not, I think, been accepted by any grammarian but Key himself. I therefore consider the adoption of the term Subjunctive, as a name for that mood generally, to be an unwise and unjustifiable violation of propriety in the choice of terms. Such no doubt is the opinion of that multitude of grammatical writers who take the term Conjunctive in its stead, though, unhappily, they neglect to assign a distinct name to that dependent use, which is really Subjunctive. To this neglect is due, in great measure, their vague and unsatisfactory method ox treating Compound Construction in Latin; a method pro- pagated, through Madvig, to some English scholars. See Uses of the Verb, 90-99 of this Grammar, Ap- pendix ii. to the ' Public School Latin Primer,' and the Preface to my Second Edition of Virgil. XIX. 32. The small number of terms for which this Grammar is specially responsible will be seen in its Index. Care has been taken to make them etymologically appropriate, and useful for their several purposes. On such points I have always invited expression of opinion by correspondence. It has been justly urged, that the term Factitive (adopted from German writers for that class of verbs which join a complement to their object, 106, 131) is bad in etymology. I have there- fore now written Factive : but I feel inclined to prefer the term 1 Appositive Verbs': i.e. such as append to their object a complement resembling an apposition: populus Numam regem creavit : puto tefelicem (philosophum). The point merits further conbideratiea xlii Preface. XX. 33. Among the numerous books which in the course of my grammatical labours have been consulted with profit, I desire specially to mention the various writings of Mr. Thring, of Uppingham. His * Elements of Grammar taught in English' is an admirable companion book to the 'Public School Primer ' for early instruction in Latin. B. H. KENNEDY. CAMBRIDGE : Oct. 5, CONTENTS. [Numerals following represent the marginal numeration. Numerals without $ represent the pages. The matter printed in Italics belongs to the Footnotes.] 1-5, p. I INTRODUCTION. i. Divisions of Grammar; the Latin Language; Families of Language ; the Semitic Family ; the Aryan Family and its branches. 2. The Italic Branch ; its Dialects ; Latin ; Languages derived from I .atin ; English ; its formation ; Influence of Greek on Latin. 3. Sketch of Latin Literature ; Table of Classical Authors. 4. Abbre- viations in this Grammar. 6-99, P- 5- ... PART I ETYMOLOGY. 6, p. 5. Divisions of Etymology ; Primitive Sounds and Roots. 7-12, p. 5. . DIVISION i. PHONOLOGY OR SOUNDLORE. 5. i. Alphabet; Capital and Small Letters ;. Vowels ; Consonants. 6. Divisions of the Consonants ; ii. Quantity, short, long, doubtful ; iii. Syllabation. 7. iv. Accentuation ; Middle Tone. 8. v. Punctua- tion ; vi. Relations of the Letters ; Scheme of Vowels ; Scheme of Consonants. 9. vii. Memoranda from the History of the Alphabet ; the Letters c, g, k, q, h, f, v, z, y, x ; the Aspirate sounds ch, th, ph, rh ; the three Letters of the Emperor Claudius, viii. the Semiconso- nants i-j and v-u. 10. i-consonans and i-vocalis ; v-consonans and v-vocalis. ix. Sound and quality of the Vowels ; three primitive Vowels a, i, u. ii. a the standard Vowel ; introduction of e, o ; compara- tive strength of Vowels ; lengthening of Vowels ; Final short and long Vowels, x. Phonetic Decay in old Italian Language ; Classical Latin a reaction. 12. xi. Vowel-change ; strengthening or weaken- ing, xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs; Guna and Vriddhi ; full list of Diphthongs ; ui, yi. Ai (ae) and its changes. 13. Oi (oe) and its changes ; ei and its changes ; an, eu, ou. 14-17. xiii. Vowel- strengthening in Root-syllables, Suffixes and Endings. 18. xiv. Vowel-strengthening in Disyllabic Perfects ; xv. Compensation. 19. xvi. Nasalization ; xvii. Vowel-weakening ; Euphony ; Selection ; e as final. 20. xviii. The Vowel a and its weakenings, A) in Root- and Stem-syllables ; B) in Suffixes ; C) in Cases and Personal End- ings, ax. xix. Weakening into 6 as influenced by Selection. 21-24. xliv Contents. xx. Weakening into u as influenced by Selection. 22. Dialectic use of o and u in final syllables. Formidulosus, &c. 23. Gerundive forms ondus, &c. 24-28. xxi. Change into 6 as influenced by Selection. 29-31. xxii. Selection oft. 30. Vincular T. Note. 32. Recapitulation. 32-35. xxiii. Vowel-change by Assimilation and Dissimilation of Vowels to each other. 35-39. xxiv. Vowel-weakening in the second Member of Compounds ; 35. Loose and Fast Compounds ; Some Com- pounds unweakened. 36. In others, a weakened into u ; a into e ; 37. a into i ; 38. e into i ; 39. e into u ; a e into I ; o e into t ; o e into u ; a u into o ; a u into u ; a u into o e. 40. xxv. Reduplication. 41-44. xxvi. Changes of concurrent Consonants. 41. Complete Assimilation of Consonants ; Regressive. 42. Progressive. Partial Assimilation of Consonants. Formation of Comparatives and Superlatives. 43. Dis- similation of Consonants. 44. xxvii. Loss of Initial letters. 45. xxviii. Loss of Final Letters. 47-50. xxix. Loss of Inner Consonants by Concurrence with other Consonants. 50-52. xxx. Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants. 52-55. xxxi. Hiatus, Elision, Contraction and Coalition of Vowels. 54. xxxii. Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants. 55-56. xxxiii. The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. 56-58. xxxiv. Ex- clusion of Consonants followed by Contraction of Vowels. Peculiar Contractions in Verbs. 59-68. xxxv. Relations of the Consonants in Latin and kindred Languages. 58-60. The Guttural Surds c (k) q. 59. Labialism and Dentalism. 60. Sound of ce, ci. 61. The Guttural Sonant g. 61-62. The Aspirates h, f. 63. The Labial Mutes p, b ; the Dentals t, d. 64-66. The Nasals n, m ; the Liquids 1, r, and the Sibilants. 66. The Soft Labial Spirant v. 67. Sound of V-consonans ; I-consonans. 68. The Double Consonant x. Words which have lost an initial letter. X 3~99> P- 69. DIVISION u. MORPHOLOGY or WORDLORE. 13, p. 69 SUBDIVISIONS. | 14-16, p. 69. CHAPTER /.WORDS AND THEIR FLEXION. 69. i. Stem-flexion : Word J Stem ; Root ; Suffix. 70. Prefix ; Character ; Flexion ; Definition of Stem ; of Root. 70-73. ii. Classi- fication of Words. 70. I. Nouns ; Noun Substantive. 71. Noun Adjective ; Attribution ; Pronoun ; Apposition ; Names, Abstract and Concrete. Common Names. Collective Nouns. Adjectives for Sub- stantives. Numerals. 72. Declension ; Accidents of Nouns ; II. Verb Finite and Infinite; Conjugation, Accidents of Verb ; III. Particles; Adverb ; Preposition. 73. Conjunction ; Interjection ; Parts of Speecfi \ Absence of Articles. 17-34, P- 73- - CHAPTER IL NOUNS. 17-21, p. 73 SECTION I. 73. i. Number in Nouns. 73-79. ii. Gender of Nouns. 74. Distinct Generic Names ; Mobilia. 75. Verbals of double Gender ; Patrony- mics. 75-77. Words Common of two Genders. 75. Appellatives. 76. Names of Animals. 77. Epicoena. 77-79. Gender shown by meaning. 80. iii. The Cases ; Declension ; Case in ancient and modern lan- guage. Order of the Cases. 81. iv. The Five Declensions. 82-84. v. Formation of the Cases. 85. vi. Endings of the Five Declensions. Contents. xlv 22, p. 86. . SECTION H.- i. FIRST DECLENSION ; A-NOUNS. 86. Nouns contained in First Decl. ii. Table, iii. Cases in First Decl. 87-89. iv. Greek Nouns in First Decl. 23, p. 89. SECTION in. i. SECOND DECLENSION ; O-NOUNS. 89. Nouns contained in Second Decl. ii. Table. 90. iii. Cases. 91. iv. Clipt Nouns in er. 92. v. Greek Nouns in Second Decl. vi. Gender. 93. vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. 24, p. 94. . SECTION iv. i. THIRD DECLENSION, CONSONANT AND I-NOUNS. 94. The two Divisions ; their occasional confusion ; its cause ; ii. Nominative Endings in the Consonant Declension. 95. Vowel of True Stem. 95-103. iii. Syllabus of Cons. Stems, with Genders. 95-96. A. Mute Guttural Stems. 96-99. B. Mute Dental Stems. 99. C. Mute Labial Stems. 99-101. D. Nasal Stems. 101-103. E. Liquid and Sibilant Stems. 103. F. u- and v-stems. G. Greek e- o- and y-stems. 104. iv. I-stems: Imparisyllaba and Parisyllaba. v. Grouping of I-nouns with Gender. 104-106. A] Parisyllable I-nouns in Is (6r). 104-106. Nature of i, B) Parisyllable I-nouns Fern, in es (Is). 106-107. C) Neuter I-nouns in 6, al, ar. 107-108. D] Clipt I-nouns Imparisyllable. 108-109. vi. Notes on the Cases. 109. Gen. PI. -varying -with form of Noun. Summary of Gender in Third Decl. 110-112. vii. Table of Third Decl. 112-115. viii. Greek Nouns in Third Decl. 114-115. Greek Table. 115-119. ix. Adjectives in Third Decl. 115. Con- sonant Adjectives; Table. 116-119. Adjectives not purely Consonantal. Four Groups. 118-119. Table of these Adjectives. 25, p. 119. . SECTION v. i. FOURTH DECLENSION ; U-NOUNS. 119. ii. Table. 120. iii. Confusion of U- and O-nouns. 121. iii. Cases in Fourth Decl. 121. iv. Gender in Fourth Decl. 26, p. 121. SECTION vi. i. FIFTH DECLENSION. E-NOUNS, FEM. ii. Table. 122. iii. Cases in Fifth Decl. iv. Gender of dies. 27-28, p. 123. . . SECTION vii. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 123. i. Irregularity ; Abundance ; Defect. 123-125. ii. Abundance in Substantives; of Declension ; of Case-forms. 125-130. iii. Defect in Substantives. 125. A. Defect of Number. I) Substantives Singular only. 126-128. II) Plural only. 128-129. Ill) Substantives which change their meaning in Plural. 129-130. B. Defect of Case. Substantives Defective in Case. 131. iv. Irregularity in Adjectives ; Abundance ; Defect. 29-30, p. 131. . . SECTION viii. COMPARISON. 131-132. i. Comparison of Adjectives; 132. Degrees of Comparison ; ii. Examples ; iii. Notes on Comparison. 133. iv. Irregular Compa- rison. 133-135. v. Defective Comparison. 135. vi. Comparison of Adverbs. 136. vii. Irregular Comparison in Adverbs. xlvi Contents. .31, p. 136 SECTION ix. PRONOUNS. 136. i. Pronouns Substantive or Adjective ; their Persons. 136- 137. ii. Classification of Pronouns : A. Substantival : i. Personal ; 2. Reflexive ; B. 3. Possessive ; C. 4. Demonstrative ; 5. Definitive ; 6. Relative ; a. Interrogative ; b. Indefinite ; c. Compound Pro- nouns ; 7. Pronominalia ; 138-142. iii. Tables of Declension. 142- 143. Observations on certain Pronouns. 143-145. Ancient Case forms of Pronouns, 144-146. iv. Correlation of Pronouns. 32-34, p. 147. . . . SECTION x. NUMERALS. 147. i. Numeralia ; ii. Symbols of Number : Note on these ; iii. The Four Chief Numeral Series Cardinal, Ordinal, Distributive Numerals, Quotientive Adverbs. 148-149. iv. Minor Numeral Series. 150-151. v. Declension of Numerals. 150-153. Numeral Table ; Numeral Roots.. 153-155. vi. Use of the Numerals. 156-157. Compound Numeration. 157-158. viii. Expression of Fractions ; the As and its parts ; Calcu- lation of Inheritance. 35-53. P- 158- . > CHAPTER ///.THE VERB. 35-40' P- X 5 8 - SECTION i. i. THE VERB FINITE AND INFINITE. ii. The Voices. 159. iii. Deponent Verbs, iv. Verbs Transitivt and Intransitive ; Impersonal and Reflexive uses of the Verb. 160. v. Verbs Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent ; Passive Participles from Active Verbs. 160-161. The Moods Indicative, Conjunctive, Im- perative. 161-164. vn - The Tenses. 161-163. Tense-forms Inflected or Combinate. 163. Table of Tense-forms. Conjunctive Tenses. 164. Combinate or Periphrastic Forms ; Tenses Primary and Historic, viii. Number and Person. 164-166. ix. The Verb Infinite ; Infinitive ; Gerunds ; Gerundive ; Supines ; Participles. 41-50, p. 166. . . . SECTION ii. THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 166. i. The three Stems in Verbs ; Parts derived from them seve- rally. 167. ii. The Verb of Being 'sum ' (esse) ; Forms of sum, esse. 160. Its Table. 169-182. iii. The Four Conjugations of Regu.ar Verbs ; Weak and Strong Conjugations ; the Stems in each. 169. Quantity of the Vowel Characters. 170-171. Mode of Conjugating Verbs Active, Passive, and Deponent. 171. Verbs in io of Conj. 3. 172- 182. Tables of the Four Conjugations Active, Passive, and Depo- nent. 180. Of Io- Verbs in Conj. 3. 180-182. iv. Combinate or Peri- phrastic Conjugation. 181-183. Correspondence of the Latin Verb. 183-189. v. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 184. Possum. 184-185. Fero. 186. Fio. 187. Volo, nolo, malo. 188. Eo, queo, nequeo. 189. Edo. 189-191. Conjugation of Defective Verbs. 189. Praeteri- tiva, coepi, odi, memini. Capio, &c. 190. Novi, aio. 191. Inquam, ovare, quaeso. 192-194. Impersonal Verbs. 192. Im- personal Verbs Active. 193. Impersonal Verbs Passive. 194. Imper- sonals Gerundive. Contents. xlvii | 51, p. 194. SECTION iv. THE FORMS OF THE THREE STEMS IN VERBS. 194-196. i. The Present Stem and its Affections. 196. Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs in sco. 196-199. ii. The Perfect Stem and its varieties of formation. 199-202. iii. The Supine Stem and its va- rieties of formation. 52, p. 202. . . . SECTION v. COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 202-203. i. Prepositions compounded with Verbs, separable and inseparable ; their Euphonic Mutations ; Examples. 202. Sits, subs. 203. The form obs. 204. Scheme of Vowel-changes in the three Stems of Compound Verbs. 205. ii. Verbs compounded with Ad- verbs ; with Nominal or Verbal Elements. 53, p. 205. SECTION vi. SYLLABUS OF STEM-FORMATION IN VERBS. 205. A] The First Conjugation; Imitative Verbs; Frequentative Verbs ; Deminutive Verbs ; //) Second Conjugation ; C) Fourth Con- jugation. 206. Desiderative Verbs ; D] Third Conjugation. 206-208. Stem-table of A- verbs; Compounds; Deponent A-verbs. 209-214. Stem' table of E-verbs, Compounds. 214-216. Stem-table of I-verbs, Com- pounds. 216-227. Stem-table of Consonant and U -verbs, Compoutids. 216-217. Cons. Verbs with reduplicated Perfect-stem. 217-218. With strengthened Perf. stem. 219-221. With agglutinated Perf. Stem in ui, vi. 221-224. With agglutinated s in Perf. stem. 221-223. Gut- tural Stems. 223. Dental Stems. 224. Labial, Nasal, and Liquid Stems. 224-225. U-verbs. 225-227. Deponent Verbs in Third Con- jugation. 226-227. Inchoative Verbs. 227. Homonymous Verb-forms. 54-58, p. 228. . CHAPTER IV. PARTICLES. 228. Four Classes of Particles; their intimate connexion. 55, p. 228 SECTION i. ADVERBS. 228-232. Interrogative Adverbs referring to Place, Time, Number, Manner, Degree, Cause, Quality, &c. Tableof Adverbs corresponding to these severally. 56, p. 232. . . . SECTION ii. PREPOSITIONS. 232. Relations expressed by Prepositions. i) Prepositions which take Accusative Case. 233. 2) Prepositions which take Ablative Case. 3) Prepositions which take either case. 57- P- 2 33- SECTION in. CONJUNCTIONS. 233. Conjunctions, Coordinative or Subordinative ; Conjunctions with both uses. A. List of Coordinative Conjunctions. 234. B. List of Subordinative Conjunctions. 58,p. 234 SECTION iv. INTERJECTIONS. 234. Interjections expressing various Emotions. 235. Interjectional Nouns ; V r erbs ; Adverbs ; Phrases. Cases found with Interjections. xlviii Contents. 59, p. 235-253. . CHAPTER V. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS. p. 235 . . . SECTION i. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 236. i. Staminal Suffix. ii. Root or Rudiment, iii. Suffixes. 237. iv. Rudimental Words. 237-248. v. Syllabus of Suffixes ; Ex- amples. 247. Formation of Deminutives ; Examples, vi. Patronymics. 249. vii. Names of Countries. 249-251. viii. Nominative Endings of derived Words according to their meanings ; Examples. 252. Ad- jectives derived from Particles ; Examples. 252-253. Adjectives derived from Proper Names : Personal ; Gentile ; Roman Names. p. 254. . SECTION ii. DERIVATION OF VERBS. 254. Verbs derived from Verbs ; Verbs derived from Nouns. p. 255-259. SECTION in. DERIVATION OF PARTICLES. 255. i. Primitive Particles, ii. Particles derived from Nouns ; from Pronouns ; from other Particles. Particles compounded with other Particles. 256-257. iii. Denominative Adverbs in the form of Cases. 257-258. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial Endings. 258. v. Derivation of Pronominal Particles. 259. vi. Other Particles. Note on some of them. 60, p. 259-266. SECTION iv. COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 260. i. Parts of a Compound, Fundamental and Determinative ; Parathetic and Synthetic Composition, ii. Varieties of Composition, Constructive, Attributive, Adverbial, and Possessive. 260-263. Syn- thetically compounded Substantives, Adjectives and Verbs. 263. De- composita. 263-266. Verbs compounded -with Prepositions; their various senses, &c. 61-99, p. 267. . CHAPTER VI. USES OF WORDS. 6l, p. 267. SECTION I. i. FlGURATE CONSTRUCTION. 267-269. ii. Ellipsis ; Zeugma ; Pleonasm ; Examples ; Attraction ; Synesis. 269-270. iii. Other Variations. 270. iv. Metaphpr ; Metonymy. 62, p. 270. . SECTION II. USES OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 270. i. Singular Appellatives used collectively for Plurals 271. ii. Plural words used with Singular collective sense in prose and poetry. iii. Plural used to express a ' genus, ' when individuals are implied. iv. Plural of Proper Names expressing typical characters, v. Ab- stract Substantives used in Plural. 272. vi. Abstract Substantives for Concrete. 272-273. vii. Idioms of Substantives. 274-275. viii. El- lipse of Substantives. 63, p. 275. . . SECTION III. USES OF THE ADJECTIVE. 275-278. i. Adjectives used as Substantives. 278. ii. Adjectives used adverbially in Predicative Construction, iii. Partitive Attributes. Contents. xlix iv. Multiplication of Attributes. 279. v. Possessive Attributes, vi. Idioms of the Superlative. 280. vii. Intensive Phrases. 281. viii. Adjectives used in Passive and Active Sense. 64-69, p. 281. . SECTION IV. USES OF PRONOUNS. 281. i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 282-285. ii. Demonstra- tive Pronouns h i c, i 1 1 e, i s t e, is, idem. 285-287. iii. The Reflexive Pronouns s e, s u u s. 287-289. iv. The Definitive Pronoun i p s e. 289-291. v. The Indefinite Pronouns qui s, qui, aliqui s, aliqui, quispiam, quisquam, quidam, quivis; the Pronoun quisque. 291. vi. The Universal Relatives quisquis, quicum- que, &c. 292. vii. Pronominalia ; altej% uter, &c. ; all us, &c. 70-72, p. 293. . SECTION V. USES OF PREPOSITIONS. 293-299. Examples of Prepositions taking an Accusative Case. 299-304. Examples of Prepositions taking an Ablative Case. 304- 306. Examples of Prepositions taking Accusative and Ablative. 306. Prepositions used as Adverbs. 307. Notes on Prepositions. 73-76, p. 307. SECTION vi. CORRELATIVE CONSTRUCTION. 307-310. i. Pronominal Correlation, ii. 310-312. Correlations of Manner with ut, &c. 312-313. iii. Correlations of Likeness and Un- likeness with atque, ac., &c. 314-315. iv. Correlations of Degree with quam. 314. Quam with Positive and Superlative Adjectives, &c. Quam after Adverbs. 315. Idioms of Comparative. 77-82, p. 316. . . SECTION vii. COORDINATION. 316-320. i. Coordination by Conjunctions. 316. Annexive Conjunc- tions. 317. Distributive Association ; Ordinative Particles. 318. Disjunctive Particles ; Adversative. 320. Causal ; Illative. 320-322. ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Particles. 321-322. Idioms of quod. Ss-SS. P- 323. . SECTION viii. NEGATIVE WORDS. 323-324. i. Ne and its Compounds. 324. ii. Doubled Negatives. 325-326. iii. Ne . . . quidem, nedum, non modo, &c. 86-89, P- 3 26 - SECTION ix. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. I. Questions Single or Disjunctive. 326-327. i. Single Interrogation without Particle ; ii. with Particle ; uses of an, n esc io an, &c. 328- 329. iii. Disjunctive Interrogation with utrum, &c. 329. II. An- swers, i. Affirmative Answers. 330. ii. Negative Answers. 90-99, p. 330. . SECTION X. USES OF THE VERB. 331. i. The Indicative Mood and its Tenses ; Use of Mood ; Rela- tions of Tenses. 332-333. Uses of the Present. 333. Uses of the Perfect. 334. Uses of the Imperfect and Pluperfect. Tenses in Roman Letter-writing. 335. Uses of the Simple Future and Future Perfect ; of the Future Periphrastic Conjugation. 336. Idioms of the Contents. Indicative Past Tenses in Predications of duty, necessity, &c. 337. ii. The Imperative Mood and its Tenses. 338. iii. The Conjunctive Mood and its Tenses. 338-341. iv. Uses of the Pure Conjunctive ; Potential. 339. Dubitative, Concessive, Optative, Hortative uses. 340. Permissive and exhorting use of 2nd Pers. Conjunctive ; Prohibitive use. 341. v. Examples of Pure Conjunctive. 342-343. vi. The Sub- junctive ; Subordinate Subjunctive Clauses. 343~344- vii. Particles and Pronouns which introduce Clauses. 344-346. viii. Consecution of Tenses with Examples. 346-347. ix. Ellipses of the Verb. 100-250, p. 348. . . PART II. SYNTAX. 100, p. 348. CHAPTER /.-THE DOCTRINE OF SENTENCES. 348. Sentences Affirmative or Negative ; Simple or Compound. In a Compound Sentence, Principal Sentence and Clauses ; Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses. Three Forms of a Simple Sentence Enuntiation, Petition, Interrogation. 349. Oratio Recta and Obliqua. Substantival C'auses ; their Three Kinds Enuntiatio Obliqua, Pe- titio Obliqua, Interrogatio Obliqua. 101-106, p. 349. CHAPTER II. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 349. i. Members of a Simple Sentence, Grammatical Subject and Grammatical Predicate. 350. What the Subject may be. What the Predicate. Examples of Predication with Subject and Verb. Omis- sion of Pronoun Subject, ii. Incomplete Predication ; Verbs which do not predicate completely. Sum, e s s e (complete only when implying absolute existence), usually requires a Complement. 351. Examples. Incomplete Verbs called Copulative. List of Copulative and Factive Verbs. 350-351. Incomplete Predication and its Terms. 352. What the Complement may be. Examples of Copulative Predica- tion. Phrase, Enthesis, Clause. 353. iii. Relations in the Simple Sentence. Note on these. I. Predicative Relation ; Subject and Pre- dicate. II. Qualitative Relation Attribute, Apposite. Adjuncts of Substantives. 354. Four Varieties of Qualitative Relation Epithetic, Enthetic, Adverbial, Complemental. III. Objective Relation ; Ob- ject, Accusative governed by Transitive Verbs ; Verbs with two Objects, Person and Thing; Verbs with two Accusatives, one Oblique Complement of the other. IV. Receptive Relation ; Dative of Recipient. 355. Predicative Dative or Dative of Purpose. Tra- jective Words. V. Circumstantive Relation ; Adverbs ; Ablative Case, &c. 356. VI. Proprietive Relation ; Genitive Case. VII. Pro- lative Relation ; Predication extended by Infinitive. VIII. Annexive Relation ; Conjunctions. 357. iv. Ecthesisby Interjections and Vocative Case. v. Notice of the Relative Pronoun. 358. vi. Conversion of Active Sentences into Passive form. 107-188, p. 359. CHAPTER ///.CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. g 107. I. AGREEMENT. II. CASE-CONSTRUCTION. III. VERB-CONSTRUC- TION. 5 108-114, p. 359. . . . SECTION i. AGREEMENT. 359. Agreement what. i. The Four Concords : I. Verb with Subject ; Examples. II. Adjt-ctive with Substantive ; III. Substantive with Contents. \\ Substantive. 360. Examples of II. III. 361. IV. Relative with Ante- cedent ; Examples, ii. Ellipsis of Subject. 361-^62. iii. Attraction of Verb. 362. iv. Synesis in first and second Concords : of Gender ; of Number ; Collective Nouns. 363. v. Composite Subject. 364- 367. vi. Idioms of Attribution and Apposition. 364. Adjective agreeing with Verb-Noun. 365. Adjectival Pronoun substantively used as Subject. Adverbial Attribution and Apposition. Neuter Adjectives Substantival. 366. Number and Gender of Apposites. Peculiar forms of Apposition. 367. Attribute with more than one Noun. Noun with more than one Attribute or Apposite. 367. vii. Synesis and Ellipsis in Relative Construction. 368. Attraction in Relative Construction, viii. Construction of Qualis ; Quantus ; Quot. 369. Abnormal Constructions. 369-370. Examples of the Rules of Agreement. 115-176, p. 370. . . SECTION n. CASE-CONSTRUCTION. 115-117, p. 370. . . A. THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 370. i. The Nominative as Subject : ii. As Complement. 371. iii. With Interjections. i 118-119, P- 37i- B. THE VOCATIVE CASE. 371. i. Vocative without or with Interjection: ii. The Nominative for the Vocative. 120-132, p. 372. . . . C. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE. 372. i. The Accusative the Case of the Contained or Attained Nearer Object : Agent and Object : Obj ective Propositions, ii. Accusative of the Nearer or Attained Object of Transitive Verbs. Examples. 373- 374. iii. Contained Object (Cognate Accusative) : its various instances. 374. Part Affected (Respect), iv. Medial Object in Poetry. 375. y. Accusatives of Time, Space, Measure, vi. Accus. of Place Whither. 376. vii. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively. 376-378. Intransitive Verbs used Transitively. 376. Verbs expressing State. 377. Com- pounds of Intransitive Verbs become Transitive ; Test of Active Trans- itive Verb its power of becoming Passive, viii. Personal and Im- personal Passives. 378. Preposition of Compound Verb repeated with Accusative. Compounds with two Accusatives. 278. ix. Idio- matic uses. Verbals with Accusative. Unconstructed Accusative. 379. x. Exclamatory Accusative with or without Interjection. 379- 380. xi. Accusatives of two Objects with Verbs of asking, teaching, &c. 380-381. xii. Oblique double Accusative. 381-383. Examples of Accusative. 132-142, p. 382. . . . D. THE DATIVE CASE. 382-383. i. Three chief uses of Dative I. As Remoter Object. II. As Recipient or Acquisitive. III. As expressing Purpose. 384-386. ii. Dative of Remoter Object. Words which govern it. 386-388. Verbs which vary Construction with Meaning. 388-389. Adjectives with Dative Object. 389-390. iii. Recipient or Acquisitive Dative (Corn- modi et Incommodi). 390-391. iv. Predicative Dative. 391-394. Examples of Dative. Hi Contents. 143-161, p. 392. . . . E. THE ABLATIVE CASE. 392. i. Uses of Ablative I. Instrumental ; II. Locative ; III. Ablative Proper. 393. ii. Instrumental Ablative. 393-394- Ablative of Cause. 395. Of Instrument : of Personal Agent. 395. Of Price. 396-398. Of Matter. 398-402. iii. Locative Ablative. 398. Abla- tive of Respect : of Measure. 399. Of Manner : of Condition: of Quality. 400-401. Of Time. 401-402. Of Place Where. 402. Of Direction. 403-405. iv. Ablative Proper. 403. Ablative of Place Whence: of Separation. 403-404. Of Origin. 404-405. Of the Thing Compared. 405-406. v. Ablative Absolute. 406-411. Examples of Ablative. 162-176, p. 407 . . . F. THE GENITIVE CASE. 407-408. i. Main Function of Genitive, ii. Its twofold Use : Sub- jective and Objective. 408. Both these dependent on one Noun, 409. iii. A) Subjective Genitive; Possessive ; Descriptive ; Partitive. Phrases for Genitive. 410. Attributive Nature of Subjective Genitive. 411-413. Genetivus Auctoris et Possessoris. 413-415. Genetivus Descriptionis. 414. Genitive of the Fact charged. 415. Genetivus Qualitatis. 416-417. Genitive of Value and Price. 416. Construc- tions with interest, refert. 417-418. Genetivus Rei Distributae, or Partitive. 418-420. Genetivus Rei Demensae or of Quantity. 420. Genitive of Plenty and Want. 421-423. iv. B) Objective Genitive dependent, 421. on Substantives; 421-422. on Adjectives; 422-423. on Verbs. 423. Genitive of Cause. 423-427. Examples of Genitive. 8 177-188, p. 424. . . SECTION III. VERB-CONSTRUCTION. 424-425. i. The Infinitive. 426. ii. The Infinitive Present and Past as Subject. 427. iii. As Object. 427-428. iv. Prolative Infinitive : extends Construction of Verbs. Construction of Copulative Infini- tives. 428. Use of co ep it &c. with Impersonal Infinitives. Prolative Infinitive extending Adjectives. 428-429. Cases of the Infinitive, Gerunds, and Supines. 428. v. Gerundial Construction : the Gerunds. 429. Their Case-construction ; Gerundial Attraction ; their Depend- ence, vi. Impers. Gerundive Construction, vii. Personal Gerundive Construction. 430-431. viii. Notes on Gerundial Construction. 431. The two Supines Accusative Supine ; Ablative Supine. 432. Note on the Annexive Relation. 431-434. Examples of Infinitive, Gerunds, at id Supines. 189-240, p. 434. . CHAPTER IV. COMPOUND CONSTRUCTION. 189, p. 434. . . SECTION I. SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES. 434. Clauses of three Kinds Substantival, Adverbial, Adjectival or Relative. 190-193, p. 435. . . SCTION II. SUBOBLIQUE CONSTRUCTION. 435. i. Oraiio Obliqua. ii. In a Clause dependent on it (i.e. Sub- oblique), the Verb is Subjunctive, iii. Virtual Oratio Obliqua. In a Clause dependent on it (i.e. virtually Suboblique), the Verb is Sub- junctive. 486. iv. A Verb dependent on Conjunctive is generally Sub- junctive. v. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in dependence. 437. Examples of Suboblique Construction. Contents. liu 194-203, p. 437. . SECTION in. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. 437. I) Enuntiatio Obliqua : has three Forms Infinitive Clause ; Ut-clause ; Quod-clause. 437-440. i. Infinitive Clause. 440-441. ii. Ut-clause. 441-442. Quod-clause. 442. II. Petitio Obliqua: Verbs which introduce it. 443. Quominus; Quin; Construction with Predications of Fear and Caution. 444-447. III. Interrogatio Obli- qua. 448-449. Dependent Constructions with various Verbs. 444-451. Examples of Substantival Clauses. 204-227, p. 452. . . . SECTION iv. ADVERBIAL AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES. 452. Why taken in connexion, i. Relative Clauses, why called Adjectival ; Particles equivalent to Pronouns ; Mood in Relative Clauses, ii. Consecutive Clauses: why so called ; with ut, ut non, &c., after Demonstratives or without them. 452-453. Adverbial Con- secutive Clauses. 453. Use of Perfect Subjunctive in Historic Con- secution ; Idioms of Adverbial Consecution : Tantumabesseut... 454-457. Adjectival Consecutive Clauses ; when they occur ; after what Predications, &c. 456. Use of quin for qui non. 457. Limitative use of qui ; Occasional Definiteness of Relative with Indicative. 454-456. Examples of Consecutive Clauses. 457. iii. Final Clauses : what they express ; Adverbial Final Clauses with ut, ne, &c. 458. Demonstratives used with them ; Adjectival Final Clauses. 457-458. Examples of Final Clauses. 458-461. iv. Causal Clauses ; Adverbial Causal Clauses : of admitted Cause, quoniam, &c. with Indicative usually. 459. Of alleged Cause, quod, quia, with Indicative, if not Suboblique ; Of conceived Cause, cum, with Subjunctive. 459- 460. v. Idioms of Causal construction ; non quod, &c. ; non quin. 461. Adjectival Causal Clauses. 459-461. Examples of Causal Clauses. 461-467. vi. Temporal Clauses ; four Groups of Temporal Conjunctions. 462-463. When Subjunctive is required in Temporal Clauses. 463. Iterative Subjunctive. 461-464. Examples of Temporal Clauses. 465-467. Uses of the Conjunction cum, when. 465-466. Examples of cum with Indicative and with Subjunctive. 467-479, vi. Conditional Sentences. 467. Conditional Conjunctions ; Normal Forms of the Conditional Sentence. 468-469. Class Alpha, Sumptio Dati ; Examples. Class Beta, Sumptio Dandi. Class Gamma, Sumptio Ficti. 469-470. Various Forms of Gamma. 467- 468. Examples of the, three Classes, Distinctions. 470-472. Conjunc- tive Protasis with Indicative Apodosis : Four Idioms with Examples. 472. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis. 473. Abnormal Relation of Tenses ; Protasis without s i. 473-474. S i in various senses. 474. Si combined with Pronouns and Particles. 474-475. Idiomatic uses of Si. 475. Sive, seu. 475-477. Negative con- dition ; Nisi, ni, si non. 477-478. Examples. 477-478. Conditional Sentences in Oratio Obliqua; Examples. 479. Modo, dum, dum- modo, Conditional; Examples. 479. vii. Concessive Sentences; Concessive Conjunctions of several Classes. 480-482. Mood in Con- cessive Clauses. 480-482. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions. 481- 482. Examples of Concessive Sentences. 482-483. viii. Comparative Sentences ; Conjunctions that introduce these. 483. Comparative Idioms. 482-483. Examples of Comparative Sentences. liv Contents. 229-240, p. 483. . . . SECTION v. SUPPLEMENT TO COMPOUND CON- STRUCTION. I. 483-486. Consecution of Tenses. 483. Consecution of Present Past. 484. Of Historic Present ; of Future with Future ; three varieties. 485. Of Future after Primary and Historic Tenses; of Subordinated Conditional Sentences. 486. Of might have, ought, must have; Consecution when Infinitive, &c., intervene. II. 487-489. Narratio Obliqua, how used by Historians ; Examples. 487-488. Idioms. 488-489. Examples of the Conversion cf Gratis Recta into Oratio Obliqua. III. 489-495. i. The Reflexive Pronouns se, suus, in Clauses. 489. I pse supplies them ; se, suus are Subjective ; is, ille, &c. Objective. Pronominal reference to be interpreted by 'the Reason of the Thing.' 490. Se, suu s connected with the use of Subjunctive : with the mind of the Subject, ii. Their use in various Clauses. 490-492. In Substan- tival Clauses : Ordinary Instances. 491. Reference when a Clause has a new Subject capable of being referred to Subjectively ; Vari- ation of Reference in Clauses of Prayer, Exhortation, &c. 492. Se, suus, when referred to a Case governed by a Passive Verb. 492- 494. Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses : in Final ; Consecutive ; Causal ; Conditional ; Relative Clauses. 494. iii. When Oratio Obliqua intervenes, iv. When in Clauses more than one Subject is referred to. 494-495. I pse assisting the use of Reflexive Pronouns in two ways. 495. Its Appositive use ;Inter ipsos;Interse. IV. 495-501. Participial Construction. 495-496. Nature of Parti- ciple ; want of Participles ; how supplied. 496. Uses of Participles ; Participle as an abbreviated Clause ; Attributive or Absolute. 497. Construction of Abl. Absolute ; Participial Construction abbreviates, i) Relative Clauses ; 2) Adverbial Clauses ; Consecutive ; Transla- tion of English ' without ' and Verb. 498. Final, by Fut. Participle ; Causal; Temporal; Conditional. 499. Concessive; with nisi, etsi, &c. ; Comparative with quasi, tamquam, &c. 499-501. Notes OH Participial Construction. 241-250, p. 501. . . CHAPTER V. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND STRUCTURE AND CONNEXION OF SENTENCES. 501-502. Order of Words ; Parts of Sentence. 503-504. Notes on the Order of Words. 504-505. Connexion of Sentences. 505-510. The PERIOD in Latin, Simple or Complex. 506-510. Its Style and Rhythm. 508. Subject and Object in Periods. 510. Narrative Style ; Qualities of Style. 510-511. Distinctions of Prose Style. Styles of Various Authors. 251-269, p. 511. . . PART III. LATIN PROSODY. 511. Prosody ; Quantity and Rhythm. 512-513. Quantity of Syllables; Position. 512. Syllables long by nature or position. 513-516. Quantity of Inner Syllables. 516-520. Quantity of Final Syllables. 520-521. Quantity of Words in Composition. 521-522. Elision. 523-524. Exceptions to the Law of Elision ; Hiatus. 524-525. Metre ; Verse ; Foot ; Arsis and Thesis ; Principal Feet. 525-527. Verses : Dactylic Hexameter. List of Feet. 527-531. Caesura: Synaphea. 527-528. Technical Terms. 531-532. The Elegiac Distich ; its Rhythm. 533-546. Lyric Metres. 533. Catullus, Horace. 533-534. Iambics of Horace and Catullus ; Scazon ; Epodes of Horace. 534-535. Minor Horatian Metres ; Three Lyric Types ; Contents. lv Asclepiad Metres: 536-537. Glyconics of Catullus ; Sapphic Stanza in Horace and Catullus. 537-538. The Hendecasyllable of Catullus. The Alcaic Stanza in Horace. 538. The Galliambus of Catullus. 539-541. Table of Metres: I. Single Verses; Dactylic Rhythms; Trochaic Rhythms ; Iambic Rhythms. 539-540. Ionic Rhythms. 541- 543. Mixed Rhythms; Logaoedic. 543. Asynartete. Anapaestic Rhythm : Saturnian Verse. II. Strophic Metres ; Dicola Disticha. 544. Dicola Tetrasticha. 545. Tricola Tetrasticha. 546. Metres of the Comic Poets. p. 547. APPENDIX. 547-551. A. Latin Orthography. 551-553. B. "Latin Pronunciation. 554-555. C. Affinities in the Aryan Family. 555. Grimm's Law. 556-563. D. Ancient Dialects of Italy. 556-559. (A) The Umbrian Dialect. 559-561. (B) The Oscan Dialect. 561-563. (C) Specimens of Ancient Latin. 563-564. E. Poetic Forms and Idioms. 565. F. Supplement to Figurate Construction ( 61). 566-572. G. Money ; Weight ; Measure. 572-575. Computation of Time ; Roman Calen- dar. 575-576. Siglarium Romanum (Abbreviations). 577-582. Sup- plementary Notes : I. On Sanskrit Roots. II. On Relations in the Simple Sentence. p. 583 INDICES. I. INDEX OK SUBJECTS 583 II. LATIN INDEX 591 III. INDEX TO PASSAGES IN LATIN WRITERS REFERRED TO IN THIS GRAMMAR . 600 THE PUBLIC SCHOOL LATIN GRAMMAR. INTRODUCTION. -i GRAMMAR has two chief divisions : Divi- sions of (1) ETYMOLOGY (frvjtoXoyai, true wordformation), the doctrine of Letters and Words. (2) SYNTAX (o-iWafts-, construction), the doctrine of Sentences and Discourse. PROSODY (irpotrulia), which treats of Quantity, Rhythm, and Metre, is not a necessary part of Grammar, but is usually appended to it. 2 The Latin Language, so called from the Latini, or The people of Latium, in Italy, who used it, was the pre- tf n m valent scion of the Italic branch of the great Indo- guage - European or Aryan family. i. Various languages were formed by various races of mankind in their several habitations. When migrating bodies sought new seats, they carried with them their native language, which, amidst the changes wrought by time, always retained traces, more or less strong, of kinship to other branches of the primitive stock. Such kindred languages constitute a Family. Among the families of human speech, two have been most operative in the work of civili- sation the Semitic and the Indo-European or Aryan. The Semitic family (to which we owe the origin of alphabetic writing) occupied south-western Asia; comprising the Aramaic (Syriac and Chaldee), Hebrew, Phoenician, and Arabic branches. The Aryan race was seated in central Asia ; whence, by a long series of migrations, it sent forth language to most parts of Europe, and to various regions of the Asiatic continent. The European branches of this family are : (i) the Keltic; (2) the Teutonic or German ; (3) the Sclavonic ; (4; the Lithuanian ; (5) the Italic (Latin) ; (6) the Hellenic (Greek). The Asiatic branches are : (i) the Indie or Sanskrit, in India ; (2) the Iranian (of which the Zand is the chief scion) or speech of Persia, Bactria and adjoining districts. B Introduction. 3-4- 2. The Italic branch, like the Hellenic, was from early times divided into various dialects. The principal of these were the Um- brian in the north-east of Italy, the Sabellian and the Oscan in the central districts, and the Latin in Latium. Umbrian, Sabellian, Oscan, and others were destined to fade away, leaving a few scat- tered monuments of their former existence. Latin survived to be the parent of learning and language in Western Europe. Rome, founded on the Tiber by Latins, according to tradition, B.C. 754, became, on the fall of Alba, the head of the Latin race and name (nomen Latinum) ; and the clannish pride of the Romans led them to call their language, and afterwards their literature, Latin rather than Roman. 3. By Roman conquest and dominion the Latin speech was ex- tended, with dialectic varieties, to all Italy and to other neighbour- ing countries. From this source are derived the following modern languages : Italian, French (in both its divisions, Oc and Oil\ Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian, and the Romansch of the Swiss Grisons. They bear the common title of Romanic or Romance languages. All are more or less alloyed with the Teutonic dialects which barbarian conquest carried into Western and Southern Europe in the fifth and following centuries. English. English is the single instance of a Teutonic language largely alloyed, without being disorganised, by the speech of Romanic con- querors. When the Romans quitted Britain in the fifth century, the island, after a brief interval, was overrun by Teutonic hordes (Saxons, Angles, and Jutes), who formed no fusion with the Keltic natives, but either extirpated them gradually, or drove them (as Walsche, Welsh, or foreigners) into mountainous and barren dis- tricts. The rest of the country south of the Tweed came to be called England (Angle-land), and its speech (Anglo-Saxon) was the parent of the later English. The conversion of the Saxons to the Christian faith brought into England some knowledge of Latin, and incorporated many Latin words with the English tongue. By the Norman conquest, A.D. 1066, a dominant race came in, who, though comparatively few in number, filled most places of rank, power, and influence. Hence their speech Norman- French, a Romanic dialect became that of courtly society and of law ; Latin, its mother-tongue, became the vehicle of religious service and learned intercourse ; whilst English continued to be spoken by the great bulk of the population. In the fusion of these varieties, by which modern English was gradually formed, the usage of the yeomanry and peasantry prevailed over that of the nobles, the law, and the church. English is structurally a Teutonic language, and the number of Teutonic words holds to those of Latin origin a propor- tion of about two to one. This shews that, without a knowledge of Latin, it is impossible to gain a thorough knowledge of English. It must also be remembered that the Teutonic element in English has itself a distant kinship to Latin. Influ- The influence of Greek civilisation upon Latin was immense. ence of Besides their original affinity the Greek race came into influential contact with the Latin at two distinct eras. The first of these was Ittfroduction* when the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy became active in com- merce and literature. This activity may be dated as beginning about 550 B.C. The Aeolic city of Cumae in Campania appears to have been the chief medium of communication between Rome and the Greek colonies, and to the influence then exercised may perhaps be ascribed those facts of language which led grammarians to derive Latin from the Aeolic Greek Dialect. Hence too the Romans probably drew the peculiarities which characterise the Latin Alpha- bet, as the letter Q and the V consonant, which the Aeolic Greeks had kept in the Dorian alphabet at Cumae. Again, when literary activity began at Rome in the third century B.C., Grecian literature supplied* most of the forms and much of the matter. Rome had no models to furnish. Inscriptions, laws, crude annals, with fragments of ritual songs and coarse farces, are all it has to shew within its first five centuries. The credit of authorship is ascribed first to Livius Andronicus, who wrote dramas for the stage B.C. 240. He was succeeded by a crowd of authors, among whom may be mentioned Naevius, En- nius, the father of epic poetry at Rome, and Lucilius, whose subject and reputed invention, satire, is the most original product in Latin literature. But of these writers mere fragments remain. The comedies of Plautus (Plaut.) * and Terentius (Ter.), founded on those of the later Attic stage, with the remnant De Re Rustica of the elder Cato, are the only literary works extant in Latin before 85 B.C., the date of Cicero's earliest writings. From this time to A.D. 14 extends what is usually called the Golden Age of Latin. Its most eminent authors are : 5 Sketch of Latin Litera- ture. Prose. Cicero C. (or Cic.) Caesar Caes. Cornelius N epos... N. (or Nep.) Sallustius Sail. Livius L. (or Liv.) Varro Varr. Vitruvius Vitr. Poetry. Lucretius Lucr. Catullus Cat. Vergilius V. (or Verg.) Horatius H. (or Hor.) Tibullus Tib. Propertius Prop. Ovidius . .. Ov. The so-called Silver Age, to A.D. 117, contains among Poetry. Prose. Seneca Sen. Quintilianus Qu. Plinius the elder... PI. N. H. Plinius the younger Plin. Valerius Maximus V. Max. VelleiusPaterculus Veil. Tacitus Tac. Suetonius Suet. Florus? Fl. Q. Curtius? Curt. Manilius Phaedrus Seneca Lucanus Persius Silius Italicus Valerius Flaccus Statius luvenalis Martialis ... others : Man. Phaed. Sen. Tr. Lucan. Pers. S. It. V. Fl. St. luv. Mart. The letters following the names shew the abbreviations used for them in this Grammar: 13 2 4 Introduction. 5. The next period, extending to the fall of the Western Empire, A.D. 476, has been termed the Brazen Age. The writers who come nearest to the classic style during this period, are : Prose. I Poetry. A. Gellius Cell. j Ausonius Aus. lustinus lust. Claudianus Claud. Appuleius App. Eutropius Eutr. Macrobius Macr. In the Iron Age, which succeeded, Boethius may be named as the most successful imitator of classic purity. 1 1 Other abbreviations used in this Grammar : Pr. Primitive (Sound or Root). Sk. Sanskrit. Gr. Greek. E. L. Early Latin (before 186 B.C.). R. L. Republican Latin (from 186 to 30 B.c.) I. L. Latin of Imperial Age (from 30 B.C. to 170 A.D.). C. L. Classical Latin. L. L. Later Latin. U. Umbrian. O. Oscan. S. SabelKan. F. Faliscan. V. Volscian. M. Lucr. Munro on Lucretius. C. Corssen (Aussprache). Curt. G. Curtius (Gr. Etymologic). Three dots (. . .) following a word imply that other derived or kindred words are to be included. In Sanskrit words : c 1 represents the palatal sound ch (as in ' church ') : ric' is sounded ' rich.' G. Cur- tius represents it by k' . J represents the slightly aspirated sibilant, which often corresponds to Greek K and Latin c, q. Sk. das'an, Gr. Seita, L. decem. Sk. diJ, Gr. SeiK-, L. doc-eo, c. G. Curtius represents it by f . ri is a Sanskrit vowel, which may be written ar. See p. 578. j is the Sanskrit letter = English j (Curtius g'). y= English y-consonant (Curtius/). Ex. yuj, to yoke (Curt. jug 1 ). PART I. LATIN ETYMOLOGY. ETYMOLOGY comprises : Et 5 I. PHONOLOGY or SOUNDLORE, the doctrine of '>, Sounds. II. MORPHOLOGY or WORDLORE, the doctrine of Words. 1 By a Primitive Sound or Root is meant one which careful in- duction assigns to that ancient, though no longer extant, Aryan language from which the Sanskrit is derived. Such induction is obtained by comparison of the Sanskrit with all other kindred languages, especially with Zand, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Lithu- anian. See Supplementary Notes following Appendix. DIVISION I. PHONOLOGY OR SOUNDLORE. i. Soundlore treats of the sounds and relations of Sound. Letters and Syllables. 1. The Latin Alphabet now in use contains the Latin same Letters as the English, omitting W. j ha- The Letters have two forms : 1) The Capital, Uncial, or ancient form. 2) The Small, or later form, which came into common use in the eighth or ninth century: after which the Capitals were chiefly used for inscriptions, and as initial letters of sentences and proper names. 1) ABCDEFGHI(J) KLMNOPQRST 2) abcdefghi(j)klmnopqrst (U) V X Y Z. (v) u x y z. 2. Six of the Letters are VOCALES, Vowels (self-sound- ing), a, e, i, o, u, y : the rest are CONSONANTES, Con- sonants, which are sounded only with a vowel. 1 The terms Phonology and Morphology are taken from Schleicher's Vergleichende Gra.mina.tik dcr Indogermaniscken Sprachen. 6 Latin Sound lore. 8-9. 3. Consonants are divided into Mutes, Nasals, Liquids, Spirants, and Double Consonants. 1 The Nasals are n, m ; Liquids, r, 1 ; Spirants, f, h, j, s, v ; Double Consonants, x, z : the rest are Mutes. Note I. y and z are only used in words borrowed from the Greek. Note 2. i+j and u+v are two pairs ; each pair constituting one ancient letter in double form. See 12. viii. Syiia- 4. A SYLLABLE (o-iAAa/3/?) consists of one or more D?ph- letters pronounced in a single breath ; i-lex. thongs. 5. A DIPHTHONG (Stydoyyos) is the combined sound of two vowels meeting in the same syllable ; au-lae. There are in Latin three usual diphthongs, ae (or ae), oe (or ce), au ; and three seldom used, ei, eu, ui. Quan- ii. QUANTITY is the time of uttering a Syllable. tity. I. Every Syllable is considered Short () or Long (-) in Quantity, according as its vowel is short or long ; that is, accord- ing as it is uttered with a single or double time (mora) : Short by nature . . a 6 in . . amor. Long by nature . . e u in . . esu. Short by position before A Vowel may be { another vowel . . i in ... pios. (Long by position before two consonants or a double consonant . e 5 in . . pcrnox. Diphthongs are long .... au, ae in . caudae. 2. A Vowel is called Short or Long by Nature, when the reason of its quantity is other than position. 3. A Syllable is ^called Doubtful (-) when its Vowel may be short or long : Sidonius. 4. A Vowel, naturally short, may be made long in poetry, if it stands before cr, gr, tr, dr, pr, br, fr, cl, pi, or fl : tenebrae, quadruplex. Such a Vowel is called Doubtful by position. In prose the syllable is pronounced short, tenebrae. Q Syiiaba- ill. SvLLABATiON is subject to the following tio - rules: 1. Every syllable must contain a vowel. 2. A word may begin with any vowel but y. 3. A word may end with any vowel, and with any of the con- sonants, 1, m, n, r, s, t, s. A few words end in b, c, d. 1 Checks are another term for Mutes; Trills for Liquifls; Fricatives (as gene- rated by the friction of the breath) for Spirants (See Max Miiller's Lectures on Language). Mutes have also been called Momentaneous or Explosive Consonants, as distin- guished from Nasals, Liquids, and Spirants, which are Continuous. i2. Semiconsonants. 9 vii. Memoranda from the History of the Al- History phabet p ha bet. 1. The Romans modified the form of the third Greek letter from r to C, and gave it the sound K, instead of G. The sound and letter G were afterwards introduced about 250 B.C. C. was kept as the abbreviation of Gaius ; Cn. of Gnaeus. 2. The use of C as sharp made K superfluous, and the Romans almost ceased to use it ; but it was kept in a few abbreviations : K. for Kaeso; Kal. for Calendae and Calumnia : also Kar. for Kartago. 3. The other Phoenician guttural surd Koph or Koppa (which the Dorian Alphabet of Cumae possessed) -was kept by the Romans as Q, and ultimately confined to words in which parasitic u or v follows the guttural. 4. The Rough Breathing was raised to the rank of a letter, ob- taining the form and position of the Greek Eta, H. 5. The letter f was purely Italian, its ancient sound being not exactly that (which it now has) of Phi (ph), nor that (which its form suggests) of the Greek Digamma (w). In the Etruscan Al- phabet it has the form 8 ; but the Romans gave it that of the Di- gamma, (F) F. 6. Vau (V nearly = English w) was adopted by the Romans as a semi- vowel, and took the position held by Upsilon next to T. 7. There is some evidence that the ancient Romans used z (zeta), but afterwards supplied it by a or ss : so that y, z were added at the end of the Alphabet in Cicero's age to represent the Greek v, , and are only used in latinized Greek words: lyra = Afya, zona 8. The history of x is obscure. It appears in a few early in- scriptions : but, though in power equal to Greek (cs), it took the place and form of Chi : when and why, are doubtful points. See Corssen (Ausspr. I. 6). 9. The long vowels Eta and Omega were omitted as unnecessary. 10. The Aspirate sounds x> fy 0> as foreign to Italian utterance, were left out ; but the study of Greek in Cicero's age led to the use of cb, th, pb, which represent those letters in latinized Greek words : parochus, thesaurus, philosophus ; also of rh : rhetor. 1 1. The Emperor Claudius invented and introduced three letters : (i) J to represent u-consonant ; (2) p (antisigma) to represent 4> (ps) ; (3) h to represent a vowel having a middle tone between i and u, as in libet lubet, gradibus gradubus, maxlmus maxumus. They did not remain in use; but the first and last appear in inscriptions. viii. The Semiconsonants i (j) and u (v). i. The consonantal character of i (j) is shewn by the two facts, HJ). that, when it begins Latin words before a vowel it makes position in verse after words ending with a consonant, and that it makes no hiatus after words ending with a vowel or with m. Thus in Sub loue iam ius est sub, iam are long by position, and -, -am are not elided before i. io Latin Soundlore. 12 . 1) I is a vowel (i-vocalis) when it ends a syllable ; ni-ti ; or when it stands in a syllable before a consonant, in-it, sic-cis; or when it is a syllable ; ab-i-to. I is a consonant (i-consonans) when it begins a syllable before a vowel; ie-iu-no; its sound being that of English y-consonant ( = German j), a faint protraction of^the vowel-sound i. 2) In Greek words, however, lole, Iambus, and in a few Latin words, I-ens, leram, i-vocalis remains open before a vowel. 3) The sign J was introduced in a late age, to represent i-con- sonans, and most editors do not use it. Its English and French sibilant sounds (John, Jean} are not classical, but crept in before the Middle Ages. 4) l-consonans is omitted before 1 by the compounds of iacio, ab-icio con-icio pro-icio re-icio, etc. ; though the long quan- tity of the first syllable is kept ; i being =j i. See Munro on Lucr. i. 34, ii. 951. In Lucr. Verg. eice, reice. But re-icere, Plaut. 5) Poets sometimes harden i-vocalis into i-consonans : ab-ie-te, ar-ie-te, p ar-ie-te, for ab-i-ete, etc. Sound ab-yete, ar-yete, etc., trisyll. So Horace has consll-ium ( = consil-yum), Virgil has fluv-iorum ( = fluv-yorum), trisyll. M. Lucr. ii. 991. V (U). 2. The sign V was employed by the Romans as vowel and con- sonant. In a latter age u became the vowel sign, v the consonant sign. If uva ( = oowa) be sounded, it appears that u-consonans ( = w) is only a faint protraction of the labial vowel u ; whence the modern name Double-u. 1) V-consonans is vocalized in cautum for cavitum, fautum for favitum, lautum for la vi turn, and in auceps for aviceps, nauta for navita, naufragus for navifragus. 2) Poets sometimes vocalize u-consonans before a vowel: sil-u- ae : sometimes they harden u-vocalis into u-consonans : gen-ua for ge-nu-a, ten-ui-a for te-nu-ia. M. Lucr. iv. 1157. 3) Parasitic u follows q, us, and s : sequor; lingua; suavis. This usage is derived from ancient groups kv, grv, sv : but as the sign u so used neither forms a syllable nor creates position, it must be regarded, not as a proper letter, but as a kind of link between the guttural (or sibilant) and labial sounds. 1 ix. SOUND and QUALITY of the Vowels. Sound i. Vowels have not one short and one long sound only ; but qufiit various shades of these, in close or open syllables. (Thus the sound of u varies in the following words : crc.dtiliis, Vowels, busy, f till, use, Jiine, and in the French words, commun, commune.} 2. The old sounds of the Latin vowels probably differed little from those of the vowels in modern Italian. Proceeding from the thinnest and sharpest sound i, to the thickest and flattest u, the following words may represent their general distinction : the first four being pronounced as in French, the fifth as in Italian, Zuloo. Qumlne, demesne, papa, promote, Zulu. ?. The three primitive vowels are a, i, u. Sanskrit has e and o y as diphthongs arising from ai, au. 1 In many modern editions of Latin authors, V alone is used as the Capital form of con- sonant and vowel, and u alone as the Cursive form of both. In this grammar -j is retained as a cursive. I2< Phonetic Decay. 1 1 1) The standard vowel is a, issuing from the throat through the opened mouth : i is the thin sharp palatal, sounded between the tongue and the lower palate ; ii is the thick flat labial, sounded by a lo*w interior whistle through the protruded lips. Each has its long and short sound, with shades of these. 2) The want of intervening sounds to represent the strengthen- in^ of i and ii, and the primary weakenings of a, called into use two subsidiary vowels ; e medial between a and i, and 6 medial between a and ii. Both these are narrower gutturals than a ; e sounding along the upper palate and tending to the sharpness of i ; and o sounding from the lower throat with a fullness which its form marks, but tending to the labialism and flatness of u. 1 3) The strongest short vowel is a, irtto which none other passes. 4) The weakest is i : for which reason it often stands as a vin- cular vowel before suffixes : reg-/-to, flag-^-to, leg-^-bus : but sometimes e or u takes its place; soci-^-tas, teg-//-mentum. 5) That 6 is stronger than e may be seen by comparing pondus with pendere, toga with tegere, volo with velim, velle. 6) Though ii has various shades of strengh, as in put o, sumus, augur, augurium, declining almost to the weakness of I, as in optumus (optimus, vii. n), yet on the average it is not seen to be weaker than e. Such examples as pignus, pigneris, pignoris etc., might seem to shew ii stronger than e, 6 : but it must be re- membered that this ii corresponds not to Greek v t but to Greek o : that iis is really a weak syllable, and u, like i, gives a facility to the rejection of s in old Latin poetry, which e does not afford. 7) When a vowel from being short becomes long, it is doubled in time and strength ; ii = I, ee = e, etc. 8) As final short vowels, a and e predominate ; *, 5 are rarely final ; ii never, except by the rejection of s in old Latin poetry. As final long vowels, I and 6 predominate: e and a are less frequent ; and u least frequent of all. x. Phonetic Decay in old Italian language. p n? - (See Corssen, I. 347.) g 1. Phonetic Decay tends to lighten diphthongs, to shorten and weaken vowels, to silence or throw out light vowels, to cast off or assimilate consonants. 2. This tendency is especially shewn in Umbrian and its cognate dialects ; also in the old Latin, of which our knowledge is derived chiefly from inscriptions, partly from the testimonies of gramma- rians, and from the most ancient manuscripts. 3. Classical Latin (see 5) may be regarded as in some measure a reaction, by which, during a long literary period, the process of Phonetic Decay in Latin was arrested. After the age of Sueto- nius, about A.D. 1 20, decay recommenced and continued for nearly 1000 years, till the modern Romanic languages gradually emerged from the darkness of those centuries. 1 Vowels are here spoken of as sounded with consonants : ad, da. All vowels issue from one primary vowel, a faint sigh in the depths of the throat. Its first scarce distin- guishable strengthenings may be compared thus : max-i-mos, max-w-mos, max-/-mos, max- Phonetic Decay. 1 1 1) The standard vowel is a, issuing from the throat through the opened mouth : i is the thin sharp palatal, sounded between the tongue and the lower palate ; u is the thick flat labial, sounded by a low interior whistle through the protruded lips. Each has its long and short sound, with shades of these. 2) The want of intervening sounds to represent the strengthen- ing of i and ii, and the primary weakenings of a, called into use tvvo subsidiary vowels ; e medial between a and J, and 6 medial between a and ii. Both these are narrower gutturals than a ; e sounding along the upper palate and tending to the sharpness of i ; and o sounding from the lower throat with a fullness which its form marks, but tending to the labialism and flatness of u. 1 3) The strongest short vowel is a, irfto which none other passes. 4) The weakest is i : for which reason it often stands as a vin- cular vowel before suffixes : reg-/-to, flag--to, leg-z'-bus : but sometimes e or u takes its place; soci--tas, teg-//-mentum. 5) That 6 is stronger than e may be seen by comparing pondus with pendere, toga with tegere, volo with velim, velle. 6) Though ii has various shades of strengh, as in put o, sum us, augur, augurium, declining almost to the weakness of I, as in optumus (optimus, vii. u), yet on the average it is not seen to be weaker than e. Such examples as pignus, pigneris, pignoris etc., might seem to shew ii stronger than e, 6 : but it must be re- membered that this ii corresponds not to Greek v, but to Greek o : that iis is really a weak syllable, and u, like i, gives a facility to the rejection of s in old Latin poetry, which e does not afford. 7) When a vowel from being short becomes long, it is doubled in time and strength ; H = I, ee = e, etc. 8) As final short vowels, a and e predominate ; *, 6 are rarely final ; u never, except by the rejection of s in old Latin poetry. As final long vowels, I and 6 predominate: e and a are less frequent ; and u least frequent of all. x. Phonetic Decay in old Italian language. p n? - (See Corssen, I. 347.) Jg 1. Phonetic Decay tends to lighten diphthongs, to shorten and weaken vowels, to silence or throw out light vowels, to cast off or assimilate consonants. 2. This tendency is especially shewn in Umbrian and its cognate dialects ; also in the old Latin, of which our knowledge is derived chiefly from inscriptions, partly from the testimonies of gramma- rians, and from the most ancient manuscripts. 3. Classical Latin (see 5) may be regarded as in some measure a reaction, by which, during a long literary period, the process of Phonetic Decay in Latin was arrested. After the age of Sueto- nius, about A.D. 120, decay recommenced and continued for nearly looo years, till the modern Romanic languages gradually emerged from the darkness of those centuries. 1 Vowels are here spoken of as sounded with consonants : ad, da. All vowels issue from one primary vowel, a faint sigh in the depths of the throat. Its first scarce distin- guishable strengthenings may be compared thus : max-i-mos, max--mos, max-/-mos, max-J-mos, ma.x-a-ia.os. 12 Latin Sound lore. 12. Vowel- XL VOWELCHANGE. 1. Vowels are liable to change in the Flexion, Derivation, and Composition of words. 2. Syllables may be either strengthened or weakened by Vowelchange. 3. The general tendency of Italian dialects was to weaken vowel sounds. But sometimes a syllable is strengthened by assuming a stronger for a weaker vowel. Thus the tonic syllable in toga is stronger than in t ego. Diph- xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs. thongs. 1. Diphthongs and long Vowels in Sanskrit arise from the intro- duction of a vowel to strengthen a short sound. Thus a by strengthening \ produces e ; a by strengthening u produces 6 ; and this process is called Guna (distinction). If a strengthens (ai, au), the process is called Vriddhi (augmentation). 2. In Latin (as in Greek) e and 6 are themselves capable of strengthening i and ii. Thus the full list of diphthongs proper is ai ei oi au eu ou 3. TTi is an improper diphthong, only found in the words cui, huic, hui, phui. 4. Yi in Greek words for VL is very rare : as Ilithyia (EtAa0t>7a). 5. The six diphthongs proper existed in ancient Latin, as shewn by inscriptions : but before the classic age all except au had de- cayed into other long sounds, namely : ai into ae, rarely passing into e (ei) i oi oe, often - u (ei) I ei e or I eu u ou u Note. Corssen observes (I. 674), that the history of al, oi, el, has peculiar interest, because, as these diphthongs often sprang from the addition of a suffix which begins with a vowel to a stem which ends with a vowel, they illustrate the laws of flexion as well as the progress of phonetic decay. 1 6. The diphthong ai prevailed in old Latin: aidilis, Romai,' filial, &c. ; and is found even in the imperial age. But about B.C. 200 ae came into use, and gradually became the classical form. For this, as a rustic variety, in the age of Lucilius,is found e : edus, pretor, Cecilius, &c. ; which became more prevalent in later Latin, and in modern language has superseded ae : secular, premium. i) Examples occur of eis for Dat. and Abl. Plur. Ending ais, which in classical Latin became is : tabuleis publiceis = tabulis publicis. 1 This history is gained from the careful comparison of Latin Inscriptions extending for about 400 years from B.C. 260 to A.D. 150. In the present chapter and in 20 such results alone are generally mentioned as suffice to explain the varieties of form which appear in classical authors. i2. Formation and Decay of Dip/it/tongs. 13 a) Old poets, as Lucretius, often use the Gen. in a-i, dividing it into two syllables, materia-I. Virgil rarely : aula-I, Aen. iii. 354- b} The vowels are_ divided in Ga-I-us, Ga-I, and in the Greek words Agla-i-a, La-i-us. In others, as Achaia, Aiax, Graius, Maia, and in aio, maior, i is i-cons. (Acha-ya, a-yo, ma- yor,...). 7. The diphthong oi (oe) is of much rarer use than ai (ae). Oi is found as late as the first century B.C. in stem-syllables. But it passed into oe early, as ai into ae, by strengthening i. Also, by weakening o, it passed into (ui, ue = ) u. Thus we find moi- nera, moenera, munera; loidos,- loedus, liidus; TTOIVTJ, poena, punire; coirare, coerare, curare (also courare) ; oitier, oetier, uti. M. Lucr. ii. 829. 1) In the Imperial age oe began to be corrupted into (ee) e : pomerium, federatus. This, as in ae, grew more and more usual, and prevails in modern language : penal, federal, &c. 2) In Case-endings, oi from old times was liable to pass into ei andi: puer-oi, puer-ei, puer-i ; puer-ois, puer-eis, puer-is. a) In proln, proinde, the vowels coalesce : in Tro-i-us they remain separate (Hiatus). In Troia i is i-cons. (Tro-ya). 8. Ei is either a diphthong, as in a few old words, deiva, deicere, leiber; in the old Italian Dative ending ei, virtutei ; in Dat. Abl. PI. endings eis for ois ; and in Nom. PI. ending ei for oi of Decl. 2 : or it is a middle sound between e and I, as when the form eis represents a compromise between the Ace. Plur. endings is, es, of I-nouns : urbls, urbes, urbeis. i) Ei is found as diphthong or middle sound in inscriptions of all ages ; e sometimes taking its place, but I prevailing over both. a] In the words dein, deinde, deinceps, e-i may coalesce in poetry, or, as some think, e is elided. b} In names in -eius, i is i-cons. ; Pompeius = Pompe-yus. c} Greek ei appears in Latin generally as I : Tydldes for Tvdei'dqr : but often as e before a vowel ; Alexandria or Alex- andria, Dareus or Darius, Thalea or Thalia. d) In some Greek words e is open before i (Hiatus) : Te'ius, Plei'as, Nereides. 9. Au was retained in all ages of Latin. But it often passed (by the process ou, oo) into 6 : codex, plostrum, Clodius, Plotius, &c., and (in Italian) oro, toro, tesoro, &c. ; sometimes (by the process ou, uu) into u : cludo. M. Lucr. ii. 829. 10. Eu in Latin words is very rare. Heu, eheu, alas, are imitative words. In neu, seu, ceu, u is a vocalised v (neve, seve, ceve). On neuter, neutiquam, see Prosody. a) In Greek words eu remains : Euripides, Eurus. Note. Greek au and eu before a vowel are written with vowel or consonant : Agaue or Agave ; Euander or Evanden u. Ou occurs on old Inscrr. : doucere, iousit, Louceria\ but had decayed into u before the classical age. (On the pronunciation of Diphthongs, see Appendix B.} Latin Soundiore. Vowel- xiii. VOWELSTRENGTHENING in Root-syllables, fiTn n g gth " Suffixes, and Endings. A] Root-syllables (see Supplemental Notes after Appendix). a) Primitive or Italian u, strengthened by & (6, e) in the manner of Guna, or by a, (o, e) in the manner of Vriddhi, subsides from a diphthongal sound into u or o ; the series of possible change being ii, au, ou, eu, u (o). jug, to yoke kru, hear . kru, be raw lu, wash (pii-s, nur- ture, thrive} pu, cleanse pu, stink . ru, bray rudh, be red riik, give light sku, hide . su, sew (u) iu(n)g-_ere ... iug-u-m, iug-are .... (eu) (u) iug-i-s, iug-er-a, iu-mentu-m. (ii) clii-ere. (au) lau-s, laud-are .... (u, o), lu- s-cin-ia, glo-r-ia .... Ta.) rti-di-s. (au) rau-du-s, rau-du-s-culu-m. (u) cru-du-s ... cru-d-eli-s ... cru-s-tu-m, cru-s-ta. (ii) lu-ere ... lu-tu-m (au) lav-ere with v- cons. ... lautus. (ou) Aoy-ti', di-luv-iu-m ... with v-cons. for v-voc. (u, 6), lo-tu-s ... pol-lu-tu-s ... lu-s-tru-m, lu-s-tr-are .... (ii) plii-it. (ou) pluv-ia ... for E. L. plov-ia ... (u, o), plu-vi ... plo-r-are .... (ii) pu-er ... pu-ella ... pu-s-illu-s ... disci-pu-lu-s, pu-m-ilu-s, pu-tu-s. (au) TroTg for 7rd-t/c. (u) pu-su-s, pu-s-io, pu-pu-s, pu-pa, pu-p- ula, pu-p-illu-s, pu-m-ilio, pu-ber, pu-bes. (ii) pu-tu-s, pu-t-are ... am-pu-t-are. (au) pa-eni- t-et for pav-ine-t-et. (ou) po-ena for pov- ina. (u) pu-ru-s ... pu-n-ire (ii) pu-ter pu-tris .... (au) pa-e-d-or for pav-i-d-or. (u) pu-s pu-r- ... pu-t-ere .... (ii) ru-d-ere ... ru-d-en-s. (au) rav-u-s ... rau- cu-s (u) ru-m-or. (ii) rub-er, rub-ere ... ru-tilu-s ... EpvQ-poQ. (eu) ipevO-d). (u, o) rub-ig-o or rob-ig-o, ruf- u-s .... (ii) luc-er-na, XVK-. (ou) E. L. Louc-ina. (eu) Xfivoc. (u) lux luc- ... luc-ere ... Luc-ina, di-luc-ulu-m .... (ii) scu-tu-la ... cu-ti-s. (au) cav-ere, cau-tu-s ... cau-s-sa or cau-sa. (ou) E. L. coii-r-are or coi-r-are for cov-i-r-are. (eu) Kev-du. (u) cu-ra, cu-r-are ... E. L. co-r-are, cu- s-t-o-s, scu-tu-m, ob-scu-ru-s. See C. I. 356. (ii) su-ere : (diphthongal in Sk. Goth, and Lith.). (u)su-t-or, su-bula. 12. Vowelstrengtheiiing. tu, swell due-, lead fix,-, flow nu-, nod (u) tu-m-ere, tu-m-idu-s, tii-mu-lu-s. (au in Sk.), tae-d-et for tav-i-d-et. So ta-e-ter. O. tau-ta. (ou) O. tou-to. (u, 6) to-tu-s, tu- ber. U. tu-ta, to-ta. These old Italian words mean ' a community] a people? (tt) dux due- ... educ-are .... (ou) E. L. douc- ere. (u) duc-ere .... (u) flu-ere ... con-flu-g-es. (ou) fluv-Tdu-s, fluv- iu-s (from flou-v-). (u) flu-men, flu-t-are. (u) nu-ere. (eu) vcww. (u) nu-tu-s, nu-t-are ... nu-men. Add the prim, root dyu, shine ( = div), whence (6 for u) io-cu-s. (ou), O. Diouv-ei. whence the weakened words, E. L. Diov-is, U. Jifv-e, I6v-is, iiiv-at, .... (u) lu-p-piter, lu-n-o, iu-c-undu-s.... ff) Primitive or Italian *, strengthened by a (6, e), or by a (5, e), subsides from a diphthongal sound into I or S ; the series being i, ai, oi, ei, I (e). dik ; shevu. div, shine i, that kf, lie down sit, smear . sp!c( = spak), trl, three . fid, to trust lib, to choose (I) die-are ... dic-io, con-dic-io, die-is, caussi- dlc-u-s ... iu-dex, iu-dic- ... di-dlc-i, dig- i-tu-s, dig-nu-s ... pro-dig-iu-m ; ... llK-rj .... (ei) Sf IK- E. L. deic-ere. (i) dic-ere, dlx-i ... (i) re-div-ivu-s, di-u, inter-dl-u-s, nu-di-u-s, dt-es, dl-ur-nu-s, ho-dl-er-nu-s, dl-es-piter, nun-dl- na-e. (e = al) Sk. dev-a-s, a god. (ei) 0e7oe, E. L. deivos, deiv-a. (i) div-us, di-us (weak- ened form de-us), Dl-a-na, I-anus for Di- anus. In bl-du-um, tn-du-um, &c., du is a weakened form of div. (i) t-t-er, ad-I-tu-s, _&c., in-i-t-iu-m. ... (e = ai) Sk. e-mi. (oi) oT-ju-o-c. (ei) I-/i-t, E. L. ei-re, (i) I-re, I-bo, I-vi. ... (i) i-s, i-b-i, t-dem... . (ei) E. L. ei-ets. (i) I-dem, (X) qul-es, qut-e-sc-ere, qui-e-tus .... (ei) Kel^atj E. L. cei-vi-s. (i) cl-vi-s. (i) It-n-ere (-ire), K-tu-s, W-tu-ra. (ei) E. L. lei- t-er-a. (i) ll-mu-s ... ll-m-ax, li-n-ea, ll-t- er-a or li-tt-er-a. (G. schleim, Engl. slime.) (I) -spic-ere -spec-ere ... (ei) E. L. peic-u-s. (i) plc-u-s, su-splc-io ? (G. specht. Engl. wood- pecker ; pie.) (i) trl-bu-s, tii-dens ... ter, tre-centi. (ei) rpelc. (i) trl-s, trl-ni, trl-du-um. (I) fid-es, fld-eli-s, per-fid-u-s .... (oi) E. L. foid-u-s, foedus, foed-er-a-tu-s, ireirotQa. (ei) 7ra'0w, E. l^.feidus. (i) fld-ere, fld-us .... (i) llb-et. (oi) E. L. loeb-er. (ei) E. L. leib-er. (I) llb-er .... 16 Latin Sound lore. 12. c) Primitive or Italian S, sometimes represented by e, *, 6, or u, is strengthened into a, which sometimes sinks to e or 6. (i) a (e, r, 6, u). (2) a. (3) e. (4) 6. ak, sharpen ag, bha \throw bha-s bhrag, break kar, gan, beget gna, kal. lab, slip ma, measure , fasten rag, sa, sna, float, bathe (T) d*:- ac-u-s, ac-u-ere. (2) ac-er. (4) oucwc^, wc-uc, 6c-i-or... . (i) dy-ag-ere...ag-i-li-s.... (2) amb-ag-es,ac-tu-s. (3) eg-i, ffrpari/yoe .... (4) paedagog-u-s. (i) fe-n-es-tra, fa-t-eri, fa-t-uu-s, infi-ti-a-s, fax fac-, fac-ere ... fac-ie-s, fa-ber, d-oc, tya-rat. (i) fa-s, fa-s-ti, fa-ri, fa-bula, fa-ma, fa-c- und-us ... fa-tu-m, fa-nu-m. (3) fe-t-i-ali-s, fe-s-ia-e = fe-r-ia-e, fe-s-tu-s, (4) wya. (i) car-ere. (2) car-us. (i) gen-us ... gen-ui, yei'- yor- gen-er, pro-gen- ie-s, gen-iu-s, in-gen-iu-m, indi-gen-a, gen-i- tor, yvvi], (2) gna-tu-s, na-tu-s ... na-t-io, natura, gna-vu-s, i-gna-vu-s .,. . (3) yvi\awc. (i) no-t-a, no-t-are, co-gnt-t-us ... . (2) gna-ru-s, i-gna-ru-s, na-r-r-are. (4) no-tu-s, i-gno-tu-s, igno-r-are ... no-r-ma ... no-bili-s ... no- men, a-gno-men, i-gno-min-ia ... cyi/wra. (1} cle-p-ere (cll-p-eu-s), eel-la, oc-ciil-ere, cu-cul- lu-s, -cfl-iu-m, c-la-m, K\OTTIJ. (2} cal-ig-o. (3) eel-are. (4) *;XwiJ>. (i) lab-are, lab-e-facere. (2) lab-i ... lab-es. (i) ma-nu-s, , me-tru-m, me-d-imnu-s, me- t-ere, mo-diu-s, mo-d-u-s, mo-d-er-ari. mod- es-tu-s .... (2) ma-ne, im-ma-ni-s, ma-tu- ru-s, Ma-tu-ta. (3) me-ta, me-t-Iri ... me-n- sa, me-n-sura, me-n-si-s, se-me-s-tri-s ... : (4) mo-s mor-, mor-osu-s. (i) pac-i-sc-i. pa(n)g-ere, pe-ptg-i, Trdy-. (2) pax pao, pac-are, re-pag-ulu-m, pag-u-s, pag-ina, com-pag-es, pro-pag-o. (3) -pegi, ?rr/y-. (i) reg-ere, reg-io, -rigere, rog-u-s. (2) Sk. raj an. (3) rex reg- ... reg-ula ____ (From regere perhaps rig-ere, rig-i-du-s ....) (i) sa-tu-s,_sa-t-io (se-rere) .... (2) Sa-t-ur-nu-s. (3) se-vi, se-men .... (i) na-t-are. (2) na-re ... na-r-i-s, na-s-u-s, nas- turt-iu-m (nasum torquens) (3) 12. Vowclstrcngthcning in Root-syllables } etc. 17 sta, stand . star, strew . (i) sta-tor, sta-ti-m (but E. L. sta-ti-m}, sta-ti-o, sta-tu-s, sta-tu-ere, sta-tu-a, sta-bulu-m, sta- bili-s : ste-t-i, super-stl-t- .... (2) sta-turu-s, sta-tura, sta-men, and in Conjug. sta-re, sta-bam .... (3) arrival .... (i) ster-(n)ere (rrop-), (2) stra-vi, stra-tu-s, stra- men . . . stla-ta, stla-t-ariu-s, (4) | arpw-pa. d} The following are strengthened from (i) a (e or !) to (3) e (I). Pr. har, seize (i) (h)er-us, (h)er-a, (h)er-c-i-sc-ere, htr-und-o, hlr- ud-o, E. L. hir (%ep-) (3) (h)er-es, (h)er-ed- kar, create (i) Cer-es, cre-are, cre-sc-ere ..., (3) cre-vi, in-cre- mentu-m .... sad, sit . (i) sed-ere ... as-sid-uu-s, (3) sed-es, sed-i, sed- ulu-s, sld-ere... . sar t join . (i) ser-ere ... ser-ie-s, ser-a, ser-tu-m, (3) ser-ia, ser-u-s, ser-iu-s. skar, sever (i) cer-()ere ... cer-tu-s, ... sere-are, (3) cre-vi, dis-cre-tu-s ..., ex-cre-mentu-m, cri-bru-m, crl-men, dis-crl-men .... Kpivu. stag, cover (i) ore'yw, re'y-oc, teg-ere, teg-es, (3) teg-ula, tex-i. \%x \cover (i) val-lu-m, ver-eri, vel-le, val-ere, val-idu-s, (3) val ' choose vel-u-m, vel-are ... : ver-us, ver-ax ... . From another root val, implying motion, come (i) vol-are, (3)vel-ox, vel-es, vel-it-ari. e) The following are strengthened from (i) Pr. a (6) to (4) 6. Pr. sar, be whole (i) sal-us sal-u-t-, sal-u-ber, sal- vu-s..., (4) sol-ari, sol-a-c-iu-m. svan, sound (i) son-u-s, son-are ... (4) per-son-a. svap, sleep (i) sop-or ... som-nu-s, (4) sop-ire. svar, sun (i) ser-enu-s, ; with edi, olfJa with vldi or veidei, and be led to doubt whether, in some instances at least, a loss of reduplication may not have caused the root-vowel to be strengthened in Latin. Com. xv. COMPENSATION. tion! a " Compensation is usually said to happen when a naturally short vowel is lengthened in order to maintain the quantity of a syllable after the loss of a consonant: vid-sum, vlsum. But such com- pensation is not always made : seget-s, seges. i2. Nasalisation. Vowelwcakcning. 19 xvi. Strengthening of the Present Stem in Verbs by Insertion of a Nasal. Some Verb-stems have the short vowel of their Present-stem strengthened by NASALISA TION ; that is, by adding n to the Stem- vowel before a Guttural or Dental, m before a Labial character : frag- frango iug- iungo lig- ling- liqu- linquo mlg- mingo nlgu- ninguo pag- pango pig- pingo scid- scindo pug- pungo tud- tundo strig- stringo | pis- pinso tag- tango, vie- vinco fid- findo fud- fundo cub- cumbo lab- lambo rup- rumpo As the Nasal for the most part disappears in Derivation, it was evidently not so strongly sounded as in modern utterance. Guttural n is called by grammarians nadulterinum. (On the strengthening of the Present-Stem by Suffixes, see 52.) xvii. Vowelweakening. vowel 1. Pr. roots are formed with each of the Pr. vowels, a, *, u : enhl s- but those with a are by far the most numerous. 2. The standard vowel a is weakened into * and u in all Aryan languages : but in those which have e and 6 the weakening of a into i passes through e, and the weakening of a into u passes through 6 : Pr. sama E.L. semc-1 C.L. simu-1 3. Italian dialects shew such weakening largely ; in Root-syllables, in Suffixes, and in Endings of Case and Person. 4. The general object of all such changes is Euphony (ei/^ou'/a), the more easy and convenient utterance of the sounds of speech. 5. In pursuit of this object certain principles are applied ; among them Assimilation and Dissimilation, hereafter noticed ; also Selection, which occurs when a certain vowel is chosen as the most suitable before a particular consonant. Thus, v has a prefer- ence for o ; l and the labials chiefly for u ; r for e ; n and t for I. Grouped consonants often prefer e : luvis becomes lovis "jolt vult epopa upupa pepiri peperi Menerva becomes Minerva aletem alitem voile velle faciundus faciendus Note. E is the easiest and smoothest Latin vowel, being neither so sharp and thin as i, nor so flat and thick as 6 and u. Hence it prevails as a final vowel, and in several instances is so used when final consonants are cast off: venere for venerunt ; utare for utaris ; dictatore for dictatore-d or dictatorl-d. Also for * final in Neuter Nouns : mare for mari-. But when Masculine or Feminine Nouns drop final n, the stronger vowel o becomes final in Nom. Sing. : homo (homon^ homln-), virgo (virgon-, virgin-). c2 2O Latin Soundlore. I2 . Weak. xviii. The Vowel a and its Weakenings. of a. A} In Root and Stem syllables. 1) Corssen (II. 6) cites about 270 Latin words which have kept Pr. a in the syllable of the root or stem : acus, aqua, traho, daps, labor, pateo, madeo, maneo, ango, pando, amo, sal, valeo, palleo, malus, careo, carmen, hasta, aveo, gravis. 2) He cites about 215 words which have weakened Pr. a to e in the syllable of the root or stem : decem, neco, equos, sequor, tego, tepeo, febris, peto, edo, senex, fremo, mel, queror, tero, vespa, severus. And others which have passed from a through e to i : dlgitus, ignis, quinque, pinguis. 3) He cites about 190 words which have weakened Pr. a into o in the syllable of the root or stem : voco, mox, loquor, rogo, opus, 6b, nota ; fodio, tono, vorno, mola ; orior, voro, post, novem. And others which have passed from a through o to u : nummus, unguis, fungus, multus, culmen, vulnus. a) Pr. a is weakened to e and 6 in some roots : nex, neco, noceo ; tego, toga, bene, bonus ; mens, moneo ; pendo, pondus. fero, fors, fortis ; verto, vorto ; volo, velle, volt (vult). preces..., procus, posco; cello, collis, columen. &) Pr. a, kept in Latin, also becomes e in fatisco, fessus ; gradior, gressus. f) Pr. a, kept in Latin, also becomes 6 in apiscor, opus ; scabo, scobs ; pars, portio ; faveo, foveo. d} Pr. long a becomes 5 in some words and many suffixes : donum, vox, mos : -tor, -os, -or, -mdn, -on, and Imperative -to; B} In Suffixes. It may be stated as a general rule that Latin suffixes with the vowels e, i, 6, fc, are weakened from Pr. suffixes with a. Exceptions are very few : t*- in such words as mentl- parti- poti-. nl- in such words as igni- panK v*- in words like ovf- av?-. tu- (u-) in Supines and Nouns, as statii-, dictu-, casu-. All which are in Pr. form. C) In Cases and Personal Endings. Cases (except the Locative Singular) and Personal Endings, with vowels e, i, o, u, are for the most part weakened from Pr. forms with a. See 20, 39, and Schleicher, Vergleich. Gramm. der Indogerm. Spr., 205. 12. Vowelweakcning witJi Selection. 21 xix. Weakening into o as influenced by Se- Seiec- , * tionoffc lection. 1. V following has determined Pr. & to become 6 in novem, novus, lovis, ovis. 2. V preceding has probably done this in voco : while in volo, volvo, volnus (vulnus) andvomo, the consonants which follow may also have had influence. E. L. has voco for vaco, voto for veto, vorto, voltur. M. Lucr. i. 20. 3. Pr. sva is changed to BO in soror (for svasar, 'sister'), sopor, socer, sonus, sol, sodalis; and has passed to su in sii-sur-rus. See p. 17. C. II. 64. 4. t shews a preference for o before it in many words : dolus, solum, solium, tollo, &c. but especially in E. L. suffixes : poc-ol-om, tab-ol-a, Pseud-ol-us, po-pol-us. which afterwards changed 6 into ii. 5. Inner r often prefers 6 to u : fore, forem from fu-o; so ancora from Gr. aytcvpa (but generally Greek v was kept before r: pur-pur-a): especially in the Suffix of Neut. Substantives with Norn. S. us or ur: corp-us corp-6r-, eb-ur eb-6r-. Some keep ur- : fulg-ur-, gutt-ur-, murm-ur-, sulf- ur- ; and the Masc. words aug-ur-, turt-ur-, vult-ur-. (But most Neuters in us are inflected by er-. See p. 25.) 6. The Comparative Suffix was anciently 5s or-, then or or-, for all genders : finally, and in C. L., it became M.F. meli-6r meli-or-, N. meli-us meli-6r-. Note p. 42. xx. Weakening into u as influenced by Se- lection. 1. C. says : 'In Latin root-syllables, suffixes, and flexional end- ings, ii has arisen generally from 6.' a) before s and m final : deus (0eoe), genus (ye'i/or), bellum (bellom), filium (filiom). ff) before inner l, or a labial : populus, upiipa, columen, Hecuba. c] before grouped consonants, the first of which is a Liquid, Nasal or Sibilant : pulsus, palumbes, fungus, rursum, luscus. 2. About 230 B.C. the 6 of case-endings generally passed into ii : hut 6 was kept in some instances : a) hoc, tot, quod, quot, always. So com- con-. 22 Latin Soundlorc. 12. j3) after u, v, as late as the Augustan age : equos, equom, servos, servom, aevom. So quom. The Emperor Claudius seems to have promoted the use of the combinations uu, vu, which in Republican times were generally avoided. See C. II. 97-101. 3. Rustic dialects kept o frequently : hence it returned into use in L. L.j and reappears in modern Italian : popolo, secoloJ- 4. Selection of u appears A) before Labials and l : 1) in place of o : humanus utrtibi consul iimerus bublle adulescens nummus bubulcus epistula volumus bubus exsiil quaesumus rubigo titiilus sumus upilio singuli Bovile is another form for bubile. 2) in place of Gr. a , f : humus (xapai) scopulus (ffKoveXoe) pessulus (Trao-o-aAoe) Siculus (St/ceXoc) 3) in place of a, e : a : occupo, aucupor, contubernium ; e : quincuplex. 4) as middle sound, approaching to i : clupeus or clipeus : lacruma or lacrima. See xxi. Note i. When i or e came before the suffix 616- 61-, 6 was not changed into ft : (1) fili-olu-s, basi-olu-m, Cori-ol-i, vi-ol-entus. (2) alve-61u-s, lacte-olu-s, laure-ola, Pute-61-i. 2 Note 2. When v came before 61, 6 was kept as late as the Au- gustan age, after which it often became ii : parv-olu-s, parv-ulu-s : serv-61u-s, serv-ulu-s. But friv-61u-s was never changed. * As to the dialectic use of O and u in final syllables, C. says : 1) Lat. and F. received O as the pure Gr. o. O. and S. as O inclining to U. U. as a middle tone, or U inclining to O. 2) Lat. changed O to U about 300 . . . 200 B.C. F. still earlier. O. about 300 B.C., but before m not till 130 B.C. S. before 200 B.C. V. never. New U. returned from u to O between 300 and 130 B.C. 2 MSS. shew formid-ul-osus and formid-ol-osus, sanguin-ul-entus and sanguin-ol-entus, vin-ul-entus and vin-ol-entus ; the forms with ul- having the advantage. Somn-ul-entus is decidedly better than somn-ol-entus. J2 . ! r owelweakening with Selection. 23 7?) Before grouped consonants, of which the first is a Liquid, Nasal, or Sibilant : I. In place of o. 1) pullus, cucullus, and the Deminutives ampulla, homullus, Catullus, Marullus, &c. But before 11, e is more frequent than u. See xxi. D. 6. fulcio ... , hiulcus, pulcher ..., sulcus ..., Vulcanus ; fulgeo ... , mulgeo..., vulgus .... culpa ... , bulbus. adultus ..., cultus ..., multa ..., pul(t)s, ultra ... vultur, vultus, vult : vulsi. * culmen, fulmen, ulmus ; ulna. Fulvius, pulvis, vulva, ulva. Here too ol after v held its ground long : Volcanus, volgus, voltur, voltus, volt, volsus. 2) amurca, furca, urceus, murmur, furnus, eburnus, purpura, Surrcntum, ursus, rursus. 3) umbo, nummus, aerumna, alumnus, autumnus, columna, Clitumnus, Vertumnus. 4) uncia, uncus, hunc, Aurunci ; fungus, unguis .... The Demin. suffix -unculo- : ranunculus, virguncula. 5) Promunturium ; nuntio (noventio). Corss. I. 5 1 ; nundinae. The Personal Ending -unt was anciently onti- ont, as ecfociont for effugiunt on the Columna Rostrata, con- sentiont, dedcront, &c., on old inscriptions. The classical form of 3d Pers. PI. Perfect -runt for -ront first appears in the Senatusconsult. de Bacc. B.C. 186, consoluerunt; the weakened form in -re somewhat earlier, fee ere. When u or v came before -ont, o was kept to a later time. Thus in the MSS. of Plautus appear ruont, per- pluont, vivont; and in Lucretius loquontur, disso- luont, vivont. The inner suffix -unt- (ovr-) appears in a few words : sc euntcm ... , chironomunta (Juv.) ; Acherunta (Plaut Lucr.). The suffix -un-do- (for -on-do-) appears in har-undo, hir-undo, sec-undus, ori-undus, rot-undus, fa-c- undus, fe-c-undus, vere-c-undus, furi-b-undus, treml-b- undus, vaga-b-undus ; and in Gerundive Participles. 1 1 Of the Gerundive forms -ondu-s, -undu-s, -end-us, C. (I. 180) shews that (1) No existing E L. Inscrr. contain -ond-us ; but, as it was the tendency of L. L. to resume the o of E. L., and in L. L. appear such forms as secondus, verecondus, while Italian also has seclude, rotondo, it may justly be assumed that -on-do- was the first weakening of Pr. -an-d-ya. (2) The forms -undus -endus appear side by side in E. L. and R. L. to the Christian era. So in Plaut. T< r. Lucr. ; in the Senatuscons. de Bacc., the Lex lulia. (3) The form -endus prevails in prose : but Sallust likes -undus. Cicero, Caesar, Livy, use it often, chiefly in io-verbs of the 3rd as well as 4th Conj. : moriundum, partiundus, &c. It prevails especially in legal and statistic phrases: rerum repetundarum, iure dicundo, belli gerund:, agris dividundis. 24 Latin Soundlore. 12. Rarer forms are frundes for frondes, frunte for fronte, dupundius for dupondius. Later language resumed o : It. fronde, fronte, pondo, mondo. 6) The Demin. forms arbuscula, corpusculum, rumtis- culus. aplustre, indu-stria (endo) : also arbustum, onustus, robustus, vcnustus; which C. would derive from weakened forms arbus, onus, robus, venus. 2. The words in which u appears to represent e are few : as mulsum (/uA<) ; sepultus from sepel-ire ; urgeo (Ipyw) .... Note. Long u for Pr. a or its substitute 6 appears in various suffixes : -turo-, -tura, -suro-, -sura, -uno-, -una, -uco-, -uca, -uceo-, -ucio- : i-turus, prae-tura, pas-surus, men-sura, Nept-unus, fort-una, cad-ucus, fest-uca, pann-uceus, Vin-ucius. compared with prae-tor (anc.), patr-onus, fer-ax, fer-6x, mer-acus, clo-aca, gallin-aceus. Seiec- xxi. Change into e as influenced by Sclec- *"* tion. It has been shewn that ^4)6 has affinity with r. E] e is a convenient vowel for the close of words and for final syllables. Also it must be noted that C) e has affinity with the combinations st, ss, II. D) e is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication. These causes determine a great number of instances in which e appears for other vowels in suffixes and endings. A) e chosen with p. i) In Decl. i and 2, before the suffix ro- ra-, e takes the place of Pr. a or of o, sometimes of u : Examples are Words which retain vowel and suffix throughout : numeru-s, umeru-s, uteru-s ; camera, littera, tessera ; and the Fern. Adjectives, lacera, libera, misera, tenera, altera. Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and Voc. Sing. Masc. : gener, puer, socer (eirvp&c), vesper, lacer, liber, miser, tener, alter. i2. Vowclwcakening with Selection. 2$ Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and Voc> Sing. Masc., and drop in all their other forms : ager, aper, faber, magister ; Afer, ruber, niger, uter. In some of these (as magister and uter) e represents Pr. a, while in others it is perhaps a transposed repre- sentant of the dropt 6. In some words with suffix ro- ra- Greek a was kept before r : cantharus, cithara. 2) Similarly, in Decl. 3, e comes before r in many forms : Words in er er-, which keep e throughout : career, cadaver, piper, papaver, tuber : celer, degener, pauper, uber. Words in ter, cer, ber ; which keep e ( = Pr. a) only in Nom. and Voc. Sing. Masc., dropping it in the other cases : frater, mater, pater, venter, imber ; acer, alacer, saluber, puter, Silvester. Numerous words of Decl. 3, which take Nom. S. us ( = 6s), have in the Oblique Cases the suffix er- : fun-er-is, gen-er-is, op-er-is, Ven-er-is, vet-er-is. but some keep 6-r- : corp-6r-is, frig-or-is, pect-or-is. a few use er- and or- : pign-us, pign-er-is and pign-or-is : fenus, fen-er-is and fen-or-is ; temperi for tempori : whence tempero, temperies. VomerorvomTs, Gen. vom-er-is, points to an original form in es, which sometimes weakens the consonant and be- comes 8r, sometimes weakens the vowel and becomes is : see xxii. 2. and compare the forms Ceres Cerer-, cinls ciner-, pulvis pulver-. 3) Verbs having er in their root do not weaken e into i in compounds : affero, congero, desero, puerpera. for the same reason peperi not (peplri) ; repperi not (reppTri). similarly the compounds of iuro become de-iero, pe-iero, weakening u into e. When the Perfect receives suffixes which begin with r, I is changed into e or e : (E. L. dedi-sont dede-ronf] dederuntordedere. (E. L. dedi-so\ dedc-ro. 2 6 Latin Soundlore. 12. B] E has a tendency to take the place of other vowels in final syllables before weak consonants, n, m, s, t. 1) In Decl. 3, the Norn. S. -en (for Pr. -an) becomes -in- in the Oblique Cases : pecten, agmen, crimen, oscen, tubicen. Gen. pectin-is, agmin-is, crimin-is, oscin-is, tubicin-is. 2) a. Septem (Sk.saptan, Gr. tWa) ; noyem (Sk. now an, Gr. cycca), decem (Sk. das'an, Gr. fc'fca). (3. In Decl. 3 -em is the Accus. S. Ending of Cons. Nouns : reg-em, virgin-em, passer-em, it prevails in I-nouns against -im: civ-em, font-em, serpent-em, but -im is retained by some : bur-im, sit-im, tuss-im, vim. while others use both forms. See 24, 5. febr-im febr-em, messim messem. Tim is kept by the numerous Adverbs having that form : as ad fatim, partim. But saltern or saltim. M as a final letter faded in L.L. as it had faded in U., and passed out of use in modern Italian, leaving e final generally : sette, nove, &c.; but ^mdec^, dodeci, ... from undecim, duodecim, ... 3) On such forms as nub-es, sed-es, see 2O, 24. Some I-nouns have two forms of Nom. S., -*s and es : fel-Is fel-es, vall-is vall-es, verr-is verres; but s, like m, disappeared in L.L. and Italian, leaving e final : nube, valle, c. 4) In old Italian dialects, except O., also in E. L., final t in Verbal forms was weak and sometimes disappeared. Before it the Perfect character I was sometimes changed into e : at a later time to the middle sound ei : finally in classical times settling into I. Thus are found the various forms : (dede, dedlt, dedet, dedeit], dedit. In L. L. and in Italian, this t, like m and s, disappeared again, leaving final e ; disse^fece. C] E has a tendency to become itself a final letter in the place of other vowels. 1) In the Voc. S. of O-nouns it supersedes 6 : doming, lupe, Romule. 2) In the Neut. S. Nom. Accus. of I-nouns it supersedes * : mare, rete ; triste, necesse. 3) When final consonants are cast off : -'rt, Gr. i2. Vowelweakening with Selection. 27 ille, iste, ipse (illus, istus, ipsus). Abl. S. of Decl. 3 : quaestorg (quaestorid or quaestored). -rg for runt in Perf. dedere (dederunt). -rS for -ris in 2nd Pers. S. Pass. : loquare for loquaris. -ve for vis in neve, sive. mage for magis; pote for potis. In L. L. instances occur even of a Gen. S. in e for is. By this gradual rejection of final consonants the classical system of case-inflexion was broken down and the uniform declension in- troduced which prevails in modern Italian. U] E has a tendency to take the place of other vowels before grouped and double consonants. 1) E appears before x ( = cs, gs) in the final syllable of Nouns of Decl. 3 which are inflected with the suffixes ic- ig- ( = Ico- *gro-, as explained by Corssen) : codex, cortex, imbrex, remex ; simplex, supplex. Gen. codicis, corticis, remlgis ; simplicis, suppllcis. 2) E appears before ps, bs in the final syllable of Nouns of Decl. 3, which are inflected with the suffixes ip- (up-) ib- : such are municeps, auceps, caelebs, particeps. Gen. municipis, aucupis, caelibis, particTpis. Compounds of caput, with Nom. -ceps for -cipit-s, have Gen. -cipltis ; praeceps, Gen. praecipTtis. 3) When a Noun with that suffix ti- (which appears in hos-ti-s, tes-ti-s) would have the accent on an ante- penult syllable (ala-ti-, dquo-ti-), the vowel of the penult is weakened usually into X (alitf-, equiti-), sometimes into e (abietl- segeti-). The i of the suffix being dropt, the forms then become (allt- eqult- seget- abiet-) : and when the Nom. S. is formed by the addition of -s, they become (alit-s equit-s seget-s abiet-s) : but, e being preferred to i in a final suffix, (alit-s equit-s) become (alet-s equet-s). After which, by the rule of euphony, the dental falls out before s, and the Nominatives then become ales, eques ; Gen. allt-is, equit-is; seges, Gen. seget-is; teges, Gen. teget-is. but abies, aries, paries, Gen. abietis, arietis, pa- rietis, on account of i preceding. Note. In this class, the vowels e, i generally represent Pr. or Latin a (see above), but in a few X is the root-vowel :" comes, comtt- (root I, to go). 28 Latin Soundlorc. In pedes pedit-, probably also in seges, teges, the vowel is adopted by analogy, forming a suffix i-t- or e-t-. See Footnote, p. 30. 4) The same principle applies to a few words derived from sed- sld-, to sit (Pr. sad) : (obsed-s) obses obsid-; (praesed-s) praeses, praesld-; (desed-s) deses desid- ; (resed-s) reses resid-. 5) E before nt appears in the suffix mentc- : ar-mentu-m, la-mentu-m, monu-mentu-m. and for Greek a in talentum, Agrigentum, Tarentum. 6) E is frequent before 11 : cello, pello, vello, velle, and the Demin. forms : puella: but in these i is also used : sigillum. In other groups with l the vowel u prevails, see xix. : but e is not excluded: celsus, excelsus. 7) Equester, pedester, for (equet-ter, pedet-ter). 8) (fat-) fessus ; (grad-) gressus. 9) The Neuter suffix (os) us weakens its vowel into e before another suffix beginning with t : fun-us fun-es-tus ; scel-us, scel-es-tus, temp-us temp-es-tas ; intemp-es-tus. The existence of an old Neuter Noun modus is shown by mod-es-tus ; mod-er-ari : so the Masc. Noun honos forms hon-es-tus, hon-es-tas : but o becomes u in ang-us-tus, aug-us-tus, on-us-tus, rob-us-tus, ven-us>-tus. maius, mai-es-tas, is like temp-us, temp-es-tas. C. forms pot(i)os, pot-es-tas : others poten(t)s (potent-tas) pot-es-tas : he cites Prae-n-este as Superl. from a supposed (prae- no-), meaning ' the town on the highest prominence? 10) The comparative forms mag-is-ter, min-is-ter, sin-is- ter, in L. L. appear with es for is ; whence Italian maestro. In some other words also, as antes tes, L. L. writes est- for 1st-. Modern Italian is not uniform in the choice between e and i. We find fermo, sclva, segno, trenti ; but principe, sinistra, vittoria, carissimo. E) On the use of e for a, 6, u in the reduplicated syllable of Per- fects see xxv. i2. Vowelweakcning with Selection. 29 xxii. The Selection of i. A] The thinnest and sharpest vowel i has a strong affinity with dental consonants ; chiefly with n and s, but also with t and d. .Z?) Hence it is largely used as a vincular vowel, linking stem with suffix and suffix with suffix. C) The existence of a middle sound between i and u caused the orthography of many words to fluctuate. A) I. Affinity of i with n. I represents Greek a before n in balineum, bucina, fascino, machfna, patina, trutma. It represents Greek t before n in adarnantmus, coccmus, coccmeus, crystallmus. It stands before the suffix no- in numerous Latin words : l fiscina, fuscina, paglna, sarcina, pampinus, sucmum, fagfnus, fagineus, geminus, myrrhmus. In mino- (Pr. man a and tino- (Pr. tana) : terminus, femTna ; fruimmo, amaminor. crastmus, diuttnus, pristmus. In the suffix in- (Pr. an L. en, en) before vowels : pect-m-is, sangu-in-is, osc-in-is. In the suffix in- (Pr. an L. on, on) before vowels : hom-in-is, marg-m-is, ord-in-is, virg-Tn-is, Apoll-m-is. In the suffix mln- (Pr. man L. men) before vowels : flu mm-is, no-mtn-is, nu-min-is. A striking instance of the affinity of i with n appears in the fact that it was inserted in the Greek word /wa, which so became mina. Similar insertions occur in Daph-I-ne< luc-I-nus or lych-I-nus (M. Lucr. p. 211), gum-i- nasium probably in Catullus. So the affinity of u with m is shewn in the occasional forms drac-ii-ma for Zpaxw, Alc-u-mena, Tec-u-messa. &c., and with l in Aesc-u-lapius, Herc-u-les. Mlinerva, anciently Menerva. Though e prevails before grouped consonants, yet there are many instances of it being sharpened into i before n with another consonant : intus, inter, indu- ... quinque ... tingo ... vindico ... so when n follows another consonant : ignis, pignus, signum, tignum. 2. Affinity of i with s is shewn In the forms cinls (ciner), cucumts (cucumer), pulvis (pul-ver), vomls (vomer), pubis (puber) : also aci- pensts (acipenser). See C. II. 278. 1 In fact the suffix no- takes, in true Latin words, no short vowel but i before it. Such words as balanus, cottana, platanus, raphanus, Rhodanus are not native of Italy. 3O Latin Soundlore. i 2 . In the Gen. ending -is (Pr. as). In the occasional use of i-sc- for e-sc- in Inceptive Verbs : lucisco for luces co. 3. Affinity of i with t is shewn In the adoption of i before many Verb and Noun suffixes beginning with t : ag-Y-to, ag-Y-te, ag-Y-tis, gen-Y-tus, gem-Y-tus, domi-tum, meri- tum, vetY-turus, doli-turus, fru-i-turus, gen-i-tor (but gene- trix), habY-tare, strepi-tare : laetY-tia, plani-ties, veri-tas, alti-tudo, penY-tus, largY-ter, sempi-ternus. 4. Affinity of i with d is shewn In the adoption of I before the suffix do- : candi-dus, torp-Y-dus, flu-Y-dus, viv-Y-dus. herbY-dus, gravY-dus, morbY-dus, gelY-dus. Note. When an E-verb forms a Substantive with suffix d-on- d-in-, the vowel before that suffix is e : albe-do, dulce-do, grave-do : but libl-do, by assimilation. B] Use of i as a linking Vowel. 1 i. The large use of i before suffixes beginning with n, t, d, and its own aptitude for this purpose, led to its adoption before many other suffixes as a link-vowel in the place of others : as before co-, c-un-do-, culo-, cro- ; b-un-do-, bulo-, bill-, men, men-to-, monia. (Verbalia) alY-ca, vellY-co, medY-cus, rubY-cundus, cubY-culum, ridY-culus, veh-Y-culum, pudi-bundus, fur-Y-bundus, patY-bulum, cred-Y-bilis, terri-bilis, flexY-bilis, spec-Y-men, al-Y-mentum, quer- Y-monia. (Denominativa) auli-cus, bellY-cus, anni-culus, ludi-cer, curri- culus, anY-cula, aegri-monia, caerY-monia. But Verbal a is kept : ira-cundus, caena-culum, vaga-bundus, ama-bilis, grava-men, sacra-mentum. Sometimes e : vere-cundus,, fle-bilis. 1 Corssen is right in principle, when he considers this i to be a weakening of the final rowel of Stems with vowel-character ; as in auli-cus from aula: bellT-cus from bello- ; tidT-culus from ride- ; ani-cula from anu-. But he seems to go back too far when (II. 314 and elsewhere) he speaks, for instance, of the T in regimen as weakened 'from the original final a of the 3rd Conjugation.' He might surely have applied here and in other Derivatives of Consonant Nouns as well as Verbs the principle which he admits, for ex- ample, in ped-es, ped-It- from the root ped- (Pr. pad, Gr. jroS-), and in the use of the suffix T-co- (II. 211. 205) ; namely, that the usage of vowel-stems, which adopt! so gene- rally as a light link-vowel, has thus created a -uniform siiffix (einheitliches Suffix) applied, by linguistic analogy (Sprachbewusstsein), to Consonant stems also. This is, in fact, all that is meant when the use of vowels (i, u, e) is cited in this Grammar as ' vincular : ' and in this sense the term will be still kept as convenient. The same convenience recommends the term ' Clipt Stem ' to express a vowel-stem without its vowel character. But ' mord ' is in fact the root of mord-ere. Hence, to say that momord-i, morsum, come from a theoretic verb mord-ere, as C. does, and to say that they are formed from the Root of the extant Verb, are but two ways of saying one and the same thing ; and the latter is the shorter way. I2 . Vowelweakening with Selection. 31 2. A similar adoption of f is frequent in Compound Words at the close of the prior element. (i) terrf-gena, silvY-cola, aurf-fex, signl-fer, fati-dicus ; corni-ger, arcl-tenens, luctf-ficus ; muni-ceps, sortf-legus ; parrl-cida, luc-I-fer, rur-i-cola ; (2) horri-sonus, terri-ficus ; miserl-cors ; (3) undi-que, indi-dem, sici-ne ... hict-ne .... Ante, bene, male vary : antf-cipo, anti-stes; but ante-cedo, ante-venio ... beni-gnus, beni-volus ; but also bene-volus ... mali-gnus, mali-ficus ; but also male-ficus .... E- verbs compounded with die ere, fa cere keep e or weaken it toe : valedicere, arefactus, tepefactus. 3. The Suffixes lo-, ro-, cro-, bro-, toulo-, tro-, tHo-, &c., often change their vowel into i before the Nom. ending s ; thus causing Adjectives in us, a, um to pass into the I -declension. gracil-us, gracil-i-s ; hilar-u-s, hilar-J-s. steril-u-s, steril-i-s ; indecor-u-s, indecor-I-s. seques-ter -tra -trum ; seques-ter -tris -tre. On this preference of i the Adjectival forms in li-s, ri-s, cri-s, bri-s, bili-s, tri-s are founded. By the passing also of 6- ii-s into I- i-s arises a double form of numerous Adjectives : imberb-u-s, imberb-i-s ; unanim-u-s, unanim-I-s decliv-u-s, decliv-I-s ; effren-u-s, effren-i-s. In bicornT-s, u of the stem passes into i. See 28. 4. Before the Ending -bus of Dat. Abl. PI. we have i for o, in qui-bus, hl-bus (Plaut), and other old forms. i in I -nouns, asnavl-bus (nave-bos on the Duellian Column). \ vincular in Cons. Nouns, as reg-i-bus, virgin-I-bus. * for u generally in U-nouns, as cantl-bus, corni-bus; except those in -cu-s, and artus, partus, tribus; which keep tk. C) The last-cited examples point to that middle sound between i and ii, which the Emperor Claudius wished to mark by a distinct sign. See p. 9. This exists almost exclusively before labials, affect- ing chiefly such words as the following : ) !mo- or umo- : lacrlma lacriima aestfrno aestumo legitlmus legitumus maximus maxumus monirnentum monumentum victima victuma existimo existiimo maritimus maritumus decimus decumus testimonium testumonium. (2) lp- or up-, ib- or iib- : mancipium mancupium recipero recupero libet lubet | ritlbus ritubus. (3) if- or iif- aurifex aurufex pontifex pontufex maiiifestus manufestus sacrifico sacrufico 3- Latin Soundlorc. I2 . Also capitalis or caputalis and a few more words. Inscriptions shew that the forms with ii prevailed in E. L. and R. L., those with i in and after the Augustan age, for which the Monument of Ancyra, as edited by Mommsen, is the best authority. Recapitulation. The principles thus laid down respecting the ad- aptation of certain vowels to certain consonants in Latin are sup- ported by the usage of other Italian dialects so far as known. See Corssen, II. 60-225. These principles affect short vowels much more than long; suffix vowels more than root vowels ; grave much more than accented vowels. The general results are : A, the strongest vowel, into which none other is changed, is not itself appropriate to any particular consonant, though its natural kinship is to gutturals first, and least to labials. is appropriate (i) to v, (2) to i, r. IT is appropriate to l and the Labials. E is appropriate to r. X is appropriate to the Dentals n, t, d, s. Again : E and u are appropriate to grouped consonants. E is convenient for final syllables and the end of words. E is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication in Verbs. 1 is adapted, by its lightness, to link stems with suffixes, and suffixes with each other. u, e, sometimes take its place. All these appropriations arise from euphonic assimilation, in- tended to make utterance less troublesome. Again : The extensive weakening of Pr. a through o to u and through e to i, is characteristic of Italian language. In L. L. a reaction occurred, by which o and e recovered much of their lost ground, and in modern Italian o very often appears where u stood anciently : often e where Latin had i : molto, mosca, polvere, sepolcro, fondere, romper 'e, sono (sum), c., bevere (bibere), disse (dixit), senza (sine), verde (viridis). Assimi- xxiu, Vowelchange by Assimilation and Dis- andDis- similation of Vowels to each other. tion. a " By Assimilation a letter is changed so as to become the same as another, or so as to become more suitable to it. When a letter is changed so as to become unlike another, this change is called Dissimilation. Every such change has euphony for its object. Assimilation may affect adjoining or disjoined letters. It may be Regressive, when the following letter operates to change the preceding : or Progressive, when the former letter operates to change one which follows. I2 . Assimilation and Dissimilation of Vowels. 33 I. Assimilation of Vowels. Assimi- lation of X) Assimilation of adjoining Vowels. Vowels. (An adjoining vowel is never assimilated so as to be the same as its neighbour ; but only so as to be suitable to it.) a. Regressive. i) In the conjugation of the Verb-roots i, go, quT, can, and their compounds, i before a, o, u is changed into e : earn ... eo, eunt ; queam ... queo, queunt. S before e in their Participles is use4. rarely : as Nom. S. iens, quiens, but in the Oblique Cases usually ie becomes eu : euntis ... queuntis ... So iendum ... usually passes into eundum ... . As ie is an admissible combination, it is probable that the order of change was i-ont- i-ond-, then e-unt-, e-und-, which remained in this old verb after ent- end- had come in generally. Ambio, one of the compounds of eo, is conjugated like audio. 2) The Pronoun-root i (Is), and its strengthened compound idem, in the same manner change i to e before a, o, u: hence we get ea, earn, eum, eo, eos ; eaclem, eandem, eundem, eodem, eosdem, easdem. 3) Deus, dea (for div-us, a, from Pr. div), is an assimilation of the same nature. In Nom. P. di (dei) are used; in D. Abl. dis (deis) ; but not dii, diis. But Diana is classical : Deana L. L. 4) Teate, Teanum, for Tiati- Tiano- O. nausea (vnvaia) ; cochlea (a^A/ac). but i remains in pius ... via (veha). b. Progressive. 1) By the influence of e or of i preceding it, o is prevented from passing into u in the suffix 6lo- ; see p. 22. 2) Substantives in -ia, Uccl. i., pass into -ies, Decl. 5 : avarit-ia avarit-ies ; mater-ia mater-ies. 1 3) In Numeral Adverbs, from Pr. I-yans, comes -ie-s (-ies) : quot-icns (quot-ies) ; dec-iens (dec-ies). 4) In Verbs the Mood-suffix ia becomes ie : (es-ia-m) = siem = sim ; (ama-s ia-m = ama-ie-m = ama-im) amem. 1 The Fifth Declension is a mere offshoot of the First. The ending A, Decl. i., was originally long, as aquihl in old Latin poetry. Hence came Ie by assimilation from Ia, a;:d, with addition of Nom. S. Ending S, Ies : luxuria, lu.\urie-s. D 34 Latin Sound lore. 12. B) Assimilation of disjoined Vowels. (Regressive and complete always in Classical Latin.) l) XT is often assimilated to a subsequent Aemilius consllium -cflium similis manlbiae (aemulus) (consulo) (-culere) (simul) (manubiae) Esquiliae exllium facilis Quiris (aesculus) (exulo) (facul) (Cures) 2) O is assimilated to a subsequent i in inquninus (incolo) | upilio (oto:roXoc) 3) E is assimilated to a subsequent * in Duilius (Duel-1-ius, Bellius), Brundlsium (Brundesium) , mttii (mehi), ttbi (tebi), slbi (sebi) ; nihil (nehil), nTmius (ne-mi-u-s), unmeasured. See C. II. 366 famtlia (Q.famel, whence famul, famulus). 1 IT is assimilated to o in soboles, when written for suboles. O is assimilated to e in bene (bono-) is assimilated to ii in tugurium (tegere). And long e to 6 in socors (secors). Dlssimi- II. Dissimilation of Vowels. Vowels! i) It has been shewn that in E. L. and R. L. u, v were avoided before u, whence such forms as vivont, avos, servo m, &c., antiquom, suom, &c., continued in use to the Augustan age. TTv was not so much avoided. We find indeed floviom, conflovont in E. L., but also in R. L., Cluvius, luventius. 2) The concurrence ii was avoided in E. L. and R. L. by writing i-ei ; as fili-ei ' sons ; ' peti-ei, &c., ieis and eeis ; also adi-e^e in Senatuscons. de Bacc., but in I. L. this repugnance faded; and we find iis consiliis, &c. on the Monument of Ancyra. In C. L. ii is avoided by writing e for i in anxi-etas, ebri-etas, pi-etas, sati-etas, soci-etas, vari-etas, abi-etis ... , ari-etis ..., pari-etis ... vari-egare, li-en, Ani-en, ali-enus, lani-ena, and in many Proper Names : - Cati-enus, Labi-enus. 1 Few words have been more debated, as to their derivation and consequent orthography, thansusplcio(suspltio)andconvlcium(convitium). Each' form has good documen- tary evidence in its favour, and perhaps the strongest argument fort is that, while ci often appears in I. L. and L. L. for ti, converse examples are hardly to be found. Yet Corssen is strongly in favour of s u s p T c i o, as an assimilation of a strengthened form suspecio, and of convlcium, as an assimilated form from convocium. Fleckeisen on the other side assumes suspltiofrom suspicitio, and convltiumfrom convocitium. Sub iudice Iis est. There are strong arguments against each view ; but for the twesent Corssea's seems the less objectionable. i2. Vowelwedkening iu Compound Words. 35 It is avoided in the compounds of iacio by casting out one \ and allowing to the other the power of ji. See pp. 10, 38. Peior is perhaps by dissimilation for pid-ior (compare pig, 'injure') In the Pronouns Is, Idem, the forms ti, tts were avoided by writ- ing ei, eis : but li, lis were tolerated in Imperial times. 3) o-o was tolerated in I. L. But co-6pia becomes copia ; and coptato is in the Lex lulia for co-optato. M. Lucr. v. 342. xxiv. Vowelweakening in the Second Member vowei. of Compound Words. hj a in n ~ Corn- Composition of words forms either loose or fast Compounds. pounds. If the two members are so joined that, although the first is pro- clitically connected with the second, nevertheless they can be se- parated, the compound is loose. Thus Mdrs-pater is a loose compound ; but becoming Mdspiter, it is fast; because the parts are inseparable. In old language compounds are often found in a state of separation : M. Lucr. i. 452. ob vos sacro (Festus) obsecro vos sub vos placo supplico vos facit are (Lucr.) arefacit per mihi gratum est pergratum est mini per mihi placet mihi perplacet Such compounds as satisfacere, circumdare, c., may be considered loose ; while pro fi cere, trader e, c. are fast. The fast Compounds hitherto cited, MaspTter, proftcere, tra- der e, weaken the root-vowel of the second member. But this weakening, though of frequent occurrence, is not universal in fast Compounds. Thus attraho, though a fast Compound, is not weakened. We have now to see what compound words do weaken the second member of the composition. i. a) Numerous words keep their root-vowel a unweakened in the second member of their compounds ; such are most Verbs of Conj. i. : agitare, amare, gravare, vagari; many of Conj. 2. : ardcre, iacere, manere, pallere, patere, pavere, valere ; many Nouns : animus, avus, faber, palma, par. Some words, as will be seen, weaken a part of their compounds, but not all : from mandare, commendo, but demando. Likewise some compounds are not weakened in earlier Latin which are weakened later : M. Lucr. ii. 951, 1135. aspargere, dispargere (Lucr.) ; afterwards aspergere, dispergere. D 2 36 Latin Soundlore. 12. b] A. is weakened (through o) into u in the second member of some compounds : a. before 1 : calcare . . con-culco : in- pro-culco. salsus . . insulsus. saltare . . ex-sulto : de- in-sulto. saltum . . de-sultum : as- dis- ex- in- prae- pro- sub-sultum. Note. Salire anciently was weakened by u, dissuluit (Lucr.) , but later it took i by assimilation : de-silio. (3. Before Labials : cap- . . . occupare : nuncupare : aucup- : mancup-. taberna . contubernium. lavere . . diluvies, al- col- il-luv-ies, -ium. y. After qu, by assimilation : quatere . . concutio, de- dis- in- per- suc-cutio -cussi ... quare . . cur (for quor). e>. Before ss : as, assis . decussis : nonussis : centussis. Note. O (from Pr. a) is weakened into u in consul, exsul, praesul, insula, consulo. Long a is weakened into u in the suffix -ugro (-ago) : aerugo, albugo, ferrugo, lanugo. c) A. is weakened into e in the second member of many com- pounds : tarn . . autem, item. -dam . . idem, itidem ... quidem, tandem apisci . . indepisci. canere . . oscen, cornfcen, fidicen ... accentus .... bacillus. . imbecillus ... gradi . . aggredior ... con- de- di- e- in- prae- pro- trans- re-gredior : aggressus lacere . . illecebrae, illectus, paelex. pacisci . . depecisci (or depac-) : but compacisci. pati . . . perpetior, perpessus. fatigare. . defetigo (or defat-). fatisci . . defetisci, defessus. dare . . . addere, de- e- pro- red- tra-dere .... (Sk. dhd] . abdere, con- abscon- in- sub- ere- ven-dere. parare . . (impero ...; pauper ..., propero, aequipero, vitu- pero ...?) but apparo, com- prae- re- se-paro. pario . . comperio, reperio : (aperio, operio ?) puerpirn, vipera .... ager. . . peregre (i), peregrinus ; but peragrare. arma . . inermis. arcere . . coerceo, exerceo .... ars . . . iners, sollers, quinquertium. agere . . remex. annus . . biennis, biennium, tri- dec-ennis -ennium ... aptus . . ineptus : adeptus. i2. Voivclweakening in Compound Words. 37 as, assis . tressis, bessis, bicessis .... barba . . imberbis. candere . accendo, incendo ... succendo .... cantus . . accentus, concentus. capere . . particeps, princeps ... auceps, manceps ... . captus . . acceptus, con- de- ex- in- prae- re- sus-ceptus.... caput . . anceps, biceps, triceps, centiceps, praeceps .... carpere . . discerpere, con- de- ex-cerpere. castus . . incestus. damnare . condemnare ; indemnatus, indemnis. facere . . artifex, opifex, carnifex. factus . . affectus ... con- de- ef- in- prae- re- suf-fectus : but labefactus ... with many more, fallere . . refello. fassus . . confessus, dif- pro-fessus. farcire . . confercio, confertus, infercio, refercio, refertus. iacere . . obex (for ob-iex). iactus . . adiectus, con- de- dis- in- ob- re- sub-iectus lactare . . delecto, oblecto. mandare . commendo, but demando. pandere . dispendo, dispessus (but expando). parcere. . comperco, compesco, dispesco (but com-parsit). pars . . . expers, impertio, dispertio, bi- tri-pertitus (-par- titus). partus . . compertus, repertus (apertus, opertus). passus . . perpessus. patrare . . impetro, perpetro. raptus . . abreptus, cor- di- sur-reptus. sacrare . . consecro, ob- ex- re-secro (consacro, Mon. Anc.). scandere . ascendo, conscendo, de- ex-scendo. spargere . aspergo, con- di- in- re-spergo. See p. 35. stare . . antistes, supers tes (-stit-). tractare . contrecto, de- ob-trecto ; but retracto (con- tracto, Lucr.). Note, o (Pr. a) is weakened into e in potis . . hospes, sospes (pit-) ... but compos, impos. Long a is weakened into e in halare . . anhelo (redhalo, Lucr. vi. 523). d] A. is weakened (through e) to i in the second member of many compounds : agere . . adigo, ab- ex- red- sub-igo (but circumago, perago, satago), nav-Ig-o. Part. P. -actus. apisci . . adlpiscor, indlpiscor. amicus . . intmicus cadere . . accido, con- de- ex- in- oc- re-cido ... declduus, occiduus, ... stilicidium. canere . . accmo,conclno, prae- pro- re- suc-clno,vaticinium, lusclnia ... . caput . . occiput, sinciput, ancipit- praecipit- ... . capere . . acctpio, con- de- ex- in- per- prae- re- sus-clpio, ... praecipuus, principium ... . datus . . addltus ... de- prae- pro- red- tra-dltus. 3 Latin Soundlore. Pr. dha . . abdttus, con- e- sub- ere- ven-ditus. facere . . aff fcio, con- de- ef- in- of- prae- pro- re- suf-ftcio ; cpp. with -ficus -ficium, beneficus ... beneficium ...,but benefacio, calefacio, and all similar cpp. facilis . . difflcilis. fades . . superficies, facetus . . inficetus. fateri . . confiteor, dif- pro-fiteor, infitiae, infiftior. habere . . adhibeo, co- ex- in- per- pro- red-hibeo ; but post-habeo. iacere . . adicio, ab- con- e- pro- re- in- ob- sub-icio. On forms in MSS. with e, and on dissice, see M. Lucr. ii. 951. Iacere . . allkio, e- il- pel-lfcio. latere . . delitesco. manus . . comminus, emtnus. nam . . . enim, etenim. pater . . lupplter, Diespiter, MaspTter. placere . . displlceo : but perplaceo. rapere . . abrlpio, arripio, cor- de- di- e- prae- pro- sur-ripio. ratus . . irrltus. salire . . adsilio, de- ex- in- pro- re- sub-silio. sapere . . desipio, inslpiens ; reslpisco. stare . . institor, iustitium, solstltium. statuere . constltuo, de- in- prae- pro- re- sub-stltuo. (stan-) . . destmo, obstmo, praestino, obstlnatus. frangere . effringo, in- con- per- re-fringo. Part. P. -fractus. pangere . compingo, impingo. Part. P. -pactus. tangere . . attingo, con- per-tingo. Part. P. -tactus. fascmare . praefiscme (i). as, assis . semis, semisses. Note. O (Pr. a) is weakened to X in pods. . . hosplta, sosplta, hospltium ... . Long a is weakened into I in the suffix -ig-o (-agro) : fuligo, roblgo, ullgo, &c. 2. a) 3E is kept in the second member of many compounds : edo, fremo, gemo, meto, peto, seco, sequor, tremo, tego, veho, venio, gen-, ped- ; and those with er, fero, gero, sero, tero. b] s is weakened into I in the second member of several com- pounds : egere . . indtgeo, indigus. emere . . adimo, exlmo, per- red-Tmo, (but coemo). legere . . colllgo, de- di- e- se-ttgo. But intellego, neglego, sublego. Also perlego, prae- re- lego from legere, to read. medius . . dimldius. premere . comprfmo, de- im- op- re- sup-prlmo. regere . . arrlgo, cor- de- e-rtgo. sedere . . asstdeo, con- de- dis- in- ob- prae- re- sub-sideo ; asslduus, praesldium, subsldium. i2. Vowelweakening in Compound Words. 39 tenere . . abstmeo, attlneo, con- de- dis- ob- re- per-tlneo ; contmuus, pertmax, protlnus, protlnam. dedi. . . addfdi, &c. steti . . . adstiti, &c. In close syllables compounds resume e : ademptus, collectus, compressus, directus, consessus, retentus. Long e is weakened into I in lenire . . delmio (also delenio). tela . ". . subtllis. c) E is changed to u in . temnere . contumelia (contumax ?) 3. O is kept _in the second member of compounds generally : convoco, abrodo. But locus . . ilfco. gnotus . . agnitus, cognttus. 4. U is kept in the second member of compounds : ac- incubo, eluceo; except that u is weakened into e in iurare . . de-iero, pe-iero. 5. The diphthong ae is often kept, as exaest'uo, obaeratus; but melts into I in aequus . . inlquus. aestumare . existimo. caedere . . abscldo, accTdo, con- de- in- oc- prae- sue- re-cido, homiclditim, parriclda .... laedere . . allldo, col- il-lido. quaerere . acquiro, anqulro, con- dis- in- per- re-quiro, inqui- sitio .... 6. The diphthong oe (oi) sinks to * in coenum 1 . inqumare, coinqumare. In E. L. it sank to u in ludere, uti, munus, munio, punio, etc., and their compounds. See xii. 7. The diphthong au is generally kept : inauro, adaug^o: but it sinks to 6 in faux . . . suffocare ; plaudere . explodo, supplodo (but applaudo) ; to u in causa . . accuso, incuso, recuso ; fraus . . (frustra, frustrare) defrudare: see M. Lucr. vi. 187. claudere . conclude, dis- ex- in- oc- prae- re-cludo ; and to oe in audire . . oboedire. Note. The other Italian dialects exhibit the same general laws of Vowelchange as the Latin. 1 Obscenus(obscoenus) is usually derived from c c e n u m. This, however, is by no means certain. 4 ' to stick'). Nix (ningv-s) drops v in Nom. Sing, and us in the other cases, forming Gen. niv-is, &c. 2. Liquids and Nasals * take Sonants before them in preference to Surds : (po-pl-icus) x pu-bl-icus (ili-cn-us) x ili-gn-us (qua-tr-a) x qua-dr-a (cy-cn-us) x cy-gn-us (ne-cl-ego) x ne-gl-ego (sc-cjn-entum)'x se-gm-entum Through some feeling of euphony (nec-otium) becomes neg- otium. 3. N becomes m before the Labials p, b, m ; but remains be- fore f, v : impleo, imbuo, immitto ; but infero, inveho. 4. A Labial Mute becomes m before n : (sop-nus) x somnus ; (Sab-nium) x Samnium. 5. itt often becomes n within words before a Guttural or Dental ; and, if kept, is sounded as n : clan-culum prin-ceps eun-dem clan-destinus quen-dam ean-dem. So quon-iam for quom-iam. But in some instances m must be kept : quemque, quemquam, unumquemque, namque, numquis. In others m is better than n : quamquam, tamquam, cumque, umquarn, numquam. 6. When Dental Mutes meet, the former often becomes o : (edit, ed-t) x est (claud-trum) x claustrum (rod-trum) x rostrum (plod-trum) x plostrum. In Supines and Superlatives sometimes both become o : (fod-tum) fossum ; (pat-turn) passum ; (duris-timus) durissimus. III. Dissimilation of Consonants. Dissimi- lation of The recurring sound of the same Consonant in succeeding syllables is sometimes avoided by changing it in one place. a) caeluleus, caelulus are changed into caeruleus, cae- rulus. b) Paliliais sometimes written Parilia : Remuriax Lemuria. 1 The assimilation of Sonant to Nasal explains the sound of gn in French -grie final, as cygne. Its sound in Frenchand Italian before interior vowels=n-y : thus, agneau* agnello (=an-yo, an-yello). 44 Latin Soundlore. 12. Trans- posi- tion. Eu- phonic Inser- tion. c) The suffixes ali- eli- ill- uli- are chosen for Adjectives de- rived from Nouns, if the root contains r : and the suffix -ari is chosen if the root contains l : austr-ali-s al-ari-s cardin-ali-s capill-ari-s liber-ali-s coll-ari-s reg-ali-s sol-ari-s crud-eli-s stell-ari-s puer-ili-s tutel-ari-s cur-uli-s vulg-ari-s Obs. But in the suffix -ario, r is not changed : ordin-ariu-s, temer-ariu-s. Note i. Consonants are sometimes transposed within a word for the sake of euphony : pristis for (pistris) | colurnus for (corulnus) extremus (extermus) | Note 2. When m is followed by s or t, p is euphonically inserted to strengthen the syllable : hiem-p-s, em-p-tor, sum-p-si, sum-p-tum. 1 The change temp fare for ten tare, though supported by inscrip- tions and good MSS., is censured by Corssen as an etymological blunder : the formation of the Verb being Pr. tan, L. ten, whence ten-d-ere, ten-tu-s, ten-t-are. * seems to be euphonically inserted in mon-s-trum, mon-s-tro, &c. (from mon-eo). (On the euphonic insertion of a Vowel in m-I-na, drac-u-ma, c., see xxii. On the insertion of e in ag-e-r, nig-e-r, &c., see xxi.) Loss oflnitial Letters. * * * The Loss of Letters will next be considered. xxvii. Loss of Initial Letters lost by lamentum... laus ; luscinia ... vapor ... nasci, natus ... noscere, notus ... narrare lac c-lamare c-luere shewn in g-nasci g-natus : Sk. jan Gr. g-noscere, i-gnotus : Sk. jna Gr. (g-narigare) from g-narus Gr. a-Aa/:-r- 1 The euphonic insertion of b between m and 1 or r, and that of d between n and r, occur in Greek (as j/eV-S-AwKa, -yaw-^-po'?, ar-S-po's), but not in classical Latin, except in hi-b-ernus for (hiem-rinus, Gr. xeijuepii/o's). But they came in later, and exist in numerous modern words: as number, humble, remember, cinder, tender, &c. 2 Cicero, though a Greek scholar, was unacquainted with the forms gn as ci, gnoscere^ and knew so little of etymology, that he treats the ginignotus, ignavus, ignarus as a mere euphonic substitute. See Or. 47. He would naturally do the same in agnatus, cognatus, prognatus, agnomen, cognomen, c. 12- Loss of Initial and Final Letters. 45 st lost by vivere lanx ; latus viginti luppiter: lanus rosa (radix, rigo) lupus lis, locus torus fallere tegere taurus cutis, cavus, caelum, casa, cavere, causa, cauda, &c. shewn in Sk.j-iv (Pr. gviv). See p. 43. Gr. TT-AUK-, 7r-Aaru<. for dvi-ginti. In d-vis, d-vellum, d-vonus, d-v becomes b; bis, bellum, bonus. See Cic. Or.45. But duellum in Latin poetry : Eng. duel. M. Lucr. ii. 662. Seep. 15. Gr. f-po8ov, Aeol. /3po8oi/. Sk. v-arka-s, Gr. \VKOS. for st4is (G. streit, Eng. strife] ; st-lo-cus (Sk. stha-la). Gr. o-rop-, Sk. s-tar, ' to strew. 1 Gr. -f i?, ey^vo?) ; whence Fr. enceinte. This shews the usually received derivation of the latter word, incincta, in cinta (given inDucange's Glossarium in voce) to be quite erroneous. 54 Latin Sound lore. 12. LOSS of xxxii. Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants. Vowels Conson- J * (homi-ni-cida) x homiclda ; (lapi-di-cidlna) x lapi-cidma ants. (sti-pi-pendium) x stipendium ; (pau-ci-per) x pauper (tru-ci-cldare) x trucldare ; (tri-num-nundlnum) x trinundmum (no-men-cupo) x nuncupo ; (prae-vo-co) x praeco (ae-vi-tas) x aetas ; (manu-hi-biae) x manibiae. (vene-ni-ficium) x veneficium ; patro-no-cinium x patrocinium. 2. (consue-ti-tudo) x consuetude ; (mansue-ti-tudo) x mansuetudo; (hebe-ti-tudo) x hebetudo ; (calamit-at-osus) x calamitosus. 3. (bicipit-s, bicip-e-s) x biceps ; (praecipit-s praecipe-s) x prae- ceps, &c. ; (locu-lo-ples) x locuples. 4. (unus-decem) x undecim ; (quinque-decem) x quindecim. 5. The second syllable of semi, half, and the first syllable of dec em, ten, are often lost in the formation of numeral words: se-squi- for semisque, selibra for semilibra : viginti for dvi-de-centi, triginta for tria-de-centa, &c. : bi-c-essis for bi-dec-essis, &c. 6. (per-ri-gere) x pergere ; (sus-ri-gere) x surgere ; sur-pui poet, for sur-ri-pui. 7. possum = potis (pote) sum ; potes = potis (pote) es, &c. malo, &c. for (mage-volo, &c.). .. vendere for venumdare 1 : narrare (narare) for (g-nar-ig-are). (re-ce-cfdi) x reccldi or recldi ; (re-pe-peri) x repperi ; (re-pe-puli) x reppuli ; (re-te-tuli) x rettuli. Compounds of reduplicated Verbs drop the syllable of reduplica- tion : dif-fldi, in-cldi, ob-tfgi, pro-tendi. Except those of disco, posco, and some of curro : dedidici, expoposci, praecucurri. 8. The syllable si is cast out by Syncope from Perfect-stem forms of Verbs, chiefly in Comic poetry, but also in that of the best age: 1 a} Perf. Act. 2nd Pers. Sing, and Plur. dixti for (dic-si-sti) ; duxti for (duc-si-sti) mis ti for (mi-si-sti) ; scripsti for (scrip-si-sti) accestis for (acces-si-stis). fy Pluperfect Conj. : exstinxemfor (exting-si-sem) vixet for (vic-si-set) erepsemusfor (erep-si-semus). 1 A large number of examples of this omission, chiefly from the old Scenic poets, but many Augustan, are given by Corssen, ii. 553. . . . 12. Shortening of Vowels. 55 c] Infin. Perf. : surrexe for (surreg-si-se) ; tr axe for (trac-si-se) divisse for (divi-si-se) ; iusse for (ius-si-se). cT) Besides the Verbs which classically form a Perfect-stem with the character s, some other Verbs did this in old Latin : cap-ere, fac-ere, rap-ere, tan-gere, aud-ere. As the old formation of the Perf. Conj. and Fut. Perf. with character s was si-sim, si-bo, such Verbs, by dropping si, formed these tenses in sim, so : faxim for (fac-si-sim) ; faxo for (fac-si-so) clepsit for (clep-si-sit) ; ausint for (au-si-sint). e) A-verbs in old Latin formed these two Tenses sometimes by casting out a syllable and then doubling : negassim for (nega-vi-sim) : rogassit for (roga-vi-sit) servasso for (serva-vi-so) : locassintfor (loca-vi-sint). A few such forms are found from E-verbs and I-verbs : prohibessit = prohibuerit ; ambissint = ambiverint. Note. This Future in asso, mistaken, it would seem, for a Present, gave birth to Infinitives in assere, used by Plautus : impetrassere, oppugnassere, reconciliassere. Sometimes even to Passive forms : turbassitur, Cic. ; compare faxitur, Liv. xxxiii. The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. shorten- ing of i. Between the First Punic War (B.C. 260) and the Augustan age (B.C. 30) the Quantity of Vowels underwent a generally shortening process, especially in final syllables. This is shewn by comparing The extant specimens of old Saturnian Verse. The fragmentary remains of the old Dactylic and Iambic poets (Ennius, &c.). The Comedies of Plautus and Terence. The poetic remains of Lucilius and Cicero^ The poetry of Lucretius and Catullus. The Augustan poetry (Virgil, Horace, Ovid, &c.). 2. The Comedies of Plautus (B.C. 180) are a most important stage in this enquiry : because, though they contain a large number of long syllables afterwards shortened, they also exhibit numerous examples of the shortening process always going on : and among these some which are repudiated by the taste of Augustan poets. Such Plautine shortenings mark the direction in which the cur- rent of popular parlance was setting, whilst in Augustan literature these corruptive tendencies are suppressed for a while by the studv of Greek models and a fine sense of what was really good in Roman antiquity. Latin Soundlore. 12. 3. Examples of Final Syllables with Quantity varying in Early Latin, in Plautus, and in the Augustan age. I. a Nom. Fern. 2. a Neut. PI. . 3. e Abl. Decl. 3. . 4. e Infin. . . . 5. at) et [ 3rd Pers. S. . it r 6. is Nom. . . 7. ris 2nd Pers. S. Conj. 8. bus Dat. Abl. Pi. 9. mus ist Pers. PI. 10. ar in Nouns 11. ar in Verbs 12. or in Nouns . . 13. or in Verbs 14. al in Nouns E. L. Plaut. Aug. a a a a a a e e e (e) e 1 a a a e 6 e I I * I I I I I u u u u u u a a a a a 5 5 6 5 5 a a a Yet Augustan poetry, especially the Hexameter, supplies many instances in which the antiquarian long quantity of a word was adopted to suit metrical convenience: gravia (Verg.) arat (Hor.) videt (Verg.) veil t (Hor.) tondebat (Verg.) ignis (Hor.) pec- toribus (Verg.) negabamus (Ov.) trahor (Tibull.), &c. 4. The words which Plautus shortens by the license of common parlance are mostly Iambic words, which he thus slurs into pyrrhichs, we might almost say into monosyllables. Such are loci, merl, doll, bono, domo, viro, doml, fores, pedes, herl, probe, ama, roga, puta, cave, mane, tace, vale, abl, adi, bibl, dedl, stetl, darl, loqul. Augustan poetry preserves the traces of this popular usage (which generally it rejected) in such words as bene, mod 6, nisi, quasi, mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, puta, cave, vale, &c. : and to its influence we may perhaps refer such abnormal quantities as palus, polypus in those writings of Horace which he himself calls ' sermoni propiora.' * with Contrac- tion. xxxiv. Exclusion of Consonants followed by Contraction of Vowels. s ; dextans for (de-s-extans) = | of the as : nl for nl-s-I. i-consonans : blgae for bl-i-ugae ; quadrigae for quadrl-i-ugae : cuncti for co-i-uncti : aes for (Pr. ay as). h : cors for co-h-rors ; vemens for ve-h-emens; prendo for pre-h-endo; praeda for (prae-h-eda) ; nemo for (ne-h-emo for ne-homo) ; nllum for ne-hllum; nil for nl-h-il; mi for ml-h-I; I mus for (I-h-Imus for in-f-Imus) ; debeo for de-h-Ibeo ; p r a e b e o for prae-h-Ibeo. 1 On this subject, besides Corssen, the student should especially consult Ritschl's Plautus and Opuscula ; C. W. Muller's Plautinische Prosodie ; and Munro's Lucretius: also the Prosody in this Grammar by the last-named scholar. i2. Exclusion of Consonants with Contraction. 57 q : dodrans (for dequadrans), f of the as, is formed by the following process, according to Corssen (dequaxdequoxdoquo x docu- x doc- x do-). 1 v : There are two modes of suppressing v with contraction : and in some words each mode would lead to the same result. 1. The short vowel after v may be excluded, v vocalised (be- coming u), and then contracted with the preceding vowel. 2. v may be excluded and contraction ensue. 1. First Mode. This is shewn where the diphthong an results : a u c e p s (av-I-ceps) ; a u s p e x (av-i-spex) nauta for nav-I-ta; naufragus for nav-I-fragus cautumfor cav-I-tum; fautum for fav-I-tum audeo (av-I-deo); gaudeo (gav-I-deo) and may be inferred (as shewn by 16 turn, lu turn for lautum) in most instances where 6, u result (for ov = ou or for uv = uu) : fotum (fov-I-tum); f 6 men turn (fov-I-mentum) m 5 turn (mov-I-tum) ; momentum (mov-I-mentum) iutum (iuv-i-tum) ; iumentum (iuv-I-mentum) upilio, opilio (ov-I-pilio) ; prudens for prov-I-dens curia(co-vlria); decuria (decu-vlria) lupiter (Iov-I-piter) ; bob us or bubus (bov-I-bus) bruma (brev-I-ma, breuma) nunc (nov-um-ce) ; nuper (nov-I-per) Junior (iuv-e-nior) ; udus (uv-I-dus). In nundlnae (nov-endinae, noundinae), nuntio (nov-entio, noun- tio), and contio (co-ventio, countio), the vocalization of v seems to take place before the exclusion of the vowel 2. Second Mode. a) (dls, Ten once) for di-v-es; dltior for dl-v-itior; dltissimusfordl-v-Itissimus: oblltus (obli-v-itus) : hornus (ho-v-ernus) : praes (prae-v-I-des, prae-i-des, praeds) : Cloelius (Clo-v-i-lius, Cloilius) : malo, malle, &c. for ma-v-olo, ma-v-elle, &c. nolo, nolle, &c., (ne-v-olo, ne-v-olle, &c.) : sis for si vis; sultis, for si vultis, elides iv. &) Many Adverbs are formed by the contraction of a Pronoun or Particle with the Participle vorsus, vorsum : horsum (ho-vorsum) ; prors-us -um (provors-us -urn) ; hence prosa for prorsa (pro-vorsa) ; alior- sum (alio-vorsum); rurs-us -um (revors-us -um) ; sursum (sus-vorsum) ; intrors-us -um for (intro-vors- us -um) : rusum, susum, introsum. M. Lucr. iii. 45. 1 Bes, or bessis, bes-ses (dvi-esses), two thirds of the as, is another curious ab- breviation ; representing bis trientes, twice one third. 58 Latin Sound! ore. 12. Contrac- c } This ^ orm ^ Contraction prevails especially in the Perfect- ion in stem Tenses of Pure Verbs. Perf. Stem. a. When the Perfect-stem ends in av, ev, 6v, the v may be ex- cluded before is or er (but not before ere), contraction ensuing : amasti for amav-isti; implessem for implev-is- sem; nosse for nov-isse. amaram for amav-eram; implero for implev-ero; norunt for nov-erunt. And in Lucr. at for avit : inritat, i. 70. These contractions are not used in the forms of lavi, cavi, favi, pavi, fovi, vdvi : but in those of movi and iuvi they sometimes occur in poetry : adiuris for adiuveris ; mostis for movistis ; adm5- .runt for admoverunt ; summosses for submo- visses. (3. When the Perfect-stem ends in iv, the v is often excluded, and contraction usually follows before is : audi-eram for audiveram ; audi-ero for audiv-ero, audis- sem for audivissem. So, in eo and its compounds : leram, fero ; issem, isse, &c. Sir is is used for siveris from smere, slvi. The contraction of -iit into -It occurs ; obi t for r1v'->. Anciently the Perfect ending it was itself long, being often ex^ hibited as eit in E. L. 1 See M. Lucr. iii. 1042. 1 Peculiar contractions are seen in the formation of the Tenses of Verbs. A) Forms of (esum) sum, compounded with other Verbs : Indie. Mood. Fut. i. (eso) ero : Imperf. (esa-m) eram. Conj. Mood. (Mood-vowel ia=ie). Pres. (es-ia-m, es-ie-m) siem, sim. Imperf. (esa-ia-m, esa-ie-m, es-ai-m, es-e-m) essem. Infm. es-se. Forms of fuo (shewn in fore = fure, fuisse, &c.), compounded with other Verbs. Indie. Mood. Imperf. (fuam). Perf. fu-i, whence fu-ero, fu-eram, &c. B) Tenses of a m o (ama-o) : Ind. M. Fut. i. (ama-fuo) a m a b o. Imp. (ama-fuam) amabam. Perf. (ama-fui) amavi. Fut. 2. (amav-eso) amavero. Plup. (amav-esam) amaveram. Conj. M. Pres. (ama-ia-m, am-ai-m) am em. Imp. (ama-esem) amarem. Perf. (amav-esim) a m a v e r i m. Plup. (amav-esem) amavissem. Infin. (ama-se) amare : (amav-ese) amavisse. C) Passive Present-stem forms are derived generally from the Active by adding se {self), and making euphonic change : Pres. Ind. (amo-se) amor ; (amas-se) amar-is ; (amat-se) amat-ur, &c. D) Inf. Pass, (amase-se) amari-er, amari ; (regese-se) regi-er, regi. The Conj. Pres. endings am, as, at, &c. of the Third Conjugation (regam, regas, &c.) represent the Primitive Conjunctive in a ; and Fut. forms in es, et, &c. (reges, reget, &c.)are contracted from a-ia-s, &c., as in (esa-ia-s) eses. See C. II. 729. i2. Relations of Consonants, etc. 59 xxxv. Relations of the Consonants in Latin Reia and kindred Languages. g I. The Guttural Surds c, q. Gut- 1) C corresponds to Sk. /, k, r'; to Gr. K or ir : C, r g L. Sk. Gr. centum s'ata I-KUTOV decem dasfan 8fKa can is fvan KVWV (KVV-) iecur yakart iiTrap voco vac' - ffTrw. 2) Qu sometimes corresponds to Sk. ^z/, Gr. TT (*) r : L. Sk. Gr. equos as'vas iwcoe (for kfoc. More frequently qu corresponds to Sk. c\ k, Gr. TT, T (K) : L. Sk. Gr. quattuor (fatudras rrr^t ( for r^rfapcc) 7rlffvf>ec (Q.petora) linquo rit! XtTT- sequor sac' 7T- for ff-ETT que ka Kdi Tf quis kas Tfr(U.^). Some think that k \ . /* v should always be assumed as the primitive of qu ; but Corssen maintains that c (k) could develop u after it in Italian language as a transition-step to the labial p ; and he thinks that even in Indie kv is developed from k. 3) The Labialism by which TT and p represent Pr. k, prevailed in Umbrian and Oscan. U. pelurpursus quadrupedibus ; O. ^///// = quidquid. Hence (from O. petora, four) come the names Petreius, Petronius: and (from O. /0?;z-/-z.r = quinque) Pon- tius ( = Quinctius), Pompeius, Pompeii, Pomponius, Pom- pilius. 1 4) In two instances c, qv seem to correspond to Sk. p, Gr. * : L. Sk. Gr coquo pfic' 7rf7r-ro quinque panda TTEI , 7rf/.7re. Here some think the primitive roots were kak or ki>ak; kanka or kvankva. Fick, however, supposes coquo to be for (poquo), quinque for (pinque), by assimilation. 5) In proof that qu could be developed from c, Corssen cites huiusque for huiusce ; inquilinus from incolo ; inquinare from coenum ; quom = cum; querquetum for quercetum ; Qui- rites from Cures; sterquilinium from stercus. J Perhaps other instances of Labialism (p for k) in Latin are dialectic (Sabine) : as lupus (Sk. var-kas, Gr. AVKO?) ; popina for coquina ; palumbes-columba : Epopa (forEquona) ; spolium(Gr. oxvAoc) : and one or two more doubtful, as pavo(Gr. TOOK). Of Dentalism in Latin (t for k) the traces are few and dubious : as talpa (for s-talpa, s-calpa) ; stercus(Gr. oxoip) ; studeo, studium(Gr. , severally. Latin has neither class of aspirates : the letters which it uses for the purpose of correspondence are principally b, f, and the medial b. i. H, when sounded at all, was sounded as the Greek Rough H. Breathing, but corresponds to it only in words borrowed from the Greek : Hebe, Homerus, hora, &c. a) In some words b corresponds to Sk. h, Gr. \ : as L. Sk. Gr. hiemps himam heri hyas veho (via) vah ovt'w a t^) * 1 The Teutonic names of this bird, goose, gander, gos (Anglo-Sax.), gans (Germ.), com- pared with the Greek x^v, seem to shew that ghans is the Prim. form. There can be no doubt that Greek \ indicates a Prim, gh in all these words : and this is also shewn in the Latin Perf. of veho : vexi for vegh-si. 62 Latin Sound lore. s 12. &) B represents dialectic fin some words, as haedus, hario lus, hircus, hordeum, horreum, hostis, also in mihi. So in Spanish, /i?y'o = f\lius ; 7m^/^r = fabulari. c] H has no position in Latin metre ; and a tendency to get rid of this aspirate, as a troublesome sound, is maniiest in the history of Latin. Hence the fluctuation in the orthography of many words in MSS. and Inscrr. : harena, arena; harundo, arundo; haruspex, aruspex ; have, ave; haedus (aedus) ; hariolus (ariolus] ; Ha- dria (Adria]\ heres (eres); herus, hera, and erus, era; hedera (edera) ; holus (olus) ; Hammon (Ammon) ; Hister (Ister). But the forms humerus, humor, &C. for umerus (W/AOS), umor (from uvere), are not good. c] The loss of h was propagated in L. L. Hence in modern Italian it is not sounded, and has generally disappeared as an initial letter. F. 2. The Italian Labiodental Aspirate f is described by Quintilian as a very strong rough sound : * Ilia quae est sexta nostrarum paene non humana voce vel omnino non voce potius inter discrimina den- tium efflanda est,' xii. 10. This description does not seem to imply that the ancient pronunciation of f was materially different from our own : but it does imply what is probable on other grounds, that < was different from our f, not, like this, labio-dental, but a pure labial aspirated. P is seldom the inner letter of a root. As an initial it corresponds to Sk. bh, Gr. <, chiefly : Sk. dh, Gr. 9, some- times j Sk.^, Gr. x, rarely. L. Sk. Gr. J) fero bhar fui (fe-, c.) bh& flag- (fulg-) bhrdj frigo bhrajj fugio bhuj frater bhrdtar pa.Ttip See bha y p. 16. To Pr. bk, C. also refers the f in many words : fovere, favilla; favere ...; famulus ... (O. faama, 'house'); fervere ... furere ... ; fidere .. ; fiber; forare; furvus; fundus ... ; frequens: compare also fagus (^iryoc); folium (^v'XXoi/); frango frigus ( 2) foris dvdr 6vpa fumus dhumas rufus (rudh} firmus dhar (Oa\- 6e\-) From this last root C. deduces a large number of words : fere, ferme, frenum, forum, furca, fulcio, &c. * Lat. -fendo, Gr. 9eivia are referred to Sk. han. Probably on this account Prof. Monier Williams, in his Lexicon, refers han to a Prim, dhan, though so many of its forms indicate an original ghan. i2. Relations of Consonants, etc. 63 The Preposition af which appears in Latin Inscrr. is by Cors- sen distinguished from ab,and derived from Sk. adhi. L. Sk. Gr. 3) fel (comp. bilis) (hart, ' greenish yellow ') ^oX^ fu(w)do (ghu f) x lfa To Pr. gb C. refers fulvus (helvus), host is (fostis), hario- lus (< inspector of the hira or entrail\ haedus (faedus), hordeum (fordeum), fames, far, frio, furfur. IV. The Labial Mutes p, b. Labials . p > B. These were sounded anciently as in modern language. P corresponds generally to Pr. p, Gr. ?r. But see I. B corresponds often to Pr. b, Gr. /3 ; but, as already shewn (I. and III.), it has several other special relations. Thus it is developed not only from dv (as in bis, bellum, bo- nus, see p. 45), but also from gv : L. Sk. Gr. bos, bov- gaus ftovs faba (bhas, ' eat ') ay- (for fag-va) As an inner Consonant b represents Sk. bh regularly, dh rarely. L. Sk. Gr. nubes nabhas vtyos uber udhar ovdap So b = < (bh) in ambo (a/*), ambi- (a/*^/) glaber 6s), nubo (wfi(p7;), scribo (ypa$a>), sorbeo (pcxpew), umbilicus (o/i(paXoy) : in the suffixes -bus (-$i), -bam, -bo, -bro, -bra, -bulo, -bill, -bi (tibi, sibi, ubi, &c.), -bis (nobis, vobis). Again b = (dh) in ruber (epu^-), plebs (?rX^off), and in abies, arbor, urbs, verbena, verbum, barba, &c. V. The Dental Mutes t, d, retain their ancient sounds, corre- Dental* spending to Sk. /, d (or dh\ Gr. r, 8 (or 6). a) The sonant mute stands regularly for the aspirate in medius (S<, madhyas, Gr. p-Wos for /xtS-yoy), vidua (Sk. vidhavd), -dere (Sk. dhA, Gr. ^e-). In latere (Xcrfctv), pati (rradelv), t seems to re- present Pr. dh ; but this is very exceptional. b) Final d in C. L. is only used in a few particles (a pud, ad, haud, sed), and pronouns (id, illurl, aliud, quod, quid, quid- quid, &c.). Some of these are occasionally found in MSS. and Inscrr. with t for d, as aput, haut, set, aliut. This shews that final d had a hard sound. On final t, see p. 26. c) The assibilation of inner dt, as of ti, before a vowel, began in the Imperial age, and is represented in Italian by zz, as mezzo for medio. 