*********** *;*/*'**** * * * SANTA CRUZ < C I 2 O u- Gilt oi Mrs. Stanley R. Smith H I tn A.'N ILLUSTEATED HISTOET OF THE GREAT REPUBLIC: BEING A FULL AND COMPLETE HISTOKY OF THE AMERICAN UNION, FROM ITS EARLIEST SETTLEMENT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME; COMPRISING^ ITS EARLY DISCOVERIES, WARS WITH THE FRENCH AND INDIANS, THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION, ; DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, HISTORY OF PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS, OUR ARMY AND NAVY, AND EACH BRANCH OF OUR GOVERNMENT SEPARATELY DEFINED. INCLUDING ALSO COMPLETE AND ACCURATE DESCRIPTIONS OF THE CLIMATE, SOIL, PRODUCTIONS, WEALTH, AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, MANU- FACTURES, LAWS, EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES, AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF EACH STATE AND TERRITORY. TOGETHER WITH AN INTERESTING HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE CITIES, TOWNS, AND VILLAGES; THEIR LOCATION, WEALTH, PROGRESS, ADVANTAGES, AND PROBABLE GROWTH. THK WHOLE FORMING A COMPLETE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF OUR WHOLE COUNTRY. BY JAS. D. M'CABE, JB., AUTHOR 07 " GREAT FORTUNES," " PLANTING THE WILDERNESS," " PAWS BT SUN-LIGHT AND GAS-LIGHT," ETC. EMBELLISHED AND ILLUSTRATED BY OVER TWO HUNDRED ELEGANT ENGRAVINGS. TAKEN FROM NATURE, THEY PRESENT A COMPLETE PANORAMA OS OUR GREAT COUNTRY. SOLD CXBTX/ST BY PHILADELPHIA: WILLIAM B. EVANS & CO. CHICAGO, ILL.: RICHARD S. PEALE & CO. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL: A. L. BANCROFT & CO. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 187*, by WILLIAM B. EVANS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. PREFACE. THAT which is most worthy of a man's study and observation is his own country, yet but few of the great mass of Amer- icans are well informed as to the land of their birth. There is a vague idea in the minds of all that the Union is a "great country" with regard to size as well as in other respects, but they have but a faint conception of the immenseness of the Republic. A few years ago, an English traveller, who had been impressed with the magnificent extent of our country by the fatigues of a stage coach journey across the Plains, wrote as follows concerning it, and his statement seemed to take even our own people by surprise. He said : "Yes, the Republic is a big country. In England we have no lines of sufficient length, no areas of sufficient width, to convey a just idea of its size. The State of Oregon is bigger than England; California is about the size of Spain ; Texas would be larger than France, if France had won the frontier of the German Rhine. If the United States were parted into equal lots, they would make fifty-two kingdoms as large as England, fourteen empires as large as France. Even the grander figure of Europe fails us when we come to measure in its lines such amplitudes as those of the United States. To wit : from Eastport to Brownsville is farther than from London to Tuat, in the Great Sahara; from Washington to Astoria is farther than from Brussels to Kars ; from New York to San Francisco is farther than from Paris to Bagdad. Such measures seem to carry us away from the sphere of fact into the realms of magic and romance. 4 PREFACE. "Again, take the length of rivers as a measurement of size. A steamboat can go ninety miles up the Thames, two hundred miles up the Seiue; five hundred and fifty miles up the Rhine. In America, the Thames would be a creek, the Seine a brook, the Rhine a local stream, soon lost in a mightier flood. The Mississippi is five times longer than the Rhine; the Missouri is three times longer than the Danube; the Columbia is four times longer than the Scheldt. From the sea to Fort Snelling, the Missouri is plowed by steamers a distance of two thousand one hundred and thirty-one miles ; yet she is but the second river in the United States. " Glancing at a map of America, we see to the north a group of lakes. Now our English notion of a lake is likely to have been derived from Coniston, Killarney, Lomond, Leman, and Garda. But these sheets of water give us no true hint of what Huron and Superior are like, scarcely indeed of what Erie and Ontario are like. Coniston, Killarney, Lomond, Leman, and Garda, put together would not cover a tenth part of the surface occupied by the smallest of the five Amer- ican lakes. All the waters lying in Swiss, Italian, English, Irish, Scotch, and German lakes might be poured into Michigan without making a perceptible addition to its flood. Yorkshire might be sunk out of sight in Erie ; Ontario drowns as much land as would make two duchies equal in area to Schleswig and Holstein. Denmark proper could be washed by the waves of Huron. Many of the minor lakes in America would be counted as inland seas elsewhere ; to-wit : Salt Lake, in Utah, has a surface of two thousand square miles; while that of Geneva has only three hundred and thirty ; that of Como only ninety ; that of Killarney only eight. A kingdom like Saxony, a principality like Parma, a duchy like Coburg, if thrown in one heap into Lake Superior, might add an island to its beauty, but would be no more conspicuous in its vast expanse than one of those pretty grec a islets which adorn Loch Lomond. " Mountain masses are not considered by some as the strongest parts of American scenery ; yet you find masses in this country which defy all measurement by such puny chains as the Pyrenees, the Apennines, and the Savoy Alps, The Alleghanies, ranging in height between PREFACE. 5 Helvellyn and Pilatus, run through a district equal in extent to the country lying between Ostend and Jaroslaw. The Wahsatch chain, though the name is hardly known in Europe, has a larger bulk and grandeur than the Julian Alps. The Sierra Madre, commonly called the Rocky Mountains, ranging in stature from a little below Snowclon to a trifle above Mont Blanc, extend from Mexico, through the .Republic, into British America, a distance almost equal to that dividing London from Delhi/' Such are the territorial dimensions of our country, as measured by a foreigner, and that they are in no way exaggerated will be found by all who study the subject. But the greatness and interest of the Republic do not consist in its vast size. We have within our limits nearly every variety of climate known to man, and a soil capable of producing almost every product of the earth, from the stunted herbage of the frozen regions to the luxuriant fruits of the tropics. The ground is rich in mineral deposits, from the useful, but homely veins of coal, to beds of the most brilliant and valuable jewels. The earth yields us not only our food, but the rarest medicines and drugs. It pours out in streams oil for burning, gas that may be used fresh from the natural springs, salt that requires but the heat of the sun for its perfection, and beds of pure soda that cover the earth like the dust in the highways. In short, all that is needed for the preservation and comfort of animal and human life exists in this favored land in the greatest profusion. So much has the Creator done for us. Man has not been slow to take advantage of these blessings. In the comparatively short space of three hundred years the Auierican people have become a mighty nation, increasing with a rapidity that is almost marvellous. They have built up the country on a scale of magnificence of which they may justly be proud. They have covered it with splendid cities, connected by a network of railways binding all the scattered parts into one solid whole. They have made a commerce and a system of manufactures before which the fabled wealth of Tyre sinks into insignificance. They have built up a literature which commands the respect of the world. They have illustrated their history with deedi 6 PREFACE. of arras not less splendid than their more peaceful achievements, and have given to the world names in every walk of life that will never die. All this have they done, and yet the mass of them are ignorant, or but imperfectly informed, of the magnitude and value of their achievements. It is the object of this work to present to them at a glance the actual condition of the Republic at the present day. The Author is well aware that such a tremendous undertaking can be but imperfectly accomplished in a volume of this size ; yet he ventures to express the hope that he has made the statement herein presented sufficiently complete and comprehensive to be of service to the reader. The tables and other statistics in the body of the work are mainly from the latest State reports available. The Author would here express his obligations to General Francis A. Walker, the accom- plished superintendent of the census of 1870, for assistance received from him in the collection of statistics. It is hoped that the Illustrations will aid in bringing to the mind of the reader a vivid picture of the busy, restless, energetic Republic of the West, and also to render him more familiar with some of the charms of American scenery. J. D. McC., JR. YORK, September 2&h, 1873. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. NO. PAGE 1. The Capitol at Washington Frontispiece. 2. Coat of Arras of the Republic 31 3. Rapids of the St. Lawrence 51 4. A View on the Alleghany Mountains 59 5. A View on the Rocky Mountains 61 6. Ploughing a Western Prairie 62 7. A Western Homestead 76 8. View on the Hudson River, showing the Steamboat, Telegraph, and Railroad 83 9. Indians Viewing the Pacific Railroad 84 10. An Indian Village in Winter 103 11. Sioux Indians Burning a Prisoner 104 12. Ruins of Jamestown, Va 107 13. Plymouth Rock 109 14. First Settlement of New York City Ill 15. First Settlers of America Clearing Land 113 16. Burning of Deerfield, Mass 117 17. Ruins of Ticonderoga 128 18. Independence Hall in 1776 131 19. Scene of the Battle of Lake Champlain 146 20. Plain of Chalmette: Scene of the Battle of New Orleans . 148 21. Maine State Coat of Arms 165 22. An American Forest 166 23. Lumbering in Maine 169 24. Lumberman's Camp in the Woods of Maine 172 25. City Hall and Court House at Portland 184 26. New Hampshire State Coat of Arms 189 27. Scene on the White Mountains 191 28. The State House at Concord 200 29. Vermont State Coat of Arms 205 30. A View of Montpelier, Vt 213 31. A View of Rutland, Vt 216 32. Massachusetts State Coat of Arms 222 33. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass 229 34. A View of Boston 238 35. State House, at Boston 239 36. Faneuil Hall, at Boston 240 37. Bunker Hill Monument, at Boston 248 38. Pacific Mills, Lawrence, Mass 256 39 A View from Greenfield, Mass 258 40. Rhode Island State Coat of Arms 274 41. Coast Fishing 280 42. Narragansett Bay, R. I 282 s 43. A View of Newport, R. I 285 44. Connecticut State Coat of Arms 292 45. A View from Mount Holyoke, Conn 293 46. Yale College, New Haven, Conn 300 47. A View of New Haven, Conn 30ft 48. New York State Coat of Arms 323 49. A Scene in the Catskill Mountains 324 50. A View on the Hudson River 329 51. Scene on Lake George 330 52. The Falls of Niagara 333 53. New York City in 1664 349, 7 8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. NO. *AGl 54. A View of Albany, N. Y 353 55. A View of New York City 356 56. Scene on Broadway, New York City 358 57. Scene on Fifth Avenue, New York City 360 58. View in Central Park, New York City 361 59. The Water Terrace in Central Park, New York City 362 60. City Hall, New York City 365 61. Academy of Design 3G7 62. High Bridge, at Harlem 370 63. Union Square, and Washington Monument 373 64. United States Navy Yard, Brooklyn, L. 1 377 65. View from West Point 380 66. Genesee Falls, at Rochester, N. Y 382 67. A View of Oswego, N. Y 388 68. New Jersey State Coat of Arms 404 69. Gathering Watermelons 407 70. Princeton College, N. J..; 409 71. Bergen Tunnel 411 72. Passaic Falls, at Paterson, N. J 421 73. A Scene at Atlantic City, N. J. 423 74. Pennsylvania State Coat of Arms 429 75. A View on the Juniata River 431 76. The Schuylkill, above Philadelphia 432 77. Mount Pisgah, and the Coal Region 433 78. Deep Cut on the Pennsylvania Railroad 441 79. The Susquehanna, above Harrisburg 443 8fl. A View of Philadelphia from Camden 444 81. Philadelphia, from Fairmount Park 445 82. The Wissahickon, at Chestnut Hill 446 83. Philadelphia Small Homes 447 84. The Ledger Building, Philadelphia 448 85. Fairmount Water Works, Philadelphia 449 86. The Wissahickon, Philadelphia 450 87. The Union League Building, Philadelphia 451 88. The New Masonic Temple, Philadelphia 452 89. Hemlock Glen, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia 458 90. New Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia 454 91. Wissahickon'New Drive, Philadelphia 455 92. The Schuylkill River, at the Falls, Philadelphia 456 93. Chestnut Street Bridge, Philadelphia 457 94. A Public Fountain, Philadelphia 458 95. Independence Hall in 1872, Philadelphia 460 96. A View of Pittsburgh, Pa 462 97. A View of Scranton, Pa 472 98. A View of Easton, Pa 475 99. Delaware State Coat of Arms... 491 100. A Peach Farm in Delaware 498 101. Maryland State Coat of Arms 503 102. Oyster Fishery, Maryland 505 103. Battle Monument, nt Baltimore 519 104. A Scene on Baltimore Street, , 522 105. Scene on Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 525 106. District of Columbia Coat of Arms 529 107. Columbian Deaf and Dumb Institution fr 531 108. New Building of the Y. M. C. A., Washington 536 109. United States Treasury Building, Washington 546 110. United States Patent Office, Washington 549 111. Virginia State Coat of Arms 555 112. Natural Tunnel, Virginia 561 113. Little Stony Falls, Virginia 565 114. A View of Richmond, Virginia 576 115. Mount Vernon 582 116. North Carolina State Coat of Arms 595 117. A View on the Sea Coast of North Carolina 598 118. Capitol at Raleigh, N. C 607 119. South Carolina State Coat of Arms 613 120. A Scene near Beaufort, S. C 614 J21. Rice Fields 616 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 9 yso. PAGE 122. A View of Charleston, S. C 625 123. Georgia State Coat of Arms 632 124. A View of Savannah, Georgia 642 125. Florida State Coat of Anns 649 126. St. John's River, Florida 651 127. St. Augustine, Florida 662 128. Alabama State Coat of Arms 664 129. A Bluff on the Alabama River 666 130. Capitol at Montgomery, Alabama 677 131. The Landing at Mobile 679 132. Mississippi State Coat of Arms 682 m. On the Shores of the Yazoo 682 134. Picking Cotton 684 135. Jackson, Miss 691 136. Natchez, Miss 692 137. A View of Vicksburg, Miss 694 138. Louisiana State Coat of Arms 699 139. Gathering Sugar Cane 702 140. A Sugar House ,, 705 141. Scene on St. Charles Street, New Orleans 715 142. Jackson Square, New Orleans 718 143. Lafayette Square, New Orleans 721 144. Texas State Coat of Arms 731 145. On the Gulf. 732 146. Galveston, Texas 748 147. The Alamo San Antonio, Texas 750 148. West Virginia State Coat of Arms 757 149. A View of Harper's Ferry, West Virginia 758 150. A View of Wheeling, West Virginia 766 151. Tennessee State Coat of Arms 778 152. Nashville, Tenn 786 153. Memphis, Tenn 788 154. Kentucky State Coat of Arms 795 155. Inside View, Mammoth Cave, Ky 797 156. Frankfort, Ky 805 157. Louisville, Ky 806 158. Ohio State Coat of Arms 816 159. State Capitol at Columbus, 824 160. A View of Cincinnati, ; 826 161. Scene on Fourth Street, Cincinnati, . 827 162. The Tyler Davidson Fountain, Cincinnati, 829 163. Scene on Superior Street, Cleveland, 83S 164. Court House, at Dayton, 835 165. Indiana State Coat of Arras 841 166. State House, at Indianapolis, Ind 848 167. Evansville, Ind 850 168. New Albany, Ind 851 169. Lafayette, Ind 853 170. Illinois State Coat of Arms 859 171. State House, at Springfield, 111 869 172. A View of Chicago, 111 870 173. The Tribune Building, Chicago, 111 873 174. Scene on Lake Street, Chicago, 111 877 175. Quincy, 111 883 176. Alton, 111 888 177. Chicago in Flames 890 178. Michigan State Coat of Arms ; 898 179. A Western River Scene 899 180. Woodward Avenue, Detroit, Mich 909 181. Wisconsin State Coat of Arms 918 182. A Copper Mine in Wisconsin 920 183. Madison, Wis 927 184. River View, in Milwaukee, Wis 929 185. Minnesota State Coat of Arms 934 186. Falls of St. Anthony, Minn 935 187. St. Paul, Minn 943 188. Iowa State Coat of Arms.. 945 189. A Rest on the Prairies 946 10 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. NO. *AGB 190. Davenport, Iowa 954 191. Dubuque, Iowa 955 192. Burlington, Iowa 956 193. Missouri State Coat of Arms 963 194. Floating Island, on the Missouri River 964 195. A View of St. Louis, Mo 970 196. Court House, at St. Louis 972 197. St. Joseph, Mo 977 198. Arkansas State Coat of Arms 982 199. Little Rock, Ark 987 200. Helena, Ark 988 201. Kansas State Coat of Arms 989 202. Indians Attacking U. S. Overland Mail Coach 994 203. Leavenworth City, Kansas 999 204. Nebraska State Coat of Arms 1001 205. Crossing the Plains 1002 206. Depot at Omaha 1006 207. A View of Omaha, Nebraska 1007 208. Nevada State Coat of Arms 1008 209. The Palisades, Humboldt River, Nevada 1009 210. Silver Mining, Nevada 1011 211. California State Coat of Arms 1016 212. Original Big Tree, California 1018 213. Hydraulic Mining, California 1024 214. A View of San Francisco 1034 215. Cape Horn 1045 216. Oregon State Coat of Arms 1053 217- An Oregon Valley 1056 218. Alaska Territory 1065 219. Mount St. Elias, Alaska 1068 220. Sitka, Alaska 1070 221. Arizona Territory 1071 222. Aztec Mountains 1072 223. Colorado Coat of Arms 1075 224. Buffalo Hunting 1076 225. A Canon in Colorado 1079 226. Dakota Territory 1081 227. Idaho Territory 1086 228. A Canon in the Rocky Mountains 1087 229. The Indian Territory 1090 230. Indians Hunting Bison 1090 231. Montana 1092 232. A Frontier City 1095 233. New Mexico 1097 234. Santa Fe, New Mexico 1099 235. Utah Coat of Arms 1101 236. The Tabernacle, Salt Lake City 1104 237. Main Street, Salt Lake City 1106 238. Washington Territory 1110 239. A Street in Olympia 1114 240. Wyoming Territory Ulfi 241. A Prairie Dog City " j^y 242. A New Map of the United States ". 1120 CONTENTS. PART I. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Description of the American Continent Its grand divisions North Ame- rica Dimensions and Divisions The United States of North America Description of the Great Republic Its dimensions and political divi- sions Its population, showing the increase since 1790 The rivers of the United States Description of the great water system of the Re- public The Mississippi Its wonderful history Its wealth and peculiar- ities The Missouri River How the Mississippi Valley is drained The other tributaries of the " Father of Waters "The Great Lakes of the North Explanation of the mountain system of the United States The wonders of the Rocky Mountains Soil of the United States State- ment of the various qualities of soil existing in the Republic, and of their capacity for adding to the national wealth Description of the climate of the United States, showing the peculiar features of each section of the country Relative healthfulness of the various States, showing which is the healthiest Description of the mineral wealth of the Republic, showing where the different minerals are found and in what quantities The undeveloped riches of the country Products of the soil The animals of the United States A brief sketch of the American natural history Characteristics of the population The dis- tinguishing marks of the inhabitants of the various States Table, showing the arrivals and destination of emigrants since 1820 What emigration has done for the Union The agricultural resources of the United States List of the agricultural products, showing where each is grown, and the portion of the country to which it is best adapted Facts for producers and consumers The manufacturing interests Rapid growth and great extent of this portion of our wealth The com- merce of the United States Its vast proportions Our internal im- provements History of the rise and growth of the canal, railroad, steamboat, and telegraph in this country Our educational system Explanation of the American system of free schools The Press Its 11 12 CONTENTS. importance and power Number of newspapers and periodicals published The postal system of the Republic Religious denominations, show- ing the strength of each religious sect in the United States Popula- tion of the leading cities of the Union Explanation of the Government of the United States A concise view of the Federal Constitution The Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary, and their duties Relations of the States to the General Government Powers and limitations of the General Government The Army and Navy of the Republic Their strength Financial condition of the United States in 1870 History of the United States General view of the Indians of North America Who they were Discovery of America by Columbus Other discove- ries Expedition of De Soto Efforts of the French and Spaniards to settle the South England alarmed Raleigh's colony on Roanoake Is- land The settlement at Jamestown Voyages of Captain John Smith First Legislative Assembly in America Introduction of African Sla- very into" Virgiuia-r-The Plymouth Colony Landing of the Pilgrims- Internal organization of the Colony, and its progress Foundation of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay Consolidation of the Massachusetts settlements Settlement of Maine, Connecticut, arid Rhode Island Dis- covery of the Hudson River The Dutch settle New York History of the Colony It is captured by the English Settlement of New Jersey and Delaware Settlement of Pennsylvania and Maryland The Caro- linas and Georgia colonized by the English Prosperity of the Colonies Different characteristics Establishment of common schools arid col- leges Troubles with the Indians Aggressions of the French Their success in the Mississippi Valley They aid the Indians in their attacks upon the English King William's, Queen Anne's, and King- George's wars Capture of Louisbourg Trouble with the French on the Ohio Washington's journey Military operations west of the Mountains Braddock's defeat" The Old French War " in the other Colonies Failures of the English A change of ministry William Pitt Capture of Louisburg and Fort Duquesne Death of Lord Howe Capture of Quebec Expulsion of the French from Canada The conspiracy of Pontiac Services of the Colonists during the wars with the French Injustice of Great Britain towards the Colonies Resistance of the Americans The unjust taxes Further aggressions The call for a Continental Congress Meeting and acts of the first Congress Suicidal policy of the British Government The "Boston Massacre "The tax on tea Destruction of tea in Boston harbor Closing of the Port of Boston The Colonies make common cause with Massachusetts The second Colonial Congress Its acts The petition for redress Stubborn- ness of the King General Gage brings matters to a crisis The conflicts at Lexington and Concord The beginning of the Revolution The Meck- lenburg declaration of Independence Meeting of the Continental Con- gressMeasures of resistance Washington appointed to the command of the American Army Battle of Bunker Hill Organization of the American Army Siege of Boston The invasion of Canada The Brit- ish fleet repulsed at Charleston Vigorous measures of Congress The CONTENTS. \8 Declaration of Independence Battle of Long Island The British oc- cupy New York City Gloomy state of affairs for the Colonies Battle of Trenton A gleam of hope Defeat of the British at Princeton The " Articles of Confederation " adopted Events of the Campaign of 1777 Capture of Philadelphia Battles of Germantown and Bennington Surrender of Burgoyne's army The treaty with France Great Britain's efforts at conciliation Too late The winter at the Valley Forge Ar- rival of the French fleet Battle of Monmouth Capture of Savannah by the British Naval affairs The British take Charleston, S. C. Par- tisan war in the South Gates defeated at Carnden Battle of King's Mountain Greene sent to the Carolinas Treason of Arnold Battles of the Cowpens and Guilford Court House Washington goes after Corn- wallis Siege of Yorktown Surrender of Cornwallis The close of the war Condition of the country Organization of the Republic of the United States Adoption of the Federal Constitution Washington's two Administrations Admission of new States Washington retires to private life Administration of John Adams War with France The Administrations of Jefferson Political disputes Purchase of Louis- iana The affair of the Chesapeake and the Leopard British and French outrages upon American commerce The Embargo James Madison elected President The second war with England Its events by land and sea The battle of New Orleans The peace of 1815 The Baj'bary States chastised The Hartford Convention Reelection of Mr. Madison The Bank of the United States Admission of Louisiana and Indiana Mr. Monroe elected President Admission of Mississippi, Illi- nois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri into the Union The slavery excite- ment The " Missouri Compromise " The " Monroe Doctrine " John Quincy Adams elected President The Tariff question Administration of Andrew Jackson The National Bank question the Nullification troubles Firmness of the President His opposition to the National Bank He removes the public funds The National Debt paid Admis- sion of Arkansas and Michigan Election of President Van Buren The commercial crisis of 1837 Election of President Harrison Death of General Harrison John Tyler becomes President His Administra- tion Admission of Texas James K. Polk elected President The war with Mexico Results of the war Settlement of the Oregon question Admission of Wisconsin General Taylor elected President The " Wilmot Proviso " Discovery of gold in California Admission of Cali- fornia into the Union Political strife The " Compromise of 1850 " Death of General Taylor Mr. Filmore's Administration The Japan ex- pedition Election of President Pierce The Kansas-Nebraska contro- versy The Republican party The anti-slavery agitation increases Efforts to purchase Cuba Filibustering expeditions The Know-Noth- ing party Election of President Buchanan Admission of Minnesota The Kansas war The Mormon troubles The John Brown affair The Presidential contest of 1860 Threatening condition of public affairs Election of President Lincoln Secession of the Southern States The Civil War , Pages 29 to 162 14 CONTENTS. PART II. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. MAINE. Area in square miles Population in 1870 Position upon the globe De- scription of the topography of the State Its bays, islands, rivers, moun- tains, and lakes The woods of Maine Their beauty and resources Description of the lumber region The minerals of Maine Agricultural resources of the State Its commerce and manufactures Internal im- provementsThe railroads of Maine The Common School system- Explanation of its features Statement of the schools and colleges of the State Its newspapers and libraries The penal and charitable in- stitutions Religious denominations Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Constitution and Government History of Maine The visit of Gosnold First settlement of Maine Its early history Period of the Revolution Admission into the Union as a State Inroads of the Rebels Statement of troops furnished to the United States Army during the Civil War The chief cities arid towns Description of Augusta Portland Bangor The story of Arnold's march to Quebec Pages 163 to 188 NEW HAMPSHIRE. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Description of the topography of the State The White Mountains and their beauties The lakes and rivers of the State The Isle of Shoals The agricultural products Description of the soil of the State Commerce and manu- factures Internal improvements The educational system Description of the penal and charitable institutions and their present condition Re- ligious denominations The State Government Explanation of its va- rious features History of New Hampshire First settlements at Dover and Portsmouth Trouble with the Indians The Revolution Enters the Union Troops furnished during the Civil War Description of Concord, Manchester, Portsmouth, and Dover Story of the burning of Dover by the Indians Pages 189 to 204 VERMONT. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Physical features of Vermont The Green Mountains Lake Champlain Mineral wealth Climate Description of the soil Agricultural products in detail Commerce and manufactures Internal improvements The Free School system The charitable and penal institutions Religious denominations Financial condition of the State Its government and internal system History of Vermont First settlement Troubles with New York The Revolution Capture of Ticonderoga Ethan Allen and CONTENTS. 15 the Green Mountain boys Vermont refuses the British offers Admis- sion into the Union War of 1812-15 The St.Albans affair Troops fur- nished during the Civil War Description of the principal cities Moritpelier Burlington Rutland Benriington The battle of Ben- nington The taking of Ticonderoga Pages 205 to 221 MASSACHUSETTS. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Description of the to- pographical features of the State Its islands, bays, rivers, mountains and lakes Beauty of the scenery of Massachusetts Its mineral wealth Climate Description of the soil Its agricultural wealth Commerce The vast manufacturing system of the State Its internal improve- ments The Free Schools of Massachusetts A noble system of public education Harvard University Penal and charitable institutions Re- ligious denominations Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government History of Massachusetts Discovery Gos- nold's Colony Landing of the Pilgrims Growth of the Plymouth Colony Settlement of Massachusetts Bay Troubles with the Indians Internal troubles Accession of William and Mary Consolidation of the Colonies The Salem Witchcraft Wars with the French and In- dians Resistance to the injustice of Great Britain The Revolution Massachusetts enters the Union Shays's Rebellion War of 1812-15 Troops furnished during the Civil War Description of Boston An inside view of the Metropolis of New England Its public institutions Its characteristics, sights, habits etc. History of the city of Boston from its settlement to the present day Roxbury and Dorchester Story of the Boston Massacre Destruction of tea in Boston harbor Charles- town Bunker Hill Monument Battle of Bunker Hill Cambridge Harvard University Lowell An inside view of the factories of Lowell Factory life Lynn The shoe trade Lawrence Its factories Wor- cester Springfield The United States Armory Taunton Salem Plymouth Miscellanies Arrival of the Pilgrims at Cape Cod The first Sabbath in New England The first crimes in New England Story of the Salem Witchcraft A wonderful relation Primitive extravagance A fearful snow storm The Men of "Seventy-Six" Pages 222 to 273 RHODE ISLAND. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topographical sketch of the State Minerals Climate Soil and agricultural products Commerce Importance of Rhode Island as a manufacturing State Internal improvements Educational system Penal and charitable in- stitutions Religious denominations Financial condition Explanation of the State Government History of Rhode Island Settlement by Roger Williams Early years of the Colony Death of King Philip Colonial history The Revolution Troops furnished during the Civil War Description of Providence Newport The most fashionable wa- tering place in America Early history of Newport Seizure of General X*rescott Destruction of the Gaspee Pages 274 to 291 16 CONTENTS. CONNECTICUT. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topographical features of the State Mineral wealth of Connecticut Climate De- scription of the soil and agricultural products of the State Commerce Manufactures Interesting details of the factories of Connecticut Internal improvements The Common School system of the State A noble school fund Yale College Penal and charitable institutions The system of instruction for the deaf and dumb Religious denomina- tions Finances of the State Its debt arid annualexpenses Explana- tion of the State Government History of Connecticut Dutch settle- ments The English in Connecticut Founding of Hartford and New Haven Wars with the Pequots The affair of the Charter Oak Colo- nial history The Eevolution Troops furnished during the Civil War Description of New Haven Yale College and its history Capture of New Haven by the British Hartford Extracts from the old laws of the city Norwich Bridgeport Waterbury New London Norwalk Middletown The Blue Laws of Connecticut The Regicides The penalty for kissing The Dark Day American Independence Election day in the olden time Pages 292 to 319 PART III. THE MIDDLE STATES. NEW YORK. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topographical sketch of the State The Hudson The Catskills Lake George Niagara Falls Long Island Mineral Wealth Climate Soil and productions of the State Statement of the foreign and domestic commerce of New York Manufactures Magnificent system of internal improvements The Erie Canal Educational system The free schools The colleges Newspapers and periodicals Penal and charitable institutions A noble system Religious denominations Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government History of New York Discoveries of Champlain and Hudson The Dutch at Manhattan Is- land and Fort Orange The Province passes into the hands of the Eng- lish Early troubles Injustice of the Crown Wars with the Indians and the French The Revolution Controversy with Yermont settled- War of 1812-15 Internal improvements begun Completion of the Erie Canal Troops furnished during the Civil War Description and history of Albany The city of New York Description of it The Me- tropolis of the Union Its palaces of trade and art The Central Park -Commercial importance of the city The ferry system Places of amusementsPublic buildings Schools Scientific, literary and bene- CONTENTS. 17 volent institutions Prisons Croton water History of the city of New York Brooklyn The city of churches The United States Navy Yard Prospect Park Buffalo Its commercial importance Rochester Troy Syracuse Salt works Utica Oswego Ancient laws of New York Old time customs of New York City The Negro Plot in New York How Rochester was saved from the British Pages 321 to 403 NEW JERSEY. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topography of the State Mineral wealth Climate Soil arid productions Commerce and manufactures Internal improvements The school system Penal and charitable institutions Religious denominations Financial condition Explanation of the State Government History of New Jersey It passes into the hands of the English The Revolution Troops fur- nished during the Civil War Description of Trenton Newark Its manufactures Jersey City Paterson Elizabeth Camden Battle of Trenton Murder of Rev. James Caldwell A mutiny in the Continen- tal Army Pages 404 to 428 PENNSYLVANIA. Area Population in 1870 Topographical features of the State Mineral wealth of Pennsylvania Its extent and importance Climate Soil and productions Commerce Manufactures of Pennsylvania Internal im- provements The Canal system The free schools and Colleges The Press Libraries Penal and charitable institutions Religious denomi- nations Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Gov- ernment History of Pennsylvania First settlement of the State The grant to William Penn Settlement by the Quakers Philadelphia founded Treaty with the Indians Progress of the Colony The Revo- lution Philadelphia occupied by the British The whiskey insurrection Invasion of the State during the Civil War Battle of Gettysburg Description of Harrisburg Philadelphia Its location Description of the city Its dimensions Fairmount Park The public buildings Markets Schools and Colleges Literary and scientific institutions Prisons Hospitals and Asylums The Press Importance of the ma- nufactures of the city Commerce United States Navy Yard History of Philadelphia Pittsburg Sketch of its manufactures The American Birmingham Scranton Reading Lancaster Erie Easton Old time customs in Philadelphia Massacre of Wyoming The sermon before the Brandy wine Battle of the Brandywine Adam Poe's fight with the Indians Pages 429 to 490 DELAWARE. A-rea Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topography Mine- rals Climate Soil and productions Manufactures Internal improve- ments Educational system Religious denominations Finances Ex- planation of the State Government History of Delaware First settle- ment Becomes a separate Colony The Revolution The Civil War Description of Dover Wilmington... Pages 491 to 499 18 CONTENTS. PART IV. THE SOUTHERN STATES. MARYLAND. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topographical sketch Chesapeake Bay Duck shooting Mineral wealth of the State Climate Soil and productions Manufactures Internal improvements The new Free School system Colleges Newspapers and periodicals published in the State Penal arid charitable institutions Religious denominations Financial condition of Maryland Explanation of the State Government History of Maryland Settlement on Kent Island Arrival of Lord Baltimore's Colony Trouble with Clayborn Reli- gious freedom guaranteed Civil War Triumph 'of the Puritans An- napolis made the capital Baltimore settled Wars with France The Revolution Sufferings of the Bay counties during the war of 1812-15 Battles of Bladensburg, Fort McHenry and North Point The Civil War Invasion of the State by General Lee Battle of Antietam De- scription of Annapolis Baltimore City Washington Monument Public institutions and buildings History of Baltimore Cumber- land Frederick City The Baltimore Riot Anecdote of Charles Car- roll Pages 501 to 528 THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Area Population in 1870 Dimensions Explanation of the new Terri- torial Government History of the District Washington City De- scription of it The Public Buildings The Capitol Its magnificence without and within The White House The Treasury building The Patent Office The General Post Office The Navy Yard The Depart- ment of Agriculture The Smithsonian Institution The Washington Monument Georgetown Pages 529 to 554 VIRGINIA. A-rea Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Detailed description of the physical features of the State Its various divisions, rivers, mountains, etc. The Dismal Swamp Mineral wealth of Virginia An opportunity for capitalists The mineral springs Agricultural pro- ducts Commerce Manufactures Internal improvements The educa- tional system The University of Virginia Penal and benevolent in- stitutions Financial condition Explanation of the State Government History of Virginia The settlement at Jamestown Colonial history Introduction of slavery into the colony Virginia sides with the King Treaty with the Commonwealth Bacon's Rebellion Williamsburg made the capital Troubles with the Frencli on the Ohio Washington's CONTENTS. 19 mission Resistance to the aggressions of the Crown The Revolution The war in Virginia Surrender of Cornwallis Formation of the Union War of 1812-15 The Southampton Massacre The John Brown affair The Civil War Principal cities Richmond Descrip- tion of the city Norfolk Portsmouth United States Navy Yard Petersburg Alexandria Mount Vernon The home and tomb of Washington Lynchburg The first Legislative Assembly in America Treaty between Virginia and England Introduction of tobacco into Europe Anecdotes of Patrick Henry Speech of Logan Washington l and the Widow Custis Death of Washington Pages 555 to 594 NORTH CAROLINA. Area Population in 1870 Topographical sketch of the State Climate .Soil and productions Natural growth of North Carolina Mineral deposits Manufactures Commerce Internal improvements Educa- tional system The free schools University of North Carolina Penal and charitable Institutions Religious denominations Financial condi- tion of the State Explanation of the State Government History of North Carolina The Colony on Roanoke Island The grant of Charles II. Locke's Constitution Early troubles War with the Indians Separation of the Carolinas The Revolution The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence Battles of King's Mountain and Guilford Court House Cession of Tennessee to the United States Events of the Civil War Description of the cities of Raleigh, Wilmington, Newberne, and Charlotte The First English colony in America The Greatest American Pages 595 to 612 SOUTH CAROLINA. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Physical features of the State The Sea Islands Mineral wealth Climate Soil and produc- tions Commerce Manufactures Internal improvements The educa- tional system The free schools The Colleges Penal and benevolent Institutions Religious denominations Financial condition of South Carolina Explanation of the State Government History of South Carolina Settlement at Port Royal by the French The English occupy the country 2 Formation of the Province of South Carolina Troubles with the Indians and Spaniards The Revolution Attack on Fort Moultrie repulsed Enters the Union The Civil War Reconstruc- tion Description of Columbia Charleston Detailed description of it An incident in the life of Sergeant Jasper Pages 613 to 631 GEORGIA. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topography of the State^ Mineral wealth of Georgia Climate Soil and agricultural products Commerce Manufactures Internal improvements Educa- 20 CONTENTS. tional system Penal and charitable Institutions Religions denomina- tions Financial condition Explanation of the State Government History of Georgia First settlement Severe conditions They are withdrawn Wars with the Spaniards Introduction of negro slavery Growth of the Colony The Revolution Capture of Savannah Re- moval of the Indian tribes The Civil War Description of Atlanta- Savannah The " Forest City " of the South Augusta Macon Co- lumbus The Empress of Georgia Pages 632 to FLORIDA. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topographical features of Florida The Everglades Climate Description of the soil Agri- cultural products Commerce Manufactures Internal improvements Educational system Penal and charitable Institutions Religious denominations Financial condition Explanation of the State Govern- ment History of Florida Early settlements Florida under Spanish rule French settlements Troubles with the English Florida ceded to Great Britain It is restored to Spain Purchased by the United States War with the Seminoles Florida admitted into the Union as a State The Civil War Reconstruction Description of Tallahassee Pensa- cola St. Augustine A peculiar city Key West City Pages 649 to 663 ALABAMA. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topography of the State The Alabama River Soil Climate Agricultural products Minerals Manufactures Commerce Internal improvements Educa- tional system The University of Alabama Penal and benevolent In- stitutions Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government History of Alabama De Soto's expedition Settlement of Mobile Alabama under British rule Indian wars Admission of the State into the Union The Civil War Reconstruction Description of Montgomery Mobile Battle of Horse-Shoe Bend Pages 664 to 681 MISSISSIPPI. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topography Climate Soil Agricultural products Commerce and manufactures Educa- tional system Penal and charitable Institutions Financial condition Explanation of the State Government History of Mississippi First settlements Extermination of the Natchez Indians Organization of Mississippi Admission into the Union as a State Events of the civil war Reconstruction Description of the cities of Jackson, Natchez, and Vicksburg Full account of the extermination of the Natchez Indians Mason the outlaw Pages 682 to 699 CONTENTS. 21 LOUISIANA. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topography Climate Soil and agricultural productions Manufactures and commerce In- ternal improvements Educational system Penal and charitable In- stitutions Religious denominations Financial condition Explanation of the State Government History of Louisiana Discoveries of La Salle Efforts to settle the Province Law's scheme Settlement of New Orleans Growth of the Colony New Orleans in Spanish hands Louisiana restored to France History of the purchase of Louisiana by the United States Admission of the State into the Union Events of the Civil War Reconstruction Detailed description of the City of New Orleans Its mixed population The public buildings and In- stitutions The Levee Commerce of New Orleans Manufactures The Carnival History of New Orleans Battle of New Orleans Pages 700 to 730 TEXAS. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topography Mineral wealth Climate Soil and agricultural products Commerce and Manu- factures Internal improvements Educational system Penal and charitable Institutions Religious denominations Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government History of Texas La Salle's Expedition His death Settlement of Texas by the Spaniards First struggle for Independence The Texan Revolution The Republic of Texas Annexation to the United States Admission of Texas as a State Events of the Civil War Reconstruction Descrip- tion of the cities of Austin, Galveston, Houston, and San Antonio The capture of the Alamo Fanniri's Massacre Pages 731 to 754 PART V. THE WESTERN STATES. WEST VIRGINIA. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topography Har- per's Ferry Climate Mineral wealth Soil and productions Manufac- tures and commerce Internal improvements Educational system Penal and charitable Institutions Explanation of the State Government History of West Virginia The Civil War Separation of the West- ern counties from the State of Virginia Description of Charleston The Kanawha Salines Wheeling Its manufactures Parkersburg Border life, showing the trials and mode of life of the first settlers of the West Pages 755 to 777 22 CONTENTS. TENNESSEE. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topography Mine- ral wealth Climate Soil and productions Commerce and manufac- tures Internal improvements Educational system Penal and chari- table institutions Financial condition-r-Explanation of the State Gov- ernmentHistory of Tennessee First settlements Siege of Fort Loudon The Revolution North Carolina cedes Tennessee to the United States Admitted into the Union as a State Events of the Civil War Description of the cities of Nashville, Memphis, and Knoxville The boyhoo'd of Andrew Jackson Pages 778 to 794 KENTUCKY. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topographical sketch of the State Mineral wealth Climate Soil and productions Com- merce and manufactures Internal improvements Educational system Penal and charitable Institutions Religious denominations Financial condition Explanation of the State Government History of Kentucky Early discoveries First settlement of Kentucky Wars with the In- dians The settlers desire a separate Government Virginia cedes Ken- tucky to the United States Admission into the Union as a State The war of 1812-15 The Civil War Description of Frankfort Louisville A beautiful city The falls of the Ohio Importance of the manufac- tures and commerce of the city Covington Newport Lexington Daniel Boone's account of his adventures Pages 795 to 815 OHIO. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topography Min- eral wealth Climate Soil and agricultural productions Commerce and manufactures Internal improvements Educational system The Ohio Free Schools Penal and charitable Institutions Religious denomina- tionsFinancial condition of the State Explanation of the State Gov- ernmentHistory of Ohio First settlements on the Ohio Wars with the Indians The Revolution Cession of the North-West Territory Emigration to Ohio St. Clair's defeat Settlement of Cincinnati Or- ganization of the Territory of Ohio Admission of the State into the Union The war of 1812-15 Rapid progress of the State Troops fur- nished during the Civil War Description of Columbus The State buildings Cincinnati Description of the city Its commercial impor- tance The river trade Manufactures Pork packing History of Cin- cinnatiCleveland The Lake trade Dayton Toledo Sandusky Memoirs of Simon Kenton Cincinnati in 1794 Pages 816 to 840 INDIANA. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topography Min- eral wealth Climate Soil and agricultural productions Commerce and manufactures Internal improvements Educational system Penal CONTENTS. 23 and charitable Institutions Eeligious denominations Libraries and newspapers Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government History of Indiana Settlements of the French Missionaries Indiana under French and British rule The Revolution Campaign against the British by General Rogers Clarke Wars with the Indians Efforts to introduce slavery Battle of Tippecanoe War of 1812-15 Admission of Indiana into the Union Rapid growth of the State Troops furnished during the Civil War Description of the cities of Indianapolis, Evansville, Fort Wayne, New Albany, Madison, Lafa- yette, and Terre Haute Interview between General Harrison and Te- cumseh Capture of Yincennes Pages 841 to 858 ILLINOIS. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topography The prairies Mineral wealth Climate Soil and productions Commerce and manufactures Internal Improvements The railroad system Edu- cational system Penal and charitable Institutions Religious denomi- nations Libraries and newspapers Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government History of Illinois Early French discoveries Settlements of the Missionaries The Revolution Admission into the Union as a State The war of 1812-15 The Chi- cago Massacre The Black Hawk War The Mormon troubles Troops furnished during the Civil War Description of Springfield Chicago Description of the city Situation on the Lake Raising the grade of the city Public buildings and institutions Commerce of Chicago The grain trade An elevator examined The pork trade Inside view of a pork house History of Chicago Quincy Peoria Galena The lead mines Alton The Massacre at Chicago Peter Cartwright and Joe Smith Pages 859 to 891 MICHIGAN. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topography The Northern and Southern Peninsulas Mineral wealth The Lake Supe- rior Mines Climate Soil and productions Commerce and manufac- tures Internal improvements Educational system Penal and chari- table Institutions Religious denominations Finances Explanation of the State Government History of Michigan Settlements of the French Missionaries The French in the Province Transfer to Great Britain Conspiracy of Pontiac Michigan Territory organized War of 1812-15 Surrender of Detroit Massacre at the River Raisin Emi- gration to Michigan Admission into the Union as a State Troops fur- nished during the Civil War Description of the cities of Lansing, De- troit, Grand Rapids and Adrian Pontiac's effort to capture Detroit Massacre at the River Raisin Pages 898 to 917 24 CONTENTS. WISCONSIN. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topography Mineral wealth Soil and productions Commerce and manufactures Internal improvements Educational system Penal and charitable In- stitutionsReligious denominations Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government History of Wisconsin Dis- coveries of the French The Jesuit Missionaries- -The Province passes into the hands of the English Admission into the Union as a State- Troops furnished during the Civil War Description of Madison Milwaukee The " Cream City," Racine Fond du Lac Oshkosh The oldest man in the world .^ Pages 918 to 933 MINNESOTA. Area Population Position on the globe Topographical sketch of the State Falls of St. Anthony Mineral wealth Climate Resort for in- validsSoil and productions Manufactures and commerce Internal improvements Educational system The free schools Penal and be- nevolent Institutions Libraries and newspapers Religious denomina- tions Financial condition of Minnesota Explanation of the State Government History of Minnesota First settled by the Jesuit Missionaries French settlements A part of the Louisiana purchase The Fur trade St. Paul founded Admission of the State into the Union Troops furnished during the Civil War St. Paul Minnea- polis Winona -Pages 934 to 944 IOWA. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topographical sketch of the State Mineral wealth Climate Soil arid productions Com- merce and manufactures Internal improvements Educational system Penal and charitable Institutions Religious denominations Finan- cial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government His- tory of Iowa A part of the Louisiana purchase Julien Dubuque The Lead MineS The Black Hawk War Settlement of Iowa Ad- mission into the Union as a State Des Moines Davenport Dubuque The Lead Mines Burlington Keokuk Frontier justice. Pages 945 to 962 MISSOURI. