THE SAW IN HISTORY A comprehensive description of the development of this most useful of tools from the earliest times down to the present day SECOND EDITION REG. U S, PAT. OFF Published, in HENRY DISSTON & SONS 'INCORPORATED KEYSTONE SAW, TOOL, STEEL AND FILE WORKS PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. Established 1840 DEDICATION TO that vast army of workers extending from the crowded centers of civilization into the wilds that mark the limits of man's advance in his conquering march against nature whose chief weapon is THE SAW, this book is dedicated. Copyright 1916 by HENRY DISSTON & SONS, INC. All rights reserved FOREWORD IT seems curious that the saw so essential a factor in man's development, so intimately interwoven with the progress of civilization, so absolutely indispensable to-day has had so little attention from historians. While the history of the modern saw is more or less a history of the development of the business of Henry Disston & Sons, yet to obtain a record, at once comprehensive and ac- curate, of this most useful of implements, extensive investiga- tions into its origin and early development were instituted. Museums, private collections and musty old records everywhere were delved into for information, and the result constitutes the only complete history of the saw ever compiled in one volume. However, as with all pioneer undertakings of like magni- tude, with no guide to follow save the pattern devised from its own discoveries, it is entirely likely that this work is not without defect. Such slight omissions as may be brought to light by its wide circulation will, it is hoped, be passed in tolerance in view of the difficulties attending its compilation. 394639 Flint Saw of the Stone Age Ancient Egyptian Saws Blade of Ancient Frame Saw Saw Found in a Tomb in Thebes, Egypt THE SAW IN HISTORY PART ONE The Ancient Saw THE saw is one of the most ancient tools known to man. It ante- dates civilization. Its use dates back to the Neolithic or later stone age, before the discovery of metals, when only the crudest of implements were constructed. The bronze age, with its progress of mankind toward civilization, brought a corresponding development in the saw. While the length and form of the stone saws of the earlier period were determined largely by accident, bronze permitted of manipulation into desired shapes, and its Fig. 1 introduction marked a distinct improve- ment in form. As the ancients' knowl- edge of metals increased, iron was used in tool construction, especially in that of saws, and this period may be considered the genesis of modern saw-making. It is generally conceded that nature' provided the examples which inspired the invention of saws. Some investigators claim the saw-fish ( Fig. 1 ) as the first type ; others, the wasp (Fig. 2), with the saw-like action of its serrated sting. A Grecian fable describing the origin of the saw relates how Talus (or Perdix), hav- ing found the jawbone of a fish (according to some authorities a serpent), produced an imi- tation by cutting teeth in iron. While the Grecian claim to discovery is unbacked by historical authority, such an origin seems probable. Saws appear not to have been known in the time of Homer, for in the minute description of the building by Ulysses of his ship, no mention of them is made, although if this tool had been known, Calypso could have supplied it as easily as she did the axe, adze, augers and other tools. Prob- ably the Greeks, like other nations, borrowed the saw from the Egyptians, on whose sculptures it appeared at a very early period. ' - : : .' : - r The few specimens" of pieltistorie saws existing in the museums of Europe And America enable, # to judge of. the character and method of use of the primitive t^pes;/ t r ih feaws 6f "J^e bronze age, of which a number of typical specimens have been found, more "dearly approach the forms with which we are familiar. Still more modern forms were developed as the iron age suc- ceeded the bronze age, and some iron saws that date to Biblical times and beyond might, but for their inferior material and workmanship, be taken as models for more modern im- plements. Fig. 3 Indisputable evidence that bronze saws with jewelled teeth were used by the ancient Egyptian for cutting the hardest stone was discovered by the eminent Egyptologist, Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie. Sir Austen Henry Sayard, the Assyriologist, found at Nimroud near Nineveh, a two-handled, iron saw ( Fig. 3 ) , 3 ft. 8 in. long by 4f in. wide (dimensions similar to those of the present day' saw ) . Saws are mentioned in the Bible. It is said that Christian martyrs in the days of persecution were "sawn assunder." Grecian carpenters used saws not unlike those of to-day. A painting dis- covered at Herculaneum depicts two genii at the end of a bench operating a saw (Fig. 4) resembling the modern frame saw, while a drawing found upon an ancient tomb shows a saw (Fig. 5) almost identical with the bucksaw of to- day. Cicero, in his oration for , Cluenthius, mentions an ingenious saw with which a thief cut out the bottom of a chest. Pliny states that saws were used by the ancient Belgre for cutting building-stone. The earliest prehistoric saws were simply small flakes of flint, notched by chipping. Rarely more than 3 inches long, with irregular teeth of doubt- ful sharpness and held between thumb and finger, these saws had very limited cutting-power. They were used chiefly in the manufacture of ornaments from bone and soft stones. Excellent specimens found in the north of England are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. Greenwell, in his "British Barrows," says of Fig. 7 : "This instrument is very like a lance point, sharpened and thin at the base, where it was fastened to the haft; but from the many teeth at regular distances from each other, I am disposed to think it has probably been a saw." Flint saws have been discov- ered in the caves of the "reindeer period" in France, in the Kjokken- ^ Fig. Modelings (ancient stone heaps) of Denmark and Sweden, in the lake dwel- lings of Switzerland and northern Italy, and practically throughout Europe. The smallest discovered is 1 inches in length and none has been found longer than 9J inches. Figs. 8, 9 and 10 illustrate some of the primitive types. Fig. 9 appears to have been used both as a knife and a saw, and there are indications that some of the specimens once had wooden handles. The stone-age man's ingenuity increased with his needs, and he dis- covered that by mounting his serrated flint chips in a groove formed in a Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Fig. 7 Fig. 10 stock of wood he obtained a more serviceable tool. The finest specimen of this type ( Fig. 1 1 ) was found in the prehistoric region of Polada in north- ern Italy. Four separate flint flakes are cemented into the wooden casing with asphalt. Swiss archaeologists declare the shape of the handles indi- cates that this was made for the use of a left-handed man. A similar saw was found in a lake dwelling at Vinelz, Switzerland. Mounted specimens of prehistoric man's handiwork are necessarily rare because of the perish- able nature of wood. In Scandinavia, where flint is found in large blocks, the primitive saws were larger and half-moon shaped (Fig. 12). The teeth are on the straight edge, which is from 4 to 7 inches long. Dr. Schlieman found flint saws in abundance during his extensive ex- cavations on the site of ancient Troy. The universal development of this implement under pressure of neces- sity is seen in the fact that the South Sea Islanders (far from the north- ern European mentioned) made a saw from sharks' teeth, the Carib Indians used notched shells, while the ancient Mexicans used a volcanic rock called Obsidian for saw teeth. Specimens of the bronze saws which supplanted those of stone are rare, not more than about thirty having been found in all Europe. A perfect Fig. 11 blade about 9 inches long (Fig. 13) was taken from a lake dwelling at Moermgen, Switzerland. Others have been found in France, Spain, Hun- gary, Italy and Sweden, and in the last named country was found a stone mold for casting bronze saws, in which four could be cast at once (Fig. 