64 Latin Soundlore. !2, Nasals VI. The Nasals n, m. correspond in sound to Pr. n and fft. N, M. Gr. v and p. a) N" has in Latin a twofold use : 1) As a Dental ; initial, final, and before a vowel : 2) As a Guttural (adulterinum) ; before g, c, qu. It is weak and slightly uttered before and ts, especially when these are final. See p. 50. b) In Latin the Labial Nasal m often takes the place which belongs to v in Greek as a final suffixed Consonant : x musam ; (aTrrjv) x aberam. r) x musarum ; (Sopuv) x domorum. In the First Pers. Plur. of Act. Verbs n corresponds t v : (i5o/*i>) x vidimus. In the Third Pers. Plur. nt : x aberant. Liquids VII. The Liquids and the Sibilant. 1) Though r (littera canina, the growling letter) is one of the roughest sounds, and l one of the softest, they are intimately related to each other. ! is a lisped r : compare barbarus with balbus, and n6pa with ic6Xa (Aristoph.) Accordingly the interchange of these letters is frequent in Indie, Greek and Latin. Some roots have l in all three: lagh, ligk, lu ; many have r in all : bhar, mar, sarp, star, hard, &c. 2) The derivation in L. and Gr. of l from Pr. r is exemplified in L. Sk. Gr. linquo rid XITT- luceo rue' \ VK . cluo s'ru jfXJw volo var /3ov\- ulna aratni sal sara levis raghus See the derivatives of svar, p. 17. Lat. r from Sk. /is shewn in rump o from lup (old form rup}. 3) Comparing Latin and Greek, we find, on the one hand, lacer (paicoe), lilium (\tiptov) : so luscinia (Fr. rossignol): on the other, grando (xaXaa), hirundo (x.i\i$wr), arx (a'X*-)> vermis (eXpc), strigilis (), dulcis (yXvuvs}, pulmo (7rXeu/xd>i>), sorbeo (po$e'a>), torqueo (rp). So tri and ter, trinus and ternus, porro for (protro), &c. 5) Frequent interchange is found between the Liquids and the Dental d : d and 1 : lacrima (Sd/cpu, tear\ lingua (E.L. dingua^ 'tongue'), levir (Sk. devar, Gr. Saj/p), olere (oficoSa, odor), Ulixes ('oSvo-o-evy), adeps (uXei'^co). Meditor (/ueXerdco) is not so certain. d and r : meridies for (medi-dies) ; and ar- for ad in old compounds: arbiter (ad-bitere), arcesso for (ad-ci-esso). 6) As to the sound of i, we learn from Priscian the opinion of the elder Pliny : ' x triplicem, ut Plinio videtur, sonum habet : exilem, quando geminatur secundo loco posita, ut ille, Metellus ; plenum quando finit nomina vel syllabas, et quando aliquam habet ante se eadem syllaba consonantem, utsol, silva, flavus, clarus; medium in aliis, ut lee turn, lectus/ I. 7. 38. 7) The lightness of inner l caused it to be often sharpened by doubling : loqaella, querella, c. 8) On its affinity to u, see xx. In French this goes so far that u often takes the place of i, forming diphthongs an, tau, eu, on : (ad illu) x au ; (ad illos) x aux ; (alter) x antre. (cheval-s) x chevanx ; (chevel-s) x chmeuoc. (bel) x beau ; (castellum) x chateau ; (fol, mol, sol) *fou t mou, sou. a) No relation is more important in Latin Wordlore than that R and which arose between the letters r and s, changing the sibilant s> between vowels into the canine liquid. Varro mentions it : 'In multis verbis in quibus antiqui dicebant s postea dictum r, ut in carmine Saliarium sunt haec : ... foedesum, plusima, meliosem, asenam,' vii. 26. In the Carmen Arvale the Lares are called Lases. Cicero says (Fam. ix. 21) that L. Papirius Crassus was the first to call himself Papirius (B.C. 336) : before which all his clan were called Papisii. So the Auselli became Aurelii, the Fusii Furii, the Numisii Numerii, the Pinasii Pinarii, the Spusii Spurii, the Volesi Valerii, the Vetusii Veturii. Thus we have Halesus, Falisci, and Falerii ; Etrusci, Tusci, and Etruria. Hence in roots these changes appear : (asa)xara; (asena, fasena) xharena; (fesiae) x feriae ; (nases) xnares, comp. nasus ; (geso)xgero; (hausio) x haurio ; (seso) xsero; (uso)xuro; (hesi) x heri, comp. \6ec, hester nus. So spes and spero ; quaero and quaeso ; vis, vires ; glis, gliris ; flos, floris, &c. ; nefarius from nefas, &c. F 66 Latin Sotmdlore. 12. Hence almost all the Noun-flexions in r-, as er- or- or- ur- from Nominatives in es, is, iis, 6s (or), us, belong to stems which are really not r-stems, but s-stems : the old forms, many of which are found in old Inscrr., being, for instance (aesis, foedesis, pignosis or pignesis, arbosem, floses, plusima, maioscs), &c. The Case-endings -arum -orura were (-asum, -osum}. The Verb-forms -eram -ero were (-esam -eso), -ris -re -ri were (-sis -se -si}. In the Passive endings -or -ur, c., r represents the pronoun se. Dir-imo is for dis-emo, dir-ibeo for dis-hibeo. &) The r for s between vowels very often corresponds to the loss of Greek a between vowels : (ausosa) x aurora (av-wc, Sk. fishas}; (ausis) x auris (ov-ar): (visus) x virus (f<-oc, Sk.vis/ias); (nusus) x nurus (woe, Sk. snusha) ; (sosor) x soror (o-op, Sk. s'vasar, ' sister ; ) ; (genesis) x generis (yeVe-oe) ; (musis) x mu-ris (/xv-oc) ; (deasum) x dearum (Qt a-on-) ; (esam) x eram (E-T/J'), &c. c] R is for s before a consonant in Minerva (Sk. manas, 'mind ') ; verna (Sk. vas, 'dwell') ; veternus from vetus, diurnus, hodi- ernus from dies : And as final in the ending or for os : color, honor, labor, &c., for colos, honos, labos, c. S. ad) The Greeks, who avoided sibilation as much as possible, sub- stituted generally the rough breathing for primitive c a*; the begin- ning of words. Not so the Italians. Hence Latin initial a before a vowel corresponds often to Sk. $", Gr. aspirate : salix (iXik-i/), sex (?), sedes (&>c), semi- (>/f"-), serpo (C/JTTW), si- nrul (/*, o/ioi)), sollus (o'Xoc), silva (wX^)? se (c), suus (^og), suavis ('/owe), sub (viro), super (vTrt'p), sudor (*3po>c), sus (we), &c. Sometimes initial s corresponds to Greek ' spiritus lenis : ' si (et)? sero (V*")j serum (c'ooc). bb] Sc, sp, st initial generally correspond in Greek and Latin, unless s is dropt, as in tego (oreyo/). See p. 45. cc} S initial was probably sounded more sharply than as an inner letter : hence caussa as well as causa appears in MSS. and Inscrr., and other occasional doublings of s are found. dd) S falls out in Cerealis for (Ceresalis) ; in ver (-p for Ft'ffctp) ; in vi-m, v-i ; in the cases of spe-s for (spe-r-es = spe-s-es), in those of dies, die i for (die-s-i), &c., and in other forms. The vill. The soft Labial Spirant v. bpirant a) v-consonans has the same relation to f that b has to p : it corresponds to Pr. v, Gr. digamma, like which it was sounded : and this sound was probably that of Eng. w. 1 Corssen thinks its 1 That Latin v-consonans had the sound of English w always, is probable for the following reasons : i) By a slight change in the position of the speech organs the vowel i passes inta y-cons By a precisely parallel change the vowel u becomes, not Eng. v, but Eng. w. i2. Relations of Consonants, etc. 67 initial sound was that of Eng. v, its inner sound that of Eng. w. L. Sk. Gr. vomo vam Ff/ue'w volvo val ffXvw voco vac' video i>id (' know ') vestis vasts novus navas ovis avis oFic; So vis (F/c), viola (F/or), vinum (F^n'oc), bos bov- (/3oFc f3ovg) 9 navis (^aFc, raOf), ver (Fj/p), vespera (Ffo-TTf'pa, effirepd), Vesta (FeaX\w for (a/\-yw). d} On luppiter, luno, lanus, &c. for D-iupiter, &c., see p. 15. This passage from dj to j shews distinctly how the assibi- lation arose by which i-cons., afterwards taking the sign J, became a compound palatal sibilant in English and (with gi for Eng. j) in Italian ; while in French it becomes purely palatal. So, from Latin diurnus we get Eng. It. Fr. journey giorno journte X. The Double Consonant x. X ( = cs) corresponds to Gr. I. See vii. 8. Republican as well as L. L. Inscrr. shew zs : deixserit, duxserit, vixsit. In L. L. x passed into ss or s, and appears as ss in Italian ; so disseior dixit. 1 1 A more ample list is here added of Latin words which have lost initial letters. 1. C. : vapor, vapidus, vappa (kvaf) ; vermis ; verrere ; lamentum, laus, luscinia ; ludere (kr*i<)\ libum ; raudus (c-rudus, ' raw ') ; nidor ((ccitrtra). G. : lac (yaAaKT-) ; nasci . . . ; narrare . . . ; noscere . . . ; Naevius ; niti ; vivere. P. : lanx ; latus ; later ; laetus ; livere ; linter. D. : ruere ; runa ; racemus ; bellum . . . bis . . . bonus ; viginti . . . ; iuvare . . . ; luppiter, luno, lanus . . . ; iuvenis ; iam ; iacere. S. : cavus, caula, cavea, caulis, causa, cauda, casa, castrum, cassis, cutis ; cernere . . . ; cortex ; culter ; carpere ; cilium ; caedere ; clavis, claudere ; cena ; gradi ; -gruere : parcere ; pannus ; picus ; pituita ; penuria ; pellere ; puls ; palpare ; palpebra ; parra ; pulex ; palea ; pandere ; populare ; fallere ; fides ; fungus ; torus ; temetum ; tegere ; tundere ; tonare ; taurus ; tuerS ; tergere ; torpere ; turdus ; turba, turbo, turma ; trun- cus ; talpa ; turgere ; trux, trucidare ; macula ; mordere ; memor . . . ; minis . . . ; mittere ; ninguere ; nex ; nare, nares, nasus ; nurus, nutrix ; limus, linere, linea, littera, limax, lubricus ; rivus, Roma, Reate. St. : lis, latus, locus. V. : laqueus ; lacer, lacerare ; lupus. 2. Observe, on xxix., that derivatives sometimes lose radical consonants belonging to the words from whica they are derived : currus, curulis ; mamma, mamilla ; offa ofella ; quattuor, quater ; villa, vilicus ; in-loco, Tlico ; stilla, stllicidium ; mille, mllia (but millia on the Ancyra monument). See M. Lucr. i. 313, and, on religio, i. 63. 13-14. Flexion of Words. 69 DIVISION II. MORPHOLOGY. *3 MORPHOLOGY or WORDLORE treats of Words. Yore." It is subdivided as follows : - CHAP. I. Words : their Parts, Kinds, and Flexion in general. II. Nouns : their Parts, Kinds, and Declension. III. Verbs : their Parts, Kinds, and Conjugation. IV. Particles : their Kinds. V. Derivation and Composition of Words. VI. Supplement on the Uses of Words. CHAPTER I. WORDS AND THEIR FLEXION, i. Stem-flexion. 1. WORDS are called in Grammar the PARTS OF SPEECH. Words are either Simple, as fl a gr a re, flam ma, or Compound, as con-flagrare, flamm-i-fer. Every Word has Meaning and Form. Form helps to determine Meaning. 2. Every Word has STEM and ROOT. Word, Stem and Root may be (but seldom are) the same : as tu, thou\ aqua, water. Word and Stem may be (but usually are not) the same, while Root differs : flamma,_^z;*: Root, flag-, blaze. Root and Stem are often the same : ag-ere, to act. Such words are called Radical or Primitive : all others are Derivatives. A Compound Word has only one Stem, but as many Roots as it has composing parts. Thus the Stem of conflagrare is con- flag r a-, the two Roots, cum and flag-. 3. Every true element in a word following the Root, is called a SUFFIX: thus in flamma (for flag-ma) -ma is a Suffix; in flag- rare -r, -a, -re are Suffixes. Suffixes may need a connecting Link or Vincular, which is not elemental : reg-X-bus, quer-i-monia. The final Suffix, which converts a Stem into a Word, is called an Ending, as -re in flag- r-a-re. But the Suffix -ma in flam -ma is not called an Ending, because flamma is itself a Word. When it forms flamma-s, is an Ending, and, specially, a Case-ending. 70 ]Latin Wordlore. 15. 4. A syllable placed before a Word to modify its meaning, not being a root- word, is called a PREFIX. Thus in te-tend-i, cin- c inn us, -te and cin- are Prefixes. But Particles in composition, asde- se-re-, are not called Prefixes, being themselves roots. 5. The last letter of a P.oot, as gr in flag-, is the Root-character. The last letter of a Stem, as a in flagra- and flamma, is the Stem- character : and this (being of chief importance in Grammar) is called the CHARACTER of the Word. 6. FLEXION, or Stem-flexion, is the method of inflecting a Stem, that is, of making such changes in its form as may indicate changes in its meaning and use. This is usually done by suffixing a Flexional Ending to the Stem : flagra-re, flamma-rum. Such suffixed Endings sometimes need a Vincular, as X in reg-1-bus ; sometimes they cause a mutilation of the Stem, as flamm-is for flamma-is (which is for flam ma-bus). Sometimes change in a letter of the Stem itself is an inflexion : as flamma from flamma. Sometimes both Letter-change and Ending are used; ag-, eg-i. Sometimes Prefix, Letter-change, and Ending : can-, ce-cln-i. 7. How then is a Stem defined ? A Stem is that part of a Word which is virtually contained in every change of form, though the character is often liable to be hidden through the operation of the laws which determine Letter- change. So the character of flamma is hidden in the form flam- m-is; the character of virgin- is hidden in the form virgo : the character of dirig- in the form direxi. 8. And how is a Root defined ? A Root is the primitive element in any word ; that part which the word has in common with all other kindred words. Thus, in agito, the Stem is agita-, but the Root is agr-, which it has in common with ag-o, ag-men and many other kindred words. The Root-cha- racter and Root-vowel are more liable to be hidden through Letter- change than even the Stem-character. Thus the Root agr- is con- tained in the words actio, examen, redigo, but obscured in each word by some mutation. ciSes ii- Classification of Words. Words. Words are of three kinds : I. Nouns. II. The Verb. III. Particles. Nouns. I. A NOUN (Nomen) is the name of something per- ceived or conceived. Nouns are of three kinds : Substantives ; Adjectives ; Pronouns. i. A Noun SUBSTANTIVE (Nomen Substantivum) is a name simply denoting something perceived or con- ceived : psittacus, the parrot ! ; nix, snow ; virtus, valour, virtue -, Caesar, Caesar. g 15. Classification of Words. 7 1 2. A Noun ADJECTIVE (Nomen Adjectivum) is a name indicating a quality perceived or conceived as in- herent in something denoted by a Substantive. Accom- panying the Substantive, it is said to be an Attribute, or in Attribution to it : psittacus loquax, the talka- tive parrot \ nix alt a, the deep snow ; vera virtus, trit e valour ; Caesar i n c 1 u t u s, the renowned Caesar* In such examples it is also called an Epithet 3. A JPj?0JVWJ\r(Pronomen)is a, relational Substantive or Adjective which abbreviates discourse by avoiding the repetition of Names. Thus a speaker avoids his own name by using the Pronoun ego, /. He addresses an- other as t u, thou or you. A person once mentioned he afterwards names as is or ille, he. He speaks of his own horse as meus equus, my horse ; of his companion's dog as canis tuus,your dog. 1) One Substantive may qualify another, and is then said to be an Apposite, or in Apposition, to it: psittacus avis loquax, the parrot, a talkative bird, where avis, bird, is an Apposite, or in Apposition, to psittacus, the parrot. 2) Names given to the qualities of things are called Abstract (Abstracta) : candor, whiteness, virtus, valour. In contradis- tinction to these, Names of things to which such qualities belong are called Concrete (Concreta) : nix, snow ; vir, a man. 3) Concrete Names Individual or Proper (Nomina Propria), are such as can only be applied to single persons, places, or objects : Caesar, Roma, Bucephalus, Cerberus. 4) Names are called Appellative (Appellativa) when they be- long in common to a number of individuals which thus constitute a class : vir, a man, urbs, a city, ager, afield, canis, a dog, arbor, a tree. 5) Names expressing in the Singular Number a plurality of things, are called Collective Nouns or Nouns of Multitude: turba, crowd, p o p u 1 u s, people, gens, da n, e x e r c i t u s, army. 6) A quality, without a substantive name, may sometimes suffice to describe an object. That is, Adjectives may stand as Substan- tives. In Natural History, the Adjective words Mineral,Vegetable, Annual, Mammal, express sufficiently the things meant. So in Latin: sapiens, a 'wise man (vir) ; calida, warm water (aqua) ; natalis, a birthday (dies) ; utile, the useful, convey their meaning without Substantives. 7) NUMERALS (Numeralia) are a class of Adjectives expressing Number: unus, one\ duo, two, c., centum, a hundred, mille, a thousand, &c. These, like other Adjectives, can appear as Sub- stantives : milia multa, many thousands. The ancients marked them as Pronouns. 72 Latin Wordlore. 15. 8) A Substantive, or any word put for a Substantive, is called a Noun-term. 9) Nouns have a Flexion called DECLENSION ; and four Acci- dents (Accidentia) : Number, Gender, Person, and Case. A Noun inflected through all its Cases is said to be Declined. The II. The VERB (Verbum) is the Word which makes Verb. Predication, that is, which declares or states something about a Subject, and so forms a Sentence : ago, I do ; dicimus, we say. consul triumpavit, the consul tri- umphed. 1. The Verb has two parts : 1) The Verb Finite (Verbum Finitum), which is personal; 2) The Verb Infinite (Verbum Infinitum),consistingof Verbal Nouns : principally the Infinitive (Infinitivum), which is a kind of Substantive; and Participles (Participia), which are a kind of Adjectives. 2. The Verb has a Flexion called CONJUGA TION. It has five Accidents: Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. A Verb inflected through certain forms is said to be Conjugated. Parti- III. PARTICLES (Particulae) are the uninflected help- words of discourse ; and are of four kinds : Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. 1. An ADVERB (Adverbium) is a particle which helps to determine the force of a Verb or Adjective, sometimes of a Substantive, sometimes of another Adverb : Quam turpiter interfectus est Socrates, tam bonus civis et ve re philosophus ; how shamefully was Socrates put to death, so good a citizen and truly a philosopher. 1) Adverbs which ask and answer the questions, ' when, where, whence, whither/ &c., are Pronominal Adverbs : quando ? ubi ? quo ? nunc hie illuc 2) Adverbs which ask and answer the question 'how often,' are Numeral Adverbs : quotiens? semel bis ter quater quinquiens 2. A PREPOSITION (Praepositio) is a particle which, used with a Noun-case, helps to define its relation to some other Noun: Ego sto ad fores, tu in conclavi, / stand a t the door, you in the apartment. 1) Many Prepositions can be used as Adverbs : such are, ante, before ; circum, around ; intra, 'within. 2) The Cases used with Prepositions are the Accusative and the Ablative. i6-i8. Nouns. Number. Gender. 73 3. A CONJUNCTION (Coniunctio) is a particle which helps to shew the connection of words, clauses, and sen- tences : Oves et aves, sheep and birds] edimus ut vivamus, zue eat that we may live. 4. An INTERJECTION (Interiectio) is an exclamatory particle used to express feeling or call attention : O, O ! heu, eheu, alas ! en, ecce, lo ! The Parts of Speech, recounted, appear to be pa ^ of 1. Substantive *- 5. Adverb Speech. 2. Adjective 6. Preposition 3. Pronoun 7. Conjunction 4. Verb 8. Interjection which are inflected. which are uninflected. Note. Latin has no Articles : and, when a Latin Substantive is to be rendered in English, the context and collocation alone shew what English Article, if any, must be supplied. Thus : lux may mean < a light/ or * the light/ or ' light ' in general, according to the place in which it stands. CHAPTER II. NOUNS. SECTION I. i. NUMBER in Nouns. Nu ^. The Substantive is declined by Number and Case ; the Adjective by Number, Gender, and Case, agreeing in these with the Substantive which it qualifies. The Numbers (Numeri) are two: i. Singular (Singu- laris): mensa, table ; 2. Plural (Pluralis): mensae, tables. Sanskrit, Greek, and Sclavonic have a Dual Number ; of which in Latin the only traces are the words duo, two, am bo, both. ii. GENDER of Nouns. Gender. The Genders (Genera) are two: i. Masculine (Mas- culinum) ; 2. Feminine (Femininum). A Substantive which is neither Masc. nor Fern, is said to be Neuter (Neutrum), i.e. Neither of the two. A Substantive which may be Masc. or Fem. is called Common (Commune) of both Genders. 74 Latin Wordlore. 38. Distinct Generic names. (The lively imagination of the East ascribed sex to inanimate objects, the sun, moon, stars, trees, &c. Hence the distinctions of Gender in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin : which are found not only in the Romanic languages, but also in German and other Teutonic dialects, English alone excepted.) A. The Gender of words which imply sex is expressed in Latin in four ways. I . First : Distinct words are used, as in English, for many of the most familiar relations : homo man mulier woman mas male femina female maritus \ vir husband uxor ) femina > wife pater father mater mother frater brother soror sister vitricus stepfather noverca stepmother gener son-in-law nurus daugliter-in-law patruus r ( on father's ) uncle 1 side f amita aunt avunculus uncle {onmothert. matertera aunt 1 side i senex old man anus old woman verna house slave ancilla maid-servant taurus bull vacca cow aries ram \ vervex wether > OV1S ewe catus he-cat fel-es(is) she-cat verres \ maialis ) boar scrofa sow haedus kid capella Homo (human being), though never used with a feminine epithet, may comprehend woman as well as man. Mulier is the Roman law-term for woman, especially for a mar- ried woman, distinct from virgo. Femina,y;;zrt/ Virum, Whom do I see ? J A man. 4) GENITIVE . Whose or where- Cuius donum ? \ Viri, of? Whose gift? . } A man's. 5) DATIVE . . . To or for whom Cui datum ? . i Viro, or what ? To whom given ? J To a man. 6) ABLATIVE . . By, with, &c., A quo datum ? i A viro, whom or what ? By whom given ? } By a man. 2. Case (Gr. 7rrw . ^ * |$ J (^ |_ * Q W _,* X > || S IH IH I* tt .I * A ,D i{ I S io> " i$ H io> lf 4-t H 1 2 **i g ii H a .2 c/5 9 Jj ^ fc g g^ ily G p 1 9808 6| I| F 8 'S'So ^> 2 rt Ijil sis v2 * OUNS. qT H H >C3 H 'I |fld _^,-M 35" .K' g *"" ^ H ^ ^ 2 c * H 8 n fl 'o HH 2 " o 10 'I M s a, HH c/5 ^ :^^ ^*^ ^J^ |V ii ii 4 ii ii .M en O sSd Is fl ifi M i )S i* > i* 7 !H ii o IQ 3 ^ fe ; C/5 rj O s gr ii .S ii ,S 's CU ^ ^^ ^-^ s|. CO s n ii )tf n 11 a g a . a J-H O M to 10 i- Q ig w_ 15 0,3 n ^ 6 ^ & i-I bJD w ^ ^^ i | C s 5 1 M '' S gl c si * S g *j r^ 5 S 3 ^ ^ a < ^ Q Q ( * >{fi II S 2 S M K d 11 id rf * II w Sddc-t- 5 ^;'^? ^ Socjc^j^ ""^ 86 Latin Wordlore. 22. First Declen- sion. SECTION II. i. First Declension: A-Nouns. The First Declension contains Latin and latinized words with the Nominative Singular in &. These are Feminine: Musa, muse, mensa, table; excepting Male Names and Appellatives: Messalla, Belga, Belgian, s c r i b a, secretary, p o e t a, poet ; also H a d r i a , A driatic- gulf \ which are Masculine. It also contains Greek Appellatives and Names, Proper and Patronymic, in es, as, Masculine: aliptes, a trainer, Aeneas, At rides ; in e, a, &, Feminine: crambe, Agave, Nemea, Iphigenla. [In Tables of Declension and Conjugation byforms of equal authority are placed beside others : an am ; byforms compara- tively rare are added between brackets : en (am).] ii. Table. SINGULAR. i. table, f. 2. secretary, m. 3. goddess, f. 4. son of Atreus, m. Nom. mens-a scrib-a de-a Atrld-es (a) Voc. mens-a scrib-a de-a Atrid-e a (a) Ace. mens-am scrib-am de-am Atrid-en Gen. mens-ae scrib-ae de-ae Atrid-ae Dat. mens-ae scrib-ae de-ae Atrid-ae Abl. mens-a scrib-a de-a Atrid-e a PLURAL. Nom. mens-ae scrib-ae de-ae Atrid-ae Voc. mens-ae scrib-ae de-ae Atrid-ae Ace. mens-as scrib-as de-as Atrid-as Gen. mens-Arum scrib-Arum de-Arum Atrid-um Dat. mens-is scrib-is de-abas Atrid-ls Abl. mens-is scrib-is de-abus Atrid-is Fern. Adjectives in a, as bona, tenera, nigra, are declined as mensa. iii. Cases in the First Declension. a) The old Gen. S. in as remains in the phrases paterfamilias, materfamilias, filiusfamilias, found in good writers from Terence to Suetonius : and in the Plur. patres (matres, nlii) f ami lias. Familiae is also used with pater, &c., by Li vy always : and familiarum is written with patres, &C. 1 b} The old Gen. S. in ai appears in Inscrr. It is used as a di- syllabic al by Ennius, Plaut. Lucr. Verg. (aulal, aural, aqual, pictai). 1 Alcumena-s(Gen.) is cited from Plautus. The Gen. form in a-CS, found chiefly in late Inscrr. of I. L. or later R. L., may be an imitation of Gr. 175. 22. The First Declension. 87 (which r) The Gen. Plur. is formed in -um rather than can however be used), by the following : 1) Patronymic Names in -de, Aenea-des, Aenea-dum. 2) Many Names of Tribes, People, &c., Lapith-ae, Lapith-um. 3) Compounds of col- gen- (in poetry), caelicol-a, caelicol-um ; terrigen-a, terrigen-um. 4) Amphor-um from amphor-a, drachm-um from drach- m-a, when used with Numerals*": terna milia amphorum, 3,000 amph&rs\ milledrach- mum, 1,000 drachms. d] The form in abus of Dat. Abl. PI. might serve to distinguish the Fern, from the Masc. not only in dea, but in many other Sub- stantiva Mobilia. For this purpose it is ascribed by grammarians to numerous words : filia, nata, liberta, conserva, domina, era, mima, nympha, asina, equa, mula, anima : and in some of these, especially filia, nata, liberta, it often occurs in Inscrr. and legal forms. But, generally, there is little authority for the use of this Case-ending by classical authors, in any words but deabus, duabus, ambabus. e) The Locative Case in ae (for a-i) is formed in the Sing, by militia, and Names of Towns : militiae, at the wars, Romae, at Rome. in Is by Plural Names of towns : Athenis, at Athens. 11 7. Greek JNouns in rirst Declension. Greek Nouni SINGULAR. in Norn. Voc. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. Decl. x M. alipt-es . . e a en (am) ae ae e(a) Pers-es a e a en am ae ae e a Aeet-es a . e H en (am) ae ae e(a) Aene-as . . a an am ae ae a Marsy-as (a) & am an ae ae a F. music-& (e) . () am en ae (e.) ae a(e) cramb-e . . en es ae e Helen-e (a) . a en am es ae ae e a Agav-e . . en es ae e Neme-a . . an (am) ae ae a Iphigem-a . an am ae ae a Electr-a . . a an am ae ae a The Plural of Appellatives follows that of mensa. a) Many Greek Nouns of this Decl. were latinized early, and seem to have soon exchanged the Greek endings , d, first 88 Latin Wordlore. 22. for a, then, as shortening came into vogue, for a, following thG prac- tice of the Aeolic dialect : Masc. pirata (imparr/g) Fern, aura poeta (TroiTjrfo) epistula Such words are : Masc., like scriba : athleta, bibliopola, citharista, nauta, &c. Fern., like mensa : ancora, apotheca, aula, bibliotheca, comoedia, tragoedia, scaena, &c. b] Words introduced later have much variety, fluctuating between the Greek and Latin form ; and poetic usage in these often differs from that of prose. 1 Thus we find : A] Masc. Greek Nouns : 1) Patronymics, like Atrid-es a : Aeneades, Pelides, Tydides, &c. (a being rare). 2) Appellatives, like aliptes : anagnostes, geometres, Olympiomces, sophistes. 3) Gentile Names, like Pers-es a : Scyth-es a, Sauromat-ea, Sarmat-a ; with many in ites Ita, otes dta : Abderlt-es a, Epirot-es a. These sometimes pass to Decl. 3. with Accus. S. em, en. 4) Like Aeet-es a : Anchis-es a, Lycamb-es a, Orest-es a, Thyest-es, a. 5) Like Aeneas : Anaxagoras, Diagoras, Lysias, Boreas, &c. 6) Like Marsy-as a : Cinyr-as a, Dam-as a, Damoet-as a, larb-as a, Leo- nid-as a, Mid-as a. B] Fern. Greek Nouns : 1) Like music-a e : dialectic-a e, grammatic-a e, physic-a e, rhetoric-a e. 2) Ltke crambe : aloe, epitome, hyperbole, &c. 3) Like Helen-e a : Alcumen-a, Erigon-a, Hecat-a, Led-&, Nymph-a, Semel-a; which also take e : Circ-e, Cybel-e, Dirc-e, Europ-e, Eurydic-e, Penelop-e; which also take a. 1 Cicero, as a rule, prefers Latin forms to Greek, and sometimes introduces the latter with acknowledgment of their origin ('quae hyperbole dicitur'), or with an apology, as Epp. adAtt. vii. 3: ' Reprehendendus sum quod homo Romanus Piraeea scripsi, non Piraeeum; sic enim omnes nostri locuti sunt ' 23- The Second Declension. 89 Also local names, Aetn-S, Cret-a, Id-S, Ithac-a, Liby-a, may take e for & in poetry. 4) Like Agave : Calliope, Danae, Euterpe, Hebe, Lethe, Melpomene, Oenone^ Persephone, Procne, &c. 5) Like Nemea : Malea, Midea. 6) Like Iphigenia : Medea; and the local Names Aegina, Lerna, Ossa. 7) Like Electra: Cassandra. Note. Many Nouns in es, which in Greek belong to the First Decl., having the form of Patronymics without really being such, pass over to the Third Decl. in Latin, forming Gen. -i : Alcibiades, Euclides, Euripides, Miltiades, Simonides. Yet these and many other names, Greek and barbarian, which take Gen. is, fluctuate between the First and Third Declension in the ending of the Accus. S. (en, em). Such are : Achilles, Aristoteles, Archimedes, Artaxerxes, Cleanthes, Datames, Diogenes, Diomedes, Euphrates, Mithridates, Phrahates, Polynices, Polycrates, Socrates, Tiridates, Xer- xes, &c. SECTION III. i Second Declension: 0-Nouns. Second Dec.len, The Second Declension contains i) Latin and latinised Nouns in tis (for 6s) chiefly Masculine: do minus, lord\ 2} Clipt Masculine Nouns in gr (for r-6s, r-6s ; see p. 82): puer, boy, magister, master; to which add vlr (for vir-os), man ; 3) Neuter Nouns in um: bellum, war. 4) Greek Nouns in 6s, Masc. and Fern. ; in 6s, Masc. ; in on, Neuter ; used chiefly by the poets. ii. Table: SINGULAR. lord, m. bay, m. master, m. war, n. Nom. domin-ua puer magister bell-urn Voc. domin-e puer magister bell-tun Ace. domin-um puer-um magistr-um bcM-wm Gen. domin-i puer-i magistr-i beil-i Dat. domin-o puer-o magistr-o bell-o Abl. domin-o puer-o magistr-o bell-o 9 o Latin WordJo^e. 23. PLURAL. Irregu- lar Decl. Nom. domin-i puer-i magistr-i bell-a Voc. domin-i puer-i magistr-i bell-a Ace. domin-os puer-os magistr-os bell-a Gen. domin-Orum puer-Orum magistr-Orum bell-Orum Dat. domin-is puer-is magistr-is bell-is Abl. domin-is puer-is magistr-ia bell-is SINGULAR. son, m. bushel, m. God, m. command, n. Nom. fill-US medimn-us de-us imperi-um Voc. fil-i medimn-e de-us imperi-um Ace. fill-urn medimn-um de-um imperi-um Gen. fil-i (ii) medimn-i de-i imper-i (ii) Dat. fili-o medimn-o de-o imperi-o Abl. fili-o medimn-o de-o imperi-o PLURAL. Nom. fili-i medimn-i di (de-i) * imperi-a Voc. fili-i medimn-i di (de-i) imperi-a Ace. fili-os medimn-os de-os imperi-a Gen. fili-Orum medimn-um de-Orum, de-um imperi-Oru: Dat. fili-is medimn-is dis (de-is) imperi-is Abl. fill-is medimn-is dis (de-is) l imperi-is Vir, a man ; Ace. S. virtim, &c. ; Gen. PI. virorum or virum. And its Compounds, semivir, decemvir, triumvir, &c. SINGULAR (no Plural). sea, n. N.V.Ac, pelag-us Gen. pelag-i D. Abl. pelag-o venom, n. common-people, n. (m.) vlr-us vulg-us vlr-i (rare) vulg-i vlr-o vulg-o Pelag-e, seas, occurs in Lucr. ; vulgus has an Accus. vulg-um, m. Pelagus (Tre'Xayoc, PI. vrtXay-fa, rj) is a Greek Neuter Noun. iii. Cases in the Second Declension. 1) The endings os, om were used even to the Augustan age, after v, u, qu, as shewn by Inscrr. and MSS. Thus were written av-6s, av-om, div-om, mortu-6s, mortu-om, aequ-om, &c. 2) The Vocative in e is a weakening of 6 (Pr. a), and resembles English forms in ie, y (Willie, J ohnny, &c.). Male names in ius contract this case into i : Claudi, Mercuri, Demetri, Vergili. Pompel (from Pompeius) is further con- tractedby Horace into Pompei. SoVultel, fromVulteius. Filius, son, is the only Appellative which forms this contraction. Others are regular : flu vie, O river; and Adjectives : Cynthie, Cyn- thian (Apollo). But me us (for mius), Voc. mi for mi e. ' Dii, diis are sometimes written, but pronounced as di, dis. 23. The Second Declension. gr 3) The Gen. Sing, of Substantives with Nom. lu, turn, was contracted into i (by prose-writers as well as poets) till the Au- gustan age, and is so written by Virgil and Horace. Propertius and Ovid are the first who wrote ii, which then became the usual form ; but the poets Manilius, Persius, and Martial prefer i. 4) Humus, ground, be Hum, war, vesper, evening, and Sin- gular Names of towns, form the Locative Case in i : humi, on the ground Ephesi, at Ephesus belli, at the wars Mileti, at Miletus vesperi (vespere), at evening Tarenti, at Tarentum Plural names of towns form the Locative in is : Gabiis, at Gabii Veiis, at Veil. 5) The Genitive Plural Ending um is preferred to orum : a} by words signifying coins, sums, weights, and measures : Gen. PI. from Nom. Sing. nummum . . . nummus, a coin denarium . . . denarius, ten-as-piece sestertium . . . sestertius, sesterce talentum .... talentum, a talent (a sum and weight) stadium .... $\.-&&\\\v(\, furlong medium .... modius, /if medimnum . . . medimnus (also um, n.), bushel ff) by many names of people: Argivum, Danaum, Pelas- gum, &c. from Argivus, c. c) as a licence, chiefly in poet y, by a great number of words, such as deus and its compounds, divus, vir and its com- pounds, faber, engineer, socius, ally, liberi, children, &c. : also by numeral and compound Adjectives : ' denum talentum'; 'magnanimum Rutulum'; numque deum monstra.' Verg. iv. Clipt Nouns in Sr. N l uni * iti er. I) The Clipt-nouns from Stems in gro-, like puer, are gener, son-in-law vesper, evening socer, father-in-law Liber, Bacchus adult er, paramour (lascivious, Adj.) and Adjectives, asper, rough (rarely aspr-) miser, wretched lacer, torn prosper prosperous liber, free (whence liberi, children of tener, tender freemen) with the many compounds of fero, gero ; frugifer,/rw///v//, cor- niger, horned. Add satur, satura, saturum, /////, satiated. Iber (Hiber), Celtiber, Spaniard, form their cases in er-u- : Iberum, Celtiberum, &c. Q 2 Latin Wordlore. 23. 2) Clipt-nouns from Stems in ro- after a mute or f, like ma- gister : ager,yfok/ cancer, Norn. Del-Ss, f. Ath-6s, m. Androge-6s (tt), m. Peli-8n, n. Voc. Del-S Ath-os Androge-os Peli-8n Ace. Del-8n um Ath-dn (o) Androge-o on (on&) Peli-6n Gen. Del-l Ath-6 Androge-o (i) Peli-i D.Abl. Del-o Ath-6 (one) Androge-o Peli-o a) The Greek Nom. and Accus. forms of Personal and Local Names, with a few Appellatives, in 8s, on, Masc. Fern., and on, Neut, are frequently used in Latin poetry, but rare in prose : Meleagros ; scorpios ; Cnidos ; Troilon ; Samon ; Ilion, &c. Virgil has Athon (as from Athos) : Chaos n. 3., Abl. Chao : and Panthu, Voc. of Panthus. On Nouns in ens see 2ft. /S) The Greek Genitive Plural in on (wv) is found in Latin. Sallust has 'colonia Theraeon,' ^Philaenon arae,' for The- raeorum, Philaenorum. So Georgicon for Georgicorum, from Georgica, the Ge orgies. Gender in vi. Gender in the Second Declension. Deci. 2. Besides the Nouns of which the meaning determines the Gender, as stated in 18. ii., only four genuine Latin words in this DecL are Fem. They are : 23. Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. 93 alvus, paunch humus, ground colus, distaff (S^Q Decl. 4.) vannus, winnowing-fan The following Greek words are Fern. : arctus, the bear-constellation dialectus, dialect atomus, atom, C. Fin. i. 6. pharus, lighthouse, Stat. S. v. 101. carbasus, linen curtain or sail and many others are cited by grammarians, but without good classical authority for their use. Barbitos, lute, is common. vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. Table of Adjec- Adjectives of three Endings, in -us -a -um, -er -era -erum, tjvesin and -er -ra -rum, follow the Second and First Declensions. cond and MASC. FEM. NEUT. First Declen- sions. like like mensa like b e 1 1 u m dominus . bonus bona bonum good puer . . . tener tenera tenerum tender magister . niger nigra nigrum black SINGULAR. M. F. N. i) N. bon-us bon-a bon-um V. bon-e bon-a bon-um Acc. bon-um bon-am bon-um G. bon-i bon-ae bon-i D. bon-o bon-ae bon-o Abl. bon-o bon-a bon-o PLURAL. N. bon-i bon-ae bon-a V. bon-i bon-ae bon-a Acc. bon-os bon-as bon-a G. bon-orum bon-arum bon-orum D. bon-is bon-is bon-is Abl. bon-is bon-is bon-is SINGULAR. M. F. N. 2) N. tener tener-a tener-um V. tener tener-a tener-um Acc. tener-um tener-am tener-um G. tener-i tener-ae tener-i D. tener-o tener- ae tener-o Abl. tener-o tener-a tener-o 94 Latin Wordlore. 24. PLURAL. M. F. N. tener-i tener-ae V. tener-i tener-ao Ace. tener-os tener-as G. tefier-orum tener-ari D. tener-is tener-is AbL tener-is tener-is SINGULAR. 3) N. niger nigr-a V. niger nigr-a Ace. nigr-um nigr-am G. nigr-i nigr-ae D. nigr-o nigr-ae AbL nigr-o nigr-a PLURAL. N. nigr-i nigr-ae V. nigr-i nigr-ae Ace. nigr-os nigr-as G. nigr-orum nigr-aru: D. nigr-is nigr-is Abl. nigr-is nigr-is N. tener-a tener-a tener-a tener-orum tener-is tener-is nigr-um nigr-um nigr-um nigr-i nigr-o nigr-o nigr-a nigr-a nigr-a nigr-orum nigr-is nigr-is 24 The Third J)eclen- sion. SECTION IV. i. Third Declension: CONSONANT- and I-Nouns. The Third Declension has two chief Divisions : I. Nquns with Character a Consonant, either Mute, Nasal, Liquid, or Sibilant. II. Nouns with Character I-vocalis. A few Consonant-nouns, as canis, iuvenis, vates, seem as if they were I-nouns ; many I-nouns, as parens, cohors, seem as if they were Consonant-nouns; and many appear to fluctuate between the two divisions, as ci vitas, servitus. The cause of this uncertainty lies in the unstable nature of i-vocalis ; which, being sometimes staminal, sometimes vincular, easily changed into g, easily lost, does not always furnish a sure criterion of the class to which the Noun belongs, by its presence or absence. I. CONSONANT STEMS. ii. Nominative Endings in the Cons. Declen- sion. i) In this Declension the Nominative-endings are numerous ; the chief being B, n, i, r (Sibilant, Nasal, and Liquids), of which s, including x (cs), is the prevalent ending. The Third Declension. 95 2) Nominatives which end in o have dropt n. Those in c, t, a, e, are Neuter words without final suffix. 3) The vowel of the true Stem is often shewn both in the Noun- stem and the Nominative: dux due-, fax fao, &c. Sometimes the Noun-stem, and not the Nominative, shews the root-vowel: iudex iudlc- (true form die-), comes com It- (true form it-). Sometimes the Nominative, and not the Noun-stem, shews it: auspex auspic- (true form spec-) ; obses obsld- (true form sed-). Sometimes neither of the two: remex remlg- (true form is ag-,of which the a is weakened into \ in the open syllable, to 6 in the close). So auceps aucup-, princeps princlp- (true form in each cap-), nomen nomin- (Primitive ndmatt). iii. Syllabus. Syllabus of Cons. In the following Syllabus the chief stems are given, with Stems - Nom. endings, and distinctions of Gender (M. F. N. C.). Greek stems which include no true Latin words, are kept separate : but where the same stem comprises words in both languages, Greek are added to Latin words, and marked with an asterisk. This stands before the Gender when all of that Gender are Greek words. A. Mute Guttural Stems. To form the Nom. S., the stem adds s, with which the guttural melts into x, I being generally changed into e. Stem. ac- ac- ec- i) Latin Guttural Stems, with a few Greek marked *. Nom. S. -ax F. fax, torch : *M. Corax. -ax F. pax, peace-, fornax, furnace; M. Aiax; Climax, snail. *M. Thrax, Thracian ; Phaeax, Phaeacian, thorax, breastplate. F. nex, death ; (prec-),/r^ry^r,has no Nom. G. Sing. Adj. faenisex, haycutter. (Variant C. ; senex, old person, inflected sen- for senec-. Demin. senec-io.) -ex ec- rc- -ex (-ec) -ex M. vervex, wether. N. halec, fish-pickle (also F. halex). M. apex, peak ; caudex or codex, trunk, writing- book, &c. ; clmex, bug ; culex, gnat ; extispex, entrail-viewer ; frutex, shrub \ latex, liquid-, mu- rex, purple-shell, purple-, podex; pollex, thumb ; pontifex,/0#/^; pulex,y&vz; pumex, pumice-, ra- mex, bloodvessel; saurex or sorex, shrew-mouse; vertex or vortex, summit, eddy. F. carex, sedge ; Ilex, scarlet oak : paelex, concu- bine ; vitex (a shrub). C. cortex, bark ; forfex, shears; illex, decoyer ; imbrex, tile ; rumex, sorrel ; sllex, basalt ; with words applicable to either sex ; artifex, auspex, carnifex, index, iudex, opifex, vindex. See p. 76. 9 6 Sc=m. Ic- IC- 00 uc- uc- Latin Wordlore. 24. Og- Ug- ug- Nom. S. -ix -DC -OX -ux -ex -ex -ix -ex -ox -unx -ux M. calix, cup ; fornix, arch ; *Cllix, Cilician. F. appendix ; coxendix, hip ; f ilix, fern ; fulix, gull ; natrix, water-snake ; pix, pitch ; salix, wil- low ; struix, heap ; (vlc-is), change (no Nom.S.); *hy strix, porcupine. C. larix, larch ; varix, swoln vein. F. cervix, neck ; cicatrix, scar ; cornix, raven ; coturnix, quail; lodix, blanket; meretrix ; nu- trix, nurse; radix, root; vlbix, weal ; and many more. *M. Phoenix, Phoenician (also a name) ; phoenix (a fabulous bird). F. vox, voice. F. crux, cross ; nux, walnut-tree. M. tradux, laye f (of vine) : C. dux, leader, guide. F. lux, light. M. Pollux. M. grex, herd; Lelex (one of the Leleges). M. rex, king ; F. lex, law. Adj. exlex (Ace. exlegem), outlawed. F. strix, screech-owl; M. Ambiorix, Dumnorix, Biturix, &c. (Keltic names). M. remex, rower. M. Allobrox, Allobrogian (Keltic tribe). C. coniunx or coiux, wife ; husband, p. 76. F. ($x\a'g-\ fruit, produce : no Nom. S. 2) Greek Guttural Stems. 6c- ; ych- nc- ng- -ox -yx -yx -yx -nx -yx -nx M. Cappadox, Cappadodan. M. calyx, bud, husk ; Eryx. M. bombyx, silkworm ; Ceyx. F. onyx ; sardonyx ; (both precious stones). F. lynx (M. in Hor.). M. lapyx (a wind) ; Phryx, Phrygian. F. Styx (river in hell). F. phalanx ; syrinx ; Sphinx. B. Mute Dental Stems. The Stem adds % in Nom. S., before which the Dental is ex- cluded : act as for (aetat-s), n ox for (noct-s). Sometimes n is excluded with t: elephas for (elephant-s). Short \ may become e : miles for (milit-s). l) Latin, with Greek words.* Nom. S. -as F. anas, duck (Cic. N.D. ii. 48, anatum ova : var. r. anttum). -as F. aetas, time, age ; aestas, summer ; calamitas, calamity ; civitas, citizenship, body of citizens, city ; cupiditas. desire ; pietas, piety ; tempestas, at- at- The Third Declension. Stem. aed- Id- Nom. S. -es -Ss -6s -is es -ut -OS -6s -us -us -C -X -ns -rs -as -es -cs -aes -es I season, weather, storm ; voluptas, pleasure ; with many other Derivatives. See p. 108. M. Maecenas. M. aries, ram ; paries, house-wall. F. M. (indiges), native (no Nom. S.). F. seges, corn-crop ; teges, mat. C. interpres, interpreter. M. ames, pole ; caespes, /#*/; code's, one-eyed person ; caeles, celestial ; eques, horseman, on horseback ; pedes, foot-soldier, on foot ; forties, /# Nom. Ace. PL rpele, contracted from melea). So cete, whales ; pelage, seas ; Tempe, (a vale in Thessaly). Chaos belongs here : but Virgil has Abl. Chao, 2. M. heros hero-, hero (Ace. S. heroa, Nom. PL heroes, Ace. heroas). F. echo (Gen. echus for echo-5s ; the other cases in d ; so lo, Ino. Dido, Sappho, also form on-}. M. Cotys Cot?- ; Phorcys Phorc^- ; Tiphys Tiphy- ; F. Erinys Eriny-, Ace. S. -d. PL -ds. (A few Adjective and other I-stems are included in the foregoing tables, on account of their connexion with other words.) -6s y- -ys IO4 Latin Wordlore. i v , I- stems. Nouns of the Third Declension are either (i) Imparisyllaba (unequal in the number of their syllables), having more syllables in the Gen. Sing, than in the Nom. : or (2) Parisyllaba, having the same number of syllables in those Cases. Of Imparisyllabic Substantives, the greater number are Con- sonant Nouns : but many are Clipt I-nouns : especially those which have a Labial, Nasal, or Liquid before s in the Nom. Sing, as urbs, bidens, cohors, pars. Of Parisyllabic Substantives, all are I-nouns but a very few, already cited : canis, iuvenis, senex, vates : pater, mater, frater, accipiter, &c. Adjectives of both kinds in this Decl. are I-nouns except a few. 1 v. Grouping of I-nouns. T-nouns come under four chief Heads : A) Parisyllabic I-nouns, with Nom. Sing. X-s (a few 6r for -ri-) : Fem. Masc. or Common. B] Parisyllabic I-nouns in e- (X-) perhaps from original sibilant-stems : chiefly Fem. C) Neuter I-nouns of Adjectival nature, Parisyll. in e, Im- parisyll. in al, ar. D] Clipt I-nouns Imparisyllabic : Fem. Masc. or Common, A] I-nouns under the first Head are grouped according as they form the Accus. Sing, in im or em, and the Abl. Sing, in I or e. 1. Ace. S. im : Abl. I. l) F. *cannabts, hemp (Abl. 8 in Persius) ; tussTs, cough ; sitls, thirst (S. only) ; burls, ploughtail (only Ace. S.) ; ravls, hoarseness (only Ace. S.) ; * tigrls, tiger (also as a Consonant Noun, tigrld-). Names of Towns: Hispalls, Seville; Neapolls, Naples; Amphipolfe; Memphis. \ls t force (an S-stem), Ace. S. vim, Abl. vi, casting out * (Gen. Dat. wanting) ; PI. vires, &c., changing s into r. * Greek I-nouns: poesls, poetry ; mathesls, science-, Charybdls: Voc. S. /, Ace. in or tm ; poeei, poes-in (im). The Greek Gen. in eds is rare : poeseos : and Gen. PI. eon : metamorphoseon. Many Latin I-ncuns correspond to Pr. I-nouns: anguis, ignis, ovis, ars, dos, gens, mens, and others. In some i represents Pr. a: axis, loris,imbris, nubes panis, pellis, penis, unguis. In others i is a Latin suffix to a Pr. root: can-i-s iuven-i-s, lov-i-s, vat-i'-s; mitis, turpis, brevis, gravis, levis, pinguis, suavis, tenuis. In mensis (Gr. JATJI/), si is suffixal. In a few, as a rx, daps, there is a Pr. root with Nom. suffix 8. In some of these forms i, not belonging to the original Nom., has been developed in the other Cases ; but in most of the Imparisyllabic I-nouns it has been dropt in Nom. Very many Latin I-nouns, especially the great bulk of Adjectives, have been formed in accordance with prevalent analogies. 24. The Third Declension. 105 Observe the adverbial phrases ad amussim, examus- sim, by rule, accurately, ad fatim, affatim, abun- dantly ; from disused nouns amussis, fatis. Hence it is probable that adverbs in tim. sim, parti m, sen sim, &c., are similarly cases of lost I-nouns. 2) M. : cucumis, cucumber (also inflected as a Cons.-noun cucumer-, like Ceres, pulvis, cinis). Names of Rivers: Albis, the Elbe ; Tiberis, Tiber ; Liris, Phasis, &c. 2. Ace. S. im or em. Abl. I or 6. This group is wholly Feminine : F. puppis,/00/; febris, fever ; turris, tower : im (em) ; e", I. securis, hatchet ; im (em) ; I I restis, rope ; im (em) ; 6 messis, harvest ; em (im) ; 6 1 clavis, key ; em (im) ; I 6 sementrs, seed-time ; em (im) ; V* navis, ship ; im, em ; I, pelvis, pan ; im, em ; 3. Ace. S. em ; Abl. e or I. M. axis, axle\ e (l) ignis, fire; I, e fustis, cudgel ; e, I unguis, claw, 8 (l) F. bilis, bile ; classis,y?#tf; avis, bird', e (l) strigilis, scraper ; I (e) Supellectilis (res), furniture, properly an Adj., is dipt in Nom. S. into supellex. In Abl. S. it has I or e. C. amnis, river ; 6 (l) civis. citizen ; I () finis, end ; 6 (l) anguis, snake ; (l) Finis, originally Fern., is so used only in the Sing., and rarely. a) M. imber imbrt- m. shower, Abl. I, e". The Month-names September, October, November, December ; Abl. i : are used adjectively. b} Many Adjectives have Substantival use : M. aedilis, edile^ 6 (l) ; aequalis, contemporary, I ; annalis, I (chiefly Plur. annals] ; aqualis, water-can, I; natalis, birth- day, i (e) ; rivalis, rival, e (l) ; familiaris, intimate friend, I (e); molaris, grinder, I (chiefly Plur.). F. bipennis, double axe, e I ; novalis, fallowed 'field, 6 I ; trire- mis, trireme, I e ; volucris, bird, e. C. affinis, kinsperson, 6 I ; iuvenis, young person, g ; contu- bernalis, tcntmate, 8 I ; patruelis, cousin on father's side t 6, I ; sodalis, companion, i e ; canalis, canal, channel, i. c] Any such Adjectives, if they become Proper Names, have Abl. Sing, in 6: luvenale, Latiare, Maluginense, Martiale. 106 Latin Word lore. 24. d] In this group must be ranked the Masc. and Fern, forms of Adjectives in is, is, e, and in er, is, e : as tristls, is ; e; acer, acrls, acre. But the Neuter forms triste^ acre, belong to Head Q. All have Abl. S. i, very rarely e. 4. Ace. em : Abl. e. M. orbis, circle, world-, fascis, bundle ; piscis,yr/j ; caulis, stalk ; collis, hill ; follis, bellows : vermis, worm ; clunis, hind-leg', crinis, hair; panis, loaf; torris, brand; ensis, sword\ mensis, month ; postis, door-post; vectis, lever; uter, leathern bottle ; venter, belly ; with the Plural words casses, nets ; antes, front vine-rows ; manes. F. scobis (or scobs), saw-dust ; rudis,yfo7; sudis (no Nom. S.), stake ; trudis, pike ; ninguis, snow (Lucr.) ; con- vallis, hollow vale; pellis, hide; Alpis, Alp ; apis, bee; auris, ear ; irauris, earring ; naris, nostril ; cutis, cuticle ; neptis, granddaughter ; pestis, plague ; ratis, raft; vestis, garment ; vitis, vine ; ovis, ewe : with the Plur. words fores, door ; grates, thanks ; nates ; fides, lutestrings (has Abl. S. fide). C. corbis, basket ; callis, path ; funis, rope, cable ; torquis (es), collar ; hostis, enemy ; pedis, crawler ; scrobis (or scrobs), ditch ; testis, witness ; linter or lunter, boat ; also sentis, thorn ; vepris, bramble. 1 ) Nom. S. es, Ace. em, Abl. e. All Latin words of this form are F. except M. verres, boar-pig. F. aedes, temple (PI. house) ; caedes, lopping, bloodshed; cautes, rock ; clades, defeat ; compages, structure ; fames, hunger (Abl. e) ; feles, cat ; indoles, native disposition ; labes, fall, mischief-, lues, pest ; meles, badger ; moles, pile; nubes, cloud; palumbes, pigeon; plebes, the com- mons (also plebs : see DecL 5) ; proles, offspring (Gen. PL um) ; pubes, young population ; rupes, crag ; saepes, hedge ; sedes, seat ; soboles or suboles, offspring ; sordes, dirt (PI. meanness) ; strages, slaughter ; strues, heap ; tabes, taint, consumption (no PL) ; valles, vale ; vulpes, fox\ and the Plural words \a.ctes,>small entrails ; ambages, evasive language or conduct (has Abl. S. e", Gen. PL um). Several of these have a byform in is : aedis, caedis, felis, melis, vallis, vulpis, and some more. The older words are supposed to be S-stems converted into I -stems by exclusion of staminal s (as puber-is pubes). Q Neuter Nouns : Nom. S. e (for i-) ; ai (for SM-) ; ar (for ari-). Abl. I. Neut. PL ia. 1 Isolated variations of Case occur in some. See M. Lucr. i. 978. mi. Varro says that ovi as well as o ve was used in his time. NeptI is found in Tac. 24. The Third Declension. 107 1) N. mare, sea ; rete, net ; aplustre,yfog-; conclave, apartment; insigne, ensign ; praesepe, stall, crib ; ancile, small shield; bublle, ox-stall; caprlle, goat-house; cublle, bedchamber, couch ; equile, stable ; hastile, spear ; mantlle, napkin ; monlle, necklace; ovile, sheep fold; focale, neckivrapper ; novale, fallow ; penetrale, inner shrine; cochleare, spoon ; altaria (PL), high altar ; talaria (PI.), ankle-rings. Also caepe, onion (takes Plur. from byform caepa, f. i). Lac, milk, is for lac- te, like rete. Retis c. is a rare form for rete; praesepis, f. for praesepe. Some local names ending in te take Abl. e usually: Bibracte, Reate, Soracte. Abl. mare for marl is in Lucr. Ov. Abl. rete is frequent. 2) N. animal ; cervical, bolster ; minutal, minced meat ; toral, sofa-cover ; tribunal ; vectigal, toll, revenue. See B a c c a- nal, bidental, capital, Lupercal, Minerval, puteal in Dictionary. 3) N. calcar, spur ; exemplar, pattern ; lacunar, laquear, ceiling; lupanar ; pulvlnar, cushioned seat ; torcular, wine- press. Observe par, pari-, pair. Note. Almost all words in C) except mare, rete, are evidently Neuter Adjectives, derived from Substantives. Those in 2) 3) have dropt & : toral for torale, exemplar for exemplare. This makes it probable that mare, rete are likewise adjectival. D] Clipt I-nouns : Gen. PI. i-i The vagueness of the distinction between Clipt I-nouns and Cons.-nouns has been noticed already, see p. 94. One test of an I- noun, i before um in Gen. Plur., may fail, if an I-noun loses 1 (as in apum, volucrum), if a Cons.-noun takes 1 (as in civitatium, paludium), or if no Gen. Plur. is found, as in many words, chiefly monosyllabic in Nom. Another test, Is ( = es, eis) in Ace. PI. m. f. or ia n., may not occur in MSS. or Inscrr. The safest course, therefore, is to rank Imparisyllaba with Cons.-nouns (as pax, lux, sol, c.), where no test of an I-noun is ascertained : unless some strong analogy points to an exception. Guttural before 1 : F. faex faect-, lees ; (faux) faucl-, jaw ; calx calct-, heel ; falx falci-, pruning-hook, scythe ; lanx land-, dish ; arx arcl-, citadel ; merx mercl-, merchandise. Add nix nivl-, snow. M. Deunx deuncl-, quincunx quincuncJ-, &c., (parts of as). Labial before i : F. stirps stirpl- (also stirpes and stirpis), rarely M., trunk ; trabs (or trab-es) trabl-, f. beam ; urbs (or urps) urbl-, f. city. Nasal before 1 : F. caro carnl- (for carmi-),^?^. See Cons.-Nouns. io8 Latin Wordlore. 24. IS (for s) or s before i : M. glis glint-, dormouse ; mus murl-, mouse-, and, by probable analogy, mas marl-, male ; as assK F. vis viri-, force : see p. 104. N. os ossl-, bone (but Norn. PI. ossa for oss-ia). Dental before i : These are the most numerous : many being Adjectival. a) M. Gentile words in as ati-, Is iti- (dipt from ati-s, Itis) : Aquinas, man of Aquinum; Arpinas, man of Arpinum; Quiris, (man of Cures) Roman ; Samnis, Samnite, c. ; (optimas, primas, summas, used in Plur.) ; Penat-es (Plur.), household gods. Adj. nostras, of our country ; vestras, of your country ; cuias, of 'what country. &} F. lis lit!-, strife. c] Nouns in ans anti-, ens enti-, mostly participial. M. amans, lover ; dextans, dodrans, quadra ns, sextans, triens (parts of as) ; cliens, client ; dens, tooth, and compounds, (but F. bidens, sheep} ; oriens (sol), east ; occidens (sol), west ; rudens, cable ; torrens, torrent. F. gens, clan, nation ; lens, lentil ; mens, mind, intellecl. C. animans ; infans ; parens ; serpens. See p. 76. All words in a) c} not being monosyllabic in Nom. S., can drop i in Gen. PL ; as optimatum for optimatium, infantum for i- fantium, parentum for parentium. d] Nouns in ons onti- : M. ions, fountain ; mons, mountain ; pons, bridge. F. irons, forehead; (spons), free choice (only Abl. sponte). e] Nouns in is Hi-, rs rti-, cs (x) ctl- : Fern. F. puls, pulse-, ars, art ; pars, part ; cohors, cors, cohort, court ; fors (S.), chance ; mors, death ; sors, lot ; nox, night. f] Nouns in ns ndX- : Fern. F. frons, leaf', glans, acorn; iuglans, walnut. Notes vi. Notes on the Cases. on the Cases. i. Instances occur of a Gen. PI. in ium from Cons. Nouns in as at-, us ut-, us ud- : more rarely from those in x, ps : civita- tium (always in Livy, sometimes in Cicero), aetatium, simultat- ium, &c., servitutium, virtut-ium, palud-ium, fornac-ium, forcip-ium. Alituum for alit-um in Virgil is a bold license for the sake of metre. 1 1 Old poets often dropt, metrically, the s of Gen. S. : as Quid dubitas quin omni' sit haec rationi' potestas? Lucr. ii. 53. On the dropping of final m in Ace. S. anciently, see pp. 28, 46. 24. The Third Declension. 109 No Gen. Plur. is found of the following words : bes (bessis), cor, cos, fel, fors, glos, lac, lux, mel, nex, os (or-), pax, pix, praes, pus, ros, rus, sal, sol, tus, vas (vadis), ver, (vix). Can is, iuvenis, strues, vates, have Gen. PI. um : also panis, in the opinion of some grammarians: apis, volucris have Gen. PI. um, sometimes lum. Sedum occurs from sedes ; mensum (rarely mensuum) from men sis ;* but also ium. Some Plural words in alia, Ilia, aria, especially names of festivals, follow Decl. 2. in their Gen. Plur. : as Compitali-orum ; vectigali-orum, Suet; ancili-orum, Hor. ; lacunari-orum, Vitr. Vas vas- forms its Plural as Decl. 2 v vasa, vasorum, vasis. 2. The Accus. Plur. in is ( = es, eis) is proper to I-nouns, as civis, parentls, and is found side by side with es, eis till the Aug. age, after which es prevailed. So tris or tres. A Nom. PI. in is or eis occurs sometimes in the MSS. of Plautus and Lucretius ; aedls, aurls, fami-liaris, &c. ; and in old Inscrr. A Gen. S. in us and es is archaic only, as (patrus, Apolones). 3. The Dat. Sing, had an old form in e, retained in some classical phrases: 'triumviri auro argento acre flando feriundo.' See Cic Fam. vii. 13. ' lure Romae dicundo,' L. xlii. 28. Virgil has ore for ori, G. i. 430. Another old form is ei. So urbei, uxorei, &c. On the tomb of Scipio Barbatus is * forma virtutei parisuma.' 4. On the Locative case in I, see 2O. Instances are luci, ruri, temperi, Carthagini, Tiburi (also Tibure, Abl.), PI. Gadibus. 5. Forms of dipt I-nouns with Abl. S. I are found ; sorti fre- quently (Nom. sortis, Plaut.) ; parti, Plaut. Ter. : some even of Cons.-nouns, capiti (CatulL Tib.), occipiti (Pers.) ; and others. 2 * It is notable that of Nouns which have Gen. S. of the form ^ ^ (duels) the great majority take urn in Gen. PI. : facum, ducum, crucucn, nucum, precum, gregum, pedum, apum, opum, canum, senum, patrum, Larum, bourn, gruum, suum, stnium. But of those which have Gen. S. of the form - w , the great majority take ium in the Gen. PI. : falcium, lititim, artium, &c. : exceptions are v5cum, legum, regum, and a few others. So Gen. ?.. ^ ^ or \j \s \j gives Gen. PI. in urn : suppllcum, princTpum, vigTlum. (Compes) compedium is an exception. But a trisyllabic or plurisyllabic Gen. S. with long penult, gives in most Adjectives Gen. PI. in ium : ferac-ium, felic-ium, &c. : and in Substantives often leads to the fluctuation noticed above, (i a). Comparatives are an exception, because io-r-ium would be a bad combination. The same is true of io-n-ium. Hence mel-io-rum, act-io-num, &c. a Gender is shewn in the lists. The general results are (not including those settled by meaning) : F. Mute Latin Cons, stems, and clipt I-stems with mute before i. N-stems in do ; go ; io (abstr.) ; with caro. Also merges ; hiemps ; tellQs ; arbor. Parisyll. I-nouns in Is, es ; pp. 105, 106. See Exceptions below and in lists. M. Most in ex, Ic- ; es It- ; ns ; all in unx ; Concreta in 5 : Nouns in 1 ; er er- ; Is er- ; is Iri- ; ter tri- ; or 5r- ; 5s 5r- ; Or : Greek Appellatives, except those in as, Is, ys (F.): a, os, e (N.). Also calix, fornix, grex, paries, pes, lapis, sanguTs, turbo, cardo, ordo, pecten, furfur, turtur, vultur, lepus, mus, as : with the parisyll. I-nouns marked M. in pp. 105, 106. N. Nouns in en in- ; e ; ar ; al li- ; or or- ; ur 5r- ; ur ur- ; us er- ; us or- ; us Qr-. Also halec, caput, lac, cor, mel, fel, ver, iter, cadaver, uber, verber, papaver, acer, cicer, piper, &c. (see p. 101), aes, far, os (5ris), os (ossis), v5s (vasis). C. These will be found in the lists : and many on p. 76. Latin Wordlore. 2* vii, Table: I. CONSONANT-NOUNS, i. MASCULINE AND FEMININE. I) MUTE GUTTURAL STEMS. SINGULAR. judge, c. root, f. voice, f. king, m. N.V. iudex radix VOX rex i Acc. iudic- radlc- voc- reg- em Gen. iudic- radic- voc- reg- is Dat. iudic- radic- voc- reg- I Abl. iudic- radic- voc- reg- e PLURAL. N.V.A. Gen. iudic- iudiC- radic- radiC- voc- voC- reg- reG- cs 11 m D.Abl. iudic- radio voc- reg- ibus 2) MUTE DENTAL STEMS. SINGULAR. summer, f. companion, c. virtue, f. foot, m. N.V. aestas comes virtus pes Acc. aestat- comit- virtut- ped- em Gen. aestat- comit- virtut- ped- Is Dat. aestat- comit- virtut- ped- I Abl. aestat- comit- virtut- ped- e PLURAL. N.V.A. aestat- comit- virtut- ped- e Gen. aestaT- comiT- virtuT- peD- um D.Abl. aestat- comit- virtut- ped- ibus 3) LABIAL-MUTE, NASAL, AND IT-STEMS. SINGULAR. chief, c. beant, f. lion, m. virgin, f. crane, c. N.V. princeps trabs leo virgo grus Acc. princfp- trab- leon- virgln- gru- em Gen. princip- trab- leon- virgin- gru- Is Dat. princip- trab- leon- virgin- gru- I Abl. princip- trab- leon- virgm- gru- e PLURAL. N.V.A. princip- trab- leon- virgin- gru- es Gen. princiP- traB- leoN- virgiN- grU- yiryi D.Abl. princip- trab- leon- virgin- gru- ibus 1 For Nom. S. Endings, see 20 and p. 94. 24. The Third Declension. in 4) LIQUID AND SIBILANT STEMS. SINGULAR. love, m. dew, m. woman, f. cinder, c. fatJier, m. N.V. amor ros mulier cinis pater _ Ace. amor- ror- muligr- ciner- patr- em Gen. amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr- is Dat. amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr- I Abl. amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr- e PLURAL. ^ N.V.A. amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr- es Gen. amoR- roR- mulieR- cineR- patR- mri D.Abl. amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr- ibus 2 . NEUTER. SINGULAR. head name right work body N.V.A. caput nomen ius opus corpus Gen. caplt- nomln- iur- oper- corpor- IB Dat. capit- nomin- iur- oper- corpor- I Abl. capit- nomin- iur- oper- corpor- PLURAL. N.V.A. capit- nomin- iur- oper- corpor- a Gen. capiT- nomiN- iuR- opeR- corpoR- um D.Abl. capit- nomin- iur- oper- corpor- ibus II. X-NOUNS. i. MASCULINE AND FEMININE. SINGULAR. cough, f. skip, f. harvest, f. fire, m. shower, m. N. V. tuss-Xs nav-is mess-Js ign-^s imb-er Ace. tuss-im nav-ina em mess-em (im) ign-em imbr-em Gen. tuss-Is nav-I mess-Xs ign-Xs imbr-ls Dat. tuss-i nav-i mess-i ign-i imbr-i Abl. tuss-i nav-i e mess-e ign-i e imbr-i (e) PLURAL. N.V. tuss-es nav-es mess-es ign-es imbr-es Ace. tuss-es Is nav-es Is mess-es Is ign-es Is imbr-es Is Gen. tuss-Xum nav-Xum mess-lum ign-Ium imbr-Ium D.Abl.tuss-ibus nav-ibus mess-ibus ign-ibus imbr-ibus 112 Latin Wordlore. 1*4- SINGULAR. ewe. f. cloud, f. tooth, m. city, f. tnouse, m. N. V. ovis nubes dens urbs mus Ace. OV- nub- dent- urb- mur- em Gen. 0V- nub- dent- urb- mur- Is Dat. 0V- nub- dent- urb- mur- i Abl. 0V- nub- dent- urb- mur- * N. V. ov- nub- Ace, ov- nub- Gen, ov- nub- D. Abl. ov- nub- PLURAL. dent- urb- dent- urb- dent- urb- dent- urb- mur- mur- mur- mur- es es Is lum Ibus The ending of the Accusative Plural of I-nouns fluctuates in MSS. between is and es, the form is prevailing. 2. NEUTER. SINGULAR. net sofa-cover spur bone N. V. A. ret-e toral calcar OS Gen. ret-U toral-is calcar-ls oss-is Dat. ret-i toral-l calcar-i oss-i Abl. ret-i (8) toral-l calcar-i oss-e N. V. A. ret-ia Gen. ret-lum D. Abl. ret-ibus PLURAL. toral-ia toral-lum toral-ibus calcar-la calcar-lum calcar-ibns oss-a oss-Znxn oss-ibns Greek Nouns, viii. Greek Nouns in Decl. 3. Nominative Sing. The tendency to latinise Greek names is shewn by dropping the v in such words as Plato, Macedo, Antipho, and in Apollo Apollln- (Gr. 'ATroXXwv-), draco dracon- (Gr. , -ris, -rS : as acer, acrfs, acre, keen. Celer, celeris, celere, swift, is the only Adjective of this kind 24. Adjectives in the Third Declension. 117 which retains e before r through all the Cases. Its Gen. PL ends in ium when it is merely adjectival, but in um when it signifies the ancient body-guard at Rome, called Celeres. The Adjectives which, besides acer (acris), cast out e before r in the Cases, are cele-ber -bris -\xzfamous eques-ter -tris -tre on horse salu-ber -bris -bre healthy pedes-ter -tris -tre on foot ala-cer -cris -ere brisk palus-ter -tris -tre marshy volu-cer -cris -ere swift, winged pu-ter -tris -tre putrid campes-ter -tris -tre of the plain terres-ter -tris -tre of land, silves-ter -tris -tre woody of earth. The forms in -bris, -cris, -tris, may be Masc. ; but -ber, -cer, -ter are usual in prose. These latter forms were also of Common Gender anciently. September, October, November, December, are like celeber, but have no Neuter Cases. The Masc. and Fern, forms of this group are like ignis, imber (Abl. i) ; the Neuter like rete. II) This group comprises many Adjectives : 1) Adjectives in ax ac*- ; ox del- ; ix l<#- : audax, bold, ferax, fruitful, &c. ; ferox, haughty, velox, swift. &c. ; felix, happy, perm\,fat?t : including words in ix, Fern, in Sing, but taking also Neuter endings in Plur. : victrix, PI. vic- trices, victricia. So ultrix, corruptrix. Adjectives under i) rarely take Abl. S. 6. Like these are declined : a) Compounds of caput : anceps, double ; ; biceps, two-headed} praeceps, headlong, &c. (lor -cipes) -cipitl-. b) Compounds of cor: concors, agreeing; discors, dis- agreeing] misericors, merciful; socors or secors, stupid ; vecors, insane : -cordl-. c) par parf-, equal; hebes hebetT-, dull (mo Gen. PI.); teres teretf- (no Gen. PL), smooth-rounded ; praepes pr3.epetl-,/ast-Jfymg; trux trucl-, cruel. But the compounds of par, dispar, unlike \ impar, unequal., take Abl. S. e or i, Gen. PL um. 2) Adjectives and Participles used adjectively in ns ntl- rs rtl- : ingens, huge ; prudens, sage ; praesens, present; absens, absent; recens, fresh \ sapiens, wise; praestans, excellent; insons, in- nocent; iners, inactive; expers, void, &c. In these the Abl. in g, though less frequent than I, is often found. a) So those in as atX- : nostras, vestras, cuias, &c. See p. 1 08. Ii8 Latin Wordlore. 24. V) Numerals in plez plicl- : simplex, duplex, multiplex, &c. c] Derivative? of dens : tridens tridentt-, three-pronged; these have no Neut. PL d] Locuples locupletl-, wealthy ; Abl. S. e (l) ; Gen. PI. urn or ium. Note. Present Participles, when they keep their Verbal force, take e in Abl. S. : for instance, when used absolutely : regnante Romulo, imperante Augusto : if used as mere Adjectives they usually take Abl. S. I. But rare instances occur of Participles with Abl. I used verbally, and of Participles with Abl. e used adjectively. Obs. The Gen. PI. in nti-um, rti-um, ati-um, eti-ura is liable to an occasional loss of \ : recentum, sapientum, locupletum, amantuin, nostratum, &c. III) This group contains Comparative Adjectives in or or- m. f. us or- n. : melior, praestantior, sapientior, &c. Abl. S. e as a rule, rarely I. Vetus veter-, ancient, has the same endings : Abl. g (rarely i) ; Neut. PL a, Gen. PL um. IV) Group IV. has no Neut. Plur. Abl. S. I, Gen. PL um. a) Compounds of pes : alipes, Abl. S. alipedi. As a Neuter Subst. quadrupes has PL quadrupedia. b} Compounds of color: concolor concolor-, of the same colour ; discolor discolor-, of different colour. Neut. PL ia (rare). c] ales alft-, winged (Ovid has alite). degener degener-, degenerate uber uber-, fruitful inops inop-, destitute vigil vigil-, wakeful memor memor-, mindful immernor, unmindful d] redux reduc-, returned I AM <; - ~ supplex suppllc-, suppliant \ " lj e> Obs. The Neuter Comparative plus plur- has Abl. S. plurc, Neut. N. V. A. plura, Gen. PL plurium. Its compound complures has complura or compluria. Acfec f Table of Adjectives not purely consonantal : tives - SINGULAR. M. F. N. N.V. trist-is trist-g Ace. trist-em trist-8 Gen. trist-ls Dat. trist-I Abl. trist-I M. F. felix felic-em felix felic-* felic-l felic-l M. F. ingens ingent-em ingens ingent-*s ingent-l ingent-l (e) 25- The Fourth Declension. 119 N.V, trist-es trist-ia Ace. trist-es Is trist-ia Gen. trist-ium D.Abl. trist-ibus PLURAL. felic-es felic-ia felic-es is felic-ia felic-ium fclic-ibus ingent-es ingent-ta ingent-es is ingent-ia ingent-ium ingent-ibu* SINGULAR. M. F. N. M. N.V. celer celer-is celer-e | acer Other cases of Sing., and the Plural, as tristis. F. acr-ls N. acr-e SINGULAR. M. F. N. N.V. meli-6r meli-us Ace. melior-em meli-us Gen. melior-Xs Dat. melior-i AbL melior-e" (i) SINGULAR. M. F. N. N.V. inops Ace. mop-em inops Gen. inop-Is D. Abl. inop-i PLURAL. M. F. N. melior-es melior-* melior-e (is) melior-a melior-um melior-ibu melior-ibus PLURAL. M. F. inop-es inop-es Is inop-um inop-ibus SECTION V. 1. The Fourth Declension: TT-Nouns. U-Nouns add % to the Stem in the Nominative Sing, of Masc. (Fern.) words, gradu-s ; but not in that of Neuter words, which are three only : cornu, horn ; genu, knee ; veru, spit. The endings of the other Cases, uncontracted, appear in the declension of grus, p. no ; but the forms, contracted as in the following Table, are used by all U-nouns except grus, sus. Fourth Declen- sion. ii. Table. N.V. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. step, m. grad-iia grad-um grad-u grad-ui u grad-u N.V.A. grad-us Gen. grad-Uum D.Abl. grad-Xbus SINGULAR. tribe, f. trib-u trib-um trib-iU trib-ui u trib-u PLURAL. trib-us trib-mim trib-ubus knee, n. gen-u gen-u gen-u gen-u gen-u gen-ua gen-Vum gen-Ibus i2O Latin Wordlore. 25. iii. Confusion of 0- and U-nouns. a) On account of the near relation of the flat vowels o, u, the U-declension is invaded by many forms of the O-declension, 2. Thus senati, tumult i, occur in Sallust ; and in poets from the earliest time down to Lucretius many such forms are found : ad- venti, aesti, fructi, geli, gemiti, ornati, piscati, quaesti (frequent), sumpti, victi, &c. b] Ficus, f. Jig-tree, an O-noun of Decl. 2., fluctuates in Gen. S. I or us, Abl. S. o or u. Nom. PL I or us, Ace. PI. os or us. Laurus, f. bay-tree, cupressus, cypress-tree, are similarly declined : also pinus, pine, but with Abl. S. in u only : and cornus, cornel, but with Gen. S. in i only. Myrtus, f. myrtle, an O-noun, has Nom. PI. I or us ; Ace. PL os or us. Quercus, f. oak, is a U-noun, but Gen. PL quercorum, Cic. Coins, 2. f. distaff', Gen. S. I or us, D. o, Abl. o or u. Nom. PL us. Ace. us or os. So domus, f. house, fluctuates between Decl. 4 and Decl. 2. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. V. domus domus Ace. domum domos (us) Gen. domus domuum, domorum Dat. dom-ui, o domibus Abl. dom-o u domibus Domi (or domui), at home, is the Locative. It can be used with an Attribute : domi meae, at my house ; domi Caesaris, at Caesars house. Also domui alienae, at another's house. Pecu, 4. n. is a disused Nom. ( = pecus, pecoris). cases of which are found : Dat. S. pecui. Abl. pecu. PL Nom. Ace. pecua (Dat. Abl. pecubus ?). Gelus, 4. m. frost, is a disused Nom., Gen. S. geli. Abl. gelu. Gelum, 2. n. is also extant. Tonitrus, 4. m. Abl. S. tonitru. Nom. Ace. PL tonitrus (also tonitrua from abyform tonitruum2. n.). Dat. Abl. tonitribus. (Ossua, ossuum, from a disused ossu, 4. n. = os bone, are only found in old Inscrr.) Sub diu for sub divo, Lucr. v. 211. iv. Cases in the Fourth Declension. i) The Gen. Sing, of Neuter Nouns is now shewn to be like that of others, in us, though old grammarians held it to be in u. 26. The Fifth DC Jcnsion. 121 2) The Dat. ul is generally contracted into u : usu for usui : 'parce metu ;' ' victu i n vigilant,' Verg. It is much used with esse, habere, &c., ' usui esse/ to be useful ; 'derisui habere,' &c. 3) In the Dat. Abl. PL iibus is generally weakened into Ibus. The only Nouns which exclude Ibus, are acus, arcus, and tribus : ubus is however usual in artus (PL), limbs ; lacus; partus, birth; portus, harbour; specus, cave; veru : and found in genu, tonitrus, Quinquatrus. Other nouns have Ibus alone. v. Gender in the Fourth Declension. The Feminine Nouns of the U-declension (besides those deter- mined by meaning as females or plants)* are : acus, needle, point ; domus, house; manus, hand; porticus, porch; tribus, tribe; Idus (PL), the Ides (of the month) ; Quinquatrus (PL), a byform of Quinquatria, the feast of Minerva. Specus, m. is rarely f. (PL specua is found in E. L.). Obs. Most Nouns of this Decl. are Derivatives ; either from Substantives: consul-atus, magistr-atus, sen-atus, &c., signi- fying office : or from the Supine Stem of Verbs, with abstract mean- ing : actus, auditus, eventus, visus, &c. To these latter often correspond forms rather less abstract in -io 3. f., actio, auditio, visio, &c. ; and others concrete in uxn 2. n. : (actum), eventum, visum, &c. SECTION VI. i. The Fifth Declension: E-Nouns. 26 E-nouns add to the Stem in the Nominative : in the other Fifth cases closely corresponding with dea in the First Declension. JJcden- sion. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Decl. i. dea dea-m dea-i I deae dea-rum dea-bus Decl. 5. die-s die-m die-i | die-s die-rum die-bus ii. Table. SINGULAR. day, c. thing, f. faith, f. N. V. di-es r-es fid-es Ace. di-em r-em fid-em Gen. di-ei r-ei fid-ei Dat. di-ei r-el fid-ei Abl. di-e r-e fid-e PLURAL. N. Ac. V. di-es r-es none Gen. di-eruro r-erum Dat. Abl. di-ebus r-ebus 122 Latin Wordlorc. 26. iii. Cases in the Fifth Declension. 1) Dies and res are the only nouns fully declined. Acies, edge, army, fades, face, effigies, image, glacies, ice (Verg.), series, species, form, spes, hope, have the first three Plural Cases. 1 AH others are Singular only : being in sense either abstract or col- lective. Many are byforms of A-nouns : materia, i., materies, 5., mother-stuff, matter mollitia, I., mollities, 5., softness, effeminacy. So amaritia, es ; avaritia, es ; barbaria, es ; duritia, es ; luxuria, es ; segnitia, es, &c. Other words are caesaries, (dipt) hair ; caries, rot (in wood) ; congeries, mass ; esuries, hunger ; macies, wasting disease ; pau- peries, poverty ; pernicies (or permities), bane, ruin ; progenies, offspring ; rabies, fury, madness ; sanies, corrupt matter, gore ; scabies, the scab, mange, or rot ; superficies, surface ; temperies, dimate, temper, moderation ; intemperies, immoderation (PL in- temperiae of the 1st. Decl.). 2) A few Nouns of Decl. 3. confuse some cases with Decl. 5. Thus fames, hunger, has Abl. fame; tabes, Abl. tabe, in Lucr. Requies, rest, has Ace. requiem and requietem, Gen. requietis, Dat. requieti, Abl. requie. Plebes or plebs has Gen. plebis, plebei, plebi, Dat. plebi or plebei. 3) An example of the old Gen. Sing, in es survives in Lucr. iv. 1083 : * Quodcumque est rabies unde illaec germina surgunt.' 4) The e of Gen. Dat. ei is long after i : diei, progeniei ; but short, classically, after a Consonant : fid-ei, rei (spei ?). But in old Latin it was long in these also : * plenu' fidei,' Enn., Lucr. ; rei (or reii). Plautus and Terence make ei in rei, spei coalesce by synizesis. 5) 3Bi was also contracted into e, anciently into I, diei, die, dn ; plebei, plebi. ' Constantis iuvenem fide ;' * coinmissa fide,' Hor. 'Munera laetitiamque dii,' Verg. A. Gellius cites from old Latin authors such instances as acii, fami, luxurii, pernicii, progenii, &c. 6) The phrases ' die crastini,' * die proximi,' ' die septimi,' are examples of the Locative Case in this Decl. So cotidie, postridie. 8 iv. Gender in the Fifth Declension. All E-nouns are Fem. except dies, which, when it means a day, is usually, and in the Plur. always, Masc. So its compound meri- dies, noon, is Masc. classically. But, if it means time, dies is Fem. : ' Longa dies illi quid profuit ?' luv. x. 1 Some other forms appear anciently or in post-classical writings, as speres for sp es: facierum ; specierum, speciebus. " No Adjectives belong to the 4th and 5th Declensions. 27. Irregular Nouns. 123 SECTION VII. i. Irregular Nouns. irre? u - 1) Irregularity (aVw/ua\/a) is said to exist in a word if it de- parts in any respect from the normal constitution of its class. 2) A Substantive is normally constituted when it has two Num- bers, with six Cases in each, all of the same gender, following one pattern of Declension. A Substantive is said to be irregular, so far as it departs from this constitution. 3) Irregularity may consist in Abundance (more forms than usual) or Defect (fewer forms than usual). A word may be Abundant in one respect and Defective in an- other. Thus, vulgus, 2, is Abundant in having two Genders and two forms of Accusative : Defective in having no Plural. il Abundance in Substantives. Abun- dance. Abundance is shewn in i) Substantives which, with the same Clipt-stem and meaning, are formed after more than one Declension. See 25. 6. a] With difference of Gender : Decl. i. f. and 2. n. alimoni-a um, nurture ; cingul-a um (us, m.), belt ; essed-a um, chaise ; margarit-a um, pearl ; mend-a um, fault \ mulctr-a um, milking-pail. Note ostrea, oyster, f. ; PI. ostrea, oysters, n. Decl. i. f. and 2. m. vesper-a, vesper, evening ; acin-a, us, berry. Decl. i. f. and 3. m. cratera, crater, mixing-bowl. Decl. i. f., 2. n., and 3. n. gausap-a, um, ^frieze cloth or coat. Decl. i. f. and 3. n. caepa, caepe, onion (PL from caepa). Decl. 2. n. and 5. f. diluvi-um, es, deluge. Decl. 2, n. and 3. f. consorti-um, o, companionship ; contagi-um, o, contagion. Decl. 2. n., 3. n., and 3. f. praesepium, praesepe, praesepis, crib, stall (PL 3. n.). Decl. 2. n., 3. n., and 3. m. tapetum, tapete, tapes, carpet. 124 Latin Wordlore. 27. Decl. 2. n. and 3. n. tergum, tergus (or-), back (rarely 2 m.) Decl. 2. n. and 4. m. angiport-um,us, lane; conat-um, us, endeavour '; event-urn, us, issue-, event (p. 121, Obs.)\ incest-um, us, incest ; suggest- um, \as, pulpit. Fretum, frith, has an ancient form fretus, 4. Obs. The old root pen-, interior (whence penes, penitus, penetrare, penetrale, penates), has a Substantive exhibited in several forms, all classical : penu-s, 4. f., penu-s, 2. m., penu-m, 2. n., and penus penor-, 3. n., provision, store of food : as, * magna penus,' Lucil. ; ' penus annuus/ Plaut. ; ' penum erile.' Afran. ; frumenta penus- que,' Hor. b) With the same Gender : Decl. i. and 3. f. cassida, cassis, helmet \ fulica, fulix, coot; iuvent-a, ^yoitth ; senect-a, us, old age. Decl. 2. and 3. m. delphinus, delphin ; elephantus, elephas ; Mulciber (beri, bri, and beris,bris) ; Oedipus (i and odis) ; scorpius, scorpio. Decl. 3. and 5. f. colluvio, colluvies, conflux ; paupertas, pauperies, poverty. Decl. 2. and 3. n. iugerum (iuger), acre; nihilum, nihil, nothing. Necessus., necessum, necesse, necessity. See Corssen, ii. 238. Decl. i. and 5. (see 26). On Greek names of two Declensions, see 24. ix. Obs. Names of trees have Nom. us, f., their fruits um, n. usually. cerasus cherry-tree cerasum cherry prunus plum-tree prunum plum So malus, apple-tree, malum, apple ; pirus, pear-tree, pirum, pear : but amygdala, almond-tree, amygdalum, almond. 2) Substantives, chiefly of Decl. 2, which vary their Gender, and with it their Case-forms, in the Plural. a) locus, place, m. . . . loci, m loca, n. (loci often means topics, places in books, but not exclusively) iocus,/ nectar > oleum oil plumbum lead pontus sea pus salus sanguis supellex venia ver vesper virus vulgus matter safety blood furniture pardon spring evening venom populace It is unsafe to say of Abstracts, like pietas, infantia, pueritia, ex- perientia, sapientia, that they are Singular only ; because, if any such words are not found Plural in classical authors, so many Plurals are found resembling them that the possibility of their Plural use cannot be confidently denied. Abstracts of the Fifth Declension are not, however, used in the Plural, but their corresponding forms of the First Declension. Plural II) Nouns never, or rarely found Singular (Plural only). These only. are numer ous in Latin. 1) Names of People or Tribes, individuals of which are seldom mentioned : Aborigines; and the three original tribes of Rome, Ramnes, Tities, Luceres. But most of such names may occur as Singular : Arpinas, Samnis, Callus, Saxo ; thus Hor. ' infi- delis Allobrox ;' ' Marsus et Appulus ;' * Dacus et Aethiops.' 2) Mountain, Island, &c. groups : Alpes (Alpis rare) :Acrocer- aunia (iuga) : Aegates, Baleares, Cyclades (insulae). So the street Carinae (the Keels) at Rome; Tempe, (vale in Thessaly). 3) Many names of Cities and Towns are Plural, as consisting of parts: i. Athenae, Baiae, Cumae, Mycenae, Syracusae, Thebae; 1 2. Argi, Delphi, Gabii, Philippi, Pompeii, Veii : Ecbatana, Leuctra, Susa; 3. Cures, Gades, Sardis; or from the name of the people, as Leontini : 2 or from a Plural Appellative, as Aquae Sextiae, P'undi, Ostia, Centumcellae. 4) Names of recurring Calendar days : Calendae or Kalen- dae ; Nonae ; Idus, 4. And of Holidays, Festivals, Games, &c. : as Latinae, Sementivae (feriae), Quinquatrus; nundinae (feriae), market day; Circenses (ludi) ; Feralia, Floralia, Libe- ralia, Megalesia, Dionysia, Nemea, Olympia, Pythia, Sa- turnalia (festa). To this class belong nuptiae (epulae), wedding ; repotia (festa), feast after a wedding ; sponsalia (sacra or 1 Cicero writes Cyrenae, Mytiltnae for the Greek forms in e. a Most of the considerable towns in and around France take their names from the old Gallic tribes of which they were the capitals: Paris (Lutetia Parisiorum); Amiens (Ambiani) ; Limoges (Lemovic.es) ; Bourges (Bituriges) ; Orleans (Aureliani) ; Tours (Turones) ; Rouen (Rotomagi) ; Soissons (Suessiones) ; Langres (Lingones) ; Sens (Senones) ; Nantes (Nannetes) ; Treves (Augusta Treverorum), &c. 27. Irregular Nouns. 127 festa), betrothal ; iusta (sacra), funeral rites ; pa rent all a (festa), funeral banquet ; inferiae (epulae), offering to the dead. 5) Neuter Greek names for treatises or poems : ethica, ethics ; metaphysica, metaphysics ; Georgica, the Georgics, &c. (scripta). 6) Masculine Collective Names of persons seldom or never so named individually : Decl. 2. gemini, twins ; liberi, the children of a free Roman; one being unus (una) e liberisor liberorum : inferi, dwellers below ; superi, gods above ; posteri, posterity ; Decl. 3. maiores, ancestors; minores, descendants; caelites, heavenly deities ; lemures, goblins ; penates, household-gods ; optimates, primores, proceres, chiefs, nobles (the last six rarely S. : 'Agnosco procerem/ luv.) ; manes, ^ ghost or ghosts. 7) Parts of the human body, subsisting plurally, and seldom or never separately mentioned : cani (capilli), grey hairs ; cervices 3. neck (also cervix) ; lactes 3. small guts ; exta 2. (outermost) en- trails ; intestina 2. viscera 3. entrails (viscus used) ; ilia 3. groin, bowels ; praecordia 2. midriff, heart ; pantlces 3. paunch. The words genae, cheeks ; tempora 3. temples ; fauces ^.jaws ; renes 3. kidneys, imply that the Sing, may be used, if necessary. Hence gena (Suet.), tempus (Verg.) : Abl. fauce often in poetry (Hor. Ov. &c.) : ren is not found in classical Latin ; but can be used technically. Artus 4. the limbs ; Sing, once in Lucan. 8) Many other words, which may be generally distinguished thus : a) Plural Nouns implying individuals, which are not cited in the Singular except in rare instances marked (s.) : Decl. i. antae, pilasters ; clitellae, packsaddle; dirae, curses, furies (s.); gerrae, (wattled twigs) nonsense; habenae, reins (s. in Hor.); plagae, nets; scalae, stairs ; thermae, warm baths ; valvae, folding doors. Decl. 2. fori, hatches (of a ship) ; acta, transactions \ arma, arms \ bellaria, dessert; crepundia, (rattling) toys; ciba.ria, food ; munia, duties ; pascua, pastures ; sata, cornfields ; scruta, second-hand wares ; tesqua, wilds. Decl. 3. antes, m. front vine rows ; casses, m. nets (s.) ; com- pedes, f. fetters (s.) ; fides, f. lute-strings (s.) ; obices, c. bars (s.) ; sentes, c. thorns (s.) ; vepres, c. brambles (s.) ; magalia, mapalia, n. huts, village. b] Plural Nouns implying parts not similar and separable. Decl. i. balneae, bath-house (balnea, baths}, bigae, chariot and pair; cunae, cradle; divitiae, riches; epulae, banquet; ex- sequiae, burial ; exuviae, spoils (stript from the dead} ; induviae, clothes; lapicidinae, stonequarry; manubiae 1 The word Manes belongs to Italian, probably to Etruscan, religion. Departed spirits were deified under the title ofdi manes or manes: and the word is sometimes used, as a true Plural, of all such spirits ; sometimes as a Singular-Plural, of the spirit or ghost of an individual. Thus, ' Quae vis deorum est manium,' Hor. ; ' Sunt aliquid manes,' Prop. : ' Callimachi manes/ Prop. ; 'Verginiae manes/ Liv. 128 Latin Wordlore. 27. or manibiae, prize money (in war) : phalerae, trappings ; parietinae, ruins ; quadrigae, chariot and four (s.) ; quis- quiliae, rubbish ; reliquiae, remnant ; salinac, saltwork ; scopae, besom, broom. Decl. 2. cancelli, ratling (in court) ; clathri, grating ; codicilh, ledger ; adversaria, notebook ; compita, cross-road or roads (s.) : cunabula, cradle ; donaria, treasury; multicia, y raiment; serta, wreath, garland. Decl. 3. ambages, (circuits) evasive language or conduct; Traces, f. oil-lees ; fores, f. dfcwr (s.) ; pugillares, m. writing-tablet ; sordes, f. tft'r/, meanness (s.) ; altaria, ^2g# altar ; brevia, shoals; moenia, town-walls. Plural Nouns implying repetition or continuation. Decl. i. angustiae, straits (s.) ; argutiae, subtleties, acuteness ; blanditiae, flattery (s.) ; decimae, tithes; deliciae (s.), de- light, darling ; excubiae, nightwatch ; facetiae, pleasantry (s.) ; feriae, holidays ; ineptiae, follies (s.) ; inimicitiae, enmity (s.) ; insidiae, ambush, treachery ; minae, threats ; nugae, trifles ; praestigiae, jugglery ; primitiae, first- fruits ; tricae, tricks ; tenebrae, darkness ; vindiciae, claim. Decl. 2. fasti, annals; flabra, blasts (also flamina); lamenta, lamentations ; oblivia, forgetfulness. Decl. 3. grates, f. thanks ; verbera, stripes (s.) ; tormina, gripes. Varia- 111; iNouns wmcn vary uieir mea rung in me riurai. tion of Mean- SINGULAR. PLURAL. ing in Plural. aedes temple aedes house aqua water aquae mineral springs auxilium help auxilia auxiliary forces bonum ^^(abstr.) bona goods, property career prison carceres starting-place (s) castrum > f . castelhmJ Jort castra camp cera wax cerae waxen tablets or busts comitium Assembly-place comitia the Assembly at Rome copia plenty copiae forces, resources facultas faculty facultates means finis an end fines boundaries fortuna fortune fortunae gifts of fortune gratia favour gratiae thanks (s) hortus garden horti pleasure-grounds impedimentum hindrance impedimenta baggage littera a letter litterae epistle, literature loculus box loculi money-case Judus play ludi public games J ustrum five years lustra lairs, dens natalis birth-day natales origin opera exertion operae workpeople (s) opis (Gen.) help opes power, wealth [faction pars a portion partes part in a play ; side or 27. Irregular Nouns. 129 SINGULAR. PLURAL. rostrum sal tabula torus balneum, 2. epulum. 2. beak salt board couch bath sacred feast rostra sales tabulae tori balneae, I. epulae, i. the Roman pulpit wit (s) writing tablets muscles bath-house banquet B. DEFECTIVA CASIBUS. Defec- In many Nouns the exigencies of language have called into use sibus. a portion only of the ordinary Case-forms,* A} The following Nouns have the full Plural ; but in the Singu- lar they have only a] Four Cases : N.V. vis, Ace. vim, Abl. vi ; force, 3. f. PI. vir-es turn, &c. Norn. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. (dap-) em is i e banquet, 3. f. l p , (frug-) em is i e fruit, 3. f. uin, &c. b) Three Cases : (op-) em is S help^A. > p , (prec-) em i e prayer, 3. f. J * L e * (sord-) em is 6 dirt, 3. f. PI. es, ium, &c. (vie-) em is e change, 3. f. PI. es , &c. visc-us eris e>e entrail, 3. n. PI. a um, &c. c} Two Cases : (verber-) is & stripe, 3. n. PL a uin, &c. d) One Case : being Ablatives of Decl. 3 : ambage, f. | casse, m. | fauce, f. | obice, c. | compede, f. | iugere, n. JB) Many Nouns with full Singular have only N. V. Ace. Plural. Such are farra, mella, murmura, rura, tura, &c., 3. n. ; metus, situs, &c., 4. m. ; acies, effigies, facies, species, spes, 5. f. Astus, cunning, 4. m., has Norn. Abl. Sing, and Nom. Ace. Plur. C) The following Nouns, without Plural, have in the Singular a) Four Cases : Nom. V. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. (dicio on-) . em is i S power, 3. f. lu-es . . em 5 wasting disease, 3. f. man-e* . . 8 5 (I) morning, 3. n. * Words having one Case only in either number were called by the old grammarians MONOPTOTA ; those with two, DIPTOTA ; those with three, TRIPTOTA ; those with four, TETRAPTOTA : (from TTTWO-IV, case, and the several numerals). K 130 Latin Wordlore. 27. b} Three Cases : * Norn. V. Ace. Gen. Dat Abl. fors ... fort-e chance, 3. f. fas ... fas right (by divine law], 3. n. nefas . . nefas wrong (by divine law], 3. n. c) Two Cases : Norn. instar . . instar likeness, 3. n. nihil, nil . nihil, nil nothing, 3. n. opus . . opus need, 3. n. impetis impete force, 3. m. venum veno sale, 2. n. d] Nouns using only one Case are numerous : Nom. glos, 3. f. sister-in-law ; inquies, 5. f. restlessness. Ace. secus, 3. n. sex, with epithet virile or muliebre. pessum, to the bad (for ped-sum), 4. m. in connexion with Verbs (pessum dare, pessum ire, &c.). Gen. die is (causa), 3. for form's sake: non nauci, 2. not worth a nutshell, worthless. Dat. despicatui, frustratui, ludificatui habere, to de- spise, baffle, ridicule; indutui gerere, to wear; ob- tentui esse, to be a show, &c.. 4. Abl. sponte (mea, sua, &c.), 3- f. by choice, spontaneously. accitu, admonitu, iussu, iniussu, coactu, concessu, ductu, hortatu, mandatu, permissu, rogatu, &c. 4. noctu, by night; diu, lucu, by daylight, 4. in promptu esse, in procinctu stare, to be in readi- ness, 4. natu maior, elder; natu minor, younger, 4. pondo, 2. by weight, understands librarum, and is used with any Numeral : corona ducentum pondo, a crown of 200 pounds' weight. D} The following Nouns, without Singular, have in Plural a} Two Cases : N. Ace. suppetiae, -as, succour ; grates, thanks (gratibus, Tac.). Gen. repetundarum, Abl. repetundis, i. f. extortion (under- stand rerum, rebus). Ace. foras, out of doors, Abl. foris, abroad, i. f. b) One Case : Ace. ad incitas redigere, to drive to extremities, i. f. infitias ire, to deny, i. f. Abl. (gratiis) gratis, freely ; ingratiis, against will, f. f. E) Indeclinable, with one form for any Case, are Names of letters ; alpha, beta, &c. Various words from other languages : Adam. Infinitives: amare, vivere. 1 Necesse 3. n. (Nom. Ace.), necessitv, Gen. necessis (Lucr.) ; Plautus has necessuxn, necessus. See p. 124, and M.Lucr. ii. 710, vi. 815. 28-29. Comparison. 131 iv. Irregularity in Adjectives, I) Some Adjectives have two forms, one like bonus, the other Adko. like tristls or ingens : tiva acclivis (us) steep iinbecillus is weak duu&i. biiugis (us) two-yoked imberbis (us) beardless effrenus (is) unbridled inermus Is unarmed unanimus is of one mind opulentus (opulens) 'wealthy hilaris (us) cheerful violentus (violens) violent So exankn-us, is ; semianim-us, is ; sublim-is, us ; and others. The Adverb luculenter implies an old form luculens. 1 1) a. Some are Defective in Number : Defec . pauci,^^/, is rarely Sing. (Hor. ad Pis. 203). plerique, most, is found Sing, with Collective words : 1 pleraque nobilitas ' (for plerique nobiles), Sail. d. Some are Defective in Case and Number : has Sup. maturrimus or maturissimus. iii, Notes on Comparison. a) The Comparative may imply a degree too high (excess) : durior (i.e. durior aequo), too harsh. b) The Superlative may express not only the highest, but a very high degree (Elative sense) : ' vir doctissimus/ a very learned man (i.e. in the highest grade of learning). c) The Superlative form before the Augustan age was generally -umus, after which -imus prevailed : maxumus, maxlmus ; optu- mus, optlmus. See p. 31, C. d) Participles Present and Past often have Comparative Flexion like other Adjectives : amans amantior amantissimus paratus paratior paratissimus 29. Comparison. 133 iv. Irregular Comparison. 1) Forms from various Roots. bonus good melior better optimus best malus bad peior worse pessimus worst parvus small minor less minimus least multus much (plus, n.) more plurimus most The Comparative of multus has no M. F. form in the Sing., but full Plural : plur-es a, plur-ium, plur-ibus. Lucr. has parvissima, i. 615. See M. 2) Variant Stem-forms. mag-nus, great ; maior, greater ; maximus, greatest. frugi, honest ; frugalior, frugalissimus. nequam, worthless ; nequior, nequissimus. dives . , divider divitissimus (dis) j ditior ditissimus Adjectives compounded with -dicus -ficus -voius (from dico, facio, volo) form their comparison in -entior -entissimus, as if from Participles in -ens. maledicentior magnificentior benevolentior maledlcus slanderous magniffcus splendid benevolus benevolent maledicentissimus magnificentissimus benevolentissimus Similarly : egenus, needy, providus, foreseeing. egentior, providentior, egentissimus providentissimus. v. Defective Comparison. i) Comparison without Positive Form : a] The Comparison of Position springs from Prepositions, and is not fully represented by Positive Adjectives : Preposition. Positive Adj. Comparative. e, ex out of (exter) exterior intra within (inter) interior supra above (super) superior infra below (infer) inferior (prae) before prior post after (poster) posterior cis on near side (citer) citerior ultra beyond (ulter) ulterior prope near propior de down from (deter) deterior Superlative. extremus intimus supremus, summus infimus, imus primus postremus (postumus) citimus ultimus proximus deterrimus worst ad] Of the Positive forms, (inter, citer, ulter, deter) are not used. Super(us), infer(us) are used in Neut. Sing, with mare (mare superum, mare inferum) ; and in Plur. 134 Latin Wordlore. 29. Exter(us) is rare in Sing., but not infrequent in Plur. Poster(us) is used (but not in Nom. Sing. Masc.) : pos- tera aetas ; postero die: and Plur. posteri. See p. 127. Prior, primus are from a lost form pri-s. Some derive them from rrpo : (pro-ior) = prior ; (pro-imus) = primus. bb) Of the Comparatives, deterior means worse (than some- thing good, i.e. fallen off} ; peior worse (than something bad). cc] Of the Superlatives, summus has the sense 'highest-,' or supremus,poet. On the other hand, sup rem us is used for '/#.?/,' and summus, poet. : 'venit summa dies/ Verg. Postremus, hindmost (last} : postumus, coming after, last born, born after the father's death. Four Superlatives can express the notion ' last : ' ultimus (yon- dermost, farthest}, extremus (outermost}', which are most usual: also postremus and supremus. To these Comparisons may be added : dexter, on the right, dexterior, dexterrimus or dextimus. sinister, on the left, sinisterior, (sinistimus). b} - ocior swifter, ocissimus swiftest. potior preferable, potissimus. In the Greek &KVQ (ocis), swift, and the Defective Adj. potis, pote, are shewn the original Positives of these forms. 2) Comparison without Comparative Form. The Adjectives bellus, consultus, di versus, falsus, in- clitus, invictus, invitus, meritus, novus, par, persuasus, sacer, are found with Superl., but without Comparative. Vetus, Sup. veterrimus (veterior, Plaut. ; but vetustior is usual). 3) Comparison without Superlative Form. d} senex old senior iuvenis young iunior (for iuvenior) Senior has a kind of Pos. force : * one who has become old. 1 Elder is expressed by natu maior, or maior: eldest by natu maximus, or maximus. So younger is natu minor, or minor; youngest, natu minimus, or mini- mus. b) Adjectives in Mils have Comparative without Superl. : except a few : amabilis, mobilis, nobilis : amabilissimus, &c. c) Also the following : adolescens, aequalis, agrestis, alacer, arcanus, astutus, ater, caecus, capitalis, civilis, crispus, declivis, diuturnus, deses, exilis, longinquus, opimus, popularis, proclivis, pronus, propinquus, regalis, rusticus, salutaris, satur, segnls, serus, supinus, surdus, taciturnus, teres, vicinus, &c. Note, (satior) satius, better, Jitter, is a Comparative from the Ad- verbial word satis, enough. 30. Comparison. 135 4) Absence of Comparative Flexion. A great number of Adjectives have no Comparative Flexion : some being incapable of it by their meaning (Incomparabilia) : merus, vernus ; some unsuited to it by their form : memor, tre- mulus ; while for others no reason can be assigned but usage. 1 Among Adjectives excluded from Comparison by their form are most of those in eus, ius, uus : idoneus, anxius, arduus ; (but not those in quus : antiquus, antiquior, antiquissimus). Rare instances occur of Comparative Flexion by such Adjectives : assiduissimus, Cic. ; strenuissimus, Tac. And luvenal has l Egre- gius cenat meliusque miserrimus horum/ xi. 12. Any Adjectives, not Incomparabilia, caji be modified Compara- tively by the addition of the Adverb mag is : 'Quid mag is est durum saxo, quid mollius unda/ Ov. ; and Superlatively by the Adverbs maxime, summe, also admodum, perquam, valde, and others. vi. Comparison of Adverbs. 30 Com- parison of Ad- i) ADVERBS in e, 6, S, tgr, derived from Adjectives, verbs. often follow their Comparison, with Comparative End- ing tis, Superlative e (6, um) : Adj. Adv. dignus digne worthily dignius' dignissime Exam- vafer vafre cunningly vafrius vaferrime P les tutus tuto safely tutius tutissime (6) facilis facile* easily facilius facillime fortis fortiter bravely fortius fortissime constans constanter firmly constantius constantissime audax audacter boldly audacius audacissime But meritus uber merito (ubertim) deservedly abundantly uberius meritissimo (e) uberrime 1 Adjectiva Incomparabilia are too numerous to be set down at full, and are indeed best learnt by reading and practice. Among them may be mentioned : (i) those which express colour, matter, time, place, nationality, descent : a 1 b u s (but v i r id i s has Compar. flexion), aureus, aestivus, campester, Romanus, paternus, &c. (2) De- minutives, paryulus, vetulus, &c. (3) Compounds of e, per, sub, ve: egeli- dus, perfacilis, subobscurus, vesanus, &c. (many compounds of p r a e are comparable, as p r a e c 1 a r i o r). (4) Compounds of animus, arm a, color, genus, gradus, inguen, lex, modus, sonus, somnus (but the compounds of ars, cor, m e n s are comparable : inertior, misericordior, dementior). (5) Com- pounds of fero, gero: signifer, belliger, &c. (6) Most adjectives in -Tcus, -Tmus, -in us, -In us, -Or us, -Ivus, -bundus, -aris, -alis, -Ilis; exceptions are, divinus, familiaris, hospitalis, liberalis, civilis, and a few more. (7) Also the following with many more : almus, canus, caducus, calvus, claudus, compos, impos, cicur, dispar, impar, ferus, fessus, gnarus, gnavus, ieiunus, lacer, lassus, mancus, mediocris, merus, minis, mutilus, mutus, nefastus, rudis, sospes, trepidus, trux, vagus, vivus, volucer, volgaris, &c. Comic poets invent jocular forms of Comparison : exclusissimus, ipsissimus, oculissi- mus, patruissimus, ridiculissimus. 136 Latin Wordlore. 3'. 2) Irregular Comparison bially : is in most forms represented adver- Adj. Adv. Compar. Superl. bonus bene* well melius better optime best malus male ill peius worse pessime worst magnus magnope v&greatly magis more maxime most parvus j paulum 1 parum a little too little | minus less f minime i minimum very little least multus multum much plus more plurimum very much ocius quicker ocissime very quickly - prius sooner f primum I primo first at first potius rather potissimum preferably deterius worse deterrim* very badly _ _ intus within interius intime _ post after posterius postremo prope nearly propius proxime Also: saepe often saepius saepissime diu long diutius diutissime penitus deeply penitius penitissime __ satis enough satius _ secus otherwise sztius temperi betimes temperius nuper lately nupemme Magis means 'more in degree; 1 plus, ' more in quantity? * Lucio magis carus sum : ' ' Lucius me plus diligit.' 31 Pro- nouns. SECTION IX. i. Pronouns (Pronomina). 1. A Pronoun, being a substitute for a Noun, may be (i) Substantive: (2) Adjective: (3) Capable of being both. 2. A Pronoun may be (a) 1st Person : () 2nd Person : (c) 3rd Person : (d) Of all Persons. ii. Classification of Pronouns. A. The Pronouns purely Substantival are: 1. The PERSONAL Pronouns ego, 7, nos, we, of the First Person ; and t u, thou, v o s, ye, of the Second. 2. The REFLEXIVE Pronoun, se, himself, herself, or themselves, which has no Nominative, and is always re- ferred to a Subject of the Third Person, Singular or Plural. 31. Pronouns. 137 B. The Pronouns Proper purely Adjectival are: The POSSESSIVE Pronouns, which correspond to the Personal and Relative Pronouns : meus, my, mine corresponding to ... ego noster, our nos tuus, thy, thine tu vester, your vos suus, his, her, or their own se cuius, whose qui with the Gentilia, nostras, of our country, vestras, of your country ; cuias, of what country ? Suus, like se, is referred to a Subject of the Third Person. C. The remaining Pronouns are Adjectival, but often used as Relational Substantives. These are : 1. The DEMONSTRATIVE Pronouns (of the Third Person) : is, ea, id, that (or he, she, it) hie, haec, hoc, this (near me) iste, ista, istud, that (near you) ille, ilia, illud, that, yon (aloof from us). 2. The DEFINITIVE Pronouns (of all Persons) : ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self Idem, eadem, idem, same. 3. The RELATIVE Pronoun (of all Persons) : qui, quae, quod, who or which. Akin to this are : a. The INTERROGATIVE Pronouns : quis, quid ? qui, quae, quod ? who or what ? uter ? wfiether of two f b. The INDEFINITE Pronouns : quis, qua (quae), quid ; qui, quae, quod, any. uter, either of two. c. The various COMPOUNDS of quis, qui, uter. 4. PRONOMINALIA, or Adjectives of a Pronominal nature : as alius, alter, &c., talis, tantus, &c, qualis, quantus, &c,, aliquantus, &c. See v. 138 Latin Wordlore. 31. Tables iii. Tables of Declension of Pronouns. of De- clension. Af PERSONAL (OF EITHER GENDER). FIRST PERSON. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. ego, 7 nos, we Ace. me, me nos, us Gen. mei, of me nostri, or nostrum, of us Dat. mihi, to or for me nobis, to or for us Abl. TfiQ/from or with me nobis,yhwz or with us SECOND PERSON. N. V. tu, thou vos, ye Ace. te, thee vos, you Gen. tui, of thee vestri, or vestrum, of you Dat. tibi, to or for thee vobis, to or for you Abl. te,from or with thee vobis, from or with you REFLEXIVE. SINGULAR AND PLURAL. Nom. (none). Ace. se, or sese, himself, herself, itself, or themselves. Gen. sui, of himself, &c. Dat. sibi, to himself, &c. Abl. se, or sese, &c.,from himself, &c. B. POSSESSIVE. 1) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like bonus : meus, mea, meum, my, mine; I suus, sua, suum, his, &c., their, own; tuus, tua. tuum, thy, thine ; | cuius, cuia, cuium, whose. meus has Vocative Masc. mi. 1 2) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like niger : noster, nostra, nostrum, our ; | vester, vestra, vestrum, your. The Demonstratives have no Possessives corresponding to them ; but their Genitives supply the want : eius vacca, his (her] cow. 3) Gentilia (of 3rd Decl.) : nostr-as -ati- ; vestr-as -ati- ; cui-as -ati- ? The affix met (self) may be appended to all the cases of ego, tu (except the Plural Genitives and the form tu itself), also to se, sibi: egomet, nosmet, temet, vobismet, semet, sibimet : often with a case of ipse added : nobismetipsis, semetipsum. Tu takes affix te, -tute ; also tu temet. The affix met is appended to the cases of suus, after which a case of ipse often follows: ' Intra suamet ipsum moenia compulere/ they drove him within his own walls, L. vi. 36. Also meamet : Sail, Plaut. The affix pte is appended to the Ablatives Sing, of the Pos- sessives: 'Meopte ingenio/ Plaut. * Suapte manu,' with his own hand, Cic. See M. Lucr. vi. 755. 1 The only Pronouns capable of having a Vocative are tu, vos ; and meus, noster. Pronouns. 139 C. I. DEMONSTRATIVE. a. UNEMPHATIC, Is, that, or he, she, it. SINGULAR. PLURAL. M. F. N. M. F. N. is ea id ei (ii) eae Ac. eum earn id eos eas G. eius eorum earum D. ei ^ eis (iis) Ab. eo ea eo eis (iis) b. EMPHATIC. Hie, this (near me], or he, she, it. SINGULAR. N. hie haec hoc Ac. hunc hanc hoc G. huius D. huic Ab. hoc hac hoc hi hos horum Iste, that (near you], or he, she, it. SINGULAR. N. iste Ac. istum G. D. Ab. isto ista istam istlus isti ista istud istud isto K, ea ea eorum PLURAL. hae haec has haec harum horum his his PLURAL. isti istae ista istos istas ista istorum istarum istorum istis istis I lie, that (yonder), or he, she, it. SINGULAR. N. ille ilia illud Ac. ilium illam illud G. illlus D. illi Ab. illo ilia illo PLURAL. illi illae illos illas illorum illarum illis illis ilia ilia illorum 2. DEFINITIVE. i) Idem, same. SINGULAR. Nom. Idem eadem Tdem Ace. eundem eandem Idem Gen. eiusdem Dat. eidem Abl. eodem eadem eodem PLURAL. fidem eaedem eadem eosdem easdem eadem eorundem earundem eorundem isdem or eisdem isdem or eisdem 140 Latin Wordlore. 2) Ipse, self. SINGULAR. Nom. ipse ipsa Ace. ipsum ipsam Gen. ipslus Dat. ipsi Abl. ipso ipsa Plautus has the forms eumpse, eampse, eapse, &c. Also reapse, in reality^ for re ipsa. a) The affix -c (for cS) is added to iste and ille, making a pronominal declension as follows : ipsum ipsum ipso ipsi ipsos ipsorum PLURAL. ipsae ipsas ipsarum ipsis ipsis ipsa ipsa ipsorum N. istic Ace. istunc Abl. istoc istaec istanc istac N. Ace. SINGULAR. istoc or istuc istoc or istuc istoc PLURAL. istaec illic illunc illoc illaec illanc iliac illoc or illuc illoc or illuc illoc illaec Ce sometimes appears at full : istiusce, illosce, &c. So from hie, hunce, huiusce, hosce, &c. : and hicine? hocine? &c. b) The Interjection ecce, lo / coalesces in comic poetry with cases of is, ille, iste : ecca, eccum, eccam, &c. ; eccilla, eccillum, &c. ; eccistam, &c. En, lo i also coalesces with ille into the Accusative forms, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas. 3. RELATIVE. Qui, who or which. SINGULAR. Nom. qui quae Ace. quern quam Gen. cuius Dat. cui Abl. quo qua quod quod quo a) INTERROGATIVE. Quis ? qui ? who or which f SINGULAR. Nom. quis quid \ qui quae quod' Ace. quem quam quid ) quem quam quod' Gen. cuius Dat. cui Abl. quo qua quo PLURAL. qui quae quae quos quas quae quorum quarum quorum qulbus or quls qulbus or quls b) INDEFINITE. Quis, qui, anyone. SINGULAR. (qua) quid > quis qui quern quem quae (qua) quod quid quo quam quam cuius cui qua quo quo dl In the Plural like the Relative. Indefinite PL Nom. Qui, quae, qua or quae. The forms Quis, quid, are Substantival ; Qui, quod v Adjectival. 3 i. Pronouns. 141 a} Add to these Uter? whether of the two? SINGULAR. Nom. uter utra utrum Ace. utrum utram utrum Gen. utrTus Dat. utri Ab. utro utra utro PLURAL. utri utrae utra utros utras utra utrorum utrarum utrorum utris utris Uter is also Indefinite : either of two. Neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of the two, is declined as uter. c) COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 1. a) quisnam, quidnam : quinam, quaenam, quodnam, who, what f b} uternam, utranam, utrumnam, whether of the two? 2. ecquis, ecqua, ecquid : ecqui, ecquae, ecquod, anyone ? So numquis, siquis, ne quis. &c. 3. a} aliquis, aliqua, aliquid : aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, some one. b) alteruter, one or other \ Gen. alterutrius or alterius utrius, &c. 4. quispiam, quaepiam, quippiam (quodpiam), anyone (positively). 5. quisquam, quicquam, anyone at all (with non, haud, vix, &c.). 6. quidam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), a certain one. 7. a) quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whosoever, what- soever.* b} utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whichever of two. 8. quisquis, whosoever, quidquid, whatsoever ; Ace. (quemquem), quidquid;(G. cuicuimodi); Abl. (quoquo, quaqua, quo- quo), &c. ; PI. D. Abl. (quibusquibus). Some of these forms are rare. 9. a) quivis, quaevis, quidvis (quodvis), any you will. b) utervis, utra vis, utrumvis, whether of the two you will. 10. d) quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (quodlibet), any you please. b} uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, whether of the two you please. 11. a) quisque, quaeque, quicque (quodque), each. b) unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquicque (-quodque), each one : Ace. unumquemque, unamquamque, &c. Gen. uniuscuiusque, &c. c) uterque, utraque, utrumque, both, each of two. Obs. These Compounds are declined as the Simple forms, the un- declined affix or prefix accompanying each Case : Gen. cuiusnam, alicuius, cuiuscumque, utriusvis, &c. &c. 1 Poets often disjoin the affix cumque from the Relative : Quae te cumque domat Venus, Hor. 142 Latin Wordlore. 4. PRONOMINALIA. Alius, another. SINGULAR. Nom. alms alia aliud Ace. alium aliam aliud Gen. alms Dat. alii Ab. alio alia alio PLURAL. alii aliae alia alios alias alia aliorum aliarum aliorum aliis aliis Alter, one of two (the one, the other]. Nom. alter altera alterum Ace. alterum alteram alterum Gen. alterlus Dat alteri Ab. altero altera altero alteri alterae altera alteros alteras altera alterorum alterarum alterorum alteris alteris Solus, alone. Nom. solus sola solum Voc. sole sola solum Ace. solum solam solum Gen. solius Dat. soli Ab. solo sola solo soli solae sola soli solae sola solos solas sola solorum solarum solorum solis solis Totus, whole, is declined like solus : also, unus, one, ullus, any at all, nullus, none. See Numeralia. Nlhil, nothing (N. Ace.) is undeclined. Nemo, nobody, Ace. nemlnem ; G. nullius ; D. nemini ; Abl, nullo. Plural, nulli, &c. The Plural word plerique, most ; from an E. L. Adj. plerus. Nom. plerique pleraeque pleraque Ace. plerosque plerasque pleraque D. Abl. plerisque The Gen. in use is plurim-orum, arum, orum. The phrase plerique omnes = paene omnes, almost all. Also the following words, with their compounds : qualis, ofwhatkindl talis, such (like tristis). quantus, how great '? tantus so great (like bonus), quot, how manyj. tot, so many (undeclined). iv. Observations on certain Pronouns. I. The Interrogative forms quis? qui? (Indefinite quis, qui) differ in this respect : quis is substantival, asking usually the nature, name, &c. ; qui adjectival, asking quality. Quis is also Fern, in the comic poets, and grammarians refer the Fem. quae to the form qui. Quid always has a substantival, quod an adjectival use : quod vinum? but quid vini? what wine? 3I . Pronouns. 143 2. Quis, qui, Indefinite, is rarely found except as Enclitic after a particle, as ecquis, siquis, numquis, &c.; or with a second case of its own : ' siquis quern fraudavit.' It enters into com- position with the prefix all- one or other (aliquis), the indefinite affixes -piam -quam (quispiam, quisquam), and the distributive -que (quisque) ; qui takes the definitive -dam (qui-dam). 3. The Interrogative quis, qui becomes Universal (-soever"} by self-duplication (quisquis), and by taking the affix -cumque or -cunque (quicumque, quicunque). It is also modified by the appended Verb-forms, vis, you will, libet, it pleases (quivis, qui- libet). It becomes Emphatic by adding the precative affix -nam (quisnam ? quinam ?). Some of these affixes are likewise taken by the Interrogative Pronominals qualis, quantus, quot, and the Inter- rogative Adverbs ubi, quo, quando, quotiens, &c. See v. 4. U ter (for cuter = Korepos), whether of two, with its compounds, forms a dual series parallel to quis, &c. But the Relative qui is used in correlation to it. It takes many of the same affixes as qui. 1 1 The following note treats chiefly of the cognate and ancient Case-forms of the Latin Pronouns. I. The Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive. 1. Nominative Singular. The Prim, roots of the two Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive are severally ma, tu (or tva), sva. How the root ma connects itself with the Nom. Sing. Sk. aham, Gr. eyw, L. ego, is a doubtful question. Pr. tu (Sk. tvam) becomes Gr. TV (ov), L. tu. 2. Accusative Singular. Sk. mam or ma, Gr. /x (ejm), L. me. Sk. tv&m or tva, Gr. (T for rf ) oo = 50,000. As often as the symbol C is prefixed to I, equalling the number of suffixed 3, the total is doubled. Thus, CI3 = twice 500= 1,000 CCI33=twice 5,000= 10,000 CCCI333 = twice 50,000= 100,000 &c. iii. The four chief Numeral Series: Nu ^ e . ral I. CARDINAL Numerals (Cardinalia), which are Series - Adjectives answering the question Quot, how many? II. ORDINAL Numerals (Ordinalia), which are Ad- jectives answering the question Quotus, which in order of number f 1 The Numeral symbols were not originally letters, except, perhaps, M, the initial of mille. The sign of unity was a perpendicular line, afterwards I. The sign of 10 was cruciform, and became X, of which the half (5) passed into V. These three signs are found in Etruscan inscriptions. Then, to represent 50, 100, and 1000, the Romans took three Greek letters, which they did not use in their alphabet, Chi, Theta, and Phi. An old figure of Chi, in the shape of a right angle, became L, 50. was corrupted into C, the initial of centum, TOO, *, which stood for 1000, was broken into the form CIO ; and half of this, 13, was taken for 500, sometimes closing up into the form D. (See Momm- sen, Unteritalische Dialekten, pp. 19, 33, and Ritschl, Rhein. Museum, 1869, p. 12, &c.) Ritschl also considers M to be modified from the symbol ClD- It is generally admitted that the words decem (Sk. das' an, Gr. 8e'*a) and digitus (SaKTvAo?) are cognate : and Curtius adds to these d extera (Sk. daksfnna, Gr. fiesta), referring to the verb $e'xoju.ai, to receive ; but Pott, more speciously, to the verb of s/iewing or teaching, doceo (Sk. (its', Gr. 6et*-). This points to the fact that numeration began with counting the fingers, and indicates the origin of the decimal system. It is therefore not unlikely that the unit sign I represeated the outstretched forefinger, and X the hands or forefingers crossed. 148 Latin Wordlore. 33. III. DISTRIBUTIVE Numerals (Distributiva), which are Adjectives answering the question Quo- teni, how many each or each time ? IV. Numeral ADVERBS (Quotientiva), answering the question Quotiens, how often ? iv. Numeral Series of minor extent: 1. MULTIPLICATIVA, compounded with a root of number and the suffix plio. They answer the question quotuplex, hoiv many fold? and only nine are classically known : though many more might be formed by analogy : simplex simple triplex quincuplex decemplex duplex double quadruplex septemplex centuplex Also sescuplex or sesquiplex. 2. PROPORTIONALIA, formed from a root of number and the suffix pul-o = plo- (more), answer the question quotuplus, /i0w many more ? The words in this series classically used are : simplus triplus quincuplus octuplus duplus quadruplus septuplus Also sescuplus, as much and half as imich more, from sesqui (for sinsemisque, i^). Sesquialter has the same meaning as sescuplus. 3. From the Ordinals come Adjectives in anus, which often imply a soldier of the legion designated by the Numeral : primanus . . . decumanus . . . vicesimanus, unaetvicesimanus, &C. 1 a soldier of the 1st, loth, 20th, 2 ist, &>c. legion. But note also : tertiana, quartana febris, a tertian, quartan ague or fever : decumanus ager, tithepaying land ; decu- manus, a tithe farmer ; decumanus fluctus///^ tenth (i.e. largest) wave : hence decumana porta in a Roman camp, the largest gate (at the back, remote from the enemy). Adjectives in arius, implying class or rank : primarius, secun- darius, &c. Obs. Miliarius lapis, a milestone-, because the Roman 'mile' measured ' mille passus,' 1000 paces = 5000 feet. 4. From the Distributives come Adjectives in arius, which mean ' containing or consisting of so many each : ' binarius, ternarius, c. Numerus binarius, the number 2. Versus senarius, septenarius, octonarius, a verse of 6, 7, 8 feet : nummus quinarius, denarius, a coin of 5, 10 asses. In Plautus, lex quina vicenaria is used to express the law which made debts irrecoverable if con- tracted by youths under 25 years of age. Singularis, from singuli, means unparalleled, remarkable. 5. Substantives and Adjectives compounded with the Numeral roots exist in great number : * It is remarkable that una of unaetvicensima (legio) anc j analogous Fern, forms remain in these Adjectives. 33- Numeral Series. 149 blmus, two years old', trlmus, three . . . quadrlmus, four . . . ; from him- winter, with bi- tri- &c. bimenstris, trimenstris, semenstris, l of 2, 3, 6 months (also written bimestris, &c.), from mensis and bi- tri- &c. biennis, triennis, quadriennis, quinquennis . . . decennis, * of 2, 3, 4, 5 ... 10 years,' from annus with bi- tri- &c. j but quinquennalis, ' happening once in 5 years.' biennium, triennium, quinquennium . . , decennium . - . 2. n. * a term of 2, 3, 4, 5 . . . 10 years.' biduum, triduum, quatriduum . . . *a term of 2, 3, 4 ... days (for bidium, &c.), from dies with bi- tri- &c. binoctium, trinoctium, &c. are rare. bivium, trivium, quadrivium, ' a place where 2, 3, 4 roads (viae) meet' Compounds of as, assis are tressis (of 3 asses), quinquessis, octussis, nonussis, decussis, centussis, &c. The official terms duumvir, triumvir, &c., one of a commission of two, three, &c., are used in both numbers : but may also be written in Plur., duoviri, tresviri, &c. To these may be added a very large list of Adjectives simi- larly compounded : biceps, triceps . . . biformis, triformis . . . bilinguis, trilinguis . . . bicolor, tricolor . . . bifidus, trifidus . . . bipes, tripes . . . bicorpor, tricorpor . . . biiugis, triiugis . . . biremis, triremis . . . bidens, tridens . . . bilibris, trilibris . . . bisulcus, trisulcus . . . The word ' balance ' is derived from bilanx (double-dish). 6. The Verbs fari, partiri with the Quotientiva form two series *of Adverbs implying partition : bifariam, trifariam, quadrifariam, &c. i bipartite, tripartite, quadripartite, &c. \ l Obs. The words unio (whence Engl. onion], binio, ternio, qua- ternio, senio, are post-classical. But senio is used for the sice- throw (called also Venus) in dice-play. 7. The Ordinals form two series of Numeral Adverbs implying sequence : primum . . . tertium quartum . . . primo . . . tertio quarto . . . Primum may mean ' in the first place', or l for the first time.' When it means 'in the first place/ it is usually followed by deinde, in the second place ; then by other adverbs, turn, deinceps, leading up to postremo, lastly, or denique, in fine. When it means 'for the first time,' its sequence is : iterum, for the second time, tertium, quartum . . . postremum. Some of these words are used with titles of office to express the second, third, &c. time of a man's holding it : ' L. Corn. Scipio consul iterum . . . tertium consul/ &c. Primo usually means ' at the beginning,' at the first, and may be followed by dein, next, post, postea, &c. But primo is sometimes ised like primum, in the first place, followed by dein, tertio, quarto, &c. ISO Latin Wordlore.- 33- v. Declension of the Numerals. 1 N. um one. Plural urn as um bonus. Like unus : ullus (for unulus), any ; nullus (for ne unulus), none. The Ordinalia and Distributiva are declined as bonus. NUMERAL M. F. i) Sing. Norn, un-us a Voc. un-e a Ace. un-um an Gen. un-ius Dat. un-i Abl. un-o a / ARABIC 1 ROMAN SYMBOLS CARDINALIA j i I unus, a, um 2 II duo, ae, o 3 III tres, tria 4 IV quattuor I V VI quinque sex 7 VII septem 8 VIII octo 9 VIIII or IX novem 10 X decem ii XI undecim 12 XII duodecim J 3 XIII tredecim ; decem et tres ; tres et decem 14 XIV XV quattuordecim ; decem et quattuor quindecim 16 XVI sedecim ; sexdecim ; decem et sex 17 18 19 XVII XVIII XVIIII or XIX decem et septem ; s. et d. ; septemdecim duodeviginti (decem et octo) undeviginti (decem et novem) 20 XX viginti 21 22 28 2 9 30 XXI XXII XXVIII XXIX XXX unus et viginti ; viginti unus duo et viginti ; viginti duo duodetriginta (octo et viginti) undetrigmta (novem et viginti) triginta 4 XL quadraginta 50 L quinquaginta 60 LX sexaginta 70 LXX septuaginta 80 LXXX octoginta 90 xc nonaginta 98 IIC nonaginta octo ; octo et nonaginta 99 1C nonaginta novem ; undecentum 100 c centum 101 CI centum et unus : centum unus 136 CXXXVI centum et triginta sex ; c. tr. s. 200 cc ducenti, ae, a 300 ccc trecenti . . . 400 500 cccc 13 orD quadringenti . . . quingenti . . . 600 I3C or DC sescenti . . . 700 I3CC or DCC septingenti . . . 800 I3CCC or DCCC octingenti . . . 900 I3CCCC or DCCCC nongenti . . . I,OOO CI3 or M mille 2,000 CI3CI3 or MM duo milia (bis mille) 5,000 133 quinque milia 10,000 CCI33 derem milia 50,000 100,000 1333 CCCI333 quinquaginta milia centum milia ; centena milia 1,000,000 CCCCI3333 deciens centum milia ; cle.jiens ' See note on page 152. Declension of Numerals. :) Plur. Nom. Ace. Gen. D. Abl. M. duo duos (duo) duorum duobus F. duae duas duarum duabus N. duo two. duo duorum duobus 3) Plur. N. tres, tria ; Ace. tris (tres), tria ; G. trium ; D. Abl. tribus. 4) Plur. Nom. Ace. milia; G. milium ; D. Abl. milibus. Duo for duos is classical. Duum is a form of Gen. much used with weights, measures, numbers ; as duuo nummum ; duum am- phoruni ; duum milium. TABLE. ORDINALIA DlSTRIBUTlVA. QUOTIENTIVA -us, -a, -um -i, -ae, -a (-lens or -ies) primus singuli semel. secundus (or alter) bini bis. tertius terni or trini ter. quartus quaterni quater. quintus quini quinquiens or quinquies. sextus seni sexiens. septimus septeni septiens. octavus octoni octiens. nonus noveni noviens. decimus deni deciens. undecimus undeni undeciens. duodecimus duodeni duoderiens. tertius decimus (decimus et tertius) terni deni terdeciens or tredeciens. quartus decimus (decimus et quartus) quintus decimus quaterni deni quini deni quattuordeciens or quater d. quindecienstfrquinquiensd. sextus decimus seni deni sedeciens or sexiens deciens. septimus decimus septeni deni septiensdeciens. duodevicensimus (octavus decimus) duodeviceni duodeviciens or octiens d. undevicensimus (nonus decimus) undeviceni undeviciens or noviens d. vicensimus (vigensimus) or vicesimus viceni viciens. unus et vicensimus (primus et vie. ; vie. pr.) viceni singuli semel et viciens or v. s. alter et vicensimus (v. a. ; duo et vie.) viceni bini bis et viciens or v. b. duodetricensimus (octavus et vicensimus) duodetriceni octiens et viciens. undetricensimus (nonus et vicensimus>) undetriceni noviens et viciens. tricensimus (trigensimus) or tricesimus quadragensimus triceni quadrageni triciens. quadragiens. quinquagensimus quinquageni quinquagiens. sexagensimus sexageni sexagiens. septuagensimus septuageni septuagiens. octogensimus octogeni octogiens. nonagensimus nonageni nonagiens. nonagensimus octavus nonageni octoni nonagiens octiens. undecentensimus undecenteni undecentiens ? centensimus or centesimus centeni centiens. centensimus primus centeni singuli centiens semel. centensimus trincensimus sextus centeni triceni seni centiens triciens sexiens. duocentensimus duceni ducentiens. trecentensimus treceni trecentiens. quadringentensimus quadringeni quadringentiens. quingentensimus quingeni quingentiens. sexcentensimus ; sesc. seceni sescentiens. septingentensimus septingeni septingentiens. octingentensimus octingeni oct'ngentiens. nongentensimus nongeni nongentiens. millensimus or millesimus singula milia miliens. bis millensimus bina milia bis miliens. quinquiens millensimus deciens millensimus quina milia dena milia quinquien miliens. deciens miliens. quinquagiens millensimus quinquagena milia quinquagiens miliens. centiens millensimus centena milia centiens miliens. ciiingentiens millensimus miliens millensimus quingena milia decies centena milia quingentiens miliens. deciens centiens miliens. 152 Latin Wordlore. 33- Ambo, both, is declined as duo : but without contraction. Mi lie, thousand, is undeclined. 1 The whole Numeral system contains only 14 roots : those of the ten first Cardinal Numbers (unus . . . decem); mille; semel; and those of primus, secundus. All other Numerals come from these. Formation of Numerals. A) Cardinalia. Unity is expressed in Latin by two forms: (i) u-'nu-s; (2) sim-, which appears in singuli, simplex, semel. - i) Unus (E.L. oinus) seems to be the Demonstr. Pronoun i gunized (becoming ai, oi = u) and taking the suffix no-, so as to imply 'consisting of that,' 'that and no other one. The Sk. word for one is ekas, the same pronoun compounded with the interrogative Pron. ka, ' who or what,' meaning ' that -whatsoever' In Zand the form is aiva or aeva, corresponding to Gr. olos, oifos, ' alone.' 2) Sim- represents Sk. sa-ma, which is the Superl. of the Demonstr. Pron. sa, thus expressing ' that especially.' Singulus(for sim-culus), a deminutive expressing ' that particular ' ' that small unit,' is used as Plural ; very rarely Singular. It would seem as if s i n g u lu s and unus had changed places in usage : for although singulus is well suited to the Cardinal series, it belongs to the Distributive, which, having in every other instance the suffix no- (bini, terni, &c.), might claim unus as its proper head. This however only occurs when Pluralia-tantum are numbered: as una (bina, trina, &c.) castra; unae (binae, trinae, &c.) lit- terae, aedes, &c. From sim- comes sem-e-1; also sim-u-1, sim-ili-s : sama is contained also in Gr. et? (e'-s), /u'a, 'iv, in which the Masc. sam-s, becoming san-s and so /s, passes into !?, and the Fern, sam-ya becomes sm-ya, m-ya, and so ftt'o. For the names of the Cardinalia from 2 to 10 see Table. The Cardinalia from n to 17 are additive Compounds of the first nine with decem, 10! un-decim, duo-decim, &c. The principal forms for 18, 19 are Subtractive : duodeviginti (2 off 20); undevi- g i n t i (i off 20) ; and these forms reappear in 28, 29 ; 38, 39, &c. to 99, undecentum: 98 only being excepted. The Cardinalia, which are multiples of 10, are multiplicative Compounds of the Nume- rals 2 ... 10 with decenti or degenta (10) : 20 (d-videcenti 2X 10=) viginti ; 30 (triadecenta 3X io)=triginta ; 40 (quatora decenta 4X 10=) quadraginta, &c. ; but in 70, septuaginta, a byform septuo is used for sep tern ; and in 90, nonaginta, nona- seems to be contracted from no vena. It must be observed that all these forms in a are probably Neuters Plur. which classically retain the ancient long a. Centum alone is Neut. Sing, and stands for (decen- decentum lox 10), dropping the first three syllables, as in English the word -wig has dropt the two first syllables of periwig. The Sk. form is s'ata (*=kata), Gr. e/caroi/, perhaps for (Se/eo- taWi-ov). The Multiples of centum from 200 to 900 are Compounds of the first nine Numerals withtheform -centi, among which quadr-z'rc-genti is strangely formed on theanalogy, of quingenti, &c. ; octingenti goes back to the Pr. form (aktau) ; and nongenti is for (novingenti). The form expressing 1000 is different in the several branches of the Aryan family : Ind. sahasra : Gr. xt'Atoi ; L. mille ; Goth, thusund, &c. The root of mille is questionable. Some refer it to Sk. mil, Gr. 6-^1 A-, to associate, assemble, ) Ordinalia : Primus (Sk. prathamas, Gr. Trpwros) is Superl. of prae, pro (Sk. pra, Gr. irpo. Compare npiv). Secundus is Present Participle of sequor (Sk. sat, Gr. en--). The next four assume the Superl. suffix (to) to-, euphonized in tert-i-u-s(for ter-tu-s, Tpt'r.,?), by inserting i. Octa-v-us (6-ySofos) seems to be the Adj. of Sk. ashtau : and the retention of av (rather than ov) is a remarkable instance of dissimilation. Nonus is a contraction of novenus, a Distributive form in this instance appearing among the Ordi- nals, as unus (see above) among the Cardinal numerals. 34. Use of the Numerals. 153 vi. Use of the Numerals. Use 3 * f the Nu- A) Cardinaha. merais. a) Since the Singular itself implies unity, unus without other Numerals always has emphasis : 'Amicitiae vis est in eo ut unus quasi animus fiat ex pluribus,' the essence of friendship is that one soul as it were is formed of several, C. Lael. 25. But, ' Matronae annum, ut parentem, Brutum luxerunt/ the matrons mourned Brutus for one year, as a father, L. ii. 7. b) Unus may take a Superlative force, or emphasise Superla- tives : ' Demosthenes unus eminet inter omnes oratores,' Demos- thenes stands unrivalled among orators, C. Or. 29. ' P. Nigidius, unus omnium doctissimus,' Publius Nigidius, the most learned of men, C. Fam. iv. 13. It is likewise used emphatically with some Pronouns and Pronominals : 'Hoc non quivis unus ex populo poterat agnoscere,' /'/ was not any individual from among the people that could recognise this, C. Br. 93. 'Nemo unus erat vir quo magis innisa res Roman a staret,' there was no one man on whom the Roman commonwealth more leaned for its snpport, L. ix. 1 6. On the Plural use of unus see p. 155. The Voc. Sing, une is used by Catullus, xxxvii. 17. c) Mille is used (i) as an undeclined Substantive; rarely with Sing. Verb: 'Amplius mille hominum cecidit/ more than one In the Ordinals of 20, 30 .... to 90 the Superl. ending -slmu-s -sumu-s is taken, form- ing -ent-simus(or ent-sumus), -en-simus(or -en-sumus), before the Aug. age, after- wards -esimus: as vicensimus (or vicensumus), vicesimus, &c. This form is adopted, by mere analogy, in cent-ensimus and its Compounds, ducentensimus, &c., and in m ill-e nsimus. C) Numeral Adverbs. Semel: see A): bis for(d-vis); ter by transp. for tri : quater (for quat-v-or). All others are formed with the final suffix -lens : q u i n q u i e n s, &c. In the multiples of 10, -lens takes the place of -inta : viciens, triciens, quadragiens, &c. In 100 and its multiples it follows nt : centiens, ducentiens . . . From mille, m i 1 1 e n s. After the Aug. age n usually fell out, and the forms became quinquies. . . . znilies. So toties, quoties: inR. L. totiens, quotiens. D) Distributiva. Singuli : see A) : bi-ni (for d-vi-ni), ter-ni or t rl-ni : q u ater-ni : qui-ni(for quinc-ni), s e - n i ; septe-ni, octo-ni, nove-ni, d e - n i (for dece-ni), &c. Afterwards the suffix -eni is taken by all Distributiva below 1,000. The form m illeni is not used, but instead of it milia is multiplied by the previous Distributives : singula milia, bin a milia, &c. See Numeral Table. Ningulus, an E.L. word (for ne-singulus),=nullus. The following table shews the resemblance of the Numerals in seven Indo-European languages : Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, Lithuanian, Welsh (Cymraeg), Gothic, and German. Lat. Sk. Gr. Lith. W. Goth. Germ. unus ekas el? vena un aina eins duo dvi Svo dva dau twai zwei tri- tri Tpl- tri tri thrija drei quattuor c' atvaras reVfapes keturi pedwar fidvrtr vier quinque pane 'an ireVre (7re'/*jri i) penki pump fimf fihif sex shash 1C szeszi chsvech sai s sechs septem saptan errra septynl saith sibun sie'nen octo ashtau OKTCO asztunl wyth ahtau acht novem navan ewe fa devyni naw niun neun decem das'an MM deszinti deg taihun zehn centum s'ata eKaror sznnta cant hunt! hundert 154 Latin Wordlore. 34. thousand men fell, Nep. Dat. 8: frequently with Plural verb: 'Mille passuum erant inter urbem castraque/ there was an interval of a mile between the city and the camp, L. xxi. 61. So mille nummum. (2) As undeclined Adjective constantly: 'Mille rates,' a thousand ships, Ov. Met. xii. 7. The Plural milia (or millia) is only a Substantive, followed usually by a Genitive: ' Quattuor milia hominum et quingenti Capitolium occupavere, four thousand five hundred men seized tJie Capitol, L. iii. 15. If smaller Numerals intervene between milia and the Substantive, the latter may agree with the smaller : ' Tria milia et septingenti pedites ierunt/ there marched 3,700 infantry, L. xxxv. 40. ' Mille as Abl. is peculiarly used in the following place : * Cum octo milibus peditum, mille equitum/ L. xxi. 61. c. o'clock. Hora nona, at 3 o'clock. c} The Ordinals are used with quisque : ' tertio quoque anno/ every third year, &c. But ' alternis diebus/ every other day. C} Distributiva. a) These apply the Number they express to each of several persons or things or times : ' Data ex praeda militibus aeris 34- Use of the Numerals. 155 octogeni bini sagaque et tunicae,' the soldiers received from the. spoil eighty-two asses each, with cloak and tunic, L. x. 30 (i.e. mili- tibus singulis). ' German! singulis uxoribus content! sunt,' the Germans are satisfied with one wife each, Tac. G. 18 (i.e. German! singuli). * Ursae pariunt plurimum quinos,' bears bring forth at most five cubs at a birth, PI. N. H. (i.e. ursae singulae). V) When the Distributive singuli is expressed in Latin with one Noun, the Cardinal can be used with the other : ' Singulis censo- ribus denarii trecenti ad statuam praetoris imperati sunt,' each censor had 300 denars imposed on him for the statue of the praetor, C. Verr. ii. 55. But the Distributive is much more usual in this position: 'Verberibus mulcant sexageni singulos,' they punish with stripes, 60 soldiers each centurion, Tac. Ann. i. 32. * Antonius quingenos denarios singulis militibus dat,' Antonius gave each soldier 500 denars, C. Fam. x. 31. Singuli incedunt, they advance one by one. Singulis diebus eadem fiunt, the same happens every day. Quotannis may be used for singulis annis, every year; cotidie for singulis diebus ; and viritim, man by man, for any Masc. case of singuli. Plautus has ' singulum vestigium/ Cist. iv. 2. c] The Distributives are often multiplied by the Adverbs : * Bis bin a quot sunt?' how many are twice two? Cic. ' Decrevere pontifices ut virgines ter novenae per urbem euntes carmen canerent,' the pontiffs decreed that three choirs of maidens, nine in each, should sing in procession through the city, L. xxvii. 37. d} Uni (not singuli), trini (not terni), and the Distributives bini, quaterni, quini, &c., are used with Substantives of Singular sense and Plural form : ' Una castra iam facta ex binis videban- tur,' one camp seemed now to have been formed out of two, Caes. B. C. i. 24 : ' trinis castris,' Caes. B. G. vii. 66. So, ' unae nuptiae,' unae litterae, &c. ; but, 'tres liber!,' three children. On this principle the following expressions are legitimate: *uni Ubii,' the Ubii alone, Caes. : 'unos sex dies,' six days only, Plaut. ' Lacedae- monii iam septingentos annos unis moribus vivunt,' the Lacedae- monians have now been living 700 years with one set of habits, C.p. Place. 26. e] Bini is used to express a pair : < Pamphilus binos habebat scyphos sigillatos,' Pamphilus had a pair of embossed cups, C. Verr. iv. 14. ' Bin a manu crispans hastilia,' brandishing a couple of spears, Verg. A en. i. 313. /) Poets sometimes use the Distributives in a multiplicative sense : * Septeno gurgite,' with sevenfold torrent, Lucan. viii. 444. Frequently for the Cardinals : ' centenas manus,' a hundred hands, Verg. But when Virgil writes Per duodena regit mundum sol aureus astra, the golden sun through 12 signs guides the world, the Dis- tributive is correct, because each year is implied, G. i. 231. g) The Gen. PI. of Cardinals and Distributives is usually con- tracted into urn : ' quingentum iugerum ; ' ' senum septenumve annorum.' 156 Latin Word lore. 34. Com . vii. Compound Numeration. pound Nume- a] In the Table of Numerals the most approved forms are set rals ' down ; those less usual but not inadmissible are bracketed. b} In Compound Numbers above 20, either the smaller number with et precedes the larger, or the larger without et pre- cedes the smaller: 'Romulus septem et triginta regnavit annos,' Romulus reigned 37 years, C. Rep. ii. 10. ' Macedo Alex- ander tertio et tricensimo anno mortem obiit/ Alexander of Macedonia died in his thirty-third year, C. Ph. v. 1 7. ' Septuaginta et tres amissi/ 73 were lost, L. xxxv. I. ' Plinius scripsit sub Nerone naturae historiarum libros triginta septem/ Plinius in, the reign of Nero wrote 37 books of natural history, Plin. Ep. iii. 5. 'Dentes triceni bini viris attribuuntur/ thirty-two teeth are as- signed to a man, PL N. H. vii. 16. But 'et' occurs after the larger Numeral : * viginti et duos annos/ C. Cat. M. 9. Also the smaller occurs before the larger without et : 'Quattuor quadraginta illi debentur minae/ 44 minas are due to him, Plaut. Most. iii. I. 'Septimo quinquagensimo die rem confeci/ I finished the affair in 57 days, C. Fam. xv. 4, Unus, when it occurs with viginti, &c., generally stands first, and the Noun last: unus et viginti ho- mines; unum et triginta milia. But exceptions occur: 'Vi- ginti unus tribuni/ L. xxii. 49. 'Viginti unam muscas/ 21 flies, PL N. H. xxx. 10. ' Diebus viginti uno/ PL N. H. xxix. 6. c) In Compound Numbers above 100, the larger with or without et generally precedes the smaller: 'Leontinus Gorgias cen- tum et septem complevit annos/ Go?-gias of Leonlini completed 107 years, C. Cat. M. 5. ' Annum magnum esse voluerunt omnibus planetis in eundem recurrentibus locum, quod fit post duodecim milia nongentos quinquaginta quatt u or annos/ they would have a great year to be when all the planets come back into the same place, which happens after 12,954 years, Cic. 'Sescentensimum et quadragensimum annum urbs Roma agebat, cum primum Cimbrorum audita sunt arma/ Rome was in its 640^ year wlien the arms of the Cimbri were first heard, Tac. G. 37. ' Olympiade centensima quartadecima Lysippus fuit/ Lysippus lived in the I I4//J Olympiad, PI. N. H. xxxiv. 8. 'Aristidis arbitrio quadrin- gena et sexagena talenta quotannis Delum sunt collata/ under the control of Arts (ides 460 talents were annually contributed to the treasury at Delos, Nep. Ar. 3. d) The multiples of 1,000 are expressed by the Cardinals (or Distributives) multiplying milia: duo, tria, &c., ; decem, vi- ginti, &c. ; centum, ducenta, &c. milia ; (or bina, terna, &c.), milia. Poets and some prose writers of the silver age use bis, ter, &c. with mille : 'bis mille equos/ Hor. ; 'quinquiens mille quad- ringenta stadia/ PI. TV. H. And so with smaller Numerals : ' Hie (Caesar) deciens senos tercentum et quinque diebus addidit/ Caesar added 60 days to 305, Ov. F. iii. 163. e) The multiples of 100,000 are expressed by the Numeral Ad- 3rbs joined to centum milia or centena milia, as stated in the following passage: ' Non erat apud antiques numerus ultra centum, 34. Numeral Expression of Fractions. 157 milia; itaque et hodie multiplicantur haec, ut deciens centena milia aut saepius dicantur/ the ancients had no number beyond 100,000 ; wherefore to the present day these figures are multiplied, so as to use the form ' ten times a hundred thousand] and the like in progression, PL N. H. xxxiii. 10. Thus we find : ' viciens centum milia passuum/ 2,000,000 = miles, Caes. : 'bis ettriciens centum milia passuum/ 3, 200,000 miles, Suet. ' quinquiens miliens centum milia,' 500,000,000, PI. ; ' octagiens quinquiens centena sexaginta octo milia,' 8,568,000 PL In cipher the thousands were written with a line above them, and the hundred thousands with side lines also. Thus 999,099 in writing is : noviens centena nonaginta novem milia nongenti nonaginta novem; in cipher: | ix | xcix iDCCCCXCix. aa. Unus is often used in Compound Numbers for the Ordinal primus: ' Plato uno et octogensimo anno scribens mortuus est, 3 Plato died while writing in his %\st year, C. Cat. M. So unetvicen- simus, unaetvicensima or unetvicensima. Duoetvicensimus is rare. viii. Numeral Expression of Fractions. The Romans expressed fractions in the following ways : * 1) If the numerator is I, it is not expressed : as dimidia pars = |, tertia pars = \, &c. 2) If the numerator is greater than i, and less than the denomi- nator by more than i, it is expressed as in English, suppressing ' partes : ' duae quintae = f ; tres septimae = f , &c. 3) If the numerator is less than the denominator by i only, the latter may be suppressed, ' partes ' being expressed : duae partes = | ; tres partes = f ; quinque partes = f , &c. 4) A fraction may be expressed by the multiplication of two fractions : dimidia tertia = | x | = | ; quarta septima = x = - 1 -, &c. 5) A fraction may be expressed by the addition of two fractions : as pars dimidia et tertia = \ + 1 = f ; pars quarta et septima = | + f = 28* 6) The Roman unit of weight, length, or measure was called as. The 'as' (unit) of weight, called libra, pound of length pes, foot of area iugerum, acre was in each case divided into 12 parts, called unciae. 2 Hence fractions of 12 were named, according to the number of unciae they contained, as follows : 1 Dimidio maior means ' half 'as much larger,' altero tanto maior, as large again, i.e. twice as large. The following passage from PI. N. H. vi. (cited by F. Schultz) may be a useful exercise in fractional computation, while it shews the great ignorance of geography which existed in Pliny's time : ' Apparet Europam paulo minus dimidia Asiae parte maiorem esse quam Asiam ; ean- dem altero tanto et sexta parte Africae ampliorem quam Africam. Quod si misceantur omnes summae, liquido patebit Europam totius terrae tertiam esse partem et octavam paulo amplius, Asiam vero quartam et quartamdecimam, Africam autem quintain et in- super sexagensimam.' 3 Hence inch as well as ounce is derived from uncia. Frac- tions. 158 Latin Wordlore. 35-36. uncia sextans =2 quadrans =3 triens =4 quincunx =5 ^ i unc. i of the unit )) )> semsss 6 f septunx = 7 unc . of the unit. bes = 8 | dodrans =9 f dextans = 10 f = II 11 I -I TO ?> 1) By this notation inheritance was calculated : ' heres ex asse,' universal heir : ' heres ex semisse/ heir to half the estate \ * heres ex dimidia et quadrante/ heir to three-fourths, &c. The Uncia was also subdivided, viz. : scripulum sextula unc. =^ of unit | sicilicus =|unc. =^ of unit. =| = _ =JL semuncia Sescuncia or Sescunx (uncia semisque) = i| uncia = of unit. Sesquialtera ratio = i| : I = 3 : 2. Finite fink e ln ~ 36 Voices. CHAPTER III. THE VERB. SECTION I. i- The Verb Finite and Infinite. See page 72, I* T* 16 Verb Finite is so called, because its forms are limited by Mood and Person, as well as Tense. II. The forms of the Verb Infinite are not limited by Mood and Person. Note. Any Finite form is called a PERSONAL VERB, because it agrees with a Nominative in the ist, 2nd, or 3rd Person. ii. The Voices of the Verb. There are in Verbs two classes of form, which gram- marians have called VOICES (Voces, Genera) : 1) The Active Voice (Vox Activa), fromagere, to do. 2) The Passive Voice (Vox Passiva), from pati, to suffer. i) The Active Voice indicates that a Subject is or does something : sum, / am amo, / love valeo, / am well moneo, / advise $ 3 6. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 159 2) The Passive Voice indicates generally that a Sub- ject suffers something (has something done to it) : amor, I am loved moneor, / am advised iii. Deponent Verbs. Many Verbs, though Passive in most of their forms, have an Active meaning : venor, / hunt vereor, I fear These are called by grammarjans, DEPONENT VERBS (Deponentia). 1 iv. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. Transi- tive and 1) In order that it may be fully conjugated (like amo and skive" moneo), in both Voices, a Verb must be Transitive. Verbs. Intransitive Verbs are fully conjugated in one Voice only. 2) A Verb is called TRANSITIVE when its action passes on (tran- sit) to an Object in the Accusative (Objective) Case : moneo Lucium, / advise Lucius ; Lucius me audit, Lucius hears me. A Deponent Verb may be Transitive, though conjugated in the Passive Voice only : venamur lepores, we hunt hares ; lepores nos verentur, hares fear us. 3) An INTRANSITIVE Verb, Active or Deponent, requires no Object : surgo, I rise ; proficiscor, I go. Those which express state or condition are called Static Verbs : aegroto, / am sick sto, / stand ; irascor, / am angry, An Accusative Object, called Cognate or Contained, may be joined to an Intransitive Verb, if it expresses the function contained in the Verb itself : ludere ludum insolentem, to play a haughty game ; aegrotare mirum morbum, to be sick of a strange disease. See Syntax (Accusative). The construction called IMPERSONAL allows Intransitive Verbs to be used in the Third Persons Singular and in the Infinitive of the Passive Voice : surgitur (a nob'fs or ab illis being understood), we (they} rise (literally, there is rising by us or by them}. See 50. 