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topographical sketch of the State Mineral wealth Climate Soil and productions Manu- factures and commerce Internal improvements Educational system Penal and charitable Institutions Religious denominations Li- braries and newspapers Financial condition of Missouri Explanation of the State Government History of Missouri First settled by the French Under Spanish rule Restored to France Events of the CONTENTS. 25 Revolution A part of the Louisiana purchase Organization as a Territory Slavery agitation The " Missouri Compromise " Admission into the Union as a State The Civil War Jefferson City Description of St. Louis Rapid growth of the city Its Public buildings and In- stitutions Its commerce and manufactures History of St. Louis Kansas City St. Joseph Missouri during the war of 1812-15 Pages 963 to 981 ARKANSAS. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topography Mineral wealth Climate Soil and productions Commerce and manufactures Internal improvements Educational system Penal and charitable Institutions Religious denominations Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government History of Arkansas Dis- covered by De Soto *A part of the Louisiana purchase Admission of the State into the Union Events of the Civil War Description of Little Rock and Helena. Pages 982 to 988 KANSAS. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topographical sketch of the State Mineral wealth Climate Soil and productions Internal improvements Educational system The Kansas free schools Penal and benevolent Institutions Religious denominations Financial condi- tion of the State Explanation of the State Government History of Kansas A part of the Louisiana purchase Made free soil by the Missouri Compromise Organization of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska Efforts to introduce slavery into Kansas Struggle in Con- gress The Border War Foundation of free soil settlements Ad- mission into the Union as a Free State Troops furnished during the Civil War Topeka Leavenworth Lawrence Pages 989 to 1000 NEBRASKA. Area Population in 1870 Position on the globe Topography Minerals Climate Soil and productions Internal improvements Educational system Finances Explanation of the State Government History of Nebraska A part of the Louisiana purchase Admission into the Union as a State Lincoln The new capital Omaha Nebraska City Page* 1001 to 1007 NEVADA. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topography Min- eral wealth The gold and silver mines of Nevada Climate Internal improvements Educational system Finances Explanation of the State Government History of Nevada Discovery of silver Carson City Virginia City Pages 1008 to 1015 26 CONTENTS. CALIFORNIA. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topographical sketch of the State Mineral wealth of California Climate Soil and produc- tions Commerce Manufactures Internal improvements Education- al system Penal and charitable institutions Religious denominations Libraries and newspapers Financial condition Explanation of the State Government History of California Discovered and settled by the Spaniards The Missions Becomes a part of Mexico Efforts to throw off the Mexican yoke The American settlers take up arras The war with Mexico Aquisition of California Discovery of gold Enor- mous emigration Admission into the Union as a State Early disor- ders The " Vigilance Committees " Description of Sacramento San Francisco A peculiar city The Sand Hills Rapid growth of San Francisco Prosperity of the city Its public buildings and institutions The Chinese Marter Commerce of San Francisco History of the city San Jos6 San Francisco in 1848-9 The "Vigilance Committee " Pages 1016 to 1052 OREGON. Area Population in 1870 Position upon the globe Topographical sketch of the State Mineral wealth Climate Soil and productions Commerce Internal improvements Educational system Penal and benevolent Institutions Religious denominations Financial condition of the State Explanation of the State Government History of Oregon Discovery of the Columbian River Expedition of Lewis and Clark Astoria Boundary disputes with Great Britain The United States abandon their claim Admission of Oregon into the Union as a State Description of Salem Portland Pages 1053 to 1062 PART VI. THE TERRITORIES. ALASKA. General description of the Territory Practical value of the purchase- History of Alaska Description of Sitka Pages 1065 to 1070 ARIZONA. Topographical sketch of the Territory Its mineral wealth Capacity for agriculture History of Arizona Description of Tucson. Pages 1071 to 1074 COLORADO. Description of the physical features of Colorado The Rocky Mountains' Climate Great mineral wealth of the Territory History of Colorado Description of Denver City Pages 1075 to 1080 CONTENTS. 2t DAKOTA. Topographical sketch of the Territory Its magnificent river system Capacity for stock raising and agriculture The Pioneer Schools His- tory of Dakota Description of Yancton Pages 1081 to 1085 IDAHO. Description of the topographical features of the Territory Its great min- eral wealth Capacity for agriculture History of Idaho Description of Boise City Pages 1086 to 1089 INDIAN TERRITORY. General description of the Territory Description of the Indian inhabi- tants and the system of Government Efforts to organize the Territory Pages 1090 to 1091 MONTANA. Topographical sketch of Montana A delightful climate Capacity for agriculture and stock raising Mineral wealth History of Montana Its rapid growth Description of Virginia City. Pages 1092 to 1096 NEW MEXICO. Topographical sketch of New Mexico Capacity of the Territory for agri- culture Stock raising Undeveloped mineral wealth Hostility of the Indians History of New Mexico Description of Santa Fe". Pages 1097 to 1100 UTAH. Description of the physical features of the Territory The mountain system The Great Basin The Great Salt Lake Irrigation necessary to the production of crops What has been done for agriculture Mine- ral resources History of the Territory Salt Lake City The Mormon capital Pages 1101 to 1109 WASHINGTON. Topographical sketch of the Territory The two great divisions Climate Agriculture Mineral resources The lumber trade The Columbia River History of the Territory Description of Olympia. Pages 1110 to 1115 WYOMING. Description of the physical features of the Territory Agriculture Great mineral wealth The Pacific Railway History of Wyoming Descrip- tion of Cheyenne Pages 1116 to 1118 PART I. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE AMERICAN CONTINENT. THE Continent of America, though not discovered until a very late period in the history of the world, is the second in size of the great natural divisions of the earth. It extends from Point Barrow (on the north), in latitude 71 24' N., to Cape Froward, on the Straits of Magellan (on the south), in latitude 53 53' 7" S.* It is known that the extreme northern lands of America extend beyond the seventy-eighth degree of North latitude, and the islands of Terra del Fuego prolong the land two or three degrees southward of the main land ; but as these form no practical portions of our great division of the globe, we shall pass them by without further discussion. The mainland, which is alone embraced in our estimate, is 10,500 English miles in length, and includes every variety of climate, soil, produc- tion, race, and natural formation known, covering as it does an area of about 14,950,000 square miles. The Continent, taking this esti- mate as our guide, is four times larger than Europe, one-third larger than Africa, and one-half as large as Asia, including Australia and Polynesia. Its extreme breadth, north of the Equator, is between Cape Canso, in Nova Scotia, and Cape Lookout, in Oregon, a dis- tance of 3100 miles, and very near the forty-fifth parallel of North latitude. South of the Equator it attains its greatest breadth between * This calculation does not include the regions north of Point Barrow, or the Archipelago of Terra del Fuego. 31 32 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Cape St. Roque, in Brazil, and Cape Parina, in Peru, a distance of 3250 miles, and between the fourth and seventh parallel of South latitude. The physical features of this great Continent are among the most remarkable and interesting in the world. Constituting as it does about three-tenths of the dry land upon the surface of the globe, it is, in general, a region of great fertility. With the exception of about one-seventh, the entire Continent is susceptible of cultivation, and in its natural growths it is one of the most favored lands in the world. Its mineral resources are vast and inexhaustible, and embrace nearly every geological formation known to science. On the west side, the Continent is traversed by a vast range of mountains, ten thousand miles in length, stretching from Point Barrow on the north, to the Straits of Magellan on the south, and rearing their lofty summits far above the region of perpetual snow. The rivers, bays, and lakes of America are the most magnificent and extensive in the world, and afford commercial advantages of the highest order. The Continent consists of two great peninsulas, known as North America and South America, connected by an isthmus called Central America. The relative importance of its great divisions may be seen from the following table, in which North and Central America are counted as one division : English Square Miles. North America, 7,400,000 South America, 6,500,000 Islands, 150,000 Greenland, and the islands connected with it, . 900,000 Total, 14,950,000 As it is not our purpose to devote any portion of this work to the other divisions of the Continent, we pass at once to a brief considera- tion of the division of NOKTH AMERICA. Including Central America, this great division of the Continent lies between the sixth parallel of North latitude and the Arctic Ocean. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico and South America, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Its length on the Atlantic side, from Hudson's Straits to the Florida Channel, THE UNITED STATES. 33 following the indentations of the coast, is about 4800 miles, and from thence to Panama about 4500 more, making a total length of 9300 miles. On the Pacific side, the length, counting the coasts of the Gulf of California, is 10,500 miles. The north and northeast shores are reckoned at about 3000 miles, which gives a total coast line of about 22,800 miles. * v According to Professor De Bow, the Superintendent of the Seventh Census of the United States, North America comprises an area of 8,377,648 square miles, an estimate which exceeds that already given by us. It is subdivided by him as follows : Square Miles. British America, 3,050,398 United States 3,306,865 Mexico 1,038,834 Russian America,* 394,000 Danish America (Greenland) 384,000 Central America, 203,551 8,377,648 The country lying north of the United States, and known as British America, extends from the States to the Arctic Ocean. It is settled thickly along its southern and eastern borders, but the re- mainder is a vast, untamed region, too cold for colonization by Europeans, and inhabited only by a hardy race of Indians, and by a few whites engaged in the fur trade. The country along the southern and eastern borders, however, is of the greatest importance. It pos- sesses a population of over three millions, and will compare favor- ably in its civilization and material prosperity with the States adjoining it. South of the United States is a vast region, nominally a Republic, but in reality a country afflicted with chronic anarchy, called Mexico. Its people number nearly eight millions, and consist of a mixture of Spanish and Indians. They are but little more than half civilized, and are utterly incapable of conducting the government or developing the resources of their country, naturally one of the richest and most productive in the world. * Now a part of the United States, and known as Alaska^ 3 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Is the name given to the great and powerful Republic, occupying tlu central portion of North America, and lying between Mexico and Br tish America. The Republic lies between latitude 24 30' and 49 N., and between longitude 66 50' and 124 30' W. It is bounded on the north by British America, and is partly separated from that country by the River Saint Lawrence, and Lakes Superior, Huron, Saint Clair, Erie, and Ontario ; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the south by Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico ; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. It has recently added to its territory that country formerly known as Russian America, now called Alaska, lying along the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, and between the fifty- eighth and seventy-second parallels of North latitude, and the one hundred and fortieth, and one hundred and seventieth degrees of West longitude. DIMENSIONS. This vast region covers an area of 3,306,865 square miles, and comprises nearly one-half of North America. Its extreme length, from Cape Cod, on the Atlantic, to the Pacific Ocean, is about 2600 miles, and its greatest breadth, from Madawaska, in Maine, to Key West, in Florida, is about 1600 miles. Its northern frontier line measures 3303 miles, and its southern line 1456 miles. Following the indentations of the shore, its coast line on the Atlantic is 6861 miles, on the Pacific 2281 miles, and on the Gulf of Mexico 3467 miles, making a total coast line of 12,609 miles. The shores of the Pacific are bold and rocky, and are marked by comparatively few indentations. The principal are San Francisco Bay and the Straits of San Juan de Fuca. On, the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, the shore is generally low, and deeply indented by numerous inlets, the principal of which are Passamaquoddy, Fench- man's, Penobscot, Casco, Massachusetts, Buzzard's, New York, Rari- tan, Delaware, and Chesapeake Bays, and Long Island, Pamlico, and Albemarle Sounds on the Atlantic; and Tampa, Appalachee, Appa- THE UNITED STATES. 35 lachicola, Pensacola, Mobile, Black, Barataria, Atcbafalaya, Ver- milion, Galveston, Matagorda, Aransas, and Corpus Christ! Bays, on the Gulf of Mexico. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. The Republic consists of thirty-seven States and nine Territories. These are the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa- chusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois, Missouri, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Ne- braska, Nevada, California, and Oregon ; and the Territories of Arizona, Dacotah, Idaho, Montana, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Wyoming, and Washington. Besides these are the Indian Territory and Alaska. For convenience, the States are usually subdivided as follows : THE NEW ENGLAND STATES : Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut. 6. THE MIDDLE STATES : New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware. 4. THE SOUTHERN STATES : Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas. 10. THE WESTERN STATES : Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, California, Oregon, Nevada, Nebraska, West Virginia. 17. POPULATION. The following table will show the relative size and importance of the States and Territories, together with their population, and the date of their admission into the Union : 36 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE UNITED STATES. 37 RIVERS. The topographical features of the United States are varied and in- teresting, consisting of immense chains of mountains, numerous rivers, bays, and lakes, and vast plains inhabited only by savages and wild beasts. The majority of the bays along its coasts are the outlets of the great rivers of the Republic. These rivers may be divided into four distinct classes, viz : I. The Mississippi and its tributaries. II. The rivers which rise in the Alleghany chain and flow into the Atlantic Ocean. III. The rivers rising in the Southern States, and flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. IV. The rivers which flow into the Pacific Ocean. The rivers of the first class are the Mississippi, Missouri, Wiscon- sin, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Yazoo, Minnesota, Des Moines, Arkansas, and Red. , Those of the second class are the Penobscot, Kennebec, Connecti- cut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, James, Chowan, Roanoke, Pamlico or Tar, Neuse, Cape Fear, Great Pedee, San tee, Savannah, and Altamaha. Those of the third class are the Appalachicola, Mobile, Sabine, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, and Rio Grande. Those of the fourth class are the Columbia, San Joaquin, and the great Colorado of the West, the last of which flows into the Gulf of California. THE MISSISSIPPI KIVER Is the most important stream in the United States, and, together with its main branch, the Missouri, is the longest in the world. Its name is derived from an Indian word, signifying " The Great Father of Waters/' The Mississippi proper is the smaller branch (the Mis- souri reaching farther back into the interior), and it is somewhat sin- gular that it should have given its name to the whole stream. It rises in Itasca Lake, in the State of Minnesota, in a region known as the Hauteurs de Terre, 1680 feet above tide level, in latitude 47 10' K, and longitude 94 55' W. From this point it flows in a generally southward direction, emptying into the Gulf of Mexico in latitude 29 N. Its total length, from its source to its mouth, is- estimated at 2986 miles. 38 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The main branch is called the Missouri River above the point of its junction with the smaller branch. The two rivers unite a short distance above the city of St. Louis. Under the present heading it is our purpose to treat of the Mississippi proper, reserving the Missouri for discussion farther on. The Mississippi constitutes the great centre of a gigantic system of rivers, all of which unite in one grand channel and empty their waters into the Gulf. The area drained by them comprises a very large por- tion of the interior of North America. The tributaries of the great river find their way to it through rich and populous States, and be- tween its source and its mouth it collects all the waters (with the single exception of those rivers flowing directly into the Gulf) of the immense region lying between the Alleghany and the Rocky Moun- tains. This region is usually known as the Mississippi Valley. Its southern boundary is the Gulf, and its northern limit the high hills in which rise the streams flowing into the Arctic Ocean and the lakes of British America. According to Charles Ellet, this region covers an area of 1,226,600 square miles, above the mouth of the Red River. The river, with its tributaries reaching far back into the neighbor- ing States and Territories, furnishes a system of inland navigation unequalled by any in the world. Steamers ascend the Mississippi itself from its mouth to the Falls of St. Anthony, in Minnesota, about 2200 miles, and above the falls the river is navigable for a consider- able distance. In 1858 a steamboat succeeded in ascending the stream to near the forty-ninth degree of north latitude. The Missouri is navigable to the foot of the Rocky Mountains; the Ohio, to its head, at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania ; and the Arkansas and the Red, each for more than 1000 miles. By means of the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers, the mountains of East Tennessee have water trans- portation to the Gulf; and the Illinois River steamers penetrate to the country just back of Lake Michigan. These rivers are all more or less crowded with steamers and other craft, plying a trade in comparison with which the fabled wealth of Tyre sinks into insignificance. Numerous other branches of less extent empty into the main river, all of which are navigable to a greater or less degree. Below the mouth of the Red River, the main stream is divided into numerous branches, which are called bayous. Some of these, after pursuing an erratic course, find their way back to the Mississippi, while others THE UNITED STATES. 39 follow an independent course to the Gulf. The most important of these bayous is the Atchafalaya. The country lying between this stream (after its departure from the great river), the Mississippi, and the Gulf, is known as the Delta of the Mississippi. The Delta is about 200 miles in length, with an average width of 75 miles. It comprises an area of 15,000 square miles, and is com- posed entirely of alluvion, the depth of which is estimated at 1000 feet. " The debris carried along with the flood is principally de- posited near the borders of the stream, the necessary result being that these portions have been raised to a much higher level than the ad- joining lands. In some places the slope is as much as eighteen feet in a distance of a few miles. The interior consists of vast swamps covered with trees, of which the tops only are visible during the floods. The river, for almost fifty miles from its mouth, runs nearly parallel with the Gulf of Mexico, from which it is separated at par- ticular places by an embankment only half a mile across." The alluvion plain extends above the Delta to a formation called the Chains, 30 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, a distance esti- mated at a little over 500 miles. The average breadth of this plain, which has been formed by the river itself, is about fifty miles, and its total area, including the Delta, about 31,200 square miles. Its height, at its northern extremity, according to Prof. Charles Ellet, jr., is 275 feet above the level of the sea. It descends this plain to the Gulf at the rate of about eight inches per mile. Its average de- scent along its entire course is about six inches to the mile. The river is very tortuous, especially after passing the mouth of the Ohio. Its curves are immense, often traversing a distance of twenty- five or thirty miles, in a half circle, around a point of land only a mile, or half a mile in width. Sometimes, during the heavy freshets, the stream breaks through the narrow tongue of land, forming a "cut- off," which frequently becomes a new and permanent channel, leaving the old bed a " lake," as it is called by the boatmen. But for the height of the banks, and the great depth of the river, the formation of these " cut-offs " would be quite frequent, and the stream would be constantly changing its course. Attempts to form "cut-offs" by arti- ficial means have generally failed. The river is remarkable for the constancy with which it maintains its average breadth of about 3000 feet. It rarely exceeds or falls short of this breadth except in the curves, which frequently broaden to near a mile and a quarter. The current is sluggish, except at high water, its depth at ordinary stages 40 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. being 75 feet at the head of the plain we have described, and 120 feet at its foot. Were the stream straighter, its current, which is now checked . by the bends, would no doubt be too swift for navigation, and commerce would suffer. " One of the most important facts in regard to the Mississippi is, that it flows from north to south. A river that runs east or west has no variety of climate or productions from its source to its mouth. The trapper and husbandman descending the ' Father of Waters/ constantly meet with a change of climate ; they take with them their furs and cereal grains, the products of the North, to exchange for the sugar and tropical fruits that are gathered on the banks below. Again, the floods produced by winter snows and spring rains cannot be simultaneously discharged. The course of the stream being from north to south, spring advances in a reverse direction, and releases in succession the waters of the lower valley, then of the middle section, and finally the remote sources of the Mississippi and its tributaries. It is a remarkable fact that the waters from this last-named region do not reach the Delta until upwards of a month after the inundation there has been abating. The swell usually commences toward the end of February, and continues to rise by unequal diurnal accretions till the 1st of June, when it again begins to subside. No experience will enable a person to anticipate, with any approach to certainty, the elevation of the flood in any given year. In some seasons the waters do not rise above their channels ; in others, the entire lower valley of the Mississippi is submerged. Embankments, called levees, have been raised from five to ten feet high on both sides of the stream, extend- ing many miles above and below New Orleans. By this means the river is restrained within its proper limits, except at the greatest freshets, when the waters sometimes break over, causing great destruc- tion of property, and even loss of life. The average height of the flood, from the Delta to the junction of the Missouri, is about 15 feet ; at the mouth of the latter river it is 25 feet ; below the entrance of the Ohio, the rise is often 50 feet ; at Natchez, it seldom exceeds 30 feet; and at New Orleans is about 12 feet. This diminution is sup- posed to result from the drainage through the Atchafalaya, Bayou La Fourche, and other channels breaking from the lower part of the river to the Gulf of Mexico. The flood often carries away large masses of earth with trees, which frequently become embedded in the mud at one end, while the other floats near the surface, forming snags and sawyers." These snags are very dangerous to steamers navigating * Lippincott's Gazetteer. THE UNITED STATES. 41 the river, and formerly caused many terrible accidents. Recently they have been removed to a great extent by snag-boats and improved machinery. The Mississippi empties itself into the Gulf through several mouths, which are termed Passes. The navigation is here very seriously ob- structed by numerous bars, formed by the gradual deposit of the sedi- ment with which the water is heavily charged. These render it impossible for vessels of the largest class to reach New Orleans. Over these bars there is a depth of water, varying greatly at different times, and often measuring only fifteen feet. Steam tugs can force vessels drawing two or three feet more than the actual depth, through the soft mud of the river bed. Repeated efforts have been made to deepen the passes by dredging, but the channel has filled up again so rapidly as to make all such efforts futile. It was once attempted to deepen the South West Pass (the principal mouth) by driving piles along each side. It was thought that by thus confining the stream within a limited width, it w r ould of itself excavate a deep channel. The effect, however, was to force the bulk of the flow through another mouth called Pass a 1'Outre, which for the time became a better channel than the South West Pass. The navigation of the Upper Mississippi is broken in several places by falls and rapids, of which the principal are the Falls of St. Anthony, above St. Paul, Minnesota.* The Mississippi River was discovered by Hernando de Soto, in June 1541. He reached it, it is supposed, at a point not far below the present town of Helena in Arkansas. In 1673, Marquette and Jolliet descended the stream to within three days' journey of its mouth ; and in 1682, La Salle passed through one of its mouths to the Gulf, and took possession of the country along its shores, in the name of the King of France. In 1699, Iberville built a fort on the river; in 1703, a settlement was made on the Yazoo, a tributary, and called St. Peter's; and in 1718, the city of New Orleans was laid out. The levees of the lower Mississippi were begun in that year, and finished in front of New Orleans about 1728. The subject of the free navigation of the river occupied the earliest attention of the United States, and was the principal cause of the acquisition of Loui- siana, by purchase from France. The battle of New Orleans (as it is called) was fought on its banks on the 8th of January 1815. During * The prominent points along the river will be described in the chapters relating to the States. 42 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. the late war, the Confederates undertook to close the navigation of the river, and succeeded in doing so for more than two years, when the control of it was wrested from them by the Union forces. A number of severe engagements were fought on its banks, the principal of which were the battle of Belmont, in Missouri, and the conflicts at Island No. 10, Fort Pillow, Ne\v Madrid, Memphis, Vicksburg, Port Hudson, Grand Gulf, Baton Rouge, and Forts Jackson and St. Philip below New Orleans. The principal tributaries of the Mississippi are, on the east, the Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio, and Yazoo ; on the west, the Minnesota, Des Moines, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers. The total value of the steamboats engaged in trade on the Missis- sippi and its tributaries, is estimated at over $6,000,000. THE MISSOURI RIVER. Though commonly regarded as the principal tributary of the Mis- sissippi, the Missouri is in reality the main stream, since it is longer and of greater volume than the other river. It derives its name from an Indian word signifying " Mud River." It rises in the Rocky Mountains, in the Territory of Montana, in latitude 45 N., longitude 110 30' W. The springs in which it has its source are not more than a mile distant from the headwaters of the great Colum- bia River, which flows into the Pacific 'Ocean. The Missouri proper begins at the confluence of three small streams of about equal length the Jefferson's, Madison's, and Gallatin's which run nearly parallel to each other. For the first 500 miles of its course, the Missouri flows nearly north, then turning slightly to the E. N. E., it continues in that direction until it is joined by the White Earth River, in latitude 48 20' N. It then bends to the southeast, and continues in that general direction until it joins the Mississippi, near St. Louis. Four hundred and eleven miles from its source, the river passes through what is called " The Gates of the Rocky Mountains." This pass is one of the most remarkable on the Continent. For nearly six miles the rocks rise perpendicularly from the water's edge to a height of 1200 feet. The river is confined to a width of only one hundred and fifty yards, and for the first three miles there is only one point on which a man could obtain a foothold between the rocks and the water. One hundred and ten miles below the "Gates" are the "Great Falls of the Missouri," which, after those of the Niagara, are the most magnifi- THE UNITED STATES. 43 cent in America. These falls consist of four cataracts, respectively of 26, 47, 19, and 87 feet perpendicular descent, separated by rapids. They extend for a length of sixteen and a half miles, and the total descent in that distance is 357 feet. The falls are 2575 miles above the mouth of the river, which is navigable to them, though steamers do not usually ascend higher than the mouth of the Yellow Stone River. The Missouri is said to be 3096 miles long from its mouth to its source, though it is believed that this estimate is a little too large. Add to this the length of the lower Mississippi, 1253 miles, and the total distance from the Gulf to the source of the Missouri, is 4349 miles making it the longest stream in the world. It is generally turbid and swift, and upon entering the Mississippi, pours a dense volume of mud into that until then clear stream, and forever changes its hue. At the confluence of the two rivers, the water of the Mis- sissippi refuses to mingle with that of its muddy rival, and the current of the Missouri may be easily distinguished for some distance below. There is no important obstacle to navigation below the Great Falls, except that during the long hot summers the water is apt to be too low for any but the smallest steamers, owing to the fact that in its upper course the river passes through an open, dry country, where it is subject to excessive evaporation. Below the Falls it is bordered by a narrow alluvial valley, very fertile, and capable of being highly cultivated. Back of this valley lie extensive prairies. The river is half a mile wide at its mouth, and is in some places much wider. It receives all the great rivers rising on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, with the single exception of the Arkansas River, and the majority of the streams between its own bed and the Mississippi. For the most part it flows through a savage or thinly settled region, and has but few important cities or towns on its banks. The princi- pal of these are Omaha City, in Nebraska, Atchison and Leaven worth, in Kansas, and St. Joseph, Kansas City, Lexington, Booneville, Jef- ferson City, and St. Charles, in Missouri. Its principal tributaries are the Yellow Stone, Little Missouri, Big Cheyenne, (greater) White Earth, Ni-obrarah, Platte or Nebraska, Kansas and Osage, on the right; and the Milk, Dacotah, Big Sioux, Little Sioux, and Grand, on the left. These streams, with the Misr souri, drain the entire country north of St. Louis, and between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains an area of 519,400 square miles. 44 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE OHIO KIVER Is the first great tributary of the Mississippi, flowing into it below the mouth of the Missouri. It was called by the early French settlers La Belle Rivttre (the beautiful river), and its Indian name is said to have a similar meaning. It is noted for the uniform smoothness of its current, and the beauty of the valley through which it flows. It is formed by the confluence of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers, at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. It flows in a generally W. S. W. direction, separating the States of West Virginia and Ken- tucky from Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and empties into the Missis- sippi at Cairo, Illinois, 1216 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The total length of the Ohio is 950 miles. The length of the valley through which it flows is only 614 miles, the windings of the river making up the difference. Its average breadth is a little over 600 yards. Its elevation at Pittsburg is 680 feet above the level of the sea, at Cincinnati, 414 feet, and at Cairo, 324 feet, giving an average descent of about 5 inches to the mile. The current is placid and uni- form, having a medium force of about 3 miles an hour. Like all the western rivers, it is subject to great variations of depth. In the win- ter and spring it is very high, the spring rise being sometimes as great as 60 feet; and in the summer it is so low that it may be forded in many places above Cincinnati. The writer, when a lad, has fre- quently waded from the Virginia to the Ohio shore. At high water, steamers of the first class ascend to Pittsburg, but at low water only the lightest draft vessels can navigate it, and even these do so at a constant risk of running on a sand bar, and being compelled to remain there until the late summer and fall rains swell the stream again to an extent sufficient to float them. At Louisville, Kentucky, the only falls of the river occur. The descent is here about 22J feet in two miles. The current is very swift, but in high water first-class steam- ers pass over the rapids. A canal has been cut around them to the river below, by means of which the obstruction they present to navi- gation has been partly overcome. Formerly the river trade was most important and extensive. Of late years, however, it has been very much reduced by the competition of the railroads, but is still im- mense. The Ohio, for the greater part of its course, flows through a narrow, but beautiful valley. The hills, from two hundred to three hundred feet high, are covered with an almost continuous forest of a dark rich green hue, and come down so close to the water that at THE UNITED STATES. 45 times they seem to shut it in entirely. Though beautiful, the scenery is monotonous, and is rather tame. The river contains fully one hundred islands, some of which are exceedingly valuable and beautiful. There are also a number of "Tow Heads," as they are called small sandy islands, covered with willows, and utterly barren. Below Louisville the country becomes flatter, and by the time the Mississippi is reached, the hills have entirely disappeared. The valley of the Ohio is ex- ceedingly fertile, and is rich in various kinds of minerals. Its principal tributaries are the Muskingum, Scioto, Miami, and Wabash, on the right, and the Great Kanawha, Big Sandy, Green, Kentucky, Cumberland, and Tennessee, on the left. The most im- portant are the Wabash, Cumberland, and Tennessee, the last of which is the largest. The Tennessee and its tributaries reach far back into the mountains of that State and Virginia, and the headwaters of the Alleghany rise in the southern part of the State of New York and in Potter County, Pennsylvania. Between them and the waters which flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Chesapeake Bay, there is only a slight elevation, and a distance of but a few acres. The area drained by the Ohio and its tributaries is about 200,000 square miles. The country through which the Ohio flows is a prosperous agricul- tural region, and a number of large and thriving cities and towns are located on its banks. Its various prominent features will be noticed in other portions of this work. THE ARKANSAS RIVER Is the next important tributary of the Mississippi below the mouth of the Ohio. Next to the Missouri, it is the longest affluent of the great river. It rises in the Rocky Mountains near the centre of Colo- rado, and flows easterly for several hundred miles, after which it turns to the southeast and continues in that general direction until it reaches the Mississippi, in latitude 30 54' N., longitude 91 10' W. It enters Arkansas at Fort Smith, on the western frontier, and divides the State into two nearly equal portions. In the upper part of its course it flows through vast sterile plains, but after entering the State which bears its name, continues its way through a region of considerable fertility. It is 2000 miles long from its source to its mouth, and is not obstructed by rapids or falls. It varies in width from three furlongs to half a mile. Its current is turbid and sluggish. The difference in the height of the water in the 46 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. floods and the dry seasons is about 25 feet. For the greater part of the year it is navigable by steamers for a distance of 800 miles from its mouth. The most important town on the river is Little Rock, the the capital of the State. The last important tributary of the Mississippi is THE RED RIYER. This stream is formed by the confluence of two principal branches, of which the southern and larger rises in New Mexico, a little beyond the western boundary of Texas, in latitude 34 42' N., longitude 103 1' 10" W.; the northern in Texas, in latitude 35 35' 3" N., longi- tude 101 55' W. These two branches unite in latitude 34 30' N., longitude 100 W., in the State of Texas, and constitute the main river, which then flows nearly due east, forming the boundary between the Indian Territory and Texas. Upon reaching the Arkansas line, it passes into that State to Fulton, near the border, when it bends to the south and enters Louisiana. Then turning to the southeast, it flows across the last named State and empties into the Mississippi, 341 miles above the Gulf of Mexico. Its length, including the South Fork, is estimated by Colonel Marcy, U. S. A., by whom the river was explored, at 2100 miles the main stream being 1200 miles long. According to this authority, the South, or main, Fork, rises in the fissures of an elevated and sterile plain, called the Llano Estacado, at an altitude of 2450 feet above the sea. For the first sixty miles the sides of the river rise from 500 to 800 feet so directly from the water that the exploring party were obliged to pass up through the channel of the stream. "After leaving the Llano Estacado," says Colonel Marcy, "the river flows through an arid prairie country, almost entirely destitute of trees, over a broad bed of light shifting sands, for a distance of some 500 miles, following its sinuosities. It then enters a country covered with gigantic forest trees, growing upon a soil of the most preeminent fertility ; here the borders contract, and the water for a great portion of the year washes both banks, carrying the loose allu- vium from one side, and depositing it on the other, in such a manner as to produce constant changes in the channel, and to render naviga- tion difficult. This character continues throughout the remainder of its course to the Delta of the Mississippi ; and in this section it is subject to heavy inundations, which often flood the bottoms to such THE UNITED STATES. 4T a degree as to destroy the crops, and occasionally, on subsiding, leaving a deposit of white sand, rendering the soil barren and worthless." Shortly after leaving its sources, the South Fork passes through a vast bed of gypsum for a distance of 100 miles, which gives to its waters an intensely bitter and unpleasant taste, causing them rather to augment than diminish thirst. The river is navigable during the greater part of the year to Shreveport, 500 miles from its mouth. Small steamers can ascend about 300 miles farther in high water. About 30 miles above Shreveport is an immense collection of rub- bish known as the " Great Raft," which forms the principal obstacle to the navigation of the upper river. It consists of driftwood and trees, which have been brought down for hundreds of miles by the current, and lodged here. This raft obstructs the channel for a dis- tance of seventy miles, and for a considerable portion of the year causes the river to overflow the country along its banks. In 183435 it was removed by the Government of the United States at a cost of $300,000, but a new raft has formed since then. In very high water small steamers pass around it. The principal tributaries of the Red River are the Little Washita and Big Washita. The other rivers, which are national in character by which we mean not lying entirely or for the greater part in one particular State or Territory of the Union are the Rio Grande, the Great Colorado of the West, the Columbia, and the St. Lawrence, the first and last of which form a portion of the boundaries of the Republic. THE RIO GRANDE Rises in the Rocky Mountains, in the Territory of New Mexico, near latitude 38 N., and longitude 106 30' W. Its course is at first southeast, then E. S. E., and finally nearly east. It forms the boundary between the State of Texas and the Republic of Mexico, and empties into the Gulf of Mexico, near latitude 25 N., and longi- tude 97 W. It is 1800 miles long, and is for the most part very shallow. Sand bars are numerous and render the stream almost unfit for navigation. Small steamers have succeeded in reaching Kings- bury 's Rapids, about 450 miles from the Gulf. About 900 miles from its mouth the river is only three or four feet deep. This point is called the " Grand Indian Crossing," because the Comanche and 48 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Apachee Indians ford the stream here in their incursions from Texas into Mexico. The principal town on the river is Brownsville, 40 miles from its mouth, and opposite the Mexican city of Mattamoras. THE COLORADO RIVER, Or, as it is sometimes called, the Great Colorado of the West, to dis- tinguish it from the Colorado River, of Texas, rises in latitude 44 N., in Idaho Territory, and, flowing through Utah Territory, and along the borders of Nevada, California, and Arizona, empties into the Gulf of California, near latitude 32 30' N. From its source to the 36th parallel of North latitude, where it is joined by the Grand and Little Colorado Rivers, it is known as the Green River. It has several small tributaries between its source and the Great South Pass. At this pass, it receives the Big Sandy Creek, at an elevation of 7489 feet above the sea. Just on the other side of the mountains are the Wind and Sweetwater Rivers, two of the principal tributaries of the Upper Missouri. From the South Pass, the Colorado flows in a generally southwest direction to its mouth. It is about 1200 miles long, and, with the exception of the Columbia, is the most important stream west of the Rocky Mountains, but, in spite of its great length, the volume of water which it discharges is comparatively small. "About 490 miles above its mouth commences the great defile in the mountains called the Black Canon, 25 miles long, through which the river has forced its way. The banks in many places are very pre- cipitous, from 1000 to 1500 feet high, and for a long distance the river is unapproachable. A steamboat under the command of Lieut. Ives, U. S. Topographical Engineers, ascended the stream early in 1858, and passing a portion of the great caftan reached the head of navigation at the head of Virgen River. Few obstacles except shift- ing sand bars were met on the voyage. The explorations of Lieut. Ives, who traversed the valley of the river from its mouth to latitude 36 N., and the greater part of the regions along latitude 35 and 36 as far east as the Rio Grande, and the previous reconnoissances con- nected with the surveys for a railway to the Pacific, have made known interesting facts connected with the region watered by the Colorado. In its valley is found a large extent of fertile bottom land, easily cul- tivated by artificial irrigation. This valley varies in width from three to eight miles. The greater part of it is covered with timber, chiefly cottonwood and mezquit. Other portions are cultivated by the nu- THE rXITED STATES. 49 merous tribes of Indians who live along its banks, affording them an abundance of wheat, maize, melons, beans, squashes, etc. Cotton is also cultivated by such of the Pueblo Indians as are acquainted with the art of weaving. Some portions of the country are uninhabitable ; others are rich in silver, copper, and lead, besides containing gold and mercury in small quantities. According to an estimate made by the IT. S. officers who have explored the Colorado, there are about 700 square miles of arable land between the mouth of the Gila and the 35th parallel of North latitude. After receiving the Gila, the Colo- rado takes a sudden turn westward, forcing its way through a chain of rocky hills, 70 feet high, and about 350 yards in length. In this passage it is about 600 feet wide, but soon expands to 1200 feet, which it retains. After sweeping around 7 or 8 miles, it assumes a south direction, and with a very tortuous course of nearly 160 miles reaches the Gulf of California. The bottom lands are here from 4 to 5 miles wide, and covered with a thick forest. On a rocky emi- nence at the junction with the Gila stands Fort Yuma. Near the fort are the remains of the buildings of the old Spanish Mission established here in the early part of the last century, and in the valley are traces of irrigating canals, which show that it has once been cultivated." * The average depth of water between Fort Yuma and the Gulf of California is 8 feet. Spring tides rise 25 or 30 feet, and neap tides 10 feet. There is regular communication by means of small steamers between Fort Yuma and the mouth of the river. At low water there is a draught of 4 feet at the Fort, and in high water 13 feet. The channel at the mouth of the river is continually changing, and has been known to shift from one bank to another in the course of a single night. There is also a heavy tidal wave at its mouth, which renders it difficult and dangerous for any but the lightest draught steamers to enter the stream. When the freshets occur, the river overflows its banks, submerges a part of the California Desert, and fills up several basins, and what is known as New River. This water is left in the basins and New River when the main stream returns to its proper channel, and continues in them for about two years, when it is absorbed by the soil, or dried up by the sun. The mouth of the Colorado was discovered in the year 1540, by Fernando Alarchon, who undertook a voyage to the Gulf of Cali- fornia, by order of the Viceroy of Spain. He described it as " a very mighty river, which ran Avith so great a fury of stream that we could * Applet on 's Cyclopaedia, vol. v. p. 502. 50 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. hardly sail against it." He sent an expedition, consisting of two boats, some distance up the river. In 1700, a Mission was estab- lished by Father Kino near the site of the present Fort Yuma, at the mouth of the Gila. The name of the Colorado signifies " the Red River," its waters being stained by the red earth along its course. Its principal tribu- taries are the Grand, San Juan, White, Little Colorado, Virgen, Wil- liams, and Gila Rivers. The Mohave was formerly supposed to be a tributary, but is now known to empty into Soda Lake, in California. THE COLUMBIA RIVER Is the principal body of water flowing into the Pacific Ocean from the Continent of America. It rises in a small lake on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, about latitude 50 N., longitude 116 W. Its first course is towards the northwest, along the base of the Rocky Mountains, until it is joined by its most northern tributary, in about 53 30' N. latitude, after which it flows in a southerly direction to the 46th parallel. From this point to the Pacific it runs due west, forming the boundary between the State of Oregon and Washington Territory. It is extremely tortuous between the 46th and 48th parallels of North latitude. This is the case until Fort Wallawalla is reached. It is very rapid, and frequently passes through mountain gorges and over falls. The tide ascends to the foot of the Cascades, 140 miles from the sea. The Cascades are a series of rapids caused by the pas- sage of the river through the Cascade range of mountains. Between each of the rapids there is an unbroken stretch of the river for about 25 or 30 miles. Steamers ply on the lower river, on the clear waters between the Cascades, and for some distance above the last fall. Passengers and freights are carried around the falls by railroad. Vessels of 200 or 300 tons burthen navigate the stream to the foot of the Cascades. For 30 miles from its mouth, the Columbia forms a splendid bay from 3 to 7 miles in breadth, through which it dis- charges its waters into the Pacific. There is about 20 feet water on the bar at its mouth, but the depth of the channel is 24 feet. The principal tributaries of the Columbia are the Lewis and Clark Forks, which, uniting, form the main river, the McGillivray's, or Flat Bow River, Okonagan, Fall River, Wallawalla, and Willa- mette. The Lewis Fork is sometimes called the Snake River, and the Clark Fork, the Flathead River. The total length of the Columbia, from its source to the sea, is about 1200 miles. THE UNITED STATES. 51 RAPIDS OF THE ST. LAWRENCE. THE SAINT LAWRENCE RIVER Forms a portion of the boundary between the United States and the Canadas, and though washing the shores of the Union for but a part of its course, cannot be passed over in this chapter. Some geogra- phers, in consequence of its forming the outlet of, the chain of lakes upon the northern frontier of the Union, regard it as commencing at the source of the St. Louis, which rises in Minnesota, and flows into Luke Superior. Viewed in this light, it flows through the great lakes, and its total length from the head of the St. Louis to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, would be 2200 miles. Its course to the head of I sake Erie would be in a generally southeast direction; and from the head of Lake Erie to the sea, in a generally northeast direction. Viewing it in this light, we must regard the Ste. Marie, between Lakes Huron and Superior; the St. Clair and Detroit, between Lakes Huron and Erie; and the Niagara, between Lakes Erie and Ontario, as forming parts of the St. Lawrence. By the St. Lawrence River, however, is most commonly meant that portion of it lying between Lake Ontario and the Gulf of St, Lawrence. This constitutes a large 1 rive? 750 miles long, having an average breadth of half a mile, antf 52 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. navigable for steamers to the Gulf. Ships of the line ascend to Que- bec, and vessels of 600 tons to Montreal, in Canada. Above Mon- treal the navigation is interrupted by numerous rapids, around which a canal has been cut. The river forms the boundary of the United States from the foot of Lake Ontario to the extreme northwestern corner of the State of New York. Ogdensburg and Cape Vincent are the principal American towns on its banks. LAKES. The principal lakes of the United States, are Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, and Champlain, lying along the northern frontier, and the Great Salt Lake, in Utah Territory. LAKE SUPERIOR Is the largest body of fresh water in the world, and the principal of the cnain of great lakes extending along the northern boundary of the United States. It lies between latitude 46 30' and 49 N., and longitude 84 50' and 92 10' W. It forms a species of crescent, with its convexity on the north, and its concavity on the south. Its greatest length, from east to west, measured through the curve, is 420 miles, and its greatest breadth, from north to south, 160 miles. The total length of its coast line is about 1750 miles. It covers an area estimated at 32,000 square miles. It is 630 feet above the level of the sea, and has an average depth of one thousand feet. Its shape is very irregular. It is very wide at its centre, but narrows slightly towards its eastern end, and very much towards its western end. The shore on the north side is bold and rocky, and consists of almost continuous ranges of cliffs, which rise to a height varying from 300 to 1500 feet. The south shore is flat and sandy, as a gene- ral rule, but near the eastern side is broken by limestone ridges, which rise to a height of near 300 feet, in strange and fantastic forms, worn into numerous caverns. These have been cut by the action of the great waves, especially during the season of the floating ice, and have been colored by the continual drippings of mineral substan- ces. From the earliest times they have been known as the " Pictured Rocks. 