14). The variety of other sharp tools made during the bronze age better adapted to the requirements of that period probably accounts for the rarity of metal saws among the relics. The Hebrews used saws for outting both wood and stone as indicated in I Kings 7 : 9, which refers to "costly stonee, according Fig. 12 to the measures of hewed stones, sawed with saws, etc." Pliny be- lieved that sawn slabs composed the marble fac- ing of the palace of Mausolus, King of Caria ( 350 B. C. ) . References by other ancient authors carry both types of saws back to the greatest antiquity. Prisoners of war, especially noblemen, were sometimes executed with iron saws, as mentioned in the Bible and elsewhere (II Samuel 12: 31: "And he brought forth the people that were therein, and put them under saws, etc." ) . This was the fate of the prophet Isaiah, under King Manassel, according to the writings of tKe church fathers, Justin Martyr, Origen, Epiphanius and Sactantius. This terrible punishment was known to other ancient nations, notably the Egyptians, Persians and Thracians, and in a few instances was inflicted upon Jews under Roman emperors. Ancient and Egyptian saws, o far as learned, were single handled, although St. James has been thought to allude to circular saws. Flinders Petrie's findings indicate, however, that this reference was probably to stone-cutting saws. As with modern Oriental saws, those of the ancient Egyptians are sup- posed, from the illustrations, to have had the teeth inclined toward the handle cutting on the pull although this is not invariably the rule. The predominant type was constructed of a bronze blade attached to a handle with what appear to be leathern thongs. However, the Brit- ish Museum has specimens with tangs for inserting into the handle, as with the modern knife. Double saws, strained with a cord, were in use by the Romans. The Egyp- tians placed the wood to be sawed perpendicularly in a sort of frame and cut downward. The saws "un- der" or "in" which David is said to have placed his captives were of iron. A case of "sawing asunder" by placing the criminals between boards and beginning at the head, is mentioned by Shaw in "Travels." Although one of the simplest and oldest of tools, it was not until the last two or three centuries that the saw attained its universal importance. Iron was necessary in its construction. Stone saws had no real value and those of bronze were little better. Moreover, bronze adapted itself so 8 14 readily to edged-tool construction that these practically supplanted the saw. Many savage races and even the comparatively civilized South Amer- ican aborigines never knew the saw. Beckmann states that: "In early periods, the trunks of trees were split with wedges into as many thin pieces as possible; and if it was found necessary to have these still thinner, they were hewn on both sides to proper size." And this wasteful process has continued in use to comparatively recent times in countries where wood is abundant. The final improvements which the saw received in ancient times brought it to a close approximation of some of the forms in which we now use it. Beside the engraving from an ancient painting shown in Fig. 4, Montfaucon gives, from Gruter, representations of two kinds of saw one with a round handle, the other with a high wooden frame. The invention of steel was a powerful stimulant in the development of the saw. The date of its discovery is lost in the past. Hesiod in 850 B. C. refers to "bright iron" and "block iron," and Eyelsiel in 600 B. C. to "bright iron." This latter undoubtedly was a low grade steel. The mention of its importation from Chalybes to Greece is the first authentic mention of steel. From ancient history we learn of the wonderful Persian and Damascene sword-blades of steel (335 B. C.), while Diodorus, a Greek, wrote in 50 B. C. of the Celtiberians as being "armed with weapons of excellent temper." Ancient paintings and other discoveries show the Egyptians to have been familiar with steel in representations of similar tools. Blue and red seemingly distinguished between steel and bronze. In 1874 an iron wedge or plate was discovered embedded in the masonry of the Great Pyramid, proving that the Egyptians produced and wrought iron 5400 years ago in the time of King Cheops. Translations of the original Scriptures mention both iron and steel "iron," however, probably being really steel. Steel is the only metal which could withstand the manipulation and strains in the manufacture and use of saws, and its employment is largely responsible for the wonderul development in the saw-making art. Egyptian Sawyer a't Work 9 10 PART TWO Beginnings of the Modern Saw In their modern adaptations, the many kinds of saws may be divided into two general classes, viz., reciprocating and continuous action. As ex- amples the handsaw (reciprocating), circular and band-saws (continuous). Reciprocating saws are naturally the oldest variety and more are in use than all others combined. This type may be again divided into "rip" and "cross- cut" saws. These are used respectively parallel with and at right angles to the "grain" or direction of the fibres. There are hundreds of styles of these saws in common use, each for a specific kind of work. In general, handsaws cut on the "push" - Jap- anese and some other Oriental saws being] ex- Pig 15 ceptions, con- structed to cut on the "pull." Fig. 15 illustrates a Japanese saw, similar in appearance to a butcher's cleaver, with a long straight handle into which the shank or tang is driven and secured by wrapping with finely split cane. While dif- ferent in shape, the metal is much the same as that used in other countries. To rip a plank, the Japanese carpenter places the end across a support, stands on the plank and operates the saw with both hands in a series of quick pulls. Fig. 16 shows a Japanese log-splitting saw (a type still in use). Horace Greeley men- tions observing, while tour- ing Europe, an Italian cut- ting wood by rubbing it against the saw. Hippoc- rates (B. C. 460) is said to have hi- ve n t e d the first cylinder or drum saw, for use in the operation of t r e p anning the skull. The modern uses Fig. of this type of saw comprise the cutting of all kinds of flat circular forms button-blanks, corks, sheaves for blocks, etc. as well as staves for barrels, tubs, buckets, etc. Ihe development of the saw has been more rapid in comparatively recent times than in any other period. The real beginning of modern wood-cutting types dated from the introduction of the power mill the ordinary recipro- cating up and down paving the way for later improvement. Crude as were these old-fashioned upright saws, they were a big improvement over the 11 previous method of sawing a log with one man in a pit beneath it and another standing above. The innovation caused considerable unrest in the labor world, hand-sawyers fearing that their employment was gone. The earliest mills were driven by wind power, but a 13th century manuscript shows a water-wheel saw. Germany had water-power mills as early as 1322 (Ansburg). Holland had saw-mills nearly a century before England, where the workmen refused to permit their introduction. In 1663 a Hollander erected the first saw-mill in England, near London, but it had to be abandoned because of the riots it occasioned among the hand-sawyers. More than a century later, in 1768, a wind-power mill was erected for a lumber merchant by the name of Hough ton, but this, too, was torn to pieces by a mob. The rioters were severely punished, and the owner reimbursed by the gov- ernment, under whose protection several mills were built. With the discovery of Madeira, in 1420, saw-mills were erected there to make lumber for export to Por- tugal. Saw-mills were erected in Breslau, 1427 ; in 1490 by the magis- trates of Erfurt in a forest which they had purchased; in Norway, 1530; at Holstein, 1547; Lyons, 1555; Zaandam, Holland, 1596; and in Sweden around 1658. The rapid development of the early saws is seen in the fact that a gang-saw mill was built on the Danube in 1575. Gang-saws, con- sisting of a number of blades to cut a log into boards with one operation, have been generally re- garded as of later origin than this. However, in a