4) The Subject of a 'Transitive Verb may become its Object : (ego) verto me, / turn my self \ (tu) vertis te, you turn yourself \ (is) vertit se, he turns himself. This Pronoun Object is sometimes omitted, as in English, and the Verb is thus used intransitively : iam verterat fortuna, fortune had now turned, Liv. On the other hand, the Passive, like the Greek Middle Voice, has often a reflexive use : vertor, / turn myself \ lavor, / wash myself. Probably this was the primary sense of the Passive. Some Deponents originate thus : glorior, I boast (myself} ; vescor, I feed (myself}. Others grow out of Passive Verbs : gravor, f grudge, am loth (lit. am grieved}. 1 The term ' Deponent ' is bad, though inveterate in Latin grammar. Medial (Media) would be a better name for these Verbs. 160 Latin Wordlore. 37- v. Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent Verbs. 1) A few Verbs, of Active form, are used in Passive sense, and are called QUASI-PASSIVE Verbs : exsulo, i. I am banished. vapulo, i. I am beaten no, / become or am made. Passive of facio, / make. pereo, I am lost or destroyed perdo, / lose or destroy. veneo, / am on sale vendo, / sell. liceo, 2. / am put to auction (but liceor, / bid at an auction). The Participles perditus and perdendus, venditus and vendendus, are in use. Verbero, I beat, has a Passive verberor, but vapulo often took its place in popular speech. 2) Some Verbs, otherwise Active, take a Passive form with Active meaning in their Perfect Participle and the Tenses derived from it : audeo, 2. / dare ausus sum, / dared gaudeo, 2. / rejoice gavisus sum, / rejoiced soleo, 2. / am wont solitus sum, / was wont fido, 3. / trust fisus sum, / trusted no, / become factus sum, / became These are called SEMI-DEPONENT Verbs. 3) Some Verbs have an Active Perfect, with a Passive Perfect Participle, active in sense : ceno, cenavi, / supped cenatus, having supped iuro, iuravi, / swore iuratus, having sworn prandeo, prandi, / dined pransus, having dined nubo, nupsi, / was wedded nupta, wedded Other Passive Participles from Active Verbs are : adultus, grown up, from adolesco, adolevi cretus, sprung cresco, crevi suetus, accustomed suesco, suevi (with compounds) obsoletus, out of date obsolesco, obsolevi placitus, pleasing placeo, placui. potus, having drunk, from an old stem po- perosus, hating, from perodi ; exosus, hating or hated utterly pertaesus, tired, from pertaedet. Also coalitus (coalesco), deflagratus, exoletus, initus, inveteratus, propensus. See M. Lucr. ii. 383 ; iii. 772. vi- The Moods of the Verb. MOODS (Modi) express the mariner of action in a Finite Verb. There are three Moods of the Verb Finite : i) The INDICATIVE Mood declares a fact or condition as real or absolute : gaudeo quod (si) abest, / am glad that (if) he is absent. 38. The Tenses of the Verb. 161 2) The CONJUNCTIVE Mood states a fact or condi- tion as conceived or contingent : gaudeam si absit, / shall be glad if he be absent ; velim absit, / would wish he were absent : vellem abesset, I could wish he had been absent. This Mood, in principal construction, we call the PURE Conjunc- tive, gaudeam, velim, vellem. When it depends on another Verb, it is called SUBJUNCTIVE, absit, abesset. The English version of the Conjunctive generally requires the use of an auxiliary Verb, may, might, would, should, shall, &c. The Subjunctive is often rendered* by the English Indicative : nescio quid velis, I know not what you wish', tarn stulti sunt ut * nihil intellegant, they are so foolish that they understand nothing; also by the English Subjunctive : dubito num intelle- gat, / doubt if he understand', but often it must be expressed by an auxiliary verb may, might: edimus ut vivamus, we eat that we may live. The right rendering of this Mood is not learnt from tables, but by exemplification, reading, and practice. 3) The IMPERATIVE Mood is for command and en- treaty : hue c u r r e, run hither ; memento venias, you must remember to come. See p. 163. 3 8 vii. The Tenses of the Verb. Tenses. TENSES (Tempora) are forms which indicate the time of action or state in Verbs. 1. Tense -forms are either INFLECTED or COMBINATE. An Inflected Tense-form is a distinct word obtained by modi- fying the Stem of the Verb : ama-bo, ama-v-eram. A Combinate Tense-form is obtained by connecting a Par- ticiple of the Verb with a Tense-form of an auxiliary Verb. The only auxiliary Verb ordinarily used for this purpose in classical Latin is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, to be, which, combined with the Participles in us, supplies various Tenses, especially the Perfect Tenses in the Passive Voice : amatus sum, fui, &c. 2. The English language has very few inflected Tenses ; as Pres. love, lovest, loves ; Past loved, lovedst : but its Verb is enlarged by combining with Infinitive and Parti- cipial forms nine auxiliary Verbs and several Prepositions : namely, a. be (am, was, c.) have (had) must do (did) let shall (should) can (could) may (might) will (would) (3. to ; about to ; by ; in. M 1 62 Latin Wordlore. 3 8. Hence English is richer in its power of expressing Time than Latin ; and most Latin forms admit various English equivalents. As grammatical tables cannot supply all the English equivalents for each Verb-form, a thorough knowledge of the Latin Verb is gained only by the practical work of reading and intertranslating. 3. Time is Present, Past, or Future. Action or .state may be simply present, past, or future. For each simple time Latin has an inflected Indicative Tense- form in the Active Voice ; and, in the Passive, inflected forms for the Present and Future, and a combinate form for the Simple Past. Thus, in the Indicative Mood, SIMPLE PRESENT. SIMPLE PAST. SIMPLE FUTURE. ACTIVE. amo, / love amavi, loved amabo, shall love PASSIVE. amor, / am loved amatus sum, was loved amabor, shall be loved 4. But it is often necessary to describe action and state with more complex relations of time; and this the English language, by its numerous auxiliary verbs, can do more fully than Latin. Such relations are (in the Indicative Mood) : ACTIVE. PASSIVE. I. Present in (Present am loving* am being-loved* 4 Past was loving was being-loved (Future shall-be loving* shall-be (being) loved* II. Past in / Present have loved* have-been loved* J Past had loved had-been lovedf ( Future shall-have loved shall-have-been lovedf III. Future in (Present am about-to-lovef am about-to-be-loved J J Past was about-to-lovef was about-to-be-lovedj (Future shall-be about-to-lovef shall-be about-to-be-loved % Latin has inflected Tense-forms for three only of these relations in the Active ; and for one only in the Passive : Indie. Act. amabam, 7 was loving amaveram, / had loved amavero, I shall have loved Pass, amabar, 7 was being loved To express the English marked *, the Simple Tense-forms are used: amo, amor; amabo, amabor; amavi, amatus sum (fui). To express that marked f, Combinate forms are needed : amatus eram (fueram) ; amatus ero (fuero) ; amaturus sum, fui, ero (fuero). 38. The Tenses of the Verb. i6 3 For the English marked J, and other temporal relations still more complex, the help of particles is required in Latin : the woman is about to be killed in eo est mulier ut trucidetur : the woman was about to be killed in eo erat mulier ut trucidaretur. If this be thrown into oblique statement (I think, I thought that, &c.), the Passive Infin. iri with Supine may be used; or futurum (fore) ut with Subjunctive : puto (putavi) muliercm trucidatum iri puto futurum ut mulier trucidetur putavi fore ut mulier trucMaretur. 5. Action is either Incomplete (Infecta) or Complete (Perfecta). The names of the Finite Tenses are : 1) Of Incomplete Action : Present ; Future Simple ; Imperfect. 2) Of Complete Action : Perfect ; Future Perfect ; Pluperfect. The subjoined Table shews their form in the three Moods of each Voice. (See Scheme.) ACTIVE PASSIVE Indie. Con June. 1 Imper. Indie. Conjunc. Imper. i) Present Fut. S. . Imperfect 2) Perfect amo amabo amabam amavi amem amarem amaverim ama amato amor amabor amabar amatus amer amarer amatus am are amator Fut. P. . amavero sum amatus sim Pluperf. amaveram amavissem ero amatus amatus eram essem The Imperative /0-forms are generally regarded as strengthen- ing varieties, implying must. Some (as Madvig, Ferd. Schultz, &c.) treat them in this sense as = Future forms. We do the same, but merely for the sake of convenience. 1 Gossrau (Latcin. SprachL 146) rightly says that the Conjunctive Tenses are not temporal in the same sense as those of the Indicative ; the Pluperfect being the only one which never loses its proper expression of time. But his mode of escape from this difficulty is so far from commendable, that to discuss it would be lost time. The distinction used in this grammar, of Pure Conjunctive in a principal sentence, and Subjunctive in a dependent clause, seems to be the simplest and easiest as far as it goes. But the difficulty still remains of having to call the Conjunctive (or Subjunctive) forms Dy the names of the Indicative Tenses, from which some of them diverge in use so widely. The only way of M 2 164 Latin Wordlore. 39-40. Obs. The defects of this Tense-system are in part supplied by the Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation of sum with the Parti- ciples in -rus, -dus (see 47) : amaturus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c. amandus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, c. 6. Tenses are Primary or Historic. The Primary Tenses are the Present and the Futures : the Historic are the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Simple Past (/ loi'ed}. When Present-Past (/ have loved}, the Perfect is Primary. It is a great advantage of Greek, as compared with Latin, that it has inflected forms for both these relations : Simple Past (Aorist) . . ty/\n, / loved Present Past (Perfect) . Tre^A^o, I have loved 39 Number viii. Number and Person in the Verb. and The Tenses of the Finite Verb have two NUMBERS, Singular and Plural ; with three PERSONS in each Number, distinguished by Pronominal endings. The First Person expresses one or more speaking ; The Second spoken to ; The Third spoken of : SINGULAR. PLURAL. ego am-o, / love nos ama-mus, we love tu ama-s, thou * lovest vos ama-tis, ye ! love is ama-t, he loves ii ama-nt, tJiey love The oin amo represents a Primitive form d-mi. Hence the cha- racters of the three Persons are severally m, s, t. Pronoun Nomi- natives, being understood in the Personal endings, are commonly omitted : am-o, 7 love ; ama-s, you love ; ama-t, he loves, &c. In the Imperative Mood there is no First Person ; and in its Present Tense the Second Person only is used. 4 The ix. The Verb Infinite contains: Verb 1. Infinitive, Gerunds, and Supines ; which are Sub- stantival ; 2. Participles, which are Adjectival. avoiding it seems to be, to use for the Conjunctive forms, when cited in Syntax, a numeral notation easy to be remembered : amem ; moneam ; regam ; audiam : Q or g i amaverim ; monuerim ; rexerim ; audierim : C 2 or S 2 amarem ; monerem ; regerem ; audirem : C 3 or S 3 amavissem ; monuissem ; rexissem ; audissem : C 4 or S 4 . 1 English usage has adopted you for the Second Person of both Numbers instead of tJion and ye, which are now used only in prayer or by poets. S40. The Verb Infinite. i6 5 i. A] The INFINITIVE (Infinitivum) describes action or state in a general manner, without personal relation. tive It has Tense-forms : j) For Incomplete Action (Present and Imperfect) : Act. ama-re, to love, be loving, have been loving Pass, ama-ri, to be loved. 2) For Complete Action (Perfect and Pluperfect) : Act. amav-isse, to have loved Pass, amat-us, a, um, esse, to hqve been loved. 3) For Future in Present Action : Act. amat-urus, a, um, esse, to be about to love Pass, amat-um iri, to be about to be loved (where amatum, being Supine, is invariable). 4) For Future in Past Action : Act. amat-urus, a, um, fuisse, to have been about to love. 13) The GERUNDS (Gerundia) are cases of a Verbal Substantive with suffix -ndo-, Decl. 2. n. The GERUNDIVE (Gerundivum) is a Participle or Verbal Adjective with the same suffix : GERUNDIVE. Nom. S. arna-nius, a, um (ineef) to be loved declined a's bonus. GERUNDS. Ace. ama-ndum, loving Gen. ama-ndi, of loving Dat. ama-ndo,_/0r loving Abl. ama-ndo, by or in loving The Gerundive is used to express meetness or necessity, either impersonally, as eundum est, one must go ; or personally : vita tuenda est, life should be protected. If a Case of the Person is added, that Case is usually the Dative : eundum est mihi, I must go ; vita nob is tuenda est, life should be protected by us. C) SUP/NES (Supina) are Accusative and Ablative of supines. a Verb-noun of Decl. 4, with suffix -tu (su) or -to (so) : ama-t-um, to love ama-t-u, in loving 2. PARTICIPLES (Participia) are so called because they take part of the properties of Verbs, and part of the ples * properties of Adjectives. Besides the Gerundive, three other Participles are found in Verbs : Active Pres. and Imperf. ama-ns,/*?^///^ .... as in gens Future . . . . ainu-t-uriis, about to love \ , Passive Perfect .... z.m*-\-vi*, having be en loved] a 1 66 Latin Wordlore. 41. a] The three Participles wanting may be thus supplied : Act. Part. Perf. having loved, cum amavisset (or by Abl. Absolute) Pass. - Pres. being loved, qui amatur, or dum amatur Fut. about to be loved, qui amabitur. b] Some Verbs form Participials in -bundus or -cundus, express- ing * fulness,' as vagabundus, 'wandering, iracundus, wrathful; in -bills, expressing 'possibility,' ^ax?^'^, procurable ; in -ills, expressing ' capacity,' docllis, teachable ; in -ax, expressing 'inclination,' loquax, talkative ; in -idus, expressing ' active force,' rapidus, hurrying, cupidus, desirous. c] Deponent Verbs, though of Passive form, have the Active Par- ticiples in -ns, urus, and also use their Perfect Participle in an Active sense : Pres. vena-ns, /hunting Fut. vena-t-urus, about to hunt Perf. vena-t-us, having hunted But many Deponents use their Perfect Participle passively as well as actively, as pollicit us, premised or having promised, from polliceor, I promise. Others of this kind are abominatus, auspicatus, adeptus, comitatus, commentus, conatus, confessus, dignatus, di- mensus, effatus, emensus, expertus, exsecratus, fabricatus, frus- tratus, imitatus, impertltus, machinatus, meditatus, mentltus, merl- tus, moderatus, modulatus, nactus, oblitus, opinatus, orsus, exorsus, pactus, partitus, populatus, professus, ratus, sortltus, testatus, testi- ficatus, ultus, velificatus, veneratus, &c. SECTION II. ThJ 1 i. The Conjugation of Verbs. vSEs" 1 ^ ^ ll or< ^ er to con j u g ate a Verb of Active form, three elements must be known : 1. The PRESENT STEM. . . ama- 2. The PERFECT STEM. . . amav- 3. The SUPINE STEM . . . amat- 2) To conjugate a Verb of Passive form (which has no Perfect Stem) the Present Stem and Supine Stem must be known : r. Pres. Stem . . . vena- 2. Sup. Stem . . . venat- The last letter in each Stem (a, v, t) is its Character. o) From the Present Stem are derived : Present, Future Simple, Imperfect, Imperative, Infinitive Present, in each Voice ; Gerunds, Gerundive, and Participle Present in the Active Voice. Verb sum, esse. 42. The Conjugation of Verbs. 167 /3) From the Perfect Stem are derived : Perfect, Future Perfect, Pluperfect, Infinitive Perfect, in the Active Voice. 7) From the Supine Stem are derived : Supines, Future Participle in the Active Voice ; Perfect Participle Passive ; and therefore all the Combi- nate Tenses in the Passive Voice. ii. The Verb of Being, sum, 1 esse. The Before other Verbs, it is convenient to shew the con- jugation of the irregular VERB OF BEING, sum, esse, fui, to be, which enters into their Combinate Tenses as an auxiliary Verb. This Verb is formed from two roots : es- (Sk. as) to be ; fu- (Sk. bhil) to be or become. The forms of the Present Stem (except forem, fore) belong to the first of these ; the Perfect, Future Par- ticiple, and Future Infinitive, with forem, fore, to the second ; the other Tenses are compounded of both. 1 The Root of Being, Sk. as Gr. eu) el (ev- forms Imperf. Conjunc. forem (far fit-scut) : Infin. fore (forfu-se). Fut. Partic. fut-urus. It also forms the Perfect Stem fu- (for fuv-), and its derived Tenses, by agglutinating the tenses of sum. See p. 58. The English forms 'am,' 'art,' 'is,' 'are,' belong to the root as : 'be' to the root Mtf. 1 68 Latin Word lore. s.s , !, 5* en 3 en 6 * d Is 53 f * 4 el 1 [e l ?:a Sxf - >tu o " " C .S3 tn m a i* fill -i O 3 c 6 '8 I ^ S . 1 'I S 43 . Conjugation of the Verb. 169 iii. Latin Verbs are customarily divided into four Classes, called CONJUGATIONS, according to their Pre- gatlons - sent Character, that is, the last letter of their Present- Stem. a] One of these Conjugations, having for its Present-Character either a Consonant or the Semiconsonant u, is called the Strong Conjugation, because it keeps that Character in all Present-Stem forms, without suffering contraction : reg-/-re indu-/-re. Consonant Verbs, which, with a few exceptions, are the oldest in Latin, ought, strictly, to be the First Conjugation ; but from ancient times they have been named and ranked as the 3rd, which title they cannot now lose without great inconvenience, on account of the large number of Dictionaries and other books of reference in which they, like the Declensions, are cited numerically. b} The other three Conjugations are called Pure, because their Character is a Vowel (a, e, i). They are also called Weak, or Con- tracted, because in some Present-Stem Forms the Vowel Character unites by Contraction with a following Vowel: ama-o, amo; ama-im, amem, &c. So ama-/-re, amare ; mone-^-re, monere ; audi-/-re, audire. 1 c] A-verbs are called the ist Conjugation. E-verbs 2nd I -verbs 4th Consonant and U-verbs being the 3rd Conjugation. See a). d] The Character of the Verb is therefore the letter which stands before re of the Infinitive in the Weak Conjugations, or before /-re in the Strong Conjugation : Conj. i. amA-re, love ^ . jreG-/re, rule - 2. monE-re, advise ** * \ indu-/re, piit on 4. audl-re, hear e] In Conjugation 3 are included some Verbs which exhibit i in many Present-Stem forms : cap-/- o, paT-z-or; this i not being, however, the Character of the Verb. 1 Although the assumption of a Vincular absorbed by contraction would account for most of the forms in which the Characters a, 6, 1 are long before a Consonant, it cannot safely be affirmed that this is the true principle of formation. It is perhaps more correct to say that these Characters are generally strengthened in this position. The practical rules are : 1) The Characters e, i are short be r ore a Vowel : moneam, audTes. But a with a following Vowel forms Contraction : ama-o, am- o, am a-im, amem. 2) The Characters, a, C, i are long when final : a ma, mone, audl ; or before a Consonant: a^mas, amiimus; mones, monemus; audls, audlmus (an- ciently amamus, &c.). Exceptions are : (i) before t final, though originally long (amat, monet, audit), these Characters become short in Latin usage : amat, monet, audit; (2) the Verb da-, give, keeps a short before a Consonant : dare, dabo, dabam, dato, but da. 3) The Mood-vowels, a, 6, i, follow generally the same law as the Characters: audias, audiamus; ames, amaremus; veils, vellmus; but audiat amaret, vellt (anciently audiat, amaret, vellt). 170 Latin Wordlore. 43* f) The three Stems in each Conjugation are as follows : ACTIVE VERBS. DEPONENT VERBS. Present. Perfect. Supine. Pres. Sup. I. amA- amav- amaT- venA- venax- 2. monE- monu- monlT- verE- veriT- 3- reG- rex- (fcr reGs) recT- UT- US- 4. audl- audiv- audlT- partl- partlT- Method of Con- juga- ting. The Present Stem of a Pure Verb, without its Character, is called a dipt Stem : am-, mon-, aud-, ven-, ver- ; part-. g) A Latin Verb is sufficiently described by naming (1) the Present Indie, ist Person; (2) the Infinitive Pres. ; (3) the Perfect Indie, ist Person ; (4) the Supine in um : amo, amare, amavi, amatum ; but it is useful, in conjugating, to mention some other forms. CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. ist Conj. and Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj. I Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-o mon-eo reg-o aud-io 2 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-as mon-es reg-rs aud-Is Infinitive . . . am-are mon-ere reg-ere aud-Ire Perfect . . . . am-avi mon-ui rex-i aud-Ivi Gerund in dum . am-andum mon-endum reg-endum aud-iendum di . . am-andi mon-endi reg-endi aud-iendi do. . am-ando mon-endo reg-endo aud-iendo Supine in um . am-atum mon-Ttum rect-um aud-itum u . . am-atu mon-Itu rect-u aud-itu Partic. Present . am-ans mon-ens reg-ens aud-iens Future . am-aturus mon-fturus rect-urus aud-iturus CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. ist Conj. and Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj. 1 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-or mon-eor reg-or aud-ior 2 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-aris mon-eris reg-eris aud-Iris Infinitive . . . am-ari mon-eri reg-i aud-Iri Perfect .... am-atus sum mon-Itus sum rect-us sum aud-Itus sum Partic. Perfect . am-atus mon-ttus rect-us aud-Itus Gerundive . . am-andus mon-endus reg-endus aud-iendus 1 Deponent Verbs have Passive Conjugation, but Active meaning, Gerunds, Supines, and Participles Active. As Intransitive Verbs have no personal Passive, so Intransitive Deponents, as vagor, i. wander, have no Gerundive Adjective. 1 The Gerundive is ranked under the Passive Voice because none but Transitive Verbs can use it adjectively. But we agree with Pott, that it maybe ascribed to both voices. If a horse is ' ferox ante domandum,' "wild before being broken in, his rider is ' cautus ante domandum,' cautions before breaking him in. To the bees is ascribed ' amor habendi : ' of their wax may be said what Virgil says of rich soil, ' ad digitos lentescit habendo,' it yields t* the fingers in being handled. 43- Conjugation of tJie Verb. 171 1 Pers. Pres. Ind. 2 Pers. Pres. Ind. Infinitive Pres. . Perfect .... Gerund in dum . di do Gerundive . . . Supine in um. . u . Partic. Pres. . . Perf. . . Fut. CONJUGATION OF DEPONENTS. hunt fear ven-or ver-eor ven-aris ver-eris ven-ari ver-eri ven-atus sum ver-Itus sum ven-andum ver-endum ven-andi ver-endi ven-ando ver-endo ven-andus ver-endus ven-atum ver-Itum ven-atu ver-Itu*- ven-ans ver-ens ven-atus ver-Itus ven-aturus ver-iturus use divide ut-or part-ior ut-eris part-Iris ut-i part-Iri us-us sum part-Itus sum ut-endum part-iendum ut-endi part-iendi ut-endo part-iendo ut-endus part-iendus us-um part-Itum us-u part-Itu ut-ens part-iens US-US part-Itus us-urus part-Iturus Verbs in z'-o of the Third Conjugation, in their Present-Stem forms, retain this i generally ; but not before i, final e, and short er. These are the following Verbs, with their compounds : Fugzb, faczb, and iaczb, Compounds of speczb and laczb, Parzb, fodzb, and quatzb, Cupzb, capzb, rapzb, sapzb ; (Deponents) gradzbr, patzbr, morzbr, And, in some tenses, potzbr, orzbr. Their form of Conjugation is : i Pers. Pres. Ind. 2 Pers. Pres. Ind. Infinitive Pres. . Perfect .... Active. . . cap-z-o . . cap-Ts . . cap-ere . cep-i Passive. cap-z-or cap-eris cap-i capt-us sum Deponent. pat-z-or pat-eris pat-i pass-us sum Gerund in dum . di . . do . . . . cap-z-endum . cap-z-endi . . cap-z-endo cap-z-endus pat-z-endum pat-z-endi pat-z'-endo pat-z'-endus Supine in um u . . Partic. Pres. . . Perf . capt-um . capt-u . cap-z-ens capt-us pass-um pass-u pat-z-ens pass-us Fut. . . . . capt-urus pass-urus Note i. In the Scheme, Latin forms are given at full, with the corresponding English of one Verb. English must be supplied, on the same principle, to the other Verbs. Note 2. The Masculine Participles amatus, amati, &c., are set down alone to avoid confusion ; but the Gender of a Participle follows that of the Noun with which it agrees : is auditus est, ea audita est, id auditum est, he was heard, she was heard y it was heard. And so in all Persons and Cases of both Numbers. Latin Wordlore. 44. SCHEME OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MOOD SINGULAR. N PLURAL. i. 2. 3- i. 2. 3- \ / thou love lovest he, &c. loves we love ye love they love 1 am -(a)o -as -at -amus -atls -ant mon -eo -es -et -emus -etis -ent reg -o -fe -It -zmiis -ms -unt aud -io -Is -it -Imus -Ttis -iunt o shall wilt will shall will will love, &c. "E, g c/5 ama -bo mone -bo -bis -bit -blmus -bltls -bunt 1 reg -am audi -am - -es -et -emus -etis -ent was wast w^j were were ivere loving, &c. 1 ama -bam - 1 mone -bam rege -bam -bas -bat -bamus -batls -bant ] audie -bam J loved lovedst loves loved loved loved, &c. or have hast has have have have loved, &c. % amav -I ^ j monu -I -istl -It -Imus -istls -erunt h rex -I or -ere audiv -I > 3 shall wilt will shall will will have loved, &c. 1 amav -er5 1 s monu -er5 rex -ero 1 h -ens -erlt -enmus -entls -erint fe audiv -erd \ had hadst had had had had loved 1 amav -eram \ 1 s monu -eram rex -eram I -eras -erat -eramus -gratis -erant audiv -eram j I. Examples of Indicative and Imperative Moods. A) (Pres. and Fut. Active) : lego, / read : quid agis? ivJiat are you doing? lego, 7 am reading: lege sis, read, if you please : lego, 7 do read: iamdiu lego, 7 have been reading long: quid facies? what will you dot legam, 7 shall read: leges Iliadem, you will read the Iliad, I hope: legam, I will read it: cum legero semel, when I shall have read it once ; relege sodes, read it again, pray : relegito, you must read it again : de manibus non depo- sueris antequam relegeris, you will not put it out of your hands till you have read it again. B) (Past Tenses Active) : quid agebas heri? -what were you doing- yesterday ? legebam, 7 was reading: quid agebas ruri? what did you do in the country ? legebam, 7 used to read : legebam dum lux erat, 7 read while it was light : legere te iusseram, 7 told you to read : legebam, I did read: legeres Iliadem, you were to read the Iliad: Icgi heri, 7 read it yes- terday : legistine Iliadem? have you read the Iliad? legi, I have read it : legere debuisti, you ought to have read it : legi, 7 did read it : legeram pridie, 7 had read it the day before. 44- Conjugation of the Verb. 173 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. I. 2. 3. I. 2. 3. I thou he, &c. -we ye they am art is are are are loved, c. am -or -arts -atur -amur -amlnl -antur mon -eor -erls -etur -emur -emlnl -entur reg -or - - Stflr shall will will be loved, &c. -bimur -bimlnl -buntur -emur -eminl -entur was wast was ama -bar \ :*"** audie -bar) were were were being loved -bamur -bamlni -bantiir was wast was have hast has amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus V - J were were were loved have have have been loved amatl, monltl, rectl, audit! sum es est (fui) (fuisti (fuTt) sumus estls sunt (fulmus) (fuistis) (fuerunt, e) shall will will amatus, monltus, rectus, audltus V J shall will will have been amatl, monltl. rectl, audit! \lovcd er5 ens erlt (fuero) (fueris) (fuerlt) erlmus erltis erunt (fuenmus) (fuentls) (fuerint) had hadst had amatus. monltus, rectus, audltus V. J had had had been loved amatl, monltl, rectl, audit! \. j eram eras erat (futram) (fueras) (fuerat) eramus eratls erant (fueramus) (fueratis) (fuerant) Note i. In the Second Pers. Pres. Ind. Passive it is not so usual to write re for ns, on account of the confusion with Infin. Act. and Imperat. Pass. Cicero has very few instances, chiefly Deponent forms, though in the other tenses he decidedly prefers the forms in -re. 2. Poets sometimes write the Simple Futures of I-verbs, Act. -Tbo, -Ibis, &c., Pass. -Tbor, -Tberis(e), &c. ; and the Imperfects, Act. -ibam, -Ibas, &c., Pass. -Tbar, -Ibaris (e), &c. ; as audlbo, audlbor; audlbam, audlbar. These were the ancient forms. M. Lucr. v. 934. o The Perf. Partic. used with sum expresses that something was and is complete : with fui, that something was complete at some past time : ' leges quae latae sunt . . . quae promulgatae fuerunt,' C. /. Sest. 25. See Madvig, Opusc. ii. p. 218. 4. On the exclusion of V, followed by contract! in, from Perfect Stem s in av-, ev-, ov-, uv-, Iv-, see p. 58. The forms in -ii, -ieram, -iero, -issem, -Isse, are used in prose as well as poetry. lit, from eo, is found ; but most disyllabic forms keep V ; as qulvi, sIvL 174 Latin Wordlore. 44- SCHEME OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. Future. 5j S. 2. PL 2. S. 2. S-3- PL 2. PI. 3 . love thou ye thou he, &c. ye they, &c. ^ am -a -ate am -ato -ato -atote -anto S mon -e -etc mon -eto -eto -etote -ento * reg -e -fte reg -rto -/to -zlote -wnto aud -I -Ite aud -ltd -Tto -Itote -i?/nto CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. I. 2. 3- i. 2. 3- 1 am -em -es -et -emus -etls -ent mone -am -as -at -amus -afls -ant i reg -am -as -at -amus -atts -ant audi -am -as -at -amus -atis -ant 3 ama -rem \ 1 & mone rege - rem L -res -rem i -ret -remiis -retfs -rent 3 audi -rem J amav -erimx 1 monu rex -erim 1 _ g fe -erim j -ertt -erimus -eritJs -erint PH audiv -erim ) 1 I monu- rex- lissem -isscs -isset -issemus -issetis -issent audiv- J II. Pure Conjunctive. A) (Potential and Conditional use): mirum fortasse videatur, perhaps it may seem wonderful: ita amicos pares, tints you may gain friends : quaerat quispiam, some one may ask: dixerit aliquis, somebody may (might) say: pace tua dixerim, / would say with your leave : pro certo affirmaverim, 7 can aver for a fact : credcres victos, yo^t would have supposed them vanquished : velim esse tecum, / would like to be with you : nolim te abire, / should not like you to go away : nollem id factum, 7 could wish it had not been done : mallem aliud factum, 7 would rather something else had been done. B) (Dubitative use) : quid faciam 1 what must (can, shall*) I do ? quid facerem? what should (could) I have done ? faveas tu hosti ? must (should) you favour an enemy ? C) (Concessive use) : naturam expellas, you may drive out nature : fuerit sapiens, sup. pose he were wise : ne fuerit sapiens, suppose he were not wise : fuisset anceps for tuna, fortune might have been doubtful. D) (Optative use): vivas, may you live: valeant cives mei, may my countrymen flourish: di bene vertant, heaven prosper it: moriar (ne vivam) si mentior : may I die if I speak falsely : ita vivam ut te amo, so may I live as I love you=-upon my life I love you. E) (Hortative use) : imitemur bonos, let rts imitate the good: desinant furere, let them (or they should) cease to rave : rem tuam curares, you should have been minding your own business : mortem pufjnans oppetisset, he should have died fighting. 44- Conjugation of the Verb. 175 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. PASSIVE VOICE. IMPERAT Present. S. 2. PI. 2. be thou ye loved, c. ama -re -mini mone -re -mini reg -t v re -zminl audl -re -mini :IVE MOOD. Future. S. 2. S. 3 . PI. 3 . thou he they d ama -tor -tor -ntor %>^ mone -tor -tor -ntor ^ ^ reg -z'tor -z'tor -untor audi* -tor -tor -zmtor S^ CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. I. 2. 3. I. 2. 3. am -er -er-Is(e) -etur -emur -emmi -entur mone -ar -ar-Is(e) -atur -amur -aminl -antur reg -ar -ar-Is(e) -amr -amur -aminl -antur audi -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -aminl -antur ama -rer - ; &i**w -**' audi -rer, -remur -reminl -rentur amatus, monTtus, rectus, audltus amatl, monftl, rectl, auditl I J V. / sim sis sit (fuerim) (fueris) (fuerlt) smius sitls sint (fuerimus) (fueritts) (fuerint) amatus, monitus, rectus, audltus amatl, monltl, rectT, auditl v j v i essem esses esset essemus essetTs essent (fuissem) (fuisses) (fuisset) (fuissemus) (fuissetTs) (fuissent) III, Subjunctive. Fit utaegrotem, it Jiappcns that I am sick : evenit ut aegrotarem, it fell out that I was sick: necesse est eas (necesse erit eas), you must go : opus est ut eas (oportet eas), it behoves you to go : opus erat ut ires (oportuit ire s), it behoved you to go : metuo ne eas, I fear you will go : metuebam ne ires, I feared you would go : metuo ut eas, I fear you are not going: metuebam ut ires, I feared you were not going : cura ut eas (fac eas), mind you go : sine eamus, suffer us to go : oro ut eas, 7 beg thatyozi go : oravi ut ires, I begged you would go : utinam eas ! O that you may go ! utinam ires ! O that you had been going I utinam ne isses ! O that you had not gone ! scio cur veniat, / know why he comes : scio cur v e n e r i t, 7 know why he came : sciebam cur v e n i r e t, 7 knew why he came : sciebam curvenisset, 7 knew why he had come: non tarn amens est ut eat, he is not so mad as to go: non tarn amens fuit ut iret, Jte was not so mad as to go: edo ut vivam, 7 eat that I may live : vivebant ut ederent, they lived that tJtey might cat: laudant me quod earn, they praise me because I go : laudant me quod i e r i m, they praise me because I went : laudabant me quod irem, they praised me because I went : laudabant me quod issem, they praised me because I had gone : quae cum ita sint, ibo, since this is the case, I will go : quae cum ita essent. ivi, since this was the case, I went : aegrotabam cum irem, 7 was ill when I went : convalui cum issem, 7 got well when I had gone : exspecta dum redeam, wait till I return: nusquam ibo antcquam redeat, I will go nowhere before he returns': I 7 6 Latin Word lore. 44-. SCHEME OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. VERB Pr. Impf. to love, &c. ama -re mone -re reg^ -re INFINITIVE. Perf. Plup. Future. to have loved, &c. to be about to love, &c. amav -isse amat -urus \ monu -isse monit -urus I rex -isse rect -urus [ " audi -re audlv -isse audit -urus ; Gerunds. Supines. Partic. Pres. Partic . Fut. loving, of, by, to love, in loving, loving, about to love, &C. &c. &c. &c. amand -um -I -o amat -um -u ama -ns amatur -us -a -um monend -um -I -6 monit -um -u ' mone -ns monitur -us -a -um regend -um -1 -6 rect -um -u reg-^ -ns rcctur -us -a -um audiend -um -I -5 audit -um -u audi-*? -ns auditur -us -a -um ut peccaverit, carus est tamen, though he has sinned, yet he is dear', qtiamvis p e c - casset, carus fuit, though he had sinned, he was dear : clamas tanquam surdus sim, yon bawl, as though I -were deaf : clamabas quasi surdus essem, you -were bawling, as if I had been deaf : emo libros quos legam, / buy books to read : emi Hbros quos legerem, / bought books to read : non is sum qui te oeseram, / am not one to forsake you : non is fuit qui me desereret, ^ was not one to forsake me : quis est quin fleat aliquando? ivho is there that weeps not sometimes ? nemo fuit quin fl e r e t, there ivas no one but ivept : nihil dubito quin gaudeant, / have no doubt they rejoice : non dubitabam quin gauderent, I had no doubt they rejoiced: nihil obstat quominus earn, nothing hinders me from going: per me stetit quominus ires, I was the cause of your not going: ve- , tit us est ne iret, he was forbidden to go: dubito an verum sit, I doubt it may be true: nescio an verum sit, I rather think it is true : felicem esse puto qui rei nullius indigeat, / consider him to be happy who wants nothing : ais te cum r e d e am adfuturum, you say you will be present when I return : ait se cum r e d i e r i m adfuturum, he says he will be present when I have returned: aiebant se cum rediissem adfore, they said they would be present when I had returned : nego quicquam esse utile, quod non s i t honestum, / say that nothing is expedient which is not morally right: aedes quas emisset ex- ornari iussit, he ordered the hoiise which he had bought to be decorated : exprobratur mihi quod Iliadem nondum legerim, I am reproached with not having yet read the Iliad: exprobratum est mihi quod Iliadem nondum 1 e g i s s e m, / was reproached with having not yet read the Iliad : Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posset, Themistocles used to walk by night, because (he said) he could not sleep. IV. Pure Conjunctive and Subjunctive in Combination. Velim rescribas, / should wish you to write back : vellem adesses, / could wish yow ivere here : nollem accidisset, / could wish it had not happened : mallem quidvis facerc.% I would rather you did anything : mallem aliter fecisset, I would rather he had done otherwise : quidvis potius paterer, quam mentirer, / woicld suffer anything rather than tell a falsehood : praestes quod receperis, you should perform what you have under- taken : praestaret quod recepisset, he should perform what he had undertaken : eant quo velint, they may go where they will : irent quo vellent, they might go where they would : quis miretur quod homines liberi servire nolint 1 who can say he wonders that free men do not wish to be slaves ? earn si iubeas, earn si iusseris, ierim si iusseris, I shall go if you bid me : irem si iuberes, / would go if you bade me : issem si iussisses, / would have gone, had you told me : non iturus essem, nisi tu iussisses, I should not have been about to go, ^tnless you had bidden me. (Examples of this kind, noted and imitated, teach the right rendering of the Conjunc- tive Mood, in its various uses, better than English given in Tables.) 44- Conjugation of the Verb. 177 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. PASSIVE VOICE. INFINITE. Pr. Impf. to be loved, c. ama -rl mone -rl reg -I audir -I Perf. Plup. to have been loved, &c. amat -us monit -us rect -us audit -iis> esse Future. to be about to be loved, &c. amat -um \ monit -um | rect -um audit -umJ Irl Gerundive. (inccf) to be loved, c. amand -us -a -um monend -us -a -um regend -us -a -um audiend -us -a -um Partic. Perf. Plup. loved or having been loved, &c. amat -us -a -um monit -us -a -um rect -us -a -um audit -us -a -um V. ACTIVE. legere utile est to read is useful librum legere coepi / have begun to read the book memini me legere / remember that I read aio me leg is se 7 say that I have read memineram me legisse / remembered that I had read videor mihi lecturusesse / think I am going to read aiomelecturumes.se / say that I will read aiebam me le cturum esse / said that I would read aiebam me 1 e c t u r u m f u i s s e / said that I -would have read The Verb Infinite. PASSIVE. legi libros utile est it is useful that books be read liber legi coepit the book has begun to be read memini librum legi / remember the book being read aio librum lectumesse / say that the book has been read memineram librum lectumesse / remembered tJte book had been rcae dicitur liber lectus esse the book is said to have been read aio libros 1 e c t u m i r i ) aio fu tu rum ut libri legantur J / say the looks are going to be read aiebam fore ut libri legerentur 7 said that tJte books -would be read aio futurum fuisse ut legerentur 7 say they -would have been read putor lecturusfuisse it is supposed I should have read legendum est nobis ivc must read consuctudo 1 eg en di the habit of reading cupidus sum legend i / am desirous of reading aptusest legendo (ad legendum) he is fit for reading inter legendum in the course of reading oblector 1 e g e n d o 7 amuse myself with reading in 1 e g e n d o versor 7 am engaged in reading eo lee turn Iliadem 7 am going to read tJte Iliad lecturus sum Iliadem 7 am about to read the I Had Iliadem le gens oblector / am charmed -with reading the Iliad legend us est liber the book must be read cupido librorum legendorum the desire of reading books cupidus sum libri legend i! 7 am desirous of reading the book aptus est libris 1 e g e n d i s ) aptus est ad libros legendos j he is fitted for reading books oblector libris 1 e g e n d i s 7 amuse myself with reading looks in libris 1 e g e n d i s versor 7 am engaged in reading books librum unicuique legendum a book to le n-ad by everybody librum utilem lectu a book useful to read Iliade lecta gaudeo 7 rejoice in having read the Iliad 178 Latin VVordlorc. 45- SCHEME OF THE DEPONENT INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. T. 2. 3. i. 2. 3. / you he, &c. ive ye they 'c ven -or -ar-is(e) atur -amur -amini -antur \ o" ver -eor -er-is(e) -etur -emur -emini -entur fi ut -or -^r-is(e) -Itur -imur -imini -zmtur { ^ part -ior -Ir-is(e) -Itur -Imur -Imini -izmtur J ^ 1 vere^ "borl" br " is ^ " bttur - brmur -blmini -buntur 1 f 3 Ut t' "^ }"^ r "^ s v e ) -etur -emur -emini -entur ^ | . vena -bar\ ^ ~i 6 1 Dar l-bar-is(e) -batur -bamur -bamini -bantur E partie-barJ J 1 venatus, veritus, usus, partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti j \. j < -Is f sum es est sumus estis sunt ^^ (fui, &c.) J ^ <4 1 venatus, veritus, usus V. . partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti _j . j fl "3 ero erls erit erimus eritis erunt ^^ (fuero, &c.) ^^ | venatus, veritus, usus, partitus venati, veriti, usi, partiti, j \ j 1"^ i, eram eras erat cramus eratis erant S (fueram, c.) ' ^ -^ IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present. Future. S. 2. PL 2. S. 2. S. 3. PL 3- hunt t 8LC. thou ye tliou he they \ vena -re -mini vena -tor -tor -ntor s^ o vere -re -mini vere -tor -tor -ntor p *Sf ut/ -re -z'-mini ut/ -tor -tor -?/ntor 1 ^ S parti -re -mini parti -tor -tor -wntor ' Note. Some Deponents have an Active form also, as comitari or comitare. 45- Conjugation of the Verb. 179 FOUR CONJUGATIONS. VERBS. CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. I. 2. 3- I. 2. 3- c/5* ven -er -er-is(e) -etur -cmur -emmi entur cj vere -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -ammi antur ut -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -ammi antur parti -ar -ar-is(e) -atur -amur -ammi antur vena-rer\ 0? c. CJ vere-rer i() ut/ -rerf -retur -remur -remini -rentur partl-rerJ c/^ venatus, veritus, usus, partitus venati, veriti, usi , partiti CJ sim sis sit slmus sltis sint (fuerim, &c.) venatus, veritus, usus, partitus V. 1 venati, veriti, usi , partiti 05 j essem esses esset essemus essetis essent (fuissem, &c.) Pres. Impf. VERB INFINITE. INFINITIVE. Perf. Plup. Future. vena -i venat-iis esse ^ # venat-urus esse vere -ri -^ verit -us esse | ^ verit -urus esse ut us -us esse Hi | us -urus esse parti ri ^ <^ partlt-us esse partlt-urus esse PARTICIPLES. Pr. Impf. Gerundive. Perf. Pl up. venat -us | vena -ns <& venand - vere -ns 1 g verend -us ut- Indie. M. Conj. M. INFINITE FORMS. amaturus, a, um, &c. amaturi, ae, a, &c. amandus, a, um, &c. amandi, ae, a, &c. Pres. Imp. esse Perf. Plup. fuisse. 1 A") Correspondence of the Latin Verb. The Latin Verb corresponds in many points with the Sanskrit and the Greek : but there are also some in which it shews Italian peculiarities. The points of agreement are chiefly 1) The Active Personal Endings. 2) The use of Mood Vowels generally. 3) The use of Reduplication, though more limited in Latin. 4) The form of the Present Participle Active. 5) The correspondence of many Roots. But Latin Conjugation departs from Sanskrit and Greek in the following respects : 1) It has only two Voices and two Numbers. 2) It has lost the Augment, the distinction of Perfect and Aorist Tense, and that of Optative and Conjunctive Mood. 3) Its Passive Personal Endings are formed by agglutinating ' S6.' 4) Most of its Tenses are formed by Verbal agglutination. 5) Most of its Infinitive and Participial forms are peculiar to it. .) Personal Endings. a) The Personal Endings of the two principal Active Moods generally correspond thus : i. L. m, o ; Sk. mi, m Gr. jbu, v, < SINGULAR. 2. 3- S t si, s ti, t ', S *', T< mus mas, ma tis thati, re 3- nt nti 182 Latin Wordlorc. 47 . In translating, it is only required to construe each part of the Verb sum with each Participle : as amaturus sum, / am about to love ; amandus sum, / am meet to be loved (or, / am to be loved}. So futurus sum, / am about to be ; futurus sim, eram, essem, &c. Examples : Nos scripturi sumus (erimus) ea quae agenda sunt (erunt). Vos dicturi eratis (fuistis) ea quae agenda erant (fuere). Dux deliberaturus est (erit) quid agendum sit. Dux deliberaturus erat (fuit) quid agendum- esset. Illud puto statuendum esse, quid nos acturi simus. Illud putavi statuendum esse, quid vos acturi essetis. These do not include the peculiar endings of the Latin Perfect Indicative, \vhich are noticed later. b) The Endings of the Imperative Active also coincide : 2 L. a, &c. te Sk. a to. Gr. e Te to tote nto tu ntu TO) The Ending to was in E.L. tod; in Oscan tud\ in Umbrian tu. The Passive Personal Endings formed by agglutinating se are noticed p. 58. aham\ audiam : in the other Persons they take the Optative mood-vowel e (Sk. e) : vehes, vehet (anc. vehet), vehemus, vehetis, vehent. So audies, &c. But I-verbs in E. L. took the forms -bo, -bis, &c. : as audfbo, audlbor, &c. : and these are sometimes found in poetry. Even such forms as regebo, &c., appear on old Inscrr. ; and Quintilian says that dicein,faciein were written by the elder Cato for di cam, faciam. c) Imperfect Indie. Active. This Tense in all Conjugations takes the form -bam -bas, &c., representing fuam, fuas, &c., the old Imperf. of fuo. In A- and E-verbs this is at once aggluti- nated to the Present-stem a ma- bam, mone-bam; but in the Cons, and I-verbs e connects them : reg-e-bam, audi-e-bam: a formation which seems due to mere analogy. Here too the form -ibam for -iebam occurs in old Latin and in poetry. 48. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs, 183 4 8 v. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. ^ e a ; Verbs- Certain Verbs are called Irregular (Anomala) : 1) Some because they take tenses from more than one stem : sum, possum, fero, fio ; 2) Others because some of their forms are subject to peculiar changes : volo, nolo, malo, ; eo, queo, nequeo ; edo. Ivisti, isti icris eundi 2. ItU &c. &c. eundo The remaining Tenses are formed as in a u d - i v i. The v is usually dropt by ivi and its Compounds : ii, iisti or isti, ieram, issem, &c.; redii, rediero, r^distis, redisse, &c. The Impersonal Passive ttur, Uum est, Iri, &c., is often usech Iri with Supine supplies a Future Passive to Verbs. Also the Active eo forms a periphrasis with Supine, iniurias istas ultum eunt they are going to avenge those wrongs aiunt iniurias istas ultum iri they say that those wrongs are going to be avenged (literally : there is a-tending to avenge those wrongs}. Am bio, go round, canvass, follows the Conjugation of audio. VIII. IX. Queo; nequeo. Queo, can (Stem qui-), nequeo, cannot, are like eo, so far as their forms extend ; but have no Imperative and no Gerunds, queo quls quivi quire .... quitum quiens (queuntis) nequeo nequis nequivi nequlre . nequltum nequiens (nequeuntis) The Indicative and Conjunctive forms are like those of eo. Queor, nequeor, are found in old writers with an Infin. Pass. : subpleri queatur, Lucr. i. 1045; 'quita est/ Ter. Hcc. iv. I. 59; 'nequltur,' Plaut. Rud. iv. 4. 20. 49- Conjugation of Defective Verbs. 189 X. do (Sk. ad, Gr. c7-), eat. Edo. This Verb is anomalous only by the occasional mutation of forms, which omit the Vincular, and either assimilate or omit d. 2nd Pers. S. Pres. Act. es for ed-i-s (ed-s). 3rd 2nd Pers. PI. Imperf. Conj. Imperat Pres. Fut Inf. Pres. est for ed-T-t (ed-t). estis for ed-i-tis (ed-tis). essem for ed-e-rem (ed-sem), &c. este for ed-I-te (ed-te) esto, estate for edito, editote esse for ed-e-re (ed-se) 3rd Pers. S. Pres. Pass, estnr for ed-i-tur (ed-tur) The other forms of this Verb are regular ; except that e dim, edis, &c., are sometimes found for edas, edat, &c. vi. Conjugation of Defective Verbs. DEFECTIVE VERBS are without some of the usual parts of a Verb. In this strict sense a great number of Verbs are Defective ; but those commonly so called by grammarians are the following : I. Praeteritiva: Verbs which, having no Present-Stem forms in use, express these by Perfect forms. 1) coepi, 1 (have begun = } begin, from co-ap-/-o (Obsolete) 2) odi, (have hated} hate, from od-z-o (Obsolete) 3) memmi, (have minded '=) remember, from men- (Obs.) SCHEME. 49 Defec- tive Verbs. Coepi, odi, me mini. Indie. Conjunc. Imper. Infin. coepi coeperim coepisse coepisti c. coepens &c. . odi oderim odisse 1 odisti oderis fc &c. &c. memini meminerim memimsse meministi memmeris c. &c. 1 coepero odero coepturus esse osurus esse jj memmero memento 1 1 coepcram oderam coepissem odissem S memmeram memimssem 1 The obsolete Verb apio, get, acquire, of which coepio, coepi, is a compound, ap- pears in the forms a p i s c o r, aptus, adipiscor, adeptus, and probably also inapis> 1 90 Latin Wordlore. 49- Aio. a) A Participle coeptus forms Perfect coeptus sum: as 'comitia haberi coepta sunt/ Cic. Coepturus is used by Pliny Ouintilian, &c. The Pres. Stem coepio itself is used in older Latin (Plaut. Ter.). C6-epit is in Lucretius (iv. 619), where see Munro. b) The obsolete Verb od/o, odere, probably meant to repel. Osus sum is a rarer form ofodi. Osurus is used. Exosus, perosus, hating greatly, have Passive sense in L. L. c) Memini has a Compound commemini. It is the Perf. of an obs. verb meno (mano) = Sk. man, 'think,' which appears in comminiscor commentus ; mens; mentio; mentior, and numerous Greek and other forms. 4) Novi (have come to Know], Perfect of nos co, know, is used as a Praeteritive (/ /fc#0w), like Gr. olca. Hence noveram, noram, knew, novero, shall know ; novisse, nosse, to know, &c. II. Ai-o, I say, affirm (Sk. ah, for Pr. agJi}. Indie. Conjunc. Imper. ai-o a-is ai-as a-i (rare) G a-it ai-at ai-unt ai-ant Pi fi ai-ebam ai-ebas c. The Participle ai-ens is very rare ('negantia sunt contraria ai- entibus,' Cic.). Aibam, found in some MSS. of Plautus, is of doubtful validity. A in' tu? do you say so ? was a familiar expression. Inquam. III. Inquam, say I (inquit, saith he, &c.), for inquio. opis, opus, opera, &c., opto. Its Sk. root is ap (Pr. ap~). The kinship of apio, coepio, and capio (cepi), cannot but be recognised, when we observe the similarity of meaning as well as form: for not only is the sense of acquiring in capio, accipio, per- cipio, &c., but also that of beginnings incipio (incepi) and occipio (occepi, some- times written occoepi). Hence it seems probable that capio is only the adoption in Italian speech, as a simple form, of the compound co-ap- {get togctJier, and so take}, bearing the same relation to ap- that comprehendo does to prehendo. The old word remained, in the sense of beginning, at first in all forms (as shewn in Plautus, &c.), after- wards in the Perfect only ; which sense the new Verb recognised in its own compounds incipio, incepi, occipio, occepi; as well as in its derivative occup o : ' interdum ra- pere occupat,' noiu and then she is the first to snatch them, Hor. The passage of com- pound Verbs to Simple is shewn in promo, sumo, surgo, and other instances. 49- Conjugation of Defective Verbs. SCHEME. I9T Indie. Conjunc. Imper. Present. inquam inquis inquit inquimus inquiat ? c/5 'z h inquiunt inquies inquiet - inquito | inquiebat 1 inquisti inquiit? Fari. Inquam and sum are the only two Verbs which retain m (Sk. mi, Gr. /zi) in the Pres. Indie. Inquam is not placed in construction, but interposed between parts of construction, as quoth in English. Its etymology is doubtful (R. Sk. khyami, ' I say'). IV. Fari, to speak, has these forms : Indie. Pres. . . fatur, speaks Fut fabor, fabitur Perf., &c. . . fatus, sum, eram, &c. Imperat. . . . fare Infin fari Gerund . . . fandi, fando. Gerundive, fandus Supine . . . fatu Part. Pres. . - fantem, fantis, &c. Part. Perf. fatus Its Compounds affari, effari, (inter prae pro)- fari, can use the 'same forms and a few more : ' affamur/ Ov. ; { atfamini/ Curt. ; ' affabar/ Verg. ; ' effabere,' Lucan ; ' effabimur/ Cic. ; ' praefantes/ Catull. ; praefarer, praefamino, &c. V. Ova re, to rejoice, triumph, has some Third Persons Sing. Ovare. (ovat, ovet, ovaret), and the Partic. Pres. ovans. Persius has ovatus. VI. Ouaeso, I bcg\ ist P. PI. quaesumus. VII. Verb-forms used in the Imperative and Infinitive : hail! hail! farewell! come! be off! Imperative . S. salve have (or ave) vale age apage . . PI. salvete havete valete agite ,, . S. salveto haveto valeto Fut. S. . . salvebis valebis Infin. . . . salvere havere valere Add S. c c d o, PI. c e d i t e, c e 1 1 c, pray tell me, give me, c. Quaeso. Impera- tive Forms. 1 9 2 Latin Word/ore. 50 Imper- sonal Verbs. VIII. Impersonal (or Unipersonal) Verbs. IMPERSONAL VERBS are conjugated in the Third Persons Sin- gular of the Finite Verb, and in the Infinitive. A. Active Impersonals have no Passive Voice. i) The principal of these are of the Second Conjugation : oportet, taedet, miseret, piget, pudet, paenitet, decet atque dedecet, libet, licet, et liquet, attinet et pertinet, // behoves y disgusts, moves pity it irks, shames, repents it beseems, misbeseems it pleases, is lawful, is clear it relates, belongs. Table of Impersonal Verbs (Second Conj.) Conj. Infin. me, te, eum, nos, vos, eos mini, &c. . . ad me, &c. . -et -ebit . -ebat -uit -uerit -uerat -eat -ere Indie. 1. oport 2. taed 3. miser 4- pig 5. pud 6. paenit 7. dec 8. dedec \ 9 ' r b I 10. lie ii. attin { 12. pertin The following Perfects are also miseritumest;4. pigitum est; est ; 10. licitum est. Mi sere scit is used ; sometimes miseretur. Gerundives pigendus, pudendus, paenitendus : Participles miseritus, pertaesus, attinens, pertinens, are used. Paeni- tens, decens, libens, licitus, are used as Adjectives. The Persons are expressed by the Case : as Pres. S. Fut. -erei; Imperf. -uerit -uisse . Perf. Fut. Perf. -uisset .... Plupcrf. used: 2. pertaesum est; 3. 5. puditum est; 9. libitum it behoves me Sing, oportet me ire 1 oportet te ire oportet eum ire PI. oportet nos ire oportet vos ire oportet eos ire Sing, licet mihi ire it is allowed me 1 licet tibi ire licet ei ire PI. licet nobis ire licet vobis ire licet iis ire And so in the other Tenses. you him you them you Jiim you he we ye Jkey) I you he ought f o go we \y* \Jhey ) > may go 1 C. derives oportet (op-portet) from Gr. wop-, ' it is the part ;'pudet, paenitet, from Sk. pu ; taedet, from Sk. tu (see pp. 14, 15); decet from Sk. ciisf. Libet or lubet: Sk. liibh, 'desire.' Licet: Sk. ric',Gr. Atrr- L. liwquere, leave. The same illation exists between 'to leave ' and the noun leave in English. ' I give you leave' ' I leave it to you ;' ' 1 have leave '=' it is left to vie.' Piget is unexplained. s- Impersonal Verbs. 2) Some Personal Verbs are used impersonally with special meaning : accidit it happens delectat it charms \ conducit it profits iuvat it delights [me, te, contingit/V befalls mihi fallit it eludes j" eum, c. evenit it turns out tibi fugit it escapes J convenit // suits ei interest it concerns \ mea, tua, expedit // is expedient Y nobis refert it imports J eius, c. placet it pleases vobis est it is a fact restat // remains iis, &c. fit it comes to pass succurrit it occitrs constat it is acknowledged vacat there is leisure _, praestat it is best So usu venit, in mentem venit, &c. 3) Some Impersonals express changes of season and weather : such are fulgurat it lightens ningit // snows lucescit // dawns tonat it thunders pluit it rains illucescit it gets light grandinat it hails rorat there falls dew vesperascit it gets late Impersonals of Class 3) may be explained by regarding the cog- nate Noun as Subject: nix ningit, snow snows = nix est, snow occurs. This may be sometimes said in Class i) : pudet me facti = pudor facti me pudet = pudor facti me habet. All of Class 2) and most of Class i) have for their Subject either an Infinitive Verb- noun or a dependent Clause. B. i) Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the Passive Voice : luditur, from ludo, I play. Infin. ludi lusum iri lusum esse lusum fuisse The Persons may be expressed by an Ablative Case with the Preposition a or ab following the Verb : Present Indicative. Sing, luditur a me there is playing by me = 7 'play luditur a te thee = thou pi ay est luditur ab eo him = he plays PI. luditur a nobis us = we play luditur a vobis you =ye play Present . . Simple Fut. . Imperf. . . Perfect . . Fut. Perf. . Pluperf. . . Ind. luditur ludetur ludebatur lusum est lusum erit lusum erat Conj. ludatur luderetur lusum sit lusum esset luditur ab iis And so in the other Tenses. them ^tJiey play The Case is generally understood, and the Verb is rendered usually as expressing the First or Third Person Plural ; we play, or they play : sometimes, one plays ; as the French, on jonc. o 194 Latin Wordlore. 51. 2) The Neuter Gerundive is similarly used to express duty or necessity, with a Dative or Ablative of the Person : Present Indicative. Sing, ludendum est mihi there must be playing by me = 7 ludendum est tibi thee = thou ludendum est ei him =he PL ludendum est nobis us -we ludendum est vobis you ~ye ludendum est iis them = they _ And so in the other Tenses. In this construction the case often occurs ; but here too it may be absent, and we, they, or one supplied, as in the former instance. So French, on doit jouer. SECTION III. 51 Three The Forms of the three Stems in Verbs. Stems. Present * The P TCSC H t-S tem. 1. The only Verb-roots which have Indicative Present-Stem forms unchanged immediately before Personal endings are : The root Ss (sum, es-mi] in the forms es-t, es-tis, es-te, es-to (es-se). The root vol in the forms vol-t, vol-tis. The root fer in the forms fer-s, fer-t, fer-tis, fer, fer-te, fer-to, (fer- re). The root da, give, in the forms da-t, da-mus, da-tis, da-nt, da-te, da-to, (da-re). But in Sk. and Gr. this root is reduplicated. 2. The only Verb-roots which, with Vowel character, have Pre- sent-stem forms merely strengthening that character before Per- sonal endings are : The root sta, stand, station, in the forms sta-s, sta-t (classi- callysta-t), sta-mus, sta-tis, sta-nt, sta, sta-te,sta-to, (sta-re). In Sk. and Gr. it is reduplicated. The roots fle, weep, ne, spin, pie,///, in the same forms, fle-s, ne-s, -pies-, &c. The root \, go, in the forms I-s, T-t (classically It), T-mus, I-tis, I, I-te, i-to (I-re). In go, Sam, &c., \ is strengthened, but the endings also contain a strengthening suffix. The root qul, can (with its compound nequl), the forms of which resemble those of I. (Note, fi-, being contracted and so properly long, is not an example here.) 3. In all other A- E- and I -Verbs (Conj. i. 2. 4.) the Vowel character is itself a first suffix, attached to what we call the Clipt- Stem ! (am-, mon-, aud-), and preceding all flexional suffixes. This 1 On the Term Clipt-Stem and the reason of its use, see Note, p. 30. 5 1 . The Present- Stem. 1 9 5 is true of U-Verbs also ; but these, unlike the rest, are not strength- ened in the Present-stem: indu-Is, indu-g, indu-ere: but audl-s, audi, audl-re. 4. With respect to Consonant Verbs (Conj. 3), Some scholars think that every root-vowel was primitively short. Such was certainly the case with some roots which in Latin Verbs have the long vowel : die ere (E. L. deicere), ducere (E. L. doucere]^ fldere (E. L. f eider e] y compared with veridlcus, dux due is, fides. These, however, like Latin Verbs in general, follow the Scheme of Conjugation before given ; in which the formative suffix of Indie. Pres. ist P. Sing. 6 contains a conjugative element (Sk. d-mi). Certain other affections of the Present Stem in Verbs of the 3rd (Cons.) Conjugation, distinguishing it from the True Stem, come into notice here. A} Strengthening by the insertion of a nasal before the Cha- racter (Nasalisation). See 12. xvi. To the-txamples there given many may be added, which, though keeping the nasal in the Perfect-Stem, lose it in derived or kindred forms: fi-;z-g- (nctum) ; fre-w-d- (fressum), -he--d- (x n ^-> -hedera) ; iu--g- (iugum) ; 13,-w-b- (labium) ; li-#-g- (llgurrio); ma-w-d- (mala); mi--g- (mictum); mu-w-g- (mucus); ni-*-g- (nix) ; pa--d- (passus) ; pi--s- (pistor); sa-//-cire (sacer) ; sca--d- (scala) ; sti-#-g- ( pon- I posl-tum (Sup.) I cer-- cer- (ere-) cre-vi sper-- sper- (spre) spre-vi ster-- star- (stra) stra-vi tem-- tern- tem-si In E.L. are found such forms as da--unt fordant, solT--unt for solent, nequI--unt for nequeunt, obI--unt for obeunt. Q The Suffix c, added to the True Stem, makes the Verb I n- ceptive or Inchoative (i) when the True Stem ends in a Vowel Thus : from pa-, pa-j*r-re ; from fati-, fati-j-^-ere ; from ira-, ira-joi; from na-, na-joi ; from ere-, cre-j^-ere ; from quie-, quie-j^r-ere; from no-, no-J^-ere ; from hi-, hi-^^r-Sre. (2) When the True Stem ends with a Cons.-, vincular i is re- quired : from ap-, a.p-t-sc-i ; from men-, men-/-jr-i ; from obliv-, obliv-/-jf-i ; frompac-, pac-/-j^-i ; from prone- profic-/-j) By lengthening the vowel of the Present-Stem, without or with vowel-change. 1 This 1 represents a Conjugativc suffix ya in Sanskrit, of which the a falls away in Latin : so that cap-i-o, pat-i-or, &c., may be represented as= cap-yo, pat-yor/c. Sec Schleicher, p. 577- v. 5I . The Perfect- Stem. 197 6') By adopting the Present-stem as Perfect-stem. D) By suffixing to the Present-stem v or u, representing fa-. E) By suffixing to the Present-stem s, representing es-. A} Perfect-stem formed by Reduplication. ) The Reduplicative syllable consists of the first two letters of the Stem : in which case there is no vowel-change of the Stem. In E-verbs the Clipt-stem is thus sometimes reduplicated : mo-mord-i from mord-e-; pe-pend-i from pend-e-; spo-pond-i (for spo-sponcl-i) from spond-e-; totond-i from tond-e-. In Consonant Verbs the True iStem : cu-curr-i from curr- ; di-dic-i from di-sc- (for dic-sc-) ; pe-pend-i from pend-; po-posc-i from pose-; pii-pug-i from pu-;/-g-; te-tend-i from tend-; tii-tud-i from tu-;/-d-. F I d - i is for (ft-fid-i) from fi - // - d - ; s c I d - i for (sci-sctd- /) from sci-;/-d-. b] The Reduplicative syllable is the first consonant with e ; in which case some weakening of the stem-vowel also takes place, unless this vowel be e in a close syllable, as above in pependi, tetendi. The only instances in A-verbs are de-d-i from da- ; ste-t-i from sta- : which seem to cast out the stem-vowel. But they probably are for dedei, stestei, and so have weak- ened a into e. In Consonant Verbs the instances are : pc-perc-i from pare-: pe-ptg-i from pa-;/-g-; te-tlg-i from ta-;/-g-; ce-cid-i from cad-; ce-cid-i from caed- ; ce-cln-i from can-; me-mln-i from men-; pe-per-i from par-/"-; fc-fell-i from fall- ; pe-pul-i from pel-/-. Tuli from tol-/- is for te-tul-i, which is found in old Latin. Ci'-ci'il-i is from eel-/-; but both are obsolete: the Cp. percell- forms perculi. Other forms of E. L. vxzfcjici from fac-, tetini from ten-. R) Perfect-stem formed by lengthening the vowel of the Present- stem. See 12. xiv. p. 18. a) The Vowel of the Clipt Stem is lengthened without other change in these Pure Verbs : iuv-ifrom iiiva- ; lav-i from lava-; sod- i from sede-; vld-i from vide- ; cav-i from rave- ; fav-i from fave- ; pav-i from pave- ; fov-i from fove- mov-i from move- ; vov-i from vove-. V) The Vowel of the True Stem is lengthened without other change in these Consonant Verbs : vic-i from vi--c- ; llqu-i from li-;/-qu- ; fug-i from fug-/- ; leg-i from leg- ; ed-i from ed- ; fod-i from fod-/- ; fud-i from fu-w-d- ; rup-i from ru-m-p- ; scab-i from scab-; em-i from em-. Latin Wordlore. | 51. c} The Present-stem vowel is changed and lengthened in the following Consonant Verbs : fec-i from fac-/ ; iec-i from iac-/- ; eg-i from ag- ; freg-i from fra-w-g- ; cep-i from cap-/- ; and in -peg-i from some compounds of pa--g-. C) Perfect-stem formed by adopting the Present-Stem. a) The Clipt Present-stem becomes Perfect-stem in these E- verbs : prande- prand-i ; stride- strld-i ; ferve- ferv-i (also ferbui). and in the I-verbs : comperi- comper-i ; reperi- repper-i ; unless rep peri is syncopated from repeperi. V) The Present-stem becomes Perfect-stem in these Consonant forms : blb-i ; cud-i ; Ic-i ; -fend-i ; lamb-i ; mand-i ; prehend-i ; pand-i ; psall-i ; scand-i ; solv-i ; verr-i ; vell-i ; vert-i ; vis-i ; volv-i ; -cand-i (-cend-i in Comp.). Likewise in U-verbs classically: ru-i, metu-i. But on these see 12. xiv. p. 18. D} a. Perfect-stem formed by suffixing v ( = fu-) to a strengthened Vowel character. This is done by most A- and I-verbs : ama-v-i audi-v-i and by some E -verbs : dele-v-i fle-v-i Also by the Verbs which have suffixed a Consonant to a True Vowel stem. See p. 195. cre-v-i ; sl-v-i ; le-v-i or ll-v-i ; no-v-i ; spre-v-i ; stra-v-i ; pa-v-i ; quie-v-i ; se-v-i. Likewise a few Verbs in Conj. 3. assume the Perf. and Supine forms of Conj. 4. : cup-/- cup-Iv-i ; pet- pet-Tv-i ; ter- ter-iv-i or trlvi ; quaer- for quaes- quaes-iv-i ; arcess- arcess-Iv-i ; and so capess- facess- lacess-. b. Perfect-stem formed by suffixing a ( = fu-) to the Present Stem. a) To a Clipt Stem : In a few A- verbs : crepa- crep-u-i ; cuba- cub-u-i : and so from doma-, sona-, veta-, seca-, mica-, tona-, frica- ; neca-, plica-. But some of these also take a-v-i. See Syllabus. In most E- verbs : mone- mon-u-i In the I-verbs aperi- aper-u-i ; operi- oper-u-i ; sali- sal-u-i. Note. Inceptive Verbs, derived from Verbs, follow the forma- tion of their Primitive Verb : but those in esc- isc- derived from Nouns, if they have a Perfect, form it in u-i : obduresc- obdur- u-i. 5i. The Supine- Stem. 199 b) To a True Consonant Stem : in most Verbs with character I, m : al- al-u-i ; gem- gem-u-i ; &c. also in elic-z elic-u-i; rap-/ rap-u-i ; strep- strep-u-i ; frend- frend-u-i ; stert- stert-u-i ; cumb- cub-u-i ; pon- pos-u-i ; pins- pins-u-i ; ser-,j0in, ser-u-i ; compesc- compesc-u-i ; gign- ( = gen-) gen-u-i ; tex- tex-u-i. E) Perfect-stem formed by suffixing s ( = es) to the Present- stem. This may be called the Aorist formation, resembling as it does the Greek Aorist form in , invado. Con-, in-, may remain before p, 1 : conpono, inludo. 4) EC, ex, e, are assimilated before f : effero, efficio. E x before vowels, b, c, q, p, s, t : exeo, exhibeo, excedo, exquiro, expello, extruo, extraho. E before others : educe, elude, emitto, erumpo, evoco. 5) Ob, 1 sub, are assimilated before c, g, p, f : occurro, oggan- nio, oppono, offero, succedo, suppono, suggero, sufficio. They remain before other letters : obdo, obeo, obicio, oblmo, obruo, obsisto, obtineo, obvenio, subduco, subiungo, subrideo, subside, subtraho. Note omit to, operio, ostendo, surripio, summoveo, summitto. 6) Per is changed only in the Verbs pellicio, pelluceo, peiero. 7) Trans becomes tra before d, n, and i-consonans : trado, trano, traicio. Tran- before % : transcribo. Remains before others : transfero, transeo, transmitto. 8) Ante de post prae super circum inter praeter pro subter remain in composition with Verbs : except intel-lego prod-eo prod-igo prod-esse, &c. Pro, usually long, is shortened in a few compounds : profari, profited, proficisor. /?) i) Amb- (/*00 becomes am- before p : amputo, amplector. 2) D is- is assimilated before f: differo. Remains before gutturals, labials, t, i-consonansj and * with vowel : discerpo, dispello, distraho, disicio, dissero. But diiudico. Di- before * with consonant, and before other consonants : diruo, distringo, divello. Observe dlr-ibeo for dis-hibeo, dlr-imo for dfs-imo. 1 The form obs wants authority. Such words as obtineo, obtuli, &c. compared with abstineo, abstuli, shew that it has no euphonic use. Obsolesco, often cited as a compound of olesco, is really (with exolesco, insolesco) a compound of soleo (solesco) ; ob-stinare is a strengthened form of ob-stare ; oscen is from os, for ob would make it occen ; ostendo is, we believe, for ob-os-tendo, stretch, before the face=shew : obtendo is itself a distinct compound. And, if in the two places of Plautus, where (instead of the usual obtrudo) obstrudo is given, the reading is correct, here too ob-os-trudo may be the real compound : as in each place it is used of putting food into the mouth. We cannot, therefore, accept Corssen's view, i. 121. 204 Latin Wordlore. 52- 3) Red- stands in re dam o, redargue, reddo, redeo, redhibeo, redlmo, redigo, redoleo, redundo. Re- in other compounds, as remitto. 4) Sed- appears only in seditio and its derivatives : se- in Verbs, secubo, seduco, seiungo, sepono, sevoco. 5) Sus- is used before ci, p, t : suscipio, suscito, suspendo, sustineo, sustuli. su- before sp : suspicio, suspiro. 6) For- is noted in porricio, porrigo, portendo, polliceor, pol- lingo, polluceo, polluo, possideo. 7) An- (according to Key) in anhelo, anquiro, intumesco, &c. Note. The following scheme shews the Vowel-changes in the three Stems of Compound Verbs with vowels, a, e. See 1 2. xxiv. Simple Verb Comp. Present Comp. Perfect Comp. Supine. Simple Verbs in question. I. a i e a ago, frango, pango. 2. a i t a tango, cado. 3. a I I e rapio, cano. 4. a I e e facio, iacio, lacio, capio. 5. a I i it salio. 6. a I e fateor. 7- ^ t i e teneo. 8. e t e e sedeo, specio, lego, rego, emo, premo. 9. e I * egeo. Examples : i) ago subigo subegi subactum subdue. frango effringo effregi effractum break open. pango compingo compegi compactum fasten together. 2) tango attingo attxgi attactum reach. cado occido occxdi occasum die. 3) rapio surrlpio surrXpui surreptum steal. cano concXno concxnui concentum sing in unison' 4) facio refxcio refeci refectum repair. iacio deXcio deieci deiectum throw down. lacio illxcio illexi illectum entice. capio accXpio accepi acceptum receive 5) salio prosxlio 6) fateor confxteor prosXlui prosultutn confessus spring forth, confess. 7) U'neo sustxneo sustinui sustentum sustain. 8) sseco. 8. Cpp. discrepo, differ ; increpo, chide ; (con per) crepo. Rarely -avi -atum. 9. Cpp. accubo, occubo ; (ex in re se)-cubo. Rarely -avi -atum. Cumbere 3. is a nasalised byform. R. Sk. t'i, ' lie down,' Gr. KI-. TO. Cpp. (e per) domo. R. Sk. dam, Gr. fia/u,-, tame. 11. Sonaturus, Hor. Cpp. (in per re) -sono. R. Sk. svan, 'to sound.' 12. Cp. intono -ui -atum. Adj. attonitus, R. Sk. tan, Gr. rev-, to stretch. Tonere, sonere 3. are old and poetic forms. 13. Vetavit, Pers. ; but some read notavit. 14 Simple Verb has plica vi; plicui is rare: p lie itum and plicatum. Cpp. applico, compHco, explico, implico, take both forms of Perf. and Sup The Verbs duplico, mu Itiplico, supplico are not Cpp. and have -avi -atum. Gr. *>.i%u. See plecto 3. 15. Cpp. dimico, combat, dimicavi ('dimicui,' Ov.}, dimicatum ; emico, emicui. a) The Inchoative Verbs formed from A-verbs are : From gelare : congel-ascere -avi -atum, freeze. labare : lab-ascere (no Perf. or Sup. ), begin to waver. hiare : kiscere . . (no Perf. or Sup.), gape, whisker ; M. Lucr. iv. 66. .... dehiscere ,, 8) Deponent A-verbs (all conjugated regularly in -art, -atus). Those marked * have also an Active form in -O, -are. in general peculiar to old Latin ; but an original Active may be ascribed to all. convici-ari, revile *con\\\-a.r\,/east cornic-ari, chatter *crimin-ari, accuse *cunct-ari, delay *depecul-ari, pillage despic-ari, despise devers-ari, lodge digladi-ari, combat *dign-ari, deem -worthy dedign-ari, disdain *domin-ari, rule elucubr-ari, work out, com- pose epul-ari, /east *exsecr-ari, curse *fabric-ari, fashion *fabul-ari, talk (con-) famul-ari, serve f-ari, speak (af- ef- prae- pro-) *fener-ari. lend on interest feri-ari, keep holiday *fluctu-ari, JJtictnate abomin-ari, abhor *adminicul-ari, prop, sup- port advers-ari, oppose ^adul-ari, flatter aemul-ari, rival alucin-ari, dote *alterc-ari, wrangle amplex-ari, embrace ampull-ari, talk big ancill-ari, act as handmaid apric-ari, sun oneself aqu-ari, fetch water *arbitr-ari, think, deem. architect-ari, build argument-ari, prove *argut-ari, quibble *aspern-ari, despise assent-ari, comply, flatter adstipul-ari, support auction-ari, hold an auction *aucup-ari, catch avers-ari, dislike *augur-ari, \ soothsay *auspic-an, ) auxili-ari, aid *bacch-ari, revel (as a Bac- chanal) (de) *bell-ari, make war *bubulcit-ari, tend kine *cachinn-ari, laugh loud calumni-ari, cavil, chicane cavill-ari, banter caupon-ari, sell by retail caus-ari, allege comiss-ari, revel *comit-ari, accompany *comment-ari, remark ^communic-ari, impart contion-ari, harangue conflict-ari, contend con-ari, endeavour consili-ari, counsel consol-ari, comfort *conspic-ari, behold *contempl-ari, view 208 Latin Wordlore. 53- -avi (ui) ! -itum or -atum : 14. p]Ic-are plicavi (-ui) plicltum (-atum) fold -ui or -avi | -atum. 15. mlc-are micui (-avi) -micatum glitter frument-ari, lay in corn *moder-ari, rule, restrain *proeli-ari, fight a battle (de-, *frustr-ari, baffle modul-ari, tune ratiocin-ari, reason *frutic-ari, sprout *moriger-ari, comply record-ari, remember fur-ari, steal *mor-ari, delay (com- de- im- refrag-ari, vote against, op- gesticul-ari, make gestures re-) Pose glori-ari, boast *muner-ari, reward (re-) *rim-ari, rake out, search graec-ari, live sumptuously *mutu-ari, borrow rix-ari, wrangle (like Greeks) negoti-ari, do business rustic-ari, live in the coun- grass-ari, advance, attack *nict-ari, wink try grat-ari, ) congratulate nidul-ari, make nest *savi-ari, kiss gratul-ari, ) (con) grntific-ari, do a kindness *nundin-ari, market nug-ari, trifle scil-ari, \ in ire sciscit-an, ) grav-ari, grudge "*nutric-ari, nurture scrut-ari, search out (per-) hariol-ari, divine obvers-ari, be present (to scurr-ari, play the buffoon helu-ari, eat gluttonously sight or mind) *sect-ari, follow (as- con- hort-ari, exhort (ad- ex-) odor-ari, scent out in-) hospit-ari, lodge *om\n-ar'\, forebode sermocin-ari, discourse *iacul-ari, dart (e-) oper-ari, work sol-ari, comfort imagin-ari, imagine *opin-ari, think spati-ari, walk (ex-) imit-ari, imitate *opitul-ari, help specul-ari, look out indign-ari, disdain *opson-ari, buy meat *stabul-ari, be in a stall infiti-ari, deny *oscit-ari, yawn *stipul-ari, bargain (ad- re-) insidi-ari, plot *oscul-ari, kiss stomach-ari, be angry interpret-ari, explain oti-ari, be at leisure suffrag-ari, vote with *ioc-ari, jest pabul-ari, forage suspic-ari, suspect *laet-ari, rejoice *pacific-ari, make peace tergivers-ari, shuffle *lacrim-ari, weep *pal-ari, wander test-ari, f catt to itness ' lament-ari, lament *palp-ari, stroke, flatter fr**ctifif ( oear witness \at- latrocin-ari, rob pandicul-ari, stretch oneself lesiinc- | . . ar j 1 con- de- ob- pro- lenocin-ari, pander parasit-ari, play the buffoon testari) licit-ari, bid (in auction) patrocin-ari, patronise tric-ari, make difficulties lign-ari, collect timber percont-ari, > { {rg trist-ari, be sad lucr-ari, make gain percunct-ari, ) trutin-ari, poise in the *luct-ari, struggle (col- ob- peregrin-ari, dwell as a scales re-) stranger *tumultu-ari, make an up- *ludific-ari, make mock periclit-ari, venture, be in roar *luxuri-ari, wanton peril *tut-ari, defend machin-ari, contrive philosoph-ari, philosophize urin-ari, dive materi-ari,./*?// timber *pigner-ari, take-pledge vad-ari, hold to bail *medic-ari, heal pigr-ari, be lazy *vag-ari, wander (di- e- per-) *mendic-ari, beg pisc-ari, fish (ex-) vaticin-ari, propfiesy medit-ari, con, plan (prae) pollicit-ari, promise *velific-ari, sail merc-ari, buy *popul-ari, lay waste (de) velit-ari, skirmish *meridi-ari, take-siesta. praed-ari, plunder *vener-ari, venerate (de) *met-ari, measure *praestol-ari, waitfor' ven-ari, hunt *min-ari, ) threaten praevaric-ari, walk crooked, verecund-ari, be shy *minit-ari J (com-) play the rogue vers-ari, be engaged, dwell mir-ari, wonder (ad- de-) prec-ari, pray (com- de- (con- de- di-) *miser-ari, pity (com-) im-) *vocifer-ari, cry out Most of these Verbs are derived from Nouns, a few from Verbs. Ad til are (i) may be the same word as adorare, but applied to meaner subjects (dog, flatterer, &c.); on aemulor, imitor, see Corss. Kr. B. 253: cunctor, R. Sk. s'ayk, 'hesitate:' con- templari is primarily an augural word, to observe the heavens (templa caeli) : populare probably for spo-spulare, from spolium, Gr. anv\ov. 53- Syilabtis of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 209 B) Second Conjugation : E-verbs : J (Verbs which have also an Inchoative form of Conj. 3. are printed in italics.) E-verbs. Redupl. | -sum : 1. mord-ere momordi 2. pend-ere pependi 3. spond-ere spopondi 4. tond-ere totondi L. S. | turn 5. cav-ere 6. fav-ere 7. fov-ere 8. mov-ere 9. vov-ere 10. pav-ere cavi favi fovi movi vovi pavi L. S. | sum : ti. sgd-ere sedi 12. vld-ere vldi morsum pensum sponsum tonsum cautum fautum fotum motum votum sessum visum bite hang contract shear beivare favour cherish move vow quake sit see sum 13. prand-ere prandi i | no Sup. 14. conlv-ere 15. strid-ere 1 6. ferv-ere conivi stridi ferbui pransum dine blink creak boil E-verbs. 1. Memordi is used. Cpp. (ad prae re)-mordeo -mordi -morsum. See Corss. Krit. B. 430. R. Sk. mard. 2. PendSre is the Intrans. Verb corresponding to the Trans. pendSre 3. hang : whence pondus, weight, and Frequent, pensare, ponder. Cpp. appendeo, impendeo, (de pro)-pendeo -pendi -pensum. 3. Spopondi, euphonic for spo-spondi ; Spepondi is found. Cpp. despondeo, betroth, respondeo, answer, -spondi -sponsum. See Corss. Krit. N. 112. The Verb means ' to give a legal contract,' ' sponsionem facere.' 4. Also tetondi. Cpp. attondeo, detondeo -tonui -tonsum. The Verbs 1-4 shew that Compounds drop the reduplicative syllable. R. TC//KO, Curt. Gr. Et. p. 221. 5. Cp. praecaveo. R. Sk. sku, 'hide.' 6. 7. See Corss. Krit. B. 56, 57. 8. Cpp. (a ad com de di e pro re se sum>moveo. See Curt. Gr. Et. 324. 9. Cp. devoveo. 10. Inchoative expavesco, expavi, become terrified. n. Cpp. (circum super)-sedeo. But assideo, possTdeo, and (con de dis in ob prae re sub)-sideo -sedi -sessum. R. Sk. sad, Gr. e8-. 12. Cpp. (in per prae pro)-video. R. Sk. vid, Gr. /*?-. 13. Prandeo is 'to eat the prandium ' (pri-, dies- ?) or earlier meal (answering to the present English ' luncheon,' French ' dejeuner a la fourchette '), distinguished from cena, which answers to the present English 'dinner,' formerly 'supper.' 14. Also conixi. The form nlv- is corrupted from gnigv-, g twice falling out ; R. Sk. janu, y6w, genu, knee. See C. Krit. B. 56. i". Byform stridere. 16. Byform fervere, whence another Perf. fervi. Ferbui is euphonic for fervKi, R. Sk. ghar, Gr. 0ep-. See C. Krit. B. 165. 203. Inch, defervesco, deferbui : effervesce, efferbui. 2IO Latin Wordlore. 53- -evi { -etum 17. del-ere delevi deletum blot out 18. fl-ere flevi fletum weep 19. n-ere nevi netum spin 20. -plere plevi pletum fill 21. vi-ere (vievi) vietum bind with twigs 22. ci-ere stir up 23. -olere -olevi (otttum) grow, &c. 24. su-ere suevi suetum be wont -ui | -Itum : 25. arc-ere arcui (-artum) ward off 26. coerc-ere coercui coercltum restrain 27. exerc-ere exercui exercltum exercise 28. car-ere carui carltum be without, be in want of 29. deb-ere debui debltum owe 30. dol-ere 31. hab-ere dolui habui dolitum habltum grieve have 32. iac-ere iacui iacltum lie 33. ttc-ere licui licltum be bid for 34. mer-ere merui meritum serve, earn 35. mo n-ere monui monltum advise 36. noc-ere nocui nocltum hurt 37. par-ere parui parltum appear, obey 38. plac-ere 39. praeb-ere placui praebui placltum praebltum please afford 40. terr-ere terrui terrltum affright 17. Some make this Verb de-olere, comparing abolere. More probably it is a Cp. of le-, smear, True Stem of lino. 18. Cpp. affleo, defleo. Compare Gr. \e- , Gr. Set*-. 44. For mic-sc-eo, Cpp. commisceo, immisceo, (ad inter per re)-misceo, R. Sk. tms'r, Gr. fjny. 45. Cpp. attineo (con de dis ob per re sus)-tineo -tinui -tentum, R. Sk. tan, Gr. rev-. 46. R. Pr. tarsh, 'be dry,' Gr. Tpe-. 52. Gr. . 53. Inch, acesco -acui, Cp. coacesco. R. Gr. ix-, sharpen. 54. Inch, aresco. Cp. exar-esco -ui. 55. Inch, cal-esco -ui. Cpp. (con per)-cal-esco -ui, grow hot. 56. Inch. Cpp. occall-esco, percall-esco -ui. 57. Inch. Cpp. (ex in)-cand-esco -ui. Cando 3. (used in Cpp. only in the Trans. form. See Corss. K. B. in.) 58. Inch, claresco, Cp. inclar-esco -ui, become bright, illustrious. 59. Inch, floresco, Cp efflor-esco -ui, bloom. 60. Inch, frond-esco, Cp. refrond-esco -ui, come into leaf again. 61. Cpp. (ab ex in)-horreo, Inch, horresco. Cpp. cohorresco, (ex in per)-horr-esco -ui, shudder. R. Pr. harsh, 'to bristle," Gr. 4>ptWw. 62. Inch, languesco, Cpp. (e ob re)-langu-esco -ui, grow faint. R. Gr. Xa-y-. 63. Inch, lat-esco, Cp. delit-esco -ui. Frequent, latito i. See C. Kr. B. 79. P 2 212 64. Kqu-ere 65. mdd-ere 66. marc-ere 67. nit-ere 68. pall-ere 69. /tf7-m? 70. put-ere 71. putr-ere 72. rig-ere 73. riib-ere 74. sU-ere 75. sord-ere 76. splend-ere 77. sqiial-ere 78. stiip-ere 79. ^- 7n j. 0M 71. Inch, putr-esco -ui, become rotten i 72. Inch, rig-esco -ui. Cpp. (di ob)-rig-esco -ui, grow stiff. 73. Inch, rub-esco, Cp. erub-esco -ui, blush. R. Pr. rudk, Gr. epv5-. 74. Inch, sil-esco -ui. become silent. 75. Inch, sord-esco -ui, become mean, 'worthless. 76. Cp. resplendeo. Inch, splend-esco, exsplend-esco -ui, shine out. 78. Inch, stup-esco, obstup-esco -ui, stand amazed. See Curt. 218, 79. Inch, tabesco ; Cpp. (ex in)-tab-esco -ui, begin to pine. See Curt. 238. 80. Inch, tep-esco -ui. R. Sk. tap. 81. Cpp. (prae sub>timeo. Inch. Cpp. (ex per)-tim-esco -ui. 82. Inch, torp-esco, Cp. obtorp-esco -ui, grow torpid. See Corss. K. B. 438. 83. Inch, tum-esco, Cp. intum-esco -ui, begin to swell. R. Sk. /*. 84. Inch, vig-esco -ui. R. Sk. uksh, 'grow strong,' Gr. vy-. But see Curt. 85. Inch, vir-esco, Cp. revir-esco -ui, become green again. 86. See Curt. 309. 88. R. Sk. s'ru, Gr. K\V. 96. Inch, aegresco, become sick. 97. Inch, albesco, exalbesco, become white. 53- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 213 i oo. flacc-ere roi. flay -ere be flabby be yellow 1 06. renld-ere 107. scdt-ere smile bubble up 102. heb-ere be dull 1 08. sen-ere be old 103. lact-ere be milky 109. um-ere be moist 104. liv-ere be livid no. uv-ere be dank 105. muc-ere be mouldy -si | -turn : in. polluc-ere polluxi polluctum make a feast 112. aug-ere auxi auctum increase 113. indulg-ere indulsi indultum indulge 114. mulg-ere mulsi mule turn milk 115. torqu-ere torsi tortum ' twist 1 1 6. lug-ere luxi mourn -si | sum : 117. mulc-ere mulsi mulsum soothe 1 1 8. terg-ere 119. ard-ere tersi arsi -tersum arsum wipe take fire 120. rid-ere risi risurn laugh I2i. suad-ere suasi suasum persuade 122. iub-ere iussi iussum command 123. man-ere mansi mansum remain 124. haer-ere haesi haesum stick si | no Sup. : 125. alg-ere alsi be cold 1 26. fulg-ere fulsi glittet 1 27. turg-ere tursi swell 128. urg-ere ursi urge 1 29. frig-ere -frixi be cold 130. Ific-ere luxi shine ioo. See Cores. Kr, B. 28. Byform scatere, 3. Lucr. v. 40. 108. Inchoative, sen-esco, consen-esco -ui, grow old, (The other Verbs from 96 to in form Inchoatives which denote beginning of state : but are without Perf. and Sup. except incanesco, which has Perf. incanui.) 112. Cpp. (ad ex)-augeo. Inch, augesco. R. Sk. uksh. 113. See Corss. K. Beitr. 382. This derivation from aAe'yw is very doubtful. 114. Cp. immulgeo. R. Sk. marj, Gr. a-/meA.Y-. 115. Cpp. (con de dis ex in re)-torqueo. R. rpen--. 116. See Curt. 182. The Subst. luctus points to a Sup. of that form. 117. Cpp. (de per)-mulceo. See Curt. 327. 118. Cpp. (abs de)-tergeo. See Corss. K. B. 437. 119. Inch, ard-esco, exard esco -arsi. Corss. derives from aridus, K. B. in. 120. Cpp. arrideo, irrideo. (de sub)-rideo. R. Sk. krlti, 'play.' 121. Cpp. (dis perVsuadeo. R. Sk. svad, 'sweeten,' Gr. oS-. 122. From ius- hibere. 123. Cpp. (per re)-maneo. R. Gr. /xi/-. 124. Cpp. cohaereo, (ad in)-haereo. Inch, haere-sco, haesi and Cpp. 126. Cpp. affulgeo, effulgeo, refulgeo. Inch, fulg-esco, fulsi. Byform fulgere, 3. R. Sk. bhraj, Gr. ^Aey-. 128. Cp. adurgeo. R. Pr. varj, 'to press,' Gr. feipy-. 129. Inch, frigesco, Cp. refrigesco -frixi. R. Gr. P t Y -. 130. Cpp. colluceo (e re sub)-luceo. Inch, lucesco, Cp. illucesco -luxi, dawn. R. Sk. rue 1 , Gr. AVK-. 214 Lattn Wordlorc. 53- I-verbs. Semideponent : 131. aud-ere ausus sum dare 132. gaud-ere gavlsus sum rejoice 133. sol-ere solitus sum be wont Deponent : 134. Wc-eri licftus bid for 135. mer-eri meritus deserve 136. mlser-eri miserftus pity 137. tu-eri tuitus view, protect 138. ver-eri verltus fear, respect 139. r-eri ratus . think 140. fat-eri fassus confess 141. med-eri heal C) Fourth Conjugation : I-verbs : l (aud-Ire, aud-Ivi (ii), aud-Itum.) Variant: -Ivl (ii) | -turn : i. sepel-Ire sepelivi sepultum bury 2. Ire (eo) ivi Itum g 3. quire quivi quitum be able -ui 1 -turn ". 4. sal-Ire salui (saltum) leap, dance 5. aper-ire aperui apertum open 6. oper-Ire operui opertum cover -i | turn : 7. comper-Ire comperi compertum find 8. reper-Ire repperi repertum discover (C. S.-) -turn : 9. ven-Ire veni ventum come 131. Corss. derives from S,vid-us. 132. Corss. derives from a form gavidus. R. Gr. yaf-. 133. Probably connected with the forms Sk. sarva-s, E. L. sollus, Gr. oAo?, &c. Cp. assoleo. An Inch, form solesco must be assumed whence in-solesco, ex-solesco, ob-solesco -evi (insolens, exoletus, obsoletus). 134. Cp. polliceor, promise. See 33. 135. Cpp. commereor, (de pro)-mereor. 137. Cpp. (con in)-tueor. See Corss. K. B. 437. 138. Cpp. (re sul>)-verenr. R. Pr. var, cover.* 140. Cpp. diffiteor, diffessus ; (con pro)-nteor -fessus. R. Gr. : 4i.*expe"r-iri expertus 42. oppgr-iri oppertus 43. 6r-iri ortus fawn, flatter bestow speak falsely plan divide get possession of punish allot, take by lot experience wait for arise TO. Also amicui. 11. Cpp. differcio (con in re)-fercio -fersi -fertum. 12. Cpp. effulcio, suffulcio. Derived from turca., prop, C. 13. $a--c-io is nasalised, as sa-c-er shews. R. Gr. aa-os. 14. Cp. resarcio. 15. Cp. devincio. 16. Gr. oke, pock. (Can Sk. pis' be cited here?) 5. Cpp. attmgo, attfgi, attactum ; (con ob)-tingo -ttgi -tactum. The root-form tag-o is used by Plautus : also attigo (Gr. ray- : compare tingere). See Curt. 217. 6. Sisto, redupl. of sto, is trans, orintrans., but its Cpp. are intrans. (ab ad con de ex in ob per re sub)-sisto -stiti. Sup. (-stitum, -statum) is very rare. 7. Cpp. of -do -dere (for dare) are (ab ad con de e in ob per pro red sub tra)-do -didi-ditum. Also credo (Sk. s 1 rad-dadhami, ' put trust, believe '), -didi, -dltum, trust, and vendo -dldi -dltum, sell. See dare. The Partic. praedltus, endued, is a relic of praedere, not otherwise occurring. 8. Cpp. attendo (con dis in ob prae sub)-tendo -tendi -tentum : (de ex os pro re) -tendo -tendi -tentum, sometimes -tensum. R. Sk. tan, Gr. rav- TCI/-, with suf- fix d. 9. Cpp. occino, succino -cinui -centum ; so (con prae)-cino. Intercino, reclno, no Perf. or Sup. Occecini is found. 53- Syllabtis of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 217 10. par-ere 11. toll-ere peperi sustuli partum sublatum bring forth take up Redupl. 12. parc-ere 13. cad-ere 14. caed-ere 15. pend-ere 1 6. tu--d-ere 17. curr-ere 1 8. fall-ere 19. pell-ere 20. (-cell-ere) peperci parsum cecldi casum cecldi caesum pependi pensum (tutudi) tusum cucurri cursum fefelli falsum pepuli pulsum (ceculi) (-culsum) spare fall cut, beat) kill weigh thump) pound run deceive drive push 2) Verbs with Present-stem strengthened in Perfect. (S-) | -turn : 21. fac-ere (z-o) feci factum make, do 22. iac-ere (/-o) ieci 23. li-w-qu-ere liqui lactum -lictum throw leave 10. Fut. Part, pariturus. 11. The old Perfect tetuli is used by Plaut. and Lucr. Tuli, with dropt reduplication, is used as the Perfect of fero. See Irregular Verbs, p. 184. Latum, used as Sup. of fero, is for t-latum from 8k. tul, Gr. rAa-, L. tol-, lift, endure. The Cpp. of fero are : (ante circum de per prae pro re trans)-fero -tuli -latum ; affero attuli allatum ; aufero abstuli ablatum ; confero contuli collatum ; differo distuli dilatum ; effero extuli elatum ; infero intuli illatum ; ofFero obtuli obla- tum ; suffero sustuli sublatum (which two forms are borrowed by tollo). 12. Cp. comparco -parsi -parsum : or with e ; comperco, &c. Curtius compares Gr. tr-rrapi'O?. 13. Cpp. accido, occido, succido -cidi. So (con de ex in inter pro re)-cido : occasum is the only Sup. Recidi for rececidi. 14. Cpp. accido, occido, succido -c'idi -clsum. So (con de ex in prae re)-cldo. 15. Cpp. appendo, impendo -pendi -pensum. So (dis ex per re sus)-pendo. 16. Cpp. (con ob re)-tundo -tudi -tusum or tunsum. R. Sk. tud, 'to strike, push, bruise.' 17. Cpp. (ante circum in inter pro re super)-curro -curri. So succurro. Accurro, occurro and (con de dis per tran^)-curro have -curri or cucurri : ad (ex prae) -curro prefer -cucurri. All have -cursum. Probable R. Pr. karsh, ' draw. ' Cecurri is found. 18. Cp. refello, refelli; no Sup. R. Sk. sphnl, Gr. (r-<^aAAw (sphal-yo), make to fall. 19. Cpp. (com de dis ex per pro re)-pello -puli -pulsum. So appello, impello. As- pello, no Perf. or Sup. Reppuli for repepuli. 20. (Cello ceculi) are not used. Cp. percello, perculi, perculsum, to thrill. R. Sk kal, ' to push. ' 21. Cpp. (con de in inter per prae pro re)-f!cio -feci -fectum : so afficio, officio, suf- ficio : but (satis bene male)-facio -feci -factum. Facio is compounded with many verbal elements : (are assue cale collabe commone labe lique made mansue pate putre stupe obstupe tabe tepe treme tume)-facio -feci -factum, together with many more ; the passive forms of which are similar com- pounds of fio. 22. Cpp. (ab ad con de dis e in ob pro re sub tra)-icio -ieci -iectum. See Munro on Lucr. ii. 951 ; Curt. 403. 33. The Supine is only found in the Cpp. (re dere)-linquo -liqui -lictum. R. Sk. //igo -egi -actum ; colgo=cogo, coegi, coactum ; de!go=dego degi, prodigo prodegi, no Sup. ; ambigo, no Perf. or Sup. ; satago sategi, no Sup. R. Sk. aj, Gr. ay-. 26. Cpp. confringo, effringo ; (de in per prae re)-fringo -fregi -fractum. Gr. fpa-y-. 27. Lego, read, Cpp. (per prae re)-lego -legi -lectum. Lego, choose : sub-lego -legi -lectum, (col de e se)-llgo -legi -lectum ; intellego, neg-lego, -lexi -lectum ; and di-llgo -lexi -lectum. Gr. Aey-. 28. Cpp. (con de ex in inter per prae re sus)-cipio -cepi -ceptum. So accipio. But antecapio. See p. 190. Note. 29. Cpp. corrumpo, irrumpo ; (di e inter per proVrumpo. R. Sk. lup, ' to tear.' 30. Cpp. (ad dir ex red) Imo -emi -emptum ; coemo, (inter per)-emo. The rest (como, demo, promo, sumo) form -psi -ptum. Emo seems, in some of its uses, to be the Causal of eo. Compare intereo with interemo ; pereo with peremo. 32. Cpp. (ad com ex per)-edo -edi -esum. See IRREGULAR VERBS, p. 189. 33- Cpp. (con de in per)-fodio. Also effodio. 34. Cpp. (con de in per pro re)-fundo. Also affundo, effundo, offundo, suffundo ; Gr. XV-, with nasalised suff. d : pointing to a lost root ghu, 35. Cpp. aufugio, diffugio, effugio : (con per pro re trans>fugio. R. Sk. bhuj, Gr. vy-. 36. Cpp. combibo, ebibo, imbibo. R. Sk. p&, Gr. no-, Present-stem redupl. ; the p being softened to I). 38. Cp. dif-findo. 39. Cpp. (ab di ex re)-scindo. R. Sk. c'hid. 40. Cpp. (a ad con de di e in ob per prae re sub)-verto. R. Pr. vart. 41. Cpp. accendo, incendo, succendo -cendi -censum. 53. Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 219 42. cud-&re cudi cusum hammer 43. -fend-ere -fendi -fensum strike 44. mand-ere mandi mansum chew 45. pand-ere 46. prehend-ere pandi prehendi pansum prehensum spread take, grasp 47. scand-Sre scandi scansum climb 48. sid-ere sldi settle 49. lamb-ere Iambi lick 50. verr-ere verri versum sweep 51. vell-ere jvelli ) 1 vulsi > vulsum rend, pluck 52. psall-ere psalli play (chord* 53. vls-ere vlsi visum visit 54. fidere fisus sum trust 3) Verbs with agglutinated Perfect-stem in -ui or -vi. a. -ui I -turn : 55. compesc-ere compescui restrain 56. rap-ere (z-o) rapui raptum seize 57. al-ere alui altum nourish 58. col-ere colui cultum till 59. consul-ere consului consultum consult 60. occul-ere occului occultum hide 61. ser-ere serui sertum set in row 62. pins-gre pinsui pistum Pound 42. Cpp. (ex in pro)-cudo -cudi -cusum. Hence incus incud-, anvil. 43. Cpp. (de of)-fendo. Hence infensus, infestus, manifestos (for -fendtus). Sk. han (Pr. dhan?), Gr. 0cv-. 45. Cpp. (dis ex prae)-pando -pandi -pansum or passum. 46. Also prend-ere, prendi, prensum. Cpp. apprehendo (com de re)-prehendo or -prendo, &c. Gr. \aS- xo->'SdvcaAta, are evidently cog- nate and point to a common Pr. kal, ' hide,' which appears in Sk. as kul. Curtius compares also clepere and color. 61 . Cpp. (con de dis ex in)-sero. So assero. Gr. Ipu>. See Curt. 355. 62. Sometimes pisere, pisi. R. Sk. pish, 'crush.' 220 Latin Wordlore. 53- 63. tex-ere texui textum 64. deps-ere depsui -ui | i-tum : 65. ellc-ere (z-o) elicui elicltum 66. stert-ere stertui 67. strep-ere strepui strepitum 68. cu;b-ere cubui cubitum 69. frem-ere fremui fremitum 70. gem-ere gemui gemitum 71. trem-ere tremui 72. vom-ere vomui vomltum 73. gign-ere genui genftum 74. pon-ere posui posftum 75. mol-ere molui molitum 76. velle (volo) volui 77. nolle (nolo) nolui . 78. malle (malo) malui -ui | -sum : 79. met-ere messui messum 80. fre^d-ere frewdui fressum 81. (-cell-ere) (-cellui) (-celsum) weave knead, tan tice forth snore rattle lie down roar groan tremble vomit beget place grind wish wish not wish rather mow, reap gnash, bruise push b. -vi | -turn : These include the Verbs, before noticed, in which the Present Stem is so modified as to become consonantal : while the True Stem, which is pure, is shown in the Perfect and Supine forms. a. 82. Ito-ere 83. si-ere 84. cer;z-ere levi slvi crevi Htum sltum cretum smear allow sift 63. Cpp. (con in ob per prae re sub)-texo. R. Sk. taksh (for Pr. taK), ' fashion.' Gr. TX-- 64. Gr. 8evomo. R. Sk. vam, Gr. c e/y.-e-. 73. Cp. progigno. Redupl. of gen-. Sk. jan, Gr. yev-. Geno is found in old Latin. 74. Cpp. (ante com de dis ex inter post prae pro re se trans)-pono. See p. 195. 75. Cp. permolo. Gr. |uu>A-, L. mola, a mill. Hence maltt 76-78. See Irregular Verbs, p. 186. 79. Cp. demeto. (Sk. ma, 'measure'?) 80. The Sup. shews the nasalisation of Pres. St. See frendCre. 81. Cpp. (ante ex prae)-cello cellui. Hence the Adjectives celsus, excelsus, praecel- sus. R. Sk. kal, 'push,' shewn also in procul, procella, culler, celer, xe'AAw, ^ou/coAo?, and others. See 20. 82. Cpp. (per ob sub)-lino -levi -litum. Also collino, illlno. Another form is linire. R. Sk. It. 83. Cp. desino, (deslvi) desii, also desltus sum. 84. Cpp. (de dis ex se)-cerno. R. Gr. >epc-. Hence L. cribrum, sieve. 53- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 221 85. sper-ere sprevi spretum spurn 86. sterw-ere stravi stratum strew 87. ser-ere sevi satum sow 88. cre^-ere crevi c return grow 89. quie^-ere quievi quietum rest 90. sue^-ere suevi suetum be wont 91. (g)nojr-ere (g)novi (g)notum know 92. paj-ere pavi pastum feed /3. 93. cup-ere (z-o) cupivi cupitum desire 94. pet-ere petlvi petitum demand 95. quaer-ere quaesivi quaesltum seek 96. rud-ere rudivi rudltum bray 97. sap-ere (z-o) saplvi savour 98. ter-ere trivi tritum rub, bruise y. 99. arcess-ere arcesslvi arcessltum fetch 100. incess-ere incesslvi incessltum attack 101. capess-ere capessivi capessftum take in hand 102. facess-ere facesslvi facessitum cause 103. lacess-ere lacessivi lacessltum provoke 4) Verbs forming Perfect- Stem with agglutinated -s (for es-). a. Guttural Stems : -si 1 -turn : 104. dic-ere dixi dictum say 105. duc-ere duxi ductum lead 1 06. -lac-ere (2-0) -lexi -lectum entice 85. Spernere, properly ' to kick.' Curt. 289. 86. Cpp. (in pro)-sterno. R. Pr. star, Gr. crop-. 87. Cpp. (con in)-sero -sevi -situm. 9 88. Cpp. (con de ex in)-cresco. Also accresco, succresco. Cresco is Inchoative of creo, Sk. trt, 'make.' 89. Cpp. acquiesce, (con re)-quiesco. Sk. s'l, Gr. icei-. 90. Cpp. assuesco, (con de in)-suesco. Sk. svadkd, 'self-will.' R. sva, 'self.' 91. Nosco has dropt g jvhich reappears in agnosco, agnovi, agnitum ; cognosce, cog- novi, cognltum ; ignosco, ignovi : Adj. ignotus. Dignosco, internosco have no Sup. This Verb, with potum, potus, are the only remnants of a Latin O-verb Sk. jnd, Gr. yvo-. 92. Cp. depasco. 93. Cupiret, Lucr. 94. Cpp. (com ex re)-peto. So appeto, oppeto. Curtius refers to Sk. pat, Gr. wer-, fly. 95. For quaesere or quaesire. Cpp. (con dis ex in per re)-quiro -qulsivi -quisltum. So perquiro, conquiro. 96. Sk. ru, rud ; Gr. copvu. Persius has rudere : but rudens, cable. 97. Or sapui. Cp. desipio -ui. Inchoative resipisco -sipui, grow wise again. This word, compared with sucus, shews labialism, as lupus, popina, &c. 98. Cpp. (de con pro)-tero -trivi -tritum. Also attero. Perf. terivi and terui are found. Connected with Gr. Tfipta, re'prji'. L. tener. 99103. These Verbs are formed with a suffix ess- which expresses eager action. Arcess- is for acci-ess-, and is sometimes written accers- : incess- for inci-ess- : both from root ci, rouse : capess- from cap- : facess- from fac- : lacess- from lac- Perfect and Supine shew that the Present-Stem was originally -io. Perfects incess i, fa cess i, laces si, are cited. 104. Cpp. (ad bene contra e in inter male prae vale)-dico. R. Sk. dis', Gr. SeiK-. 105. Cpp. (ab ad circum con de di e in intro ob per pro re se sub tra)-duco. 106. Cpp. al-licio, il-licio, pel-licio, pro-licio -lexi -lectum ; but elicio, elicui, elicitum. 222 Latin Wordlore. 53- 107* -spec-Sre (*-o) -spexi -spectum espy 1 08. coqu-ere coxi coctum cook 109. cing-ere cinxi cinctum surround no. fiwg-ere fmxi fictum fashion in. -fllg-ere -flixi -flictum smite 112. frig-ere frixi frictum roast, fry 113. iung-ere iunxi iunctum join 114. ling-gre -linxi linctum lick 115. mung-ere -munxi -munctum wipe 1 1 6. pwg-ere piwxi pictum paint 117. plang-Sre planxi planctum beat 1 1 8. reg-ere rexi rectum rule 119. strig-ere strixi strictum bind 1 20. sug-ere suxi suctum suck 121. teg-ere texi tectum cover 122. -stingu-ere -stinxi -stinctum 123. tingu-ere tinxi tinctum stain 124. ungu-gre unxi unctum anoint 125. ningu-e're ninxi snow 126. ang-ere (anxi) squeeze 127. clang-ere rattle 128. trah-ere traxi tractum draw 129. veh-ere vexi vectum carry 130. vlv-ere vixi victum live 131. stru-ere struxi structum pile 107. Cpp. (circum con de di in per pro re)-spicio -spexi -spectum. So aspicio, suspicio. R. Sk. spas?, Gr. trw. 108. Cpp. (con de in per)-coquo. R. Sk. pac 1 , Gr. irer-. See p. 59. 109. Cpp. (dis prae re)-cingo. So accingo, succingo. no. Cpp. affingo, effingo, re-fingo, Gr. 0ty-. in. Cpp. (con in)-fligo, affligo. Profligare, rout, is of Conj. x. 112. R. Sk.bhrajj, Gr. pvy-. 113. Cpp. (ad con dis in se sub)-iungo. R. Sk. yuj, Gr. vy-. 114. Cp. pol-lingo, anoint (a corpse), pollinxi, pollinctum. Sk. rih or lih, Gr. Aei^-. 115. Cp. emungo, wipe the nose, clean out. R. Sk. niutf. 1 16. Cpp. appingo, depingo. See pungere. R. Sk. pinj. 117. Gr. irArry-. L. plaga. 118. Cpp. arrigo, coriigo, dirigo ; (e por)-rigo -rexi -rectum. Also pergo, perrexi, per- rectum ; surgo, rise, surrexi, surrectum, with its compounds : (as con ex in re)-surgo -surrexi -surrectum. K. Gr. ope-y-. 119. Cpp. astringo, (con de di ob per prae re sub)-stringo. From praestringere comes praestigiae, juggleries (for praestrigiae). Gr. arpayy-. 1 20. Cp. exsugo. 12 1. Cpp. (con de ob pro re)-tego. Latin has dropt s. R. Sk. sthag, Gr. nexum twine 139. pect-gre pexi pexum comb 140. plect-ere -plexum .plait \ smite 141. mitt-ere misi missum send 142. quat-ere (z-o) quassum shake 143. ced-ere cessi cessum yield 144. claud-ere clausi clausum shut 145. divld-ere divisi divisum divide 146. laed-ere laesi laesum hurt 147. lud-ere lusi lusum play 148. plaud-ere plausi plausum clap hands 149. rad-ere rasi rasum shave 150. rod-ere rosi rosum gnaw 151. trud-ere trusi trusum thrust 152. vad-gre -vasi -vasum go 132. Cpp. affigo, suffigo ; con- de- in- prae- re- trans-figo. 133. Enlarged forms flug- and flugv- account for the Perfect fluxi and for flu-v-ius. Cpp. (circum con de dif ef in per prae praeter pro re)-fluo -fluxi -fluxum. Also affluo, diffluo, effluo. The noun fluctus points to an older Sup. in -turn. 134. Cpp. immergo ; (de e sub)-mergo. 135. Cpp. conspergo, dispergo ; (ad in re>spergo -spersi -spersum. In old L. these keep a. 136. For stergere. So C. and Meyer. Compare s-trigilis, flesh-scraper. See ter- gere. 137. This and the next three are Guttural Verbs, strengthened by a suffix t : but, as t falls out before 8, and also influences the Supine, they may be treated as Dental Verbs. Cpp. (circum de in re)-flecto. 138. Cpp. (ad con in sub)-necto -nexui -nexum. See meto. 139. Cp. depecto depexi depexum. 140. Gr. 1T\fK-. 141. Cpp. dimitto, immitto, omitto ; (a ad com de e inter per prae praeter pro re sub trans)-mitto -misi -missum. 142. Cpp. (con dis ex inper)-cutio -cussi -cussum. So repercutio. 143. Cpp. (abs ante con de dis ex in inter prae pro re se)-cedo. So accedo, succedo. 144. Cpp. (con dis ex in inter prae re se>cludo -clusi -clusum. So occludo, Gr. K\fl sumo -sumpsi -sumptum. 164. Cp. contemno con tempsi con temptum. 165. Cpp. imprimo, supprimo ; (com de ex op re)-primo -pressi -pressum. 166. Cpp. (con di e in)-gero. So aggero, suggero. 167. Cpp. (ad ex in per)-uro. Corssen (Kr. Nachtrage, 117) derives amburo, com-buro -bussi -bustum, together with the Noun bustum, from Sk. prush, plush, ' to burn. ' 168. Cp. exacuo, exacui. On the original long quantity of u in U-verbs, see p. 18. 169. Cp. redargue. Sk. arjuna-s, clear, Gr. apyds. 53- Syllabus of Stem- Formation in Verbs. 225 170. exu-ere exui exutum put off 171. indu-ere indui indutum put on 172. imbu-ere imbui imbutum tinge 173. lu-ere lui lutum wash, atone 174. minu-ere minui minutum lessen 175. nu-ere nui nutum nod 176. spu-ere spui sputum spit 177. statu-ere statui statutum set up 178. sternu-ere sternui sternutum sneeze 179. su-ere sui sutum sew 1 80. tribu-ere tribui tributum assign, pay 1 8 1. solv-ere solvi solutum loose* Pay 182. volv-ere volvi volutum roll -ui I -iitum 183. ru-ere 184. batu-ere 185. -gru-ere 1 86. metu-ere 187. plu-ere rui batui -grui _ metui plui rutum (ruitum) beat fear rain Deponent Verbs in Conj. 3 : o. 1 88. fung-i functus perform 189. nit-i nisus (nixus) strive 190. plect-i -plexus twine 191. pat-i (z-or) passus suffer 192. uti usus use 193. grad-i (/-or) gressus step 170-1. Latin -uo in these Verbs corresponds to Gr. fivw. Curt. 621. But see Corss. Beitr. 496. Hence ind-uviae, ex-uviae. 172. Corssen considers bu in imbuo a weakened form of pa po-, ' to drink.' 173. Cpp. (ab di e per pol pro sub)-luo -lui -lutum. Put. Part, luiturus. Luo is the weak form which appears strengthened in Gr. AOV'OJ and L. lav-ere, lavare (see A-verbs). Curt. 370. See solvere. 174. Cpp. (com de di im)-minuo. R. Sk. mi, Gr. /*i-y-. 175. Cpp. (ab an in re>nuo. Gr. vevw. 7. 76. Cpp. (con de ex re)-spuo -spui. Gr. irrvw, hence p-i-tulta for s-pituita. 177. From status. Cpp. (con de in pro re sub)-stituo -stitui -stitutum. 179. Cpp. (as con dis re)-suo. R. Sk. stv, 1 80. From tribus, tribe : Root tri, three. Applied first to the state-payments of the three original Tribes at Rome. Cpp. (con dis re)-tribuo. So attribuo. 181. Cpp. (ab dis ex per re)-solvo. For se-luere, from a verb lu-, loose =Sk. Ift, Gr. A.V-, but not otherwise shewn in L. 182. Cpp. (ad circum con de e in ob per pro re)-volvo. Gr. feAv'w. 183. Cpp. (di e ob pro sub)-ruo -rui -rutum. So corruo, irruo. Fut. Part, rui- turus. 185. Cpp. (con in)-gruo. 1 86. Metutum appears in Lucr. v. 1139. 187. Cp. depluo. (The word delibutus, steeped, belongs to a disused Verb d e 1 i b u o.) 188. Cpp. (de per)-fungor. 189. Cpp. (ad con e in ob re sub)-nitor -nixus. For g-nitor. R. Sk. j'&nu, Or. yovu, knee. 190. See plectere. Cpp. amplector, complector, embrace. 191. Cp. perpetior, perpessus. 192. In old Latin the form oitier appears. Cp. abutor abusus. 193. Cpp. aggredior (con de di e in prae pro re trans)-gredior -gressus. Q 226 Latin Wordlorc. 53- 194. lab-i lapsus glide, fall 195. mor-i (z-or) mortuus die 196. quer-i questus complain 197. fru-i fruitus enjoy 198. 16qu-i locutus speak 199. sequ-i secutus follow /3. 200. apisc-i aptus obtain 201. -menisc-i -mentus have in mind 202. expergisc-i experrectus wake up 203. fatisc-i fessus be weary 204. (g)nasc-i (g)natus be born 205. irasc-i iratus be angry 206. nancisc-i nactus find 207. oblivisc-i oblltus forget _ 208. pacisc-i pactus bargain 209. proficisc-i profectus set 02it 194. Cpp. (de di e praeter pro sub re)-labor -lapsus. So allabor, collabor, illabor. J 95* Cpp. (de e)-morior -mortuus. Fut. Part, moriturus. So immorior. R. Sk. mar. Mortuus is an Adj. used participially. 196. Cp. conqueror conquestus. 197. For frugv-i, henee fructus ; but Fut. Part, fruiturus. Cp. perfruor perfruitus. 198. Cpp. (e ob pro)-loquor -locutus. So alloquor, colloquor. 199. Cpp. (con ex in ob per pro sub)-sequor -secutus. R. Sk. sad, Gr. kit-. 200. Cpp. (ad ind)-ipiscor -eptus. R. Sk. Ap. 201. Cpp. comminiscor commentus ; reminiscor, no Part. R. Sk. man. 202. The Cp. expergisci experrectus is evidently weakened from exporgisci expor- rectus : from exporrigi, to stretch oneself out (on awakening). See rego. 203. Cp. defetiscor defessus. 204. Cp. (con e in)-nascor -natus, Fut. Part, nasciturus. Observe cognatus, prog- natus. See gignere, 73. 206. Nanctus is also used : and nanciam is cited as an old form. 207. From liv-ere, to be of a dark colour ; hence oblivisci, to become darkened, to forget. So Corssen, Nachtr., 34. 208. See pan go. Cpp. (com de)-paciscor or -peciscor. R. Sk. pas 1 . 209. From pro fac- (make forward). (Inchoative Verbs derived from -other Verbs have been mentioned in the Notes to the Syllabus.) A) Inchoatives derived from Nouns are very numerous : examples are i) Having a Perfect, but no Supine. From vesper creber crudus durus macer maturus mutus niger notus surdus vanus vilis vesperasco vesperavi advesperasco advesperavi invesperasco invesperavi crebresco crebui increbresco increbui percrebresco percrebui recrudesco recrudui duresco j durui induresco f indurui obduresco ' obdurui macresco macrui maturesco maturui obmutesco obmutui nigresco nigrui innotesco innotui obsurdesco obsurdui vanesco vanui evanesco evanui vilesco vilui evilesco evilui \grow towards \ evening r become frequent become sore again r grow hard grow lean become rtpe become mute become black become known become deaf \ -vanish away 53- Syllabus of Stein-Formation in Verbs. 227 210. ulcisc-i 211. vesc-i y. 212. llqu-i 213. ring-i ultus avenge feed melt grin 2) Without Perfect or Supine : puer puerasco (re) ignis ignesco integer integrasco arbor arboresco dives ditesco dulcis dulcesco grandis grandesco gravis gravesco (in) niger curvus iuvenis mitis mollis pinguis pluma sterilis tener lentus incurvesco iuvenesco (re) mitesco mollesco pingueseo plumesco sterilesco tener-esco -asco (in) lentesco fatisco(Gr. ^a-"), fall open, &c. mgresco 3) Some are of uncertain origin : glisco, increase Conquinisco, conquexi, stoop, is an old and temarkable Inchoative Verb. Obs. Other Verbs of Conj. 3. without Perfect and Supine are : ambigo, doubt ; clango ; furo, rage ; plecto, strike. B) Homonymous words are such as are written alike, though differing in sense and generally in origin. i) Verbs having the same First Person Present Ind. in different Conjugations. Conj. i. appello call compello address colligo bind consterno alarm Conj. 3. appello land compello compel colligo collect consterno strew Conj. i. fundo found mando obsero volo entrust bolt Conj. 3. fundo pour mando chew obsero sow over voio wish effero make wild effero bear out With difference of Quantity : Conj. i. Conj. 3. Conj , i. Conj. 3- colo strain culo till educo train educo lead out dico dedicate dico say lego bequeath lego read, &c. indico point out indlco proclaim with Compounds. praedico declare praedico foretell 2) The same form of Perfect : Perfect. acesco, 3. grow sour acuo, 3. sharpen acui cerno, 3. sift cresco, 3. grcnv crevi frigeo, 2. am cold frigo, 3. roast frixi fulgeo, 2. glitter fulcio, 4. prop fulsi luceo, 2. shine lugeo, 2. mourn luxi mulceo, 2. soothe mulgeo, 2. milk mulsi paveo, 2. dread pasco, 3. feed pavi 3) The same form of Supine : Supine. cerno, 3. sift cresco, 3. grow cretum pando, 3. spread patior, 3. suffer passum pango. 3. fasten paciscor, 3. bargain pactum teneo, 2. hold tendo, 3. stretch tentum verro, 3. sweep verto, 3. turn versum video, 2. see viso, 3. visit visum vivo, 3. live vinco, 3. conauer victum Q 2 228 Latin Wordlore. 54-55. CHAPTER IV. PARTICLES. tides. There is a close intimacy between the four classes of Particles. Prepositions are Adverbs used with Noun- cases, and many can be used without case, as mere Ad- verbs. On the other hand, some Adverbs (as procul, simul) can take cases. Many Pronominal Particles are Adverbs when interrogative, but Conjunctions when re- lative. Interjections are Adverbs hanging loose on the sentence : and some resemble Prepositions by taking a Noun-case. SECTION I. Adverbs. 1 verbs. . Ad- 55 Adverbs. 1 i. The relations expressed by ADVERBS are Place ; Time; Number ; Order ; Manner ; Degree ; Cause ; Quality. Some Ad- verbs (which maybe called Logical) are used for questioning, deny- ing, affirming, or otherwise modifying the form of discourse. ii. Interrogative Adverbs refer to I. Place : 1. ubi ? where ? 4. qua ? by which way f 2. quo? whither? quatenus? how far? 3. quorsum? whitherward? ( a The following List contains most of the Pronominal and Primitive Adverbs, with samples of the large classes derived from Nouns and Verbs. The Dual Adverbs derived from uter have an asterisk.) I. Adverbs of Place : 1. Adverbs corresponding to the questions Ubi? ubinam? Where ? *Utrubi? In -which place (of two) ? ibi, illic, istic, there ; hie, here ; hie illic, here and there : inibi, therein ; ibidem, in the same place ; alibi, elsewhere ; alicubi, somewhere ; -ubi, uspiam, any- where ; usquam, anywhere at all ; ubiubi, ubicumque, wheresoever ; ubivis, ubilibet, where you will; *utrulibet, in either place ; *utrubique, in doth places ; *neutrubi, in neither place ; unique, usquequaque, everywhere ; nusquam, no- where; prope, near; procul, aloof, afar; ante, prae, in front ; post, pone, be- hind ; circa, circum, around ; cis, citra, on this side ; ultra, beyond ; contra, over against ; iuxta, iuxtim, adjoining' ; intra, within ; extra, without ; super, above ; subter, beneath ; supra, above ; infra, below ; superne, above ; inferne, below ; pas- sim, here and there, everywhere ; foris, abroad ; peregre, in foreign parts ; praesto, at hand ; ruri, in the country ; domi, at home ; humi, on the ground ; belli, militiae, at the wars ; comminus, close at hand ; eminus, at a distance. 2. Adverbs corresponding to the question Unde ? Whence ? inde, illim, illinc, istim, istinc, thence ; hinc, hence ; hinc hide, hinc \\l\nc, from this side and that ; indidem,from same place ; aliunde,_/h?;;z another place ; alicunde, from some place ; -un&c,from any place ; undeunde, un&Qcumque, from whatever place; undevis, undelibet, whence you will ; undique,_/)w all sides; *utrimque, from both sides ; domo, from home ; rure, from the country ; intus, intrinsecus, from within, within ; extrinsecus, without ; altrinsepus,/>w;j one or other side ; g 55. Adverbs. 229 II. Time : 1. quando ? when? 3. quousque? to what limit ? 2. quamdiu ? how long ? quoad ? until when ? Also quam dudum ? quam pridem ? how long ago f desuper, from above ; subtus, from beneath ; caelitus, from heaven ; divinitus, from tlie deity ; penitus, from far within ; funditus, from the base ; radicitus, stirpitus,_/r#w the roots. (These last four words may mean utterly.} 3. Adverbs corresponding to the questions Quo? quonam? Whither ? *Utro? To which place (of two)? eo, illuc, illo, istuc, isto, thither; hue, hither; hue illuc, hither and thither ; eodem, to tJie same place ; alio, to another place ; aliquo, somewhitfier ; -quo, quo- piam, anywhitJier ; quoquam, any whither at alb; nequoquam, nowhither; quo- quo, quocumque, -whithersoever ; quovis, quolibet, whither you will; *utrovis, to which place you will (of two) ; *utroque, to both places ; *neutro, to neither place ; citro, to this side; ultro, to yon side, farther ; ultro citroque, to and fro ; intro, to within ; porro, forward; retro, backward; domum, home ; rus, into the country ; foras, out of doors. Ultro (root ul-s) properly means to yon side : idiomatically it gains these senses : going farther, yet fartJier, without instigation, of free motion. The questions quoad ? quousque? liow far? are answered by usque, all the way; eo usque, that far ; hue, adhuc, hue usque, thus far. 4. Adverbs corresponding to the question Quors-um(us) ? Whitherward? illorsum, istorsum, thithervjard ; horsum, hitherward ; aliorsum, to another quar- ter ; aliquors-um(-us), to some quarter; quoquo versus, to whatever quarter; *utroque versum, to both quarters ; intrors-um(-us), inwards ; sursum, upwards ; deors-um, downwards ; sursum deorsum, susque deque, up and down ; prors-um (-us), straightforward* ; rursum prorsum, backwards and forwards ; retrors-um (-us), rursum(-us), rursum vorsum, backwards ; seors-um(-us), apart ; exadvers-us (-urn), over against ; dextrorsum, to the right ; sinistrors-um, to the left ; pessum, to ruin ; incissum, to no purpose. 5- Adverbs corresponding to the question Qua? quanam? By which way? in which direction ? ea, ilia, iliac, that way ; hac, this way ; eadem, the same way ; alia, another way ; aliqua, some way ; -qua, any way ; quaquam, any way at all ; quadam, a certain way ; quaque, every way ; quaqua, quacumque, whatever way ; quavis, qualibet, any way you will; *utravis, *utralibet, either way ; haudquaquam, nequaquam, by no means ; recta, straight on ; dextra, by the right road ; sinistra, by the left road. The question Quatenus ? How far ? is answered by eatenus, that far, so far ; hactenus, thus far ; aliquatenus, to some extent ; qua- damtenus, to a certain extent ; usquequaque, to the fullest extent. Obs. The distinctions between the Particles ibi, illic, istic, hie ; inde, illinc, istinc, hinc; eo, illuc, istuc, hue, &c., correspond to the distinctions between their Pronouns is, ille, iste, hie. Tn the series of time, nunc corresponds to hie, tune to is. The Indefinites -ubi -unde -quo -qua -quando belong to the Indefinite Pronoun quis, qui, being chiefly used with Particles, as si-c-ubi, si-c-unde, siquo, &c., ne-c-ubi, ne-c- unde, nequando, &c., where ubi, unde, resume the c of the Relative. Uspiam, quopiam, &c., are used, like quispiam, in affirmative clauses; usquam, quo- quam, &c., like quisquam, in negative or dubitative clauses. II. Adverbs of Time : i. Adverbs answering the question Quando? ecquando? When? turn, tune, ibi, ibi turn, then ; etiamtum, even then ; nunc, now ;etiamnunc or etiamnum, even now, inde, deinde, exinde, dein, exin, thereafter, next ; hinc, abhinc, dehinc, henceforth, from this time ; alias, at another time ; -quando, at any time ; ali- quando, at some time , umquam, ever ; numquam, never ; nonnumquam, sometimes; numquam non, always; quandocumque, quandoque, at whatever time ; quondam, olim, some time or other {formerly or hereafter). lam, now, already ; iam turn, even then; iamnunc, nunciam, iamiam, et iam, even now; diu, long; 230 Latin Word lore. 55. III. Number : quotiens? how many times ? how often ? IV. Manner : (how ?} quomodo? quemadmodum ? (qui? ut?) dudum (for diudum), a while ago ; pridem, at a former time ; iamdiu, iamdu- dum, iampridem, long ago ; hand dudum, baud pridem, not long ago; interdum, now and then ; nondum, hauddum, not yet ; vixdum, hardly yet ; tandem, at length ; demum, at last ; mox, by and by, soon ; propediem, presently ; protenus, protinam, forthwith ; interim, interea, meanwhile ; ante, antea, prius, before ; antehac, antidhac, heretofore ; post, postea, (postidea), after, afterwards ; post- hac, hereafter; postilla, after that time; postmodo, soon after. Modo, now, lately, soon ; nuper, newly, lately; recces, freshly, lately ; denuo, afresh, again ; commodum, just now ; antiquitus, of old ; primitus, from the first ; simul, at the same time ; semper, usque, usquequaque, always ; perpetuo, continu- ally ; sero, late ; cito, speedily ; actutum, briskly ; confestim, in a trice ; con- tinue, withotit stop ; extemplo, on the -moment ; ilico (in loco), on the spot ; ilicet, straightway ; statim, instantly ; repente, derepente, subito, suddenly ; quam primum, as soon as possible ; obiter, by the way. Hodie, to-day ; heri, here, yesterday ; eras, to-morrow ; pridie, the day before ; postridie, the day after ; perendie, the next day but one ; nudius tertius, the third day back, &c. ; mane (mani), in the morning ; diluculo, at dawn ; meridie, at noon ; vesperi, vespere, at even ; interdiu, luci, lucu, in the daytime ; nocti, noctu, in the night- time. The Abl. brevi, also perbrevi, means either in a short time or in a few words (brevi dictione). a) The questions quam dudum? quam pridem? how long' ag o ? are answered by diu ; dudum ; pridem ; iamdiu ; iamdudum ; iampridem ; haud dudum ; baud pridem ; baud ita pridem. 2. Adverbs answering the question, Quamdiu ? How long ? diu, long; perdiu, -very long; tamdiu, so long ; aliquamdiu, some length of time; tantisper, so long ; aliquantisper, for some time ; parumper, paulisper, for a little time ; adhuc, so far, hitherto ; semper, always ; in perpetuum, for ever ; amplius, longer ; non amplius, haud amplius, non iam, no longer. The questions quousque, quoad, to what limit of time ? are answered by usque, usque- quaque, continually ; adhuc, hitherto ; eo usque, so long, &c. III. Adverbs of Number : Answering the question, Quotiens ? How often ? totiens, so often ; aliquotiens, pluriens, several times ; identidem, repeatedly ; inter- dum, subinde, now anii then ; iterum, a second time ; saepe, saepius, often ; per- saepe, saepissime, -very often ; plerumque, generally \ crebro, frequently ; raro, seldom ; cotidie, indies, daily ; quotannis, annually ; semel, once ; bis, twice ; ter, thrice, &c. &c. See NUMERALIA. a) Ordinal Adverbs answering the question Quo ordine ? primum, first ; primo, in the first place; deinde, in the next place ; turn, faen, afterwards ; denique, finally ; postremo, in the last place ; deinceps, next in order ; secundo, in the second place ; tertio, in the third place, &c. ; porro, farther ; insuper, moreover ; necnon, also ; praeterea, besides ; quin, furtfar- more. IV. Adverbs of Manner : Answering the question Quomodo ? quomodonam? quemadmodum? qui? ut? How? adeo, ita, sic, so ; aeque, adaeque, eqttally, as much ; item, itidem, pariter, perinde, proinde, similiter, iuxta, in like manner; contra, contrariwise; aliter, secus, otherwise. 55 . Adverbs. 231 V. Degree: i. quam ? how? 2. quantum? how much f VI. Cause : (why ? wherefore f] quare ? cur ? quamobrem ? VII. Quality : qualiter? in what kind of way ? V. Adverbs of Degree : i. Adverbs answering to the question Quam? How ? tarn, so \ omniho, prorsus, altogether ; admodum, oppido, penitus, plane, perquam, sane, sanequam, valde, valdequam, very, quite ; vementer, exceedingly ; longe, far ; magis, more ; maxime, most, very ; minus, less ; minime, least, not at all ', potius, rather; potissimum, chiefly; in primis, apprime, praecipue, praesertim, especially ; etiam, vel, even ; fere, almost, generally ; ferme, paene, almost ; prope, propemodo, propemodum, nearly, almost ; aegre, vix, scarcely, hardly ; dumtaxat, merely ; modo, only ; saltern, at least ; solum, solummodo, tantum, tantummodo, only ; utique, in fact, at all events. 2. Adverbs answering to the question Quantum ? How much ? tantum, so much ; aliquantum, considerably ; multum, much ; permultum, plurimum, very much ; plus, more ; satis, sat, enough ; abunde, affatim, plentifully ; nimis, nimium, too much ; paulum, little ; paululum, very little ; parum, little, too little ; minus, less ; minimum, least, very little ; quantulum, quantillum, how little ; tantulum, tantillum, so little. a] The question Quanto ? By how much ? is answered by tanto, eo, by so much; ali- quanto, by a good deal; multo, nimio, by a great deal ; paulo, by a little ; nihilo, &c. b) The question Quanto opere, How greatly? by tanto opere, so greatly; magno opere, greatly ; maximo opere, very greatly. VI. Adverbs of Cause : Answering the question Quare ? cur ? quamobrem? Why? -wherefore ? eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, on that account ; ergo, igitur, itaque, therefore ; proin, proinde, accordingly. VII. Adverbs of Quality (chiefly formed from Adjectives : but also many from Substantives, Verbs, and Particles). Answering the question Qualiter ? In what kind of way ? Examples are : bene, well; male, ill ; rite, duly ; iucunde, pleasantly ; gravate, grudgingly ; recte, rightly ; pulchre, finely ; late, widely ; longe lateque,_/ar and wide ; publice,^#3- licly ; misere, wretchedly ; splendide, nobly, c. c. &c. ; audacter, boldly ; feliciter, happily ; fortiter, bravely ; amanter, lovingly ; decenter, becomingly ; sapienter, wisely, &c. &c. &c. ; privatim, privately ; raptim, hurriedly ; sensim, gradually ; furtim, stealthily ; paulatim, pedetentim, little by little ; nominatim, by name ; singulatim, sigillatim, individually ; viritim, man by man ; tributim, tribe by tribe ; vicissim, by turns ; seorsim, apart, &c. c. &c. ; consulto, deliberately ; tuto, safely ; falso, falsely ; fortuito, casually ; gratuito, without fee ; improvise, inopinalo, necopinato, unexpectedly ; liquido, clearly ; merito, deservedly, &c. ; clam, clanculum, secretly ; palam, openly ; una, simul, together ; bifariam, bipartite, in two parts ; trifariam, tripartite, c. ; temere, at hazard ; forte, by chance ; sponte, by choice ; rite, duly ; temperi, seasonably ; frustra, in vain ; perperam, badly ; gratiis, gratis, freely ; ingratiis, unwelcomely ; coram, face to face ; alio- qui(-n), ceteroqui(-n), in other respects ; nequiquam, to no purpose ; incassum, fruitlessly ; praefiscine, without offence. This adverb is derived from prae, fascino, barring the evil eye, under favour. 'Praefiscine dixerim,' Plaut. Asin. ii. 4. 84. For Comparison of Adverbs see 3O, 232 Latin Wordlore. 5 $. VIII. The Logical Interrogative Adverbs, which expect affirma- tive or negative answers, are : -ne (enclitic)? an? anne ? num ? numne? utrum? utrumne ? nonne ? annon ? SECTION II. Prepo- Prepositions. A PREPOSITION is an exponent of relation between one Noun and another. i. The primary relations are those of Place, Time, Number. From these spring many others, which are figurative or logical. The relation of Place includes that of Person or Thing, when Person or Thing represents Place : a pud re gem, at the king's court-, ante me, in front of me ; ad bellum, to the war. The relation of Time includes that of Person or Thing, when Person or Thing represents Time : post Romulum, after the time of Romulus ; ante tubas ferrumque, before the invention of trumpets and steel. Some Prepositions are used with Verbs of Motion, some with Verbs of Rest ; many with both. Several Prepositions are so used with a Case, as to form Adverbial Phrases, which are to all intents true Adverbs: admodum, in- vicem, obviam, ab integro, de novo, ex tempore, &c. Table of " Twenty-nine Prepositions take the Accusative Case, twelve the Prepo- Ablative, and four the Accusative or the Ablative. i) The following Prepositions take the Accusative Case : SltlOllS. ad to, at, &c. ob over against, on advers-us(um) against, toward account of ante before penes in the power of apud near, at, with per through circum around pone behind circa around, about post after, behind circiter about praeter beside cis, citra on this side of prope, near, propius, proxime contra against propter on account of, nigh erga towards secundum next, according to extra outside of supra above infra below trans across inter between, among ultra beyond intra within versus, versum towards iuxta next to Logical Adverbs, used to modify Discourse, are (i) nempe, scilicet, videlicet, namely, of a sooth ; nimirum, to be sure ; (2) quidem, equidem, indeed ; certe, certainly, at least ; tamen, attamen, yet, nevertheless ; nihilominus, nevertheless ; (3) fors, forsan, forsitan, fortasse, fortassis, perhaps ; (4) immo, nay but, nay rather ; (5) certo, assuredly ; ita, etiam, yes, even so ; ne (often spelt nae), yea, verily ; plane, evidently ; profecto, doubtless ; sane, quite so ; utique, in sooth ; vero, truly, yes indeed', quippe, to be sure ; (6) non, net, no ; haud (haul), not, no (the reverse) : minime, by no means ; ne, not, lest ; nedum, not to say, much less ; ne . . . quidem, not even. 57. Conjunctions. 233 Versus follows its Case; as, Urbem versus, towards the city. Other Prepositions occasionally follow their Case. 2) The following take the Ablative Case: a, ab, abs by ox from ex, e out of, from absque without palam in sight of clam unknown to prae before, owing to coram in the presence of pro before, for cum with sine without de from, concerning tenus as far as Ab stands before vowels and b ; a and often ab before consonants ; abs sometimes before q, rarely before c, t ; but abs te is usual. Ex stands before vowels and b ; ex and e before consonants. Clam is used with Accusative by the Comic poets. Cum is attached to the Personal and Reflexive Pronouns, some- times to the Relative : as mecum, nobiscum, tecum, vobis- cum, secum, quocum, or quicum, quibuscum. 3) The following take the Accusative or the Ablative : in into, against (Ace.), in (Abl.) super over, upon sub up to, under (Ace.), under (Abl.) subter under In and sub with Accusative imply motion*; with Ablative, rest. SECTION III. Conjunctions. 57 CONJUNCTIONS are of two Classes : con- junc- A. Coordinative, or those which link words and sen- l tences without affection of Mood. B. Subordinative, or those which link sentences, with affection of Mood. The following are used in Coordination as well as Subordination : quippe, si, seu, sive, nisi, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, quamquam, quam- vis, quasi, tanquam, sicut, velut, ceu. A. Coordinative Conjunctions are: Annexive : et, -que, 1 and, both, also, &c. ; atque, ac, and\ neque, nee, nor, neither : and the adverbial words item, also, etiam, quoque, 2 also, even necnon, moreover. Disjunctive : aut, vel, -ve, 1 or, either; sive, seu, either, or. Adversative : sed, at (ast), verum, but ; autem, 2 but, now ; ceterum,to; atqui,ta/jtt/; vero, 2 truly, but ; tamen,/^, nevertheless; attamen, verumtamen, however, but yet. Causal : nam, namque, enim, 2 etenim, for ; enimvero, for in truth. 1 -que -ve are enclitics, always attached to the word which they affect, or to some other in the same clause. - Quoque, autem, vero, enim (and the adverb quidem) never stand first in a clause, but usually after one or more words : autem, vero, enim, after the first word usually ; quoque, quidem, after the word which they affect. 234 Latin Wordlore. 53. Illative : ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore. Conclusive : quare, quamobrem, quapropter,quocirca,mfo??r/0?r. Comparative : ut, uti ; velut, veluti ; sicut, sicuti ; ceu ; quem- admodum ; quomodo, all rendered as ; atque, ac, as ; quam, than, as ; quasi, tamquam, as, as it were ; utpote, as being. B. Subordinative Conjunctions are : Consecutive : ut, so that ; (ut non) ; quin, but that, that not. Final : ut, in order that ; ut ne, ne (for ut ne), in order that not ; utinam, O that ; utinam ne, &c. ; quo, in order that ; quominus, in order that not. Causal : quod, quia, because ; quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, since ; siquidem, inasmuch as ; quom or cum, since. Temporal : quom or cum, when ; ubi, quando, when ; ut, when, from the time that ; dum, donee, while, whilst ; dum, donee, until ; quoad, whilst ; quoad, until ; ante- quam, priusquam, before that ; postquam, after that; simul ac, simul (omitting ac), as soon as ; quotiens, as often as ; and others. Conditional : si, if; sin (for si-ne), but if; sive, seu, or if, whe- ther; nisi, unless ; mi, unless; si modo, si tantum, if only, or modo, tantum (omitting si); dum, dummodo, provided that, or modo (omitting dum). Concessive : etsi, etiamsi ; tametsi, tamen etsi, although, even if; quamquam, utut, however ; quamvis, although, lit. how you will ; cum, ut, licet, although. Comparative : quasi, as //"(for quam si) ; ut si, ac si, velut si, as if; or velut (dropping s i) ; tamquam, as though (for tamquam si) ; ceu, as //"(dropping si). Obs. In Subordinative Conjunctions must be included All Interrogative Pronouns and Particles used obliquely : The Relative Pronoun with its Particles ubi, unde, quo, qua, &c., inasmuch as both these classes link sentences with affection of Mood. 58 SECTION IV. Inter- I n t C TJ C Ct 1O ns. INTERJECTIONS strictly so called (interiecta, inserted in the sentence without affecting its form) express : Invocation : O, heus, oho or ohe, eia or heia; pro (proh), eho, ehodum, hark, halloa, c. Designation : en, ecce, lo ! behold ! Surprise : O, hem, em, ehem, babae, and the comic words au; hui; va(vah); eiajbombax; at a tor at tat; attate; attattatae. Disgust : (comic) phui, aha, faiigh ; phy, pooh ! Satiety : ohe, oiei, enough! Laughter : (comic) aha (ha ha), hah aha e. Joy : O, io, eia, euge, evoe, eupoe, papae, hitzza! joy ! &c., and the comic words euax, eugepae 59- Derivation of Nouns. 235 Praise: eu, euge, eia, bravo ! well done / &c. Pain and Sorrow : heu, eheu, hei or ei, vae, ah or a, alas! woe ! i 1 i c e t, all's up ! Deprecation: pro (proh), forbid it ! Call to Silence : st, hush! Several Nouns, Verbs, and Adverbs are used in exclamation or invocation, like Interjections. Such are : 1) Nouns : pax, hush! Tt\^.\\\-m., plague / nefas, infandum, mon- strous ! indignum, horrendum, miserum, miserabile, turpe. The Vocative macte, Plur. macti, is used with an Ablative or Genitive : as macte esto virtute, go on and prosper. It is perhaps the Participle of a lost Verb macere. M. Lucr. v. 1339. 2) Verbs: quaeso, prithee! precor, oro, obsecro, pray, amabo, do, please; sis (si vis), sultis (si vultis), please : sodes (si audies?), ifyoifll be so good \ agesis, agedum, agitedum, come now ; c e d o (PI. c e 1 1 e), give me ; a p a g e, away, avaunt. 3) Adverbs : profecto, really ; nae (or ne), truly, used with the Nominative of a Pronoun: nae ego velim . . . nae illi errant, &c. (a) The following expressions are elliptical : mehercule 1 = me, Hercule, iuves, so help me, Hercules. mecastor, ecastor = me, Castor, iuves, so help me, Castor. edepol, pol = me, dee Pollux, iuves, so help me, Pollux. medius fidius = me, deus Fidius, iuves, so help me, God of faith (Ztvg IIioTioc). pro luppiter = prohibeas, 2 luppiter, Jove forbid. pro di immortales = prohibeatis, di immortales : heaven forefeitd ! (b] O, a, lieu, eheu, hem, eia, en, ecce, pro are found with Accusative ; hem, hei, vae, with Dative ; O, a, heu, heus, eho, and others are often accompanied by a Vocative. The Vocative itself is in the nature of an Interjection, lying out of the construction of the sentence. CHAPTER V. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS. SECTION I. Derivation of Nouns. i. The Suffixes used in the Flexion of Stems are suLLs shewn in the preceding Chapters. We have next vat?on?" to shew those by which a Stem is derived from a Root, or one Stem from another. 1 Mehercle, hercle, are abridged forms. - The etymology of pro (proh) here given is not disproved by the phrase ' pro deum atque hominum fidem,' which may represent another ellipsis, 'prohibeatur deum atque hominum fidem violari.' 236 Latin Word lore. 59. That Suffix in a derived Stem, which contains the Stem-charac- ter, is the staminal Suffix. Thus in the word crudelitas, Stem cru-d-eli-tat-, tat is the staminal Suffix. It commonly happens that a word comes immediately from an- other, which is itself derived from a third, and so on, till a root or rudimental form is reached. Every word (including the root) is the Theme of such as are immediately derived from it. Thus, Theme of crudelitas : Adj. crudelis; Stem crudeli-. Theme of crudelis : Adj. crudus; Stem crudo- for cru-ido-. Theme of crudus : Root cru-, Sk. kravi, Gr. Kpef-, raw flesh. Beginning from the Root, the order is : cru-, cru-ido- ( = cru-du-s), cru-id-eli- ( = cru-d-eli-s), cru-id-eli-tat- ( =- cru-d-eli-ta-s). Here the suffixes are ido (id-), el*, tat ; to each of which the ending s is joined to form the Nominative Case. The words of such a series may form branch-lines of derivation by other suffixes. Thus from cru- come crii-or, gore, cru-entu-s, gory ; from this the Verb jcru-ent-a-re : from crudus come cru-d-i-ta-s and cru-d-esc-ere: from crudelis the Adv. cru-d-eli-ter : crudelitas merely forms its own Cases. ii. Root or Rudiment. The determination of Roots, though greatly assisted by Com- parative Philology, is a work of vast labour and difficulty, demand- ing the nicest conjectural criticism, and often baffling all conjecture. Very many roots are indeed determined beyond question ; es, i, to go, i, that, da, sta, ag, ap, &c. : others are open to doubt ; cap (see p. 190): while in fac, which heads, perhaps, the largest group of Latin words, c is now held to be a suffix, added to the root fa = Sk. bhd, Gr. 0a-, to give light, under which stand new groups, including fax, facies, fateor, fari, fas, &c., with their derivatives. Hence it is often safer, in deriving words, to call their ultimate form a rudi- ment rather than a root. iii. Suffix. The derivation and distribution of Latin Suffixes, with their meaning, when they have one, are a special topic too wide to be fully treated here. The Syllabus which follows/with the subjoined examples, will supply considerable information. It adopts Diintzer's method (Lat. Wortbildung mid Composition}, though not his order ; corrected throughout by reference to the views of Schleicher (Com- pend. 215-231) and Corssen (Ausspr. I. 566, &c.). Bopp, Leo Meyer, and Fick's Lexicon have also been consulted. Suffixes are simple or compound : but the parts of a compound suffix often cohere so regularly in a class of words, that, having been once shewn as compound, it may be cited without inconveni- ence as if it were simple. Such are tudon, mento, cundo, bun do. &c. 59- Derivation of Nouns. 237 iv. Rudimental Words. Rudimental words are such as append their Case-endings to the real or seeming Root, unstrengthened or strengthened. Such are a) gru-s, su-s; re-s; bov- (bos), lov-; crux, dux, nex, nux, pix, prec-, dtc-, grex, pes, vas (vad-), adips, caelebs, dap-, op-, stlp-, with many compound words, auspex, haruspex, obex, index, iudex, artifex, tradux, coiux, manceps, princeps, praeses, praepes, crassipes, &c. b] lux, pax, vox, lex, rex, &c. r) sal, sol, lar, par, ver, ius, crus, tus, rus, spes, mos, ros, flos, os (or-) : also farr- (far), fell- (fel), melt- (mel), ost- (os, bone\ cord- (cor). v. Syllabus of Suffixes (with examples at the foot). In the List of Suffixes and their Examples the abbreviations used are : S. Substantive. V. Verbalia (words derived from Verbs). A. Adjective. D. Denominativa (words derived from Nouns). Unc. (uncertain) implies that root or roots are unknown. &c. | placed after Examples cited, indicate that many &c. &c. others exist of the salne class, and that in &c. &c. &c. J some instances the number is very large. Every Suffix ending in 6 must be taken as including the forms us, a, um ; that is, A-nouns as well as O-nouns. I. Vowels and v. 1 Of Vowel Suffixes (besides the characters &, o, i, u, e), the most important is X6, including, as it does, a large class of Abstract Sub- stantives in la, lum, and of Possessive Adjectives in Ius. S. a) a |8) 6 y) e, *e d) tt ) I ?) eo T)) ie 6) iio, vo, Ivo, vi. 1 I. Vowels and V. Substantives. a) Masc. V. scrib-a, adven-a, incol-a, terrigen-a, &c. /3) V. merg-us, cormorant ; tor-us, couch ; fug-a, flight ; talp-a, mole ; pronub-a, bridesmaid ; iug-um, yoke, &c. &c. D. nimb-us, cloud ; nerv-us ; taur-us ; lup-us ; 5r-a, coast ; sal-um, brine, &c. v) V. f id-es, effig-ies, spec-ies, &c. D. pauper-ies . . . 8) V. ac-us, D. nur-us. t) V. arx, falx, nix, ap-is, rup-es, &c. D. nox, nub-es, mar-e, &c. Mostly D. calc-eus, sJtoe ; trab-ea, striped robe ; flamm-eum, bridal veil, &c. V. ol-ea, olive. ij) A few Masc. V. lud-ius, player . . . D. sim-ius, ape. A large number of Fern. D. av-ia, grandmother ; and abstracts of Quality : audac-ia, boldness ; ignav-ia> sloth ; victor-ia, victory ; absent-ia, absence, ike. &c. &c. A large number are Neut. most V. denoting ' the Effect : ' benefic-ium, benefit ; conub-ium, mar- riage ; gaud-ium, joy, &c. &c. &c. : some D. minister-ium, service ; sen-ium, old age ; sav-ium, kiss, &c. &c. Words like arbitr-ium, augur-ium, &c., should be ranked as V. 6) iio : D. patr-uus, uncle on father's side ; ian-ua, house-door ; v6 : V. D. cer-vus ; ri-vus ; lar-va, mask, spectre ; ar-vum, plough-laud ; Iv6 : ol-iva, an olive ; sal- iva, spittle ; v'i : V. ci-vis. 238 Latin Wordlore. 59. A. o) 5 j3) i 7) eo 8) 16 e) iio, vo, ivo, tivo, vs. II. C. C is a stable suffix, denoting Individuality in Substantives : Permanent Condition or Relation in Adjectives. Often, however, the individuality or condition denoted is of a disparaging kind : as in senex, senec-io, cimex, culex, pulex ; caecus, flaccus, luscus, mancus, truncus, &c. So in c-ulo c is deminutive, but in c-undo it denotes permanent activity. S. a) ci ic /3) cS cio ico tied 7) ac 6c 5) Ic ico f) UCO. A. a) co ico tico lico )6) aci oci 7) aco aceo Adjectives : ) 6: V. fid-us, faithful ; viv-us, alive . . . with Cpp. naufrag-us, ship-wrecked; profug-us,./7Vz'z>) 6t p) ted. A. a) to (so) ito 0) ato -)) eto S) ito *) oto uto f) ati iti r?) eti it. V. D. This cons, is a principal element in several important compound Suffixes, Verbal and Denominative, which appear under KT. Be- sides those, its leading use is in the Participial Adjective suffix ido. S. a) d6 Xdo /3) di 7) ed 6d <') ud. A. a) do ido fl) di. VI. P. It is doubtful whether any true suffix can be shewn with p, except pulo, in which the root pur, pul, pie-, to Jill, is probably contained : mani-pul-us, po-pul-us, cra-pula, du-plus, &c. : du-pl-ex, &c. in which pi-ex (not from plico) is a compound suffix pul-ic(s). 5) ace-tum, -vinegar; with many neuter D. denoting ' Place of growth ;' myrt-etum, myrtle-grove ; oliv-etum, olive-yard, &c. ) V. gens, mens, sors, &c. ; vec-tis, ves-tis, vi-tis, mes-sis. D. men-sis, nep-tis. ) V. seg-es, ar-ies (see C. Nachtr. 268-270) : and D. in es it-, al-es, equ-es, ped-es, &c. p. 97. 17) Numerous Abstract D. liber-tas, auctor-itas, car-itas, pi-etas, soci-etas (e by dis- similation after 1), &c. &c. &c. On hon-estas, &c., see R : pot-estas, eg-estas may be for -ent-tas. 6) Abstract D. iuven-tus, senec-tus, vir-tus, serv-itus. t) D. nun-tius, nun-tia, trist-itia, serv-itium, calv-ities, amar-ities, iust-itia, &c. &c. K) pal-atum, palate ; Mat-uta, goddess of Mont ; pitu-ita, phlegm. A) dos, dowry ; nepos, grandson. /x) lin-teum, towel. Adjectives. a) D. numerous : ius-tus,//^ ; mul-tus, much ; sex-tus, sixth, &c. &c. V. tac-itus, silent; sal-sus, salted; with all Perf. Participles of Conj. 3., most of 2. and others ; tac-tus, doc-tus, admon-itus, atton-itus, ius-sus, pressus, &c. &c. &c. /3) D. numerous : barb-atus, bearded ; ferr-atus, iron-clad, &c. &c. V. most Parti- ciples of Conj. i. am-atus, arm-atus, &c. &c. &c. V> V. fac-etus : and many Participles, defl-etus, decr-etus, &c. S) D. crin-itus, rich-haired; mell-Itus, honied, &c. V. most Participles of Conj. 4. and others, aud-itus, per-itus, tr-itus, &c. &c. &c. e) D. aegr-otus, sick ; nas-utus, sharp-nosed, &c. V. Participles of Verbs in UO, ac-utus, arg-utus, &c. ) D. nostras, Arpinas, &c. Quiris, Samnis, &c. p. 108. >j) for-tis, hebes, dives, p. 116, &c. V. D. Substantives. a) V. mo-dus ; cau-da ; cica-da ; tae-da ; crep-ida. /3) V. laus, cla-des. y) V. her-es, merc-es,(cust-os?) 8) D. pec-us ud-. Adjectives. a) D. absur-dus, cru-dus ; fum-idus, smoky ; gel-idus, chilly, frosty ; herb-idus, grassy ; morb-idus, diseased ; sol-idus ; suc-idus, juicy, and others : V. many from Verbs (chiefly, but not solely, of Conj. 2.) : ac-idus, alg-idus, ar-idus, av-idus, call-idus, ferv-idus, pall-idus, tab-idus, tim-idus, torr-idus, val-idus, um-idus, &c. &c. ; cup-idus, flu-idus, grav-idus, rab-idus, rap-idus, vlv-idus. j3) D. gran-dis; viri-dis. 59- Derivation of Nouns. 241 VII. B. S. i.) bo. /3) b*. A. bo. en bundo see W ; on blli ber*, &c., see X., R. VIII. IK. This Nasal has an important place in Latin Wordlore. It ter- minates, as in Sk., the Accus. Sing, of all Masc. and Fern. Nouns, and the first three cases of Neut O-nouns. The Suffix mo enters into the Superl. form of the Adj. Min (men), mento have con- crete use, implying Instrument : monlo implies Permanent State : S. o) mo imo timo /3) min (men) imin (imen) limin (umen) 7 ) mento imento iimentd amento ') mon iimdn ) monio imonid I) umno. A. a) mo |8) Xmo (umo) timo (tfimo) si mo (sumo) rimo (rumo) limo (lumo) issimo (issumo) esimo (esumo). VII. B. Substantives. a) mor-bus, tu-ba, tur-ba, ver-bum. /3) plebs, pu-bes. Adjectives : pro-bus (;rpo-4>vv;s), super-bus (in-ep-(/ju>;s?). vni. nc. Substantives. a) V. ar-mus, shoulder-joint ; fu-mu, smoke ; ra-mus, lough ; an-Tmus, mind ; an-Tma, breath ; fa-ma, fame ; flam-ma, _flame ; spu-ma,_/fo:;; vic-tima, victim ; ar-ma, arms, &c. D. bru-ma, mid-winter (brevi-ma). P) V. Neut. (numerous) : imply ' Means, Instrument or Concrete Effect : ' (i) when the theme has active force : flu-men, stream ; lu-men, light ; lenT-men, leva-men, assuagement ; nu-men, nod, deity ; nutrl-men, nutriment ; reg-Tmen, govern- ment ; sola-men, comfort ; teg-men, covering : (2) when the theme has a pas- sive sense : ag-men, a marching body (quod agitur) ; no-men, name (quod nos- citur) ; stra-men, straw (quod sternitur) ; se-men, m/(quod seritur) ; exit-men, swarm of bees (quod^ exigitur, which is driven out) or tongue of balance (quod exigitur, which is adjusted). So crlmen, a charge ; doc -umen, lesson, &c. &c. &c. Some suppose Verbs not in use : albu-men, gra-men, grass (ger-ere or gen-ere ? Compare ger-men, sprout). (Many unc. abdo-men, bitu-men, iT-men and others. Flamen, priest, Masc. from flag- $Aey-, lighter of sacrificial fire.) y) This Suffix is an enlargement of the last, and has the same general meanings and varieties: V. (i) Act. argu-mentum, proof; ar-mentum, plough-cattle ; comple- mentum, what Jills up ; fo-mentum, poultice (quod fovet), fer-mentum (quod fervet) ; nutri-mentum, orna-mentum, al-Tmentum, teg-umentum. (2) Pass, cae- mentum, hewn stone (quod caeditur) ; frag-mentum ; ra-mentum, shaving (quod raditur), testfi-mentum, will, &c. &c. &c. From non-extant Verbs : calcea-men- tum, shoe ; mdT-mentum, first training, rudiment (compare erudire) ; palud- amentum, military cloak. 