7 ' They lie to the east of Point Keweenaw, and form one of the most wonderful of the natural curiosities of the New World. Is- lands are very numerous towards the south arid north shores, but the centre of the lake is free from them. The islands towards the south THE UNITED STATES. 53 are generally small, but those along the north shore are often of con- siderable size. The largest is Isle Royal, which is about 40 miles long, and 7 or 8 miles wide. Its hills rise to a height of 400 feet, with fine bold shores on the north, and several excellent bays on the south. Near the western end of the lake is a rocky, forest-covered group, called the Apostles 7 Islands. They are exceedingly pictur- esque in appearance, and form a prominent and interesting portion of the scenery of the lake. On the extreme southwestern end of the largest, is La Pointe, a famous fur trading post, and well known as the principal rendezvous for the hardy adventurers of the lake region. Lake Superior receives its waters from more than 200 streams, about 30 of which are of considerable size. These drain an area of 100,000 square miles, and furnish the lake with water remarkable for its clearness, and abounding in fish of various kinds, but especially in trout, white fish, and salmon. The rivers are almost all unfit for navigation, by reason of their tremendous currents, rapids, and rocks. The outlet of the lake is at the southeastern end, by means of St. Mary's Strait, or as it is sometimes called, St. Mary's River, which connects it with Lake Huron and the other great lakes. This strait is about 63 miles long, and enters Lake Huron by three channels. It is very beautiful and romantic in its scenery, at some places spread- ing out into small lakes, and at others rushing in foaming torrents over the rocks that seek to bar its way, or winding around beautiful islands. It is navigable for vessels drawing eight feet of water, from Lake Huron to within one mile of Lake Superior, at which point falls obstruct the navigation. This part of the strait is called the Sault Ste. Marie. A canal has been constructed by the General Gov- ernment around the rapids. It is 100 feet wide and 12 feet deep, and affords unbroken communication between Lakes Superior and Huron. The falls have a descent of 22 feet in three-fourths of a mile, and are exceedingly beautiful. The strait also separates the State of Michigan from Canada West. The greatest obstacles to the navigation of the lake are the violent storms that sweep over it. Until very recently it was an almost unknown region, but now there is constant steamboat communication along its entire length, and it is frequently visited by persons in search of pleasure or health. The principal export of the lake is copper, which is found in large quantities, and of a superior quality, along its shores. The total ship- ments of this metal, from the period of its discovery on the lake down to the close of the year 1871, amounted to over $30,000,000. 54 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Fond du Lac, and Duluth, at the western end of the lake, are the principal settlements on its shores. For many years the savage settlements along the lake were mere fishing villages, and even at the period of its discovery, the Indians had made but few lodgments here. Attention was first drawn to it by its valuable fur trade, and the early Jesuit missionaries reached it about the year 1641. They established their first mission at the head of the Bay of Pentanguishene (in Georgian Bay), and passed up in a canoe to the Sault Ste. Marie, where they found a village of 2000 Chippewa Indians, and heard from them of the great lake beyond, which was explored by the missionaries about 20 years later. In 1668, a permanent mission was established at the Sault Ste. Marie, and in 1671, the region was formally taken possession of in the name of the Kin: of France. The mines were first worked in 1771 and 1772, f> * by an Englishman named Alexander Henry, whose enterprise proved unprofitable. General Lewis Cass, by order of the (jrovernment of the United States, explored the region in 1820, and since then it has been growing in importance, and has yearly become better known to the people of the country at large. LAKE HURON Is the third in size of the great inland seas we are describing. It lies between latitude 43 and 46 15' N., and longitude 80 and 84 W. It receives the waters of Lake Superior by the St. Mary's River, and of Lake Michigan by the Straits of Mackinaw, and empties into Lake Erie by the St. Clair River. It is bounded on the S. S. W. by the State of Michigan, and on all other sides by Canada West. A long peninsula called Cabot's Head, and the Manitouline chain of islands divide it into two unequal portions. Those portions lying to the north and east are generally called Manitou (the Great Spirit) Lake, or the North Channel, and Manitouline Lake, or Georgian Bay. The general outline of the rest of the lake is in the form of a crescent, pursuing a S. S. E. and N. N. W. course. Its extreme length, fol- lowing the curve, is about 280 miles. Its greatest breadth, exclusive of Georgian Bay, is 105 miles. Its average breadth is about 70 miles, and it covers an area of 20,400 square miles. The surface of the water is elevated 19 feet above Lake Erie, 352 feet above Onta- rio, and 600 feet above the level of the sea. Its average depth is over 1000 feet. Off Saginaw Bay, which indents the coast of Michi- gan, leads have been sunk 1800 feet without finding the bottom. THE UNITED STATES. 55 The waters of the lake are remarkably pure and sweet, and so ex- ceedingly transparent that objects can be distinctly seen 50 or 60 feet below the surface. The lake is said to contain upwards of 3000 is- lands. It is subject to frequent fearful storms, but its navigation is not considered dangerous. Steamers ply between its various ports, and pass through the Straits of Mackinaw into Lake Michigan. There are many fine harbors on the coast, and the local trade is im- portant. The scenery is romantic and beautiful, and is much admired by travellers. The outlet of Lake Huron is by the St. Clair River, which leaves the lake on its southern extremity. It has an average breadth of half a mile. It pursues a southerly course for forty miles, forming a part of the boundary between the United States and Canada, and empties into Lake St. Clair. It is navigable for large vessels. LAKE ST. CLAIR lies between Canada and the State of Michigan, in latitude 42 30' N., longitude 82 3' W. It is 30 miles long, has a mean breadth of 12 miles, and is 20 feet deep. It is thickly inter- spersed with islands, and receives the waters of the Thames, Clinton, and Great Bear Creeks, and other streams. At its southwestern ex- tremity it flows into the Detroit River, which connects it with Lake Erie. This river is in reality a mere strait 25 miles long, and from half a mile to a mile wide. The entire passage between Lakes Huron and Erie is navigable for large vessels. LAKE MICHIGAN Lies wholly within the limits of the United States, and is the largest lake included within the territory of the Republic. The greater por- tion of the lake lies between the State of Michigan, on the east, and Illinois and Wisconsin, on the west ; but the upper portion is entirely within the State of Michigan. The lake is situated between 41 30' and 46 N. latitude, and between 85 50' and 88 W. longitude. It bends slightly to the N. E. in the upper part, and its extreme length, following the curve, is about 350 miles; its extreme width 90 miles. It has an average depth of about 900 feet, and covers an area of 20,000 square miles. As a general rule, the shores of the lake are low, and are formed of limestone rock, clay, and sand. The sand thrown on the east shore by the heavy seas which prevail during storms, soon becomes dry, and is carried inland by the winds, where it is piled up in hills to a height of from 10 to 150 feet. The form of these hills is constantly changing. The lake is said to be gradually 56 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. moving westward, or, in other words, to be leaving the shore of Michigan, and encroaching upon that of Wisconsin. There are very few islands in Lake Michigan, and these lie to- wards its northeastern extremity. It has but few bays on its shores, and still fewer good harbors. Little Traverse Bay, Grand Haven, and Green Bay are the principal. As the lake is subject to terrible storms throughout the year, it is not considered very safe for naviga- tion. Previous to the completion of the railroads, however, its com- merce was very great, and several lines of fine steamers ran between Chicago, Illinois, and Buffalo, New York, on Lake Erie. There are many steamers and other craft still on the lake, but the railroads have taken away nearly the entire passenger, and much of the freight business. Lake Michigan is connected with Huron and the other lakes by the Straits of Mackinaw, or Mackinac. The lake is usually free from ice by the last of March, but the Straits of Mackinaw are frozen over until late in April. Fish abound in the lake, are caught in great quantities near Mackinaw, and are sent to the various parts of the Union, packed in ice. The principal cities and towns on Lake Michigan, are Chicago, Kacine, Milwaukee, and Sheboygan, on the west side, and Michigan City and Grand Haven, on the east side. There are 23 lighthouses and 4 beacons on the lake. LAKE ERIE Lies between Canada West, on the north, a part of the" States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, on the south, Michigan on the west,- and New York on the east. It is situated between 41 25' and 42 55' N. latitude, and between 78 55' and 83 34' W. longitude. It is elliptical in form, is 240 miles long, has an average width of 38 miles, its greatest width being 57 miles, and has a total circumference or coast line of 658 miles. Its depth is less than that of any of the other great lakes, being only 270 feet in its deepest portion. Its average depth is estimated at 120 feet. It is 322 feet above the level of Lake Ontario, which distance is overcome at a single effort by the falls of the Niagara. The shallowness of Lake Erie offers a great obstacle to navigation, inasmuch as the shoal portions freeze over regularly every winter. There are scarcely any naturally good harbors on the lake. Those now in use require to be deepened and protected by artificial means. Not- THE UNITED STATES. 51 withstanding the fact that the railroads have drawn off an immense amount of trade, and in spite of the obstacles presented by the lake itself, its commerce is still very great. The trade of the port of Buffalo alone is estimated at over $85,000,000 annually. The total trade of the lake is over $220,000,000 annually. A large numler of steamers and other vessels are engaged during the season of naviga- tion, which lasts from about the 1st of April to about the 1st of De- cember. The principal harbors on the American side, are those of Cleveland, Sandusky City, Toledo, Buffalo, Erie, and Dunkirk. Those on the Canadian side are Ports Dover, Burwell, and Stanley. The shores of the lake are in many places of a very unstable nature, and yield easily to the action of the water, causing frequent dangerous " slides," as they are called. Buffalo has suffered considerably from this cause. The waters abound in fish, the principal of which are the trout and white fish. Several species of pike, the sturgeon, sisquit, muskelonge, black bass, white bass, and Oswego bass are found. There are 26 lighthouses and beacons on the American, and 10 on the Canada shore. Communication is maintained between Lakes Erie and Ontario by means of the Welland Canal, which is cut through the Canadian peninsula. The Maumee, Sandusky, Grand, Huron, Raisin, and several other rivers flow into the lake. The most violent storms sweep over it, particularly in the months of November and December, causing many shipwrecks and considerable destruction to life and property. The outlet is by the Niagara River, which commences at Black Rock, about 4 miles north of Buffalo. It is 34 miles long, and has a general northward course. About 7 miles from Buffalo, the river divides and encloses a large island, called Grand Island, 12 miles long, and from 2 to 7 miles wide. Two or three miles below Grand Island are the famous Falls of Niagara, which will be described in the chapter relating to the State of New York. The river is navi- gable above the falls from a short distance above the rapids to Lake Erie nearly 20 miles ; and from its mouth to Lewiston, 7 miles. It is spanned by two fine suspension bridges. On the 10th of September 1813, Commodore Oliver N. Perry, in command of a small American squadron, defeated a British fleet of superior force near Put-in-bay, a harbor among the Bass Islands, near the western end of the lake. This victory completely destroyed the British power along the shores of Michigan. 58 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. LAKE ONTARIO Is the smallest and most easterly of the five great lakes of America, and is situated between latitude 43 10' and 44 10' N., and between longitude 76 and 80 W. It runs nearly due east and west, and divides the State of New York on the south from Canada on the north. It is 190 miles long, and its greatest breadth is 55 miles. It covers an area of 5400 square miles, is about 230 feet above the tide water in the St. Lawrence, and has a depth of about 600 feet. It is navigable throughout its entire extent for ships of the line, and 'has several fine harbors, the principal of which are Oswego and Sackett's Harbor, on the New York shore, and Kingston, Toronto, and Hamil- ton, in Canada. The lake is rarely closed with ice to any extent, ex- cept in the shoal water along the shore, and never freezes over. It receives the waters of the upper lakes through the Niagara, and those of the Genesee, Oswego, and Black Rivers, in the United States. It is connected with Lake Erie by the Welland Canal. It contains a number of islands, the largest of which, Amherst Island, is 10 miles long, and 6 miles broad. The waters of the lake are very clear and abound in a variety of fine salmon, trout, bass, and other fish. A number of steamers and other vessels are engaged in the lake trade, which is important, amounting to between $35,000,000 and $40,000,000 per annum. During the war of 1812-15, the United States and Great Britain maintained powerful fleets on Lake Ontario, and in the course of the war several severe engagements occurred on the lake between the op- posing forces. Besides the five great lakes already described, there are a number of others which will be referred to in connection with the States in which they are situated. MOUNTAINS. The principal mountain ranges of the United States are the great Alleghany range on the east, and the Rocky Mountains on the west. THE ALLEGHANY OR APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. This is the general term applied to the vast system of mountains in the southeastern part of North America, extending from Maine to the northern part of Alabama, pursuing in their course a general southwestward direction. As the range passes through different THE UNITED STATES. 59 ALLEGIIANY MOUNTAINS. States, it is called by different names. The distance of this chain from the sea varies along its course. In New Hampshire, near its northern termination, it is less than 100 miles from the ocean, and at its southern end the distance from the sea is 300 miles. In New England and New York the chain is broken and irregular, some of its ranges running almost north and south, but in the States south of New York, the ranges are very continuous, and run for the most part parallel to the main ridge. In common usage, the term Alleghany Mountains applies almost exclusively to that portion of the range lying in and south of the State of Pennsylvania. The AYhite Moun- tains of New Hampshire, and the Adirondacks of New York, are considered outliers of this great chain, as are also the Catskills, of the latter State. The entire length of the main range, not counting its lateral groups, is 1300 miles. Its extreme width, which occurs in Pennsylvania and Maryland, about half way in its length, is 100 miles. The highest summits of the Appalachian chain are Mount Mitchell, in North Carolina, 6470 feet, Mount Washington, in New Hampshire, 6226 feet, and Mount Marcy, in New York, 5467 feet, above the level of the sea. The entire range is rich in the most interesting geological fornia- 60 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. tions. Nearly all the minerals known to the Continent are found in these mountains. The scenery is grand, and the atmosphere pure and invigorating. Numerous railroads cross the range, or pierce it with their tunnels. The* great western range is known as THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. These are a continuation northward of the Cordilleras of Central America and Mexico. They enter the United States at the southern extremity of New Mexico and Arizona Territories, near latitude 31 30' N., and pass up the entire western side of the Republic, into British America. They are divided into several ranges, and cover an area 1000 miles wide from east to west. The most easterly range extends through New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana Territories, and forms the boundary between Wyoming and Idaho, and Idaho and Montana. It includes the Span- ish Peaks, Pike's Peak, and the Wind River Mountains, the last of which contain Fremont y s Peak, 13,570 feet high. West of this great range is a smaller one, called the Wahsatch Mountains, lying south of the Great Salt Lake. These mountains, under other names, pass northward, to the east of Salt Lake. In Utali they cover a wide district, and their ridges spread out in various directions. The ridge known as the Uintah Mountains extends east and west. The western division of the Rocky Mountains enters the State of California from the Peninsula of Old California, and soon breaks into two ranges, the lowest of which, known as the Coast Range, runs parallel to the Pacific Ocean, at a distance of from 10 to 50 miles from the sea until the northern part of California is reached, when it rejoins the higher range, which is called the Sierra Nevada, which runs parallel to the Coast Range, at a distance of 160 miles from the sea. From the point of the reunion of its branches the range pursues its way north \vard into British America, the two ridges being again divided in Oregon and Washington Territory, the lesser retaining its own name, and the Sierra Nevada being styled the Cascade Range. The summits of the Sierra Nevada are generally above the line of perpetual snow, while the Coast Range has an average height of from 2000 to 3000 feet. Several of its peaks, however, rise to more than double that altitude. Mount Ripley is 7500 feet, and Mount St. John 8000 feet high. Mount Linn is still higher, but its exact altitude has not yet been ascertained. Mount Shasta, at the point of the union of the two ranges in Northern California, is 14,440 feet high. THE UNITED STATES. 61 UOCKY MOUNTAINS. "Between the highest ridge of the Rocky Mountains on the east, and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range on the west, is a vast region of table land, which in its widest part extends through fourteen de- grees of longitude ; that is about 700 miles from east to west. Humboldt, in his 'Aspects of Nature/ observes that the Rocky Mountains, be* tween 37 and 43, present lofty plains of an extent hardly met with in any other part of the globe ; having a breadth from east to west twice as great as the plateaus of Mexico. In the western part of the great central plateaus above described, lies the Great Basin, otherwise called Fremont's Basin, from its having been first explored by Colonel Fremont. It is situated between the Sierra Nevada and Wahsatch Mountains, and is bounded on every side with high hills or moun- tains. It is about 500 miles in extent, from east to west, and 350 from north to south. It is known to contain a number of lakes and rivers, none of whose waters ever reach the ocean, being probably taken up by evaporation, or lost in the sand of the more arid districts. As far as known, the lakes of this basin are salt, except Utah Lake. The largest of these, the Great Salt Lake, is filled with a saturated solution of common salt; it has an elevation of 4200 feet above the sea. Lippincott's Gazetteer. G2 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Owing to the broad base and gentle rise of the Rocky Mountain Range, it is crossed with comparatively little difficulty. Its passes are among the finest on the globe, and will vie in grandeur of scenery with any of those of the old world. We have already spoken of the rivers which rise upon the slopes of this great range, and shall pass them by for the present, to return to them again in other portions of this work. SOIL. The soil of the United States " presents almost every variety, from the dry sterile plains in the region of the Great Salt Lake, to the rich alluviums of the Mississippi Valley. It can most conveniently be described by following the seven great divisions indicated by the river system of the country, viz., the St. Lawrence basin, the Atlantic slope, the Mississippi Valley, the Texas slope, the Pacific slope, the inland basin of Utah, sometimes called the Great or Fremont Basin, and the basin of the Red River of the north. 1. The St. Lawrence basin embraces parts of Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indi- ana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and all of Michigan ; it is an elevated and fertile plain, generally well wooded. 2. The Atlantic slope includes all New England except a part of Vermont ; all of New Jersey, Delaware, the District of Columbia, South Carolina, and Florida ; and portions of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Vir- ginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. It may be subdivided into two regions, a N. E. section and a S. W. section, separated by the Hudson River. The former is hilly, and generally better adapted to grazing than tillage, though some parts of it are naturally fertile, and a large proportion is carefully cultivated. The S. W. section may be again divided into a coast belt from 30 to 150 miles in width, running from Long Island Sound to the mouth of the Mississippi, and including the whole peninsula of Florida; and an inland slope from the mountains towards this coast belt. The former, as far south as the Roanoke River, is sandy and not naturally fertile, though capable of being made highly productive; from the Roanoke to the Mississippi it is generally swampy, with sandy tracts here and there, and a considerable portion of rich alluvial soil. The inland slope is one of the finest districts in the United States, the soil con- sisting for the most part of alluvium from the mountains and the de- composed primitive rocks which underlie the surface. 3. The Mis- sissippi Valley occupies more than two-fifths of the area of the THE UNITED STATES. 63 Republic, and extends from the Alleghany to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico to British North America, thus includ- ing parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Indiana, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and all of Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas, and the Territories north of Nebraska and east of the moun- tains. It is for the most part a prairie country, of fertility unsur- passed by any region on the globe, except perhaps the Valley of the Amazon. The ground in many places is covered with mould to the depth of several feet, in some instances to the depth of 25 feet. The northwest part of the valley, however, offers a strong contrast to the remainder. There is a desert plateau 200 to 400 miles wide, lying at the base of the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation 2000 to 5000 feet, above the sea, part of it incapable of cultivation on account of the deficiency of rain and lack of means of irrigation, and part naturally sterile. 4. The Texas slope includes the southwestern country of the Mississippi Valley, drained by rivers which flow into the Gulf of Mexico, and embracing nearly all of Texas, and portions of Louisiana and New Mexico. It may be divided into three regions : a coast belt from 30 to 60 miles wide, low, level, and very fertile, especially in the river bottoms ; a rich, rolling prairie, extending from the coast belt about 150 or 200 miles inland, and admirably suited for grazing; and a lofty table-land in the northwest, utterly destitute of trees, scantily supplied with grass, and during a part of the year parched with complete drought. Almost the only arable land in this section is found in the valleys of the Rio Grande and a few other streams. 5. The Pacific slope, embracing the greater part of California, Oregon, and Washington Territory, and parts of New Mexico and Utah,* is generally sterile. That part, however, between the Coast Range and the ocean, and the valleys between the Coast Range, and the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, are very fertile, and the same may be said of a few valleys and slopes among the Wahsatch and Rocky Moun- tains, though these are better adapted to pasturage than to anything else. 6. Tlie great inland basin of Utah, which includes besides Utah parts of New Mexico, California, Oregon, and Washington, is probably the most desolate portion of the United States. It abounds * To this add a part of Colorado, and all of Nevada and Idaho, formerly included in Oregon, and in Utah and Washington Territories. 64 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. in salt lakes, and there are only a few valleys where the soil acquires by irrigation enough fertility to afford a support for man. 7. That portion of the basin of the Red River of the north which belongs to the United States is confined to the small tract in the northern part of Dacotah and Minnesota ; it contains some very productive lands, especially in the river bottoms." * CLIMATE. The climate of the United States is varied. It could not possibly be uniform in a country presenting such a wide diversity of physical features in its various parts. In Florida, the thermometer does not vary over twelve degrees during the year, but in the remainder of the country the climate is exceedingly variable, and the changes are sudden and severe, often ranging over thirty degrees in the course of a few hours. Alternations from rain to drought are also as common and severe as those from heat to cold and from cold to heat. The summers are always hot. The thermometer frequently ranges as high as 110 F. In the North, however, the hot weather does not con- tinue in full vigor for more than a few days at a time, and in the South, the heat is seldom so extreme, though it continues for a longer time. California has a climate as mild as that of Italy, but the North-Eastern States are swept by the chill winds from Ihe Atlantic and the ice fields of British America. The great lakes mitigate to a considerable extent the temperature of the country around them. A similar effect is produced upon the temperature of their surrounding regions by the elevated plains of New Mexico, Utah, and Oregon. The following table shows the average temperature of each of the seasons of the year on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and in the interior : PUCK OF OBSERVATION. Latitude. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. Year. Fortress Monroe die:ir Norfolk Va ) 37 5G'87 76-57 61-68 40-45 58-89 F.n-t Columbus (New York Harbor) 40 42' 48-74 72-10 54-55 31-38 51-69 Fort Sullivan (Kastport, Maine) 44 15' 40-15 60-50 47-52 23-90 43-02 St. Louis, Missouri 38 40' 54-15 76-19 55-44 32-27 54-51 Chicago, Illinois . 41 52' 44-90 67-33 48-85 25-90 4fi-75 Fort Riplev, Minnesota 46 1 9' 39-33 64-94 42-91 10-01 39-30 Monterey, Oil if -ruin 36 36' 53-99 58-64 57-990 51-290 55-990 San Francisco, California 37 48' 54-41 57-33 56-83 50-86 54-88 t Astoria, Oregon 40" 11' 51-16 61-58 53-76 42-43 52-23 * Appleton's Cyclopaedia, vol. xv. p. 716. f Id. p. 717. THE UNITED STATES. 65 Rain is abundant in nearly all parts of the Union, and is distributed over the country in a very nearly equal degree throughout the year. In the Atlantic States south of Washington City, the fall is less regu- lar than in the States north of the Capital, but is more plentiful than in the latter, and occurs more frequently in summer than in winter. On the Pacific coast, the fall of rain is periodical, occurring chiefly in the winter and spring, and south of the fortieth parallel of North latitude, in the autumn also. Very little rain falls between the Cascade Range and the one-hundredth meridian of West longitude. When rain does visit this region, it comes in violent showers, which are especially severe in the mountains. The annual fall in the desert region through which the Colorado flows, is estimated at 3 inches; in the great plain south of the Columbia River, 10 inches; in the desert east of tVie Rocky Mountains, from 15 to 20 inches. Scarcely any of this falls in the summer.* Snow falls in the Northern States to a considerable depth. In the Lake Superior country, more or less snow falls every day during the winter, and remains on the ground until the spring. It is compara- tively rare south of the James River, in Virginia, and does not remain on the ground very long. In the Gulf States, it is scarcely ever seen except in the extreme northern portion. The most dangerous local diseases, of the New England and Middle States, are pulmonary complaints; of the Southern States, bilious fevers, and yellow fever along the Gulf coast ; of the Western States, intermittent and bilious fevers, and dysentery. The "fever and ague" prevails chiefly in new regions, and disappears as they become thickly settled. The following table, taken from the eighth census of the United States, will show the ratio of mortality in each State, for the year end- ing June 1st, 1860: * Appleton's Cyclopaedia. 66 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. STATES AND TERRITORIES. Deaths. Population to one death. Deaths. Per cent. 12,759 8,885 3,704 6,138 1,246 1,704 12,816 19,299 15,325 7,259 1,443 16,466 12,234 7.614 7,370 21,303. 7,390 1,108 12,213 17,652 4,4C9 7,525 46,881 11,602 24,724 237 30,214 2,479 9,745 15,153 9,377 3,355 22,472 7,141 74 43 101 74 89 78 81 87 87 92 73 69 57 81 92 57 100 153 64 66 72 88 82 84 93 218 95 69 71 72 63 92 70 107 1-34 2-0(> 0-99 1-35 1-13 1-28 $28 1-H 1-15 1*0 1-.V7 1-4-3 1-70 1-23 1-09 1.70 1-00 0-65 1-57 1-52 1-39 1-14 1-22 119 1-07 0-46 1-06 1-44 1-41 1-39 1-58 1-08 1-43 0-93 California * * Florida Georgia Illinois Maine . ,..' Maryland Michigan New York North Carolina Ohio . . Virginia Colorado Dacotah.. 4 381 Nebraska 75 1-34 Nevada New Mexico Utah 1,305 374 50 1,285 71 106 228 58 1-42 0-94 0-44 1-72 District of Columbia Total United States 392,821 79 1-27 From this table, it will be seen that Washington Territory is the first in point of health fulness, Oregon second, Minnesota third, Wis- consin fourth, Utah fifth, California sixth, Massachusetts twenty-ninth, and Arkansas thirtieth. MINERAL WEALTH. The mineral productions of the United States are varied and ex- tensive. Coal exists in all the States except Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Delaware, South Carolina, Mississippi, and Wisconsin. Three distinct qualities are found anthracite, bitumi- nous and semi-bituminous. In 1860, the production amounted to Of anthracite 9,398,332 tons. Of bituminous 5,775,077 " Total 15,173,409 " There are valuable and extensive beds of marl in Maine, New Jer- sey, Maryland, Virginia, and several other States. Salt springs, some THE UNITED STATES. 67 of them of very great strength and value, are found in New York, Michigan, Virginia, Kentucky, and Arkansas. Nitrates of soda and potassa are found in the caves of Virginia, Kentucky, and Arkansas, while the plains of the great American desert and the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains furnish considerable quantities of nitrate and carbonate of soda. Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is found in Maine, Maryland, and Texas, and in portions of New Mexico and Arizona. Marble, of every variety required for building, exists in nearly all the States. In those bordering on the Mississippi, a fine, compact car- bonate of lime supplies its place. Iron exists in every State and Ter- ritory, and in every form known, from the bog ore, which contains about 20 per cent, of iron, to the pure metal. In the year 1860, the total product of iron ore taken from the mines was estimated at 2,514,282 tons. Of this amount, Pennsylvania produced 1,706,470 tons. There are small quantities of lead in a large number of the States; but Missouri, Arkansas, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, alone, contain the great lead deposits of the country. An incomplete return for 1860, places the value of the lead production of the Union at $977,281. The great copper region of the Union lies along the shores of Lake Superior, but the metal has been found in considerable quan- tities in Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee. The ore found in the Lake Superior region, yields from 71 to 90 per cent, of pure copper. The total product for 1860 was 14,432 tons, valued at $3,316,516. Zinc is found in Pennsyl- vania and New Jersey the yield in the former State, in 1860, being 11,800 tons, valued at $72,600. Tin is found in Maine, to some ex- tent, and also in California. Silver is found in connection with almost all the deposits of lead and copper ; and in Nevada, Arizona and New Mexico, extensive veins of a fine quality exist. These are being well worked, but at present there is no accurate return of the total products of the mines. Silver also exists in California, North Carolina and Colorado. Small quantities of gold exist in Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Alabama, and Tennessee. The gold veins are more im- portant in Virginia and Georgia, which formerly furnished the greater part of the gold found in the United States. The mines of the At- lantic States, however, are comparatively neglected at present for those of the Pacific States. Immense deposits of gold exist in California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Dacotah. Platinum and mercury are also found in California tin former in small quantities, but the yield of the latter is so great as I? 68 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. almost supply the demand for it for mining purposes. Osmium and iridium have been discovered in Oregon. They are used in manufac- turing gold pens. Cobalt is found in North Carolina and Missouri. Pennsylvania, in 1860, yielded 2348 tons of nickel. Chromium ex- ists in Vermont, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Mary- land ; and Vermont, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and South Caro- lina supply considerable quantities of manganese. PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL. The native vegetation of the United States is too vast and varied to admit of a description here. We can only say that it covers a wide range of plants and trees, from the giant trees of California to the tiniest flower that blooms on the hill side. Nearly all the prin- cipal productions of the frigid, temperate and torrid zones are found within the limits of the Republic. None of the great staples of food are natives of the country, but have been brought from other lands. It must be admitted, however, that they have been greatly benefited by the change, and many of them are produced here in finer qualities than in their old homes. Cucumbers, melons, squashes, and all the edible Cucurbitacece are importations. So are the most of the fruits, especially the apple, pear, plum, quince, and apricot. The edible berries, such as the strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, whortleberry, bilberry, cloudberry, etc., are natives of the soil. Cotton, flax, and hemp are naturalized plants. , ANIMALS. The zoology of the United States includes all the animals found on the North American Continent. Of bats, there are three genera and eleven species. The largest of the Sarcophaga or Carnivora, is the cougar or catamount, which ranks next to the lion and Bengal tiger in ferocity and strength. This animal is sometimes called the Amer- ican panther, an erroneous appellation, as the panther is not a native of this country. The wild cat or bay lynx, and the Canadian lynx are found. The entire monkey tribe is lacking. There are seven species of the fox the common red, the cross fox, the black or silver, the prairie, swift, gray, and short-tailed fox. The wolves are divided into two distinct species, the gray wolf of the woods, (divided into the reddish, black, and giant wolf,) a cowardly animal, and the fero- cious prairie wolf, which resembles the jackal of the East. The THE UNITED STATES. 69 Digitigrada consist of the pine marten or American sable, the Ameri- can fisher, the American ermine, the weasel, and two species of mink. The black, and the grisly bear, the badger, wolverene, skunk, and raccoon are found in various parts of the country. Several varieties of the seal family exist. The deer, the antelope, the Rocky Moun- tain or big horn sheep, also abound. The bison, which is usually but incorrectly called the buffalo, is found in the far West. Nearly all the birds, fish, reptiles, and insects of America are found in the vari- ous parts of the Union. " The domestic animals of the United States have been, with one or two exceptions, introduced from Europe. The horse, though not native to this continent, became wild at an early period, and now roams in large herds in the plains of Texas, but is domesticated with- out great difficulty. There have been at different times stocks intro- duced from England, France, Spain, and some from Morocco and Arabia ; much attention has been paid to the breeding of these ani- mals, and some of them have not been surpassed in speed or other good points. The asses are mainly from Spain and Malta; the cattle from Great Britain ; the goats from the south of Europe, though some efforts have been made to introduce Asiatic species ; and the sheep from the Southdown, Saxon, and Spanish Merino breeds. The swine are of various stocks; one breed, common in Central and Western Virginia and other mountainous districts, is tall, long, and gaunt, and of ferocious nature and uncertain origin ; but the most common breeds are the Berkshire (English) and Chinese, and crosses upon these. Our domestic dogs and cats are, with few exceptions, of European origin. The brown or Norway rat was an importation from the country whose name it bears, but has now been nearly de- stroyed by a more powerful and ferocious black rat, said to be from the south of Europe. Efforts have been made, but with no very satisfactory result, to introduce the llama of South America into our mountainous districts. The attempt to acclimate the Bactrian camel in Texas and California, gives promise of greater success."* CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULATION. The people of the United States consist of representatives of every nation in Europe, and of many in Asia and Africa. For a long time after the Revolution the characteristics impressed upon certain parts * Appleton's Cyclopaedia, vol. xv. p. 726. 70 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of the country by the original settlers remained in their full force with their descendants, but at present the rush of emigration has been so great from all parts of Europe, that these have been either very much weakened or entirely destroyed. The New England States were originally settled by the Puritans, and to the present day still retain many of the strongest of the pecu- liarities of their forefathers. Tiie gradual but steady increase of their Irish population is working great changes, however, in these States. The city of Boston is being especially affected in this manner. New York was settled by emigrants from Holland, and though the eastern portion of the State has scarcely any traces of its origin left, the inte- rior possesses still many communities, which not only retain very many of the customs and characteristics of the old settlers, but in which, until a very recent period, the Dutch language was spoken to a considerable extent by those born on the soil. Maryland was settled by Catholics, who have not yet lost their controlling influence in the State. Delaware and New Jersey were settled by the Swedes. Pennsylvania was colonized by English Quakers, who were followed by many German families. The descendants of these classes still control the State the Quakers, as of old, living in the eastern, and the Germans in the southwestern, western, and central portions. Virginia was settled by the English, who were followed by many French Huguenots and Germans. These settled in three distinct parts of the State the first settlers along the Chesapeake Bay and ite tributaries, the French along the Upper James, above the falls, and the Germans in the rich valley of the Shenandoah. These dis- tinctions were strongly preserved as late as the period of the rebel- lion. North Carolina was settled by non-conformists from Virginia. South Carolina, by English Churchmen and French Huguenots, who had not lost the control of the State at the time of the rebellion. Georgia by English prisoners for debt, followed by other classes from the mother country. Louisiana was settled by the French, and was inhabited chiefly by them when purchased from the French crown. Texas and California were originally Spanish, and, to a great extent, are still so. The latter State has a strong Chinese element in it. Florida was originally Spanish, and still retains its original character- istics along the Gulf Coast. The other States and the Territories were settled by ad venturers from the older portions of the country, and by emigrants from Europe, who still continue to flock to our shores in great numbers. The following tables will show the number THE UNITED STATES. of arrivals of emigrants in this country for a period of fifty-one years, or from January 1st, 1820, to September 30th, 1870, their national- ities and destinations : Wholly or mainly of English Speech. Wholly or mainly of Slavic Races. Russia 2,930 Miquelon 3 Corsica 11 Sicily 675 England 501,316 Ireland 1 406 030 Poland 3,955 Hungary 488 Total French, etc 377,889 Wholly or mainly of Asiatic Races. China . 108,610 Scotland 82,403 \\"ales . 12 213 Wholly or mainly French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian. Other Great Britain 1,824,078 British America 271 185 \ustralia . 246 India 178 A/ores 6,636 AraMa 33 Bermudas 61 St. Helena 33 Spain 23,090 Syria 4 Persia 14 Cape of Good Hope 88 New Zealand 17 Sandwich Islands 35 Malta 127 Italy 23,387 Sardinia 2,103 Mexico 20,039 Asia (general) 24. East India Islands 79 Society Islands 7 Pacific Islands 5 Total English speech ...4,104,553 Wtolltj or mninly of Germanic and Scandinavian Speech. Guiana 53 Venezuela 40 p eru . 3ft Total Asiatic 109,169 Wholly or mainb/ of African Na- tions, with Turkey and Greece. Liberia 64. KfP*-: 2 Chili 28 Brazil 45 Buenos Ayres 7 Bolivia 3 Prussia 100,983 Austria 7,904 Sweden and Norway 151,104 Denmark 23,221 New Granada 2 Paraguay 1 Other South America...... 7,407 Cuba 3,960 Hayti 81 Abyssinia o Africa (general) 471 Barbary States 11 Turkey 299 Greece 195 Holland 30,905 Belgium 16,850 Switzerland 61,269 Iceland . 11 Porto Rico 50 Other West Indies 45,458 Cape de Verdes 71 Total, Africa, etc 1,065 From countries not speci- fied 205 $07 Total Germanic 2,643,069 Madeira 313 Canaries 290 Aggregate since 1820 7,448,925 NUMBER OF EMIGRANTS IN EACH TEAR. 1820 8385 1833 . 58 640 1846 154416 1859 121,282 1821 i 9,130 1834 65 365 1847 234 968 I860 153,640 1822 6,911 1835 .. 45 374 1848 226 527 1861 91,920 1823 354 1836 76 242 1849 297 041 1862 91,987 1824 7 912 1837 79 340 18 r )0 369 96'i 1863 176 282 1825 10199 1838 38 914 1851 379 466 193,418 f826 10837 1839 68 072 1852 37l'603 1865 248,120 1827 18 875 1840 84 006 1853 368 645 1866 ... . 318 554 1828 27382 1841 80 ^89 1854 497 $33 1867 298.358 1829 . .. . 22 520 1842 104 565 5855 200 877 1868 297,215 1830 23 322 1843 52 496 1856 200 4 '36 1869 385 287 1831 1832 22,633 60 482 1844 1845 78,615 1857 251,306 1870 (9 mos.) .... 285,422 Total 7 ,448,925 AVOWED DESTINATION OF EMIGRANTS LANDED AT CASTLE GARDEN, FROM AUGUSTl, 1855, TO JANUARY I, 1870, BEING 2,340,928 PASSENGERS. Colorado 170 New Mexico 50 Idaho 32 Dacotah Montana 33 Utah 23,735 Wyoming 5 Total Pacific States 47,172 Southeastern States. Virginia 8,235 West Virginia 172 North Carolina 784 South Carolina 1,854 Georgia 1,623 Florida 199 Alabama 577 Total Southeast. States. 13,444 New York and undecided.. Eastern States. Maine 972,267 Northwestern State Ohio I. 120,428 52,205 29,576 213,315 121,660 29,360 44,286 44,309 5,052 4,198 4.013 2,859 4,405 111,129 21,430 Indiana New Hampshire Illinois Massachusetts Rhode Island Minnesota Iowa Connecticut Total Eastern States.... Central States. New Jersey 39,169 183,005 63,109 224,880 18,033 2,011 9,129 Missouri Kansas Nebraska Total Northwest. States. Pacific States and Tern Nevada 664,389 tories. 80 22,823 189 6 Maryland District of Columbia Total Central States.., California Oregon 317,162 Washington Territory 72 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. AVOWED DESTINATION OF EMIGRANTS- Continued Kouinwesiem siaies. Canada 50,828 Bermuda 2 Missouri 11 657 New Brunswick 1,028 Sandwich Islands .... 1 1 Tennessee 4,171 New Dominion 816 British Columbia 46G Arkansas Mississippi 302 603 Cuba 349 210 Japan 1 6 Louisiana Texas Total Southwest. States. 4,353 1,522 ~66^9lY West Indies Central America Vancouver's Island 141 113 6 Unknown Total 22,035 76,572 Previous to 1820, no exact account was kept of the arrivals of emi- grants from foreign countries; but as near as can be ascertained, the number was as follows : From 1790 to 1800 50,000 " 1800 " 1810 70,000 " 1810 " 1820 - . 114,000 Total 234,000 This added to the number of emigrants since 1820, gives a total number of 7,682,925 emigrants since the formation of the Federal Government. During the present year, 1871, the number of arrivals will be unusually large, if the rate which has marked the first portion of it is continued throughout the year. AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the principal interest of the United States, and is growing in importance every year. A brief glance at each of the great staples in detail will be interesting and useful. Maize, or Indian Corn. Maize is the principal production of the United States, and is cultivated in every State and Territory of the Republic. It is best adapted to the soil and climate of the country, and furnishes the largest amount of nutritive food. It is generally a sure crop where it is properly cultivated. The method of cultivation is substantially that of the Indians, from whom the white settlers learned it in 1608, in which year they first planted it in the vicinity of Jamestown. At present the yield varies from 20 to 135 bushels to the acre. In 1870, the total product of the country amounted to 769,944,549 bushels. The States which produced the greatest num- ber of bushels that year, stand as follows: Illinois, 129,921,395 bushels; Missouri, 66,034,075 bushels; Ohio, 67,501,144 bushels; Indiana, 51,094,538 bushels; Kentucky, 50,091,006 bushels; Ten- nessee. 41,343,614 bushels; and Iowa, 68,935,065 bushels. The THE UNITED STATES. T3 product of the other States ranged from 9000 to 63,000,000 bushels. The first was the yield of Nevada, the smallest of all. Wheat. This grain ranks next to Indian Corn in importance, and when the climate and soil are adapted to its growth, is preferred by the American farmer to all others. Considerable care is exercised in its culture, and the greatest ingenuity has been displayed in the effort to improve the means of cultivation, and with best results. The wheat region of the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains, is situated between the 30th and 50th parallels of North latitude. On the Pacific coast, however, it extends several degrees farther north. As a general rule the wheat of America, especially that of the great wheat producing States of the Atlantic coast, is superior to any other in the world. At the London Exhibition, wheat from Genesee County, New York, won the prize medal from the Royal Commissioners. The total yield of wheat for 1870 amounted to 287,745,626 bushels. The product of the principal wheat producing States was as follows : Illinois, 30,128,405 bushels; Wisconsin, 25,616,344 bushels; Iowa, 29,435,692 bushels; Indiana, 27,747,222 bushels; Ohio, 27,882,159 bushels; California, 16,676,702 bushels; and Pennsylvania, 19,672,- 967 bushels. Rye is raised in all the States, but principally in the Eastern and Middle States. Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey produce more than half the quantity raised in the whole country. There is a decided increase in the Western States, and in Maryland and Dela- ware. In the New England States it has decreased. The total pro- duct for 1870 was 16,918,795 bushels. Pennsylvania raised 3,577,641 bushels; New York, 2,478,125 bushels; New Jersey, 566,775 bush- els ; and Wisconsin, 1,325,294 bushels. Barley is grown in the Atlantic States, between the 30th and 50th degrees of North latitude, and on the Pacific coast between the 20th and 62nd degrees of North latitude. The two-rowed barley is principally cultivated because of the fulness of its grain, and its exemption from smut. It yields from 30 to 50 bushels to the acre, and will average about 50 pounds to the bushel. Very little of it is exported, as nearly the whole crop is used at home for the manufacture of beer, ale, etc. The demand for it is increasing. The crop of 1870 amounted to 29,761,305 bushels, or more than five times the amount produced in 1850. The States yielded as follows : California, 8,783,- 490 bushels; New York, 7,434,621 bushels; Ohio, 1,715,221 bush- els; and Wisconsin, 1,645,019 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Florida, 12 bushels. 74 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Buckwheat is raised principally in the New England and Middle States. The average yield is from 30 to 45 bushels to the acre, though in some good soils it has yielded as much as 60 bushels. The crop of 1870 amounted to 9,821,721 bushels. Pennsylvania pro- duced 2,532,173 bushels; New York, 3,904,030 bushels ; and Ohio, 180,341 bushels. Oats. This grain constitutes one of the most important crops of the country, and flourishes in sections where the heat or cold is too great for wheat or rye. It is grown principally in the Northern, Middle, and Western States. The crop of 1870 amounted to 282,- 107,157 bushels. New York produced 35,293,625 bushels; Penn- sylvania, 34,702,006 bushels; Ohio, 25,347,549 bushels; Illinois, 42,780,851 bushels; Wisconsin 20,180,016 bushels; and Iowa, 21,- 005,142 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Louisiana, 17,782 bushels. Peas and Beans were largely cultivated by the Indians before the settlement of the country by the whites. At present they are grown as a field crop, principally in the Eastern, Middle, and Southern States. The yield averages from 25 to 40 bushels per acre, weighing about 64 pounds per bushel. The crop of 1870 amounted to 5,746,- 027 bushels. Mississippi produced 176,417 bushels; Georgia, 410,- 020 bushels; North Carolina, 532,749 bushels; South Carolina, 460,378 bushels; and New York, 1,152,541 bushels. The smallest yield was that of Nevada, 414 bushels. Rice was first introduced into Virginia by Sir William Berkeley, in 1647; into the Carolinas in 1694; and into Louisiana in 1718. It is confined chiefly to a few of the extreme Southern States, where the climate is favorable to it, and the supply of water plentiful. The yield is usually from 20 to 60 bushels to the acre, weighing from 45 to 48 pounds to the bushel, when cleaned. The yield for 1870 was 73,635,021 pounds. South Carolina produced 32,304,825 pounds; Georgia, 22,277,380 pounds; Louisiana, 15,854,012 pounds; North Carolina, 2,059,281 pounds; Mississippi, 374,627 pounds; and Ala- bama, 222,945 pounds. It has been grown in Illinois, California, Missouri, Kentucky, New York, and Virginia, though of an inferior quality. Potatoes. The Irish or White Potato ranks next to wheat and corn in the industry of the Republic. The yield depends upon the soil and climate, and the manner of cultivation, and varies from 50 to 400 bushels, the average being less than 200 bushels to the acre. It THE UNITED STATES. 