work of Jacobi Besony (Lyons, 1878) are illustrated two types of gang-saw mills, the blades in one having teeth on both edges. These were only isolated instances, the average mill of the period having but one blade. America's first saw-mill was built at the Falls of Piscatauqua, on the line between Maine and New Hampshire, in 1634. Unauthenticated records, however, claim that as early as 1633 several mills were operating in New York State. Before the arrival of William Penn in 1681 saw-mills had been erected along the Delaware by the Dutch and Swedes. In 1803 there was a steam saw-mill in New Orleans, which met the fate of the early English mills, being burned by hand-sawyers. While a successful saw-mill was built in Glasgow, Scotland, in 1834, and others were established at subsequent dates, little progress was made in wood-cutting machinery until John Mc- Dowell put up a plant at Johnstown. He at once gained prominence by making the first frame-saws supplied to Glasgow as well as England including the British Government. These mills were all of the vertical reciprocating type thr> saws being strained along a strong rectangular frame driven along suitable guides by a crank on a revolving shaft, usually below the frame. A sliding carriage, which automatically moved a certain distance at each stroke, carried the log. After each cut the log was moved laterally, the distance corresponding to the thickness of the lumber being cut. Old-time sawyers will remember when logs had to be moved with a bar after each cut. 12 At this time saw sharpening was a secret process. The sharpener worked in an isolated room and sawyers were required to ring a bell before being per- mitted to speak to him. These stories of these early mills have been recounted at considerable length because they are inseparably con- nected with the development and pro- gress of the saw-making art. The in- creasing requirements of the millmen necessitated a constant search on the part of saw manufacturers not only for improvements in the design of their saws, but also in the quality to meet the strains of greater speed and larger output. And one of the most important factors in modern progress has been the improvement in saw-making. The next great progressive step was the invention (or re-invention) of the circular saw. While the hand-saw is as old as history itself, the circular saw, as now used, is a comparatively recent innovation. Circular saws were used for cutting the spaces between the teeth of clock wheels long before they were used for cutting wood (probably sug- gesting the milling machine now so uni- versally used in gear-cutting). The ear- liest patent on circular saws is No. 1152, granted to Samuel Miller in Eng- land, August 5, 1777, although it is claimed that similar saws were in use in Holland nearly a century before. In any event, circular saws are believed to have been introduced into England for practical wood-cutting purposes about 1790. In 1804 a man named Trotter secured a patent on a circular saw, and Sir Samuel Bentham (who later invented a circular saw made in segments) irade a circular saw for the British Admiralty prior to 1800. Historians credit T. Brunei with first bringing circular saws into important service. He employed them for cutting ship's blocks an application adopted by the British Admiralty Board in 1804 for the Portsmouth Yard. Brunei patented a veneer-saw in 1805, marking another advance. The first circular saw in this country is supposed to have been produced by Benjamin Cummins, about 1814, at Bentonsville, N. Y. his facilities consisting solely of the ordinary tools and equipment of a blacksmith's shop. The fate so often accorded great men was his, for he now lies in a lonely, secluded spot in the northwest corner of the cemetery of the little village of Richmond, Kalamazoo County, Michigan. Half concealed from view by lilac bushes is a marble slab bearing only this simple inscription: "Benjamin Cummins, born 1772; died A. D. 1843." The general use of circular saws for manufacturing lumber is supposed to have originated in a patent granted March 16, 1820, to Robert Eastman and J. Jaquith of Brunswick. Me. Since then countless other circular saw- mill patents have been granted. Water and, later, steam was the motive power of these saws. Many years ago 48-inch circular saws, driven by "four horses walking around," were used in our Western States. The output of these was from 500 to 1200 feet of lumber per day, depending upon the kind and quality of logs. 13 Old-time Pit Saws Which Preceded Saw Mills m fc^<6 , .- .mi*- /xx- /^J^^x,- fz? Type of Early Double Saw The early circular saws were very crude, with square mandrel holes, and were made only to special order. From 1840, however, progress was rapid the development of the inserted tooth at about this time being one of the great- est progressive strides ever taken in saw-making. No really satisfactory method of holding the teeth in place was devised until 1859, when a man named Spauld- ing, while experimenting in Sacramento, CaL, discovered that curved sockets would hold the teeth firmly and securely. This method protects the plate also by reducing the tendency to crack. The problem still confronted the sawmakers, however, of reducing the time and power consumed, as well as the waste in sawdust, in converting logs into boards. Eventually, the perfecting of the band-saw proved to be the solution. William Newberry of London, Eng- land, patented the first endless band-saw in 1808, although his machine was never developed further than the model sub- mitted to the Patent Office. Although Newberry was the first of modern timus to see the possibilities of the band-saw, he cannot justly be said to have origi- nated it. Archaeologists have brought to light proof that in numerous instances the band-saw had been brought very nearly to its present form by ancient peoples. Then, too, in the patent papers of Sir Samuel Bentham in 1791 and Early Types of Inserted Teeth for Circular Saws 1793 are many modern forerunners of distinctly modern saws. The great difficulty, however, in making a smooth, strong joint in the steel band was a stumbling-block which arrested practical development until Newberry's time. To Ferine, of Paris, is due the credit for the improvements which made the general use of the band-saw pos- sible. The old difficulty in joining the blade so that it would run over the wheels without breaking was not overcome until nearly forty years after Newberry gave this type of saw to the world. Then, about 1846, a Mile. Crepin, a French woman of great mechanical genius, secured in France a patent on a machine similar to Newberry's. This patent was later obtained by Ferine, and the saw greatly im- proved by him a suitable joint was perfected and the band-saw became a practical reality. The next important improve- ments were by Thouard, also of France, in 1842, when he put the band-saw on a commercially prac- tical form, but it was not until Perine's final improvements were made that it became profitable for Original Rand-Saw of 1808 general use. These old band-saws, although giving increased output over the up-and-down gang saws and circular saws of the day, were quite small, crude and limited in their work. The following typical incident shows the skepticism \vith which they were received: About 1860 a man named Mo Cormick purchased a band-saw in England. After a very short while in service it was removed because it did not do the work expected ( probably because of oinskilful man- agement). For many years after- ward it surmounted the McCor- mick garden fence as a pointed re- minder to unruly boys to keep out of the melon patch. One feature of the band-saw which rapidly popularized it with the mill-men was its thinness, which meant smaller kerf and more boards from a log than with any other type of saw. The fear at first felt by the operators of this type of saw soon passed, and as its use extended, improvements came rapidly. The large proportions and per- fection of form of the present-day band-saws are strikingly shown in comparison with those even of so One of the first Band-Saw Machines for Mills 15 recent a period as 1876. A 6-inch band- saw exhibited then at the Centennial Expo- sition