6) ser-mo, discourse : (Lucu-mo, prince, priest, in Etruria). e) D. acr-imonia, sharpness ; aegr-imonia, melancholy ; parc-imonia (rather than pars-imonia), thrift ; matr-imonium, marriage, &c. V. quer-imonia, complaint : al-imonium, nourishment, c. c") V. al-umnus, nursling ; col-umna, column. Adjectives. a) V. al-mus, genial ; fir-mus, firm. D. On Superl. suffix mQ see p. 42. So the Ordinal Numerals scptimus, decimus, &c. p. 152. j8) D. plur-Tmus, ci-tlinus, pes-slmus, acer-rTmus, humil-lTmus, dur-issTmus, quin- quag-enslmus, cent-ensimus (umus), &c. &c. See pp. 42, 153. R 242 Latin Wordlore. 59. 7) itimo (itiimo) c) imo *) mi. IX. r. The Nasodental n is not less important than the Dentals t, d in forming Latin Suffixes. Three uses may be distinguished : (i) when n is followed by a vowel in a staminal suffix (na, no, ino, ano, Ino, &c.) or by two vowels (neo, ineo, &c.) : (2) when it is itself, in Sub- stantives, the Stem-character (en, in, en, on, on) ; here it does not, like t, d, fall out before a Nom.-Ending s, but rejects s, remaining itself in the form en or en (pec ten, tegmen, lien), but rejected by the steins on on, which become 6 in Nom. Sing, (homo, natio, Plato) : (3) when it stands chiefly in Adjectives before t, d or s (ento, enti, endo, ensi, &c.), rarely before s (quadringenti): being sometimes the final letter of a preceding suffix (men-to), sometimes, perhaps, the strengthening Nasal (nti, nsi). S. (l) ) na /5) no ino 7) and ono uno eno aleno c) ino t) ni (2) ) en (in) men (min) 77) on (in) 6) gon agon Igon ii6n (gin) <) don edon Idon udon (din) tudon itudon (din) K) on ion cion tidn sion (3) A) enti anti M) undon (din). See mento under Ud. 7) D. leg-itTmus, mar-itTmus (-umus). 6) D. matr-Tmus, having mother alive ; patr-Imus : (op-Imus, having wealth, rich). e) cC-mis, subllmis (seenjrom underneath 'limis oculis?' i.e. lofty. Compare obli- quus). IX. u. Substantives. a) V. ver-na, Jwiseslave. /3) V. som-nus, dom-inus, pen-na, pag-ina, reg-num. . . . D. pi-nus, pine-tree. 7) and : D. Silv-anus, god of forests ; membr-ana, parchment ; (gra-num, a grain] ; 6n6 : V. col-onus, farm-tenant. D. patr-onus, patron ; matr-ona, matron ; uno : D, trib-unus, tribune ; fort-una, fortune ; eno : V. hab-ena, rein ; D. lani-ena, butchers shop ; (ven-enum, poison} ; le-aena, lioness, &c. ; ileno : V. cant-ilena, ditty. V) In6 : V. inquil-inus, lodger ; ru-ina, _///, ruin ; rap-ina, plunder ; cu-lina, kitchen \ D. gall-ina, hen ; medic-ina, medical art ; discipl-ina, teaching, school, &c. e) V. fi-nis, end ; cri-nis, parted hair. g) V. pect-en, comb. For the suffix men (mm), c. see "&H. T]) D. hom-o, man ; turb-o, iuhirhvind, top. 6) gon : D . vir-go, virgin ; agon : V. vor-ago, gulph ; D. farr-ago, mess of flour ; (im-ago, image ?) ; ig'on : V. or-igo, origin ; vert-igo, twirl ; Ug'dn : D. aer-ugo, copper-rust ; lan-ugo, down, &c. (Genitives ginis.) t) don : or-do, order ? edon : V. dulc-edo, sweetness : torp-edo, numbness ; Idon : V. cup-ido, desire ; udon : -D. test-udo, tortoise, penthouse ; itudon : D. alt-itudo, fort-itudo, lat-itudo, long-itudo, viciss-itudo ; vale-tudo (for valent- udo?), &c. &c. (Genitives dlnis.) K) on : m. D. commilit-o, fellow-soldier ; epul-o, banqueter, &c. &c. : V. bib-o, toper ; erro, vagabond ; ion, many masc. D. lud-io, player ; sen-io, sice, &c. V. pug-io, poniard. Fern. V. (Pres. St.) : condTc-io, leg-io, opln-io, suspic-io, &c. Some D. commun-io, communion ; consortio, rebellio, &c. ; cion : homun- cio ; tldn, s'ion : Fern. V. (Sup. St.), a very numerous class of words : aestima- tio, admom-tio, sortl-tio, ac-tio, na-tio, ora-tio, posses-sio, ul-tio, vi-sio, &c. &c. &c. A) V. adulesc-ens, serp-ens, torr-ens, anim-ans, inf-ans, &c. D. tri-ens, quad-rans, &c. (.) hir-undo, swallow ; har-undo, reed. 59- Derivation of Nouns. 243 A. (i) o) no ino neo gind gno tino /S) and anec taneo y) end lend oend uno <") Ind, tind t) ni (3) i') ento iilentd dlentd ilento (ginto cento genU >/) anti enti Ilenti ulenti f ) ensi lensl ensil: <) undo endo andd K) cundo A) bundo. X. s. The Sibilant in a large class of words, chiefly F, represents the Dental t (so, si, sion, sdr, sorid, surd). When s is a Stem-character in many words, especially in the older, it remains in Nom. Sing. flos. ros,opus, nemus, Venus, pulvis,&c., but oftener becomes rin the suffix ds or : pudor, auctor, &c. : while'in some words both forms were used : honos or honor, labos or labor, lepos or lepor : so amos, colos occur. In the Oblique Cases s becomes r : floris. roris, operis, Veneris, honoris, c. But if in derivation such words come before a Mute, then s is resumed : flos-culus, opus- culum, venus-tus, hones-tus : hes-ternus (from heri for hes-i, Gr. x^-) : n t before a vowel : flor-eus, pulver-ulentus; see It. On the falling out of n before s in various words (quotiens, sem- enstris, formpnsus, vicensumus, &c.), see p. 50. S. ) sa /?) so si sld esid ison Adjectives. ) D. mag-nus, sa-nus, va-nus, ver-nus, no-nus, u-nus, octo-nus, ter-nus ; acer-nus, of maple ; colur-nus (for corulinus), of hazel ; adamant-Tnus; ahe-neus, of brass ebur-neus, of ivory ; (ido-neus, j/) ; olea-ginus, of olive ; beni-gnus, kind, boun- tiful; cras-tlnus, of the morrow ; pris-tlnus, of olden time. /3) D. arc-anus, secret ; font-anus, of a fountain ; quart-anus ; cbtidi-anus, daily ; suburb-anus, near the city ; subterr-aneus, underground; V. supervac-aneus ; collec-taneus, gathered together ; consen-taneus, adapted, &c. Y) V. eg-enus, needy : D. ali-enus, foreign ; terr-enus, earthly ; (ser-enus) ; op- port-unus, at hand ; (amoenus, agreeable). 5) D. can-Inus, of a dog; div-inus, of a deity, divine ; mar-inus, of the sea^ &c. &c. libert-inus, offreedman-class ; matut-inus, of morn ; vesper-tinus, of evening, &c. e) seg-nis, lazy. ) D. cru-entus, bloody \ vi-olentus, violent ; lut-ulentus, muddy ; mac-ilentus, wasted (corp-ulentus for corpor-ulentus). For the forms vi-ginti, tri-ginta, &c. du-centi. quin-genti, &c., see Numeralia. t\) V. Adjectives and Participles in ens, ans, denoting 'Present activity : ' abs-ens, eleg-ans, impud-ens, prud-ens, am-ans, praest-ans, cand-ens, dilig-ens, negleg-enn, audi-ens, &c. &c. &c., (petul-ans). D. pest-ilens. 6) D. for-ensis,0/t/u>f0ri(m; Athen-iensis, of Athens ; ut-ensilis,y^r use ; observe di nov-ensiles, the meaning of which term is questionable. V. Gerundive Participles in undus (anc.), endus, andus ; reg-undue, audi-endus. am-andus, &c. &c. &c. They denote 'Present activity.' See Syntax. K) V. cundo is a suffix compounded of the suffixes CO and ndo, and denotes 'Permanent action or 'Present activity:' fa-cundus, eloquent; iu-cundus. pleasant ; vere-cundus, bashful, &c. &c. &c. A) V. bundo is compounded of bd and ndo, and denotes 'Production of Present activity : ' popula-bundus, engaged in laying waste ; vaga-bundus, given to wan- der ; mori-bundus, on the point of dying, &c. It is found with an Object : ' vita- bundus castra hostium,' striving to avoid the enemy's camp, Liv. X. S. Substantives. a) V. lixa, sutler (lic-ere ?). |3) V. na-sus, nose ; noxa, harm, &c. (see T) ; mes-sis, Jiarvest ; ama-sius, sweet- heart; Megal-esia,/^^ of Cybele ; equ-iso, groom. R 2 244 Latin Wordlore. 59. 7) isco isto estrii astro es (is, us] = er 6* (its) = 6r t) 6s (0>) = or ?/) used usto A. o) so si 6 /6) oso idso coso ciildso &C. >) stri estri astro istro e) esti estico usco ) esto USto ry) ids (&V) = idr. XI. . This Liquid occurs in many Suffixes, sometimes without a second Consonant in the same Suffix (ro, ari, ario, &c.), often in sequence of one of the mutes, c, t, b (cro, tro, bro, &c.). On its relations to 1 and to s see pp. 64. 65, and s above. S. ) ro /3) ero uro 7) cero (cro) t') bero (bro) t) tero (tro) K} rii fj) ri 6) er erco erto y) lent-iscus, lentisk ; ar-ista, ear of corn ; fen-estra, window ; D. in -aster, -astrum are of a deminutive nature : ole-aster, wild olive ; api-astrum, wild parsley, mint ; parasit-aster, a would-be parasite. S e ) Nouns increasing in er- from Nominatives in is, us, in or- from us, and in or- from os, will be found at pp. 25, 102. TJ) moll-usca : (loc-usta). Adjectives. a) V. las-sus, anxius, &c. &c. See T. /3) OSO (for onso or ontio, as outria for om'a), numerous ; D. anim-osus, form-osus, &c. &c. &c. ; capt-iosus, cur-iosus, &c. ; belli-cosus, sid-culosus, monstr-uosus, &c. y) V. illu-stris ; D, palu-stris, silv-estris : sin-ister. 8) D. agr-estis, cael-estis, dom-esticus. <) D. cor-uscus, glittering. J) D. funestus from funus, er- ; scelestus from scelus, er ; honestus from honos, or- (so tempestas from tempus, or-) ; butonustusfrom onus, er- ; venustus from Venus, er- ; vetustus from vetus, er- ; modestus points to a lost Neut. modus. Augustus from augur, and robustus from robur, shew that, even in Subst. with Norn, ur, the original ending was us. TJ) This is the Suffix of Comparatives : mel-Tor (anc. melior, melios). See p. 21. XI. R. Substantives. a) V. cu-ra, care ; ser-ra, saw ; lab-rum, lip ; (aurora, morning, p. 66). /3) V. num-erus, number ; arbit-er, umpire ; gen-er, son-in-law ; op-era, aid ; iug- erum, acre. D. um-erus, shoulder', sat-ura, satire. y) V. Neuter words implying ' That which effects action : ' simula-crum, likeness ; sepul-crum, a grave ; lu-crum, gain ; ful-crum (for fulc-crum), prop, &c. c. Culd (do) is another form : cena-culum, dining-room. See Xi. The suffix comes from the root Sk. kar, L. cre-o, to make. 6) V. ' That which effects action : ' fa-ber, engineer ; dola-bra, hatchet ; late-bra, hiding-place ; cri-brum, sieve ; scalprum (for scalp-brum, chisel). D. candela- brum, candlestick. Root Sk. bhar, Gr. $ep-. Buld is another form : turi-bulum, censer. e) The Suffix ter (tro) has two uses in Latin, both from one root, Sk. tar, Gr. Top- (shewn in rsp/xa, terminus, trames, trans, in-tra-re, pene-tra-re, &c.), go beyond, penetrate, attain, (i) It corresponds to the comparative suffix Sk. tarx, Gr. repo-, used to express a relation between two : shewn in the Gr. Corn- par, -repo?, L. ter : magis-ter, minis-ter, mater-tera, &c. &c. and in Adverbs. (2) Like Cr6 and bro, it denotes in V. ' That which effects the action : ' cul-ter, knife ; mulc-tra, milkpail; ara-trum, plough ; claus-trum, barrier ; ros-trum, beak (rod-) ; ras-trum, harrow (rad-) : in mon-s-trum, prodigy, s is euphonically in- serted. f) V. cur-rus, chariot. 7j) V. au-ris, ear ', na-ris, nostril. 6) D. ans-er (for h-anser ; Sk. hansa', Gr. \-i\v), gand-jr ; pass-er, sparrow ; muli-er, woman ; nov-erca, stepmother ; V. it-er, journey ; cad-av-er, corpse. 859- Derivation of Nouns. 245 i) beri bri K) ter* (tri) X) ter tr M) *ner Indr i<) bar ) or ur o) ari TT) arid p) dr = or a) tor = tor (sor) trie- r) torio (sorio) ? ) urd url urid ) V. (Sup. St.) na-tura, nature ; sepul-tura, burial ; men-sura, measure ; cae-sura, cutting, &c. : official terms : dicta-tura, dictatorship ; quaes-tura, quaestorship ; cen-sura, censorship. Others imply ' the work of an Agent (tor, sor) : ' pic-tura, painting ; ton-sura, shaving, &c. Adjectives. ) V. cla-rus, gna-rus. ) V. glab-er, smooth ; integ-er, lac-er, sac-er, scab-er, rough : D. satur. v) V. ludi-cer. V. cre-\>zr, frequent. f) D. The Derivatives have the Compar. suffix tara : al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-ter, nos-ter, ves-ter, ex-ter, in-ter, &c. (So in Adverbs ali-ter, pari-ter, &c.) See above e). ) V. av-arus, envious ; can-orus, od-orus, son-orus (unc. aust-erus ; sev-erus ; sin-cerus, pro-cerus?). r,) V. volu-cer, medio-cris (acer, alacer ?). 0) V. cele-ber ; lugu-bris ; salu-ber ; D. fene-bris, fune-bris, mulie-bris (drops r). This suffix is from Sk. R. bhar, Gr. fap-. t) D. i. eques-ter, pedes-ter, palus-ter, seques-ter (secus), semes-tris (for semens- tris) : 2. camp-estris, silv-estris, terr-ester (tris). K) D. in art are a large class and imply 'Belonging to ;' they are used for forms in iilT if 1 is before in the word: consul-aris ; famili aris : milit-aris ; sol-aris ; vulg-aris, &c. &c. &c. They form Substantives in ar an. See above o). A) The suffix arid is an enlargement of ari. The Adjectives derived from Nouns and Particles imply character, quality, class, &c. : agr-arius, of land; greg-arius, of a herd ; numm-arius, of coin ; necess-arius ; prec-arius ; volunt- arius, c. Ike. &c. Hence Substt. See above n). p) These are chiefly formed from Verbal Nouns of the Agent in tor (sor) and imply ' Belonging to : ' ama-torius, ora-torius, cen-sorius, c. &c. &c. r) This is the Fut. Participle Act. of Verbs, denoting ' Intruded activity : ' ama-turus, da-turns, plact-turus, T-turus, fu-turus, lu-surus, mis-surus, &c. &c. &c. 246 Latin Word lore. 59. XII. r,. This soft Liquid is chiefly used in Deminutive Suffixes of D. X iil6, 616, ello, c.) : and it often denotes weakness, lightness^ &c. in Suffixes of Verbalia (iilo, ili, till). But after a long Vowel it iias the same firmness as r, to which it is often equivalent. Thus the Suffixes all ari are virtually the same : but the former is always preferred unless 1 occurs in the Stem (hiem-alis but lun-aris) : but ario is never changed into alio (agr-arius). The Suffix biilo is a softened form of bero (bro) ; bill of beri (bri), both from root bhar, tp- ; ciilo (as distinguished from the double Demin. c-iilo) is a softened form of cero (cro) from root kar. (i) Not formally Deminutive. S. a) a /3) 16 iilo iileo 7) culo (do) t) bulo elo ) ilo iilo i y ) 11 ili ali Hi ell. A. o) iilo iileo fy ilo XII. 1. 00 Substantives. a) V. assec-la, masc. follower. /3) D. vio-la, violet (Gr. lov) ; pi-lum, pestle ; neb-ula, cloud. V. cac-ulus, cuckoo ; ang-ulus, corner ; fig-ulus, potter ; oc-ulus, eye ; cop-ula, link ', spec-ula, watch tower ; exem-p-lum (for exim-ulum), tem-p-lum (for tem-ulum), &c. &c. In these and others some deminutive influence may be surmised, and in many unc. (cat-ulus, cum-ulus, fam-ulus, scop-ulus, Gr. (TKOTreAos, stim-ulus, vit-ulus, fist-ula, ins-ula, mer-ula, &c.). See 3). On reg-ula, rule ; teg-ula, tile, see pp. 16, 17. Po-pul-us, e-pul-ae, probably contain the root par (pri } pul pie. See P. y) V. (Pres. St.) numerous : implying ' Instrument, means of action,' are Neut. : gu- berna-culum, helm ; ora-culam (-clurc), oracle ; specta-culum, sight ; vehi-culum, vehicle ; peri-culum, trial, peril, &c. &c. &c. In vinculum (vinclum), chain ; torculum, press, C (qu) has fallen out after C : and it is not improbable that the same occurs in ia-culum, javelin ; spe-culum, mirror. Unc. are (graculus, jackdaw, surculus, shoot ; baculum, walking-stick, Gr. /3a-? saeculum, an age, generation, &c.). See cero (Cl 6) in R. fi) V. (same meaning) : fa-bula, story ; su-bula, awl ; lati-bulum, hiding-place ; pa- bulum, fodder : voca-bulum, word, name, &c. D. turi-bulum, censer. e) V. (Pres. St.) cand-ela, candle; (redupl.) cicind-ela, glowworm; suad-ela, per- suasion : (with 11) loqu-ella, saying; quer-ella, complaint ; (Sup. St.) corrupt-ela, corruption ; tut-ela, guardianship or (concrete) guardian, ward. D. client-ela, clientage. ) (unc. aqu-ila); D. cap-illus, hair; anc-illa, maidservant ; arg-illa, clay ; scint-il!a, spark ; V. pist-illum, pestle ; vex-illum, banner, &c. (probably deminutive of lost forms, or formed by analogy). ?) V. cau-lis, stalk ; col-lis, hill ; strig-Tlis, flesh-brush. 6) D. Adjectival words formed into Subst. all, Masc. : nat-alis, birthday ; riv-alis, rival (unc. can-alis, canal ; feti-alis, sacred envoy ; sod-alis, comrade), &c. Neut. foe-ale, neckwrapper ; penetr-ale, inner shrine ; anim-al, &c. p. 107, with Plur. names of Feasts : Consu-alia, Luperc-alia, Termin-alia, &c. &c. p. 126. IW, Masc. aed-ilis, edile ; Apr-ilis, April, &c. Neut. cub-ile, hast-ile, ov-ile, sed-ile, &c. p. 107. Plur. Par-ilia, feast of Pales ; Suovetaur-ilia, Feast with sacrifice of swine, sheep, and steer, ell" : patru-elis, cousin on father's side. Adjectives. o) D. bub-ulus, of an ox ; caer-ulus, caer-uleus, sky-blue ; edent-ulus, toothless. V. (Pres. St.) denoting ' Tendency : ' bib-ulus, cred-ulus, garr-ulus, pat-ulus, quer-ulus, strid-ulus, sed-ulus, trem-ulus, &c. , all with demin. character : (unc. aem-ulus). /3) D. nub-ilus, cloudy ; rut-ilus, reddish. Derivation of Nouns, 247 7) ili bili ibili 5) tilt (sili) ?) atili r;) all Hi uli eli. (2) Deminutive. S. and A. I. a) ulo (anc. olo, which remains after e, i). ft) ello, illo, uiio, primarily deminutive, are not purely suffixal, but contain the Stem-character i, n or r assimilated to 1 of the Suffix : in some words they are perhaps used by analogy. c) ello, 1116, secondary Deminutives for iil-uld. d] elliilo, illiilo, secondary Deminutives, when derived from b\ tertiary, when derived from c). y) V. (Pres. St.) denoting Tendency or capacity: ag-ilis, nimble; hab-ilis, apt', deb-ilis, weak ; fac-ilis, tasy ; diflic-ilis, difficult ; nub-ilis, marriageable ; ut-ilis, useful, &c. D. hum-ilis, lowly ; sim-ilis, like ; ster-ilis, barren : (unc. grac-ilis, slender). 8) V. (Pres. St.) denoting chiefly 'Passive capability : ' mira-bilis, wonderful; muta- bilis, changeable ; fle-bilis, mournful ; prob-a-bilis, approvable ; credi-bilis, credible ; no-bilis, noble, &c. &c. &c. Terri-bilis, terrible, has Active force. (Sup. St.) flex-ibilis,y?d'.rz&? ; plaus-ibilis, commendable ; sens-ibilis, perceivable. Add poss-ibilis, possible (of the Silver age). c) V. (Sup. St.) Some denote only ' Passive quality* differing little from the Perf. Part. : 3\-t\\\s,, fattened ; coc-ti!is, baked; fic-tilis, fashioned; fis-silis, cleft ; mis- silis, sent ; nex-ilis, twined ; tor-tilis, twisted ; versa-tilis, made to revolve, &c. : others denote ' Passive capacity : ' flex-ilis, flexible ; diffu-silis, expansive ; tac- tilis, that may be touched: others * Active quality: ' pen-silis hanging; ses-silis, squab ; vol-atilis,y7y/f , &c. Abnormal : fer-tilis, fruitful, indicating an old word fert-us (fut-tilis, futile ':). D* aqu-atilis, fluvi-atilis, river-dwelling, &c. //) ali : D. (numerous) denote ' Belonging to,' &c. : aequ-alis, dot-alis, fat-alis,furi-alls, liber-alis, marti-alis, mort-alis, reg-alis, triumph-alis, &c. ; vit-alis, voc-alis, &c. &c. &c. Ill : D. civ-ilis, er-ilis, host-ilis, puer-ilis, scurr-ilis, sen-ilis, serv-ilis, vir-ilis, &c. SubtT-lisforsub-telis, of the woof, fine, subtle, ult: D. cur-ulis, likeachariot (applied to the ' sella ' of certain magistrates, which had that shape) ; trib-ulis, of the tribe. The Adj. ed-ulis, eatable, is abnormal, eli : D. crud-elis, cruel; f Id-elis, infid.elis. See above 6). (2) Deminutive Nouns. I. a) O and A-nouns form Deminutives by joining ulus (a, urn) to the dipt Stem un- less e, i, 1, n, or r precede the ending : riv-us, riv-ulus ; frigid-us, frigid-ulus ; cist-a, cist-ula ; scut-um, scut-ulum. After 8, i, olus (a, um) is used : alve-us, alve-olus : aure-us, aure-olus ; line-a, lirie-ola ; horre-um, horre-o!um ; fili-us, fili-olus ; glori-a, glori-ola ; savi-um, savi-olum. Guttural and Dental Nouns add ulus (a, um) to the True Stem : rex, reg-ulus ; comix, cornlc-ula ; adolescens, adolescent-ulus, adolescent-ula ; caput, caplt-ulum : lapid-u-lus becomes lapillus. 1) ulus (a), inus (a), Inus (a), Gnus (a), become ellus (a) : populus, popellus ; filbula, fabella ; aslnus, asellus ; gemTnus, gemellus ; patina, patella ; catlnus, catellus ; catena, catella. cr (ra or era, rum) become ellus (a,um) : liber, libellus ; miser, misellus ; capra, capella ; opera, opella ; labrum, labellum. G-nus, g-num, and ulum usually form illus, ilium : pug-nus, pug-illus ; signum, slgillum ; pOculum, pocillum ; (but scamnum, scabel- lum). 248 Latin Wordlore. r^ c] Substantival Dcminutives olio, alo (for axiild), ul66, and Ad- jectival aulo (aullo), aululo (aullulo;, are rare. II. o) The double Deminutive c-iild. /-;) cion is a rare Suffix : as homun-cio. y) unciiio in a few words is joined by analogy to Stems not Nasal : av-unculus, fur-unculus, ran-unculus. Note i. Care must be taken not to class among Deminutives words which are not such : as Verbals in culum : iaculum, p5culum, &c. It is probable that umbra-culum and taberna- culum should be ranked with these rather than with Deminutives. 2. Sometimes the meaning of a Deminutive differs altogether from that of its theme : avunculus, uncle (on mother's side), from avus, grandfather ; osculum, kiss, from os, mouth. 3. Deminutives sometimes express endearment, sometimes scorn \ usually smallness only. They keep the CTender of their Primitives. 4. Latin Deminutives have importance in the Romance languages, which form many words from them : as L. luscini-ola, It. usignuolo, Fr. rossignol, nightingale; L. api-cula, Fr. ab- eille, bee ; L. agn-ellus, Fr. agneau, lamb\ L. gem-ellus, Fr. jumeau, twin. vi. Patronymica, Names derived from Parents or Ancestors, are noticed at p. 75. c) Porcellus from porculus, cistella from cistula, codic-illus from codic-ulus (codex), pauxillus from pauculus, are secondary Deminutives. d} Porcellulus from porcellus, cistellula from cistella, pauxillulus from pauxillus, are ter- tiary Deminutives. e) Coron-ula, corolla ; palus for (paxulus) paxillus ; equ-us, equ-uleus or equ-ulus ; pauc-ulus, paullus ; whence paullulus. II. a) Other Consonant Nouns add culus (a, um) to the Stem : frater, frater-culus ; pauper, pauper-culus ; animal, animal-culum ; flos, flos-culus ; mus, mus-culus ; opus, opus-culum ; cor-culum for cord-culum. And from Comparative Adjectives : grandius-culus, rather older; melius-culus, a little better; plus-culum, somewhat more. On becomes un : homo, homun-culus ; virgo, virgun-cula ; ratio, ratiun-cula. OS becomes US in arbos, rumor : arbus-cula, rumus-culus. Bos (bovis) forms bucula, heifer, for bovi-cula. I-nouns take culus (a, um), and usually shorten i : piscis, pisci-culus ; levis, levT-culus ; pars, part-Tcula ; rete, retl-culum ; venter, ventri- culus. In a few Deminutives i is long, as canlcula, cutlcula, febrlcula. From anguis, snake, comes anguilla, eel. U-nouns join i-culus (a, um) to the Clipt Stem : versus, vers-Tculus ; anus, an-icula ; cornu, corn-iculum. Lacus-culus, domun-cula, are abnormal exceptions. E-nouns add cula to the Stem : die-cula, re-cula. Nube-cula, plebe-cula, vulpe-cula, from Nouns of Decl. 3., are formed as though from E-nouns. Derivation of Nouns. 249 vii. Names of Countries are usually formed from the name of the people with ending ia. Ital-i, Ital-ia; Graec-i, Graecia ; Gall-i, Gallia; Arab-es, Arab-ia ; Arcad-es, Arcad-ia, &c. Some with the ending is : Pers-ae, Pers-is ; Colch-i, Colch-is ; Aeol-es, Aeol-is, &c. Exceptions : Africa, ludaea, Illyricum, and some others. viii. Nominative Endings 'of Derived Words, according to their several meanings. 1 I. Substantives : (I.) Abstract : 1) Action; Faculty . V. tio, sio ; tus, sus 4 ; io (fem.) ; tura, sura. 2) State; Habit; Effect: V. or or- ; us or-, us er- ; ies, ium ; Ina ; monia ; monium ; ela (ella) ; tela ; Ido, edo ; Igo. 3) Quality ; Qualified Condition ; Function : D. ia, ies, ium ; Itia, fries, itium ; ntia ; tas ; tus ; tudo; ela ; Ina ; io (fem.) ; monia ; monium ; edo ; ago, ugo ; atus 4 ; tura, sura. (II.) Concrete : 1) Personal Agent ; Individual: V. tor, sor (masc.), trix (fem.) ; atus 2 ; o on- (masc.) ; D. tor (masc.), trix (fem.) ; atus 2 ; arius 2 ; es, it- ; o, io (masc.); 2) Efficient Thing (Means, Instrument} . V. en; men; mentum; (ulum) culum, crum ; bulum, brum, bra ; trum. D. bulum, bruin (in a few instances). 1 Examples : I. (I) i) actio, visio ; actus, visus ; oblivio ; sepultura, versura. 2) furor ; decus ; pondus ; congeries, colloquium ; ruina ; querimonia ; alimonium ; suadela ; corruptela ; libido, torpedo ; vertigo. 3) concordia, pauperies, consortium ; saevitia, mollifies, calvitium ; ignorantia, in- tellegentia ; celeritas, aedilitas, libertas ; senecttis ; latitude, mansuetudo ; clien- tela ; disciplina ; communio ; castimonia ; matrimonium ; pinguedo ; farrago, lanugo ; consulatus, comitatus ; pictura, censura. (II) i) V. doctor, cursor, adiutrix ; legatus ; comedo: D. viator, funditor, ianitrix ; candidatus ; sicarius ; eques, miles ; naso, centurio. 2) V. unguen ; lenimen ; lenimentum ; speculum ; operculum, lavacrum ; vocabulum, delubrum, latebra ; aratrum, feretrum : D. acetabulum (timbraculum, taberna- culum may perhaps be taken as Vcrbalia). 250 Latin Wordlorc. 59 3) Thing effected : V. turn, sum. 4) Locality : D. etum ; ctum ; Hum ; stum ; arium ; torium ; trina, tri- num ; ma. 5) Object: V. ex, Tc- ; D. ale, al ; are, r, lie. Deminutives appear above, p. 247, and are not repeated here. Obs. Under other Endings, us 2 ; ius 2 ; a ; um ; is 3 ; es 3, c., are comprised Derivatives various in meaning and origin, but almost all concrete. II. Adjectives : (I.) Verbalia : 1) With Active sense : ns (Pres. Part.) ; urus (Fut. Part.) ; cundus : bundus ; ax ; idus ; icus, ucus ; uus, Ivus ; iilus ; tilis (a few) ; ber, bris; cer, cris ; aneus. 2) With Passive sense : tus, sus (Perf. Part.) : flis ; b'flis ; tilis, silis ; uus ; tlvus ; tlcius ; taneus. 3) With sense Active or Passive . ndus (Gerundive). (II.) Denominativa : with the meanings 1) ' Belonging to : ' ius ; fcus ; tfcus ; anus ; ianus ; aneus ; enus, eneus ; ensis, iensis ; alis, aris, arms ; His, elis, ulis ; atilis ; Tnus ; fvus; ster, stris, stis ; timus ; nus. 2) 'Made ' or ( consisting of: ' eus ; mus ; nus, neus ; icius ; aceus ; uceus. 3) meritum, visum. (Visio, the seeing ; visus 4, the facility of sight, or tJiefact of sight: visum, the thing seen.) 4) quercetum ; salictum ; virgultum ; arbustum ; viridarium ; praetorium ; tonstrina, pistrinum ; officina. 5) vortex ; torale, puteal ; laqueare, calcar ; bublle ; but V. sedile. II. (I) i) constans, fulgens ; dicturus, mansurus ; iracundus, verecundus ; errabundus ; tenax ; timidus ; pudicus ; caducus ; nocuus, nocivus ; garrulus ; volatilis ; saluber, lugubris ; volucer ; consentaneus, succedaneus. 2) notus, fessus ; docilis ; amabilis (terribilis, Act.) ; sutilis, fossilis ; mutuus ; vo- tivus ; conducticius ; collectaneus. 3) notandus, delendus, gerundus. (II) i) regius, oratorius ; bellicus ; fanaticus, rusticus ; montanus, decumanus ; Caesa- rianus ; spontaneus ; terrenus ; aeneus ; castrensis, Carthaginiensis ; hiemalis, Solaris, gregarius, senarius ; erilis, crudelis, tribulis ; aquatilis ; marinus, libertinus ; aestivus ; pedester ; caelestis ; maritimus, legitimus ; pater-nus. (Ob- serve colurnus by transposition for corul-nus, from corulus, hazel.) 2) ferreus ; faginus, fagineus ; quenjus ; latericius ; hordeaceus ; pannuceus. $q t Derivation of Nouns. 251 3) ' Full of ^ { abounding in : ' osus ; olentus, ulentus, olens ; idus. 4) ' Endued with ' (analogous to Perf. Part.). atus, Itus, utus. 5) ( Having the nature of:' stus ; gnus. 6) Adjectives of Time have the endings tinus, tinus; ernus, urnus. ix. Adjectives are also derived from Particles; some from Adverbs, some from Prepositions. 1 3) frondosus ; fraudulentus, violentus, violens ; herbidus. The ending osus often implies faultiness : glori-osus, full of (\xn\)-glory, boastful ; fam-osus, (full of fame, but) ill-famed; mor-osus, (full of moralities, but) peevish, morose. Ul- entus, ul-ens probably combine the root of growth, Ol, 111, with ent- the par- ticipial suffix. Cru-entus, bloody, omits Ol. 4) auratus, togatus, auritus (from auris), astutus. 5) honestus, funestus, scelestus, robustus, venustus ; abiegnus, benignus, malignus. 6) annotmus ; hornotTnus ; serotinus ; matittlntis, vespertlnus ; aet-ernus, hib-ernus, di-urnus, noct-urnus. Adverbs with their Derivative Adjectives : diu ; diutinus hodie ; hodiernus perendie ; perendmus diuturnus nimis ; nimius repente ; repentlnus eras ; crasttnus nuper ; nuperus simul ; similis heri ; hesternus peregre ; peregrinus temere ; temerarius Also semp-i-ternus from semper. Prepositions with corresponding Adverbs and Adjectives are derived from various rudi- ments : an- an-te (for old Abl. anted or antid). (anter-us) anter-ior : antlquus. POS- pos-t (for pos-te=old Abl. postid). See M. Liter, iv. 1186. poster-us, poster-ior, postre-mus : post-Icus. cl- ci-s ; ci-tra ; ci-tro : (citer) citer-ior, citi-mus. ui- ultra ; ultro : .. (ulter-us) ulter-ior, ulti-mus : ultroneus. com contra ; contro- : (conter-us) : contr-arius. ec- ex, e ; extra ; (extris) extrin-secus : exter-us, exter-ior, extre-mus : externus ; extraneus ; extrarius. in in-tus ; inter ; intra ; intro, (intris) intrin-secus : (inter-us) inter-ior, inti-mus : intestinus: internus : infra, inferus, infer-ior, infimus, imus : infernus. pri- prae ; praeter : prior, primus ; priscus ; pristinus. pro pro-pe ; propter : propior, proximus : propinquus : probus t pronus. sup- sub sus- ; super, supra ; subler : super-us, super-ior, supre-mus : supinus. See Footnote, p. 202. de (di-s) : (deter-us), deter-ior, deterrimus. re- retro. Key derives reci-procus from re, pro, with suffix CO appended to each, se- sine, clam: clandestinus (lost form clan-dus). tar- : appears in tran-s, -ter, -tra. 252 Latin Wordlore. x, Adjectives derived from Proper Names. A) From Personal Names : * 1) Suffix ius : This is the ending of Roman Nomina Gentilia (clan names) : Cornelius, Fabius, lunius, lulius, Tullius. As such, it is used sub- stantively. But it is used adjectively to describe a law brought in, a road or public edifice made, by a member of any gens, as lex Roscia, via Appia, aqua lulia, theatrum Pompeium, &c. A law brought in by two colleagues bore the twofold name, as lex Papia Poppaea de maritandis ordinibus. 2) Suffixes anus, ianus, inus, imply < belonging to ' the person : Caesar-z'-anus, Cinn-anus, Sull-anus, August-anus (or August- ianus), c. ; Plaut-inus, Verr-inus, &c., and ' oratio Metell-ina/ C. Att. i. 13. 3) Suffix -gus is poetical : Caesar-eus, Hercul-eus, Romul-eus, c. Horace has Romula gens. Augustus is used adjectively, as domus Augusta; historia Augusta ; so columna Traiana, portus Traianus. 4) Suffixes eus ius, for Gr. -ttor, and icus for Gr. -ia>c, are used in personal Adjectives from the Greek : Pythagoreus, Aristotel.us, Socrat-Icus, &c. B] Gentilia : from Names of People, Cities, Towns, &c. These are properly Adjectives ; but often used Substantively. 1) Suffix anus, chiefly from Places in a or ae : Alba-nus, Roma-nus, Theba-nus ; but also from some Places in um or i : as Tuscul-anus, Puteol-anus. 2) Suffix inus, from Places in la, turn : Amer-inus (Amen-a), Aric-inus (Aricia), Clus-inus (Clusium). Observe also Pracnest-inus (Praeneste), Reat-inus (Reate), Tarent-inus (Tarentum). 1 Roman Names. A Roman of distinction had at least three names : the Praenomeh, individual name ; the Nomen, name shewing the Gens or clan ; the Cognomen, sur- name, shewing the Familia or family. Thus, L. lunius Brutus expressed Lucius of the Gens lunia and Familia Brutorum. To these were often added Agnomina, titles either of honour (Africanus, Asiaticus, Coriolanus, Creticus, Isauricus, Macedonicus, Numi- dicus, Magnus, Maximus, &c.), or expressing that a person had been adopted from an- other Gens : Aemilianus, (adopted from the Gens Aemilia), Domitianus, Licinianus Mucianus, Octavianus, Salvianus, Seianus, Terentianus, Titianus, and many more. The full name of Augustus (originally an Octavius) when adopted by his uncle's will and adorned by the Senate with a title, was Gaius lulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus. The Roman Gentes were either patrician (Cornelia, lulia, &c.) or plebeian (Licinia, Memmia, Coruncania, &c.) : or there might be a patrician and plebeian pens of the same race, as of the Claudii. Theoretically they are referred to ancestors, whose Nomina give them their titles ; being themselves due to various circumstances. Some Gentes are derived ham. Numerals : Quinctia, Quinctilia (Pompeia, Pompilia, Pomponia, Pontia), Sestia, Septimia, Octavia, Nonia, Decia : so Postumia. Some from Colours : Albia, Caesia, Flavia, Fulvia, Helvia, Livia, Rubria, Rutilia. Some from Animals : Aquillia, Asinia, Ap- ronia, Caninia, Canuleia, Ovidia, Porcia, Verria. Many from Personal peculiarities : Caecilia, Calidia, Catia, Claudia, Cordia, Curtia, Digitia, Genucia, Hirtia, luventia, Lici- nia, Naevia, Opimia, Pedia, Plancia, Plautia, Silia, Spuria, Stertinia,Turpilia, Varia, Val- gia, Vegetia, Vitellia, &c. Others are derived from Office, business, station, birthplace, 59, Derivation of Adjectives, 253 3) Suffix as from. Places in na nae num no : Fiden-as (Fidenae), Arpin-as (Arpinum), Aquin-as (Aquin-um), Capen-as (Capena), Frusin-as (Frusino). Also Anti-as (Antium), Arde-as (Ardea). These are declined in at-, like nostras, vestras, optimates, Pe- nates. 4) Suffix ensis from Places in o, and from some in a ae urn : Narbon-ensis, Cann-ensis, Mediolan-ensis. Some take i-exicis : Athen-i-ensis, Carthagin-i-ensis. The same Suffix may represent Gr. e 6c, as Chalcid-ensis (XnXa- ?evf). But eus is also kept : Demetrius Phalereus, Zeno Citieus or Citiensis. We find Zeuxis Heracleotes for Heracleensis. 5) Peculiar Latin Adjectives of Place are : Caer-es (it-) from Caere : Gamers, from Camerinum : Veiens, from Veii ; Tiburs from Tibur : but, when things are qualified, the usual forms are Caeret-anus, Camert-inus, Veient-anus, Tiburt- inus. 6) The Suffixes lus (. B. i.) adopted the common view, that u-bi, un-de, u-ti (ut), u-ter and Cpp. are from the Rel. quo-, dropping the guttural. But in Kr. N. 26, he subscribes to the opinion of H. Weber, that their root is a Demonstr. Pron. U, which as- sumes also Interrog. and Rel. power : and that -c-u-bi, -c-un-de, -c-u-ter are distinct Rel. formations. The question must be regarded as still ' sub iudice.' 6o. The Composition of Words. 259 Obs. I. The Dual Pronoun u-ter (Gr. rrortpor or vorcpoc) forms Particles of its own and in composition with many above named. Obs. 2. Corssen forms e-t, a-t, au-t, au-tem, by composition of the Prim. Pronom. Stem & with the Stem to. This may also be the strengthening element e in e-nim, e-quidem, ec-ce (for e-ce). Obs. 3. The Particles dum, iam, with the Elements -dam, -dem, -do, -de, -dum, also -iam, have been usually assigned to a Prono- minal Stem; but Corssen (Kr. Beitr. p. 197, &c.) derives all these forms (with diu, dius) from the Sanskrit Root div 9 to shine, whence dyus = dies. Compare propediem. 1 The Elements -pe and -iam form the compound Element -piam. vi. Some other Particles. With the suffix per are formed aliquant-is-per, paul-is-per, tant-is-per, 2 parum-per, nuper (novi-per) and sem-per, once for all, always, from root sama, as sem-el, singuli, simplex, &c. As a prefix, per is intensive : per-multum, per-iucunde, &c. &c. C. derives de-mu-m, de-ni-que from Adjectives formed by de: immo from an Adjective in-mus. Mox (/ioy-tc ?), vix, saepe, procul, haud or hau, are obscure. On the last see C. Ausspr. i. 205. The Conj. licet is a Verb : its compounds ilicet (ire licet), scilicet (scire licet), videlicet (videre licet), are sentences. Dumtaxat (dum taxat), 'while one estimates* = merely, is a clause. Vel, ve is from velle, to choose. Nimirum, no doubt ~ minim est ni. Fors is a Subst. used adverbially, (it is) a chance, perchance : and in fors it, forsitan, perhaps (for fors sit, for sit an). Fortassis = forte an si vis, for which is used fortasse, perhaps. Prepositions are compounded together in de-super, in-super. SECTION IV. The Composition of Words. i. Composition takes place when two words are so compo- joined as to form one word. words f 1 The Particles formed by this class of enclitics are : a) quon-dam ; ft) qul-dem, ibl-dem, utrobl-dem, indT-dem, itT-dem, indenti-dem, prl-dem and Cpp. tan-dem, tanti-dem, tantun-dem : -y) un-de and Cpp., in-de, ali-un-de, quam-de . 8) quan-do and Cpp. aliquan-do, &c. : *) du-dum (for diu-dum), ne-dum, non-dum, nec- dum, haud-dum, nihil-dum, vix-dum, primum-dum, etiam-dum, inter-dtim : also with the Imperatives age-dum, mane-dum, stay a bit, fac-dum, do just, ades-dnm, &c.). ) iamiam, et-iam. nunc-iam, quon-iam, us-p-iam, nus-p-iam. C. forms qui-a from qui-iam. On iamiam, see M. Liter, iii.894. Donee is for do-ni-que, do-ni- being an Adjectival form from the root diu-s. M. Lucr. v. 997. Donicum in Plautus=donec cum. Other compounds of diu-s are tamdiu, quamdiu, aliquamdiu, perdiu, interdiu and interdius, nudius. 2 The suffix ' is (=ius)' is used in Comparison of Degree (mag-is), Time (paul-is-) or Place (sin-is-ter). It is found also as us (minus, secus, &c.). S 2 260 Latin Wordlore. 60. (Only Nouns and Verbs are here considered : the Composition of Particles being shewn in Section III.) The latter word in Composition is Fundamental, the former Determinative. Sometimes the words are so joined that one actually agrjes with the other : L res-publica ; ius-iurandum ; tres-vin : or that the second actually governs the first : senatus-consultum ; veri-similis. Such compounds can be severed : resque publica ; senatusve consulta. But generally one part or both lose the form of words : magnanimus ; Troiugena ; artifex. ii. Composition of Words may be (i) constructive, when one of the parts in a Noun or a Verb has the nature of a Case governed by the other part : (2) attributive, when the first part in a Substantive attributively qualifies the second : (3) adverbial, when the first part adverbially modifies the second : (4) possessive, when Adjectives are so compounded as to imply ' having ' the fundamental part in some qualified manner, or ' not having ' it. 2 A) Substantives are compounded i) constructively} when the parts are S. x V. : agri-cola (qui agrum colit) : 1 Parathetic Compounds, in which either the parts actually agree, or the first is governed by the second, are very few : as (i) iusiurandum, oath ; (2) agricultura ; aurifodinae, gold-mine : iurisconsultus, civil lawyer , ludimagister, schoolmaster ; pater- mater- filius-familias ; plebi-scitum ; (3) verisimilis , (4) lucrifacere, pessumdare, venumdare, vilipendere. In Pronouns we find such forms as alteruter, quotusquisque, quisquis, &c. : and in Numerals additive Compounds : as duo-dccim, tertius-decimus, &c. ; subtraction ; as un- de-viginti, duo-de-trigint.i, c. ; multiplicative ; as ducenti, treceni, &c. a Examples of Synthetic Composition. A) Substantives: S. X I'. The Verb-roots which form constructive Compounds with determinative Substantives are principally these : ag- caed- capi- can- col- faci- (f Tc-) die- leg- speci- : as remex, remif mm, navi^ium : homi-cida, parri-cida (-cidium) ; auceps, aucupium, manceps (-cipium), municeps (-cipium), particeps (-cipium) ; bucina, f Idi-cen (-cTna), tlbT-cen (-cma), ttibi-cen, galli-cinium, cock-crowing ; caelicola, ruricola ; aedificitim, arti-fex (-ficium), carnifex, opifex, pontifex ; sacrificium ; veneficium : causs-idicus, pleader : index, iudicium ; florilegium, sortilegus, sorti- legmm, spicilegium : auspex, auspicium, exti-spex (-spicium), haruspex. Other examples are : funambulus, rope-dancer ; nomenclator, namecaHer(ca.\are) ; nau- i'ragium, shipwreck ; caprimulgus, goat-milker : puer-pera (-perium) from parere, also vi-pera (for vivi-para) : stipendium (for stipi-pendium), libripens ; faenisex ; iustitium, stoppage of law-courts (ius sistere), solstitium ; lectisternium ; nas- turtium ; aedituus (aedem tuens), &c. 60. The Composition of Words. 261 S. x S. : viti-sator (vitium sator). 2) attributively ; when the parts are A. x S. or N. (Numeral) x S. : pleni-lunium : tri-ennium. 3) adverbially ; when the parts are N. x V. or P. x V. : prin-ceps ; in-edia. Kote. P. x -5". may be (i) constructive : inter-montium ; or (2) ad- verbial : com-mercL:m ; nihil (ne-hilum, ni-hilum, Lucr. iv. 516). U] Adjectives are compounded 1) constructively, when the parts are S. x V. : armi-ger; melli-fluus. P. x S., when S. is in the nature of a governed Case : exspes. 2) adverbially, when the parts are A. x V. : N. x V. : P. x V. : omni-potens ; bi-fttius ; bene- volus. IV. x A. : P.xA.: semi-vivus, septem-geminus ; immemor. SxS. Substantives of this form are few : caprificus, wild Jig ; iuglans (lovis glans) ; tnanupretium ; rupicapra. chamois. AY.S. Substt. few : latifundium ; privilegium ; viviradix ; medi-astlnus. N. y S. numerous : see 33 with bi- tri- &c. : as ilibra, biduum, biennium, &c. ; decempeda, ten-foot pole ; teruncius, three-ounce coin : also with semi- sesqui- : sembella (for semi-libella), selibra (for scmilibra), semideus, semihomo, semihora, semivir ; semuncia, sescuncia, se^quihora. sesquimensis, &c. A', x V. : P. x F. : rare : for such words as f.ccola, incola, advena, convena, ambages, coiux, conviva, dedecus, incus, idigeiv , ingenium, indoles, proles, su boles, obiex or obex, obses, perfuga, transfuga, pni ;fica, praeses, &c. may be treated as de- rivatives of the Compound Verbs accolo, incolo, advenio, &c., or, at least, as coor- dinate with these. P.xS. (i) constructive: adverbium, ambarvalia, amburbium, conclave, ingluvies, interlunium, internecio, internundiiuim, intervallum, pomoerium, postliminium, proconsul, promunturium, pronomen, propraetor, subsellium, supellex, super- cilium. (2) adverbial : abavus, abnepos, abneptis, administer, adminicjilum, ad- nepos, agnomen, cognomen, c eres, conmilito, compes, condiscipulus, con- servus, consobrinus, contubernium, ronvallis : deunx, dodrans ; ignominia, im- pluvium, incuria, intemperies, internunt.us, interpres, interrex, interregnum ; nefas, negotium, nemo, persona, praenomen, praesaepe, proavus, progener, pro- mulsis, pronepos, proneptis, remora, subcenturio, subpromus, superficies. B) Adjectives. S. X F. chiefly poetic : from the following and other Verb-roots : cTn-dTc- fer- f Tc- fr3g- flii- fug- gen- ger- leg- son- vaga- vom- : faticlnus, fatidlcus, aurifer, munif Tens, naufragus ; mellifluus, lucifugus, nubigenus, belliger, morigerus, florilegus, fluc- tisonus, nemorivagus, flammivomus. Add arcitenens, velivolus, &c. ; armipotens, caelipotens, &c. See Examples of P. x .S. in next page. A. x F. : N. x V. : P.Y.V.: from the following and other Verb-roots : die- f Tc- fid- flu- loqu- sci- son- vaga- vola- : veridlcus, mirificus, multifidus, largifluus, vani- loquus, dulcisonus, solivagus, altisonus ; quadrifidus, septemfluus ; conscius, in- scius, nescius, praescius, beneflcus, malevolus, necopinus, innuba, &c. Horri- sonus, terrificus, &c. take their determinative part from the rudiment of the Verbs horrere, terrere. Words like invidus, providus, proffigus, &c., may be regarded as derivatives of the Verbs invideo, provideo, profugio, &c. N. x A. : chiefly determined by semi-, a few by sesqui- and other numerals: semi- barbarus, semihians, :-eminudus, sesquioctavus, trigeminus, &c. 262 Latin Wordlore. 60. 3) possessively ; when the parts are A. x S. : N.xS.: magn-animus ; centi-ceps. S. x S. : ali-pes ; igni-comus. P. x S. : when S. is not in the nature of a governed Case : con-cors, in-numerus, prae-ceps. C) Verbs are compounded i) constructively ; when the parts are S. x V. : belli-gerare ( = bellum gerere). P.V.A.: com- implies union : compar, compos, consimilis, &c. ex- intensifies : edurus, efferus, &c. ob- implies ' coming in face :' oblongus. per- ' throughout, in a high degree : ' pervigil ; perdifficilis. prae- (i) 'excess:' praelongus, praecelsus; (2) 'priority:' praecanus, prema- turely grey;' praeposterus, last first, inverse; (3) ' extremity : ' praeustus, burnt at the tip. pro- forward : procurvus, propatulus. re- red- back : recurvus ; again, redivivus. sub- diminishes : subobscurus, ratter dark, subtristis, somewhat sad. ve-=male: vesanus, ?o Pre " pleo, pono, porto, quaero, rego, rogo, sedeo, sto, sisto, sum, teneo, tendo, veho, venio, ^- OS1 verto, video, voco. When compounded with Verbs : 1. Ab, a, abs (from, away) always denotes 'separation ; ' absum, am away ; abeo, go away ; aufero, take away ; abstineo, refrain from, &c. Note abdico (me magistratu), resign office ; abrogo (legem, &c), repeal. Abundo.^^w over, abound ; abutor, use up, abuse, contain the notion of excess. 2. Ad (to, at, near) generally denotes, (i) ' approach, presence at or near ;' adsum, am Present : adeo, go to ; advenio, come to : assideo, sit by ; adsto, stand by, &c. : hence, (?.) ' application to : ' adhibeo, apply ; admoneo, admonish ; afficio, affect ; alloquor, ad- dress, &c. : (3) 'acquisition,' as accipio, receive ; adipiscor, gain ; arrogo, claim, &c. : (4) 'addition,' as addo, add; adnumero, reckon with ; addisco, learn besides : (5) 'action to the full:' admiror, admire ; adedo, eat up ; afficio, affect ; agnosco, recognise ; atton- deo, shear close, &c. : (6) ' response, favour, sympathy : ' acclamo, cheer ; adfleo, weep with ; arrideo, smile on ; annuo, assent : so affulgeo, shine on, &c. The Verb adimo, take away (quis te mihi casus ademit? Verg.), cannot be a true form. It is probably a vocal corruption of abemo, an ancient word cited by Festus, the sound of which would not be agreeable. Ar- was an old form of ad-, as arcesso, arbiter, arvorsum. 3. Cum, com-, con-, co-(with, together) implies, (i) 'union, coming, bringing, or acting together : ' coeo, unite ; concurro, run together ; colligo, collect ; confero, bring together \ con venio, meet; convoco, call together, &c. For various purposes: (a) 'comparison:' compare, compono, confero, compare, &c. : (/3) ' constraint : ' cohibeo, restrain ; cogo, compel, &c. : (y) 'friendly action : ' colloquor, talk with ; concede, allow ; confido, trust ; confiteor, confess ; consoler, console ; corrigo, correct : (&) ' hostile action : ' confligo, battle with ; colluctor, struggle with ; so coarguo, convince, confute. (2) In some words it im- plies ' combined thought, reflection : ' concipio, conceive ; conicio, guess ; compute, reckon V P- (3) As implying a concurrence of parts or powers in action, this particle gives to many verbs the sense of completeness or intensity : cognosce, learn ; confido, complete ; commoveo, disturb ; compleo,yf# up : cormo.fall in : consume, waste ; contendo, strive ; converto, turn round : cohorresco, contremisco, shudder all over ; convalesce, get well, &C. So consterno, bestrew ; collino, besmear. 4. De (down, down from, from) implies, (i) 'action downward'.' decide, fall down ; deicio, throw down ; depono, lay down : (2) 'absence, departure, removal, prevention,' &c. : decedo, depart ; detineo, detain ; demo, take away ; dehortor, dissuade ; deterreo, deter; deprecor, pray ag ainst ; desum, am wanting; deficio, revolt, fail, &c. ; derogo, a/'ate(a. privilege by law ; see word in dictionary), &c. : (3) 'diminution, subtraction : ' depleo, empty ; deperdo, lose a part. In the last word and others, as deerro, stray ; de- cipio, deceive; delude, delude ; detero, rub off; detraho, detract, &c., the preposition carries a bad sense (deterioration). Debeo (dehibeo), wve, i.e. have a debt or minus quantity, to be subtracted : (4) 'negation or retractation : ' dedeceo, misbeteem ; dedisco, 264 Latin Wordlore. 60. unlearn ; dedoceo, unteach ; despero, despair. (5) In numerous words it implies ' in- tensity or completeness' (compare the phrase 'de haul en has') : deambulo, walk up and down ; deamo, love exceedingly ; defleo, weep intensely ; decerno, decree ; debello, finish a war ; defungor, discharge ; deleo, blot out, destroy ; deprendo, catch ; devenio, arrive ; devinco, vanquish, &c. (6) Such words as dedico, dedicate ; defero, offer, imply hu- mility in the agent. Decurro means variously run down, complete a course, or have re- course. 5. Ex, e {out of) implies, (i) 'action out or from :' exeo, go out ; eicio, cast out ; ex- teiido, stretch out ; eximo, take out, take away : (2) ' manifest action : ' edico, proclaim ; exhibeo, exhibit ; exhorresco, shudder visibly ; exsisto, stand forth, exist : (3) ' achieve- ment of action : ' edisco, learn by heart ; efficio, effect ; elaboro, work ouc ; enumero, count up; evenio, happen; evinco, prove ; existimo, form opinion, think: so effero, i. drive wild ; effemino, make womanish. Note exaudio, hear from far. 6. In (in, into, against, upon) implies, (i) ' action in, being in : ' insum, am in ; inam- bulo, walk in ; incolo, inhabit ; inerro, wander in : (2) ' action into : ' ineo, ingredior, enter ; immitto, send into, &c. : (3) ' action onward : ' incedo, move on ; impello, -urge on, many Trajective Verbs : illido, dash upon ; impono, place on ; impertior, impart ; in- cumbo, lean on ;immineo, impendeo, overhang ; insurgo, rise against, &c. : (6) ' intensive action,' especially in Inceptive Verbs : illucesco, dawn ; incalesco, grow hot ; ingravesco, grow worse ; intumesco, swell up, &c. Remark incipio, begin ; invenio, find (come upon) ; invideo, envy (look on with evil eye). An ancient form of in was endo, U)du (erfioi'), which in old Latin appears in composition with a few words : endogredi or indu- gredi = ingredi ; end operator or induperator=imperator. So ind-igeo ; ind-oles. The negative particle in- appears in the compounds ignosco, excuse, pardon, and im- probo, disapprove. 7. Inter (between, among) denotes, (i) ' action between : ' intercldo, fall between ', inter- pono, place between ; hence, (2) interruption : interpello, i. address abruptly ; interrogo, question; intervenio, intervene : (2) ' hindrance, stoppage :' intercede, forbid (by veto) ; inter C\\JL&O, shut off; interdico, prohibit, exclude; (3) 'concernment in ;' intersum, am en- gaged in, am present at ; interest, it concerns. Inter has a peculiar use in the words intermorior, intereo, die ; interemo, interficio, kill. See Per. Also intellego, perceive, understand. Prof. Key (Philolog. Trans.) says that the notion of ' through ' is often con- veyed to Compounds by inter in Lucretius : interfodio, interftigio. See M. Lucr. iv. 716. 8. Ob( = em) seems to denote ' occupation of space in front : 'as, obeo, go to encounter, perform, die, &c. ; obicio, cast in the way ; occurro, meet ; offero, offer, present. This is sometimes hostile : as, obsideo, besiege ; obsto, oppose ; obsum, harm ; obruo, opprimo, overwhelm ; oppugno, attack ; obloquor, speak against ; sometimes friendly : as, oboedio, obsequor, obtempero, obey. 'Persistence' is often implied by this particle: obstupesco, stand amazed ; obdormisco, slumber ; obsolesco, become obsolete. The use of obs is doubtful : obs-trudo in some MSS. of Plautus seems the only authority. Ostendo, show^ may perhaps be a corruption of the old phrase ob os tendo, since obtendo, stretch toward, is an existing compound. Omitto, leave off, omit, cease, if for ob-mitto or om-mtto (which is phonetically possible), must be referred to the meaning of 'persistence.' Operto, cover, is not (as a Latin verb) compounded with ob, but may contain its root. Obs. Note the Adjj. obliquus, athwart ; obscurus, dark (having CTKIO, Prim, sku, in front). 9. Per has the general meaning, through ; percurro, run through : hence, thoroughly ; perdisco, learn thoroughly. Its use (see inter) is peculiar in pereo, perish, am undone (pessum eo) : peremo, kill; perdo, ruin, destroy, lose, for which in older Latin appears pessum do. These uses of per, inter, may perhaps grow out of some now forgotten cus- tom or superstition. 10. Prae (be/ore) expresses, (i) 'priority of place or rank ; ' as, praeeo, go before ; prae- ficio, place in command ; praesum, am in command ; praepono, prefer ; praeluceo, out- shine, &c. : (2) ' priority of 'time ;' as, praedlco,_/ back, &c. ; but in actions which by their nature imply recurrence, the particle loses emphasis : respiro, breathe : refulgeo, resplendeo, shine, glitter. Recaleo, become warm from being cold. 2) ' recurrence 'from B towards A : i.e. backward action : recumbo, lean back, recline ; resideo, sit back, sit down ; refringo, break open ; repello, drive back ; remaneo, stay back, remain ; remoror, retardo, retard; relinquo, leave behind ; respicio, look back; re- tineo, hold back, &c. In some verbs, re- (back) = away : relego, send away ; removeo, move away, remove: with implied care: recondo, hide away, stmv : or force; revello, pluck away. To this head belongs the group of words in which the particle (agniiuf) implies resistance : rebello, war against, rebel ; reclamo, cry against ; redargue, refello, refute ; reluctor, struggle against ; (recuso), renuo, refuse ; repugno, resisto, resist. II. ' Repeated action' (again, anew): recognosco, exam-'ne anew; recalesco, grow warm again ; revalesco, reviresco : so, reparo, repair ; reficio (make again), repair, renew, refresh ; renovo, renew; relevo, raise again, relieve. In refercio, cram, repieo, fill full, &c., the notion is that of repeating to excess. In recludo, retego, revelo, uncover, open, disclose ; refigo, take down ; resigno, unseal, re- has a force like that of de (removal). In revereor, reverence ; reticeo, keep silence, it implies bashfulness : 266 Latin Wordlore. 60. in redoleo, stnell of, the idea is that of giving back to one who requires, as in renuntio. In some compounds re- gives various senses, as recipio : for which see dictionary. 15. Other Compounded Particles keep their proper force, and need but short notice : (a) ante (before) : anteire, to go before : ()3) circum (around) : circumdo, place round ' (y) post (after, behind) : posthabeo, postpone, place behind : (&) praeter (beside, beyond) : praeterlabor, glide by ; praetereo, pass beyond, pass ; praetermitto, pass over, omit : () subter (beneath) : subterlabor, glide under : in suhtei fugio, escape, secrecy or slyness is implied (subterfuge) : (f) super (over, above) : superiacio, throw over', sometimes implies excess ; superfluo, flow over, overflow. Note supersum, survive, superstes, surviving (living over). Supersedeo (sit above) has the peculiar meaning, disregard, dispense with : see Ablative Case, (rj) trans (across, through) is properly used of crossing a river, moun- tain, road, region, &c., hence tropically, of going or carrying over : transeo, cross, pass beyond: transfero, carry across, transfer ; transigo, carry through, pierce, complete, trans- act, &c. : (6) se- sed- (apart from) : seduco, draw aside : seiungo, separate ; seligo, select, &c. : (i) amb- am- an- (around, about, a/^^0 : ambio, go round, canvass ; ambigo, doubt, guestion ; anquiro, question, search. (K) the adverbs bene, male, satis, intro, retro, in a few verbs : benedico, bless ; benefacio, do kindness ; maledico, revile ; malefacio, do harm ; satisdo, satisfacio, satisfy ; introeo, go in ; retrogredior, retreat. Olts. i. Many Verbs, of which the first element is a Preposition, are not Compounds in the same sense as those hitherto named, but belong to one or other of the three follow- ing classes : 1) Derivatives of Compound Adjectives or Substantives : concinno i. arrange (con- cinnus) ; concordo i. agree (concors) ; discordo i. disagree (discors) ; indignor i. am in- dignant (indignus) ; infesto i. make dangerous (infestus) ; effero i. drive wild (efferus) ; obliquo i. slant (obliquus) ; deliro i. am mad (delirus) ; commodo i. lend (commodus) ; incommodo i. inconvenience (incommodus) ; praecipito i. fling headlong (praeceps) ; per- nocto i. pass the night (pernox) ; insanio 4. am mad (insanus) ; consulo 3. consult (consul) ; concilio i. conciliate (concilium). 2) Verbs compounded of Particle and a Noun which has no derived simple verb : recorder i. recollect (re, cor) ; defaeco i. drain (de, faex) ; infamo i. defame (in, fama) ; so diffamo i. ; effemino i. make womanish (ex, femina) ; suffoco i. choke (sub, faux) ; digladior i. fight with sword (di-, gladius) ; illaqueo i. ensnare (in, laqueus) ; enervo i. weaken (e, nervus) ; enucleo i. take out kernel (e, nucleus) ; impedio 4. hinder, enta*g:e (in, pes) ; expedio 4. disentangle (ex, pes) ; irretio 4. ensnare (in, rete); derive i. draw off, derive (de, rivus) ; erudio 4. instruct (e, rudis) ; exstirpo i. root out (ex, stirps)'; ex- surdo i. deafen (ex, surdus) ; contemplor i. gaze at, observe (cum, templum augural division of sky) ; praevaricor i. act dishonestly, deceive (prae, varus) ; convaso \. pack up (cum, vas) ; exubero i. abound '(ex, uber). 3) Compounds of lost or obsolete Verb-stems : ad-7?/-or i. flatter (or- ?); amb-/-o i. walk; \m-bu-o 3. dye, steep ; com-bur-o^. burn ; \n-coh-o i. begin ; oc-citl-o 3. hide ; \n-du-o 3. put on ; ex--o (for ex-duo) 3. put off', de- fend-o 3. ; ot-fend-o 3. ; rz-frdg-or i. oppose by vote ; suf-frag-or i. vote f 01- ; con-gru-o 3. agree ; m-gru-o 3. ; m-vit-o i. invite ; ir-rtt-o i. provoke ; pro-mulg-o i. publish ; dis- sip-o i. scatter. The verbs oc-cup-Q i. anti-cz^-o i. anticipate, re-/*-er-o, re-c/-er-o i. recover, are forms modified from cap-, take. De-sfm-o, destine, ob-j/z-o, keep firm, are weakened from stan-, the root sta- strengthened with suffix n, like da-n-o from da-, and Gr. <0a-c-u) from 0a. Obs. 2. a) The primitive root of Growth is ar, al, which appears in Latin as ar, al, or, Ol : sometimes, perhaps, as CF, el, Ul. It appears, (i) in alo and its derived words, erii$se\ alii a servulis ipsius interfectum eum, scriptum reliquerunt,' Nep. Han*, viii. 'Quod arduum sibi (sumfisif), cetera legatis permisit,' Tac. A. ii. 20. ' Ne tenues pluviae (forrumpanf) rapidive polentia solis Acrior ant Toreae penetrabila 268 Latin Wordlore. 61. B} Pleonasm (TrXforacryuo'e) is the use of more words than seem necessary to the expression of a thought : ' Suo sibi gladio hunc iugulo,' I slay this fellow with his own proper sword, Ter. Ad. v. 8. So such phrases as plerique omnes; nemo unus ; nihil quicquam; deinde postea; ubique gentium; praesensit prius. C) Attraction occurs when a word, by the influence of another, frigus adurat,' Verg. G. \. 93. ' Saepe velut qui, Currebat, fugiens hostem, per- saepe velut qui lunonis sacra ferret,' Hor. S. i. 3. 9 (i.e. saepe currebat velut qui fugiens hostem curreret, persaepe tardus incedebat velut incederet is qui lunonis sacra ferret). y) An affirmative verb is understood from a negative : ' Ille quidem haud negat. Immo edepol negat profecto ; neque se has aedis Philolachi vendidisse ' (dicit), Plaut. Most. v. i. 3. 'Stoici negant bonum quicquam esse nisi honestum : virtutem autem nixam hoc honesto, nullam requirere voluptatem' (dicunt), C. Fin. i. 18. ' Nolo ex is ti- mes me adiutorem huic venisse, sed auditorem et quidem aequum' (volo exis times), C. N. D. i. 7. Nostri Graece fere nesciunt, nee Graeci Latine (sciunt), C. T. D. v. 40. Qui fit, Maecenas, utnemo quam sibi sortem Seu ratio dederit seu fors obiecerit ilia (Jontentus vivat, laudet (= sed tit quisque laudet) diversa sequentis,' Hor. S. i. i. i. Com- pare Hor. Epod. v. 87. S) Justin has ' Provolutae deinde genibus Alexandri, non mortem, sed, dum Darii corpus sepeliant, dilationem mortis deprecantur," vi. 9. 14 (i.e. non mortem depre- cantur sed .... precantur). And ' Et caedem patris (vindicavii), et se ab insidiis vindicavit,' Hi. i. 9 (the same verb meaning avenged in the former clause, freed in the latter). But such licenses of a late age are not to be imitated. Zeugma of the second kind requires a notice of the class of constructions called ovA- Ar;v/o(m, translatio) occurs when a term proper to one matter is transferred by analogy to another: volnus, wound, for damnum, loss ; portus, harbour, for refugium, refuge ; sentina reipublicae, sink of the commonwealth, for turpissimi cives, vilest citizens ; ardeo, / burn, for amo, / love, &c. A metaphor may be qualified by such expressions as quasi, tamquam, quidam, ut ita dicam, &c. : 'In una philosophia quasi tabernaculum vitae suae collocarunt,' they have pitched as it were the tent of their life in philosophy alone, C. d. Or. iii. 20. * Caria et Phrygia asciverunt aptum suis auribus opimum quod- dam et tamquam adipatae dictionis genus,' the Carians and Phrygians chow a certain rich and as it were greasy style of diction suited to their peculiar taste, C. Or. 8. 'Scopas, utitadicam, mihi videntur dissolvere,' they seem to me to be untying, so to say, besoms, C. Or. 71. II. Metonymy (/uerMi'u/ira) puts a related word for a proper one : (i) Cause for effect ; Mars for helium ; Ceres for segetes ; 'Bacchus' for vinum; 'lanus' for lani vicus or for lani templum. (2) Material for work: 'argentum' for vasa ar- gentea. (3) Abstract for concrete: 'civitas' for cives, *cor Enni' for cordatus Ennius, the sensible Ennius. (4) Concrete for abstract : ' Cedant arma togae,' for ' cedat bellum paci.' (5) Country for inhabitants : 'Graecia' for Graeci : or the converse : 'In Persas ire,' for in Persidem, Nep. (6) The part is put for the whole (vi*8*gft : ' caput ' for homo ; ' tec turn ' for domus. (7) Sometimes the whole for the part: 'Sal sextante erat,' for ' modius sails,' ' salt was at two unciae the peck] L. SECTION II. 62 Usesof Uses of the Substantive. the Sub- (On certain classes of Singular and Plural Substantives see Z7. iii.) L Singular Appellatives used collectively for Plural. Such Appellatives are, (i) Material Objects. (2) Bodies civil or military. (3) People : occasional in Cato, Cic., Caes. : frequent in Liv., Tac., Curt and poets. 862. Uses of the Substantive. 271 Ex. rosa = rosae : pedes = pedites : Samnis = Samnites. The Singular annexed to Plural is not earlier than Livy. He and Tacitus often use it : 'Hispani milites et funditor Baliaris,' L. xxvii. 2. 'Samnis Paelignusque et Marsi,' Tac. H. iii. 59. ii. Plural words used with Singular collective sense in prose. Ex. aquae, ardores, calores, frigora, frumenta, glacies, gran- dines, ignes, pecuniae, pluviae, praedae, pruinae, rores ; all in C. In poetry this use of the Plural of Concretes is abundant : aco- nita, mella, colla, corda, currus, altajria, numina, litora, capitolia, tecta, &c. It either heightens the image, or, still oftener, assists the metre. iii. Plural of Appellatives expressing a 'genus' when individuals are implied. Occasional in prose : Legati P. R.' (where Triarius alone is meant), C. p. L. Man. : frequent in poetry: Quas mulieres, quos tu parasites loquere ? ' Plaut. Men. ii. 2 ; ' Barbaras regum est ulta libidines' (meaning Tereus), Hor. C iv. 12. 7. iv. Plural of Proper Names used to express typical characters. This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry : ' Pauli, Catones, Galli, Scipiones, Phili,' C. Lael. 6. ' Decii Marii magnique Ca- milli,' Verg. G. ii. 169. v. Abstract Substantives, 1 Verbal and Deno- minative, used in Plural. This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry. 1) When several kinds are implied: ' Tres constantiae/ C. T. D. iv. 6 ; ' Alia exitia,' C. d. Fin. v. 10 ; * Sapiens nostras am- bitiones levitatesque contemnit,' the wise man despises our ambitions and shallow pursuits, C. T. D. v. 36. 2) Several occurrences : ' Domesticae fortitudines,' C. Off. i. 22. So offices in L. and Tac. : ' Tribunatus et praeturae et consulatus,' Tac. D. 7. a) A material (aes, cera, &c.) may express in the Plural orna- mental objects manufactured from it : ' Ephyreia aera,' Corinthian bronzes, Verg. G. ii. 463. 'Veteres cerae/ old waxen busts, luv. viii. 19. But aurum, argentum remain Singular always. Draeger states that there are in Latin 3,814 abstract Substantives ; of which 2,889 are used in the Singular only, 925 in the Plural also. Of these latter 58 only are before Cicero, including 36 in Plautus, 6 in Terence : 383 are in Cicero ; a few only, 19, in Caesar, Sal- lust, Varro, and Auctor ad Herennium. The rest, 484, are distributed in Livy and sub- sequent prose writers, and in classical and later poetry. See his Historische Syntax. dtr Lat, Sfrr., Part i. p. 9, where a full list of these Abstract Plurals is given. 272 Latin Wordlore. 62. 3) When the abstract is related to Plural concretes : ' Conscientiae maleficiorum/ C. Par. 2. 4) When it is annexed to other Plurals : 'Tot artes, tantae scien- tiae, tot inventa/ C. Cat. M. 21. vi. Abstract Substantives for Concrete in prose and poetry : This may be in any of three ways : 1) Sing. Abstr. for Sing. Concr. . fll _, . ., Plur. Abstr. for Plur. Concr. I either or both ' Ex. 'corruptela' =corruptor, Ter. Ad. v. 3. 7 ; ' desiderium'-res desiderata, Hor. C. i. 14. 18 ; * servitia ' = servi, C. p. Flac. 38; * imperia ' = imperatores, Caes. B. C. iii. 32 ; * matrimonia ' = uxores, L. x. 2^. ' Mea festivitas,' my delight, App. ii. 10; so 'scelus' = tf wicked wretch, ' scelera,' scoundrels', ' vigiliae ' = vigiles ; * excubiae ' = excubitores. 2) Plur. Abstr. for Sing. Concr. : ' amores ' = amatus or amata : ' Pompeius nostri amores,' C. Alt. ii. 19. ' Acmen . . suos amores/ Catull. xlv. i. So 'deliciae :' 'Amores et deliciae tuae Roscius,' C. Div. i. 36. 3) Sing. Abstr. for Plur. Concr. freq. in prose and poetry : 'amicitia^amicijTac.^^/i ; 'barbaria' = barbari; 'civitas' = cives; * coniuratio ' = coniurati ; ' iuventus' = iuvenes; ' nobilitas ' = nobiles ; 'societas^socii ; ' static' or'custodia' = custodes; ' remigium ' = re- miges. So 'Canes arnica vis pastoribus/ Hor. Epod. 6. 6. ' In hac tanta immanitate versari/ C. = inter tarn immanis homines. ' Cum vestra aetate,' C. = cum vobis adulescentibus. Obs. From the Plural use of Substantives we can hardly discon- nect the ' Pluralis Modestiae,' which includes also Verbs and Pro- nouns, when a person speaks of himself in the Plural Number : 'Imperatores appellati sumus,' C. Att. v. 20. 'Poscimur, si quid vacui sub umbra lusimus/ Hor. C. i. 32. Sometimes Plur. and Sing, occur together : ' Ardeo incredibili cupiditate ut nomen nos- trum scriptis illustretur tuis,' C. Fam. v. 12 ; 'Et flesti ctnostros vidisti flentis ocellos/ Ov. H. v. 45. 1 vii. Idioms of the Substantive chiefly Cice- ronian : i) Cicero describes state or action by a Verbal Abstract : ' Ora- toris est languentis populi incitatio et effrenati mode ratio,' an orator's function is to rouse a languid, and restrain an infuriated, populace, C. d. Or. ii. 9. 1 The Plural of Majesty (we, our), used in the proclamations of modern princes and potentates, was unknown to classical Latin ; but it probably grew out of the use of the ' modest ' Plural by Roman Emperors in such phrases as ' nostra mansuetudo/ ' nostra maiestas,' ' nostra excellentia,' &c. 62. Uses of the Substantive. 273 2) A Denominative Abstract with Genitive is used fora Noun with Epithet. 'Vis flammae aquae multitudineopprimitur' ( = flam- ma violenta plurima aqua opprimitur), C. Cat. M. 19. ' In con- suetudine sermonis' ( = in consueto sermone), in ordinary con- versation, C. Inv. ii. 40. 3) A Noun takes a Genitive of another, to which it might be Apposite, if the other were constructed as Subject or Object. * Est etiam deformitatis et corporis vitiorum satis bella materies ad iocandum,' deformity also and bodily defects are a fine field for banter, C. d. Or. ii. 59. 4) A Noun of quality or condition is used as Subject or Object with Genitive of the real Subject or Object, or with a Possessive Pronoun. ' Pupilli aetatem et solitudinem defendere praetor debuit,' the praetor ought to have protected a young and orphan ward, C. Verr. i. 58. ' Potest mihi denegare occupatio tua/ your preoccupation ( = you being preoccupied) may refuse me this, C. Fam. v. 12. 8. 5) Cicero affects ornate periphrases and metaphors : ' Occa- sionis tarditas ; ' * Etesiarum flatus ; ' ' naufragia fortunae ; ' * summa luctus acerbitas : ' ( mentis oculi;' ' philosophiae portus;' ' gloriae stimuli;' 'eius sceleri virtus M. Bruti obstitit.' 6) Stages of life and seasons of office are often expressed by the concrete words puer, adulescens, &c., consul, praetor, &c., rather than by the abstracts pueritia, consulatus, &c. 'Doctusapuero/ learned from boyhood, C. 'Ab parvulis/y^ww their infancy, Caes. 'Philosophiae multum adulescens teinporis tribui,' I gave much time to philosophy in my youth, C. Off. ii. 4. ' Ante (post) me c o n - su lem/ before (after] my consulship : ' consul e Planco,'/# the consul- ship of Plancus, Hor. But the abstracts can be used. 7) Some Concrete Substantives, especially Verbals in -tor -trix, are used Adjectively. ' Ennius equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat suam/ Ennius compares his old age to that of a strong and victorious horse, C. Cat. M. 5. 'Artifex stilus/ an artistic style, Q. This idiom is especially poetic. 'Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni/ the conquering cause pleased the gods, but the conquered cause Cato, Lncan. i. 128. ' Populum late regem/ a far-ruling people, Verg. Aen. i. 23. 8) Certain phrases assume the nature of single words : 'no men Latinum' ( = Latini), 'res Romanae' ( = Roma). So 'res repetundae ; (extortion], respublica, iusiurandum, &c. 9) In comparisons, by a peculiar brachylogy, names of Persons and Places stand for their works or properties : ' Percipietis volup- tatem, si cum Graecorum Lycurgo et Dracone et Solone nos- tras leges conferre volueritis/jiw/ ivill find pleasure in comparing our laivs with (those of] the Lycurgus and Draco and Solon of the Greeks, C. d. Or. i. 44. 10) Verbal Substantives occasionally govern the same cases as their Verbs : Cicero has ' domum itio ;' ' Narbone reditus ; ' ' ob- temperatio legibus.' Constructions such as ' receptio virum meum/ * curatio hanc rem,' are used by Plautus, but not subsequently. T 274 Latin Wordlore. 62. viii. Ellipse of the Substantive: Omitted Substantives are indicated i) By Adjectives which are their Epithets : ager : in Tiburti, C. aqua : frigida, Quint. ; gelida, Hor. ; calida, Varr. ; decocta, Plin., luv. ars : dialectica, &c. C. musica. capilli : cani, C. and poets. caro : agnina, lamb ; anatina. duck ; aprugna, wild-boar ; bu- bula, beef: ferina, venison ; sm\\z, pork ; vitulina, veal, castra : aestiva ; hiberna ; stativa : C., Caes., L., Tac. &c. dies : natalis ; and in phrases poster o, in posterum, c. fabula : togata, comedy with Roman characters ; pal li at a, with Greek ; praetexta, trabeata, plays in which cha- racters with these dresses appeared. familiaris : l complexus inde Coriolanus suos dimittit,' L. ii. 40. febris : quartana, quartan ague, luv. feriae : Latinae, the Latin holidays, fodina : arenaria, argentaria, &c. C., L. fratres : gemini ; trigemini. funis : cereus, a waxen torch, hora ; quarta, 10 o'clock ; octava, 2 o'clock, luv. lapis : molaris, millstone, Verg. ; ad quartum, at the fourth milestone, Tac. &c. liber: 'in T. Livii primo/ Quint. ; 'in tertio de Oratore,' do. ; ' ne in pontificiis quidem nostris/ C. N. D. i. 30. ludi : Circenses, luv. manus : dextra, laeva, sinistra. mare: Aegaeum; Ionium; altum; profundum, &c. navis : triremis ; quinqueremis ; oneraria, C., L. ; Liburna, Hor., &c. nummus : aureus ; aereus ; denarius ; sestertius, &c. officina : coquina ; picaria ; figlina, &c. C., Plin. ordines : quattuordecim, the fourteen rows of the equites in the Roman theatre, Suet. ovis : bidens. paries : decumae, tithes : primae, secundae, &c., the first, second, &c. parts in a drama, C., Hor. &c. pecuniae : repetundarum, repetundis; frequent: Cicero usually adds pecuniarum, pecuniis. porta : Coelimontana, Esquilina, Capena, c., C., c. pracdium : Albanum, Antias, Tusculanum, c., C. res : argentaria, pecuaria, topiaria, &c., C. sella : curulis, Tac. sol : occidens ; oriens. spolia : opima, Sen. Tr. telum : missile, L., Verg. tcmpus : brevi ; homo, Plant. toga : praetexta, Hor. and later. tribus : Q. Verres Romilia, C. &c. usurae ; centesimae ; quincrmces, besses, deunces, &C. vas : acnum ; fictile, Cat., Ov. &c, 63. Uses of the Adjective. 275 ventus : Africus, lapyx. verba : multa, pixira, &c. versus, senarius. i'ia : Appia, Flaminia, Latina, c. vicibns : alternis, Lucr., Verg. vinum : Caecubum, Falernum, Massicum, Sabin m. Surren- tina (vina), &c. Hor. &c. Also menstruum (frumentum}, L. ; nullas (tpistulas\ C. ; molaris (dens}, luv. ; Papia Poppaea (/^f),Tac. Dialia, Liberalia, &c. (festd). 2} By Substantives which depend on those omitted : aedes or templum : ' ad Apollinis >' 'ad Opis ; ' < ad lovis Sta- toris; ' ' ad Vestae ; ' ' prope Cloacinae ' (aedem), C., L. &c. actor : 'Q. Arrius fuit M. Crassi quasi secundarum,' C. Brut. 69. iter : 4 castra aberant bidui/ C. Ait. v. 16. filius, filia : * Faustus Suilae ; ' ' Caecilia Metelli ; ' ' Hr.nnibal Gisgonis.' iixor : Terentia Ciceronis : Apicata Seiani, Tac. homines : 'pergere ad Treveros etexternaefidei/ Tac. poculum : 'da noctis mediae,' &c. Hor. C. iii. 19. 10. servus : frequent in phrases : 'a manu' or 'ad manum,' amanu- ensis : ' ab epistulis,' letter-writer ; ' a potione/ cup-bearer ; 1 a bibliotheca/ librarian, &c. 3) By Verbs, of which the omitted word is object or subject. See 109, 126. Object omitted : mittere (nuntiitui) ; agere (vitam) ; obire (inor- teni) ; merere (stipendia) ; movere (castra} ; ducere (exercitum} ; appellere, conscendere {navem, classem\ and others. Besides Pronoun Subjects, the Nom. homines is constantly omitted in the phrases aiunt, tradunt, narrant, &c. ix. Substantives are used with different kinds of meaning (active or passive). alumn-us -a (usually qui alitur ; sometimes qui alit) : clientela (rlientship ; clients ; patronage] : gloria (glory ; boasting, vanity) : hospes (host; guest} : fuga (Jlight ; exile] : invidia (envy; odium} : nuntius (messenger ; news] : odium (hatred as feeling : hated ob- ject'} : opinio (opinion ; credit} : ruina (ruin suffered or inflicted) : spes (hope as feeling; as object) : tristitia (sadness ; gloom inspiring sadness) : tutela (guardianship, guardian ; that which is guarded, ward} : vector (qui vehit, shipmaster-, qui vehitur, passenger}, c. SECTION III. Uses of the Adjective. Uses 3 of i. Adjectives used as Substantives. See 15. b\ jeaive* A} Masculine (and Feminine) Adjectives with personal meaning. I. Singular : a} in arius, icus, anus, inus. &c., including Gentile words : adversarius; consiliarius ; librarius ; ostiarius: sicarius ; statuarius ; T 2 276 Latin Word tore. 53. tabellarius ; vicarius, &c. ; criticus. rusticus, vilicus, &c. ; hortu- lanus ; paganus ; publicanus ; liberunus ; vicinus, &c. ; Romanus, Sabinus, Athenieusis, &c. Also the terms for legionary aoldiurs : primanus, secundanus, &c. b] Words of Kinship and Relation : amicus, inimicus ; aequalis ; affinis ; agnatus, cognatus ; con- sanguineus ; contubernalis ; familians ; gentiiis ; mantus ; necessa- rius ; propinquus ; sodalis, socius. c] Various ; aemulus ; conscius ; consularis ; iuvenis ; insipiens ; stultus, c. Cicero has, ' Meos partim inimicos partim invidos.' p. Plane. ' Nonnulli nostri iniqui,' do. 23. 'Omnibus iniquissimis meis,' Verr. v. 69. d} Participles : a) Present : adulescens ; amans ; sapiens. /3) Perfect Pass. : candidatus ; doctus ; praefectus ; nat-us (a) ; spons-us (a). e) Generally, ' man' may be omitted when any epithet implying it is used (Ellipsis) : ' lacet corpus dormientis ut mortui/ the body of a sleeper lies like that of a dead man, C. Div. i. 30. ' Non de improoo, sed de callidoimprobo quaerimus,' we are enquiring' not about a knave, but about a cunning knave, C. Fin. ii. 17. ' Ne- glegere quid de se quisque sentiat, non solum arrogantis est, sed o'mnino dissoluti,' to be careless of what others think about him, indicates a man not arrogant only, but quite unprincipled, C. Off. i. 28. II. Plural: Plural Adjectives and Participles still oftener express men ; chiefly, but not exclusively, in the Nom. and Accus., because in these the Masc. is distinguished from the Neut. So boni, divites, inferiores, infimi, iuniores, magni, maiores, minores, multi, mortales, nulli, optimi, omnes, pauci, plerique, posteri, proximi, summi, tenues, urbani ; nostri, sui, &c. &c. ; adstantes, dis- centes, legentes, spectantes, c. ; docti, indocti, impend, mortui, &c. Participles are also used, especially in poetry, to describe, by some property, classes in natural history : balantes = oves ; natantes = pisces ; volantes = aves ; laniger = aries ; squamigeri = pisces. Cicero has ' errantes ' for ' planetae.' } Neuter Adjectives and Participles : I. Singular : a} It has been shewn in Ch. V. that a great number of Substan- tives in arium, torium, sorium, turn, sum, ale, lie, are, &C., were originally Adjectival : as cibarium, deversorium, dictum, respon- sum, navale, ovile, talare, &c. &) The Greek Article enables that language to convert any Neut. Adjective into an Abstract Noun ( T <] ayafloi>, TO KaXor). Latin authors, without this advantage, use a certain number of Neuter Adjectives Singular in this way : such are 63 Uses of the Adjective. 277 a) Moral Abstracts : aequum, bonum, commodum, decorum, falsum, honestum, iustum, malum, nirnium, pravum, rectum, ridiculum, utile, verum, c. 0) Physical Abstracts : album, aridum, calidum, canorum, umidum, igneum, inane, pingue, planum, serum, sudum, tranquillum, vacuum, &c. y) Ordinal Numerals : primum, secundum, c. extremum, medium, &c. c} The most extensive Substantival^ use of Neuter Sing. Adjec- tives and Participles is with Prepositions ; forming phrases of an adverbial character. Among the most usual phrases of this kind are : ex adverse ; ex aequo ; ex ambiguo ; e contrario ; ex confesso ; ex imo ; ex obliquo ; ex occulto ; ex permisso ; ex propinquo ; ex trans verso ; ex tuto ; ex vano ; ex vero : in abdito ; in alto ; in ambiguo ; in ancipiti ; in aperto ; in arduo ; in dubio ; in edito ; in incerto ; in integro ; in lubrico ; in medio ; in obscuro ; in piano ; in praecipiti ; in praesenti ; in propatulo ; in publico ; in sereno ; in secreto ; in sicco ; in solido ; in sublimi ; in tranquillo ; in tur- bido ; in tuto : ab imo ad summum : pro certo ; pro com- perto ; pro indigno : de alieno ; de cetero ; de communi ; de medio ; de publico ; de suo ; de vivo ; in adversum ; in arduum ; in artum ; in commune ; in deterius ; in dubium ; in immensum ; in incertum ; in maius ; in medium ; in melius ; in obliquum ; in praeceps ; in plenum ; in sublime ; in tranquillum ; in transversum : and the temporal phrases, in aeternum; in futurum ; in longum ; in posterum ; in perpetuum ; in praesens ; in serum : ad certum, ad constitutum, ad immensum ; ad liquidum ; ad irritum, ad vanum ; ad vivum ; ad unum ; and the temporal phrases, ad extremum, ad (in) multum diei, ad ultimum. 1 II. Plural: Neuter Plural Adjectives are freely used in Latin as Abstract Nouns, signifying ' things.'' bo n a, mala ; vera, falsa ; utilia, inutilia ; &c. &c. ; multa, plu- rima, omnia, &c. ; ea, ista, haec, nostra, etc. Some in local sense : avia, devia, invia ; summa, infima, proxima, extrema, angusta ; aperta, secreta ; maritima, mediterranea, c. c. : often with a de- scriptive Genitive in history and poetry : secreta silvarum ; avia montium ; strata viarum ; deserta locorum, abdita vallium, &c. 1 Prneger cites other instances : Ex : abdito, alto, affluent!, antique, aperto, arido, communi, composite, conducto et locato, diverse, facili. patenti, praeparato, proximo, publico, solido, toto, &c. In (Abl. ) : aequo, angusto, arto, communi, conspicuo, excelso, expedite, extreme, facili, d:f r icili, lev . occulto, pacalo, private, profano, promiscuo, summo, &c. In ( Accus.) : ambiguum, altum, angustum, cassum, contrarium, publicum, sublime, unum, &c. 273 Latin Word lore. 63. ii. Adjectives used adverbially. (1) ' Senatus frequens convenit,' the senate met in force, C. So Mnvitus (or libens) veni ;' 'imprudens (or sciens) feci/ &c. Especially Adjectives of time, order, &..: serus, citus, matutinus, nocturnus, vespertinus, prior, primus, princeps, proximus, ultimas, postremus, supremus, unus, multus, solus, totus, omnis, nullus, c. ' Lupus gregibus nocturnus obambulat,' the wolf prowls about the flocks at night, Verg. G. iii. 538. * Sulla multus aderat,' Sulla shewed himself much, Sail. lug. 9. 'Philotimus nullus venit/ Philotimus came not at all, C. Fam. xi. 22. (2) :< /irgil has ' tarda volventia plaustra ' (for tarde), { sublimem expulsum ' (for sublime), * inexpletus lacrimans ' (for inexpletum) ; and similar examples abound in poetry. iii. Partitive Attributes. Primus, ultimus, summus, infimus, imus, intimus, extremus, pos- tremus, novissimus, medius, reliquus, ceterus, are often used to designate one part of that to which they are attributed. 'Prima luce summus mons a Labieno tenebatur,' at break of day the top of the mountain ivas occupied by Labienus, Caes. B. G. i. 22. ' Maximum bellum Cn. Pompeius extrema hieme appa- ravit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit/ Gnaeus Pompeius prepared a mighty war at the close of winter, commenced it at the beginning cf spring, completed it in the middle of summer, C.p. L. Man. 12. See M. Lucr. iii. 250. iv. Proleptic Attributes. An attribute is said to be proleptic when it indicates a quality not existing yet, but about to result from ihe action contained in the sentence: ' Ingentes tollent animos' (i e. ut ingentes fiant), Virg. G. iii. 207. This is an idiom of very frequent use in poetry. v. Multiplication of Attributes. 1) Two or more Adjectives are not usually joined as Attributes to the same Substantive without an intervening Conjunction, unless one or more with the Substantive form one complex idea : ' Propter Ennam est spelunca quaedam ubi Syracusani festos dies anniversaries agunt,' close to Enna is a certain cavern, where the people of Syracuse Jiold annual holidays, C. Verr. iv. 52. 'Columna aurea solida sacrata est,' a pillar of solid gold was dedicated, L. xxiv. 3. ' Verri apud Mamertinos privata navis oneraria maxima publice est aedificata/ a private yacht of very heavy tonnage ivas built for Verres in the M amertine city at public cost, C. Verr. iv. 52. Here ' festos dies,' ' columna aurea/ 'navis oneraria maxima,' severally constitute one idea. See M. Lucr. v. 13 : * Divina antiqua reperta;' and iv. 394^ { suo corpore claro.' 2) But any number of Adjectives may follow one Substantive, when each expresses a different kind of that Substantive : 4 Auribus indicanturvocis genera permulta, candidum, fuscum, lene, asperum, grave, acutum, flexibile, lene,' C. A. D. ii. Or when intervening Conjunctions are supposed, not expressed : 63 Uses of the Adjective. 279 ' Animal hoc providum, sagax, multiplex, acutum, plenum rationis et consili, quern vocamus Hominem,' C. Leg. i. 7. * Mon strum horrendum informe ingens,' Verg. Aen. iii. 658. vi. Possessive Attributes. The Latin language uses Denominative Epithets very largely, instead of Genitive Nouns, to express Origin, Possession, &c. : Anacreon Teius, Anacreon of Teos ; Hercules Xenophonteus, Hercules in Xenophon ; erilis films, my master's son ; fraternus sanguis, a brother's blood; cursus maritimus, a sea voyage ; bellum sociale, a war with allies ; aliena vitia, the faults of others, c. vii Idioms of the Superlative. For those of the Comparative see Correlation (quam), and the Syntax of the Ablative. 1) The following example shews that the Superlative indicates any very high degree, though not the highest : 'Ego sum mise- rior quam tu quae es miserrima,' I am more wretched than you, who are very wretched, C. Fam. xiv. 3. 2) The force of the Superlative is increased by a) The Adverbs longe, multo, quam, vel : 'Ex Britannis omnibus longe humanissimi sunt, qui Cantium inco- lunt,' of all the Britons, the most civilised by far are those who inhabit Kent, Caes. B. G. v. 14. 'Alcibiades fuit omnium aetatis suae multo formosissimus,' Aid- biades was much the handsomest man of his day, Nep. Ale. i. 'Definitio quid sit id, de quo agitur, ostendit quam brevissime,' definition shews as briefly as may be, what it is that is treated of. C. Or. 33. Hence, quam primum (as soon as possible) : ' Huic mandat, ut quam primum ad se revertatur,' this man he directs to return to him as soon as possible, Caes. B. G. iv. 21. 'In fidibus musicorum aures vel minima sentiunt,' in lute- playing the ears of musicians perceive the very slightest errors, C. Off. i. 41. b) The elliptical expressions, tam quam qui, tantum quantum qui, ut qui, qui qui, ut cum, cum: 'Tam sum mitis quam qui lenissimus,' / am as mild as the very gentlest, C. p. Still. 31. ' Commendationi meae tantum tribue, quantum cui plurimum,' assign to my recommendation the greatest weight you would to any, C. Fam. xiii. 22. ' Grata ea res, ut quae maxime senatui unquam, fuit,' that circumstance pleased the senate as much as anything had ever pleased them, L. v. 25. 'Domus celebratur ita ut cum maxime,' the house is thronged to its very utmost, C. Qu. F. ii. 6. c) Quam, quantus, ut, with the verb possum: Aves quam possunt mollissime nidos substernunt, ut quam 280 Latin Wordlore. 63, facillime ova serventur,' birds line their nests as softly as they can, that the eggs may be preserved with the greatest ease, C. N. D. ii. 52. ' Hannibal quanta mmaxi- mam potest vastitatem ostendit,' Hannibal exhibits the utmost desolation in his po wer, L. xxii. 3. U t p o t u i b r e - vis si me dixi, / spoke as briefly as I could. On unus as Superlative, and with Superlatives, see p. 153. The Pronoun quisque (each], attached to the Superlative, imparts a universal notion: ' Epicureos doctissimus quisqrs contemnit ' all the most learned men despise the Epicureans, C. T, D, i. 31. Another Superlative is often added to increase the force : 'ivia'ximae cuique fortunae minime credendum est, J all tue greatest fortunes are least to be trusted, L. xxx. 30. a) Ut quisque is used with one Superlative, ita following with another : ' Hoc maxime officii est, ut quisque maxi- me opis indigeat, ita ei potissimum opitulari,' this ts a special duty , according as men most need assistance, *t> by preference to assist them, C. Off. i. 15. In other woids, Indigentissimo cuique potissimum opitulandum est. b} Quisque may likewise distribute the Comparative : ' Quo quisque est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet ira- c u n d i u s et 1 a b o r i o s i u s,' the greater a man ! s skill and genius, the more fervour and pains he throws into his teaching, C. p. Q. Rose. n. c) Quisque also distributes Ordinal numbers : Primus quisque, decimus quisque, c. : 'Ouinto quoque anno Sicilia tota censetur,' a census of all Sicily is taken every fifth year, C. Verr. ii. 56. viii. Other Intensive Phrases. 1) Remark the attractions (imitated from Greek), mirum quan- tum, nimium quantum, immane quantum, &c. (surprisingly, exceedingly, &c.) : 'Id mirum quantum profuit ad concordiam civitatis,' this was marvellously conducive to the harmony of the citizens, L. ii. i. 'Vino et lucernis Medus acinaces immune quantum discrepat, 7 between the lamp-lit carouse and the Median scimitar, vast is the difference, Hor. C. i. 27. 5. 2) Praecipue, summe, valde, vementer, admodum, apprime, in- primis, sane, sanequam, perquam, egregie, oppido, enixe, perfecte, and similar Adverbs, give a Superlative force to a Positive Adjec- tive or Adverb: ' Praecipue sanus,' eminently healthy, Hor. ' luvenis admodum,' quite young, Tac. (See p. 135, and QUAM.) 3) Some Positive Adjectives contain often an emphatic sense, like that given by the adverb nimis : ' At ne longum fiat videte,' mind it be not too long (i.e. tedious), C. Leg. ii. 10. * Nihii arauum fads,' nothing is too hard for destiny, Tac. H. ii. 82. 64. Uses of Pronouns. 281 ix. Some Adjectives are used both in Pas- sive and Active sense. Such are ambiguus (doubted; doubting] ; angustus (narrow ; narrowing); anxius (disturbed; disturbing}; caecus (dark; blind}; credulus, incredulus ; docilis ; dubius ; flebilis : formidolosus ; gnarus, ig- narus ; gratus, ingratus ; gratiosus ; incautus ; infestus ; inno- cuus, innoxius ; inultus ; laboriosus ; memor ; nescius ; notus, ignotus ; odiosus ; operosus ; riguus, irriguus ; somniculosus ; surdus ; suspiciosus ; tristis, and others. See these in Dictionary. SECTION IV. Uses of Pronouns. 64 i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. andVo sessive 1) Pronouns and Verbs of the First Person Plural are often Pro- used by a single person speaking of himself. 'Moris nos: docti nouns - sumus/JVfl should know me, 1 am a man of learning, Hor. S. i. 9. 7. See p. 272 Obs. 2) The Personal Pronouns are used with the Prepositions ad, apud, ab, to signify ' house,' ' abode :' ' Septimo Idus veni ad me in Sinuessanum/ on the 7th of the Ides I came to my villa at Sinuessa, C Att. xvi. 10. ' Scaurum ruri apud se esse audio// hear that Scaurus is at his country seat, C. de Or. i. 49. ' Quisnam a no bis egreditur foras ? ' who is coming out of oiir house? Ter. Haut. iii. 2. 50. 3) Pronouns of ist and 2nd Persons are sometimes hidden in an Apposite Noun; 'Hannibal peto pacem/ /, Hannibal, sue for peace, L. xxx. 30. 'Omnes boni semper nobilitati favemus/ all we conservatives ever regard noble birth with favour, C. p. Sest. 9. 'Soli Tusculani vera arma invenistis/ only you men of Tus- c ulum have discovered genuine warfare, L. vi. 26. 4) Latin uses Possessive Pronouns sparingly; thus, for ' 1 see my father] the Latin is ' Patrem video/ orritting the Possessive unless required for perspicuity or emphasis : 'Quid vos uxor mea violarat?' what wrong had my wife ) In with an ABLATIVE signifies rest in, and describes 1) Place (iii) : In Italia. In urbe. In sole. In ore omnium versaris, you are in everybody's mouth. In Miltiade erat summa humanitas. in Miltiades there was the greatest courtesy. In conspectu est exercitus. In manibus est Vergilius. So, in aprico est res, the affair is all smooth. In incerto. In difficili. In medio relictum est, it has been left unsettled. In luctu et squalore sum, / am in sorrow and mourning. In manu, in hand. (On] : Agesilaus in ora consedit, Agesilaus halted on the brink. Nix est in summo monte, snow is on the summit of the mountain. Pons in flumine factus est, a bridge was formed on the river. In equo sedens, on horseback. Ponere curam, cogitationem, &c., in aliqua re, to employ the mind on some object. (Among] : In magnis viris numeratur. Haec in bonis sunt habenda, these must be counted among blessings. 2) Time (during, in} : Ter in anno rus imus, / go into the country thrice a year. In praesenti nihil opus est, there is 110 need at present. In annonae caritate civitati sub- venit, when corn was dear he helped the city. In tempore veni. Impraesentiarum, under present circumstances, is a corruption of 'in praesentia harum rerum/ chiefly used by elder and late authors, also by Nepos. 3) Circumstance (amidst, in} : In tanta perfidia veterum ami- corum nihil supererat spei. amidst such treachery of old friends no hope remained. Etiam in summa bonorum civium copia timemus, even amidst an abundance of good citizens I am alarmed. In vino diserti sumus, we are eloquent over wine. In dicendo, in agendo. In honore, in pretio. Horridus in iaculis et pelle ursae. V. (/;/ the case of) : In hoc homine non accipio accusationem, in this man's case I admit no charge. Idem in bono servo dici solet, the same is said of a good slave. 4) Cause (on the score of) : In ea re gratias Deo agebamus, for that we thanked God. Pausanias in eo est reprehensus, Paiisanias was blamed on that score. II. (a) Sub with an ACCUSATIVE describes i) Place (under) literally and metaphorically, when motion is implied : Armentum sub tecta referto, take the herd back to shelter. Sub ictum venire, to come under fire. Sub aciem primam succedere, to come up with the van. Sub iugum Romani missi sunt, the Romans were made to pass- under the yoke. Sub oculos mihi venit, lie came under my view. Sub iudicium cades, you will be subject to trial. Sub sensus subiecta, within reach of the senses. X 306 Latin Wordlore. 72 . 2) Time (immediately after or before, about, against} : Sub eas litteras recitatae sunt tuae, next after that letter yours was read. Sub ortum lucis signa contulit, at daybreak he en- gaged. Cenam parat uxor sub adventum viri, the wife prepares supper against her husband's arrival. Sub lacri- mosa Troiae funera, just before Troy's sad destruction. (b} Sub with an ABLATIVE is applied to 1) Place (under), rest being implied : Talpae sub terra habi- tant, moles dwell under the ground. ludaea sub procura- tore erat, Judea was under a procurator. Sub hac con- dicione rediit, under this condition he returned. Sub oculis, in view. 2) Time (about, at] : Sub exitu anni, about the end of the year. Sub eodem tempore. See M. Lucr. iv. 545-785 ; vi. 413, 416. III. (a) Super with an ACCUSATIVE expresses 1) Place (over, above, beyond} : Alii super vallum praecipitan- tur, others fling themselves over the entrenchment. Super navem turris exstructa est, a tower was reared on the ship. Super Sunium navigavit, he sailed beyond Suniitm. Super ipsum, above the host at table. 2) Number (besides] : Super bellum annona premit, besides war, dearth causes distress. Super haec. Super omnia, over and above all else. Super tris modios accepi, / re- ceived above, three bushels. Alii super alios. Savia super savia, kisses upon kisses. 3) Comparison (beyond} : Res super vota fluunt, matters pro- ceed beyond our wishes. Super, principally, V. 4) Time (during} : Super cenam collocuti sumus, during supper we conversed. Lucan uses desuper (over} with Accus. Desuper Alpis nubi- ferae collis, c. i. 688. (b} Super with an ABLATIVE expresses 1) Place (over, upon} : Ensis super cervice pendet, a sword hangs over his neck. Fronde super viridi requiescimus, we rest on green foliage. 2) Time (during, at} : Nocte super media, at midnight. 3) Subject Matter (about} : Multa super Priamo rogitans, super Hectore multa, asking much about Priam, much about Hector, Verg. IV. Subter (under, below}, signifying extension under, gene- rally governs an ACCUSATIVE, but sometimes in poetry an ABLA- TIVE : Amnes saepe subter terram vias occultas agunt, rivers often pursue secret courses under ground. Virtus omnia subter se habet, virtue holds everything subject to itself. Subter densa testudine, under a compact pent-house. Note i. The following Prepositions are also used as Adverbs ; ante,citra, circum, circa, circiter, contra, iuxta, infra, intra, pone, post, prae (rare), prope, subter, super, supra, ultra, coram, clam, palam. 73. Correlation. 307 Note 2. Comminus ire, ' to close with,' is used by Propertius with Dat. and Accus. 'Haemonio comminus isse viro,' iii. i. * Agrestis comminus ire sues/ ii. 19. So Ov. f. v. 176. Note 3. Of the Prepositions the following are opposed in mean- ing : ante to post (pone) infra to supra sub to super ad ab cis (trans) prope procul in ex citra ultra clam palam Note 4. Prepositions may sometimes stand in good prose 1) Between Pronoun and Noun : qua in re; hanc ob causam ; magno cum metu, &c. 2) After the Pronouns qui, hie, without Noun; quern contra dicit ; quos inter, hunc adversus, &c. Not so found are, ab, cis, sub, pro, prae ; seldom, ad, de, ex, in. 3) With one or more words interposed between Preposition and Case : ' in bella gerentibus ; ' * in suum cuique tri- buendo ; ' e post autem Alexandri Magni mortem,' &c. Poets often place Prepositions after their Cases, and sometimes aloof from them : ' Vitiis nemo sine nascitur/ Hor. S. i. 3, 68. See M. Lucr. i. 841 ; iii. 140. (On Prepositions in composition, see 52, 59.) SECTION VI. Correlative Construction. oS-e- lation. i. Pronominal Correlation. The pronominal Root qui- quo- is the most influential word in Latin ; for from it spring (i) Almost all Interrogative words ; (2) all Relative words ; (3) most Subordinative Conjunctions. A) i) Every Interrogative word may question Directly or Obliquely. Direct. Oblique. quae estmulier? rogo quae sit mulier unde estmulier? die unde sit mulier verumne est illud ? quaero verumne sit illud Every Oblique Interrogative is Conjunctional, introducing a Subordinate Sentence. 2) Every Pronominal Interrogative has corresponding to it at least one Demonstrative Pronoun or Particle; and a Relative Pro- noun or Particle. Interr. Dem, Rel. quis ? is qui ubi ? ibi ubi Interr. Dem. Rel. quare ? ideo quod quando? turn quum (cum) Every Relative Pronoun or Particle is Conjunctional, introducing a Subordinate sentence. x 2 308 Latin Wordlore. 73- B} Hence the following Correlations : the first four of which are Adjectival, that is, they involve agreement with Substantives. The rest are Adverbial, but capable of being changed into Adjectival form : thus ubi = quo in loco? ubi . . . ibi = in eo loco ... in quo. (est?) who (is he ?} b) quid (est ?) what (is it?) Demonstr. is, &c. he id, &c. that Rel. qui who quod wJiich j) Correlation of Person or Thing. Direct Interrog. Oblique Interrog. a) quis qui who (he is) quid (sit) what (it is) (The forms ecquis, ecqui, ecquae, ecquid, ecquod are also used interrogatively.) c) uter (est ?) uter (sit) is (alter) qui which of two (is which of two that one which he?} (he is) 2) Correlation of Quality. qualis (est ?) qualis (sit) talis qualis of what kind (is of what kind such as he?) (he is) 3) Correlation of Quantity. quantus (est ?) quantus (sit) tantus quantus how great (is how great (he so great as he?) is) quot (sunt) how many (are they?) 4) quot as quot (sint) tot how many so many they are} (This includes quotiens? how many times? totiens . . . .quotiens.) 5) Correlation of Place. a) ubi (est ?) ubi (sit) ibi ubi where (is he ?) where (he is) there where b} unde (est?) unde (sit) inde unde whence (is he ?) whence (he is} thence whence c) quo (it ?) quo (eat) eo quo whither (goes whither (he thither whither he?} goes} d} qua (it ?) qua (eat) ea qua by which way by which way by that by which (goes he ?} (he goes) way (These include quorsum, whitherward, &c., quousque ? quoad ? quatenus ? how far, &c. ; compounded with quo, qua.) 6) Correlation of Manner. ut (net ?) ut (neat) ita ut how (weeps he ?} how (he weeps} so as (Similarly quomodo? ita quomodo quemadmodum ? ita quemadmodunO 73. Correlation. 309 7) Correlation of Degree. Direct Interrog. Oblique Interrog. Demonstr. Rel. quam (celer est ?) quam (c. sit) tarn quam how (swift is he ?} how s. (he is} so as (For tarn . . . quam may be used aeque . . . atque (ac) and many other Demonstratives with atque (ac). In the Correlation of Inequality quam follows Comparatives and some other words which contain the idea of comparison.) 8) Correlation of Cause. ^ uare l (venit?) quare l (veniat> ideo I l u . od l cur J ^ cur ^propterea) quia I why (comes he T) why (he comes] therefore because 9) Correlation of Time. a) quando (it ?) quando (eat) turn quum when (goes he ?} when (he goes] then when b) quamdiu (ma- quamdiu (ma- tamdiu quam net ?) neat) how long (stays how long (he so long as he .?) stays] So quousque, quoad, quatenus, are answered demonstratively and relatively by several forms : as, eousque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ; usque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ; eatenus . . . dum (donee) ; tamdiu . . . quam, &c. C] Examples of Direct Pronominal Interrogation. 1) ' Ouis fuit horrendos primus qui protulit enses?' who was it that first produced dreadful swords? Tib. i. 10. i. 'Qui cantus moderata orationis pronuntiatione dulcior inveniri potest ? quod carmen artificiosa verborum conclusione aptius ?' what song can we find sweeter than a well-uttered speech ? what poetry neater than a skilful period ? C. d. Or. ii. 8. 'Ecqui pudor est, ecqua religio, Verres ? ecqui metus ?' have y mi any shame, Verres? any scruple? any fear ? C. Verr. iv. 8. ' Ubi aut qualis est tuamens?' where or of what nature is your soul? C. T. D. i. 27. ' Ut valet Put me- minit nostri?' how is his health? Jww does he keep me. in mind? Hor. Epist. i. 3. 12. (In exclamation :) 'Quam non est facilis virtus, quam vero difficilis ems diuturna simulatio !' how far from easy is. virtue, how difficult in truth the long-continued pretence of it ! C. Att. vii. i. 'Quam timeo quorsum evadas ! ' how I dread what you're coming to! Ter. An. i. i. 100. ' Gnaeus autem nosterut totus iacet ! ' how totally prostrate is our friend Gnaeus ! C. Att. vii. 19. Quanti est sapere, how valuable is wisdom ! Ter. Eun. iv. 7. 2) Several Interrogates in one Sentence : 1 Considera, Piso, quis quern fraudasse dicatur/ consider, Piso, who is said to have defrauded whom, C. p. Q. Rose. J. ' Uter utri insidias fecit ? ' which plotted against which ? C. p. Mil. 9. 3) Ouotus quisque literally is, ' each (unit} of what total number' ( one in how many] and might be answered : centensimus quisque, one in a hundred', vicensimus quisque, one in twenty; decimus quis- 3io Latin Wordlore. ; 4v que, one in ten, &c. Hence it came to mean, how small a propor- tion? how few ? 'Quotas enim quisque formosus est?' how few men are handsome ? C. N. D. i. 28. 4) Quid is used in abrupt Interrogation with ellipse of a Verb : Quid ? well? how ? &c. quid multa ? why be prolix? quid quaeris ? what would you have more ? Quid tandem? why pray? So, quid enim ? quid ergo ? quid turn ? quid quod . . . ? need I add that ? 5) Quin for qui non? 'Quin quod est ferendum fers?' won't you bear what must be borne ? Ter. Ph. ii. 3. 82. Quidni possim ? why can 1 not? ( = to be sure I can], C. T. D. v. 5. Quippini ? why not? to be sure, Plaut. On quin with Indie., see M. Liter, i. 588. D} Correlation between Demonstrative and Relative : 1) ' Fere libenter homines id quod volunt credunt/ men gene- rally believe with readiness what they wish, Caes. B. G. iii. 18. 'Quarn quisque norit artern in hac se exerceat,' let every one practise the profession he knows. * Non sunt tanti ulla merita quanta insolentia hominis quantumque fastidium/ none of the marts deserts are on a par with the greatness of his insolence and pride, C. d. Or. ii. 52. ' Ubi bene, ibi patria/ country is where we are well off, Inc. * Ibit eo quo vis qui zonam perdidit,' he who has lost his purse will go where you please, Hor. Epist. ii. 2.40. ' Quam audax est ad conandum tarn est obscurus in agendo,' he is as secret in action as he is bold in enterprise, C. Verr. ii. 2. ' U t magistratibus leges ita populo praesunt magistratus,' as laws govern magistrates, so do magistrates the people, C. Leg. iii. i. ' Quid egeris tune apparebit cum animam ages/ what you have done will appear when you are at your last gasp, Sen. Ep. 26. 2) Demonstrative with a Relative of different Correlation : ' I n ea urbe es ubi ( = in qua) nata et alta est ratio ac moderatio vitae/_y0 are in that city wherein regulation and government of life were born and reared, C. Fam. vi. i. ' Ibi imperiumerit unde victoria fuerit/ empire will be on the side of victory, L. i. 24. 3) Demonstrative understood : ' Donum redde unde accepisti, render back the gift to the donor, Ter. Eun. i. 2. 34. This is the most frequent form. 4) The Correlation of cum and turn, originally of Time, is em- ployed to distribute two notions, the one (with cum) general, the other (with turn) special, to which attention is thus invited. ' Mul- tum cum in omnibus rebus turn in re militari potest fortuna,' fortune can do much in all things, especially in war, Caes. B. G. vi. 30. ' Exspecta hospitem cum minime edacem turn inimicum cenis sumptuosis,' look for a guest who is not only a small eater, but also no friend to expensive dinners, C. Fam. ix. 23. ii. Correlations of Manner. Ut (uti) is a Relative Particle (orig. = quod). Its uses are : As Interrogative (how ?\ As a Subordinative Conjunction (that, c.). As a Coordinative Conjunction of Comparison (as). The Interrogative and Subordinative uses are elsewhere noticed. 74- Correlation. 311 1) As Coordinative, ut, as well as quomodo. qutmadmodum (as), is found in correlation usually with the Demonstratives ita, sic, also with it idem, item, c., eodem moclo, ad eundem modum, isto modo, &c. pro eo : and compounded : sicut (sicuti) ; velut (veluti). Or they may be used without a Demonstrative. A] Correlation of ut, &c. with Demonstrative. ^Al. Liter, ii. 901.) 'Ut optasti ita est,' it is as you wished, C. Fam. ii. 10. ; Ut male posuimus initia, sic cetera sequentur/ according to our bad beginning, the rest will follow, C. Att. x. 18. ' Ut vir doctissimus fecit Plato item mihi credo esse faciendum,' / think I should act as the learned Plato did, C. p. Clu. 24. *Non ille ut plerique, sed isto modo ut tu, distincte graviter ornate dicebat/ he did not speak as most do, but in that manner of yours, with clearness, power, and elegance, C. N. D. i. 21. ' Quemad modum soles de ceteris rebus, sic de amicitia disputa,' argue concerning friendship, as you are wont to do on other subjects, C. Lael. 4. '"Necesse est, quo tu me modo esse voles, ita esse, mater,' / must be as you wish me, mother, Plaut. Cist. i. i. 48. 'Ita ut fit,' /';/ the ordinary way. a) Ita . . . ut in asseverations : ' Ita me di ament ut ego tarn meapte causa laetor quam illius,' so may the gods love me as I rejoice on my own account as much as his, Ter. Haut. i. 3. 8. Also ita or sic without ut, parentheti- cally: ' Sollicitat, ita vivam, me tua valetudo,' your health, upon my life, makes me anxious, C. Fam. xvi. 20. See Hor. C. i. 3. i. U] Ut is used with concessive meaning in one clause, sic or ita following with adversative force in another : ' U t errare, mi Fiance, potuisti, sic decipi te non potuisse quis non videt ?' err indeed you might, dear Plancus, but deceived you could not have been, C. Fam. x. 20. B) Without Demonstrative : 1 Praesertim ut mine sunt mores,' especially as fashions now are, Ter. P?i. i. 2. 5. Ut-res dant sese, in the present state of affairs. These Conjunctions are constantly used in parenthesis = id quod : as, ut aiunt, as they say; ut opinor, as I think ; ut videtur, as you please ; quemadmodum spero ; quomodo mihi persuades, &c. Also, ut nunc est, ut nunc quidem est (imdcr present circumstances'], ut potest, ut potui, ut potero, (as far as possible}. 2) Ut, sicut, in comparisons, usually express a more real like- ness than quasi, tamquam : 'Sicut unus paterfamilias his de rebus loquor,' / speak on these subjects like any other head of a family, C. d. Or. i. 29. ' Inspicere tamquam in speculum in vitas hominum,' to look into men's lives, as into a mirror, Ter. Ad. iii. 3. 61. 3) Ut is used o) To introduce a modifying expression, ' considered as being] 'for,' without a Verb : ' Clisthenes multum, ut tempori- bus ill is, valuit dicendo,' Clisthenes had great powers of speaking for those times, C. Brut. 7. /^) Also with a Causal force (as being) : ' Apud me, ut bonum iudicem, argumenta plus quam tcstes valcnt,' 312 Latin Wordlore. 75. with me, as a discreet judge, ci/cumstantial proofs have more weight than witnesses, C. d. Or. i. 38. 7) Hence, with a Verb, to imply that some one fact is in conformity with some other: ' Aiunt hominem, ut erat f u r i o s u s, respondisse,' they say the man, raging as he was, replied, C. p. Rose. Am. 12. 'Horum auctoritate finitumi adducti, ut sunt Gallorum subita et repentina consilia, Trebium retinent,' the neighbouring tribes, led on by these men's influence, with the precipitation usual in the mea- sures of the Gauls, detain Trebius, Caes. B. G. iii. 8. This sense may also be conveyed by the Relative qui ( = quia tails) or by the Preposition pro. Thus it is the same thing to use any of these phrases : /utesprudens x (You T I qua es prudentia I tacebas J with your usua l prudence 1 quae tua est prudentia i (were silent \pro tua prudentia / 75 iii. Correlations of Likeness and Unlike- ness. Atque, ac (not used before vowels), in the Correlation of Like- ness follow the Adjectives and Pronouns, aequus, par, similis, talis, idem, totidem; and the Adverbs, aeque, item, itidem, iuxta, pariter, perinde, proinde, similiter, simul : in the Correlation of Unlikeness they follow the Adjectives alius, contrarius, dissimilis, dispar, di- versus ; and the Adverbs aliter, &c. contra, secus. Ut is also found in the Correlation of Likeness after several of the words cited : que after iuxta : et in both kinds : quam in the Correlation of Unlikeness alone in the best age, but iuxta quam in Livy, aeque, perindequam in post- Augustan writers. i) Correlation of Likeness : ' Modo ne in aequo hostes vestri nostrique apud vos sint ac nos soc\\,' provided our common enemies be not on the same footing in your esteem as we your allies, L. xxxix. 37. ' Animus te erga idem est ac fuit,' the feeling towards you is the same as it was, Ter. Haut. ii. 3. ' Pari eum atque illos imperio esse iussit,' he ordered him to be equal in command with the others, Nep. Dat. 3. ' Aliquid ab illo simile atque a ceteris est factum,' he did something like what others did, C. Phil. i. 4. ' Faxo eum tali mactatum atque hie est infortunio,' / will make him suffer such a misfortune as this man has suffered, Ter. Ph. v. 9. ' Pa- riter me nunc opera adiuvas ac re duclum opitulata es/ you assist me now with your zeal just as you helped me some time ago with your money, Ter. Ph. v. 3. 3. 'Hi quidem coluntur aeque atque illi,' these are worsJiippcd equally with the former, C. N. D. iii. i. 'Simul atque natum animal est, gaudet voluptate/ as soon as an animal is born, it delights in pleasure, C. Fin. ii. 10, ' Desiderium absentium nihil perinde ac vicinitas acuit,' nothing sharpens re- gret for the absent like neighbourhood, PI. Ep. vi. i. ' Ostendant xnilites se iuxta hieme atque aestate bella gerere posse/ let the troops shew they can wage war in winter as well as in summer. 75 . Correlation. 3 1 3 L. v. 6. ' Omnia in Themistocle fuerunt paria et Coriolano/ all the facts in the case of Themistocles were like those in the case of Corio- lanus, C. Br. n. 'Ad Luceriam iuxta obsidentis obsessosque inopia vexavit/ scarcity distressed the besiegers at Luceria as much as the besieged, L. ix. 1 3. * M iltiades t o t i d e m navibus a t q u e erat profectus Athenas rediit,' M iltiades returned to Athens with as many ships as he had gone out with, Nep. Milt. 7. So, * Haud centensimam partem dixi atque possim exprimere,' / have not said a hundredth part of what I could utter, Plaut. M. Gl. iii. I. Horace has plus ac, more than, Catullus non minus ac. a] Idem, iuxta, are used with Prep, cum and its Case : 'Eo- dem mecum patre genitus es,t,' he has the same father as myself, Tac. A. xv. 2. 'Quo in loco res nostrae sint iuxta mecum omnes intellegitis/ the state of our affairs you all understand as well as I do, Sail. C. 58. Horace uses idem with a Dative : ' Invitum qui servat idem, facit occidenti/ one who rescues a man against his will does the same as one who kills, ad Pis. 467. b] Pro eo (in proportion] goes before ac, ut, quantum (as). 1 Pro eo ac debui,' as I was bound, C. Fam. iv. 5. ' Pro eo ac mereor,' according to my desert, C. in Cat. iv. 2. 4 Pro eo ut temporis difficultas tulit/ as far as the existing difficulties allowed, C. Verr. iii. 54. ' Pro eo quanti te facio/ in proportion to my esteem for you, C. Fam. iii. 13. c] Prout (according as). ' Prout ipse amabat litteras/ in ac- cordance with his own love of learning, Nep. Att. i. d] Praeut (compared with], praequam (compared witJi) are Comic : ' Praeut futurumst,' compared with what is to be, Plaut. Bacch. iv. 9. 5. < Praequam quod molestumst,' com- pared with the trcitble, Plaut. Amph. ii. 2. 3! e] Proquam is Lucretian, ii. 1137. 2) Correlation of Unlikeness : ' Illi sunt alio ingenio atque tu,' they are of different temper from you, C. Leg. ii". 7. ' Stoici multa falsa esse dicunt longeque aliter se habere ac sensibus videantur/ the Stoics say many things are delusive and very different from what they seem to the senses, C. Ac. ii. 31. ' Eadem sunt membra in utriusque disputatione, sed paulo secus a me atque ab illo distribute,' there are the same members in the argument of each, but laid out by me somewhat differently from his method, C. d. Or. iii. 30. ' Vides omnia fere contra ac dicta sint evenisse/jtf// see that almost everything has turned out contrary to what was foretold, C. Div. ii. 24. ' Brutus iuvenis erat longe alius ingenio quam cuius simulationem indu- erat,' Brutus was a youth of very different character from that he had assumed, L. i. 56. 'Multiplex quam pro numero damnum est/ the loss is out of all proportion to the number, L. vii. 8. ' Eruca diversae est quam lactuca TMtoxtt&Jcolewort is of a different cha- racter from lettuce, PI. N. H xix. 8. a) Alius is used by Horace with Ablative : ' Neve putes aiium sapiente bonoque beatum,' and you will deem none other happy than the wise and good man, Epist. i. 16. 20. 314 Latin Wordlorc. 7 6. b) Contrast is also expressed by repeating alius, or any de- rivative of alius : 'Aliud ratio est, aliud oratio/ reason is one thing, speech another = aliud est ratio atque (et) oratio. See p. 317. 76 Quam. iv. Correlations of Degree with quam. The uses of quam differ from those of quomodo and quein- admodum. As an Interrogative particle (how], it intensifies Adjectives, Ad- verbs, and a few Verbs of feeling. See pp. 279-80. Correlative to tarn expressed or understood (a-?), it compares the qualities of things in equal ratio. See p. 309. Following Comparative words, quam (than] compares things in a ratio of inequality. Following ante, prius, post, pridie, &c., quam forms Conjunctions represented by the English Conjunctions before, after. See SYNTAX (Compound Sentences of Time). Quamdiu (correlative to tamdiu), as long as, is also used as a Conjunction of Time ; but quam dudum, quam pridem, how long ago, are Interrogative only. Com- A) Comparison of Equality with quam (as). of Equa- i) The idioms in which quam (as, how] is attracted to other Ad- verbs and to Adjectives are remarkable and of frequent use. Thus, it intensifies Positive words of quality ( very] where the full ex- pression might be tarn quam potest. ' Ab eius summo, sicut palmae, rami quam late diffunduntur, 3 the boughs spread very widely from its summit, like those of the palm-tree, Caes. B. G. vi. 26. ' Cenam afferri quam opimam imperavit/ he ordered a very splendid repast to be brought in, Caes. B, H. 33. ' Sunt vestrum, indices, quam multi, qui Pisonem cognoverunt,' there are very many of you, gentlemen, who knew Piso, C. Verr. iv. 25. 2} With a Verb quam = tarn (tantum) quam : as in the Conjunc- tions quam-vis, quam-libet, how you will, as much as you will ; 'quam vis multos,' as many as you will, C. p. Rose. A. 16. So, ' Quam velit sit potens/ be she as influential as she will, C. p. Gael. 26. 'Quam volent in conviviis faced sint,' be they as witty as they please at dinner parties, C. p. Gael. 28. Quam potest, as much as possible. 3) The Adjective or Adverb with quam is raised to the Superla- tive, in order to express the utmost intensity : * Relinquebatur ut quam plurimos collis occuparet et quam latissimas regiones praesidiis teneret/ it remained for him to occupy as many hills and iiold by garrisons as large an extent of country as he could, Caes. B. G. iii. 44. See p. 279. 4) Tam . . . quam with Superlative and Comparative words is an archaic construction. 'Magis quam id repute tarn magis uror/ the more I think of it, the more I am annoyed, Plaut. Bac. v. i. 5. ' Quam pessime quisque fecit, tam maxima tutus est,' the worse any man has acted, the safer he is, Sail. lug. 31. 5) Quam by a peculiar attraction (also frequent in Greek) follows a certain number of Positive Adverbs expressing intensity, espe- 7 6. Correlation. 3 1 5 daily mire, and, more rarely, admodum, nimis, oppido, per, sane, valde : Perquam doctus, very learned: 'Mire quam illius loci cogitatio delectat/ / am wonderfully pleased with the very thought of the place, C. Att. i. u. 'Sane quam sum gavisus/ / rejoiced exceedingly. * Suos valde quam paucos habet,' C. Fam. xi. 13. B} The Comparison of Inequality with quam (than] is used after Comparative words unless an Ablative supplies its place. parison 1) Plus, amplius, magis, minus, potius, non plus, non magis, non minus, c., are used in this comparison, as tarn in that of equality : ' Prodest plus imperator quam orator,' a general is of more service than an orator, C.r. 73. Plus is used in quantitative comparison, magis in intensive, minus in both these ; amplius in comparison of extension, potius in that of preference. Non amplius, haud amplius, are used ; but amplius haud is quite inadmissible. 2) If two qualities of the same subject are to be compared, magis quam may connect the Adjectives. ' Celer tuus disertus magis est quam sa.}>ten& t ' your friend Celer is is fluent rather than wise, C. Att. xi. 10. Or, more elegantly, both are Comparative. 'Pauli Aemilii contio fuit verio r quam gratior populo,' the harangue of Paulus Aemilius was more truthful than popular, L. xxii. 38. ' Romani bella quaedam fortius quam felicius gesserunt,' the Romans waged some wars with more valour than success, L. v. 43. Tacitus has 'vementius quam caute,M^r. 4. 3) Often the Comparative implies some excess of the Positive quality: ' Senectus est natura loquacior,' old age is naturally somewhat talkative (or rather too talkative], C. Cat. M. 16. ' The- rm stocles liber iu s vivebat,' Themistocles lived too freely, Nep. Them. i. So plures (i.e. uno) means several. ' In columba sentio pluris videri colores, nee esse plus uno/ in the dove I notice a semblance of several colours, but not more than one actually, C. Ac. ii. 25. In old Latinity, plures means the departed, the dead. 4) A Comparative and quam may be followed by Particles and Pronouns: ' Siculis plus frumenti imperabatur quam quantum exararant,' the Sicilians were ordered to pay more corn than they had harvested, C. Verr. iii. 23. See pro (PREPOSITIONS). 5) Quam may follow the verbs praestare, malle : 'Accipere quam facere praestat iniuriam,' C. T. D. v. 19. 6) In Plautus it follows a Positive : 'Tacita bona est mulier semper quam loquens,' a woman is always better silent than speaking, Rud. iv. 4. 70. 7) An ellipse of quam is frequent after plus, amplius : plus annum, more than a year; amplius sex menses ; amplius triennium, C. ' Plus quingentos colaohos infregit mihi,' he inflicted on me more than Jive hundred blows, Ter. Ad. ii. i. 46. Obs. In Correlation, a Nom. in the second member without verb expressed may answer to an Accus. in the first : Docui animam . . . minoribus esse principiis factam quam liquidus umor aquai aut nebula aut fumus, Lucr. iii. 426. See M. Lucr. iii. 456. 316 Latin Wordlore. 77. SECTION VII. Coordination. CoJrdi- * Coordination by Conjunctions. Coordinate Sentences are introduced by the Coordinate Con- junctions enumerated 57, or by the Relative and its Particles. Annex- -^) Annexive Conjunctions. cJ n _ i) The First Class contains, (i) et, que, atque or (before con- junc- sonants only) ac; (2) neque or nee, neve or neu. uons. jr^ associates things of equal importance. Que appends a usual adjunct; being attached, as enclitic, to the word, or to the first word of the clause, which it annexes. 1 Atque (ac) =ad-que, adds something important, as it were by afterthought. Neque (nee), nor, and not, associates negative propositions; neve (neu) associates prohibitions. 2) The Second Class is Intensive, and associates emphati- cally. Such are etiam = et iam, also, even, for which et itself is often used; quoque, also, even, an emphatic que; item = eo mo do, likewise ; necnon, also, moreover. On etiam quoque, quoque etiam, &c., see M. Liter, iii. 208. 3) The Annexive Conjunctions et, que, neque, neve, are fre- quently doubled in Distributive Correlation. The chief forms are : et . . . et, neque . . . neque, neve . . . neve : 'Et monere et moneri proprium est verae amicitiae,' both advising and being advised is the property of triie friendship, C. Lael. 25. * Illud neque taceri ullo modo neque dici pro dignitate potest/ that matter can neither by any means be omitted from my spee.ch, nor yet be spoken as it deserves, C. Verr. ii. i. 34. ' Carthaginiensibus condiciones pacis dictae, bellum neve in Africa neve extra Africam iniussu populi Romani facerent/ the terms of peace dictated to the Carthaginians were that they should wage no war in or out of Africa, without authority from the Roman people, L. xxx. 37. Que . . . que, et . . . que, que . . . et, are poetic, but rare in prose. On et or que in protasis without conjunction in apodosis, see V. A en. xi. 171. 4) Affirmative and Negative Propositions are associated by et . . . neque, neque . .. et, nee . . . que: ' Intellegitis Pompeio et animum praesto fuisse nee consilium defuisse,' you perceive that as men; but as, on the one hand, their operation is not perpetual, so also they find a counterpoise in the occasional action of better prin- ciples, Tac. H. iv. 74. See M. Lucr. i. 280. 1 -que sometimes stands after the second word, if the first is a Preposition or other small particle : in eoque ; a meque ; tarn variisque, &c. And later still in poetry, to assist metre : multus ut in terras deplueretque lapis, Tib. ii. 5. 71. 77 ~. Coordination. 3 1 7 5) Distributive association is likewise effected by the sequences, cum . . . turn; turn . . . turn; qua . . . qua; modo . . . modo; nunc . . . nunc ; modo . . . nunc ; simul . . . simul ; partim . . . partim ; pars . . . pars. Also by alter. . . alter; alius . . . alius ; and its particles, aliter . . . aliter; alias . . . alias; alibi . . . alibi; &c. Examples :' Agesilaus cum a ceteris scriptoribus, turn a Xenophonte collaudatus est/ Agesilaus has been extolled both by other writers, and especially by Xenophon, Nep. Ag. i. ' Hae stellae turn occultantur turn rursus aperiuntur/ these stars are at one time hidden, at another again displayed, C. Nt D. ii. 20. ' Socrates non turn hoc, turn illud, sed idem dicebat semper/ Socrates did not say one thing at one time, another at another ; but the 'same thing always, C. Lael. 4. 'Scripsisti epistulam ad me plenam consili summaeque turn benevolentiae turn etiam prudentiae/_y0 have written me a letter full of good ad-vice, and of great kindness as well as prudence, C. Att. ix. 5. ' Omnium Fabiorum, qua plebis, qua patrum, eximia virtus fuit/ all the Fabii, both plebeians and senators, were men of eminent merit, L. ii. 45. 'Animalia cibum partim oris hiatu et dentibus ipsis capessunt, partim unguium tenacitate arripiunt, partim aduncitate rostrorum ; alia sugunt, alia carpunt, alia vorant, alia mandunt/ some animals take their food by opening the mouth and applying the teeth, some seize it by their grasping claws, some by their crooked beaks, some suck, others peck, others swallow down, others chew, C. N. D. ii. 47. * Natura alterum alterius indigere voluit, quoniam quod alteri deest praesto plerumque est alteri/ Nature would have one man stand in need of another, since what one lacks another generally has, Colum. Pr. 6. 'Aliter cum tyranno, aliter cum amico vivitur/ we live in one way with a tyrant, in another with a friend, C. Lael. 24. 89. 6) The Particles used to distribute thought in regular series (Or- Ordi- di native) are, primum (in the first place], deinde (in the next place], p c variously followed by .one ormore of the words, turn, postea, mox, tides. praeterea, porro, insuper : and often wound up with denique, in short, finally, or postremo (um), in the last place. 'Primum latine Apollo nunquam locutus est; deinde ista sors inaudita Graecis est ; praeterea Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo versus facere desierat; postremo Pyrrhus hanc amphiboliam versus intellegere potuisset nihilo magis in se quam in Romanos valere/ in the first place Apollo never spoke in Latin ; in the next the Greeks never heard of that oracle ; moreover, in the times of Pyrrhus, Apollo had already ceased to make verses ; in fine, Pyrrhus would have been able to perceive that the ambiguity in this verse told no more in his favour than in favour of the Romans, C. Div. ii. 56. Sometimes turn precedes delude ; and denique is followed by postremo. In Cic. Fin. v. 23 (where see Madvig), we find primum . . . turn .... deinde . . . post . . . turn . . . deinde, without denique or postremo. See also M. Lucr. iii. 529. In these sequences primum is used; seldom pri mo, which means originally, at first, but sometimes in the first place, deinde fol- lowing. 318 Latin Wordlore. 78-79. a) On Asyndeton and Polysyndeton see p. 269 h}. b) ANAPHORA is the construction which, instead of using An- nexive Conjunctions, repeats in each clause one or more words : ' Promisit, sed difficulter, sed subductis superciliis, sed malignis verbis/ he promised, bid hardly, with knitted brows, and in spiteful language, Sen. Ben. i. i. ' Si recte Cato iudicavit, non recte frumentarius ille, non recte aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit/ if Cato judged rightly, then the corn-factor I cited was not rightly silent; nor yet the vendor of an unwholesome house, C. Off. iii. 16. 78 Disjunc- B] Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions. Con- i) These are aut ; vel, -ve ; sive, seu. tiolls. Aut distinguishes notions, and opposes them to one another. Vel (ancient Imperative of volo) and its enclitic -ve make optional distinction (or, if you please]. Sive (seu) sometimes means or if; but. as here cited, it implies a distinction of name rather than of fact. ' Audendum est aliquid universis, aut omnia singulis patienda,' we must dare something as a body, or individually endure all things, L. vi. 1 6. ' Sequimur vel antecedimus,' Curt. ' loco seriove,' in jest or earnest, L. 'Discessus sive potius fuga/ departure or rather flight, C. 2) Disjunctive Particles are doubled for the purpose of Distribu- tion : 'Aut nemo aut, si quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit,' either no man or, if any, Cato was wise, C. Lael. 2. ' Vel vi, vel clam, vel precario,' either by force or by stealth, or by petition, C. p. Lig. 3. 3) Vel may mean 'even.' ' Per me vel stertas licet,' you may even snore if you will for me, C. Ac. ii. 29. And 'for instance.' 1 i Amoris tui vestigia vel de Tigellio perspexi,' C. Fam. vii. 24. Vel certe, or at least : vel etiam, or perhaps. See p. 279. 79 Adyer- Q Adversative Conjunctions. sative Con- The Adversative Conjunctions are autem, sed; Verum, vero; St. tamen ; at (ast), atqui ; ceterum. 1) Autem (akin to aut), the weakest of these, does not oppose strongly, but corrects slightly, adds, or continues, with the English but, now, or and. It is postpositive, following the first word or (after est, sunt) the second word in its clause : 'Magnes lapis est, qui ferrum ad se trahit : rationem aut em, cur id fiat, afferre non pos- sumus,' the magnet is a stone which attracts iron ; but a reason for this effect we cannot assign, C. Div. i. 39. ' Bonum estautem recta praecipere,' Lact. a) Autem (followed by immo vero) is used with a word re- peated interrogatively, with a view to correction. ' Ferendus tibi in hoc meus error : ferendus autem ? immo vero etiam adiuvandus/ you must endure my mistake here: endure, do I say f you must even abet it, C. Att. xii. 42. 2) Sed, a form of se- (separate}, distinguishes with more or less of opposition. After a negative, it supplies an adverse or differing notion: ' Oti fructus est non contentio animi sed relaxatio,' the advantage of leisure is not mental exertion, but relaxation, C. d. 79. Coordination. 319 Or. ii. 5. Otherwise it is corrective : ' Ccntemno magnitudinem doloris. Sed si est tantus dolor quantus Philoctetae,' c. I despise greatness of pain. But suppose it as great as that of Philoctetes, &c. C. T. D. ii. 19. Or it is used in passing on to new points or topics : 'Ego sane a Quinto nostro dissentio : sed ea quae restant audia- mus/ / quite differ from our friend Quintus. But let us hear what remains to be said, C. N. D. ii. I. 3) Verum (but truly] resembles sed in use, but is stronger; c Non quid nobis utile, verum quid oratori necessarium sit, quae- rimus,' we are not inquiring ivhat is profitable to us, but rather what is necessary for an orator, C. d. Or. \. 60. Sed and verum are praepositive, standing first in their clause. 4) Vero (but in truth) when used as a Conjunction is postposi- tive, and generally corrects by heightening the previous notion : * Ouidquid est quod bonum sit, id expetendum est ; quod autem ex- petendum, id certe approbandum ; quod vero approbaris, idgratum. acceptumque habendum/ whatever is good, is desirable; what is desirable, is surely to be approved ; again what you approve must be deemed agreeable and acceptable, C. T. D. v. 15. 5) Tamen (yet, however, nevertheless] detracts from the force of a concession, either expressed by etsi, quamvis, &c., or implied in the context. It stands in any part of the sentence where it may be most emphatic. See SYNTAX (Concessive Sentences). Sed tamen, attamen, verumtamen, et tamen (but ye f], are used. 6) At (anciently ast) is strongly adversative : and is used in ob- jection, exclamation, interrogation, imprecation, &c. ' Non placet M. Antonio consulatus meus ; at placuit P. Servilio/ c. my consulship is not liked by Marcus Antonius, but it was liked by Publius Servilius, &c. C. Phil. ii. 12. 'At te di deaeque perduint/ may the gods and goddesses destroy thee / Ter. Hec. i. 2. 59. 'Aeschines in Demoslhenem invehitur : at quam rhetorice, quam copiose!' Aeschines iipbraids Demosthenes: aye, and how skilfully, how copiously, C. T. D. iii. 26. d] At = at tameji : ' Si se ipsos illi nostri liberatores e con- spectu nostro abstulerunt, at exemplum reliquerunt,' if those champions of our freedom have removed themselves from our view, yet they have left us their example, C. Phil. ii. 44. ff) At enim, at vero, as well as at alone, are used, like aXXa vri A/a in Greek, to introduce an objection which must be answered. 'At enim ad Verrem pecunia ista non per- venit. Quae est ista defensio ?' c. but that money, it is urged, never reached Verres. What a lame defence is here? c., C. Verr. ii. 10. 'At vero malum est liberos amittere. Malum, nisi hoc peius sit, haec sufferre et per- peti/ C. Fam. iv. 5. 'At ego, inquit, vobis rationem osten- dam, qua tanta mala ista etfugiatis/ Sail. Cat. 40. c} Atqui (yes but, but indeed} adds an objection which needs to be considered. ' O rem, inquis, difficilem atque inex- plicabilem ! Atqui explicanda est/ O what a difficult and inexplicable matter, you say ? Yes, but it must be ex- plained, C. Att. viii. 3. See "M..Liicr. i. 755. 3 2 Latin Wordlore. 80-82. so Causal Con- junc- tions. 81 Illative Con- junc- tions. Coordi- nation by Rela- tive. 7) Ceterum (but for the rest, but} is used by historians. ' Qui Romanorum amicitiam colunt, multum laborem suscipiunt : cete- rum ex omnibus maxime tuti sunt/ Sail. lug. 14. So ceteroqui(n). D} Causal Conjunctions. i) Nam (for, for instance, to be sure) introduces a cause as ex- planatory ; enim (which follows the first or, after est, the second word of a clause) introduces a proof. Namque is a strengthened form of nam, etenim of enim : they are usually, in prose, the first words in their clause. a) Nam is used in urgent Interrogations, either appended to the Interrogative (quisnam, curnam, &c.), or, in old Latin chiefly, preceding it. 'Nam quid ego nunc dicam de patre?' why what can I now say of my father? Ter. An. i. 5, 17. V) Enim is linked with other Particles : etenim, for, neque enim, sed enim, at enim, verum enim, enimvero, verum enimvero. All these may begin a sentence. ' Enimvero, Dave, nihil loci'st segnitiae,' why really, Davus, there is no room for laziness, Ter. An. i. 3. i. c} Enim may be emphatic (yes). 'Id enim est, inquies, ostentum,' C. Div. ii. 26. 'Tibi enim, tibi, maxima luno/ V. A en. viii. 84. E) Illative Conjunctions. 1) Igitur, ergo, therefore, itaque, proinde (proin). Igitur expresses a reasonable inference : ergo a necessary infer- ence ; itaque (and so) an inference arising from the antecedence ; proinde (so then} an inference proportioned to the antecedence. 2) Ideo, idcirco, propterea (on that account}, point to a ground of fact (quod). Hoc, on this ground. M. Lucr. iii. 531. 3) The Relative words quare, quamobrem, quapropter, quocirca, have a Conclusive sense : (wherefore, on which account}.' 1 ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Par- ticles. i) The Relative itself may be equal to a Personal or Demon- strative Pronoun with a Particle (et, autem, enim, igitur, &c.). ' Res loquitur ipsa: quae( = et ea) semper valet plurimum,' the fact itself speaks; and this always has most weight, C. p. Mil. 20. 'Sunt igitur firmi et constantes eligendi : cuius ( = eius autem) generis est magna penuria,' firm and steady friends must be chosen: but of this class there is a great dearth, C. Lael. 17. ' Mul- tas ad res perutiles Xenophontis libri sunt, quos ( = eos igitur) legite studiose,' the works of Xenophon are useful for many purposes : read them then, I beg, with care, C. Cat. M. 1 7. Note. A Particle which appears with a Relative, belongs really to a Demonstrative understood (or expressed in another clause). 'Quod est bonum omne laudabile est; quod autem laudabile 1 The uses of Latin Adverbs and Conjunctions are a very extensive subject, which can- not be fully treated in a Grammar of moderate size. Hand's unfinished edition of Turscl- linus de Particulis extends only to the letter P, and fills four large octavo volumes. 82. Coordination. 321 est, omne est honcstum; bonum igitur quod est, honestum est,' C. Fin. iii. 8, where autem and igitur belong to id understood. 2) The attraction of the Antecedent to the Relative Clause is a frequent idiom. Hence a peculiar use of the Relative arises. * Moriar ni, quae tua gloria est, puto te malle a Caesare con- suli quam inaurari/ upon my life I think, such is your vanity, you would rather be consulted by Caesar than plated with gold, C. Fam. vii. 13. 'Quanta potuit adhiberi festinatio,' L. xlv. I. 3) When a Noun has an Attribute, especially a Superlative, and a Relative Clause further explaining it, the Attribute is often at- tracted to the Clause : 'Themistocles noctu de servis suis, quern habuit fidelissimum, ad Xerxem misit/ Themistocles sent to Xerxes by night the most faithful slave he had, Nep. Them. 4. 4) When the Relative Clause has another subordinate to it, the Relative may be constructed not with its own, but with its subordi- nate Clause : 'Aberat omnis dolor, qui si adesset (for quern si is adesset) non molliter ferret,' all pain was absent, but had any been present, he would have borne it without weakness, C. Fin. ii. 20. 5) A Relative may be connected with a Participial construction. ' Non sunt ea bona dicenda nee habenda, quibus abundantem licet esse miserrimum/ those things oiight not to be called or held good, amidst the overflow of which one may be utterly wretched, C. T. D. v. 15. With an Infinitive Clause. 'In eos, quos speramus nobis profuturos, non dubitamus beneficia conferre,' we do not hesitate to confer benefits on those from whom we hope to derive advantage, C. Off.\. 15. \Vith an Interrogation. 'Magnus orator fuit Demosthenes : quern quis umquam dicendo superavit?' Demosthenes was a great orator : for who ever surpassed him in speaking ? C. 6) The Relative not only connects Clauses with Principal Sen- tences, but it is used, especially by Cicero, in the beginning of Prin- cipal Sentences, to shew their logical connexion with something which has gone before. Such are the phrases quo facto, qua re cog- nita, quae cum ita sint, qua de causa, &c. Also quod (now, but, in fact, &c.) stands before Conjunctions, si, nisi, etsi, quoniam, quia, quum, ubi, utinam, &c. :'Fit protinus hac re audita ex castris GaJlorum fuga : quod nisi cre- bris subsidiis ac totius diei labore milites fuissent defessi, omnes hostium copiae deleri potuissent,' on this intelligence the Gauls forsook their camp : in fact, if oiir troops had not been worn out by frequent skirmishes and a whole day's fatigue, the entire forces of the enemy might have been destroyed, Caes. ^B. G. vii. 88. See C. Off. i. 14, Div. ii. 62, Fitu i. 20; Liv. xxix. 34, xxxvi. 2. 7) Quod is also used (M. Lucr. ii. 248.) a) as quantum : followed by sed, verum, sed etiam, verum etiam, &c. : 'Non solum verbis arte positis moventur omnes, verum etiam numeris ac vocibus/ all men are affected not only by words skilfully at- ranged, but also by measures and sounds, C. d. Or. iii. 50. a) Also, non modo non, non solum non are followed by sed, sed etiam, &c., or by sed ne . . . quidem, sed neque, &c. : ' Hoc non modo non pro me, sed contra me est potius,' this is not only not for me, but even against me, C. d. Or. iii. 20. 'Ego non modo tibi non irascor, 326 Latin Wordlore. 86, sed ne reprehendo quidemfactumtuum,' I amnotonly not angry with you, but do not even blame your deed, C. p. Sull. 18. b] When both sentences have a common verb, non mo do may be elliptically placed in the former, for non mo do non: 'Tails vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare quidem quicquam audebit, quod non honestum sit' ( = sed etiam cogitare non audebit), such a man will not venture, not merely to do, but even to conceive anything which is not morally right, C. Off. iii. 19. ' N ihil eis Verres non modo de fructu, sed ne de bonis qui- dem suis reliqui fecit/ Verres left them nothing, I do not say of their produce, but even of their property, C. Verr. iii. 48. c] The sentences are sometimes inverted, so that non modo = much less\ 'Ne sues quidem id velint, non modo ipse,' not even swine would desire that, much less himself* C. T. D. i. 38. d] Non tarn, not so much, is followed by sed or sed magis. See M. Liter, iii. 823. . SECTION IX. 86 Questions and Answers. Qncs- and s I. Questions (direct or oblique: see 73). An- Interrogation may be Single or Disjunctive. intSl 6 i- Single Interrogation without a Particle. Son!" An Interrogation in English is indicated by the Verb at the beginning, ' Will you go?* But in Latin the sense or tone shews the distinction. ' Certe patrem tuum non occidisti ? ' assuredly you did not kill yoiir father ? Suet. Aug. 33, which suggests the reply, Certe non occidi. * Infelix est Fabricius quod rus suum fodit?' is Fabricius unhappy in having to dig his ground ? Sen. Prov. 3. Answer, Non est. Sometimes the question is remon- strative, and equivalent to a strong exhortation : 'Non pudet ad morem discincti vivere Nattae ? ' are you not ashamed of living in the fashion of dissolute Natta? Pers, iii. 31. Or attention is awakened: as 'Cernis odoratis ut luceat ignibus aether?' seest thou with scented fires how shines the sky ? Ov. F. i. 75. ' Viden tu hunc?' Plaut. Capt. iii. 4. 25. Videtisne ut, c. ii. Single Interrogation with a Particle. i) Num expects a negative answer; nonne, an affirmative; ne asks indifferently: ' Num formidulosus, obsecro, es, mi homo ? Egone formidulosus ? nemo'st hominum, qui vivat, minus, 3 are you in a fright, pray, my good fellow? / in a fright? no man alive is less so, Ter. Etm. iv. 6. 19. 'Nonnemiseri sumus? ; 86. Questions and Answers. 327 a) Numne, numnam, are used : also ecquis, numquis : < Deum ipsum numne vidisti?' have you seen God Himself ? (no), C. N. D. i. 31. ' N umnam ego perii ? ' am I a lost man ? (I hope not), Ter. Eun. v. 4. 25. < Ecquis me vivit hodie fortunatior?' lives there any this day more lucky than I ? Ter. Eun. v. 8. I. ' Numquis hie est ? nemo est : numquis hinc me sequitur?' is there any one here? nobody: is any one following me out? Ter. Eun. iii. 5. i. 2) An properly signifies ' or,' and introduces the second and fol- lowing members of double, triple, &c. questions. When it seems to introduce a single interrogation, it really tefers to a previous ques- tion conceived in the mind ('is this admitted or] &c.). Hence it confirms a statement by exhibiting the inadmissibility of the op- posite notion : ' Oratorem irasci minime decet, simulare non de- decet. An tibi irasci turn videmur cum quid in causis acrius et vehementius dicimus ? ' anger is unbecoming in an orator, the sem- blance of anger is not unbecoming. (Do you allow this ?) or do you suppose we are really angry when we speak with more than usual vehemence ? C. T. D. iv. 25 meaning : * we are not really angry when we so speak ; the semblance therefore affords no argument against the maxim that anger is unbecoming in an orator.' Sometimes an refers to al in dne understood : ' Quid dices ? an Siciliam virtute tua liberatam ? ' what will you say ? that by your valour Sicily was freed? C. Verr. v. 2. 5. (Will you say anything else, or, &c. = will you not probably say that, &c.) See 87, Foot-note. a) An has a peculiar use after Verbs expressing uncertainty, as nescio, haud scio, dubito. When in English we say, '/ know not whether he is coming] we imply a probability that ' he will not come : ' but in Latin, nescio an veniat usually means existimo eum venire. So, 'Nescio an modum excesserint,' / am inclined to think they have over- stepped the limit, lust. xiii. 2. Hence it is used almost adverbially: ' Sapientissimus et haud scio an omnium praestantisslmus/ the wisest and perhaps the most excellent of all, C. N. D. ii. 4. b) The doubled Conjunction may mark uncertainty : ' Hanc orationem in Origines suas rettulit paucis antequam mor- tuus est an diebus an mensibus,' this speech he entered in his Origines a few days (must we say) or months before he died, C. Brut. 23. This idiom is frequent in Tacitus. c) If it were wished to express the meanings ' probably ' not] ' I am inclined to think not,' &c., a Negative was intro- duced in the subordination : Nescio an non veniat, / think he is not coming. ( Quaere rationem cur ita vide- atur : quam ut maxime inveneris, quod haud scio an non possis, non tu ostenderis/ &c., seek a ground for this opinion; but though you be ever so successful in finding one, which I rather think you cannot do, you will not have shewn, &c., C. Ac. ii. 2$. e remained true to your word, O Alban, V. 'Ne poposcisses] you ought not to have de- manded^ Cic. This usage is not confined to the Second Person ; 'Animam ipse dedissem, atque haec pompa domum me, non Pallanta, referret/ V. Aen. xi. 162 ; see x. 854. 95 a) Permissive and exhorting Use of Second Person Conjunctive. Person The Second Person of C t is often supposed to be Pure Con- where it is really Subjunctive, depending on a Verb. junctive, Reddas, Hor. C. i. 3. 7; dones, i. 31. 18, depend on precor. Captes, Hor. S. ii. 5. 23, on dico. ' Sis . . . 95- The Pure Conjunctive. 341 sequare . . . cures/ C. Fam. x. 1 6, carry on the construc- tion after * hoc animo esse ut : ' and the punctuation should shew this. 'Sis . . . scias,' L. xxvi. 50, de- pend on paciscor. ' Ne pigrere/ C. Att. xiv. j, on quaeso. V) Prohibitive use of Second Person Conjunctive. Terence has 'Si certum est facere, facias ; verum ne post culpam conferas in me,' if you are bent on doing it, you may ; but please not afterwards to throw the. blame on me, Eun. ii. 3. 