75 suffers frequently from the " rot." The crop of 1870 amounted to 143,337,473 bushels. New York produced 28,547,593 bushels; Pennsylvania, 12,889,367 bushels; Ohio, 11,192,814 bushels; and Illinois, 10,994,790 bushels; Indiana, 5,399,044 bushels; Massachu- setts, 3,025,446 bushels; Michigan, 10,318,799 bushels; New Hamp- shire, 4,515,419 bushels; New Jersey, 4,705,439 bushels; Vermont, 5,157,428 bushels; and Wisconsin, 6,646,129 bushels. Sweet Potatoes. The sweet potato is a native of the East Indies, and was introduced into the Colonies soon after the settlement of Vir- ginia. It is now extensively cultivated in the Southern and Western States. The crop of 1870 amounted to 21,709,824 bushels. Georgia produced 2,621,562 bushels; North Carolina, 3,071,840 bushels; Alabama, 1,871,360 bushels; Mississippi, 1,743,432 bushels; and South Carolina, 1,205,683 bushels. Louisiana, New Jersey, Ten- nessee, and Texas each produced over a million of bushels. Hay. The production of hay is confined principally to the Eastern, Middle, and Western States, comparatively little being raised in the Southern States. The product of 1870 amounted to 27,316,048 tons. New York produced 5,614,205 tons ; Pennsylvania, 2,848,219 tons; Illinois, 2,747,339 tons ; and Ohio, 2,289,565 tons. Hops. The hop crop for 1870 amounted to 25,456,669 pounds, and of this the State of New York produced 17,558,681 pounds, or more than one-half of the entire amount produced in the United States. Tobacco is indigenous to Central America, and was cultivated in various parts of the Continent before the discovery by Europeans. Columbus, in 1492, was offered a cigar by an Indian Chief on the Island of Cuba. In 1585, Sir Richard Greenville found it and saw it smoked in Virginia; and in 1616, it was extensively cultivated by I the Colonists in that province. It is cultivated to a greater or less extent in nearly all the States. The crop of 1870 amounted to 262,- 735,341 pounds. Virginia produced 37,086,364 pounds; Kentucky, 105,305,869 pounds; Tennessee, 21,465,452 pounds; Maryland, 15,- 785,339 pounds; North Carolina, 11,150,087 pounds; Ohio, 18,741,- 973 pounds; Missouri, 12,320,483 pounds; and Connecticut, Indiana, and Massachusetts each produced more than 7,000,000 pounds. The rebellion almost destroyed the cultivation of tobacco in the Southern States, and it has not yet been fully resumed. Sugar and Molasses. The sugar-cane is said to have been intro- duced into Florida, Louisiana, and Texas at the period of their first THE GREAT REPUBLIC. A WESTERN HOMESTEAD. settlement by the French and Spaniards. It does not thrive beyond the 33d degree of North latitude, or the 35th of South latitude. A very small. quantity (283 hhds. in 1860) was raised in the warmest section of Wisconsin. . The crop of 1870 amounted to 87,043 hogsheads of one thousand pounds each, of which Louisiana produced 80,706 hhds. In the same year the amount of cane molasses manufactured was 6,- 593,323 gallons. Louisiana produced 4,585,150 gallons. About the year 1858, a hardier species called the Sorghum, or Chi- nese sugar-cane, adapted to the climate of nearly all the States, was introduced. It has since been extensively cultivated, and is used ex- clusively for the manufacture of molasses, as it will not produce sugar. In 1870, while it was yet new to our people, the yield of Sorghum molasses was 16,050,089 gallons. In the same year, 28,443,645 pounds of maple sugar were produced in the United States, and 921,057 gallons of maple molasses. Of maple sugar, New York produced 6,692,040 pounds ; Vermont, 8,894,302 pounds; Ohio, 3,469,128 pounds; and Indiana, New Hampshire, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, each over a million. Of THE UNITED STATES. U maple molasses, Ohio produced 352,612 gallons; and Indiana, 227,- 880 gallons. Butter and Cheese. The total product of butter for 1870 was 514,- 092,683 pounds. Of this amount, New York- produced 107,147,526 pounds; Pennsylvania, 60,834,644 pounds; Ohio, 50,266,372 pounds; Illinois, 36,083,405 pounds; Indiana, 22,915,385 pounds; and Iowa, Maine, Michigan, Vermont and Wisconsin, each produced more than 20,000,000 pounds. The amount of cheese produced in the same year was 53,492,153 pounds. New York produced 22,769,964 pounds, and Ohio, 8,169,- 486 pounds. Wine. The culture of the vine has not yet attained the importance which the future holds out to it, and the returns of 1870 afford but an indifferent test of the wine producing capacity of the United States. The yield in 1870 was 3,092,330 gallons, a gain of 1,132,322 gallons over the vintage of 1860. Of this, the State of Ohio pro- duced 212,912 gallons; California, 1,814,656 gallons ; New York, 82,607 gallons; North Carolina, 62,348 gallons; Illinois, 111,882 gallons ; Connecticut, 27,414 gallons ; and Virginia, 26,283 gallons. The vine is cultivated in nearly all the States, but the great grape regions of the country are the Lower Ohio Valley, and the Valleys of the Pacific coast. Cotton. At the outbreak of the Rebellion, American Cotton con- trolled the markets of the world, as regards both the quantity and the quality furnished; but the war, by stopping the production of cotton, by disorganizing the system of labor, and by injuring the plantations in various ways, struck a blow at this branch of our industry, which will damage it for many years to come. In some States where free labor has been organized under control of the old planters, happy re- sults have been attained, with the brightest prospects for the future. Cotton is grown principally in the extreme Southern States. In Virginia and North Carolina it is becoming less important every year. The yield for 1860 amounted to 5,198,077 bales, of 400 pounds each. This amount was distributed as follows : Bales. Mississippi, 1,195,699 Alabama, 997,978 Louisiana, 722,218 Georgia,. . . 701,840 Texas, 405,100 Arkansas, 367,485 78 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Bales. South Carolina, 353,413 Tennessee, 227,450 North Carolina, 145,154 Florida, 63,322 Virginia, 12,727 Kentucky, . - 4 > 092 New Mexico, 1,133 Missouri, 10 Illinois, 6 Total, 5,198,077 The yield for the year ending September 1st, 1870, was 3,011,996 bales, including 90,000 bales manufactured in the South, but counted in the, following statement of the production of each State. Bales. Mississippi, . . . . , 564,938 Louisiana, 350,832 Alabama, 429,482 Florida, 39,789 Georgia, 473,934 Texas, 350,628 South Carolina, . 224,500 North Carolina, 144,935 Virginia, 183 Tennessee, Arkansas, etc., 432,958 Wool is grown in all the States to a greater or less extent. The yield for 1870 was 100,102,387 pounds, of which Ohio produced 20,539,643 pounds; New York, 10,599,225 pounds; Michigan, 8,- 726,145 pounds; California, 1 1,391,743 pounds ; and Illinois, and Indiana, each over 5,000,000 pounds ; and Maine, New Hampshire, Tennessee and Texas, each over 1,000,000 pounds. Flax and Hemp. Flax is a native of Great Britain, and hemp of India. The second was formerly cultivated in this country to a greater extent than at present, having been to some degree superseded by the Southern cotton. In 1870 the yield of flax was 7,133,034 pounds more than twice the amount grown in 1850. New York produced the largest amount, 3,670,818 pounds. In the same year 1,730,444 bush- els of flax-seed were produced, of which Ohio grew 631,894 bushels. Of hemp, 92,746 tons were grown in 1870. Kentucky produced 7,777 tons.; and Missouri 12,816 tons. Silk. Silk is said to be a native of Asia. Its production was introduced into the colony of , Virginia in 1622, into Louisiana in THE UNITED STATES. 79 1718, into Georgia in 1732, and into Connecticut in 1760. The total product of silk cocoons in 1870 was 3937 pounds, or 2625 pounds less than the yield of 1860. California produced 3587 pounds. Orchard Products. The value of the orchard crop of 1870 amounted to $47,335,189. It was distributed amongst the leading States as follows: New York, $8,347,417; Ohio, $5,843,679; Penn- sylvania, $4,208,094; Indiana, $2,858,086; Illinois, $3,571,789. Market Garden Productions. These, in 1870, amounted to $20,- 719,229, distributed among the principal States as follows: New York, $3,432,354 ; New Jersey, $2,978,250; Pennsylvania, $1,810,- 016: Massachusetts, $1,980,231 ; California, $1,059,779. Clover and Grass Seed. The yield of clover seed for 1870 was 639,657 bushels. Pennsylvania produced 200,679 bushels; Ohio, 102,355 bushels; and New York, 98,837 bushels. The yield of grass-seed for the same year was 583,188 bushels, of which Illinois produced 153,464 bushels; and New Jersey, 72,401 bushels. Beeswax and Honey. In 1870, 631,129 pounds of beeswax were produced in the United States. North Carolina produced 109,054 pounds ; and New York 86,333 pounds. In the same year, 14,702,815 pounds of honey were produced. Illinois yielded 1,547,878 pounds; North Carolina, 1,404,040 pounds; and Kentucky, Missouri, and Tennessee, each over 1,000,000 pounds. Value of Home-Made Manufactures. The total value of home- made manufactures in the United States, in 1870, amounted to $23,- 433,332. Tennessee produced $2,773,820 of this, and Missouri, 1,737,606. The Value of Slaughtered Animals, in 1870, was $398,956,376. Illinois returned $56,786,944 of this amount, and Ohio, $40,498,375. Cash Value of Farms. In 1870, the cash value of farming lands in the United States amounted to $9,262,803,861. Of this amount, New York possessed $1,272,857,766 ; and Ohio, $1,054,465,226. In the same year the farming implements and machinery in the Union were valued at $336,878,429. Those of New York were valued at $45,997,712, and those of Pennsylvania at $35,658,196. 80 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MANUFACTURES. The three great staple manufactures of the United States are cottons, woollens, and iron. These are manufactured in twenty-five of the States, but principally in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Connecticut and New York. The cotton manu- factures of the United States rank next to those of Great Britain. The woollen manufactures are of a more recent date than either of the others, but are growing in importance. In 1860, there were 140,433 establishments in the Union engaged in manufactures, mining and the mechanic arts. The capital invested in them amounted to $1,009,- 855,715. They consumed $1,031,605,092 worth of raw material, and employed 1,311,246 hands, of which 1,040,349 were males, and 270,897 females. The annual cost of the labor employed by them was $378,878,966, and the annual value of their products amounted to $1,885,861,679. The cotton manufactures of the United States, in 1870, employed a capital of $140,706,291, in operating 956 establishments. They con- sumed $117,737,686 worth of raw material. They paid annually $39,044,132 for labor, employed 118,920 hands, of whom 45,315 were males, and 75,605 females. They received annually for their products the sum of $115,237,926. The woollen manufactures in the same year employed a capital of $35,520,527, in operating 1909 establishments. They employed 48,900 hands, of whom 28,780 were males, and 20,120 were females. They consumed $40,461,300 worth of raw material ; paid $10,937,877 for labor ; and received $68,865,963 for their products. The iron manufactures, including pig, cast, and wrought iron, em- ployed, in 1860, a capital of $74,579,667, and 68,108 hands. They consumed $50,218,648 worth of raw material in the manufacture of pig iron, castings, bar iron, forged iron, etc., and received for their products the sum of $96,450,744. The other more important manufactures amounted in value, during the year 1860, to the following sums : Leather $ 63,091,651 Sawed and Planed Lumber 93,651,000 Flour 220,952,000 Salt 2,265,000 Malt Liquors 17,976,000 Spirituous Liquors 23,535,000 THE UNITED STATES. 81 In the year 1860, the product of fisheries was valued at $12,- 924,092. During the same year, 110 ships and barks, 36 brigs, 372 schooners, 289 sloops and canal boats, and 264 steamers were built in the United States, making a total of 1071 vessels, with a total capacity of 212,- 892 tons. COMMERCE. From partial returns for the year ending June 30th, 1870, we find that the entrances and clearances at the ports of the United States were as follows : ENTRANCES. AMERICAN VESSELS. BRITISH VESSELS. TOTAL. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. 6,145 1,303.829 14,4G6 2,282,399 20,611 3,586,228 CLEARANCES. AMERICAN VESSELS. BRITISH VESSELS. TOTAL. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. 5,774 1,287,630 14,921 2,425,852 20,695 3,713,482 The total value of domestic products exported from the United States to foreign countries, in 1869, was $373,189,274. The value of foreign goods exported from the United States to foreign countries, in 1860, was $26,933,022. The total value of imports from foreign countries in the same year was $362,166,254. Total Imports in 1870, $315,200,022 Total Exports " " 254,137,208 Excess of Imports over Exports . $61,062,814 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. For many years after the States were well settled by the whites, the thoroughfares were, as is the case in all sparsely populated countries, in such a wretched condition that they could scarcely be called roads at all. It was not until some years after the close of the war for in- dependence that a proper degree of attention was paid to them. Then 6 82 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. VIEW OX HUDSON RIVET!- SIIOWIXG THE STEAMBOAT, TELEGRAPH, AND RAILROAD. It was held to be the duty of the General Government to provide the l?eat routes of travel leading to the remote parts of the country, while (lie States themselves ought to look after their local highways. The first great public work constructed in America was the turn- pike from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, which was com- pleted near the close of the last century, and was for a long time the great highway across the Alleghany Mountains. This was followed by the National Road, from Washington city to St. Louis, constructed by the U. S. Engineer Corps, at the expense of the General Govern- ment, and by the road from Bangor to Hamilton, Maine, also built by the Government. The National Road, one of the best of its kind in the world, was carried successfully over the mountains, across the Ohio, via Wheeling and Cincinnati, and completed as far as the State of Illinois ; but the rapid growth of railroads has rendered it so comparatively useless that it will hardly be completed to St. Louis. Several other fine roads were constructed by the General Government in various parts of the country. THE UNITED STATES. . 83 At the same time that these turnpikes were engaging the attention of the country, the States were urgently entreated to inaugurate a sys- tem of canals, which should provide cheaper and more abundant transportation between the distant parts of the Union. Washington exerted his influence to secure the speedy completion of canals from the head of tide water on the James and Potomac Rivers, to the Ohio. He appreciated the great advantages which would have been derived from the prompt completion of these works, and was eager to secure them for the State of Virginia. His plans are remarkable for their wis- dom and their deep insight into the future, and had they been carried out would, beyond all doubt, have made Norfolk, Virginia, the largest and most important city in America. Pennsylvania and Maryland also began at an early day to lay out extensive canal systems, but, thanks to the genius and energy of De Witt Clinton, the State of New York was the first to reach the West with her Erie and Hudson Canal, and thus secured for her great metropolis the immense advantages which have never forsaken it. This canal was opened in 1824. In the West, Ohio and Indiana were the first to construct such works. Since 1850, however, the railroads of the country have rendered the further con- struction of canals unnecessary. In 18GO there were about 5000 miles of canal navigation in the United States. The last, in point of date of construction, but the first in impor- tance, of the public works of the United States, were the railroads. The first railroad in this country was a mere tramway, for the trans- portation of granite, from the quarries at Quincy to the Neponsett River, in Massachusetts, constructed in the year 1826. This was followed by the Mauch Chunk Railway, from the coal mines to the Lehigh River, in Pennsylvania, in 1827. These were mere local works, and of but little importance, except in so far as they helped to demonstrate to the public mind the possibility and usefulness of such enterprises upon a larger scale. Charters for roads of more importance were now obtained in Mas- sachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and South Carolina, whose example was rapidly followed by the other States. In 1828 work was begun on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- road, and in 1829 on the South Carolina Railroad at present two of the finest works in the country. It was not until about the year 1850, however, that our railroad system began to attain anything like its present importance. The fol- lowing table will show the increase in this branch of our industrj since 1838 : 84 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Number of miles in 1838 1,843 " " " 1842 2,167 " c " " 1844 4,863 fc " " 1S46 4,285 '" ' "' " 1848 6,491 " ' " " 1850 8,827 " fc " " 1852 12,841 fc " " 1854 19,195 " ; " " 1856 23,724 " " " " 185S 27,158 u " " u 1860 31,185 " " " " 1865 35,935 " " " " 1869 42,245 The number of miles in operation in 1872, was about 60,852. There is a continuous railway connection from Bangor, Maine, to New Orleans, on the Gulf coast, and San Francisco on the Pacific coast. All the prominent cities and towns of the Union are connected by means of railways, and the most distant parts of the country are brought within a few days' travel of each other. The electro-magnetic telegraph was invented by Professor Morse, about the year 1840, and in 1844 he erected between Washington and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles, the first line ever established in the United States or in the world. This line was extended north- ward, in 1845, through Philadelphia and New York, as far as Boston. The telegraph wires of the United States now form a network over the Republic, and would make a continuous line of more than 60,000 miles. This includes the overland line between the Missouri River and San Francisco, California, aiid Portland, Oregon. The American wires are also connected with those of Europe by means of the Atlan- tic cables, between New Foundland and Ireland, and France. It is proposed to construct another line from Portland, Oregon, along the west coast of North America to the northern part of Alaska, from which a cable is to be laid, via Kamtchatka, to the mouth of the A moor River, in Asia, to connect with a line through Asia to St. Petersburg, in Russia. EDUCATION. The first settlers of the States, with a wise foresight, were prompt to provide for the education of their descendants. Almost their first act was to found a system of common schools, upon which the estab- lishments of the present day are modelled. They also made provision for securing the means of instruction in the higher and nobler branches of learning. William and Mary College, in Virginia, Harvard Col- THE UNITED STATES. 85 lege, in Massachusetts, Yale College, in Connecticut, and Columbia College, in New York, (or King's College, as it was formerly called,) were founded within a very short period after the settlement of the Colonies. " The general system of education in the United States may be ar- ranged under three heads, as follows : 1. Elementary or Primary Education, taught in the public schools ; 2. Academic or Secondary Education, pursued in academies, high schools, private seminaries, etc. ; and 3. Collegiate or Superior Education, acquired in such institu- tions as embrace a course of study usually made the condition of granting the degree of Bachelor of Arts. In addition to the above, the Hon. Henry Barnard extends the classification as follows : " 4. Professional or Special Education. a. Theology, b. Law. c. Medicine, d. Engineering, e. Agricul- ture, f. Mechanics, g. Commerce, h. Teaching, i. Fine Arts, j. Deaf-mutes, k. Blind. 1. Idiots. "5. Supplementary Education. a. Evening Schools, b. Lyceums, c. Courses of Lectures, d. Li- braries of Circulation, e. Libraries of Reference, f. Adult Schools, g. Mechanic Societies. ** 6. Reformatory Schools. 41 7. Orphan Houses. " 8. Societies for the encouragement and advancement of science, the arts, and education. " The general system of public instruction in the United States originated with the pilgrim fathers of New England; where, as early as 1628, provision was made for the education of ' every child ' in the settlements. In 1637, a school was ordered to be provided for every neighborhood of 50 families, and another for a higher grade of instruction for every 100 families. A sum sufficient to maintain these schools was annually raised by a town tax, voluntarily imposed, and each school district drew its proportion of the whole sum for its own school or schools. Thus the property of the town was made liable for the education of the children. " The same system, with various modifications, has gradually ex- tended itself to most of the States in the Union, and in part has been acted upon by the General Government. Chancellor Kent says : ' It has been uniformly a part of the land system of the United States to provide for public schools. The Articles of Confederation, 1787, the Acts admitting into the Union, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Louisiana, Florida, Arkansas, etc., all provide for the appropriation of 86 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. lands in each township for the use of public schools.' The amount of lands thus appropriated by the Federal Government, up to January 1st, 1854, is exhibited in the subjoined table : States. Acres. States and Territories. Acres. Florida . . . 908 530 Missouri 1 199 139 Alabama 902 774 905 144 Mississippi .... Louisiana .... 837,584 780 044 Wisconsin .... California 958, G48 6 719 324 883, -160 Minnesota .... 5 089 224 Ohio 704.488 i Oregon 12,140 907 Michigan 1 067 397 i J^ow Mexico . 7 493 1 20 Indiana (350. 3 L7 Utah ...... 6 681 707 Illinois . . 978 7)5 Total 48,909,535* " The table given on the following page shows the number of public schools, academies, and colleges, with their incomes and the number of pupils in attendance, and also the number of libraries and volumes, of the several States, as derived from the Census of 1860. " Maine has one pupil at school to every 3*2 of the whole popula- tion ; being a greater proportion than in any other State or country. In the whole United States the proportion at school is 1 to 4*9, not including slaves, or 1 to 5'7, including slaves, either of which is greater than in any other country in the world except Denmark, where the proportion is 1 to 4*6. "A greatly increased interest in the subject of popular education has been manifested within the last few years; especially in the Northern and Western States. Public sentiment has demanded a higher standard of qualification in the teachers; and, as a consequence, normal schools, expressly designed for their instruction and training, have been established in several States ; besides which, teachers meet regularly in convention, to interchange views upon the best methods of teaching; thus opening a larger field of comparison, and stimu- lating through emulation to far greater efforts for improvement. These conventions, we believe, are now held in every free State in the Union, and in some States they assemble twice annually in each county; the sessions generally continuing a week. The classification of schools is also undergoing a thorough revision. Union schools, or what is termed the ' graded system/ which comprises high, grammar, Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1994. THE UNITED STATES. 87 TABLE Exhibiting the Schools and Libraries of the United States, for 1870. JUNK 1, 1870. STATES & TERRITORIES. SCHOOLS. TEACHERS. PUPILS. INCOME. LlUBAUIES VOLUMBS. Alabama 2969 3364 75866 $ 976,351 1 430 576 882 'I '7 132 6,000 2000 1 978 2297 81526 681.962 1 181 135 564 California ... 1,548 2,444 85,507 2,946.308 1,617 474.299 Colorado 142 188 5,033 87,915 175 39,344 1 917 29''6 98621 1,856,279 63 2S5 937 Dakota 35 52 1,255 9,284 19 9726 375 510 19,575 212,712 473 183,423 District of Columbia 313 573 19503 811,242 696 793 702 Florida 377 482 14,670 154.569 253 112928 Georgia 1 880 2432 66,150 1,253,299 1,735 467 232 Idaho 25 33 1 208 19.938 43 10625 Illinois 11,835 24056 767,775 9.970,009 13.570 3323,914 ' 9,073 11 652 464477 2,499,511 5,301 1 125,553 7496 9319 217 654 3 570,093 3540 673 600 1,689 1 955 59 882 787.^26 574 218,676 5 149 6346 245,139 2,538,429 5546 1 909,230 592 1 902 60171 1 199684 2332 847406 Maine 4723 6986 162,636 1,106,203 3,334 984,510 1 779 3287 107 384 1,998.215 3353 1 713,483 Massachusetts 5,726 7 561 269337 4,817,939 3,169 3.017.813 Michigan 5 595 9 559 266 G^l 2.550,018 26,763 2,174.744 2 479 2886 107 266 1 011,769 1 412 360,810 Mississippi 1.564 1,728 43,451 780.339 2,788 488.482 Missouri 6 750 9,028 370 337 4,340.805 5,645 1,065,638 Montana 54 65 1.745 41,170 141 19,790 Nebraska 796 840 17614 207.560 390 147,040 53 84 2373 110 493 314 158,040 2542 3355 64667 674 898 1.526 704269 1893 3889 129 800 2.982,250 2,413 895.291 i 44 72 1 798 29886 116 39,4-J5 New York.. 13,020 28,918 862 022 15,936,783 20,929 6,310,352 North Carolina 2 161 2 692 64958 635,892 1,746 541,915 Ohio 11 952 ?3 589 791) 795 10 9 44 644 17,790 3 687,363 Oregon 637 876 32 593 248,022 2,361 334-959 14872 19 522 811 863 9 628,119 14849 6,377,845 Kliode Island 561 951 32596 565 012 759 693 387 South Carolina 750 1 103 38*249 577,953 1,663 546/J44 2794 3587 125 831 1 650 692 3,505 802,112 Texas 548 706 23076 414 880 455 87111 Utah 267 408 21 067 150.447 133 39,177 3084 5 160 62913 707.292 1,792 727.263 Virginia 2.024 2697 60'019 1,155,585 4,171 1,107,313 170 197 5499 48,302 102 33,362 West Virginia 2,445 2,838 104,949 698.061 1,728 372,745 Wisconsin 4,943 7955 344014 2,600.310 2883 905,811 g 15 305 8376 31 2,603 TOTAL 141,629 221,042 7,209,938 $95,402,726 164,815 45,528,938 88 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. intermediate, and primary schools, are being established in all the principal cities, towns, and villages. By placing the classes in the intermediate and primary schools, in charge of competent female in- structors, school committees are enabled to secure the services of male teachers of the highest qualifications for the more advanced pupils, without increasing the aggregate cost of tuition. " The education bestowed in many of the high schools, especially in the Free Academy of New York, and the Philadelphia High School, is, in the opinion of competent judges, equal, if not superior, in all that relates to the practical pursuits of life, to that of any other insti- tution, of whatever class, in this or any other country. " It should be remarked that not only in the public schools (which are especially referred to in the foregoing observations), but also in the various private schools throughout the country, renewed zeal has been manifested, and important improvements have been made."* Scientific Institutions are yet in their infancy in the United States, but are growing in number and importance. One of them, the Smithsonian Institution, already holds a deservedly high rank in this country, as well as in the estimation of Europeans. THE PRESS. The press of the United States has kept pace with the wonderful growth of the country. In 1870, the number of newspapers and periodicals published in the States and Territories of the Union, was as follows : i Dailies, 574 Semi-Weeklies, 115 Tri-Weeklies, 107 Weeklies, 4,295 Monthlies, 622 Bi-Monthlies, 13 Quarterlies, . . 49 Total 5,775 These were divided as follows : Political. 4^333 Religious, . 407 Literary and Miscellaneous, 503 * Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1995. THE UNITED STATES. 89 Their circulation was as follows : Dailies, 2,601,547 Semi-Weeklies, 247,197 Tri-Weeklies, . 155,105 Weeklies, . . . 19,594,643 Monthlies, 5,650,843 Bi-Monthlies, 31,650 Quarterlies, 211,670 Taking the aggregate annual circulation (the above statements re- presenting the aggregate number of copies printed at each stated issue of the journals), we find that the whole number of copies of news- papers and periodicals printed annually in this country, in 1870, was 1,508,548,250. POST OFFICES. According to the statistics of the Post Office Department of the United States for the year ending June 30th, 1863, there were 29,047 post offices in the States and Territories of the Union. The aggregate length of mail routes was 139,598 miles. The annual ex- penditures of the Department were $11,314,206, and the receipts $11,163,789, leaving a deficit of $150,417. The receipts for the year ending June 30th, 1865, were $14,556,158, and the expenditures $13,694,728, leaving a surplus of $861,430. The number of postage stamps issued during the latter year was 387,419,455, which yielded the sum of $12,099,787. The number of stamped envelopes sold, 25,040,425, which yielded $724,135. The foreign postage for the year reached the sum of $1,819,928. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. The Constitution of the United States forbids the establishment of any State religion, and places all religious sects upon a footing of equality by leaving every citizen of the Republic " free to worship God after the dictates of his own conscience." All churches and ministers, therefore, derive their incomes from the voluntary contri- butions of their own congregations. The principal religious sects, and their respective strength, in the year 1870, are shown by the following table: * U. S. Census, 1870. 90 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS, AC'COBDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1870 DENOMINATIONS. Organiza- tions. Edifices. Sittings. Property. 14.474 12,857 3,997,116 $30,229,221 1,355 1,105 363 019 2 378 977 Christian. . 3,578 2,822 865,602 6,420,137 2,887 2,715 1,117.212 25.0fi$,69S 2,835 2,601 991,051 36,514,549 815 641 193,796 2.301.650 692 662 224.664 3,939,560 189 152 73,265 5.155,234 3,032 2,776 977.332 14 917,747 25,278 21,337 6,528.209 fiy,854,121 27 17 6.935 135,650 72 67 25,700 709,100 Mormon. 189 171 87,838 656,750 90 61 18.755 869.700 Presbyterian (Regular) . . 6,262 5,683 2,198,900 47,828,732 Presbyterian (other) 1,562 1,388 499,344 5.436,524 Reformed Church in America (late Dutch Reforin'd) Reformed Church in the U.S. (late Germ.Reform'd) Roman Catholic 471 1,256 4,127 468 1,145 3,806 227,228 431,700 1,990,514 10,359,235 5,775,215 60,985,566 Second Advent 225 140 34,555 306,240 Shaker 18 18 8.850 86,900 95 22 6,97<> 100,150 Unitarian . 331 310 155,471 6,282,675 United Brethren in Christ 1,445 937 265,025 1,819,810 719 602 210 884 5 692,325 Unknown (Local Missions) 26 27 11,925 687,800 Unknown (Union) 409 552 153,202 965,295 ALL DENOMINATIONS.... 72,459 63,082 21,665,062 $354,483.581 CITIES. The largest city in the United States is the city of New York, which, in 1860, had a population of 813,669, and in 1870 a popula- tion of 942,337, according to the census of that year; though there can be but little doubt that the actual population exceeds 1,000,000. The following table shows the population of the principal cities of the Union according to the last three censuses : CITIES. 1870. I860. 1850. CITIES. 1870. I860. 1850. Philadelphia, Penn 674,022 565,529 408,762 Buffalo, N. Y 117,115 81,129 42,261 Brooklyn, N. Y St. Louis, Mo.. 396,300 310,864 266,661 212,418 96,838 77,860 Washington, D. C Newark N. J 109,204 105,059 61,122 71,941 40,001 38,894 Chicago, 111 298,977 109,260 29,963 100,754 68,033 43.194 Baltimore, Md 267 354 212,418 169,054 Cleveland Ohio 92,846 43,417 17,034 Boston, Mas? 250,526 177,841 136,881 Pittsburo, Pa 86,235 49,217 46.601 Cincinnati, Ohio New Orleans, La 2-1 6,239 191 322 161,044 168,675 115,436 116,375 Jersey City, N. J Detroit, Mich 82,547 79,580 29,226 45,619 6.856 21, (H9 San Francisco, Cal... 149,482 56,802 34,870 Milwaukee, Wis 71,499 45,246 20,061 THE UNITED STATES. 91 CITIES. 1*70. 1860. 1850. CITIKS. 1870. I860. 1850. Albany, N. Y 69 422 62 367 50 763 '>() ,OOU,00; J 4,410,000 18,415,000 945,000 189,318,100 496,209,300 75,000,000 194,567,300 3,123,600 105,141,750 186,799,450 270,309,350 339,846,000 39,667,250 Payable 10 years from Jan. 1, 1861 Payable after Dec. 31, 1880 $ 410,006 67 91, 75 00 460,375 00 23,625 00 4,732,952 50 2,481,046 50 1,875,000 00 2,432,091 25 15,618 00 525,708 75 933,997 25 6,757,733 75 8,496,150 00 Bonds, 1881 Bds. (Oregon) '81 1 Bonds, 1881.... Bonds, 5-20's Bonds, 1881 Bonds, 10-40's.... Bonds, 5-20's Bonds, 5-20's Bonds, 5-20's Bonds, 5-20's Bonds, 5-20's Bonds, 5-20's Redeemable 20 years from July 1, 1S61.. Payable at option of Government after 20 years from June 30, 1861 Redeemable after 5 and payable 20 years from May 1 1862 Payable after June 30 1881 Redeemable after 10 and payable 40 years from March 1 1864 Redeemable after 5 and payable 20 years from Nov. 1, 1864 Redeemable after 5 and payable 20 years from Nov. 1 1864 Redeemable after 5 and payable 20 years from Nov 1 1865 Redeemable after 5 and payable 20 years from July 1 1865 Eledeemable after 5 and payable 20 years from July 1 1867 ledeemable after 5 and payable 20 year* Aggregate of Debt bear'g Coin Int... Coupons due not presented Total $1,943,752,100 For payment. $30,234,520 92 1(1,419,030 15 $40,654,451 07 DEBT BEARING NO INTEREST. Authorising Acts. Character of Issue. Amount Outstanding. July 17, 1861, Feb. 12, 1862.. Feb. 25, 1862, July 11.1 1862, March 3, 1863....; } July 17, 186J, March 3,1 1863, June 30, 1864 j March 3,1863 Demand Notes United States Legal Tender Notes Fractional Currency.. Certif. Gold Deposit... bearing no interest.. No interest 232,668,500 00 123,331,500 00 4,445,329 87 3,246,324 43 7,945,600 34 23,529,661 44 $ 102,321 00 356,000,000 00 39,166,916 08 16,582,620 00 I N ir,t /New Issue.! / No lnt - ( Series 69 ... f First Series J Second Series 1 Third Series l^ Fourth Series No interest Aggregate of Debt J411.851.857 08 THE UNITED STATES. 99 DEBT ON WHICH INTEREST HAS CEASED SINCE MATURITY. Authorizing Acts. Character of Issue. Rate. Amount Outstanding. Matured. Accrued Interest. A;,ril 15, 1S42 .Tin 281847 Bonds Bonds fi $ 6,000 00 2,150 00 24,900 00 242,000 00 89,625 35 2,000 00 3,200 00 23,350 00 223,882 00 5,000 00 1,995,920 00 180,810 00 542,250 00 Dec 31 1862 $ 360 00 741 00 1,281 00 12,100 00 2,938 76 108 00 195 00 852 30 12,266 28 313 48 380,111 04 7,444 24 19,792 14 $438,503 24 , P Dec 31 1867 M :ii ch 31, 1848 Sept. 9, 1850 Prior to 1857 Dec. 23, 1857 March 2,1861 July 17 1861 Bonds Bmids, Texas Ind.. Treasury Notes Treasury Notes Treasury Notes Treasury Notes, 3 6 per cent 5 per cent 1 m. to 6 per ct... 3 to 5J per cent... 6 per cent 7 3-10 per cent... 5 per cent 6 per cent July 1, '68, 9 mos. int... Dec. 31 1864 At various dates March 1, 1859 April and May, 1863.... Aug. 19 & Oct. 1, 1864.. Jan. 7 to April 1,1866... At various dates in 1866 June 10, 1867, and May 15 1868 March 3, 1863 March 3, 1863 March 3, 1863, and June 30, 1864 June 30, 18G4 June 30, 1864, and March 3, 1865.... Aggreg. of debt on Total Treasury Notes, 1 and 2 years Certificates of In- Compound Inter- est Notes Temporary Loan... Treasury Notes, 3 4, 5, 6 per cent... 7 3-10 per cent... ceased Oct. 15, 1866 Aug. 15, 1867, and June 15 and July 15, 1868.. which interest has $3,341,087 35 DEBT BEARING INTEREST IN LAWFUL MONEY. Authorizing Acts. Character of Issue. Rate. Amount Outstanding. When Redeemable or Payable. Accrued Interest. March 2, 1867 and July 25, 1868 July 23,1868 July 8,1870 Aggreg. of debt be Certificates Navy Pension Fund. Cert, indebt'70 aring currency inter 3 per ct. 3 per ct. 4 per ct. 3St $45,050,000 00 14,000,000 00 678,000 00 On demand (int. estimated).. Interest only applicable to payment of pensions September 1, 1875 $182,584 34 175,000 00 6,780 00 $59,728,000 00 Accrued interest $364,364 34 RECAPITULATION. Character of Issue. Amt. Outstanding. Interest. $218,977,300 00 1,724,774,800 00 45,050,000 00 14,000,000 00 678,000 00 $1,943,752,100 00 59,728,000 00 3,341,087 35 411,851,857 08 $40,654,451 07 364,364 34 438,503 24 Debt bear, coin interest] jgJJJ J J JJ JJ[ Debt bearing interest in lawful money : Certificates at 3 per cent Debt bearing no interest : Demand and Legal-tender notes 356,102,321 00 39,163,916 08 16,582,620 00 Total amount outstanding $2,418,673,044 43 41,457,318 65 Total debt, principal and interest to date, including interest due and un paid $2,460,130,363 08 $97 3fi8 8 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. beautiful. On the west side Mount Ki'neo overhangs the water at a height of 600 feet, and affords a view of great but wild beauty. An hotel has been erected about midway, for the accommodation of travellers. Numerous islands stud the lake, which is navigated by steamers engaged in towing lumber to the Kennebec River, which' forms the outlet. The surface of the State is generally hilly and diversified. To- \vards the coast it is level, but rises towards the interior. A chain of detached mountains, supposed to be an extension of the White Moun- tains of New Hampshire, crosses the State from west to northeast, terminating in Mars Hill on the border of New Brunswick. These peaks rise to a considerable elevation, and are very beautiful. Mount KataJidin, 5385 feet high, is the best known, as well as the most picturesque. It is situated in the eastern part of Piscataquis county, and is frequently visited by artists and the more daring tourists. The other peaks are the Saddleback, Bigelow, Abraham, North and South Russell, and the Haystack. The Forests of Maine furnish an immense amount of valuable lum- ber, and large numbers of hardy men are employed in cutting and floating the logs down the streams. The great forests lie in the upper part of the State, around the sources of the Kennebec, Penobscot, Aroostook, and Woolastook rivers. Mr. Charles Lanman thus pleasantly describes them : " Their extent can only be realized by fixing the mind upon the whole northern half of the State, which they cover with their sombre green, and by remembering the fact that no less than four splendid rivers have their birth in this great wilderness the St. Croix, the Penobscot, the Kennebec, and the Androscoggin. According to such figures as we have been able to collect, the number of saw-mills and other lumbering machines in operation on the above rivers, just before the rebellion, was nearly 900, the number of men employed about 17,000, and of horses and oxen perhaps 10,000; while the towns which are, to a great extent, supported by the lumbering business are Calais, Bangor, Augusta, and Brunswick, as well as Portland. The predominating tree in the wilderness under consideration, as is the case in Minnesota and Wisconsin, is the white pine, but the hemlock, the fir, and the spruce are also abundant in all its borders. It is said that fifty years ago specimens of the pine were found in Maine which attained the height of more than 200 feet, hut in these times it is but seldom that we find a tree exceeding 150 feet in length. The grand MAINE. 169 THE PINE FORESTS OF MAINE. old monarchs of the land would seem to have perished with grief on beholding the ravages of man. But there is an aristocracy existing in these woods at the present day, for it has been observed that there are different classes of trees families of nobility clustering together in one place while the more plebeian varieties congregate in com- munities by themselves. Were it not for the changing seasons and its living creatures, the monotony of this forest scenery would be well nigh unbearable; but summer fills every sunny nook with its bright flowers, and winter scatters everywhere the fantastic creations of the frost and snow. It is in these solitudes that the bold and hardy Pen- obscot Indian hunter tracks the moose and the deer, fights the bear in his den, decoys the gray wolf, and sets his traps for the wild cat 170 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and mink, the marten, the sable, and the beaver ; and if, in the most genial seasons, there should be found a scarcity of birds, you can never fail to hear the plaintive whistle of the Canada bird, or musci- capa of scientific dreamers. In the Valley of the Potomac this favorite bird of ours is the very first harbinger of spring, coming from the South even before the blue-bird ; and when heard there late in autumn, you may be sure that winter has asserted his empire on the Northern frontiers. We have heard it in the pine forests of Florida, among the mountains of Tennessee, along the glorious rivers of New Brunswick, Canada, and a part of Labrador, but never with more pleasure than in the forests of Maine. When away from home, it al- ways carries us back in fancy to the region where our lot is cast, and to our friends ; and when at home it reminds us of far-off places and other friends linked with happy recollections. Its whole life, it seems to us, is devoted to singing, in a kind of monotone, about the joys of the wilderness. " Of permanent human inhabitants, the forests of Maine can boast of but a small supply; but for about nine months in the year the hardy lumbermen, consisting of explorers and choppers, of swampers, or road-cutters, and teamsters, make their dim, interminable aisles alive and cheery with their presence and manifold employments. In the autumn, small parties, equipped like trappers, go up the rivers in canoes and locate the lands which are to be grappled with in winter ; and when winter comes, the great majority, with their oxen and axes, their salt pork and flour, migrate to the selected grounds, and, after housing themselves and their cattle in cabins half covered with snow, they proceed to the work of extermination ; and when the spring ar- rives, down to the tributary streams do they drag their logs ; and when the first great thaw arrives, away they go down the larger rivers, driving the produce of their toil through lakes and lakelets, and over waterfalls, with many a wild and wayward shout, until they reach the booms where they would be ; and then for home and their happy families nearer the sea. All this for money? Most true. But where will you find better specimens of true manhood than among these lumbermen ? And as for poetry and romance, where can we find their equal among the laborers for hire in any land but ours? Fancy the heart-bursts of true patriotism, and the wild stories told by the side of their watch-fires, the hoot of the great white owl at mid- night in those dim solitudes, the white moonlight on the still whiter snow, the ringing cadences of the frost, the wolf prowling for food MAINE. 171 around the sleeping camps, the cave-like forest pictured against the cold blue sky, the terrible storms of sleet and hail, and then the thousand dreams of wives and children sleeping in their distant and peaceful homes. " The continuousness of the Maine woods, taken in connection with their extent, is one of their most impressive features. Unless there were something to relieve their monotony, a sensitive man could never have journeyed from one extremity to another without becom- ing a personification of gloom ; but behold with what exquisite taste and skill nature interposes her relief! She plants old Moosehead near the centre of the great forest, and scatters a thousand smaller gems of purest water on every side ; bids a few mountain peaks rise up as watch-towers against the northern sky; sends the most beautiful rivers like flashes of light in every direction singing to the sea ; and in a few localities spreads out those wonderful fields which have been denominated 'oceans of moss/ sometimes several feet in thickness, and in one instance covering a space of many miles. But more than this : around the lakes and along the water-courses are permitted to grow as great a variety of the more delicate and graceful trees as the climate will allow, with shrubs and vines, and flowers innumerable. All this is the workmanship of nature; but it is man who marks the earth with ruin, and, not content with robbing the old forests of their giant treasures, he sometimes sets them on fire for his amusement, or by accident, and thus come into existence the desolate burnt districts to take the places of trees once valuable, and grand, and beautiful. " The last object that the wide-awake tourist beholds on leaving the great wilderness of Maine, is Mount Katahdin ; and that reminds us of the mountain forests of the Northern and Southern States. The representative peaks of the North are Katahdin, Mount Washington, the Camel's Hump, Tahawus, and High Peak ; and around all these are to be found the hemlock and spruce, the cedar and fir, the maple, the ash, the elm, and the birch, in such numbers, and variety, and beauty as to bewilder the mind. The declivities up which travellers climb oftentimes frown upon them as if to warn them of coming dan- ger, but the tough and rugged trees plant their roots in the rocky fissures and hold on with heroic fortitude ; nor do they cease their persevering efforts, while apparently changing their places at each zone, until, robbed of their luxuriance and reduced to mere bushes by the savage winds and by the cold, they peep out from their hiding places only to behold the stupendous fields of granite desolation, thou- 172 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. A LUMBERMAN'S CAMP IN THE WOODS OF MAINE. sands of feet above the sea, shrouded in fogs, or bounded by the sea. Inaccessible, for the most part, as are these Northern forests, the en- terprise of man has been such as to penetrate their hidden depths for his advantage, and plunder them of their wealth. In Maine, selfish man robs them of their stately leaders ; in New Hampshire, he builds fairy-like palaces, and invites the world to come there and be happy; in Vermont, he gashes the maple trees and compels them to yield up, for his enjoyment, the sweetness of their lives ; and in New York he hammers out of their mountain sides, in their lonely retreats, the valued iron ore, and meanly strips the hemlock of its shaggy bark, and leaves it to perish ingloriously upon the hills." MAINE. 173 MINERALS. The mineral resources of Maine are limited. Copper pyrites, lead, and manganese are found in small quantities, but iron, lime, and a fine granite are plentiful. The principal iron deposit occurs on the Aroostook River, about 50 miles from its mouth, and the country along the west branch of the Penobscot furnishes a limited quantity of an excellent marble. A fine quality of slate is found in the region between the sources of the Kennebec and St. John rivers. The granite of which the Treasury Extension in Washington City is built, was brought from the coast of Maine. CLIMATE. The climate of Maine is considered healthy, in spite of the extreme northeastern situation of the State, because it is less subject than that of the other New England States to sudden and violent changes. The winters are severe and long. The mercury sometimes falls to 20 or 30 degrees below zero, but for the greater part of the season there is a uniform temperature averaging about 18. The summers, though short, are warm. The thermometer has been known to indicate a heat of 100, but the average temperature is about 60. The snow lies on the ground from 3 to 5 months, and the season of vegetation lasts scarcely 4 months. The spring and early summer are rendered unpleasant by the cold northeast winds, which sweep down from the ice-fields of the Atlantic. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil is not uniform. Between the Kennebec and Penobscot, the lands are generally good and productive, and the same may be said of the valley of the St. John and the country watered by some of the lesser rivers. The lands in the mountainous districts and along the coast are for the most part poor, and requife laborious culture. In 1869, there were 2,704,133 acres of improved lands, and 2,996,622 acres of unimproved lands in the State. Its agricultural wealth in the same year may be stated as follows : Cash value of farms, - ... $80,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery, $3,400,000 dumber of horses, 71,110 44 asses and mules, 168 114 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Number of milch cows, 190,110 other cattle, 230,110 sheep, 501,210 swine, 65,340 Value of domestic animals, $19,437,538 Bushels of wheat, 248,000 rye, 158,000 Indian corn, 1,450,000 oats, 3,200,000 peas and beans, . 346,915 " Irish potatoes, 7,500,000 " . barley. 750,000 " buckwheat, 350,000 " clover-seed, . . . . ... . . 50,000 Pounds of wool, 1,495,063 butter, 11,687,781 " cheese, 1,799,862 hops, , 102,987 flax, 17,081 maple sugar, 306,742 beeswax and honey, ...... 323,454 Tons of hay, 1,050,000 Value of orchard products, $501,767 market garden products, $194,006 home made manufactures, .... $490,787 " slaughtered animals, ...... $2,780,179 COMMERCE. The staple export of Maine is lumber. The coast offers the best in- ducements for commerce of any State in the Union. It is so thickly studded with bays and navigable rivers that vessels can find an ex- cellent harbor at any point along its whole length. Shipbuilding is carried on to a considerable extent. The commercial returns for the year 1860 were as follows : Value of lumber produced during the year, . . $6,784,981 Product of the fisheries, 1,050,755 Besides these, large quantities of marble, granite, lime, and ice are produced, of which we have no statistics. The tonnage owned in the State in 1863 was 774,040 tons. In 1863, the total foreign imports were $3,911,468, and the exports 57,01 6,342. In the same year, only 99 vessels were builfc in this State, which in 1853 built 351 of all classes. MAINE. 175 MANUFACTURES. According to the census of 1860, there were in that year 3532 es- tablishments in Maine devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed 39,710 hands, possessed a capital of $22,000,000, consumed raw material to the amount of $20,861,452 (including fuel), and produced goods worth $36,075,498. Of these establishments, 19 were cotton manufactories, employing 1908 male and 4342 female hands, consuming annually $3,000,000 worth of raw material, paying annually $1,244,928 for labor, and producing 6,636,623 worth of goods; and 61 were woollen mills, with a capital of $989,400, employing 604 male and 499 female hands, consuming $1,047,496 worth of raw material, paying $277,440 for labor, and producing goods worth $1,674,800. There were $2,011,034 worth of leather ; 5300 tons of rolled iron, worth $332,000; $681,295 worth of steam engines and machinery; $339,180 worth of agricultural im- plements; $1,400,000 worth of flour ; and $36,000 worth of malt and $142,000 worth of spirituous liquors produced during the same year. The manufacturing interest of Maine has greatly increased since 1860. In 1868, the capital invested in manufactures amounted to $40,- 000,000, and the animal value of fabrics produced to $81,287,695. The water-power of the State is immense, and holds out the best in- ducements to manufacturers. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The State is making steady progress in internal improvements. In 1860, there were 14 railroads in Maine, having an aggregate length in the State of 472 miles, which had been constructed at a cost of $16,576,385. The Grand Trunk, which extends from Portland, through New Hampshire and Vermont to Quebec and Montreal in Canada, passes through Maine for but a short distance. It is a first- class road, in respect to the amount of business done by it. The Maine Central is 138 miles long, and extends from Portland to Ban- gor, passing through Auburn and Waterville. The Portland and Kennebec, extending from Portland to Skowhegan, through Rich- mond, Gardiner and Augusta, is 100 miles long. There are other thriving lines in the State, one of which (the Portland, Saco, and Portsmouth) connects Portland with Portsmouth, N. H. The only canal in the State is the Cumberland- Oxford, uniting H6 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Portland with Scbago, Brandy, and Long Ponds. It is 20 miles long, and lias 26 locks. Together with the Songo River improve- ments, it forms a navigable line of 50 miles, constructed at a cost of $50,000. , EDUCATION. % Maine has a permanent school fund, drawn from the sale of lands donated for that purpose by the State. Besides this, the banks are taxed one-half of one per cent, on their capital, and the towns are assessed at the rate of 40 cents per capita, for educational purposes. In 1860, Maine had 2 colleges and 337 students, 110 academies and other schools, with 8273 pupils, and 4376 public schools with 186,717 pupils. In the same year, the whole number of pupils, between the ages of 4 and 21 years, at all the schools in the State, was 244,920. In 1868, this number had been reduced to 225,290, a falling off due to the actual decrease of children in the State. In 1850, the propor- tion of minors in the State was 49 per cent, of the whole population, but in 1860 it was only 36 per cent. This, too, in spite of the fact that the population of Maine has steadily grown larger. It is doubt- less due to the fact that children are not now as much desired as in the better days of the community. * In 1868, the number of schools in the State was 3782. A writer in the Annual Cyclopaedia for 1867, says : " The perma- nent school fund amounts to $245,121.23, the income of which for the past year is $13,244.14. The receipts from the bank tax are rapidly falling off, being but $4475. The people are determined, how- ever, that the schools shall not suffer. They have raised, by direct taxation, the sum of $518,292.97, an average of $2.28 a scholar, and built seventy-nine new school-houses, at a cost of $323,581.13. Add to this the sum of $15,316.93, contributed to prolong public schools, with $40,614.33, paid for private schools and academies, and $6,428.25 paid out of the State for the same purposes, making an aggregate ex- penditure for schools of $935,131.75, and you have abundant proof that the burdens and discouragements of the times are not allowed to diminish the interest of the people in common school education. There are also two Normal Schools, both of which are in a flourishing condition, and are liberally sustained. "The State has chartered a College of Agricultural and Mechanic * Appleton's Cyclopaedia, 1868. MAINE. 17T Arts, and commenced the erection of suitable buildings for its uses. .... The Reform School has entered upon a course of unusual pros- perity." In 1870, there were 3,334 libraries, containing a total of 984,510 volumes. There were 400 public libraries, comprising 500,000 vols. In the same year, there were 65 newspapers and periodicals pub- lished in the State. These consisted of 7 daily, 1 tri-weekly, and 47 weekly political papers, 3 weekly religious papers, and 10 journals of a miscellaneous character. These had an aggregate annual circulation of 9,867,680 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of Maine, are the State Prison, at Thomas- ton, the Insane Asylum, at Augusta, and the State Reform School, at Cape Elizabeth. The State Prison was much enlarged and improved in 1867. It is not adequate to the necessities of the community, how- ever, and in 1867, was so overcrowded that its earnings fell $7000 short of its expenditures. The number of prisoners in 1866 was 135, against 78 in 1865. The number of inmates in the Insane Asylum in 1867 was 303 144 men and 159 women. The institution is well supported by the State, and has received several endowments. The State Reform School, in 1870, contained 254 inmates, of whom 71 we recommitted during the year. The children, upon being admitted to this school, are employed on the farm or in the work-shops. They are kindly treated, and, as a general rule, a great change takes place for the better in their morals a few months after their commitment. The actual cost of the school to the State for 1868, was about $13,945, the earnings of the boys making up the remainder of the expenses. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Maine was $5,200,853, and the number of churches, 1104. FINANCES. The public debt of the State on the 31st of December , 1870, was $7,067,000, and is due in 1871, 1883, and 1889. The amount paid off in 1870 was $33,000. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal 12 178 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. year were $4,924,164.12, and the expenses of the State $5,041,846.64. On January 1st, 1870, there was a cash balance in the Treasury of $235,930.63. On the 1st of October, 1868, there were 61 National banks doing business in the State, with an aggregate capital of $9,085,000. GOVERNMENT. The present Constitution of the State was adopted in 1820. Every adult male citizen of the United States, not a criminal, is entitled to a vote in the elections. The Government of the State consists of a Legislature, comprising a Senate and House of Representatives, and a Governor, all chosen by the people. The Governor is elected annually, and is assisted-in his executive duties by a Council of seven members, elected on joint ballot by the houses of the Legislature. The Senate consists of 31 mem- bers, and the House of Representatives of 151 members, all chosen annually by the people, on the second Monday in September. The Legislature meets at Augusta, on the first Wednesday in January in each year. The chief executive officers are the Secretary of State and the State Treasurer, both chosen by the joint ballot of the Legislature. There is a probate court with a judge and register in each county, and municipal and police courts in the several cities. Cases originat- ing within the jurisdiction of these bodies are tried before them. The Supreme Judicial Court of the State consists of a Chief Justice and seven Associate Justices, an Attorney General, and a Reporter of De- cisions. Courts are held in three districts, for the purpose of hearing and determining cases brought before them. The Court for the Eas- tern district sits at Bangor, that for the Middle district at Augusta, and that for the Western district at Portland. The income of the State is derived chiefly from direct taxes, sales of land, and a tax on the banks. The seat of Government is established at Augusta. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 16 counties. HISTORY. Maine was first visited in 1602 by Gosnold, who was followed in 1603 by Martin Pring. A French expedition, under Des Monts, passed the winter of 1604 at the present site of Calais, on the St. Croix. Des Monts took possession of the region of the Kennebec the next spring, and was granted a patent for it by the French King. The province was visited by Captain George Weymouth, in 1605, MAINE. 179 and in 1607 the first colony was established by the Plymouth Com- pany. This settlement was abandoned in one year. A French colony was sent out in 1613, by Madame de Guercheville, who had pur- chased the patent of Des Monts, and planted on Mount Desert Island for missionary purposes. This settlement was broken up by an expe- dition from Virginia. In 1614, the coast was thoroughly explored by Captain John Smith, who published an account of it on his return to England. The Plymouth Company obtained a renewal of their charter from James I., in 1620, and, as the region granted them in- cluded the present State of Massachusetts, bitterly opposed the forma- tion of settlements by the Pilgrims at Plymouth and Salem, but without effect. In 1621, William Alexander, who subsequently became Earl of Stirling, purchased from the Company the territory east of the St. Croix River; which stream, until this day, forms the eastern boun- dary of Maine. The next year, Monhegan was settled by emigrants from Great Britain. Saco was settled in 1623. These settlements prospered even better than their founders had ventured to hope. In 1629, the Plymouth Company established the western boundary of Maine, by selling to John Mason -the territory " lying between the Merrimack and Piscataqua rivers," to which they gave the name of New Hampshire. In 1635, the Company surrendered its charter to the king, and divided its territory among its members. The country between the Piscataquis and the Kennebec was assigned to Sir Fer- dinando Gorges, who, in 1639, was confirmed in his possession by a formal charter from Charles I., who called the territory the Province of Maine. Gorges was also appointed Governor-General of New England with almost despotic powers. In 1640, he sent his son Thomas to Maine as his deputy. Thomas Gorges took up his resi- dence at the settlement of Agamenticus, now the town of York, and in 1642 changed the name of the place to Gorgeana. Since the settlement of the colony, the French had claimed the re- gion between the St. Croix and the Penobscot, which they had settled under the name of Acadie, and after the death of the elder Gorges the province was still further divided among his heirs. These cut it up into four weak communities, whose helplessness laid them open to the encroachments of the French in Canada. Apprehensive of this result the colony of Massachusetts Bay, incited to such a course by the en- treaties of many of the inhabitants, set .up a claim, in 1651, to the province of Maine, which it declared had been granted to the colony by the original charter of Massachusetts. Commissioners were sent 180 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. to admit the province into the jurisdiction of the Bay Colony, but the authorities of Maine resisted them, and appealed to the Government of Great Britain. The people of Maine were adherents of the king and the established Church, and England was now ruled by the Puri- tans. Consequently Massachusetts won her cause, and Maine was declared a part of that Colony. Massachusetts made a generous use of her authority, however, and allowed the towns of Maine very much tlie same privileges and government as they now enjoy, and in reli- gious matters was far more tolerant to them than to her own people. This forbearance, joined to the natural liberality of the province, en- tirely exempted it from the religious persecutions which have stained the history of the other colonies. In 1653, Cromwell declared void the transfer of Acadie to the French, which had been made by Charles I. in 1632, and appointed a Governor of that territory, who held his office until the treaty of Breda, in 1669, by which Acadie was restored to France. Upon the restoration of Charles II., the heirs of Sir Fer- dinando Gorges succeeded in obtaining a royal order, restoring the province of Maine to them. Massachusetts resisted this order, but in 1670 settled the matter by purchasing the interests of the claimants for the sum of twelve hundred and -fifty pounds sterling. In 1675, King Philip's war began in New England. Maine came in for her full share in these horrors; and from this time until 1760, nearly one hundred years, was never free from incursions by the savages. This constant danger greatly retarded her progress. Settlers were afraid to venture within her limits, and many of those who had already established themselves there removed to the other colonies. The Duke of York having received from Charles II. a grant of the Dutch territories in North America, set up a claim to the region be- tween the Kennebec and St. Croix rivers ; which claim was resisted by Massachusetts, who advanced her boundary to the west shore of Penobscot Bay. The duke sent Sir Edmund Andros to America, as Governor of New York and Maine ; but his authority in the latter province was not recognized by Massachusetts. Upon the accession of the duke to the English throne as. James II., Andros was made Governor of all New England, where he was guilty of the most out- .rageous extortion. The charter of Massachusetts having been declared forfeited, the Colony was powerless to protect the injured people, and Andros had his own way until the Revolution of 1688, which placed William and Mary on the English throne, overthrew him, and restored the former state of aifairs. MAINE. 181 During the Revolution, Maine, which continued to form a part of the State of Massachusetts, was almost entirely exempted from the disasters of the war ; and the power of the savages being destroyed, commenced to increase rapidly in population and wealth. The war of 1812 exposed the province to great suffering at the hands of the English, who occupied and held the eastern portion of the State until the conclusion of peace. In 1820, Massachusetts, wishing to offset the growing power of the Southern States, signified her willingness to part with Maine. A State Constitution was accordingly adopted by the people of the province, and on the 15th of March, 1820, Maine was admitted into the Union as a State. The Treaty of 1783 failed to establish the eastern boundary of Maine with accuracy ; and for more than half a century, the Govern- ments of the United States and Great Britain were involved in a con- troversy concerning it, which at length bade fair to embroil the two countries in another war. In 1842, the Treaty of Washington adjusted the dispute and settled the boundary as it exists at present. The United States and Maine agreed to cede to Great Britain a small part of the territory claimed by her, in return for the free navigation of the St. John's and for Rouse's Point in New York. During the Rebellion, Maine was subjected to two incursions of the Southern forces. On the night of the 29th of June, 1863, the officers and crew of a Confederate privateer captured the U. S. revenue cutter Caleb Gushing, in the harbor of Portland, and carried her to sea. They were pursued by two steamers manned by armed volunteers, and overhauled a short distance from the city. Find- ing escape impossible, they blew up the cutter, and took to their boats, but were speedily overtaken and made prisoners. "At midday, on July 18th, 1864, a bold attempt was made to rob the Calais Bank, in that town, by a small party of rebel raiders from St. John, N. B., led by one Collins, a captain in a Mississippi regiment. But the town authorities having been previously put on their guard by the American Consul at St. John, three of the party were arrested and committed, and the remainder prudently kept out of the way. This attempt, though frustrated, created an uneasy feeling along the eastern frontier ; and in Eastport, Calais, Belfast, and other border towns, volunteer organizations were formed for the purpose of patrol- ling the streets at night, and the regular police force was increased armed." 182 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. During the Rebellion, Maine furnished an aggregate force of 71,558 men to the army and navy of the United States. Of these, 8446 were killed in battle or died from wounds and sickness, and 6642 were mustered out for disabilities resulting from wounds or sickness while in active service. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities of Maine are Augusta, Bangor, Bath, Belfast, Biddeford, Calais, Gardiner, Hallowell, Portland, and Rockland. The principal towns are Camclen, Eastport, Ellsworth, Frankfort, Kittery, Lewis- ton, Old Town, Saco, Thomaston, Waldoborough, Waterville, and Wiscasset. AUGUSTA. The city of Augusta is situated in Kennebec county, on the Kenne- bec River, at the head of navigation, 43 miles from the sea. It is 60 miles north-northeast of Portland by railroad, and 175 miles from Boston. It lies on the right bank of the Kennebec, which is spanned by two fine bridges, one used by vehicles and pedestrians and the other by the railroad. The city is built partly upon the crest of a hill, and partly along the river at the foot of the hill. The former portion is occupied principally by private residences, while the latter is devoted to business. It is well built, and contains many handsome edifices, the principal of which is the State House, a splendid structure of white granite, located in the southern part of the city, and fronted by a large and tasteful park. A United States Arsenal, and the State Insane Asylum, lie on the opposite side of the river, and are attractive fea- tures of the landscape. Augusta is well supplied with water-power by means of a large dam constructed across the Kennebec, a short distance above the city. This dam also affords water enough for steamboat communication between Augusta and Waterville when the stream is not closed by ice. There are several large manufacturing establishments in the city, 4 or 5 banks, an excellent female academy, 9 or 10 churches, and 8 or 9 hotels. It is connected with Portland and Bangor by railroad and steamboat. The greater part of the business portion of the city was destroyed by fire in 1865. The population in 1870 was 7,808. The city was founded in 1754. Four weekly papers and one monthly are published in Augusta. MAINE. 183 PORTLAND, The principal city of the State, " is handsomely situated on a penin- sula, occupying the ridge and side of a high point of land, in the south- west extremity of Casco Bay, and, on approaching it from the ocean, is seen to great advantage. The harbor is one of the best on the Atlantic coast, the anchorage being protected on every side by land, whilst the water is deep, and communication with the ocean direct and conve- nient. It is defended by Forts Preble, Scammell, and Gorges, and dotted over with lovely islands. These islands afford most delightful excursions, and are among the greatest attractions of the vicinity. On the highest point of the peninsula is an observatory, 70 feet' in height, commanding a fine view of the city, harbor, and islands in the bay. The misty forms of the White Mountains, 60 miles distant, are dis- cernible in clear weather. The original name of Portland was Muchi- yonne. It was first settled by the whites as an English colony in 1632, just two centuries before the charter of the present city was granted. On the night of the 4th of July, 1866, a fire occurred which swept away nearly one-half of the entire business portion of the city. "Portland is elegantly built, and the streets beautifully shaded and embellished with trees, and so profusely, that there are said to be no less than 3000 of these rural delights. Congress Street, previous to the fire the main highway, follows the ridge of the peninsula through its en- tire extent. Among the public buildings of Portland, the City Hall (rebuilding), the Court House, and some of the churches, are worthy of particular attention. The Society of Natural History, organized 1843, possesses a fine cabinet, containing specimens of the ornithology of the State, more than 4000 species of shells, and a rich collection of rnineralogical and geological specimens, and of fishes and reptiles. The Athenaeum, incorporated in 1826, has a library of 12,000 vol- umes; and the Mercantile Library possesses, also, many valuable books. The Marine Hospital, erected in 1855, at a cost of 80,000, is an imposing edifice. Brown & Co.'s extensive sugar refinery, wholly destroyed by the late fire, has been rebuilt, and will shortly be in operation. The city is being rebuilt as rapidly as possible. Popula- tion, 31,414. The vicinity has several fine drives." * Portland was formerly called Fal mouth. It was incorporated as a town, in 1786. In 1676, the savages made a descent upon it, and captured or killed thirty of the inhabitants, and compelled the rest to * Hancl-Book of American Travel. 184 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. CITY HALL AND COURT HOUSE, PORTLAND. Seek safety on a neighboring island. In 1689, the French and In- dians made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the town ; but the next year the Indians were more successful. They took the forts erected for the defence of the settlement, massacred the garrison and carried one hundred of the inhabitants into captivity. The settlement was resumed the next year. On the 19th of November, 1775, Falmouth was bombarded and destroyed by a British fleet. Ten newspapers and other journals are published in Portland. BANGOR, The second city in the State, is situated in Penobscot county, on the right bank of the Penobscot River, 60 miles from the sea, and 126 miles northeast of Portland, with which it is connected by railroad and steamer. The city is located at the mouth of the Kenduskeag River, a branch of the Penobscot, and is built on both banks of the former stream, the two divisions of the city being connected by several bridges, each about 570 feet long. A fine bridge crosses the Penob- MAINE. 185 scot a short distance above the city, and unites Bangor with Brewer. Tills bridge marks the upper line of the harbor, which is about 1500 feet wide, with a depth of water sufficient for the largest vessels. Bangor is the principal lumber port in the Union. Immense quan- tities of lumber are brought down the Penobscot, and shipped from this place by sea. Daring the season of navigation, which continues for about 8 months, over 2000 vessels leave this port laden with lumber. The city is also extensively engaged in the coast trade, in foreign commerce, and in shipbuilding. Bangor is located upon high ground, commanding an extensive view of the surrounding country. It is well built, and contains seve- ral fine structures, the principal of which is the Custom House. It contains 12 or 13 banks, 11 churches, 4 of which are among the handsomest in the State ; a theological seminary, and a number of flourishing schools. Two daily and 4 weekly newspapers are pub- lished in the city. The water-power is derived from a fall in the Kenduskeag, half a mile above its mouth, and is excellent. Several large factories, including founderies, machine shops, furniture manu- factories, and saw mills, are established here. There is railroad communication to Old Town, on the Penobscot, and this road will soon be extended to Calais, on the border of New Brunswick. The population in 1870, was 18,289. MISCELLANY. ARNOLD'S MARCH TO QUEBEC. Hon. J. T. Headley, in his biography of the Rev. Samuel Spring, Chaplain of the expedition, thus describes this memorable march : At length provisions began to grow scarce, and every one had to be put on short allowance. Mr. Spring took his three-quarters of a pound of pork per day cheerfully with the rest. After incredible hardships, and the loss of 150 men, by sickness and desertion, the army at last reached the great carrying place, 15 miles long, extending from the Kennebec. to the Dead River. Only 3 small ponds occurred the whole dis- tance, on which the boats could be launched. The rest of the way they and the provisions, ammunitions, etc., had to be carried on men's shoulders. This was a terrific strain on the army, and the dispiriting effect upon the soldiers was not re- lieved by the appearance of the Dead River, when they reached it, for it moved sluggish and dark like the waters of oblivion through the silent and motionless forest. Day after day they toiled up this sluggish stream, between the monoto- nous walls of forest that lined its banks, until it seemed as if there was no outlet or opening to the apparently interminable wilderness. At every bend, the eye strained forward to catch some indication of change, and when at last they came 186 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. in sight of a snow-covered mountain in the distance, telling them there was an outer world after all, the men sent up a shout that woke the echoes far and wide. Near its base they encamped 3 days, and Spring spent most of the time in visiting the sick, and praying with them. The army had scarcely got under way again, when the heavens became overcast ; dark and angry clouds swept the heavens, and the heavy winds sobbed and moaned through the forest. Soon the rain came down in torrents. Side by side with the drenched soldier the tall chaplain trudged uncomplainingly on, and lay down like him on the wet ground at night. It poured without cessation for 3 days, shedding still deeper gloom over the army. The river rose steadily the whole time, till the sluggish current at length swept down with such velocity and power that the boats could- with difficulty stem it. On the third night, just as the soldiers had lain down to rest, lifter having kindled a huge fire, Mr. Spring heard a roar in the forest above them like the sound of the surf beating upon the shore, and the next moment the glan- cing waters were seen sweeping through the trees on both sides of the stream. In an instant the camp w T as alive with shouts and cries rising above the turbulent flood that deluged the ground on which they stood. The fires were extinguished, and in the tumult, and confusion, and darkness, no one knew which way to flee for safety, or what to do. In this state of uncertainty and dread the night wore away. The daylight revealed to them a spectacle sad enough to fill the bravest heart with discouragement. Boats had drifted into the forest, and as far as the eye could reach the level ground was one broad lake, out of which arose the dark stems of the trees like an endless succession of columns. In nine hours the water rose 8 feet, totally obliterating the shores of Dead River. But the provisions were getting lower and lower, and Arnold could not w r ait for the river to subside. The army was, therefore, pushed on, slowly stemming the flood; but seven boats, carrying provisions, were caught in the whirling, angry waters, and upset, and all their contents destroyed. The boldest now paused in dismay, for only 12 days* provisions remained, while 30 miles' across the mountain were to be traversed before they could reach the head waters of the Chaudiere, that flowed into the St. Lawrence. A council of war was called to decide what should be done in this crisis of affairs. They had now been a month away from civilization, the sick were increasing, while famine was staring them in the face. It was determined at length to leave the sick there, and despatch orders to Colonels Green and Knbx, in the rear, to has- ten up, and take them back to Cambridge. Here was an opportunity for the young chaplain to abandon the expedition*, and yet apparently be in the path of duty. He had had enough, one would think, of toil, exposure, and suffering, not to wish to face still greater hardships, and perhaps death itself, by famine in the wilderness, he following its fortunes. But he believed the welfare of his country was deeply involved in its fate, and he de- termined, come what would, to share its vicissitudes, hazards, and destiny. Having, therefore, prayed xvith the sick, encouraged the desponding with the promise that relief would soon come, and pointed those whom he believed dying to the Saviour of men, and commended all to the care and mercy of God, he bade them farewell, and moved forward with the advancing column. The cold, autumnal rains had now turned into snow, which, sifting down through the leafless tree-tops, covered the weary, wan, and straggling column with a winding sheet, that seemed to be wrapping it for the tomb. After they left the sick in the wilderness, they passed 17 falls before they reached the head- MAINE. 187 waters of Dead River. It was still 4 miles across to the Chaudtere, down which they were to float to the St. Lawrence. Here, on the summit of the hills on which the waters divide, one part flowing- south and the other north, Arnold distributed the last provisions to the separate companies, and, taking only 13 men, pushed on for the Chaudiere. He told those left behind, in parting, that he would obtain provisions for them in advance, if human efforts could procure them ; but directed them to follow after as fast as they could, for, he added, their only safety lay in advancing. Spring remained behind with the army, to share its privations and its fate, whatever that might be. The gallant fellows gave their indomitable leader three parting cheers, and then began to heave their heavy boats from the water. Hoisting them upon their shoulders, while others were loaded down with baggage and ammunition, and others still dragged the few pieces of artillery along like cattle, they staggered on through the forest. The scanty provisions that were left them, though eked out with the greatest parsimony, grew rapidly less, and finally failed entirely. Under the low rations and severe labor combined, the men had gradually grown weaker and weaker, and now, pale and emaciated, looked on each other in mute inquiry. A council of war was called, and it was determined to kill the dogs they had with them, and push on till this loathsome supply was exhausted. These faithful ani- mals, hitherto the companions of their toils, were slain and divided among the different companies. After the bodies were devoured, their legs and even claws were boiled for soup. It was a sad sight to see the groups of half-famished soldiers seated together around a fire, watching with eager looks the pot containing this refuse of the dogs, and gazing with strange meaning into each other's eyes. The chaplain fared like the rest, and famine and incessant toil and exposure were telling on him as well as on the soldiers. The tall frame grew less erect, and the wan face showed that starvation was eating away his life. Trusting, however, in God, whom he served, he endured all cheerfully, and bore that famished multitude on his heart to the throne of heavenly grace. The soldiers, in all their sufferings, thought of him with the deepest sympathy, and could not but feel encouraged when the*y saw his serene, though emaciated countenance, and listened to his ex- pressions of calm confidence in God, that he would yet deliver them. He often walked through the woods to look at the various groups, and see where he could be of most service. His heart bled at the destitution he witnessed on every side. One day he came upon a company gathered around a fire, boiling some dogs' claws they had preserved to make soup with. As he paused to look at them, they rose, and, in true kindness of heart, urged him to share their meagre, dis- gusting broth. It was a novel, but touching evidence of the deep affection they bore their young chaplain, and told, in language stronger than words, what an example of patient endurance he had shown, and how kind and faithful had been his labors among them. At last the dogs gave out, and then the soldiers tore off their moose-skin moc- casins, and boiled them to extract a little nourishment. The feet could stand the November frosts better than their stomachs endure the gnawings of famine. They reached at length the banks of the Chaudiere, and launched their boats. The current, however, was^swollen and rapid now boiling amid the rocks,, and now shooting like an arrow around a jutting precipice. On such a turbulent flood the boats soon became unmanageable, and one after another was stranded or shivered into fragments, till nearly all were destroyed. 188 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. They were still 30 miles from the French settlements, and now were compelled to shoulder their burdens, and advance on foot, in straggling parties, through the forest. During all these perils and sufferings, scarce a Sabbath passed in which Spring did not mount his pulpit of knapsacks, and preach to the troops, whilo every morning, before the march began, his earnest prayer arose to God for help. The last miserable substitute for food was at length exhausted, and with empty stomachs and bowed forms they slowly, despairingly toiled onward, while all along their track the snow was stained with blood. As they were now approach- ing the French settlements, severe discipline was enforced. They needed no fires to cook their food, for they had none to cook ; but none was allowed them to warm themselves by, and strict orders were given not to discharge a gun for any purpose. While the weary column was thus staggering silently on, suddenly the report of a musket was heard far in advance, then another, and another, till twenty echoed through the forest. They ceased, and then a long shout rolled back through the solitude, producing the wildest excitement. Mr. Spring never forgot that thrilling scene, and long after, in speaking of it, said: "The army was starving, but moving on. The pioneers, who were ahead to clear the way, roused suddenly a noble moose. It was the first that had been seen. The temp- tation was too strong to be resisted. One man fired he missed. Twenty guns were levelled at him. He fell they forgot all discipline in their extremity, and shouted. It was a noble moose, weighing not less than 1000 pounds. A halt was ordered camp kettles taken out, fires kindled, meat, blood, entrails, hoofs and horns chopped up, and soup made of all for the army." Revived by this unexpected supply, the troops pushed on. The next day they met a company of men with provisions, sent back by Arnold to relieve them. A loud shout arose from the whole army, and a general feast was ordered. Several of the soldiers, unable to restrain their appetites, eat so voraciously that they sickened and died. They had braved the wilderness, and withstood the ravages of famine, to fall victims to unrestrained indulgence. It was with profound sad- ness the young chaplain performed the last religious rites over their rude graves in the northern wilderness. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Area, 9,280 Square Miles. Population in 1SGO, 326,073 Population in. 1870, 318,300 THE State of New Hampshire is bounded on the north by Canada East, on the east by Maine and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Massachusetts, and on the west by the Connecticut River and Ver- mont. It is 90 miles broad at its southern, and 45 miles broad at its northern extremity, and 185 miles long from north to south. It forms a species of irregular triangle, and is situated between latitude 42 40' and 45 25' N., and between longitude 70 40' and 72 35' W. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is broken and mountainous. The country rises rapidly as it recedes from the coast until its greatest height is at- tained in Mount Washington, one of the White Mountains, in Coos county. The White Mountains proper are only about 20 miles long, and lie almost entirely in Coos county, but broken and detached groups lie all over the State from the northern boundary down to and across the Massachusetts border. The only level land, exclusive of the mountain valleys, extends along the coast, and for about 30 miles into the interior. The principal Peaks in New Hampshire which are distinct from the White Mountains, are as follows: the Blue Hills, 1151 feet above the ocean, situated in the southeast part of the State ; Mount Chocura, in Carroll county, 3358 feet high ; Carr's Mountain, in Grafton county, 1381 feet high; Mount Kear- sarge, in Hillsborough county, 3067 feet; Mount Monadnock, in Cheshire county, 3718 feet; Mount Andover, in Merrimack county, 2000 feet; and Moosehillock, in Grafton county, 4636 feet. 189 190 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The White Mountains lie in the southern part of Coos county, in the northeastern part of the State. The principal peaks of this range are Mount Washington, 6226 feet; Mount Jefferson, 5657 feet; Mount Adams, 5759 feet; Mount Madison, 5415; Mount Monroe, 5349; Mount Franklin, 4850 feet; and Mount Pleasant, 4712 feet. The prominent features of this region, which is styled, on account of its beauty, " The Switzerland of America/' are thus sketched by a recent writer: "The White Mountains, already referred to, attract more tourists than any other natural object in the United States, excepting only Niagara Falls. The traveller may journey for weeks through its wild scenery, with a constant succession of grand objects to interest his mind. The fashionable route is to enter New Hampshire by the Boston and Montreal Railways to Wier's, on Lake Winnipiseogee; then take the steamboat, and, having made the' circuit of the lake, enter the stage for Con way, on the east side of the White Mountains, and from thence, by another stage, through the celebrated Notch, to the Notch House, which stands in the very jaws of the pass. The return is by the Franconia Notch (about 26 miles southwest of the White Mountain Notch), and south down the valley of the Pemige- wasset, to Plymouth, or back to Lake Winnipiseogee, according as the tourist wishes to direct his steps thereafter. The White Mountain Notch is a pass of great celebrity. Coming from the north or west, you enter it by an opening only 23 feet in width, between two per- pendicular rocks, one 20, and the other 12 feet high. The infant Saco trickles its way through this nar ow opening, gradually expand- ing as it proceeds down the pass, and receiving other tributaries from the mountain-sides, which form the walls of the gorge, and which tower to the height of about 2000 feet above the bed of the Saco. In this pass occurred, in 1826, the landslide which destroyed the Willey family. The more wild and abrupt parts of the Notch extend for 2 or 3 miles from its entrance at the Notch House. Mount Washington is ascended on horseback from the Notch House, by a bridle-path, first climbing Mount Clinton in immediate proximity to the hotel r- for 2J miles, and then coasting the east side of the peaks of Mount Pleasant, Mount Franklin, and Mount Monroe, for 4 miles further, occasionally ascending a rough, steep ridge, and again descending, now riding on the verge of a vast ravine of several hundred feet in depth, and now on the crest of a ridge commanding a view of both sides of the chain we arrive at the foot of Mount Washington, 1500 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 191 SCENE IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. feet in perpendicular, and about one mile in inclined ascent, above the base of the cone or peak, and 6226 feet above the sea. This is the most difficult, though scarcely dangerous, part of the ascent, as it is little else than riding on horseback over a pile of rocks of every variety of size, cast together as if hurled there by the Titans, in war or at phiy. Fro'm the summit, if the day be clear, is afforded a view un- equalled, perhaps, on the eastern side of the North American conti- nent. Around you, in every direction, are confused masses of moun- tains, bearing the appearance of a sea of molten lava suddenly cooled, whilst its ponderous waves were yet in commotion. On the southeast horizon gleams a rim of silver light it is the Atlantic Ocean, 65 miles distant laving the shores of Maine. Lakes of all sizes, from Lake Winnipiseogee to mere mountain ponds and f mountains be- neath you gleam misty and wide. 9 Far off to the northeast is Mount Katahdin. In the western horizon are the Green Mountains of Ver- mont, and to the south and southwest are Mount Monadnock and Kearsarge, or Kiarsage, while the space between is filled up with 192 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. every variety of landscape, mountain, and hill, plain and valley, lake and river. "Those to whom it is an object -to reach Mount Washington with as little stage-riding as possible, may be lauded at Gorham by the Portland and Montreal Railway cars, within 5 miles of the base of the mountain. The Franconia Notch is deemed by many quite as inter- esting as the White Mountain Notch. Near it are many agreeable accessories not to be found in the latter; among which are Echo Lake, just at the northern entrance of the gorge, and the ' Old Man of the Mountain/ a well-defined profile of a human face, 1000 feet above the level of the pass. The Basin, 4 miles south of the Notch, is a pool of beautifully transparent water. One mile below this, again, in the vicinity of the Flume House, is the celebrated Flume, a narrow gorge or opening in the rocks, only a few feet in width, and from 70 to 120 feet in height, through which flows 'a small tributary of the Pemigewasset ; below this is a cascade of 616 feet in length, which in the spring and fall freshets is an object of great interest. In the same neighborhood is the Pool (a basin formed by a small fall in the Pemigewasset), which is about 60 feet in diameter, and 40 feet deep, surrounded by mural precipices 150 feet in height. The Flume, the Basin, and the Pool, all within an agreeable walking distance of the Flume House, make this one of the most agreeable stopping-places among the mountains. Mount Lafayette only 700 feet inferior in altitude to Mount Washington is also ascended from the same house, which has the further advantage of being within a five-miles ride of the Franconia Notch. The other detached mountains scattered over New Hampshire would, in any other State, not overshadowed by Mount Washington and his court, merit conspicuous notice. Dixville Notch, about 46 miles north of Lancaster, is said to be but little in- ferior to the two great passes already described. New Hampshire shares with Vermont the beautiful river Connecticut, whose shores are often grand, and seldom tame. Bellows Falls, in this river, on the southwest border of the State, are formed by the contraction of the river bed to about 20 feet on the west side at low water, through which the stream rushes with great violence. At high water, it flows in the eastern as well as western channel. These beds are separated by a huge rock. The entire descent in half a mile is 42 feet. At Amoskeag, the Merrimac descends 50 feet in three successive pitches. In the White Mountain Notch is a cascade which winds down the face of the mountain, through a fall of 800 feet, giving, after copious NEW HAMPSHIRE. 103 rains, an additional interest to the scene, as it glides or leaps over the different stages of its descent. There are two interesting falls in the Ammonoosuck, within a pleasant drive from the Notch House." * Lake Winnipiseogee is the principal inland sheet of water. It is irregular in shape, its shores being deeply indented with a number of bays. It is 25 miles long, and varies in width from 1 to 10 miles. It is very deep, and the water, pure and clear as crystal, is alive with fine trout. It is thickly studded with islands, and abounds in the most picturesque scenery. Steamers ply between Alton Bay and Centre Harbor, stopping at the various points along the lake. Large numbers of visitors come here every summer. The Connecticut River, the largest .and most beautiful in New England, rises in the extreme northern part of this State, in the hills lying along the border of Canada. Flowing across the State, it turns to the southwest at the northern line of Vermont, and pursuing a generally southwest course, forms the boundary between Vermont and New Hampshire, arid passes into Massachusetts. The scenery along the river is very beautiful, and has made the "Connecticut Valley" famous throughout the country. Above the Massachusetts line it is chiefly mountainous. The Merrimac River is the next in importance, and lies almost entirely within the State. It is formed by the junction of the Pemige- wasset and Winnipiseogee rivers, in Belknap county. Flowing to the southward, it enters Massachusetts about 80 miles from its source. Then turning abruptly to the northeast, it flows into the Atlantic near Newburyport. It is about 110 miles long, and flows through a val- ley noted for its beauty. Haverhill, in Massachusetts, 15 miles from the sea, is the head of ship navigation, but canals have been cut around the falls, which enable boats to ascend to Concord, New Hampshire. The river turns by its excellent water-power more mills and factories than any other in the Union. The Salmon Falls, Pis- cataqua, Contoocook, Souhegan, and Nashua are the other prominent streams. The Isle of Shoals is the name given to a group of 8 islands, 3 of which belong to New Hampshire, and the rest to Maine. They lie off the coast, 11 miles from Portsmouth. A steamer plies daily between that city and the principal island. " The voyage is but an hour in length, and the scenery, as the boat passes down the river * Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1306. 13 194 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. through the Narrows, stemming bravely the rushing tide, or borne surfing upon it, is most delightful. Sliding by Fort Constitution and the Whale's Back Light House, the steamer is soon upon the wide Atlantic. Directly in front is the dim outline of the islands, while behind stretches the white line of the coast. In the distance rise the hills of New Hampshire and the blue sides of Agamenticus, the high mountain of York. As the boat approaches the Appledore Island, the hotel unfolds its size and proportions. Landing by row-boats, the traveller ascends, by an easy path, to the portico, where an expectant crowd is assembled. "The 'Appledore' is conducted by Oscar and Cedric Laighton, whose father is well remembered as the former proprietor. His grave is now one of the interesting and noteworthy spots upon the rocky island. Here also are buried the unfortunate crew of a Spanish ves- sel driven upon the cliffs on a winter's night. This incident has been made the subject of an effective poem by Longfellow. "The steamboat reaches the ' Appledore ? at 1 o'clock each day, and starts upon its homeward trip at 3 P. M. Visitors to the other islands of the group are carried across in small boats. The distance is short to Gosport, where is a small village of some 30 houses, a church, and a school-house. The population are hardy fishermen, among whom can still be traced the Portuguese features of the origi- nal colonizers from the fleet of John Smith, by whom these islands were discovered. A disaster fell upon them a year ago, in the shape of fire. Half their little settlement was consumed in a single night; and this calamity, to so hard-working a people, excited much sym- pathy throughout New England. Assistance was given them, and they are now recovering from their losses. " Near by is White Island, where a revolving light casts a crimson glow over a sea which sleeps through the summer months, but which rises in the winter storms with mighty strength. The other islands are known by the euphonious names of Smutty-Nose and Hog. They are visited only by sportsmen, and are a refuge for innumerable sea- fowl." MINERALS. Iron is found in several counties, principally at Franconia, Pier- mont, and Bartlett. Bog-ore deposits are thickly scattered over the State. Copper, lead, zinc and plumbago are also found in several localities, and silver has been discovered near Pittsfield. Granite of NEW HAMPSHIRE. 195 a fine quality abounds. Gneiss, crystallized-quartz, talc, steatite, tour- malins, ochres, limestone, spars of various kinds, terra sienna, sulphur, magnesia^ beryls, garnets, jasper, manganese, asbestus, and amethysts are found. CLIMATE. The climate of New Hampshire is severe, but uniform. Franconia is said to be the coldest place in the Union ; the thermometer some- times indicating 40 degrees below zero. The summers are short, but pleasant The cold weather begins in October, and snow falls in No- vember and lasts until May, in the northern part of the State, and until April in the southern. In the mountains it frequently lies on the ground until July. The springs are damp and are rendered dis- agreeable by heavy fogs. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil is not naturally fertile, but has been made so by patient and laborious tillage. The northern part is but little cultivated, and the best lands are in the valleys of the rivers, which occasionally en- rich them by overflows. Sheep and cattle raising form a prominent part of the industry of the State, the high lands and mountain sides affording good pasturage. In 1869, there were 2,367,034 acres of improved land in New Hampshire, and 1,377,591 acres unimproved. The remainder of agricultural wealth of the State for the same year may be stated as follows : Cash value of farms, $69,869,761 Value of farming implements and machinery, . $2,682,412 Number of horses, 45,101 asses and mules, 40 milch cows, 99,540 other cattle, 203,800 " sheep, 620,890 swine, 79,680 Value of domestic animals, $12,924,629 Bushels of wheat, 291,000 rye, 150,000 " Indian corn, ......... 1,400,000 oats, 1,663,000 " peas and beans, 89,454 Irish potatoes, 4,500,000 " barley, 106,000 u buckwheat. ......... 90,400 196 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Bushels of clover seed (estimated), 13,000 44 grass seed (estimated), 6,500 Pounds of wool (estimated), 2,000,000 " butter, . 6,956,764 " cheese, 2,323,092 hops, 150,000 maple sugar, 2,255,012 44 beeswax and honey, 130,078 Tons of hay, 700,000 Value of orchard products, $557,934 44 home-made manufactures, .... $251,013 44 slaughtered animals, ...... $3,787,500 COMMERCE. New Hampshire has but one good harbor, that of Portsmouth ; and but one river navigable, and that for but a short distance from the sea. This, of course, limits the amount of her foreign trade. During the year ending June 30th, 1861, the commerce of the State was as follows : value of exports, $6112 ; value of imports, $20,887. MANUFACTURES. The rivers of New Hampshire furnish an abundance of first class water-power, and the people are largely engaged in manufactures. According to the census of 1860, there were 2582 establishments in the State engaged in manufactures, mining and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $25,900,000, and 36,100 hands; con- sumed raw material worth $24,400,000 ; and yielded products worth $45,500,000. Of these, 44 were cotton factories, employing a capital of $13,878,000, and 6300 male and 13,859 female hands, consuming $9,758,921 worth of raw material, paying $4,574,520 annually for labor, and yielding an annual product of $16,661,531 ; and 71 were woollen factories, employing a capital of $1,519,550, and 1003 male and 1003 female hands, paying annually $499,764 for labor, consum- ing raw material worth $1,732,074, and yielding an annual product of $2,876,000. The other manufactures were as follows : value of leather produced, $1,933,949 ; rolled iron, $7000; steam engines and machinery, $898,560 ; agricultural implements, $134,935 ; sawed and planed lumber, $1,230,000 ; flour, $1,490,000; liquors, $86,000. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1872, there were 790 miles of railroad within the limits of the State. These, in many instances merely crossed it, terminating at NEW HAMPSHIRE. 19T either Boston or Portland. Others had one terminus in New Hamp- shire, and another in some other State, and a few short routes lay within the State. The railroads have almost entirely supplanted the canals built for the improvement of the Merrimac River. EDUCATION. In the year 1870, there were 2542 public schools in New Hamp- shire, attended by 33,123 male, and 31,554 female pupils. These schools were conducted by 653 male, and 2702 female teachers. Be- sides these, there are about 50 private academies in the State, and one college, which is located at Dartmouth. This institution was founded in 1769, and is in a flourishing condition. The educational system is maintained by sales of public lands, taxes upon the capital of the banks, and a poll tax upon the inhabitants. It is controlled by a series of district committees, who are subordinate to the Board of Education of the State. The expenditures for schools, not including the private schools, for the year 1870, was $403,310. In 1870, there were 1526 libraries in the State, containing 704,269 volumes. In the same year, upwards of 50 newspapers were published in this State. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The Insane Asylum, at Concord, was incorporated in 1838. It is provided with excellent and commodious buildings, and has a farm of 155 acres attached to it. The whole number of patients under treatment during the year 1870 was 367190 males, 177 females. The Reform School is located near Manchester, and is surrounded by a farm of 100 acres, which is worked by the boys of the school. Children of both sexes are received here, and are subjected to a mild but firm course of discipline for their reformation. The school was founded in 1856, and has been very successful in its operations. During the year 1869-70, its inmates numbered 155 males 135, females 20. The State Prison is located at Concord. It is in a flourishing con- dition, and is conducted upon a system which aims to reform as well as punish. The Legislature of 1867 passed an Act, known as the " Commutation law," by which, says the Governor of the Common- wealth, "every month of exemplary conduct on the part of a prisoner gains him a certain amount of time to be deducted from the term of 198 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. his sentence. .... Every convict who avails himself of the benefits of this provision is released in advance of the expiration of his original term of imprisonment, and thus retains the rights of citizenship." During the year 1870, the whole number of prisoners confined here was 118. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property was $3,303,780. The num- ber of churches was 624. FINANCES. The finances of the State are in a prosperous condition. In 1870, the total public debt was $2,817,869. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1870, including cash on hand, were $1,123,028, and the disbursements $1,086,350, leaving a bal- ance of $36,678 in the Treasury on the 1st of July, 1870. There are but few State banks left, nearly all of the old institutions having embraced the National Bank system. In May, 1868, there were a few remaining with an aggregate capital of $237,300, and these were preparing to reorganize under the new system. At the same time, there were 40 National Banks, with an aggregate capital of $4,785,000, besides a number of Savings institutions. GOVERNMENT. Every adult male inhabitant of the State, over twenty-one years of age, excepting paupers and persons not paying taxes, is entitled to vote in the place of his residence. The Government consists of a Governor assisted by a Council of five members, and a Legislature, divided into a Senate and House of Representatives, all chosen annually by the people on the second Tuesday of March. The Secretary of State and Treasurer are chosen on joint ballot by the Legislature at the beginning of every session of that body. The two houses of the Legislature are together styled " The General Court of New Hampshire." There is a Supreme Judicial Court y the highest State tribunal, com- prised of a Chief Justice, and five Associate Justices. They are ap?- pointed by the Governor and Council, and hold office during good behavior. The State is divided, for convenience, into four Judicial Districts. There is also a Superior Court for each cowity, and a local tribunal for each city. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 199 For purposes of government, the State is divided into ten counties. The seat of Government is located at Concord. HISTORY. New Hampshire was first settled by the English, at Dover and Portsmouth, in 1623. It was originally a part of Massachusetts, but was organized as a separate province, with its present name, by a royal charter, in 1679. In 1689, it was annexed to Massachusetts, and was afterwards transferred to New York. It was erected into an independent province in 1741, however, and has since maintained a distinct existence. It was considerably annoyed in its early years by the Indians, who, in 1689, made a descent upon Dover, burned a part of the town, and killed a number of the inhabitants. In 1776, the State declared its separate independence of Great Britain. During the Revolution, it made liberal contributions of men and money to the cause. Its troops won especial credit at Stillwater, Saratoga, Mon- mouth, and Bennington. It adopted the Constitution of the United States on the 21st of June, 1788. During the late war, it contributed 33,427 men to the army of the United States. Of these, 5518 fell in battle, and 11,039 were disabled by wounds and sickness. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns of New Hampshire are Concord, the capital of the State, Manchester, Nashua, Portsmouth, Dover, Somers- worth, Keene, Claremont, Rochester, Exeter, Gilford, Sanbornton, and Great Falls. CONCOKD, The capital of the State, is situated on the banks of the Merrimac River, 20 miles above Manchester, and 59 miles northwest from Boston. It extends along the river for about 2 miles, and has an average width of about half a mile. Main street, the principal thoroughfare, is 2 miles long, and 150 feet wide. It contains the hotels and nearly all the prominent buildings. The city is handsomely built; the streets are broad, and well shaded ; and the entire place wears an air of comfort and refinement characteristic of New England towns. The principal building is the State House, constructed of a fine quality of native granite, and surrounded by a beautiful park. Concord is the seat of extensive manufacture the falls of the Mer- aoo THE GREAT REPUBLIC. CONCORD STATE HOUSE. rimac furnishing excellent water-power. It contains 9 churches, sev- eral banks, and a number of fine private buildings. The State Lunatie Asylum is also located here. Railroads connect it with Boston and all parts of the Union, and with Canada. The population is 12,241. Four newspapers are published here. MANCHESTER, The largest city in the State, is situated in Hillsborough county, on the banks of the Merrimac River, 18 miles from Concord, and 59 miles from Boston. It is built along the river, on an elevated plateau, about 90 feet above the water. Several railroads centre here, and afford rapid and direct communication with all parts of the country. The city is well laid out, having broad streets, intersecting each other at right angles, and several handsome public squares. The eastern section is built almost entirely of brick, but the western part is built of wood. It contains several fine buildings, the principal of which is the new town house, or city hall. The more elevated portion of the place is occupied by residences and churches, and the slope between NEW HAMPSHIRE. 201 the plateau and the river is devoted to the mills and the dwellings of the operatives. The city contains a good public library, about 1 2 churches, about 24 public schools, besides several private establish- ments, 3 or 4 banks, and 7 newspaper offices. Manchester owes its importance to its extensive manufactures. Cotton, woollen, and other factories are numerous, the motive power being derived from a series of rapids in the Merrimac, called the Amoskeag Falls. The river here makes a descent of 54 feet in a mile, and dams and locks have been constructed at the head of the , rapids, by which the water is conveyed to all the mills in the city. Cotton and woollen goods, wrought iron goods of various kinds, locomotives, railroad cars, and steam fire-engines constitute the prin- cipal manufactures, and give employment to between six and seven thousand hands. The population is 23,536. PORTSMOUTH, In Rockinghani county, is the second city, and only seaport in the State. It is situated on the right bank of the Piscataqua River, 3 miles from the sea, and 54 miles northeast of Boston. Several rail- roads terminate here, and others pass through it, leading to all parts of the Union and Canada. The city is built upon a peninsula near the mouth of the river, and upon rising ground, which affords a fine view of the harbor. It is well laid off, and possesses a number of handsome buildings. It contains a public library of over 10,000 volumes, and several excellent literary institutions. It is extensively engaged in manufactures, is supplied with water, and is lighted with gas. It is the seat of an active foreign and coasting trade, which, though not so large as formerly, is still important. The fisheries are a source of considerable profit to it, as they lie but a short distance from it. The harbor of Portsmouth is one of the best in the world. It is completely land-locked, is never frozen, and is accessible to the largest ships. Its tides are high and rapid, and the bottom is a smooth bed of rock. The channel at low water is 40 feet in depth. It is de- fended by Fort Constitution, on Great Island ; Fort McClary, oppo- site ; Fort Sullivan, on Trepethen Island ; and Fort Washington, on Pierce's Island. It is estimated that the harbor is sufficiently capa- ious to admit with ease as many as 2000 vessels. The city is connected by bridges with Newcastle, on Grand Island, and with Kittery, in Maine, on the opposite side of the Piscataqua. 202 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The United States Navy Yard at Kittery, commonly known as the Portsmouth Navy Yard, is one of the principal establishments of the Government, and the greatest attraction of the place. It is pro- vided with a splendid dry dock, constructed at a cost of $800,000, with three large ship-houses, and all the appliances necessary to the construction of the largest vessels of war. Portsmouth was made a naval station during the Revolution, and the first ship of the line (the North America) ever constructed in the New World was laid down here during that struggle. The Kearsarge, which sunk the Alabama during the civil war, was built here. Portsmouth contains numerous public schools, and supports 4 newspapers, 2 of which are daily. The New Hampshire Gazette, published here, was established in 1756, and claims to be the oldest American journal now in existence. The population is 11,000. DOVER, In Strafford county, is the oldest city in the State. It is situated at the lower falls of the Cocheco River, and on both sides of that stream. It is at the head of sloop navigation, and is connected with all parts of the country by railroad. It is 12 miles northwest of Portsmouth, and 68 miles north of Boston. It is well built, and regularly laid off. It contains several handsome buildings, the principal of which is the city hall, several banks, a number of excellent public schools, 10 churches, and 2 good hotels. The falls of the Cocheco are 32 feet high, and furnish an abundance of excellent water-power. The capital invested in manufactures amounts to several millions of dollars. Cotton and woollen goods, boots and shoes, and iron ware are the. principal articles produced. Shipbuilding was formerly an important interest. The city is lighted with gas, and contains a population of over 10,000. Dover was settled by a company from England, in 1623, and its early years were marked by constant trouble with the savages. In 1688, it was almost entirely destroyed by them. Belknap, in his " History of New Hampshire," gives the following account of this tragedy: In that part of the town of Dover which lies about the first falls in the rivei Cocheco, were five garrisoned houses; three on the north side, viz., Waldron's, Otis's and Heard's ; and two on the south side, viz., Peter Coffin's and his son's. These houses were surrounded by timber walls, the gates of which, as well as the house doors, were secured with bolts and bars. The neighboring families retired NEW HAMPSHIRE. 203 to these houses by night ; but, by an unaccountable negligence, no watch was kept. The Indians who were daily passing through the town, visiting and trad- ing with the inhabitants, as usual in time of peace, viewed their situation with an attentive eye. Some hints of a mischievous design had been given out by their squaws ; but in such dark and ambiguous terms that no one could compre- hend their meaning. Some of the people were uneasy ; but Waldron, who, from a long course of experience, was intimately acquainted with the Indians, and on other occasions had been ready enough to suspect them, was now so thoroughly secure that, when some of the people hinted their fears to him, he merrily bade them go and plant their pumpkins, saying that he would tell them when the In- dians would break out. The very evening before the mischief was done, being told by a young man that the town was full of Indians and the people were much concerned, he answered that he knew the Indians very well and there was no danger. The plan which the Indians had preconcerted was, that two squaws should go to each of the garrisoned houses in the evening, and ask leave to lodge by the fire ; that in the night, when the people were asleep, they should open the doors and gates, and give the signal by a whistle ; upon which the strange Indians, who were to be within hearing, should rush in, and take their long-meditated revenge. This plan being ripe for execution, on the evening of Thursday, the 27th of June, two squaws applied to each of the garrisons for lodging, as they frequently did in time of peace. They were admitted into all but the younger Coffin's, and the people, at their request, showed them how to open the doors, in case they should have occasion to go out in the night. Mesandowit, one of their chiefs, went to Waldron' s garrison, and was kindly entertained, as he had often been before. The squaws told the major that a number of Indians were coming to trade with him the next day, and Mesandowit while at supper, with his usual familiarity, said: "Brother Waldron, what would you do if the strange Indians should come?" The major carelessly answered, that he could assemble 100 men by lifting up his finger. In this unsuspecting confidence the family retired to rest. When all was quiet, the gates were opened and the signal given. The Indians entered, set a guard at the door, and rushed into the major's apartment, which was an inner room. Awakened by the noise, he jumped out of bed, and though now advanced in life to the age of 80 years, he retained so much vigor as to drive them with his sword through two or three doors ; but, as he was returning for his other arms, they came behind him, stunned him with a hatchet, drew him into his hall, and, seating him in an elbow chair on a long table, insultingly asked him, " Who shall judge Indians now ? " They then obliged the people in the house to get them some victuals ; and when they had done eating, they cut the major across the breast and belly with knives, each one with a stroke, say- ing, "I cross out my account." They then cut off his nose and ears, forcing them into his month ; and when spent with the loss of blood, he was falling down from the table, one of them held his own sword under him, which put an end to his misery. They also killtd his son-in-law, Abraham Lee ; but took his daughter Lee with several others, and having pillaged the house, left it on fire. Otis'a garrison, which was next to the major's, met with the same fate ; he was killed, with several others, and his wife and child were captivated. Heard's was saved by the barking of a dog just as the Indians were entering: Elder Went worth, who was awakened by the noise, pushed them out, and fairing oh his backset 204 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. his feet against the gate and held it till he had alarmed the people ; two balls were fired through it, but both missed him. Coffin's house was surprised, but as the Indians had no particular enmity to him, they spared his life, and the lives of his family, and contented themselves with pillaging the house. Finding a bag of money, they made him throw it by handfuls on the floor, while they amused themselves in scrambling for it. They then went to the house of his son, who would not admit the squaws in the evening, and summoned him to surrender, promising him quarter. He declined their offer, and determined to defend his house, till they brought out his father and threatened to kill him before his eyes. Filial affection then overcame his resolution, and he surrendered. They put both families together into a deserted house, intending to reserve them for prisoners; but while the Indians were busy in plundering, they all escaped. Twenty-three people were killed in this suprisal, and 29 were captivated ; 5 or C houses, with the mills, were burned ; and so expeditious were the Indians in the execution of their plot, that before the people could be collected from the other parts of the town to oppose them, they fled with their prisoners and booty. As they passed by Heard' s garrison in their retreat, they fired upon it ; but the people being prepared and resolved to defend it, and the enemy being in haste, it was preserved. The preservation of its owner was more remarkable. Elizabeth Heard, with her three sons and a daughter, and some others, were returning in the night from Portsmouth. They passed up the river in their boat unperceived by the Indians, who were then in possession of the houses ; but sus- pecting danger by the noise which they heard, after they had landed, they betook themselves to Waldron's garrison, where they saw lights, which they imagined were set up for direction to those who might be seeking a refuge. They knocked and begged earnestly for admission ; but no answer being given, a young man of the company climbed up the wall, and saw, to his inexpressible surprise, an Indian standing in the door of the house, with his gun. The woman was so overcome with the fright that she was unable to fly, but begged her children to shift for themselves ; and they with heavy hearts left her. When she had a little recovered, she crawled into some bushes, and lay there till daylight. She then perceived an Indian coming toward her with a pistol in his hand ; he looked at her and went away : returning, he looked at her again ; and she asked him what he would have ; he made no answer, but ran yelling to the house, and she saw him no more. She kept her place till the house was burned, and the Indians were gone ; and then returning home, found her own house safe. Her preserva- tion in these dangerous circumstances was more remarkable, if (as it is supposed) it was an instance of justice and gratitude in the Indians. For at the time when the four or five hundred were seized, in 1676, a young Indian escaped and took refuge in her house, where she concealed him ; in return for which kindness he promised her that he would never kill her, nor any of her family, in any future war, and that he would use his influence with the other Indians to the same pur- pose. This Indian was one of the party who surprised the place, and she was well known to the most of them. / VERMONT. Area, 10,212 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 315,098 Population in 1870, 330,552 THE State of Vermont lies between latitude 42 44' and 45 N., and longitude 71 33' and 73 25' W., and is bounded on the north by Canada East, on the east by New Hampshire, on the south by Massachusetts, and on the west by Lake Champlain and the State of New York. It is 150 miles long from north to south, 85 miles wide from east to west in its northern part, and 35 miles wide from east to west at its southern boundary. TOPOGRAPHY. The surface of the State is greatly diversified by hill and valley. The Green Mountains extend in a direction almost from north to south, throughout its entire length, dividing it into two unequal por- tions. Just below Montpelier, the capital, this ridge divides into two portions, one of which, the higher, extends in a northern direction to the Canada line. The other, although lower, is continuous, and fol- lows the line of the Connecticut River, though at a considerable dis- tance from it, to the northeast corner of the State. The eastern ridge is broken in several places by the passage of the Onion, Lamoille, and Missisque rivers. South of this division, the range is not broken by any stream. The Green Mountains are among the most picturesque and beautiful in the Union, and offer many attractions to the tourist. The highest peaks are Mount Mansfield, 4360 feet above the sea, CamePs Rump, 4188 feet, Killington's, 3675 feet, and Ascutney Moun- tain, near the Connecticut River, 3320 feet. The southern part of the range divides the tributaries of the Hudson from those of the Con- 205 206 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. necticut. The mountains are covered with a thick growth of the evergreen fir, spruce, and hemlock, which give them always a rich hue of dark green, from which their name is derived. Lake Champlain, the largest over which the State has any jurisdic- tion, lies between Vermont and New York, and belongs principally to the latter State ; but, for convenience, will be described here. It extends from Whitehall, in New York, northward, a few miles be- yond the Canada line. It is 130 miles long, varies in width from half a mile to 10 miles, and is from 50 to 280 feet deep. A line, run from Vermont to New York across the principal island of the lake, would measure 15 miles. It receives the waters of Lakes George and Wood, and of the Saranac, Chazy, Au Sable, Missisquoi, and Wi- nooski rivers, and discharges itself through the Richelieu River into the St. Lawrence. On the New York side the shores are rocky, mountainous and sterile ; but the Vermont shore is very productive, and is highly cultivated. The scenery of the lake is wild and beau- tiful, the view ranging, in fair weather, as far back as the Green Moun- tains in Vermont, and the Adirondacks in New York. The waters are clear and abound in fish. Steamers ply daily between the upper and lower ends of the lake. By means of canals there is uninter- rupted navigation, except during the season of ice, between Lake Champlain and the Atlantic, Lake Ontario, and the Hudson River. The commerce of the lake is estimated at over $30,000,000 annually. About 200,000 tons of shipping and 12,000 men are employed in this trade. Navigation is usually closed between the last of No- vember and the first of April. There are a number of islands in the lake, the principal of which are Grand Isle, South Hero, and North Hero, all belonging to Ver- mont. The principal towns belonging to Vermont tire Swanton, Burlington, Charlotte, and Ferrisburg. Lake Champlain was discovered by Samuel Champlain, a French naval officer, in 1609. Important events occurred on its waters dur- ing the Revolution, and in the war of 1812-15, a British army and fleet were routed at Plattsburg, on the New York shore. Lake Memphramagog, which lies almost entirely in Canada, indents a portion of northern Vermont. The other lakes are Dunmore, Aus- tin, Bombazine, and Long Pond. The Connecticut River separates the State from New Hampshire. The other streams are the Otter Creek, Onion, Lamoille, and Mis- sisque. They are insignificant in length, but furnish good water-power. VERMONT. 20T MINERALS. Iron is found in considerable quantities in the Green Mountains, and there are deposits of bog-ore in various parts of the State. A brownish coal is found in Brandon. Sulphuret of iron is found near Strafford, and is used in making copperas, of which large quantities are produced. Granite and marble, the latter of a most excellent quality, abound. Slate quarries are numerous, and manganese is found in considerable quantities near Rutland. The other minerals are tita- nium, oxide of manganese, lead, magnetic iron ore, plumbago, copper and zinc. Traces of gold are very decided in the towns of Stowe and Bridgewater. CLIMATE. Being sheltered from the breezes which sweep over the other New England States from the ice fields of the Atlantic, Vermont has an even temperature, which renders it one of the healthiest States in the Union. The thermometer ranges from 17 below zero to 92 above. The winters begin about December, and continue until near the mid- dle of April. They are severe, as well as long. The summers are brief, but pleasant. Frost begins to appear in September, snow about the last of November. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The valleys of Vermont are fertile, the lands along the river bot- toms being excellent. The mountain slopes are used extensively for pasture, and large quantities of maple sugar are produced every year in the uplands. . In 1869, there were 2,823,157 acres of improved land in the State, and 1,337,682 of unimproved land. The remainder of the agricultural wealth of Vermont, at the present time, may be stated as follows : Cash value of farms, . . $91,511,673 Value of farming implements and machinery, . $3,554,728 Number of horses, 71,840 asses and mules, 120 milch cows, 190,420 other cattle, 230,300 sheep, 997,890 swine, . . . . 81,450 Value of domestic animals, $19,241,989 208 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Bushels of wheat, 766,000 rye, 155,000 Indian corn, 1,475,000 oats, 5,050,000 Irish potatoes, . 5,750,000 barley 102,000 buckwheat, 231,000 grass seed, 12,000 Pounds of wool, 3,000,000 butter, 15,900,359 cheese, . . . ; 8,215,030 maple sugar (estimated), .... 10,000,000 beeswax and honey (estimated), . . 212,905 Tons of hay (estimated), . 1,100,000 Value of orchard products (estimated), . . . $198,427 market garden products (estimated), $24,792 " home-made manufactures, " . $63,295 COMMERCE. Being an inland State without navigable rivers, Vermont conducts its commerce connected with navigation exclusively by way of Lake Champlain. During the year 1862, the foreign exports amounted to $736,663, and the imports to $2,567,892. The entrances for the same year reached 22,012 tons, and the clearances to 23,281. Of this amount, 6067 tons were owned in the State. MANUFACTURES. Vermont has the best water-power of any New England State, but is not as extensively engaged in manufactures as the others, the prin- cipal pursuit of her people being agriculture. According to^the census of 1860, there were 1501 establishments in Vermont devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. These employed a capital of $9,500,000, and 10,800 hands, consumed raw material worth $8,110,000, and returned an annual product of $16,000,000. The cotton manufactures were valued at $357,400 ; woollen manu- factures at $1,820,769; leather manufactures at $2,550,000; pig iron at $92,910; rolled iron at $63,250; steam engines and machinery at $493,836; agricultural implements at $157,647; sawed and planed lumber at $1,060,000 ; flour at $1,660,000. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Vermont is crossed by several lines of railway, connecting the prin- cipal towns with the cities of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New VERMONT. 209 York, Connecticut, and Canada. In 1872, there were 675 miles of railway completed in the State. Rutland is the great railroad centre. EDUCATION. The State makes a liberal provision for the education of the young. In 1870, there were 2750 public or district schools in operation, at- tended by 72,950 pupils, the average attendance being about 47,000. The number of teachers was 4239, and the amount spent for educa- tional purposes was about $425,000. There are also three Normal schools in the State, one in each Congressional district, subject to the control of the State Board of Education. Two courses of study are taught in these schools. Those who graduate in the first course receive a certificate, which is, by a law of the State, a licence to teach any- where in Vermont for five years. Graduates from the second course receive certificates licensing them to teach in the State for fifteen years. Besides the public schools, there were, in the year 1867, 348 private schools, attended by 9264 pupils, and 58 academies. The colleges are 3 in number, the University of Vermont, at Burlington, founded in 1791, Middlebury College, at Middlebury, founded in 1800, and Norwich University (partly military in its or- ganization), founded in 1834. There were, in 1870, 47 newspapers published in the State, 3 daily, 43 weekly, and one monthly. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of Vermont are the Insane Asylum, the Reform School, and the State Prison. The Insane Asylum is located at Brattleboro'. It is surrounded by a large farm, and has ample buildings, which were burned in 1862, but are now being replaced. It is under the supervision of the Com- missioner of the Insane, who is appointed by the Legislature annually for the purpose of inspecting and reporting upon the affairs of the asylum. In 1867, there were 646 inmates of the asylum. The in- stitution is in a large measure sustained by the labor of its inmates. The Reform School, established in 1865, is located at Waterbury. It has a farm of 133 acres attached to it, and is provided with excel- lent workshops. It is in a flourishing condition. In September, 1868, there were 57 inmates remaining. 14 210 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The State Prison was established in 1807, and is located at Wind- sor. It is governed by a Board consisting of a Superintendent and three Directors, chosen annually by the Legislature. It is almost self-supporting. The labor of the convicts is let, by agreement, at 42 cents per head, per day, for a term of five years. The commutation system has been introduced with great success. In September, 1870, there were 94 convicts still in prison. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Vermont was $3,713,530. The number of churches was 744. FINANCES. The funded debt of the State is $1,045,500. The unadjusted bal- ance still due the State by the General Government on account of the war is $207,222. The receipts of the treasury for the fiscal year, ending in September, 1868, were $709,548.96, and the expenditures were $682,993.95. In September, 1868, there were 40 National banks in Vermont, with an aggregate capital of $6,560,012. GOVERNMENT. Every male adult, either a native born or naturalized citizen of the United States, who has resided in the State one year, and can take the oath prescribed by the Constitution of Vermont, is entitled to vote in the State elections. The Government consists of a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, who is the President of the Senate, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives, chosen annually by the people. The Senate consists of 30 and the House of 241 members. There is also a Secretary of State, a State Treasurer, and an Auditor of Accounts. The judiciary department of the Government consists of a Supreme Court, a Court of Chancery, a County Court in each county, a Probate Court in each probate district, and one or more justices of the peace in each town. "The Supreme Court has no original jurisdiction, except for divorce; but is a court of errors for the trial of questions at law, and a court of appeal in chancery suits. Each judge of the Supreme Court is a Chancellor, and holds his court at the same time as the County Court, VERMONT. 211 which is held in each county by one of the Supreme Judges and two Assistant Judges. The County Courts have original jurisdiction in all civil actions for over $200, or in relation to real estate, except trespass, where the damages claimed exceed $20 ; also in actions for replevin for amounts over $20. All actions out of the original juris- diction of the County and Chancery Courts, except for divorce, must be brought before a justice of the peace." The Supreme Court consists of one Chief Judge and five Assistant Judges. . For the purposes of government, the State is divided into 14 counties. The seat of Government is established at Montpelier. HISTORY. Vermont was first discovered and partly explored by Samuel Cham- plain, a French officer, in 1609. It was first settled by the English, who founded Fort Dummer, on the present site of Brattleboro', in 1724. The territory was then believed to be a part of Massachusetts. By the year 1768, 138 townships had been settled. These settlements were made under the authority of the Governor of New Hampshire, who claimed the territory as a part of his province by virtue of the original charter of New Hampshire. In 1763, a controversy arose between New York and New Hampshire, the former laying claim to the territory. An appeal was made to the king, in 1764, who granted to New York jurisdiction to the Connecticut River. New Hampshire acquiesced in this decision, and the authorities of New York " at- tempted to eject and dispossess the settlers from their lands, and through venal judges decided every case against them. This roused the spirit of the settlers to such a degree, that they commenced, under the leadership of Ethan Allen, Seth Warner, and other bold and fear- less men, an armed resistance to the oppression of the New York Government ; every officer who undertook to enforce a process of ejection was stripped, tied to a tree, and whipped with beechen rods without mercy. This application of the ' beech seal/ as it was called, was so effectual that no officers could be procured to serve writs." The contest went on for ten years. Finally the Governor of New York issued a proclamation offering a reward for the capture of the Vermont leaders, who retorted by offering a reward for the capture of the Attorney General of New York. The Revolution began at this juncture, and suspended the controversy. The Vermont leaders did good service in the cause of the Colonies. Allen, with his owi 212 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. company of 83 men, surprised and captured the important post of Ticonderoga, in May, 1775. In the invasion of Canada, he behaved gallantly and was made prisoner, while the Vermont regiment, under Seth Warner, covered the retreat from Quebec, and compelled the surrender of the enemy's garrison at St. John's. The "Green Mountain Boys" made a brilliant name during the war, especially in the battles on Lake Champlain, in which nothing but their neroic resistance saved the American force from total annihilation. Their victory at Bennington decided the fate of Burgoyne's army. In 1 776, Vermont petitioned the Continental Congress for admis- sion into the Confederacy of the States, but her petition was rejected at the instance of New York. The next year, Vermont declared her independence, and in July made a second effort to secure admission into the Confederacy. Congress evaded a direct reply. The British now made strong overtures to Vermont to renew her allegiance to the Crown, but the Green Mountain leaders put the royal agents off with a vague reply, which was meant to encourage them to an extent suffi- cient to save the province from invasion by them till the answer of Congress should be known. In 1781, Congress offered to admit Vermont if she would consent to a curtailment of her territory, but she refused the offer. For eight years, she continued to occupy her anomalous position. In 1790, New York, wishing to settle the old dispute with her, revived her claim to the territory, but offered to compromise it on payment of $30,000. The offer was finally accepted, and the long difficulty set- tled. On the 4th of March, 1791, Vermont was admitted into the Union as a State making the fourteenth member of th Confederacy, and the first admitted under the Constitution. In 1814, the State contributed a portion of the army which won the battle of Plattsburg. In 1837, during the Canadian Rebellion, considerable sympathy .,vas shown for the rebels by the people of Vermont, and some 600 men went into Canada, to take part in the struggle. Upon the ap- proach of a British force sent against them, they withdrew into their own State and surrendered their arms to the United States authorities. During the late war, on the 19th of October, 1863, a descent was made upon the town of St. Albans by a party of Confederates from Canada, who seized the funds in the bank, amounting to $211,150, and committed some depredations upon the town. They were pur- sued by the citizens, and the whole party finally captured by the pursuers or by the Canadian authorities. VERMONT. 213 MONTPELIER. % The State contributed to the army of the Union, during the war, a force amounting to 34,655 men. Of these 5128 were killed, a similar number were discharged, and others were permanently disabled. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal towns and cities of the State are Montpelier, the capital, Burlington, Brattleboro', Rutland, St. Albans, and Ben- nington. MONTPELIER, The capital of Vermont, is delightfully situated on the banks of the Onion River, near the centre of the State, about 200 miles northwest of Boston. It is a pretty little city, well built, and conducts an active and valuable trade with the surrounding country. It is on the main line of travel between Boston and Montreal, in Canada, and is thus immediately connected with the great railroad system of the country. 214 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. It became the capital of the State in 1805, and now contains a popu- lation of over 3000. The State House fronts on State street, and is a splendid edifice of native granite. It is in the form of a cross, has a fine portico sup- ported by massive columns, and is surmounted by a dome the apex of which is 100 feet from the ground. Montpelier contains several flourishing schools, 2 banks, and 5 churches. Six newspapers are published here. BURLINGTON, In Chittenden county, is the largest city in the State. It is situated on the east shore of Lake Champlain, 40 miles northwest of Mont- pelier, and about midway down the lake. The surrounding country abounds in magnificent scenery. " Splendor of landscape," says Dr. D wight, " is the peculiar boast of Burlington. Lake Champlain, here 16 miles wide, extends 50 miles northward, and 40 southward, before it reaches Crown Point, and throughout a great part of this magnificent expansion is visible at Burlington. In its bosom are encircled many beautiful islands ; 3 of them, North and South Hero, and La Motte, sufficiently large to contain, the first and last, 1 township each, the other 2 ; forming, together with the township of Alburgh, cm the point between the bay of Misciscoui and the river St. John, the county of Grand Isle. A numerous train of these islands is here in full view. In the interior, among the other interesting objects, the range of the Green Mountains, with its train of lofty summits, commences in the south with the ut- most stretch of the eye ; and limiting, on the east, one-third of 'the horizon, declines far northward, until it becomes apparently blended with the surface. On the west, beyond the immense field of glass, formed by the waters of the lake, extends the opposite shore from its first appearance at the south, until it vanishes from the eye in the northwest, at the distance of 40 miles. Twelve or 15 miles from this shore ascends the first range of western mountains; about 15 or 20 miles further, the second range ; and at about the same distance the third. The two former commence a few miles south of the head of Lake George ; one on the eastern, and the other on the western side of this water. Where the third commences, I am ignorant. The termination of all these ranges is not far from the latitude of Platts- burg. The prospect of these mountains is superlatively noble. The rise of the first range from the lake, the ascent of the second far above VERMONT. -215 it, and the still loftier elevation of the third, diffuse a magnificence over the whole, which mocks description. Three of the summits, hitherto without a name, are peculiarly distinguished for their sub- limity. Among those of the Green Mountains there are two, in the fullest view from this spot, superior even to these. One of them, named the Gamers Rump, the Camel's Back, and the Camel ; the other the Mountain of Mansfield. The latter of these was by the fol- lowing expedient proved, not long since, to be higher than the former. A hunter, who had ascended to its highest point, put into his piece a small ball ; and pointing it to the apex of the Camel, the ball rolled out. Both of them are, however, very lofty; higher, as I believe, than Killington Peak, notwithstanding the deference with which I regard the estimates of Doctor Williams. The peculiar form of the Camel's Back invests this mountain with a sublimity entirely superior to any other in the State." The city is built on rising ground, which becomes more elevated as it recedes from the lake, being quite low immediately at the water*. The harbor has been deepened and enlarged by the General Govern- ment, and a breakwater constructed for its protection. Two railroads centre here, and afford direct communication with Montreal, Boston, New York City, and Albany. An important trade is carried on upon the lake. About 7000 tons of shipping and several steamers are owned here. The city is regularly laid off, and handsomely built. The streets intersect each other at right angles, extend back from the lake for more than a mile, and are well shaded. A handsome public square occupies the centre of the city, and upon this front the court house, the principal hotels, and the most prominent stores. Nearly all the houses have tasteful yards attached to them. Many have extensive grounds, planted with handsome shrubbery. The city contains 4 banks, a number of churches, and 3 newspaper offices. The popula- tion is about 14387. The University of Vermont occupies a commanding eminence at the eastern end of the city. It was founded in 1791, and is liberally en- dowed. It occupies four spacious and handsome buildings, and from the dome of the central edifice a view of unsurpassed beauty may be obtained. RUTLAND, In Rutland county, in the southwest part of the State, is the second city in Vermont. It is situated on Otter Creek, 55 miles southwest 216 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. RUTLAND. of Montpelier, and 67 miles southeast of Burlington. It is an im- portant railroad centre, four lines converging here, and leading t;o all parts of the country. It is beautifully situated in the midst of a pic- turesque region, Killington Peak forming the leading feature of the landscape. The city is well laid out, and neatly built. It contains several churches, a number of schools, public and private, 2 banks, and 3 newspaper offices. It possesses an important trade with the surrounding country, and contains several manufacturing establish- ments. The population is 9834. Rutland is growing with marked rapidity, and will soon be one of the most important cities in New England. BEKNTNGTON, In the county of the same name, in the extreme southwest part of the State, is a thriving town of 2500 inhabitants. It is famous as being the scene of the battle of Bennington, fought August 16th, 1777, when a detachment of Burgoyne's army, under VERMONT. 217 Colonel Bau me, was terribly beaten by the " Green Mountain Boys," led by General Stark. The following account of the engagement is taken from a popular publication : John Stark, the hero of Bennington, was a native of New Hampshire. At an early age he enlisted in a company of rangers, participated in several conflicts with the savages, and at last fell into their hands, a prisoner of war. Redeemed by his friends for $103, he joined Rogers' rangers, and served with distinction through the French and Indian difficulty. When the news carne to his quiet home, that American blood had been spilt upon the green at Lexington, he rallied his countrymen, and hurried on to Boston with 800 brave mountaineers. Ho presented himself before the American commander on the eve of the battle of Bunker Hill, and receiving a colonel's commission, instantly hurried to the in- trenchmeuts. Throughout the battle of Bunker Hill, Stark and his New Hampshire men nobly sustained the honor of the patriot cause, and no troops exceeded in bravery the militia regiment of Colonel John Stark. In the spring of 1776, he went to Canada, and at the battle of Trenton he commanded the right wing of Washing- ton's army. He was at Princeton, Bennington, and several other severe battles, always sustaining his reputation, as a brave, honorable, sterling patriot, and an able general. He was a great favorite of General Washington, and very popular in the army. On the 8th of May, 1822, aged 93 years, he "was gathered to his fathers, "and his remains repose upon the banks of the beautiful Merrimac, beneath a monument of granite, which bears the inscription "MAJOR-GENERAL STARK." Having given a very brief sketch of the celebrated officer who led our patriot militia upon the field of Bennington, we will proceed with the account of that battle. The magnificent army of General Burgoyne, which invaded the States in 1777, having become straitened for provisions and stores, the royal commander ordered a halt, and sent Colonel Baume, a Hessian officer, to scour the country for supplies. Baume took a strong force of British infantry, two pieces of artil- lery, and a squadron of heavy German dragoons. A great body of Indians, hired and armed by the British, followed his force, or acted as scouts and flanking parties. Stark, on the intelligence of Burgoyne's invasion, was offered the command of one of two regiments of troops which were raised in New Hampshire, through the exertions, chiefly, of John Langdon, Speaker of the General Assembly. Stark had served for a long period as General, but at that time was at home, a private citizen. But at the call of his countrymen he again took the field. The two regiments were soon raised, and with them, as senior officer, Stark hastened to oppose the British army. At that time the Vermont militia were enrolled into an organization, called the "Berkshire Regiment," under Colonel Warner. On arriving near Bennington, Stark sent forward Colonel Gregg, with a small force to reconnoitre, but that officer soon returned with the information that a strong force of British, Hessians and Indians was rapidly approaching. Upon this intelligence, Stark resolved to stand his ground and give battle. Messengers were sent at once to the Berkshire militia to hurry on, and the patriots were directed to see that their weapons were in good order. This was on the 14th of August, 1777. During the day, Baume and his army appeared, and learning that the militia were collecting in front of his route, the commander ordered his 218 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. army to halt, and throw up intrenchments. An express was also sent to General Bnrgoyne for reinforcements. The 15th was dull and rainy. Both armies continued their preparations, while waiting for reinforcements. Skirmishing was kept up all day and night, between the militia and the Indians, and the latter suffered so severely, that a great por- tion of the savage force left the field, saying that "the woods were full of Yan- kees." About 12 o'clock on the night of the 15th, a party of Berkshire militia came into the American camp. At the head of one company, was the Reverend Mr. Allen, of Pittsfield, and that worthy gentleman appeared full of zeal to meet the enemy. Sometime before daylight, he called on General Stark, and said : " General, the people of Berkshire county have often been called out, without being allowed to fight, and if you don't give them a chance, they have resolved never to turn out again." "Very well," replied Stark, "do you want to go at it now, while it is dark and rainy ?" "No, not just at this moment," said the warlike minister. "Then," said the General, "if the Lord shall once more give us sunshine, and I do not give you fighting enough, I'll never ask you to come out again !" This satisfied the preacher, and he went out to cheer up his flock with the good news. Day dawned, bright and warm, on the 16th. All nature, invigorated by the mild August rain, glared with beauty and freshness. Before sunrise, the Ameri- cans were in motion, while from the British intrenchments, the sound of bugles and the roll of drums, told that Baume's forces were ready for action. Stark early arranged his plan of attack. Colonel Nichols, with 300 men, was sent out to attack the British rear ; Colonel Herrick, with 300 men, marched against the right flank, but was ordered to join Nichols before making his assault general. With about 300 men, Colonels Hubbard and Stickney were sent against the entrenched front, while Stark, with a small reserve, waited to operate whenever occasion offered. It must be remembered that the American forces were militia, while Baume's army was made up of well-disciplined, well-armed, and experi- enced soldiers. Many of the patriots were armed with fowling-pieces, and there were whole companies without a bayonet. They had no artillery. General Stark waited impatiently until the roar of musketry proclaimed that the different detachments had commenced their attack, and then forming his small battalion, he made his memorable speech: ''Boys! there's the enemy, and we must beat them, or Molly Stark sleeps a widow to-night Forward!" His sol- diers, with enthusiastic shouts, rushed forward upon the Hessian defences, and the battle became general. The Hessian dragoons, dismounted, met the Ameri- cans with stern bravery. The two cannons, loaded with grape and canister, swept the hill-side with dreadful effect. Stark' s white horse fell in less than ten minutes after his gallant rider came under fire, but on foot, with his hat in one hand, and his sabre in the other, he kept at the head of his men, who, without flinching a single foot, urged their way up the little hill. Brave Parson Allen, with a clubbed musket, was seen amid the smoke, fighting in the front platoon of his company. The whole field was a vol- cano of fire. Stark, in his official report, says that the two forces were within a few yards of each other, and "the roaring of their guns was like a continuous clap of thunder ! " The Hessian and British regulars, accustomed to hard-fought fields, held their ground stubbornly and bravely. For more than two hours the battle hung in even scale. At length, Baume ordered a charge ; at that instant lie fell, mortally wounded, and his men charging forward, broke their ranks in YERMONT. 219 such a manner, that the Americans succeeded, after a fierce hand to hand fight, in entering the intrenchments. Stark shouted to his men, "Forward, boys, charge them home!" and his troops, maddened by the conflict, swept the hill with irresistible valor. They pushed forward without discipline or order, seized the artillery, and gave chase to the flying enemy. The field being won, plunder became the object of the militia. The guns, sabres, stores and equipments of the defeated foe were being gath- ered up, when Colonel Breyman, with 500 men, suddenly appeared upon the field. He had been sent by Burgoyne to reinforce Baume, but the heavy rain had prevented his men from marching at a rapid rate. The flying troops instantly rallied and joined the new array, which speedily assumed an order of battle, and began to press the scattered forces of the patriots. This was a critical period. Stark put forth every effort to rally his men, but they were exhausted, scattered, and nearly out of ammunition. It seemed as if the fortune of the day was in the royal hands, when from the edge o"f a strip of forest, half a mile off, came a loud and genuine American cheer. Stark turned, and beheld emerging from the wood, the Berkshire regiment, under Colonel Warner. This body of men, also delayed by the rain, after a forced march, had just reached the battle field, panting for a share in the affray. General Stark hastened to the captain of the foremost com- pany, and ordered him to lead his men to the charge at once. But the captain coolly asked, "Where's the colonel? I want to see Colonel Warner before I move." The colonel was sent for, and the redoubtable captain, drawing himself up, said, with a nasal twang peculiar to the puritans of old, "Naow, Kernal, what d'ye want me tu dew ? " " Drive those red-coats from the hill yonder," was the answer. " Wall, it shall be done," said the captain, and issuing the necessary orders, he led his men to the charge without a moment's hesitation. Said an eye-witness, afterwards, " The last we saw of Warner's regiment for half an hour, was when they entered the smoke and fire about halfway up the hill." Stark with a portion of his rallied troops supported the Berkshire men, and the royal forces were defeated after a close contest. A portion of them escaped, but 700 men and officers were taken prisoners, among the latter Colonel Baume, who soon died of his wound. The British lost 207 men killed, and a large number wounded. Of the Ameri- cans, about 100 were killed and the same number wounded. The spoils consisted of four pieces of cannon, several hundred stand of excellent muskets, 250 dragoon swords, 8 brass drums, and 4 wagons laden with stores, clothing and ammunition. This victory severely crippled Burgoyne, and discouraged his army, while it enlivened the Americans from one extent of the country to the other. It taught the British troops to respect the American militia, and it was a brilliant precursor to the victories of Saratoga and Bemis' Heights. Congress voted thanks to General Stark and his brave troops for their great victory, and took measures to push on the war with renewed energy and hope. MISCELLANY. THE TAKING OF TICONDEROGA. Inasmuch as the capture of the fortress of Ticonderoga was the work of the " Green Mountain Boys," it seems but just to append the 220 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. account of their exploits to the description we have given of their State. The following narrative is taken from " Williams' History of Vermont:" The first steps for this object seem to have been taken by some gentlemen in Connecticut ; and Messrs. Deane, Wooster, Parsons, and others engaged in the affair. The success depended on the secrecy with which the affair could be man- aged. Their first object was to obtain a sum of money to bear the necessary ex- penses. They procured this to the amount of about $1800, from the general assembly of Connecticut, by way of loan. Several of the militia captains pushed forward to Salisbury, the northwestern town in that colony ; and after a little consultation concluded not to spend any time in raising men, but to procure a quantity of powder and ball, and set off immediately for Bennington, and engage Ethan Allen in the business. With his usual spirit of activity and enterprise, Allen undertook the management of the scheme ; and set off to the northward, to raise and collect all the men that he could find. The Connecticut gentlemen hav- ing procured a small quantity of provisions, went on to Castleton ; and were there joined by Allen, with the men that he had raised from the new settlements. The whole number that were assembled amounted to 270, of which 230 were raised on the New Hampshire grants, distinguished at that time by the name of Green Mountain Boys ; so called from the Green Mountains, among which they resided. Sentries were immediately placed on all the roads, and the necessary measures taken to procure intelligence of the state of the works and garrison at Ticon- deroga. While Allen and his associates were collecting at Castleton, ttolonel Arnold arrived, attended only by a servant. This officer belonged to New Haven, in Connecticut. As soon as the news arrived at that place that hostilities had com- menced at Lexington, Arnold, then a captain, set out at the head of a volunteer company, and marched with the greatest expedition to Cambridge. The day after his arrival, he attended the Massachusetts committee of safety, and reported to them that the fort at Ticonderoga was in a ruinous condition ; that it was gar- risoned by about 40 men, and contained a large quantity of artillery and military stores ; and might easily be captured. The committee wished to avail themselves of his information and activity ; and on the 3d of May appointed him a colonel, and gave him directions to enlist 400 men, and march for the reduction of Ticon- deroga. Under these orders, and with this design, he joined the men that were assembling at Castleton ; but was unknown to any of them but a Mr. Blagden, one of the Connecticut officers. His commission being examined, it was agreed in a council that he should be admitted to join and act with them ; but that Allen should also have the commission of a colonel, and have the command ; and that Arnold should be considered as his assistant. To procure intelligence, Captain Noah Phelps, one of the gentlemen from Con- necticut, disguised himself in the habit of one of the poor settlers, and went into the fort, pretending he wanted to be shaved, and inquired for a barber. Affect- ing an awkward appearance, and asking many simple questions, he passed un- suspected, and had an opportunity to observe the state of everything within the walls. Returning to his party, he gave them the necessary information, and the same night they began their march to the fort. With so much expedition and secrecy had the enterprise been conducted, that Colonel Allen arrived at Orwell, opposite to Ticonderoga, on the 9th of May, at VERMONT. 