by Henry Diss- ton & Sons was con- sidered a wonder ; to- day the same firm is regularly making 18- inch ban d-s a w s many of them toothed on both edges to cut the log coming and going. This up-to-date, speedy band-saw has increased the pro- ductivity of mills to a point never dreamed of by the mill-man One of the first Horizontal Band-Saws of bygone days. To Henry Disston & Sons is due in no small part this modern development. Their improved equipment and methods of manufac- ture have added much to the efficiency of the saw. Through the medium of Disston band-saws the heavy demands on a modern lumber mill are easily met, and so the old-time quest for a more efficient type of saw has ended. An Early Mill 16 17 PART THREE The Modern Saw We have now reached the point where the modern saws the saws we know to-day stand out as the most useul, the most necessary, the most wonderful of all man's aids in conquering nature and furthering the needs and comforts of present-day civilization. A comparison of the saws of ancient times and the saws of to-day is startling to the average man who has not paid close attention to the saw in its present state of perfection. From the primitive stone implements illus- trated in the early) part of this mm^^MnnEH^^HB^^HBHnHI^^^BBBHHBI article to the m u 1 titudinous variety of saws employed to-day, many of which we purpose il- lustrating and describing, is a tremendous a d- vance. It shows Fig. 17 The Disston D8 Handsaw clearly the extraordinary progress made by man in the comparatively short time he has inhabited the earth as compared with its reputed 100,000,000 years of existence. It is universally acknowledged that the standard modern saws for the entire world are those made by Disston. There- fore a descrip- tion of the saws they manufac- ture for various purpose s especially the saws they make for mil 1-m e n, upon whomj rests the burden of supplying the lumber require- m e n t s of the worl d wi 1 1 give the b r o a d est conception of the saw as it is known to-day. In an earlier part we stated that saws came principally un- der two heads. Early Types of Handsaws 18 viz., reciprocating and continuous. These again may be divided into other classes. First, we will consider those saws which come under the type of re- ciprocating, for saws of this kind are the more generally used. The hand-saw, of which the Disston No. 7 and D-8 are distinctively the representative types, is now the companion of every mechanic who has anything to do with wood in his daily work. We may safely say that it is also Fi s 18 found in a vast majority of the homes of the entire world. Broadly speaking, the term hand-saws includes such saws as buck, hack, keyhole, plumber's, back, pruning saws in different forms, and many others for special purposes. The cross-cut or long saw and pit saw may also be included under this head. Although each of these tj T pes is of essentially different construction from the others, because of the nature of the work it is called upon to do, the principal and common origin are the same. All modern hand-s a w s, ex- cept those of the Japanese, cut on the push or the stroke away from the user. While the oldest civilized peoples in the world the Egyptians, the Chinese and the Japanese used a form of saw having the teeth inclined toward the handle, this form was not universal, as is evidenced by the saws exhumed from -the ruins of Pompeii, and now preserved in the museum there. These saws cut on the thrust, just as those in use in Europe and America to-day. The standard type of hand-saw (Fig. 17) is, of course, a direct de- velopment of the piece of stone with a serrated edge as used in ancient times. Its present shape, which differs somewhat from the earlier type of hand-saw, as will be noticed by reference to group illustration, is an invention of Henry Disston. Since he oriwimted it, this form has been widely copied ; but without success in securing the same correct hang, which affords the wonderful ease in handling, nor equaling the exceptional quality of the steel. Making the blade skewback, as it is termed, lessens the weight of the blade and gives proper balance as well. The "let-in" handle gives better control over the saw, and the peculiar shape of the butt or heel allows full sweep of the blade without danger of its catching in the work. The amount of work which can be accomplished with one of these modern saws as compared to the old-time forms is wonderful, and could primitive man, who roamed the forests ages ago, have armed himself with one of them, the story of civilization's advance might have been vastly different. Reference to old-time pit saws, as previously illustrated, and that in Fig. 18, will show that this saw, as used today, has made little progress, in form at least, over the type used before power-mills came into existence. Quality of steel, style of teeth aid improved methods of tempering and sharpening have, of course, made it a more efficient saw, but these embrace One of the First Saws Made by Henry Disston about the only changes made since the days when King Solomon's temple builders employed it in their work. Naturally, there is not much call for a saw of this kind now and it is almost obso- lete. The cross-cut or long saw fells the trees, cuts them to desired lengths, and then the circular or band-saw transforms them into lumber more quickly and uniformly than two men and | Wto^^ ,'V i 'Y i Y,Y,Y-.Y-,YYV,Y.V,Y-.V.YvV Y Y"/ : V , / Y^jVVYiV.Y .Y.V.V ' Fig. 19 Old-Time Cross-cut Saws an old-time pit saw could. With a modern mill of even medium capacity the output will be more in one day than these two men in bygone days could have done in months with their old-fashioned pit saw. The cross-cut saw, which is of the recipro- cating type, cuts on both strokes, and is another saw that retains its orig- inal form to a great ex- tent ; its improvements being represented by new methods of grinding, hardening and tempering, and many new forms of teeth. We show some examples of teeth, but those illustrated do not by any means cover the whole gamut; different countries Fig. 20. Chain Saw, Open and Closed The "Suwanee" The Most Modern Type of Cross-cut Saws and various woods requiring special teeth. There is probably no other saw that is equipped with so many varieties of teeth as long saws. The early history of the cross-cut saw is obscure its actual beginning is lost in the misty past, and the oldest saw-makers of to-day agree on only one I^tv*v%vxvx^%s^.,-.^v^v^vxx%vxxvvv%vvvvww%vvx%wvvvwwwvwwv^yvv"7 Mitre-Box point that Saw they have made cross-cut saws as long as they have been in business. 20 The demand for something better and more efficient, whicn the world's progress has constantly created, was the source of all great inventions and improvements. The felling of timber by the axe, with its resultant waste, great expenditure of labor and loss of time, led inevitably to the develop- ment of cross-cut saws. To the old up-and-down saw and the still earlier pit saw can probably be ascribed the direct inspiration. Though saw-makers remember cross-cut saws as far back as they can recollect, the saws were always made of untempered steel. Henry Disston added their manufacture to his business. He, the first to give real strength and efficiency, also actually gave the cross-cut saw its first great start. For many years it has been gradually supplanting the axe in the fell- ing of trees, for it enables the lumberman to do quicker, cleaner work and saves the wood. In Fig. 19 will be seen two old-time cross-cut saws. The handles on the lower saw, merely a modification of the hand-saw type, afford the best clue to its age. The upper saw, while a great improvement over the earlier forms, lacks the finer points of quality and efficiency which distinguish the distinctly modern cross-cut saw. To-day the immense plant which Henry Disston founded is sending the cross-cut saws they manufacture, with teeth adapted for every sort of wood, to all the inhabitable parts of the earth, where there are forests to cut or lumber to be made. One of the most important of the advances in cross-cut or long saw making was the introduction of the raker tooth. While many cross-cut saws are still made without the