97. In classical Latin this form (ne with Second Person of Cj) is not used as an independent pro- hibition, but ne with Second Person of C 2 is so used fre- quently. * Quod dubitas ne feceris,' what you doubt, do not perform, Plin. Ep. i. 18. 'Ilium iocum ne sis as- pernatus/ do not contemn that jest, C. Qit. F. ii. 12. ' Tu ne quaesieris,' &c. Hor. C. i. n. I. When Horace writes, ' Ne forte credas/ &c., he means lest perchance you should believe, C. iv. 9. i. And so often. On Periphrastic forms of exhortation and prohibition, see p. 337. v. Examples of Pure Conjunctive : A) See Examples under 213 /3, y, p. 468. B) See 217, 3, p. 473. C) ' Pecuniae an famae minus parceret hand facile discerneres,' Sail. Cat. 25. 'Quo postquam venerunt, mirandum in modum, canes venaticos dice res, ita odora- bantur omnia et pervestigabant,' C. Verr. iv. 13. ' Ilium indignanti similem similemque minanti aspiceres,' V. Aett. viii. 650. D) 'Tu veli m sic existimes tibique persuadeas, omne perfugium bon-rum in te esse positum, si, quod nolim, adversi quid evenerit,' C. Fam. xii. 6. 'Malim mihi Crassi unam pro Curio dictionem, quam castellanos triumphos duos,' C. Br. 73. ' Ego me Phidiam esse mallem quam vel optimum fabrum tignarium,' C. Br. 73. 'Vellem te ad Stoicos inclinavisses,' C. Fin. iii. 3. ' Hie quacrat quispiam. cuiusnam causa tanta molitio facta sit,' C. N. D. ii. 53. ' Primum ego me illorum, dederim quibus esse poetas, excerpam numero ; neque enim concludere ver.*um dixeris esse satis,' Hor. S. i. 4. 39. 'Forsitan qujspiam dixerit ; nonns sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur, a b s t u 1 e r i t cibum alteri ? ' C. Off. iii. 6. E) ' Quid mine te, asine, litteras doceam?' C. Pis. 30. ' Quid videatur ei magnum in rebus humanis, cui aeternitas omnis totiusque mundi nota sit magnitude?' C. T. D. iv. 17. 'Quid enumerem artium multitudinem, sine quibus vita omnino nulla esse potuisset?' C. Off. ii. 4. ' F a v e a s tu hosti ? bonorum spem virtutemque debilites? et te consularem aut senatoremaut denique civem putes?' C. Phil. vii. 7. ' Apud exercitum mihi f u e r i s tot annos ? forum non attigeris? afueris tarn diu? et, cum longo intervailo veneris, cum iis, qui in foro habitarunt, de dignitate contendas?' C. Mur. g. 'Ego mihi putarem in patria non futurum locum?' C. Mil. 34. 'Putaresne unquam accidere posse ut mihi verba deessent?' C. Fam, ii. ii. 'Corinthiis bellum indicamus annon?' Cic. F) 'At tamen dicat sine. Age dicat, sino,' Ter. An. ^3.24. 'Fuerint cupidi, fuerint irati, fuerint pertinaces : sceleris vero crimine, furoris, parricidi, liceatCn. Pompeio mortuo, liceat multic aliis carere,' C. Lig. 6. 'Nemo is, inquies, umquam fuit. N e f u e r i t,' Cic. G. i) 'Quod bonum faustum felixque sit populo Romano,' L. i. 28. 'Filiam despondi ego; di bene vertant!' Plaut. Aul. ii. 3. 'Tecum esse, ita mihi omnia quae opto contingant ut vehementer velim,' C. Fam. v. 21. ' Sollicitat, ita vivam, mi Tiro, me tua valetudo,' C. Fam. xvi. 20. ' N e v i v a m, si tibi concede, ut eius rei tu cupidior sis quam ego sum,' C. Fam. vii. 23. 'Ne istuc luppiter optimus maximus sir it,' L. xxviii. 28. 'Utinam tibi istam mentem dii immortales duint?' C. Cat. i. 9. * U t i n a m, Quirites, virorum fortium atque innocentium copiam tantam haberetis, ut 342 Latin Wordlore. 96. 96 v. The Subjunctive. junc- The Subjunctive is always a Mood of dependence, and, in most k* 6 * instances, of mental conception : but some of its functions in Latin are not of the latter description, especially its Consecutive use. A Subjunctive Clause x sometimes has no link connecting it with the prior Verb : 'Sine te ex or em,' let me prevail on you. 'Vellem adfuisses/ I wish you had been present. But usually it is introduced by a Conjunction or Relative. 1) A Finite Subordinate Clause, by classical usage, is always Subjunctive, when it contains a) A dependent Consequence (so that, such that}. Such a clause may be introduced by ut, quin ; or by the Relative qui consecutive. See Consecutive Clauses, and Ut-clause Enuntiative. b) A dependent Purpose (in order that, lest, &c.). Such a Clause may be introduced by ut, ne, quo, qu o mi- nus ; or by the Relative qui final : sometimes by a Particle of Time or Condition; antequam, dum, &c. See Final Clauses, and Petitio Obliqua. c) A dependence on a Verb of Fear, introduced by ne, lest, or ut, lest not. See Petitio Obliqua. d) A dependent Question, introduced by any Interrogative Pronoun or Particle. See Interrogatio Obliqua. II) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive, when it contains a mental conception haec vobis deliberatio difficilis esset ! ' C. L. Man. 10. ' Illud utinam ne vere scriberem!' C. Fam. v. 17. 'Quod utinam ne Phormioni id suadere in mentem incidisset,' Ter. Ph. i. 3. 5. 'Utinam minus vitae cupidi fuissemus,' C. Fam. v. 17. 'Haec ad te die natali meo scripsi : quo utinam susceptus non essem, aut ne quid ex eadem matre postea natum e s se t !' C. Att. xi. 9. 2) ' Nihil ignoveris; nihil gratiae causa fe c e r i s ; misericordia commotus ne sis,' C. Mur. 31. 'Ne fueris hie tu,' Hor. Epist. i. 6. 40. 'Cum te bene con- firmaveris, ad nos venias,' C. Fam. xvi. 13. So teneas, L. xxii. 53. Afficias, xxvi. 50. Hor. S. ii. 3. 326 {please to, pray}. H. i) 'Meminerimus, etiam adversus infimos iustitiam esse servandam,' C. Off. i. 13. 'Imitemur nostros Brutos, Camillos, Decios ; a m e m u s patriam, pareamus senatui, consulamus bonis, id esse optimum putemus, quod erit rectissimum,' C. Sest. 68. 2) ' Orator v i d e a t in primis, quibus de rebus loquatur ; si seriis, severitatem adhibeat; si iocosis, leporem,' C. Off. i. 37. ' S u m a t u r nobis quidam praestans vir optimis artibus, isque animo parumper et cogitatione f i n ga t u r,' C. T. D. v. 24. ' Fortasse pater Cliniae aliquanto iniquior erat. Pateretur; nam quern ferret, si parentem non ferret suum ? ' Ter. Haut. i. 2. 28. ' Forsitan non nemo vir fortis et acris animi magnique dixerit : Restitisses, repugnasses, mortem pugnans o p p e t i s s e s/ C. Sest. 20. ' Ne quis tamquam parva f a s t i d i a t grammatices elementa,' Qu. i. 4. 'Neu desint epulis rosae,' Hor. C. i. 36. 15 ' Tu ista ne asciveris neve fueris commenticiis rebus assensus,' C. Ac. ii. 40. 1 The term Clause is used to signify ' any member of a Compound Sentence ' which is not the 'Principal Sentence.' The 'Infinitive Clause' means what is often called 'Accusative and Infinitive.' See Enuntiatio Obliqua. Distinguished from this is 'a Finite Clause ; ' that is, one of which the Vtrb is Finite. 97 . Subjunctive. 343 a) Of Cause : introduced by cum, since t by qui causal (usu- ally) ; by non quod, n on qui a, &c. See Causal Clauses. b} Of Condition : after dum, modo ; or when si, nisi are re- lated to a conceptive Apodosis: 'si possim velim;' 'si p oss em vellem,' &c. See Conditional Sentences. c) Of Concession : introduced by ut, licet, and (usually) cum, quamvis, although. Also when etsi, etiamsi, tametsi are related to a conceptive Apodosis. 'Etsi posse m, nollem.' See Concessive Sentences. d) Of Comparison : introduced by quasi, ut si, &c., velut, tamquam, &c. See Comparative Sentences. Ill) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive when it is really dependent on a] An Infinitive Clause (oratio obliqua). 'Audio te abesse quod aegrotes.' b] An assertion or opinion of some other than the writer or speaker, implied but not formally expressed in the prin- cipal or prior Verb (virtual oratio obliqua). 'Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens,' Cic. 'Accusatus est Socrates quod corrumperet iuventu- tem,' Qu. See p. 345. Obs. The Subjunctives a and b we call Suboblique. They may be introduced by any Conjunction, or by a Relative Pronoun or Particle. c] A Conjunctive Verb or prior Subjunctive (oratio obliqua). 'Omnia dixisses quae in animo haberes.' 'Vellem omnia dixisses quae in animo haberes.' Note. The following are Idiomatic Uses : a) A Subjunctive with cum, when (rarely with other Temporal Conjunctions) of a past action antecedent to another past action (quasi-causal). 'In Cumano cum essem, venit ad me Hortensius,' when I was at my house in Cumae, Hortensius came to see me, Cic. ' Decessit Agesilaus cum in portum venisset/ Agesilaus died after coming into harbour, N ep. Ag. (3) A Subjunctive of repeated action (Iterative) with a Particle or Relative. This construction is most frequent in past time, historically, the principal verb being generally Im- perfect : but it is very reasonably extended to time present in philosophical statements by M. Liter, iii. 736. y) A Subjunctive, generally of the Second Pers. Sing., in dependence on a sentence containing a maxim (y^w/ziy). See Madv. Gr. 370; M. Lucr. i. 327, ii. 36, 41. 'Bonus segnior fit ubi neglegas,' a good person becomes slacker, when you neglect him, Sail. Ing. 31. vi. Classification of the Particles and Pro- 97 nouns which introduce Subordinate Clauses, according to the Mood introduced. 344 Latin Wordlore. 9 8. A) Pronouns and Particles which always, in classical Latin prose, introduce a Subjunctive. a) Conjunctions : 1) Consecutive: ut; quin. 2) Final : ut ; ne ; quo ; quominus. 3) Causal : cum, since. 4) Conditional: dum : modo, dummodo ; provided that. 5) Concessive : licet, ut ; cum, quamvis (usually). 6) Comparative : quasi ; ut si ; ac si ; velut, tamquam, ceu, &c. V) The Relative qui, or a Relative Particle, when used l) Consecutively ( = talis ut) ; 2) Finally (in order that] ; 3) Causally ( = cum, since] ; 4) Concessively (although}. c} Interrogative Words, obliquely constructed : such are 1) Pronouns : quis ; qui ; uter ; qualis ; quantus ; quot ; quotus. 2) Particles : quam, quemadmodum, quomodo, ut, how ; quare. cur, quamobrem, quapropter ; quotiens ; quando ; ubi ; unde ; quo, quousque, quorsum ; utrum, an, -ne, num. d) Any Particle or Relative, when the Clause itself is in sense dependent on Oratio Obliqua, actual or virtual ; or on a Conjunctive Mood. See also the Iterative and Gnomic uses above, Note /?. y. B) Pronouns and Particles which always (except in the circum- stances above named) introduce an Indicative. a) Conjunctions : j) Causal : quod ; quia ; quoniam ; quando ; quandoquidem ; siquidem. 2) Temporal : quando ; ubi ; ut (when, &c.) ; quotiens ; simul ac ; simul ; postquam ; dum, donee, quoad, whilst. Also cum, when : but see its idiom, Note, p. 343. a. 3) Concessive : quamquam ; utut. V) The Relative qui, and Relative Particles. C) Particles which introduce an Indicative or a Subjunctive, according as the notion conveyed is one of fact or contingency. 1) Temporal: dum, donee, quoad, until \ antequam, prius- quam, which are used with Subjunctive when purpose is contained, or doubtfulness conveyed. 2) Conditional and Concessive : si, nisi ; etsi, etiamsi, tametsi. Obs. The reason of mood is independent of Conjunctions ; but Conjunctions distinguish the relations of Clauses more clearly, as Prepositions distinguish the relations of Nouns. 98 vii. Consecution of Tenses in Subjunctive Conse- f~> . a Construction. See of Tenses. The General Rule is that Primary Tenses (S t S 2 ) follow Primary (Present ; Future). Historic (S s S~) Historic (Past Tenses). Consecution of Tenses. 345 EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING THE CONSECUTION OF TENSES. I. i) quereris you complain querar-is (e) you may complain querer-is (e) you will complain questus eris ) questus fueris ) you will have complained questus sis questus fueris you may have complained questurus es (sis, &c.) you are (may be, &c.) about to complain 2) querebar-is (e) you were complaining questus es you complained questus eras you had complained quererer-is (e) you would complain questus esses you would have complained questurus eras you were about to complain quod te deseram that I forsake you quod te deseruerim that I have forsaken you quod te deserturus sim that I am about to forsake you quod tui memor non sim that I am not mindful of you quod tui memor non fuerim that I have not been mindful of you quod tui memor non futurus sim that I shall not be mindful of you quod tibi non succurram that I do not succour you quod tibi non succurrerim that I have not succoured you quod tibi non succursurus sim that I am not about to succour quod te desererem that I was forsaking you quod te deseruissem that I had forsaken you quod te deserturus for em that I was about to forsake you quod tui memor non essem that I was not mindful of you quod tui memor non fuissem that I had not been mindful of you quod tui memor non futurus essem that I was not going to be mind- ful of you quod tibi non succurrerem that I did not succour you quod tibi non succurrissem that I had not succoured you quod tibi non succursurus fo- rem that I did not mean to succour you 346 Latin Wordlore. 99. II. 1) orant ; orent ( ne se deseram orabunt ; oraturi sunt -I ut sui memor s i m oraverint ; oranto ( ut sibi succurram 2) orabant ; orarent ( nesedesererem oraverunt ; oraturi erant -I ut sui memor e s s e m oraverant; oravissent I ut sibi succurrerem Note. On the Verb Infinite see 15 and 40. Its further uses are most conveniently shewn in Syntax, Ch. I. II. III. viii. Ellipsis of the Verb. 1) Est, sunt, esse, are often suppressed: sometimes other forms of the Verb of Being. ' Summum ius summa iniuria/ C. Off. i. 10 (s. esf). ' Habenda ratio valetudinis, utendum modicis exercitationibus,' C. Cat. M. ii (s. est}. ' Omnia praeclara rara,' C. Lael. 21 (s. sunt}. ' lucundi acti labores/ C. Fin. ii. 32 (s.sunt}. 'Aurum vestibus inlitum mi- rat a,' Hor. Civ. 9. 15 (for mirata est). 'Sed haec vetera (sunt}: illud recens (est}, Caesarem meo consilio inter fectum' (esse}, but these are old stories : here is a new one, that Caesar was slain by my advice, C. Phil. ii. n. ' Ludi Romani biduum instaurati' (sunt}, L. xxix. 38. ' Potest incidere comparatio, de duobus honestis utrum honestius' (sit}, C. Off. i. 43. a} The Participle Perfect (Passive or Deponent) is often used in the Nom. Case with an Ellipsis of esse, being really a Prolative Infinitive dependent on fertur, dicitur, me- moratur, narratur, &c. ' Sic miser instantis affatus dicitur undas,' Mart. d. Spect. 25. 5 (for affatus esse). 'Fertur Prometheus addere principi limo coactus par- ticulam undique desectam,' Hor. C. i. 16. 13 (for coactus esse). 'Quidam memoratur Athenis . . . populi con- temnere voces sic solitus,' Hor. S. i. i. 64 (for solitus esse). 'Fabulaqua Paridis propter narratur amorem Graecia barbariae lento collisa duello/ Hor. Epist. i. 2. 6 (for collisa esse). And often in prose : ' Q. Fabius Maximus sic eum proficiscentem allocutus fertur,' L. xxii. 38 (for allocutus esse). ' Capta eo proelio tria milia peditum et jequites trecenti dicuntur,' L. xxii. 50. See Note at p. 428. 2) In quit, inquam, &c. are omitted. 'At ille' . . . 'turn Brutus' . . . ' turn ego,' &c. 3) Forms of dicere, facere, fieri, &c. 'Scite Chrysippus' (dicit}, C. ' Cave turpe quicquam' (facias}, C. ' Ne quid crudeliter' (fiat}, C. ' Cicero Attico salutem ' (dicit}, C. ' Crassus verbum nullum contra gratiam ' ( dixit}, C. ' Expecto quid ad ista ' (dicturus sis}, C. ' Quas tu mihi intercessiones ' (narras} ? C. ' Finemille' ( fecit},' C. i Clamor inde concursusque ' (factus est}, L. Forms of dicere are suppressed in the phrases, ' Quid inulta ?' ' Quid plura ?' ' Ne multis,' &c. And forms of fieri in such phrases as ' Quid turn ? ' ' Quid postea ? ' &c. 99. Ellipsis of the Verb. 347 Livy often uses the phrases, ' nihil aliud quam,' 'quid aliud quam/ in which forms of the verb facere may be supplied. ' Per bid- uum nihil aliud quam steterunt parati ad pugnandum,' for two days they did nothing but stand in readiness for battle, L. xxvi. 20. The phrase becomes adverbial = merely, only. ' N ihil aliud quam perfusis vano timore Romanis/ the Romans being merely panic- struck, L. ii. 63. ' Si nihil aliud/ if nothing else comes of it. ' Vin- cam silentium et, si nihil aliud (faaam), certe graviter inter- pellabo,' Curt. iv. 28. 4) Other Verbs are suppressed, which the mind can easily supply. ' Sed haec coram ' (tractabimus), C. ' Litterarum aliquid interea ' (dabis), C. ' A Chrysippo pedem numquam ' (movet], C. * Sed ad ista alias ' (respondebo), C. * Sed non necesse est nunc omnia ' (commemorare\ C. ' Di meliora ' (denf). 'A me C. Caesar pecu- niam ' (postulaf) ? C. ' Ad Tamum cogitabam ' (ire), C. ' Unde mihi lapidem' (petam}t Hor. 'Nihil ad rem;' 'Quid ad me* (attinef) ? With many more instances. 5) In the phrases, ' Quo mihi ? J 'quo tibi ?' ' usui' is to be supplied, quo being an old form of cui. ' Quo tibi, Pasiphae, pretiosas sumere vestis ?' Ov. ( = ' cui usui est tibi ? '). But there is a further ellipse of habere or consequi : ' Quo mihi f ortunam, si non conceditur uti ?' Hor. ( = cui usui est mihi habere fortunam ?). 6) Proverbs, being generally known and understood, are often cited elliptically :' Fortuna fords' (adiu'vaf). ' Minima de malis ' (eligenda stint}. ' Sus Miner vam ' (docere milt}. ' Cuneus cuneum ' (trudif). * Manus manum' (lavat). 'Bis ad eundem ' (lapidem offender?). 'Nee sibi nee alteri ' (prodest}. 'Cornici oculum' (cohfigere\ 'Bene tibi' (dico}, &c. 'Bene Messallam' (valere ntbeo\ Tib. PART II. LATIN SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. THE DOCTRINE OF SENTENCES. SPEECH in a connected series forms DISCOURSE. IOO Sen- As Words are the Parts of Speech, so the Parts of Discourse are SENTENCES. 1. Sentences are either AFFIRMATIVE or NEGATIVE. Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur, the parrot speaks. the parrot does not speak. 2. Sentences are either SIMPLE or COMPOUND. 1) A SIMPLE SENTENCE is the expression of a single thought, and contains one Finite Verb : Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur, the parrot speaks. the parrot does not speak. 2) A COMPOUND SENTENCE consists of two or more Simple Sentences forming one sentence. Of such Simple Sentences, one is the Principal Sentence, the others are Clauses. d] Psittacus hominem imitatur, itaque loquitur, the parrot imitates man, and so it speaks. b] Psittacus, quamvis hominem imitetur, non loquitur, the parrot does not speak, although it imitates man. In (a) 'Psittacus hominem imitatur' is the Principal Sentence; 'Itaqiiie loquitur 'a Coordinate Clause; that is, connected but not constructively dependent. In (b} ' Psittacus non loquitur* is the Principal Sentence; 'Quamvis hominem imitetur' a Subor- dinate Clause; that is, constructively dependent. 3. Every SIMPLE SENTENCE is in one of three forms : I. ENUNTIA no (statement) : Psittacus loquitur, the parrot speaks. II. PETITIO (will-speech) : Loquere, psittace, speak, parrot. Loquatur psittacus, let the parrot speak. III. INTERROGATE (question) : Quid loquitur psittacus ? what does the parrot speak f ioi. Simple Sentence. 349 4. Each of these forms, in the Principal construction of a Com- Oratio pound Sentence, is said to be Recta (direct). offiqu If it is subordinated so as to become Subject or Object of the Principal Verb, it is called Obi i qua (oblique or indirect). I. ENUNTIATIO OBLIQUA (Indirect Statement) is mostly con- structed as .' Accusative and Infinitive :' (Constat) \ (it is a fact} psittacum loqui, (Scimus) that the parrot speaks, (we know) ) II. PETITIO OBLIQUA (Indirect Will-speech) is mostly con- structed as ' Subjunctive with ut or ne :' (Poscitur) \ (it is required] I ut psittacus loquatur, (Rogamus) that the parrot speak, (we ask) } III. INTERROGATE OBLIQUA (Indirect Question) is constructed as * Subjunctive after an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle :' (Incertum est) \ (it is doubtful} I quid psittacus loquatur, (Narra) what the parrot speaks, (declare] ) Obs. Clauses of these three kinds are called Substantival, because they stand, like Substantives, in the relation of Subject or Object, or in Apposition. Note. As Discourse chiefly consists of Enunciations, Syntax chiefly considers Simple Sentences of this form. But its funda- mental rules are equally applicable to the other two forms. CHAPTER II. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. i. The Simple Sentence has two essential The 01 members: |jjj? le tence. 1) The grammatical SUBJECT-, that of which the action or state is predicated or declared ; 2) The grammatical 1 PREDICATED that by which the action or state of the Subject is declared. Subject. Predicate. Psittacus loquitur, the parrot speaks. * ' Grammatical ' in contradistinction to ' logical. ' A Predicate in formal logic is always & Nominal term Y : every X (some X, no X) is Y. 3 So Latin Syntax. 102. 1) The SUBJECT must be (1) a Substantive, or that which takes the power of a Sub- stantive ; as (2) a Pronoun \ (3) an Adjective I- used Substantively. (4) an Adverb j (5) a Verb-Noun Infinitive. (6) a Vocable, or term cited as word or phrase merely. (7) a Substantival Clause. See Ch. I. Obs. 2) As the Verb is the Part of Speech by which action or state is declared, the PREDICATE must be a Verb ; and, as action and state are predicated in Time, it must be a Finite Verb. Examples : Subject. Predicate. (1) Deus regnat, God rules. (2) Nos paremus, ive obey. (3) Omnia florent, all things bloom. (4) Satis temporis datur, enough time is given. (5) Navigare delectat, sailing gives delight. (6) < Instant' they come ' Ad arma : clamatur, is shouted. to arms (7) Quae sit natura lucis ambigitur, what is the nature of light is disputed. Such is the true Norm of Predication : that the Simple Sen- tence contains or implies a Subject and a Finite Verb. This general truth is not overthrown by the following frequent exceptions : I. Predication is made without a Subject expressed : 1) when Pronoun Subjects are implied in the Verb. See 39. 2) in some of the constructions called Impersonal. See 50. II. Predication is made without a Verb expressed when the mind can be trusted to supply one. See 99. III. Predication is made by a Verb not Finite : 1) in the construction called the Historic Infinitive. See P- 332- 2) when a Participle stands for a Finite Verb, as often in poetry, and in Livy and Tacitus. See 99, i. Examples of such Exceptions : I. i. Nee veni, V. Venisti tandem, V. 2. Pudet pigetque facti. Quidagitur? Statur, Ter. II. Hie tibi certa domus, V. Quidam curiosior, Simonide, tu ex opibus nil sumis tuis ? Phaed. III. i. Turn sic affari et curas his demere dictis, V. 2. Fusi hostes, L. Extemplo turbati animi, V. io2. Copulative Verbs. 351 ii. Incomplete Predication. Some Verbs do not make a complete predication. Of these the chief is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, which is completely predi- cative only when it denotes mere existence. Seges est ubi Troia fuit, corn is where Troy was, Ov. Usually it is a COPULA, coupling the Subject with another term, called the COMPLEMENT, which qualifies the Subject : the Predi- cate being then Copula with Complement. Predicate. Subject. Copula. Complement. Seges est matura, the corn is ripe. Troia fuit urbs munitissima, Troy was a stro ngly fortified c ity. Verbs which so couple a Subject and Complement are called COPULATIVE VERBS. Many other Verbs are (or may be) incompletely Predicative, if their predication is extended (or EXTENSIBLE) by an Infinitive (vii.). A few of these are also Copulative. Verbs of incomplete Predication are, therefore 1) Copulative, but not Extensible : (a) sum, forem, fio ; and (sometimes) appareo, existo, evado, maneo, nascor ; also (poetic) audio, be called ; (b] many passive verbs of being called or named ; appellor, vocor, nominor, nuncupor, usurper, scribor, inscribor : being chosen or declared '; creor, legor, eligor, sufficior, declarer, prodor, renuntior : being known, deemed, counted, found ; cogno- scor, iudicor, habeor, numeror, deprehendor, invenior, reperior. 2) Copulative and Extensible : videor (seem), dicor, memoror, censeor, credor, existimor, putor, perhibeor, arguor. 3) Extensible, but not Copulative : possum, nequeo, debeo ; volo, malo, nolo, audeo ; soleo, consuesco ; coepi, incipio, meditor ; desino ; pergo ; conor, laboro ; with many more : a few passive verbs, as feror, narror, nuntior, trador. See vii. and 180, where it is said that, if the Infinitive extending any Verb is Copulative, a nominal Complement following will agree with the Subject. a. The Complement of a Copulative Verb may be (1) An Adjective agreeing with the Subject as its Attribute. (2) A Substantive agreeing with the Subject as its Apposite. (3) A Phrase : sometimes an Adverb. Examples of Copula with Complement. Predicate. Subject. Copul. Verb. Complement. (i) Homo est mortalis man is mortal Puer fiet doctus the boy will become learned Vos habemini prudentes ye are held prudent 352 Latin Syntax. 102. Examples of Copula with Complement (continued). Predicate. Subject. Copul. Verb. Complement. 1 (2) Homines sunt animalia men are animals Mulier evadit victrix the woman comes out conqueress Isti appellantur philosophi those men are called philosophers (3) Bona sunt viri the goods are the husband's Facundia censetur magni eloquence is counted of great value Divitiae numerantur in bonis riches are reckoned among goods Navigare est voluptati sailing is a pleasure Conatus fuerunt frustra endeavours tuere in vain b. Examples of Nominative Complement after Infinitive. Socrates parens philosophiae dici potest, C. Fin. ii. i. Aelius Stoicus esse voluit, C. Brut. 56. Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat, Sail. Cat. 54. Xanthippe, Socratis uxor, morosa admodum fuisse fertur et iurgiosa, Cell. i. 17. Ora- cula evanuerunt postquam homines minus creduli esse coepe- runt,C.Z>mii. 57. B re vis esselaboro; obscurusfio,H.^.P.25. Animus hominis d i v e s, non area, appellari solet, C. Par. vi. i. Tyndaridae fratres victoriae nuntiifuisseperhibentur, C. Tusc. i. 12. Piso minor haberi est coeptus postea, C. Brut. 69. Fis anus, et tamen vis formosa videri, H. C. iv. 13.2. L. Papirius Crassus primus Papisius est vocari desitus, C. Fam. ix. 21. Cum floret, existimari potest alba viola, PI. iv. n ; vi. 22. Atilius prudens esse in iure civili putabatur, C. Att. vi. I. 2 Add to these the important examples of Participle Perf. (passive or deponent) used as Prolative Infinitive, esse being understood : 993, and p. 428, Note. 1 The term Complement must be understood to mean ' Predicative Complement,' that is, the word or phrase which completes predication, when the Verb is Copulative. French writers employ this term to denote the Cases which complete the construction of various Verbs : but, as these are sufficiently described by other names (Object ; Recipient, &c.), it is better to reserve the word Complement for that which has no other appropriate name : as the term Predicate (in its logical sense) is applicable only in a few instances. Some German writers use the term ' Nominalpradikat.' 3 In Oblique Oration, when the Verb becomes Infinitive, its Accusative Subject is called an Oblique Subject ; and if that Verb is Copulative, its Accus. Complement is called an Oblique Complement. Thus in ' Puto psittacum loqui ; ' ' puto psittacum (esse) loquacem ;' psittacum is Oblique Subject, loquacem Oblique Complement. See 108, p. 360. (Note on 103.) A Phrase means a few words (sometimes a single word idiomatically used) expressing a distinct notion, but not containing predication, formal or virtual. Thus in the sentences, Vir est magni ingeni: Caesar cum Balbo venit ; hoc nobis d e d e c o r i est ; we call ' magni ingeni,' ' cum Balbo,' and ' dedecori,' Phrases. An Enthesis means a group of words not containing a formal predication, but con- vertible by a slight change of form into a Clause : ' ab exilio regressus ; ' ' philosophus nobilis :' 'me absente.' See II. 2) p. 354. A Clause has beer explained to mean a coordinate or subordinate Simple Sentence, 103- Relations in the Simple Sentence. 353 iii. Relations in the Simple Sentence. R The Simple Sentence receives expansion from Words, Phrases, and Entheses used as Adjuncts, and standing in the various Relations which words in a Simple Sen- tence bear to one another. These Relations are : I. Predicative. V. Circumstantive. II. Qualitative. VI. Proprietive. III. Objective. VII. Prolative. IV. Receptive. VIII. Annexive. 1 I. The PREDICATIVE RELATION. This subsists between the Finite Verb and the Subject. The Sub- ject is (or is taken to be) a Nominative Case ; and its Verb is so related as to agree with it in Number and Person. a) A Subject Singular in form but Plural in sense is called a Collective Subject, and its Predication may agree with the sense and not with the form : ' Pars militum occisi sunt,' part of the soldiers were slain. See p. 269 D). fy A Subject consisting of several Nouns in Annexive Rela- tion is called a Composite Subject, and usually takes a Plural Predicate : 'Rex, regina, et regia classis profecti sunt/ the king, queen and royal fleet set out. c) Impersonal Construction is a peculiar Predication, in which either an expressed Predicate implies an unexpressed Subject : pudet ( = pudor pudet) ; curritur ( = cursus curri- tur) ; or a Verb-form (Gerundive) becomes a Subject : parendum est. See 50. II. The QUALITATIVE RELATION. (i.) Between an Attribute and the Noun to which it is in Attribution: 'magnae divitiae,' great riches ; ' d o c t i viri,' learned men ; 'iste psittacus,' tliat parrot. (2.) Between a Noun Apposite and the Noun to which it stands in Apposition: 'Cicero consul,' Cicero the consul', 'rex Croesus,' king Croesus. The qualifying word will agree with its Noun as far as possible. See 107. Verb-Nouns and Clauses are considered Neuter. See Examples on p. 36o. 2 1 In the classifications of Language, each class does not exclude all the members of every other class. We find the same words ranked as Substantive and Adjective, as Noun and Verb, as Adverb and Preposition, &c. So the classification here given is not invalidated by the fact that some words, phrases, cases, &c., may be referred to more than one of these Relations : that the Complement, for instance, is both Predicative and Qualitative, the Genitive sometimes Qualitative, sometimes Objective, &c. * Substantives receive as Adjuncts not only Attributes and Apposites, but many other qualifying expressions : Genitives Possessive, Qualitative, and Objective : Ablatives of Quality and Manner : frequently Prepositions with Cases : sometimes AdVerbs. Examples Sullae exercitus : vir magni ingeni ; senex promissa barba ; philosophus nomine non re ; obtemperatio legibus ; domum reditio ; mansio Formiis ; interitus ferr <>, t. Pass. Anobiscurritur,) ' Or the Person may be suppressed : lie Obs. The Ablative of the Agent may also be used with the Quasi- Passive Verbs fio, vapulo, veneo : Haec a legionibus fiebant, these things were being done by the legions. Testis a reo vapulavit, the witness was beaten by the defendant. Nolim ab hoste venire, / would not be sold by an enemy. 2) The Nominative of an Instrument becomes Ablative without Preposition : 3) The Object of a Transitive Verb becomes the Subject : Act. Deus mundum creayit, > ^ ^ ^ M Pass. A Deo mundus creatus est, ' 4) If there are two Objects (Person and Thing) the Accusative of the Thing remains : Act. Rogasmesententiam, j k op{nion Pass. Rogor a te sententiam, I ? 5) Factive construction becomes Copulative: A. Clodium plebs t r i b u n u m c r e a v i t, i the plebeians elected P. Clodius a plebe creatus est tribunus. ' Clodius tribune. 107-8. Agreement. 359 6) Other Cases remain, and Intransitive Verbs become Imper- sonal. Act. Pater librum fi 1 i o dat, | the father gives a book to his Pass. A patre liber filio datur, J son. Note. On the Construction of Impersonal Verbs see 50. CHAPTER III. CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. These fall into three Sections. 107 I. Agreement. II. Case-construction. III. Verb-construction, so far as concerns the Simple Sentence. SECTION I. AGREEMENT. 108 AGREEMENT, in Syntax, is the assimilation of the A g re- form of one word to that of another. i. The Four Concords. There are four Rules of Agreement, called CON- CORDS : namely, Concord I. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject- Nominative in Number and Person. Examples : 'Ego doceo: nos docemus.' * Tu disces; vos discetis.' * Magister hortetur; magistri hortentur.' ' Vivere est cogi- tare.' ' Omnia sunt recte.' ' Quod venisti gratum est.' Concord II. An Adjective agrees in Gender, Number, and Case with that to which it is in Attribu- tion. Concord III. A Substantive agrees in Case with that to which it is in Apposition. Obs. Concords II. and III. are true for every various position of the Attribute or Apposite whether they are Epithets, as in the 360 Latin Syntax. I0 8. examples marked (i) of the two lists which follow: Entheses, as in those marked (2) ; Adverbial, as in those marked (3) ; or Com- plements, as in those marked (4) and (5). Examples. II. (i) Vir bonus ille bonam hanc uxorem habet, that good man has this good wife. (2) hirundo pullis suis orbata queritur, the swallow bereft of its young complains. (3) quis vita male acta felix moritur? who, after a life ill- spent, dies happy ? (4) cari sunt parentes ; caraest p atria, dear are paren ts; dear is country. (5) pueri discendo fiunt docti, boys by learning become learned. (6) haec est nobilis ilia ad Trasimenum pugna, this is that renowned battle at Lake Trasimenus. (7) quid sit futurum eras incertum est, what will happen to-morrow is uncertain. (8) malim pueros esse quam videri bonos, I would rather boys should be, than seem, good. (9) tacere aliquando utile putamus, to be silent at times we deem expedient. (10) sciretuum nihil est, your knowledge is nothing. Obs. In (7) 'incertum* agrees with the Clause ' quid sit futurum eras.' In (8) 'bonos' (Oblique Complement) agrees with ' pueros,' which is Oblique Subject of each Infinitive. Hence it is seen that Copulative Verbs, Finite or Infinite, have the same case of agreeing words after as before them. Example (9) is of the same kind, for esse might be supplied to utile. See III. (6). III. (i) Nos pueri patrem Lollium imitabimur, we boys will imitate our father Lollius. (2) effodiuntur opes, irritamenta malorum, riches are dug out, incentives of evil. (3) Cicero legem Maniliam praetor suasit, Cicero recom- mended the Manilian law when praetor. (4) spes est expectatio boni, hope is the expectation of good. (5) syllaba longa brevi subiecta vocatur iambus, a long syllable following a short one is called iambus. (6) Athenas omnium doctrinarum inventrices esse cre- dimus, we believe Athens to be the inventress of all sciences. (7) cogita oratorem institui, rem arduam, reflect that an orator is being formed, a difficult business. (8) Tungri sunt Galliae ci vitas, the Tungri are a state of Gaul. Obs. In (7) rem is in Apposition to the Clause 'oratorem institui.' log- 1 1 o. Agreement. 36 1 Concord IV. The Relative Pronoun Qui, quae, quod, agrees with its Antecedent in Gender, Number, and Person ; but in Case it follows the construction of its own clause. See 105. 1. Tu, filia, quae nos a mas, oboedies nobis, qui te a mam us, you, daughter, who love us, will obey us, who love you. 2. Deum veneramur, qui nos creavit, we worship God who created us. 3. adsum quern quaeritis, I am present whom ye seek. 4. habeo quibus^ urn colloquar, I have some to talk with. 5. in tempore ad earn veni, quod rerum omnium est primum, / came to 7r*- at the right moment, which is the most important //..,. of all. 6. nos, id quod debent, virtutes delectant, virtues delight us, as they ought. Obs. In 3, the Antecedent is ego, in 4, aliquos, understood ; in 5, the Principal sentence is the Antecedent : in 6, id is in apposi- tion to the sentence ' nos virtutes delectant.' (Id quod = ut.) ii. Ellipsis of the Subject. i) Pronoun Subjects (ego, nos, tu, vos, is, ei) are omitted, unless required for emphasis : * Si vales bene est, ego valeo,' if you are well, I rejoice ; I am well, C Fam. xiii. 6. ' Odi profanum volgus et arceo,' / hate and keep aloof the profane vulgar, Hor. C. iii. I.I. * Poscimur,' we are required, Hor, C. i. 32. i. 2} \VLeu a Sulject of the Third Person is omitted, it is generally known from the context. On the omission oi homines (Fr. on, Germ, man] before aiunt, ferunt, &c., see p. 275. 'Teque ferunt irae paenituisse tuae,' and they say you have repented of your anger, Ov. A. A. ii. 592. The adverb volgo sometimes r^ompanies this ellipsis: 'Volgo ex oppidis gratulabantur Pon peio,' they came in crowds from the towns to congratulate Pompeius, C. T. D. i. 35. 3) Impersonal Verbs have no Substantive or Pronoun expressed as Sub ; ect. But many have a Verb-noun Infinitive : * Ire iuvat ; fugere dedecet,' &c. Many have a Clausular Subject : * Oportet haec fieri:' 'interest ut te videain,' &c. The Subject of others is implied in the Verb itself : ' Pudet facti ; taedet vitae ; mistrct hominis,' &c. : also in Plui", tonat, grandinat, &c., and in Passive Impersonals, Itur. statur, vivitur, &c. See $ j,o. On Ellipsis, see pp. 267, 271, 346 iii. Attraction of the Verb. 11C i) A Copulative Verb sometimes agrees with the Complement. 'Amantium irae amoris integratio est,' lovers' quarrels are the renewal of love, Ter. An. iii. 3. 28. 'Ouas geritis vestis sordid* lana fuit,' the clothes which ye wear were dirty wool, Ov. A. A. iii. 222. 362 Latin Syntax. m. 2) This Attraction may affect Gender. * Non omnis error stul- titia est dicenda,' not every error must be called folly, C. Div. ii. 43. * Gens universa Veneti appellati,' the entire race were called Veneti, L. i. i. 3) A Verb sometimes agrees with the Apposite rather than with the true Subject. ' Tungri Galliae ci vitas fontem habet insig- nem,' Tongres, a city of Gaul, has a remarkable fountain, PI. N. H. xxxi. 2. iv. Synesis in the first and second Concords. See p. 269. 1) Feminine or Neuter words implying males are found with Masculine agreement: 'Ilia furia qui . . . &c. impunitatem est assecutus/ the fury who (namely Clodius) &c., obtained impunity, C. Fam. i. 9. ' Milia triginta capitum dicunturcapti/ thirty thou- sand prisoners are said to have been taken, L. xxvii. 16. ' Ubi illic est scelus, qui . . . / where is that villain who . . . ? Ter. An. iii. 5. Analogous to this is Livy's practice of mentioning the name of a town, and then continuing the construction as if he had mentioned the inhabitants: 'Saguntum civitas longe op- ulentissima ultra Iberum fuit. Oriundi a Zacyntho insula dicun- tur mixtique/ &c., the city of Saguntum was by far the wealthiest beyond the Ebro : they (cives) are said to have originated from the isle of Zante, and to have been mingled, &c., L. xxi. 7. 2) Singular Collective Nouns, pars, multitudo, volgus, turba, vis, iuventus, nobilitas, plebs, &c., are used by Livy, Sallust, and the poets, with Plural Predicates, and agreement of Gender * - ni'i-imy. ' Locros omnis multitudo abeunt,' the whole number remove to Locri, L. xxiv. 3. 'Pars perexigua, duce amisso, Ro- mam inermes delati sunt,' a very small portion, having lost their leader, were brought unarmed to Rome, L. ii. 14. This construc- tion is rare in Caesar, not used by Cicero. 3) The Distributive words and phrases quisque, uterque, pars,alius . . . alinm, alter . . . alterum, vir . . . virum, &c., are apparently used as Subjects to Plural Predicates, but may be explained as apposite to Plural Subjects understood : 'Uterque eorum exercitum e castris educunt,' they both lead out an army from the camp, Caes. B. C\ iii. 30. 'At nostri, repentino metu perculsi, sibi quisque pro moribus consulunt; alii fugere, alii arma capere : magna pars volnerati aut occisi,' but our men, seized with a sudden panic, provided for themselves according to their several habits ; some fled, others took arms : a great portion were wounded or slain, Sail. lug. 57. 'Alius alii subsidium fe- runt,' they bring support one to another, Caes. B. G. ii. 26. 'Vir virum legebant,' each man picked another, L. x. 38. 4) The Adverb partim is plurally constructed by Cicero, with Gender Kara fT''j'tmi' : 'Eorum partim in pompa partim in acie illustres esse voluerunt,' some of them chose to be brilliant in pro- cession, some on the battle-field, C. d. Or. ii. 94. ' Partim e nobis I II2 . Composite Subject. 363 timidi sunt, partim a republica aversi,' the one part of us are cowards, the other unfriendly to the state, C. Phil. viii. n. 5. Mi lie is generally Plural, sometimes Singular. See 34. v. Composite Subject (crvX^rj^is). Two or more Subjects united in one Predication are called a Composite Subject. See p. 268. A. i) If the Subjects so united form an evidently Plural notion, the Predicate will be Plural: 'Pompeius, Lentulus, Scipio foecle perierunt,' C. Fam. ix. 18. ' Castor et Pollux ex equis pugnare visi sunt,' C. N. D. ii. 2. Mus et iniuria natura d i i u d i c a n t u r,' right and wrong are naturally distinguished, C. Leg.\. 16. 'Aetas, metus, magister, prohibebant/ age, ti- midity, and a tutor forbade, Ter. An. i. i. 27. Sometimes, when the Prep, cum unites the Subjects: 'Ipsedux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur,' the commander himself with some leading men were captured,' L. xxi. 60. 'Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati/ Ov. F. iv. 55. But Cicero prefers the Singular in this last construction, 'Tu cum Sexto scire velim quid cogites/ / should like to know what you and Sextus think, Att. vii. 14. 2) If their union forms one complex Singular notion, the Verb maybe Singular. ' Tempus.necessitasque postulat,' C. Off.'i. 23. 'Religio et fides anteponatur amicitiae,' C. Off. iii. 10. So ' Senatus populusque Romanus ' forms one complex notion, and usually, but not always, takes a Singular Predicate. 3) If one of the Subjects is ist Pers. Sing, (ego), the Predicate may be ist Pers. Plur. If one of the Subjects is 2nd Pers. Sing, (tu) and none ist Pers., the Predicate may be 2nd Pers. Plur. 'Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valetis, ego et suavissimus Cicero valemus,' If you and my darling Tullia are well, I and oitr sweet boy are in good health, C. Fam. xiv. 5. 4) If the Subjects are sentient beings and of the same Gender, the Attributes follow that Gender ; if of different Genders, the At- tributes are Plural Masculine. ' Non mihi venistis Semele Ledeve docendae,' ye are not come a Semele cr a Leda to be taught by m>\ Ov. A. A. iii. 251. 'Pater mihi et mater mortui sunt,' my father and mother are dead, Ter. Eun. iii. 3. n. 5) If they are non-sentient things and of the same Gender, that Gender may be kept by the Attributes, or these may be Neuter : if of different Genders, the Attributes are usually Neuter Plural. * Grammatice quondam ac musice iunctae fuere,' grammar and music were formerly combined, Qu. i. 10. 17. 'Iraetavar- itia imperio potentiora erant/ anger and avarice were more powerful than authority, L. xxxvi. 32. 'Fregellis murus et porta de caelo tacta erant,' at Fregellae a wall and gate had been struck by lightning, L. xxxii. 29. See M. Liter, iii. 136. 6) If sentient beings and non-sentient things are combined, the former will sometimes regulate the Gender: 'Rex regiaqua "3 364 Latin Syntax. 1I3 . classis una profecti/ the king and the royal fleet set out to- gether, L. xxi. 50. But Neuter Attributes are more usual : ' Ro- man! regem regnumque Macedoniae sua futura sciunt,' the Romans know that the king and kingdom of Macedonia will be theirs, L. xl. 10. B. i) Often, however, the Verb and Attributes are constructed with only one of the Subjects, and mentally supplied with the rest (zeugma). That one will be nearest to the Predication, and gene- rally the most important. ' Nunc mihi nihil libri, nihil litterae, ni- hil doctrina prodest,' now neither books nor literature nor learn- ing avail me aught, C. Att. x. 10. ' Homer us fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam,' Homer and Hesiod were before the founda- tion of Rome, C. T. D. i. I. 'Dice bat idem Cotta, Curio/ Cotta said the same, and Curio, C. Off. ii. 1 7. ' Cum quaesturam nos, consulatum Cotta, aedilitatem peteret Hor ensius/w/^;/ I stood for the quaestorship, Cotta for the consulship, Hortensius for the edileship, C. Brut. 92. So, 'Et tu et omnes homines sciunt,' you and all mankind know, C. Fam. xiii. 8. 2) The agreement of Gender with a nearer word appears in this Example : ' Visae nocturno tempore faces ardorque caeli,' meteors were seen in the night and a fiery sky, C. in Cat. iii. 8. 3) Singular agreement with the more distant Noun is rare : ' Lucus quidem ille et haec Arpinatium quercus agnoscitur, saepe a me lectus in Mario,' I recognise yonder grove, and this oak of the Arpinates, which I have often read of in the Marius, C. Leg. i. i. 4) 'Unus et alter' takes a Singular Verb: 'Unus et alter assuitur pannus,' one or two patches are stitched on, Hor. ad Pis. 15- 5) When the Subjects are connected by aut, the Predicates sometimes appear as Singular, sometimes as Plural : ' Si Aeacus aut Minos diceret,' C. Off. i. 28. ' Si quid oocrates aut Aris- tippus . . . fecerint locutive sint,' C. Off. i. 41. But with aut . . . aut, the Singular alone is used. Et . . . et, neque . . . neque, usually lead to a Singular Predicate, but sometimes to a Plural. In short, the construction of a Composite Subject exhibits every variety of usage. 6) Such instances as the following belong to Attraction : ' Ei cariora semper o m n i a quam decusetpudicitiafuit,' everything was at all times dearer to him than decency and modesty, Sail. Cat. 25. vi. Idioms of Attribution and Apposition. i) As Complement, the Adjective may be attributed to any Noun-term; as Epithet, chiefly to a Substantive : but sometimes to an Infinitive: 'Velle suum cuique est,' everyone has his own inclination. ' T o t u m hoc displi cet p h i 1 o s o p h a r i,' all this phi- losophising they dislike, Cic. Fin. i. i. 'Me hoc ipsum nihil age re delectat/ this ' far niente' itself is to me delightful, C. d. Or. ii. 6. II3> Attribution and Apposition. 365 2) Sometimes, in Copulative construction, an Adjectival Pro- noun seems to take the place of Subject, and the Substantive, to which it refers, that of Complement. So placed, the Adjectival word usually agrees with the Substantive : * H ae sunt fere de animis sententiae,'' these are pretty nearly the (current] opinions on the sou/, Cic. 'Hie murus aheneus esto, nil conscire sibi,' let this be a wall of brass, to be conscious of nothing (wrong], Hor. Epist. i. i. 61. But sometimes the Pronoun is substantially Neuter: 'Quod ego fui ad Trasimenum, ad Cannas, id tu hodie es,' what I was at 'Irasimenus, at Cannae, you are now, L. xxx. 30. ' Nunc scio quid sit amor,' now know I what love is, Verg. B. viii. 43. 3) The Adverbial and Proleptir uses of the Attribute and Appo- site are important idioms, noticed p. 278. a] Attribute : 'Turn tu insiste audax muris/ then do thou advance on the walls boldly, L. iii. 26. 'Castris se pavi- dus tenebat,' he kept himself within the camp timidly, L. 'Vespertinus pete tectum,' seek the roof at eventide, HOT. Epist. i. 6. 20. 'Aeneas se matutinus agebat/ Aeneas set himself in motion at morn, Verg. Aen. viii. 465. 'Domesticus otior,' / lounge at home, Hor. S. i. 6. 127. 'Hostesrari se ostendere coeperunt/ the enemy began to show themselves in small parties, Caes. B. G. v. 17. ' Memini, tametsi nullus moneas,' 1 remember, without any suggestion from you, Ter. Eun. ii. i. 10. ' Hannibal princeps in proelium ibat, ultimus conserto proelio ex- cedebat,' Hannibal used to be the first to go to battle, and after the engagement the last A quit the field, L. xxi. 4. 'Omnem crede diem tibi diluxisse supremum,' believe that everv day that has dawned on you is your last, H or. hpist. i. 4. 13. Thus, where the English generally uses a Relative Pronoun : He was the first (last or only one] who came, the Latin more concisely says Primus (ultimus, solus) venit. ^) Adverbial Apposition limits the agency of the Subject in re* spect of time, age, office, capacity, &c. : ' Furius, noster familiaris, puer didicit quod discendum fuit,' my intimate friend Furius learnt in boyhood what he had to learn, C. d. Or. iii. 23. ' Cato senex scribere historiam instituit,' Cato began to write history in old age, Suet. Ner. 31. ' C. lunius aedem Salutis, quam consul voverat, censor loca- verat, dictator dedicavit/ Gains Junius dedicated in his dictatorship the temple of Salus, which he had vowed in his consulship, and given a contract for in his censorship, L. x. i. Under this head may be placed such phrases as, Ante me c o n su 1 e m (before m v consulship] , post me q u a e s- torem {after my quaestorship]. See p. 273. 4) If Neuter Adjectives are so constructed as to qualify Mas- culine or Feminine Nouns, they must be regarded as words which have acquired the nature of Substantives, and as standing in ap- position : 'Turpe senex miles, turpe senilis amor/ unseemly is an aged soldier, unseemly an old man's love, Ov. Am. i. 9. 4. ' M ors 366 Latin Syntax. 113] omnium rerum extremum est, death is the final close of all things, C. Fam. vi. 21. f Turpitudo pel us est quam dolor,' dishonour is worse than pain, C. T. D. ii. 13. ' Patres et plebem, invalida et inermia, ludificatur,' he deludes the Senate and Commons, weak and defenceless bodies, Tac. Ann. i. 46. 5) The Apposite usually agrees in Number with its Noun, but not necessarily: ' Tulliola, deliciolae nostrae, ' Tullia, my little darling, C. Att. i. 8. Substantiva Mobilia, having two forms, Mas- culine and Feminine, will agree, as far as possible, in Gender with their Noun: Usus magister egregius/ experience, an excellent teacher, Plin. Epist. i. 20. 'Vita rustica parcimoniae magistra est,' a country life is the teacher of thrift, C. p. S. Rose. 27. Such words are also used as epithets, chiefly by poets : 4 Regina pe- cunia,' queen Money, Hor. Epist. i. 6. 36. An Apposite may seem to take a different case from its noun: ' Archias natus est Anti- ochiae, celebri quondam urbe,' Archias was born at Antioch, a once populous city, C. p. Arch. 3. 6) Peculiar forms of Apposition : a) Apposition to a Pronoun Subject understood : 1 Hannibal peto pacem,' /, Hannibal, sue for peace, L. xxx. 30. * Qualis art if ex pereo!' what an artist dies in me (lit. / die] ! Suet. Ner. 49. 6} Apposition of the Part to the Whole : ' Galli Ruscinonem, aliquot populi, conveniunt,' the Gauls, a few tribes, meet at Ruscino, L. xxi. 24. ' Duae filiae harum, alt era occisa, altera capta est,' the two daughters of these women, one was slain, the other captured, Caes. B. G. i. 53. 'Cetera multitude sorte decimus quisque ad supplicium lecti sunt,' the remaining crowd were picked, every tenth man, for execution, L. ii. 59. ' Vos sibi quisque consilium capitis,'^ consult each for himself, Sail. C. 52. c} Apposition of the Proper Names of one Person : P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus. See p. 193. d) Apposition annexed by Conjunctions, such as ut, velut, quasi, ceu, tamquam, quamvis : 'Aegyptii canem et felem ut deos colunt,' the Egyptians worship the dog and cat as deities, C. Leg. i. 1 1 . ' H erodotu s quasi sedatus amnis fluit/ Herodotus flows as a calm river, C. Or. 12. ' Ficta omnia celeriter, tamquam flos- culi, decidunt,' all unrca } things quickly droop like flowers, C. Off.\\. 12. ' Manlius filium suum, quamvis victorem, occidit/ Manlius slew his son, though conqueror, Plor. i. e) Apposition which requires a Noun answering a question to be in the same case as the Noun which it answers : * Quone malo rnentem concussa? Timore deorum,' by what malady disturbed in mind? By fear of the gods, Hor. S. ii. 3. 293. But here, too, the cases may seem to differ : ' Quanti emptum ? Parvo. Quanti ergo ? Octussibus/ Hor. S. ii. 3. 155. 5 n 4 . Agreement of Relative. 367 7) A single Adjective is seldom referred to more than one Noun except as Complement. When it is otherwise referred to more than one, and the Genders differ, it usually agrees with ihe nearest: ' Romanis cunctamaria terraeque patebant,' all seas and lands were open to the Romans ; Sail. C. 10. Sometimes it is Neuter Plural, like a Complement : * Gallorum genti natura corpora animosque magna magis quam fir ma dedit,' nature has given to the Gauls great rather than strong bodies and minds, L. v. 44. 8) A Noun subdivided by more than one Singular Attribute is sometimes found Singular, sometimes Plural : ' Legio Martia quartaque rernpublicam defendunt,' the Martian legion and the fourth defend the commonwealth, C. Phil. v. 17. 'In rabiem tractae prima ac vicesima legiones,' the first and twentieth legions were drawn into the mad revolt, Tac. Ann. i. 31. A Noun in apposition to several others will be Plural in the same Case with them : Eupolis atque Cratinus Aristophanesque poetae/ the poets Eupolis and Cratinus and Aristophanes, Hor. S. i. 4. i. Sometimes the Nomen or Cognomen is in apposition to the Praenomina of two or more persons : ( M. et Q. Cice rones,' the Ciceros, Marcus and Quintus-. 'C. et L. M e m m i i,' the Memmii, Gains and Lucius. vii. Synesis, Ellipsis and Attraction in Re- lative Construction. 1. a) The agreement of the Relative may follow meaning: ' Multitude, qui convenerant . . .' b] The agreement of a Relative with a Composite Subject is in principle the same as that of an Adjective. 4 Pater et nrater qui mortui sunt' . . . ' Fortuna, decus, honos, quae fortuita sunt. . . .' c) A Personal Pronoun as Antecedent may be implied in a Possessive : ' Omnes laudare fortunas me as, qui gnatum haberem tali ingenio praeditum,' all were extolling my good fortune in having a son of such a character, Ter. An. i. i. 97. 2. a) Ellipsis of the Antecedent is frequent. See Concord iv. Ex. 3. 4. But that of the word or words which govern the Relative (when they are to be supplied from the ante- cedence) is less so : * Nos imitamur quos cuique visum est (i.e. eos quos cuique visum est imitari),' we imitate those y whom we severally think proper to imitate, C. Off. i. 32. This idiom some- times resembles Attraction : ' Si aliquid agis eorum quo- rum consuesti, gaudeo (i.e. eorum quorum aliquid agere consuesti),' if you are pursuing any of your wonted occu- pations, I am glad, C. Fam. v. 14. 368 Latin Syntax. 114. b} When the Relative has been used in one Case, another Case of it is sometimes suppressed : ' Bocchus cum peditibus, quos filius eius adduxerat, neque in priore pugna adfuerant, postremam Romanorum aciem invadunt,' Bocchus and the infantry, which his son had brought up, and which had not been present in the former battle, attack the rear of the Romans, Sail. /. 101. 3. a) The Relative may agree with an Apposite, or not : 'Flumen Scaldis quod . . .' 'Flumen Rhodanus qui. , .' b] The Relative may agree with the Complement of its own Clause, rather than with its Antecedent : * Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est,' L. Madvig's rule is (Gr. 319) that, if the Antec. is defined without the aid of the clause, the Rel. agrees with its Compl. ; if not, with the Antec. But many exceptions occur. c] The Antecedent is drawn into the same Clause and Case as the Relative :'Quamartem novi, exerceo.' Or the Ante- cedent may remain in its own sentence, and be repeated in the Relative Clause : * Dies instat, quo die . . .' Sometimes the attracted Antecedent precedes the Relative : 'Urbemquam statuo vestra est/ V. Aen. i. 573. Horace has a daring Attraction : ' Quis non malarum quas amor curas habet Haec inter obliviscitur ? ' Epod. ii. 37. d) An Attribute, especially unus, pauci and Superlatives, may be attracted to the Relative Case and Clause ( 82. 3.) : * Tempestivis conviviis delector cum aequalibus, qui pauci admodum restant/ / enjoy early dinners with contempora- ries, very few of whom remain,' L. ii. 53. ' Habebam inimicum non C. Marium, sed duo importuna prodigia, quos egestas, quos aeris alieni magnitude, quos levitas, quos improbitas tribune plebis constrictos addixerat,' C. /. Ses. 16. 'Ad quadraginta milia militum, quod roboris in Samnio erat, convenerant,' L. x. 38. 'Illud, mi Tiro, te rogo, ne sumptui parcas ulla in re quod ad valetudinem opus sit,' C. Fant. xvi. 4. 'luniores, id maxime quod Kaesonis sodalium fuit, auxere iras in plebem,' L. iii. 14. 'Fa vent pietati fideique di, per quae populus Romanus ad tantum fastigi venit,' L. xJiv. 2. ' Alinime miror qui insanire occipiunt ex iniuria,' Ter. Ad. ii. i. 43. 'En dextra fidesque quern secum patrios aiunt portare penatis,' Verg. Aen. iv. 598. ' Dividebat agros quibus volebat,' C. Off. i. ii. ' Lacedaemonii Agin regem, quod numquam antea apud eos acciderat, necaverunt,' C. Ojff. ii. 23. 'Raptim quibus quisque poterat elatis iam continens agmen migrantium impleverat vias,' L. i. 29. ' Pomptinus a te tractatus est praestanti ac singular! fide, cuius tuibeneficii sum ego testis,' C. Fam. iii. 10. ' Accusator non ferendus est is, qui quod in altero vitium reprehendit in eo ipso depr (henditur,' C. Verr. iii. 2. 'Nullomodo animus audientis 117-19. Vocative Case. 371 101. l Princeps in senatu tertium lectus est P. Scipio Afri- canus,' Publins Scipio Africanus was for the third time chosen prince of the Senate, L. xxxviii. 28. 'Amicitia virtutum adiu- trix a natura data est, non vitiorum comes,' C. Lael. 22. 2) 'Aristaeus inventor olei esse dicitur,' Aristaeus is said to be the discoverer of oil, C. Verr. iv. 57. ' Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat,' Cato preferred being to seeming good, Sail. C. 54. * Socrates par ens philosophiae iure dici potest,' Socrates may justly be called the father of philosophy, C. Fin. ii. i. ' Ad auream arietis pellem prefect i dicuntur Argonautae,' the Argonauts are ' said to have gone after the golden fleece, Varr. R. R. ii. i (esse being omitted). iii. The Nominative may stand with the Inter- II? jections en, ecce, o, and others. 'En dextra fidesque!' lo the right hand and the pledged faith! Verg. Aen. iv. 597. ' Sed ecce nuntii, ecce litterae, Caesarem ad Corfinium/ but lo couriers and letters stating that Caesar is at Corjinium, C. Att. viii. 3. 'O vir fort is atque amicus !' O the brave and friendly man! Ter. Ph. ii. 2. 10. B. The Vocative Case. 118 i. The VOCATIVE is used without or with an Vocat Interjection: fill, Pompei, luppiter: O fili, O Case Pompei; pro luppiter. ii. The Nominative takes the place of the II9 Vocative : 1) When the Noun is Collective: * I, pete virginea, populus, suffimen ab w&] go, people, seek incense from the virgin's altar, Ov. F. iv. 731. ' O Pompilius sanguis/ Hor. ad Pis. 292. 2) When the word is an Attribute or Apposite enthetically or adverbially used: 'Tu quoque Cydon Dardania stratus dextra,' Verg. Aen. x. 320. ' Nudus iaciture sepulcro,' St. Th. vii. 777. 3) Yet poets sometimes keep the Vocative in such circum- stances : ' Sic venias hodierne,' so mayst thou come to-day, Tib. i. 7.53. 'Rufe mihi frustra ac nequiquam credite amice/ O aut incitari aut teneri potest, qui modus a me non tentatus sit,' C. Or. 38. ' Haec est quam Scipio laudat in libris et quam maxime probat temperationem reipublicae,' C. Leg. iii. 5. ' Poeta id sibi negoti credidit solum dari populo ut placerent quas fecisset fabulas,' Ter. An. Pr. 3. ' Tullia, qui illius in te amor fuit, hoc certe te facere non vult,' C. Fam. iv. 5. 'Cuius lenitatis est Galba, iam fortasse promisit,' Tac. H. i- 37- 'Qua es prudentia, nihil te fugiet,' C. Fam. xi. 13. (See p. 312.) ' Sarmatis neque conti neque gladii, quos praelongos utraque manu regunt, usui erant,' Tac. H. i. 79. 'Consul, qui unus supererat, moritur,' L. iii. 7. b. 'Talis est quaecumque respublica qualis eius aut natura aut voluntas qui illam regit,' C. Rep. i. 31. ' Hoc bellum est, quale bellum nulla barbaria gessit,' C. in Cat. ii. i. 'Videre mihi videor tantam dimicationem quanta numquam fuit,' C. AH. vii. i. ii i; 2 live 372 Latin Syntax. 120-1. Rtifus "vainly and to no purpose believed my friend, Catull. 77. I. 4 Quibus Hector ab oris exspectate venis ?' from what shores, Hector, earnest thou expected? Verg. Aen. ii. 282. See Pers. iii. 28. Ausonius has * lane, veni, novus anne, veni,' Id. viii. i. C. The Accusative Case. i. The ACCUSATIVE is the Case of the Attained CaL Nearer Object: also of the Contained Object. Any Agent may become an Object : a striker may be struck, &c. But not every Object can be an Agent in a proper sense. There- fore it is that in Neuter Nouns (as bellum, regnum ; mel, far, &c.), the Accusative is the primary, the Nominative only a secondary, form. Therefore also, when a Proposition (as, ' the parrot speaks ') quits the form of statement, and passes into an abstract notion ( ; the parrot's speaking'), while the Finite Verb becomes Infinitive (loqui), the Nominative becomes Accusative (psittacum) ; that is, the Subject of an Infinitive is an Accusative in Latin. Such a notion, ' psittacum loqui,' is essentially Objective, but, like the Nominative of a Neuter word, it can, by a secondary use, become the Subject of a Proposition ; ' psittacum loqui credibile est,' the parrofs speaking (that the parrot speaks) is credible. General ii. Transitive Verbs of any class take an Rule - Accusative of the Attained Nearer Object. 1. mater alit pullos, the mother nourishes the young ones. 2. in primis venerare Deum, in the first place worship God. 3. pudet me stultitiae, I am ashamed (lit. 'it shames me') of my folly. The First Example, in Passive form, becomes pulli a matre aluntur. The Second (where the Verb is Deponent) and the Third (where it is Impersonal) cannot assume the Passive form. This is the standard Rule, because Transitive Verbs are so large a class. But to draw the line which divides Intransitive from Transitive Verbs is not easy. Intransitive Verbs are often used with Transitive force: ardere, flere, pallere, sitire, &c. Tran- sitive Verbs may drop their Object and seem to be Intransitive : amare, durare, obtinere, &c. The following considerations may throw light on this subject. : By the Attained Object is meant that which follows Transitive Verbs : by the Cc:.l- teined Object that which follows Intransitive Verbs. 122. Accusative Case. 373 iii. The Contained Object or Cognate Accu- g^ sative. object. 1) Every Verb has at least one Object, its own Activity, repre- sented by its most abstract Verbal Noun in (ion-) -io: agere actionem, stare stationem, ire itionem, narrare narra- tionem, &c. This purest abstract form is not, however, used by Latin authors in connection with Verbs. But other Substantives, more concrete, are so used with the Verbs to which they belong : the construction being that called ' the Cognate Accusative/ or ' Accusative of the Verbal Operation,' or 'Contained Accusative.' Such instances are : Canere cantilenam, Ter. ; cenare cenam, Plaut. ; furere furorem, Verg. ; gaudere gaudium, C. ; iurare iusiurandum, C. ; insanire insaniam, Sen. ; ludere ludum, Hor. ; nocere noxam, L. ; ridere risum, C. ; servire servitutem, C. ; somniare somnium, PlauL ; vivere vitam, Plaut. ; moved motus, Lucr. When such expressions occur, the Substantive usually has an epithet : Ludum insolentem ludere, Hor. 2) Instead of the purely Cognate Accusative, Intransitive Verbs oftener take a Contained Accusative expressing some more limited operation of the Verb : Agere (to pass] aetatem ; agere (to act] partis ; cantare melos ; coronari Olympia (to be crowned as an Olympian victor = vincere Olympia) ; currere stadium ; degere vitam, &c. ; dormire noctem ; errare litora ; ire viam, &c. ; iurare numen, &c. ; praelucere spem ; ludere aleam ; ludere carmina ; militare bellum ; mentiri auspicia ; natare aquas, &c. ; navigare aequor, &c. ; prandere holus ; pugnare proelia ; quadrare acervum ; respondere lus ; resonare Amaryllida (alcyonen) ; saltare (moveri) Satyrum (Cyclopa) ; sonare vitium (hominem), &c. ; triumphare hostem ; vagari terras ; vehi maria ; vivere aetatem (Bacchanalia, Nestora), &c. ; vigilare noctem; vincere causam (iudicium), &c. Especially Verbs which express d) Odour or flavour : olere crocos (pastillos, lampadem, anti- quitatem, &c.), redolere flores ; spirare odorem ; exhalare mephitim ; sapere mella (aprum, mare, plebeium, &c.). b} Visible emanation: manare mella; depluere lacrimas; spirare flammas ; stillare rorem ; sudare electra ; erum- pere liquores, &c. Such constructions are chiefly poetic : but many of them occur in prose. 3) Other Intransitive Verbs take a Contained Accusative only or chiefly of Neuter Pronouns and Pronominal words : Quod, quid, aliquid, quicquam, nescio quid, nihil, hoc, id, idem, illud, istud, utrumque : quae, omnia, cuncta, eadem, multa, pauca, &c. See M. Lucr. vi. 404. Among such Verbs are: cog ere, dolere, dubitare, disserere, 374 Latin Syntax. 123. gaudere, gloriari, laborare, laetari, obsequi, peccare, stomachari, succensere, &c. And the expressions : animum advertere, auctor sum (/ advise). 4) Out of this usage have grown a large number of Accusative phrases, which have an Adverbial use : Cetera (alia, pleraque), multum, plus, plurimum, summum, aeter- num, &c. ; suam vicem ; quod genus ; id genus, omne genus ; magnam partem ; istuc (illud, id) aetatis ; hoc noctis ; id temporis, id auctoritatis, &c. All these belong to prose style. 5) A Contained Accusative of the Neuter Adjective, Singular or Plural, is used by poets freely in an adverbial manner, especially with Verbs which express sensitive or sensible action : Dulce ridere (loqui) ; immane spirare (sonare) ; suave re- sonare ; perfidum ridere ; turbidum laetari ; lugubre rubere ; im- mensum attolli (crescere) ; altum dormire ; lene virere ; suave olere ; lucidum fulgere ; falsum renidere ; acerba tueri ; sera comare ; vana tumere ; rauca gemere ; crebra ferire ; plura mo- rari ; insueta rudere ; sollemnia insanire, with many more. 6) A form of the Contained Accusative, largely used by poets, sometimes by Livy and prose writers of the silver age, is 'the Accusative of Respect,' also called 'Accusativus Partis,' because it defines more nearly the part affected of the Object. Often an Ablative appears with it, sometimes a Dative. This construction is taken by some Intransitive Verbs : tremere artus (ossa), torpere nervos, tumere colla, dolere caput (oculos), &c. Oftener by Passive Verbs : suffundi ora rubore ; expleri men- tern ; molliri ingenium ; diduci animum; pingi alvum notis ; ' Capita Phrygio velamur amictu,' V. Aen. iii. Most frequently by Passive Participles and Adjectives : Tectus caligine vultum; ornatus crinis apio ; mutata men- tem ; labefactus animum ; laniata genas, &c. ; madidus unguento comam; os umerosque deosimilis; crura thymo plenae; nudae bracchia et pedes. , Sometimes by Substantives : Ora puer pulcherque habitum; cetera fossor. 23 iv. Medial Object. Different from the Accusative of the Part, and having more the nature of an Attained Accusative, is that which poets often give to Passive Verbs and their Participles, used Reflexively, like the Greek Middle Verb. Thus cingi ( = cingere se), indui ( = induere se), exui (^exuere se), pasci ( = pascere se), colligi ( = colligere se), suspendi ( = suspendere se), &c., take (as it were) a Second Object of the thing girt on, put on, put off, fed on, gathered up, hung on, &c. In prose this is rare, but sometimes found. 1 Exuitur cornua/ she puts off her horns, Ov. M. ix. 52. ' Inutile ferrum cingitur/ he girds himself with useless steel, Verg. Ac. ii. 124-5- A ccusativc Case. 375 510. ' Pascuntur silvas,' they graze on the forests, Verg. G. iii. 314. ' Laevo suspensi loculos tabulamque lacerto,' having their satchel and slate hung on their left arm, Hor. S. i. 6. 74. So ' chlamydem circumdata,' having a mantle thrown round her, Verg. A en. iv. 137.; 'saturata dolorem,' having her resentment glutted^ Verg. A en. v. 608. v. The Accusative of Limiting Circum- stances (Time, Space, Measure), 103, V. 1) The Accusative of Duration of Time : 'Annum iam audis Cratippum,' you have been a scholar of Cratipptjs for a year, C. Off. i. i. 'Pericles quadraginta annos praefuit Athenis,' Pericles was prime minister of Athens forty ytars, C. d. Or. iii. 34. And after natus, expressing age : 'Dionysius quinque et viginti natus annos dominatum occupavit,' Dionysius seized the government at the age of twenty- Jive years, C. T. D. v. 20. This last Accusative sometimes continues even when the Com- parative (mai or, minor) is introduced : * Dionysius maior annos sexaginta decessit,' Dionysius died when more than sixty years old, Nep. Eum. 2. 2) The Accusative of Distance of Time past with abhinc : ' Pater abhinc duo et viginti annos est mortuus,' the father died twenty-two years ago, C. Verr. ii. 9. 3") The Accusative of Space traversed and of Distance : ' Mili a turn pransi tria repimus,' then after luncheon we crawl three miles, Hor. S. \. 5. 25. * Hadrumetum abest a Zama circiter m i 1 i a passuum t r e c e n t a/ Hadrumetum is about 300 miles from Zama, Nep. Hann. 6. 4) The Accusative" of Measure of Length, Breadth, Height, Depth, with the Adjectives longus, latus, altus : also of Weight with the word pondo : L on gum (latum, altum) ducentos pedes . . . quaterna cubita, &c., digitos sex, &c. So, libram pondo, a pound weight. (The Ablative and Genitive are used in Constructions of Time, Space, and Measure: also Prepositions; per, ad, in tra, supra, in, &c.) vi. Accusative of Place Whither. I The Accusative of Place whither is chiefly used when the Place is a town or small island (sometimes, as by poets, more exten- sively) ; also when it is expressed by domum (home), rus (into the country). ' Legati Athenas missi sunt,' L. iii. 31. 'Caesar Narbonem profectus est,' Caes. B. G. iii. 7. ' Ibimus Afros,' Verg. B. i. 64. 'Veni consulis Antoni domum,' C. Fam. xi. 28. 'Ego rus ibo,' Ter. Run. ii. i. 10. So t domum itio, reditio, reditus. The 376 Latin Syntax. 126-27, phrases 'ire infitias,' to deny, 'ire exsequias,' to attend a funeral, are constructed on this model. The Prepositions ad, in, usque, are also much used in expressing Motion to a Place. See PREPOSITIONS. 1 vii. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively. The Subject of a Transitive Verb may be made its Object : Moveo me, moves te, movet se, &c. ; and some Transitive Verbs may omit this Pronoun, and so become Intransitive. Such are, Aequo, ago, abstineo, augeo, deflecto, duro, habeo, incline, insinuo, lavo, minuo, moveo, muto, pasco, pono, praecipito, remitto, turbo, urgeo, verto, averto, vibro, volvo, and others. See M. Lucr. iii. 502 ; v. 931. Ex. 'Abstineto irarum,' abstain from angry feelings, Hor. C. iii. 27. 69. 'A veritate deflect it,' he swerves from truth, C. p. Caec. 51. ' Bene habet/ /'/ is well, luv. ' Nilus praecipitat ex altissimis montibus,' the Nile dashes from very high mountains, C. S. Sc. 13. ' Ubi nos laverimus lavato,' when we have bathed, bathe, Ter. Eun. iii. 5. 48. ' Minuente aestu,' the heat moderating, Caes. B. G. iii. 12. * Res humanae semper in adversa mutant, 1 human affairs always change to adversity, Sail. lug. 104. ' Re- miserant dolores pedum,' the pains of the feet had abated, C. Br. 34. * lam verterat fortuna,' fortune had now changed, L. v. 49. 4 Venti posuere,' the winds have dropped, Verg. Ae. vii. 27. Conversely, many Passive forms are used reflexively : Congregor, delector, effundor, exerceor, fallor, feror, lavor, moveor, mutor, oblector, pascor, versor, vertor, avertor, volvor, &c. See iv. 127 viii. Intransitive Verbs used Transitively. The tendency of Intransitive Verbs to become Transitive is variously shewn. i) Many Static Verbs take the cause or motive of the state as an Object, and so become Transitive. Such are Doleo, lugeo, maereo, grieve, grieve for ; tremo, tremble, tremble at; erubesco, blush, blush for; ardeo, burn, burn for; esurio, hunger, hunger for ; sitio, thirst, thirst for ; lateo, lie hid, lie hid from ; maneo, remain, await ; miror, wonder, wonder at ; pereo, depereo, die or waste away, die or waste for love of; queror, complain, complain of; sileo, taceo, am silent, am silent of; audeo, dare ; calleo, am enured, am familiar with ; fastidio, loathe ; horreo, horresco, shudder ; paveo, pavesco, quake ; palleo, pallesco, turn pale t &c. Ex. * Doleo casum tuum/ I grieve for your misfortune, C. ' Pon- tum palluit,' she turned pale at the sea, Hor. C. iii. 27, 26. * E ru- be scit soloecismum,' he blushes for his solecism, Sen. Ep. 95. ' Nutum divitis ho r ret/ he shudders at the rich man's nod, Hor. Epist. i. 1 8. ii. 1 The Accusatives of Time, Space, Measure and Place, are in the nature of the Contained Accusative. Thus ' ire Romam ' = 'ire itcr Romae.' 12 j Accusative Case. 377 2) Verbs of Intransitive action take as Object that which excites the action : latro, bark, bark at ; sibilo, hiss ; rideo, laugh, laugh at ; fleo, weep, weep for \ gemo, gemisco. groan, groan for. 'Populus me sibilat,' the populace hiss me, Hor. S. i. i. 66. 'Fletnecem fill,' she weeps for her son's death, Tac. Note. Most in these classes have no personal Passive: ardeo, audeo, calleo, lateo, pereo, paveo, palleo, &c. A few are found Passive: 'Quo plus sunt potae plus sitiuntur aquae,' water is thirsted for more, the more it has been drunk, Ov. F. i. 216. 3) Various Verbs, usually Intransitive, take a Transitive force in certain senses: Annuere, grant ; adsuescere, consuescere, insuescere, accustom ; desinere, leave off\ censere, enroll ; cunctari, delay ; deproperare, festinare, maturare, properare, speed \ iaculari, shoot ; laborare, elaborare, work out ; fugere, escape from ; migrare, transgress ; morari, delay ; pergere, continue ; plaudere, pat ; putare, reckon, prune ; sufficere, supply ; ruere, proruere, overthrow, rake up ; surgere, rouse up ; vergere, incline, &c. On the other hand, some Verbs, usually Transitive, have also a peculiar Intransitive use : such are, Audire, (hear) be called; differre, (sunder) disagree ; debere, (owe) be bound (ought} ; superare, (surpass) survive, remain. Credere, (entrust) believe, takes Dat. or Ace. of thing, Dat. of person. Sortiri, allot, or take by lot, is Transitive in each sense. 4) Many Compounds of Intransitive Verbs, especially verbs of Motion, obtain a Transitive or Semitransitive force, chiefly when compounded with Prepositions governing an Accusative, ad, ante, circum, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, trans: Adire, aggredi, allabi, adsilire, anteire, antecedere, antecurrere, antegredi, antevenire, circumire, circumnavigare, circumvenire, inire, ingredi, illabi, innare, innatare, insilire, insultare, invadere, invehi, obire, obambulare, obequitare, perambulare, percurrere, permeare, praeterire, subire, transcurrere, transire, tranare, trans- gredi, transilire, transvolare, &c. Some which do not contain motion : Adiacere, accumbere, adstare, adsidere, alloqui, circumsonare, circumsedere, circumstare, impugnare, inclamare, incubare, insi- dere, instare, inundare, oppugnare, obsidere, occumbere, &c. Many of these may take a Dative instead of an Accusative : Allabi, illabi, innare, succedere, subrepere, incubare, instare, &c. Some Verbs of motion, compounded with Prepositions which govern an Ablative, cum, e, prae, can be used as Transitive : Coire, convenire, egredi, elabi, erumpere, evadere, excedere, exire, praecedere, praecurrere, praefluere, praegredi, praevenire : And some not of motion : Abnuere, aversari, edormire, expugnare, &c. Most of these also vary their construction. Note i. We call those Verbs Semitransitive which, though they take an Attained Object, are not used Passively : Adiacere, adsidere, and others in the preceding lists. 378 Latin Syntax. 128. The test of an Active Transitive Verb is Personal use as Passive : 1 Tamesis uno loco pedibus transiri potest/ the Thames can be forded in one spot, Caes. B. G.v. 18. 'Circumsedemur copiis omnibus/ we are beset by all the forces, C. Att. xv. 9. Therefore transeo and circumsedeo are used as Transitive Verbs. So, 'Quidam oratores si arriderentur, esset id ipsum Attico- rum/ if certain orators were smiled on, this would be a true sample of Attic fashion, C. Opt. G. O. 4. Note 2. Intransitive Verbs which take a Contained Object are often used transitively in the third Persons Passive : 'Tota mihi dormitur hiemps/ / sleep the whole winter, Mart, xiii. 59. ' Noctes vigilantur amarae/ there are bitter night- watches, Ov. H. xii. 169. 'Tertia vivitur aetas/ a third age of life is passing, Ov. M. xii. 187. ' Multo pisce natantur aquae/ the waters are swum by many a fish, Ov. A. A. i. 48. Rare instances of Trajective Verbs personally Passive are found : invideor in Horace; imperor both in Horace and Cicero. But Impersonal Passive Construction is regular in such Verbs. 5) Sometimes the Preposition is repeated after Compound Verbs, or another introduced : 'Sestius ad urbem advolavit/ Sestius flew to the city, C. p. Ses. 4. 'Orator peragrat per animos hominum/ an orator travels through the minds of men, C. d. Or. i. 51. ' Pittacus acce- de re quemquam vetat in funus aliorum/ Pittacus forbids anyone to approach the funeral of other people, C. Leg. ii. 26. This happens also with Prepositions governing the Ablative : ' Excedere ex urbe/ * eripere ab aliquo pecuniam/ &c. Hence some Compound Verbs, the Primitives of which are Tran- sitive, have two Accusatives ; one of which is the Object of the Simple Verb, the other depends on the Preposition. The Preposi- tions admitting this construction are trans, ad, circum, praeter: 'Petreius iusiurandum adigit Afranium/ Petreius makes Afranius (take) an oath, Caes. B. C. i. 76. ' Postquam id animum ad vert it/ when he turned his mind to this, Caes. B. G. v. 18. ' Allobroges Pompeius suapraesidia c i r c u m d u x i t/ Pompeius led the Allobroges round his posts, Caes. h. C. iii. 61. The Passive construction retains the Accusative governed by the Preposition: 'Scopulos praetervecta videtur oratio mea/ my speech seems to have cleared the rocks, C. p. Coel. 21. 128 ix. Idiomatic Uses. r) The Abstract Verbal Noun itself appears in the Comic poets with an Accusative: 'Quid tibi hanc curatio est rem?' what concern have you with this affair? Plaut. Amph. i. 3. 21. 2) The Participial in -bundus is sometimes used with an Accu- sative : .' Populabundus agros/ laying waste the lands, Cell. xi. 15. Livy uses perosus, hating, with Accusative. Exosus and pertaesus are so used by writers of the silver age. 129-130- Accusative Case. 379 3) Comic poetry shews that it was an idiom of Roman conversa- tion to begin a sentence with an unconstructed Accusative, ante- cedent to a Relative also in the Accusative : 'Naucratem quern convenire volui, in navi non erat,' Naucrates 'whom I wished to meet was not on board, Plaut. Amph. iv. i. I. 'Eunuchum quern dedisti nobis quas turbas dedit ! ' that eunuch whom you gave us, what trouble he has given ! Ter. Eun. iv. 3. ii. a) The Greek idiom was also used, by which the true Subject of a Relative Clause is made the Object of the principal sentence : ' Scin'me in quibus sim gaudiis ? J do you know how overjoyed I am ? Plaut. Bac. iv. 6. 28. ' Servum meum Strobilum miror ubi sit/ / wonder where is my slave Strobilus, Plaut. Aul. iv. 7. 1 6. Note. Many Verbs take a great variety of Objects, thus forming an extensive phraseology, which may be studied in good dictionaries with advantage. Such Verbs are : ago, capio, do, facio, fero, habeo, volo and their compounds. 129 x. The Exclamatory Accusative. Accusa- tive in 1) The Accusative may stand with one of the Interjections O, sis. hen, eheu, pro, en, ecce, &c., or without an Interjection: ) Verbal Substantives governing Dative rarely occur : 140 Obtemperatio legibus ; remedia morbis, &c. But such words as host is, legatus, &c., being of an Adjectival nature, are followed by a Dative ; and others are so used when the Dative is Acquisitive. iii. (II) The Recipient or Acquisitive Dative. I4 i (Dat. Commodi et Incommodi.) 'Pisistratus sibi non patriae Megarensis vicit,' Pisistratus conquered the Megarians for himself, not for his country, lust. ii. 8. 'Neque mihi ex cuiusquam amplitudine aut praesidia periculis aut adiumenta honoribus quaere,' C. p. L. Man. 24. ' Filius Blaesi militibus missionem petebat,' Tac. Ann. i. 19. 'Cato . . . urbi pater est urbique maritus,' Lucan. ii. 388. , 1) Here may be ranked the Datives with vac are, to be at leisure (alicui rei), nubere, to wed, properly l to take the veil for' (viro), and those with Verbs of care, caution, fear: consulere, stud ere, cupere, cavere, prospicere, providere, metuere, timere, &c. (alicui), to consult, look out, fear (for somebody or something). 2) Est, sunt, &c., with a Dative, express 'having:' Suus cuique mos est,' every one has his own custom, Ter. 'Sex filii nob is, duae filiae sunt,' we have six sons and two daughters, L. xlii. 34. 3) Facio, fio are used with a Dative : 'Quid facies huicP'C. 'Quid mihi futurum est ?' C. Also in the same sense, with de and Ablative : Quid de me fiet ? what will become of me ? And with Abl. alone : Quid me fiet ? Quid te futurum'st? Ter. 4) The Dative of a Pronoun, loosely added, and expressing general reference to a person, is called Dativus Ethicus : 3QO Latin Syntax. 142. 'Quid mi hi Celsus agit?' how does my Celsus get on? Hor. Epist. i. 3. 15. 'Quid ait nob is Sannio?' what says our Sannio ? 5) Similar to this is the Dative with the Interjections hem, ecce: Hem Davum tibi, see, here's Davus: Ecce tibi Antonius, &c. 6) Hei, vae take a Dative : 'Hei misero mi hi,' alas for wretched me, Ter. Vae victis, woe to the conquered, L. 7) A Recipient Dative, instead of an Ablative of the Agent, may be joined to Passive Participles, especially to Gerun- dives; also to Participials in -bilis : ' Formidatus O t h o n i/ dreaded of Otho, luv. ' Bella m a t r i- bus detestata/ wars abhorred by mothers, Hor. ' Proe- lia coniugibus loquenda/ battles for wives to talk of, Hor. ' Non ulli affabilis,' Verg. Poets extend this idiom to Personal Passive Verbs : ' Non intellegor ulli,' Ov. ' Carmina quae scribuntur aquae potoribus,' Hor. Epist. i. 19. 3. In prose it is rare. ' Dissimillimis bestiis communiter cibus quaeritur,' C. N. D. ii. 48. 8) To such predications as 'Cui (huic) nomen est, quibus (his) nomen datur, damus,' &c., the Name itself is some- times joined as an attracted Dative : ' Volitans, cui nomen asilo Romanum est,' an insect whose Roman name is asilus, Verg. G. iii. 147. ' In campis, quibus nomen erat Raudiis, decertavere/ they fought in plains called the Raudian, Veil. ii. 2. (But a Nominative or Genitive of the Name is found: 'Ei morbo nomen est avaritia,' C. 'Nomen Mercuri est mihi,' Plaut. Am. Prol. 19.) 9) Analogous to this are the attractions : ' Hoc mihi volenti est/ Sail. ' Quibus bellum volentibus erat,' who wished for war, Tac. 10) When a Copulative Infinitive (esse, fieri, &c.) depends on a Verb with Dative Object, the Complement is generally Dative : ' Mihi non licet esse neglegenti/ C. Att. i. 17. 'Da mihi fallere, da iusto sanctoque videri,' Hor. Epist. i. 1 6. 6 1. But it may be Accusative : < Primum ego me illorum, dederim quibus esse poet as excerpam numero,' Hor. 6*. 1.4.39 (where Orelli reads poetis without authority or necessity). Note. The Dative of Place Whither is poetic : ' It clamor caelo/ a shout reaches the sky, Verg. Ae. v. 451. iv. (Ill) The Predicative Dative of Purpose. This is usually found with a Second Dative of the Recipient : Odio esse (cordi esse) alteri, to be an object of hate (liking) to another ; vitio vertere alteri, to impute as a fault to another. So, commodo, dedecori, delectationi, emolumento, honori, voluptati, &c., esse alicui, crimini dare alteri ; auxilio, subsidio venire alteri. 142. Dative Case. 391 But a second Dative is not always used : Habere aliquem con- temptui, derisui, ludibrio ; habere rempublicam quaestui ; ponere (opponere) aliquid pigneri, to pawn, mortgage ; canere receptui, to sound a retreat. (Akin to this construction is that of the Dative Gerund and Gerundive : solvendo esse, to be solvent ; tresviri reipublicae con- stituendae, three commissioners for settling the government.} In Personal Passive construction both Datives remain ; Liber a patre filio do no datus est. 1 Examples of the Dative Case. I. (Dative of Remoter Object.) 'Zenoni placuit, bonum esse solum, quod ho- nestum esset,' C. T.D.v. n. 'Omnibus bonis expedit salvam esse rempublicam,* C. Phil. xiii. 8. 'Non vacat exiguis rebus adesse lovi,' Ov. Tr. ii. 216. 'Cicero meus salutem tibi dicit,' C. Att. v. 9. 'Diem mihi dixerat, multam irrogarat/ C. j*. Mil. 14. ' Qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam,' Enn. 'Anguis Sullae apparuit immolanti,' C. Div. ii. 30. ' Tironem Dolabellae obviam misi,' C. Att. xii. 5. 'Dionysius nobis praesto fuit,' C. Att. iv. 12. ' Pompeio et Senatui pacis auctor fui,' C. Att. ix. ii. 'Quantum consuetudini famaeque dandum sit, id curent vivi,' C. T. D. i. 45. ' Is denique honos mihi videri solet, qui non propter spem futuri beneficii, sed propter magna merita Claris viris defertur et datur,'C. Fain. x. 10. 'lam non ago tibi gratias; cui enim re vix referre possum, huic verbis non patitur res satisfieri,' C. ad Brut. ii. i. 'Attici neptem Caesar Tiberio Claudio Neroni privigno suo despond it,' Nep. Att. 19. ' Dissociatis animis civium, alii Sullanis, alii Cinnanis partibus favebant/ N. Att. 2. 'Omnino irasci amicis non temere soleo, ne si merentur quidem/ C. Phil. viii. 5. ' Tirones iureiurando accepto nihil iis nocituros hostis se Otacilio dediderunt,' Caes. B. C. iii. 28. ' ludicis est innocentiae subvenire,' C./. Clu. i. ' Antiochus si parere voluisset consiliis Hannibalis, propms Tiberi quam Thermopylis de summa imperi dimicasset,' Nep. Hann. 8. ' Imperat aut servit collecta pecunia cuique,' Hor. Epist. i. 10. 47. 'Cur succumbis cedisque for- tunae?' C. T. D. iii- 17. 'Non Caesari solum, sed etiam amicis eius omnibus pro Ligario exsule Cicero supplicavit,' C. Fain. vi. 14. 'Cui Gellius benedixit unquam bono? ' C. /. Sext. 52. 'Tu verbis sol vesnumquam quod mi re malefeceris," Ter. Ad. ii. i. 10. 'Pelopidas omnibus periculis adfuit,' Nep. Pel. 4. 'Erat aupta soror Attici Q. Tullio Ciceroni,' Nep. Att. 5. 'Venus nupsit Vulcano; Astarten Adonidi nupsisse proditum est,' C. N. D. iii. 23. 'Brutus collegae suo imperium abrogavit,' C. Br. 14. ' Sthenius est is, qui nobis assidet,' C. Verr. ii. 34. ' Leges omnium salutem singulorum saluti anteponunt,' C. Fin. iii. 19. 'Dionysius aureum lovi Olympic detraxit amiculum, eique laneum pallium iniecit, cum id esse ad omne anni tempus diceret,' C. N. D. iii. 34. ' Est viri et ducis, non deesse fortunae praebenti se, et oblata casu flectere ad consilium,' L. xxviii. 44. 'Praetor interdixit de vi hominibus armatis,' C. /. Cacc. 8. ' Hortensius veritus est ne Fufius tribunus plebis ei legi intercederet, quae ex senatus consulto ferebatur,' C. Att. i. 16. 'Ut Thucydidis concisis sententiis officit Theopompus elatione atque altitudine orationis suae, quod idem Lysiae Demosthenes, sic Catonis luminibus obstruxit posteriorum quasi exaggerata altius oratio,' C. Br. 17. ' Hannibal Ale x- andro Magno non postponendus est,' lust. xxx. 4. 'Certis rebus certa signa praecurrunt,' C. Div. i. 52. 'Deus am mum, ut dominum atque imperantem, oboedienti praefecit corpori,' C. Univ. 7. ' Nihil semper floret: aetas succedit aetati,' C. Phil. xi. 15. ' Numquam Atticus potenti adulatus est Antonio,' N. Att. 8. ' Non ita adulatus sum fortunam alterius, ut me meae paeniteret, C. Div. ii. 2. ' Lictores praetoribus anteeunt cum fascibus duobus,' C. d. L. Agr. \\. 34. 'Te semper anteit torva Necessitas,' Hor. C. i. 35. 17. 'Iis aemulamur, qui ea habent quae nos habere cupimus,' C. T. D. i. 19. 'Quod me Agamemnonem aemulari putas, falleris,' Nep. Ep. 5. 'Cui nullum probrum dicere poterat, eius obtrectare laudes voluit,' L. xlv. 37. ' Non id laboro, ut, si qui mihi ohtrectent, a te refutentur,' C. Fain. ix. ii. 'Mihi ausculta; vide ne tibi desis,' C. /. S. Rose. 36. 'Homines auscultant crimina,' Plaut. Pseud, i. 5. 12. 'In Formiano tibi praestolor,' C. Att. ii. 15. ' Curionis adventum L. Caesar filius ad Clupeam 1 The saying ' Cui bono fuit ? ' ivJiose interest was it ? deserves special notice, because it is often erroneously cited in a different sense. See C./. Mil. 12 ; Phil. ii. 14. 392 Latin Syntax. J43. E. The A blative Case. 143 i -phe ABLATIVE is the Modal Case, or Case of Circumstances which modify the predication adverbially. Besides its proper Ablative functions (taken in Greek by the Genitive), it comprises those of the Primitive Instru- mental (partly taken in Greek by the Dative) and most functions of the Locative Case. Its uses may be conveniently taken in the following order : I. Instrumental Ablative: comprising Cause; Instrument; Agent ; Price ; Matter. II. Locative Ablative: comprising Respect; 1 Difference; Manner ; Condition ; Quality ; Time When ; Place Where and by Which. III. Ablative Proper : comprising Place Whence ; Separation; Origin ; Thing Compared. praestolabatur,' Caes. B. C. ii. 23. ' Aucta fama cladis ingens terror Patres itivasit, dictatoremque dici placebat,' L 5x. 38. 'In Galliam Antonius invasit, in Asiam Dolabella,' C. Phil. xi. 2. ' Equidem ut veni ad urbem, mirus invaserat furor non solum improbis sed etiam his qui boni habentur ut pugnare cuperent/ C. Fam. xvi. 12. ' Est mihi magnae curae, ut ita erudiatur Lucullus, ut patri re- spondeat," C. Fin. iii. 2. ' Respondebisne ad haec?' C. Phil. ii. 43. 'Si inest in oratione mixta modestiae gravitas, nihil admirabilius fieri potest,' C. Off. ii. 14. 'Inerant lunaria fronti cornua,' Ov. M. ix. 687. ' Caritati ipsius soli longo tempore assuescitur,' L. ii. i. 'Assuetae sanguine et praeda aves/ Flor. i. T. ' In omnia familiaria iura assuetus,' L. xxiv. 5. ' Natura vi rationis hominem conciliat homini,' C Off. i. 4. 'Ratio et oratio conciliat inter se homines/ C. Off. i. 1 6. ' Ennius equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat suam,' C. Cat. M, 5. ' Quaeso, pontifices, et hominem cum homtne, et tempus cum tempore, et rem cum re comparate,' C. p. Dom. 50. ' Longe mea discrepat istis et vox et ratio,' Hor. S. i. 6. 92. ' Id a tuis litteris discrepabat," C. Att. ii. T. 'Duae leges inter se dis- crepant,' C. d. Inv. 2. 'Conexum sit principium consequent! orationi,' C. d. Or. ii. 80. ' Amicitia cum voluptate conectitur,' C. Fin. i. 20. ' Mamertini honorem debitum detraxerunt non homini, sed ordini,' C. Verr. iv. n. 'Sacerdotem ab ipsis avis detraxisti,' C. d. Har. 13. ' Ille non cessat de nobis detrahere,' C. Att. xi. ii. 'Orationi adspergentur etiam sales, qui in dicendo nimium quantum valent,' C. Or. 26. ' Pythagoras ne Apollini quidem Delio hostiam immolare voluit, ne aram sanguine adspergeret,' C. N. D. iii. 36. ' Dionysius fossam latam cubiculari lecto circumdedit,' C. T. D. v. 20. ' Deus animum circumdedit corpore/ C. Univ. 6. ' Equites Hannoni se c rcumfudere,' L. xxix. 34. 'Agesilaum amici, quod mcl non habebant, cera circumfuderunt,' Nep. Ag. 8. 'Atticus Atheniensis universes frumento donavit,' Nep. Att. 2. 'Ciceroni populus Romanus aeter- nitatem immortalitatemque donavit,' C. in Pis. 3. 'In deversorio erant ea composita, quibus rex te munerare constituerat,' C. /. Deiot. 6. ' Di cam potestatem dabunt, ut beneficium benemerenti muneres,' Plaut. Capt. v. i. 15. Doctrinis aetas puerilis impertiri debet,' Nep. Att. T. ' Terentia impertittibi multam salutem,' C. Att. ii. 12. 'Sto expectans si quid mthi imperent,' Ter. Eun. iii. 5. 46. ' Conon ad mare missus est, ut maritimis civitatibus navis longas imperaret,' Nep. Con.4. 'Matronis Medea persuasit ne sibi vitio verterent quod abesset a patria,' C. Fam. vii. 6. 'Hoc mihi non modo confirmavit, sed etiam persuasit,' C. Att. xvi. 5. 'Nihil facile persuadetur invitis,' Qu. iv. 3. 'Cato iis solis non invi- debat, quibus nihil ad dignitatem posset accedere,'C. Att. vii. 3. ' Aliorum laudi atque gloriae maxime invideri solet,' C. d. Or. ii. 51. 'Africae solo oleum et 1 Respect, Difference, Manner, Condition, Quality, Time, may be considered Loca- tive, as logically limiting the position of that which they modify. In many examples it is not easy to say whether the Ablative should be referred to Cause, Instrument, Matter, or Manner. I4 4. Ablative Case. 393 ii. (I) Instrumental Ablative. 144 A] The Ablative of Cause answers the question Owing to what ? i) It chiefly limits state; and is therefore joined to Verbs Intransitive or Passive, to their Participles, and to Adjectives. vinum natura invidet,' PL N. ff. xv. 2. 'Invidet igne rogi miseris, 5 Lucan. vii. 798. ' Manus extrema non accessit operibus,' C. Br. 33. ' Nondum ad rcm- publicam accessi,' C. /. S. Rose. i. 'Dolor accessit bonis viris: virtus non est imminuta,' C. Att. i. 16. ' Rumore adventus n9stri Cassio animus accessit,' C. Att. v. 20. 'Accedam in plerisque Ciceroni,' Qu. ix. 4. 2. ' Athenienses consu- luerunt Apollinem Pythium, quas potissimum religiones tenerent,' C. Leg. ii. 16. ' Di consulunt rebus humanis,' C. Div. i. 51. ' Prudentia numquam deficit ora- tor em,' C. Br. 24. 'Cum iam amplius horis sex continenter pugnaretur, non solum vires, sed etiam tela nostris deficiebant,' Caes. B. G. iii. 5. ' Indulge valetudini tuae, cui quidem tu adhuc, dum mihi deservis, servisti non satis,' C. Fam. xvi. 18. ' Indulsit ornamenta consularia procuratoribus,' Suet. Claud. 24. ' Praestat honestas incolumitati,' C. Inv. ii. 58. ' Atheniensium civitas antiquitate, humanitate, doctrina praestabat omnis,' Nep. Att. 3. ' Ser. Sulpicius honorem debitum patri praestitit,' C. Phil. ix. 5. ' Trebatium obiurgavi, quod parum valetudini par- ceret,' C. Fam. xi. 27. ' Precantur ut et a caedibus et ab incendiis parceretur,' L. xxv. 25. 'Libros oratorios in manibus habeo, quos, ut spero, valde tibi probabo,' C. Att. iv. 14. ' Atticae meae velim me ita excuses, ut omnem culpam in te trans- feras,' C. Att. xv. 28. 'Quod te mihi de Sempronio purgas, accipio excusationem,' C. Fain. xii. 25. ' Antonius leges civitati per vim imposuit,' C. Phil. vii. 5. ' Metellum multi filii in rogum imposuerunt,' C. T. D. 1.35. ' Imposuistis in cervicibus nostris sempiternum dominum,' C. N. D. i. 20. ' Non recuso quin, si cui- quam Verres ulla in re umquam temperaverit, vos quoqueei temperetis,'C. Verr. ii. 6. 'Quis talia fando temperet a lacrimis?' Verg. Ae. ii. 8. 'Nobilitas Ser. Sulpicii hominibus litteratis et historicis erat notior, populo vero obscurior,' C. p. Mur. 7. 'Voluptatibus maximis fastidium finitimum est,'C. d. Or. iii. 15. 'Audivi te esse Caesari familiarem,' C. Fam. vii. 14. 'Omnis voluptas honestati est contraria/ C. Off. iii. 33. ' Fidelissimi ante omnia homini sunt canis atque equus,' PL N. H. viii. 40. 'Nee fertilis ilia iuvencis, nee pecori opportuna seges nee commoda Baccho,' Verg. G. iv. 125. 'Romulus multitudini gratior fuit, quam Patribus; longe ante alios acceptissimus militum animis/ L. i. 15. ' Ilia expugnatio fani antiquissimi lunonis Samiae, quam luctuosa Samiis fuit, quam acerba toti Asiae !' C. Verr. i. 19. ' Ea virtus est praestantis viri, quae est fructuosa aliis, ipsi autem laboriosa, periculosa, aut certe gratuita,' C. d. Or. ii. 85. ' Sollertia pestifera multis admodum paucis salutaris est,' C. N. D. iii. 27. ' Falernum mihi semper idoneum visum est deversorio,' C. Fam. vi. 19. 'Verba innocent! reperire facile est; modum verborum misero tenere difficile,' Curt. vi. 10. ' Senatori necessariutn est nosse rem publican*,' C. Leg. iii. 18. ' Epaminondas velut gratulabundus patriae exspiravit,' lust. vi. 8. ' Syracusani nobis dicto audientes sunt,' C. Verr. v. 32. ' Apud Germanos probrosum est superstitem principi suo ex acie recessisse,' Tac. G. 14. 'Socrates nee patronum quaesivit ad iudicium capitis nee iudicibus supplex fuit,' C. T. D. i. 29. 'Ennio aequalis fuit Livius, qui primus fabulam dedit,' C. Br. 18. ' Aequalis temporum illorum,' C. Div. i. 20. ' Vetilius id dicit quod illi causae maxime est alienum,' C. p. Caec. 9. ' Ea scripsi ad te quae non alien a esse ducerem a dignitate,' C. Fam. iv. 7. 'Alienum dignitatis,' C. Fin. i. 4. ' Nihil est a me commissum, quod esset alienum nostra amicitia,' C. Fam. xi. 27. 'Omni aetati mors est com munis,' C. Cat. M. 19. ' Haec itaiustitiae propria sunt ut sint virtutum reliquarum communia,' C. Fin. v. 23. 'Studium conservandi hominis commune mihi vobiscum esse debebit,' C. p. Rab. i. 'Natus abdomini suo non laudi atque gloriae,'C. in Pis. 17. 'Ad laudem et ad decus nati sumus,' C. Fin. v. 22. 'Thracibus est ferrum et promptus libertati aut ad mortem animus,' Tac. Ann. iv. 46. ' T. Manlius perindulgens est in patrem, acerbe severus in filium,' C. Off. iii. 31. lugurtha propior montem pedites collocat,' Sail. Ing. 49. ' Treviri proximi Rheno flumini sunt,' Caes. B. G. iii. ii. ' Ubii proximi Rhenum incolunt,' Caes. B. G.'\. 54. 'Summum bonum a Stoicis dicitur, convenienter naturae vivere,' C. Fin. 394 Latin Syntax. 144. Plecti neglegentia ; mori senectute ; pallescere culpa ; impe- ditus morbo ; pallidus ira ; ardens amore ; fessus media et fluctibus, &c. It may limit Transitive Verbs, especially when it expresses feeling or motive : Hac mente, hoc consilio, laetitia, odio, &c., facere, dicere aliquid, c. 2) It includes the phrases : causa, gratia, ergo, nomine, for the sake of. l Quaestus causa/ jfor the sake of gain ; but mea, tua, &c. causa. ' Turpitudinis effugiendae gratia,' for, the sake of avoiding disgrace. ' Virtutis ergo (nomine),' on the score of merit. iii. 7. ' Ex quibusdam stirpibus et herbis re media morbisetvulneribus eligimus,' C. N. D. ii. 64. II. (Dativus Comnwdi et Incommodi.~) ' Non solum nobis divites esse volumus, sed liberis, propinquis, amicis, maximeque reipublicae,' C. Off. iii. 15. ' Si domus pulchra est, intellegimus earn dominis aedificatam esse, non muribus/ C. in Caecil. 3. 'Tibi aras, tibi occas, tibi sens, tibi eidem metis/ Plaut. Merc. i. i. 71. 'Caesar reperiebat favere Dumnorigem et cupere Helvetiis propter affinitatem/ Caes. B. G. i. 18. 'Tibi favemus ; tibi optamus earn rempublicam, in qua tuorum renovare memoriam atque augere possis,' C. Br. 97. ' Pro deum fidem, quid vobis vultis?' L. iii. 67. 'Atheniensis Clisthenes lunoni Samiae, cum rebus timeret suis, filiarum dotes credidit/ C. Leg. ii. 16. ' Germani ab parvulis labori ac duritiae student,' Caes. B. G. vi. 21. ' Scabiem pecori et iumentis caveto,' Cato, R. R. 5. ' Bene mihi, bene vobis, bene omnibus nobis!' Plaut. Pers. v. i. 20. ' Consulite vobis, prospicite patriae,' C. in Cat. iv. 2. ' Numa virgines Vestae legit, Salios item Marti Gradivo/ L. i. 20. ' Improbo et stulto et inerti nemini bene esse potest,' C. Par. 2. 'Tibi bene ex animo volo,' Ter. Haiit. v. 2. 6. ' Multis de causis ego huic causae patronus exstiti,' C. p. S. Rose. 2. ' Semper in civitate, quibus opes nullae sunt, bonis invident,' Sail. Cat. 37. 'An nescis longas regibus esse manus?' Ov. Her. xvii. 166. ' Filius meus si quid peccat, mihi peccat,' Ter. Ad. i. 2 - 35- 'Quid mihi L. Paul! nepos quaerit, quo modo duo soles visi sint?' C. Rep. i. 19. 'Ecce tibi, qui rex populi Romani dominusque omnium gentium esse concu- pierit, idque perfecerit ! ' C. Off. iii. 21. ' Audita est Brenni, reguli Gallorum, intole- randa Romanis vox; Vae victis esse,' L. v. 48. 'Cui non sunt auditae Demos- thenis vigiliae?' C. T. D. iv. 19. ' Mihi consilium captum iam diu est,' C. Fam. v. 19. ' Ut esse possem orator, magno studio mihi a pueritia est elaboratum,' C. in Caecil. 12. ' Legendus mihi saepius est Cato Maior,' C. Att. xiv. 21. ' Restat Chremes qui mihi exorandus est,' Ter. An. i. i. 130. ' Hie tibi sit potius quam tu mirabilis illi,' Hor. Epist. i. 6. 23. ' Vix audior ulli,' Ov. Ep. ex P. iii. 9. ' Duo sunt Roscii, quorum alteri Capitoni cognomen est,' C. p. S. Rose. 6. ' Attus Clausus, cui postea Appio Claudio fuit Romae nomen, ab Regillo magna clientium comitatus manu Romam transfugit,' L. ii. 16. ' Illis timidis et ignavis licet esse ; vobis necesse est fortibus viris esse,' L. xxi. 44. 'Medics esse (nos) iam non licebit,' C. Att. x. 8. III. (Predicative Dative. ) ' Vitam rusticam tu p r o b r o et c r i m i n i putas e s s e ? ' C. J>. S. Rose. 17. ' Otho quidquid epistularum erat, necui periculo aut noxae apud victorem forent, concremavit,' Suet. Oth. 10. ' Spero homines intellecturos, quanto sit omnibus odio crudelitas, et quanto amori probitas et dementia,' C. Fam. xv. 19. ' Ampla domus dedecori domino saepe fit, si est in ea solitude,' C. Off. i. 39. 'Vitio mihi dant quod mortem hominis necessarii graviter fero,' C. Fam. xi. 28. ' Pergite, ut facitis, adulescentes, atque in id studium, in quo estis, incumbite, ut et vobis honori, et amicis utilitati, et reipublicae emolumento esse possitis/ C. d. Or. i. 8. ' Flaminius consul ante signum lovis Statoris sine causa repente concidit, nee earn rem habuit religioni,' C. Div. i. 35. ' Habere quaestui rem- publicam turpe et nefarium est,' C. Off. ii. 22. ' Virtus sola neque datur dono neque accipitur,' Sail. lug. 85. 145-47- Ablative Case. 395 3) Also the phrases iussu, iniussu, monitu, mandatu, per- missu, rogatu, &c., ope, opera, beneficio, dolo, c. 4) Cause may be expressed by the Prepositions ab, de, ex, per, prae. Ab animi levitate ; per aetatem ; multis de causis ; prae gaudio. B] The Ablative of the Instrument answers the question 145 By what means ? 1) It limits Verbs Active or Passive, and their Participles. Pugnare gladiis ; defendere se cornibus ; lapide ictus ; veneno exstingui, &c. 2) The Ablative of an Abstract Noun may be Instrumental : ' Forma et moribus conciliare aliquem.' 3) The Preposition cum with its Case is sometimes used as equivalent to a Participle with Instrumental Ablative : ' Homines cum gladiis ' = homines gladiis armati. C] The Ablative of the Personal Agent with the Preposi- 146 tion ab, by, answers the question By whom / 1) It is joined to Verbs Passive or Quasi-passive and their Participles : ' Mundus a Deo administratur ; ' ab hoste venire ; ab improbis expulsus, &.c. 2) The Preposition per is used to express both Instrument and Agent : Per dolum, per insidias capi ; per bonos restitui, &c. 3) Abstract terms, though in general Instrumentally used in the Ablative, are sometimes treated as Agents : 'Piget dicere ut vobis animus ab ignavia atque socordia corruptus sit/ it is sad to state how your mind has been corrupted by idleness and sloth. Sail. lug. 31; M. Lucr. i. 813. D] The Ablative of Price answers the questions For how 147 much ? At what cost ? i) It accompanies Verbs of purchase, sale, barter, hiring, letting, bidding, costing, &c., or any other with which Cost or Value can be connected. Such are Emere and its compounds, mercari, opsonari, vendere, venire ; conducere, locare, collocare ; licere, liceri, licitari, c., constare, stare, valere, esse, &c., aestimare, &c. Also Adjectives implying cost, dearness, cheapness : Venalis, vendibilis, parabilis, cams, vilis, &c. Emere, c., venalis esse, &c., pretio, grandi pecunia, centum nummis, viginti denariis, centum milibus, mille drachmis (minis, talentis), c. 396 Latin Syntax. I4 8. 2) The following Ablatives of Cost are used with such words, the Noun pretio being understood : Magno, parvo, minimo, paululo, plurimo, nimio, dimidio, duplo, vili, &c. Tanto, quanto may be used ; but Price is more usually expressed by their Genitives tanti, quanti, also by the Genitives pluris, minoris, maximi, which Adjectives are not used in the Ablative of Price without pretio. a) Valuation is usually expressed by the Genitives magni, parvi, &c. (pretii), and others. See GENITIVE. ) The Verbs mutare, commutare, permutare, vertere (to exchange), take either an Accusative of the thing parted with, and an Ablative of the thing taken : ' Mutare pacem bello/ to exchange peace for war, i.e. to go to war; or (especially in poetry) an Accusative of the thing taken, and an Abla- tive of the thing parted with : ' Permutare otio divitias,' to take wealth in exchange for ease. J4 3 E] The Ablative of Matter answers the questions Where- with ? (in a material sense ;) Whereof? It accompanies a great number of* Verbs and Adjectives : 1) Transitive Verbs of sacrificing; adorning, enduing, arming; dignifying, afflicting, punishing; nourishing, supporting, delighting ; fashioning, instructing, furnishing ; binding, &c.: Facere, immolare, litare, libare, &c. victima, hostia, agno, &c. vino, lacte, &c. : ornare, induere, armare, &c. veste, corona, ense, &c. : afficere, mactare, &c. beneficio, honore, iniuria, poena, &c. : afficere admiratione ; affici morbo, &c. : alere, pascere, iuvare, delectare, oblectare, &c. opibus, sermonibus, &c. : formare, informare, insti- tuere, munire, c. doctrina, bonis artibus, subsidiis, &c.: obligare, devincire, obstringere, tenere, &c. iure- jurando, religione, &c. 2) Intransitive Verbs of consisting, being made ; being accus- tomed ; depending; being strong, being distressed ; flour- ishing, languishing ; rejoicing, boasting, grieving; rely- ing, distrusting; &c. : Constare, conflari, contineri, fieri ; suescere, assuescere ; pen- dere ; pollere, valere, vigere, lascivire, laborare ; florere, lan- guescere ; gaudere, laetari, exsultare, triumphare, gloriari ; dolere, maerere ; fidere, confidere, niti ; (macte esto) ; dif- fidere, c. Constare also takes ex. ' Omnis ex re atque verbis con- st at oratio/ all speech consists of matter and words, C. d. Or. iii. 5. 3) Adjectives and Participles in meaning akin to some of these Verbs : Compositus, conflatus, concretus, factus; praeditus (en- dued], beatus, felix, contentus, fretus (relying}', laetus, superbus ; fisus, diffisus, coniunctus, assuetus, assuefactus, insuetus, &c. The last six also take a Dative. 4 8. A blative Case. 397 4) Dignus (worthy], indignus (unworthy) : Sometimes also with Genitive. They are applied either to person or to thing : Vir dignus est laude : vox indigna est responsione. Dignari, to deem worthy, or to be deemed worthy (honore, &c.), is always used passively by Cicero; by poets and later prose writers actively also. 5) Opus est, there is need, opus habere, to have need (consilio, prudentia, duce, &c.) Generally used with Ablative, or with Genitive by poets. Opus may also stand as Complement : * Dux nobis et auctor opus est/ we need a leader and adviser, C. Fam. ii. 6. Usus est, there is occasion, is sometimes found : ' Nunc viribus usus/ now there is occasion for strength,Vzrg. Ae. viii. 441. Opus is used with Passive Participial words : ' Ita dictu opus est,' so must we needs say, Ter. Haut. v. i. 68. ' Priusquam incipias, consulto opus est/ ere you begin, there is need of consultation, SalL Cat. I. 'Opus fuit Hirtio convent o/ there was occasion for an interview with Hirtius, C. Att. x. 14. 6) Fungi, to perform, fulfil, with compounds defungi, per- fungi ; frui, to enjoy, with p-erfrui ; uti, to use, with abuti; vesci, to feed on, eat-, potiri, to acquire, gain pos- session of. The Ablative with these Verbs (which is properly instru- mental) is construed like an Object. They were originally Reflexive, and are used with Accusative in E. L., hence they retain the Gerundive : ' Vita data est utenda.' ' Spes potiundorum castrorum/ Caes. See M. Lucr. iii. 956. Utor is found in the sense vi possessing : 'Valetudine utor non bona/ I have poor health, C. Fam. xiv. 5. Being intimate with'. 'Utebatur intime Q. Hortensio/ he was intimate with Hortensius, N. Att. v. 4. Potior also takes a Genitive : sometimes an Accusative. 7) Transitive Verbs of endowing, enriching, filling, increasing, loading, sating, c., depriving, despoiling, emptying, strip- ping, releasing, &c. : Donare, munerare, dotare, ditare, locupletare, opulentare, complere, explore, implere, opplere, replere, augere, cumu- lare, onerare, farcire, confercire, refercire, satiare, exsa- tiare, saturare, exsaturare, &c., destituere, fraudare, pri- vare, orbare, viduare, spoliare, despoliare, vacuare, nudare, levare, exonerare, laxare, liberare, solvere, exsolvere, expe- dire, exhaurire, emungere, exuere, &c. (re aliqua aliquem). Intransitive Verbs of abounding, overflowing, &c., wanting, being void being destitute, c. 398 Latin Syntax. 149-50. Abundare, fluere, affluere, circumfluere, diffluere, exuberare, exundare, redundare, manare, stillare, pluere, scatere, &c., carere, egere, indigere, vacare (re aliqua). Verbs of this class often take a Genitive in poetry; egere, indigere, prefer a Genitive in prose also. Some are followed by the Preposition ab ; levare, libe- rare, vacare (a re). 8) Adjectives of abundance and want : Abundans, beatus, compos, dives, felix, ferax, fertilis, fecun- dus, fetus, frequens, gravis, gravidus, laetus, largus, lo- cuples, nimius, onustus, opulentus, plenus, refertus, satur, tumidus, uber, &c., cassus, egenus, expers, immunis, ina- nis, inops, liber, mancus, nudus, orbus, pauper, purus, solutus, sterilis, truncus, vacuus, viduus, &c. (re aliqua). Many of these may take a Genitive : compos, plenus, fe- cundus; expers, inops, and some others; especially in poetry. Some may take the Preposition ab : immunis, liber, purus, solutus, vacuas (a re); the case after such words being a true Ablative of Separation. iii. (II) Locative Ablative. I4g A) The Ablative of Respect answers the question In regard of what? It is joined to any predication, especially to Substantives and Adjectives, denoting that particular in respect of which the pre- dication is made : * Nomine grammaticus, re barbarus,' in name a gram- marian, in fact a barbarian; ' claudus altero pede,' lame of one foot ; ' virtute et doctrina excellere;' 'contremere tota mente et omnibus artubus:' 'hae domo Carthaginienses sunt.' So, natu maior, elder (minor, maximus, minimus) ; grandis natu, elderly, &c. J50 B] The Ablative of Measure answers the question By what measure ? 1) It limits Measurement or Comparison : 'Sol multis partibus maior est quam terra, 7 the sun is many times greater than the earth, C. N. D. ii. 36. 2) It includes the Ablative of Space and Distance : 'Trium mi Hum spatio (or tribus milibus passuum) dis- tare,' &c., to be three miles off, &c. Ab may be used with this Ablative of Distance : * Naves ab milibus passuum octo vento tenebantur,' the ships were kept by a wind eight miles off, Caes. B, G. iv. 22. 151-53. Ablative Case. 399 3) The following Ablatives are used with Comparative and other words implying Comparison : Hoc, eo, quo, tanto, quanto, aliquanto, multo, paulo, dimidio, nihilo, nimio, altero, &c. ' Eo gravior dolor quo culpa maior,' the pain is heavier in proportion as the fault is greater. Multo optimus; multo praes^are; multo malle. &c., multo ante (post) ; paulo ante (post) ; tanto ante (post), &c. Multo aliter, secus, c. See p. 279. C) The Ablative of Manner answers the question How? T SI j) It is eminently adverbial, appearing in many phrases as a single word : Ordine, ratione, via et ratione (systematically], dolo, fraude, vi, iure, iniuria, vitio (faultily], equo (on horseback], pedi- bus (on foot], &.c. (Per might be used with some of these words in the same sense : per dolum, per vim.) 2) In some instances an unqualified Ablative may be used with or without cum: Clam ore, cum clamore; silentio, cum silentio. But cum is generally used with an unqualified Ablative of Manner : Cum dolore ; cum gaudio ; cum fide ; cum cura. 3) Certain Ablatives, more, modo, ritu, take a Genitive if they have no epithet. 1 More Sophoclis' or 'more Sophocleo,' in the manner of Sophocles ; ' Herculis ritu,' in the fashion of Hercules, Hor. 4) With an Epithet the Ablative of Manner often stands with- out a Preposition, in some phrases always : Hoc (eo) modo, nullo modo, nullo pacto, nullo ordine, nullo negotio, &c. The Preposition seems to be used or omitted at discretion (on its frequency see M. Lucr. i. 755). 'Magno studio' or 'cum magno studio;' 'magno gaudio' or 'cum magno gaudio;' 'adesse omnibus copiis' or 'cum omnibus copiis,' c. D] The Ablative of Condition answers the question On IS2 what terms ? It is one form of the Ablativus Modi : Pace tua, by your leave, bona tua venia, with your -in- dulgence, meo iure, by my own right, mea sententia, in my opinion, c. E) The Ablative of Quality answers the question Of what description ? It always has an Epithet and defines a Substantive, to which it stands either as an Enthesis or as a Complement: Murena, vir mediocri ingenio, &c. or'Murena medi- ocri ingenio fuit.' See GENITIVE OF QUALITY. 4OO Latin Syntax. 154. 154 F) The Ablative of Time answers the questions When? Within what time? Hieme, vere, aestate, primo vere, diluculo (at dawn), prima luce, hora quarta, tertia vigilia, 1 Kalendis lanu- ariis, anno septimo, &c., centum annis, biennio, biduo, paucis diebus, &c. 1) Recurring solemnities may express Time 'when : Ludis, at the games-, gladiatoribus, at the gladiators' show ; comitiis, at the comitia; Liberalibus, at the feast of Liber, &c. Rarer idioms are, Sereno, in a calm ; austro, in a south wind, &c. Interdiu, noctu, mane (mani), luci, vesperi, heri, pridie, postridie, crastini die, are expressions of Time represent- ing old Locatives. 2) The Preposition used to define Time when, is chiefly de (beginning from, ere the close of, during] ; de nocte, de multa nocte (long before night ended} ; de media nocte, de die, de mense Decembri. I n is used to express time within which : and often when the Ablative has another Numeral, Distributive or Ouo- ;-. tientive, connected with it : 'Sol binas in singulis annis reversiones facit,' the sun makes two turns annually, C. N. D. ii. 40. ' Ouidam oves in anno bis tondent/ some shear sheep twice a year, Varro. See also intra, sub. 3) The Pronouns hie, ille sometimes emphatically define the Ablative of Time within which. H i s annis quadringentis, within these last 400 years ; hoc triennio, within the next (or last) three years-, hoc biduo, within the next (or last) two days the Tense determining whether hie refers to Future or Past Time. 4) Post is also used in answering the question How soon? paucis post diebus or paucos post dies, or post paucos dies, within the next few days. 5) How long ago is expressed by ante: paucis ante diebus, or paucos ante dies, or ante paucos dies. Also by abhinc with Accusative or Ablative of the Time: ' Ab- hinc triennium (or triennio) hue commigravit,' she came here three years ago, Ter. An. \. I. 6) The occurrence of one of two facts before or after the other is variously expressed. Thus the English, I saw him three days before he died, may be rendered by any of the following sentences : Vidi eum tribus diebus (or triduo) antequam mortuus est. Vidi eum tertio die antequam mortuus est. Vidi eum ante tres dies (or ante triduum) quam mor- tuus est. Vidi eum ante tertium diem quam mortuus est. 1 The Romans divided the day (from 6 A.M. to 6 P.M.) into 12 hours, of whicn 7 A.M. was the first (prima hora). Noon was called meridies or sexta hora. The night (from 6 P.M. to 6 A.M.) they divided into four watches (vigiliae) of three hours each. ^5. Ablative Case. 401 Pridie quam mortuus est, the day before he died ( = ante diem quam). Likewise, he died six years after I saw him, may be rendered by any of the following : Mortuus est sex annis (or sexennio) postquam eum videram. Mortuus est sexto anno postquam eum videram. Mortuus est sexto anno quam eum videram. Mortuus est post sex annos (or post sexennium) quam eum videram. Mortuus est post sextum annum quam eum videram. Postridie quam eum vidi, the day after I saw him ( = post diem quam). Cum, quo, quibus, are used for postquam : ' Bi duo quo (or cum) haec gesta sunt, two days after these things were done, Caes. On multo, paulo, &c., with ante, post, see 1 50. 7) The Accusative of Duration shews the space of time through which an action extends ; the Ablative, that within which it is contained. G) The Ablative of Place Where generally takes 'in:' 155 * In portu navigo/ I am sailing in harbour. Sen. 1) In is omitted in many instances : loco, multis locis, plu- ribus locis, &c. ; hoc libro, alio libro, c. ; terra, mari ; tota Asia, throughout Asia ; dextra (parte), on the right hand ; laeva, sinistra, on the left hand; media urbe, in the middle of the city ; medio aedium, in the middle of the house ; eodem statu (or in eodem statu). Also with 'se tenere,' 'continere:' 'Pompeius se oppido tenet/ Pompeius keeps in the town, C. Att. ix. 11. 2. 2) Poets are more free in the omission: ' Silvisque a g risque viisque corpora foeda iacent/ in forests and fields and toads lie revolting corpses, Ov. Met, vii. 647. But this licence needs discrimination. 3) When a work is quoted, in is used: in Iliade Homeri ; in Andria Terentii ; in Gorgia Platonis. But when the author only is cited, apud : apud Homerum; apud Terentium ; apud Platonem. 4) If the Place is a town or small island, the question, Where? is answered by a Case in -ae, -i, Singular, -Is Plural, when the Noun is of Decl. I. or II. : Romae, at Rome, Cypri, at Cyprus, Athenis, at Athens, Delphis, at Delphi; but by a Case in -e or -i, Singular, -ibus, Plural, when the Noun is of Decl. III. : Babylone, at Babylon, Neapoli, at Naples, Gadibus, at Cadiz. 5) The Case of Place in -ae, -i is taken by the words militia, bellum, humus, domus, rus : Militiae, belli, at the wars, humi, on the ground, domi, at home, ruri (or rure), in the country. Terrae, on the earth, is used by poets : ' Procubuit terrae,' Ov. D D 402 Latin Syntax. 156. 6) That the Case in -ae, -i is not really a Genitive, was known even to the ancient grammarians, who call it an Adverb. But as it ends in i (Romai = Romae, militiai = militiae, domi, ruri, &c.), comparing the older forms of Place in Decl III., Anxuri, Carthagini, Lacedaemoni, Tiburi, we cannot doubt the original existence of a Locative Case ending in 1 Sing, s Plur., in Latin as in Sanskrit. Compare Die septimi, Plaut. ; die crastini, Cell, (so die pristini, proximi) ; heri vesperi, C. Some refer here the Case of the Part Affected : animi pendeo; maturus aevi, c. Some that of Price. 7) A Gentile Adjective is sometimes found with the name of a town locatively constructed : 'Teani Apuli/ at Teanum of Apulia, C. 'Curibus Sabinis/ L. Other epithets are used in poetry : * Doctas iam nunc eat, inquit, Athenas,' let him forthwith go (says one) to learned Athens, Ov. Her. ii. 83. 8) Apposition to a town without Attribute is generally with in: ' In urbe Antiochia.' But when an Attribute is added, the name of the town usually precedes : 'Antiochiae, celebri quondam et copiosa urbe,' at Antioch, a once populous and wealthy city, C. Arch. 3. 'Neapoli in celeberrimo oppido,' at Naples, a very populous town. So, ' Syracusas in urbem florentissi- mam/ to Syracuse, a 'very flourishing city, C. 9) Domi, domum, admit the epithets meus, tuus, suus, alienus, also a Genitive of the Possessor: ' Nonne mavis sine periculo domi tuae esse quam cum periculo alienae?' would you not rather be at your own house without peril than with peril at another's? C. Fam. iv. 7. ' Clodius deprehensus est domi Caesaris,' Clodius was caught at Caesar's house, C. Att. i. 12. ' Alius alium domos suas invitant/ they invite each other to their houses, Sail. lug. 66. 10) Prepositions are much used with names of towns : In Epheso est ; in Ephesum abii; * has litteras a Brun- disio dedi/ C. So ad, apud. And with humus, domus, rus : ' Alcibiades educatus est in do mo Periclis,' Alcibiades was brought up in the house of Pericles, Nep. Ale. 2. Usque is joined to names of places with or without Prepo- sitions : 'Ab Aethiopia est usque haec,' she is as far as from Ethiopia, Ter. 'Usque Ennam profecti sunt/ they went as far as Enna, C. H] The Ablativeof Direction of Motion has no Preposition: 'Ire Via Sacra,' to walk on the Sacred Road, Hor.; 'ingredi urbem portaEsquilina,'ta enter the city by the Esquiline gate. L. 157-59- Ablative Case. 403 iv. (Ill) Ablative Proper. w Ablative A) The Ablative of Place Whence, if a town or small island, Prop"- or domus, rus, humus, militia, is used without Preposition: Redire Roma, Athenis, Epheso, Delphis, Tibure, Gadibus, militia, domo, rure, &c., to return from Rome, Athens, &c. But Prepositions (ab, de, ex) may be employed. 1) The Ablative of Place Whence is used in dating letters : ' Litteras dederam Epheso pridie/ I wrote yesterday from Ephcsus, C. 'Ego unas Capua litteras dedi/ / have written once from Capua, C. 2) Native place is sometimes expressed by this Ablative : Cn. Magius Cremona, Gnaeus Magius of Cremona, Caes. B. C. i. 24 ; but more usually by an Adjective (Cremon- ensis) ; sometimes by ab : 'Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia/ L. i. 50. ' Pastor ab Amphryso/ V. G. iii. 2. 3) The name of the tribe is thus appended in inscriptions to that of a Roman citizen : ) The Ablative of the Thing Compared may be referred to the idea of Origin (or, as some think, to that of Respect). i) It is attached to Comparative Adjectives or Adverbs in place of quam (than) with the Nominative or Accusative. ' Nihil est amabilius virtute/ nothing is more amiable than virtue, C. 'Lacrima nihil citius arescit,' no- thing dries sooner than a tear, C. Inv. i. 56. Puto mortem dedecore leviorem/ I think death easier than disgrace. 2} In comparing the other Cases quam must be used : * Nulli flebilior quam tibi, Vergili/ to none more a cause of weeping than to thee, Vergilius, Hor. C. i. 24. 10. 'Flagiti magis nos pudet quam erroris/ we are more ashamed of the crime than of the blunder, C. And often for perspicuity : ' Segnius homines bona quam mala sentiunt,' men feel goods less keenly than evils, L. xxx. 21. 'Brutum non minus amo quam tu, paene dixiquam te/ I love Brutus not less than thou, I had almost said, than thee, C. Att. v. 20. But poets do not always attend to this: 'Cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitat?' Why does he shun oil more cautiously than vipefs blood? Hor. C. i. 8. 9. 'Ego possideo plus Pallante et Lici- nis/ luv. i. 1 08. 3) If the Comparative itself is in the Genitive or Dative, quam with a clause generally follows : * Haec sunt verba Varronis doctioris quam fuit Claudius/ these are the words of Varro, a more learned man than Claudius was, Cell. x. i. 4) The Ablatives aequo, iusto, dicto, solito, spe, opinione, necessario, follow Comparatives: 'Flagrantior aequo non debet dolor esse viri/ a marts grief ought not to be more violent than is right, luv. xiii. ii. 'Caesar opinione omnium celerius ventures est/ Caesar will arrive sooner than is generally expected, C. Fam. xiv. 23. i6r. Ablative Case. 405 This Ablative elegantly falls out : * Liberius vivebat (i.e. iusto)/ he lived too freely, Nep. T/t. I. * So, * Res graviores ' (i.e. solito), matters of unusual im- portance. On quam after Comparatives, see 76. 5) Inferior takes Ablative, and, in the Silver age, Dative: Sapientia omnia inferiora virtute ducit/ wisdom deems all things inferior to virtue, C. T. D. iv. 26. ' Padus est nulli amnium claritate inferior/ the Po is inferior to no river in clearness, PI. N. H. iii. 16. 6) The Prepositions ante, praeter, supra, prae, are used in Comparison : 'Pygmalion scelere ante alios immanior omnis/ Pyg- malion more monstrous in wickedness than (lit. before} all others, Verg. Aen. i. 347. 'Crux praeter ceteras altior,' a cross higher than (lit. beyond] the rest. Suet. Galb. 9. Obs. On several Ablatives with one Verb, see M. Lucr. i. 183. Madvig cites C. Brut. 91 : ' Menippus meo iudicio tota Asia illis temporibus disertissimus erat.' i6r v. Ablative Absolute. Ablative, Abso- 1) The construction called Ablative Absolute (Ablativus lute> Convenientiae) occurs when the Ablative of a Substantive or Pro- noun takes for its adjunct another Ablative, which is either a Parti- ciple or an Adjective or a Substantive or (rarely) a Pronoun. Such an expression is equivalent to a Clause, often of Time : Imperante Augusto, when Augustus was emperor; Caesare occiso, when Caesar had been slain ; vivo patre, while my father is (was) alive ; Camillo duce, when Camillas is (was) commander ; Caninio consule, in the consulship of Cant- nius ; hac iuventute, when our young men are of this character. But the clause may express a condition, a concession, a cause, &c., according to the context. Thus te invito may mean, in various places, if you are unwilling ; though you are unwilling; since y 021 are unwilling ; without your consent. 2) The Absolute Participle is often equivalent to the Gerund or Ablative of Manner : ' Tarquinius Turnum oblato falso crimine oppressit,' Tar- quinius crushed Turnus by imputing a false charge, L. i. 51. * Aruns Tarquinius et Tullia minor iunguntur nuptiis, magis non prohibente Servio quam approbante/ Aruns Tarquinius and Tullia the younger marry rather without the opposition than with the approbation of Ser- vius, L. i. 56. 3) An Impersonal Participle is sometimes absolute : Mihi, errato, nulla venia ; recte facto, exigua laus proponi- tur/ to me, if I blunder, no indulgence ; if I succeed, small credit is offered, C d. L. Agr. ii. 2. Errato = si erratum, erit a me : recte facto = si recte factum erit a me. 406 Latin Syntax. 161. Sometimes a Clause is absolute with a Participle : 'Excepto quod non simul esses, cetera laetus/ cheerful in all respects, save that you are not with me, Hor. Epist. i. 10. 50. See 237-240. dicendum nor Manlium Torquatum ex auctoritate sens amplitudinisque gratia nomino,' C. p. S. Rose. 6. 'Demosthenes corona aurea donatus est virtutis ergo/ C. O. G. Or. 7. ' Senatus supplicationes consulum nomine decrevit,' L. iii. 63. 'Vestra magis hoc causa volebam quam mea,' C. d. Or. i. 35. ' Ad eum ipsius rogatu accersituque veneram,' C. N. D. i. 6. 15. B) C) (Instr. Agent.) ' Cornibus tauri, apri dentibus, morsu leones se tutantur," C. N. D. ii. 50. ' Etesiarum flatu nimii temperantur calores,' C. N. D. ii. 53. ' Illud tibiaffirmo, fore ut absens a multis, cum redieris ab omnibus coUaudere,' C. Fam. 1.7. 'Nisi iam factum est aliquid per Flaccum, fiet a me,' C. Fam. iii. n. ' Ingenium placida mollimur ab arte,' Ov. A. A. iii. 545. D) (Price.) ' Plinius commentarios suos vend ere poterat quadringentis mil- ibus nummum,' Plin. Ep. iii. 5. ' Dareus mille talentis percussorem Alexandri emere voluit,' Curt. iv. i. 'Aurea nunc vere sunt saecula ; plurimus auro venit honos,' Prop. iii. 12. 'Mercatur tris libros nihilo minore pretio quam quod erat petitum pro omnibus,' Cell. i. 19. ' Seius in caritate annonae asse medium populo dedit,' C. Off. ii. 17. ' Vix drachmis opsonatum est decem,' Ter. An. ii. 6. Sextante sal et Romae et per totam Italiam erat,' L. xxix. 37. ' Cum esset fru- mentum sestertiis binis aut trinis, quibusvis locis provinciae duodenos sestertios exegisti,' C. Verr. ii. 3. 84. 'Aristidis, Thebani pictoris, unam tabulam centum talentis rex Attalus licitatus est,' PL N. H. vii. 37. ' Multo sanguine ac vulne- ribus ea Poenis victoria stetit,' L. xxiii. 30. ' Denis in diem assibus anima et corpus aestimantur,' Tac. An. i. 17. ' Notavit aliquos, quod pecunias levioribus usuris mutuatas graviori fenore collocassent,' Suet. Aug. 33. 'Triginta ^milibus Coelius habitat,' C. p. Coel. 7. 'Parvo fames constat, magno fastidium,' Sen. Ep. 17. ' Ei mandasti negotium, cui expediret, illud venire quam plurimo,' C. Fam. vii. 2. ' Ambulatiuncula dimidio pluris constabit,'C. Att. xiii. 29. 'Ego quaere, cur civis optimi bona tantulo venierint,' C. /. 6 1 . R. 45. ' Quanti emi potest? Minimo,' Plaut. ' Istuc verbum vile est viginti minis,' Plaut. Most. i. 3. 139- ' Clodii insula venalis est decem milibus,' C. p. Coel. 7. 'Quod non opus est asse carum est,' Sen. Ep. 94. ' Nefas duco victrice patria victam mutare, L. v. 30. ' Tellus Chaoniam pingui glandem mutavit ari sta,' Verg. G. i. 8. Tauro mutatus membra rebello,' Ov. M. ix. 81. ' Fortuna praesens superbos vertere funeribus triumphos,' Hor. Od. \. 35. 4. E) (Matter.) 'German! Mercurium colunt, cui certis diebus humanis quoquehos- tiis litare fas habent,' Tac. G. 9. ' Romulum lacte, non vino libasse, indicio sunt sacra ab eo instituta,' PL N. H. xiv. 12. 'Hoc etiam maiore es malo mactandus, quod non solum facto tuo, sed etiam exemplo rempublicam vulnerasti,' C. c. Vatin. 15. 'Admiratione afficiuntur ii, qui anteire ceteros virtute putantur,' C. Off. ii. 10. * Caesar Germanos, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, primus Romanorum maximis affecit cladibus,' Suet. Cacs. 25. ' Summa difficultate rei frumentariae afficiebatur Caesaris exercitus, tenuitate Boiorum, indiligentia Aeduorum, incendiis aedificiorum, Caes. B. G. vii. 17. 'Virgo inficitur teneras tota rubore genas,' Tibull. iii. 4. 31. ' Natura oculos tenuissimis membranis vestivit et saepsit,' C. N. D. ii. 57. ' Hippias gloriatus est pallium, quo amictus, soccos quibus indutus esset, se manu sua confecisse,' C. d. Or. iii. 32. ' Bonis artibus aetas puerilis ad humanitatem in- formari solet,' C. p. Arch. 3. 'Caesar Corfinium oppidum vallo castellisque circumvenire instituit,' Caes. B. G. i. 18. ' Indignum est in ea civitate, quae legi- bus tenetur, discedi a legibus,' C. /. Chi. 53. 'Quid de Tulliola mea fiet?' C. Fam. xiv. 4. 'Quid fecisti scipione?' Plaut. Cas. v. 4. 18. ' Quaero, si, qui velint vendere, non fuerint, quid pecunia fiet?' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 27. 'Delicto dolere, correctione gaudere oportet,' C. Lael. 24. ' Ut adulescentibus bona indole praeditis sapientes senes delectantur, sic adulescentes senum praeceptis gaudent, quibus ad virtutum studia ducuntur,' C. Cat. M.S. ' Duobus vitiis, ava- 162-63. Genitive Case. 407 F. TJie Genitive Case. i6 i. The GENITIVE in Latin has for its main function Geni- to define or qualify a Noun on which it depends : else. Pater pueri, the father of the boy ; amor virtutis, love of virtue ; pars m i 1 i t u m, part of the troops. ii. The uses of the Genitive may be considered l63 as twofold : A) SUBJECTIVE, when a predication is implied of which the Genitive word is Subject : hominum timor, men's fear (homines timent aliquid). ritia et luxuria, Romana civitas laborabat,' L. xxxiv. 4. 'Nemo potest aut corporis firmitate aut fortunae stabilitate confidere,' C. T. D. v. 14. 40. ' Meis consiliis, monitis, studiis, auctionibus nituntur,' C. Fain, v. 8. ' Parvo est natura contenta,' C. Fin. ii. 28. 'Varus est homo summa religione et summa auctori- tate praeditus,' C. /. Clu. ig. ' Non segetibus solum et pratis et vineis et ar bust is res rusticae laetae sunt, sed etiam hortis etpomariis; turn pecudum pastu, apium examinibus, florum omnium varietate/ C. Cat. M. 15. ' Cimon Thasios, opulentia fretos, suo adventu fregit,' Nep. dm, 2. 'I, decus Ausoniae, quo fas est ire superbas virtu te et fact is ar.imas,' Sil. x. 573. * Exclusus ab Antiochia Dolabella, nulla alia confisus urbe, Laodiceam se contulit,' C. Fain. xii. 15. ' Curionis patrio fuit institute puro sermone assuefacta domus,' C. Brut. 59. ' Excellentium civium virtus imitatione, non invidia, digna est,' C. Phil. xiv. 6. ' Quam multi indigni luce sunt, et tamen dies oritur,' Sen. Ben. i. i. ' Descendant magnorum haud umquam indignus avorum,' Verg. A en. xii. 649. ' Haud equidem tali me dignor honore,' Verg. Aen. i. 335. ' Hi apud maiores nostros tali honore dignati sunt,' C. Inv. ii. 39. ' Nihil opus est simulatione et fallaciis/ C. d. Or. ii. 46. 'Auctoritate tua nobis opus est et consilio et etiam gratia,' C. Fam. ix. 25. ' Viginti iam usus est filio argenti minis,' Plaut. Asin. i. i. 'An cuiquam est homini usus se ut cruciet,' Ter. Haiti. \. i. ' Ubi summus imperator non adest, citius quod non facto est usus fit quam quod facto est opus,' Plaut. Am. i. 3. ' Si quid, quod opus fuerit, Appio facies, ponito me in gratia,' C. Fam. viii. 6. 'Verres mult a sibi opus esse aiebat, multa canibus suis, quos circa se haberet,' C. Verr. i. 48. ' Magna Helotarum multitude agros Lacedaemoniorum colit, servorumque munere fungitur,' Nep. Pans. 3. ' Crassus, cum cognomine dives turn copiis, functus est aedilicio maximo munere,' C. Off. ii. 16. ' Hannibal Sosilo Lacedaemonio litterarum Graecarum usus est doctore,' N. Hann. 13. 'Cum Phalerico portu neque magno neque bono Athenienses uterentur, Themistoclis consilio triplex Piraeei portus constitutus est,' Nep. Them. 6. ' Id est cuiusque pro- prium, quo quisque fruitur atque utitur,' C. Fam. vii. 30. 'Orgetorix Helvetiis persuasit, perfacile esse, cum virtute omnibus praestarent, totius Galliae imperio potiri,' Caes. B. G. i. 2. ' Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vesce- bantur,' Sal. lug. 89. ' Ad agrum fruendum etiam invitat senectus,' C. Cat. M. 16. ' Operam abutitur,' Ter. An. Prol. 5. ' Deus bon is omnibus explevit mundum,' C. Univ. 3. ' Crotoniatae quondam templum lunonis egregiis picturis locupletare voluerunt,' C. Inv. ii. i. 'Satiate sanguine quern sitiisti,' lust. i. 8. ' Te autem quibus mendaciis homines levissimi onerarunt,' C. Fam. iii. 10. ' Abundarunt semper auro regna Asiae,' L. xxxv. 46. ' Metallis plumbi, ferri, aeris, argenti, auri tola ferme Hispania scatet,' PI. N. H. iii. 3. ' Democritus dicitur oculis se privasse,' C. Fin. v. 29. ' Gravius est spo- liari fortunis quam non augeri dignitate,' C. /. Plane. 22. ' Murus defenso- ribus nudatus est,' Caes. B. G. ii. 6. ' Non ante abscessum est quam castrjs exuerunt hostem,' L. xxix. 2. 'Omnium rerum natura cognita, levamur supersti- tione, liberamur mortis metu,' C. Fin. i. 19. ' Cotidie nos ipsa natura admonet, quam paucis, quam parvis rebus egeat, quam vilibus,' C. T. D. v. 35. ' Carere hoc significat, egere eo quod habere velis. Regno carebat Tarquinius, cum regno esset expulsus,' C. T. D. i. 36. ' Animi, quo maior est in eis praestantia, eo maiore indigent diligentia,' C. T. D. iv. 27. ' Virtus plurimae exercitationis indiget/ 408 Latin Syntax. ^3. H] OBJECTIVE; when a predication is implied ot which the Genitive word is Object : timor hominum, fear of men (aliquis timet homines). a) One word may have both Genitives dependent on it : Hominum timor mortis, men's fear of death ; Ciceronis defensio Gabinii, Cicero's defence of Gabinius. Among words capable of taking this double Genitive are : Amor, desiderium, iniuria, miseratio, obsequium, odium, stu- dium, &c. b] One Genitive may depend on another : Africani sororis films, Africanus^s sister's son. C. Fin. iii. 15. ' Gravitas morbi facit ut medicinae egeamus,' C. Fam. ix. 3. ' Plinius plenus annis, plenus honor i bus obiit,' Plin. Ep. ii. i. ' Habes epis- tulam plenam fest inationis et pulveris,' C. Att. v. 14. 'Amor et melle et felle est fecundissimus,' Plaut. Cist. i. i. 'Dives agris, dives positis in fenore nuramis,' Hor. ad. Pis. 421. 'Sum dives pecoris, nivei sum lactis abun- dans,' Verg. B. ii. 20. ' Consules praeda ingenti compotem exercitum reducunt,' L. iii. 70. ' Numquam animus cogitatione et motu vacuus esse potest,' C. Div. ii. 62. ' Mamertini soli vacui, expertes, soluti ac liberi fuerunt ab omni sumptu, molestia, munere,' C. Verr. ii. 4. 10. ' Plerique patria, sed omnes fama atque fortunis expertes sumus,' Sail. Cat. 33. ' Caesari tradita urbs est nuda praesidio, referta copiis,'C. Att. vii. 13. ' Decius, Macti virtute, in- quit, milites Romani, este,' L. vii. 36. ' Nunc cassum lumine lugent,' V. Aen. ii. 85. II. (Locative All.) A) (Respect) 'Agesilaus nomine non potestate fuit rex,' Nep. Ag. i. ' Cn. Pompeius fuit forma excellens, innocentia eximius, sancti- tate praecipuus, eloquentia medius,' Veil, ii. 29. ' Uri sunt magnitudine paulo infra elephantos, specie et colore et figura tauri,' Caes. B. G. vi. 28. ' Q. Maxi- mum Cato adulescens colere coepit non admodum grandem natu, sed tamen iam aetate provectum,' C. Cat. M. 4. ' Persae mille numero navium classem ad Delum appu- lerunt,' C. Verr. i. 18. ' Cum illius temporis mihi venit in mentem, quo die mihi dicen- dum sit, non solum commoveor animo, sed etiam toto corpore perhorresco,' C. in Caecil. 13. 'Medius Polluce et Castore ponar,' Ov. Am. ii. 16. 13. ' Verres pretio, non aequitate iura describebat,' C. Verr.v. ii. B) (Measure.) ' Messalla consul est egregius ; ille alter uno vitio minus vitiosus,' C. Att. i. 14. ' Aesculapi templum quinque milibus passuum ab Epidauro distat,' L. xxv. 28. ' Belgae ad castra Caesaris omnibus copiis contenderunt, et ab milibus passuum minus duobus castra posuerunt,' Caes. B. G. ii. 7. ' Surculos demittito Itaut sex digitis de arbore exstent,' Columella, xxvi. 4. ' Numa Pompilius annis permultis ante fuit quam Pythagoras,' C. d. Or. ii. 37. ' Tribunus anno post fuit Crassus,' C. Br. 60. 'Tan to Pompeius superiores duces vicerat gloria quanto Caesar omnibus praestitit,' C. /. Deiot. 4. ' Meo iudicio multo stare malo quam omnium reliquorum,' C. Att. xii. 2. ' Hibernia dimidio minor est quam Britannia,' Caes. B. G. v. 13. ' Nimio plus quam velim nostrorum ingenia sunt mobilia,' L. ii. 37. 'Quinquiens tanto amplius Verres quam quantum in cellam sumere licitum erat civitatibus imperavit,' C. Verr. iii. 97. ' Alcibiades fuit omnium aetatis suae multo formosissimus,' Nep. Ale. i. C) (Manner.) 'Iniuria fit duobus modis, aut vi aut fraude/ C. OJf. \. 13. ' Pace ad venio, et pacem ad vos affero,' Plaut. Am. Prol. 32. ' Quod exemplo fit, id etiam iure fieri putant,' C. Fam. iv. 3. ' Arminius equo conlustrans cuncta, tit quosque advectus erat, reciperatam libertatem ostentabat,' Tac. Ann. ii. 45. ' Galli urbem cum clamore et impetu invadunt ; patentis passim domos adeunt,' Fl. i. 13. ' Cur Pythagoras tantas regiones barbarorum pedibus obiit?' Cic. Fin. v. 29. ' Quan- topere movemur, cum pie, cum amice, cum magno animo aliquid factum cognos- cimus,' C. Fin. v. 22. ' Cultus deorum est optimus, ut eos semper pura integra incorrupta et mente et voce veneremur,' C. N. D. ii. 28. ' Parthi Euphratem transierunt cunctis fere copiis,' C. Att. v. 18. ' Scipio profectus in Sicilian! est 'trigintanavibuslongis,'L. xxviii. 46. ' Mihi litterae redditae sunt, Pacorum cum permagno equitatu Parthico transisse Euphraten,' C. Fam. xv. i. ' Magna 164. Genitive Case. 409 iii. A) SUBJECTIVE GENITIVE (Possessive; De- scriptive ; Partitive). I. Genitivus Auctoris et Possessoris. II. Genitivus Descriptionis. III. Genitivus Qualitatis. IV. Genitivus Rei Distributae et Demensae; with other Partitive Constructions. Note i. As Latin has an Ablative, its Genitive is more restricted than the Greek ; but poets imitate the freedom of the Greek Gen. In some instances the Abl. and Gen. concur (as in constructions of Quality, Price, Matter); and Prepositional phrases are substituted cum cura atque diligentia scripsit,' C. Inv. i. 39. ' Erit turn consul Hortensius cum summo imperio et potestate,' C. Verr. i. 13. ' In summo apud Graecos honore geometria fuit,' C. T. D. i. 2. ' Plancus in earn urbem rediit armis, e qua excesserat legibus,' C. Phil, xiii. 12. D) (Condition.) Optimo iure sunt ea praedia, quae optima condicione sunt,' C. d. L. Agr. iii. 2. 'Auspicia nunc a Romanis augunbus ignorantur ; bona hoc tua venia dixerim ; a Cilicibus tenentur,' C. Div. i. 15. ' Isocratis gloriam nemo, meo quidem iudicio, est postea consecutus,' C. Br. 8. ' Meo iure te hoc beneficium rogo ; nihil enim non tua causa feci,' C. Alt. xiv. 13. 'lam mater rure rediit? Responde mihi. Sua quidem salute ac familiae maxuma,' Plaut. Merc. iv. 5. 9. E) (Qttalify.) ' Fuit quidam summo ingenio vir, Zeno, cuius inventorum aemuli Stoici nominantur,' C. /. Mnr. 29. ' Iphicrates fuit et animo magno et corpore, imperatoriaque forma,' Nep. Iph. 3. ' Erat apud Heium sacrarium, in quo signa pulcherrima quattuor, summo artificio, summa nobilitate,' C. Verr. iv. 2. ' Magno timore sum ; sed bene speramus,' C. Att. v. 14. F) (Time.) ' Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit,' PL N. H, vii. 40. ' Excur- remus mense Septembri, ut lanuario revertamur,' C. Att,\.\. ' Hannibal, im perator factus, proximo triennio omnis gentes Hispaniae subegit,' Nep. H.rn. 3. ' Abeunt hirundines hibernis mensibus,' PI. H. N. 24. 'Septimo ferme anno Caesar morabatur in Galliis, cum lulia, uxor Pompeii Magni, decessit,' Veil. ii. 47. ' Erat consuetude, ut quern ordinem interrogandi sententias consul Kalendis lanuariis instituisset, eum toto anno conservaret, Suet. Caes. 21. 'Claudius neminem ultra mensem, fluo obiit, consulem designavit,' Suet. Claud. 46. ' Brutus consul collegam sibi comitiis centuriatis creavit P. Valerium,' L. ii. 2. ' Urbes Africae post M. Atilium Regulum annis prope quinquaginta nullum Romanum exercitum viderant,' L. xxix. 28. ' Nuntius htc decem horis nocturnis sex et quin- quaginta milia passuum cisiis pervolavit,' C. p. S. Rose. 7. ' Ecce autem repente, his diebus paucis, eadem ilia vetera consilia pecunia maiore repetuntur,' C. Verr. i. 6. 'Epistulamde nocte daturas eram, sicut dedi ; nam earn vesperi scripseram,' C. Att. viii. 6. ' Lysander Atheniensis in Peloponnesios sexto et vicesimo anno bellum gerentis confecit,' N. Lys. i. ' Caesar compluris equitum turmas eo de media nocte misit,' Caes. B. G. vii. 45. ' Fac ut naviges de mense Decembri (before the end of),' C. Qn. FT. ii. i. ' De tertia vigilia castra movit,' Caes. B. C. i. 63. * Artes in omni aetate cultae mirificos efferunt fructus,' C. Cat. M. 3. ' Nummos tibi reponam in hoc triduo,' Plaut. Pcrs. i. i. 33. ' Fere in diebus paucis quibus haec acta sunt Chrysis vicina haec moritur,' Ter. An. \. i. ' Ego si semper haberem cui darem litteras, vel ternas in hora darem,' C. Fain. xv. 16. ' Testamentum August! ante annum et quattuor mensis quam decesserat factum est,' Suet. Aug. 101. ' Livius docuit anno ipso ante quam natus est Ennius,' C. Brut. 18. ' Aristides decessit fere post annum quartum quam Themistocles Athenis erat expulsus,' N. Ar. 3. 'Aristides sexto fere anno postquam erat expulsus, in patriam restitutus est,' N. Ar. i. 'Undecimo die postquam a te discesseram, hoc litterularum cxaravi,' C. Att. xii. i. 'Dictator die octavo quam creatus erat, magistratu se abdicavit,' L. iv. 47. 'Anno trecentesimo altero quam condita Roma erat, iterum mutatur forma civitatis,' L. iii. 33. ' Andricus postridie ad me venit quam exspectaram,' C. Fam. xvi. 14. ' Collegam triduo cum has dabam litteras exspecta- Latin Syntax. 164. for the Gen.: thus, una de multis, una e multis, una multa- rum, are equivalent. Hence in French ' de ' is used as a Gen. and Abl. Preposition ; in Italian, ' di' is the Gen., the Abl. Preposition. Note 2. This Genitive is in the nature of an Attribute. Thus it is the same thing to say, 'Sullanus exercitus' or 'Sullae ex- ercitus,' 'flamen Martialis ' or 'flamen Martis.' (Even for the Objective Gen. Adjectives are used : ' Timor ex- ternus' for 'timor exterorum.' And Possessive Pronouns: , Rab. Post. 10. 