221 night, with his 230 Green Mountain Boys, without any intelligence or apprehen- sion on the part of the garrison. It was with difficulty that boats could be pro- cured to pass the lake ; a few, however, being collected, Allen and Arnold passed over, with 83 men, and landed near the works. Arnold now wished to assume the command, to lead on the men, and swore that he would go in himself the first. Allen swore that he should not, but that he himself would be the first man that should enter. The dispute beginning to run high, some of the gentlemen that were present interposed, and it was agreed that both should go in together, Allen on the right hand and Arnold on the left. On the 10th of May, in the gray of the morning, they both entered the port leading to the fort, followed by their men. The sentry snapped his fusee at Allen, and retreated through the covered way. The Americans followed the sentry, and immediately drew up on the parade. Captain De la Place commanded, but he was so little apprehensive of any danger or hostility, that he was surprised in his bed. As soon as he ap- peared, he was ordered to surrender the fort. "Upon what authority do you require it?" said De la Place. "I demand it," said Allen, "in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress." Surrounded by the Americans, who were already in possession of the works, it was not in the power of the British captain to make any opposition, and he surrendered his garrison prison- ers of war, without knowing by what authority Allen was acting, or that hostili- ties had commenced between Britain and the Colonies. After Allen had landed with his party, the boats were sent back for Colonel Seth Warner with the re- mainder of the men, who had been left under his command. Warner did not arrive till after the place had surrendered, but he took the command of a party who set off for Crown Point. At that place there were only a sergeant and 12 men to perform garrison duty. They surrendered upon the first summons, and Warner took possession of Crown Point on the same day that Ticonderoga was given up. Another party surprised Skeensborough, made a prisoner of Major Skeen, the son, took possession of a strong stone house which he had built, se- cured his dependents and domestics, and made themselves masters of that im- portant harbor. By these enterprises the Americans had captured a British captain, lieutenant, and 44 privates. In the forts they found above 200 pieces of cannon, some mor- tars, howitzers, and large quantities of ammunition and military stores ; and a warehouse full of materials for carrying on the business of building boats. Hav- ing succeeded in their attempts against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, it was still necessary, in order to secure the command of Lake Champlain, to get pos- session of an armed sloop which lay at St. John's, at the north end of the lake. To effect this purpose, it was determined to man and arm a schooner, which lay at South Bay. Arnold had the command of the schooner, and Allen took the command of a number of batteaux, and both sailed for St. John's. The wind being fresh at the south, Arnold soon passed the lake, surprised and captured the armed sloop in the harbor of St. John's : in about an hour after he had taken her, the wind suddenly shifted to the north, and Arnold made sail with his prize, and met Allen with his batteaux at some distance from St. John's. MASSACHUSETTS. Area, 7800 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 1,231,060 Population in 1870, 1,457,351 THE State of Massachusetts is situated (including its islands) be- tween 41 10' and 42 53' N. latitude, and between 69 50' and 73 30' \V. longitude. It is bounded on the north by New Hampshire and Vermont, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic, and the States of Rhode Island and Connecticut, and on the west by New York. It is very irregular in shape, its southeastern extremity extending far out into the ocean, and curving so as to almost enclose Cape Cod Bay. Its greatest length from east to west is about 145 miles. The eastern side is about 90 miles wide from north to vouth, and its western end about 48 miles broad. TOPOGRAPHY. The State has a considerable extent of sea coast, and possesses a number of excellent harbors. Massachusetts Bay and Cape Cod Bay are really one and the same sheet of water, and comprise a large gulf, which indents the eastern coast of the State for about 25 miles in a southwest and 65 miles in a southeast direction. The upper, or northern part of this gulf is called Massachusetts Bay, and the lower part Cape Cod Bay. The latter is famous as having been the harbor in which the Mayflower cast anchor after her long and weary voyage from England, in 1620. The extreme eastern part of the State extends around Cape Cod Bay, enclosing it in a kind of semicircle. Plymouth is situated on the northwest side of this bay. Boston lies on the west side of Massa- chusetts Bay. 222 * MASSACHUSETTS. 223 Buzzard's Say, in the southeastern part of the State, extends inland in a northward direction for about 30 miles, and is about 7 miles wide. The harbors of New Bedford, Fair Haven, and Rochester lie along this bay, which is separated from Vineyard Sound by the Elizabeth Islands. Martha's Vineyard and the Elizabeth Islands lie in the Atlantic to the south of Barnstable county, and together form Duke's county. Martha's Vineyard is separated from Barnstable county, on the main- land, by Vineyard Sound, a sheet of water from 3 to 7 miles wide. The island is 21 miles long, and from 3 to 9 miles wide. Edgarton is the chief town. The Elizabeth Islands, 16 in number,. lie between Buzzard's Bay and Vineyard Sound. Only 2 or 3 are inhabited. The people of Duke's county are engaged principally in fishing and navigation. Nantuclcet is the name given to a large island in the Atlantic, about 30 miles south of Barnstable county. It is about 15 miles long, and from 3 to 4 miles wide. Several small islands lie immediately on its northern coast, and with it form the county of Nantucket. The chief town is Nantucket, on the northern part of the main island. This town was founded in 1659, and is one of the most thriving in the State. It is compactly and neatly built, has a library of several thousand volumes, 8 or 9 churches, a bank with a capital of $200,000, and several handsome buildings. The inhabitants are actively engaged in the fisheries, and, until the discovery of petroleum rendered this traffic of comparatively little importance, Nantucket was one of the principal depots of the whale trade. In 1863, 4407 tons of shipping were owned on the island. Steam communication is maintained with the mainland. In 1860, the population of the town was 5000, of the county 6064. In 1870, it was 4134. During the Revolution and the war of 181215, Nan tucket sent out numerous privateers against the British commerce, and a Nan tucket ship was the first to show the " Stars and Stripes " in the river Thames, after the recognition of our independence by Great Britain. The surface of Massachusetts is generally uneven, and in the west- ern part is broken into mountain ranges of a moderate elevation. The southeastern part is level and sandy, and the eastern and middle parts are broken and rugged. The Green Mountains pass across the western part of the State, from Vermont, and extend into Connecticut. They are about 20 or 30 miles west of the Connecticut River, and pursue a course parallel with it. Besides this range, there are several 224 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. isolated peaks in the State, the principal of which are Wachusetts Mountain, 2018 feet; in the north-central part of the State, Mount Tom, 1200 feet; and Mount Holyoke, 910 feet, near Northampton. These are considered outliers of the White Mountain range, of New Hampshire. The Green Mountains are divided into two ridges in Massachusetts. The eastern is the lowest, and is called the Hoosic Ridge ; and the western is the most elevated, and is called the Tang- kannic Range. Its highest peak is Mount Washington, 2264 feet, in the southwest corner of the State. The Connecticut is the principal river of the State, flowing across it from north to south, and into the State of Connecticut. It is rendered navigable by means of canals, and furnishes excellent water-power. The MerrimaCj which has already been described in the chapter on New Hampshire, turns the mills of Lowell and Lawrence. The tribu- taries of the former stream in this State are Miller's, the Chicoopee, Deerfield, and Westfield rivers ; those of the latter, the Nashua and Concord. Taunton River furnishes excellent water-power, and sup- plies the factories of the cities of Taunton and Fall River. Charles River rises in the interior, and flows into Massachusetts Bay. "Massachusetts abounds in picturesque scenery. This observation is especially true of the western part of the State, and the view of the Connecticut River and Valley from Mount Holyoke has long been celebrated. Though rather less than 1000 feet in height, the views it commands, and its easy ascent, being traversed to its summit by a good carriage road, have invited hither many tourists in the season for travelling. The spectator has below him the beautiful meander- ing Connecticut wending its way through the meadows and among the villages, while to the southwest, and at no great distance, is Mount Tom ; and still farther in the same direction, Bald or Washington Mount, and in the northwest Saddle Mountain, the highest ground in the State; and turning to the east and northeast he has the peaks of Wachusetts in Massachusetts, and Monad nock in New Hampshire ; the intermediate parts of the scene being filled up with a great variety of landscape, villages, hills, rivulets, and low mountains. There is a good hotel on the top of Mount Holyoke, and in the vicinity the beautiful village of Northampton, at which the tourist may take up his quarters and make his excursion from thence over the mountain. A yet more extensive view is obtained from Saddle Mountain, but it has hitherto lain more out of the line of travel, and been less visited, though of thrice the elevation of Mount Tom. It commands a view of the MASSACHUSETTS. 225 surrounding country for 40 or 50 miles, extending to the Catskills on the west, overlooking the Green Mountains on the north, south, and east, and on the northeast reaching to Monadnock Mountain, in 1SW Hampshire. This mountain is fertile to the summit, near which is a small lake or pond. Goodrich describes a phenomenon as having oc- curred here in 1784, called by the inhabitants the bursting of a cloud. About dawn of a certain morning, the tenants of a house on the banks of the Hoosic, on the western slope, were aroused by the roaring of the torrent, and had barely time to escape before their dwelling was swept away by the flood. The torrent wore a gully in the mountain 20 feet deep, and swept away the timber entirely from about 10 acres of land. Berkshire county abounds in sublime and picturesque scenery, and has become a favorite resort not only for tourists, but for citizens seeking pleasant summer residences. Hawthorne, Miss Sedg- wick, Fanny Kcmble, James, and others, have rendered their tribute to the charms of Berkshire scenery, by taking up their abode there for considerable periods. The Ice Hole, a narrow and deep ravine of great wild ness, in Stockbridge, where the ice remains the year round ; a fall of about 70 feet descent, amid wild scenery, in the Housatonic, in Dalton ; the Natural Bridge, on Hudson's Brook, in Adams, where a fissure of from 30 to 60 feet deep, and about 500 feet long, has been worn through the limestone rock, forming a bridge 50 feet above the water; a rock of 30 or 40 tons, in New Marlboro', so nicely balanced that a finger can move it; and Hanging Mountain, on the Farmington Hiver, in Sandisfield, rising in a perpendicular wall above the river to the height of more than 300 feet; are, after the mountains already named, the most remarkable natural objects in Berkshire. Blue Hill, 11 miles southwest of Boston, which com- mands a fine view of Boston Harbor and the ocean, is 635 feet high, being the most elevated land in Eastern Massachusetts. On the side of Mount Toby, a hill of sandstone, elevated about 1000 feet above the Connecticut, is a cavern about 150 feet in length and 60 in depth. Nahant, a rocky promontory on the north shore of Boston Bay, ex- tending 4 miles into the sea, is the most noted watering-place in Mas- sachusetts. It is about 9 miles northeast of Boston, and commands a fine view of the ocean, and of the shipping entering and departing from the harbor. In addition to its good beach, Nahant has the charm of wildness given to it by the rugged rocks which form the promontory, and into the caves and recesses of which the sea surges at times with great violence. The mineral springs of this State have 15 226 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. not acquired any great celebrity beyond her own limits; the principal are, one in the town of Hopkinton, impregnated with carbonic acid, and carbonates of lime and iron ; one in Shutesbury, containing mu- riate of lime; and a chalybeate sulphur spring in Winchenden. The Quincy granite quarries, 6 or 8 miles south of Boston, in a range of hills 200 feet high, are worthy of a visit." * MINERALS. Granite abounds, and is shipped to all parts of the Union for build- ing purposes. The gray granite of the Quincy Hills is famous. Mar- ble is found in Berkshire county. The new wings of the Capitol at Washington, and Girard College at Philadelphia are constructed of marble from this county. Small deposits of anthracite coal are found in Hampshire county. Iron is found in great abundance west of the Connecticut River, and in limited quantities in Plymouth and Bristol counties, while lead mines have been worked in Hampshire county (at Northampton), since 1765. The other minerals are gneiss, quartz," mica, limestone, hornblende, serpentine, asbestus, and slate. CLIMATE. The climate of Massachusetts is very severe in the winter. The writer has seen the thermometer indicate 28 below zero at 8 o'clock A. M. in Boston. The summers are short, and would be pleasant on the coast were it not for the sudden changes from extreme heat to cold by which they are marked. The spring is rendered disagreeable by severe northeast winds, which are a fruitful source of pulmonary complaints. In the western part of the State, the climate is steadier. The winter sets in early in all sections, and lasts long, but the spring, though late, is rapid. The early fruit trees are in full bloom by the middle of April. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of Massachusetts is not naturally fertile, but has been ren- dered productive by the industry of its people. The best lands are in the central and western counties, especially in the valleys of the Connecticut, Housatonic, and other streams. The farmers of Massa- chusetts compare favorably with those of any other part of the Union Lippineott's Gazetteer, p. 1156. MASSACHUSETTS. 227 in intelligence, and there is perhaps no State which devotes more sci- entific skill to the production of its crops. The population is the densest in the Union, and the amount of grain produced is not ade- quate to the demands of the community. In 1869 there were 2,155,512 acres of improved land in Massa- chusetts, and 1,183,212 acres of unimproved land. The following statement shows the remainder of the agricultural wealth of the State qt the present time : Cash value of farms, - ... $123,255,948 Value of farming implements and machinery, $-3,894,998 X umber of horses, 49,450 asses and mules, 189 milch cows, 160,220 u other cattle, 140,340 44 sheep, 119,560 " swine, 93,540 Value of domestic animals, $9,737,744 Bushels of wheat, 167,000 rye, 462,000 Indian corn, 1,950,000 44 oats, 1,525,000 44 Irish potatoes, 4,300,000 44 barley. 144,000 buckwheat, 85,000 Pounds of wool, 377,267 butter, 8,297,936 44 cheese, 5,294,090 hops, . 111,301 44 maple sugar, 1,006,078 44 beeswax and honey, 62,414 Tons of hay, 850,000 Value of orchard products, $925,519 44 market garden products, $1,397,623 44 home-made manufactures, .... $245,886 44 slaughtered animals, $2,915,045 COMMERCE. In the extent and value of her commerce, Massachusetts stands next to New York. The total tonnage of the State in 1859 was 829,034, of which 154,048 were engaged in the whale fisheries. In 1855, the total value of the product of the whale fisheries was $6,766,996. In the same year the product of the cod and mackerel fisheries was $2,902,796. In 1861, the total exports of Massachusetts were $16,532,736, and the total imports, $45,399,844. 228 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MANUFACTURES. Massachusetts is the third State in the Union in manufactures, and the first as regards her cotton and woollen manufactures. By the census of 1860, there were 8176 establishments in the State, devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing a capital of 133,000,000, and 216,300 hands, and yielding an annual product of $266,000,000. There were 200 cotton mills, employing 12,635 male, and 22,353 female hands, and a capital of $33,300,000. They consumed raw material worth $14,778,334; paid $7,221,156 for la- bor ; and yielded an annual product of $36,745,864. There were 131 woollen mills, employing 6645 male, and 4608 female hands, and a capital of $10,179,500. They consumed raw material worth $11,- 613,174, paid $2,645,868 for labor, and returned an annual product of $18,930,000. The value of leather produced was $10,354,056 Vof boots and shoes, $46,440,209 ; of pig iron, $403,000; of rolled iron, $1,291,200; of steam engines and machinery, $5,131,238; of agricul- tural implements, $1,740,943; of sawed and planed lumber, $4,200,- 000; of malt liquors, $659,000; of spirituous liquors, $1,266,000; of furniture, $3,665,415. In 1865, the value of paper manufactured was $9,008,521. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In proportion to its size and population, Massachusetts is the most important State in the Union as regards its railroads. In 1871, there were 1975 miles of single track in the State. These were constructed and equipped at a cost of $72,175,091, and during the year 1865, their net earnings amounted to $6,173,157. Boston is the great rail- road centre. Three continuous lines extend from that city into New York, two of them passing through the principal towns of Rhode Island and Connecticut. Two lines extend from Boston to Portland, passing through the intervening towns. Lines extend from the former city to all parts of the State, into New Hampshire, Vermont, and Canada, and by means of the Boston and Troy (N. Y.) Railroad, there is now unbroken railroad communication between Boston and all parts of the west and the Pacific Ocean. EDUCATION. The State provides liberally for the cause of education. "The Board of Education, which consists of the Governor, Lieutenant- MASSACHUSETTS. 2'29 HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS. Governor, and eight members appointed by the Governor and Coun- cil, has the general oversight of the Normal Schools, Public Schools, and of Educational Statistics. The officers, trustees, or persons in charge of every institution of learning, whether literary, scientific, or professional, public or private, and of all reform schools or alms- houses, are required by law to report to the Board on or before the 1st day of June in each year, giving such statistics as the Board shall prescribe. The Board appoints a Secretary, who is its chief executive officer, and who gives his whole time to the supervision and improve- ment of common schools.. Each town elects a School Committee of three persons, or a number which is a multiple of three, who examine teachers, visit schools, and have a general oversight of the schools of the town. In the cities and some of the larger towns, the School Committee appoints a superintendent, who has the immediate charge of the schools. The number of school districts is annually diminish- ing, there being 323 less in 1867 than in 1866, and 672 less than in 1861. Where the districts are abolished, the schools are managed entirely by the towns. Each town having 500 or more families is by law required to maintain a public high school. 230 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. " Provision for the special education of teachers is made in four State Normal Schools, two of which are for both sexes, and two for female teachers only. A Girls' High and Normal School, and an ef- ficient Training School, are also maintained by the city of Boston, for preparing teachers for primary schools. Teachers 7 Institutes are held annually under the direction of the Secretary of the Board of Edu- cation." The public schools are supported by direct taxes. In 1870, the amount expended for these schools, exclusive of the cost of erecting and repairing buildings, was $3,125,053. In 1870 there were in the State 5100 public schools, presided over by 8977 teachers. The attendance was as follows: 242,155 pupils; 121,572 being males, and 120,573 females. Harvard University, at Cambridge, is the oldest college in the Union, and ranks among the first in standing and usefulness. Besides the regular collegiate course, it has schools of divinity, medicine, law, science, and philosophy. Its museum of Scientific- Zoology is the best in the country. Its faculty has included some of the most eminent men of the land, and many of our greatest statesmen, jurists, and men of science are numbered amongst its alumni. Williams College, at Williamstown, Amherst, at Amherst, Holy Cross, at Worcester, and Tufts, at Medford, are the other colleges of the State. All are well attended, and are prosperous. In 1871, there were 55 incorporated academies, with an average attendance of 3696 pupils; and 553 private schools of all grades, the estimated average attendance of which was 14,417. In 1870, there were in the State 3169 libraries, containing 3,017,813 volumes. Of these, about 1500 were public. In Massa- chusetts, as well as in the other New England States, there is a public library in nearly every town. In 1870, there were 259 periodicals published in the State 129 political, 31 religious, 54 literary and miscellaneous. Of these, 21 were daily, 1 tri-weekly, 14 semi-weekly, l';3 weekly, 48 monthly, 6 quarterly, and 1 annual. Their aggregate annual circulation was 129,691,266 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at Charlestown. It was founded in 1800. The commutation system is in successful operation. Prison- ers are confined in separate cells, and are required to perform their MASSACHUSETTS. 231 work in silence. On the 30th of September, 1869, there were 593 prisoners confined in this establishment. The profits of the labor performed by the convicts amounted, during the year 1868-69, to $26,781 over the expenses of conducting the establishment. In the old graveyard adjoining the prison is the monument to John Harvard, erected to his memory in 1828, by the students of Harvard University. There are in Massachusetts 20 jails, 16 houses of correction, and 1 House of Industry. The Board of State Charities has charge of all the charitable insti- tutions of the State. These are the lunatic asylums, the almshouses, and reform schools. There are three State Lunatic Hospitals, located respectively at Worcester, Taunton, and Northampton. All these receive State, town, and private patients. The State patients at the Northampton Hospital consist of incurables transferred from the other institutions. The State Almshouses are three in number, and are located respec- tively at Tewksbury, Monson, and Bridgevvater. The Tewksbury Almshouse is a receptacle for aged, helpless, harmless, and insane paupers; that at Monson is provided with a primary school, and is devoted to children old enough to receive education ; while the Bridge water Almshouse is a place of confinement for persons sen- tenced to a workhouse. There are three Reform Schools, the State Industrial School for girls, at Lancaster, where a most excellent influence is exerted for the purpose of reclaiming young girls from vicious lives ; the State Reform Scjiool for boys, at Westborough, where a similar course of treatment is pursued for boys; and the Massachusetts Nautical School, estab- lished on two ships, at Boston and New Bedford, in which boys of bad character are placed for reformation. In this school the boys are trained for the U. S. Navy and the whaling service. These institutions are all in a flourishing condition. The State also supports wholly, or in part, the School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth, at South Boston ; the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind ; the Massachusetts General Hospital; the Eye and Ear Infirmary; the Wash ingtonian Home; the Discharged Soldiers' Home; the Temporary Asylum for Dis- charged Female Prisoners ; the Home for the Friendless ; the New England Moral Reform Society; and the Agency for Discharged Convicts. Pupils are maintained at the expense of the State in the 232 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. "Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb," at Hartford, Conn., and at the Clarke Institution for Deaf Mutes, at Northampton, Mass. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Massachusetts was $24,488,285. In the same year there were 1764 churches in the State. FINANCES. On the 1st of January, 1870, the total State debt was $28,269,881. In the same year, the sinking fund for the redemption of this debt amounted to over $15,000,000. On the 1st of October, 1868, there were 207 National Banks in the State, with an aggregate paid-in capital of $80,032,000. GOVERNMENT. The right of suffrage in this State is denied to paupers and persons under guardianship, but is extended to each male adult, able to read the Constitution of the State in the English language and to write his name, who has been a resident of the State for one year, and of his election district for six months. The State Government is vested in a Governor, assisted by an Ex- ecutive Council of 8 members (one from each Council district of the State), a Lieutenant-Governor, a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 40 members) and a House of Representatives (of 240 members), together styled " The General Court of the Commonwealth of Massa- chusetts," a Secretary of State, a Treasurer, an Auditor, and an At- torney General, all chosen annually by the people, on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. They enter upon their duties on the first Wednesday in January. The Judiciary comprises a Supreme Judicial Court, a Superior Court, a Probate Court in each county, and municipal and police courts in the cities and towns. The Supreme Judicial Court consists of a Chief Justice, and five Associate Justices. It has exclusive cognizance of all capital crimes, and "exclusive chancery jurisdiction so far as chancery powers are conferred by statute, and concurrent original jurisdiction of all civil cases where the amount in dispute exceeds $4000 in Suffolk county and $1000 in all other counties." MASSACHUSETTS. 233 The Superior Court consists of a Chief Justice, and nine Associate Justices. It has jurisdiction in all criminal case's, except capital cases, and in all civil cases where the amount in dispute is over $20. The Governor of the State, by and with the advice and consent of his Council, appoints the Judges of both Courts, who hold office dur- ing good behavior. The seat of Government is established at Boston. For the purposes of government, the State is divided into 14 counties. HISTORY. According to the Icelandic legend, Massachusetts was first discov- ered by Biorn, in the year 906 ; but, as we have elsewhere intimated, this legend is vague and devoid of substantial proof, and the credit of the first discovery must be given to John Cabot, who visited the coast in 1497, under the orders of Henry VII. of England, and five years after the first voyage of Columbus. He failed to discover any inhabi- tants/but at a later period, his son, Sebastian, while endeavoring to dis- cover a northwest passage to China, visited the waters of New England, found that the country was inhabited, and took three of the natives with him to England. The Spaniards subsequently made some landings on the coast, and carried off a number of the natives, whom they sold in Europe as slaves. No attempt at settlement was made until 1602, when Bartholomew Gosnold, with a colony of 32 persons, made a lodgement on one of the Elizabeth Islands. The settlement was abandoned in a few weeks, however, in consequence of internal dis- sensions, and the expedition returned to England. This attempt had the effect of bringing the new country into prominent notice in Eng- la^d, and the Plymouth Company was organized, several years later, under the leadership of Sir John Popham and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, the first the Chief Justice of the King's Bench, and the other the Governor of Plymouth. This company was given almost sovereign powers over the territory assigned it. In 1614, Captain John Smith published a map of New England, together with a description of the country along the coast, which greatly increased the interest felt in the matter. The company sent out one or two trading expeditions, which were successful ; but the first permanent settlement was made in 1620, at Plymouth, by a band of English Puritans, who were flee- ing from religious persecution in their own country, and whose at- tempt was made without the sanction or authority of the Plymouth Company. They held a patent from the Virginia Company, whose 234 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. territory lay south of the Hudson, and the king would do no more than promise not to molest them. Soon after landing at Plymouth, this colony made a treaty of friend- ship with the Indians, which was not broken for a long period. The settlers endured many privations and hardships, but bore them all bravely until they had placed their settlement beyond all danger of failure, and were joined by other emigrants from England. Other lodgements were made along the coast during the next twenty years, at Salem, Boston, Charlestown, Eoxbury, Watertown, Dorchester, Mystic and Saugus (Lynn), and other places. In 1629, Charles I. granted the Plymouth Colony a charter, and the government of the province was divided between the colonies of Plymouth and Massa- chusetts Bay, which were united under one administration in 1692. The Bay colony was much annoyed by the interference of the home Government, which became jealous of its rapid growth and prosperity, and after an aggravating contest, which at one time bade fair to result in blows, the matter was settled. The king refused to yield what he claimed as his right to interfere in the domestic affairs of the colony, whose officials, however, adroitly managed to prevent the exercise of such authority on his part. In 1637, the war against the Pequots broke out, and the settlements towards Connecticut, upon which colony fell the principal shock of the war, suffered considerably. In 1675, King Philip's war began. This struggle was a bloody one, and lasted for more than a year. During its continuance, 12 or 13 towns were destroyed, more than 600 men were killed, and about 600 houses burned by the savages. The war cost the colony half a million of dollars, and rendered one- twentieth of the number of families homeless. Massachusetts at this time claimed jurisdiction over New. Hamp- shire and Maine, but was deprived of it by the home Government in 1684. This act was followed by the appointment of Sir Edmund Andros as Governor of New England. Andros and his Council were guilty of the most infamous tyranny. They made laws and levied taxes in the most outrageous manner, and rendered themselves so odious to the colony, that as soon as news was received of the landing of William and Mary in England, the people of Boston rose in arms, imprisoned Andros and his companions, reinstated the former magis- trates, and declared for the new king and queen. They were sus- tained in this action by the rest of the province. In 1690, in the war with France, Massachusetts sent out an expe- MASSACHUSETTS. 235 dition under Sir William Phipps, which took and plundered Port Royal. When the fleet returned, the Province was not able to pay the men engaged in the expedition, and treasury notes were issued for that purpose. This was the first paper money seen in the colony. In 1692, the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were united by the Crown under one Government. Massachusetts at this time was divided into the counties of Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, and Hampshire. It contained 55 towns, and had a total population of about 40,000. Plymouth was divided into the counties of Plymouth, Bristol, and Barnstable. It contained 17 towns, and had a population of 7000. Sir William Phipps was appointed the first Governor under the new charter. In 1692, a remarkable delusion broke out in the colony on the sub- ject of witchcraft, beginning at and centering in Salem. In 1703, great suffering prevailed along the western border in consequence of the outrages of the French and Indians. During this war, Deerfield was burned a second time, having been first destroyed during King Philip's war. The struggle lasted several years, but the colony con- tinued to grow and prosper in spite of it. In 1722, war was resumed with the Indians, and continued for three years. It was prosecuted with such vigor on the part of the province, that the power of the savages was broken forever, and the long contest with them which had lasted for forty years was finally and triumphantly closed. In 1744, war again broke out with France, and the forces of the province distinguished themselves in the capture of Louisburg. Peace was .restored in 1748, but did not long continue. The colony bore a fair share in all the struggles against the power of France in America, and responded liberally to every call for men and money. The les- sons learned in these contests were of infinite value in the great strug- gle for freedom which followed them. At the commencement of the troubles with the mother country, the province was well settled in all its parts, and had a total population of about 250,000 souls. In spite of the efforts of Great Britain to prevent it, it had built up a flourishing commerce, was largely engaged in the fisheries, and was to some extent interested in manufactures. Its enterprise and energy, and above all, the native independence of its people, made it the chief mark of the aggressions of the Crown, which were met by it with spirit and firmness. Massachusetts was the first to inaugurate an organized effort to secure justice from the Crown, which example was followed by her sister provinces. The 236 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. events which preceded the Revolution having been narrated in another chapter, it is not necessary to return to them here. Massachusetts, being the principal object of British injustice, was forced into the most prominent position, which she maintained with dignity and credit. The other colonies made common cause with her, and the war began in the encounter between the Royal troops and the people at Lexington. The conflict at Concord followed, and the people of the province flew to arms with a rapidity which proved how thor- oughly and carefully they had prepared themselves for the main- tenance of their rights. During the war which ensued, Massachusetts sustained her reputation for patriotism, bravery, and self-sacrifice. In 1730 a State Constitution .was adopted, and John Hancock was elected Governor of the Commonwealth. In 1786, the people of the western counties, feeling themselves too poor to pay the heavy taxes levied for the purpose of defraying the State debt, took up arms against the authorities of the Commonwealth. The insurrection was settled after a sharp conflict with the insurgents, who were forced to submit. The outbreak is known as "Shays's Rebellion," in con- sequence of the insurgents having been led by one Daniel Shays. The Constitution of the United States was ratified by Massachu- setts in 1788. Although the State opposed the second war with England, the seamen of Massachusetts were true to the country, and formed a considerable part of the crews of those famous vessels which won the glorious naval victories of the war. The people of the State, as a whole, however, sustained their authorities in opposin'g the war, in which they had a deeper interest than they were willing to admit, and throughout the struggle hampered the Federal Government by a most unwise and unpatriotic opposition. The State bore a prominent part in the Hartford Convention, in 1814. In 1820 the Constitution of the Commonwealth was amended, and again in 1857. In 1820 the State consented to the separation of the province of Maine, which was in the same year erected into an inde- pendent establishment, and admitted into the Union as a State. During the late Rebellion, Massachusetts furnished 159,165 men to the army and navy of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns are : Cambridge, Lowell, Lynn, Lawrence, Charlestown, Salem, New Bedford, Newburyport, Nan- tucket, Gloucester, Marblehead, Plymouth, Provincetown, Worcester, MASSACHUSETTS. 237 Springfield, Fall River, Chelsea, Taunton, Chicopee, Danvers, Ando- ver, and Haverhill. BOSTON, The capital of the State, and the largest city in New England, is situated on Massachusetts Bay, 464 miles northeast of Washington, and 236 miles northeast of New York. Latitude 42 21' 22" N. ; longitude 71 4' 9" W. It is decidedly one of the most interesting cities in the Union, apart from its being the metropolis of New Eng- land and the second commercial city of the Republic. It is divided into 3 sections, Boston proper, East, and South Bos- ton. Boston proper, or the old city, is built upon a peninsula origi- nally covering about 700 acres, but now much enlarged by the addition of "made land." The surface of this peninsula is broken by 3 hills, which caused the first settlers to call the place Tremont, or Trimountain. The city was originally very narrow at its southern end, but the " Back Bay," as the shoal water surrounding it is called, is now being filled up with gravel brought from Needham, to an ave- rage height of 18 feet above the surface of the water. This "made land" will eventually double the size of the old city. It is graded as it is formed, and is laid off regularly with broad streets and hand- some parks. It is already well built up, and constitutes the hand- somest part of Boston. It will ultimately be one of the most splendid cities in America. The old city was originally joined to the main land by a strip of land called "The Neck," so narrow and low that it afforded scarcely room for a single vehicle to pass on firm ground. Now it has been raised and widened, and 4 fine avenues traverse it and connect Boston and Roxbury. South Boston formed a part of Dorchester until 1804, when it was added to Boston. It extends along the south side of the harbor for 2 miles, between Fort Independence and the city proper. It is de- voted principally to the residences of the middle classes. This part of the city contains the famous " Dorchester Heights," the occupation of which by Washington, during the Revolution, compelled the British commander to evacuate Boston. East Boston occupies an island in the harbor, formerly known as Noddle's Island. It is about 650 yards distant from the city proper, with which it is connected by a steam ferry. It contains a number of residences of the middle classes, and is the seat of an important manufacturing interest. Shipbuilding is carried on, and the Grand Junction Railroad terminates here. 238 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Boston proper may be divided into the old and the new city. The old city still preserves its ancient characteristics. The houses are mostly in the style of a century ago ; the streets are narrow and crooked, and have a prim, formal air. "Wandering through them, one can scarcely help watching to see some old-time Puritan step out from the quaint doorways. The new city is regularly laid out. The streets are broad and straight ; they cross each other at right angles, and are lined with magnificent edifices. Everything is modern. Near the southern end of the old city is one of the finest parks in America, known as " Boston Common." It covers an area of about 50 acres, and is beautifully ornamented. Adjoining it is a handsome enclosure of 25 acres, used as a botanic garden, and known as the "Public Garden." Both the "Garden" and " Common "are sur- rounded by tasteful iron fences. The fence enclosing the "Common" is nearly a mile and an eighth in length. The centre of the grounds is occupied by a pretty little pond, from which a fountain sends a fine jet of water into the air. Not far from the pond is an old elrn, sup- ported by metallic bands and enclosed with an iron railing. It is the oldest tree in America, having attained its full growth in 1722. From the pond the grounds rise abruptly to the State House, which is situated on Beacon hill, just outside the enclosure. From this point they slope gently to Charles River, which washes the western shore of the city. Several small but handsome parks lie in various parts of the city. The residences of Boston exhibit considerable tasfe, and much wealth, but are marked by a sameness peculiar to American cities, and the stores and public buildings are among the finest in the country. The State House, on Beacon street and Beacon hill, is a handsome, old-style structure, surmounted by a fine dome. It occupies the high- est ground in the city, and is the most prominent feature of any view of Boston. Its foundation is 110 feet above the level of the sea. It was commenced in 1795, and completed in 1798, at a cost of $133,330. In 1855 it was enlarged, $243,204 being expended upon it for that purpose. From the dome, a magnificent view of the city, the harbor, and the surrounding country may be had. More than a dozen cities and towns can be seen from it, and in fair weather, the White Moun- tains of New Hampshire may be dimly discerned. The State Library is located in this building, and contains more than 25,000 volumes. In the rotunda is a collection of flags taken from the Southern forces MASSACHUSETTS. 239 STATE HOUSE, BOSTON. during the late war, and two cannon captured from the British daring the war of 1812-15. In the Doric Hall, on the entrance floor, is Chantrey's statue of "Washington. Statues of Daniel Webster and Horace Mann ornament the steps facing the "Common." The Chambers of the Senate and House of Delegates are handsome apart- ments. The Old State House, at the head of State street, is a venerable and interesting building. The General Court sat here until the comple- tion of the new State House, and in the square just below it occurred the famous " Boston Massacre." The Court House, on Court street, the Merchants' Exchange and Post Office, on State street, and the Custom House, at the foot of State street, are fine granite. buildings, and among the principal ornaments of the city. The City Hall, on School street, is a magnificent edifice, of light New Hampshire granite. It contains the offices of the City Government, but is badly located, and is almost hidden by the sur- rounding houses. Just opposite it stands a fine white marble hotel, called the " Parker House." The Horticultural Hall and the Masonic 240 THE GKEAT REPUBLIC. FAXEUIL HALL. Temple, on Tremont street, opposite the Common, are amongst the handsomest buildings in the city. They are exhibited to strangers by the Bostonians with a pardonable pride. The former is built of white marble, and the latter of a fine granite. Faneuil Hall, in Faneuil Hall Square, is decidedly the most inter- esting building in Boston. It is a large old-fashioned building. The lower part is used as a market, and the upper part as a public hall. It is 129 years old, and was built in 1742, by Peter Faneuil, who presented it to the city for a town hall. It was destroyed by fire in 1761, rebuilt in 1763, and enlarged to its present dimensions in 1805. It is often called "The Cradle of Liberty," since the public meetings of the patriots were held here in the exciting days which preceded the Revolution. To the east of the Hall is a fine granite building called the Quincy Market. The upper part comprises one of the largest halls in the Union. The Music Hall, fronting on Winter street and Bumstead place, is one of the best halls in the country, and contains the great organ, one MASSACHUSETTS. 241 of the most powerful and excellent instruments ever constructed. It was built at Ludwigslust, in Germany. It contains about 6000 pipes and 89 stops. It is 60 feet high, 48 feet broad, and 24 feet deep. It cost $60,000. The literary and scientific institutions of Boston are amongst the best in the country. The Athenceum, situated on Beacon street, is one of the wealthiest organizations in the world. It occupies a splendid freestone building, and possesses a library of 90,000 volumes, besides pamphlets and manuscripts, and fine galleries of paintings and statuary. The Public Library occupies a handsome brick building on Boyls- ton street, erected at a cost of $250,000. It is one of the noblest in- stitutions in the world. Its collection is free to all tax-payers upon certain liberal conditions. It contains nearly 200,000 volumes. The Mercantile Library, on Summer street, contains over 20,000 volumes. The Massachusetts Historical Society possesses one of the best American libraries in the world. It numbers about 13,000 voU umes, besides many valuable maps, charts, papers, manuscripts, and other documents. The Young Men's Christian Association has also a good library. That of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences numbers over 20,000 volumes. The others are the State Library, Social Law Library, and General Theological Library. Besides these, the city will compare favorably with any in the country, with respect to its private libraries. The other institutions of a literary and scientific character are, the Lowell Institute, the Institute of Technology, the Natural History So- ciety, the American Statistical Society, the Musical, Educational, and Handel and Haydn Societies, and the Boston Academy of Music. The public schools of Boston are amongst the best in the world. There are 254 primary, 20 grammar, and 3 high schools in the city. The school houses alone have cost the city about $2,980,000, and the annual sum expended for their support is about $800,000. Besides these, there are a large number of private schools in the city. The benevolent institutions are numerous and well endowed. The Massachusetts General Hospital, on Charles River, just opposite Charlestown, and the new Free City Hospital, at the "South End," are fine institutions. The buildings of the latter constitute one of the principal ornaments of the city. The McLean Asylum for the Insane, a branch of the General Hospital, is located at Somerville, two miles northwest of Boston. The Boston Lunatic Asylum is situated in 16 242 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. South Boston, and the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind is in the same part of the city. The Alms House, the House of Industry and Reformation, and the Quarantine Hospital are on Deer Island. There are over 60 benevolent institutions in the city. We have not the space to name each one, and have given only the most important. About 125 newspapers and periodicals are issued in Boston, 6 of which are daily. Several of the leading literary and scientific jour- nals of the country are published here. There are more than 115 churches in the city, the largest .number belonging to the Unitarians. Christ Church (Episcopal) in Salem street, was erected in 1722, Trinity Church (Episcopal) in 1734, and King's Chapel in 1636. The graveyard attached to the last named church contains the remains of many of the Puritan settlers, and is one of the most interesting spots in the city. The Old South Church, on Washington street, was erected in 1730. The original edifice was of wood, and was built in 1670. It was one of the famous meeting places of the leaders of the Revolution, and during the occupation of the city by the British, was used as a riding-school. In the front of the tower of the Brattle Street Church, finished in 1773, may be seen a round shot fired from the American batteries at Cambridge during the evacuation of Boston by the British. The church edifices of Bos- ton, as a general rule, are not so handsome as those of the other large cities of the Union. The Cemeteries are Mount Auburn, Forest Hill, and Woodlawn. They are very beautiful, Mount Auburn being one of the loveliest in the world. The city is well supplied with theatres and places of amusement. The Boston Theatre is one of the largest and handsomest halls in the world. Boston is connected with the surrounding cities of Cambridge, Charlestown, and Chelsea, and with South Boston by seven fine bridges. Nearly all are free, and all will eventually become so. A massive causeway unites it with Brookline, now a part of the city. Telegraph lines enter the city from all parts of the Union, and there is also a municipal fire alarm and police telegraph 'connecting the various sections of the corporate limits. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with excellent water from Cochituate Lake, 20 miles distant. Lines of horse cars connect all parts of Boston with a common centre at the foot of Tremont street, and with the surrounding towns a,nd villages. MASSACHUSETTS. 