raker, it is really so necessary for quick clearing action that its use will probably become much more general. On green timber especially it insures faster cutting. While the cross-cut saw finally has practically replaced the axe for felling and cutting up trees, its use is not by any means confined to this work. A curious modification of the cross-cut saw is the chain saw. This is used chiefly by the military the American, French and other army en- gineers being equipped with it. The chain saw consists of a series of links (see Fig. 20), each fitted with saw teeth. When ready for operation a handle is attached to each end, the saw stretched against the tree, and worked back and forth. A tree interfering with the movements of troops can be cut away by two men in a comparatively short time with a chain saw. It is compact, and serviceable for this purpose, but would not meet the requirements of more extensive work. The chain saw, in suitable form, is also used by surgeons for operations on the human skull, and by veterinary surgeons for bone cutting. It has been superseded, to a certain extent, by Stohlmann's bone saw, but is still widely used. Stohlmann's saw consists of a steel wire, upon which are strung steel discs or beads with sharp cutting edges. There is a handle on each end, and its manner of use is similar to the chain saw. Under the head of reciprocating hand-saws we find a long line of smaller saws for various purposes. Among the largest of these is a com- bination saw, cutting both wood and metal, for the special use of plumbers. The fine teeth on one edge are adapted for cutting lead pipe, nails, etc., while the coarser teeth on the other edge are for sawing wood. Then there are several forms and sizes of back saw. Plumber's Combination Saw This type is used for very fine cutting requiring a straight or even saw cut. The blade being so thin, it is necessary to have a back of steel or brass to prevent its buckling. The larger Back Saws, 20 inches or larger, are commonly known as Mitre-Box Saws. The special 21 shape of the butt or heel in these saws prevents its catching in the work. The Compass Saw is a useful little tool, having a fine, tapering blado. This saw is used principally for cutting circles where it is first necessary to make a hole with a center-bit. Another form of the Compass Saw is one with an adjustable blade. Not only can different blades be easily substituted, but the blade itself can be adjusted to various angles in ^^ ,**,.. relation to the handle. Somewhat sim- ilar to a Compass Saw is a small saw called Keyhole or Pad Saw. This has a handle with a socket large enough to receive the saw blade. The blade, which is adjustable to any length, is held in position for use by the tightening of a thumb- screw. Disston makes a variety of these saws. One end of the blade can be used as a screwdriver, which is brought into position by simply loosen- ing thumb-screw, pushing blade through the handle, and tightening screw again. Keyhole Saw and Pad Another variation of the Compass Saw is the Nest of Faws. This nest is a com- bination of one handle and several different styles of small blades which can be adjusted to the handle, ac- cording to the size and kind of work to be done. Those blades are of the keyhole, compass, and pruning types, and form a compact and handy tool. Still another variation is the Square Hole Saw. The tooth edge on the heel end of the blade being at right angles to the rest of the blade, both angles of the corner are cut at the same time. The accompanying il- lustrations show other curious forms of small size saws, each made to meet a special requirement. These (\V\\NN\\\\\N\\\\\V\V\VV\\\\\\\\SVY Patternmaker's Saw Stair Builder's Saw include Pattern Maker's, Dovetail, Turkish, and Stair Builder's saws. The Turkish Saw is used in Turkey and other Oriental countries. Its teeth are fitted for cut- ting toward the handle as required by these peoples. The Stair Builder's Saw is adjustable for depth of cut, and is used for cutting the bottom or base of balustrades when it is necessary to fit them to treads of stairs. Another saw illustrated here is the Joiner Saw. This is employed by cabinetmakers for making joints where extremely fine cutting is necessary. Special saws- are also made to help the agriculturist. These are saws intended for pruning. Some are toothed on one edge only; others have both edges toothed with different styles of teeth, adapted for dry and green wood. A special type of crescent-shaped pruning saw is made, principally for pruning orange trees, as it makes what is termed a "draw- cut." That is, the teeth are in- clined toward the handle, which draws them into light branches, instead of pushing the branches r^~V^ away as an ordinary saw would do. \ There is also a combination V \ hook and saw made for pruning trees, and intended for use on the end of a long pole. This is obtain- able with either straight or curved tooth edge on the saw. Other peculiar forms of saws Fig. 22 Buck Saw include the gauge saw, which has an adjustable gauge, making it particularly adaptable to tenoning, shoulder- ing, dovetailing, curving, cog-cutting, or any purpose where a definite depth of cut is required; the Movable Back Saw, on which the back is detach- able, making it convertible for use either as a back saw or ordinary hand- saw; and the Combination Saw, a saw that is equipped for use not only as a hand-saw, but also with the following tool attachments: square and rule, straight-edge, scratch awl, plumb and level. Where these tools are wanted in a compact form, nothing equals this saw. Then there is the Flooring Saw, adapted by reason of its extreme round breast, on tooth edge, to cutting through floors without the use of chisel or auger. The next type of reciprocating saw is the "tension" type. Tension saws are those which have a narrow, thin blade strained in a frame of wood or metal. The oldest and most generally known form of this kind of saw is the Buck or Wood Saw. The origin of the Buck Saw, if we are to believe the drawing upon that ancient tomb previously described, goes back into the very beginning of history. It is claimed by students of antiquity that frame saws were com- mon in Egypt many centuries prior to the executing of the drawing at Hercu- laneum. There is no doubt that it is one of the oldest forms of saws. Its usefulness has been proved by many generations, as can be testified to . by thousands of farmer boys, and though its place is being taken, to an increas- ing extent, on the farm of to-day, by the small circular saw, there are still Web Saw great numbers of Buck Saws sold and used. 23 Blade in This Frame Can be Turned at Right Angles to Frame Fig. 22 shows an excellent type of this saw in its modern form. Com- pare it with the ancient saw in Fig. 5, page 6. An interesting saw that comes under this head is the Web Saw. In Germany this saw is used almost entirely as a general hand-saw. In fact, both German and French carpenters are very partial to this type of saw, and many continue to use it, after coming to America, in preference to the usual type of hand-saw. Another saw widely used and practically indispensable for metal cutting is the Hack Saw. The demand for saws for cutting metal has been constantly increasing from year to year owing to the great variety of purposes for which iron, steel and other metals are being adopted. Some years back the work- ing of metal to size was done by what may now be con- sidered a very crude, laborious and expensive method. It was usually done in a blacksmith shop, the smaller work being forged to shape, the larger sheared off and dressed up with a file, while in such cases where joints or mitres were desired on beams, etc., the work was sheared to length, the required angles then cut on a shaper or planer. This method afterward gave way to the adoption of shears, but this did not make an accurate angle and necessitated dressing off. All of these methods consumed considerable time. The use of Hand Hack Saws and Circular saws for cutting metal has rendered possible to the greatest extent the employment of metals in the trades, as modern appliances for shaping and cutting with this class of tool have reduced to a nominal figure the