'A Romanis nihil belli domique nisi auspicato gerebatur,' L. i. 36. ' Manlius Titum filium ruri habitare iussit,' L. vii. 5. ' Manlius rure iuventam egit,' PI. N. H. viii. 46. ' Nihil domi, nihil militiae per magistratus geritur sine augurum auctoritate,' C. Leg. ii. 12. ' Cadmus spargit humi iussos, mortalia semina, dentis, O. Met. iii. 105. ' Antonius intimus erat Clodio, cuius etiam domi quiddam molitus est,' C. Phil. ii. 19. H) (Place by Which.) Demonstrabo iter ; Aurelia via profectus est,' C. Cat. ii. 4. ' Cur non sancitis, ne vicinus patricio sit plebeius nee eodemitinere eat, ne idem con- vivium ineat, ne in foro eodem consistat?' L. iv. 4. ' lam consul via Lavicana ad fanum Quietis erat/ L. iv. 41. ' Lupus Esquilin a portaingressus cum in forum decu- currisset, Tusco vico atque inde Germalo per portam Capenam prope intactus evasit,' L. xxxiii. 26. ' Legiones victrices Penninis Cottianisque Alpibus, pars monte Graio, traducuntur,' Tac. H. iv. 68. III. (Abl. Proper.) A) (Place Whence.) 'Roma acceperam litteras, Milonem queri per litteras iniuriam meam,' C. Att. v. 8. 'Auximo Caesar progressus omnem agrum Picenum percurrit,' Caes. B. C. i. 15. ' Maiores.nostri Capua magistratus, senatum, omnia denique insignia rei publicae sustulerunt, neque aliud quicquam nisi inane nomen Capuae reliquerunt,' C. d. L. Agr. \. 6. ' Dionysius Platonem Athenis arcessivit,' N. Di. 3. ' Caesaris milites cogebantur Corcyra atque Acarnania pabulum supportare,' Caes. B. C. iii. 58. ' Princeps Academiae Philo cum Atheniensium optimatibus Mithridatico bello domo profugit, Romamque venit,' C. Brut. 89. "Video rure redeuntem senem,' Ter. Eun. v. 4. 45. 'Vix oculos attollit humo,'Ov. Met. iii. 448. B) (Separation) ' Censores omnis, quos senatu moverunt quibusque equos ademerunt, aerarios fecerunt et tribu moverunt,' L. xlii. 10. 'Hostis Antonius iudicatus Italia cesserat,' N. Att. g. 'Apud Germanos quemcunque mortalium arcere tecto nefas habetur,' Tac. G. 21. ' Adolescentia a libidinibus arcenda est,' C. Off. i. 34. ' Avocat a rebus gerendis senectus,' C. Cat. M. 5. 'Di, talem terris avertite pestem,' Verg. Aen. iii. 620. 'Nisi is Antonium ab urbe aver- tisset, perissent omnia,' C. ad. Br. i. 3. 'Romano bello Fortuna Alexandrum abstinuit,' Liv. viii. 24. 'Tiberius et Augustus publico abstinuere, inferius ^5. Genitive Case. 411 165 I. i) The Possessive Genitive expresses that which stands Gene- in the relation of Author, Origin, or Proprietor to the Noun jjjoctom on which it depends : et Pos- Oratio Ciceronis, leges civitatis, fortitude militum, rex Ponti, s< domus Periclis, &c. It may be rendered in English by the Possessive Case in } s, or by the Preposition of : Philippi films, Philip'' s son, or son of Philip. 2) The Dativus Commodi is often substituted for it : 'In Palatio prima urbi fundamenta ieci/ I laid the first foundations of (for} my city on the Palatine hill, L. i. 12. 'Natura tu illi pater es, consiliis ego / you are his sire by nature, I by counsels, Ter. Ad. i. 2. 46. So advocatus, praefectus, legatus (properly Participles) sometimes govern Gen., sometimes Dat. Likewise affinis, maiestate sua rati,' Tac. Ann. iii. 3. ' Quale beneficium est, quod te. abstinueris a nefario scelere?' C. Phil. ii. 3. ' Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, vix a se manus abstinuit; tanta vis fuit poenitendi,' C. T. D. iv. 37. 'Abhorrent moribus nostris,' Curt. vii. 8. ' Nostra aetas abhorret a castris, praesertim civilibus,' C. Att. xiv. 19. ' Virtus numquam ulla vi labefactari potest, nnmquam demoveri loco,' C. Phil. iv. 5. ' Miserum est exturbari fortunis omnibus/ C. p. Quinct. 31. 'Augur potest decernere nt magistratu se abdicent consules,' C. Leg. ii. 12. ' Hominis natura a reliquis animantibus differt,' C. Off. i. 27. ' Quindecim milibus passuum Arabicus sinus distat ab Aegyptio man",' PI. H. N. ii. 68. ' Exculta hominum vita distat a cultu et victu bestiarum,' C. Off. ii. 4. ' Temeritas a sapientia dissidet plurimum,' C. Off. ii. 2. 'Alienum est magno viro, quod alteri praeceperit, id ipsum facere non posse,' C. ad. Br. i. 9. C) (Origin.') ' Nati sunt Carthagine, sed oriundi a Syracusis,' L. xxiv. 6. 'Ex me is natus est,' Ter. Haiti, v. 4. ' A parentibus, id quod necesse eral, parvus sum creatus; a vobis natus sum consularis,' C. post Red. 2. 'E principio oriuntur omnia : ipsum autem nulla ex re alia nasci potest,' C. T. D. i. 23. ' Qualis ille tibi videtur Tantalo prognatus Pelope natus?' C. T. D. iii. 12. ' Quidam parentibus nati sunt humilibus,' C. Lael. 19. ' Me equestri ortum. loco consulem videtis,' C. Rep. ii. 7. D) (Thing Compared.) 'Deus maior est ac potentior cunctis,' Sen. Ep. 58. 'Lux sonitu velocior est,' PI. H. N. ii. 54. 'Vilius argentum est auro, virtu- tibus aurum,' Hor. Epist.\. i. 52. 'Quid est melius aut quid praestantius bonitate et beneficentia?' C. N. D. \. 43. ' Demosthene nee gravior exstitit quisquam nee callidior nee temperatior/C. Or. 7. 23. ' Recte auguraris de me, nihil a me abesse longius crudelitate,' C. Att. ix. 16. ' Herodotum cur vera- ciorem ducam Ennio?' C. Div. ii. 56. ' Neminem Lycurgo aut maiorem aut utiliorem virum Lacedaemon genuit,' Val. Max. v. 13. ' Res aliquanto expecta- tione omnium tranquillior fuit,' L. iv. 24. 'Vohiptas cum maior est atque longior, omne animi lumen exstinguit,' C. Cat. M. 12. ' Felix ante alias virgo,' Verg. Ae. iii. 321. ' Prae nobis beatus videris,' Sulp. ap. C. Fam. iv. 4. ' Minor quam pro tumultu caedes,' Tac. H. v. 15. ' Thais quam ego maiuscula est,' Ter. un. iii. 3. 21. E) (Ablative Abs.) ' Crastino die oriente sole redite in pugnam,' L. iii. 2. ' Solon et Pisistratus Servio Tullio regnante viguerunt,' C. Br. 10. ' Caesare venturo, Phosphore, redde diem,' Mart. viii. 21. ' Caesar inita hieme in Illyricum profectus est,' Caes. B. G. iii. 7. ' Romani, Hannibale vivo, numquam se sine insidiis futures existimabant,' Nep. Hann. 12. 'Caninio consule scito neminem prandisse ; nihil tamen eo consule mali factum est,' C. Fam. vii. 30. ' Nil desperandum est Teucro duce et auspice Teucro,' Hor. C. i. 7. 27. ' Plebs Romana, Sicinio quodam auctore, in Sacrum montem secessit,' L. ii. 32. 'Romana respublica, Cannensi calamitate accepta, maiores animos habuit, quam umquam rebus secundis,'C. Off. iii. ii. ' Germani pellibus utuntur, magna corporis parte nuda,' Caes. B. G. vi. 21. ' Alia causa est eius, qui calamitate premitur, et eius, qui res meliores quaerit nullis suis rebus adversis,' C. Off. ii. 18. ' Proxime, recenti adventu meo, rem aliter institutam offendi ac mihi placuisset, si affuissem,' C. Fam. v. 17. 412 Latin Syntax. ^65. ami c us, comes, censors, familiaris, hostis, inimicus, par, vicinus, &c., aequalis, communis, proprius, sacer, similis, dissimilis, &c. 3) This Genitive may depend on Neuter Adjectives and Pro- nouns used Substantively : Amicorum omnia, C.; aliorum non me digna, C.; prae- clarum hoc Thrasybuli quod, &c., N. Xerxi maxime est illustre quod, c., the most famous feat of Xerzes is that, &c., N. 4) The Noun is in some instances omitted : f Huius video Burriam,' I see this maris (slave] Bitrria, Ter. An. ii. 2. 20. (See p. 275. 2). Cicero has an ellipse of fundus, estate : *Tu neque per Locustae neque per Varronis viam ducere voluisti,' yoti would not carry a road through either Loc'ustds or Varro's property, Qu. F. iii. I. 5) Another Ellipse of the governing Noun before the Gen. is, when that Noun occurs in a previous part of the sentence, whether in the same or in a different case : 1 Meo iudicio etare malo, quam omnium reliquorum/7 would rather abide by my own judgment than by that of all beside, C. Att. xii. 21. * Quis est qui possit conferre vitam Trebonii cum Dolabellae?' who can compare the life of Trebonius with that of Dolabella ? C. Phil. xi. 4. This takes place when two kinds of the same thing are spoken of, or where the Noun is first used specifically, then generally : but if first used generally, then specifically, the Noun is repeated, or an emphatic Pronoun put for it : 1 Nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate con- tendere/ there is no speed to me with that of the mind, C. T. D. i. 19. ' Cum omnis arrogantia odiosa est, turn ilia ingeni atque eloquentiae multo molestissima/ while all assumption is odious, that (suggested) of genius and eloquence is by far the most displeasing, C. in Caec. 1 1. 6) The Pronouns meus, tuus, suus, noster, &c. must be used Possessively instead of the Genitives, mei, &c. ; but with them may stand Pronominal or Participial Genitives agreeing with the Gen. which the Possessives virtually contain. Such are, ipsius, ipsorum, unius, solius. am- borum, duorum, &c., besides Participles : Respublica mea unius opera salva erat,' the common- wealth was saved by my single exertion, C. /;/ Pis. 3. 'Aves fetus adultos suae ipsorum fiduciae permittunt/ birds entrust their grown young ones to their own self- reliance, Qu. ii. 6. 'Nostros vidisti flentis ocellos/ _>w/ saw the eyes of me weeping, Ov. Her. v. 45. 7) The Possessive Genitive, being of Attributive nature, may be used in Copulative or Factitive construction : ' Omnia, quae mulieris fuerunt, viri fiunt dotis nomine/ all things that were the woman's become the husband's 1 66. Genitive Case. 413 under the title of dowry, C. Top. 4. * Is Hercules dicebatur esse Myronis,' C. Verr. iv. 3. ' lam me Pompeii totum esse scis,' you know I am now Pompey's thorough partisan, C. Fam. ii. 13. 4 Popillius clavis portarum suaepotest- atis fecit,' Popillius took possession of the keys of the gates, L. xliii. 22. 8) Especially when the Subject of the Sentence is an Infin. and the Gen. may be supposed to depend on a suppressed notion, such as indicium, token, indoles, nature, munus, Qff\.c\\im, function, ditty, part, &c., proprium, property : ' Cuiusvis hominis est errare,' C. Phil. xii. 2. ' Honoris amplissimi esse puto miseros defendere,' I deem it a function of highest office to defend the unfortunate, C. in Caec. 21. ' Adulescentis est maiores natu vereri/ C. Off. i. 34. 'Tempori cedere semper sapientisesthabi- tum,' C. Fam. iv. 9. 9) All these words are found before the Gen. : * Id viri est officium,' C. T. D. ii. 21. ' Principum munus est resistere levitati multitudinis,' C. p. Mil. 8. * Sapientis est proprium, nihil quod paenitere possit facere,' C. T. D. v. 28. Pars itself is so used: as, 'Plura de extremis loqui pars ignaviae est,' to dwell at length on the closing scene of life is a coward's part, Tac. H. ii. 47. 10) For this Gen. are used Possessive Pronouns or other Adjec- tives indicating personal character : 'Nostrum est ferre modice populi voluntates,' C. p. Plane. 4. 'Et agere et pati fortia Romanum est,' L. ii. 12. ' Non est mentiri meum,' Ter. Haut. iii. 2. 38. 11) The Genitives moris, consuetudinis, artwtrii, iuris, tutelae, when Complements, may be explained by reference to proprium : 1 Negavit moris esse Graecorum ut in convivio virorum accumberent mulieres,' he said it was not a fashion of the Greeks for women to sit at table in a party of men, C. Verr. i. 26. ' Est hoc Gallicae consuetudinis,' Caes. B. G. iv. 5. ' Victos tutelae nostrae duximus/ L. xxi. 41. 1 66 II. i) The Descriptive Genitive expresses the specific class to Geneti- which its governing Noun belongs, being often nearly vusDe- equivalent to an Apposite, sometimes to an Epithet : on? s ptl ' Nomen regis ; vox voluptatis ; virtus continentiae ; vitium ignorantiae ; flos rosae ; arbor fici ; lauri nemus ; montes auri ; poena legis ; oppidum Antiochiae ; promunturium Miseni, &c. See Cic. Off. ii. 5. ' Ceteris causis enume- ratis, eluvionis, pestilentiae,' &c. a) This Gen. may be equivalent to a Preposition with Case : Pyrrhi bellum = bellum cum Pyrrho or contra Pyrrhum ; odium inimicitiarum = odium ob inimicitias, &c. d] A Possessive and a Descriptive Gen. may depend on one and the same word : 414 Latin Syntax. ^ 'Exhaurietur ex urbe tuorum comitum magna et perni- ciosa sentina reipublicae/ that great and mischievous sink of the commonwealth consisting of your companions shall be drained from the city, C. p. S. Rose. 5. 2) The Gen. with causa, gratia, ergo, nomine, more, modo ritu, has been noticed. Observe that with instar. Instar (image] is a Substantive used to express likeness, equivalence, &c., either as Apposite, Complement, or after habere, obtinere, c. : 'Instar mentis equum,' Verg. Ae. ii. 15. ' Ille dies mihi immortalitatis instar fuit/ that day was to me as good as immortality, C. in Pis. 22. ' Unus is innumeri militis instar habet,' he alone is worth countless troops, Ov. Her. xvi. 368. Adinstaris found in later Latin. Genet! $ Here may be classed the Genitive of the F act after Verbs, vus Fa- Participles and Adjectives expressing accusation ; convic- cinoris. tion; condemnation or acquittal; criminality or innocence ; since it may be regarded as dependent on a suppressed Ablative such as crimine, nomine, causa, lege, iudi- c i o ; which often appear. a) Such Verbs are : Accuso, ago, arguo, coarguo, appello, anquiro, arcesso, capto, cito, compello, defero, incuso, insimulo, interrogo, postulo, reum ago, reum facio, &c. Alligo, adstringo, convinco, oblige, obstringo, prehendo, deprehendo, teneo, &c. Damno, condemno, infamo, noto, &c. Absolvo, libero, purgo ; also iudico, plecto, &c. . . . (aliquem rei ; crimine rei ; nomine rei alicuius, &c.) ff) The Adjectives are : Affinis, reus, suspectus ; compertus, manifestus, noxius ; in- nocens, innoxius, insons. c] The principal Genitives, expressing legal offences, which accompany such Verbs and Adjectives, are : Ambitus (bribery], caedis, homicidi (murder], furti (theft], latrocinii (robbery], iniuriarum (wrongs], maiestatis, prodi- tionis (treason], parricidii (parricide), repetundarum (extor- tion), sacrilegii (sacrilege], veneficii, veneni (poisoning], rei capital is, rerum capitalium, &c. The following forms have a Preposition : de vi (violence, assault, &c.), inter sicarios (assassination}. d] Such cases may be used with the legal terms above : reum esse, &c., furti, de vi, &c., furti nomine, crimine, &c. e] Other phrases are: damnare capitis or capite, to condemn capitally, i.e. to death or disfranchisement : capitis minor, a disfranchised person. Damnari voti, to be condemned to pay what was vowed, be- cause the prayer has been granted. !68. Genitive Case. 415 Damnare quindecim millibus, to condemn to a fine of 1 5,000 sesterces ; damnare octupli, to condemn to a fine of eight times the amount, &c. Also with Dat., or with ad : damnare morti ; damnare ad bestias. /) Anquirere capitis, capite, pecunia, &c., implies prose- cution by the Tribunes, who specified the penalty before- hand. g] Arguo, insimulo may be used in common parlance : ' Meque timoris argue tu, Drance,' and do you, Drances, undertake to convict me of cowardice, Verg. Ae. xi. 383. //) Damni infecti promittere, reprdmittere, stipulari, satisdare, c., are legal phrases : l to give security against damage? 168 III. A. i) The Genitive of Quality is also Descriptive ; but Gene- it takes the place, not of an Apposite, but of a strengthened Q 5 ^ Attribute. tads. * Vir excellentis ingeni = vir peringeniosus ; Lucius est excel- lentis ingeni = Lucius est peringeniosus. 2) The Gen., then, like the Abl., of Quality, is a construction by which one Substantive (in Latin always with Epithet) is joined to another, for the purpose of describing it in some particular : Vir magni animi, corporis ingentis, spectatae virtutis, trium litterarum (i.e. fur) ; adulescens bonae indolis, bonae spei, summae audaciae ; auctor sublestae fidei, an author of slight credit ; codex optimae notae, a manuscript of the best authority. 3) This form of description may extend to Number, Measure, Weight, Age, Time, Value, &c. : Classis septuaginta navium ; colossus triginta trium pedum ; lapis decem librarum pondo ; puer quindecim annorum ; tempus viginti sex horarum ; gemma maximi pretii. 4) In such examples the Noun which the Gen. qualifies is an Appellative or Common Noun ; and such it will be when the Gen. of Quality is used as an Epithet merely ; but if a Finite Copulative Verb is joined (vir est, fuit, habetur, habitus est, &c., magni animi, &c.), the Subject of such sentence may be a Proper Name : Lucius est (fuit, &c.) bonae indolis : Claudius erat somni brevissimi ; Sicilia est magnae fertilitatis, c. 5) Rare instances occur, in which the Gen. of Quality accom- panies a Proper Name enthetically : 'Turn T. Manlius Torquatus, priscae ac nimis durae severitatis, ita locutus fertur/ then Titus Manlius Torquatus, a man of antique and over-rugged strictness, is reported to have spoken thus, L. xxii. 60. 6) A Possessive Gen. and a Gen. of Quality or Description may depend on one Noun : 'Superiorum dierum Sabini cunctatio,' Sabinus's de- lay of the preceding days, Caes. B. G. iii. 18. 41 6 Latin Syntax. 169-70. 7) Modi, compounded with Pronouns, is a Gen. of Quality : Huiusmodi, eiusmodi, istiusmodi, cuiusmodi, cuicuimodi, &c., of this, that, which, whatever kind, &c. (It is hardly possible to discriminate nicely the uses of the Gen. and Abl. of Quality ; the usage of writers differing, and some phrases being by custom assigned to the one, some to the other. Upon the whole it seems true that the Gen. oftener describes essential and permanent, the Abl. accessory and occasional circumstances. But many ex- ceptions occur.) Geneti- B. i) The Genitive of Value and Price requires notice, vus Pre- because, though this is a particular instance of the Gen. of Quality, pretii is usually suppressed. 2) Price may be described after words which mean or imply biiying, selling, hiring, letting, costing, c., by the Geni- tives tanti, quanti, and their compounds, and by the Comparative Genitives pluris, mi noris (rarely maioris) ; but other Positive and the Superlative Adjectives (mag no, &c., plurimo, &c.) describe Price in the Abl. : 'Quanti emptum ? Parvo,' Hor. S. ii. 3. 156. Tanti est, it is worth while. Non tanti est, it is not worth the trouble. 3) Valuation, after ducere, habere, facere, pendert?, putare, taxare, esse, &c., is described by the Gen. of all the Adjec- tives above named : aestimare takes Gen. or Abl. Parvi pendere aliquid ; magni (magno) aestimare. See Madvig on C. Fin. iii. 3. n. 4) Instead of nullius pretii, ofnovahie,t\\t Romans in com- mon parlance (besides nihili) often, like, ourselves, used such phrases with a Negative as, as sis (unius assis), a penny (a single penny) ; tertmcii, a farthing ; nauci, pili, flocci, answering to the English phrases, not a fig, not a rush, &c. The phrase huius seems to imply a gesture, like snapping the fingers. Non huius facio, / do not care THAT for it. 5) To the Genitive of Value belong the phrases : Lucri facere, to make prize of-, aequi boni facere, to take in good part; boni consulere, to make the best of. A Verre omnem illam pecuniam lucri factam videtis/ you see that all that money has been embezzled by Verres, C. Verr. iii. 75. 'Animus meus totum istuc aequi boni facit/ my temper takes all that in good part, C. Att. vii. 7. 'Hoc munus rogo, qualecumque est, boni consulas,' / beg you will make the best of this present, whatever its value, Sen. Ben. i. 8. Interest C- *) Tlie Constructions of the Impersonal Verbs, refert. ' interest, it imports, concerns, refert, it concerns, are re- markable. Interest may take a Genitive of the Person or Thing con- cerned : interest omnium, interest reipublicae, &c. Refert does so less frequently; never in Cicero. 'Refert ipsorum/ L. xxxiv. 27. 1 171. Genitive Case. 417 The ground of concernment is expressed, if at all, either by an Infinitive, or by an Infinitive Clause or its equivalent, or by an Oblique Interrogation : 'Interest omnium recte facere/ C. Fin. ii. 22. 'Sa- lutis communis interest, duos consules in re- publica esse/ C. p. Mur. 2. 'Plurimum refert com- positionis, quae quibus anteponas/ it matters imtch to periodic construction, what words you place before what, Qu. ix. 4. 2) But if what is concerned is in the First or Second Person, or to be expressed reflexively or relatively, then the Pos- sessive forms mea, tua, nostra; vestra, sua, cuia, are used with these Verbs instead of a Genitive : 'Et mea et tua maxime interest te valere/ C. Fam. xvi. 4. 'Quid nostra id refert victum esse Antonium?' what matters it to us that Antonius is conquered? C. ad Br. i. 17. 3) These Verbs may be qualified by the Genitives of Value, magni, parvi, pluris, tanti, quanti : ' Utriusque nostrum magni interest utte videam/ C. Att. xi. 22. 'Hoc non pluris refert quam si imbrem in cri- brum geras/ this matters no more than if you carry water to a sieve, Plaut. Pseud, i. i. no. Also by nihil, multum, tantum, quantum, quid, parum, &c., and by Adverbs: valde, magnopere, maxime, minime, vementer, &c. The Verbs may be used perso- nally, as in the last example, with a Pronoun. 4) Interest and refert are constructed sometimes with ad, sometimes with a Dative : ' Magni ad honorem nos- trum interest quam primum ad urbem me venire/ C. Fam. xvi. i. 'Die quid referat intra Naturae finis viventi iugera centum an mille aret/ Hor. S. i. I. 49. Refert is often without Case: as, 'Neque enim numero comprendere-refert/ nor indeed is it important to count them, Verg. G. ii. IO4. 1 171 IV. A. i) The Plural Genitive of the Thing Distributed Geneti is a divisible Whole, and depends on Partitive Words DlJtri- indicating that one or more Parts (or no Part) of such butae. Whole are taken : 'Virtutum in alia alius mavult excellere/ one prefers to excel in one virtue, another in another, C. Off. i. 32. *Neque stultorum quisquam beatus neque sapi- entium non beatus/ C. Fin. i. 18. ' Nunc iuvenum princeps deinde future senum/ Ov. 'Roma regionum Italiae media est/ L. v. 54. 2) The Partitive Words are : a) Substantives which express Partition : pars, portio, nu- 1 Interest is perhaps originally corrupted from in re est ; and refert (not from refero) is from res and fert ; with this Ablative re the Pronouns mea, &c., agree. Some sup- pose in ter est to be for inter rem est, refert for rem fert, and mea, &c., to be corruptions of me am, &c. E E 41 8 Latin Syntax. i*j 2 . merus, multitude, nemo, nihil, &c., and the Adverb partim. /3) Pronominals: alius, alter, uter and its compounds, ullus, nullus, plerique, multi, pauci, reliqui, ceteri, solus; qui, quis, and their compounds : tot, quo t, and theit derivatives. y) Numerals both Cardinal and Ordinal: also princeps, medius. c) Comparative and Superlative Adjectives ; the former dis- tributing two things: ' Mai or Neronum ;' or one class into two parts: 'Avium loquaciores/ the noisier sort of birds, PI. N. H. Also Superlative Adverbs : ' Mi- nime omnium.' *) Any Noun which can imply distribution : ' Sancte de- orum ;' 'lecti iuvenum ;' 'piscium feminae.' 3) A Partitive Adjective, agreeing with that which is Part of a Whole, naturally follows the Gender of the Whole : Beluarum nulla = beluarum nulla belua ; yet it is sometimes attracted to the Gender of the Subject. 'Indus est omnium fluminum maximus/ C. N. D. Or to that of the Person implied, by Synesis : ' Dulcissime rerum/ my dearest friend, Hor. .5". i. 9. 4. 4) Partitives sometimes take the Gen. of a Collective Noun : 1 Plato totius Graeciae doctissimus fuit/ C. p. Rab. Post. 9. (Graeciae = Graecorum). 5) This Genitive is found in the place of a Complement : Ties nobilium tu quoque font him/ Hor. C. iii. 13. 13. Obs. ' Neque ille Sepositi ciceris nee longae invidit avenae/ Hor. ^. ii. 6, 84, is a Graecism (jrivtiv TOV o'ivov). 6} English idiom uses the Preposition tf/ after Numeral words, when no part is taken, but the whole implied : as, 'there are two of us :' but in Latin this would be, 0tt have now affairs enough of your own in hand, Plaut. Bac. iv. 3. 23. 8) Neuter Adjectives of either Number, put abstractly for Sub- stantives, sometimes govern a Genitive : 'Adulescens in lubrico aetatis est,' a young man is at a slippery time of life, Plin. Epist. iii. 6. So medium diei, serum diei. (On id temper is, id locorum, hoc aetatis, &c., see ACCUSATIVE.) Constructions like 'Incerta casuum,' ' occulta saltuum,' 1 opaca locorum,' ' angusta viaruin,' ' amara curarum/ are not usual in Cicero ; but they occur in Livy, abound in Tacitus, and in poetry they are frequent. See p. 278. Geneti- C. i) The Genitive of Abundance and Want is Parti- cipiae tive - See ABLATIVE, p. 397. et ino- 2) Verbs: egeo, indigeo prefer the Genitive in prose: com- piae- pleo, expleo, impleo, take it occasionally : abundo, parti- cipo, saturo, scateo : abstineo, careo, desino, desisto, levo, libero, solvo, dissolvo, and others, chiefly in poetry. ' Indigere medicinae;' 'impleri veteris Bacchi :' 'abstinere irarum ; ' ' desine querellarum,' c. Potior has a Genitive both in prose and poetry: apiscor, adipiscor, in Tacitus ; regno once in Horace. 3) Adjectives: fertilis, ferax, largus, plenus, refertus : in- anis, indigus, inops, ieiunus : often have Gen. in prose and poetry; compos, particeps, exheres, expers, exsors, almost always : potens, impos, impotens, no other Case : benignus, dives, fecundus, locuples, prosper: pauper, solutus, truncus, exsul, vacuus, &c., dignus, indignus, are found in poetry with Genitive. ' Vita plena metus et insidiarum ; ' ' terra frugum fertilis ; ' 1 compos mentis ;' ' voti compos ;' ' Musa potens lyrae ; ' ' rationis expers ; ' ' dives opum ;' ' exsul patriae ; ' ' pauper aquae Daunus,' c. D. Of a Partitive nature also are the Genitive of Respect and that of the Part affected, which, in imitation of Greek construction, is very freely used by poets and also by prose writers of the silver age. Such phrases are : iy/j. Genitive Case. 421 'Consili certus;' 'militiae impiger, strenuus ;' 'vetus sermonis,' all in Tac. : 'integer vitae,' Hor. ; 'integer aevi,' Verg. ; ' seri studiorum,' Hor. &c. Especially animi : ' Excruciari animi;' ' angi animi;' ' pendere animi/ C. : 'animi falli,' Lucr., Plaut. (desipere mentis, Plaut.): 'Animi anxius, aeger, audax, caecus, ferox, ingens, immodicus, infelix, laetus, promptus, turbidus, validus/ &c. iv. B) OBJECTIVE GENITIVE. o b ] e 7 c 4 . This Genitive principally depends on Words which contain the G e ni- Transitive force of Verbs from which they are derived. Such are : tive - 1) Substantives: amor patriae; cultus agrorum ; scientia iuris ; ignorantia recti ; cura peculi ; studium lucri ; victor hostium. Note i. The Genitives nostrum, vestrum (in old Latin nos- trorum, vestrorum) are used in Partitive Construction: mei, tui, &c., nostri, vestri, Quantitatively or Objectively. But the phrases ' omnium nostrum,' ' omnium vestrum' are also used as Possessive Genitives: sometimes nos- trum, vestrum alone. And mei, tui are sometimes found where the Possessive might have been expected : ' Fruitur fama sui,' Tac. Ann. ii. 13. Also the Possessives me us, tuus are sometimes used Objectively. See p. 410. Note 2. An Objective Genitive (with Substantives derived from Transitive Verbs) must often be rendered in English by some other Preposition than of: 'Coelibis obsequ- ium,' attention to an unmarried man, Hor. ' Praestantia an i ma rum reliquarum/ superiority over other souls, Cic. 'Remedium irae,' remedy against anger, Cic. 'Miseri- cordia pauperum,'^//y for the poor. ' Quies laborum/ rest from toils. 2) Adjectives : ) Verbal Adjectives in ax: capax, edax, ferax, fugax, pertinax, rapax, sagax, tenax, vorax, &c. /3) Present Participles used Adjectively : abundans, a mans, appetens, contemnens, colens, cupiens, despi- ciens, diligens, efficiens, egens, experiens, fugiens, in- tellsgens, metuens, neglegens, observans, patiens, im- patiens, proferens, sciens, sitiens, timens, tolerans, bene- gerens, servantissimus, &c. y) Adjectives of knowledge and ignorance: assuetus, cal- lidus, certus, certior, conscius, consultus, docilis, doctus, expertus, gnarus, memor, peritus, praescius, praesagus, providus, prudens, scitus, sollers ; alienus, ambiguus, dubius, inscius, incertus, inexpertus, ignarus, immemor, imperitus, improvidus, imprudens, indoctus, insolens, insuetus, nescius, oblitus, rudis. Here remark the phrase, 'Certioremfacere'(/ermagnum optimi pondus argenti,' C. Phil. ii. 27. ' Tantum quisque se in republica posse postulat, quantum habet virium,' C. ad Brut. i. 10. ' Rogo, ut de his rebus, quas tecum colloqui volo, annum mini temporis des,' N. Them. 9. ' Romani castrorum oppugnatione, quia serum erat diei, abstinuere/ L. vii. 8. ' A te nihildum certi exquiro, sed quid videatur,' C. Att. vii. 12. ' Prae- missus Caecina, ut occulta saltuum scrutaretur pontisque et aggeres humido paludum et fallacibus campis imponeret,' Tac. Ann. i. 61. 'Quid mulieris uxorem habes?' Ter. Hec. iv. 4. 'Velim, ut, quod eius fieri possit, praesentiae tuae desi- clerium meo labore minuatur,' C. Fam.v. 8. 'Ut adulescentem, in quo senile aliquid, sic senem, in quo est adulescentis aliquid, probamus,' C. Cat. M. n. 'Ambula- tionem postmeridianam confecimus in Academia, maxime quod is locus ab omni turba id temporis vacuus esset,' C. Fin. v. i. 'Dedi satis superque poenarum tibi,' Hor. Epod. 17. 19. 'Armorum affatim erat Carthagme captorum,' L. xxvii. 17. 'Pa- rentes abunde habemus, amicorum numquam sat is,' Sail. lug. 102. ' Multis in locis parum firmamenti et parum virium veritas habet,' C. /. Chi. 2. ' Ubi terrarum esses ne suspicabar quidem,' C. Att. v. 10. 'Qui virtutem adeptus erit, ubicumque erit gentium, a nobis diligetur,' C. N. D. i. 44. ' Rhodum aut aliquo terrarum migrandum est,' C. Fain. xi. i. ' Mulier quaedam commigravit hue vici- niae, Ter. An. i. i. ' Populus Romanus eo magnitudinis crevit, ut viribus suis conficeretur,' Flor. iii. 12. 'Postridie eius diei Ariovistus praeter castra Caesaris suas copias transduxit et milibus passuum duobus ultra eum castra fecit,' Caes. B. G. i. 48- y. {Plenty and Want, &=c.) ' Celeriter adulescentem suae temeritatis implet,' L. i. 4. ' Me omnium laborum levas,' Plaut. Rud. i. 4. ' Helvetii totius Galliae se potiri 426 Latin Syntax.. 178. 578 ii. The Infinitive Present and Past as Subject: < Invidere non cadit in sapientem,' C. T. D. iii. 10. < Inge- nuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores,' Ov. Ep. ex P. ii. 9. Especially 1) Of an Impersonal Verb: 1 Libet semper disc ere/ C. d. Or. iii. 23 2) Of a Copulative Verb with Adj. or Adv. Complement : 'Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori,' Hor. C. iii. 2. 13. 3) Of a Copul. Verb, when the Complement is a Subst. (either Norn., or Possessive Gen., or Dat. of Purpose) : 'Tempus est maiora conari,' L. vi. 18. ( Tempori cedere semper sapientis est habitum/ C. Div. ii. 60. ' Laudi erit certasse.' Obs. i. If the Infin. is Copulative, and the principal Verb has an Accus. Object, the Complement will be Accus. : 'Dedecet hominem esse mendacem.' If the Object is Dative, the Compl. may be Dat. or Accus. : * Licuitesse otioso Themistocli, licuit Epaminondae/ C. T. D. i. 15. 'Civi Romano licet esse Gaditanum/ C. p. Balb. 12. Obs. 2. An Infin. is rarely found as Complement : 'Docto homini et erudito vivere est cogitare,'C. Fam. vi. i. posse sperabant,' Caes. B. G. i. 3. ' Regio aeris ac plumbi uberrima,' lust. xliv. 3. 'Plena errorum sunt oir.nia,' C. T. D. i. 5. ' Gallia adeo frugum homi- numque fertilis fuit, ut abundans multitudo vix regi posse videretur,' L. v. 34. 'Roma externae opis indiga fuit,' Tac. H. ii. 48. 'Vis consili expers mole mit sua,' Hor. C. iii. 4. 65. 'Certe omne* virtutis compotes beati sunt,' C. T. D. v. 13. 'Postquam Pompeius et consules ex Italia exierunt, non sum, mihi crede, mentis compos,' C. Att. ix. 6. 'Eripite isti gladium, qui sui est fmpos animi,' Plaut. Cas. iii. 5. ' Ira, ut insania, impotens sui est,' Sen. Ir. i. i. 'Descendam magnorum baud umquam indignus avorum,' Verg. Ae. xii. 649. 'Pacis eras mediusque belli,' Hor. C. ii. 19. 28. 'Aevi maturus Acestes," Verg. Aen. v. 73. 'Damnatus longi Sisyphus Aeolides laboris,' Hor. C. ii. 14. 19. 'Fortunate animi,' St. Th. i. 638. 'Antipho me excruciat animi,' Ter. Ph. ii. 2. 10. B) (Objective.) ' Iram bene Ennius initium dixit insaniae,' C. T. D. iv. 23. 'Me tuae dignitatis non modo fautorem, sed etiam amplificatorem cognosces,' C. Fam. x. 12. 'Epaminondas philosophiae praeceptorem habuit Lysim Tarenti- num, Pythagoreum,' N. Ep. 2. 'Adhibenda est quaedam reverentia adversus homines, et optimi cuiusque et reliquorum,' C. Off, i. 28. 'Patria est com- munis omnium nostrum parens,' C. in Cat. i. 7. 'Ais, Habe mei rationem : habe tu nostrum (i.e. Romanorum : nostri would = mei), ' C. Att. vii. 9. ' Habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui,' C. in Cat. iv. 9. 'Nostri nosmet paenitet,' Ter. Ph. \. 3. ' Nihil malo quam et me mei similem esse, et illos sui,' C. Att. ix. 16. ' Magna mei sub terras ibit imago,' Verg. Ae. iv. 654. ' Divi quorum est potestas nostrorum hostiumque,' L. viii. 9. 'Cogor vest ram omnium vicem unus con- sulere,' L. xxv. 38. ' Neque neglegentia tua neque odio id fecit tuo/ Ter. Ph. v. 8. 'Galba omnium consensu visus est capax imperi, nisi imperasset,' Tac. H. i. 49. ' Natura tenacissimi sumus eorum quae rudibus annis percepimus,' Qu. i. i. 'Tu me sitientem virtutis tuae deseruisti,' C. p. Plane. 5. 'Epaminondas adeo fuit veritatis diligens ut ne ioco quidem mentiretur,' Nep. Ep. 3. 'Cum com- mode navigare poteris, ad nos amantissimos tui veni,'C. Fam. xvi. 7. ' Romani semper appetentes gloriae praeter ceteras gentis atque avidi laud is fuerunt,' C. /. L. Man. 3. ' Catilinae corpus erat patiens inediae, vigiliae, algoris,' Sail. Cat. 9. ' Themistocles peritissimos belli navalis fecit Atheniensis.' N. TJiem. 2. - i79--So. The Infinitive. 427 iii. I n fi n i t i v e a s O b j e c t. 179 'Adimam cantare severk,' Hor. Epist. i. 19. 9. 'Mori nemo sapiens miserum dux it/ C. Fam. vi. 3. Infin. with Attribute : 'Hoc ridere meuin, tarn nil, nulla tibi vendo I Hade,' Pers. i. 122. With Preposition: 'Multum interest inter dare et accipere,' Sen. Ben. v. 2. On the Historic Infinitive see p. 332 ; Infin. Clause, 194. iv. Prolative Infinitive. (See 102, 103.) 180 (i) The 'Extensible' Verbs which take this Infinitive imply: ability, learning, knowledge; duty; desire, dislike ; daring, dread, Jiesitation; custom; endeavour, purpose, resolve; omission, negltct; beginning, continuing, ceasing ; hastening, delaying ; deserving. Also Passive Verbs of seeming, being deemed, said, found, &c. : with doceor, moneor, cogor, iubeor, vetor, prohibeor, impedior : Possum (queo, debeo, volo, nolo, audeo, soleo, meditor, certo, coepi, desino, cogito, propero, moror, animum induce, videor, putor, dicor, reperior, doceor, iubeor, &c.) currere, legere, &c. If the Infinitive depending on any such Verb is Copulative, the Complement will agree with the Subject : Possum (debeo, volo, &c. ; videor, putor, &c. ; cogor, iubeor, vetor, &c.) esse tranquillus, esse doctus, esse philosophies, c. Obs. i. Verbs of Desire, and oportet, take a Perf. Participle as Passive Infin. : ' Patriae consultum volo,' / wish my country's good to be regarded. ' Mansum oportuit,' ivc ought to have re- mained. See 203. 'In omnibus rebus est aliquid optimum, etiamsi latet, idque ab eo potest, qui eius rei gnarus est, iudicari,' C. d. Or. ii. 2. ' Orator nephysicor um quidem sit ignarus,' C. Or. 34. 'Evander vir erat venerabilis miraculo litterarum, rei novae inter rud is artium homines,' L. i. 7. 'Pecoris cupidissimi sunt barbari,' Caes. B. G. vi. 34. 'Urbanae militiae Proculus impiger fuit, belloium insolens,' Tac. H. i. 87. 'Galli homines insueti laboris,' Caes. B. G. vii. 30. ' Uti lam te, frater, non solum vitae sed etiam dignitatis meae sup erstitem reliquissem,' C. Qu. F. i. 3. 'Mihi quidem stultius nihil videtur, quam existimare eum studiosum tui, quern non noris,' C. d. Pr. C. 7. ' Caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae,' C. Off. i. 34. ' Plancii meriti in me recorder,' C. /. Plane. 28. ' Proprium est stultitiae, aliorum vitia cernere, suorumoblivisci,'C. T. D. iii. 30. ' Neque omnino hu ins rei meminit usquampoeta/Qu. xi. 2. ' Admon itus sum huius aer is alien i,'C. Top. i. 5. 'Gram- maticos officii sui commonemus,'Qu. i-5. 'VenitmihiPlatonisin mentem/C. Fin. v. i. ' Beneficia debet meminisse is, in quern collata sunt, non commemorare, qui contulit,' C. Lael. 20. 'Est operae pretium diligentiam maiorum record ar i,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 27. ' Obli viscor iniurias, deponomemoriam doloris mei,' C./. Coe!.zo. 'Ea potius reminiscere, quae digna tua persona sunt,' C. Fam. iv. 5. 'Viveme- mor leti,' Pers. v. 153. 'Omnes immemore m beneficii oderun t.' C. Off. ii. 18. 'Qui misereri mei debent, non desinunt invidere,' C. Att. iv. 5. 'Tui me miseret, mei piget,' C. Div. i. 31. ' Numquam in re bona mali pudebit auctori s.' Sen. Tranq. IT. 'Numquam primi consili Deum paeni tet,' Sen. Ben. 23. ' Me non solum piget stultitiae meae, sed etiam p u d e t,' C. p. Dom. 29. Prorsus vitae taedet; ita sunt omnia miseriarum plenissima,' C. Att. ii. 24. ' Postquam Alexander Clitum trucidaverat, pigere eum facti coepit,' lust. xii. 6. 'Decemvirorum Ro- manos pertaesum est,' L. iii. 67. 428 Latin Syntax. 181. Obs. 2. Habeo, do, idiomatically take Infin: : 'Tantum habeo polliceri,' C.Fam.i. < Dare bibere,' L. Similarly, Dederat comam diffundere ventis, V. (for ad diffundendum). Obs. 3. Coepit, incipit, desinit, debet, potest, solet, are impersonal with impers. Infinitives: ' Paenitere eumfacti coepit,' 'Perveniri ad summa nisi ex principiis non potest/ Qu. x. i. 'Coeptum est,' desitum est are so used with Pass. Infin. (Coeptus sum, desitus sum are used personally with Pass. Infin.) 1 Obs. 4. The construction of Infin. with Verbs of motion is found in poets : ' Ego hue missa sum ludere/ Plaut. (2) 1'he Infinitive extends also the construction of Adjectives in poetry, and in the prose of the Silver Age, especially in Tacitus. A few Adjectives are thus used by Cicero, Livy, &c., but the greatest number appear in poetry, especially in Horace: 'Audax omnia perpeti ;' ' impiger hostium vexare turmas.' Other Adjectives so used are : aptus,blandus, bonus, callidus,catus, cautus, celer, doctus, durus, erficax, facilis, fortis, idoneus, impotens, largus, lenis, natus, neglegens, par, pernix, pertinax, potens, piger, praesens, prudens, segnis, sellers, thnidus, &c. 181 Con- II) Cases of the Infinitive (Geiunds and Supines). struc- tion. y. Gerundial Construction. The base of the Latin Gerundial Construction (as of the partially corresponding Greek) is a Participial Adjective the Gerundive in dus, which, as Pott says, is neither Active nor Passive exclusively : bibendus, proper for drinking. This serves three uses : (i) By its Oblique Cases (called Gerunds) it completes (with the Supines) the Active Infinitive Verb-noun : Sing. N. bibere, Ace. bibere (ad bibendum, bibitum), Gen. bi- bendi, Dat. bibendo, Abl. bibendo (in &c. bibendo), bibitu. 1 Copulative Verbs Passive are oftener used personally with an Infinitive than with the Infin. Clause. Videtur errasse Cicero, not, videtur errasse Ciceronem. But nuntior, dicor, trader, credor can take the Clause. ' Nuntiatum est adesse Scipionem,' Caes. And Cic. once uses ' videtur mihi ' with Clause : T. D. v. 5. A Periphrastic or Combinate Infin. (-us esse, -urus esse, -ndus esse) frequently follows such Verbs; and esse as often as not is suppressed. 'Titus Manlius locutus fertur,' L. 'Affatus dicitur undas,' Mart. 'Creditur olim velificatus Athos,' luv. 'Secuturi vindicem libertatis videbantur,' L. 'Delectus haben- dus putatur.' This idiom has not been adequately noticed by grammarians and commentators : and hence words have been taken as Participles which are true Infini- tives. Such in Horace are 'solitus,' 6". i. i. 66; 'collisa,' Ep. i. 2. 7, and perhaps 'adfatus,' C. i. 7. 24: especially 'coactus,' C. i. 16. 14, where the construction (undi- cerned till lately) is, ' Prometheus fertur coactus . . . etapposuisse . . . ,' Pro- metheus is reported to have been compelled, &c., and to have attached, &c. This ex- planation having been questioned by some on account of the coupling of Act. and Pass. Infin., the following instances (supplied by Mr. Munro) remove that objection. 'Aut tenui percussum verbere Circes et cum remigibus grunnisse Elpenora porcis,' luv. xv. 21. ' Bustis exisse feruntur et tacitae quest i tempore noctis avi,' Ov. F. ii. 551. 'Emersisse iam e vadis et scopulos praetervecta videtur oratio mea, C. . Cael. 21. ' Ne aut velificatus alicui dicaris, aut aliquid, quod referret scire, reticuisse,' Cael. ap. C. Fam. viii. 10. Also L. i. n ; Tac. Ann. i. 65. So the omission of the finite est from Perfects Pass, and Dep., frequent as it is, has sometimes caused these to be mistaken for mere Participles: 'mirata,' Hor. C. iv. 9. 15; ' ausa,' Hor. C. i. 37. 25. See 99. 182. Gerunds. 429 (Its Adjectival origin appears in Gerundial Attraction.) (2) Its Neuter Nom. with est becomes a Verb Impersonal, signify- ing necessity, duty, ineetness : l Nunc est bibendum.' (3) As a Participle, it still signifies necessity, duty, meet ness, but has the Adjectival Construction of Attribute or Complement : Aqua bibenda : aqua est bibenda. vi. The Gerunds. (i) In the Gerunds, two things are to be considered : A} The cases which depend oa them as Verbs. B] Their own dependence as Oblique Cases of Nouns. A] A Gerund may govern the same Case as its Verb : Spes satisfaciendi reipublicae. A Transitive Gerund, in classic authors, does not generally take an Accus., except of Pronouns or Neuter Plural Adjectives : aliquid, multa, omnia, c. But it may do so when rhythm or perspicuity recommends : ' Salutem hominibus dando.' The usual construction of a Transitive Gerund is that called Gerundial Attraction, by which the Gerund assumes the Gen- der and Number of its Object, and the Object assumes the Case of the Gerund : For 'tuendi urbem' is written 'tuendae urbis.' ' liberandi cives* ' liberandorum civium.' B] Dependence of the four Gerunds : o) The Accus. Gerund depends on Prepositions: ad, inter, ob ; rarely ante, circa, post. Ad discendum; ad agros colendos ; inter ludendum ; ob rem iudicandam. Fh The Gen. Gerund depends, as Subjective, Descriptive, or Objective, on numerous Substantives: amor, ars, causa (also causa, for the sake], &c. As Objective, it depends on many Adjectives which govern a Genitive: capax, cupidus, ignarus, peritus, &c. Ars canendi ; studium dicendi ; scientia civitatis regendae ; cupidus audiendi; conscius delendae tyrannidis; dux bene vivendi, &c. 7) The Dat. Gerund as Dativus Commodi depends on Verbs and Adjectives of ability, attention, and adaptation : praeesse, operam dare, sufficere, esse, &c. ; aptus, utilis, c. Substantives : locus, matcria, sedes, &c. (Generally) on any predication implying purpose : ' Operam dedi pingendo ; ' ' Aqua utilis (inutilis) bibendo/ 'Studium aptum ingeniis acuendis/ &c. : solvendo non esse (to be insolvent}. The purpose of an office is stated in this form : 'Tiberius Gracchus triumvir dividendis agris creatus est,' Tiberius Gracchus was elected one of three commis- sioners to divide the lands, Flor. 430 Latin Syntax. 183-85. (') The Abl. Gerund is of cause, instrument, or manner ; and with the Prepositions de, ex, in ; rarely pro. Mens alitur discendo, audiendis philosophis : in iuberido ; a scribendo ; de captivis commutandis, &c. 183 vii. Impersonal Gerundive Construction. (2) This is not used transitively, but may be without Case : ' Bibendum est/ we must drink, Ace. bibendum esse : or it may govern any Case but the Accusative : 'Serviendum est legibus :' 'utendum est aetate.' In old Latin the Accus. was used : ' Aeternas quoniam poenas in morte timendum/ Lucr. 18 4 viii. Attributive Gerundive Construction. (3) This is used by Transitive Verbs only : 'Aqua bibendaest/ water should be drunk. Obs. The Gerundive may be an Epithet : ' Ridenda poemata/ ridiculous poems, luv. x. but oftener takes a Dative Case (see p. 390) : f Proelia coniugibus loquenda/ battles for wives to talk of, Hor. For this Dative an Ablative of the Agent with ab may be used if required for perspicuity. 185 ix.~ Notes on Gerund and Gerundive. 1) The Verbs fungor, fruor, utor, vescor, potior, may be used in Gerundive Construction, both attractional and attri- butive, because they were anciently Transitive : ' Officii f un gen di causa.' ' Vita non fruenda sed utenda est.' 2) The Genitive Gerund is found with dependent Gen. : T ' Nobis fuit exemplorum eligendi potestas/ we had the power of choosing examples, C. d. Inv. ii. 2. 3) It appears in historians as causal: * Regium imperium conservandae libertatis fuerat/ the royal power had existed for the preservation of freedom, Sail. Cat. 6. A strange idiom is used by Tacitus : ' Vologesi vetus et penitus infixum erat arma Romana vitandi/ Vologescs had an old and deeply rooted practice of shunning the Roman arms, xv. 5. 4) The Attracted Abl. is found after a Comparative : 'Nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est/ no duty is more necessary than gratitude, C. Off. i. 1 5. 1 Madvig (on Cic. Fin. p. 112) says that this Gen. is always Plural. But this is disproved by Munro (on Lucr. v. 1225), and Wagner (on Ter. Haut., Note 29)^ 186-87. Supines. 431 5) The Gerundive is used as Oblique Complement with do, trado, conduce, loco, propono, euro, &c., to express purpose : 4 Scriba quidam Cn. Flavius ediscendos fastos populo pro- posuit/ one Flavius, a clerk, published the calendar for the people to learn by heart, C. p. Mur. u. * Conon muros Athenarum reficiendos curat/ N. Con. 4. See 131. (So Pass. : 'Vita data est utenda/ life was given to be used.} Poets use an Infin. for this Gerundive : ' Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Creticum portare vends/ sadness and terror I will deliver to the boisterous winds to carry into the f Cretan Sea, Hor. C. i. 26. 1. x. The Two Supines. Su P ine< These are Cases of Verb-nouns of the U-declension. (T) The First or Accus. Supine (-um) implies Purpose after a Verb of actual or implied motion : 'Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego,' Hor. S. i. 5. 48. a) It may take a Case : 1 Hannibal defensum patriam revocatus est,' N. Han. 6. #) Sometimes motion is rather implied than expressed : 'Coctum ego, non vapulatum conductus sum/ / was hired to cook, not to be beaten, Plaut. Aul. iii. 3. 3. ' Augus- tus filiam luliam primum Marcello, mox Agrippae n up turn dedit/ Suet. Aug. 63. c} * Ire' with this Supine means to set abo^i doing a thing \ Perditum ire, raptum ire, ultum ire, &c. Hence the use of the Impers. Infin. iri with the Supine to supply a Passive form for Infin. Fut. ' Audierat non datum iri filio uxorem suo/ Ter. An. i. 2. 6. d) Other constructions oftener express the purpose of motion : ' Eunt consultum Apollinem.' For 'consultum' might be used, 'ut consulerent/ 'qui consulerent' 'ad consulen- dum/ 'consulendi causa:' less usually, ' consulturi.' Livy uses this Supine most largely. (2) The Second or Abl. Supine (-u) limits the undeclined Substan- 187 fives fas, nefas, opus, and Adjectives which signify good or evil, pleasantness or unpleasantness, fitness or unfitness, &c. ' Nefas visu/ horrible to behold. ' Turpe dictu/ shameful to say. a) After some words, ad with the Gerund is more elegant : ' Cibus facillimus ad concoquendum/ C. Fin. ii. 20. /) In poetry the Infinitive may be used : * Cereus in vitium flecti/ warlike in being moulded to vice, Hor. Pis. 161. 432 Latin Syntax. 188. c] The Supine in -u is rare after Verbs : ' Pudet dictu/ Tac. a) Anciently it appears as an Ablative of Origin : 'Primus cubitu surgat vilicus, postremus cubitum eat,' the bailiff should be the first to get up, the last to go to bed, Cato. 188 Note on the Annexive Relation. A Word is said to be in Annexive Relation to another, when it is so joined to it by a Conjunction (expressed or understood) as to take the same construction on the same grounds: ' Dis homini- b usque visum est ;' 'non mi hi loquitur sed tibi;' 'Brutum non minus amo quam tu, paene dixi, quam te:' where tu, by being Nominative, shows that it is annexed to ego understood : te, by being Accusative, shows that it is annexed to Brutum. Examples of Infinitive. 'Non attinet quicquam sequi quod assequi non queas,' C. Off. i. 31. 'Quo mihi fortunam. si non conceditur uti?' Hor. Epist. i. 5. 12. ' Flaccum numquam pro- spexisse vestrae saluti paenitebit,' C. p. Fl. 41. ' Bene sentire recteque facere satis est ad bene beateque vivendum,' C. Fain. vi. i. ' Decet verecundum esse adulescentem,' Plaut. As. v. i. 'Consulem fieri valde utile Mario videbatur,' C. Off. iii. 20. ' lovis esse nepoti contigit haud uni,' Ov. Met. xi. 219. 'Mihi iurato dicere fas fuit/ C./. Mur. 37. ' Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis,' C. Att. xiii. 28. ' Id primum videamus, beate vivere vestrum quale sit,' C. Fin, ii. 27. ' Neque mihi praestabilius quicquam videtur quam posse dicendo hominum voluntates impellere quo velit, unde autem velit deducere/C. d. Or. i. 8. ' Honeste atque inhoneste venderemos erat, Sail. Cat. 30. ' Fas est et ab hoste doceri,' Ov. M. iv. 428. 'Aristo et Pyrrho inter optime valere et gravissime aegrotare nihil prorsus dicebant interesse,' C. Fin. ii. 13. ' Nondum fuga certa, nondum victoria erat ; tegi magis Romanus, quam pugnare ; Volscus infer re signa, urge re aciem, plus caedis hostium videre quam fugae,' L. iv. 37. See Sail. B. lug. 50. 51. 75. ' Certos mihi finis terminosque constituam, extra quos egredi non possim, si maxime velim,' C. p. Qjtinct. 10. 'Perge reliqua ; gestio enim scire omnia,' C. Att. iv. n. 'Aelius Stoicus esse voluit, orator autem nee studuit umquam nee fuit,' C. Br. 56. *Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat,' Sail. Cat. 54. 'Tu animum poteris in- ducere contra haec dicere?' C. Div. i. 13. ' Thraces, navibus committere se non ausi, domos dilapsi sunt,' L. xliv. 45. ' Miltiades Chersonesi manere decrevit,' Nep. Milt. 2. ' Desiderio Romuli populus Romanus regem flagitare non destitit,' C. Rep. ii. 12. ' Spartae pueri rapere discunt,' C. Rep. iv. 5. ' Vos sociis prospicere labo- ratis/ C. Verr.'\\\. 55. ' Sestii mortem ulcisceremini, si liberi esse cogitaretis," C. /. Sest. 38. ' Datames Aegyptum proficisci parabat,' N. Dat. 4. 'Fortes et sapientes viri non tarn praemia sequi solent recte factorum quam ipsa recte facta,' C. p. MIL 35. 'Verus patriae diceris esse pater,' Mart. Sp. iii. n. 'Amens mihi fuisse videor a principio,' C. Att. ix. 10. 'Barbara narratur venisse vene- fica tecum/ Ov. H. vi. 19. ' In Graecia primum humanitas, litterae, etiam fruges in- ventae esse creduntur/ Plin. Ep. viii. 24. 'Existimatur Caelius Catilinae nimium familiar is fuisse,' C. /. Cael. 4. 'Prometheus affix us Caucaso trade- batur,' C. T. D. v. 3. 'Commisisse cavet quae mox mutare laboret,' Hor. in Pis. 168. 'Roman! pepercisse volunt,' L. xxxii. 21. 'Contenti sumus illud unum dixisse, quanti ille fuerit,' Veil. ii. 108. 'Si potuit meruisse necem, me- ruisse putetur,' Ov. H. xi. 109. ' Haec fere dicere habui de natura deorum,' C. N. D. iii. 39. 'Gallinis meridie bibere dato,' Cat. 89. 'Legati Celtiberorum nihil prius petierunt a praetore quam ut bibere sibi iuberet dari,' L. xl. 47. ' Lucere coepit,' C. Div. i. 23. 'Non desiit paenitere me suscepti adversus Romanes belli,' L. xxiii. 13. 'Solet eum, cum aliquid furiose fecit, paenitere,' C. Att. viii. 5. ' Armis disceptari coeptum est de iure publico,' C. Fam. iv. 4. 'lampridem contra eos desitum est disputari,' C. Fin. ii. 13. ' Comitia nostra haberi coepta sunt,' C. Vcrr. i. 9. 'Papirius Crassus primus Papisius est vocaridesitus,'C. Fam. ix. 21. 1 88. Gerunds and Supines. 433 'Glebae coepere moveri,' Ov. M. iii. 106. 'Is est maxime docilis qui attentissime est paratus audire,' C. Inv. i. 16. ' Reficit rates quassas, indocilis pauperiem pati,' Hor. C. i. 1. 17. 'Maesta civitas fuit, vinci insueta,' L. iv. 31. Examples of Gerunds and Gerundive. I. {Gerunds and Gerundial Attraction.") ' Fuerunt apud Romanes qui assentando multitudini grassarentur,' L. xlv. 23. ' Diogenes dicebat, artem se tradere bene dis- serandi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi,' C. d. Or. ii. 38. ' Ita nati factique bumus, ut et agendi aliquid et diligendi aliquos, et libertatis, et referendae gratiae principia in nobis contineremus,' C. Fin. v. 15. ' Nulla causa iusta cuiquam esse potest contra patriam arma capiendi,'C. Phil. ii. 22. 'Legem doctissimi viri Graeco putant nomine a suumcufque tribuendo appellatam,' C. Leg. i. 16. 'Cernitur in delectu bonorum et malorum iustitia, et in suo cuique tribuendo/ C. Fin. v. 23. 'Non solum ad discendum propensi sumus, veruni etiam ad docendum,' C. Fin. iii. 20. 'Oculus conturbatus non est probe affectus ad suum munus fungendum,' C. T. D. iii. 7. ' Mores puerorum se inter ludendum simplicius detegunt,' Qu. i. 3. 12. ' Flagitiosum est, eum, a quo pecuniam ob absolvendum acceperis, condem- nare,' C. Verr. ii. 32. 'Homo magna habet instrumenta ad obtinendam adipi- scendamque sapientiam,' C. Leg. i. 22. ' Eadem precor a dis immortalibus ob L. Murenae consulatum una cum salute obtinendum,' C. p. Mur. i. ' Nihil Xeno- phonti tarn regale vidctur quam studium agri colendi,' C. Cat. N. 17. 'Veni consulis Antoni domum saepe salutandi causa,' C. Fam. xi. 28. ' Reliqua, ita mihi salus aliqua detur p o t e s t a sque in patria moriendi, ut me lacrimae non sinunt scri- bere,' C. Q. Fr. i. 3. 'lustitiae fruendae causa videntur olim bene morati reges constituti,' C. Off. ii. 12. ' Pythagoreorum more exercendae memoriae gratia quid quoque die dixerim, audierim, egerim, commemoro vesperi,' C. Cat. M. n. ' Epaminondas studiosus erat audiendi,' Nep. Ep. 3. 'Demosthenes Platonis studiosus audiendi fuit,' C. d. Or. \. 20. ' Homines be llandi cupidi magno dolore afficiebantur,' Caes. B. G. i. 2. ' Multi propter gloriae cupiditatem cupidi sunt bellorum gerendorum,' C. Off. i. 22. 'Multae res oratorem ab imperito dicendi ignaroque distinguunt,' C. d. Or. iii. 44. ' Mons pecori bonus alendo erat,' L. xxix. 31. 'Vertamquam adulescentiam significat ostenditque fructus futures ; reliqua temporademetendi s fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt,'C. Cat. M. ig. 'Tu, Eruci, praeesse agro colendo flagitium putas?' C. p. S. Rose. 18. 'Consul placandis dis dat operam,' L. yxii. 2. 'Galli Transalpini haud procul inde, ubi nunc Aquileia est, locum oppido condendo ceperunt,' L. xxxix. 22. ' Multarum civitatum principes ad me detulerunt, sumptus decerni legatis nimis magnos, dim solver. do civitates non essent,' C. Fam. iii. 8. 'Tribute plebes liberataest, ut divites conferrent, qui oneri ferendo essent,' L. ii. 9. 'Decemviros legibus scribendis intra hos decem annos et creavimus et e republica sustulimus,' L. iv. 4. 'Valerius consul comitia collegae subrogando habuit,' L. ii. 8. ' Hominis mens discendo alitur et cogit"ando,' C. Off. i. 30. ' Omnis loquendi elegantia augetur legendis oratoribus et poetis,' C. d. Or. iii. 10. ' Aristotelem non deterruit a scribendo Platonis amplitude,' C. Or. i. 5. ' Multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata sunt,' C. Fin. i. 2. ' Ex providendo appellata est prudentia,' C. Leg. i. 23. 'Saepe plus in metuendo mali est, quam in illo ipso, quod timetur,' C. Fam. vi. 4. 'In voluptate spernenda virtus vel maxime cernitur,' C. Leg. i. 19. 'Reliquorum siderum quae causa dollocandi fuerit, quaeque eorum sit collocatio, in alium sermonem differendum est,' C. Tim. 9. 'Agitur, utrum M. Antonio facultas detur opprimendae rei publicae, caedis faciendae bonorum, diripiendae urbis, agrorum suis condonandi,' C. Phil. v. 3. 'Aedui legates ad Caesarem sui purgandi gratia mittunt,' Caes. B. G. vii. 43. ' Haec prodendi imperi Romani, tradendae Hannibali victoriae sunt,' L. xxvii. 9. II. (Impers. andAttnb. Gerundive.) 'Hie vobis vincendum aut moriendum est, milites,' L. xxi. 43. ' Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano,' luv. x. 356. 'Noncorpori soli subveniendum est, sed menti atque animo multo magis, C. Cat. M. ii. 'Suum cuique incommodum ferendum est potius, quam de alterius commodis detrahendum,' C. Off. iii. 6. 'Apud Pythagoram disci pul is quinque annis tacendum erat,' Sen. Ep. 52. 'Tria videnda sunt oratori : quid dicat, et quo quicque loco, et quomodo,' C. Or. 14. 'Semper ita vivamus ut rationem redden- dam nobis arbitremur,' C. ''err. ii. i\ 'Pietati summa tribuenda laus est,' C. d. Or. ii. 40. ' Quaeritur, :>raeponendane sit divitiis gloria,' C. Top. 22. 'Suo cuique iudicio est uten. ..m,' C. N. D. iii. i. 'Sentio moderandum mihi esse F F 434 Latin Syntax. 189. CHAPTER IV. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. SECTION I. SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES. (See Chapter I. 100.) 189 ubor- Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds : nate lauses. A ^ Substantival ; ) Adverbial ; Q Adjectival or Relative. A) On Substantival Clauses see 100, p. 349. .Z?) An Adverbial Clause qualifies the Principal Sentence like an Adverb, answering the questions how, why, when, &c. Such Clauses are of seven kinds : Consecutive (so that] Conditional (if, unless, c.) Final (in order that} Concessive (although, &c.) Causal (because, since, &c.) Comparative (as if, &c.) Temporal (when, whilst, c.) C) An Adj ectival or Relative Clause is formed by the Relative qui or one of its Particles. When this contains some Adverbial sense (so that, in order that, since, if, although}, it generally exhibits the Subjunctive Mood. iam orationi meae,'C. Verr.\i\.^. 'Intellegite quibus credendum et a quibus cavendum sit,' L. xxxiv. 39. 'Aguntur bona multorum civium, quibus est a vobis et ipsorum et reipublicae causa consulendum,' C. p. L. Man. 2. ' Spectandus in certamine 'Martio,' Hor. C. iv. 14. 17. "Thrasybulus legem oblivionis jion tantum ferendam curavit, sed etiam ut valeret cffecit,' Nep. Thras. 3. ' Pueris sen- tentias ediscendas damus,' Sen. Ep. 33. ' Redemptor columnam lovis con- duxerat faciendam,' C. Dtv. ii. 21. Examples of Supines. (First Supine.') ' Coriolanus in Volscos exsulatum abiit/ L. ii. 35. ' Legati ab Roma venerunt questum iniurias et ex foedere res repetitum,' L. iii. 25. ' Quid est, Crasse, inquit lulius, imusne sessum? Etsi admonitum venimus te, non flagitatum,' C. d. Or. iii. 5. 'Curteis perditum?' Ter. An. i. i. 107. 'Ubise flagitiis dedecoravere turpissimi viri, bonorum praemia ereptum eunt,' Sail. Ing. 85. 'In earn spem erecta civitas erat, in Africa eo anno debellatum iri,' L. xxix. 14. ' Dumnorix propinquas suas nuptum in alias civitates collocavit,' Caes. B. G. i. 18. (Second Supine.) ' Narratio brevis erit, si non longius, quam quod scitu opus est, in narrando procedetur,' C. Inv. i. 20. ' Humanus animus cum alio nullo, nisi cum ipso deo, si hoc fas est dictu, comparari potest,' C. T. D. v. 13. ' Quid est tarn iucundum cognitu atque auditu quam sapientibus sententiis gravibusque verbis ornata oratio?' C. d. Or. i. 8. 'Quod optimum factu videbitur, facies,' C. A tt. vii. 22. ' Ad imitandum tarn mihi propositum exemplar illud est quam tibi/ C. p.Mur. 31- 190-91. Suboblique Construction. 43$ SECTION II. SUBOBLIQUE CONSTRUCTION. 190 i. O ratio Obliqua. Obliqua, 1) Oratio Obliqua (in distinction from O ratio Recta, direct oration} is a term especially applied to Substantival Clauses, and, above all, to the Infinitive Clause and its substitutes. 2) A subordinate or dependent Clause may have another depend- ing on it ; and in a long Compound Sentence, or Period, there may thus be a. primary, secondary, &c., dependence of clauses. If the Verb (whether Infin. or Finite) of a primary dependence forms Oratio Obliqua, the Verb of a following dependence is 'Sub- ordinate to Oratio Obliqua,' or (in one word) Suboblique. ii. The first important Rule of dependent Construction is this : I) A Suboblique Finite Verb is in the Subjunctive Mood. This is seen by comparison of the two following passages : Oratio Recta: 'Ars earum rerum est quae sciuntur ; oratoris autem omnis actio opinionibus, non scientia, continetur : nam et apud eos dicimus, qui nesciunt, et ea dici- mus, quae nescimus ipsi,' C. d. Or. ii. 7. Oratio Obliqua: (Antonius apud Ciceronem docet :) Artem earum rerum esse, quae sciantur: oratoris autem omnem actionem opinione, non scientia, contineri; quia et apud eos dicat y qui nesciant, et ipse dicat quod nesciat. Here 'artem esse,' ' actionem contineri,' form Oratio Obliqua^ and the Finite Verbs in subsequent dependence (sciantur, dicat, nesciant, nesciat) are therefore Subjunctive. iii. But, secondly, a principal Verb often contains more than is virtual expressed by the mere form ; not merely the writer's or speaker's Oratio declaration, but an implied opinion or assertion of some other ; c bll( i ua * upon which the Verb of the primary clause may depend. Such a principal predication has been called by some writers * Cogitatio Obliqua;' but a more convenient term is 'Virtual Oratio Obliqua:' from which it follows that the dependent Verb is Virtually Suboblique. Hence results the second Rule of dependent Construction : namely, II) A Finite Verb virtually Suboblique is in the Sub- junctive Mood. Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens. (' Laudat' implies 'ait esse laudandum.') Caesar Aeduos frumentum, quod polliciti essent, flagitabat, (Flagitabat implies that Caesar reminded the Aedui of their promise. Hence the Mood of polliciti essent.) F F 2 junc- tive. 436 Latin Syntax. 192-93. A mere change in the Mood of the dependent Verb may cause a change of reference to, or from, the writer or speaker : 'Themistocles noctu ambulabat in publico, quod somnum capere non posset.' Here the mood of posset (and this alone) refers the clause to the mind of Themistocles, who alleged inability to sleep as the reason why he was in the habit of walking by night. Had pot era t been written, the sentence would still be good Latin, but the cause would then rest on the assertion of the writer (Cicero). iv. The principle of Rules II. and III. is, that dependence an a conception must itself be conceptive ; and, as the Conjunctive is the Mood of Conception, this leads to the third important rule : 192 Depen- III) A Verb really dependent on a Conjunctive Verb Con- e n is generally Subjunctive: 'Equidem illud molior, ut mihi Caesar concedat ut absim, cum aliquid in senatu contra Gnaeum agatur,' C. At. ix. 6. 'Quaerimus qualis in bello praedonum praedo ipse fuerit Verres, qui in foro populi Romani pirata nefarius reperiatur ?' C. Verr. i. 59. ' Erat in Hortensio memoria tanta ut, quae secum commentatus esset, ea sine scripto verbis eisdem redderet, quibus cogita- visset/ C. Br. 88. Agatur is Subjunctive, being dependent on absim; reperi- atur, on qualis fuerit; commentatus esset and cogitavisset, on redderet. 193 Excep- v. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in Dependence. tions. 1) A Clause which seems, by its position, to depend on Oratio Obliqua, may be independent ; that is, it may contain a fact in- troduced by the author : in which case the Mood will be Indie. : 'Caesari nuntiatum est, Sulmonensis, quod oppidum a Cor- finio septem milium intervallo a best, cupere ea facere, quae vellet, sed a Q. Lucretio senatore et Attio Paeligno prohiberi, qui id oppidum septem cohortium praesidio tenebant,' Caes. B. C. i. 1 8. The Clauses quod . . . abest and qui . . . tenebant con- tain facts stated by the historian, and are not part of the message received by Caesar. But quae vellet is dependent. 2) A short Relative Clause, especially when it immediately fol- lows a Demonstrative, is often constructed independently of Oratio Obliqua, being regarded as a mere epithet : 'Eloquendi vis efficit ut eaquae ignoramus discere, et ea quae scimus alios docere possimus,' C. N. D. ii. 59. 3) Dum (whilst] is sometimes constructed with Present Indie., even when subordinate to Oratio Obliqua : ' Quanto laudabilius periturum Pisonem, dum amplecti- tur rempublicam, dum auxilia libertati invocat!' Tac. Ann. xv. 59. (Other reasons may occur, inducing an author to exempt a Clause from the general law and to keep the Indie. Mood.) i9* Substantival Clauses. 437 SECTION III. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES. I) Indirect Statement (Enuntiatio Obliqua). J94 This has three forms : (i) first and principally the Infinitive tive" 1 " Clause : (2) the Ut-clause : (3) the Quod-clause. Clause. A. The Infinitive Clause, or Accusative with Infinitive. 1) This is introduced As Object, by 'Verba Declarandi et Sentiendi,' Verbs which state or imply a facf, feeling, or opinion. Such are: a) aio, dico, fateor, nego, scribo, &c., auctor sum; certiorem facio : b] audio, credo, disco, puto, scio, spero, &c., gaudeo, gratulor, &c. As Subject, by the Passives of such Verbs; by Impersonal Verbs of those meanings: apparet, constat, interest, patet, placet, &c. ; byest with many Adjectives, cer turn est, credibile (perspicuum, falsum, probabile, verum, verisimile, utile, &c.) est. As Apposite, by Substantives and Pronouns : fama (mos, rumor, spes, fas, &c.) est ; illud certum est, illud nego, and the like. 2) The Tense of the Infinitive Verb will be such as sense and consecution require. Dico (dicam, dixero) eum venire, that he is coming eum venisse, that he has come ; eum venturum esse, that he will come. Examples of Suboblique Construction. I) 'Cato mirari se aiebat quod non rideret haruspex, haruspicem cum vi- disset/ C. Div. ii. 24. 'Scito me, postquam in urbem venerim, redisse cum libris in gratiam,' C. Fam. ix. i. 'Fateor me oratorem, si modo sim, ex Academiae spatiis exstitisse,' C. Fin. v. 5. i. ' Sapientissimum esse dicunt eum, cui, quod opus sit, ipsi veniat in mentem ; propius accedere ilium, qui alterius bene in- ventis obtemperet,' C. p. Clu. 31. II) ' Quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem,' Mart. xii. 28. 'Alium rogantes regem misere ad lovem, inutilis quoniam esset qui fuerat datus,' Phaed. i. 2. 'Darius eius pontis, dum ipse abesset, custodes reliquit,' N. Milt. 3. ' In Hispania prorogatum veteribus imperatoribus est imperium cum exercitibus quos haberent,' L. xl. 1 8. 'Cum abessem, quotienscunque patria in mentem veniret, haec omnia occurrebant, colles campique et Tiber: s et hoc caelum sub quo natus e ducat usque essem,' L. v. 54. III) ' Dici non potest quin ii, qui nihil metuant, nihil angantur, nihil con- cupiscant, beati sint,' C. T. D. v. 7. ' Hirri necessarii fidem implorarunt Pompeii ; praestaret quod proficiscenti reccpisset,' Caes. B. C. iii. 82. ' Miraretur qui cerneret,' L. xxxiv. 9. ' Isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras,' C. Cat. M. 10. (Exceptions.} 'Themistocles Xerxem certiorem fecit id agi ut pons, quern in Helles- ponto fecerat, dissolveretur,' N. Th. 9. 'Placet Stoicis eos anhelitus terrae, qui frigidi stint, cum fluere coeperint, ventos esse,' C. Div. ii. 19. 'Die, hospes, Spartae nos te hie vidisse iacent.s, dum sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur,' ap. Cic. T. D. \. 42. 43 8 Latin Syntax. 194. Copias mitti, that forces are being sent ; copias missas esse, forces have &wz .$} A Reflexive Pronoun omitted : 'Ferre non posse clamabit,' C. T. D. ii. 17. ' Id nescire Mago dixit,' L. xxiii. 13. Most frequently with the Fut. Infm. : * L. Caecilius agrariae legi intercessorem fore professus est,' Caecilius declared that he would interpose to forbid the agrarian law, C. p. Sull. 1 3. Esse is at the same time often omitted : * Brutus populum iureiurando adegit, neminem Romae pas- suros regnare,' Brutus made tlie people sivear they 'would allow no one to be king at Rome, L. ii. i. (Poets sometimes use the Greek idiom, by which the Nom. of the principal Verb becomes also the Subject of the Infin. 'Phaselus ille . . . ait fuisse navium celerrimus,' Ca- tull. iv. i. 'Sensit medios delapsus in hostis/ Verg. Ac.ii. 377. 'Vir bonus et sapiens dignis ait esse pa- ratus,' Hor. Epist. i. 7. 23. 'Rettulit Aiax esse lovis pronepos,' Ov. M. xiii. 141. A far bolder instance is : ' Acceptum refero versibus, esse nocens,' Ov. Tr. ii. 10. Compare Hor. C i. 37. 31. iii. 16. 32.) c) A Demonstr. Pronoun omitted if there is no ambiguity : 1 Valerius dictatura se abdicavit. Apparuit causa plebi, suam vicem indignantem magistratu abisse,' Valerius resigned the dictatorship : the motive was clear to the plebeians., that he quitted office from indignation on their account, L. ii. 31. d) A Verb omitted in a Correlative Clause, subordinate to In- finitive, its Noun being attracted to the Accusative : 'Te suspicor eisdem rebus, quibus me ipsum, interdum gravius commoveri,' / suspect you are sometimes stirred too deeply by the same things which stir me, C. C. M. i. Ouibus me ipsum is for quibus ipse commoveor. 6) The ambiguous construction of two Accusatives, Subject and Object (as in the famous oracle, ' Aio te, Aeacida, Romanes vin- cere posse '), may be evaded by using the Passive Construction. Thus render, ' I believe that Marcus loves you] (not, ' Credo Marcum te amare,' but) ' Credo te a Marco amari.' 7) The English, l it is said of Homer that he was blind,' or ' they say of Homer that he was blind,' or < Homer, they tell us (it is said), was blind,' is rendered by one. of the constructions, <_tradunt (tra- 44 Latin Syntax. I9 5. ditur) Homerum caecum fuisse,' or < traditur Homerus caecus fuisse.' But the use of de is not inadmissible : ' De Tirone, video tibi curae esse,' C. 8) On the Personal Construction of Passive Copulative Verbs, see Note, p. 427. 9) ' Memini me videre ' or ' memini videre,' / remember seeing. 1 Memini me vidisse,' / remember that I saw (at a specific time). ' Memineram me vidisse,' / remembered that I had seen. J 95 ut- B. Ut-clause for Infinitive Clause. Clause. U t (that], with Subjunctive, for the Infin. Clause, is used as Sub- ject, to express consecutiveness. It depends on 1) Impersonal Verbs: est, esto, abest, accedit, accidit, con- tingit, evenit, fit, interest, refert, relinquitur, restat, sequi- tur, superest, usu venit, &c. See M. Lucr. i. 442. 2) Est, with an Adj. or Adv. complement: aequum, consen- taneum, consequens, extremum, iniquum, insitum, inte- grum: par, rarum, rectum, reliquum, tritum, usitatum, utile, verisimile, verum, &c. : prope, satis est, &c. 3) Est, with a Subst.: consuetude, mos, vitium, and others. This Ut-clause is often in apposition to a Noun or Pronoun. Examples: 'Est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta sulcis,' Hor. C. iii. i. 9. ' Ad Appii Claudii senectutem accedebat etiam ut caecus esset,' C. Cat. M. 6. 'Est hoc commune vitium . . . ut invidia gloriae comes sit,' C. Verr. ii. 65. Obs. i. Owing to the nature of this clause, it seldom contains a negative ; but if it does, the negatives are non, nihil, null us, &c. 'Fuit hoc in Crasso, ut non tarn existimari vellet non didi- cisse, quam . . . nostrorum hominum prudentiam Graecis ante- ferre,' C.d. Or. ii. i. 'Soli hoc contingit sapienti ut nihil faciat invitus, nihil dolens, nihil coactus,' C. Par. v. i. 'Est ut ple- rique philosophi nulla tradant praecepta dicendi, et habeant paratum tamen, quid de quaque re dicant,' C. d. Or. ii. 36. Obs. 2. On the other hand, ut, implying piirpose (as in Petitio Obliqua), takes ne, nequis, &c., in negation. See Examples, p. 446. Certain predications may sometimes imply consequence only (in- troducing an Oblique Enunciation), sometimes purpose (intro- ducing Oblique Petition). Such are facer e, fieri, emcere, &c. ; expedit, interest, refert, placet, prodest, utile est, &c. ; condicio (consilium, ius, munus) est ; and others. The following passage shews Obi. Petition and Obi. Enuntiation dependent on the same word : ' Ex hoc effi citur non ut voluptas ne sit voluptas, sed ut voluptas non sit summum bonum,' the result of this is not that pleasure will cease to be pleasure, but that pleasure is not the chief good, C. Fin. ii. 8. The first result is pur- posed (ut ne sit), the second consecutive (ut non sit). See the use of ' ita ne ' in Consecutive Clauses. Obs. 3. Ut Consecutive with predications oil' affirming, thinking, or perceiving, is confined to one or two expressions : : 9 6. Substantival Quod-clause. 441 ' Qui probari potest ut sibi animus mederi non possit?' how can we be satisfied that the mind is unable to heal itself? C. T. D. iii. 3. Hence it rarely forms Objective Clauses. See V. Aen. xi. 153. Care must therefore be taken not to confound it with the Interrog. Particle ut (how}, which often forms such clauses : 'Videmus u t luna solis lumen accipiat,' C. d. Or. iii. 5. See 202. Obs. 4. Licet, oportet, necesse est, when they take the Sub- junctive, usually omit ut : ' Licet pauca degustes,' you may taste a few samples, C. Att. xvi. 8. 'Me ipsum ames oportet/ C. Fin. ii. 28. f Oratio, si res non subest, aut nulla sit necesse est aut omnium irrisione ludatur,' a speech without matter must be cither not delivered or laughed at by everybody -, C. d. Or. i. 1 2. 196 C. Quod-clause for Infin. Clause. Q uod - *-' clause. Quod, that, with Indie, (but, if Suboblique, with Subjunctive)" stands for the Infin. Clause, either to mark distinctly that a fact is expressed, or to shew that the Oratio Recta finds its Cause in a fact 1) For the former purpose it appears As Subject, with ace edit, accidit, apparet, evenit, fit, interest, nocet, obest, occurrit, parum est, prodest, c. ; or with est and a Substantive : causaest, consolatio est, vitium est, &c. As Object, with ad do, adicio, animadverto, excuse, facio, mitto, nihil moror, non dico, omitto, praetereo, praetermitto, &c. And in Apposition to Pronouns. 2) For the latter purpose it is joined to Verbs of Emotion, ex- pressing/^, sorrow, surprise, praise, blame, indignation, &c. As Subject, to do let, iuvat, gratum (indignum,, mirum, per- gratum) est, &c. As Object, to ace u so, admiror, aegre (graviter, indigne, mo- leste) fero, angor, bene facio, delector, doleo, gaudeo, glorior, gra- tulor, ignosco, indignor, laetor, laudo, miror, obicio, queror, repre- hendo, &c. Examples: ' Ace edit hue quod postridie ille venit,' C. Fam. viii. 2. 'Addequod pubes tibi crescit omnis/ Hor. C. ii. 8. 17. ' Magnum beneficiumest naturae quodnecesseest mori,' Sen. Ep. 103. 'Inter caus as malorum nostrorum est, quod vi vim us ad exempla.' C. N. D. ii. 53. ' Habet hoc optimum in se generosus animus, quodconcitaturad honesta,'# noble mind has this chief merit, that its impulse is to virtue, Sen. Ep. 39. 'Benefacis quod me adiuvas,' C. Fin. iii. 3. 'Gratum est quod patriae civem populoque dedisti,' luv. xiv. 70. ' Dolebam quod socium et consortem gloriosi laboris amiseram/ C. Br. i. * Quod spi- ratis, quod vocem mittitis, indignantur,' L. iv. 3. * Caesar ad me scripsit gratissimum sibi esse quod quieverim/ C. Fam. viii. u. Obs. i. After predications of Emotion in the ist Pers., the Clause is often Indie., because the speaker states the ground of his own feeling. But after 2nd or 3rd Pers., often Subjunctive, when the writer or speaker ascribes the ground to the mind of another: 44- Latin Syntax. I97 . 'Quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem,' Mart. xii. 28. 'Nemo umquam est oratorem, quod Latine loqueretur, admiratus/ C. tf. Or. iii. 14. Obs. 2. Predications of Emotion are connected with the Infinitive Clause, or with quod, for which cum sometimes occurs : d 1 mihi f te ae rotare ) angor animo ^ uod ae rotas V am ^rry you are ill. ( cum aegrotas J , /te convaluisse ~\ anitutar ] q uoci convaluisti \ I am glad you are recovered. (cum convaluisti J Obs. 3. On the use of quod in connecting sentences, see 82. 'Quod scire vis qua quisque in te fide sit et voluntate, difficile dictu est de singulis/ C. Fam. i. 7. Obs. 4. Quod, that, after a Verb of thinking or declaring (except in Apposition to a Pronoun) is hardly classical ; but, in later Latin, it became a common barbarism. 1 P J ; 9 t ; o II) Indirect Will-speech (Petitio Obliqua). Obliqua. 1) This Clause is the Oblique form of an Imperative Sentence. It may be introduced by ut final, ut ne, ne (ne quis, &c.) with Subjunctive ; depending (as Subject, Object, or Apposite) on pre- dications expressing : Concession, permission, demand, entreaty, exhortation; advice, persuasion, impulsion, compact (paciscor, rarely spondeo, debeo) ; command, direction, will, or any forms which may imply these (dico, mitto, monstro, nuntio, respondeo, scribo) ; also, care, provision, endeavour ; achieving, effecting, conducing, &c. These include such phrases as condicio (ius, lex, munus, regula, &c.) est. 8 2) Most of these predications can omit ut before the Subjunc- tive ; but some always keep it : Cogis (mones, scribis, auctor es, id agis, impetras, c.) ut earn. Oravi (suasi, hortatus sum, mandavi, &c.) utadesses; adesses. 3) Such predications point to the attainment of an end. When they take nz, prevention is implied ; and most can take ne, except iubeo, nolo, and a few more. Rogas (imperas, operam das, efificis, &c.) ut ne (ne) quis eat. Suasisti (pactus es, misisti, voluisti, &c.) ut ne (ne) abessem. 1 A few words (accidit, evenit, interest, &c.) admit all three Enuntiative Clauses, while many are used with two of them. Care must be taken to note these uses, and to dis- criminate them where this is possible. But between some there seems little or no differ- ence. We may write, ' Rectum est maiori parere minorem/ or ' Rectum est ut maiori minor pareat : ' ' Gaudeo te salvum redisse,' or ' Gaudeo quod (cum) salvus redisti.' 2 (Verbs on which Petitio Obliqua depends) : concede, do, patior, permitto, sinp ; oro, rogo, peto, postulo, contendo, precor, obsecro ; hortor ; cogo, impello, incite, induce, moneo, moveo, persuadeo, suadeo, auctor sum ; censeo, decerno, edico, iubeo, impero, mando, praecipio ; placet ; caveo, euro, facio, id ago, nitor, enitor, operam do, prospicio, studeo, video, provideo ; adipiscor, assequor, consequor, committo, efficio, perficio, im- petro, evinco, pecvinco ; opto, volo, nolo, malo, &c. Blandior in L. and Lucr. ii. 173. 198-201. Pctitio Obliqua. 443 4) Another Class of Verbs points to the prevention of an end. Of these caveo, when it means beware, takes or omits ne: ' Cave ne titubes ' or * cave titubes. 7 Veto, forbid, takes ne, and very rarely omits it (in poetry). Prohibeo, forbid, takes ne and quominus ; also deprecor, deterreo, dissuadeo, impedio, intercedo, interdico, invideo, obsto, officio, pugno, repugno, recuso, resisto, tempero, teneo, contineo, terreo, veto, and others of like import. Some of these admit quin. ^ g 5) Quominus. Quo- Quominus ( = ut eo minus) with Subjunctive depends on predi- cations implying hindrance. Such predication is often negative or interrogative ; but it may be positive. To the Verbs above cited which take quominus, may be added abstineo, arceo, cohibeo, defendo, moror, mora est, religio est, impedimentum est, c. ; fieri, stare per aliquem. Nulla religio est quominus adsim, / have no scruple about coming. Per te stetit quominus adessem, you stood in the way of my coming. I99 6) Quin : see M. Liter, i. 588. Quin. The Consecutive Conjunction quin, but that (qui-ne = ut non, cur non), with Subjunctive depends on predications which deny (or go near to deny) a preventing cause. Such predications are always either negative (non, haud, nihil, &c.), quasi-negative (vix, aegre, minimum, paulum), or interrogative (quid? num? &c.). Verbs and Phrases so constructed are numerous : a) (Non) ' dubito, dubium est, &c. /3) (Non) contineor ; retineor ; resisto ; tempero ; possum ; facere possum ; fieri potest ; abest ; procul est, c. : (nulla) causa (controversia) est, c. y) Numquam, with almost any Verb. a) ' Non dubito . . . haud dubium est ... nullus dubito . . . quis dubitet? quin fuerint ante Homerum poetae,' no doubt there were poets before Homer, C. /3) Aegre retentus'sum . . . paulum afuit . . . temperare mihi vix potui quin flerem, I could hardly refrain from weeping. y) Numquam discedis aliquo quin te omnes desiderent,j<9tf never go away but that all regret you. 2OO 7) Predications of Fear. Fear. Metuo, timeo, vereor, pavidus sum, timor est, periculum est, c., take ne with Subjunctive of that which it is feared will happen; ut, ne non, of that which it is feared will not happen. Metuo (timeo, vereor, &c.) ne pereas, I fear you will perish. Metui ut (ne non) effugeres, I feared y 021 would not escape. This ut is the Oblique Interrog. how, used idiomatically to avoid the harshness of a negative form. 8) Predications of Caution, caveo, video, cogito, considero, Caution have some resemblance to those of Fear, so far as they introduce ne (which caveo can omit); but when ut follows them, they have the sense of euro, take care, provide that. See Examples. 9) Periphrastic phrases : noncommittereut(/0 act so thaf], id agere, animum inducere, facere, efficere, fieri, fore, c. ut (ut ne), ne. See M. Z,fcr. vi. 412-415. 444 Latin Syntax. 202. Ill) Indirect Question (Interrogatio Obii- qua). 1) If a Question, formed by an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle (quis es ?), becomes dependent upon another predication, its Verb becomes Subjunctive (quis sis). Such Interrogatives are : quis, qualis, quantus, quot, uter, quotus, unde, ubi, quando, quomodo, cur, quare, quamobrem, quam, num, ne, ut, an, utrum. 2) Predications on which such a Clause may depend are those of inquiring, stating, hearing, knowing, perceiving, remembering y doubting, caring, considering, determining, concerning, &c. Quaero, die, scio, &c., quid facias, feceris, facturus sis : Quaesivi, &c., quid faceres, fecisses, facturus esses. Examples of Substantival Clauses. (Verbs which illustrate the rules of Oratio Obiiqua are printed in Italics.) I) Enuntiatio Obiiqua. (i) Infinitive Clause. ' F a c (y//0.yhysiologiam, qui quic- quam, quod ortum sit, putet aeternum esse posse? C- N. D. i. 8. (See C. Qu. F. i. i. 8. ' Ac mihi quidem videtur . . . humanitatis.') 'Memineram, C. Marium, cum vim armorumprofitgisset, senile corpus paludibus occultasse,' C. /. Sest. 22. 'Plato turn demum beatum terrarum orbem futurum praedicavit, cum aut sapientes regnare aut reges sapere coepissent,' Val. Max. vii. 2. 'Exaudita voxest, futurum esse ut Roma caperetur,' C. Dii>. i. 45. 'Nisi nuntii de Caesaris victoria essent allati, existimabant plerique futurum fuisse ut oppidum amitteretur,' Caes. B. C. iii. 101. 'Lentulus consul senatui reique publicae se non defuturum pollicetur,' Caes. B. C. i. i. 'Si quando parvis ludentes minamur praecipitaturos alicunde, exti- mescunt,' C. Fin. v. ii. 'Ad matrem virginis venit, iurans se illam ducturum domum.' Ter. Ad. iii. 4. ' Magna in spe sum nihil mihi teniporis prorogatum iri,' C Att. vi. 2. 'Spes dabatur, puerps mergi posse,' L. i. 4. ' Iniecta mihi spe s est velle mecum Sulpicium colloqui. C. Att. x. 7. ' Vi deo te vel le in caelum migrare, et spero fore ut contingat id nobis,' C. T. D. i. 34. 'Verminae responsum a legatis est : Si quid ad pacis leges add i, demi, muta- rive vellet, rursus a senatu ei postulandum fore,' L. xxxi. ii. ' Semper ita vivamus utrationem reddendam nobis arbitremur/ C. Verr. ii. ii. ' Me non cum bonis esse ?' C. Att. ix. 6. 'Hasne tibi gratis, haecpraemia digna rependi?' Stat. Th. viii. 50. 'Egone ut te interpellem?' C. T. D. ii. 18. 'Utne tegam-spurco Damae latus?' Hor. S. ii. 5. 18. 'Confitere hue ea spe venisse,' C. /. 6". Rose. 22. ' Dissimulare etiam sperasti, perfide, tantum posse nefas?' Verg. Acn. iv. 305. ' Par est, primum ipsum esse virum bonum, turn alterum similem sui quaerere,' C. Lnel. 22. ' Prima sequentem honestum est in secundis tertiisque consistere,' C. Or. i. 'Tu fac, quod facis, ut me ames teque amari a me scias,' C. P"ain. xiii. 47. ' De Antonio tibi scripsi, non esse eum a me conventum,' C. Att. xv. i. ' Platonem ferunt idem sensisse quod Pythagoram/C. T. D. i. 17. ' Pons in Ibero prope effect us nuntiabatur,' Caes. B. C. i. 62. 'Nuntiatur Afranio, magnos comitatusad flumen constitisse/ Caes. B. C. i. 51. ' Si Veios mi- grabimus, non reliquisse victores, sed amisisse victi patriam videbimur,' L. v. 53. 'Non mihi videtur ad beate vivendum satis posse virtutem/ C. T. D. v. 5. 202. Interrogatio Obliqua. 445 3) An Oblique Interrogation must be carefully distinguished from an Adjectival (Relative) Clause. The former depends on the principal Verb, and requires the Subjunctive: Intellego quae mihi narres, / understand what things you are telling me ; where quae is from the Interrog. qui. The latter is referred to a Demonstrative, expressed or under- stood, and does not require a Subjunctive: Intellego (ea) quae mihi narras, / understand those things which you tell me, where quae is from the Relative qui. (Cp. d. Ot. ii. 74. 299 ; T. D. v. 8, in which there is an irregular transition from the Personal construction to the Clause.) (2) The Enuntiative Ut-clause. 'Quando fuit ut, quod licet, non lice ret?' C. /. Cael. 20. 'Absit a nobis ut ex incommode alieno nostram occasionem pet am us,' L. iv. 58. ' Reliquum est ut certemus officiis inter nos," C. Fain. vii. 21. 'Rarum est ut satis se quisque vere- atur,' C. /. Fl. 27. 'Fit fere ut cogitationes sermonesque nostri pariant aliquid -in somno,' C. Somn. i. 'Fieri potest ut recte quis sentiat et id, quod sentit, polite eloqui non possit,' C. T. D. i. 3. ' Valde optanti utrique nostrum cecidit ut in istum sermonem delaberemini,' C. d. Or. i. 21. 'Mos est hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere,' C. Br. 21. 'Quam habet aequitatem, ut agrum multis annis aut etiam saeculis ante possessum qui nullum habuit habeat, qui autem habuit ami t tat?' C. Off. ii. C2. 'Ut colloquicum Orpheo, Musaeo, Homero, Hesiodo liceat, quanti tandem aestimatis?' C. T. D. i. 41. (Inf. Clause or ut.) 'Si haec enuntiatio vera non est, sequitur ut falsa sit,' C. Fat. 12. 'Si, quod honestum est, id solum est bonum, sequitur vitam beatam virtute confici,' C. T. D. \. 8. 'Restat ut doceam, omnia, quae sint in hoc mundo, hominum causa facta esse,' C. N. D. ii. 61. 'Restat Bactra novis, restat Babylona tributis frenari,' Stat. S. i. 40. 'Omnibus bonis expedit, salvam esse rempublicam,' C. Phil. xiii. 8. 'Expedit omnibus ut singulae civitates sua iura et suas leges habeant,' L. xxxiv. i. ' Puero opus est cibum ut habeat,' Plant. True. v. i. 'Nunc opus est te animo valere, ut corpore possis,' C. Fam. xvi. 14. 'Tris convenit res habere narrationem, ut brevis, ut dilucida, ut verisimilis s\t,' ad Her. i. 9. 'Verisimile est, cum optimus quisque maxime poste- ritati serviat, esse aliquid, cuiits is post mortem sensum sit habiturus,' C. T. D. i. 15. 'An verisimile est ut civis Romanus aut homo liber cum gladio in forum descenderit antelucem?' C. p. Sest. 36. 'Potest illud esse falsum, ut circum- ligatus fuerit angui,' C. Div, ii. 31. ' Haud falsa sum nos odiosas haberi,' Ter. Eun. ii. 2. (So credibile, aequum, rectum, verum est, and other adjective predications, can take either Clause.) (3) 'The Enuntiative Quod-clause. ' Eumeni multum detraxit inter Macedones viventi quod alienae erat civitatis,' N. Enm.i. 'Aristoteles laudandus est in eo quod omnia quae moventur aut natura moveri censuit aut vi aut voluntate,' C. N. D. ii. 16. 'Ex tota laude Reguli unum illud est admiratione dignum, quod captives retinendos censuit,' C. Off. iii. 31. 'Quanta ilia benign itas naturae, quod tarn multa ad vescendum tarn varia tamque iucunda gignit,' C. N. D. ii. 53. 'Mitto quod invidiam, quod omnis meas tem- pestates subieris,' C. (mitto=dicendum non puto). (Quod, cum, with Verbs of Emotion.) 'Sane gaudeo quod te interpellavi,' C. Leg. iii. i. 'Dolet mihi quod tu nunc stomacharis,' C. ad. Br. i. 17. 'Gratulor tibi quod salvum te ad tuos recepisti,' C. Fam. xiii. 73. 'Laudo te cum isto animo es,' C. j>. Mil. 36. 'Haec urbs laetari videtur quod tantam pestem evo- imterit,' C. Cat. ii. i. 'Memini gloriari solitum esse Q. Hortensium quod nunquam bello civili interfuisset,' C. J>'am. ii. 16. (Inf. Clause with Verbs of Emotion.') 'Gaudeo, id te mihi suadere, quod ego mea spontefeceram,' C. Att. xv. 27. 'Utrumque laetor, et sine dolore corporis te fuisse et animo valuisse,' C. Fam. vii i. ' Lentulus se alterum fore Sullam inter suos gloriatur,' Caes. B. C. i. 4. 'Gratulor Oechaliam titulis accedere nostris,' Ov. Her. ix. i. 'Inferiores non dolere debent, se a suis superari,' C. Lael. 20. 446 Latin Syntax. 202. 4) Some examples, which at first sight seem to shew Indie, in Oblique Intern, really belong either to Interr. Recta : * Quin tu uno verbo die, quid est quod me velis ?' now tell me in one word, what do you want with me ? Ter. An. \. 1. 18. Or to Adjectival (Relative) construction : * Nihil est admirabilius quam quomodo ille fili mortem tulit,' nothing is more admirable than the manner in which he bore his son's death, C. Cat. M. 4. But the Comic poets use the Indie, in Oblique Interr. as an idiom of parlance ; and some examples occur in later poets, but not in good Latin prose ; for examples cited from Cicero are either corrupt readings or direct Interrogations. (Cur for quod. ) 'Primum illud reprehendo et accuse cur in re tarn veteri tarn usitata quicquam novi feceris,' C. Verr. iii. 7. 'Repeto me correptum ab avunculo cur ambularem : Poteras, inquit, has horas non perdere,' Plin. Ep. iii. 5. 'Miror cur philosophiae prope bellum indixeris,' C. d. Or. ii. 37. (Utattrfquod.) 'Ace edit ut eo facilius animus evadat ex hoc acre, quod nihil est animo velocius,' C. T. D. i. 19. 'Accedit quod Caesar ingeniis excellentibus delec- tatur,' C. Fain. vi. 6. 'Accidit ut Athenienses Chersonesum colonos vellent mittere,' N. Milt. i. 'Accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti,' C. Att. i. 17. 'Evenit inquirant vitia ut tua rursus et illi,' Hor. .S". i. 3. 28. 'Magna me spes tenet, bene mini evenire quod mittar ad mortem,' C. T. D. i. 41. ' Invitus facio ut recorder ruinas reipublicae,' C. in Vatin. 8. 'Noli putare pigritia me facere quod non mea manu scribam,' C. Att. xvi. 15. (Interest, refert take all three clauses, besides other constructions. See 203.) II) Petitio Obliqua. 'Petes a Crasso ut earn copiam in lucem proferat,' C. d. Or. i. 35. 'Ate id, quod suesti, peto, me absentem diligas et defendas,'C. Fant. xv. 8. 'Nonpeto ut decernatur aliquid novi, sed ut ne quid novi decernatur,' C. Fam. ii. 7. ' Magnum documentum ne patriam rem perdere quis velit,' Hor. 9. i. 4. in. 'Ex- ercitus Alexandrum-lacrimis deprecatur, finem tandem belli faceret,' lust. xii. 8. 'Alcibiades lacrimans supplex erat Socrati, ut sibi virtutem traderet turpitudi- nemque depelleret,'C. T. D. iii. 32. 'Id te rogo, ut valetudini tuae diligentissime servias,' C. Qu. Fr. i. i. 'Cum magnum aliquod munus susceperis, hoc te rogo, ne demittas animum, neve te obrui tamquam fluctu, sic magnitudine negoti sinas,' C. Qu. Fr. i. i. 'Decrevit quondam senatus, ut L. Opimius consul videret nequid res publica detrimenti caperet,' C. Cat. i. 2. ' Gabinius egerat aliud nihil nisi ut urbes depopularetur,' C. in Pis. 17. 'Qui stadium currit, eniti et contendere debet ut vincat,' C. Off. iii. 10. 'Coeperunt ponere leges ne quis fur esset neu latro,' Hor. S. i. 3. 105. 'Vetus est lex ilia iustae veraeque amicitiae, ut idem amici semper velint,' C. /. Plane, i. 'Ariovistus repondit ius esse belli ut qui vicissent iis quos vicissent, quemadmodum vellent, imperarent. Factum est senatus-consultum, ut duo viros aedilis ex Patribus dictator populum rogaret/ L. vi. 42. 'Bene maiores nostri hoc comparaverunt, ut neminem regem, quern armis cepissent, vita privarent,' ad Her. iv. 16. 'Nuntia Patribus, urbem muniant, et Fabio, AemiKum et vixisse et adhuc mori,' L. xxii. 49. 'Dicam tuis ut librum tuum describant ad teque mittant,' C. Fam. xiii. 17. 'Die ad cenam venial,' Hor. 'Dicebam tibi ne matri consuleres male, Plaut. As. v. 2. 'Rogo ergo scribas tuis, ut liberto villa, ut domus pateat, Plin. Ep. v. 19. 'Caesar ad Lamiam scripsi't, ut ad ludos omnia para re t,' C. Att. xiii. 45. (Auctor sum, I advise, takes ut, ne ; auctor sum, I assure, takes Infin. Clause.) (Quominus.) 'Quid obstat quominus Deus sit beatus?' C. -A^. D. i. 34. 'Isocrati, quominus haberetur summus orator, non offecit quod infirmitate vocis ne in publico diceret impediebatur,' Plin. Ep. vi. 29. 'Nihil ne ego quidem moror quominus decemviratu abeam,' L. iii. 54. 'Praetor Samnitibus respondit : Nee quominus perpetua cum eis amicitia. esset, per populum Roma- Hum stetisse; nee contradici, quin amicitia de integro reconcilietur ; quod 202. Intcrrogatio Obliqua. 447 5) Nescio quis (qui), &c., followed by Indicative, is a special exception, being regarded as Pronominal = a liqu is, aliqui. So mirum quantum, immane quantum, c. See 86-97. 6) By Greek attraction the Subject of the Clause sometimes be- comes Object of the Principal Verb: (See 128, 3.) 'Sanguinem, bilem, pituitam, ossa videor posse dicere unde concreta sint,' / think I can state what blood, bile, phlegm, and bones are formed from, C. T. D. i. 24. ' Rem frumentarfam u t satis commode supportari posset timere se dicebant/ they said they were afraid the supply of corn could not be furnished easily* Caes. B. G. i. 39. ad Sidicinos attineat, nihil intercedi, quominus Samniti populo pads bellique liberum arbitrium sit,' L. viii. 2. 'Qui domum meam, quominus ruat, fulcit, praestat mihi beneficium ; ipsa enim domus sine sensu est,' Sen. Ben. v. 19. ' Saepe accidit in mari, ut naves teneantur quominus in portum pervenire possint,' Caes. B. G. iv. 22. (Quominus, being a Final Particle, may also be represented by ne, with prohibeo, im- pedio, deterreo, deprecor, and many other Verbs.) (Quin.) 'Non est dubium quin beneficium sit etiam invito prodesse,' Sen.'Uert. v. 19. 'Numquammihi dubium fuit quin ate diligerer,' C. Att. xvi. 19. 'Non dubito'quin'probaturus sim vobis defensionem meam,' C. /. Mil. 4. 'Quis du- bitet quin in virtute divitiae positae sint?' C. Par. 6. 'Nolite dubitare quin (do not hesitate to) Pompeio uni ere da t is omnia,' C. /. L. M. 20. 'Tempe- rare non potuit quin facti reminisceretur,' Suet. Claud. 4. 'Nihil abest quin sim miserrimus,' C. Att. ii. 15. 'Hand procul erat quin castra turbarentur,' L. v. 12. ' 'Vergilii et Livii scripta paulum afuit quin ex omnibus bibliothecis amo- veret Caligula,' Suet. Cal. 34. 'Nihil praetermisi, quantum facere potui, quin Pompeium a Caesaris coniunctione avocarem,' C. Phil. ii. 2. 'Equidem numq uaiu domum misi unam epistulam, quin esset ad te altera,'C. Fam. ii. 10. (On 'non quin,' see Causal Clauses.) (Dubito also takes a Prol. Inf. or Inf. Clause, or Interr. Obi.) 'Non d ub itavi id a te per litteras petere,' C. Fam. ii. 6. ' Pompeius non dubitat, ea, quae de re- publica nunc sentiat, mihi valde probari,' C. Att. vii. i. (See Interr. Obi.) (Fear.) 'Metuoneid consiliceper imus, quod non satis exp\ica.reJossinius,'C. Fam. xiv. 12. 'Timor Romae grandis fuit, ne iterum Galli Romam redirent,' Eutr. v. i. ' Pavor ceperat milites, ne mortiferum esset vulnus Scipionis,' L. xxiv. 42. 'Non vereor ne mea vitae modestia parum valitura sit contra falsos rumores,' C. Fam. xi. 28. 'Omnis labores te excipere video; timeo ut sustineas,' C. Fam. xiv. 2 ' Hoc quia vos foedus non iiesseriiis, veretur Hiempsal ut satis firmum sit et ratum,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 21. ' Veremur ne forte non aliorum utilitatibus, sed propriae laudi servisse videamur,' Plin. Ep. i. 8. 'Nese penuria victus opprimeret metuebat,' Hor. S. i. i. 98. 'Extimui ne vos ageret vesania discors,' Hor. 6". ii. 3. 174. (Caution.) ' Si vita in exsilio tibi commodior esse videatur, cogitandum tamen est re tutior non sit,' C. Fam. iv. 9. ' Videamus ne beata vita ex sui similibus partibus effici debeat,' C. T. D. v. 1.5. 'Credere omnia vide ne non sit necessc, : C. Div. ii. 13. 'Ad rempublicam gerendam qui accedit, caveat ne id modo consideret, quan? ilia res honesta sit, sed etiam, ut (=ne non) habeat efficiendi facultatem,' C. Off. i. 21. (where considero is constructed like vereor). ' Haec mea cura est, ne quidtu perdas neu sis iocus,' Hor. S. ii. 5, 36. (See Hor. Epist. i. 5 21-28.) (Caveo, take care, is used with ut : caveo, beivare, ivith ne, or suppressing ne.) 'Caveamus ut ea, quae pertinent ad liberalem speciem et dignitatem, moderata sint,' C. Off. i. 39. ' Lege Cincia cavetur ne quis ob causam orandam pecuniam donumve accipiat,' Tac. Ann. xi. 5. 'Cave festines aut committas ut aut aeger aut hieme naviges,' C. Fam. xvi. 12. (Verbs which form periphrases.) 'Non committam ut in scribendo neglegens fuisse videar/ C. Fam. v. 9. 'Numquam omnino periculi fuga committendum est ut imbellcs timidique videamur/ C. Off. \. 24. 'Omne animal id agit ut se coo.- 448 Latin Syntax. 203. 203 Verbs Note. Many of the Verbs included in II. III. of this Section ad- j" mit a variety of dependent constructions. smic- The range of such variety is : ted. i. Ut. 2. Omission of ut. 3. Ne. 4. Infin. Clause. 4^. That form of Clause in which the Infin. is Perf. Pass., suppressing esse (nollem datum). 5. Object-case and Infin.; or Infin , suppressing Object-case (hortamur fari). 6. Prolative Infin., the Finite Verb being Active (vult ire). 7. Prolative Infin., the Fin. Verb being Passive. 8. Oblique Interrogation. 9. Ouominus. 9^. Quin. servet,'C. Fin. v. 9. 'Potuit animum inducere ut se patrem esse oblivisceretur,' C. p. iS". Rose. 19. ' Faciam (will catese) ex tragoedia comoedia ut sit,' Plaut. Am. Prol. 54. 'Invitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eicerem(=invitus eieci),' C. Cat. M. 12. ' Omnes concedant oportet, numquam facturum (allow himself) virum bonum ut men- dacium dicat,' Qu. xii. 15. Fac (suppose), quaeso. qu'iegosim, esse te,' C. Fam. vii. 23. 'Facut valeas/C. ' Fac intellegam, tu quidsentias,'C. N. D. 'Quid a me fieri potuit aut elegantius aut iustius, quam ut sumptus egentissimarum civitatum minuerem?' C. Fam. iii. 8. 'Faciendum mihi putavi ut litteris tuis breviter responderem,' do. ' M. Crassi consilio factum est ne fugitivi ad Messanam transire possent,'C. Verr. v. 2. * Clamabant fore ut ipsi sese di ulciscerentur,' C. Verr. iv. 40. ' Quibus oculis animi intueri potuit vester Plato fabricam illam tanti operis, qua construi a deo atque aedi- ficari mundum facit (proves)'*.' 1 C. N. D. i. 8. 'Polyphemum Homerus cum immanem ferumque finxisset, cum ariete etiam colloquentem facit (makes), eiusque laudarc fortunas, quod qua vettet ingredi posset et quae vellet attingere,' C. T. D. v. 39. ' Nati me coram cernere letum fecisti (caused},' Verg. Ae. ii. 538. 'Quae est Socratis oratio, qua facit (makes') eum Plato usum apud iudiccs iam morte multatum?' C. T. D. i. 40. ' Dolabella plus fecit (made out) Verrem accepisse, quam iste in suis tabulis habuit,' C. Verr. i. 39. ' E fn c i t u r (it results) igitur f a t o fieri quaecumque fiant? C. Fat. 10. 'Fides uthabeatur duabus rebus e ffi c i (be achieved) potest, si existimabimur adepti coniunctam cum iustitia prudentiam,' C. Off. ii. 9. ' Sol e fine it (causes) ut omnia floreant et in suo quaeque genere pubescant,' C. N. D. ii. 15. 'Vos effici (be brought about) negatis sine divina posse sollertia ut innumerabilis natura mundos effectura sit, efficiat, effecerit,' C. N. D. i. 20. ' Potestis efficere ut male moriar ; ne moriar, non potestis,' Plin. Ep. iii. 16. Ill) Interrogatio Obliqua. ' Istud non est beneficium, sed fenus, rircumspicere, non ubi optime ponas, sed ubi quaestuosissime habeas, unde facillime tollas,' Sen. Ben. iv. 3. 'Solon Pisis- trato tyranno, quaerenti, qua tandem spe fretus sibf tarn audaciter obsisteret, re- spondisse dicitur : Senectute,' C. Cat. M. 20. 'Sapiens videbit, ubi victurus sit, cum quibus, quomodo, quid acturus: cogitat semper, qualis vita, non quanta sit,' Sen. Ep. 70. ' Si vis gratus esse adversus Deum, recordare, quam multa sir, consecutus; cum adspexeris, quot te antecedant, cogita, quot sequantur t cogita, quam multos antecesseris,' Sen. Ep. 15. 'Videsutalta stet nive can- didum Soracte,' Hor. C. i. 9. i. ' Matri denarrat ut ingens belua cognates eliserit,' Hor. 6". ii. 3. 315 (see Hor. Epist. 1.8.3). 'A me consilium petis, quid tibi sim auctor, in Siciliane subsidas an ad reliquias Asiaticae negotiationis pro fie is- care?' C. Fam. vi. 8. 'Apud Germanos ea consuetude erat ut matres familiae eorum sortibus et vaticinationibus declararent, utrum proelium committi ex usu esset necne,' Caes. B. G. i. 50. 'Non id quaeritur, sintne aliqui, qui decs esse/wtew/: di utrum sint, necne sint, quaeritur,' C. N. D. iii. 7. 'Antigonus nondum sta- tuerat, conservaret Eumenem necne,' N. Etim. ii. 'Di immortales, sit Latium deinde annon, in vestra manu posuerunt,' L. viii. 13. 'Metellus transfugas et alios opportunos, lugurtha ubi gentium, aut quid ageret, cum paucisne esset an ex- ercitum haberet, exploratum misit,' Sail. lug. 54. 'Quae parare et quaerere arduum fuit, nescio an tueri difficilius sit,' L. xxxvii. 54. 'Haud scio an quae dixit sint vera omnia,' Ter. An. iii. 2. 45. 'Si per se virtus sine fortuna ponderanda sit, d ubi to an Thrasybulum primum omnium p on am,' N. Thr. i. (See Hor. Epist. i. 12. 16-20; i. 18. 96-103; ad Pis. 114-118. 307-315.) (Impersonal Verbs: Interest, refert.) ' Illucl mea magm interest, te ut videam,' C. Att. xi. 22. 'Illud permagni referre arbitror, ut ne pcientem sentiat te id sibi dare,' Ter. Haut. iii. i. 58. ' Epistulae inventae sunt, ut certiores faceremus absentis, si 203- Various Constructions of Verbs. 449 Constructions within this range taken by certain Verbs. a) Impersonal Verbs : Interest and refert: 1.2.3.4.5.8. Licet and necesse est: (i) 2. 4. 5. 6. Oportet: 2. 4. 40. 5. ) Verbs of Desire : Volo : i. 2. 3. 4. 4^. 5. 6. Malo : i. 2. 4. 5. 6. Nolo : i. 2. 4. 4*7. 6. Opto : i. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. Studeo : i. 3. 4. 4#. 6. Cupio : 4. 4^. 6. \is, ut amicis, crederem,' C. /. Dom. n. 'Maior sum quam ut mancipium sim (too great to be) mei corporis,' Sen. Ep. 65. ' Hoc videtur esse altius quam ut nos humi strati suspicere possimus (too high for us to be able),' C- d. Or. iii. 6. ' Galba parcior fuit quam conveniret principi/Suet. Galb. 14. 'Dignus es ut possis (to be able) totum servare clientem,' Mart. x. 34. 'In- digni ut a vobis redimeremur (to !>e ransomed) visi sumus,' L. xxii. 59. 'Tan- turn afuit ut Rhodiorum praesidio nostram firmaremus classem ut etiam a Rhodiis commeatu prohiberentur milites nostri,' C. Fam. xii. 15. 'Tantum abest ut nostra miremur ut usque eo difficiles ac morosi simus ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes,' C. Or. 29. 'Tantum abes a perfectione maximorum operum ut fundamenta nondum ieceris,' C. p. Marc. 8. ' Is, qui occultus et tectus dicitur, tan- turn abest ut se indicet, perficiet etiam ut dolere alterius improbe facto videatur,' C. Fin, ii. 17. ' Ita (with this exception) probanda est mansuetudo atque dementia ut adhibeatur reipublicae causa severitas,' C. Off.'\. 25. 'Pythagoras et Plato mortem ita (with this proviso) laudant ut fugere vitam vetent,' C. /. Scaur. 2. 'Aristoteles ita non sola virtute finem bonorum contineri putat ut rebus tamen omnibus virtu tern anteponat,' C. Fin. iv. 18. 'Ego tibi onus imposiam, ita (with, the understanding) tamen ut tibi nolim molestus esse,' C. Fam. xiii. 56. 'Ego a patre ita eram deductus ad Scaevolam ut a senis latere numquam discederem,' C. Lael. i. ' Potest esse bellum, ut tumultus non sit (without insiirrection), tumultus esse sine bello non potest,' C. Phil. viii. i. 'Ita vobiscum amicitiam institui par est ne qua (provided that no) vetustior amicitia ac societas violetur,' L. vii. 31. 'Minucius sciebat ita se in provincia rem augere oportere ut ne quid de libertate deperderet,' C. Verr. ii. 30. 'Ea (such) invasit homines habendi cupido ut possideri magis quam possidere vi- deantur,' Plin. Ep. ix. 30. ' Ea natura rerum est ut, qui sensum verae gloriae ceperit, nihil cum hac gloria comparand um putet,' C. Phil. v. 18. 'Non is (the hind of man) es, Catilina, ut te aut pudor a turpitudine aut metus a periculo aut ratio a furore revo- carit,' C. Cat. \. 9. B) (Adjectival.) 'Ea est Romana gens quae victa quiescere nesciat,' L. ix. 3. 'Non is sum qui, quidquid videtur, tale dicam esse quale -bideatur? C. Ac. ii. 7. 'Innocentia est affectio talis animi quae noceat nemini,' C. T. D. iii. 8. 'Est aliquid quod non oporteat, etiamsi licet,' C. >. Balb. 3. ' Quotusqui sque est 2o6. Consecutive Clauses. 45 5 i) This may happen: After the Demonstratives is, eiusmodi, huiusmodi, talis, tantus, tarn, &c. : 'Habetis eum (eiusmodi, talem, tarn bonum) consulem qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet/ you have such a consul, as will not hesitate to obey your decrees, C. Cat. iv. ii. ' Nihil tanti fuit quo venderemus fidem nostram et libertatem/ nothing was so valuable that we should barter for it our honour and freedom, C. ad. Br. 16. Wherever the Predication on which the Relative Clause depends might be explained by tali s or t am : for instance, when it contains a) Indefinite, Interrogative, Negative, and other Pronominal words : aliquis, quidam, &c., quis, quot, quotusquisque, &c., nemo, nihil, nullus ; unus, solus, primus, ultimus, &c. ; nonnulli, multi, pauci, &c. b} Dignus, indignus, idoneus, aptus, &c. c) A Comparative with quam. d] A Verb, the Subject or Object of which (being the Antece- dent) is not expressed, but left Indefinite. Such expres- sions are : est qui, sunt qui, reperitur qui, habeo, invenio, reperio qui, &c. : and many like phrases. Even if the Antec. is expressed, the Rel. will take Subjunctive when it defines the class or kind. qui voluptatem neget esse bonum?' C. Div. ii. 39. 'Nullum est animal praeter homi- nem, quod habeat notitiam aliquam Dei,' C. Leg. i. 8. 'Nihil est quod tarn miseros facial quam impietas el scelus,' C. Fin. iv. 24. 'Mullae hodie sunt gentes quae tantum facie noverint caelum, quae nondum sciant cur luna deficiat,' Sen. N. Qu. vi. 25. 'Sapienlia est una quae maestitiam pellat ex animis, quae nos exhor- rescere metu non sinat/C. Fin. i. 13. 'Sola est in qua merito culpetur Vespasi- anus pecuniae cupiditas,' Suet. Vesp. 16. 'Est quod differat inter iustitiam et verecundiam,' C. Off. i. 28.- 'Sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem,' C. T. D. i. 9. 'Est quatenus amicitiae dari venia possit,' C. Lael. 17. 'Fuere qui crederent M. Licinium Crassum non ignarum Catilinae consili fuisse,' Sail. Cat. 17. 'Fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer/ C. d. Or. i. i. 'Quid est cur virtus ipsa per se non efficiat beatos?' C. T. D. v. 6. 'Livianae fabulae non satis dignae sunt quae iterum legantur,' C. Br. 18. ' Men- tem solum censebant idoneam cui crederetur,' C. Ac. i. 8. ' Campani maiora deliquerant quam quibus ignosci posset,' L. xxv. 12. ' Quid dulcius quam habere quicum omnia audeas sic loqui ut tecum?' C. Lael. 6. 'Non facile est invenire qui, quod sciat ipse, non tradat alteri,' C. Fin. iii. 20. ' Nihil difficilius quam re- perire quod sit omni ex parle in suo genere perfeclum/ C. Lael. 21. 'Nihil habeo quod incusem senectutem,' C. Cat. M. 5. 'Quid est quod tu cum fortuna queri possis?' C. Fam. iv. 5. 'Non est causa cur Epicurus fatum extimescat,' C. Fat. 9. 'Antonius quo se verteret non habebat,' C. Phil. ii. 25. ' Ne qui infans quidem est adsuescat sermoni qui dediscendus sit,' Qu. i. i. 'Augusto prompta ac profluens, quae deceret principem, eloquentia fuit,'Tac. Ann. xiii. 3. ' Pad, quae nihil habitura sit insidiarum, semper est consulendum,' C. Off. i. ii. 'Quis est quin cernat quanta vis sit in sensibus?' C. Ac. ii. 7. 'Cleanthes negat ullum esse cibum tarn gravem quin is die et nocte concoquatur,' C. N. D. ii. 9. 'Nemo tarn ferus fuit quin Alcibiadis casum lacrimarit,' N. Ale. 6. ' Tolas noctes dormimus, neque ulla est fere qua non somniemus,' C. Div. ii. 59. 'Nihil est tarn sanctum quod non aliquando violet audacia,' C. p. S. Rose. 25. 'Nulla tarn detestabilis pestis est quae non homini ab homine nascalur,' C. Off. ii. 5. 'Non possunl una in cm- late mulli rem atque forlunas amittere, ut non pluris secum in eandem trahant cala- 456 Latin Syntax. 2 6. Examples : Aliquis (quis? quotusquisque ? nemo, unus, &c.) est qui sciat, there is somebody (who is there ? how many are there? there is nobody, there is one] who knows. Dignus (indignus, idoneus) est qui imperet, he is worthy (unworthy, fit} to rule. ( Maior fuit quam cui resist! posset/ he was too great to be resisted. Sunt (reperiuntur, existunt, &c.) qui velint, there are (are found, exist} those who will be willing. Habui puerum quern mittere possem, I had such a boy as I could send. ' Satis est causae cur timeamus.' 2) If a Relative Clause, depending on a Negative or Interro- gative Predication, requires Negation itself, qui non (numquam, nusquam) may be used, or quin for qui non : Quis est (nemo est) quin (qui non) sues habeat? who is there (there is nobody] that does not keep swine ? 'Nihil est (quid est?) quin (quod non) male narrando possit depravari/ there is nothing (what is there?} that cannot be spoilt by telling it badly] Ter. Ph. iv. 4. 'Nullum intermisi diem quin ( = quo non) scriberem,' / let no day pass without writing, C. a} Quin rarely contains any Case of the Relative except Nom. or Abl. ; but a few exceptional instances are found : 'Nego in Sicilia tota ullam picturam fuisse quin Verres conquisierit ( = quam non)/ C. Verr. iv. i. b} Quin must be resolved into qui non whenever the Nega- tive has a distinctive application to a part of the Clause, requiring special emphasis. c} If another Relative Clause intervenes, quin = ut non, and a Demonstrative Pronoun follows : 'Nihil est, quod sensum habeat, quin id intereat, there is nothing that has feeling but it perishes, C. N. D. iii. 13. d} In some instances quin consecutive will be resolved into mitatem,' C. p. L.Man. 7. 'Quod litteris exstet, Pherecydes Syrius primus dixit animos esse hominum sempiternos,' C. T. D. i. 16. ' Suae cuique utilitati, quod sine alterius iniuria fiat, serviendum est,' C. Off. iii. 10. ' Refertae sunt Catonis orationes amplius centum quinquaginta, quas quidem adhuc invenerim et legerim, et verbis et rebus illustribus,' C. Br. 17. (Exceptions ivith Indie.) 'Tuesis qui me tuis sententiis saepissime ornasti,' C. Fam. xv. 4. 'Sunt bestiae quaedam, in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis, ut i'n leonibus, ut in canibus,' C. Fin. v. 14. ' Interdum volgus rectum videt : est ubi peccat,' Hor. Epist. ii. i. 63. ' Gernmas . . . argentum . . . sunt qui non ha- beant, est qui non curat habere,' Hor. Epist. ii. 2. 180 (where est qui implies the poet himself). 'Sunt quibus e ramo frondea facta casa est,' Ov. F. iii. 527. 'Sunt nonnullae diciplinae, quae officium omne pervertunt,' C. Off. i. 2. 'Sunt multi, qui eripiunt aliis, quod aliis largiantur,' C. Off. i. 14. 'Duae sunt artes, quae possunt locare homines in amplissimo gradu dignitatis, una imperatoris, altera oratoris boni,' C. /. Mur. 14. 20;. Final Clauses. 457 ut non; if purpose is implied, ne takes its place; if cause is implied, cur non, quare non, &c. : ' Quid fuit causae cur in Africam Caesarem non seque- rere,' what was the reason for your not following Caesar into Africa ? C. Phil. ii. 29. 3) Qui with the Subjunctive is used parenthetically with a sense of limitation : 'quod sciam/ so far as 1 know : in which use the Relative is often modified by quid em : 1 Antiquissimi fere sunt, quorum quidem scripta con- stent, Pericles et Alcibiades/ Pericles and Alcibiades are about the most ancient orato'rs of those at least whose writings are known. C. Or. 2. 'Omnium oratorum, quos equidem cognoverim, acutissimum iudico Q. Sertorium,' C. Br. 48. Exceptions. The Demonstr. before a Relative may be so definite, that the Relative, having no consecutive force, takes an Indicative. Thus 'is est qui' may mean 'he is \hzperson who' (fecit, did if}. Even talis qui, eiusmodi qui are sometimes used with that definite- ness which allows an Indie. : ' Mihi causa talis oblata est in qua oratio deesse nemini p o t e s t,' the case I speak for is of a sort in which no man can be at a loss for words, C. p. L. Man. i. Sunt qui, sunt multi qui, sunt quidam qui, &c., are not always indefinite : 'Sunt qui appellantur alces,' Caes. B. G. vi. 27. 'Sunt quidam qui molestas amicitias faciunt,' C. Lael. 20. ' Multa sunt quae dici possunt' ( = ea quae dici possunt, sunt multa). So est qui and sunt qui are constructed with Indie, in poetry, in imitation of Greek idiom : 'Sunt quos curriculo pul- verem Olympicum collegisse iuvat,' some there are who delight with the chariot to raise clouds of Olympian dust,' Hor. C. i. I. 3. iii, Final Clauses. 1 207 A FINAL CLAUSE expresses an End or Purpose, and its Verb is F | nal Subjunctive. Clause Causal Clauses. Clauses. A) ADVERBIAL CAUSAL CLAUSES are introduced by Conjunc- tions of three classes : i) Quoniam, quando, quandoquidem, quandoque (since], siqui- dem, quatenus (inasmuch as, seeing that], of admitted Cause. The Verb is Indicative, if not Suboblique. Punicis conspicerentur/L. xxviii. i. ' Haec e o scrips! ut potius relevares me,' C. A it. iii. 10. 'Eo perperam olim dixi ne vos forte imprudentes foris effutiretis,' Ter. Ph. v. i. 18. ' Hanc ideo rationem subiecimus, ut hoc causae genus ipsum, de quo agimus, cognosceretur,' C. Inv. ii. 23. ' Suscipienda bella sunt ob earn causam ut sine iniuria in pace vivatur,' C. Off. \. n. ' Legibus idcirco omnes servimus ut liberi esse possimus,' C. /. Chi. 53. 'Quid stultius est quam cetera parare, amicos non parare, optimam et pulcherrimam vitae, ut ita dicam, supellectilem? ' C. Lael. 15. 'A te peto ut huic meae laudi vel, ut verius dicam, prope saluti, tuum stu- dium dices,' C. Fam. ii. 6. ' Moleste ferebam tan turn ingenium in tarn levis, ne dicam ineptas, sententias incidisse,' C. JV. D. i. 21. 'Ne te morer, audi quo rem deducam,' Hor. S. i. i. 14. See Hor. 6". i. 3. 137 ; C. iv. 9. i. ' Vix in ipsis tectis et oppidis frigus hiemale infirma valetudine vitatur, nedum in mari et via sit facile abesse ab iniuria temporis,' C. Fam. xvi. 8. B) (Adjectival.) 'Homini natura addidit rationem qua regerentur animi appe- titus,' C. N. D. ii. 12. 'Hannibal tripartite Iberum copias traiecit, praemissis, qui Gallorum animos, qua traducendus exercitus erat, donis conciliarent, Alpium transitus specular en tur,' L. xxi. 23. ' Subacto mihi ingenio opus est, ut agro non semel arato, sed novato et iterate, quo meliores fetus possit et grandiores edere,' C. d. Or. ii. 30. ' In funeribus Atheniensium sublata erat celebritas virorum ac mulierum, quo lamen- tatio minueretur,'C. Leg. ii. 26. (Horace has quo ne,' %S". ii. i. 37.) 209> Causal Clauses. 459 2) Quod, quia (because), ascribe a Cause : with Indie, normally. But Causal Clauses are often Suboblique with quod, some- times with quia : * Mater irata est quia non redierim,' Plaut. Cist. i. i. 105. Quod, quia, maybe strengthened by the same Demonstra- tive words or phrases as Final Conjunctions : eo, ideo, propterea, c. 3) Cum (since) expresses, usually, conceived Cause, with Sub- junctive. a) While quod and quia (Greek on, diort, and French parceque] state a Cause ascriptively^ cum ( = Greek 67r, and French puisque) states it conceptively, hence taking Subjunctive. Hence too, when cum, after emotional expressions of joy, grief, surprise, praise, congratulation, &c., assigns a fact as cause, it takes an Indicative. See 196. (On cum in correlation with turn, see Temporal Clauses.) b) The Subjunctive of a Verb of thinking is also used with quod where the author doubtfully suggests the motive of an action : Helvetii, seu quod timore perterritos Romanos discedere aseexistimarent, sive eo quod re frumentaria inter- cludi posse confiderent, nostros insequi ac lacessere coeperunt/ Caes. . G. i. 23. c) And, by a very remarkable idiom, a Verb of assertion fol- lowing quod is made Subjunctive, when the cause itself (which is the really Suboblique notion) is contained in the Infin. CJause dependent on that Verb. Examples of Causal Clauses ( 209-10). A) Adverbial. {Admitted Cause) ' Geramus, dis bene iuvantibus, quando ita videtur, bellum/ L. xlii. 51. ' Dicite, quandoquidem in molli consedimus herba,' Verg. B. iii. 55. 'Quandoque hice homines iniussu populi Romani Quiritium foedus ictum iri spoponderunt, atque ob earn rem noxam nocuerunt, ob earn rem quo populus Romanus scelere impio sit solutus, hosce homines vobis dedo,' L. ix. TO. ' Vos, Quirites, quoniam iam nox est, in vestra tecta discedite,' C. Cat. iii. 12. ' Ea divi- nationum ratio ne in barbaris quidem gentibus neglecta est, siquidem et in Gallia Druidae sunt.' C. Div. i. 41. 'Audeat refrenare licentiam, clarus postgenitis, quate- nus virtutem incolumem odimus,' c. Hor. C. iii. 24. 28. {Alleged Cause.} ' Codrus se in medios immisit hostis veste famulari, ne posset agnosci, si esset ornatu regio ; quod oraculum erat datum, si rex interfectus esset, victricis Athenas fore,' C. T. D. i. 48. ' Hae sordes susceptae sunt propter unum me, quia meum casum luctumque doluerunt,' C. /. Sest. 69. 'Quia natura mutari non potest, idcirco verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt,' C. Lael. 9. ' Feci e servo ut esses libertus mihi propterea quod serviebas liberaliter,' Ter. An. i. i. 10. (Suboblique.') ' Comitiorum i Hi habendorum, quando minimus natu sit, munus con- sensu iniungunt,' L. iii. 35. ' Principes Trevirorum de suis privatis rebus petere coepe- runt, quoniam civitati consulere non possent,' Caes. B. G. v. 3. ' lugurthae bellum illatum est, quod Adherbalem et Hiempsalem, Micipsae filios, intere- misset,' Eutr. iv. n. 'Nemo ipsam voluptatem, quia voluptas sit, aspernatur," C. Fin. i. 10. 'Nee quia sit honesta atque pulcherrima rerum eloquentia, petitur ipsa, sed ad vilem usum et sordidum lucrum accingimur,' Qu. i. 12. ' Falso queritur de natura genus humanum quod imbecilla atque aevi brevis forte potius quam virtute regatur,' Sail. lug. i. ' Aristides nonne ob earn causam expulsus est patria, quod praeter modum Justus esset?' C. T. D. v. 36. 'Plato escam malorum voluptatem appellat, quod ea videlicet homines capiantur. ut hamo pisces,' C. Cat. Jlf.'ij. 460 Latin Syntax. 209. ' Ab Atheniensibus locum sepulturae intra urbem ut darent, impetrare non potui, quodreligione se impediri dicerent,' C. Fam. iv. 12. ' Qui e Gallia veniunt, superbiam tuam accusant, quod negent te percunctantibus respondere/ C. Fam. vii. 16. d) The ground of a writer's or speaker's present opinion will be Indie., but that of his former opinion may take the Sub- junctive, as if he were speaking of another person. See C. T. D. ii. 3. cited by Madvig. e) Non quod, non quia, non quo (less often nonquoniam), are used with the Subjunctive when the reason denied is conceivable ; but not real; sed generally following with the true reason : 4 Non idcirco librorum usum dimiseram, quod iis suc- censerem; sed quod eorum me suppudebat/ / had not abandoned the intimacy of my books because I was angry with them ; but because I was a little ashamed of my behaviour to them, C. Fam. ix. I. 'Numquam mihi defuturam orationem, qua exercitum meum alloquerer, credidi; non quo verba umquam potius quam res exer- cuerim, sed quiaassueram militaribus ingesm&r I never supposed I should lack language to address my army ; not that I have ever practised words rather than deeds ; but because I had been accustomed to the tempers of soldiers, L. xxviii. 27. /) If the cause denied is one which is not conceivable, non quod, non quia take the Indicative : 'Ad urbem Scipioni majore resistitur vi ; non quia plus (Conceived Cause.) 'Cum sin t in nobis consilium, ratio, prudentia, necesse est decs haec ipsa habere maiora,' C. N. D. ii. 31. 'Cum in communibus suggestis consistere non auderetDionysius, contionari ex turn alta solebat,' C. T. D. \. 20. ' Cum Athenas tamquam ad mercaturam bonarum artium sis profectus, inanem redire turpissimum est,' C. Off. iii. 2. (JVon quod, &*c.) ' Mihi apud vos de meis maioribus dicendi facultas non datur ; non quod non tales fuerint, qualis nos, illorum sanguine procreates, videtis, sed quod laude populari atque honoris vestri luce caruerunt,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. i. 'Stu- dium sapientiae mihi Latinis literis illustrandum putavi, non quia philosophia Graecis litteris percipi non posset, sed meum semper iudicium fuit, omnia nostros accepta a Graecis fecisse meliora,' C. T. D. i. i. ' Saepe soleo audire Roscium, cum ita dicat, se adhuc reperire discipulum, quern quidem probaret, potuisse neminem ; non quo non essent quidam probabiles, sed quia, si aliquid modo esset vitii, id ferre ipse non posset, C. d. Or. i. 28. ' Crasso commendationem non sum pollicitus, non quin earn valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed mihi egere commendatione non videbatur,' C. Fam. xiii. 16. 'Ego me ducem in civili bello negavi esse, non quin rectum esset, sed quia, quod multo rectius fuit, id mihi fraudem tulit,' C. Att. vii. 26, E) Adjectival. ' Alexander cum in Sigeo ad Achillis tumulum adstitisset, O fortunate, inquit, ado- lescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris,' C. p. Arch. 10. 'Cum Dion non desisteret obsecrare Dionysium, ut Platonem Athenis arcesseret el eius consiliis uteretur, ille, qui in aliqua re vellet patrem imitari, morem ei gessit,' N. Di. 3. ' O magna vis veritatis, quae contra hominum calliditatem facile se per se ipsam defendat,' C. p. Cad. 16. ' Numquam laudari satis digne philosophia poterit, cui qui pareat omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere,' C. Cat. M. i. ' Habeo senectuti magnam gratiam, quae mihi sermonis aviditatem auxit, potionis et cibi sustulit,'C. Cat. M.^ 14. 'Virtus est una altissimis defixa radicibus, quae numquam ulla vi labefactari potest,numquamdemoveri loco,' C. Phil. iv. 5. ' Callidus adulator non facile cognos- -io-ii. Temporal ClcMscs. 461 animi victis est, sed melius muri quam vallum armatos arcent,' L. x. 41. See Hor. S. ii. 2. 89. g) Non quin is used for non quo nonornonquia non: 'Consilium tuum reprehendere non audeo, non quin ab eo dissentiam, sed/ &c., / dare not blame your plan, not that I do not differ from it, but, c., C. Fam. iv. 7. j5) An ADJECTIVAL CAUSAL CLAUSE is formed by the Relative q u i, or one of its Particles. Oui causal usually contains conceived Cause, with Subjunctive. Sometimes it contains qui a, and takes Indie. Quippe strengthens qui, cum, sometimes quod; the Mood being usually Subjunctive; but quippe qui is found with Indie. Ut qui, utpote qui, are rare, but found with each Mood : utpote cum with Subjunctive only. v. Temporal Clauses. i) Temporal Conjunctions may be placed in four groups: A] Ubi, when, ubi primum, simul ac, simul ut, simul, as soon Clauses - as ; ut, when ; from the time when ; ut primum, cum primum, &c., since; as soon as; quotiens, as often as; postquam, after that, since. } i, Dum, donee, quoad, 'whilst, as long as-, quamdiu, as long as. 2. Dum, donee, quoad, until. C) Antequam, priusquam, before that. D) Cum. With most of these Conjunctions various Demonstrative Adverbs may be correlated, which are noticed in the Examples. 211 Tern- citur, quippe qui etram adversando saepe assentetur,' C. Lae!. 26. 'Animus fortuna non eget ; quippe quae probitatem, industriam aliasque artis bonas neque dare neque eripere cuiquam potest,' Sail. Ing. i. ' Sed de hoc tu videbis, quippe cum de me ipso ac de meis te cousiderare velim,' C. Att. vii. 13. ' Multa de mea sententia questus est Caesar, quippe quod etiam Crassum ante vidisset,' C. Fam. i. 9. 'Me incommoda valetudo, qua iam emerseram, utpote cum sine febri laborassem, tene- bat Brundisii,' C. Att. v. 3. 'Nero inusitatae luxuriae fuit, ut qui retibus aureis piscaretur,' Eutr. vii. 9. Examples of Temporal Clauses ( 211-12). A) Ubi, &c., with Demonstratives, turn, tune, turn demum, turn denique, ibi, iam, continue, extemplo, ilico, ilicet, semel, statim, quamprimum, repente, &c. (Ubi, when, ubi primum, as soon as, &c.) a. ' Miserum est opus fodere, ubi sitis fauces tenet,' Plaut. Most. ii. i. ' Haec ubi aperuit ostium, continuo hie se coniecit intro,' Ter. Haitt. ii. 2. 35. (Ubi nuntiata sunt, statim,' &c. C. I'err. v. 47. 'Ubi . . . decessit, ilicet,' &c., Sail. lug. 41.) 'Ubi Syracusanorum dolorem cognovi, turn eos hortatus sum,' &c., C. Verr. vi. 63. ' Ubi primum est licitum, ilico pro- peraviabire de foro,' Plaut. Men. iv. 2. 34. 'Taleae ubi trimae sunt, turn denique maturae sunt,' Cato, R. R. 45. ft. Divico ita cum Caesare agit : Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem ituros atque ibi futures Helvetios, ubi eos Caesar const i tuisset, ' Caes. B. G. i. 13.7. ' Id fetialis ubi dixisset, hastam in finis eorum mittebat,' L. i. 32. 'Ubi pretio non aequitate iura descripserat, Veneri iam et Libero reliquum tempus deberi arbitrabatur,' C. Verr. v. n. 462 Latin Syntax. 211. 2) Tense and Mood vary much in Temporal Clauses. Variation of Tense is naturally due to the various combinations of Time in Clause and Sentence. As to Mood, there is no Conjunction of Time which does not normally take the Indicative. But the Subjunctive often is required : rt) In Suboblique, Gnomic, and (in some styles) Iterative Construction. &) When the notion of Time is complicated with that of Con- sequence, Purpose, Cause, or Concession. Thus, cum is constructed so as to express Consequence (Time of such az>ft/that), Cause (since), Concession (although, whereas] ; sometimes even Condition. Dum, donee, quoad (until}, antequam, priusquam, &c. may imply Purpose. The two latter sometimes take a Subjunctive which has no such internal reason ; and which may perhaps be explained by the Consec. use of quam. See 205. (The two last examples shew the difference of Iterative Pluperfect construction in Livy and Cicero : Subjunctive in the former, Indicative in the latter.) (Quando, w/ieu = quo tempore.) 'Ubi satur sum, intestina nulla crepitant ; quando esurio, turn crepant,' Plaut. Men. v. 5. 27. 'Utinam tune essem natus quando Romani dona accipere coepissent,' C. Off. ii. 8. (Quotiens, as often as.) ' Heraclitus quotiens prodierat et tantum circa se male viventium, immo male pereuntium, viderat, flebat,' Sen. 7r.ii.io. 'Quotiens patriam videret, totiens se beneficium meum videre dicebat,' C. d. Or. ii. 30. (Ut, -when, as soon as; ut primum, cum, cum primum.) ' Varro ut advenit, ex- templo Hostilius legionem unam signa in urbem ferre iussit,' L. xxvii. 24. 'Ut Hostus cecidit, confestim Romana inclinatur acies," L. i. 12. 'Cum primum sapere coepit, acerbissimos dolores percepit,' C. Fain. xiv. i. 'Pompeius ut me primum vidit, complexus est,' C. Fain. x. 13. 'Ut vidi, ut perii/ Verg. B. viii. 41. ' Ut quis- que me viderat narrabat,' &c. C. Verr, ii. (Ut, since, from the time ivhen=ex quo.) 'Ut tetigi Pontum, vexant insomnia/ Ov. Tr. iii. 8. 27. 'Ut sum us in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Ister,' Ov. Tr. v. 10. i. See Hor. C. iv. 4. 42. 'Ut Athenas veneram, expectabam ibi iam quartum diem Pomptinum,' C. Att. v. 10. (Simul, simul ac, simul ut, statim ut, as soon as.) 'Simul ac duraverit aetas membra animumque tuum, nabis sine cortice,' Hor. 6\ i. 4. 119. 'Ego statim habebo quod sentiam, i2 Cum. 3) Other uses of the Conjunction Cum: a) Cum, when, is the most extensively used Temporal Con- junction, correlative to the Demonstrative turn, as dum to interea; and signifying a point of Time, as dum signifies extension of Time. b} When the relation between the principal Sentence and the Clause is merely Temporal, cum takes an Indicative in the Present, Future (Simple or Exact), or Perfect Tense, according to the time required : Cum venio, video ; cum veniam (venero) videbo ; cum veni, vidi (videbam, videram). c) The time is more strongly defined by means of a Demon- strative (turn, eo tempore, nunc, iam, &c.). 1 Vos turn paruistis cum paruit nemo/ C. p. Lig. 7. d} Cum may take an Imperf. Indie., if an Imperf. is in the principal Sentence : Cum veniebam, videbam : Or, sometimes, if the point of time is to be strongly marked, the principal Verb may be Perfect : 10. ' Epaminondas ferrum usque eo in corpore retinuit quoad renuntiatum est vicisse Boeotios,' Nep. Ep. 9. ft. ' Expectandum putabant dum se res ipsa aperiret,' Nep. Pans. 3. ' Iratis subtrahend! sunt ii, in quos impetum conantur facere, dum se ipsi colligant,' C. 7*. D. iv. 36. 'Augustus rectorem solitus est apponere regibus aetate parvis ac mente lapsis, donee adolescerent aut resipiscerent,' Suet. Aug. 48. ' Thessalonicae esse statueram, quoad aliquid ad me scriberes,' C. Att. iii. 13. *T. Quinctio consul! pro rogatum in Macedonia imperium, donee successor ei venisset,' L. xxxii. 28. C) (Antequam, priusquam.) a. 'Antequamde incommodis Siciliae dico, pauca mihi videntur esse deprovinciae dignitate dicenda,' C. Verr. ii. 2. 'Priusquam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca dicam,' C. Phil. ii. 3. 'Membris utimur pri- usquam didicimus cuius ea utilitatis causa habeamus/ C. Fin. iii. 20. ' Non ante finitum est proelium quam tribunus militum interfectus est,' L. xli. 2. 'Dociliora sunt ingenia priusquam obduruerunt,' Qu. i. 12. 9. 'Non defatigabor a n t e q u a m illorum ancipites vias rationesque percepero,' C. d. Or. iii. 36. ft. 'Tempestas minatur antequam surgat,' Sen. Ep. 103. 'Tragoedi cotidie, ante- quam pronuntient, vocem cubantes sensim excitant,' C. d. Or. i. 59. ' Saepe magna indoles virtutis, priusquam reipublicae prodesse potuisset, exstincta fuit," C. Phil. v. 17. ' NumSdae, priusquam ex castris subveniretur, in proximos collis discedunt,' Sail. lug. 54. 'Appiusnon ante continuando abstitit magistratu quam obruerent eum male parta, male gesta, male retenta imperia,' L. ix. 34. ' Providentfa est, per quam aliquid videtur, antequam factum sit,' C. Inv. ii. 53. ' Nescire, quid anteaquam natus sis acciderit, id est semper esse puerum,' C. d. Or. 34. 'In omnibus negotiis, priusquam aggrediare, adhibenda est praeparatio diligens,' C. Off. i. 21. 'Priusquam incipias, consulto, et, ubi consulueris, mature facto cpus est,' Sail. Cat. i. (The three last Examples are Gnomic.) 2i2. Temporal Clauses. 465 ' Nuper, cum te iam adventare arbitrabamur, re- pente abs te in mensem Quihtilem reiecti sumus,' lately, at the very moment we thought you were coming, we were thrown over by you suddenly to the month of July, C. Att. i. 3. See Verg. Aen. xii. 736. ) Cum may take Pluperf. Indie., when a Demonstrative marks the time : 'Turn cumin Asia res magnas permulti amiserant, scimus Romae fidem concidisse/ at the very time when numerous persons had lost great properties in Asia we know that credit sank at Rome, C. p. L. Man. 7. f] Cum iterative ( = quotiens) takes Plup. Indie, in Cicero, an Imperf. being in the principal Sentence, when repeated action is expressed : in which sense Livy has Subjunctive : 'Cum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica usque ad cubiculum deferebatur/ as often as he came to any town, he was conveyed to his bed-chamber in the same sedan, C. Verr. v. n. D. i.) Examples of cum with Indicative. (212.) (Cum = quo tempore.) 'De te, Catilina, cum quiescunt, probant ; cum patiuntur, decernunt ; cum tacent, clamant,' C. Cat. i. 8. ' Lituo Romulus regiones direxit turn cum urbem condidit,' C. Div. i. 17. 'O praeclarum diem, cum in illud amicorum con- cilium coetumque proficiscar,' C. Cat. M. 23. 'Sedplura, cum ista cognoro,' C. Att. xv. 9. ' Regulus, turn cum vigilando necabatur, eratin meliore causa, quam si domi senex capfivus, periurus consularis, remansisset,' C. Off. iii. 27. 'Cum Caesar in Gal Ham venit, alterius factionis principes Crant Aedui, alterius Sequani,' Caes. B. G. vi. 12. 'Credo, turn cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis, magna artificia fuisse in ea insula,' C. Verr. iv. 21. 'Cum Collatino collegae Brutus imperium abrogabat, poterat videri facere injuste,' C. Off. iii. 10. 'Aliud est dolere, aliud laborare : cum varices secabanturC. Mario, dolebat, cum aestu magno ducebat agmen, laborabat," C. T. D. ii. 15. (Cum = quotiens, -with Plup.lndic.) 'Cum palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat, a nullo videbatur,' C. Off. iii. 9. See Ac. ii. 47. Cum ver esse coeperat (cuius Snitium iste non a Favonio neqne ab aliquo astro notabat, sed cum rosam vide rat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur), dabat se labori atque itineribus,' C. Verr. v. 10. (Cum put inversely) * Piso ultimas Hadriani maris oras petivit, cum interim Dyrrachii milites domum, in qua eum esse arbitrabantur, obsidere coeperunt,' C. in Pis. 38. ' E volarat iam e conspectu fere fugiens quadriremis, cum etiamtum ceterae naves uno in loco moliebantur,' C. Verr. v. 34. ' Hannibal iam scalis subibat muros Locrorum, cnm repente patefacta porta Romani erumpunt,' L. xxix. 7. 'Commo- dum discesserat Hilarus cum venit tabellarius,' C. Att. xiii. 19. 'P. Sestius, fretus sanctitate tribunatus, venit in templum Castoris, obnuntiavit consuli : cumsubito manus ilia Clodiana, in caede civium saepe iam victrix, exclamat, incitatur, in- vadit,' C. p. Sest. 37. ' Iam dies consumptus erat. cum tamen barbari nihil remit- tere, atque, noctem pro se rati, acrius instare,' Sail. lug. 98. (Cum=ex quo tempore.) Permulti anni iam erant cum inter patricios magistratus tribunosque nulla certamina fuerant,' L. ix. 33. ' Nondum sex menses sunt cum hue commigravit,' Plaut. Pers. i. 3. 2) Examples of cum with Subjunctive. (211.) (Iterative cum -with Subjunctive) 'Saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vesti- tum, suum amiculum dedit,' N. dm. 4. 'Cum in ius duci debitorem vidissent, undique convolabant/ L. ii. 27. (Especially with cum diceret, cum d i c a t, following audio; an idiom which resembles the Consecutive use.) ' Ipsius Sulpicii nulla oratio est; saepe ex eo audiebam, cum se scribere neque consuesse neque posse diceret,' Cic. Br. 56. 'Saepe soleo audire Roscium, cum ita dicat, se adhuc reperire dis- cipulum, quern quidem probaret, potuisse neminem/ C. d. Or. i. 28. H H 466 Latin Syntax. 212. g] The Inverse Construction with cum occurs in Narrative when the Clause seems to change places with the Prin- cipal Sentence, indicating that one action is interrupted, or quickly succeeded by another. In this case, cum is often accompanied by such Adverbs as repente, subito, interim, interea, iam, c., and the Verb is frequently Present Historic, now and then His- toric Infinitive. 'Parata sententia consularis, cum repente ei affertur nuntius,' the consul's opinion was just ready, when a sudden message reaches him, C. Phil. xiii. 9. 'Id modo plebs agitabat, cum interim comitiorum mentio nulla fieri/ that was what the commons were debating, while meantime no mention was being made of comitia^ L. iii. 37- (Cum Suboblique) 'Totiensne me litteras dedisse Romam, cum ad te nullas darem,'C. Att. v. n. 'Quippe ius Laodiceae me dicere, cum Romae Aulus Plotius dicat,' C. Att. v. 15. 'Mihi non videbatur quisquam esse beatus posse, cum in malis esset,' C. T. D. v. 8. (Consecutive cum quali tempore.) ' Erit illud profecto tempus, cum tu unius post homines natos fortissimi viri magnitudinem animi desideres,' C. p. Mil. 26. 'Fuit quidem cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer,' C. Or. i. i. 'Ingressus est urbem cum dextra sinistra minaretur dominis, notaret domos/ C. Phil. xiii. 9. ( But Indie, if cum =quo tempore.) 'Fuit quoddam tem- pus, cum in agris homines passim bestiarum more vagabantur et sibi victu fero vitam propagabant,' C. Inv. i. 2. (Cum causal.) ' Quae cum ita sint, quid est quod de eius civitate dubitetis, praesertim cum aliis quoque in civitatibus fuerit adscriptus?' C. /. Arch. 5. (See Causal Clauses.) (Cum concessive.) 'Atticus cum esset pecuniosus, nemo illo minus fuit emax, minus aedificator,' N. Att. 13. 'Cum multa sint in philosophia gravia et utilia, latissime patere videntur ea, quae de officiis tradita sunt,' C. Off. i. 2. 'His, cum facere non possent, tamen loqui licebat,' C. /. Cael. 17. (Specially frequent, when turn follows): 'Cole iustitiam quae, cum sit magna in parentibus et propinquis, turn in patria maxima est,' C. d. Rep. vi. 15. 'Cum plurimas et maximas commoditates amicitia contineat, turn ilia nimirum praestat omnibus, quod debilitari animos non patitur,' Cic. Lael. 7. 'Haec urbs cum manu munitissima esset, turn loci natura terra ac mari claudebatur,' C. Verr. ii. 2. (Cum conditional is rare) : ' Haec neque cum ego d i c e r e m, neque cumtunegares, magni momenti nostra esset oratio. Quo tempore igitur auris iudex erigeret ani- mumque attenderet? CumDio ipse prodiret, cum reperiretur pecunias sum- psisse mutuas, cum tabulae virorum bonorum proferrentur,' C. Verr. i. 10. (Cum historic.) 'Agesilaus, cum adversarios intra moenia compulisset, et ut Corinthum oppugnaret multi hortarentur, negavit id suae virtuti convenire,' N. Ag. 5. 'Socrates, cum paene in manu iam mortiferum illud teneret poculum, locutus ita est, ut non ad mortem trudi, verum in caelum videretur ascendere,' C. T. D. i. zg. 'Cimon Cyprum cum ducentis navibus imperator missus, cum eius maiorem partem insulae devicisset, in morbum implicitus, in oppido Citio est mortuus,' N. Cim. 3. (Cum historic is found even after turn, where the Indicative might have been used.) 'Neque enim, si tibi turn, cum peteres consulatum, adfui, idcirco nunc, cum Mure- nam ipsum petis, adiutor eodem pacto esse debeo,' C. p. Mur. 3. (In the following passage, the two Moods are used in succession ;haberent being purely historic, e rant appealing to later experience, shewn by perspexeratis) : 'Unumhoc certe videor mihi verissime posse dicere : turn cum haberet haec res publica Luscinos, Calatinos, Acidinos, homines non solum honoribus populi rebusque gestis, verum etiam patientia paupertatis ornatos ; et tumcumerant Catones, Phili, Laelii, quorum sapien- tiam temperantiamque in mnibus rebus perspexeratis, tamen huiuscemodi res com- missa nemini est, ut idem iudicaret et venderet,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 24. 213- Conditional Sentences. 467 h] Cum for ' ex quo tempore' takes the Indicative. ' Nondum centum et decem anni sunt cum de pecuniis repetundis a L. Pisone 1 at a lex est/ it is not yet 1 10 years since Lucius Piso brought in a law concerning extortion* C.Ofiii. 21. vi. Conditional Sentences. Condi- tional 1) The Conditional (Hypothetical) Conjunctions are : si, if (si Sen- non, if not] ; nisi, ni, unless, if not. 2) In the Compound CONDITIONAL SENTENCE, the Clause which contains the Condition is called Protasis (quae praetendi- tur) ; the Principal Sentence is called Apod 6s is (quae redditur), the Conclusion. These terms imply the logical assumption that the condition comes first, and that the conclusion is in the nature of a reply to the question, What then ? But it is equally possible to regard the Protasis as an adverbial clause limiting a principal sentence : ' Maxi- mas virtutes iacere omnes necesse est voluptate dominant e/ C. = si voluptas dominetur. I. Normal Forms of the Conditional Sentence. Protasis. Apodosis. a. si das negat if you offer he refuses si dabis negabit if you shall offer he will refuse Normal Examples of Conditional Sentences. ( 213.) a. (Sumptio Daft.) 'Si amitti beata vita potest, beata esse non potest,' C. Fin. ii. 27. 'Parvisunt foris arma nisi est consilium domi,' C. Off. i. 22. 'Sinoles sanus, curres hydropicus, et ni posces ante diem librum cum lu mine, si non in- tendes animum studiis et rebus honestis, invidia vel amore vigil torquebere,' Hor. Epist. i. 2. 34. 'Si bellum omittimus, pace numquam fruemur,' C. Phil. v. i. 6. 'Non si is, qui accepit, bene utitur, idcirco is qui dedit, amice dedit/ C. W. D. iii. 28. 'Si feceris id quod ostendis, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non feceris, ignoscam,' C. Fain. v. 19. 'Nemo poterit esse omni laude cumulatus orator, nisi erit omnium artium scientiam consecutus,' C. d. Or. i. 6. 'Si in omnibus innocens fuero, quid mini inimicitiae nocebunt?' C. Verr. iii. 69. ' Malevolentiae hominum in me, si poteris, occurres; si non potueris, hoc consolabere, quod me de statu meo nullis contumeliis deterrere possunt,' C. Fain. xi. n. ' Telo si primam aciem praefregeris, reliquo ferro vim nocendi sustuleris,' lust. vi. 8. ' Haud ergo, ut opinor, erravero, si a Zenone disputationis principium duxero,' C. N. D. ii. 21. ' Apud maiores magistracum non gerebat is qui ceperat, si patres auctores non erant facti,' C. p. Plane. 3. 'Cesseram, si alienam a me plebem fuisse vultis, quae non fuit, invidiae : si commoveri omnia videbantur, tempori ; si vis suberat, armis,' C. p. Sest. 30. ' Si licuit, patris pecuniam recte abstulit filius,' C. p. Place. 25. ' Si me a mas, paulum hie ades,' Hor. Sat. \. 9. 38. 'Si vis amari, a ma,' Sen. Ep. 9. Si quid novisti rectius istis, candidus imperti; si non, his utere mecum,* Hor. Epist. i. 6. 67. 'Si quid in te peccavi, ignosce,' C. Att. iii. 15. ' Causam investigate, si poteris,'C. Div. ii. 28. 'Mirer, inquit, si vana vestra ad plebem auctoritas est,' L. iii. 2. ' Etenim, si Lentulus putavit suum nomen fatale fore, cur ego non laeter?' C. Cat. iv. i. 'Si sciens fallo, turn me, luppiter optime maxime, pessimo leto afficias,'L. xxii. 53. 'Si qui voluptatibus ducuntur, missos faciant henores, ne attingant rempubli- cam,' C. /. Sest. 66. 'Quod si meis incommodis laetabantur, urbis tamen periculo commoverentur' (they should have been touched Hortative Past), C. /. Sest. 34, H II 2 4.63 Latin Syntax. 213. ft. si des (dederis) neget (negaverit) if you were to offer he would refuse 7. i. si dares negaret (lit.) if you had been he would have been refusing offering (often = if you offered he would refuse] 2. si dedisses negasset if you had offered he would have refused 3. si dedisses negaret if you had offered he would have kept refusing /3. (Sumptio Dandi.) 'Thucydidis orationes ego laudare soleo ; imitari neque pos- sim, si velim, nee velim fortasse, si possim,' C. Br. 83. 'Si exsistat hodie ab inferis Lycurgus, gaud eat murorum Spartae ruinis, et nunc se patriam et Spartam antiquam agnoscere dicat,' L. xxxix. 37. 'Si gladitun quis apud te sana mente de- posuerit, repetat insaniens : reddere peccatum sit, officium non reddere/ C Off. iii. 25. 'Si scieris aspidem occulte latere uspiam, improbe feceris nisi monueris alterum ne assideat,' C. Fin. ii. 18. 'Nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur, abstulerit cibum alteri homini ad nullam rem utili? Minime vero,' C. Off. iii. 6. See Hor. Epod. ii. 39, &c. ; Epist. ii. 2. 1-17. y. (Sumptio Ficti.) i. 'Si semper optima tenere possemus, haud sane consilio multum egeremus,' C. Part. 25. 'Si universi videre optimum et in eo consentire pos- sent, nemo delectos principes quaereret,' C. Resp. i. 34. 