hitherto prohibitive cost; the work being done with greater ease, more accurately, and in much less time. Hack Saw blades, ordinarily, are narrow in width, and from 6 to 16 inches in length; some are hardened throughout, and others on tooth-edge only, leaving the back soft. Like other modern forms of saws, the actual beginning of the Hack Saw does not seem to have been recorded. There is a tradition that the first one was made in Ireland, but as the Irish have not been noted for mechanical productions of this kind, the rumor very probably started with some enthu- siastic son of the Emerald Isle. Old catalogs show that in England com- plete Hack Saws were made in 1770, and as the industry was then well established it seems impossible to locate the exact origin of the Hack Saw. Its later history, though more complete, naturally lacks the romance that is attached to the beginning and early life-story of any product. It is certain, however, that the early blades were imported into the United States before they were made here. These imported blades were polished similar to butcher saw blades and intended to be resharpened as required: though it is stated that the old English Hack Saw Blade was extremely 24 Rail Hack Saw Pork Packer's Saw Saw Knife thick, having coarse teeth, very little set, and was slow-cutting and heavy to work. Over fifty years ago Henry Disston was making the hollow or concave ground Hack Saw Blade, and even today, for particular work, where ac- curacy is desired, they are still used and recommended. They are made of high quality crucible steel, especially suitable for hack saws, and have milled teeth; the blade is hollow-ground to run without set, and tempered so it may be refiled. This is the highest type of Hack Saw Blade. It was about the early eighties that the first Hack Saw blades, somewhat similar to those of today, were made. These were produced at a comparatively low price, and were so hard they could not be refiled; it being cheaper, in fact, for the mechanic to throw away the dull blade than to spend his time in resharpening, even if possible. Extra narrow, Hack Saw Blades, inch wide, varying in thickness and number of points to the inch, also are made especially for the use of lock-makers and jewelers. Metal saws are also made in the form of the regular carpenter's hand- saw, and in the shape of Back or Tenon saws. These are of a special steel and temper, ground thin toward the back and may be resharpened with a good file. Tenon saws of this class are principally used in mitre- boxes for the manufacture of show cases, etc., while the hand metal saws are for purposes where a framed Hack Saw cannot conveniently be used. Large saws, in the form of long hand-saws, are also made for cutting metal, and may be operated by two men in the same manner as a cross-cut saw; the handle for small end of saw, being adjustable, can be attached or detached at will. These are principally used in foundries for sawing "gates" and other parts from large castings. In use, the Hack Saw Blade is strained in a frame. There are many different forms of frames; some having a solid steel back, and others ex- tension backs, taking in blades of different lengths. Some are so con- structed that the blade can be turned at right angle to the frame. Another style is termed the Rail Hack Saw. This has a frame varying from 9 to 18 inches from tooth edge of blade to inside of back, and is used in con- struction work for cutting steel rails and beams. The first Hack Saw, or metal-cutting blades for power machines, were manufactured in the Disston plant at least a quarter of a century ago. They were made especially for building the City Hall tower, Philadelphia, and the Congressional Library, Washington, D. C. Their usefulness was immediately apparent, and the demand spread rapidly. Today the frame Hack Saw and Machine Saw, for cutting all sizes and kinds of metal, have almost entirely supplanted the old method of nicking and breaking, or cutting off in a lathe. Circular and Band Saws are also extensively used for cutting metal. These will be described later, however, under the heading of Continuous Action Saws. Kitchen Saw nm H Ti v Closely allied in form to the Hack Saw is the Butcher Saw. The Butcher Saw, though chiefly used for bone-cutting, as its name would imply, actually derived the name from its originator, R. G. Butcher, a Dub- lin surgeon. This saw is quite similar to the Hack Saw, but on a larger scale, and it may have been the invention of it by Dr. Butcher, before Hack Saws came into use, which led to the rumor that Hack Saws ( intended only for metal cut- ting) were in- vented in Ire- land. The difference between these two saws is really very slight. Owing to the softer Beef Splitter natu / e . f . the material a Butcher Saw is required to cut, it is not necessarv to have as high a temper in the blade as the hack-saw. The blade of the Hack Saw, on the other hand, is made very hard. The frame of the Butcher Saw is longer also, and the distance between the blade and the back is greater. Quite similar to the Butcher "] Saw is the Beef Splitter. This has : a handle at each end, and is operated by two men to split -i the beef carcass before cut- J ting up. The Kitchen Saw is an adaptation of the Butch- r , er Saw, which it resembles "j on a small scale, for the home. It is probably used Whip Saw most in country homes, but a saw of such general con- venience is bound to increase in popularity. Another variation of the Drag Saw Butcher Saw is found in the __ .._^__ Pork Packer's Saw. This ^-i^, ? saw is slightly smaller in size, and Swsw* tapers toward the end. Its name amply explains its use, as it is employed by pork butchers for cut- ting up pork. ^^i,. 4v A peculiar form of this type %^5* i of saw is found in the De-horning Saw. This saw has a blade only Deal Saw l /2 inches long and *4 inch wide. Mulav Saw ) i -I ) i f ) '! Mill Saw Futtock Saw Gang Saw L It is used by farmers and stockmen to remove, or shorten, the horns on cattle. A tool that is classed with these bone- and meat-cutting saws, and yet is more than a saw, is the Saw-knife. This is a knife with double- cutting edge, coming to a point at the end. One edge, however, is toothed for saw- ing, while the other is used for ordinary cutting. A variation of the Saw-knife is the Subcutaneous Saw for surgical use. This saw has a pistol -grip handle in which is inserted a round steel shaft. Near the outer end the shaft is flattened the upper part having a knife edge; the lower, saw-teeth. Before dismissing the narrow-blade type of saw, we must refer briefly to Fret, Scroll and Jig Saws, which are highly useful in the ornamental woodworking industry. The Fret Saw, in fact, has been referred to as the forerunner of the Hack Saw. As a matter of fact, Fret, Scroll and Jig saws are very similar, and are used for practically the same purpose. The Fret Saw blade is extremely narrow, and made from 3^-inch wide up. The narrowest blades while hav- ing teeth, appear to be merely a wire. The Fret Saw is used almost always by hand. It is delicate in construction, and is employed only on the finer kinds of work. The Scroll Saw, the blades of which are somewhat wider, is used on heavier work, and although frequently worked by hand is also used in a machine run by foot or other power. The Jig Saw, though often con- ____ ^ fused with the Fret and Scroll Saws, is distinctly a machine saw, and is used on all _iv--" heavy work. The blade on a Jig Saw is The "Nib" ground thinner toward the back. The blades of all these saws consist of a I*- ~"*~ thin ribbon of steel, toothed on one edge, and for use by hand are stretched in a frame, which is made of considerable depth between blade and back. They are especially adapted to sawing curved outlines and cutting out interior pieces. The Jig Saw resembles Fret and Scroll Saws mainly in the purposes for which it is used. It is a sawing machine with a narrow, vertical, reciprocating saw blade, on which curved and irregular lines and patterns in open work are cut. It is especially adapted to cutting interior portions which necessitate first passing the saw through a hole. Jig Saws, with suitable blades, are employed in both wood and metal work. A species of