'Si plane sic verterem Platonem aut Aristotelem, ut verterunt nostri poetae fabulas, male, credo, mererer de meis civibus, si ad eorum cognitionem divina ilia ingenia transferrem,' C. Fin. i. 3. 2. ' Antiochus si tarn in agendo bello parere voluisset consiliis Hannibalis, quam in suscipiendo instituerat, propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis de summa imperil dimi- casset,' N. Hann. 8. ' Glebam commosset in agro decumano Siciliae nemo, si Metellus hanc epistulam non misisset,'C. Verr. iii. 18. 3. 'Nam si quam Rubrius iniuriam suo nomine ac non impulsu tuo et tua cupiditate fecisset, de tui comitis iniuria questum ad te potius quam te oppugnatum venirent,' C. Verr. i. 31. 'Esset Antonio certe statim serviendum, si Caesar ab eoregni insigne accipere voluisset,' C. Phil. iii. 5. ' Ulla si iuris tibi peierati poena, Barine, nocuisset unquam, dente si nigro fieres vel uno turpior ungui, credere m,' Hor. C. ii. 8. i. 4. ' Consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium maiores nostri appellassent senatum,' C. Cat. M. 6. ' Mortuis tarn religiosa iura maiores nostri tribuerunt, quod non fecissent profecto, si nihil ad eos pertinere arbi- trarentur,' C. Lael. 4. The following passages also strikingly illustrate the distinction between constructions /3. and y. i. (a.) 'Si vir bonus habeat hanc vim ut, si digitis concrepuerit, possit in locu- pletium testamenta irrepere, hac vi non utatur, ne si exploratum quidem habeat, id omnino neminem unquam suspicaturum. At dares hanc vim M. Crasso, ut digi- torum percussione posset heres scriptus esse qui re vera non esset heres, in foro, mihi crede, saltaret,' C. Off. iii. 19. Here the first sentence (3) suggests a case which (though imaginary and really impossible) Cicero, by a fabulist's license, is entitled to represent as possible. The second falls into Construction y. i., because Crassus was dead at the time, and the condition, therefore, is a bygone possibility. Why then is not the Construction of the double Pluperfect Conj. used? Is it that the floating period of Crassus's public life is contemplated ; or that Cicero, taking Crassus as a mere type of unscrupulous greed, uses a form which includes an imaginary Future as well as an imagined Past ? Compare Hor. C. iv. 8. 20 : ' Neque, si chartae sileant quod bene feceris, mercedem tuleris: quid foret Iliae Mavortisque puer, si taciturnitas obstaret meritis invida Romuli?' (.) ' Cur igitur Camillus doleret, si haec post trecentos et quinguaginta fere annos eventura putaret; et ego doleam, si ad decem millia annorum gentem aliquam uroe nostra potituram putem?' C. T. D. i. 37. Here, as the first hypothesis respecting Camillus belongs to a floating past time, it rightly takes the form y. i, while the second, relating to the present and future of Cicero, takes /3. 213 Conditional Sentences. 469 4. si civis esses non negasset if you had been a citizen he would not have refiised 1) Class Alpha contains those Sentences with Indie. Protasis, in which it may be assumed that both Condition and Conclusion are real, because no suggestion is implied to the contrary. Hence it is called Sumptio Dati, the Condition of Reality. The Apodosis is usually either Indicative or Imperative ; but it may be pure Conjunctive (C x or C 2 ) if it conveys a modest assertion, a wish, an exhortation, or prohibition. The combinations of Tense in Class a. may be as large as the logic of language allows. Examples : si vis, do (dabo) nisi vis, non do (dabo) si voles, dabo (dedero) nisi voles, non dabo (dedero) si volueris, dedero (dabo) nisi volueris, non dedero (dabo) si volebas, dabam nisi volebas, non dabam si voluisti, dedi nisi voluisti, non dedi si dedisti, gaudeo si non dedisti, doleo si voluerat, dederat (dabat) nisi voluerat, non dederat (dabat) si vis (voles, volueris, voluisti), da (dato) nisi (si non) vis (voles, c.), ne dato (ne dederis) mirer si non vincimus (vincemus, vicerimus) si potes (poteris), velim adsis ne vivam nisi te amo si fas est (erit, fuerit), eamus. 2) In Classes /3. and y. the Condition and Conclusion are more or less unreal ; but of this unreality there are two kinds : one which implies a possibility (more or less probable) of immediate or future realisation ; the other, from which such possibility is excluded. 3) In Class |8. Protasis and Apodosis may be Cj or C 2 , and the variation can make no difference in the English rendering. This Class is called Sumptio Dandi, the condition of Possibility. 4) In Class y. the Protasis often expresses a Condition which might possibly have occurred, but did not occur, in time past. It is therefore purely imaginary ; hence such a Sentence is called Sumptio Ficti. The Mood of both Verbs is (normally) Con- junctive ; the Tense of each may be Imperfect or Pluperfect, or one may be Imperfect, the other Pluperfect : the relations of time being what these Tenses express, as shewn in the examples. 5) It is, however, proper to observe that in the double Imperfect form of Sumptio Ficti (y. i), the reference to past time is often faint, and the distinction between this form and Sumptio Dandi discernible only in the greater liveliness of the latter : which brings a Condition before the mind, as the Historic Present brings an Action, more vividly and picturesquely. Hence Sumptio Dandi is a favourite construction of the terse and vivacious Horace. 1 1 Such a relation of these two constructions is well shewn in a passage of Cicero (d. Or. i. 48, 49) which treats of the definition of the Orator. He begins by saying, 'Si forte quaereretur quae esset ars imperatoris, constituendum putare m,' &c. then: 'Sin autem quaereremus quis esset is qui ad rempublicam . . . studium 47O Latin Syntax. 214. 6) Thus the Construction of the double Imperfect (y. i.) exhibits a Condition as Present in Time Past ; but such exhibition may take either of two shapes : a) The Condition may belong only to the Past : 'Si mehercule exomni copia conventus Syracusani faceres potestatem aratori non modo reiciendi sed etiam sumendi recuperatores, tamen hoc novum genus iniuriae nemo ferre posset/ if from your whole court at Syracuse you had allowed the farmer not merely to challenge bitt even to choose commissioners, yet could none have borne this novel kind of wrong, C. Verr. iii. 13 (said of any time during the now past government of Verres). b} The Condition may not only exist in Time Past, but con- tinue, and be still valid, in Time Present. 'An possem vivere nisi in litteris viverem/ could I have been living at all, if I lived not in literary studies f C. Fam. ix. 26. Here Cic. refers not only to a portion of his life past, but also to his present circumstances and feelings. 214 II. Conjunctive Protasis with Indie. Apodosis. i) An Indie. Past Tense is used in Apodosis to express an action begun, but hindered by another action which appears in a Conjunctive Protasis with nisi, ni, or si. Such an Apodosis gene- rally stands before its Protasis. 1 1 Examples of Idiom I. ( 214.) (Imperf. in Apodosis.) ' Lab e bar longius nisi me retinuissem,' C. Leg. i- 19- 'Auctoritas tanta plane me movebat, nisi tu opposuisses non minorem tuam,' C. Ac. ii. 20. 'Vincebat auxilio loci paucitas, ni iugo circummissus Veiens in verticem collis evasisset/ L. ii. 50. 'lam fames quam pestilentia tristior erat, ni annonae foret subventum/ L. iv. 52. 'Atrox certamen aderat, ni Fabius consilio neutri parti acerbo rem ex pedisset/ L. iii. i. ' Germanicus ferrum a latere diripuit elatum- que deferebat in pectus, ni proximi pressam dextram vi attinuissent,' Tac. Ann. i. 35. S i in Cic. Verr. v. 49. 'Si per Metellum licitumesset, matres illorum sorores- que veniebant.' (In the two following places an Indie, of being is understood in the Apodosis): ' Mitis legatio, ni praeferocis legates habuisset,' L. v. 36. ' Suavis res, si non causas narraret earum et naturas dominus,' Hor. iS". ii. 8. 92. (Per/. Apod., usually with paene or prope.) 'Pons Sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Codes,' L. ii. 10. 'Prope oneratum est sinis- trum Romanis cornu, ni referentibus iam gradum consul pudore metum excussisset,' L. ii. 65. 'Paene imprudentia admissum facinus miserabile, ni utrimque praemissi equites rem exploravissent,' Sail. B. i. 53. ' Eadem nave paene Aethiopia tenus Aegyptum penetravit nisi exercitus sequi recusasset,' Suet. Caes. 52. Virgil has: 'Nee veni, nisi fata locum sedemque dedissent,'^. xi. 112. (Pluperfect Apodosis.) 'Praeclare viceramus, nisi spoliatum, inermem, fugientem Lepidus recepisset Antonium,' C. Fam. xii. 10. ' Qui ante Latinos ne pro se quidem ipsis attingere arma passi sumus, nunc nisi Latini sua sponte arma sumpsissent, capti et deleti eramus, L. iii. 19. ' Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat, nisi Faunus ictum dextra levasset,' Hor. C. ii. 17. 28. See iii. 6. 3. 'Perierat imperium, quod iam in extreme stabat, si Fabius tan turn ausus esset quantum ira suadebat,' Sen. Jr. i. n. suum contulisset, definirem hoc modo,' &c. ; then, 'Sin autem quaereretur quis- nam iurisconsultus vere nominaretur, eum dicerem,' &c., but next, 'Atqne ... si musicus, si grammaticus, si poeta quaeratur, possim similiter explicare,' &c. Here evidently the transition from Sumptio Ficti to Sumptio Dandi is not caused by any essential distinction in the nature of the hypotheses ; though probably the use of examples to establish the first three led Cicero to choose the Imperf. form as most suitable for the purpose. 214- Conditional Sentences. 471 2) An Indie. Pres. Verb of ability or duty (possum, debeo), also est with longum, immensum, infinitum, or with Gerundive, may stand in Apodosis with Pres. Conjunctive Protasis. 3) The idiom by which Past Indie. Tenses of Verbs of ability, duty, necessity, fitness, &c. (including esse with Gerundive and other com- plements), can be used instead of Conjunctive forms, is noticed in p. 336. Such Verbs (except convenire, licere) retain the same idiom in the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence with Conjunctive Protasis, so far as regards the Imperf. and Perf. Tenses (but the (Verb conditioned a dependent or suppressed Verb.) 'Admonebat me res ut hoc quoque loco interitum eloquentiae deplorarem, ni vtfrerer ne de me ipso ahquid viderer queri ' (admonebat res ut deplorarem = re admonente deplorabam), C. Off. ii. 19. 'Ob- sistere ac retinere conatisuntni strictis gladiis viri fortissimi inertes submovissent* (et retinuissent mentally supplied), L. xxii. 60. 'Volsci comparaverant auxilia quae mitterent Latinis, nimaturatumab dictatore Romano esset '(supply 'et mi sis - sent '), L- ii- 22. (Analogous idiom.) ' Numeros niemini si verba tenerem ' (the mind supplies 'et canerem '), Verg. . ix. 44. Examples of Idiom 2 : 'Hi te homines neque debent adiuvare si possint, neque possunt si velint,'C. Verr. iv. 9. ' Non potest iucunde vivi nisi cum virtute vivatur,' C. Off. ' Immensum est si velim singula referre,' Sen. Ep. 68. 'Dequo iudicio si velim dicere omnia, multi appellandi laedendique sunt,' C. Verr. i. 60. (Similarly) ' S i plus tibi promissa noceant quam illi prosint cui promiseris, non contra officium est (i.e. potest) maius anteponi minori/ C. Off. i. 10. (Of like nature are the Gnomic constructions) : 'Si valeant homines, ars tua, Phoebe, iacet (=iaceat necesse est),' Ov. Tr. iv. 3. i. 'Ista discuntur facile, si et tantum sumas quantum opus sit, et habeas qui docere fideliter possit, etscias etiam ipse discere (discuntur = disci possunt),' C. d. Or. iii. 23. 'Si ridere concessum sit, vituperatur tamen cachinnatio,' C. T. D. iv. 31. {Pres. of Periphr. Fitt. in Apod, with Conj. Protasis.) 'Quid, si hostes ad urbem veniant, facturi estis? quid siplebs mox armata veniat?' L. iii. 52. Examples of Idiom 3 : (Imperfect.} 'Omnibus eum contumeliis onerasti, quern patris loco, si ulla in te pietas esset, colere debebas ' (implies 'et nunc debes),' C. Phil. ii. 38. 'Si mihi pater succenseret, te maiorem fratrem pro minore deprecari oportebat. Ubi pre- sidium esse oportebal, ibi exitium est,' L. xl. 15. 'Poterat utrumque praeclare fieri, si esset fides, si gravitas in hominibus consularibus,' C. Fam. i. 17. 'Si verum respondere velles, haec erant dicenda,' C. Fin. iv. 23. ' Quantus imperator Aemilius fuerit, si ex alia re nulla aestimari posset, vel hoc satis erat,'L. xlv. 37. (With concesrive meaning of si, although.) 'Quod si liceret, tamen non debebas,' C. Fain. vii. 27. 'Si Romae Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad tantum bellum is erat deligendus atque mittendus,' C. /. L. M. 17. Nih.il est necesse, et si quid esset, id necesse tamen non erat confiteri,' C. Or. 69. (Cicero generally prefers the Conjunctive Apodosis when the Protasis is concessive.) 'Quae si maxime meminissem, tamen illius temporis similitudinem iam sequi de- berem,' Att. ix. 13. (Especially when the Apodosis is posse.) 'Si tibi nemo rcspon- surus esset, tamen ipsam causam demonstrare non posses,' in Gael. 13. (Perfect.) 'Ne domi quidem, si sui iuris finibus matronas contineret pudor, quae leges hie rogarentur abrogarenturve curare decuit,' L. xxxiv. 2. 'Si ita esset, hac lege lunium accusatum oportuit, qua accusatur Avitus,' C. /. Clu. 33. 'Ergo si viri illi arma habuissent, capi Roma me consule potuit?'L. iii. 67. 'An una fieri potuerunt, si una tribus non tulissent,' C. /. Plane. 22. ' Hanc urbem vos non hostium ducitis, ubi, si unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit,' L. ii. 38. ^ (With concessive force of si.) 'Debuisti, Vatini, etiam si falso venisses in sus- picionem P. Sestii, tamen mihi ignoscere,' C. in Vat. i. 472 Latin Syntax. 215. Pluperf. in poetry only: * Si di mihi parcere vellent, perdere de- buerant,' Ov.). The Indie, lays stress on the duty, &c., as existing (Imperf.), or having existed (Perf.), independent of the Condition. Otherwise the Apodosis will be Conjunctive. 4) Especially, the Past Indie. Tenses of the Periphr. Fut. Con- jugation are thus used in Apodosis. 215 III. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis. 1) Generally if the Protasis is Indicative and the Apodosis Con- junctive, this implies that if the former is, the latter may be. Such are the instances, already given (p. 469), of modest assertions (dixerim, &c.), wishes (moriar, peream, ne vivam, &c.), exhortations, prohibitions, &c., in Apodosis with Indie. Protasis. 2) Some passages occur, in which, though the Verb in the Pro- tasis is Indie., the true logical Protasis is a Conjunctive Verb im- plied in some adjunct, or to be otherwise mentally supplied. 'SiCaesaris causa in provinciam veniebatis, ad eum pro- fecto exclusi provincia venissetis: venistis ad Pompeium,' if you were coming into the province in Caesar's interest, no doubt when you were shut out of the province you woiild have come to him: you came to Pompey, C. p. Lig. 8. Here veniebatis con- tains a fact : ( You were actually intending to come ; ' but the logical Protasis lies in the phrase, ' Caesaris causa,' ( had it been in Caesar's interest that you were intending to come.' ' Nisi Deiotarus revertisset, in eo conclavi ei cubandum fuisset, quod proxima nocte corruit. At id neque, si fa turn fuerat, effu- gisset, nee, si non fuerat, in eum casum incidisset,' C. Div. ii. 8. Here the true Protases of the Conjunctive Verbs must be men- tally supplied : ' had it been so destined, he would not have escaped, even if he had turned back : had it not been destined, he would not have met with that calamity, even if he had not turned back.' Examples of Idiom 4. (Imperf. Indie, of Periphr. Ftit. in Apod.) ' Conclave illud, ubi mansurus erat, si ire perrexisset, proxima nocte corruit,' C. Div. i. 15. ' Illi ipsi aratores, qui remanse- rant, relicturi agros omnes erant, nisi ad eos Metellus Roma litteras misisset,' C. Verr.\\\. 52. ' Quid ? si ego morerer, mecum exspiraturarespublica, mecum casurum imperium populi Romani erat?' L. xxviii. 28. ' Gravior ultor caedis, si superesset, rex futurus erat,' L. i. 40. (Perf. Indie, of Periphr. Fut. in Apod.) 'Si P. Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri? fuistisne vo; ad patrium ilium animum excitaturi? fuistisne aliquando rempublicam a funesto latrone repetituri?' C. /. Sest. 38. 'Quid futurum fuit, si ilia plebs agitari coepta esset tribuniciis procellis?' L. ii. i. 'Furius et Aemilius currum triumphalem me conscendere prohibent, quos ego, s i tribuni me trium- phare prohiberent, testis citaturus fui rerum a me gestarum,' L. xxxviii. 47. (Protasis virtually contained in a -word or phrase. ) ' Quid tandem i n c e n s i s fnturum fuit?'(=siincensaeessent), C. Cat. iv. 8. ' Haec sine doctrina credituri fuerunt,' C. T. D. i. 2T. 'Quomodo trucidato te ipsi evasuri fuerunt?' L. xl. 14. (Duty, &c. strictly depending on Condition.) ' Quod si bona Quinctii possideres, possidere omnia eo iure deberes ' (i.e. nunc non debes), C. ' Omnino si id consilium placeret, necesse esset' (sed non placet), C. Att. xih. 41. 'Nisi tualiquid dixisses, nihil sane ex me quidem audire potuisses' (sed aliquid dixisti), C. N. D. i. 21. ' Sic aciendum fuissot si Gabinium accusasscm ' (sed non accusavi), C. Qu. F. Hi. 4. 2 1 6-i 8. Conditional Sentences. 473 ' Si domum tuam expugnaturus, capta domo dominum inter- fecturus eram, non temperassem vino in unum diem?' L.xl. 14. Here 'si expugnaturus (interfecturus) eram 'may be regarded as equal to ' si voluissem expugnare (interficere),' because conditional force may exist in a Periphrastic Future. IV. Abnormal Relation of Tenses. 216 Rare forms of Conditional Consecution occur in poetry : ' Carmina ni sint, ex humero Pelopis non nituisset ebur/ Tibull. i. 4. 63 (where a permanent condition affects a past fact). 'Et faceret si non aera repulsa sonent,' Tibull. i. 8. 22 (where faciat would be normal ; but the poet wished to mark past time also as affected by the condition). . V. Protasis without si. 1) The Conjunctive Protasis often suppresses si. ' Rex velit honesta, nemo non eadem volet/ Sen. Tr. Thy. 214. 'Unum cognoris, omnis noris,' Ter. Ph. ii. i. 35, 'Dedisses huic animo par corpus, fecisset quod optabat,' Plin. Epist. i. 12. 'Deciens centena dedisses huic parco, paucis contento, quinque diebus nil erat in loculis,' Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15. 2) A Categorical form takes the place of the Conditional. 'Ira exardescit, libido concitatur: in eandem arcem confugiendum est/ anger flames out ; lust is excited ; to the same stronghold must we fly, C. T. D. ii. 24. 'Negat quis ; nego: ait; aio/Ter. Eun. ii. 2. 21. 3) Sine with Ablative, or an Ablative Absolute, or some phrase, may stand as Protasis instead of si with Verb : ' Sine Deo (Deo sublato) non esset mundus ( = si Deum tol- leres).' ' Neque agricultura, neque frugum fructuumque reli quorum perceptio et conservatio sine hominum opera ulla esse potuis- set. . . nee lapides e terra exciderentur sine hominum labore et manu (i.e. nisi .hominum opera, labor, manus accessissent)/ C. Off. ii. 3. 'Animi magnitudo, remota communitate coniunc- tioneque humana, feritas sit quaedam et immanitas (i.e. si com- munitas remota sit),' C. Off. i. 44. VI. Si in various senses. 2iS i) The Protasis and Apodosis of a Condition may stand in the mutual relation of premise and consequence, or cause and effect. Hence si is found in correlation to it a, sic, turn, turn vero ; ideo, idcirco. 'Hoc ita iustum est, si est voluntarium,' this is just, on con- dition of its being voluntary, C. Off.i.C). 'A patribus acceptos deos ita placet coli si huic legi paruerint ipsi,' C. Leg. ii. 10. ' Haec si ages et senties, turn eris magnus consul et consularis ; Sin aliter, turn in istis amplissimis nominibus honorum non modo dignitas nulla erit, sed erit summa deformitas,' C. Fam. x. 6. 'Non, si Opimium defendisti, idcirco te isti bonum civem putabunt,'" they will not think you a good citizen because you defended Opimiiis, C. d. Or. ii. 40. 474 Latin Syntax. 219-20. 2) Si is used in a peculiar Final Sense ( = to see if ; to try if \ &c.): ' Ad Gonnum castra movet, si oppido potiri posset,' L. xlii. 67. 1 Circumfunduntur hostes si quern aditum reperire possent ( = ut possent, si possent)/ the enemy swarmed round to try if they could find any access, Caes. B. G. vi. 37. ' Te adeunt fere omnes, si quid velis ( = ut discant quid velis, si quid velis),' nearly everybody calls on you to find out if you want anything, C. Fain. iii. 9. 'Expectabam si quid ad me scriberes ( = dum scriberes, si scriberes),' / was waiting to see if you would write to me anything, C. Poets use a similar idiom with Indie.: ' Inspice si possum donata reponere laetus,' examine me and see if I can cheerfully restore your gifts, Hor. Epist. i. 7. 39. See Hor. S. ii. 5. 87. 3) Si is used in a Concessive Sense: si maxime, though ever so much ; si nihil aliud, though nothing else : which are often con- nected with the Demonstratives tamen, certe, &c. 'Vivorum memini : nee tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci, si cupiam,' C. Fin. v. i. 'Caelestiasi maxime cognita essent, nihil tamen ad bene vivendum conferrent,' C. Ac. i. 4. ' Si nihil aliud, gratorum certe nobis animorum gloriam dies haec dederit/ L. xxii. 29. 219 VII. Si in combination with various Pronouns and Par- ticles. 1) Si is enclitically followed by many Particles and Indefinite Pronouns. Such combinations are : Si quis, si qui, si quando, sicubi, &c. (also si quisquam, si aliquis, si unquam, &c.) ; si quidem, si modo, si tamen, si forte, si maxime. si vero, &c. ; sin (for si-ne), but if\ sin autem, sin vero, &c. 2) Si quis = qui or quisquis : si quando = quandocumque, &c. 1 Licet irridere si qui vult, plus apud me tamen vera ratio valebit quam vulgi opinio : neque ego umquam bona perdidisse dicam, si quis pecus aut supellectilem amiserit,' C. Par. i. 'Si quod erat grande vas et maius opus inventum, laeti afferebant; si minus eiusmodi quo dpi am venari potuerant, ilia quidem certe pro le- pusculis, patellae, paterae, turibula,' C. Verr. iv. 21. sac VIII. Idiomatic Uses. 1) A Clause with si (especially accompanied by an indefinite Pronoun or Particle) is used to imply ..that the Apodosis is as certain or remarkable as any similar case which could be cited : *Si quid generis istiusmodi me delectat, pictura delectat/ if anything of that kind charms me, painting does, C. Fam. vii. 23. 1 Si quando urbs nostra floruit, nunc maxime floret,' Plin. Epist. i. 10. 'Si tibi umquam sum visus in republica fortis, certe me in causa Clodiana admiratus esses,' C. Att. i. 16. 2) Hence si quidem sometimes becomes Causal = inasmuch as: ' Antiquissimum e doctis est genus poetarum, siquidem Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam,' of the learned classes, poets are the most ancient, seeing that Homer and Hesiod lived before Rome was founded, C. T. D. i. i. But si quidem may also = si modo. 221-22. Conditional Sentences. 475 3) The Protasis with si is sometimes designed to correct the form of expression in the principal Sentence : ' Romae delectus habetur totaque Italia, si hie delectus appel- landus est, cum ultro se offerunt omnes,' a levy is going on at Rome and throughout Italy, if levy it can be called, when all pre- sent themselves impressed] C. Fam. xi. 8. 4) Si modo, si tamen, si vero are used for a similar purpose ; also si forte. * Ea diligenter a me expressa acumen habent Antiochi, nitorem orationis nostrum, si modo is est aliquis in nobis/ C. Att. xiii. 19. * Nunc incorrectum populi pervenit in ora, in populi quicquam si tamen ore meum est,' Ov. Ir. iii. 14. 23. 5) Often si enforces an entreaty by suggesting a reason. ; Si me diligis, excita ex somno tuas litteras,' if you have any regard for me, wake up your correspondence, C. Fam. xvi. 14. ' Nihil amplius oro, Maia nate, nisi ut propria haec mihi mu- nera faxis, si neque maiorem feci ratione mala rem, nee sum facturus vitio culpave minorem/ Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 4. 6) The phrase si quaeris, si quaeritis (if you want to know), also si quaerimus, apologises for a possibly superfluous statement: S i dis placet (save the mark ! forsooth} is an expression of slightly contemptuous surprise. 'Ea res, si quaeris, ei magno honori fuit,' C. Off. iii. 20. ' Et, si quaeritis, is, qui appellatur dicax, in hoc genere maxime excellit/ C. d. Or. ii. 62. * Etiam Latini, si dis placet, hoc bien- nio dicendi magistri exstiterunt,' C. d. Or. iii. 24. IX. Sive, Seu. Sive, seu (whether, or if, or), are often used in Distributive con- struction, sive . . . sive, seu . . . seu, &c. See CONJUNCTIONS. 'Sinocte sive luce, si servus sive liber faxit, probe factum esto,' L. xxii. 10. 'Veniet tempus mortis et quidem celeriter ; et sive retractabis sive properabis/ C. T. D. i. 31. 'Malaetimpia consuetudo est contra deos disputandi, sive ex animo id fit sive simulate/ C. N. D. ii. 67. ( Inviso semel principe seu bene seu male facta premunt/ Tac. H. i. 7. ' Illo loco libentissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, sive quid aut scribo aut lego/ C. Leg. ii. i. ' Utcumque haec, sive errore humano, seu casu, seu necessitate inciderunt, bonum animum habe/ L. xlv. 8. ' luxta periculoso ficta seu vera promeret, monuit Liviam/ Tac. Ann. i. 6. X. Conditional Negation. i) Nisi (unless, except if} denies a supposition : si non (if not) supposes a denial, the emphasis falling on the negative. ' Nemo fere saltat sobrius nisi forte insanit/ hardly any sober person dances, unless perchance he is mad, C. p. Mur. 6. ' Si non quaeret, nullus dixeris/ if he shall not ask, you will say nothing, Ter. Hec. i. 2. 4. Si minus, sin minus, sin aliter, sin secus, are used for si non. Nisi is strengthened by Adverbs: nisi tamen, nisi forte, nisi vero, &c. 476 Latin Syntax. 222. 2) One Conditional clause with si or si non following another without distinct reference to the former may express an alternative or contradictory hypothesis : ' ludicia non metuis : si propter innocentiam, laudo ; si propter vim, non intellegis ei, qui isto modo iudicia non timeat, quid timendum sit?' C. Phil. ii. 45. ' Si erunt in officio amici, pecunia non derit; si non erunt, tu efficere tua pecunia non poteris,' C. Fam. xiv. i. ' Quid nos, quibus te vita si superstite iucunda, si contra gravis ? r Hor. Epod. i. 5. 3) But sin, sin autem, sin aliter, are used in distinct reference to another Condition which has gone before, actually or virtually: 4 Mercatura si tenuis est, sordida putanda est; sin magna et copiosa, non est admodum vituperanda,' C. Off. i. 42. Luxuria cum omni aetati turpis, turn senectuti foedissima est : sin autem libidinum intemperantia accesserit, duplex malum est/ C. Off. i. 34. 'Velim deinceps meliora sint; sin aliter fuerit, reipublicae vicem dolebo,' C. ad Br. i. 10. 4) Sin minus, si minus, sin secus, if not, may follow without repeating the Verb : ' Senatus consultum si erit factum, scribes ad me; sin minus, rem tamen conficiam/ C. Att. v. 4. ' Huic tu libro maxime velim ex animo, si minus, gratiae causa suffragere,' C. Fam. xii. 17. Sin, sin autem, are sometimes used in the same way : * Si Brutus conservatus erit, vicimus : sin, quod di omen avertant, omnis omnium cursus est ad vos/ C. Fam. xii. 6. ' Iniecta mihi spes quaedam est velle mecum Ser. Sulpicium colloqui. Si vir esse volet, praeclara crvro3ta; sin autem, erimus nos qui solemus,' C. Att. x. 7. 5) Nisi is sometimes used in a sense resembling that of sed (but) : ' Quid erat quod Capitonem primum scire voluerit ? Nescio ; nisi hoc video, Capitonem in his bonis esse socium,' why was it that he wished Capito to be informed first ? I can't say ; but this I observe, that Capito is a partner in this property, C. p. X. Rose. 35. In this sense nisi tamen, nisi quod are used. 6) Nisi is also used to set aside a possible objection : ' Adhuc certe, nisi ego insanio, stulte omnia et incaute,' so. far, certainly, if I am not out of my wits, all has been done foolishly and unwarily, C. Att. vii. 10. 7) Nisi forte, nisi tamen, nisi vero, have an ironical use : 'Eruci criminatio tota, ut arbitror, dissoluta est, nisi forte ex- pectatis ut ilia diluam quae de peculatu obiecit,' C. p. S. Rose. 29. 'Frangetis impetum vivi, cuius vix sustinetis furias insepulti ; nisi vero sustinuistis eos qui cum facibus ad curiam cucurrerunt,' C. p. Mil. 33. ' Equidem nee cur Patro tantopere contendat video, nee cur tu repugnes : nisi tamen multo minus tibi concedi potest quam illi laborare sine causa,' C. Fam. xiii. i. 8) On the other hand, nisi si stands for nisi when the excep- tion is purely conditional ; and often before quis, qua n do, &c. 'Miseros illudi nolunt, nisi si se forte iactant/ they will not have 223. Conditional Sentences. 477 the unfortunate ridiculed, unless, indeed, they vaunt themselves, C. d. Or. ii. 58. ' Ambiguum admirationem magis quam risum movet, nisi si quando incidit in aliud genus ridiculi/ C. d. Or. ii. 62. 9) Nisi, as a mere annexive Conjunction, especially follows Negatives, Interrogatives, &c. : 'Nullum imperium^est tutum, nisi benevolentia munitum,' Nep. DL 5. Hoc sentio, nisi in bonis amicitiam esse non posse/ C. LaeL 5. l Oleam Theophrastus negavit nisi intra xl. millia passuum a mari nasci/ PI. N. H. xv. i. < Quicquamne putas me curare nisi ut ei ne desim,' C. Att. xii. 4. < Erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio/ C. d. Or. ii. 12. 10) Hand (Tursellinus iv.) denies that ni is a contracted form of nisi. He regards it as an ancient negative particle, which re- mains in use only in a conditional sense = si non. 'Neque eius pugnae memoria tradita foret, ni Marsi eo pri- mum proelio cum Romanis b el las sent,' that battle would not have been recorded, had it not been the first in which the Marsi waged war with the Romans, L. ix. 41. ' Ni virtus fidesque vestra spectata mihi foret, nequiquam opportuna res cecidisset,' if I had not well tried your valour and fidelity, this opportunity would have occurred in vain, Sail. Cat. xx. ' Respondere vadato debebat, quod ni fecisset, perdere litem/ he was bound to appear in court to one who had taken bail from him, or, in default of appear- ing, to lose his cause, Hor. Sat. i. 9. 37. a) Ni follows Optatives of Imprecation: 'Dispeream ni sum- mosses omnis/ upon my life you would have supplanted all, Hor. Sat. i. 9. 47. /3) N i is used in the formula of a wager : ' Lutatius, eqties Romanus, sponsionem fecerat, ni vir bonus esset,' Lutatius, a Roman knight, had laid a wager (on condition of losing] if he were not a good man, C. Verr. iii. 59. (This was the usual mode of settling disputes of personal honour at Rome. See Mommsen, Rom. Hist. B. iii. Ch. I2.) 1 XI. The following table shews how to convert Conditional Sen- 22 3 tences into Oratio Obliqua when the Apodosis becomes an Infin. Clause, and the Protasis is subordinate to it. 1 Examples of nisi (ni), si non, &c. ( 222.) I. a. 'Actum de te est, nisi provides,' C. Fain. ix. 18. ' Opprimemini, nisi provi- deritis,' C. ad Brut. i. 2. 'Ni tua custodis, avidus iam haec auferet heres,' Hor. 6". ii. 3- J Si- b. Te nusquam mittam, nisi das firmatam fidem," Plaut. M. Cl. ii. 5. ' Doli non doli sunt, nisi astu colas,' Plaut. Capt. ii. i. c. 'Nisi ego ilium hominem perdo, perii,' Plaut. Pers. iv. 9. 'Moriar, nisi facete,' C. Att. xvi. ii. 'Mirum ni ilia salva est,' Ter. Hant. iii. 5. d. 'Cogere eum coepit, sponsionem facere cum lictore suo, ni furtis quaestum faceret,' C. Verr. v. 54. 'Da pignus, ni easit filia,' Plaut. Epid. v. 2. 'Da hercle pignus, ni omnia memini et scio/ Plaut. Pers. ii. 2. e. ' Ausculta paucis, nisi molestum est, Demea,' Ter. Ad. v. 3. 20. ' Impetrarim libenter, nisi molestum sit,' C. T. D. v. 29. 'Nisi molestum est, percontari hanc paucis hie vult,' Plaut. Pers. iv. 4. 47 8 Latin Syntax. 223. Conditio Obliqua. Conditio Recta. /si pCCCCS, dolere, Si peccas, doles. [ / peaces, ] doliturum Si peccabis, dolebis. \ si j peccaveris, [ (dolendum) Si peccaveris, dolueris. L J (peccaturus sis,) esse. Si pecces, doleas. J S I si peccares, doliturum (dolendum) Si peccares, doleres. .2 esse Si peccavisses, ) , , . Si eccares \ dolulsses ' \ doliturum si { Passes, (dolendum) I peccares, I ,. , II. a. 'Et certe, nisi is Antonium ab urbe avertisset, perissent omnia,' C. adBr. i. 3. 'Haec illius severitas acerba videretur, nisi multis condimentis humanitatis miti- garetur,' C. p. Qu. i. ' Plures cecidissent, ni nox proelio intervenisset,' L. xxiii. 18. b- ' Haec ego non ferrem, nisi me in philosophiae portum contulissem,' C. fain. vii. 30. 'Nam ni vellent di, non fieret, scio,' Plaut. Aul. iv. 10. ' Agesilaus talem se im- peratorem praebuit, ut omnibus apparuerit, nisi ille fuisset, Spartam futuram non fuisse,' Nep. Ag. 6. c. 'Quod ni ita sit, quid veneramur, quid precamur deos?' C. N. D.\. 44. 'Quod ni ita se ha be ret, nee iustitiae ullus essetnec bonitat; locus,' C. Fin. iii. 20. III. i. a. 'Si republica non possis frui, stultum est nolle privata,' C.Fam. iv. 9. 'Vas factus est alter eius sistendi ut, si ille non revertisset, moriendum esset ipsi,'C. Off. iii. 10. 'Egovero meum consilium, si praesertim tu non improbas, vehementer ap- probo,' C. Qu. Fr. iii. 4. b. 'Si mundus universus non est deus, ne stellae quid em,' C. N. D. iii. 9. 'Quod si verisimile non est, ne illud quidem est, haec unde fluxerunt,' C. N. D. iii. 18. 'Si tot exempla virtutis non movent, nihil umquam movebit,' L. xxii. 60. 'Quae potest esse sanctitas, si di humana non curant?' C. N. D. i. 44. 'Si non tangendi copia est, eho, ne videndi quidem erit?' Ten EUH. iv. 2. c. 'Si illud non licet, saltim hoc licebit,' Ten Eun. iv. 2. 'Si non urna, t amen iunget nos littera ; si non ossibus ossa meis, at nomen nomine tangam,' Ov. M. xi. 706. ' Victi sumus igitur, aut, si vinci dignitas non potest, fracti certe et abiecti,' C. Fam. iv. 7. 'Dolorem iustissimum, si non potero f rang ere, occultabo,' C. Phil. xii. 8. 2. a. 'O miserum te, si intellegis, miseriorem, si non intellegis,' C. Phil. ii. 22. ' Bene si amico feceris, ne pigeat fecisse, at potius pudeat, si non feceris,' Plaut. Trin. ii. 2. b. 'Si mihi veniam, quam peto, dederit, utar condicione ; s i n m i n u s, impetrabo . aliquid a me ipso,' C. Att. ix. 15. 'Sume, catelle; negat: si non des, optet,' Hor. S. ii. 3. 258. c. 'Si affers, turn patent, si non est quod des, aedes non patent,' Plaut. As. i. 3. d. 'Valerium iureconsultum valde tibi commendo, sed ita etiam si non est iurecon- sultus,' C. Fam. iii. i. 3. a. 'Acs pro capite dent : si id facere non queunt, domum abeant,' Plaut. Poen. Pr. b. 'Quid, si quis non sit avarus, continuon' sanus?' Hor. 6". ii. 3. 159. 'Quid si non impetraro?' C. Att. ix. 2. 4. a. 'Hoc tamen nuntia, melius me morituram fuisse si non in funere meo nupsis- sem,' L. xxx. 15. 3.'Interminatusest a minimo ad maximum, si quis non hodie munus misfeset sibi, eum eras cruciatu maximo perbitere, Plaut. Ps. iii. i. c. 'Peream male si non optimum erat,' Hor. S. ii. i. 6. 'Peream si non invitant omnia culpam,' Ov. Her. xvii. 183. d. TubetP. Quinctium sponsionem cum S. Naevio facere, si bona sua ex edicto praetoris dies xxx. possessa non essent,' C. /. Qu. 8. e. ' Volo te verbis pauculis, si tibi molestum non est,' Plaut. Ep. iii. 4. 1 Examples of Conditional Sentences in Oratio Obliqua. ( 223.) 'Omnes intellegunt, si salvi esse velint, necessitati esse parendum,' C. Off. ii. zi. ' Equidem putabam virtutem hominibus, si modo tradi ratione possit, insti- 224-25. Concessive Sentences. 479 224 XII. Modo, dum, dummodo. Modo, Modo (only) is used for si modo, if only ; modo ut, provided that; with Negative, modo ne, provided that . . . not. Tan turn is similarly used in poetry. Dum (whilst], dummodo (whilst only], may also signify, pro- vided that, provided that only : and, if Negative, take ne. All these Conjunctions require the Subjunctive. 1 vii. Concessive Sentences. Co ^ s These, like Conditional Sentences, have Protasis and Apodosis. sen- ve They are called Concessive, because the Protasis cojicedes an ob- tences. jection : meaning although, even if, however, granting that, &c. I. Concessive Conjunctions are of several classes. (1) The strengthened forms of si (including si itself used con- cessively), etsi, etiamsi, tamen-etsi (usually written tametsi), even if, although. The natural Demonstrative of these and of all Concessive forms is tarn en, nevertheless, yet \ certe, at, at certe, sed tamen, tamen, saltern, are also used (2) The Universal Relative Adverbs, quamquam (howsoever^ although}, utut (however]. tuendo ac persuadendo tradi,'C. d. Or. i. 58. ' M. Claudius vociferatur : ita demum liberam civitatem fore, ita aequatas leges, si sua quisque iura ordo, suam maiesta- tem teneat/L. iii. 63. 'Veneti legationem ad P. Crassum mittunt ; si veiit suos recipere, obsides sibi remittat,' Caes. B. G. iii. 8. 'Ariovistus respondit : si ipse populo Romano non praescriberet, quemadmodum suo iure uteretur, non oport- ere se a populo Romano in suo iure impediri,' Caes. B. G. i. 36. 'Additum decreto : si quis quid postea, quod ad notam ignominiamque Philippi pertineret, ferrent, id omne populum Atheniensium iussurum; si quis contra ignominiam prove honore eius dixisset fecissetve, qui occidisset eum iure caesurum,' L. xxx. 44. ' (Hasdrubal Carthaginiensibus suadet) si ulla Hispaniae cura esset, successorem sibi cum valido exercitu mitterent,' L. xxiii. 27. ' Batavi praemisere qui Herennio Gallo mandata cohortium exponerent : si nemo obsisteret, innoxium iter fore; sin arma occur rant, ferro viam inventuros,' Tac. H. iv. 20. 'Ad ea Epicydes, si qua ad se mandata haberent, responsum eis ait daturum fuisse: ... si bello lacessant, ipsa re intellecturos, nequaquam idem esse Syracusas ac Leontinos oppugnare,' L. xxiv. 33. 1 Examples of modo, dum, &c., in Conditional Sense. ( 224.) ' Manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria/ C. Cat, M. 7. ' Mediocritas in puniendo placet Peripateticis ; et recte placet, modo ne laudarent iracundiam,' C. Off. i. 25. 'Modo ut haec nobis loca tenere liceat, bellissime mecum esse poteritis,' C. Fani. xiv. 2. 'Oderint, dum metuant,' Suet. Calig. 30. 'Sin autem ieiunitatem et siccitatem et inopiam, dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans, in Attico genere ponit, hoc recte dumtaxat,' C. Br. 82. ' Mea nihil refert, dum potiar modo,' Ter. An. v. i. 31. 'Ego si cui adhuc segnior esse videor, dum ne tibi videar, non laboro,' C. Att. viii. u. 'Aliqui omnia recta et honesta neglegunt, dummodo potentiam consequantur,' C. Off. iii. 21. 'Sit summa in iure dicundo severitas, dummodo ea ne varietur gratia, sed conservetur aequabilis,' C. Qii. Fr. i. i. 7. (Dum non used conditionally by Seneca.) ' Omnia licet foris resonent, dum intus nihil tumultus sit, dum inter se non rixentur cupiditas et timor, dum avaritia luxuriaque non dissideant, nee altera alteram vexet ; nam quid prodest totius regio- nis silentium, si affectus fremunt ? ' Ep. 56. (Tantum used by Virgil conditionally, like modo.) ' Veniam quocumque vocaris, audiat haec tantum vel qui venit, ecce, Palaemon,' B. iii. 49. See do. 53, and B. ii. 28. 480 Latin Syntax. 226. (3) The Verbal forms quamvis, quamlibet, quantumvis (how you will = howsoever, although}, licet (it may be that = although], for which licebit is sometimes used. See Hor. Epod. xv. 19. (4) Ut in Concessive Sense ( = concesso ut, granting that, i.e. although}-, with ne ( = concesso ut ne, granting that . . . nof). Also cum (whereas}. II. Mood in Concessive Clauses. (1) Concessive Sentences which have etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, or si, in the Protasis, are subject to the same rules of Mood as Conditional Sentences, of which they are merely special instances. (2) A Concessive Clause with quamquam, utut, will be Indi- cative ; but if Suboblique or Gnomic, Subjunctive. By writers of the Silver Age, as Tacitus and Suetonius, quam- quam is freely used with Subjunctive. (3) A Concessive Clause with licet and Subjunctive is a special instance of Petitio Obliqua, in which ut is omitted. Quamvis is used with Indicative once by Cicero ; sometimes by Nepos, Livy, and the poets : usually taking Subjunctive. (4) Ut, ne, Concessively used, are also special instances of Petitio Obliqua, in which the Verb is suppressed. Cum Concessive is found with both Moods. On its use with Indie, see M. Lucr. i. 566 226 III. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions. 1) Etsi, quamvis, rarely quamquam, are used adverbially to qualify words without affecting mood. Licet, quamlibet are so used in poetry only. 'Si mihi obtemperatum esset, etsi non optimam, at aliquam rempublicam haberemus/ C. Off. i. 1 1. ' Haec mira quamquam fidem ex eo trahebant quod/ &c., Tac. Ann. vi. 30. ' Res bello gesserat, quamvis reipublicae calamitosas, attamen magnas/ C. Phil. ii. 45. ' Huic, licet ingratae, Tityrus ipse canam,' Prop, iii. 30. 74. 'Adiuvat infirmas quamlibet ira manus,' Ov. 2) Quamvis, quam vultis, quam volet, c., are so used in the sense of quantumvis, ever so (mitc/i). ' Quasi vero mihi difficile sit quamvis multos (ever so many] nominatim proferre,' C. p. Rose. 16. 'Exspectate facinus quam vultis improbum (as dishonest as you please), vincam tamen expectationem omnium,' C. Verr. v. 5. 'Qiiam volet iocetur,' let him jest as he will, C. N. D. ii. 17. 3) Quamvis licet, quantumvis licet with Subjunctive. ' Quamvis licet insectemur Stoicos ; metuo ne soli philo- sophi sint,' we may rail at the Stoics as much as we please : I am afraid they are our only true philosophers, C. T. D. iv. 24. 'Quamvis licet menti delubra et virtuti et fidei consecremus, tamen haec in nobis ipsis sita videmus/ we may dedicate temples as much as we will to Intellect and Virtue and Faith ; yet these are things we perceive to be resident in ourselves, C. N. D. iii. 36. 'Non possis tu, quantumvis licet excellas, omnis tuos ad amplissimos honores perducere,' C. Lael. 20. 22c. Concessive Sentences. 481 4) The Protasis with etsi or quamquam is sometimes added to modify or correct the Apodosis, and may be rendered ' and yet? 1 Do, do poenas temeritatis meae : etsi quae fuit ilia temeritas?' I pay the penalty of my rashness : and yet what was that rashness ? (l.Att.'ix.. 10. ' Puto mea non nihil interesse, quamquam id ipsum quid intersit non sane intellego/ / think I have some interest in the matter ; and yet I don't quite perceive what that interest is, C. Fam. v. 21. 5) The Protasis of a Concessive Sentence may, without a Con- junction, be contained ii) In the Pure Conjunctive : 'Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret/ Hor. Epist. i. 10. 24. b] In the Indicative, especially with quidem : 'Matura res erat, consoles tergiversabantur tamen,' L. ii. 45. 'Maxima est ilia quidem consolatio, sed tamen necessaria,' C. Fam. vi. 2. c] In an Adjectival or Participial Enthesis : ' Homo natura lenissimus stomachari tamen coepit,' C. Ac. ii. 4. ' A nigro album etiam riullo monente oculus distinguit/ Sen. Ep. 94. (On the Concessive use of si see p. 474.) "Examples of Concessive Sentences. ( 225.) (Etsi, etiamsi, tametsi.} ' Viri boni faciunt quod rectum, quod honestum est, etsi. nullum consecuturum emolumentum vident,'C. Fin. ii. 14. 'Cum tuis dare possem litteras, non praetermisi, etsi, quod scriberem, non habebam,' C. Att. xi. 19. ' Sunt qui, quod scntiunt, etsi optimum sit, tamen invidiae metu non audeant perinde I quasi ac si proinde ' sic ita ut si non aliter quam si, and similar forms : sometimes proinde ac, &c., without si; ac si, ut si, without Demonstrative. similitudinem deductus est,' C. /. Rab. Post. 2. ' Miltiades inter suos potestate erat regia, quamvis carebat nomine/ N. Milt. 2. 'Quamvis cecidere trecenti, non omnis Fabios abstulit unadies,' Ov. Ep. Pont. i. 2. (Ut, ne, cum.) 'Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas,' Ov. Ep. Pont. iii. 4. 79. 'Ut rationem Plato nullam afferret, ipsa auctoritate me f rangeret,' C. T. D. i. 21. 'Ne sit sane summum malum dolor: malum certe est,' C. T. D. ii. 5. 'Ne aequaveritis Hannibali Philippum, Pyrrho certe aequabitis,' L. xxi. 7. 'Cum omnibus virtutibus me affectum esse cupiam, tamen nihil est, quod malim, quam me et gratum esse et videri,' C. /. Plane. 33. ' Hoc ipso tempore, cum omnia gumnasja philosophi teneant, tamen eorum auditores discum audire quam philoso- phum malunt,' C. d. Or. ii. 5. Examples of Comparative Sentences. ( 227.) ' Stultissimum est, in luctu capillum sibi evellere, quasi calvitio maeror le vetur,' C. T. D. iii. 26. ' Nisi forte idcirco numen esse non putant, quia non apparet, nee cernitur : proinde quasi (just as if) nostram ipsam mentem videre possimus,' C. p. Mil. 31. 'Quasi sua res aut honor agatur, ita diligenter Naevii cupiditati morem gerunt,' C. /. Quinc. 2. ' Educavit magna industria, quasi si esset ex se nata,' Plaut. Cas. Prol. 45. 'Sic Plancius quaestor est factus quam si esset summo loco natus,' C. /. Plane. 25. 'Sic cogitandum est, tamquam aliquis in pectus intimtim inspicere possit,'Sen. Ep. 83. 'Antonius Plancum sic contemnit, tamquam si illi aqua et igni interdictum sit,' C. Phil. vi. 4. 'Tu, qui id quaeris, similiter facis ac si me roges. cur te dtiobus contuear oculis, quum idem uno assequi possim,' C. N. D. iii. 3. 'Quae perdifficilia sunt, perinde habenda saepe sunt ac si effici non possint/C. Part. 24. 'Meiuvat, velut ipse in parte laboris ac periculi fuerim, ad finem belli Punici pervenisse,' L. xxxi. i. ' Sequani absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem, velut si coram adesset, horrebant,' Caes. B. G. i. 32. 'Scipiades belli fulmen, Carthaginis 1 The true Apodosis is a suppressed Conjunctive Verb. Thus, in the sentence Tam amo te quam si frater esses, the true Apodosis to si e ss es is amarem understood : / love you as (I should love you) if you were my brother. 228-29. ConscaUion of Tenses. 4^3 II. Comparative Idioms. 1) Ceu is used for ceu si (as if} in poetry, and in the prose of the Silver Age. ' Natura dedit cornua convoluta arietum generi, ceu caestus daret,' PI. N. H. xi. 37. Ceu si is used by Lucretius : 'Ceu lapidem si percutiat lapis/ vi. 160. 2) Quasi vero, quasi autem, like nisi vero, are used ironically (as if forsooth} : 'Quasiveroid cupiditate defendendae nobilitatis fecerit,' C. Fam. iii. 7. ' Immo vero quasi tu dicas quasique ego au tern id suspicer,' Plaut. Pseud, ii. 2. 40. 3) Quasi, tamquam, velut, ceu (like ut, sicut, si, nisi, etsi, quamvis, quamquam), may be used as mere annexive or ad- verbial Particles, not affecting Mood. 'Litteras Graecas avide arripui quasi diuturnam sitim explere cup i ens,' C. Cat. M. 8. ' Servis respublica et quasi (as it were] civitas domus est,' PI. Ep. viii. 16. 'Ex vita ita discedo tam- quam (as though} ex hospitio, non tamquam ex domo/ C. Cat. M. 23. Sometimes quasi is used for fere or circiter (almost ', about} : ' Quasi ad duo milia/ about 2,000, L. xxvii. 12. SECTION V. SUPPLEMENT TO COMPOUND CONSTRUCTION. I. Con3ecution of Tenses. Conse- The Law that Primary Tenses are followed by Primary, Historic. jg by Historic (see 98), is illustrated by all the Examples in this Chapter, especially by those of Petitio and Interr. Obliqua, Con- secutive and Final Clauses. On the use of the Tense S 2 (-erim), see 204. i) The two following passages shew that a Present Past admits either Consecution : 'Non ita generati a natura sumus ut ad ludum et iocum facti esse videamur,' C. Off. i. 29. 'Homines sunt hac lege generati, qui tuerentur ilium globum . . . quae terra dicitur,' C. Rep. vi. 1 5. It is, however, the prevailing idiom of Cicero, to construct the Present Past with Historic consecution : 'Adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus pos- set is,' I have brought a man before you, in dealing with whom you may do your duty to foreign nations, Verr. i. 2. ' Quemadmodum officiaducerentur ab honestate satis explicatum arbitror,' I consider that I have explained enough how duties are derived from moral principle, Off. ii. i. horror, ossa dedit terrae, proinde ac famul infimus esset,' Lucr. iii. 1048. ' Eius negotium sic velim cures ut si esset res mea,' C. Fam. ii. 14. ' Egnati absentis rem ut tueare aeque a te peto ac si mea negotia essent,' C. Fam. xiii. 43. 'Qua de re quoniam nihil ad me scribis, perinde habebo ac si scripsisses nihil esse,' C. Att. iii. 13. I I 2 484 Latin Syntax. 229. 2) The Historic Present generally takes Historic Consecution : but sometimes Primary : 'Sulla suos hortatur uti fortem animum gererent/ Sail. lug. 107. ' Pompeius, ne duobus circumcluderetur exercitibus, ex eo loco disc edit/ Caes. B. C. iii. 30. ' Caesar cohortatur milites ne labori succumbant/ Caes. B. G. vii. 86. Transitions occur from the Historic to the Primary Consecution and conversely : 'Monebant etiam ne orientem morem pellendi reges inultum sineret: satis libertatem ipsam habere dulcedinis : nisi quanta vi civitates earn expetant, tanta regna reges defendant, aequari summa infimis : nihil excelsum, nihil quod supra ceteros emineat in civitatibus fore/ they warned him also not to leave unpunished the nascent custom of expelling kings: freedom (they said) was sweet enough in itself: if kings were not to defend their thrones as vigorously as states seek freedom, the highest were levelled with the lowest ; there would be in communities nothing lofty, nothing to rise above the mass, L. ii. 9. ' Novum in republica introductum exemplum queritur, ut tribunicia intercessio armis notaretur atque opprimeretur, quae superioribus annis armis esset resti- tuta : Sullam, nudata omnibus rebus tribunicia potestate, tamen intercessioncm liberam reliquisse : Pompeium, qui amissa resti- tuere videatur, ademisse/ he complains that a novel precedent has been introduced in the commonwealth, of censuring and putting down by arms the intercession of the tribunes, which in the pre- ceding years had been restored by arms : Sulla (he said) though he stripped the tribunician power of everything else, had yet left the veto free : while Pompeius, who seemed to be restoring what was lost, had taken it away, Caes. B. C. i. 7. 3) When two Future actions are brought into connexion there are three possible varieties : a) When both actions commence and continue together, both Verbs will be in the Simple Future : ' Profecto beati erimus, cum corporibus relictis cupiditatum erimus expertes/ C. T. D. The English idiom differs : 'We shall be happy, when we are free from desires.' So when we say, * I will come if (when) I can/ the Latin construction is, Veniam si (cum) potero. b) When one action will commence after the other is com- plete, one Verb will be in the Simple Future, the other in the Future Perf. : ' De Carthagine vereri non ante desi- nam quam illam excisam esse cognovero/ C. Cat. M. 6. Cum ego veniam, tu discesseris. c) When both actions will be complete together, both Verbs are in the Future Perf. : 'Qui Antonium oppresserit, is hoc bellum taeterrimum confecerit, whoever shall have crushed Antonius, will have concluded this most horrid war, C. Fam. x. 19. But if an action going on is the condition of a Future action, the Protasis may be Present : 'Perficietur bellum, si urgemus obsesses/ the war will be finished if we press the besieged, L. v. 4. 229. Consecution of Tenses. 485 4) As the Simple Future has no Subjunctive of its own, the Future Active form used in immediate consecution of Primary Tenses is -urus sim : that used in immediate consecution of Historic Tenses is -urus essem : 'Non debes dubitare quin aliqua republica sis futurus qui esse debes/ you otight not to doubt that, while there is any republic, you will be what you ought to bej C. Fam. vi. i. 'Antea dubitabam venturaene essent legion es ; nunc mihi non est dubium quin venturae non sint,' / was in doubt before whether the legions would come ; now I have no doubt they will not, C. Fam. ii. 1 7. But, in secondary subordination (futufity being expressed in the first), S : or (in Historic Consecution) S 3 will represent the Future Simple : S 2 or (in Historic Consecution) S 4 will represent the Future Perfect : Examples : (1) Qui hoc dicet errabit, subordinated, becomes : Non dubito quin, qui hoc dicat, erraturus sit. Credo eum, qui hoc dicat, erraturum csse. Non dubitabam quin, qui hoc diceret, erraturus esset. Credebam eum, qui hoc diceret, erraturum esse. (2) Si ita fecero, me culpabis, becomes : Non dubito quin, si ita fecerim, me culpaturus sis. Non dubitabam quin, si ita fecissem, me culpaturus esses. (3) Id faciemus, cum Lemnum veneris, becomes : Respondent id se facturos, cum Lemnum venerit : Respondebant id S3 facturos, cum Lemnum venisset. 5) If a Conditional Sentence in Sumptio Ficti, with Apodosis S 3 , is subordinated by ut, ne, quin, &c., it may remain : 1 Honestum tale est ut, vel si ignorarent id homines, vel si obmutuissent, sua tamen pulchritudine esset specieque laudabile,' morality is such that, even if men were unacquainted with it or had been silent, it would still deserve praise for its own native loveliness, C. Fin. ii. 15. 'Id ille si repudiasset, dubitatis quin ei vis esset ill at a?' had he rejected it, have you any doubt that violence wotild have been offered to him ? C. p. Sest. 29. 6) When S 4 , in the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence, is subor- dinated so as to form a Consecutive Clause or Oblique Interroga- tion, the Perfect Subjunctive of the Conjugation in -urus takes its place : 1 Hannibal, nisi fugae speciem timuisset, Galliam repetivisset,' becomes, ' Adeo inopia coactus est Hannibal, ut, nisi fugae spe- ciem timuisset, Galliam repetiturus fuerit,' Hannibal was so pressed by scarcity, that, if he had not dreaded the semblance oj flight, he would have returned to Gaul, L. xxii. 32. So, ' Die agedum quidnam facturus fueris si eo tempore censor fuisseSf'just tell us what you would have done, had you been censor at that time, L. ix. 33. ' Nee dubium erat quin, si tarn pauci simul obire omnia possent, terga daturi hostes fuerint,' there was no doubt that if so small a number could have done everything at once, the enemy would have taken flight, L. iv. 38. 486 Latin Syntax. 229. 7) ' Might have' is expressed in a Consecutive Clause by potu- erim : ' Captivi tantum timorem fecerunt, ut, si admotus extemplo exercitus foret, capi castra potuerint' (the camp might have been taken), L. xliii. 4. ' Ought or must have' is expressed by the Gerundive Perf. Sub- junctive : 'Adeo aequa postulastis ut ultro vobis defer en da fue- rint/ you have made such fair demands that they ought to have been spontaneously offered you, L. iii. 53. ' In eos versa peditum acies haud dubium fecit quin, nisi firmata extrema agminis fuis- sent, ingens in eo saltu accipienda clades fuerit' (great loss must have been suffered}, L. xxi. 34. These Constructions arise out of the idiom by which potue- runt is used for potuissent, and deferendum fuit for defer- endum fuisset. See p. 336. 8) When an Infinitive (Present or Future), a Participle, Gerund, or Supine, intervenes, consecution is still dependent on the principal Verb: (quid agas, egeris, acturus sis; quid agatur, actum sit, agendum sit. (quid ageres, egisses, acturus esses; quid ageretur, actum esset, agendum esset. 'Cato mirari se aiebat, quod non rideret haruspex, haru- spicem cum vidisset/ C. Div. ii. 24. ' Cupido incessit animos iuvenum sciscitandi ad quern eorum regnum Romanum essec venturum/ L. i. 56. But, if an Infinitive Perfect intervenes, the consecution is Pri- mary or Historic according as the Infinitive is Present Past or Simple Past: ' Ita comparatam esse hominum naturam om- nium, aliena ut melius vide ant etdiiudicent quam sua,' strange that the characters of men are so constituted that they see and decide the affairs of others better than their own, Ter. Haut. iii. i. 98. 'Liberatur Milo non eo consilio profectus esse, ut insidiaretur in via Clodio/ Milo is acquitted of having gone with the design of lying in ambush on the high road for Clodius, C. p. Mil. 18. But to this Infinitive we must apply what was said above, i) : * Satis videor docuisse, hominis natura quanto omnes anteiret animantis,' I think I have sufficiently shewn how much the nature of man surpasses all animals, C. N. D. ii. 61. The same Rule applies to the Periphrastic Perfect Infin. : ' Quis est qui hoc non sentiat, quidvis prius futurum fuisse quam ut hi fratres diversas sententias fortunasque sequerentur?' who can help feeling that anything would sooner have happened, than that these brothers should follow diverging sentiments and fortunes? C. 9) As the Infinitive has no Conditional force of its own, it acquires this by means of the Future Participle. 1 1 knew that he would come if he could/ Sciebam eum ven- turum esse, si posset ; ' I know that he would have come if he could,' Scio eum venturum fuisse si potuisset. 230. Narratio Obliqua. 487 230 Narra- tio II. Narratio Obliqua. When an author relates the speeches or writings of others not, Obliqua. as the speakers or writers delivered them, in the First Person, but in a series of Oblique constructions, dependent on his own state- ment that they so spoke or wrote, such use of Oblique Oration is called Narratio Obliqua. Caesar almost always reports speeches obliquely, Sallust di- rectly; Livy and Tacitus in both ways, often gliding from the indirect into the direct form. Enunciations are interspersed with Petitions and Interrogations ; and in general, when transition takes place from one form of Oratio Obliqua to another, a new Verb is not introduced, the original Verb (by Zeugma) supplying its meaning. i) The Clauses are sometimes carried on in the Infin. Clause: (1) After a Relative : ' Nam illorum urbem ut propugnaculum oppositam esse barbaris, apud quam ( = nam apud earn) iam bis class is regias fecisse naufragium/ Nep. Th. 7- (2) After various Conjunctions (quia, quamquam, cum, nisi forte, &c.) : ' Ideo se moenibus inclusos tenere Cam- panos, quia si qui evasissent aliqua, velut feras bestias per agros vagari, et laniare et trucidare quodcumque obviam detur/ they kept the Campanians shut np within their walls on this account, that, if any of them got out anywhere, they wandered over the country like wild beasts, Examples of Narratio Obliqua. ( 230.) 'Orat Tarquinius Veientis, ne se extorrem egentem ex tanto modo regno cum liberis adolescentibus ante oculos suos perire sine rent: alios peregre in regnum Romam accitos ; se regem, augentem bello Romanum imperium, a proximis scelerata conjuratione pulsum : . . . patriam se regnumque suum repetere, et persequi in- gratos civis velle: ferrent opem, adiuvarent; suas quoque veteris iniurias ultum irent, toties caesas legicnes, agrum ademptum,' Tarquinius entreats the people of Veii not to allow him with his grown-up children to die before their eyes, expelled in desti- tute condition from a royal station lately so eminent l (he says) that others had been invited to Rome from abroad to reign : that fie, when king, and aggrandising the Roman empire in war, had been driven out by a wicked conspiracy of his nearest kin ; that he wished to reclaim his country and kingdom, and to take vengeance on his un- grateful countrymen : (he entreats them) to lend their aid, to assist him : to set about avenging their own ancient wrongs, the frequent slaughter of their legions, the curtail- ment of their territory, L. ii. 6. ' Docebat Caesar, quam veteres quamque iustae causae necessitudinis ipsis cum Aeduis intercederent ; quae senatus consulta, quotiens, quamque honorifica in eos factaessent; ut omni tempore totius Galliae principatum Aedui tenuissent, prius etiam quam nostram amicitiam appetissent ; populi Romani hanc esse consuetudinem, ut socios atque amicos non modo sui nihil deperdere, sed gratia, digni- tate, honore auctiores velit esse: quod vero ad amicitiam populi Romani attulissent, id iis eripi quis pati posset?' Caesar shewed, what ancient and just grounds of friendship existed between themselves (the Romans) and the Aedui; what decrees of the senate had been made in their favour, how cftcn, and in what honourable terms ; how the Aedui from time immemorial had held the first rank in Gaul, even before they Jiad courted our friendship : (adding) that the custotn of the Roman people was to resolve that its allies and friends should not only lose nothing of their own, but even, be in- creased in influence, dignity, and honour: but (as to) what they had possessed at the time of contracting friendship with the Roman feople, who could endure that this should be wrested from them ? Caes. 13. G. i. 43. 488 Latin Syntax. 230. and tore and slaughtered whatever came in their way, L. xxvi. 27. See ii. 13, xxxiii. 45. 2) Rhetorical questions belong to the primary clauses of Oratio Obliqua, and take the Infinitive : * Plebs fremit: Quid se vivere, quid in parte civium censeri, si, quod duorum hominum virtute partum sit, id obtinere universi non possint?' the plebeians murmured: \Vhywere they living, why reckoned one portion of the citizens, if, what the valour of two per- sons had won, their entire body were unable to maintain ? L. vii. 1 8. But Caesar generally throws such questions into the Con- junctive. 3) Questions, to which an answer is expected, are regularly put in the Conjunctive : ' Docet Caesar, latum ab decem tribunis, ut sui ratio absentis haberetur, ipso consule Pompeio; qui si improbasset, cur ferri passus esset? sin probasset, cur se uti populi beneficio prohi- b u i s s e t ? ' Caesar informed them, tJiat the ten tribunes had brought in a bill, allowing him to rank as a candidate, though absent, in the very consulship of Pompeiw; if Pompeius disapproved, why had he allowed the bill to be brought in ? if he approved, why had he prevented him from taking advantage of the people's boon ? Caes. B. C. i. 32. 4) a. A Potential Sentence may become Oblique by means of the Verb possum ; an Optative Sentence by means of volo. Examples of the Conversion of Oratio Recta into Oratio Obliqua. A. ENUNTIATIO. i. Recta. 2. Obliqua post Praesens. 3. Obl'qua post Praeteritum. Ait Dixit i. Eo. 2. Ibo. 3. Ivi. se ire : iturum esse : isse. se ire : iturum esse: isse. 4. Eo quia (cum, quo, si) se (quia, &c.)ille iubeat, ire. se(quia, &c.)illeiuberet, ire. iubes. 5. Ibo cum (quo, si) ius- se (cum. &c.) ille iusserit, se (cum, &c.) ille iussisset, seris. iturum. iturum. 6. Ivi quo (cum, quia) ius- se (quo, &c.) ille iusserit, se (quo, &c.) ille iussisset, sisti. isse. isse. 7. Faciam quod voles. 8. Feci quod voluisti. se, quod ille velit, facturum. se, quod ille voluerit, fecisse. se, quod illevellet, facturtim. se,quod ille voluisset,fecisse. 9. Gratum est mihi quod gratum esse sibi quod ille gratum esse sibi quod ille quievisti. quieverit. quievisset. 10. Dummoraris, urbscapta urbem, dum ille moratur, urbem, dum ille moratur, est. ii. Non recuso quominus esse captam. se, quominus (quin) ille eat, captam fuisse. se, quominus (quin) ille iret, (quin) eas. non recusare. non recusare. 12. Edo ut vivam. se, ut vivat, edere. se, ut viveret, edere. 13. Expedit civitati ut re- expedire civitati ut ipse expedire civitati ut ipse deam. redeat. rediret. 14. Quaeras quid agam. quaerere ilium posse quid quaerere ilium posse quid ipse agat. ipse ageret. _ 15. Moriar ni gaudeo. velle se mori ni gaudeat. velle se mori ni gauderet. 16. Si quid mihi, Caesar, a si quid ipsi a Caesare opus si quid ipsi a Caesare opus te opus esset. ipse ad sit, scse ad eum venturum esset, sese ad eum ventu- te venirem(venisem): esse : si quid ille se velit, rum fuisse : si quid ille se si quid tu me vis, ad ilium ad se venire oportere. vellet, ilium ad se venire me veni. oportere. Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. 489 b. An Imperative Sentence may become Petitio Obliqua ; or it may be expressed by debeo, oportet, &c. ; or Gerun- dive Construction. III. The Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. i. Se (Personal), suus (Possessive), are Reflexive Pronouns of the Third Person ; implying reference to a Subject in that Person ; which, in general, is the Subject of the Sentence. To supply their defect, and for distinction or emphasis, ipse is used. Se, suus, are therefore Pronouns of Subjective Reference al- ways ; ipse, so far as it is used for them, or with them. The Demonstratives is, ille, iste, 'hie, &c., are Pronouns of Objective Reference. S^e 65. The use of these Pronouns in Clauses is a difficult subject, respecting which certain general directions may be given. A} First : Pronominal reference must be interpreted according to the logic of the passage. This logical interpretation (the Reason of the thing) must be applied especially when in the same Clause, or in suc- ceeding Clauses, Subjective reference is made by the Reflexive Pronouns to different Subjects. Thus Caes. B. G. iv. 8, Veneti legationem ad P. Crassum mittunt : si velit suos recipere, obsides sibi remittat. Here l the Reason of the thing' shews that suos must be Examples of the Conversion of Oratio Recta into Oratio Obliqua. cont. 231 B. PETITIO. i. Recta. 2. Obliqua post Praesens. 3. Obliqua post Praeteritum. i. Abi quo vis. 2. I quo condixi. 3. Utere vita dum potes. 4. Ite, create consules ex plebe ; trans ferte aus- picia quo nefas est. Imperat (orat, hortatur) abeat quo velit. eat ille quo ipse condixerit. vita, dum possit, utatur. eant, creent consules ex plebe ; transferant auspi- cia quo nefas sit. Imperabat (orabat, hortabatur) abiret quo vellet. iret ille quo ipse condixisset. vita, dum posset, uteretur. ! irent, crearent consules ex ' plebe : transferrent auspi- c:a quo nefas esset. C, INTERROGATE. i. Recta. 2. Obliqua post Praesens. 3. Obliqua post Praeteritum. Quaerit Quaerebat i. Quid tibi vis ? quid sibi velit ille? (velle quid sibi vellet ille? velle ilium ?) ilium ? 2. Num bellum proderit ? num bellum profuturum sit num bellum profuturum (esse)? esset (esse) ? 3. Cur facitis quod vetitum cur, quod vetitum sit, faci- cur, quod vetitum esset, est?^ ant? facerent ? 4. Cur fecistis quod vetitum cur, quod vetitum sit, fece- cur, quod vetitum esset, est ? rint? fecissent ? 5. Quid deinde restat, si quid deinde restet, si neque quid deinde restaret, si ne- neque ex equis pepuli- ex equis pepulerint hos- ! que ex equis pepulissent mus hostem ; neque tern, neque pedites quic- hostem, neque pedites pedites quicquam mo- quam momenti faciant? | quicquam moraenti face- menti facimus? Quam quam tertiam expectent rent? quam tertiam ex- tertiam expectamus pugnam ? pectarent pugnam ? pugnam? 49 Latin Syntax. 232. referred to Crassus (Subject of velit), sibi to Veneti (the Principal Subject). JB) Secondly: in some Clauses there is an intimate connexion between the use of the Reflexive Pronouns and that of the Subjunctive Mood ; both being determined by the same law of Subjective relation. Thus, if the following Clauses be compared : (1) Marcus salvus rediit, quod ei peperceram: (2) Marcus gratias mihi egit quod sibi pepercissem: In (i), the Quod-clause is alleged by the speaker as the cause of an act on the part of Marcus objectively regarded (salvus rediit), for which reason the Demonstrative ei and Indicative peperceram are used : In (2), the Quod-clause is cited as the cause subjectively felt and avowed by Marcus for an act of his own (gratias egit); therefore the Reflexive sibi and the Subjunctive pepercissem are used. C} Thirdly: it often happens (principally in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses, or in Participial Entheses, which stand for them) that a Subjective Pronoun is used when the writer wishes to refer the Clause to the mind of the Sub- ject : though, if the Clause were only part of his own statement, he might have used an Objective Pronoun. t Africanus, qui suo cognomine declarat, tertiam partem orbis terrarum se subegisse, tamen, si sua res ageretur, testi- monium non diceret,' C. p. S. Rose. 36. Here Cicero might have written eius for sua, if he had not wished to continue the Subjective construction, and to place the con- dition in the mind of Africanus (si mea . . . non dicerem). ii. The use of Reflexive Pronouns in the various Clauses will now be noticed. A) i. In a Substantival Clause standing as Object, while the Principal Subject is in the 3rd Person, Pronominal reference to that Subject will be Subjective, unless the Clause has a Subject of its own, requiring Subjective reference to itself. 'ait sibi et suis commodis serviendum esse (ser- vin). putat nos sibi et suis commodis obesse. queritur quod vos sibi et suis commodis obsis- tatis. vult ut se et sua commoda tueamur. Marcus i orabat seetsuos liberos defenderem. timet ne ipse et liberi sui neglegantur. non dubitat quin ipse et sua commoda sper- nantur. multa obstare putat quominus sibi suisque con- sulatur. Lvidet quanta sibi suisque mala impendeant. Such examples are frequent, and free from difficulty. As the Clauses have either no new Subject, or a new Subject 233- Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. 491 not of the Third Person, or a new Subject not admitting Subjective Pronominal reference, there is nothing to dis- turb the reference of the Reflexive Pronouns to the Prin- cipal Subject Marcus. 2. But, when a Substantival Clause receives a new Subject capable of Subjective Pronominal reference, many diffi- culties arise, the solution of which is generally derived from ' the Reason of the thing,' sometimes from the character of the principal Verb, sometimes from that of the dependent Verb. a. The general Rule in such case* is, that the Reflexive Pro- nouns are referred to the Subject, if capable, of the Clause in which they stand ; but if that Subject is not capable, then to the Principal (or Prior) Subject. The capability of the Clausular Subject is tested by seeing if the Clause, converted into Oratio Recta, gives a good sense. 'Caesar reperit Dumnorigem his rebus suam rem fami- liarem auxisse/ B. G. i. 18. Here the converted Clause would be: 'Dumnorix his rebus suam rem familiarem auxit,' which gives a good sense, and so determines the reference of suam to Dumnorigem ; and this 'the Reason, of the thing' demands. Obs. Sometimes the reference to the Clausular Subject is determined by quisque joined to the Reflexive : ' Natura quidquid genuit in suo quodque genere perfectum esse voluit,' C. T. D. v. 13. Sometimes by other Indefinite Pronouns : ' Nee quemquam nisi sua voce, utcumque quis posset, ac sine patrono rationem vitae passus est reddere/ Suet. Claud. 16. b. On the other hand, conversion of the Clause in such ex- amples as the following shews that the Reflexive Pro- nouns cannot reasonably be referred to the Subject of the Clause, but must go back to the Principal (or Prior)Subject. 'Datames audit Pisidas quasdam copias adversus se parare,' Nep. Dat. 6. 'Ariovistus respondit, omnis Galliae civitates contra se castra habuisse,' Caes. B. G. i. 44. 'Caesar ... docebat, ilium (Ariovistum) . . . beneficio ac liberalitate sua ac senatus ea praemia con- secutum,' Caes. B. G. i. 43. See i. 33. ) If the Clause is an Oblique Petition, with a Subject of 233 its own allowing Subjective Pronominal reference, the meaning of the Principal Verb will cause a difference. If that Verb is one of prayer, command, or endeavour, the Subjective reference in the Clause will be to the Principal Subject ; if it is one of exhortation, advice, or persuasion, such reference will be to the Subject of the Clause. -f orat ( r S at > &c -) Aulum) (ut) sibi consulat (i.e. lAulo imperat J Marco), but M j hortatur (admonet) Aulum ) (ut) sibi consulat (i.e. lAulo suadet(persuadet) J Aulo). 49 2 Latin Syntax. 234. This distinction lies in 'the Reason of the thing ;' that is, in the assumption that we pray or command another for our own benefit, that we exhort or advise him for his own. (1) Iste petit a rege et eum pluribus verbis rogat ut id ad se mittat,' C. Verr. iv. 28. ' Arverni Vercingetorigem obsecrant ut suis fortunis consular, neu se ab hostibus diripi patiatur, praesertim cum videat omne ad se bellum translatum/ Caes. B. G. vii. 8. (2) Caesar Nervioshortaturne suiin perpetuum liberandi occasionem dimittant,' Caes. B. G. v. 38. ' Rex supplicem non prodidit, monuitque ut consuleret sibi,' Nep. Th. 8. ' Helvetii persuadent Rauracis . . . uti, eodem usi consilio, oppidis suis vicisque relictis, una cum iis (Helvetiis) proficiscantur,' Caes. B. G. i. 5. (Per suadeo is found with Subjective reference in the Clause to the Principal Subject) : ' Multa pollicendo persuadet Metellus (legatis) uti lugurtham maxime vivum, sin id parum procedat, necatum sibi traderent,' Sail. lug. 46. Obs. A Case dependent on a Passive Verb or on sum is sometimes referred to as a Principal Subject, if it appears such when converted into Active form. 'A Caesare invitor ( = Caesar me invitat) sibi ut sim legatus/ Caesar invites me to be his lieutenant, C. Att. ii. 18. 'lam inde ab initio Faustulo spes fuerat ( = ; Faustulus speraverat) regiam stirpem apud se educari, L. i. 5. But if it cannot be so converted, the reference will be Objective : ' L. Quinctio Cincinnato in agro aranti nuntiatum est eum dictatorem esse factum/ C. Cat. M. 16. In the following places it might seem that the reference ought to be Subjective : 'A Curione mihi nuntiatum est eum ad me venire,' C. Att. x. 4. ' Nuntiatum est nobis a M. Varrone venisse eum Roma pridie vesperi,' C. Ac. i. i. But the Prep, a meansyh?/;?, not by : a Curione (M. Varrone) missi nuntiarunt; the true Subjects, therefore, are the messengers. 334 C) Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses : i. If the Clause is Final, the Pronominal reference to the purposing Subject will usually be Subjective : 'Cuncti ad me saepe venerunt, ut suarum fortunarum omnium causam defensionemque susciperem,' C. in Caec. i. ' (Tiridates) mittebat oratores qui suo Parthorumque nomine expostularent, cur depelleretur,' Tac. Aim. xiii. 57^ Yet we find : 'Pompeius . . . idoneum locum nactus ibi copias collo- cavit, suosque omnis in castris continuit, ignisque fieri prohibuit, quo occultior esset eius adventus/ Caes. B. C. iii. 30. 'Verres Milesios navcm poposcit, quae eum praesidii causa Myndum proseqneretu r/ C. Vcrr. i. 34. 234- Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. 493 2. In Ut-clauses of a Consecutive nature Pronominal reference to a Principal Subject will usually be Objective, because (result not purpose being implied) there is so far no sub- jectivity in the Clause. ' Ligarius in provincia pacatissima ita se gessit ut ei pacem esse expediret/ C. p. Lig. 2. l Habet hoc virtus ut viros fort is species eius et pulchritudo etiam in hoste posita delectet/ C. in Pis. 32. Yet if in a result a purpose is implied, the Subjective Pro- noun may be used : '(Agesilaus) locum delegit talem ut non multum obesse multitudo hostium suae paucitati posset/ N. Ag. 7. In the following, the Reflexive is necessary for reference to the Subject of its Clause : 'Is enim sic se gerit ut sibi iam decemvir designatus esse videatur,' C. d. L. Agr. ii. 19. ' Caput est Heraclides ille Temnites, homo ineptus et loquax, sed, ut sibi videtur, ita doctus ut,' &c., C. p. Place. 18. In the sentence, ' Turn mittit rex ad istum, Si sibi videatur, ut reddat,' C. Verr. iv. 29, the Reflexive seems strange, when we compare : ' Cum ei scriptam orationem orator Lysias attulisset, quam, si eivideretur, edisceret/ C. d. Or. i. 54. ' Reliquum a suis Tyndaridis peteret, si ei videretur,' C. d. Or. ii. 86. But the direct message of the king, 'si tibi videtur, redde/ is rendered in oblique form. Other special causes may make the reference in such Clauses Subjective : ' Ambiorix ad hunc modum locutus est : Sese, &c. . . . suaque esse eiusmodi imperia ut non minus haberet iuris in se multitudo quam ipse in multi- tudinem/ Caes. B. G. v. 27. The use of se instead of eum is determined by sese preceding and by the anti- thesis se . . . ipse. 3. Suboblique Quod-clauses often require Subjective Pro- nominal reference to the Principal Subject : ' Scipionem Hannibal eo ipso quod adversus se dux potissimum lectus esset, praestantem virum credebat/ L. xxi. 39. 'Divitiacus ait, scire se ilia esse vera, nee quemquam ex eo plus quam se doloris capere, prop- terea quod per se crevisset,' Caes. B. G. i. 20. 4. Pronominal reference in Conditional Clauses often follows the same rule: 'Domino navis qui sit (Themistocles) aperit, multa pollicens, si se conservasset,' Nep. Th. 8. 'Sed ausus est Furfanio dicere, si sibi pecuniam, quan- tam poposcerat, non dedisset, mortuum se in domum eius illaturum,' C./. Mil. 27. 5. The Subjective reference to the Principal Subject is often kept in a Relative Clause, if ' the Reason of the thing ' shews that the Reflexive cannot be referred to the Relative itself: 'Epaminondas ei, qui sibi ex lege praetor suc- cesserat, exercitum non tradtdit,' C. Im>. i. 33. 'Dexio 494 Latin Syntax. 235-36. hie non quae privatim sibi eripuisti, sed unicum abs te filium flagitat/ C. Verr. v. 49. 'Epaminondas . . . eos coegit superare Lacedaemonios, quos ante se imperatorem nemo Boeotorum ausus fuit aspicere,' Nep. Ep. 8. Yet in such places the Objective Pronoun would not have been wrong ; and in the last cited example there seems little justification for se instead of eum. When Caesar writes : ' Ambiorix in Aduatucos, qui erant eius regno finitimi, proficiscitur,' JS. G. v. 38, he uses the Objective Pronoun because the Clause is a statement of his own, not referred to the mind of Ambiorix. Obs. But, if the Relative Clause is Suboblique, it will often happen that Subjective reference is made to the Relative itself or its immediate Antecedent : ' Commemorant . . . errare eos, si quic- quam ab his praesidii sperent, qui suis rebus diffidant,' Caes. . G. v. 41. c 35 iii. When Oratio Obliqua intervenes between the Principal Sub- ject and Pronominal reference to it in a Clause, Latin authors, having evidently much freedom of choice, often prefer the Objec- tive reference, as less liable to confusion. * Quod cum interrogatus esset Socrates, respondit, seseme- ruisse ut amplissimis honoribus et praemiis decoraretur, et ei victus quotidianus in Prytaneo publice praeberetur,' C. d. Or. i. 54. * Tarquinius e suis unum sciscitatum Romam ad patrem misit quidnam se facere vellet, quandoquidem, ut omnia unus Gabiis posset, ei di dedissent,' L. 54. iv. When in the Clauses of a Compound Sentence Subjective reference is made to more than one Subject, ' the Reason of the thing' must determine to what Subjects the Pronouns are referred severally. ' Scythae petebant ab Alexandro utregis sui (i.e. Scytharum) filiam matrimonio sibi (i.e. Alexandro) iungeret ; si dedignaretur affinitatem, principes Macedonum cum primoribus suae gentis (i.e. Scytharum) conubio coire pateretur,' Curt. viii. i. ' Ariovistus re- spondit, Neminem secum (i.e. cum Ariovisto) sine sua (i.e. con- tendentis) pernicie contendisse,' Caes. B. G. i. 36. 'Tarquinius orabat Tarquiniensis ne se (i.e. Tarquinium) . . . ante oculos suos (i.e. Tarquiniensium) perire sinerent/ L. ii. 6. Ipse. v. The Definitive Pronoun ipse, which may qualify Nouns or Pronouns of any Person, assists in two ways the use of the Re- flexive Pronouns in Clauses. (i) By qualifying the Subject of a Clause in which a Reflexive Pronoun occurs, so as to shew the reference of that Pronoun to the Subject of the Clause rather than to the Principal Subject. ' Natura movet infantem ut se ipse diligat,' nature prompts an infant to love itself, C. Fin. ii. n. Without ipse the Pronoun se might have been referred to natura. ' Clearchus ait ... proinde consulant sibi ipsi ; iubeant abire se/ lust. xvi. 4 (sibi is referred by ipsi to the Subject of consulant: se refers to the Principal Subject Clearchus). ' Neque prius vim adhibendam putaverunt (Ephori) quam se ipse (Pausanias) indicasset, 3 Nep. Pans. 4. 237. Participial Construction, 495 'Flaccus milites portis murisque sibimet ipsos tecta milita- riter coegerat aedificare/ L. xxvii. 3. (2) By standing for the Reflexive se, when antithetic to some other word; whether to a Substantive, to suus, or another Pro- noun. In such use ipse refers to the Principal Subject, and the word to which it is antithetic is either the Subject of the Clause, or referred to the Subject of the Clause. 1 Pertimuerunt ne ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in gratiam rediret/ Nep. Ale. 5. { Caesar quaesivit, cur de sua (i.e. militum desperantium) virtute aut de ipsius (i.e. Caesaris) diligentia des- perarent,' Caes. B. G. i. 40. If no such antithesis exists, ipse refers to the next preceding Noun : 'Habemus a Caesar e, sicut ipsius dignitas . . . postulabat, sententiam/ C. Cat. iv. 5. Obs. The cases of ipse, when they appositively strengthen and define se, semet, &c., suus, suusmet, &c., assist Pronominal reference so far only as, by distinguishing Gender and Number, they often make the reference more clear and obvious. * (Rex meminerat hos fratres) nuper praeter consuetudinem . . . admovisse semetipsos lateri suo . . . seque mirantem quod non vice sua tali fungerentur officio ... ad armigeros recessisse . . . lam temeritatem verborum, quae in semetipsum iacularentur, nihil aliud esse quam scelesti animi indicem ac testem/ Curt, vii. 2. Note i. Inter ipsos, in Cicero, is always preceded by a Case (Genitive or rarely Dative) dependent on some Noun which admits the notion of reciprocity: 'Id iam patebit, si hominum inter ipsos societatem coniunctionemqueperspexeris/ C.Leg.i. 10. ' Latissime patens hominibus inter ipsos, omnibus inter omnis, societas haec est/ C. Off. i. 16. In other writers inter ipsos appears without the preceding Case: * Sed gloriae maximum certamen inter ipsos erat/ Sail. Cat. 7. 'Haec dum in India geruntur, Graeci milites, orta inter ipsos seditione, defecerant/ Curt. ix. 51. Note 2. Inter se must be connected either with a Plural Ad- jective or with a Verb, or Participle, implying likeness or unlike- ness, agreement or disagreement t &c., as, * Omnes inter se dissi- miles fuerunt/ C. d. Or. iii. 7. 237 IV. Participial Construction. Parti- A PARTICIPLE is the Attribute of one that acts, or has acted, or will act ; of one that is being acted on, or has been acted on, or will be acted on ; to which must be added, of one that is meet for acting on. As Adjective, it agrees attributively with Nouns and Pronouns : as a Verb-form, it takes the same Case-constructions as its Verb. A) i. The want of a Perf. Participle Act. in Active Verbs is sup- plied in Latin either by the Finite Verb Active, with Relative or Particle, or by an Abl. Absolute Passive : ' Tarquinium regcm qui non ttilerim, Sicinium feram?' having refused to endure Tarquin as king, shall I endure Sici- 496 Latin Syntax. 238. 11 ins? L. ii. 34. 'Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, vix a se manus abstinuit,' Alexander, having slain Clitus, hardly re- frained from suicide, C. T. D. iv. 37. ' Pompeius, captis Hiero- solymis, victor ex illo fano nihil attigit/ Pompeiiis, having taken Jerusalem, in the very moment of victory, meddled with nothing belonging to that temple, C. p. Place. 28. 2. The want of a Pres. Participle Passive is supplied by the Finite Passive Verb with Relative or Particle : ' Pueri, qui (cum, dum) docentur, discunt = Greek Trends tarrvo/uj'oi ^iai'flarovir, children (by) being taught learn. Rarely the Perfect Participle Passive takes a Present Passive sense: 'Sperata victoria' ( = victoria quae speratur), L. xxx. 30. 3. A Fut. Participle Passive is not often used even in Greek. In Latin the Finite Verb with Relative stands for it : ' Grata superveniet quae non sperabitur hora/ Hor. Epist. i. 4. 14. 4. Some Participles are used as mere Adjectives. Such are, neglegens, patiens, sapiens, doctus, horrendus, tremendus, vene- randus, c. Many appear as Substantives : ainans, adulescens, sponsus ; nupta, sponsa ; coeptum, dictum, factum, praeceptum, &c. Neuters such as the last named are sometimes modified by Adverbs: 'Verum est fortis et sapientis viros non tarn praemia sequi solere recte factorum quam ipsa recte fact a,' C. p. Mil. 35. The Nouns, man, men, things, are frequently understood with Participles: 'Grande locuturi nebulas Helicone legunto,' they that would utter a sublime strain must cull mists on Helicon, Pers. v. 7. 'Male parta male dilabuntur,' ill gotten, ill go, C. Phil. ii. 27. 'Beatos puto, quibus deorum munere datum est aut facere scribenda, aut scribere loquenda,' Plin. Rp. vi. 16. E] A Participle may often be considered as an Enthesis or Abbreviated Clause. Such use is of two kinds : (1) Attributive, when the Subject of the Clause to be abbrevi- ated is contained (in any Case, and expressed or under- stood) in the Principal Sentence, and the Participle agrees with that word in Gender, Number, and Case : * Alexander moriens ( = cum moreretur) anulum suum dederat Perdiccae,' Alexander in his dying moments had given his ring to Perdiccas, Nep. Eum. 2. ' ' Spreta ( = si spreta est) in tempore gloria interdum cumulatior redit,' glory spurned at the right moment now and then returns in ampler measure, L. ii.47- ' Animo nobis opus est non abhorrente ( = qui non abhorreat) a quietis consiliis,' we need a temper not averse from peaceful coun- sels, L. xxx. 30. 'Servilius Ahala Sp. Maelium, regnum appetentem ( = quod appeteret) interemit/ Servilius Ahala slew Spurius Maelius,for aiming at royal power, C. Cat. M. 1 6. (2) Absolute, when the Subject of the Clause to be abbreviated is not contained in the principal Sentence, but is placed, together with the Participle, in the Ablative Case. See 161, and Examples, p. 411. 239. Participial Construction. 497 j) It appears therefore that the Ablative Absolute must not generally be used when a Noun-term for the Participle to agree with can be found in the Principal Sentence. For instance, we must not write : Nostra te legente, utere tuo iudicio ; but, ' Nostra legens utere tuo iudicio,' when you read my works, use your own judgment, C. This rule is sometimes, but very rarely, violated, and then only for the sake of some peculiar emphasis. 1 Vercingetorix, convocatis suis clientibus, facile in- cendit (eos),' Caes. J5. G. vii. 4. * lugurtha fratre meo inter fecto regnum eius sceleris sui praedam fecit,' Sail. lug. 14. 2) The want of a Copulative Participle (being) enables the Abl. Abs. to consist of Substantive with Adjective : ' Caesare vivo,' Caesar being alive, or of two Substantives : ' Caesare duce,' Caesar being commander : ' Consule Planco.' 3) The Impersonal Passive construction (erratur, litatur, &c.) enables a Participle alone to be used Absolutely : Errato (a mistake having been made], litato (sacrifice having been duly performed], &c. 4) A Clause may be Absolute with a Participle or Adjective. See 161. 4. C. The Participial Construction, Attributive and Absolute, is 2 39 used to abbreviate (1) Relative Clauses: * Peloponnesus est peninsula, angustis Isthmi faucibus con- tinent! adhaerens,' the Peloponnesus is a peninsula, attached to the continent by the narrow pass of the Isthmus, L. xxxii. 21. ' Sunt divitiae certae, in quacumque sortis humanae levitate permansurae,' sure riches are those that will abide in whatsoever fickleness of human fortune, Sen. Ben. vj. 3. * Pisistratus Homed libros, confuses an tea, disposuit,' Pisistratus arranged the books of Homer, which were heretofore confused, C. d. Or. iii. 4. (Where adhaerens = quae adhaeret ; permansurae = quae permansurae sunt ; confuses = qui confusi erant.) ' Gau- dentem ' (Hor. C i. i. n) = ' hominem qui gaudet.' (2) Adverbial Clauses : i) Consecutive Clauses are represented by Participial construc- tion (chiefly where this is accompanied by a Negative) : < Sapientis est, nihil contra mores, leges, instituta facien- tem, habere rationem rei familiaris, 3 it is a wise man's duty to have regard to his private fortune, so that he do nothing contrary to morals, laws, and customs, C. Off. iii. 15 (where nihil facientem = ita ut nihil faciat, without doing anything]. ' Natura dedit usuram vitae, tamquam pecuniae, nulla praestituta die/ nature has given the loan of life, as it were of money, without fixing any day for repayment, C. T. D. i. 39. l 1 Here observe the versions of the English idiom 'without,' followed by a Verb. K K 498 Latin Syntax. 239. 2) Final Clauses may be abbreviated by the Fut. Participle : 'Catilina ad exercitum proficiscitur, signa illaturus urbi/ Catilina goes to the army, intending to march on the city, Flor. iv. i. ( Alexander Hephaestionem in regionem Bactrianam misit, commeatus in hiemem paraturum/ Alexander sent Hephaestion into the Bactrian country to get provisions for the winter ; Curt. viii. 8. (Where illa- turus = ut inferat ; paraturum = ut pararet.) See 186. 3) Causal Clauses: 'Nihil affirmo dub it an s plerumque et mihi ipse dim dens/ / affirm nothing because I gene- rally doubt and distrust myself, C. Div. ii. 3 (dubitans = quia dubito, diffidens = quia diffido). ' Hephaestio longe omnium amicorum carissimus erat Alexandra, cum ipso pariter educatus/ of all his friends Hephaestion was by far the dearest to Alexander, because he had been brought up with him, Curt. iii. 12 (educatus = quia educatus erat). 'Flaminium Coelius religione neglecta cecidisse apud Trasimenum scribit/ Coelius says, that Flaminius fell at Trasimenus, because he had neglected religion, C. N. D. ii. 3 (i.e. quod religionem neglexisset). 4) Temporal Clauses: * Herculem Germani, ituri in proelia, canunt/ the Germans, when about to march to battle, chaunt Hercules, Tac. G. 3 (i.e. cum ituri sunt). ' Tar- quinius Ardeam oppugnans imperium perdidit/ Tarquin lost his power, while besieging Ardea, Eutr. i. 8 (op- pugnans =dum oppugnat). ' Pleraeque scribuntur ora- tiones habitae iam, non ut habeantur/ most speeches are written after being delivered, not that they may be deli- vered, C. Br. 91 (habitae = postquam habitae sunt). 'love tonante cum populo agi non est fas/ when Jupiter thunders, it is against religion to transact affairs with the people, C. Phil. v. 3 (i.e. cum luppiter tonat). 5) Conditional Clauses: ' Epistulae offendunt, non loco red- d i t a e/ letters annoy, if not delivered in season, C. Fam. xi. 16 (i.e. si non redduntur). 'Nihil, me sciente, Marcus entered the city without being saluted by any one, may be variously rendered : (1) Marcus nullo salutante urbem ingressus est. (2) Marcus a nullo salutatus urbem ingressus est. (3) Marcus insalutatus urbem ingressus est. (4) Marcus sine cuiusquam salutatione urbem ingressus est. (5) Marcus ita urbem ingressus est ut a nullo salutaretur. (6) Marcus urbem est ingressus Heque a quoquam salutatus est. And, with a Negative, Marcus never entered tfie city without being saluted (7) Marcus numquam urbem ingressus est quin (or ut non) salutaretur. This force of the Participle with a Negation may be illustrated by a few more examples: 'Epicurus, non erubescens, voluptates persequitur omnis nominatim,' Epicurus without blushing details all pleasures by name, C. N. D. i. 40. 'Constat Nu- mam non petentem in regnum ultro accitum,' it ts well known that Numa, without being a candidate, was solicited to accept the royal office, L. i. 35. ' In bello civili nihil accidit non praedicente m e,' in the civil war nothing has happened without my foretelling it, C. Fam. vi. 6. ' Quis est qui nullis officii praeceptis tradendis philosophum se audeat dicere?' who will dare to call himself a philosopher without lay- ing down any rides of duty ? C. Off. \. 2. 240. Participial Construction. 499 frustra voles,' you shall wish for nothing in vain, if I know if, Sail. (i.e. dummodo ego sciam). 6) Concessive Clauses: ' Scripta tua iam diu exspectans, non audeo tarn en flagitare/ though I have long been look- ing for yonr 'writings, yet I dare not demand them, C. Ac. i. i. (i.e. etsi exspecto). 'Perditis rebus omnibus, tamen ipsa se virtus sustentare potest/ though all things be lost, yet virtue can support herself, C. Fam. vi. i. (i.e. quamvis perditae sint). Nisi, etsi, quamvis may annex a Participial Clause : 'Etsi aliquo accepto detrimento tamen summa exer- citus salva locum quern petunt capi posse,' though some loss 'would be sustained, yet the spot they aimed at might be occupied without the main army being destroyed, Caes. B. C. i. 67. 7) In Comparative Participial Constructions the Particles are prefixed to the Participial Clause : ' Graecas litteras senex didici, quas quidem avide arripui, quasi diuturnam sitim explere cupiens/ / learnt Greek in old age, and grasped it indeed with much zest, as if I wished to quench a pro- tracted thirst, C. Cat. M. 8. *' Antiochus sccurus de bello Romano erat, tamquam non transituris in Asiam Romanis/ Antiochus was careless about the war with Rome, as imagining that the Romans would not come over to Asia, L. xxxvi. 41. D) Notes on Participial Construction. 1) The Participle Perfect Passive is used to express a past action continuing in its consequences, after such Verbs as habeo, teneo, possideo, &c. : 'Illud exploratum habeto, nihil fieri potuisse sine causa/ consider it clear, that nothing could have been made without a cause, C. Div. ii. 28. * Hoc tibi persuasum habe,' be persuaded of this, C. 'Hoc cognitum comprehensumque habeo/ this is thoroughly known and comprehended by me, C. 2) It is used in older Latin with the Verbs do, red do, euro, by way of Periphrasis: 'Stratas legiones Latinorum dabo/ / will lay prostrate the legions of the Latins, L. viii. 6. ' Hoc tibi e fife c turn red dam/ P II get this done for you, Ter. An. iv. 4. 'Inventum tibi curabo et mecum adductum Pamphilum/ /'// look up Pamphilusfor you and bring him with me, Ter. An. iv. 4. To the same idiom belong the phrases missum face re and fieri: 'Si qui voluptatibus ducuntur, missos faciant honores/ if any are seduced by pleasures, they may bid farewell to honours, C. p. Sest. 68. * Legiones bello con- fecto missas fieri placet/ I recommend that on the close of the war the legions be disbanded, C. PJiil. v. 19. After volo, nolo, cupio, oportet, a Perf. Participle repre- sents Infin. Pass., see p. 449. The constructions l Pro- perato opus est/ hasty action is needed, C. ; 'Liber is c o n s u 1 1 u m v o 1 u m u s/ we would have the children's good K K 2 500 Latin Syntax. 240. regarded, C.; 'Man sum oportuit/ Ter., arise from the Impers. use of Passive Verbs. 3) The Participle Perfect is used attributively to supply the place of a Substantive expressing the action of the Verb : ' Prusiam regem suspectum Romanis et receptus Han- nibal et bellum adversus Eumenem motum faciebat,' both the reception of Hannibal and the commencement of war against Eumenes made King Prnsias an object of suspicion to the Romans, L. xxxix. 51. ' Labeo male administratae provinciae arguebatur,' Labeo was charged with maladministration of the province, Tac. Ann. vi. 29. Hence Livy, Tacitus, and Lucan use the Neuter Participle Perf. Pass, to express the Substantival notion of the Passive Verb, which the Greeks expressed by the Article and Infinitive : 'Diu non perlitatum tenuerat dictatorem ne ante meri- diem signum dare posset,' the long-continued want of a well-omened sacrifice had withheld the dictator from being- able to give the signal before noon, L. vii. 8. So, tenta- tum, L. iv. 49. ' Summisque negatum stare diu,' Lucan, i. 70. ' Notum,' V. Ae. v. 6. ' Expectatum,' V. G. iii. 348. d) The Gerundive Construction is more largely used in the place of Substantives expressing the transitive action of the Verb : ' Flagitiosum est ob rem iudicandam pecuniam accipere,' it is scandalous to take money to give a verdict in court, C. Verr. ii. 32. ' Temperantia constat ex praetermit- tendis voluptatibus corporis,' temperance consists in abstinence from bodily pleasures, C. N. D. iii. 15. 'Pho- cion cum Demade de urbe tradenda Antipatro con- senserat/ Phocion had agreed with Demades as to the sur- render of the city to Antipater, Nep. Phoc. 2. In Livy's Preface we read ' ante conditam condendamve urbem/ which probably means ' before the actual or de- signed foundation of the city/ 'before the city was built or commenced.' See GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION. 5) Participles are sometimes equivalent to Gerundive Instru- mental Construction : ' Aer emu ens hue et illuc ventos efncit,' the air, by flowing hither and thither, causes winds, C. N. D. ii. 39. ' Crescit indulgens sibi dirus hydrops/ the dreadful dropsy grows by self-indulgence, Hor. C. ii. 2. 13. See 161. 2. 6) A Participle and Verb are often best translated by two Verbs : 'Caesar scribit, se cum legionibus profectum ccleriter adfore,' Caesar wrote word that he had set out with his legions and would soon arrive, Caes. B. G. v. 38. ' lure interfectum Clitum Macedones decernunt, sepultura quoque prohibituri, ni rex human iussisset/ the Mace- donians voted that Clitus was justly slain, and would 241. Arrangement of Words. 501 even have denied him burial, had not the king ordered him io be interred, Curt. viii. 2. 7) A Participle Present after such Verbs as audio, video, facio, pingo, &c., expresses the action or state of the Object heard, seen, &c. : ' Audivi eum dicentem, vidi eum ambulantem,' c. Analogous to this is the construction, rds. ions, are obliged in the arrangement of words to follow somewhat definite rules ; but it is worthy of special attention in languages which, by inflecting the Nouns and Verbs, can abandon the syntactical order as often as emphasis or harmony requires. Latin is one of these languages, which are called Transpositive. A. Since an unusual order indicates logical or rhetorical em- phasis, it is necessary for adequate translation that the ordinary arrangement should be clearly understood. We shall consider I. the beginning; II. the end; III. the middle of the Sentence. 1. i. The Subject usually stands either first, or after the word definitive of time, place, or logical connexion : Verres Sicilian! vexavit. At ille in iudicium venit. 2. Everything logically connected with the Subject must be placed in close connexion with it : 502 Latin Syntax. 242. The Aeduij since they were unable to protect themselves and their property, sent ambassadors to Caesar. < Aedui legates ad Caesarem mittunt, cum se suaque defendere non possent,' Caes. Democritits was of course unable to distinguish between black and white, after he had lost his sight. 'Democritus, luminibus amissis, alba scilicet et atra discernere non poterat,' C. Hence, if emphasis is to be thrown on the Subject, it must be placed in a striking position. Now the most striking position is that farthest removed from the ordinary one. Therefore it should be placed at the end of the Sentence : ' Scenicorum mos tantam habet verecundiam, ut in scenam sine subligaculo prodeat nemo/ C. ' Hannibal iam subibat muros, cum in eum erumpunt Ro- mani/ L. II. The end of the Sentence is occupied in general by the Verb, because this usually contains the main predication, and unites together the whole proposition. Such order is frequently observed, throughout long paragraphs, as in L. ix. 40, 41. This arrangement, however, should be abandoned : 1. If it is inharmonious in sound, as happens whenever several Verbs come together in a period: 'Constiterunt, nuntios in castra remissos, qui, quid sibi, quando praeter spem hostis occur- risset, faciendum esset consulerent quieti opperientes,' L. xxxiii. 6. 2. If it is necessary to give peculiar importance to the Verb, which, like other words, acquires emphasis from an unusual posi- tion : 'Offendit te, A. Corneli, vos, Patres conscripti, circumfusa turba lateri meo,' C. 3. Or to emphasise a word, which in the middle of the sentence would not have the requisite stress : * Sicine vestrum militem ac praesidem sinitis vexari ab inimicis?' L. 4. To prevent the separation of closely connected words : 4 E rant ei veteres inimicitiae cum duobus RosciisAmerinis,' C. 5. To secure directness of expression in clauses introduced by enimor autem: ' Sed hoc vitium huic uni in bonum convertebat : habet enim flebile quiddam in quaestionibus/ C. 'Amicum aegrotantem visere volebat : habitat autem ille in parte urbis remotissima,' C. 6. To secure Antithesis by the figure Chiasmus : ' Aedes pesti- lentes sint, habeantur salubres,' C. ' Patriae salutem ante- pone t saluti patris/ C. III. The middle of the sentence is usually occupied by the Adverb and other qualifying words ; and by the Oblique Cases. The Adverb, however, and the Oblique Cases, like other words, acquire emphasis from peculiarity of position : ' His Fabriciis sem- per usus est Oppianicus familiarissime,' C. * Secuti estis alium ducem ; sequemini nunc Cam ilium,' L. 142 B. Notes. i) The Adjective or dependent Genitive usually follows its Sub- stantive : ' Vir bonus. Moderatio animi.' But if it is emphatic 242. Arrangement of Words. 503 or imparts a specific meaning to an Adjective, or other word, it precedes it: Magnus Alexander, or Magnus ille Alexander, luris prudens. 2) Usually Substantives having a Genitive belonging to them all, should not be separated, but all should follow or precede it: 1 Huius autem orationis dirncilius est exitum quam principium invenire/ C. ' Honestum autem illud positum est in animi cura atque cogitatione/ C Similarly several Genitives depending on a single Noun either follow or precede it : ' Dedicatum est Inter cellam lovis et Minervae,' L. ' Haec omnia honoris et am- plitudinis commodo compensantur,' C. Yet closely connected words are frequently separated for the sake of emphasis: 'lustitiam cole et pietatem,' C. ' Ouod et aetati tuae esset aptissimum et auctoritati meae,'C.~ 3) An Adjective qualifying a Substantive with dependent Geni- tive is placed first, the Genitive next: Una litterarum signifi- catio. Constans omnium fama. But an Attribute acquires emphasis by separation from its Noun: In miseriam nascimur sempiternam. ' Unum a Clu- entio profectae pecuniae vestigium ostende,' C. 4) Contrasted words are rendered effective by juxtaposition : 1 Ex bello tarn tristi laeta repente pax cariores Sabinas viris ac parentibus fecit/ L. ' Mortali immortalitatem non arbitror contemnendam/ C. 5) Similarly, different cases of the same word, and words having a common derivation, are placed in juxtaposition : 'Alium alio nequiorem. Sint semper omnia homini hu- mana meditata. ' Ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scrips!,' C. Lael. 6) Quisque should be placed in juxtaposition with suus and the cases of sui: < Sua cuique virtuti laus propria debetur.' ' Gallos Hannibal in civitates quemque suas dimisit,' L. xxi. 7) The directness of Latin expression requires that in Negative Sentences the Negative form should be stamped on the sentence at once: 'Negat Epicurus quemquam, qui honeste non vivat, iucunde posse vivere,' C. 'Nihil est agricultura melius, nihil homine libero dignius/ C. 'Vetat enim dominans ille in nobis Deus iniussu nos hinc suo demigrare,' C. 'Nemini quicquam negavit. Non memini me umquam te vidisse. Hence non is frequently separated by one or more words from mo do, solum, tantum, minus, magis : 'lus bonumque apud Scythas non legibus magis quam natura valebat,' C. 8) Similarly for the sake of emphasis ante and prius are sepa- rated from quam, and the Demonstrative from its Relative : 'Ante revertit quam expectaveram,' C. 'Illud quidem post accidit quam discesseram,' C. 'Hanc esse perfectam philoso- phiam semper indicavi, quae de maximis quaestionibus, &c., C. 9) The Demonstrative Pronouns usually precede their Substan- tives : 504 Latin Syntax. 243. 'Eius disputationis sententias memoriae mandavi : quas hoc libro exposui meo arbitrio,' Cic. Unless it is desirable to bring them into close connexion with the Relative : 'Numquamqui iratus accedet ad poenam mediocritatem ill am tenebit, quae est inter nimium et parum/ C. 10) Prepositions are either placed immediately before their case, or at least are only separated from it by a Genitive belonging to the Case they govern : * Sanguis a corde in totum corpus distribuitur,' C. 'Quid est tarn inhumanum quam eloquentiam ad bonorum perniciem per- vertere,' C. 11) Qualifying words, however, which form an essential part of the word governed by a preposition, may intervene between the preposition and its case : Ob non redditos transfugas. De bene beateque vivendo. 'Ex illo caelesti Epicuri de regula et iudicio volumine/ C. 12) Disyllabic prepositions often follow their case, if it is a pronoun: is quern contra dico ; sometimes also ad, de, per, post, follow their case. This, however, is usually to prevent the separation of the relative from its antecedent : Illud, quo de agitur. AA Apposition to a Proper Name is commonly placed after the name, as conveying a subordinate idea : * Q. Mucius augur multa narrare de C. Laelio, socero suo, solebat,' C. Agis rex ; Cyprus insula ; Hypanis fluvius ; Orpheus poe'ta. If, however, the Appellative is more important, and requires to be emphasised, it will precede the Proper Name : 'Obviam ei venerunt duo consules, C. Terentius Varro et L. Paullus Aemilius,' L. Cr-The Connexion of Sentences. Convex- i) Latin writers not only paid great attention to the logical ion of sequence of Clauses and Sentences, but made this logical con- nexion obvious by placing a particle as the first or second word in the sentence. Hence no sentence stands detached unless it is logically disconnected from what precedes. Sentences connected in thought form links of a chain, which only breaks off because the topic is altogether dismissed. 2) The Relative and its Particles are particularly useful for this connexion of sentences, and for avoiding monotonous repetition. The Relative may be used for the Demonstrative with a Particle, and is therefore found with those Conjunctions which allow of connexion by means of a Particle. See COORDINATION. Quod cum audissem ; quod si fecissem ; quod quamvis non ignorassem ; for Et cum hoc, &c. From this habit of connexion by Relatives, appears to have arisen the use of quod before many Conjunctions, as a merely Sociative Particle. It is most freauent before the conditional Senten- ces. 244- Periodic Style. 505 Particles, si, nisi, and etsi, and is found also, though more rarely, before other Conjunctions : so quod cum, quod ubi, quod utinam ; in all which the Conjunction alone would have been sufficient. Even before the Relative, we find quod thus used : ' Quod qui ab illo abducit exercitum, ef respectum pulcherrimum et praesidium firmissimum adimit reipublicae,' C. See 82. 3) Another peculiarity, which in Latin helps the connexion of Sentences, is the use of neque (nee). It stands for et with the Negation, in whatever form it occurs in the sentence, unless when it belongs exclusively to a single word in antithesis. This con- nexion is in Latin so common, that, for the sake of it, neque is joined to enim and vero, where in English we could not use and, and are, therefore, obliged to explain it by saying that neque = non. D. The Period in Latin. D 2 . 44 , Penods. I. i) A Period is a compound Proposition, consisting of at least two, generally of several Sentences, which are so connected, that grammatical construction is not complete before the last clause is added. A Period (ambitus or drcuitus verborum} is so called because the main proposition surrounds the interpolated clauses. 2) A Period is Simple, when it does not consist of more than two such Sentences, related to each other as Antecedent and Con- sequent (Protasis and Apodosis). It is Complex if it consists of several Sentences so related. 3) Thus the following sentences do not constitute Periods : Ouemadmodum concordia res parvae crescunt, ita discordia vel maximae dilabuntur. Vitis natura caduca est, et claviculis quid- quid est nacta complectitur. But they may readily be made to assume a simple Periodic form : Constat, quemadmodum concordia res parvae crescant, ita dis- cordia vel maximas dilabi. Vitis, quae natura caduca est, quid- quid est nacta, complectitur. The latter sentence, if we add to it, et nisi fulta sit, ad terram fertur, becomes a Complex Period, in which vitis complectitur is the principal sentence, quae natura caduca est, nisi fulta sit, ad terram fertur, quidquid est nacta, are the clauses. It may be further enlarged as it stands in Cicero : * Vitis, quae natura caduca est, et nisi fulta sit, ad terram fertur, eadem, ut se erigat, claviculis, quasi manibus, quidquid est nacta complectitur/ C. Cat. M. 15. 4) If the Subject of two Sentences united by a Conjunction is one and the same, the almost invariable practice in Latin is to form them into a Period : ' Antigonus, cum adversus Seleucum Lysimachumque dimicaret, in proelio occisus est,' Nep. Eum. i Verres, simul ac tetigit pro- vinciam, statim Messanam litteras dedit,' C. Verr. i. So also when the Object is the same for both Propositions : ' Quern ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, telis eminus emissis interfecerunt,' Nep. Ale. So6 Latin Syntax. 245. 5) The Clauses of a Period are modifications of the main pro- position. By being grouped together in due order, they produce the effect of logical completeness, of sonorous and dignified ex- pression, which accorded well with the gravity and majesty of the Roman character. The Periodic style isadmirably fitted for the great oratorical efforts of an accomplished rhetorician like Cicero ; and for history designed, as was Livy's, to celebrate the greatness and triumphs of the Roman people. Hence the style of the golden age of Latinity is essentially Periodic. It is, however, but ill adapted for an age in which a profusion of new ideas and fresh information demands the most rapid and facile expression. The modern style is on this account essentially unperiodic. It will be easily understood that the Period is not suited for all subjects. It is out of place in the description of ordinary and trivial matter, in epistolary composition, in outbursts of passion, irony and denunciation. 845 II i) As the dignity of the Roman character delighted in the sonorous roll and fulness of the Period, so their practical sagacity and critical ear required that it should be well proportioned, rhyth- mical, unmonotonous, and above all, perspicuous and clear. 2) To secure the first of these requisites, a Period should consist of sentences of nearly equal length : ' Et quisquam dubitabit | quin huic tantum bellum transmit- tendum sit | qui ad omnia nostrae memoriae bella capienda | divino quodam consilio natus esse videatur,' C. Stultitia etsi adepta est quod concupivit j numquam se tamen satis consecutam putat,' C. 3) Roundness and regularity of sound is chiefly to be obtained 'by correspondence in the structure of sentences. Words, which are opposed to each other, should, as far as possible, be of the i same kind, so that noun should answer to noun, verb to verb, &c. :'If possible, more than one important word should intervene between a parenthetic Clause and the end of a Sentence : ' Magnitude maleficii facit, ut, nisi manifestum parricidium pro- feratur, credibile non sit/ C. 4) All good prose writing is rhythmical, that is, it flows on in such a manner as to satisfy and delight the ear. It is, however, i especially necessary to attend to the cadence of a Sentence or 'Period, because the necessary pause at the close gives the ear time to criticise. The following is a table of cadences approved by . Cicero and Quintilian : Creticus cum Ditrocheo . . -w. Trochaeus cum Molosso . . TrochaeuscumPaeoneTertio -v Creticus cum Cretico . gloriam comparavit. membra firmarunt. esse videatur. cogitans sentio. Dochmius w __ w _ .tuiScipio. Tribrachys cum Spondeo . ww , __ varietates. Trochaeus vel Iambus , v^ \ pluribus de causis. cum Dispondeo . . f 3_ I \ virum condemnanmt. Bacchius w videri. Palimbacchius novisse. 5) As the rhythm of prose is essentially distinct from that of 246-47- Periodic Style. 507 verse, all verse-endings should be avoided at the close of a sen- tence, particularly the hexameter termination of dactyl and spondee. Such endings, therefore, as quo me vertam nescio; esse videtur; are carefully to be avoided. It should be observed, however, that the historians were less careful on this point than the orators and rhetoricians. Hexameter endings are frequently met with in Livy. III. To prevent monotony in the periodic style, short detached sentences (cola or commata] are introduced. Such frequently occur in periodic style. To secure perspicuity and clearness of expression in constructing them, the following rules should be observed : (1) That no Sentences be admitted into a Period but such as are logically connected together. (2) That of these Sentences the leading thought form the main proposition. (3) That the limitative and qualifying Sentence be placed in logical subordination. Hence in a narrative the accessory details should be arranged in the order of time. (4) That every Period, indeed every Sentence, commence with the word in closest logical connexion with the preceding : 'Bellum propter nos suscepistis: susceptum quartum deci- mum annum pertinaciter geritis,' L. ' Quod si accident, facienda morum institutorumque mutatioest. Commutato autem generc vitae/ c. C. (5) Hence the Relative should be placed as near to the Ante- cedent as possible. To secure this, either the Relative Clause is introduced parenthetically after its Antecedent : 'Acilius autem, qui Graece scripsit historiam, pluris ait fuisse/ C. Or the Antecedent is drawn into contact with the Relative by- being placed at the end of the Principal Sentence : 'Dicebam habere eos actorem Q. Caecilium, qui praesertim quaestor in eadem provincia post me quaestorem fuerat/ C. The same remark applies to hie, hide, unde, ibi, &c. : 1 Hannibal tris exercitus maximos comparavit. Ex his unum in Africam misit (not unum ex his),' L. Hence quamobrem and quare always begin a sentence. IV. As, in the construction of a Simple Sentence, minor addi- 247 tions and circumstances are thrown into the middle, and the Verb closes the whole, so Clauses containing explanatory matter are thrown into the midde of the Period : ' Scipio, ut Hannibalem ex Italia deduceret, exercitum in Africam traiecit. Itaque, cum Romam venisset, statim imperatorem adiit,' L. "5o8 Latin Syntax. 248. The usual arrangement of clauses in a Period is analogous to that of words in a Simple Sentence. (i) The word or clause containing the Subject, with the words or clauses immediately connected with it. (2) The words or clauses explanatory of the time, place, motive, &c. (3) The word or clause expressing the remoter object. (4) The clause express- ing the immediate object. (5) The principal Verb. To this arrangement there are frequent exceptions, particularly in the position of the principal Verb, for, as was before stated, an agglomeration of finite Verbs at the end of a Period was especially distasteful to the Romans. Hence the principal Verb frequently precedes a Substantival, Final, or Consecutive Clause : 1 Cum C. Licinius sacerdos prodisset, clara voce, ut omnis contio audire posset, dixit se scire ilium conceptis verbis peier- asse,' C. 4 Commilitones appellans, orabat ne, quod scelus Ap. Claudii esset, sibi attribuerent,' L. ' Quam rem Tarquinius aliquanto quam videbatur aegrius ferens, confestim Turno necem machinabatur, ut eundem terrorem, quo civium animos domi oppresserat, Latinis iriferret,' L. V. Correlative construction is largely employed in forming Periods. If emphasis is sought, the Relative is placed before the Demonstrative : ' Quid ? ii qui dixerunt totam de dis opinionem fictam esse ab hominibus reipublicae causa, ut, quos ratio non posset, eos ad officium religio duceret, nonne omnem religionem funditus sustule- runt?' C. ' Quod si, quam audax est ad conandum, tarn esset obscurus in agendo, fortasse aliqua in re nos aliquando fefel- lisset/ C. So qualis often precedes talis: quidquid id: and quo, hoc or eo. But this is not the universal practice. 248 VI. Grammatical Subject and Object in Periods. i) The literature of the Romans is distinguished above all others by directness and lucidity of expression. This is mainly due to the practical sagacity which was their distinguishing charac- teristic ; but partly also to the conditions under which their literary works were composed. There was then no eager public, demand- ing daily information and periodical criticism : consequently there was no popular literature. As reporters did not exist, we have no trustworthy remains of spontaneous eloquence. The orations that have come down to us are either masterpieces redacted by the orators themselves, or speeches attributed to eminent men by his- torians. Hence both in matter and form they are the products not of extemporaneous eloquence, but of literary labour. Moreover, in the case of the ancients, the limited character of their scientific and other information, and the comparative want of fecundity and diversity of ideas, made artistic expression in every branch of art more easily attainable. The simplicity of conception and purity and unity of execution, which distinguish the great works of antiquity, are denied to a modern writer by the very pro- fusion of thought and material which surrounds him. 24 8. Periodic Style. 509 2) To secure unity and directness of expression : (1) The Subject remains in the same Case, as far as possible, throughout a Period : When they asked him for his opinion, he replied. Rogatus sententiam respondit. Hannibal allowed him to leave the camp; but he soon returned, because he said that he had forgotten some- thing. * Cum Hannibalis permissu exisset e castris, rediit paulo post, quod se oblitum nescio quid diceret/ C. (2) The introduction of several independent subjects in the same Period is avoided. Hence sentences expressing the time, condition, or means of accomplishing the main action, are frequently thrown into the Ablative Absolute or are introduced in a Subordinate Sentence, not coordi- nated as they frequently are in English : This was observed, and they altered their plan. Id ubi vident, mutant consilium. The plan was universally approved, and the consul was entrusted with the execution of it. Cunctis rem approbantibus, negotium consuli datur. (3) If an Oblique Case of one sentence becomes the Subject of the next, the change of Subject should be clearly indi- cated by a Pronoun : ' Huius fili am virginem auro corrumpit Tatius, ut arma- tos in arcem accipiat. Aquam forte ea turn sacris extra moenia petitum ierat,' L. i. 'Principium defectionis ab Othone factum est. Is cum magna popularium manu transfugit,' Tac. (4) The Subject of discourse, in whatever case it may appear, should receive prominence by being placed at the begin- ning of the" Period. Four cases require illustration : a] When the grammatical Subject of the principal sentence and clauses is the same : ' Dionysius, cum gravior crudeliorque indies civitati esset, iterata coniuratione obsidetur,' Nep. 'Ea animi elatio, quae cernitur in periculis, si iustitia vacat, in vitio est,' C. b] When the Subject of the principal sentence is the Object of the clauses : 'Galli, cum eos non caperent terrae, trecenta milia ad novas sedes quaerendas miserunt,' L. 'Rex Prusias, cum Hannibali apud eum exsulanti de- pugnari placeret, negabat se audere, quod exta prohibe- rent/ C. c] When the Object of the principal sentence and of the clause is the same : 'Praemia virtutis communi petitorum consensu tulit> concessit autem Alcibiadi, quern magno opere dilexit.' Latin Syntax. 249-50. ' Polyphemum Homerus cum immanem ferumque finx- isset, cum ariete colloquentem facit/ C. d) When the Object of the principal sentence is the Subject of the clauses : 'C apt is, cum paenitentiam profiterentur, ut parceretur edixit,' L. 'Midae illi Phrygio, cum puer esset, dormienti formicae in os tritici grana congesserunt,' C. The forms a) and c} are most deserving of imitation, because they possess greater directness and unity of expression. When, how- ever, prominence is to be given to the motive or occasion of an act, it may be necessary to employ the other forms. 249 VII. Historical narrative requires frequent change in statements of time : to express which, historians have recourse to two resources the Participial construction, attributive and absolute, and the Conjunctions, cum, iibi, postquam. By these Livy can unite, without failure of perspicuity, in one Period, what in English must be broken into three or more : { Numitor, inter primum tumultum, host is invasisse urbem atque adortos regiam dictitans, cum pubem Albanam in arcem praesidio armisque obtinendam avocasset, postquam iuvenes per- petrata caede pergere ad se gratulantis vidi't, extemplo advocato consilio, scelera in se fratris, originem nepotum, ut geniti, ut educati, ut cogniti essent, caedem deinceps tyranni, seque eius auctorem ostendit,' L. I. ( His, sicut acta erant, nuntiatis, incensus Tarquinius non dolore solum tantae ad irritum cadentis spei, sed etiam odio iraque, post- quam dolo viam obsaeptam vidit, bellum aperte moliendum ratus, circumire supplex Etruriae urbes,' L. ii. 1 250 Quaii- E. Poetry and Prose alike require the virtues of Purity, Perspi- Style cuity, Simplicity, and Harmony. 1) Purity is violated by Barbarism or Solecism. Barbarism is the use of a word not properly Latin, as, confiscare, 1 to confiscate :' or (what is more to be guarded against as a more easy error) the use of good Latin words in meanings they do not bear : as, intentio, for 'an intention,' instead of cons ilium. Solecism is a construction not allowed by Syntax : Parce me, for parce mihi : Ita graviter aegrotavit ut paene mortuus est, for mortuus sit. 2) Perspicuity of style requires that it be clear and intelligible, free from confusion and ambiguity. 3) Simplicity of style requires it to be free from affectation, and unencumbered by tawdry and tasteless ornament. 4) Harmony of style requires that harsh and unmusical sounds be carefully avoided ; that long and short words be well inter- mixed, and that grave and important words close the sentences. 2 1 Compare with these a much less elegantly constructed Period in Caes. B. C. it. 22 : ' Massilienses . . . constituunt.' 2 The style of Prose Composition admits a fourfold distinction : (i) The Didactic ; (2) the Epistolary ; (3) the Oratorical ; (4) the Narrative or Historic. 251-52. Quantity and Rhythm. 511 PART III. LATIN PROSODY. 251 A. PROSODIA, of which the Latin accentus is a trans- Pn>- lation, denoted in classical Greek the accent of a word. In later times, when Accent became confounded with Quantity, the word was sometimes employed in - its modern sense. In English and other languages Prosody now signifies that part of Grammar which deals with the quantity of syllables and the rules of metre. I. Quantity and Rhythm. Qua*. i. In Latin, as in Greek, Verse depended on the Quantity of syl- RJJy* lables, every syllable being either long or short ; and the various thm. metres resulted from the various relations of the long and short syllables to each other. We therefore first treat of the Quantity of syllables, so far as it can be reduced to rule ; and then discuss the most important metres : the Heroic Hexameter first, as the leading and typical form of verse ; next the Elegiac, and then the Lyric metres, mainly those of Horace and Catullus. Of the first three styles, the model in Latin is Cicero, to whom, we may justly say, non viget quicquam simile aut secundum. (i) His Didactic writings are in the form of Treatise or of Dialogue. Of the Treatise, his work De Officiis is the best model; of his .Dialogues, the Laelius or De Amicitia, and the Cato Maior or De Senectute, are best adapted to the young student, who may proceed afterwards to the Tusculan Disputations and the De Oratore (2) Cicero's Letters are either dignified or familiar. Of the dignified style, the letters to Lentufus and Lucceius, and the first Ad Quintum Fratrem may be taken as models ; of the familiar, the First Book of Letters to Atticus. (3) Speeches are either Forensic or Public.- Forensic speeches are for the Prosecution or for the Defence. Of the former, we have only Cicero's Verrine speeches, of which the Actio Prima may be taken as a sample. The latter are numerous ; and of these the best samples for early study are Pro Archia Poeta, Pro Milone, and Pro Murena. Public speeches may be classed under the three heads of Exposition, Eulogy, or Invective. Hardly any of Cicero's Speeches belong entirely to the first class ; but some of the Catilinarianand later Philippic Speeches approach it. Of Eulogy, Pro Lege Manilla is the best example. Of Invective, the First In Catilinam and the Second Philippic. In History, the greatest Latin authors are Caesar, Livy, and Tacitus. Caesar's style is the clear, full, and unaffected narrative of an accomplished soldier. That of Livy is more ornate and picturesque, bespeaking a student of the Greek historians. The manner of Tacitus, though not without a Thucydidean tinge, is yet peculiar to himself terse, vigorous, subjective, sternly moral, sometimes bitterly sarcastical ; often rising to eloquence, here and there indulging in picturesque description, especially of gloomy and tumultuous scenes. The student may further compare the following Periods in Livy and Cicero : Liv. i. 16, 'Romanapubes . . . obtinuit.' xxii. 3, 'Flaminius qui . . . proposuit.* xxiii. 25, 'Hac nuntiata clade . . . submitterent,* Cic. /. S. Rose, i, 'Credo . . . comparandus.' /. Mil. 4, 'Estenim . . . salutis.' p. Caecin. i, 'Si quantum . . . audaciae/ p. Mur. 2, 'Quod si . . . subeundas." in Cat. iii. 12, 'Sed quoniam . . . providere.' in Cat. \. 13. 'Ut saepe . . . ingravescet.' See also Off. i. i. i ; Fain. iii. 8. i. He may also consult with advantage, 'Hints towards Latin Prose Composition* (Macmillan and Co.), by Alexander W. Potts, Esq., Head Master of the Fettes College, Edinburgh, who has afforded valuable assistance in the present chapter. 512 Latin Prosody. 252. We learn from the ancient grammarians (Aristotle, Cicero, and Ouintilian among them) that Rhythm, or a due admixture of long and short syllables, was of vital moment in prose as well as verse. As our ears and tongues can at the best discriminate imperfectly differences of Quantity, it is most important for us to acquire a mental ear and tongue, to be able to feel the beauty of Plato as well as Homer, of Cicero as well as Virgil. Cicero's technical writings will supply an excellent commentary on what is here meant. 2. Syllables are either Short or Long. A short syllable is tech- nically denoted by this mark (^), a long syllable by this (-). A short syllable was said to contain one Mora or time, a long syllable two Morae or times. Syllables which at one period of the language were long, at another were short. Certain classes of syllables, which might at the same period be either long or short, are called Doubtful. In verse a long syllable is exactly equivalent to two short. 3. Long syllables have two main divisions, syllables long by nature, and syllables whose short vowel is lengthened by Posi- tion, that is to say by coming before a double consonant, or two or more consonants, whether in the same word or in two consecutive words. In the words fato, maestis both syllables are long by nature: in factus subsunt the four syllables, whose vowels are short by nature, are all lengthened by position. 1 4. H does not give position any more than the aspirate in Greek ; and qu has only the power of a single letter. 5. In the older language final s, preceded by a short vowel, was slightly sounded, if at all ; was often therefore not written, and 1 Technically all long syllables and all short syllables are respectively equal, though the nature of the case and the testimony of the ancients prove that there is a great diver- sity in their real length. Fractus and factus have each their first syllable long, but the latter is only lengthened by position, the former is long by nature also ; aqua and neque have each the last syllable short, but the rules of elision, observed by the most careful poets, shew that e was much lighter than a. We are often ignorant of the natu- ral quantity of Latin syllables lengthened by position. The 77 and w, and sometimes the accent, gives us this knowledge in regard to Greek syllables, though we are sometimes at a loss even there in the case of a, t, v. The poet Accius introduced the practice of denoting naturally long vowels by doubling them. This was soon laughed out of fashion by Lucilius. We find some traces of this usage in inscriptions of that time : Maarcus, paastoresandthe like. Later such vowels were often marked by an apex(') ; manytraces of which we find in inscriptions of all ages; a, Marti s, domineis, &c. Quintilian alludes to both these fashions. Attention to general laws of the language will enable us to determine the quantity of many vowels. Thus the vowel of the Supine and cognate parts of the Verb was long by nature (even if the vowel of the Present Indie, was short) when it was followed by a medial : the a of actus (for ag-tus) was long, of factus short by nature ; the e of 1 e c t u s (for leg-tus), Part, was long, of 1 e c t u s, bed, short. Again, every vowel followed by ns or nf was long by nature, as in mens, sapiens, and other cases ; while e was short in mentis, sapientis, &c. This is what Cicero means when he says in his Orator, 48 : ' Inclitus dicimus brevi prima littera, insanus producta, inhumanus brevi, infelix longa : et, ne multis, quibus in verbis eae pri- mae litterae sur.t, quae insapiente atque felice, producte dicitur in.' In many cases we know the length of the vowel by finding the Latin word written in Greek : Sestius (Sjjorios), Roscius ('Pu>/, it is short : as, nymphs ; so, Nom. Atrida (Prop.). (2) In Vocatives of Greek names in as, a is long : Aenea, Palla ; but doubtful in Vocatives from Nom. in es : Atrida (Hor.'), Anchisa 'Verg.), Cecropida (Ov.). final is short : except (1) Abl. Sing, of 5th Decl. : die (hodie, &c.), re (quare) ; so fame, which in this case at least belongs to this Decl. (2) 2nd Pers. Sing. Imper. of 2nd Conj. : as, gaude, mone. But cave (Hor. Ov.) ; though these have also cave ; vid (Phaedr. Pers.). 1 (3) Adverbs from Adjectives of the 2nd Decl. : valde, aegre, docte ; and in ferme, fere, ohe. But bene, male", inferno" (Lucr.), superne (Lucr. Hor.), are short. Temere" follows the general rule, as is proved negatively by 1 The Latins had a strong tendency to shorten the final in familiar iambic words : compare putS, above, and other examples, ending in i and o ; and this is especially true and important in the old scenic prosody. In 'vale vale inquit ' (Verg.), 'mane inquii' (Catull.), 'fave Ilithyia' (Ov.), the e is long and only shortened by a vowel following. 518 Latin Prosody. 254. e being always elided in Hexameter poets ; positively by its frequently occurring with e in Seneca. (4) When it represents // : nymphe, Hebe, Antigone, tempe. &c. Z final is long : except (1) i is doubtful in mihi, tibi, sib!, ibf, ubi ; short in riisl, quasi, necubl, sicubi. Oks. The i of uti ( = ut) is always long ; sicuti dactyl is a fiction ; ibidem always in Hexameter poets ; the second i is doubtful in the scenic poets ; utique, utfnam are short. So ubinam, ubivis ; but ubique. (2) The i of Vocatives which represent I is short : DaphnI, Adonl ; also Thybr*. (3) The i of Datives, representing T, is short in Minoidi, Tethy* (Catull.), lasoni, Palladi (Stat.). But Thetidi, Paridi, &c., have i long ; and these are the more nu- merous. final is long : except l (1) The archaic ends is short: also cito (adv.), modo (adv.), du5, egd, cedo, owing to the tendency to shorten the final of familiar Iambic words. Yet modo as well as modo is in Lucr. ; ego occasionally in Plautus. (2) Homo is doubtful, generally short. (3) Scio and nescio, which have o doubtful in the scenic writers, for metrical reasons have it short in Hexameter poets, &c. V final is long : except in the archaic indu ( = in), and nenu ( = ne oenum = ne unum = non). TT, a purely Greek letter, is short in the few words adopted from Greek : as, moly, Tiphfr. C final lengthens the Vowel : except donee. 1 The final o continued always inflexibly long in Datives and Ablatives of the 2nd Decl., and when it represented a final w (Clio) ; but in Verbs and Nominatives of the 3rd Decl. it became doubtful ; though still in most cases generally long. Seneca, indeed, Juvenal, and others, venture to shorten the Gerund in do (vincendo, vigilandS, &c.), and Juvenal even postremo, though these appear at least analogous to the Dat. and Abl. in O ; so indeed is quomodd (Hor.). As might be inferred from the laws of Latin pronunciation, this shortening first took place in Cretic and Iambic words. Virgil, an anxious metrist, only ventures to shorten Pollib (three times), nuntib and audeb. In all these instances the O is elided ; but, as he never elides the final of a Cretic, preferring hiatus, as, insiil* lonio, he evidently did not regard the o as long. It is probable, however, that the elision was a compromise, and that the vowel was to him neither precisely long nor short, something, in fact, like a final m, which he occasionally elides in Cretic words, audiam et, omnium egenos. Horace, in his Odes as careful a metrist as Virgil, shortens only PolliS, but in his Satires and Epistles he has, besides this word, e6, rogb, veto, dixerb, obsecrb, mentib, quo- mod8. But before them Catullus has volo, dabb, and putb, when, like puta, it is a quasi adverb. Tibullus desin5, Propertius caedit5, and even find5. Ovid always shortens Sulm8, Nas6 ; and we find in him examples of amb, canb, negb, petb, reg6, leb, con- fer5, desino, oderb, Curib, Gallib, Scipib, estb, credb, tollb, rependb, nemb, ergb. In most poets of the Silver Age this b is frequent enough : we find quandb, porrb, serb, ambb, octb, &c. In all ages quandbquidem. 254. Quantity of Final Syllables. 519 3> final shortens the Vowel. & final shortens the Vowel. In nihil it is doubtful ; generally short, but occasionally long in Ov. Lucr. Some only use contracted nil ; Virgil seems only twice to use the disyllabic, each time before a consonant: B. ii. 6.; Ae. ii. 287. But there are some 18 instances in which it might be said that he wrote nihil, not nil. [itt final is treated of under the head of Elision.] 1U final shortens the Vowel. The only Exceptions are Greek words. Those in en are long, as they represent rjv : hymen, &c. Those in on are long, which represent uv ; short, which represent ov : Triton, Troilon. Those in an, in, yn, are long or short, as they are long or short in Greek : Elec- tran, but Iphigenlan ; chelyn, but Tethyn. R final shortens the Vowel : except (1) Celtiber is doubtful. (2) Compounds of par are long, as dispar, impar. (3) When -er represents tip it is long, as aer. But or, even when representing w/o, follows the general rule : Hectfir, rhetdr. As final is long : except The Nom. Sing, and Accus. Plur. of Nouns taken from the Greek, which have -,- : Pallas (-adis), lampadas, &c. Es final is long : except (1) penes. (2) Nouns of Decl. 3 which increase short, as miles milit-, obses obsid-, seges seget-. But pes and compounds, Ceres, abies, aries, paries, remain long. (3) Compounds of es, as potes, ado's. (4) Words representing Greek e s ; as cacoethes (Neut.), Arcadgs (Nom. Plur.). Is final is short : except (1) Dat. and Abl. Plur. in -Is : terns, dominls, vobls. (2) Accus. Plur. of 3rd Decl. in -is ( = ): omnis, gentl. (3) 2nd Pers. Sing. Pres. Subj. in -Is : adsis, veils. (4) Compounds of vis, as mavis, quamvis. (5) Nominatives which increase long: as, Samnls (-Itis); and from Greek 7<; : as, Salamis (-mis). (a) The -is of the Fut. Perf. and Perf. Subj. is doubtful : as, dixeris (Hor.), dederis (Ov.). Compare the quantity of the ist and 2nd Persons Plur. in these tenses. (b} Sanguis has is always in Lucretius ; though usually short in and after the Augustan age, it is long more than once 520 Latin Prosody. 255. in Ovid, Lucan, Silius ; and once in Verg. Tibull. Seneca, Valerius Flaccus, and in the 'Aetna.' Virgil has only pulvls. Os final is long : except (1) Exos (Lucr.), compos, impos. (2) Greek words which end in i>c, as Chios, Phasidds. U final is short : except (1) Nominatives in us with u in Gen.; virtus (-utis), tellus (-uris), (palus in Horace's Ars P. must be corrupt). (2) Gen. Sing, and Nom. and Ace. Plur. of the 4th Decl. gradus. (3) When -us represents Greek -ov^: Panthus, Mantus (Verg.). Ys final is short, occurring only in a few Greek proper names, as Tiphys. Except Tethys (Verg. Ov.), and chrysophrys. T final shortens the Vowel. Except contracted Perfects, disturbat (Lucr.), petit, obit. The final of the uncontracted petiit, iit and its com- pounds, as rediit, is often long ; some say always, and do not admit exilt and the like. 255 IV. Quantity of Words in Composition. Generally words in composition retain the quantity they had in their simple form. 1 Thus : (1) Pro is long in composition. But there are many exceptions : procella, profanus, prdficiscor, profecto, prd*fugus, prdfundus, profiteer, prdfari, prdtervus (also protervus in Plaut.), pronepos, proneptis, prdfundo (but profundo, Catull.) ; propello twice in Lucr., elsewhere propello ; procuro, propino, prdpago (Verb and Subst.) are doubtful ; Proserpina, but PrSserpina once in Horace, once in his imitator Seneca. In Greek words 7^0 remains short, as Propontis. Yet prologus in Plautus and Terence. (2) Ne- is long ; nequaquam ; but short in ngque, ngqueo, nefas, nefandus, nefarius, &c. (3) Rg in composition is short, unless lengthened by position merely, as rescribo. The four Perfects, reccidi, repperi, reppuli, rettuli, have always re, as they are really reduplications, and should have the consonant doubled. As the old quantity was re, red, generally, redduco or reduce always appear in Lucr. Plaut. 1 In many cases, however, compound words have undergone such organic changes as remove them from the domain of prosody ; they belong to the general grammar and history of the language. We might ask again why we have Smitto, not 5bmitto, as in Obmoveo, 5bmurmuro ; h6die, not hoddie (hoc-die) ; Idem (neut.), not iddem, as Idem (is-dem). But as such quantities are invariable in all periods of the language, we must take them for granted, assuming that the tendency of the language was to shorten such syllables in familiar words. This tendency, unchecked in old times, was artificially resisted by more educated ages. 256. Elision. 521 Ter. Compare reddo. ReccYdo is in Ov. Prop. luv. (Virgil does not use the word). Isolated cases occur of rellatus, rellictus. The Hexameter poets always have religio, relicuus, reliquiae from me- trical necessity ; but also religio, relicuus, reliquiae in Plaut. Ter. Phaedrus, c. ; and in later poets always re"liquus. (4) In that peculiar compound Verb, formed with facio and words like cale- rare- (where by the way the word had a double accent, as cale-fe'cit, ra" re-fdcit), the quantity of the e is very variable. Lucretius has many of them with these quantities: rarefieri, rarefacere, expergefactus, confervefacit, putre- factus, vacefit, patefecit once, patefiet once, but oftener patef., liquefit, but liquefactus> calefecit, cinefactus, labefacto. tepefactus, timefactus, conlabefactus, conla- befiunt. It will be seen that the e is always long where a long syllable precedes ; but generally short where a short syllable goes before ; and this tendency to shorten the e is even greater in later poets. We see from the form calfacio how short the e was in this word, the most usual of the class. Ritschl says that in Plautus the e is long where the preceding syllable is long ; short, where it is short. We have thus another instance of the tendency to shorten the finals of iambic words in common use, the e in all these words having been originally long. This tendency has a powerful influence, as will appear, on the old scenic poetry. Videlicet, long in Hexameter poetry, shortens the e in Plautus and Terence. V - Elision. (i) Elision, sometimes termed by Grammarians Synaloepha, sometimes ILcthlipsis, is an important modifying principle of Quantity. Shortly stated it is this. In a Latin verse, when one word ends in a vowel or diphthong or m, and the following word begins with a vowel or h, such final vowel or diphthong or m with its vowel is elided, that is to say, does not count in the verse. 1 1 This general principle, however, is subject to many limitations. Much depends on the age of the writer, much on the style of verse. Plawtus, or Ennius himself in his dramas, will freely employ elisions which the latter, to judge from the fragments, would never admit in his Annals, written in heroic verse. Virgil has many elisions which Ovid never admits : nay, Horace in his later Odes abstains from elisions found in the earlier books, in his Epistles from elisions which often appear in the Satires. We have room here only for a few remarks. There is not evidence to show in what precise way the elision took place ; how far the former vowel was modified or destroyed ; whether some short vowels, as 8 in indeclinable words, bene, que, atque, &c., disappeared alto- gether ; whether a long vowel formed a kind of diphthong with a following long vowel ; whether a long vowel, elided before a short, was first shortened, and then formed a kind of synaeresis with the other ; how it fared with syllables ending in m, and the like. As elision, especially of long vowels, continued to become rarer and rarer with careful writers, in the higher kinds of verse, it is probable from this, as well as from other facts, that the artificial cultivation of the language produced a more distinct sounding of final syllables. In a single verse of Plautus or Terence five or six elisions, even of long or middle sylla- bles in m, are usual enough. The quantity of syllables in m is somewhere between that of a long and a short syllable. That, as some suppose, the former vowel or diphthong was lost altogether in pronun- ciation, and the accent thrown a syllable back, seems impossible : for then many verses of the best poets would cease to be verses at all : such as Virgil's ' Sublimem expulsam eruerent,' ' Insontem infando indicio.' The latter would then be equivalent to ' Insons infans indicio,' which has no rhythm. 522 Latin Prosody. 