Fret Saw is the Buhl Saw. The name of this saw is derived from Andre Buhl, an Italian. He was celebrated throughout France, in the reign of Louis XIV, for inlaid work in wood. The saw, which is named for him, has a very deep frame, with a short blade, and is specially made for this class of work. The men who cut the great ice harvests of the country must depend as much on saws as do the lumbermen. Saws especially adapted to the cut- ting of ice are made in two forms. One, averaging from 3 to 6 feet in length, is used with a Tiller Handle, which has a double grip, and is prin- cipally employed for the heavier cutting in the ice-field. The other is made in the form of a hand-saw. This form is convenient fov one-man use when resawing of the ice-cakes is required, or where the ice-field is but a small one. These Hand Ice Saws are also used by manufacturers of artificial ice. The teeth of both are the same extra large, strong, and easy cutting. Reference to illustrations will show how these differ from ordinary saw- teeth. Under the head of Reciprocating Saws come also the Mulay (or Muley), the Mill and the Gang Saw all of which are familiar to millmen. These saws, while better made to-day in every particular, are simply the outgrowth of the early types used in the first power mills. We illustrate all three here, and a comparison will show that they differ more in the purposes for which they are used than in appearance. The Mill Saw represents the earliest type of reciprocating saw, and one is run in a frame; although occasionally two have been run together, but that is the exception. Gang Saws are used in sets of two machines, one for slabbing, the other for finishing the logs. In the slabber about six saws are run together in a frame, three on each side of the log, and the flat gang contains from twenty to forty saws according to the size of the timber. A number of saws thus acting together save a vast amount of time and labor. Of course, they do not equal in efficiency the Band or Circular Saw, but are still used extensively especially on tough timber. The Gang Saw is shorter and lighter in thickness than the Mill and Mulay saws. The Mulay Saw is an upright mill-saw, slightly wider; but not being strained in a frame, is capable of quicker reciprocating action. The shape of the teeth is about the same in all these saws, though the spacing in the Gang Saws is finer than the Mill or Mulay. There are several other saws of special form for wood-cutting that, though not widely used, cannot be overlooked in a history of the saw. These include the Futtock Saw, the blade of which is held in a frame, and is used by hand; the Deal Saw, which is used as a Gang Saw, but is smaller in length than the usual Gang; the Whip Saw, similar to the Pit Saw, but narrower in width, used by shipbuilders for cutting shapes, etc. ; and the Drag Saw, a saw which is used horizontally, one end being attached to a rod, or pitman, and the end of the rod in turn attached to the side of a wheel near the rim. The rotating of the wheel operates the rod like a piston and so works the saw with a reciprocating motion. It is usually used to cut logs into various lengths as may be desired. Drag Saws are made in two forms; that is, parallel in width and tapering. The tapering type, lighter in gauge or thickness, is used in a machine, principally for cutting cord wood. There is also a Portable Drag Saw Machine for cutting down trees as well as cutting the logs to mill lengths. A combination of the Long Saw and the Hand Saw is found in the One-man Cross-cut Saw. The Teeth in this saw are of regular cross-cut saw design, but the blade is shorter in length, making it adaptable for easy use by one man. Though the Egyptians are supposed to have cut stone with saws, there is no authentic record earlier than that of the building of the palace of Mausolus ^already referred to about 350 B. C. There is no question, how- ever, that it is a very ancient art. Since those early days the sawing of stone has rapidly pro- gressed, until *. ----- rr- - ^^.^ to-day the in- f ^-ssSer* dustry is a I ^ ^vVvVWv YvVv WV Hand Ice Sa exists in a number of forms. Stone-saw or saw for cutting ston The circular type will be taken up later, as we are now considering only saws of reciprocating action. The ordinary Stone-saw is fashioned very much after the pattern of a Pond Ice Saw 28 One-man Cross-cut Saw Buck Saw. The blade, however, is toothless, and made of mild steel about I inch in thickness. In use, various abrasive materials, such as sand, shot, etc., are fed in to do the cutting under the pressure and friction of this blade. While it may seem an anomaly to saw without teeth, since even pre- historic man endeavored to cut teeth in his rude saw, it is not a new idea or discovery. The early American Indian sawed by friction, through the use of sand, or a thin piece of material harder than that being cut. Among the ancient Mexicans and other early tribes stones were sawed, shaped, polished, carved and perforated entirely by friction. It is only another case of the modern saw being the outcome of some ancient form. There are machine saws for cutting stone similar to mill Gang Saws that is, several blades strained in a frame with the exception that the teeth are absent, and the saws operate in a horizontal position. Sawing, of course, is only one of many ways in which the modern artisan cuts stone, but with these other methods we are not now concerned. Stone saws of the reciprocating type are also made with inserted teeth, in each of which a black diamond is embedded to do the cutting. In addition to the Chain Saw, and the Subcutaneous Saw already referred to, the surgeon requires many saws for his special work. Nickel- plated surgical saws, extremely small in size, are used in operations on the nose and other parts of the body. Some of these are made like Back Saws; others half-moon in shape, and still others in a large variety of shapes, according to the uses to which they are put. All have exceptionally slender blades some short and others long. To what extent the usefulness of the reciprocating form of saw has grown is illustrated by the adaptation of this indispensable tool to scientific investigation. It has long been a problem why some varieties of grain and plants resist the attacks of insects and various plant diseases better than others. This has recently been solved by Dr. F. Stranak, of the Bohemian Technical High School of Prague, through the use of a tiny, specially constructed saw. The little saw is mounted upon an arm on a delicate machine made for the purpose. By the assistance of a system of weights the exact resistance to the action of the saw can be determined. This tiny saw, which measures only one-tenth of a millimeter in width, has been arranged to cut the skin of a grain or of a plant stalk much as the jaws of an insect would do. It has demonstrated that a plant's resistance to insects and disease depends entirely upon the hardness of the protecting skin. As a matter of interest, it may be stated that while there is a general understanding in the hardware trade that Hand Saws are 26 inches long, and Rip Saws 28 inches or longer, this is not carried out by fact. There are a great many Rip Saws made in shorter lengths, such as 22- and 24-inch, for the term "Rip" applies to shape and style of tooth only, and not to the length of the saw. Likewise, the Cross-Cut, or C'utting-off saws may be made in any length desired. The graduation of the teeth in Rip Saws is for the purpose of enabling 29 the user to start the saw in the work more easily by commencing the cut with the end, or point, of blade, where the teeth are somewhat finer than those at the butt. Rip Teeth, %" Pitch Cross-cut Teeth, 14" Pitch The illustrations show the method of laying-out Rip Saw Teeth and Cross-cut Saw Teeth. The angles for the teeth remain the same as in these sketches for all sizes of teeth. It will be noted that the Rip Saw Tooth is made with a straight front, while the front of the Cross-cut Saw Tooth is given a slight pitch, or rake. Another thing not generally understood in saws is the relation of teeth and "points." On examining a saw it will be noticed that in one inch space there is one tooth less than there are "points." Saws are always ordered by the number of "points" to the inch. Rip Saw Teeth are graduated from butt to point of blade, the narrow end being one "point" to the inch finer than at the butt. The "points" are, therefore, measured at butt of blade. The question has often been asked : "Of what use is the 'Nib' near the end of a hand-saw?" It is of no practical use; merely serving to break the straight line of the back of 'the blade and is an ornamentation only. Only the oldest forms of saws have so far been described the recipro- cating types or those principally used by hand to cut on the thrust or pull. We now come to that class which revolutionized the dividing or sawing of large timber into boards, planks or heavy lumber continuous action saws, both circular and band. Those who have followed this story from the beginning will readily conceive the saving of time and labor effected by continuous action saws as against the reciprocating type. Moreover, the former not only lessens the cost of making lumber, thus increasing its general use and advancing the industry, but enables the production of more lumber from the log by reason of greater economy in sawing a thinner kerf reducing the waste in the shape of sawdust. It is reasonable to say that owing to the demand, lumber to-day would be held at a price prohibitive to the general public were it not for the great improvement in the methods of its manufacture. The principal types of continuous action saws are the Circular, a rotat- ing disc; the Cylindrical, or barrel shaped; and the Band Saw, which is a continuous ribbon of steel running on two wheels. The solid tooth Circular Saw is the first form of continuous action Circular Mitre Saw ***** and even to - da y is used to a 30 Gullot Tooth Circular Saw greater extent than others owing to the variety of its work, though as time progressed the solid tooth gave way, in a measure, to the inserted (or re- movable) tooth for some kinds of sawing, which will be described later. To quote from "Grim- shaw on Saws" : "During all the cen turies which witnessed the birth and rise, the haughty supremacy and the fall of nations in successive turns, no important change was made for the better in the manufacture of saws, until, in 1790, a device was brought out by Brunei, by which cutting should be continuous. In other words, the application of the ro- tary principle to power- driven saws was then given practically to the world. While the circular saw was first practically used in Holland, its de- velopment is due to Eng- land and America espe- cially the latter. "The Circular or 'Buzz' Saw, not having inertia to overcome in revolv- ing, has a higher cutting speed of teeth than the reciprocating, besides the advantage of continuous cutting." The early type of Circular Saw can hardly be compared with those of to-day, so great has been the advance in manufacture. Picture to yourself the old style saw, a crude, round sheet of metal hammered flat on the anvil, and with roughly punched-out teeth. Then examine the efficient saw of to-day, made of a high grade Crucible Steel peculiarly adapted to withstand the severe strains to which Circular Saws are subjected, ground on auto- matic machinery, making the saws perfectly uniform in thickness through- out, or giving the blade an accurate taper from thick on the tooth-edge to thin near center, or the reverse. Then, again, this machine may be ad- justed to grind the saw perfectly flat on one side and tapered on Ihe other. This automatic method of grinding fully insures that true and perfect balance which is also an absolute requisite in a saw for straight cutting when running at a high rate of speed. It has not been so many years since Circular Saws were run at only one-third the speed they are to-day. It was, indeed, rough lumber they made in those days. .The feeding of the log to the saw was done by the crude "jab," rack and pinion feed, while now stream is used in what is termed "shotgun feed" and "twin engine feed" produc- ing thousands of feet of well-cut, smooth lumber in less time than it took the old saw-mill to cut a few feet. The question of high rate of speed brings up an impor- tant feature not known in the early days, and that is "ten- sioning" for the speed at which the saw is to run. The earlier saws were made flat and very heavy or thick throughout, many of them being as heavy as No. 3 or 4 gauge, and being run at a comparatively low rate of speed, were not affected by centrifugal force. Consequently they were hammered flat, or without "ten- sion." Whereas, the circular saw of to-day not only is made much thinner 31 Special Grooving Saw (large saws as thin as 9 and 10 gauge being nothing unusual) , but is run at a much higher rate of speed, the present recognized standard being 10,000 feet rim travel, where formerly 4000 feet per minute was considered high. But many saws are run as high as 15,000 feet per minute, but with greatly increased risk to saw and equipment. Therefore, it is so hammered or ten- sioned that the center is left sufficiently "open" to offset centrifugal force when the saw is revolved up to high speed, thus keeping the edge strained on a true line, otherwise the saw would not run smoothly or cut straight. Another great improvement is in the tooth. Instead of the ordinary V-shaped tooth, there are hundreds of patterns or special shapes for ripping, special styles for cross-cutting each made on scientific lines to give the necessary "pitch," .and lead into the cut, as well as ample throat room for >E| Df Flat or Coun- tersunk Side Segmented Veneering Saw Veneering in Egypt, 1490, B. C. carrying out the saw-dust to prevent choking; special sizes or number of teeth according to the class or character of the wood to be sawn, and also the amount of feed used. And further, note in the larger teeth how ample backing is given each tooth for the reason that in taking a heavier "bite" more strength is re- quired. An idea originated and patented some years ago by Henry Disston, and one which lengthens the life of the saw, is the gullett tooth. This, when required, being gummed or chambered on spiral lines by a light handworking machine, styled a Gummer, causes considerable saving of the saw-plate, for in gumming, the steel is cut down chiefly in the throat of the tooth in a di- rection around the blade instead of down and directly toward the center, as is the case in ordinary methods. These advances, made from time to time, are the result of scientific research and experiment, looking to the accomplishment of the greatest results in the shortest time, at minimum power consump- tion and expense, and last, but not least, the economical sawing of the W,vJ cross-cutting, but can be made with rip teeth if desired. D-8 Hand Saw The original Skewback Saw, and the most popular saw in the world. The peculiar -shape of the butt or heel, together with the method L of fastening the polished apple wood handle permits full sweep of the saw without catching in the work. Triumph Saw Set A double plunger construction serves to grip the saw blade firmly while the tooth is being set. This feature, with the visible, open- head design prevents slipping and insures accurate, uniform work. No. 28 for hand and rip saws; No. 280 for back and fine tooth saws. No. 36i Hack Saw Frame Polished apple handle. Nickel- plated frame, adjustable by half inches, to take in blades 8 to 12 inches. Reversible stretchers, will not fall out while readjusting. The shape of the handle and its application to the frame, insures complete control and does more accurate work. Disston Files Made of Disston Crucible Steel, carefully forged. Hardened by our Improved Process. Correctly shaped teeth. The most durable files on the market. Made in every shape and size and cut. All Disston Tools Fully Warranted Ancient Saw Mill Worked by Hand Power Theatrum Machinarum Novum, 1662 'URN FOREST PRODUCTS LIBRARY ^- Richmond Field Station \N PERIOD 1 2 3 -/2J 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS DUE AS STAMPED BELOW -n? m i ' 1 (j I * 1QQfe : ICN 1 UN ILL 0V 8 1396 C. BERKEUE> UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY !M NO. DD1 4, 2.5m, 3/78 BERKELEY, CA 94720 U.C. BERKELEY LIB CD375L4D V? * TJ1233 D6