256. (2) Elision is very rare when a vowel or diphthong immediately precedes the elided syllable, though we find in Virgil, * Alpheae ab origine;' in Horace's Satires, * fio et mersor.' (3) Monosyllables, long or ending in m, should not be elided before a short vowel, except a few, such as me, te, se, tu, si, cum, turn, iam, sum but not sim, qui sing, not plur. Here, and in what precedes and follows, we are not speaking of the old scenic poets. (4) Iambic words ( w ~) are never elided before a short vowel: seldom (never by some poets, such as Ovid in his Elegiacs) even before a long vowel. Lucretius so elides only once, 'equi atque hominis.' Virgil, however, makes use of this license, but yet under limitations. (5) Careful poets, as Virgil, abstain from eliding the ultima of a Cretic (~ w ~), because this can be only before a short syllable. The style of verse, however, makes a difference. Horace does this in his Satires, as ' tantuli eget/ not elsewhere ; Catullus in his Lyrics and Elegiacs, not in his Heroics. So elision of words in m, like omnium, is rare, yet occurs in the best writers : as, ' omnium egenos' (Verg.), 'numinum amores' (Ov.), 'principum amicitias' (Hor.). (6) There are many distinctions in the elision even of short vowels. Thus e or * elide more freely than a or 6 before a short vowel. Many poets will hardly thus elide a except in the first foot of a verse or before another & : Flumlna amem is a much easier elision than Flumlna grant. The of indeclinable words, such as qu8, ve, atque, neque, bene, male, temere, is the easiest of all elisions. A poet like Ovid will only admit the elision even of a short vowel in the last half of the Pentameter with very great limitation, and such elisions as a rule occur only in the first foot of this half; elisions like ' insula habet/ ' resistere equos/ are quite exceptional. In the final syllable of the verse Elision is un- known. (7) An apparent, not a real, exception to what is said must be noted. We often see est at the end or in other parts of a verse, where Elision would be inadmissible : ' dolori est,' ' laborum est/ 'meo est/ 'sua est/ and the like. Here est is enclitic, and we ought to write, or at least pronounce, dolorist, laborumst, meost, suast. Also es sometimes is an enclitic in the same way. Virgil, moved perhaps by his love of the older poets, frequently elides long vowels, but generally in the first half of the verse or in the middle of the fourth foot ; not at the very beginning of the line : 'Si ad vitulam spectes,' in one of his earliest Eclogues, being a singular exception. But between Virgil and Ovid a great change was going on : the latter has hardly one elision of a long vowel for ten of Virgil's : his elisions too of syllables in m are much rarer. The most careful poets, such as Martial, follow Ovid ; though Virgil's authority had weight with some of the later Epic poets. As an illustration of what is said, it is to be noted that Horace, in the Fourth book of his Odes, only once elides a long syllable : 'Quod spiro et placeo ;' and even here the O may have become doubtful, though spon- daic words did not so soon begin to shorten the final. Horace, however, freely elide* here syllables in m. 257. Hiatus. 523 25? A. Exceptions to the law of Elision, forming Hiatus. See Hiatus. 12. xxxi. p. 52. (a) The monosyllabic interjections a, 5, heu, for manifest rea- sons are not elided by the dactylic poets. Ovid once has the Greek Interjection ai ai unelided ; once, too, he writes : ' Et bis Id Arethusa vocavit To Arethusa,' for a peculiar effect, and Catullus leaves 16 unelided in his Epithalamium. Others do not allow a vowel to fol- low 10. () Sometimes a long vowel is left unelided and long in the arsis of a foot. Virgil employs this license more than others, clearly in imitation of the Greeks ; but there is not more than one instance to several hundred verses. ' Stant et iuniperl et castaneae hirsutae' gives two in one verse. Often it occurs in Greek words ; sometimes for poetical effect: ' Ter sunt conatl imponere Peho Ossam;' ' Si pereo,hominum manibus.' Once and once only he leaves a syllable thus long in the thesis of the foot : ' Glaucd et Panopeae et Inoo Melicertae:' a manifest Greek rhythm, as in Homer a vowel is very often thus left long in the thesis of the first foot. Ovid keeps an unelided vowel more rarely than Virgil, and in deference to him. Many poets abstain from it alto- gether : Horace has it very rarely : ' capitl Inhumato.' * Daedaleo ocior' is not genuine ; for the o would then remain long in thesis. This license is very rare in middle syllables in m, and most of the examples admit of easy correction, as in Propertius, ' O me felicem, o nox mihi Candida' (read nox o). (c) In thesis, too, a long vowel is sometimes shortened before a short vowel, but generally in the case of Iambic or Cretic words, which would hardly admit of elision, many of them being Greek or Proper Names. It is sometimes united with the other kind of hiatus in the same line ; see some of the examples given above ; and Virgil's ' Hyla Hyla omne sonaret.' Virgil has 'vale vale inquit,' ' In- sulae Tonio,' c. ; Lucretius, ' RemigT oblitae,' * etesiae esse ;' Ennius has, ' ScipiS invicte ; ' Cicero, ' etesiae in vada,' who in his 'Orator' speaks of it as a license very rare in Latin, common in Greek. Such license is scarcely allowable in polysyllables in m, though Ennius has ' Dum quidem unus homo,' ' militum octo,' and Lucilius * sordidum omne.' Instances given to Lucretius have no foundation. Virgil's two examples of such a hiatus with a short syllable, 'Addam cerea pruna honos erit,' and ' paluit dea Ille ubi,' may perhaps be defended by the pause, but are almost unparalleled ; for the ' male ominatis ' assigned by some to Horace, and the 'male, o miselle passer' given by others to Catullus, are impossible. (*/) Long monosyllables and those in m are sometimes short- ened in thesis before a short vowel : Virgil has ' qui 524 Latin Prosody. 258. amant,' 'te amice/ ' 6 Alexi ;' Horace 'mg amas,''num adest.' Lucretius has eleven instances of this license ; which is frequent in the comic poets, but there only in arsis. (e) A license, resembling that of hiatus, is the lengthening of a short syllable ending in a consonant before a vowel. Virgil has many examples, in imitation of Homer and Ennius, the license often taking place in or before a Greek word : * Pectoribus fahians,' * Altius ingreditur et/ *fultus hyacintho.' Lucretius has only two examples, ' fulget auro/ ' sciret animoque ; ' Catullus three, all coming before the Greek word hymenaeus. (/) Virgil, if his text is right, thus lengthens a short syllable ending in a vowel: 'gravia sectoque elephanto ;' but * anima atque istius inscia culpae,' where there would be hiatus also ; is condemned by all sound critics, as well as ' supervacua aut ' in Juvenal. (g) Virgil, however, has one singular license : sixteen times he lengthens que in arsis, though que is one of the shortest syllables in the language and eminently susceptible of elision ; and he has induced hardly any one else to follow his example. But, in fifteen of the sixteen cases, que is in the arsis of the second foot, as ' Terraeque tractusque ;' once in the arsis of the fifth, ' Noemonaque Prytanimque/ with Greek words. Clearly it is a mere imitation of Homer's lengthening of re in the second and fifth foot. In fourteen of the cases, too, the next word begins with a double consonant. 1 258 Mtre. B. Having discussed the laws of Quantity generally, we proceed to apply them to the chief kinds of Verse employed by the Latin poets, which are all borrowed from the Greeks. The poets, however, with whom we need concern ourselves, have with great tact confined themselves to a few of the simpler kinds of verse, discarding the more complicated feet, rhythms, and verses, as unsuitable to their language. Those, however, which they have selected, they have adapted with great skill to all its peculiarities. I. Verse and Metre. i. A Verse (versus, line) is composed of a certain number of Feet. A Foot (pes) contains a certain number of morae, three at least. 1 In all the above instances a purely short syllable is artificially lengthened. Virgil employs this license, so far as we know, much more than his predecessors. It is not, therefore, a reminiscence of the time when such syllables were long : once on a time perhaps every final in the language was long. It is manifestly an imitation of Greek rhythm. When a syllable in Latin is really doubtful, it is used indifferently long or short in all places of the verse : comp. Virgil's ' Ante ora patris patrem qui obtruncat ad aras ; ' Martial's ' Capto tuam, pudet heu, sed capto, Pontice, cenam.' Here lengthening as well as shortening takes place in thesis. 259 . Metre and Verse. 525 Each simple Foot has two parts, one of which is said to have the ictus upon it, and is called arsis (marked '); the other part is called thesis. The relation of these parts to one another deter- mines the nature of the Foot, and thereby of the Verse. 2. There are, properly speaking, only four distinct Feet with which we need concern ourselves. Two of these have the arsis and thesis equal, each consisting of two inorae. Two have them unequal, the arsis containing two, the thesis one mora. The first two are, 1. Dactylus - w ^ . . . lltora. 2. Anapaestus . . . . w w - . . . patulae. The last two are, 3. Trochaeus (or Choreus) - ~ ... arma. 4. Iambus v - ... ca.no. These are the genuine Feet ; but for the Dactyl often appears in every kind of Dactylic verse 5. Spondeus ... fato. Also 6. Tribrachys . . . . ~ ^ ^ . . . temerg can take the place of either the Iambus or the Trochee. Therefore the Spondee and the Tribrach are representative Feet. 1 In most kinds of Trochaic and Iambic verse, a Spondee may be used for the Trochee or Iambus in certain parts of the verse ; and sometimes it may be represented by an Anapaest or a Dactyl. In Dactylic and Trochaic verse the arsis is on the first part of each foot : litora, drma. In Anapaestic and Iambic on the last : patulae", cand. The arsis therefore falls on a long syllable ; in regular Dactylic verse invariably. When, however, a Dactyl is used for an Ana- paest, the arsis falls on the first short syllable, litdra: when a Tribrach or Anapaest takes the place of a Trochee, the arsis is on the first syllable, te'mere, pdtulae ; when a Tribrach or Dactyl is used for an Iambus, the arsis is on the second syllable, teme're. 2 II. Verses. Verses. I. The Dactylic Hexameter occupies as large a space in Latin poetry as all other Verses together, and is of more relative im- portance than the Homeric Hexameter is in Greek. 1 In Anapaestic verses both the Spondee and the Dactyl may stand for the Anapaest. - A full list of (so-called) Feet is subjoined for reference. (a) Of two Syllables \s \s Pyrrhichius : pater v Iambus : amant - v Trochaeus : vldTt Spondeus : latos (b) Of three Syllables. ^ ^ ^ Tribrachys : regere ^ \^ - Anapaestus : anTmos ~ \s \j Dactylus: corpora vx Creticus : dixerunt w - ^ Amphibrachys : latmus ^ _ _ Bacchius : regebant _ _ ^ Palimbacchius : rexisse _ _ _ Molossus : dlcebas 526 Latin Prosody. 259. This famous Verse, as well as the Elegiac couplet, was first adapted from the Greek by Ennius, who died B.C. 169 ; was gra- dually improved, until it attained an admirable perfection in the hands of Virgil, Ovid, and others ; and continued for many cen- turies to be the favourite form, until the total extinction of the old classical world. It may be defined as a Dactylic Hexameter Catalectic (catalecticus in disyllabum), the last Dactyl losing its final syllable. It consisted therefore of five Dactyls and a Tro- chee. But as the final syllable of a Verse (except when connected closely by Synaphea l with the following Verse, as in the Anapae- stic system and the Glyconic of Catullus) was indifferently long or short, the final Trochee might always be a Spondee. And indeed, while in Greek the last syllable is indifferent, in all the most careful Latin writers it is much oftener long than short. For Ennius, followed by the rest, seems to have thought the last Foot a real Spondee, and, from mistaking Homer, to have even introduced occasional Hypermetrical Verses. In this he has been followed by Virgil and most Latins, though to Homer this licence is unknown. In him we feel that the last Foot is a Trochee or curtailed Dactyl ; while the best Latin Verse lets us see that in the writer's mind the last Foot was rather a genuine Spondee. Of the five Dactyls which remain, the fifth must, as a rule, always remain a Dactyl, probably to keep in view the Dactylic nature of the Verse. The first four may be indifferently Dactyls or Spondees ; and, contrary to the rule in Greek, in Latin the Spondees are somewhat the more numerous, owing perhaps to the character of the language. Sometimes not only the older poets, but, for poetical effect T Virgil and, in imitation of him, Ovid and others have a Spondee in the fifth foot ; but then (to give weight to the exceptional rhythm) the two last feet are generally contained in a single word, and the fourth foot is in most cases a Dactyl. Sometimes a purely Greek rhythm, the words being often Greek, is introduced; in which cases a Spondee now and then appears in the fourth foot. These three instances from Virgil will illustrate what is meant : ' Cara deum suboles, magnum lovis incrementum.' ' Lamentis gemituque et femineo ululatu.' * Nereidum matri et Neptuno Aegaeo.' (c) Of four Syllables (compound) \s ^ ^ \s Proceleusmaticus : homlmbus w \^ w Paeon Primus : condldTmus w ^ ^> Paeon Secundus : amablmus s^. v w Paeon Tertius : nemoralls \s \s Paeon Quartus : regimtnl ^ <^ lonicus a Minore : metuentes v v lonicus a Majore : terrebimus \s _ ^ _ Diiambus : protervltas _ v <-/ Ditrocheus : condidlsse ^ v Choriambus : OpposTtls w _ w Antispastus : regebamur ^ Epitritus Primus : amavlst! _ w - Epitritus Secundus : audTebas <- Epitritus Tertius : audlverant w Epitritus Quartus : rexlssemus Dispondeus : suspexerunt The Pyrrhich is not properly a Foot. The Trochee is also called Choreus, the Cretic Amphimacer : this has a second arsis. The Ionic a Minore is used by Horace and Catul- lus. The Proseleusmatic is occasionally put for its equivalent Spondee or Anapaest by the old scenic poets, and even by Seneca. 1 Synaphea ((rvvdmtiv) is said to exist in any system of Verses, when the last syllable of each verse is influenced by the first syllable of the following 'verse, as it would be if the two words stood in one and the same verse. 26o. Dactylic Hexameter. Caesura. 5 2 7 The two following : 4 Cum patribus populoque, penatibus et magnis dis.' ' Cum sociis gnatoque, penatibus et magnis dis/ are reminiscences of Ennius. These Versus a-novcuu^ovT^ are proportionally more frequent in Catullus from imitation of the Alexandrine poets. In the fragments of Ennius we find one or two verses without a single Dactyl. The only instance in later writers seems to be one in Catullus : ' Si te lenirem nobis neu conarere.' 260 But to make a verse it is not enough to place side by side six Caesura, feet of the kind mentioned ; as in these verses of Ennius : ' Poste recumbite vestraque pectora pellite tonsis.' ' Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret.' Both verses are rude attempts to make the sound point the sense ; but we might apply to them the ' horret et alget/ which Lucilius jocularly proposed for the end of the second. For the beauty and harmony of a verse CAESURA is necessary. (i) CAESURA is the technical term for the law that in some part or parts of the verse the end of a word must coincide with the middle of a foot. 1 1 Explanation may here be given of various technical terms. A. Hemimeris (q/uu/&ept;) means \. Hence one foot and a half () is called Trihemimeris : two feet (f) ,, Penthemimeris ; three ,, (-) ,, Hephthemimeris ; four ,, (f) ,, Ennehemimeris. Hence : (a) Caesura after i feet is called Trihemimeral ; (b) ,, -2\ Penthemimeral ; (c) ,, 3^ Hephthemimeral : (d) ,, . ,, 4$ ,, Ennehemimeral ; Examples : a b c d Fudit equum I magno* tellus I percussa I tride'nti. Verg. . * . I 1 * r \ . ' 1-. I * . TT 2. Aut amite I levi rara tendit retia. Hor. a b c d In i (a Dactylic Hexameter) the caesuras a, b, c, being after an arsis, are strong ; but d, being after a thesis, is weak. In 2 (an Iambic Trimeter) all the caesuras are after thesis, and therefore weak, In contradistinction to Caesura (which is the coincidence of the close of a word with the middle of a foot) the coincidence of the close of a word with the close of a foot jnay be called ' Dialysis : ' Lumina | labentem caelo quae | ducitis | annum. /?. Metre (fierpov, measure) is used in two senses. I. Metre, in the first place, means the verse or system of verses used by a poet in any composition (Heroic, Elegiac, Alcaic, Sapphic Metre). (a) A Metre which contains only one kind of verse is called Monocolum ; ,, ,, two kinds ,, Dicolum ; ,, three Tricolum. (from JAOCOS, single ; KoiAor, member). (b) When two kinds of verse alternate, they form Distichum (from Si'?, twice ; _ 1 | _:! w _G Idm satis tern's | nivis atque dirae, differing in this exceedingly from Sappho. The monotony is in- creased by his always having a Spondee in the second foot. He seems himself at least to have felt the faultiness of his monotonous caesura, and in his fourth book and 'Carmen Saeculare' often sub- stitutes the caesura at the third Trochee : as, Liberum munivit | iter daturus. But the stiffness is thus increased and the monotony not much diminished. He sometimes, like Sappho and Catullus, has hypermetrical verses; sometimes too, like them, he has no break between the third and fourth verse : as, Labitur ripa love non probante u- xorius amnis. Catullus has two Sapphic Odes, one a very early poem, a trans- lation of Sappho ; the second written with reference to this, and, as it were, a defiant retractation of it. He is less regular in his 267. Lyric Metres. 537 rhythm than Horace, and three times has a Trochee in the second foot. But he seems to have felt the futility of competing with Sappho, and has with brilliant success made a variation of the Sapphic his own, by adopting in forty out of fifty-nine of his Lyric and Iambic poems the Phalaecian Hendecasyllable, which differs from the Sapphic in this, that the Dactyl forms the second instead of the third foot. This difference, however, has enabled him to wield it with marvellous grace and at the same time freedom, as it has no regular caesura, which is apt in a short verse to cause monotony : Quoi dono lepidum novum libellum Arida modo pumice expolitum ? Meas esse aliquid putare nugas. Martial has adopted it with equal success ; but the first foot with him is always a Spondee ; and we learn from the elder Pliny that a Spondee in his time was alone admitted. In his 55th poem Catullus has tried the experiment of occasionally substituting a Spondee for the Dactyl, but the result is not happy. (9) Horace's most successful stanza is that in which he has adapted Aliic to Latin forms the famous system called after Alcaeus. It consists Stanza, of (i. 2) two Hendecasyllabic verses of this form, ~ ' w ' I ' v, w I ' w* *" l ~" I Qui rore puro Castaliae lavit. (3) an Enneasyllabic verse of this form, Dumeta natalemque silvam. completed by (4) an Alcaic Decasyllabic : '-~\Lw\L~'-* Delius et Patareus Apollo. This varied metre, combining Dactylic, Iambic, and Trochaic forms, has gained by the restrictions to which the poet has subjected it. In the three first verses of the stanza he has admitted an Iambus rarely in the first foot, and not at all in his 4th Book. The fifth syllable too of verses I, 2, which Alcaeus uses as doubtful, is always long, with one single exception : Si non periret immiserabilis. In those verses the Penthemimeral Caesura is strictly observed, with only these two exceptions : Mentemque lymphatam Mareotico. Spectandus in certamine Martio ; though more than once he has the quasicaesura after the Preposi- tion of a compound word ; as, Hostile aratrum ex!-ercitus insolens. Verse 3. too gains stateliness and weight by rejecting the most usual Iambic movements ; thus, Hunc Lesbio sacrarc plectro 538 i^ann Prosody. 268. is the only instance of the second Iambus being contained in a word thus ending in an Iambus ; and only in the earlier books does it ever end with a word of four syllables, like barbarorum. Its most normal rhythms are : Breunosque velocis et arcis. Commisit immanisque Raetos. Quantis fatigaret ruinis ; and next to these : Vexare turmas et frementem. In the verse 'Non decoloravere caedes/ there is probably a pause after the preposition de. This verse is sometimes hypermetrical : as, ' Cum pace delabentis Etruscum | In mare.' In Verse 4 these seem the best rhythms : Vindelici didicere nuper. Alpibus impositas tremendis. Auspiciis pepulit secundis; or modifications of these : Stravit humum sine clade victor. 268 Gaiiiam- The Galliambus of Catullus is worth considering from the cele- bus - brity of his sixty-third poem. Varro and others used this metre in poems now lost. Its nature, often misunderstood, is simple enough. We may take as its type an Ionic a minore Tetram. Cat. with an unvarying caesura at the end of the second foot : No whole verse of Catullus is of this primary form. Of the first part an example is Et earum omnia adirem : of the second, ' stadio et gymnasiis ; ' but Catullus probably wrote guminasiis. As a rule, in each part what is called Anaclasis occurs, that is to say, the last long syllable of the first foot changes place with the first short syllable of the second foot ; and the same occurs between the third and fourth feet : we then get this form : Aliena quae petentes | velut exules loca. This is the most common form for the first part ; but usually in the second part a further change takes place : the second long syllable is resolved into two short ones; and we then get the regular type of the verse : Super alta vectus Attis | celeri rate maria. Occasional variations of this type occur. Tlblcen ubl canit Phryx ] curvo grave calamo, gives in one verse three of these variations : Ibi rnarla vasta visens | lacrimantibus oculis, gives the fourth. 26 9 . Table of Verses and Metres. 539 TABLE OF CLASSICAL LATIN VERSES AND METRES. I. SINGLE VERSES. A. DACTYLIC RHYTHMS. (1) Trimeter Catalecticus in Syllabam (Penthemimer) called Archilochius Minor : - i-~i- Arbori[busque cojmae, Hor. (2) Tetrameter Catalecticus in Disyllabum, called Alcmanius : 269 Mobilijbus po|maria | rivis, Hor. In the case of a Proper Name Horace has a Spondee in third foot : Mensojrem cohi|bent, Ar|chyta. (3) On the Hexameter and the Elegiac Pentameter, see 259- 261. B. TROCHAIC RHYTHMS. (1) Dimeter Catalecticus : - ~ I I - ~ I - Non trajbes Hy|mettijae, Hor. (2) The Tetrameter Catalectic or Septenarius was used by the Greek Tragic and Comic Poets ; also by Plautus and Terence. The Latin Poem (of uncertain age and author) called Pervigilium Veneris, is a Monocolum in this metre ; of which the following is the scheme : Cras aimet qui | nunquam a]mavit || quique ajmavit | eras a|met. Dialysis after the 4th foot is essential. In Comedy the license of feet is vastly wider (see Note, p. 474) ; but a Trochee or its equivalent, a Tribrach, must precede the final syllable. Plautus also uses the Tetrameter Acatalectic or Octo- narius with similar license, but always with final Trochee. C. IAMBIC RHYTHMS. (i) Dimeter Acatalectus : Forti I scquejmur pecjtore, Hor. Canidija tra]ctavit j dapes, Hor. 540 Latin Prosody. 269. (2) Alcaicus Enneasyllabus : Iamb. Dim. Hyperc., G-.|w_|__|\^_G Periujra pu!gn|acis | Achivos, Hor. Caesura after the 3rd syllable is required. See 267. (3) (Trimeter Acatalectus, or Senarius, which sometimes consists of six Iambic feet (Hexapodia lambica) : Suis | et i[psa Rojma vijribus | ruit, Hor. Gemel|le Cas tor et | gemeljle Cas|toris, Catull. But usually Spondees are admitted into the first, third, and fifth places ; a Tribrach may stand in any place but the last for an Iambus ; a Dactyl in the first place, and an Anapaest in the first (rarely in the fifth) for a Spondee : Pater|na ru|ra bo|bus ex|ercet [ suis, Hor. Aliti|bus atjque canijbus homijcidam Hec[torem, Hor. Pavidumlque lepo|rem et adjvenam | laqueo | gruem, Hor. A penthemimeral or hephthemimeral caesura is necessary to the harmony of the Verse. This Verse may form a Metrum Mono- colum, as Hor. Epod. 17. Note. The Comic Poets, Plautus and Terence, admit Spondees, Dactyls, and Anapaests, in every place but the last, sometimes even Proceleusmatics ; with numerous other licenses. The Iambic Trimeters of the fabulist Phaedrus resemble these, but take fewer feet of three syllables and fewer licenses. (4) Scazon, or Choliambus ; which is an Iambic Trimeter with a Spondee in the sixth, and an Iambus in the fifth, place ; as, Miser | Catuljle dejsinas | inejptire, Catull. Used as a Metrum Monocolum, but not by Horace. The cae- suras as in (3). (5) Trimeter Catalecticus : Mea | renijdet in | domo | lacujnar, Hor. Iunctae|que nymjphis Grajtiae | decenjtes, Hor. The penthemimeral caesura is essential. (6) Versus Hipponacteus (Dimeter + Hephthemimer). Depren|sa na|vis in | mari || vesa|nien]te ven|to, Catull. Dialysis after the Dimeter. This verse forms a Metrum Mono- colum, not used by Horace. D. IONIC RHYTHMS. (1) lonicus a minore Dimeter Acatalectus : v^v/_|ww Patruae ver|bera linguae, Hor. (2) lonicus a minore Tetrameter Acatalectus : Miserarum est | neque amori j dare ludum, j neque dulci, Hor. (3) Versus Galliambus. See 266. 269. Table of Verses and Metres. 541 E. MIXED RHYTHMS. i. Logaoedic. Logaoedic Rhythms are those in which Dactyls are followed by Trochees. 1 A Base often begins them, and some- times a Choriambus is inserted. (1) Adonius : Dactyl. Dim. Cat. in Disyll. _ SX V I _ G I Risit A | polio, Hor. (2) Aristophaneus (Dactylus simplex dupliciter Trochaicus) : _ W \J I _ \S I _ \J Lydia j die per j omnis, Hor. Dialysis after the Dactyl. (3) Pherecrateus ; an Adonius with Base, which, in Horace, is Spondaic, in Catullus, chiefly Trochaic : Vix dujrare cajrinae, Hor. Lute | umve pa | paver, Catull. (4) Glyconeus ; the Base of which, in Horace, is Spondaic, In Catullus, usually Trochaic : Base -- I -~~ I -~ w I Mater | saeva Cu|pidinum, Hor. Tardat | ingenu]us pudor, Catull. (5) Asclepiadeus Minor, the Base being Spondaic : Base I \j \s I \s w I \s C "*;!"" I I Maecejnas atavis|[edite ] regibus, Hor. Elision at Penthemimer is rare : as, Audi! tarn modere!re arbori,bus fidem, Hor. It is used as Metrum Monocolum (Asclepiadeum Priinum). (6) Asclepiadeus Maior, the Base being Spondaic : Base _ vx i/ II - w - II w w I \^G "i n ii i ~ NullamjVare sacra | vite prius | severis | arborem, Hor. Caesuras after 6th and loth .syllables. This is Metrum Monocolum. (7) Alcaicus Decasyllabus : |_~ |_~|_o Nee vetches agi|tantur | orni, Hor. (8) Phalaecius Hendecasyllabus ; Metrum Monocolum, not used by Horace. 1 As the last syllable of a verse is doubtful, a final Trochee can pass into a Spondee. In the Pherecrateans of Horace it always does so ; and in his verses generally a final long syllable is preferred. 54 2 Latin Prosody, 269. Base I s^ w I w I \j I G III Soles | occidejre et re | dire | possunt, Catull. Sometimes an Iambus appears as Base, seldom a Trochee : Minister vetuli puer Falerni, Catull. Arlda modo pumice expolitum, Catull. A Spondee is sometimes put for the Dactyl, but very inhar- moniously. (9) Archilochius Maior: Dactylic Tetrameter with Dactyl in fourth place, where is Dialysis, and three Trochees : Solvitur | acris hi|emps grajta vice || verisjet Fa|voni, Hor. (10) Sapphicus Minor, consisting of a Dactyl and two Tro- chees preceded by Trochee + Spondee (called by some a double Base) : -~--|- I I Nota quae sejdes fue|rat cojlumbis, Hor. Sappho, the inventor of this verse, as also Catullus, often began with a double Trochee : but Horace always length- ens the fourth syllable. The strong caesura after the fifth syllable is usual ; occa- sionally the weak caesura is found after the sixth (short) syllable : Non semel dicemus || io triumphe, Hor. One or other is essential to the harmony of the verse. (n) Sapphicus Maior; which only differs from the last in having a Choriambus between the Spondee and Dactyl : | | _ ~~ | _ | . Saepe trans filnem iaculo | nobilis | expejdito, Hor. (12) Versus Alcaicus Hendecasyllabus, in which an Iambic Penthemimer (G - w ) is followed by Dactyl and - w G : G-.^__|_V^N^| _V^. Mors et fugacem || persequijtur virum, Hor. Vides ut alta || stet nive | candidum, Hor. The first syllable is seldom short. The penthemimeral caesura is observed. Elision sometimes occurs there : Regum timendo || rum in proprios greges, Hor. (13) Versus Priapeius of Catullus : Metrum Monocolum. Iv/wl v/ II \j \ v^vl w I " " II - - I " O co [Ionia Ouendam quae cupis||ponte|ludere]longo, munici|pem meum || de tu|o volo | ponte, Catull. 269. Table of Metres. 543 2. Asynartete. (i) lambelegus Archilochius : Iamb. Dim. Dactyl. Penthem. Tu vijna Torjquato | move || consule J pressa mejo, Hor. (2) Elegiambus Archilochius, Dactyl. Penthem. Iamb. Dim. I\J \J \ II V^ I W I W I W G I II - - I " I - - I lussus ab:ire do|mum || ferejbar injcerto | pede, Hor. There is a Dialysis at the end of the Penthemimer. Note a. The Anapaestic Rhythm is the, converse of the Dactylic. It admits however Spondees and Dactyls ; in which the arsis falls on the second syllable. The most usual verse is the Dimeter, having a break after the second foot : O valne pudor || falsumlque decus. Decies|nivibus||canuit|Ide, Sen. Tr. The Greek dramatic poets used this verse in systems ending with a Dimeter Catalectic, called Versus Paroemiacus ; but Seneca has not in this imitated them ; nor does he admit a Dactyl at the close of a line. A Monometer is sometimes introduced (in Greek always before the Paroemiacus), called a Base. In Anapaestic metre the last syllable of the Dimeter is not indifferent, and makes position with the succeeding verse (Synaphea). Note b. The Saturnian Verse was an old Roman measure, not used in the best ages. The following is cited as its purest type : Dabunt | malum | Metel|li || Naevi|o pojetae. But great license was taken in its form. II. STROPHIC METRES. a. DlCOLA DlSTICHA or DlSTROPHA. On the Elegiac Distich, see 261. (1) Metmm Hipponacteum. Troch. Dim. Cat. + Iamb. Trim. Cat Non ebur neque aureum Mea renidet in dorno lacunar, Hor. ii. 18. (2) Metrum lambicum Senarium Quaternarium. Iamb. Trim. Acat. + Iamb. Dim. Acat. Beatus ille qui procul negotiis Ut prisca gens mortalium, Hor. Epod. 2. (3) Metrum Archilochium Primum. Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Archilochius Minor. Diffugere nives ; redeunt iam gramina campis, Arboribusque comae, Hor. Od. iv. 7. (4) Metrum Archilochium Secundum. Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + lambelegus Archilochius. 544 Latin Prosody. 269. Horrida tempestas caelum contraxit, et imbres Nivesque deducunt lovem ; nunc mare nunc siluae, Hor. Epod. l$. (5) Metrum Archilochium Tertium. Iamb. Trim. Acat. + Elegiambus Archilochius. Petti, nihil me, sicut antea, iuvat Scribere versiculos amore percussum gravi, Hor. Epod. ii. (6) Metrum Archilochium Ouartum. Archilochius Maior + Iamb. Trim. Cat. Solvitur acris hiemps grata vice veris et Favoni, Trahuntque siccas machinae carinas, Hor. Od. i. 4. (7) Metrum Pythiambicum Primum. Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Iamb. Dim. Acat. Mollis inertia cur tantam cliffuderit imis Oblivionem sensibus, Hor. Epod. 14. (8) Metrum Pythiambicum Secundum. Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Hexapodia lambica. Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas, Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit, Hor. Epod. 16. (9) Metrum Alcmanium. Dact. Hex. Cat. in Disyll. + Dact. Tetram. Alcmanius. Laudabunt alii claram Rhodon aut Mitylenen Aut Ephesum bimarisve Corinthi, Hor. Od. \. 7 ; Epod. J. (10) Metrum Asclepiadeum Secundum. Versus Glyconeus + Versus Asclepiadeus Minor. Sic te diva potens Cypri, Sic fratres Helenae lucida sidera, Hor. Od. i. 3. Horace has twelve Odes in this measure. (11) Metrum Sapphicum Maius. Versus Aristophaneus + Sapphicus Maior. Lydia, die per omnes Te deos oro Sybarin cur properes amando, Hor. Od. i. 8. b. DICOLA TETRASTICHA or TETRASTROPHA. (i) Strophe Sapphica Minor. Terni Sapphici Minores + Adonius. Integer vitae scelerisque purus Non eget Mauris iaculis neque arcu Nee venenatis gravida sagittis, Fusee, pharetra, Hor. Od. i. 22. Horace has twenty-six Sapphic Odes. 269. Table of Metres. 545 The Adonian Verse is so intimately connected with the third Sapphic line that Hiatus at the close of the latter is unusual, and words are sometimes divided between the two verses : as, Thracio bacchante magis sub inter- lunia vento, Hor. An Hypermeter is sometimes found among the Sapphic lines : as Dissidens plebi numero beator|um Eximit virtus, Hor. (2) Metrum Asclepiadeum Tertium. Terni Asclepiadei Minores + Glyconeus. lam veris comites, quae mare temperant, Impellunt animae lintea Thraciae : lam nee prata rigent, nee fluvii strepunt Hiberna nive turgidi, Hor. Od. iv. 12. Horace has nine Odes in this measure. (3) Strophe Glyconea Catulliana. Terni Glyconei Catulliani + Pherecrateus Catullianus. Sis quocumque placet tibi Sancta nomine, Romulique Antiquam, ut solita es, bona Sospites ope gentem, Catull. 34. Synaphea is kept in this Metre. Catullus in Poem 61 uses this Metre as Pentastichon. Namque lulia Manlio, Qualis Idalium colens Venit ad Phrygium Venus ludicem, bona cum bona Nubit alite virgo. Here Synaphea is observed between lines i, 2, 3, and between 4, 5. c. TRICOLA TETRASTICHA. (1) Metrum Asclepiadeum Quartum. Bini Asclepiadei Minores + Pherecrateus + Glyconeus. Prima nocte domum claude : neque in vias Sub cantu querulae despice tibiae : Et te saepe vocanti Duram difficilis mane, Hor. Od. iii. 7 29. Horace has seven Odes in this Metre. Although the Pherecratean ends, in theory, with a Trochee, yet in the usage of Horace a final long syllable is adopted. (2) Strophe Alcaica. Bini Alcaici Hcndecasyllabi + Alcaicus Enneasyllabus + Alca- icus Decasyllabus. N N 546 Latin Prosody. 269. Oui rore puro Castaliae lavit Grin is solutos, qui Lyciae tenet Dumeta natalemque silvam Delius et Patareus Apollo, Hor. Od. iii. 4. 6l. Horace has thirty-seven Odes in this Metre. NOTE. The metres of the Comic poets, Plautus and Terence, are too large a sub- ject to be treated in this grammar. We will merely observe that many final syllables (ar, or, at, et, it), short in later poets, are lengthened by Plautus and Terence ; Iambic words, on the other hand (such as habent, bonis), are often scanned as Pyrrhichs ; the law of position is often vio- lated ; and long initial syllables slurred into short quantity, when they follow monosyllables or elided Pyrrhichs. Add to these licenses the most extensive synizesis and the free use of Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, even Proceleusmatic for Iambus or Trochee (always excepting the final foot), and it will be seen at once in how wide a field of rhythm the old scenic poets ranged. See p. 56. APPENDIX. A. LATIN ORTHOGRAPHY. ORTHOGRAPHY is defined by Suetonius (Oct. 88), as ' the form and method of writing taught by grammarians/ and by Quin- tilian (i. 7), more shortly, as 'the science of writing correctly/ We may blend the two definitions, and say that Orthography is * the science of writing in correct form the words of any language.' The Greeks settled their orthography with reference to four considera- tions : (i) analogy ; (2) etymology ; (3) dialect ; (4) history. The Latins left dialect out of question, but had regard to the other three points. Yet, owing to the fluctuating character of their language, and its many changes during the seven centuries between the first Punic war and the fall of the Roman empire, the settlement of a solid Latin orthography is a work of difficulty. The labours of Ritschl, Lachmann, and others have indeed during the last few years thrown much light on this subject. Ritschl justly selects the age of Quintilian's great work (about the close of the first century, A.D.) as the standard of Latin orthography; but, un- fortunately, it is only by an inductive process, often uncertain, that the forms of words can, generally speaking, be referred to this age. Inscrip- tions, of course, have the greatest value ; but they are often inconsistent even when contemporaneous. The earliest MSS. are several centuries later than the Christian era ; and they also disagree. The opinions of old grammarians are not less various. Hence it often happens that the classical form of a word can be determined only by a balance of conflicting evidence ; and different minds will strike the balance differently. A few probable results, compendiously stated, must suffice here. The student may compare Munro's Introd. to Lucretius, and Ribbeck's Proleg. to Virgil. Here forms assumed to be most classical are named first : others of nearly equal authority are added with 'or:' those of minor authority are within brackets ; those which seem inadmissible follow ' not,' and are in italic type. 1) a, e : defatigo or defetigo ; depeciscor (dcpaciscor). 2) e, ae, oe : caecus, not coecus ; caelum, heaven, not coelum ; also caelum &c. Craving-tool ; caementum (cementum) ; caerimonia, not ceremonial caespes, not cespes\ Camena, not Camoena\ cena &c , not coena &c. ; ceteri, not caeteri ; faenum (fenum ?), not foenum\ fecunclus, not foecundus ; femina, not foemina ; fetus &c., not foetus ; fenus (foenus) j foedus, treaty ; glaeba ; heres, not haeres ; levis, not laevis ; maerere and maestus, not moerere and moestus ; cbocdire (obedire) ; obscenus, not obscaenus obscoenus ; Paelignus, N N 2 Appendix. not Pelignus ; paelex, not pellex ; paenitet, not pocnitef, but poena ; paenula, not penula ; pomaerium (pomerium) ; prelum, not praelum ; proelium, not praelium ; raeda, not redo, rheda ; saeculum, not seculum ; saepes &c., not sepes &c. ; scaena (scena). 3) e, i: benevolus (benivolus) ; deminuere &c., not diminnere &c. ; di (dei), dis (deis) ; genetrix, not genitrix ; heri (here) ; intellego (intelligo) ; neglego (negligo) ; protinus or protenus, but quatenus ; valetudo (valitudo) ; Vergilius, not Virgilius. As respects -is (eis) or -es, Accus. Plur. of I-nouns, admitting that in the republican age -Is was the more usual, as it is cer- tainly truer in formation, yet we believe that, before the age of Quintilian, -es was in general use ; and this, with its superior con- venience, has led to its frequent retention. On -e or -I in Abl. of I-nouns, see 24. 5. 4) i, u: The middle tone between i and ii (see n. p. 8; 12. p. 33), led to the existence of a large number of double forms : aestimare (aestumare) ; Brundisium (Brundusium) ; inclutus (inclitus) ; liibet &c. or libet &c. ; reciiperare (reciperare) ; Dat PL of Decl. 4 : grad-ibus &c. (gradubus &c. 25) ; maximus (maxumus), and all Superlatives ; vicensimus (vicensumus), and other Ordinals in -Tmus (-iimus) ; so maritimus (maritumus) ; monimentum or monumentum ; tegimen or tegumen ; and other similar derivatives. But the u-form in many of these was archaic in the Augustan and following age, which wrote carnifex rather than carnufex ; lacrima rather than lacruma ; clipeus rather than clupeus ; optimus rather than optumus, except perhaps in old formulas ; mancipium, not mancupium ; victima, not victuma. 5) e, u : -endus (-undus) in Gerundive forms : -undus was the ancient form, but superseded by -endus in the Imperial age. 6) o, u : adulescens (Noun), adolescens (Part.) ; epistula or epistola; suboles (soboles). The earlier Latins, even to the Augustan age, wrote o rather than u when n preceded : but a was received under the emperors : hence vult (volt) ; avus (avos) ; equus (equos), &c. But Ribbeck in Virgil almost always avoids uu, vu. See 12. 7) c, o : vertere (vortere) ; versus (versus) ; vertex (vortex). The forms in o are comparatively archaic. But fenoris or feneris, feneror ; iecinoris or iecineris ; pignoris or pigneris, pigneror. 8) i, y : y is not properly a Latin letter, but introduced in Cicero's age to represent Greek u. Therefore, such forms as clypeus, hyems, irulytus, ocyus, satyra, stylus, sylva^ Sylla, are now justly exploded, the true forms being clipeus (clupeus), hiemps, inclutus (inclitus), ocius, satira, stilus, silva, Sulla. But, where Greek u is represented by y, this letter holds its proper place : lyra, Nympha, Syrus, Syria, Tyrus, &c. 9) ruo or go : lingere (linguere) ; ningit (ninguit) ; stinguere and com- pounds, not stingere ; tinge re (tinguere) ; ungere (unguere), but unguentum, unguen ; urgere (urguere). 10) e or c : vicensimus (vigensimus), trigensimus or tricensimus, but quadragensimus, &c. ; so ducenti, trecenti, sescenti, but quadrin- genti or quadrigenti ; quingenti, &c. ; viceni, triceni, but quadra- geni, &c. ; duceni, treceni, sexceni or sesceni, but quadringeni, quingeni, &c. See NUMERALIA, 33. Cycnus or cygnus ; Cnosus or Gnosus. 11) grn or n : nasci not gnasci ; natus (gnatus), but agnatus, cognatus, &c, ; noscere not gnoscere ; but agnoscere, cognoscere, &c. A. Orthography. 549 12) C or q (qu) : cotidie or cottidie, not quotidie-, coquus (anc. cocus, coqus); equus (anc. ecus, equs, equos) ; pecunia (anc. pequnia) ; locutus (anc. loqutus) ; secutus (anc. sequtus) ; loquuntur, sequuntur (anc. lucuntur, secuntur) ; cui (anc. quoi, quoei) ; cur (anc. qur, quor) ; quum or cum, conj. (anc. qum, quom) ; cum, prep. (anc. qum, quom). The form cum is good for preposition and conjunction ; quom was used for both to the Augustan age : after which the dis- like of uu seems to have gone out of fashion ; and the form quum is often used for the conjunction. But qu was uttered as c. Ribbeck in Virgil commonly edits ecus, ecum (or -quos, -quom) locuntur, secuntur, &c., instead of the forms with qu. 13) b for v : ferbui or fervi; to avoid vu. 14) b initial present or absent : Hadria, not Adria ; alucinari (halucinari) ; Hammon (Ammon) ; harena (arena) ; harundo or arundo ; haruspex or aruspex ; hariolus, not ariolus ; have (ave) ; hedera, not edera ; erus, era, or herus, hera; heres (eres) ; hercisc6re, not erciscere; holus (olus); Hiber (Iber) ; Hister (Ister) ; umere, umor, &c., rather than humere, humor, &c. ; umerus, not humerus. 15) b. interior: aeneus, &c. (aheneus, &c.) ; cohors or cors ; incohare (inchoare) ; nihil or nil ; prendo (prehendo) ; vemens, \\otvefamens. 16) euphonic p : compsi, comptum, &c. (comsi, comtum, &c.), and others; hiemps (hiems). 17) ci or ti before a vowel. Authority favours dicio, condicio, solacium, patricius, tribunicius, &c., not ditto, &c. ; and contio, fetialis, in- dutiae, nuntius, nuntiare, &c., setius; not concio, &c. Also con- vitium rather than convicium ; suspitio (Subst.), rather than suspicio; but the forms of these with ci were also used. See Corssen, I. 56. 18) b or p : caelebs (caeleps) : urbs (urps), &c., obsonium, obsonari (opsonium, opsonari) ; obtulit (optulit) ; subter (supter). But b was sounded as ps, bt as pt. 19) d or t final. In Quintilian's time the endings in d, haud, sed, apud, &c. , had become general in preference to the archaic t, haul (hau), set, aput, &c. But d final was sounded as t. 20) -icere or -iicere. The compounds of iacre have been elsewhere noticed. To the. Augustan age the single i seems to have prevailed : adicere, deicere, conicere, reicere, &c. But in imperial times 11 was at least admissible: adiicere, co icere or coniicere, &c., the former 1 being a consonant. And in adicere, &c. 1 did double duty as consonant and vowel = ad-yi-cere, &c. 21) ct or t: artus not arctus ; autumnus, not auctumnus; but auctor. 22) n kept or omitted : conectere, conexus, coniti, conivere, conixus, conubium, not counectere, &c. (M. Liter, i. 633): coniunx (coiunx coiux) : n before s was liable to elimination : thus Numeral Adverbs in -ens passed into -c ; the earlier form being, however, generally preserved : quotiens (quoties) ; totiens (toties) ; miliens (miltes), &c. So vicensimus (vicesimus). Such omissions of n abound in Inscr. as cosol for consol, cesor for censor. See Corssen, I. 249, &c. 23) Consonants singled or doubled : on this point documents are especially discrepant. We find Britannia or Brittannia ; cottidie or cotidie ; luppiter (lupiter) ; 1'ttera (litera) ; loquella or loquela ; querella or querela : but medela, suadela, &c., also cautcla, tutela, reliquiae (rellkjuiae), but relicuus ( later reliquus) ; relicio (relligio) : causa (caussa) : paulum (paullum). But nummns (nu-nus) ; bracchium, not brachium; Messalla, not Messala; sollemms, not solennis ; 55O Appendix. sellers, &c. , not so/ers, &c. ; sollicitus, not solicitus, c. Yet anulus rather than annulus ; culeus rather than culleus, c. ; litus, not litius ; ilico rather than illico ; vilicus rather than villicus ; stili- cidium. Pliny wrote mille but milia ; Augustus, however, writes millia, milliens ; and Corssen, I. 226, prefers the 11. Reppuli, repperi, rettuli, seem better than repuli, &c., which are, however, used. 24) Assimilation : quidquid (quicquid) ; quicquam (quidquam), quicque (quidque) ; quamquam (quanquam) ; tamquam (tanquam) ; umquam, numquam (unquam, nunquam) ; -cumque (cunque) ; quendam not quemdam ; eundem not eumdem ; tantundem not tantumdeni ; quo- rundam not quorumdam ; eorundem not eorumdem. When m remains before the guttural or dental, it is sounded as n : quamquam = quanquam when uttered. 25) Assimilation of Compounded Prepositions. This is received or rejected in MSS. and Inscr. with such apparently free option in most instances, that no safe rules on the point can be laid down. Thus we read in imperial times adlectus and allectus, collapsus and conlapsus, collegium and conlegium, illustris and inlustris, impen- dium and inpendium, irritus and inritus, even imperium and in- perium, &c. On the whole assimilation prevails. See Brambach, Neugestaltung der Latein. Orthographic, p. 300, &c. 26) Not less uncertainty exists in regard to words beginning with s, when compounded with ex (ecs : c. s, bt should be sounded (and generally written) as ps, pt : lapsus } aps, apsens, optulit, supter. 4 j, or consonant /, as y in yard. P. Pronunciation. 553 ' As to consonant u, or z/, we believe that its sound was as near as I ossible to that of the vowel u : i. e. like the ou of the French out, not differing much therefore from English w. But as there is great diversity of opinion on this point, we propose to leave it an open question, whether it sha'l be pronounced in this way, or as the English and Italian v. 'y, z, ch, ph, th were brought into the language to represent Greek sounds : s, ph, th we propose should be sounded as at present : ch should never be pronounced as in our charter : it would be better to give it a k sound succeeded by an h sound ; but it must follow the fortunes of Greek x. y, or Greek u, had some middle sound between Latin u and /', perhaps re- sembling either French u or German u ; but y and y came probably much nearer to I and i than to u and u. ' In our Latin pronunciation quantity is systematically neglected: attention to it seems essential in any reformed method : d and a should be distin- guished in niatris and/rt/;v>, as in mater and pater. The ancients observed the natural length of vowels, when the syllable was also long by position : as in Marcus, pastor : Cicero tells us that every vowel when followed by ns or nf became long by nature : as in infimus, ijisaitus : gn seems to have had the same power over the preceding vowel. Often too an extruded consonant leaves a naturally short vowel long : e from ex : es, est from edo : Sestius (STJOTIOS), but Sextius (2e'|Tos). On the other hand the long vowel of many final syllables in time became short ; and we can scarcely suppose that, while the naturally long vowel in amat, docet was shortened, it always remained long in amant, docent : it seems certain also, whatever the reason may be, that the e was short in docentis, etc., as much as in legentis, audientis. ' Following the tradition of the Italians, we fortunately keep the accent in most cases on the right syllable, though the loss of quantity has changed its nature. In a summaiy like this we cannot dwell on the exceptions. ' In respect of elision we may see, by comparing Plautus and Terence with Ovid, how much the elaborate cultivation of the language had tended to a more distinct sounding of final syllables. We must not altogether pass over the elided vowel or the elided syllable which ends in ?, except perhaps in the case of e in common words, quc, ncquc, and the like. How far too final m was mute, or nasal, it is not easy to determine. Est ' is ' seems often in pronunciation (and in writing) to have lost its e and become an enclitic st after a vowel or m : thus tuo est, meum est can end an Ovidian pentameter, labori est an Hexameter : we must therefore pronounce ttiost. &C.' To the foregoing suggestions of these eminent scholars the present Editor assents generally. Only, (i) He cannot conceive that oe ought to be sounded in the same manner as ae, even alternatively ; (2) It is not to his mind an open question, whether Latin v had the sound of English v. His principal reasons for believing that Latin v had always the sound, or nearly the sound, of English w are given in a foot-note on pp. 66-7. 554 Appendix. C. AFFINITIES IN THE ARYAN FAMILY. I. As a stimulus to the interesting study of Comparative Philology, examples are here given of the affinity between words in Latin, Greek, and Indie (Sanskrit). i) Nouns. .L. Gr. I. L. Gr. I. aes ayas (irott) mater MTjrrjp matar aevum alfutv ayus (/^) medius /xeao-o? madhyas ager oypos ajras nasus ptS_ nas, nas anguis tyt? ah is navis naus animus ai-euo? anilas novus i/e'fos navas anser X 7 ?" hansas nox (noct-) VVK-T- naktam aurora av( dam misceo f . i.-yv(i>OKta jna fero ^epoj bhri, bhar pac-iscor nay- pas C. Affinities in the Aryan Family. 555 2) Verbs continued. Gr. pleo quie-sco scindo sedeo sequor serpo spec- sterno sto suo (e)s-um (esse) e (TTp/, pro, is appended to its case : tutaper Ikuvina = pro civitate Eugubina. Inseparable : an = in (negative) ; amb- ampr- (ambr-) = ambi : ah (aha), perhaps = ab; anter (ander) = inter ; en = in ; up, us (os) re ; sub for up-s, =ob, os ; pru (pro) =pro ; pur = por- in porrigo, c. 3) Conjunctions : Coordinative : et ; several others also, ene, enu, c. = et ; neife = neque ; ute (ate) =aut ; heris heris = vel vel ; (surur, sururont) = dein, deinde (?). Subordinative : ape (apei)=ubi; (arnipo) = donicum, donee (?) ; prepa = priusquam ; pus-pane = postquam ; pune = quum ; pufe = ubi ; pere (perse, pirse) = quippe ; (pirsi) = quando ; puze (puse, pusei) = quasi ; sve = si ; (nosve)=nisi ; svepis = siquis ; svepu (svepo) = siqua. Note. The following Latin Verb-roots occur in Umbrian: (ag-) ; aj- = ai-cre ; ben- = venire ; der (ders-) or ded- reduplicated from da- ; dik-, deik- = dicere; i-, e- = ire; em-=emere; es- = esse; fak- = facere; fer- = ferre fing- = fingere ; frek- = fricare ; fu- ; gna-=g-nasci ; (gno-) =g-noscero habe- = habere ; hera = velle; kan- = canere ; cave- = cavere ; krema-- cremare ; kura- = curare ; ci- = cire ; (loka-) = locare ; mal- = molere (move-) = movere ; muge- = mugire ; ning- = ningere ; ug- (og-) = augere ul- (ol-) ; ur- (or-) = oriri ; par = parere; penn = pendere ; pese ; ple- = plere ; (porta-) = portare ; ques- quaerere ; seka- = secare ; sere- = servare skreh- scribere, (sona.-) = sonare ; stahe- = stare ; sum- = sumere ; take- = tacere ; tene- = tenere ; tenn- = tendere ; terg- = tergere ; trem- = tremere turse- = torrere ; vei- veh- = vehere; vel- = velle; vert- = vertere ; vire- = videre ; (v-oka) = vocare. Perhaps also the root tu- (to-) represents Indian cilia, Gr. Oe-, Lat. -de-re. B) The Oscan Dialect. Of the Oscan inscriptions some are in the old Umbro-Oscan cha- racters borrowed from Etruria, others in the Roman, a few in Greek letters. The chief fragment is the Tabula Bantina found in 1793, containing Roman laws for the Apulian town of Bantia. The old Oscan is without o, q, x : its other letters generally agree in power, though not in shape, with the corresponding Latin. It had however two forms of i, and two of u. The second form of i, which in- clined to e or ci, is here noted as i, and the second form of u, which in- clined to o, as u. In the Tabula Bantina they are not distinguished from i, o. (X'j'.v Of.can forms stand between brackets.) 560 Appendix. a) Oscan Vowels. The Oscan diphthongs agree generally with the Latin : ai = ae, anciently ai ; ei = ei ; ui = oe, anciently oi. Weakening of vowels is less frequent than in Latin : thus (fefacust) = fecerit : Syncope and Apocope often occur, especially in Decl. 2 : tuvtiks = tuticus ; Bantins = Bantinus ; Pumpaiians = Pompeianus ; cevs = civis ; hurs = hortus; Mutil = Mutilus, &c. Also Heirennis = Herennius ; Puntiis = Pontius, &c. Oscan often inserts a vowel between a liquid and another consonant : ter-^-mniss = terminos ; ar-a-getud = argento ; also i before i or a: tiurri = turrim ; Viinikiis = Vinicius. b) Oscan Consonants. Here we find much resemblance to Umbrian. Thus p ^ q : pam =* quam, Tlonirrifs Quintius ; ben- = ven- : kumbened = convenit ; nn = nd : upsannam = operandam ; ht = ct, saahtum=san(c)tum ; ehtrad = extra ; ft = pt; (scriftas) = scriptoe ; multas (moltas) = multae. T remains after ns : (censtur) censor ; ti before a vowel = s: (Bansae) = Bantiae. S remains between vowels: asa = ara; but in Gen. PL (-azum) = -arum : here and in -azet for uerit z = soft s ; but in hurz = hortus z = ts ; in (zicolom) =dieculum z = ds. V may come between u and a consonant : tuvtiks = tuticus. Final m, s, t, do not fall off as in Umbrian. We find the ending d in Abl. S., as in old Latin; toutad ; suvad = sua; (dolud) =dolo ; also in some 3rd Persons of Verbs, as deded=dedit; in the Imperative: likitud = liceto ; estud^esto ; and in Adverbs : amprufid = improbe ; ehtrad = extra. c) Oscan Declensions. 1) First or A-Declension. Sing. N. masc. as, a, fern, u (o). Ace. am. G. masc. ai, fern. as. D. ai. Abl. ad. Loc. ai (ae). Plur. N as ? Ac. as. G. (azum). D. Abl. ais. Examples: tuvta (touta) tuvtu (touto), a state or people ; viu = via. 2) Second or O-Declension. Sing. N. us (os, us). Ace. um (om). G. eis. D. ui. Abl. ud (ud). Loc. ei. Plur. N. us. Ace. uss. G. um. Abl. uis (ois). Example : status ; (dolus). As in Umbrian, the Norn. S. often takes other forms : ins for inus ; ans for anus ; is for ius, &c. The variation of Neuters resembles that in Latin. 3) Third or Consonant and I-Nouns. Sing. N. s or none. Ace. im. D. ei. Abl. id. Plur. N. ss or none. Ace. D. Abl. iss. The Neuters have no distinctive peculiarities. Note. ' Meddis (meddix, medix) tuvtikus' (tuticus) is the Oscan name for the chief magistrate, or mayor, of a town. See Liv. xxiii. 35, xxiv. 19, xxvi. 6. d) Oscan Verbs : Verb of Being : root es ; sum ; isl = est ; (set) = sit ; estud = esto : root fu : (fuid) = fiat : fusid (fust) ==-. fiet ; fufans = fuerunt. The Conjugations are Consonant and A only : Pres. Ind. Act. (anget) = agit ; amfret = ambit ; (dat) ; faamat = habitat ; eituns = eunt. Pass, (vincter) vincitur ; sakarater= sacratur. D. Italian Dialects. 561 Pres. Conj. Act. (angit) = agat ; (hipid) = habeat, (pruhipid) = prohibeat : stait = stet ; (dat)=det : Plur. 3rd P. -ins. Pass, sakahiter = sacretur. S. Fut. Ind. Act. (didest) =didet, (deivast) = iurabit. Perf. Ind. Act. prufatted = probavit ; (deicans) =dixerunt. Fut. Perf. Act. (dicust) = dixerit ; (hipust) = habuerit ; (fefacust) --= fecerit. Imperat. Act. likitud (licitud) = liceto ; factud = facito. Infin. Pres. (deicum) = dicere ; (moltaum) =multare ; (censamui) = ' censeri. Part. Perf. P. (censto) - censo ; pusst = positus ; (deivatud) = iurato. Gerundive: upsannam = operandam. e) Oscan Pronouns. 1) Possessive: suveis = sui; suvad = sua; (sivom, siom)=suum, n. 2) Demonstrative : izik (izic), iuk, idik (idic) = is, ea, id: in (ionc) = eum ; isidum = idem : ekik (exeic) = illud, with other case-forms of the same pronoun, of which Nom. S. is not extant, but supposed by Mommsen to be ekus, eksus, by Aufrecht eiso (eizo), Umbr. eso = hie. 3) Relative and Interrogative. S. Pus (pos) pal (pae) pud (pod) = qui quae quod : (phim) pam pud (pod) = quern quam quod : puv quo. PI. pus = qui ; (pous) =- quibus. Pis, pid = quis quid ? (pieis) = cuius ? ; (pitpit) = quidquid ; -pid = -que; puturus-pid = utrique, pi. f ) Oscan Particles : 1) Adverbs : (amprufid) = improbe ; ip = ibi ; (mais) =magis ; (min) = ' minus; pruf= probe; fortis = forte. 2) Prepositions : Separable : az = ante ; anter = inter ; ehtrad = extra ; kum (com) = cum, com; (contrud) = contra ; up (op)=ob, apud ; (perum) = per ; pust (post) = post. Inseparable : (an- am- a-) = in-; (-en) = in; pm- = pro. 3) Conjunctions : Coord. ; avt (aut)=at ; (auti)=aut; ekkum = item ; inim (inim), in (in), &c. =et; (-ni)=ne; nep (ne, nei, neip) = non, ne. Subord. pun (pon) quom, cum; (pam, pan) = quam; (pruter-pam prater-pan) =priusquam ; puf=ubi ; pukkapid (pocapit) = quancloque ; sva (sve) = si. Note. The chief Latin Verb-roots found in Oscan are : ag- ; c-ben- = venire ; kumben- =convenire ; censa- =censere ; da- ; deic- die- = dicere : (derva-) iurare; e- i-=ire; em-; es- ; fac- ; fu- ; habe- haf- (hip-) = habere (pruhip- = prohibere) ; liga- legare ; (molta-) = multare ; pat- = panclere ; prufa- = probare ; pus- (pos-) = ponere ; rega- = regere ; sac- sancire ; sakara- = sacrare ; sta- ; vine- = vincere. [The fullest account of the Umbrian dialect will be found in Aufrecht and Kirchhoff's Umbrische Denkmdler : of the Oscan, Sabellian, &c. in T. Mommsen's Die Unteritalischcn Dialekte. The student should also con- sult Schleicher's Vergleichende Grammatik, Corssen's Aussprache, &c., and various papers in Kiihn's Zeitschrift by Corssen and other scholars. Donaldson's Varroniamis gives much valuable information : but some of its theories must be cautiously viewed. See Peile's Introduction to Greek and Latin Etymology.} C) Specimens of Ancient Latin, taken from Corpus Inscriptionunv Latinarum (Ritschl and Mommsen). I. Epitaph of L. Cornelius Scipio Consul B.C. 259. Hone oino ploirume cosentiont R[omai] duonoro optimo fuise uiro uiroro O O 562 Appendix. Luciom Scipione : filios Barbati consol censor aidilis hie fuel a[pud uos :] hec cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe [pucnandod :] dedit Tempestatebus aide mereto[d uotam.] 32. [In Classical Latin : Hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Romae bononmi optimum fuisse virum virorum Lucium Scipionem : films Barbati consul censor aedilis hie fuit apud vos : hie cepit Corsicam Aleriamque urbem pugnando, dedit Tempestatibus aedem merito votam.] II. Epitaph of another L. Cornelius Scipio. L. Cornelio Gn. F. Gn. N. Scipio. Magna sapientia multasque uirtutes aetate quom parua posidet hoc saxsum. quoiei uita defecit, non honos, honore, is hie situs quei nunquam uictus est uirtutei. annos gnatus uiginti is Diteist mandatus : ne quairatis honore quei minus sit mandatus. 34. [In Classical Latin : L. Cornelius Gnaei filius, Gnaei nepos, Scipio : magnam sapientiam multasque virtutes aetate cum parva possidet hoc saxum ; cui vita defecit non honos honorem (?) is hie situs est qui nunquam victus est virtute : annos natus viginti is Diti est mandatus, ne quaeratis honorem (eius) qui non sit mandatus.] III. The Columna Rostrata in honour of C. Duilius, Consul B.C. 260, which seems to be an antiquarian restoration of the Empire, is restored and explained by the learned editors, I. 195. But every line and sentence is mutilated. No consonants are doubled ; c stands for g, as lenoneis ; exempt for exemit ; we find max/mosque macistratos, but [max]mas copias ; castreis, socieis ; numei ; naveis, claseis, but also navales, clases ; exfociont = effugiunt. Extract : Ma[celam . .] pucnandod cepet enque eodem mac[istratod prospere r]em navebos marld consol primes c[eset cjlasesque navales prlmos ornavet, cumque eis navebos claseis Poenicas om[nes . . -max] umasque copias Cartaciniensis praesente[d maxumod djictatored o[lor]om in altod marld puc[nandod vicet]. [In Classical Latin : Macelam urbem pugnando cepit, inque eodem magistratu prospere rem navibus mari consul primus gessit, classesque navales primus ornavit, cumque eis navibus classes Punicas omnes . . maximasque copias Carthaginienses praesente maximo dictatore illorum in alto mari pugnando vicit. ] I = I. In the second ' navebos ' the stonecutter had engraved u first, then o over it. IV. Extract from the Senatusconsultum de Bacchanalibus, B.C. 186. Haice utei in conventionid exdeicatis ne minus trinum noundinum ; senatuosque sententiam utei scientes esetis . . . eorum sententia ita fuit : sei ques esent, quei arvorsum ead fecisent quam suprad scriptum est, eeis rem caputalem faciendam censuere . . . atque utei hoce in tabolam ahenam inceideretis, ita senatus aiquom censuit ; uteique earn figier ioubeatis, ubei facilumed gnoscier potisit ; atque utei ea Bacanalia, sei qua sunt, exstrad quam sei quid ibei sacri est, ita utei suprad scriptum est, in diebus X. quibus vobeis tabelae datai erunt faciatis utei dismota sient in. agro Teurano, I. 196. [In Classical Latin : Haec ut in contione edicatis ne minus trinum nundinum ; senatusque sententiam ut scientes essetis . . . eorum sententia ita fuit : si qui essent qui adversum ea fecissent quam (i.e. aliter quam) E. Poetic Forms and Idioms. 563 supra scriptum cst, eis rem capitalem faciendam censuere . . . atque ut hoc in tabulam ahenam incideretis, ita senatus aequum censuit ; utque earn figi iubeatis, ubi facillime nosci possit ; atque ut ea Bacchanalia, si qua sunt, extra quam si quid ibi sacri est, ita ut supra scriptum est, in diebus X. quibus vobis tabulae datae erunt, faciatis ut dimota sint in agro Tcurano.] V. Extract from the Lex lulia Municipalis, enacted by C. lulius Caesar, B.C. 49. Queiquomque inmunicipieis coloneis praefectureis conciliabuleis c. R. Ilvir. Illlvir. erunt aliove quo nomine mag. potestatemve sufragio eorum, quei quoiusque municipi coloniae praefecturae fori conciliabuli erunt, habebunt, neiquis eorum quem in eo municrpio colonia praefectura foro conciliabulo in senatum decuriones conscriptosve legito neve subiegito neve coptato neve recitandos curato nisi indemortuei damnateive locum eiusne quei confessus erit se senatorem decurionem conscreiptumve ibei h. 1. essc non licere, I. 206. [Mere c. R. =civium Romanorum ; mag. = magistratum ; Ilvir. = duumviri; Illlvir. =quattuorviri ; h. 1. =hac lege. Observe ei for I in Abl. and Nom. PI. ; neiquis for nequis ; su/ragio ; conscraptum ; and the Prep, 'in' proclitically joined to its case: inmunicipieis, indemortuei locum. J E. POETIC FORMS AND IDIOMS. Although the general Rules of Grammar are applicable to poetry as well as to prose, yet poetry has many words, phrases, constructions, and collocations peculiar to itself. A few of these will here be mentioned. I. ETYMOLOGY AND USE OF WORDS. 1) The archaic Gen. of ist Decl. in ai is used by the Epic poets, Lucretius and Virgil, as, aulai, aquai. 2) Virgil and Horace always contract the Gen. of 2nd Decl. in : oti, tuguri, ingeni, imperi. The elegiac poets retain ii generally. 3) The contraction df the Gen. arum, orum into urn is confined to Masculine Substantives : agricolum, socium ; and of Adjectives to a few polysyllables only : magnanimum heroum. 4) Many Genitives in turn are contracted into um : apum, cohortum. This may be done in Present Participles : amantum. Words of the form - w -, as nubium, seldom lose i ; but mensum, sedum are found. . 5) The Dat. in ui, and the Gen. and Dat. in ei t may be contracted into */, e : victu for victui, fide for fidei. 6) The Imperf. of the 4th Conj. in ibam, and the Fut. in Mo, are archaisms occasionally used by Virgil : vestibat for vestiebat, This is not done in lyric verse, rarely in elegiac. The Infin. Pass, in ier is an archaism used occasionally in epic poetry ; not allowable in elegiac, rare in lyric. Other archaic forms are found. 7) Such forms as amaram amasse, fleram flesse, noram nosse, audieram audisse are of usual occurrence. 8) Tmesis is frequent, as Quae me cumque vocant terrae, Verg. ; inque iigatus, Verg. Cum tu argento post omnia ponas, Hor. 9) () Substantive is used for Adjective or Participle : Victor equus ; fabulae manes ; populus late rex. (/) Participle or Adjective for Substantive : volitans, an insect ; volantes, birds ; natantes, fishes ; praeceps, a precipice ', planum, a 002 564 Appendix, level surface ; inane, the (void] air. So, Opaca domomm, strata viarum, &c. (c) Neuter Adjective for Adverb ; Lugubre rubens ; perfidum ridens ; transversa tuentes, &c. 10) The Plural Number for the Singular : as, Tua numina posco ; sibila colla tumens. And the Singular for the Plural : as, Thyna merce beatum ; late loca milite complet. n) Transitive Verbs are used intransitively : Venti posuere, Verg. In- transitives used transitively : Horret iratum mare, Hor. Even Passives sometimes assume a Transitive force : Fontis avertitur, Verg. 12) The use of the Simple for the Compound Verb is a poetic idiom : Pone moras for depone ; tendere for contendere ; tenere for retinere, &c. 13) In regard to tenses, the Historic Present for the Preterite is often used ; also the Preterite Aorist for the Present to express habit or frequency j the Perf. Infin. for the Pres. Infin. 14) Many words are purely poetic, not being used in prose. They are too numerous to be here specified, but should be noted in reading. II. SYNTAX. 1. Agreement. A Neuter Complement with Masc. and Fern. Sub- stantives : Turpe senex miles ; and Synesis, are frequent in poetry. 2. Government. 1) The Accusative of Respect after Adjectives and Verbs is very fre- quent : Cetera laetus ; sibila colla tumens. 2) The Dative after Compound Verbs is favoured by the poets. Verbs of contending, repelling, differing, uniting, have a Dative in poetry ; but in prose, for the most part, a Preposition with its Case : Mihi contendere noli ; solstitium pecori defendite ; scurrae distabit amicus ; verba sociare chordis, &c. A Dative after a Verb of Motion is peculiar to poetry, but rare : It clamor caelo. A Dative after a Finite Passive Verb is poetic : Neque cernitur ulli. 3) A large number of Adjectives govern a Genitive in poetry only : Inane lymphae, nimius pugnae, gravis morum, integer aevi, &c. 4) The Infinitive Mood after Adjectives is frequent in poetry, and rare in good prose : Callidus condere, catus iaculari, audaxomniaperpeti, c. After some Substantives : Causa perire, tempus abire, &c. After Verbs of motion : Populare penatis venimus : of entreaty ; Hoc petit esse suum : of feeling ; Furit reperire, dedignata teneri : of hastening; Trepidat claudere, &c. Est is used for licet with Infin. : Aenean cernere erat : Nee sit mihi credere tantum. The use of the Participle after Verbs of Sense for the Accusative and Infinitive is a poetic Graecism: Sensit medios delapsus in hostis. The Infini- tive Active is used poetically where a prose writer would use the Participle in dus ; Dat ferre talentum ; quem sumis celebrare, &c. 5) Many instances of Ellipsis and Pleonasm are found in Poetry, too numerous to be here cited. Note. Historians, as Sallust, Livy, above all Tacitus, often heighten their style by the intermixture of poetic imagery and expression, especially when a narrative is picturesque, or a speech impassioned. III. COLLOCATION. The Collocation of words in poetry is much more free than that of prose, but will be better learnt by reading and practice than by any attempt to reduce the subject to rules. F. Supplement to Figurate Construction. 565 F. SUPPLEMENT TO FIGURATE CONSTRUCTION. 61. 1. Anacoluthon is the passing from one construction to another before the former is completed : 'Si, ut Graeci dicunt, omnes aut Graios esse aut barbaros, vereor ne Romulus barbarorum rex fuerit,' C. ' Quae qui in utramque partem excelso animo magnoque despiciunt, cumque aliqua his ampla et honesta res obiecta est, totos ad se con- vertit et rapit; turn quis non admiretur splendorem pulchritudi- nemque virtutis ? ' C. Anacoluthon is often due to Attraction. 2. Hysteron- Proleron is when, of two things, that which naturally comes first is mentioned last: 'Moriamur et in media anna ruamus,' Verg. Ae. ii. 353. The following Figures belong to Rhetoric : 3. Synecdoche puts the part for the whole : ' Caput for homo ; tectum for domus,' &c. Sometimes the whole stands for a part : * Sal sextante est' (Liv.), for modius salis. 4. Allqgoria is a chain of metaphors : ' Claudite iam rivos, pueri, sat prata biberunt,' Verg. B iii. in. Meaning, 'Cease to sing, O shepherds; sufficient recreation has been taken.' 5. Hyperbole magnifies beyond credibility : ' Sudor fluit undique rivis,' Verg. Ae. v. 200. 6. Litotes states less than is actually meant : Non laudo, for culpo. 7. Ironia says one thing and means another, but so as to let the real meaning be understood: 'Egregiam vero laudem et spolia ampla refertis tuque puerque tuus,' Verg. Ae. iv. 93. 8. Climax, rises by gradations, like the steps of a ladder : ' Quod libet tis, licet ; quod licet, possunt ; quod possunt, audent,' C. 9. Polyptoton brings together cases of the same Noun : ' Iam clipeus clipeis, umbone repellitur umbo ; ense minax ensis, pede pes et cuspide cuspis,' Stat. 10. Paronomasia is a play upon the sound of words : ' Tibi parata erunt verba, huic verbera,' Ter. 11. Antithesis contrasts opposites: 'Urbis amatorem Fuscum salvere iubemus ruris amatores,' Hor. 12. Chiasmus places a double Antithesis in introverted order: 'Ratio nostra consentit, repugnat oratio,' C. Fin. iii. 3. 'Non video quomodo sedare possint mala praesentia praeteritae voluptates,' C. T. D. v. 26. 'Alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia nigra leguntur,' Verg. B. ii. 18. 13. Oxymoron unites seeming contraries: ' Temporis angusti mansit concordia discors,' Lucan i. 98. 14. Periphrasis describes a simple fact by various attending circum- stances. Thus, instead of ' now night is approaching,' Virgil says, ' Et iam summa procul villarum culmina fumant, maioresque cadunt altis de montibus umbrae,' B. i. 83. See the beautiful periphrases of old age and death in Ecclesiastes, ch. xii. 15. Simile or Parabole illustrates a statement by an apt comparison: * Per urbis Hannibal Italas ceu flamma per taeclas vel Eurus per Siculas equitavit undas,' Hor. C. iv. 4. 42. 16. Apostrophe is an appeal to some person or thing: ' Quid non moi> talia pectora cogis auri sacra fames?' Verg. Ae. iii. 56. 566 Appendix. 17. Prosopopoeia represents inanimate things as living and acting : 'Te Spes et albo rara Fides colit velata panno,' Hor. C. i. 35. 21. 'Belli ferrates rupit Discord ia postis/ Enn. 1 8. Aposiopesis suppresses the conclusion of a thought: 'Quos ego sed motos praestat componere fluctus,' Verg. Ae. i. 135. Most of these Figures (to which might be added others) are used in Prose as well as in Poetry. G. MONEY, WEIGHT, AND MEASURE. I. "As' was the Roman unit of weight and measure. See its duode- cimal division, 34. viii. II. MONEY. 1. Cattle were the earliest Italian medium of exchange. The word 'pecunia' (from 'pecus') preserved the memory of this fact, as Engl. chattel and fee^ from Germ, vieh, point to the same custom in the Teuton branch. Cattle fines are noticed in ancient laws as commuted for sums of money ; a sheep being rated at 10 ' asses librales,' an ox at 100. 2. The metals used for agricultural implements, iron and (in Italy) copper, were the next medium of exchange. These were at first weighed out roughly (the 'libra' or pound being the unit of this 'aes rude'), then cut in bars of various shapes and sizes, corresponding to the weights, and bearing generally some mark, as an ox, a swine, &c. This was called 'aes signatum.' Its origin is referred to the reign of Servius, that is, to a time before authentic history. ' Aestimare,' to value, is de- rived from ' aes ;' and the act of weighing copper continued in later times to be the legal form of * mancipatio ' in sales, repayments, and in one matrimonial solemnity (per aes et libram). The bit of unwrought copper with which the purchaser struck the scale was called 'raudus' or 'rod us - culum.' 3. About the year B.C. 451, u.c. 303, copper money was first coined, with impressions obverse and reverse, by the Decemviri. Their coinage comprised the 'as libralis,' and some of its fractional parts, 'semis,' 'triens,' 'quadrans,' 'uncia,' and ' semuncia.' It had an alloy of about 7 per cent, of tin. not reducing its intrinsic value ; but, later, another alloy of about 23 per cent, of lead, by which the value was reduced, lead being in proportion to copper as i : 2. Varro says : ' Libram pondo as valebat ' : and in theory, this copper ' as ' was libral, equivalent to a pound of 12 ounces : but in practice existing specimens shew variation from 8 or 9 to 14 ounces, giving an average of about 10. Hence this coinage, on a scale nominally duodecimal, was really decimal. 4. It continued in use nearly 200 years : but shortly before the first Punic War, about B.C. 269, u.c. 485, a mint was established in the temple of Juno Moneta, and three commissioners were appointed (triumviri monetales auro argento acre flando feriundo), who began to coin silver money ; the coins being the denarius (nominally 10 asses), the quinarius or half-denar (nominally 5 asses), and the sestertius or quarter-denar (nominally 2 asses). About the same time, a revolution was made in the copper money itself. The libral as (nominally of 12, but actually 10 ounces on the average) was reduced from the libral to the triental standard, that is, to the weight of 4 ounces. Nevertheless, the old libral standard was occa- sionally used or referred to, under the title of 'aes grave.' As the G. Money, Weight, and Measure. 567 denarius represented 10 asses of the triental standard, =40 unciae, its quarter part, the sestertius, was equal to 10 unciae, which was the average value of the libral as. Thus it came to pass that, in the new monetary system, the silver sesterce represented the old copper 'as,' so that any numerical sum ' aeris gravis' (as in Livy) may be counted at the same number of sesterces, under the triental standard. 5. Between the first and second Punic Wars, the value of silver in proportion to copper fell considerably. In consequence, the triental * as ' sank first to the sextantar, and then, B.C. 217, U.c. 537, by the Flaminian law, to the uncial standard. At the same lime the denarius was raised, by way of compensation, to the value of 16 (uncial) asses, making the sestertius equal to 4. The weight of this denarius was of a pound ; that of the older one, T \, and the smaller silver coins in proportion. Among these was a coin called ' victoriatus, ' from the figure of Victory stamped on it. The original value of this was f of the denarius ; but by the Clodian law, B.C. 104, u.c. 650, it was reduced to the same value as the 'quinarius,' or \ of the 'denarius.' 6. Although the sesterce, when - 4 uncial or semuncial asses, ceased to possess the ancient value of the libral as, it still continued to represent the popular calculation of 'aes grave.' During the first Civil Wars, B.C. 86, U.C. 668, the Marian Consul Valerius Flaccus carried an iniquitous law (afterwards repealed by Sulla), enabling debtors to clear themselves by paying one coined ' as ' (| of the sesterce) in place of one ancient ' as, ' or the sesterce itself. In other words, debtors might discharge themselves from all liability by paying 25 per cent, of their debts, or, as we com- monly say, five shillings in the pound. 7. After the second Punic War silver became so abundant that it thenceforward constituted the chief Roman currency, and copper money was, as among ourselves, small change only. This led to a further reduc- tion of the copper 'as,' which, by the Papirian Law, B.C. 89, U.C. 665, fell to a semuncial standard, indicating a rise in the value of copper as compared with silver. From this date copper coinage ceased for half a century, being resumed during the second Civil Wars. Besides the copper coins heretofore mentioned, the following were also in use from time to time: the 'dupondius,' in value 2 'asses'; ' tressis,' 3 'asses'; ' decussis ' 10, &c. ' Centussis ' was not a coin, but a sum ; and when Persius says, 'Centum Graecos curto centusse licetur,' he means that the rude centurion would not give an ' as ' apiece for 100 Greek philo- sophers. 8. Gold coinage in the republican times was occasional but not frequent, chiefly for the purpose of military donations. The ' aureus ' of Sulla was i of a Ib. of gold ; that of Pompey ^ ; that of C. Julius Caesar i ; that of Augustus . This last and most important coin was made equal to 25 denarii or 100 sesterces. Mommsen values it at I/, is. 5, . (e) If the sum* are described by cypher, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish whether sesterces, or sestertia, or centena milia sestertium are meant, unless the rule mentioned ( 34, vii. 2) be observed. Thus, when Livia Augusta bequeathed to Galba * sestertium quingentiens,' Tiberius reduced the amount to ' ses- tertia quingenta, quia notata non perscripta erat summa.' That is, he chose to read USD for HS|TJ|. Examples : ' HS deciens et octingenta milia ' = 1,800,000 sesterces. Viciens ducenta triginta quinque milia quadringentos decem et septem nummos ' =2,235,417 sesterces. (Hultsch cites a place in which mille is used for deciens.) 10) The following rules, of a roughly practical nature, will enable the student to calculate approximately the sums which occur in classical authors : 1) For sums in 'aes grave' (often in Livy) count the amount 'aeris gravis ' as the same amount of sesterces, and count the sesterce = 2 -4^. Thus ' milia aeris gravis ' = 1,000 sesterces = 2,400^. = io/. 2) For sums under the silver currency from B.C. 217 B.C. 30, u - c - 537 u - c - 624, cited by Cicero and other writers, count the sesterce = 2 "id. If 'sestertia' (i.e. 'milia sestertium') are to be regarded as an exact total of 1,000 sesterces, this would give them the current value of 8/. 1 5 s. , and this is a convenient figure, though Hultsch rates it somewhat higher, 8/. 15^-. 6d. This calculation, as already stated, gives to 'centena milia (sestertium)' an approximate value of 87O/., which will be the multiple understood with the Adverbs in -iens. Thus ' deciens ' = 8, 7oo/. , ' centiens ' = 87,ooo/. , ' miliens ' = 870, ooo/. , &c. , ap- proximately. 3) Under the gold standard from B.C. 30 to A.D. 200, count the sesterce, as above stated, 2 '6?VS*.fiSS rt rt rt rt eS rt ci rt rt rt P-< II! O N fO-tf-uvo *xoo ONQ N fO rUnvO t^OO ON O t ^ | - |l - <> -' | -'*-) irartp-. We are hence able to infer that the primitive stem is patar, of which Sanskrit (in pitar) has weakened the first syllable, Latin and Greek the second. (2) A J long vowel is the sum of two short vowels. Hence it appears that a root with long vowel is the development of another with short vowel, which is therefore the earlier of the two. Example. The ' foot ' of man or any other animal is expressed in Latin and Greek by the root pd- 7rd5-, but in Sanskrit the word is pad, nom. pad-as m. This shews, what we might have been pretty sure of, that the vowel of the root is a ; but here we find long a ; so we are led to expect an earlier root with short a, from which a is developed. And this we find in the Sanskrit verb-root pad, 'to go, 'which has derivatives with a, padii, pada-m, ' a pace,* ' a step.' The Latin and Greek Nominatives pes, irous, have the same quantity as pad, and so in Compounds Sk. dvipad, Lat. bipes, Gr. StVowr, &c. But the verb-form pad does not exist in Latin and Greek (unless bitere and VO.TW can be referred to it). (3) Guttural Consonants, by (i), antecede the rest. Others are not changed into them, though they are represented by others. Hence if a guttural form compete with another, the guttural may be regarded as primitive. P P 578 Supplementary Notes. Examples. In Sanskrit, c' (soft ch) and s' often represent k, c ; s'v may represent kv, qu ; sometimes Lat. p, TT, T, represent a guttural ; Sk. j re- presents g. See pp. 59-61. (4) Of the Consonant trills r, 1, so often interchanged (p. 64), r must be considered the earlier. (5) Sanskrit words beginning with h have lost an initial which preceded it. (6) The vocalized r-trill is expressed in Sanskrit by the vowel ri (ri), but this in Latin and Greek is usually represented by ar, er, or. Even in Sk. ar is the earlier form, and Professor Cowell has pointed out to me (since this Grammar was reprinted) that the great Sanskrit Dictionary, now being published at St. Petersburgh by the Russian Government, rejects ri from verb-roots, and receives ar as the true form, though the ri-form is that which Indian scholars use. Terminal diphthongs are also rejected. The words of the editors are : ' Wir haben aus den Verbal -wiirzeln die Vocale ri, ri und li vollstandig verbannt ; desgleichen die Diphthonge vom Auslaut derselben ; ri im Auslaut von Nominalthemen haben wir durch ar ersetzt.' Hence they write bhar not bhri, kart not krit, pitar not pitri, da not 'de'or 'do.' The following instances may suffice to illustrate the principles stated ; the suggested primitive form being placed in the fourth column : Lat. Gr. Sk. Pr. COqU- 7T67T- pac' pak (kak ?) quinque TT^TC panc'an pankan (kankan?) li(n)qu- Anr- ric' rik equ-us liriros as'vas akva-s gno- 71/0- jna gna vert vrit, vart vart cord- Kap5-ia hrid, hard khard ? serp- 4p7T- srip, sarp sarp lup-US AlM-OS vrika-s, varka-s varka-s urs-us &PKT-OS riksha-s, arksha-s arksa-s levi-s ^-Aaxw-s laghu-s, raghu-s raghu-s (for leg-vis) Raghu-s is a derivative of the verb-root rawh, or ra-gh, to move fleetly. Exemplifying these principles further from other roots and words cited in p. 554, we are led to infer that the following, among others, are the primi- tive forms : ag drive; ap acquire-, krii hear; kar make ; dha, place; da give; dik shew; bhar bring; bhu be; gan produce; man think; ma measure ; mar fade, die ; sad sit ; sak follow ; star strew ; sta stand ; stag cover ; tan stretch j vas clothe ; ghans goose ; kvan dog ; dvar door ; avis sheep, &c. Many of these forms will be seen to differ in some respect or other from the Sanskrit, while others agree, as man, sad, tan, vas, avis, &c. The only two which agree exactly with Greek or Latin are ag, ap. Thus it is shewn how primitive forms are deduced with probability from a comparison of kindred languages. An instructive example may be added : the derivative word Sk. s'ravas, Gr. *\4os, L. laus. The root is (Prim, kru) Sk. s'ru, Gr. fcAt/-, L. clu- hear. The derived forms may be compared letter by letter : Sk. s' r a v a s = s'ravas. Gr. K A f (f) o s = K\e(f)os. L. 1 av s = laus. Here it is seen that (a) in Sanskrit : the primitive k passes (as often) into s' ; r remains ; aV from u is a constant formation ; as is a Noun -ending. (6) in Greek : k remains in K ; the rough liquid r passes into the soft A- ; Supplementary Notes. 579 av is weakened into ef, and the f" (*v) is lost in later Greek ; os n. is the weakened ending for as n. (c) in Latin : k falls off (p. 44) ; r passes into 1, av is vocalized into au ; and as the ending us is hereby precluded, a suffix d is brought in, and the nom. lau-d-s ( = laus) is formed, which, by Latin analogy, becomes Fern. A similar word is hravas (clearly for dhravas from root dhvri, or dhurv, to bend' or 'make crooked ')= Latin fraus ; fr corresponding to dhr, the rest as in s'ravas and laus. The following is a list of Sanskrit roots corresponding to most of thos? cited on pages 14-17 : English. Sanskrit. to yoke yuj hear s'ru float plu cleanse pu stink puy tray, sound ru shine rue' cover sku sew siv be strong tu shew dis' shine div &> that i lie down si adhere li spy spas' three tri love, desire lubh drive a J shine bh, bhas beget jan English. know hide Sanskrit, jna kul slip measure lamb ma fasten rule pas' batfie sna stand stha strew seize make, create sit stri, star hri, har kri, kar sad cover cover move sthag vri, var, val val sound svan sleep the sun svap svar speak vac' flll fade, die be pri, par, pur mri, mar bh'u The roots due- lead, nu- nod, fid- trust, ac sharpen, sa- sow, mar- glitter, are not represented in Sanskrit. We find push, nurture, and putra a son in Sanskrit, with which L. puer and its cognates are probably connected. Sanskrit has the Adjective rudh-ira red, but not the verb rudh to be red\ yet to such a root we must refer the words ruber, rufus, 4-pv6-p6s, &c. The Latin verbs luo, lavo to wash, and Muo to flow, are probably related to S.k. plu to float. To break is in Sk. bhanj : if this is the root of Gr. fpa-y, L. frang-, it has developed r in those languages. L. sero, connect, may be from the Causal of Sk. sri sar, to proceed. That Sk. sarva, all, is of the same family as the Latin words of solidity, saJus, solum, sollus, solus, sellers, &c., appears certain : and they arc referred by some to the root sri, sar. Sk. svar, the sun, may indicate a verb-root svar or sur, to shine : but such root is not extant. II. 'Relations in the Simple Sentence, 103-105, pp. 352-8.' In the belief that the meaning of these sections will be most clearly shewn by the analysis of a passage according to the principles laid down in them, the first Ode of Horace (C. i. i.) is chosen for that purpose. Horace, presenting three Books of Carmina to his illustrious friend P P 2 580 Supplementary Notes. Maecenas in the year u.c. 19, u.c. 735, places this Ode first by way of dedication. The outline of what he says is this : ' O Maecenas, my beloved protector, various are the delights of men. Some who, like the Greeks, love excitement, display and barren honour, are glad to win the great Olympian chariot-race. 1 Romans having large landed property are overjoyed, one, if the popular vote exalts him to the three offices of state ; another, if he is enabled to acquire unrivalled wealth. The yeoman farmer would not be tempted by the riches of Attalus to forsake the tillage of his hereditary fields. The merchant captain, amidst the perils of shipwreck, may regret his native village ; but let him return there, and rest- less greed soon drives him back to sea. The Epicurean quaffs his wine, and takes life easily from day to day. The soldier is all for camps and battles ; the huntsman for the hardships of the chase. As for me 2 at Rome I enjoy, as a learned man, the society of the great ; elsewhere, the haunted forest and the favour of the Muses. But if, after reading what 1 ncnv send, you rank me among lyric poets, I shall reach the very zenith of delight.' Maecenas atavis edite regibus, o et praesidium et dulce decus meum, sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse iuvat, metaque fervidis evitata rotis palmaque nobilis. 1 5 terrarum dominos evehit ad deos hunc, si mobilium turba Quiritium oertat tergeminis tollere honoribus, ilium, si proprio condidit horreo quidquid de Libycis verritur areis. IO gaudentem patrios findere sarculo agros Attalicis condicionibus numquam dimoveas, ut trabe Cypria Myrtoum pavidus nauta secet mare. luctantem Icariis fluctibus Africum 15 mercator metuens otium et oppidi lauciat mra sui : mox reficit rates quassas, indocilis pauperiem pati. est qui nee veteris pocula Massici nee partem solido demere de die 2O spernit, nunc viridi membra sub arbuto stratus, nunc ad aquae lene caput sacrae. multos castra iuvant et lituo tubae permixtus sonitus bellaque matribus detestata. manet sub love frigido 35 venator tenerae coniugis immemor, seu visa est catulis cerva fidelibus, seu lupit teretes Marsus aper plagas. me 2 doctarum hederae praemia frontium dis miscent superis, me gelidum nemus 30 nympharumque leves cum sa'yris chori secernunt populo, si -neque tibias ... Euterpe cohihet nee Polyhymnia Lesboum refugit tendere barbiton. quodsi me lyricis-vatibus' inseris, 35 sublimi feriam sidera vertice. . . The following Syntactic Analysis is thus arranged : . In the Predicative Relation (I) both related words, Nominative and Verb, are placed together. In II-VII, one word is stated ; and that to which it i.s related by agreement or government is added within brackets, Supplementary Notes. 581 sometimes by its initial only, but so as not to be mistaken. With Annexed words (VIII) the Conjunction, if any, is given, the related words following. ^Words to be mentally supplied are in italic type. Numerals by or page refer to the Rules, as given in the Syntax or Uses of Words, 1. Predicative Relation. ( 108. Concord I. 115.) 3. Sunt homines ( 114. 2, 206. note). 4. collegisse iuvat (177-8). r 6. illud evehit si, &c. (when si nearly = quod, the Protasis forms a Sub- stantival Clause which may be, as here, the Subject of the Apodosis). 1 7-8. turba certat. 9. ille condidit. 10. quidquid verritur. 13. tu dimoveas. 14. ille secet. 16-17. mercator laudat. 17. ille reficit. 19. est homo. 19-21. qui spernit. 23. castra iuvant. 25. venator manet. 27. cerva visa-est. 28. aper rupit. 29. hederae miscent. 30-2. nemus chorique secernunt ( 112). 33. Euterpe cohibet. 33-4- Polyhymnia refugit. 35. tu inseris. 36. ego feriam (p. 350, 109). II. Qualitative. (1) Attribution ( 108. Concord II.). a. As Epithet (p. 354). 2. Meum dulce (d). 3. Olympicum (p.). 4. fervidis (r.). 5. nobilis (p.). 7. hunc (dominum, see note). 7. mobilium (Q.). 8. tergeminig (h.). 9. proprio (h.). 10. Libycis (a.). II. patrios (agr,). 12. Attalicis (c.). 13. Cypria (t.). 14. pavidus (n.). Myrtoum (m.). 15. Icariis (f.). 17. sui (o.). 18. quassas (r.). 19. veteris Massici (vini). 20. solido (die). 21. viridi (a.). 22. lene (c.). sacrae (a.). 23. multos (homines). 25. frigido (I.). 26. tenerae (c.). 27. fidelibus (c.). 28. Marsus(a.). teretes (p.). 29. doctarum (f.). 30. superis (dis). gelidum (n.). 31. leves (c.)- 34. Lesboum (b.). 35. lyricis (v.). 36. sublimi (v.). 0. As Enthesis (p. 354. See also 237-9). I. Edite (M. =qui editus es). 5. evitata (m. =quae evitata est). II. gaudentem (virum = <\\\\ gaudeat). 15. luctantem (A. =dum luctatur or qui luctetur). 16. metuens (mere. = cum metuit). 18. indocilis (mere. =quia indocilis est). 22. stratus (qui = cum straverit, having stretched}. 24. per- mixtus (s.). 25. detestata (b.). 26. immemor(v.). (2) Apposition ( 108. Concord in.), o. As Epithet (p. .354). 1. Regibus (atavis, which is the principal noun here : royal ancestors]. 0. As Enthesis (p. 354). 2. Praesidium (M. = qui es praesidium . . . meum). 15. nauta (ille* factus nauta). 29. praemia (h. = quae sunt praemia). III. Objective. Nearer Object. ( 120-1. See 237.) 3. Quos (iuvat). 3. pulverem (coll.). 6. dominos (evehit, see note). *J. hunc (evehit, see note). 8. eum (tollere). 9-10. frumentum (condidit). II. virum (dimov.). 12. agros (f.). 14. mare (s.). 15. Africum (met). 16. otium (laud.). 17. rates (r.). pauperiem (pad). 19. pocula fsp. ). 20. partem (dem.). 21. membra (stratus, 122. 6). 23. homines (iuv.). 28. plagas (r.). 29. me (misc.). 30. me (sec.). 32. tibias(c.). 33. bar- biton (t.). 35. me (i.). 36. sidera (f.). IV. Receptive ( 132-3, &c. See 237). 15. Fluctibus (1. 135. b. c.). 23. lituo (p. 135. b.). 24. matribus (d. 141. 7). 27. catulis (v. 134. i). 30. dis (misc. 135. b.). 35. vatibus (i- P- 385)- 582 Supplementary Notes. V. Circumstantive. ( 143, &c. Ablative : Adverbs : Prepositions.) 1. Atavis (ed. 159). 3. curriculo (coll. 145). 5. rotis (evit. 145, or 151). 6. ad deos (eveh. 70. i.). 8. honoribus (tollere, 151). 9. horreo (c. 155. 2.). 10. de areis ( 71, p. 300). 1 1. sarculo (f. 145). 12. condicionibus (dim. 145). 13. numquam (d.). 14. trabe (s. 145). 17. mox (r.). 20. de die ( 71, p. 300). 21-2. nunc nunc (str. p. 317). sub arbuto (str. 71, p. 306). ad caput (str. 70. I.). 25. Sub love (m. 71, p. 306). 31. cum satyris (ch. 71. IV.). 32. populo (sec. 158). 36. vertice (f. 145). VI. Proprietive ( 162, &c.). 6. Terrarum (dom. 174). 7. Quiritium (t. 166). 16. oppidi (r. 165). 19. vini (pocula, 166). 22. aquae (c. 165). 23. tubae (s. 165). 26. coniugis (i. 174, 2. 7.). 29. frontium (p. 165). 31. nym- pharum (ch. 166). VII. Prolative ( 180). 8. Tollere (c.). 11. findere (g.). 18. pati (indocilis). 34. tendere (r.). VIII. Annexive ( 188). 2. Et decus (praesidium). 4-5. metaque palmaque (collegisse). 9. ilium (hunc). 17. et rura (otium). 20. nee demere (pocula). 23-4. et sonitus bellaque (castra). 31. chorique (nemus). (A) Vocative ( 118) Interjections ( 104) and Conjunctions. i. Maecenas ( 104, 118). 2. O ( 104. 118) et ( 77. 3). 7-9. si si (see note). 13. ut ('so that he, &<:.' 205 : or, if to dimoveas be given the sense of persuading, 'ut secet 'may be referred to 197). 2O-I. nee nee ( 77- 3)- 27-8. seu seu ( 221). 32-3. si neque nee ( 77. 3.) (B) Relative Construction ( 108. Concord iv. 105). 3. Quos (agrees with antecedent homines, 108. case is governed by iuvat, 121). 10. quidquid (omne frumentum is suppressed antec. On Case, see I.) 19. qui (agrees with antecedent homo : is nom. subject of spernit). 35. quod si, but if ( = asto which, if, &c. See 82. 6). [Notes. ! 1. 5. A full stop is placed after ' nobilis,' and no stop after ' deos ' in 1. 6, with Macleane and Munro. Horace would tolerate no- where, much less in the opening lines of his First Ode, such a construction as ' hunc ilium ' dependent on 'iuvat ' or 'evehit' supplied from a previous and specially distinct sentence. ' Nobilis ' forms a beautiful ending to the sentence 'sunt quos,' &c.; and 'evehit,' having for its subjects the two clauses 'si mobilium,' &c., 'si proprio,' &c., is an exquisite, though not frequent construction. As to ' terrarum dominos,' opinions will probably be divided between making it an apposition to 'deos' and taking it as object of 'evehit,' in the sense of 'Roman landlords.' The latter explanation, supported by Lucan's 'terrarum dominos,' Phars. viii. 208, which Orelli cites, is here preferred. 2 1. 29, &c. The reading 'te,' which some suggest for the first 'me,' is tempting, because Maecenas was learned : see C. iii. 8. 4. But perhaps Horace in these lines speaks of his own two modes of life, both delightful : one, which, as a scholar favoured by the great (di superi, i.e. Augustus, perhaps including Maecenas: see C. iii. 3, II. 5, 2. iv. 5, 33), he en- joyed at Rome ; the other, in his Sabine villa near Tibur. See iv. 3, the most exquisite of all his poems, where he expresses similar feelings in another form, and exults in having gained that which in the present ode he declares to be the summit of his hopes to be calK.d ' Romanae fidicen lyrae.'] INDEX I. SUBJECTS [Reference Is made sometimes to Sections, : sometimes to Pages. An asterisk marks a term introduced in modern works on Latin Grammar. Italics with asterisk mark a term introduced in this Grammar or its companion works. ] A, the standard guttural Vowel, 12. Its sound ; strength, 10, n ; forms diphthongs with i, u, 12 ; weakenings, 20-32. See CONTENTS. *A-Nouns, Decl. I., 22. See 2O- 21. *A- Verbs, Conj. I., 43-47. 53. Abbreviations (Siglarium Romanum). Appendix K., 575. Ablativus Casus (auferre, to take away), the Ablative Case, so called from one of its uses (separation), 19. Its form in the Declensions, 2O. Governed by Prepositions, L 71-72. In Circumstantive Re- tion, 1O3. V. Syntactic uses, 143-161. See CONTENTS. Ablativus Absolutus (absolvere, to release], the Ablative Absolute, so called because it stands released, as it were, from government. Also called *Ablativus Convenientiae, 161. 238-240. Ablative Supine, 4O. 187. Abstract Names, 71, 125, 272. Abundance in Nouns, 27. Acatalectus (i, not, KaraATJveii/, to stop short] , Versus, 528. Accentus (accinere, to intone], Accent, Acute or Circumflex, 7. Accentuation, 1O. 511. Accusativus Casus (accusare, to accuse], the Accusative Case, so called because the accused is the Object of prosecution. Gr. ainnTi/o/ TTTWO-KT, 19. Its form in the De- clensions, 2O. Governed by Pre- positions, 7O. 72. Objective Relation, 1O3. III. Syntactic uses, 119-131. See CONTENTS. Active Voice (agere, to do], 36. Active Sentence, how changed to Pas- sive Form, 1O6. Adaptation or Partial Assimilation of Consonants, 42. Adjectivum, Adjective (quod adicitur Substantive). Gr. eiriOerov (epithet], 15. Declension of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I., 93 ; in Decl. III., 115-119. Irregularities, 28. Com- parison, 29. Derivation, 59. Uses, 63. In Qualitative Rela- tion, 1O3. II. See Agreement ; also CONTENTS. * Adjectival Clause, 189. Adjectival (Relative) Clauses, 2O4-21O. Adonius Versus, 541. Adverbium, Adverb (quia ad Verbum est), 15. Comparison of Adverbs, 3O. Correlation of, 54. Table of, 228-230. Derivation of, 255-258. Strengthen Superlative and other Adjectives, 279. ^Adverbial Attribute and Apposite, 278, 365. *Adverbial Clause, 189. (.) Ad- verbial Clauses, 2O4-227. See CONTENTS. Adversative Conjunctions, 57. 318. Affirmative Answers, 88. Agreement, 1O8-114. See CON- TENTS. Alcaic Verse, 267. 269. Alphabet, the letters of any language, so called from Alpha, Beta, the first two Greek letters. Latin Alphabet, 7. 12. Anacoluthon, a Figure of Syntax, 565. Anapaestus, Anapaest, ^ ^ -, a. me- trical Foot, 525. Anapaestic Rhythm, 543. Anaphora, 318. Animals, names of, their gender, 76, 77. *Annexivc Relation in the Sentence, 1O3, VIII. 432. Conjunctions, 316. Answers, Affirmative and Negative, 88-89. Antecedent, 357, 361. Agreement of Relative with, 1O8. 361, 367, 368. *Apod6sis (an-r^iSorai, to render back], [ If a Predication is so limited by a 584 Index I. COM Clause, that the Clause can be stated first, the Predication afterwards, such Predication is called Apodosis, while the Clause is called Protasis (irpoTeii/eu', to stretch before]. These terms are chiefly used in regard to Compound Conditional and Con- cessive Sentences (if, although] ; if, although / stand (Protasis), / see (Apodosis). But there would be no impropriety in applying them when the Clause is Temporal or Causal, 'when because I stand, I see,' or when it is Relative, as 'whoever stands he will see.' Any such clause is conditionally limitative, and is a Protasis ; because a con- dition precedes in logical order that of which it is the condition. But in grammar the terms Apodosis and Protasis are applied to the principal sentence and condition severally, in whatever order placed. Appellativa (appellare, to call by name), Common Names, 71. * Apposite (apponere, to place by), a Substantive attributed to another Substantive, 71, 353. Apposition, 71, 353, 359, 360, 364- 3 6 7- Arsis (aipet. to lift), that Syllable in a Foot on which ' ictus falls, 258. Articles (apflpa). none in Latin, 73. *Aryan Affinities, Append. C., 554. *Aryan Family of Speech, 2. As, Compounds of, 149 ; parts of, 157. Appendix G., 556, &c. Asclepiad Metres, 263. ; 544, &c. Assimilation of Vowels, 32-35 ; of Consonants, 41-43. Asynartetus (a, not, cru^apraj/, to link), Versus, 528, 543. Atonic or Baryton Syllables, 1O. * Attraction (attrahere, to draw to), a very important usage in Syntax, 61. HO. 114. Attributum (attribuere, to assign), At- tribute, 71. In Qualitative Rela- tion, 353, 354. Concord, 1O8. Attribution, Idioms of, 113. B, a medial labial mute Consonant, Relations of, 63. Euphonically in- serted, 44 (note). Base in metre, 528 (note). * Being, Verb of (sum, esse), 42.' C, a tenuis guttural mute Consonant, modified from r. Sounded as K., 9, 60 (note). Relations of, 59-64. Caesura (caedere, to cut), 26O. and note. j Calendar (Roman), Appendix//., 572. i Cardinalia (cardo, hinge), Cardinal Numerals, 33. Uses of. 34. j Case, 19. Cases, Formation of, 20. See De- clensions. Case-construction, 115-176. See CONTENTS. Catalecticus (KaraA^'y^ 1 ', to stop short), Versus, 528. Causal Conjunctions : Coordinative and Subordinative, 57. Causal Coordination, 320. *Causal Clauses, Adverbial and Ad- jectival. 2O9-21O. Character (xap*KT4p. impressed mark) of a Stem or Root, 70. *Circumstantive Relation, 1O3. V. * Clause, 352. *Clipt Stem, 30, 170. *Coalition, 53. Collective Nouns or Nouns of multi- tude, 71. Their construction, 362. *Combinate Tense-forms, 38. Common Gender, 18. Common Names (Appellativa), 71 Comparatives and Superlatives, their formation, 42 (note). Comparative Constructions, 314, 315* 404, 405. Comparative Conjunctions, Coordina- tive and Subordinative, 57. Comparative Sentences, 227-228. Comparison, 29-3O. *Compensation, 18. * Complement (complere, to complete), the (Predicative), that which com pletes the construction of a Sen- 1 The term 'Substantive Verb? as used to denote 'sum, esse,' has every disadvantage which a term can have, (i) It is a fal>-e translation of its Greek original, pTjfxa vwaoKrueov (verbum existens). (2) It tends to confuse learners, who ought to consider a Substantive one part of speech and a Verb another. (3) If any form could claim the term Substan- tive Verb, it would be the Infinitive, which partakes of each character (Verb-noun). These evils are aggravated by the modern practice of saying Substantive Verb, not Sub- stantive, which was the universal pronunciation of the Adjective formerly, in accordance with Johnson's authority (a substantive proposition). There is no more reason to obliterate his wise distinction by applying the general rule of pronunciation to this word in both its senses, than to accent the first syllable in adjacent, subjective, and hundreds more. Subjects. 585 COM ENG tence, when the Verb is copulative, 1O2. Oblique Complement, 351, 360, 131. See Predicate. Composite Subject, 268, 353, 112. Composition of Words, 6O. Composition of Verbs, 52, 6O. 'Compound Sentence, 1OO, 198- 228. See CONTENTS. Concessive Conjunctions, 57. *Concessive use of Conjunctive Mood, 339- 'Concessive Sentences, 225-226. Concords, Four, 1O8. Concrete Names, 71. Conditional Conjunctions, 57. Conditional Sentences, 213-224. See CONTENTS. Conjugation (coniugare, to yoke to- gether], the Flexion of Verbs, 72. Periphrastic, 47. Conjugations, the four, 43. Their Paradigms, 44-5O. Conjugating, method of, 43. Coniunctio (coniungere, to unite], Con- junction, Gr. o-unSta/no?, 73. 57. Coordination by, 77-81. See COR- RELATION and COMPOUND SEN- TENCES. *Coniunctivus Modus; Conjunctive Mood, 37. Pure Conjunctive, Examples of, 174. 93-95. *Consecutio Temporum, Consecution of Tenses, 98. 229. 'Consecutive Conjunctions, 57. 'Consecutive Clauses, 2O5, 2O6. Consonants, 7. Scheme of, 8. Affections of, 41-58. Relations in Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, 12. xxxv. See CONTENTS. *Consonant Nouns, 2O. 24. *Consonant Verbs, 43-47. 53. Contraction, 52, 56. ^Coordination by Conjunctions, 77-81. By Relative, 82. * Copulative Verbs (copulare,^ couple], List of, 1O1. Correlation, 73-76. Correlative Pronouns and Particles, 31. D, a medial dental mute Consonant, 63. Sounded as t when final. T written for final d, 63. Inter- changed with 1, 65. Dactylic Hexameter, 259-26O. Dativus Casus, Dative (Receptive) Case, 19, 2O. In Receptive Re- lation, 1O3. IV. Constructions, 132-142. See CONTENTS. Declension (declinare, to slope down], 19- Declensions of Substantives, the Five, 2O. Their Case-endings, 21. First Decl., 22. Second Decl., 23. Third Decl., 24. Fourth Decl.. 25. Fifth Decl., 26. Declensions of Adjectives, 93, 94, 115-119. Irregularities of Declen- sion, 27-28. Defective Nouns, 27. Defective Adjectives, 28. Defective Verbs, 49. Deminutiva, Diminutives, 247. *Dental Consonants, '8, 63. Deponent Verbs, 36. Their Con- jugation, 45. Paradigm, 171. Deponents of First Conj., 207-208. Of Second Conj., 214. Of Fourth Conj., 215. Of Third Conj., 225. Derivation, 59. Cf Nouns, 235-253. Of Verbs, 254. Of Particles, 255- 259- Desiderative Verbs (desiderare, to desire], 206. Dialects of Italy. Append. D., 556. Diphthongs (Si?, <0oyyos, sound), 6. 12, 13. Disjunctive Conjunctions, 57. Disjunctive Coordination, 318. *Dissimilation of Vowels, 34. Of Consonants, 43. Distributive Numerals, 33. Double Object Verbs, their construc- tion, 354, 379. *Dubitative Sense of Conjunctive, 339. Duration of Time in Accus.,375; Abl., 401. E, medial Vowel between a and i. Its sound and strength, n, 19. Forms diphthongs with i, u, 12. Various affections of, 24-28, 38. *E-Nouns, Fifth Declension, 2O. 21. 26. *E- Verbs, Conj. II., 43-47. 53. *Ecthesis (e/cTifleVai, to place out], a word or words standing out of the predication with which they are in context ; as, a Vocative Case, or an Interjection, with their adjuncts, 104. Elegiac Distich, 261. *Elision (elidere, to strike out], the re- moval of a final Syllable before a word beginning with a Vowel, 52, 256. Ellipsis (eAAeiVni/, to omit], omission of one or more words in construc- tion, 61. 274, 346, 367. *Enclitic words (fy^Lv^v, to lean on), those which throw back accent on the word which they follow, 7, 259. Ending, 14. English Language, 2. 586 Index L ENT INF *Enthesis (eirifleVai,. to place in], 352. *Enuntiatio (enuntiare, to declare or state}, a statement, 1OO. *Enuntiatio Obliqua, the First Class of Substantival Clauses, 1OO, 189, 194-2O3. See CONTENTS. Epicoene words, 77. Epithet (fniQeTov, placed on to], an Ad- jective in simple Attribution ; as, vir bonus, 15. See Attribute. Etymology (erv/xos Ao'-yos, true account}, L 6- Euphonic Insertion of Consonants, 44- * Euphony, 19. Exclusion of Consonants followed by Contraction of Vowels, 56-58. Extensible Verbs, 102. 1O3, VII., 180. F, an aspirate spirant Consonant ; its sound uncertain, 9. Corresponds to bh, dh, gh ; *, 0, x, 61, 62. Passes into h, 62. *Factive Verbs, 351. Their con- struction with Accusative (Oblique Clause), 380-381. Families of Language, 2. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric, 61. Appendix F., 565. *Final Conjunctions (finis, end, pur- pose], 57. * Final Clauses, Adverbial and Adjec- tival, 207-208. *Finite Verb, 35. * Flexion (flexio, a bending], 14-15. Foot, ^58. List of Feet, 525 (note). Fractions, how expressed, 157. Frequentative Verbs, 205. Futurum Tempus, Future Tense, Simple and Perfect, 38. Their uses, 9O. 229. Consecution, 484, 485. See Periphrastic Conjugation, 47. G, a medial guttural mute Consonant, 12. 9. Its Relations and utter- ance, 61. Galliambus of Catullus, 538. Gender (genus), 18. Generic Names, 74. Genetivus Casus, the Genitive (Pro- prietive) Case, Gr. YeTa, to transfer), a Figure of Rhetoric, 270. Metonymy (/u-era, irapa), a Figure of Rhetoric, 270. Metre, 258. *Mobilia Substantiva, Substantives which have P'eminine as v/ell as Masculine Form, 74. Money, Computation of, Appendix G., 566. Month, Roman, Appendix H., 572. Moods, 37. 90-97. *Morphology (MOP form, Adyos, ac- count), Wordlore, 8. 13. Multiplicative Numerals, 148. "Mutation of Letters, 12. N, a nasal Consonant, usually dental, but before Gutturals becoming guttural or palatal ; its Relations, 64. Names (Roman), 252. How abbre- viated, Appendix K., 575. *Narratio Obliqua, 23O. *Nasalization, insertion of n, 19. Negative Particles and Pronouns, 83-85. Negative Answers, 330. Neuter Adjectives, their Substantival use, 63. 365. Nomen, Noun, 15. Gr. Si/o/ma. Nomiative Case, 6co/u.aerncT| H-TWO-I*, 19. Formation of, in Sing, and Plur., 20. Uses of, 115-117. See Predicative Relation. Number, 17. 39. 62. Numeralia, Words of Number, 33- 34. Numeral Series, Declension, Table, 33-34. O, medial Vowel between a and u. Its sound and strength, n. Forms Diphthongs with i, 12. Weaken- ing into u, 21. *O-Nouns, Second Declension, 2O. 23. *O-Verbs (fragments of), 221. *Obiectum (obicere, to cast in the -way}, Object (correlated to Subiectum, subject], that on which a Subject acts. It may be Nearer Object (Accus. Case), or Remoter (usually Dative, sometimes Accus.) See Accusative, Dative, and Objective Relation. *Objective Relation, 103, III. ^Objective Genitive, 163. 174. *Obliqua Oratio, 19O-193. *Oblique Subject or Complement (the Subject or Complement of an Ob- lique Infinitive Clause), 352 (note), 131. Optative use of Conjunctive, 95. Order of Words in a Sentence, 241- 243. Ordinalia, Ordinal Numerals, 33. Ordinative Particles, 317. Orthography, Append. A., 547. *Oscan Dialect, Append. D. P, a labial tenuis mute Consonant, 12. Euphonically inserted, 59, 6 3- *Parasitic u (v) joined to q, io, 58. Part affected, Accusative of, 374 Participles (partem capere), 165 Participial Construction, 237-24O. See CONTENTS. 588 Index /. PAR Particulae, Particles or Small Parts of Speech, a name given to the four undeclined Parts, including some which are inseparable, or only used in Compounds : ambi-, dis-, in-, re-, se-, 24. 54-58. 255-259 Partitive (partiri, to divide), words which take a Genitive of the Th ng Distributed, 171. See Genitive in CONTENTS. Parts of Speech or Words, 14. 16. Passiva Vox (pati, to suffer], Passive Voice in Verbs, 36. Patronymic (^arijp, father, OVO/JLO., name], a name expressing descent from a father or ancestor, 75. Perfect Tense (perficere, to complete), 38. Disyllabic Perfect, 18. Its double use in Latin, 164. Its uses in the Indie. M., 162. In pure Conjunctive M., 90. 95. In Subjunctive, 204. 229. Perfect-Stem and Character, 41. Its Formation, 51. 53. Period (n-c-pi'oSos, circuit] and Periodic Style in Discourse, 214-219. *Periphrastic Conjugation, a term used to express the forms of predi- cation obtained by connecting the Participles with the Verb sum : especially the Future Active Parti- ciple in -urus and the Gerundive in -ndus, 47. The term would be equally applicable to theCombinate Passive Tenses with sum and Perf. Part., but is not usually given to these. See p. i6-|, 47. Person, 39. *Petitio (petere, to seek], that Form of a Simple Sentence in which the Im- perative Mood is used, 1OO. *Petitio Obliqua, Indirect Will-speech) the second of the three kinds of Substantival Clauses, 349, 197. Phalaecian or Hendecasy liable Verse, 537- Pherecrateus Versus, 535. Phonetic Decay, n. *Phonology (wf>?, sound, Ad-yo?, ac- count], Soundlore, 7-12. Phrase (pro Archia, 10. 462 16. 411 15. 446 3- 366 ii. 466 16. 426 15- 45 3- 402 14. 408 X. i. 423 19. 424 3- 406 14. 409 4. 267 19. 447 5- 466 15. 466 4. 462 pro Balbo 6. 451 16. 275 4. 492 3- 454 10. 460 16. 424 7- 444 12. 426 ii. 284 17. 463 7. 476 15- 370 * Where no line is quoted, the whole Ode is referred to. 6O2 Index III. [CICERO Brutus. 6. 481 Cato Major, or 7. 434 i. 441 10. 450 de Senectute. 19- 407 7 3" ii. 412 ' 439 24. 3 11 8. 409 12. 394 i. 460 31. 437 10. 411 13. 408 3- 409 33- 4/i 3*3 12. 423 13- 453 18. xxviii 4. 408 4- 446 53- 369 53- 406 14. 391 21. 413 5. xxx 53- 458 17- 391 pro Ccecina. 5- 156 S 8 . 424 17- 456 i. 511 5- 273 66. 380 18. 393 8. 39i 5- 392 70. 284 18. 409 9- 393 5. 410 pro Deiotaro. 1 8. 423 pro Ccelio. 5- 455 4. 408 18. 455 3. 288 6. 440 6. 392 20. 292 4- 432 6. 468 de Divination r. 20. 425 7. 406 6. 484 I. 5- 382 21. 445 7. 406 7. xxix 13. 452 23. 327 I 3- 47 1 7- 479 J 4- 324 24- 393 14. 288 8. 406 15. 409 33- 393 1 6. 460 8. 483 34- 376 17. 466 8. 499 17. 472 35- 282 20. 427 9- 156 20. 393 48. 457 20. 445 9. 444 23. 4,2 50. 291 21. 378 10. 437 30. 276 5 6 - 352 21. 428 II. xxxvii 3 1 - 427 56. 432 26. 314 ii. 346 32. 290 5 6 - 4 6 5 28. 314 ii. 423 35- 394 59- 407 in Catilinam. ii. 425 36. 272 60. 408 I. i. 269 " 433 36. 424 69. 275 i- 330 IT- 433 39- 3*8 69- 352 i. 336 12. 411 4i. 459 73- 257 i. 369 12. 448 45- 444 73- 3 T 5 i. 438 13. xxxi 73- 34i 73- 34i 2. 446 2. 449 13- 459 14. 368 52! 391 II. I. XXXIX 73- 449 5- 334 14. 460 2. 39 I 82. 479 5- 337 15- 407 2. 454 83. 468 6. 290 15- 55 3- 49 s 84. 284 7- 283 1 6. 287 8. 472 88. 436 7. 426 16- 3*5 !3- 447 88. 453 8. 465 16. 336 J 9- 437 89. 410 9- 34 1 1 6. 407 21. 434 91. 405 9. 424 i 6. 492 22. 481 91. 498 9- 454 16. 496 24. 313 92. 322 13- 287 17. 320 24- 457 92. 364 I 3- 5 11 17- 433 2 4- 45i 93- !S3 II. i. 371 17. 451 24. 486 97- 394 i. 445 19- 273 26. 320 ad Brutum 4. 410 19- 393 28. 467 Epistolce. ii. 450 19. 410 28. 499 I. 3. 410 12. 282 19- 433 3. 391 3- 478 III. 8. 364 20. 290 3 1 - 445 9- 4 11 12. 459 20. 448 35- 449 10. 42^ 12. 51! 21. 272 39- 323 10. 476 IV. i. 467 22. 336 39- 455 IS- 454 2. 313 22. 451 43- 3 b2 17. 417 2. 394 23. 3 2 3 56. 3^7 17- 445 5- 495 23- 383 56. 411 II. i. 391 6. 384 23- 465 57- 352 in Cacilium. 8. 472 23- 483 S 8 . 425 i. 492 9. 426 pro Cluentio. 59- 455 2. 282 9. 501 i. 391 60. 426 3- 394 2. 425 62. 321 KERO.] Passages in Latin Writers. 603 62. 408 7. 402 23- 341 25- 393 pro Donw Sua. 7. 461 23. 448 XIII. i. 47 6 " 454 7- 478 23- 474 6. 361 25. 281 7. 481 24. 318 8. 26S 29. 427 . 8. 288 26. 335 8. 364 42. 285 9. xxxvii 27. 471 16. 285 50- 39 2 9. xxxvii 30. 407 1 6. 460 ad Familiares. 9- 4i3 30. 411 17. 446 I. 3. 282 9- 447 30. 478 18. 450 7. 322 9. 478 32. 481 22. 279 7. 406 12. 460 VIII. 2. 441 43- 483 7. 442 !3- 153 6. 407 47- 444 7- 449 V. 2. 381 io. 428 55- 323 9. 362 3. 422 ii. 441 56. 454 9. 461 6. 288 13- 449 73- 445 9. 462 8. 407 IX. i. 437 XIV. i. 379 II. 2. 43 8 8. 425 i. 400 i. 381 4. 425 9- 447 3- 4o8 i. 462 4- 449 12. 272 ii. 391 i. 476 6. 282 12. 273 15- 337 2. 287 6. 397 12. 284 1 8. 363 2. 447 6. 447 14- 3^ 18. 477 2. 479 6. 458 17- 342 21. 65 3- 279 7. 44 6 17. 342 21. 352 3- 369 8. 289 17. 411 21. 432 4. 406 10. 291 19- 394 23. 310 5- 363 10. 311 19. 467 25. 407 5- 397 10. 382 10. 438 21. 341 21. 481 26. 470 x. --. 423 5- 45i 8- 335 io. 447 VI. . 186 0- 473 12. 447 ii. 341 . 310 io. 391 13- 324 13- 413 . 426 12. 426 23. 404 14. 483 432 13. 462 XV. i. 408 !5- 45 * 485 16. 341 4. 156 16. 383 . 499 18. 410 4- 456 16. 445 2. 481 19. 484 8. 446 17- 485 3- 427 20. 311 !3- 450 19. 462 4- 433 20. 335 14. 322 III. i. 478 6. 446 23. 410 1 6. 409 6. 45 r 6. 498 3'- '55 17. 200 7- 483 8. 433 8. 448 13. 286 XI. i. 42 , 8. 475 19. 394 XVI. i. 417 8. 448 14- 39i ii. 467 4- 37 8. 451 15. xxxii 13- 3 r 5 4. 417 8. 511 *9- 393 13- 37i 4- 45 s 9- 474 21. 366 1 6. 498 7. 426 io. 338 VII. i. 282 22. 278 8. 458 io. 370 i. 381 27- 393 12. 392 io. 407 i. 445 27- 393 12. 447 ii. 406 i. 449 28. 375 !3- 342 13- 3*3 2. 406 28. 394 14- 409 IV. 3. 408 2. 450 28. 433 14. 419 4. 4" 3- 336 28. 447 J 4- 445 4- 43 2 3. 422 XII. 5. 450 14- 475 5. 289 5. 268 6. 333 !8- 393 5- 3*3 6. 392 6- 34i 20. 311 5- 3*9 12. 381 6. 476 20. 341 5- 369 13. 109 7. 368 de Fa/o. 5- 37i I?. 321 io. 470 4- 369 5- 427 14- 393 14. 284 Q- 455 5- 455 1 6. 460 15- 407 io. 448 7- 324 21. 445 15- 454 12. 445 7- 393 23. 322 17. 476 604 Index III. [CICERO de Ft nib its. 20. 455 56. 404 16. 433 I. i. 364 20. 464 II. i. 291 1 8. 369 2. 433 20. 478 i. 380 19. 433 3. 468 21. 3 6 9 i. 407 19. 470 4- 393 22. 284 2- 430 22. 433 6 - 93 22. 383 23- 458 22. 451 7- 449 IV. 18. 454 27. 323 TT 23. 433 10. 459 23- 47i 39- 407 II. i. 475 13- 455 1 6. xxx 24- 455 V. i. 422 40. 273 45- 451 7- 3'3 10. 280 17- 425 i. 425 53- 464 10. 282 18. 268 i. 427 58. 393 10. 473 18. 417 i. 474 Lcslius, or de 12. 410 19. xxxiv 2- 451 A micitia. 12. 41 I 19. 282 5- 437 i. 454 12. 418 19. 407 19. 454 8. 285 9. 292 2. 318 2. 383 15. 425 1 6. 3.40 20. 288 9. 448 4. 311 i- 393 20. 321 10. 271 4- 3 J 7 i- 394 20. 392 10. 288 4. 468 20. 337 20. 451 ii. 444 5- 477 23- 337 II. I. 352 14- 456 6. 271 26. 378 I. 369 15. 284 6. 425 26. 458 I- 371 15 288 6. 455 III. i. 310 3- 321 15- 433 7. 466 i. 445 5* 45* 17. 287 9. 287 2. 28^ 8. 440 22. 393 9- 324 3- 337 10. 312 22. 408 9- 459 5- 37i ii. 494 23. 317 15- 458 ii. 323 13- 423 23- 393 16. 423 18. 393 13. 424 23- 433 16. 424 de Lege 13. 43 2 28. 329 17. 320 Agraria. 13- 43 2 5,8. 450 17- 455 ' I. 6. 410 14. 481 29- 383 19. 411 7. 2f>8 15- 485 1 6. 482 29. 407 29. 408 20. 427 20. 445 II. i. 460 2. 405 17. 276 pro Flacco. 20. 457 19. 493 17- 454 1 8. 493 20. 480 21. 447 1 8. 468 25- 4 6 7 21. 286 24. 423 20. 289 26. 155 21. 346 24. 466 20. 32 1 27- 445 21. 455 27. 406 20. 431 32- 425 22. 283 27. 427 22. 417 38. 272 22. 371 34- 3S" 26. 268 41- 432 22. 444 III. 2. 409 26. 286 pro Fonteio. 24. 283 pro Lege 26. 33 6 10. 382 24- 317 Manilla. 2 7 . 432 ii. 410 24- 383 i. 457 27. 467 12. 450 24. 406 2. 4_-4 28. 407 de Haruspicum 24. 454 3- 154 28. 44 I tesponsis. 25- 153 3- 426 30. 383 13- 39 2 25- 316 4. 462 & *? r: 32. 34 6 34- 381 [ad Herennium, seeAuctorad 25- 454 26. 461 7- 449 7- 456 III. 2. 39 2 HerenniumJ\ 26. 481 7- 465 3- 34 T de Inventione 27. xxix 9. 282 ** * *^ 3- 4 l6 Rketorica. 27. 290 9. 286 3- 44 1 I. 2. 466 de Legibus. 10. 342 3- 565 16. 433 I. i. 364 12. 278 7- 393 20. 434 7. 279 12. 382 8. 321 20. 449 8- 455 17- 285 15. 408 33- -193 10. 495 17. 471 19 39 1 ; 34- 325 ii. 366 20. 370 20. 433 39- 409 16. 363 20. 447 CICERO.] Passages in Latin Writers. 605 23. 283 26. xxxi 23- 39i 30- 433 24. 389 28. 310 25- 45i 30. 444 pro Ligario. 30. 274 27- 393 3 1 - '54 2. 493 3- 3 J 8 3 1 - 327 33- 38i 28. 467 30- 457 31. 291 3i- 423 6. 341 34. 446 32. 3 b 9 3 1 - 432 7- 4 6 4 3 8 - 45i 34- 39i 3 1 - 449 8. 472 40. 498 34. 410 32. 367 fro Marcello. 43- 4ii 36. 392 32- 4i7 8. 454 44- 425 36. 480 34. 410 pro Mi lone. 44. 478 39- 291 34- 413 3. 286 44. 478 39- 432 34- 423 4- 447 4- 5H n. i. 319 2. 363 40. 382 de Officiis. 34- 427 34- 476 8. 413 3- 498 }- ' 333 37- 342 8. 481 4- 327 ! 375 38. 286 $ 29 9- 455 i. 511 38. 481 10. 453 12. 458 2. 456 39- 394 12. 391 15. 448 2. 466 39- 4"> 14- 39i 16. 445 2. 498 39- 424 18. 486 16. 45 1 4- 392 39- 447 20. 320 17. 480 4- 423 40. 454 21. 425 20. 317 9- 473 41. 279 26. 466 20. 423 10. 346 41. 364 27- 493 21. 467 10. 471 4 - 476 31. 482 24. 268 II. 370 43- 346 33- 476 28. 408 " 455 44- 473 34- 34i 3- 449 it. 458 II. i. 483 35- 432 31. 460 11. 480 2. 411 35- 496 33- 382 13- 342 2- 451 3 6 - 445 36. 398 13. 408 3. 284 pro M arena. 39- 5oo 13- 45i 3- 473 i- 433 40. 400 14. 321 4- 273 2. 417 47- 3i7 14- 423 4- 34i 2. 511 48. 96 14. 456 4- 4H 3- 466 48. 390 15. 280 5- 4i3 5- 336 50. 406 15- 321 5- 455 6. 475 52. 280 15- 43 6. 285 7- 393 53- 34i 16. 392 6. 333 9- 34i 53- 4o6 I0 - 495 7- 449 ii. 43 1 14. 368 53- 441 53- 445 17. 286 20. 369 7- 45i 8. 462 14- 45 6 56. 370 21. 447 9- 369 29. 409 57- 4o6 21. 464 9- 448 31- 342 59- 383 22. 271 10. 406 3 1 - 434 59- 436 22. 433 12. 366 37- 43 2 61. 445 22. 467 !2- 433 40. 324 61. 486 23- 3 6 3 12. 462 de Natura 64. 336 24. 285 J 4- 392 Deorum, 64. 394 24. 447 16. 407 I. 5. 289 66. 380 24. 481 17- 364 6. 406 67- 475 25- 449 17. 406 7. 268 III. i. 433 25- 454 18. 411 8. 444 i. 45<> 25- 479 1 8. 427 8. 448 3- 482 27- 3 6 9 18. 439 13- 383 7- 329 27. 411 19. 471 20. 393 7- 448 27- 454 20. 449 20. 448 9- 478 28. 276 21. 467 21. 311 13- 45 28. 364 21. 478 21. 45 8 13- 456 28. 426 22. XXV 21. 464 15- 5oo 28. 455 22. 394 21. 472 18. 312 29- 285 22. 445 24- 457 18. 478 29. 483 23- 370 606 Index III. 2. 460 45. 48 2 462 47- 44 6. 341 48. 47 6- 433 48. 512 6. 468 5i. 287 9- 334 68. 453 9- 465 69. 471 10. 363 71. 270 10. 381 de Oratore. 10. 446 I. i. 455 10. 456 i. 466 10. 465 10. 478 5. 369 6. 467 II. 411 8. 337 II. 450 8. 394 12. 424 8. 432 13- 45 8. 434 i> 394 9- 381 15- 423 12. 441 15- 497 14. xxxi 16. 318 18. 291 19. 326 18. 482 19. 468 20. 433 19. 481 21. 445 20. 432 26. 423 20. 475 28. 460 21. 394 28. 465 21. 479 29- 3 11 25- 336 35- 406 25. 468 35- 44 6 27- 465 36- 438 30- 334 38- 312 31- 393 44- 273 3L 445 46. 322 32. xxv 47- 382 33. xxv 48. 469 33- 393 de Optimo Gen- ere Ora forum. 49. 281 50. 268 5*. 378 4- 378 54. 454 7. 406 54- 493 Orator. 54- 494 i. 433 S 8 . 423 2. 284 58. 479 2. 334 59- 464 2. 457 60. 319 7. 411 II. i. 440 8. 270 2. 288 9. 369 2. 427 12. 366 4- 333 14- 433 5- 319 21. 424 5- 3 22 26. 392 5- 482 29- 153 6. 364 29. 454 6. 382 33- 279 6. 384 34- 427 6. 451 34- 4 6 4 7- 435 38. 371 8. 309 45- 4i 9. 272 45- 45 ii. 423 45- 4 6 12 423 45- 47 12. 477 III. 15. xxxi 15- 4i9 25. 381 26. 186 27- 423 30. 292 30. 458 30. 462 36. 440 37- 4o8 37- 446 38. 433 40. 433 40. 472 46. 407 Si- 392 52. 310 54- 370 S 8 . 477 59- 273 60. 368 62. 475 62. 477 65- 335 74- 445 80. 392 85- 393 86. 493 90. 450 94- 362 2. 287 2. 379 4- 497 5- 332 5. 396 5- 434 5- 44i 6. 454 7- 495 10. 433 14- 442 14. 481 !5. 393 20. 270 20. 325 23- 365 23. 426 23- 471 24- 475 25- 381 25- 381 29. 328 29. 383 30. 313 32. 406 34- 375 36. 464 44- 433 47- 5H 50. 325 52. xxxvii 55 328 III. V. VI. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. [CICERO Paradoxa Stoico urn. 474 481 272 394 284 440 352 449 2. 447 de Partitione Oraioria. 24. 482 25. 468 Philippics Ora f tones. I. 4. 312 14. 369 2. 447 3- 4 11 3- 464 4. 451 10. 383 11. 346 12. 319 12. 383 14- 39 1 16. 328 19. 410 19- 45 r 22. 433 22. 47 8 25- 455 27- 425 27. 496 29- 457 34- 300 38. 336 38. 471 39 2 423 43- 43- 44- 3 1 ? 45- 47 6 45- 4 8 o 5. 468 5- 4 60 i. 4"4 1. 467 3- 433 3- 498 4. 268 ii. 336 17. 156 17. 367 17- 4 6 4 18. 454 19. 499 2. 383 4. 482 5- 393 7- 34i 9- 337 CICERO.] Passages in Latin Writers. 607 VIII. i. 454 i. 446 J 7- 394 Tiisculance 5. 391 i. 446 Disputationes. xi. 363 x. 479 x8i 433 I. i. 364 IX. 5- 393 2. 291 19. 448 i. 460 6. 289 2. 337 21. 283 i. 474 XI. 2. 39 2 2. 382 22. 444 2. xxxii 3. xxxvii 2. 424 25- 455 2. 332 4. 412 3- 329 27. 366 2. 409 3- 427 29. 476 3- 445 XII. ^l 369 3- 433 33. 463 9- 455 2- 4*3 II. x. 383 35- 383 12. 352 8. 478 i. 409 35- 476 15. 426 XIII. 6. 316 3- 335 36. 39i 15- 445 8. 391 6. 279 36. 490 16. 382 10. 267 - 39- 384 16. 456 9. 466 12. 341 42. 444 17. 283 9. 466 13- 382 45. 406 17. 288 12. 409 III. I. 285 47. xxxvi 17- 423 XIV. 6. 407 I. 412 52. 450 17. 444 7- 575 4. 472 Pro Scauro. X7- 457 in Pisonem. 4- 478 2 454 18. 286 x. 383 5. 382 c 13- 376 19 391 3- 39 2 9. 449 pro best 10. 19. 412 3. 412 pro Rabirio. 4- 378 19. 446 17- 393 i- 393 9. 281 21. 3*5 . 17. 446 ii. 282 16. 370 21. 47 2 22. 414 pro Rabirio 20. 342 21. 482 3- 34i Posthumo. 22. 444 22. 451 S 2 . 493 2. 482 24. 467 23. 286 38. 465 9. 418 2 5- 173 23. 411 pro Plancio. 10. 410 29. 485 2 4 . 28 5 i. 446 3- 383 13- 419 post Reditum 30. 467 36. 445 24. 447 27. 509 3- 467 in Senatu. 37- 465 28. 287 4- 413 2. 411 38. 432 29- 393 5. 426 22. 407 de Republica. I. 19. 394 38. 472 44. 450 29. 423 29. 466 22. 471 31. 371 52. 391 31. 280 23. 2 7 6 34. 468 62. 290 3X. 370 25- 454 II. 7. 411 66. 467 3 1 - 475 25. 482 10. 156 68. 342 33- 339 28. 427 12. 432 68. 499 34- 444 28. 496 33- 482 IV. 5. 432 VI. 15. 466 69- 459 pro Sulla. 34- 444 35- 3 61 41. 383 IS- 483 6. 286 35- 393 dt Provinciis 24- 332 13- 439 36. 407 Consularibus. pro Q. Roscio 18. 326 37. 468 i. 449 Comocdo. 19- 330 38. xxxvii 7- 427 7- 309 3X. 279 38. 326 *7- 45i ii. 280 Timteus or de 39. xxv pro Qiiinctio. pro S. Roscio Universo. 39- 497 i. 478 A merino. 3- 407 40. 448 2. 268 2. 482 x- 393 i. 511 6. 392 7- 39 1 4L 445 41. 446 3- 462 2. 394 9- 433 42. 437 8. 478 5- 4H 10. 369 42. 462 10. 432 6- 394 Topica. 43- 449 25- 383 6. 406 i. 427 43- 450 3 1 - 4" 7- 409 4- 413 45. 267 ad Quintum 10. 453 6. 290 45- 39 r F rat rein. 12. 312 i 22. 433 45- 457 I. i. 327 16. 314 48. 459 i. 444 16. 480 j II. 3- 463 6o8 Index II L [CICERO III. IV. 5- 48a 24. 342 7. 446 COLUMELLA. ii. 3 2 9 26. 565 13- 470 Pr. 6. 317 13- 366 28. 413 18, 468 2. 575 J5- 465 29. 477 23- 3*5 26. 4. 408 17- 439 35- 407 25. 406 1 8. 335 36. xxxix 34- 39i 18. 444 36. 271 43- 434 CURTIUS. 3- 459 47- 425 III. ii. 425 21. 413 37- 382 48. 326 12. 498 24- 473 37- 384 52. 472 IV. i. 406 3- 44 1 39. 448 54- 3*3 28. 347 7- 433 40. 268 55- 43 2 VI. 10. 393 8. 454 in Vatinium. 59- 477 43- 45 r 10. 426 i. 471 69. 467 VII. 8. 411 12. 411 75. 416 VIII. i. 494 17- 39 1 8. 446 83- 424 2. 501 26. 319 15. 406 84 406 8. 498 26. 482 in Vcrrem. 90. 325 IX. 51. 495 28. xxxii I. 2. 483 97. 408 X. 2. 425 29- 454 3- 383 IV. i. 456 30. 427 6. 288 2. 409 { 32. 446 6. 409 3- 4 J 3 EUTROPIUS. 6. 271 6. 463 8. 309 I. 8. 425 383 9- 432 9. 471 8. 498 14. 282 9- 463 10. 408 IV. ii. 459 J 7- 34 J 10. 466 ii. 392 V. ! 447 19. xxviii 13. 409 13 xxxvii VII. 9. 461 19- 394 15- 423 13. 341 23. 426 24. 480 1 8. 407 19- 393 14- T 55 21. 465 FLORUS. 25- 327 26. 405 26. 413 31. 468 21. 474 25- 3 T 4 I. i. 392 10. 463 27. 407 34- 3i6 28. 492 13. .jc8 34- 492 29. 49? III. 10. 370 36. 464 39. 448 40. 448 12. 42$ 37- 4" 47. xxxvii 52. 278 IV. i. 498 37- 496 48. 407 52. 278 3- 432 5. xxxvii 5- 3 10 5. 428 5- 444 6- 455 7. xxxii 58. 273 58. 425 59- 434 60. 470 II. 2. 310 2. 464 2. 466 57- 37 J 60. 451 V. 2. 327 2. 448 5- 438 5- 480 10. 465 GELLIUS. I- 17- 35* 19. 406 II. ii. 381 V. 14. 369 19. 450 X. i. 404 7- 437 6. xxxi n. 408 XI. 15. 378 8. 445 6. 393 ii 424 8- 445 8. 466 9- 375 10. 319 ii. 461 n. 4 6 5 HIRTIUS. ii. 391 433 a5- 379 Bellum Alex- 13. 426 ii. 444 25- 383 andrinum. 13- 434 18. 283 27- 334 i. 449 18. 423 27- 45 14. 407 15- 319 30- 454 32. 290 3 2 - 393 34- 465 HORACE.* Carmina. J 5- 3 21 S 2 . 433 40. 423 1. I- 535 15- 447 32. 500 47. 461 579 16. 379 43- 330 49- 47 . 582 19- 3*5 55- 155 49. 404 I- i. 357 20. 375 56. 280 54- 477 3- 457 20. 382 60. 451 58. 410 ii. 497 20. 392 65. 440 69. 276 17- 433 20. 457 67. xxxix 2. 535 20. 460 III 2. 370 - 537 * Where no line is quoted, the whole Ode is referred to. HORACE.] Passages in Latin Writers. 609 2. 49* xv * 4. 65. 426 50. 406 98. 447 3- 535 5 . 2. 582 12. 16. 448 103. 450 544 6. 3, 470 16. 17. 451 3. 9. 268 3- i. 3 IJ 7- 29. 545 20. 313 15. 473 7- 340 8. 4. 582 20. 403 17- 334 4- 534 ii. 33. 418 6x. 390 17. 3 8r 544 12. . 534 18. ii. 376 28. 446 5- 535 13. 13. 418 37. 335 68. 307 6. 535 16. 32. 439 96. 448 105. 289 7- 534 19. 10. 275 *9- 3- 390 105. 446 544 24. 28. 459 9- 427 I37. 458 7. 24. 428 27. 26. 376 II. i. 63. 456 4- I- 367 27. 411 69. 376 76. xl 3. xxxiii 8- 534 30. 6. 419 76. 291 39- 34i 544 IV. i. 3. 368 2, I. 468 39- 390 8. 9. 404 3- 582 40. 310 84. 382 9. i. 448 4. 42. 462 1 80. 456 in. 446 15. 281 42. 565 Epodes. 119. 462 ii. 535 5- 33- 582 i. 5. 476 5- 13- 332 ii. i. 341 7- 534 2. . 543 25- 375 12. 18. 154 . 543 37- 368 41. 369 18. 419 8. 535 39- 468 48. 431 14 18. 272 20. 468 5- 57- 369 6. 15. 368 16. 13. 346 9- i 34i 87. 268 74- 375 14. 428 i. 458 99. 382 92. 392 22. . 544 24. 10. 404 15- 346 15. 428 6. 6. 272 7- 544 127. 332 127. 365 26. i. 431 ii. 14. 572 9. 30. 281 9- I- 334 27. 5. 280 12. . 545 n. . 534 3. 291 28. . 534 7. 271 12. . 534 4. 418 31. 18. 340 13. 2. 352 544 7. 281 32. i. 272 14. 17. 434 13- 534 ii. 423 Epistolce. 544 IS- 333 35- 4- 4o6 I. i. 52. 411 14- 534 37- 477 61. 365 544 38. 467 21! 566 2. 6. 346 IS- 534 47- 477 36. 15. 342 7. 428 19. 480 II. x. 6. 478 37. 25. xvii 9- 45i 16. . 534 37. 458 25. 428 10. 450 544 82. 289 31- 439 34- 467 17- 533 2. 89. 461 38. 3- 337 3 . 12. 309 540 124- 339 II. 2. 6. 423 IS- 390 19. 425 3. 9. xxxm 3- I- 337 ' 4- 13- 365 14. 496 ad Pisones, or Ars Poetica. 151- 477 155- 366 21. 404 5. 12. 432 IS- 364 156. 416 7. 23. 382 12. 450 25- 352 159. 478 8. i. 468 IS- 450 69- 325 162. xxx 17. 441 21. 447 114. 448 174- 447 9. 15. xvii 14. 19. 426 21. 450 6. 20. 365 133. 451 161. 431 258. 478 293. 366 26. 154 16. 13. 369 23. 394 36. 366 168. 432 203. 131 3i5- 448 326. 342 17. 28. 470 18. . 534 543 40. 342 67. 467 292. 371 307. 448 421. 408 5. 8. 268 18. 444 23- 340 19. 28. 426 7- 16. 330 467. 313 S 6 . 447 11. i. i. 36! 23- 439 Satire. 59- 328 9. 440 39- 474 I. I. X. 268 87- 474 15- 383 66. xxx 14. 458 & 4- 475 2. 13. 426 26. 450 8. 3- 448 10. 4. 292 49. 417 64. 346 20. 382 65. 268 3- II. 582 24. 481 66. 377 65- 369 4- 61. 546 47- 39i 66. 428 73- 328 R R 6io Index III. [HORACE 84. 4i8 29. 370 2. 411 48. 304 7. 31. xxx 32. 268 2. 467 49- 376 101. 370 32. 383 6. 383 51. 422 8. ii. xxxv 32. 461 7. 371 53- 444 26. 370 33. 410 10. 381 54- 3 6 9 92. 470 35- 49 8 ii. 463 54- 4i7 36. 410 12. 323 54- 437 JUSTIN. I. 8. 407 3 8 - 423 39- 424 14. 154 14. 370 VI. i. xxxix 16. 318 II. 3. 369 40. 472 IS- 154 17. xx 8. 380 41. 328 19- 451 18. 425 * o /f 15. xxxii 50- 403 19. 470 18. 426 HI. i. 268 S 1 - 405 23- 463 26. 281 3. xxxiii 54- 494 25- 434 36. 138 VI. 2. xxxiii 56. xxxiv 26. 365 42. 446 8 - 393 56. 313 26. 424 VII. 5. xxxiii 8. 467 56. 405 3 1 - 375 5. 410 9. 268 56. 486 33- 409 8- 313 VII. 2. xxxiv 58. 369 35- 459 8. 425 XI. 10. xxxiii II. i. 280 37- 466 8. 500 XII. 6. 427 i. 392 45- 45i 18. 488 8. 446 i- 439 S 2 . 47i 26. 406 XTII. 2. 327 i. 472 53- 486 27- 45<> XVI. 4. 494 2. 409 54- 332 28. 424 XVII. 3. 286 XXV. 4. 463 XXX. 4. 391 6. 487 6. 494 54- 446 57- 424 5 8 . 383 3 1 - 454 36. 408 VIII. 2. 447 7- 153 63. 406 5. 422 JUVENAL. 8. 433 9- 433 63- 479 67- 394 6. 409 8. 463 I. 108. 404 n ft 9. 484 67. 427 9. 426 i. 381 10. 470 67. 471 13. 448 152. 325 12. 369 70. 408 24. 410 VII. 150. 451 VIII. 19. 271 12. 413 12. 425 IV. 3. xxxvi ;> 44.1 35- 381 IX. 3. 454 X. 356. 433 13. 488 4. 410 10. 459 XI. 12. 135 XIII. ii. 404 14. 362 1 6. 394 4- 433 13- 3 J 3 6. xxxiv I 16. 153 177- "5 XIV. 70. 441 XV. 21. 428 17- 453 22. 471 23. 370 13- 462 | 33. 465 13- 4 6 3 I 33- 485 24. 411 | 34. 369 27. 465 3 1 - 433 ! 34- 464 LIVY. 31- 383 33- 287 38. 392 Praef. 369 3 1 - 439 37- 432 40. 502 I. i. 362 32. 411 38. 485 4i. 477 4- 425 34- 49 6 41. 410 41. 502 4- 444 35- 369 47. 409 X. i. 365 5- 492 35- 434 49. 500 14. 292 7- 423 37. 408 52. 470 23. 272 7- 427 38. 47 1 58. 445 23- 423 8. 370 40. 274 V. i. 283 28. 383 II. 428 45- 3 J 7 3. 419 30- J 55 12. 411 45. 481 4- 484 34- 3 6 9 12. 462 47. 496 6. 313 38. 362 14. 419 So. 383 12. 447 38. 370 IS- 393 50. 470 25. 279 41. 461 16. xx 52. 423 30. 406 XXI. 4. 365 16. 511 52. 424 3i- 383 4- 37 20. 394 53- 370 34- 426 4- 383 21. XXXV 59- S 66 35- 45 8 7- S 62 21. 292 63- 347 36. 470 7- 382 24. 310 65. 470 43- 3 J S 7. 482 28. 34 I III. i. 470 44- 367 13. 462 -LUCRETIUS.] Passages in Latin Writers. 611 20. 451 23- 3 8 3 XXVI. 6. 560 20. 347 XXXIII. 4. 287 1 6. 450 LUCAN. i. 70. 500 23- 458 27. 488 45- 450 98. 565 24. 366 29- 453 XXXIV. i. 445 128. 273 28. 463 So- 34i 2. 47i 688. 306 34- 486 50. 342 4- 407 2. 388. 389 39- 493 XXVII. 2. 271 9- 437 7- 798. 393 4i- 4i3 3- 495 12. xxxiv 8. 208. 582 43- 433 9- 433 22. 425 444- 155 44- 336 12. 483 27. 416 9. 402. 469 44- 394 16. 362 38. 463 SO- 3 6 4 17- 425 39- 434 53- 423 24. 462 XXXV. i. 156 LUCRETIUS.* 60. 363 29- 383 24. 450 I. 60. 2IO 61. 154 37- 155 HO- 154 63. 68 XXII. 2. 433 37- 382 40. 382 70. 58 3. 280 XXVIII. i. 458 46. 407 183. 405 3- 5" 5- 383 XXXVI. 2. 321 185. 294 10. 475 17. 410 7. 451 280. 316 27- 382 26. 410 28. 332 289. 291 29. 474 27. 460 28. 451 313. 68 3 2 - 485 28. 335 32. 363 3 2 7- 343 38. 3i5 28. 341 41- 499 400. 336 38. 346 28. 472 XXXVII. 3. 268 442. 440 39- 449 44- 287 14. 380 452. 35 49. 156 44- 39i 54. 448 554- 299 49- 44 6 46. 408 XXXVIII. 28. 371 566. 480 50- 346 XXIX. 2. 407 45- 3 2 8 588. 310 53- 342 7. 465 47. 472 588. 443 P. 467 . 286 14- 434 17. 369 XXXIX. i. 286 22. 433 6l 5. 133 633. 549 59- 454 22. 370 37- 3i 2 693. 299 60. 415 28. 409 37- 468 720. 322 60. 471 3i- 433 51. 5oo 722. 438 60. 478 34- 321 55- 369 750. 293 61. xxxiii 34- 392 XL. I0 . 364 755- 302 XXIII. 6. 502 37. 406 14. 472 755- 319 13. 432 38. 346 15- 47i 755- 399 13- 439 XXX. 15. 478 18. 437 8l 3- 395 18. 478 21. 404 47. 432 841. 307 25- Sir 26. 381 XLI. 2. 464 935- 299 26. 410 29. 382 16. 573 966. 2 9I 27. 479 30. 280 18. 369 978. 106 30. 406 30. 281 XLII. 10. 410 1045. 184 32. 287 30. 283 28. 109 1045. 188 35'- 56o 30. 3 6 5 34. 389 1077. 2QI 39- 423 30. 366 Si- 459 1081. 422 45- 488 30. 496 67. 474 mi. 106 XXIV. 3. 278 30. 496 XLI II. 4. 486 II. i. xvii 3- 362 37- 4*6 1 8. 206 23. 323 5- 392 44. 479 22. 413 3- 343 6. 411 XXXI. i. 481 XLIV. 2. 268 4i. 343 19. 560 ii. 444 2. 370 Si- 300 33- 479 21. xxxix 45- 432 53- 108 40. 463 XXXII. ii. 450 XLV. i. 321 156. 386 42. 447 XXV. 3. 449 18. 382 21. 43 2 8. 475 22. XXXli 173. 442 248. 321 10. 334 21. 497 23- 433 372. 287 12. 455 28. 464 29- 325 383- 160 25- 393 29. 368 37. 39i 401. 52 28. 408 29. 363 37- 47i 455- 256 38. 426 41. 450 631- 304 40. 282 662. 45 * Many of tbese references are to Mr Munro's notes on the line quoted. 612 Index ILL [LUCRETIUS 7io. 130 404- 373 Atticus. 8. 462 734- 3 2 3 412. 443 X. 286 8. 468 829. 13 413. 306 I. 313 12. 411 829. 13 416. 306 I. 392 13- 407 901. 311 523- 37 2. 391 Iphtcrates, 95 1 - 35 712. 304 2. 392 i- 454 95i- 38 755- 138 2. 463 3- 409 951. 217 815- 130 3- 393 Lysander. 991. 10 968. 299 5- 39i i. 409 "35- 35 968. 300 5- 397 Miltiades. "37- 313 8. 391 i 446 IIL 45- 57 9. 410 i. 450 69. 425 MANILIUS. 13- 466 2. 432 136- 363 IV. 645. 450 19. 391 2. 482 140. 307 Chabrias. 3- 437 208. 316 3- 4 10 7. xxxiv 214. 294 MARTIAL. Cimon. 7- 313 250. 278 Epigrammata. 4. 407 7- 424 426. 315 i. 106. 571 3- 466 8. 424 45 6 - 3*5 4- 77- 379 4- 4 6 5 Pausantas 502. 376 8. 21. 411 Conon. 3- 47 10. 34. 454 4- 392 3- 464 S3 1 - 320 36. 571 4- 45 4- 45 736. 343 it. 36. 57i 5- 43 r 4. 494 772. 160 12. 28. 437 DO tames. PeJopidas. 77 6 - 515 28. 442 3- 3 12 4- 154 823. 326 13- 59- 378 4- 432 4- 391 890. 211 de Spectaculis. 5. 288 5- 45 1 894. 259 3- " 432 6. 322 Phocion. 956. 397 25- 5- 346 6. 491 2. 369 1042. 58 8- 154 2. 500 1048. 46 MELA, POM- Dion. 3- 425 1048. 483 PONIUS. 3. 410 Themistocles. IV. 41. 206 12. 418 3. 451 i. 315 66. 207 3. 460 i. 405 372. 419 5- 477 2. 382 394- 278 545- 30 6 NEPOS, COR- NELIUS. Epaminondas. i. 45 2. 424 2. 426 554- 300 Preface, i. 379 2. 426 2. 444 619. 190 Agesilaus. 3- 426 3- 383 716. 264 i. 317 3- 433 4- 321 785. 306 i. 407 5- 39 1 6. 407 855- 322 1157. 10 5. 466 6. 478 7. 292 8. 494 7- 383 7- 487 1079. 83 7- 493 9- 4 6 4 8. xxxii 1186. 251 8. 292 10. 382 8. 283 1282. 210 8. 392 Eumenes. 8. 492 V. 13- 278 8. 424 i. 445 8. 493 40. 213 8. 463 2. 375 9- 425 211. 120 Alcibiades. 2. 496 9- 437 754. 299 i. 279 5- 383 10. 444 791. 420 i. 408 8. 379 Thrasybulus. 931- 376 2. 402 ii. 448 i. 448 934- 173 4. 424 Hamilcar 3- 434 997- 259 1139. 225 5- 495 6. xxxi 3- 424 Hannibal. OVID 1225. 430 6. 382 3- 409 A mores. 1332. 299 6- 455 4- 454 I. 9- 4- 365 1339- I3 1 Arts fides. 6. 375 II. 16. 13. 408 I339- 235 VI. 160. 483 187. 39 i. 409 i. 425 3- 156 6. 431 7. 410 8. 267 III. 4. 17- 369 Ars A ma fort a. I. 48. 378 344- 301 3- 409 8. 391 II. 415. 450 PLIN. MIN.] Passages in Latin Writers. 613 592. 361 II. io. 439 IV. 2. ig. 291 Trinunimus. III. 222. 361 57- 449 V. i. 15. 392 II. 2. 70. 478 251. 363 216. 391 Casina. IV. 2. 122. 154 545- 46 III. 8. 27. 462 Prol. 45. 482 Truculentus. Epistola ex 14. 23. 475 III. 5. 9. 426 V. i. 10. 445 Ponto. IV. 3. i. 471 V. 4. 18. 406 I. 2. 3. 482 V. 10. i. 462 Cistellaria. II. 9. 47. 426 I. i. 48. 311 PLINIUS MA- III. 4. 79. 339 70. 408 JOR. 79. 482 PERSIUS. 100. 286 Historia Na- 8. 14. 425 I. 122. 427 105. 459 turalis. 9- 39. 394 Fasti. 129. 290 III. 28. 372 in. 481 IV. 2. 3 6. I 55 II. 12. 425 54- 4n I. 75. 326 31. 326 Curculw. 68. 411 216. 377 IV. 30. 423 I. i. 55. 284 HI. 3. 407 287. 369 V. 7. 496 Epidicus. 16. 405 II. 128. 370 77- 332 I. i. 49. 370 V. 26. 383 551. 428 153. 427 2. 38. 282 VII. 16. 156 829. 369 III. 4. 28. 478 37- 406 851. 369 V. 2. 29. 182 40. 409 III. 21. 501 PHLEDRUS. 33- 477 VIII. 40. 393 163. 156 I- 2. 437 Mencechmi. 46. 410 5 2 7. 45 6 35- 425 II. 2. 46. 271 48. 425 IV. 55. 363 270. 322 HI. 2. 337 13. 286 IV. 2. 34. 461 67. 329 IX. 20. 291 XI. 8. 381 731- 37i V. 2. 451 3- 26. 383 37- 425 889. 423 V. 5. 47. 289 37- 483 V. 176. 307 Mercator. 50- 425 VI. 298. 369 PLAUTUS. I. i. 71. 394 XIV. 12. 369 Hcroides. A mphitruo. IV. 5. 9. 409 12. 406 II. 83. 402 Prol. 19. 390 V. 5. 27. 462 XV. i. 328 V. 10. 404 32. 408 Miles Gloriosus. 1. 380 45- 272 54. 448 II. 5. 43. 477 I- 477 45- 4 12 I. 3. 6. 407 III. i. 166. 313 2- 393 VI. 19 432 21. 378 Mostellaria. XVII. 4. xxxiii IX. i. 445 II. 2. 3 . 313 I. 3. 114. 422 XVIII. 25. 368 XI. 109. 432 IV. i. i. 379 139. 406 XIX. 8. 313 XII. 84. 281 V- 3- !7- 450 II. i. 32. 461 XXV. 4. 292 169. 378 222. 37 III. i. 98. 156 XXIX. 6. 156 XVI. 368. 414 Asinaria. V. i. i. 424 XXX. TO. 156 XVII. 166. 394 I. i. 75. 407 3. 269 XXXI. 2. 362 183. 478 3- 89. 478 XXXIII. 10. 157 Metamorphoses. IJ. 4. 84. 231 Prol. 24. 478 XXXIV. 8. 156 I. 670. 450 III. 2. 36. xxxii Persa. 757- 282 IV. I. 22. 458 I. I- 33- 409 III. 105. 410 V. i. 6, 432 3- 57- 465 PLINIUS MI- 106. 433 2. 88. 446 II. 2. 4. 477 NOR. 130. 370 Aulularia. IV. 4. 50. 477 Epistola. 448. 410 II. 3. 4. 341 9- I- 477 I. 8. 447 IV. 428. 432 4- 4. 4 2 4 V. i. 20. 394 10. 474 VII. 647. 401 III. 3. 3. 431 Pseudolus. 12. 473 VIII. 681. 268 IV. 7. 16. 379 I. i. no. 417 TV -J 18. 341 IX. 52. 374 10. 16. 478 3- ii. 335 20. 366 81. 406 Bacchides. 5. 12. 391 II. I. 4 08 687. 392 IV. 3. 23. 420 II. 2. 40. 483 3- 449 XI. 219. 432 6. 28. 379 III. I. 10. 478 III. 5. 156 706. 478 8. 93- 45i 2. 66. 337 5. 406 XII. 7. 154 9- 5- 3*3 Rudens. 5- 447 187. 378 V. i. 5. 314 I. 4. 28. 425 6. 420 XIII. 141. 439 Captivi. III. 5. 16. 424 16. 448 XIV. 466. 79 II. i. 30. 477 IV. 4. 20. 188 IV. 27. 322 Tristia. 2. 39- 33 70. 315 V. 19. .,46 I. 9. 5. 463 III. 4. 25, 326 29. 451 6 14 Index III. [PLIN. MIN. VI. i. 312 30- 432 SENECA. STATIUS. 1 6. 496 33- 408 de Beneficiis. Stlvee. 29. 446 37- 394 I. i. 318 I. 40. 445 VII. 33- 383 40. 319 i. 407 V. 101. 93 . VIII. 16. 483 48. 380 8. 416 Thebais. 24. 432 52- 366 IV. 3- 448 I. 638. 426 IX. 30. 454 52. 369 V. 2. 427 V. 134. 450 52. 424 19. 447 . VII. 605. 269 PRISCIAN. 54- 352 54- 37i 19- 447 Epistola. 777- 37i VIII. 50. 444 I. 7- 38- 65 54- 432 9- 450 PROPERTIUS. 54- 45o 55- 370 58 xxxvii 9. 467 15. 448 17. 406 SUETONIUS. A ugustus. II. 19. 22. 307 58. 284 26. -uo 5- 573 III. I. 26. 307 58. 313 -,.3. 434. 33- 326 30. 74. 480 IV. 7. 13. 423 Jugurtha. i. 369 39- 44i 5 2 - 433 33- 406 48. 464 f.~ ,, OT i- 459 56. 479 3- 43 T i. 460 58. 411. 77- 57i QUINTILIAN. 3. 481 58. 418 8 7- 55 I. i. 5. 426 4- 423 61. 451 88. 547 5- 455 2. 22. 481 9. 278 14. 320 65- 369 65- 454 101. 409 C&sar, Julius. 3- I2 - 433 14. 369 68. 471 4- 423 4- 6. 342 14. 497 70. 448 19- 457 5- 7- 427 25. xxxix 83. 482 21. 409 18. 514 3. 450 88. 420 25. 406 7- I- 547 31. xxxvii 90. 423 40. 424 4- 55 1 20. 552 3 1 - 3H 3 1 - 343 94. 406 94. 481 52. 470 82. 463 Q^ 10. 17. 363 12. 9. 464 3i- 395 39- 45 * 95- 376 103. 441 86. 425 Caligula. 16. 459 41. 461 103. 464 16. 370 II. 6. 7. 412 46. 492 108. 283 30. 479 IV. 3. 10. 392 49- 383 US- 369 34- 447 V. 10. 63. 425 VII. 3. 27. 369 49- 393 5- 334 120. 383 de Ira. Claudius. VIII. 3. 45- 4i 5- 334 I. i. 426 4- 447 T A IX. 4. 2. 393 5- 432 2. 424 1 6. 491 44. 417 5i- 333 II. 470 2 4- 393 X. i. 4. 428 5 1 - 334 II. 10. 462 33- 3 Sl XI. 2. 16. 427 48. 369 51- 432 53- 470 Naturales Qucesliones. 46. 409 Galba. 54- 44 s I- 17- 457 37 SALLUST. 54- 464 57. 362 VI. 25. 455 de Providcnti a. 9- 405 14- 454 C a til in a. 66. 402 3- 326 A'ero. I- 397 i. 464 73- 432 83- 45i de Tranquilli- tate Anim-i. 3'- 365 36. 450 3. 481 85. 288 ii. 427 49. 366 5- 3 6 9 85. 394 Tragedies. 54- 3 Sl 6. 430 85. 434 ; Thyestes Utho. 7- 463 7- 495 89. 407 98. 465 214- 473 10. 394 4i ben us. 9. 426 10. 367 101. 368 102. 425 SILIUS ITALI- 4- 3/o Vespasian. 17- 323 104. 376 CUS. J 6. 455 17- 455 107. 484 Punic a. 1 8. 424 Fragn'enta. IV. 1 60. 423 TACITUS. 20. 477 64. 449 X. 573- 407 Agricola. 25- 341 4- 3^5 25- 364 46. 336 VELL. PAT.] Passages in Latin Writers. Annales. IV. ii. 288 25. 448 Hecyra. I. I- 425 20. 479 6. 20. 406 I. 2. 4. 475 6- 475 23- 369 III. 2. 4. 450 59. 319 ii- 550 25- 369 3. 28. 361 III. i. 13. 419 17. 406 34- 3 6 9 4. 5. 268 IV. i. 59. 188 19. xx 46. 410 5- I- 362 4- 21. 425 19. 389 61. 369 7- 438 23- 33 31.' 367 65. 268 12. 43 8 26. 450 32- 155 74- 3i 6 IS- 370 Phormio. 35- 470 V. 5- 325 18. 267 I. 2. 5. 311 40. xx 10. xxxiii V. i. 31. 479 18. 324 46. 366 15. 411 2. i. 450 3- 5- 342 61. 425 3- 24. 341 20. 426 65. 428 30- 450 II. i. 35. 473 68. 463 Eunuchus, 2. 10. 371 II. 13. 421 TERENCE. I. i. 16. 451 10. 426 I v XX Adelpki. 2. 34. 310 3. 82. 310 17. 382 I. 2. 23. 369 II. i. 10. 365 4. 14. 287 20. 267 45. 408 35- 394 46. 369 !0- 375 2. 21. 450 III. 2. 43. 330 IV. 4. 15. 45 6 71. 272 46. 411 21- 473 5- ii- 425 III. 3- 4ii 47- 335 3- 4- 330 V. i. 10. 332 27. 424 II. i. 9. 424 97- 34 r 1 8. 458 IV. 46. 393 10. 391 III. 3. ii. 268 3- 3- 3 12 VI. 19. 424 42. 463 ii. 363 7- 47- 425 27. 424 43- 370 21. 411 89- 463 29. 500 46. 315 5- i. 327 8. 27. 426 30. 480 2. 6. 449 37- 382 43- 382 III. 2. 32. 382 46. 392 9. 27. 282 XT. 5. 447 3. 42. 450 48. 376 39- 312 XII. 18. 382 61. 311 IV. 2. 10. 478 65. 268 XIII. 3. 455 4. 8. 267 25. 444 H. 478 3- " 379 TIBULLUS. 15. 424 5- 65. 451 4- 2 4- 450 I. 4. 63. 473 37- 492 IV. i. 19. 329 4- 39- 329 7- 53- 37i 39- 287 2. 30. 330 6. 19. 326 8. 22. 473 XV. 2. 313 5- 29. 423 7. 21. ^09 10. T. 309 5- 430 59- 436 V. 3. 7. 272 20. 477 V. 4. 2=;. 327 TT 10 - '3- *90 45. 410 : " 5- 71- 3i6 Dialogus de Oratoribus. 4- 25. 424 9. i. 268 8. i. 327 Hauton ti moru- 113. 209 III. 4. 31. 406 7- 271 Andria. menos. German ia. 3- 498 9. 406 Prol. 3. 371 5- 47 I. i. 10. 459 I. i. 28. 407 54- 463 2. 28. 342 VALERIUS MAXIM US. 14- 393 18. 155 1 8. 446 27. 363 3- 8. 311 II. 2. 35. 461 I. i. 369 VII. 2. 444 21. 410 42. 400 3. 24. 312 37- 156 43- 382 III. i. 13. 420 VARRO. His'orice. 77. 409 43- 325 de Re Rustica. I- 7- 475 78. 282 54- 423 II. i. 371 15- 369 97. 367 58. 448 III. ,6. 335 37- 37 ! 49. 426 loo. 309 107. 434 97- 438 98. 486 V. 13. 411 VII. 26. 65 79- 37i I3- 394 2. 38. 413 87. 427 2. 6. 431 50. 28l II. i. 370 12. 281 3- 50- 330 VELLEIUS 47- 4 J 3 15- 444 IV. 2. 4. 267 PATERCU- 48. 426 27. 450 4. 10. 449 LUS. 82. 280 3- i- 320 V. i. 31. 329 II. 2. 390 III. 51. 288 5. 17. 320 68. 397 29. 408 59- 271 II. i. 6. xxxi 2. 6. 394 47. 409 74- 382 2. 20. 412 4- 7- 4" 108. 432 6i6 Index III. [VERGIL. VERGIL. 578. 340 X. 273. 382 106. 382 sEiieid. 597- 37i 3 2 4. 37i in. 565 I. 5- 463 598. 370 439- 451 IV. 21. 289 1 6. 267 603. 339 707. 281 34. 292 21. 273 625. 339 782. 422 V. 49. 292 37- 438 654. 426 854- 340 6 5- 34 85. 269 683. xx XI. 112. 470 6 5- 379 135- 566 V. 6. 500 126. 423 VI. 69. 267 308. 329 19. IO2 153- 441 VII. 9. 267 3 r 3- J 5S 73. 426 162. 340 VIII. 39- i54 328. 381 200. 565 171. 316 41. 462 335- 4<>7 451- 390 383. 4IS 43- 35 347. 405 481. 332 809. 28l IX. 17. 291 367. xxxiii 573- 368 608, 375 650. xxxiii XII. 5. 281 508. 383 44. 471 Georgica. II. 8. 393 728. 368 649. 407 I. 8. 406 15- 4H 751. 3 2 3 649. 426 93. 286 85. 408 275- 333 VI. 35. 423 78. 425 736. 465 760. xxxiu 231- 155 329. 288 282. 372 187. 340 814. 451 330- 333 287. 519 199. xxxiv Bucolica. 430. 109 324- 333 284. 322 I. 9. 450 464. 451 325- 333 332. 423 56. 4Si II. 44. 154 353- S^S 468. 334 64- 375 104. 417 377- 439 743- 287 80. 336 169. 271 396. 281 884. xx 83- 565 192. 269 506. 339 VII. 27. 376 II. 6. 519 289. 339 5K>- 374 55- 4i8 7- 423 425. 216 538. 448 293- 379 18. 565 463. 271 JH. 56. 565 74- 338 20. 408 III. 2. 403 234. xvi 805. 382 28. 479 147. 390 321. 411 VIII. 84. 320 40. xvii 207. 278 490. 281 130. xxxv III. i. 423 300. 340 620. 410 465. 365 49. 479 SM- 375 652. xxxi 560. 340 53- 479 329- 340 658. 279 573- 423 55- 459 348. 500 IV. 93- 565 649. xxxiii 74- 332 538. 278 137- 375 650. 341 77- 337 IV. 128. 39 c 237- 340 IX. 82. xviii 82. 369 213. 33; SOS- 444 PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODB AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARR LONDON 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. 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