243 Seven lines of railroad terminate here, extending directly to the Eastern, Middle, Southern, and Western States, and into Canada. The principal hotels are the Parker, Tremont, and Revere Houses, and the American, St. James, and United States Hotels. The wharves are the finest in the United States, and among the best in the world. They would measure an aggregate length of 6 miles, and are lined with splendid warehouses, many of which are built of a rough granite, and are very handsome. The harbor opens to the sea between Point Alderton, on Nantaskct, and Point Shirley, in Chelsea. The distance across from point to point is about 4 miles. There are three entrances formed by several islands which lie in the lower part. The main channel lies between Castle and Governor's Islands, and is so narrow that two ships can scarcely sail abreast through it. It is defended by Fort Independence and Fort Winthrop. Fort Winthrop also protects the passage north of Governor's Island, and Fort Warren, on George's Island, guards the lower entrance. The harbor covers an area estimated at 75 square miles. It is free from sand-bars, is rarely closed by ice, is sheltered from the sea, and is easy of access. About one-half of it affords a sure anchorage for vessels of the largest class. It receives the waters of the Charles, Mystic, Neponset, and Manatiquot rivers. Boston is the second commercial city in the Union. In 1864, its total imports were valued at $30,751,595, and its exports at $21,142,^34. There are about 45 banks in the city, with a capital of about $30,000,000. The population (including Roxbury and Dorchester) is 250,526. Roxbury was, until a few years since, a distinct city of Norfolk county, but is now a part of the corporation of Boston. At the be- ginning of the present century it was situated 3 or 4 miles south of Boston, but the intervening distance has since been built up, and the two cities, for some time before their union, joined each other so closely that a stranger could not tell where one began or the other ended. It contains a number of manufactures of its own, but is oc- cupied principally by the residences of persons doing business in Boston. The city abounds in picturesque views, and many of its lo- calities are very beautiful. It contained a population of about 30,000 previous to its annexation to Boston. Dorchester, in Norfolk county, has been recently annexed to Boston. Like Roxbury, this city was chiefly occupied with residences. It contains a population of about 1 5 000, 244 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Boston, as we have said, was originally called Tremont. Its first white inhabitant was the Rev. John Blackstone, who lived here alone until the arrival of Governor Winthrop, in 1630, when a settlement was established here. By the year 1635, quite a thriving village had sprung up, and the Rev. Mr. Blackstone sold his claim to the penin- sula for <30. The first church was erected in 1632, and the firsi wharf in 1673. In 1677, the first postmaster was appointed, and in 1704, the first newspaper, called The Boston News Letter, was issued. Boston was one of the -first communities to resist the aggressions of the mother country, and was the scene of many of the most interesting of the events which preceded the Revolution. On the 5th of March, 1770, the "Boston Massacre" occurred ; on the 31st of March, 1774, the harbor of Boston was closed; on the 17th of June, 1775, the bat- tle of Bunker Hill was fought; and in March, 1776, the town was evacuated by the British. Boston was incorporated as a city on the 23d of February, 1822. The following incidents in the early history of Boston will be found interesting by the reader : THE BOSTON MASSACRE. On the 2d of March, 1770, a fray took place in Boston, near Mr. Gray's rope, walk, between a private soldier of the 29th Regiment and an inhabitant. The former was supported by his comrades, the latter by the rope-makers, till several on both sides were involved in the consequences. On the 5th a more dreadful scene was presented. The soldiers when under arms were pressed upon, insulted, and pelted by a mob armed with clubs, sticks, and snow balls covering stones. They were also dared to fire. In this situation, one of the soldiers, who had received a blow, in resentment fired at the supposed aggressor. This was followed by a single discharge from six others. Three of the inhabitants were killed, and five were dangerously wounded. The town was immediately in commotion. Such was the temper, force, and number of the inhabitants, that nothing but an engagement to remove the troops out of the town, together with the advice of moderate men prevented the townsmen from falling on the soldiers. The killed were buried in one vault, and in a most respectful manner, in order to express the indignation of the inhabitants at the slaughter of their brethren, by soldiers quartered among them, in violation of their civil liberties. Captain Preston, who commanded the party which fired on the inhabitants, was committed to jail, and afterwards tried. The captain, and six of the men, were acquitted. Two were brought in guilty of manslaughter. It appeared, on the trial, that the soldiers were abused, insulted, threatened and pelted, before they fired. It was also proved, that only seven guns were fired by the eight prisoners. These circum- stances induced the jury to make a favorable verdict. The result of the trial reflected great honor on John Adams (the late President of the United States) and Josiah Quincy, Esqrs. the counsel for the prisoners ; and also on the integrity of the jury, who ventured to give an upright verdict, in defiance of popular opinions. MASSACHUSETTS. 245 The people, not dismayed by the blood of their neighbors thus wantonly shed, determined no longer to submit to the insolence of military power. Col. Dal- rymple, who commanded in Boston, was informed the day after the riot in King street, "that he must withdraw his troops from the town within a limited term, or hazard the consequences." The inhabitants of the town assembled in Faneuil Hall, where the subject was discussed with becoming spirit, and the people unanimously resolved that no armed force should be suffered longer to reside in the capital ; that if the king's troops were not immediately withdrawn by their own officers, the Governor should be requested to give orders for their removal, and thereby prevent the necessity of more rigorous steps. A committee from the body was deputed to wait on the Governor, and request him to exert that authority which the exigencies of the times required from the supreme magistrate. Mr. Samuel Adams, the chairman of the committee, with a pathos and address peculiar to himself, exposed the illegality of quartering troops in the town in the midst of peace ; he urged the apprehensions of the people, and the fatal .consequences that might ensue if their removal was delayed. But no arguments could prevail on Mr. Hutcliinson ; who either from timidity, or some more censurable cause, evaded acting at all in the business, and grounded his refusal on a pretended want of authority. After which, Col. Dalrymple, wishing to compromise the matter, consented that the 29th Regiment, more culpable than any other in the late tumult, should be sent to Castle Island. This- concession was by no means satisfactory ; the people, inflexible in their demands, insisted that not one British soldier should be left within the town ; their requisi- tion was reluctantly complied with, and within four days the whole army decamped. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE TEA IN BOSTON HARBOR. As we have stated in another part of this" work, the cargoes of three of the tea ships sent over to Boston in 1773 were destroyed by the citizens, in consequence of the refusal of the Governor to permit the vessels to return to England. The following narrative of the occurence is by one of the actors in it Mr. Hewes : The tea destroyed was contained in three ships, lying near each other, at what was called at that time Griffin's wharf, and were surrounded by armed ships of war; the commanders of which had publicly declared, that if the rebels, as they were pleased to style the Bostonians, should not withdraw their opposition to the landing of the tea before a certain day, the 17th day of December, 1773, they should on that day force it onshore, under the cover of their cannon's mouth. On the day preceding the 17th, there was a meeting of the citizens, of the county of Suffolk, convened at one of the churches in Boston, for the purpose of consult- ing on what measures might be considered expedient to prevent the landing of the tea, or secure the people from the collection of the duty. At that meeting a committee was appointed to wait on Governor Hutcliinson, and request him to inform them whether he would take any measures to satisfy the people on the object of the meeting. To the first application of this committee, the Governor told them he would give them a definite answer by five o'clock in the afternoon. At the hour appointed, the committee again repaired to the Governor's house, and on inquiry found he had gone to his country seat at Milton, a distance of about 24G THE GREAT REPUBLIC. six miles. "When the committee returned and informed the meeting of the absence of the Governor, there was a contused murmur among the members, and the meeting was immediately dissolved, many of them crying out, Let every man do his duty, and be true to his country ; and there was a general huzza for Griffin's wharf. It was now evening, and I immediately 'dressed myself in the costume of an Indian, equipped with a small hatchet, which I and my associates denomi- nated the tomahawk, with which, and a club, after having painted my face and hands with coal dust in the shop of a blacksmith, I repaired to Griffin's wharf, where the ships lay that contained the tea. When I first appeared in the street, after being thus disguised, I fell in with many who were dressed, equipped and painted as I was, and who fell in with me, and marched in order to the place of our destination. When we arrived at the wharf, there were three of our number who assumed an authority to direct our operations, to which we readily submitted. They divided us into three parties, for the purpose of boarding the three ships which contained the tea at the same time. The name of him who commanded the division to which I was assigned, was Leonard Pitt. The names of the other commanders I never knew. We were immediately ordered by the respective commanders to board all the ships at the same time, which we promptly obeyed. The commander of the division to which I belonged, as soon as we were onboard the ship, appointed me boatswain, and ordered me to go to the captain, and demand of him the keys to the hatches and a dozen candles. I made the demand accordingly, and the captain promptly replied, and delivered the articles ; but requested me at the same time to do no damage to the ship or rigging. We then were ordered by our commander to open the hatches, and take out all the chests of tea and thro\v them overboard, and we immediately proceeded to execute his orders ; first cutting and splitting the chests with our tomahawks, so as thoroughly to expose them to the effects of the water. In about three hours from the time we went on board, we had thus broken and thrown overboard every tea-chest to be found in the ship, while those in the other ships were disposing of the tea in the same way, at the same time. We were surrounded by British armed ships, but no attempt was made to resist us. We then quietly retired to our several places of residence, without having any conversation with each other, or taking any measures to discover who were our associates ; nor do I recollect of our having had the knowledge of the name of a single individual concerned in that affair, except that of Leonard Pitt, the commander of my division, who I have mentioned. There appeared to be an understanding that each individual should volunteer his services, keep his own secret, and risk the consequences for himself. No disorder took place during that transaction, and it was observed at that time, that the stillest night ensued that Boston had enjoyed for many months. During the time we were throwing the tea overboard, there were several attempts made by some of the citizens of Boston and its vicinity, to carry off small quantities of it for their family use. To effect that object, they would watch their opportunity to snatch up a handful from the deck, where it became plentifully scattered, and put it into their pockets. One Captain O' Conner, whom I well knew, came on board for that purpose, and when he supposed he was not noticed, filled his pockets, and also the lining of his coat. But I had detected him, and gave information to the captain of what he was doing. We were ordered to take him into custody, and just as he was stepping from the vessel, I seized him by the skirt of his coat, and in attempting to pull him back, I tore it off but springing forward, by a rapid effort he made his escape. He had MASSACHUSETTS. 247 however to run a gauntlet through the crowd upon the wharf; each one, as he passed, giving him a kick or a stroke. The next day we nailed the skirt of his coat, which I had pulled off, to the whipping post in Charlestown, the place of his residence, with a label upon it, commemorative of the occasion which had thus subjected the proprietor to the popular indignation. Another attempt Ayas made to save a little tea from the ruins of the cargo, by a tall aged man, who wore a large cocked hat and white wig, which was fashionable at that time. He had slightly slipped a little into his pocket, but being detected, they seized him, and taking his hat and wig from his head, threw them, together with the tea, of which they had emptied his pockets, into the water. In considera- tion of his advanced age, he was permitted to escape, with now and then a slight kick. The next morning, after we had cleared the ships of the tea, it was discovered that very considerable quantities of it was floating upon the surface of the water ; and to prevent the possibility of any of it being saved for use, a number of small boats were manned by sailors and citizens, who rowed them into those parts of the harbor wherever the tea was visible, and by beating it with oars and paddles, so thoroughly drenched it, as to render its entire destruction inevitable. CHARLESTOWN, In Middlesex county, is situated on a peninsula immediately north of Boston, is separated from it by the Charles River, and is connected with it by several bridges. It is regularly laid off, and handsomely built. It contains a number of churches, several banks, a large hotel, and>he State Prison. It is supplied with water from Mystic Lake, is lighted with gas, and traversed by several street railways. It is extensively engaged in manufactures, but is, after all, merely a suburb of Boston, the majority of its inhabitants pursuing their avo- cations in that city. It contains an important Navy Yard of the United States, which covers an area of 70 or 80 acres. This is, perhaps, the most complete establishment owned by the Government. The population of Charlestown is 28,323. In the centre of the city stands Breed's Hill, or, as it is more com- monly called, Bunker Hill, the scene of the battle of the 17th of June, 1775. The site of the old American redoubt is enclosed with a hand- some iron railing, and marked by a magnificent shaft of granite 220 feet high, 31 feet square at the base, and 15 at the top. It is ascended by means of an inner winding stairway, which leads to a chamber immediately at the top. In this chamber are two old cannon, which, with two others, constituted all the artillery owned by the Americans at the beginning of the Revolution. The corner stone of this monu- ment was laid by Lafayette, on the 17th of June, 1825, in presence etc., and divers other days and times, as well before as after, certain detestable arts called witchcrafts and sorceries ; wickedly and feloniously hath used, practised, and exercised, at and within the town of Salem, in the county of Essex aforesaid, in, upon, and against one Mary Walcot of Salem village, in the county of Essex, single woman ; by which said wicked arts, the said Mary Walcot, the ninth day of May, in the fourth year above said, and divers other days and times, as well before as after, was and is tortured, afflicted, pined, consumed,, wasted, and tor- mented, against the peace of our sovereign Lord and Lady the King and Queen, and against the form of the statute in that case made and provided. Endorsed Billa vera ." Three other bills were found against him foi; witchcrafts upon other persons, to all which he pleaded not guilty, and put himself upon trial, etc. September the 9th, Martha Cory, Mary Esty, Alice Parker, Ann Pudeater, Dorcas Hoar, and Mary Bradbury were tried, and September 17th, Margaret Scott, Wilmot Read, Samuel Wardwell, Mary Parker, Abigail Falkner, Rebekah MASSACHUSETTS. 27 1 Eames, Mary Lacey, Ann Foster, and Abigail Hobbs, and all received sentence of death. Those in italics were executed the 22d following. Mary Esty, who was sister to Nurse, gave in to the court a petition ; in which she says she does not ask her own life, although she is conscious of her inno- cence ; but prays them, before they condemn any more, to examine the confessing \vitchesmore strictly; for she is sure they have belied themselves and others, which will appear in the world to which she is going, if it should not in this world. Those who were condemned and not executed, I suppose, all confessed their ruilt. I have seen the confessions of several of them. Wardwcll also confessed, but he recanted and suffered. His own wife, as well as his daughter.* accused him and saved themselves. There are many instances, among the examinations, of children accusing their parents, and some of parents accusing their children. This is the only instance of a wife or husband accusing one the other, and surely this instance ought not to have been suffered. I shudder while I am relating it. Besides this irregularity, there were others in the course of these trials. The facts laid in the indictments were, witchcrafts upon particular persons, there was no evidence of these facts, but what was called spectral evidence, which, in the opinion of the ministers, was insufficient ; some of the other evidence was of facts ten or twenty years before, which had no relation to those with which they were charged ; and some of them no relation to the crime of witchcraft. Evidence is not admitted, even against the general character of persons upon trial, unless to encounter other evidence brought in favor of it ; much less ought their whole lives to be arraigned, without giving time sufficient for defence. Giles Cory was the only person, besides those already named, who suffered. He, seeing the fate of all who had put themselves upon trial, refused to plead ; but the judges, who had not been careful enough in observing the law in favor of the prisoners, determined to do it against this unhappy man, and he had judg- ment of peinefort et dure for standing mute, and was pressed to death ; the only instance which ever was, either before this time or since, in New England. In all ages of the world superstitious credulity has produced greater cruelty than is practised among the Hottentots, or other nations, whose belief of a deity is called in question. This court of oyer and terminer, happy for the country, sat no more. Nine- teen persons had been executed, all asserting their innocence ; but this was not enough to open the eyes of the people in general. The jail at Salem was filled with prisoners, and many had been removed to other jails: some were admitted to bail, all reserved for trial, a law having passed constituting a supreme standing court, with jurisdiction in capital, as well as all other criminal cases. The gen- eral court also showed their zeal against witchcraft, by a law passed in the words of the statute of James I., but this law was disallowed by the king. The time, by law, for holding the court at Salem, was not until January. This gave opportunity for consideration ; and this alone might have been sufficient for a change of opinions and measures, but another reason has been given for it. Ordi- narily, persons of the lowest rank in life have had the misfortune to be charged with witchcrafts ; and although many such had suffered, yet there remained in prison a number of women, of as reputable families as any in the towns where they lived, * The daughter upon a second enquiry denied that she knew her father and mother to be witches; tho vife was not asked a second Uma 272 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and several persons, of still superior rank, were hinted at by the pretended be- witched, or by the confessing witches. Some had been publicly named. Dudley Bradstreet, a justice of the peace, who had been appointed one of president Dud- ley's council, and who was son to the worthy old Governor, then living, found it necessary to abscond. Having been remiss in prosecuting, he had been charged by some of the afflicted as a confederate. His brother, John Bradstreet, was forced to fly also. Calef says it was intimated that Sir William Phips's lady was among the accused. It is certain, that one who pretended to be bewitched at Boston, where the infection was beginning to spread, charged the secretary of the colony of Connecticut. At the court in January, the grand jury found bills against about 50 for witch- craft, one or two men, the rest women ; but upon trial, they were all acquitted, except three of the worst characters, and those the Governor reprieved for the king's mercy. All that were not brought upon trial he ordered to be discharged. Such a jail delivery was made in this court as has never been known at any other time in New England. PRIMITIVE EXTRAVAGANCE. Mr. Dudley was in favor of making Newtown, now Cambridge, the metropolis of the colony ; and after consultation, Governor Winthrop, and the assistants, agreed to settle there, and streets and squares, and market places, were duly sur- veyed and laid out. In the spring of 1631, Mr. Dudley and others commenced building. Governor Winthrop had set up the frame of a house, but soon after changed his mind, and removed it to Boston. Mr. Dudley finished his house, and moved into it with his family. The first houses were rude structures, the roofs covered with thatch, the fire-places generally made of rough stones, and the chimneys of boards, plastered with clay. The settlers were publicly enjoined to avoid all superfluous expense, in order that their money might be reserved for any unforeseen necessities. Mr. Dudley having finished his house with a little more regard to domestic comfort, exposed himself to public censure. At a meet- ing of the Governor and assistants, he was told, that "he did not well to bestow such cost about wainscoting and adorning his house, in the beginning of a planta- tion, both in regard to the expense, and the example." Dudley's answer was, that it was for the warmth of his house, and the charge was little, "being but clapboards nailed to the wall in the form of wainscot." THE MEN OF "SEVENTY- SIX." In Stockbridge, Berkshire county, Mass., Deacon Cleveland and another lead- ing member of the church had been selected, for their positions in the centre of the valley and of the village, to spread the note of alarm. The son of the deacon, a young man only 17 years of age at the time, gave to a friend of the writer a description of the reception of the news in that little village. One quiet Sabbath morning, when all was still, as it ever was in that peaceful valley on that holy day, he was suddenly startled by the report of a musket. On going out to ascertain what it meant, he saw his father in the back yard with the discharged piece in his hand. Before he had time to express his wonder, another report broke the stillness of the Sabbath morning, and as the smoke curled up in the damp atmosphere, he saw in the neighboring yard one of the chief pillars of the church, standing with his musket in his hand. He paused astounded, not know- MASSACHUSETTS. 273 \ ing what awful phenomenon this strange event portended. He said that he thought that the judgment day had come. But in a few moments he noticed men hurrying along the hitherto deserted street, with weapons in their hands. One by one they entered his father's gate, and gathered on the low stoop. The flashing eye and flushed cheek told that something eventful had transpired and there had. When the report of those two muskets echoed along the sweet valley of the Housatonic and up the adjacent slopes, the sturdy farmers knew what it meant. The father, just preparing for the duties of the sanctuary, heard it, and, flinging aside his Sabbath garments, hastily resumed his work-day dress, and taking down his musket, strained his wife and children in one long farewell embrace to his bosom, then turned from the home he might never see again. The young man buckled on his knapsack, and amid sobs and tears shut the little farm gate behind him, the fire in his eye drying up the tears as fast as they welled to the surface. Although the heart heaved with emotion, the step was firm and the brow knit and resolute. In a short time the little porch was crowded with men. A moment after, Dr. "West, the pastor, was seen slowly descending the hill towards the same place of rendezvous. It was a cold, drizzly morning, and as, with his umbrella over his head, and the Bible under his arm, he entered the dooryard, his benevolent face revealed the emotion that was struggling within. He, too, knew the meaning of those shots ; they were the signals agreed upon to inform the minute-men of Stockbridge that their brethren in the East had closed with the foe in battle. He ascended the steps, and, opening the Bible, read a few appropriate passages, and then sent up a fervent prayer to Heaven. When he ceased, the rattling of arms was heard. A short and solemn blessing closed the impressive scene, and before 12 o'clock twenty men, with knapsacks on their backs and muskets on their shoul- ders, had started on foot for Boston, nearly 200 miles distant. Oh, how deep down in the consciences of men had the principles of that strug- gle sunk, when they made those Puritans forget the solemn duties of the sanc- tuary for the higher duties of the battle-field. They had been taught from the pulpit that it was the cause of God, and they took it up in the full belief they had his blessing and his promise. Such scenes as these were enacted every where, and from the consecrating hand of the man of God went forth the thousand sepa- rate bands that soon after met and stood shoulder to shoulder on the smoky heights of Bunker Hill. 18 RHODE ISLAND. Area, 1,306 Square Miles Population in 1860, . 174,620 Population in 1870, 217,356 THE State of Rhode Island is the smallest in the Union. It is situated between 41 18' and 42 N. latitude, and 71 8' and 71 52' "W. longitude. It is bounded on the north and east by Massachusetts, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by Connecticut. Its greatest length, from north to south, is 47 miles, and its greatest breadth, from east to west, about 37 miles. TOPOGRAPHY. Narraganset Bay divides the State into two unequal portions. It enters the extreme eastern part, and extends inland for 30 miles in a northerly direction. It is a beautiful sheet of water, and has a depth sufficient to accommodate the largest vessels. It abounds in good harbors, of which the harbor of Newport is the finest, and is unsur- passed by any in the world. The bay is about 12 miles wide, is thickly studded with the most picturesque islands. Different names are given its various parts. The upper part is called Providence Bay ; the northeastern part, Bristol Bay ; just east of whioh is Mount Hope Bay, separated from Providence and Bristol bays by a kmg, narrow peninsula which comprises Bristol county. Providence, at the extreme northern end, and Newport at the southern end of Narraganset Bay, are the capitals of the State. Block Island, lying in the Atlantic Ocean, 10 miles south of the mainland, belongs to this State. Rhode Island, lying near about the centre of Narraganset Bay, is the principal island belonging to the State/ and has given its name 274 RHODE ISLAND. 275 to the whole Commonwealth. It is exceedingly beautiful in forma- tion ; is delightfully situated, and covers an area of 37 square miles, being 15 miles long, and about 3J miles wide. It contains the city of Newport, and is one of the most fashionable summer resorts in the Union. Canonicut, Prudence, and several other small islands lie in the bay. The Rivers of Rhode Island are small. The principal are the Pawtucket and the Pawtuxet. The former flows into Narraganset Bay to the east of Providence, while the latter and its tributaries drain the southern and western parts of the State. The Pawtucket has a fall of 50 feet at the town of Pawtucket. Above this fall, it is called the Blackstone; and below it, the Seekonk. The Taunton River enters the southeastern part of the State, from Massachusetts. These streams all possess admirable water-power. Along the Atlantic coast and the shores of Narraganset Bay, the surface of the State is level ; but as it recedes westward and north- ward it becomes rolling, although there are no elevations in any part meriting the name of mountains. Mount Hope, in the eastern part, the Woonsocket Hills, in the northern part, and Hopkins 7 Hill, about the centre of the State, are the principal elevations. 9 i MINERALS. Rhode Island possesses very few minerals. Anthracite coal has been found, but scarcely any attention has been paid to it. Iron, limestone, marble, and serpentine also exist to a limited extent. CLIMATE. The climate resembles that of Massachusetts, except that the imme- diate proximity of the sea does much to mitigate the extremes of cold in the winter and of heat in the summer, with which the Bay State is afflicted ; so that Rhode Island is, perhaps, in this respect, the most pleasant of all the New England States. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. In some places the soil is passably fertile, but in others it requires the most careful and laborious cultivation. On the islands it is richer than on the mainland. Dairy farming and grazing occupy the atten- tion of the principal portion of the agricultural class. 276 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. In 1869, there were in the State 335,128 acres of improved land, and 186,096 acres of unimproved. The agricultural wealth of the State at the present time is as follows : I Cash value of farms (estimated), $25,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery (estimated), $850,000 Number of horses, 9,120 " asses and mules, 20 " milch cows, 23,180 " other cattle, 21,420 " sheep, 34,320 swine, 21,960 Value of domestic animals, $2,942,144 Bushels of wheat, 8,600 " rye, 31,000 " Indian com, 440,000 " oats, . 250,000 Irish potatoes, 770,000 barley, 55,000 Pounds of wool, 90,699 butter, 1,021,767 " cheese, 181,511 Tons of hay, 71,000 Value of orchard products, $83,691 market garden products, .... $146,661 home-made manufactures, . . . . $7,824 " slaughtered animals, $713,725 COMMERCE. Rhode Island is actively engaged in commerce, both foreign afid domestic. During the year 1861, the total value of its exports was $255,297, and of the imports $543,652. In 1862, the tonnage owned in the State was 41,671, of which 11,440 was registered tonnage, 30,231 enrolled licensed, of which 5064 was steam tonnage. MANUFACTURES. The State is extensively engaged in manufactures, its streams fur- nishing water-power unsurpassed by any in New England. The first cotton-mill ever erected in this country was built in Rhode Island. By the census of 1860, there were 1160 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They em- ployed 33,200 hands, and a capital of $23,300,000, consumed raw material worth $23,400,000, and yielded an annual product of $47,- 500,000. There were 135 cotton factories, employing 5474 male, and 6615 female hands, and a capital of $11,500,000, consuming raw RHODE ISLAND. 277 material worth $5,281,000, and returning an annual product of $12,- 258,657. There were 131 woollen factories, employing 2483 male, and 1568 female hands, and a capital of $2,986,000, consuming raw material worth $3,920,155, and yielding an annual product of $6,- 599,280. The other manufactures were as follows : Value of steam engines and machinery, . . . $1,068,825 ." agricultural implements, 117,845 " sawed and planed lumber, 170,000 flour, . . . . , . 510,000 " sewing machines, 90,000 " boots and shoes, 315,959 " furniture, 217,472 " jewelry, silver ware, etc., 3,006,678 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In 1870, there were 152 miles of railroad completed in the State of Rhode Island, which had been constructed and equipped at a cost of $5,011,000. Providence and Newport have railway communica- tion with Boston and New York, and the principal cities of the Union. Railroads also connect the principal towns of the State. EDUCATION. There is a permanent school fund which amounts to over $420,000. The public schools are tinder the general supervision of the State Superintendents of Public Instruction, and are immediately in charge of the local school committees, who perform the duties already explained in connection with the committees of f the other States. There was a Normal School in operation until 1865, but it was abolished in that year. Efforts are now being made to revive it, and in the meantime the State provides for the education of "teachers in certain Academies. There are about 487 public schools in the State. The atten- dance is as follows : in the summer, 24,953 pupils ; in the winter, 30,780; average summer attendance, 19,972; average winter* atten- dance, 23,720. The only college in the State is Brown University, founded in 1764. It has schools of agriculture and science connected with it, and is in a flourishing condition. There are, also, a few academies in prosperous condition. In 1870, there were in Rhode Island 759 libraries, containing 693,387 volumes over 300 being public libraries. 278 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. There were, in the same year, 5 daily, 1 semi- weekly, 19 weekly- newspapers, and 1 monthly periodical, published in this State. Their aggregate annual circulation was 5,289,280 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at Providence. It is provided wit v h a library, and religious services are held regularly in the chapel. The number of convicts in prison, in 1868, was 59. The Reform School at Providence, is not a State institution, though the Legislature makes a liberal donation to it for board of inmatc.s sent there from localities outside of Providence. It receives both sexes ; and after educating them, provides for their establishment in some useful trade. Rhode Island has no public asylum for the insane. Patients are maintained at the expense of the State in the Butler Asylum, at Provi- dence, and in the State Lunatic Asylums of Massachusetts and Ver- mont. Patients are also supported by Rhode Island in the Deaf and Dumb Asylum at Hartford, Conn., and in the Perkins Institution for the Blind, at Boston. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. The total, value of church property in 1870, was $4,117,200. There were 283 churches in the State, in the same year. FINANCES. The State debt, in 1870, amounted to 2,927,500. The receipts of the Treasury for the year 1868 were $397,736, and the expendi- tures $257,817, leaving a balance of $139,919. The State debt is due entirely on account of the late war. In 1868, there were 62 National Banks in Rhode Island, with an aggregate capital of $20,364,800. GOVERNMENT. Every male citizen, who has resided in the State one year, and in the town six months, and who owns real estate worth $134, or rents 7 per annum, and every native male citizen, twenty-one years old, who has resided in the State two years, and six months in the town, who is duly registered, and has paid a tax of $1, or done militia duty within the year, is entitled to vote. RHODE ISLAND. 2T9 The Government of the State is confided to a Governor, Lieutenant- Governor, a Legislature, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and Attorney- General, who are chosen annually by the people on the first Wednes- day of April, and hold office for one year, commencing from the last Tuesday in May. The Senate consists of the Lieutenaut-Governor and one member from each of the 34 towns of the State, and is presided over by the Governor. The House of Representatives consists of 72 members. The Legislature meets regularly at Newport on the last Tuesday in May, and holds an adjourned session at Providence, the next January. The judiciary is comprised of a Supreme Court, consisting of a Chief Justice, and three Associate Justices. It has exclusive power to try all indictments for crimes for which the penalty is imprison- ment for life. A Court of Common Pleas is held in each county, by one of the Justices of the Supreme Court, at stated times. The capitals of the State are Providence and Newport. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 5 counties. HISTORY. Rhode Island was first settled in 1636, by Roger Williams and five associates, who had been driven out of Massachusetts for express- ing opinions, upon political and religious matters, adverse to those entertained by the magistrates of the Bay Colony. They fixed their abode at the head of Narraganset Bay, and called the name of their settlement Providence, " in grateful acknowledgment of God's merci- ful providence to him (Williams) in his distress." This colony was planted upon the basis of entire freedom in religious opinions and utterances. In 1637, William Coddington and 18 others, having been banished from Massachusetts, for their religious opinions, joined Wil- liams, and, by his advice, purchased the island of Aquetneck (Rhode Island) from the Indians, and settled upon it, founding Newport and Portsmouth. A third settlement was made at Warwick, in 1642, and all three settlements began and continued to receive fresh accessions from the Bay Colony. In 1642, Williams went to England, and the next year secured a patent for the United Government of Providence, Newport, and Portsmouth, but the patent was not accepted until 1647. It continued in force until 1663, when the province was reorganized under a new charter, granted by Charles II., which formally estab- lished the colony of " Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. " 280 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. COAST FISHING. This charter continued to be the sole Constitution of Rhode Island until the year 1842, when the present Constitution was adopted. The colony continued to grow and prosper, but suffered severely at the hands of the savages during King Philip's war, in which struggle Providence was burned, as were many houses in other parts of the province. Philip's principal stronghold was in this State, in the swamp near Mount Hope. He was killed there in August, 1676. The great battle which destroyed the Narragansets as a nation, took place in a swamp in the southern part of this State. Rhode Island was opposed to the policy of exterminating the Indians, upon which Connecticut and Massachusetts had decided, and was not even con- sulted in regard to the war by those colonies. In 1686, Sir Edmund Andros was appointed Governor-General of New England. One of his first acts was to abrogate the charter of Rhode Island, and reduce the province to a mere county, which he governed by his own creatures. Upon his downfall, the magistrates reorganized the colonial government under the charter. Rhode Island bore a prominent part in the various wars with the French in America. Her troops distinguished themselves in the attacks upon Louisburg, Cape Breton, Crown Point, and Oswego, and RHODE ISLAND. 281 in the various expeditions against Canada. In 1756, there were 50 privateers, manned by over 1500 men, belonging to this colony, and at sea. They were employed along the coast and in the West Indies, where they inflicted considerable damage upon the commerce of France. The colony was warm in its resistance of the injustice of Great Britain, and gave a liberal support to the Revolution. Privateers were sent out from, and government cruisers equipped in the ports of this State, and a full complement of men was furnished to the con- tinental army. General Greene, of the army, and Captains "VVhipple and Talbot, of the navy, were natives of Rhode Island. The harbors along the Narraganset Bay were of the greatest importance to the colonial cause at the outset of the struggle. In December, 1776, Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander, occupied the island of Rhode Island, and held Newport for several years, during which time he kept the greater part of the State in a continual terror. In the fall of \ 778, an unsuccessful effort was made by an American army, aided by the French fleet under Count de Grasse, to drive the enemy away. Late in 1779, Clinton evacuated Newport, and concentrated his forces at New York, and the next year the fleet and army of Count de Ro- chambeau reached Newport from France. Rhode Island was the last of the 13 original States to ratify the Federal Constitution, and was not admitted into the Union until the 29th of May, 1790. The victory on Lake Erie in 1812, was won by a Rhode Island Commander (Oliver H. Perry), whose force was principally made up of Rhode Island seamen. In 1842, a change in the Constitution of the State having become desirable, a portion of the people, known as the " suffrage party," illegally framed a new constitution, and proceeded to elect a legisla- ture and Governor, and to make laws for the State. They were led by Thomas W. Dorr, their pretended governor, and endeavored to establish their authority by force of arms. They were dispersed by the State troops. The proper authorities then summoned a conven- tion. It met in September, 1842, and adopted the present Consti- tution of the State, which was ratified by the almost unanimous vote of the people in 1 843. During the late war, Rhode Island contributed 25,355 men to the military pervice of the Union. THE GREAT REPUBLIC. NAIIKAGANSET BAY. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities and towns of importance, besides the capitals, are, Smith- field, North Providence, Warwick, Bristol, South Kingston, Coventry, East Greenwich, and Pawtucket. PROVIDENCE, In Providence county, is the largest city, and one of the capitals of the State. It is situated at the head of navigation on Narraganset Bay, 43 miles south-southwest of Boston. " It is one of the most beautiful cities in New England, and is sur- passed only by Boston in wealth and population. It is pleasantly situated on the northern arm of the Narraganset Bay, called Provi- dence River. It is an ancient town, dating as far back as 1636 when its founder, Roger Williams, driven from the domain of Massa- chusetts, sought here that religious liberty which was denied him elsewhere. " This city makes a charming picture seen from the approach by RHODE ISLAND. 283 the beautiful waters of the Narraganset, which it encircles on the north by its business quarter, rising beyond and rather abruptly to a lofty terrace, where the quiet and gratefully shaded streets are filled with dainty cottages and handsome mansions. Providence was once a very important commercial depot, its rich ships crossing all seas, and at the present day the city is equally distinguished for its manufac- turing and commercial enterprise. In the former department of hu- man achievement it early took the lead, which it still keeps, the first cotton-mill which was built in America being still in use, in its sub- urban village of Pawtucket, and some of the heaviest mills and print- works of the Union being now in operation within its limits. It has also extensive manufactories of machinery and jewelry. The work- shops of the American Screw Company are the best appointed of their kind in the country. The total capital invested here in manufactures is upwards of $16,000,000. " Providence is the seat of Brown University, one of the best educa- tional establishments in America. It was founded in Warren, Rhode Island, in 1764, and. removed to Providence in 1770. Its library is very large and valuable, and is remarkably rich in rare and costly works. " Rhode Island Hospital, now progressing towards completion in the southwestern suburb, will be one of the finest structures in the State. The entire cost, including grounds, will exceed a quarter million of dollars. "The Athenaeum has a fine reading-room, and a collection of 29,000 books. The Providence Historical Society, incorporated 1822, has a library of 4000 volumes. The Butler Hospital for the Insane, upon the banks of Seekonk River, is an admirable institution, occupying large and imposing edifices. In the same part of the city, and lying also upon the Seekonk River, is the Swan Point Cemetery, a spot of great rural beauty. There are upwards of 60 public schools in Provi- dence, in which instruction is given to between eight and nine thou- sand pupils. The Dexter Asylum for the Poor stands upon an elevated range of land east of the river. In the same vicinage is the yearly meeting boarding-school, belonging to the Society of Friends. The Reform School occupies the large mansion, in the southeast part of the city, formerly known as the Tockwotton House. The Home for Aged Women and the Children's Friend Society are worthy a visit. The Custom-House (Post-Office, and United States Courts) is a handsome granite structure, and one of the principal architectural ornaments of 284 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. the city. The railroad depot, some of the banks, and many of the churches of Providence, are imposing structures. The railways di- verging from Providence, are the Providence and Worcester, 43 miles, to Worcester, Mass. ; Hartford, Providence and Fishkill, 123 miles, to Waterbury, Conn. ; Boston and Providence, and Stonington and Provi- dence, 62 miles, to New London ; and the Providence, Warren and Bris- tol. Upon the immediate edge of the city, on the shore of a charming bay in the Seekonk River, stands the famous What Cheer Rock, where the founder of the city, Roger Williams, landed from the Massachu- setts side, to make the first settlement here. "At Hunt's Mill, 3 or 4 miles distant, is a beautiful brook with a picturesque little cascade, a drive to which is among the morning or evening pleasures of the Providence people and their guests. Vue de 1'Eau is the name of a picturesque and spacious summer hotel, perched upon a high terrace 4 miles below the city, overlooking the bay and its beauties for many miles around. " Gaspee Point, below, upon the opposite shore of the Narraganset, was the scene of an exploit during the Revolution. Some citizens of Providence, after adroitly beguiling an obnoxious British revenue craft upon the treacherous bar, stole down by boats in the night and settled her business by burning her to the water's edge." * Providence contains many handsome buildings, both public and private. There are 54 churches, 35 banks, 27 public schools, and 7 or 8 newspaper establishments in the city. It is supplied with water, and lighted with gas. Street railways connect the prominent points. Providence is the centre of an important commerce with the At- lantic coast of the Union, and with foreign countries. Manufactures are also extensively carried on here. Jewelry is made in great quan- tities, sometimes amounting to $3,000,000 per annum. Cotton and woollen goods, furniture and wooden ware, iron goods, machinery of various kinds, paper, boots and shoes, carriages, and locomotives, are the principal articles. In 1864, the value of the manufactures of Providence was $30,638,177. The population of the city is 68,906, which makes it the second city in New England. NEWPORT, In Newport county, 28 miles southeast of Providence, is one of the capitals of the State. It is situated on the west shore of the island * Hand-Book of American Travel. RHODE ISLAND. 285 NEWPORT. of Rhode Island, about 5 miles from the sea. The town is located on the slope of a slight hill facing the harbor, and is, in the main, hand- somely built, containing a number of fine public buildings and private residences. The principal buildings are the State House, the Custom House, Market House, and the Redwood Library, a fine Doric building containing about 1500 volumes, and a number of valuable busts and paintings. There are about 16 churches, 7 banks, 2 newspaper offices, and a number of manufacturing establishments in Newport. The city is well laid off, and is lighted with gas. It has- a population of 12,521. The hotels are its principal attraction. There are several first-class establishments, capable of accommodating several thousand visitors. Its admirable climate and situation have made Newport one of the most popular seaside resorts in the Union. The whole southern part of the island is now dotted with cottages and villas, many of them very handsome, belonging to wealthy citizens of various parts of the country, who pass the summer months here. " The facilities for surf-bathing at Newport are not excelled by any place in this country. There are three fine beaches, called Easton's, Sachuest's, and Smith's. Easton's is the one generally used by the majority ; and it is so situated that there is no danger to the bathers 286 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. from under-currents, while the breakers follow each other in majestic succession. This beach is about half a mile from the principal hotels, and public conveyances ply regularly to and fro. "The drives about Newport are excellent. In 1867, a new one was made by the city authorities, commencing at Bellevue avenue, near the Ocean House, and continuing south 2 miles ; thence west 3 miles, along the shore ; thence north 1 mile ; and thence northeast to Bellevue avenue, 3 miles. The entire drive is 10 miles long, 80 feet wide, and is macadamized. It is pronounced the best one in the country, and some of the finest residences in the city are located on it. An unobstructed view of the Atlantic Ocean is afforded for nearly the entire length of this road. " Near Sachuest Beach, at the northern extremity of the Bluff, is a dark chasm called Purgatory. By actual measurement, the chasm is 160 feet in length; from 8 to 14 feet wide at the top; from 2 to 24 feet wide at the bottom ; 50 feet deep at the outer edge ; and 10 feet of water at low tide. Near by are the Hanging Rocks, within whose shadow it is said that Bishop Berkeley wrote his " Minute Philosopher." The Glen and the Spouting Cave are charming places to ride to, when the weather invites. Lily Pond, the largest sheet of spring water on the island, is easily reached from Spouting Cave. The waters of the pond swarm with perch. " The city of Newport is so ancient, and once so prominent a town, that it would be of interest to the visitor, wholly apart from its present fashionable relations. Indeed, Newport may be said properly to be two places an old metropolis, and a watering-place ; and, like Que- bec reversed, it has its upper, or new town, and its lower, or old town. The harbor is one of the best and deepest in the world. The entrance to it is 2 miles in width, 29 fathoms in depth, and in only one instance has it been closed by ice since the first settlement. As late as 1769, the city exceeded New York in the extent of her foreign and domestic commerce. In the Revolution, the British long held possession of the place, during which time (till 1797) the population decreased from 12,000 to 4000. Among the interesting relics to be found in the town, are : Franklin's printing-press, imported by James Franklin in 1720. It is in the office of the Newport Mercury, established in 1758. Upon this press the first newspaper issued (1732) was printed. The Chair of State, in which Benedict Arnold sat at the reception of the charter in 1663, is in the possession of the Gould family. The first Baptist Church, founded in 1638, and claimed as the oldest church in Rhode Isla'^ 1 . ; s worthy a RHODE ISLAND. 287 " Newport was the birthplace of the gifted miniature painter Mai- bone, and Gilbert Stuart's place of nativity may be seen in Narra- ganset, across the bay. Stuart made two copies of his great Wash- ington picture for Rhode Island, one of which may be seen in the State House at Newport, and the other in that at Providence. " The old Stone Mill, in Touro Park, opposite the Atlantic House, is a curiosity, and is tenderly cared for by the city authorities. It is sometimes called the Round Tower. The origin and early history of this ' old mill ' is a mystery, and has led to many fruitless conjec- tures. Some antiquarians claim for it the honor of having afforded a secure shelter to the Norsemen, who, they say, built it as a lookout and a tower of defence; but the modern observers deny it this envia- ble renown, and maintain that it was built by Governor Benedict Ar- nold, the first charter governor of the colony, who owned the property at the time of his death, and calls it in his will ' my stone-built wind- mill/ Redwood Library, near the opera-house, established by Abra- ham Redwood in 1750, contains one of the very best collections of paintings, choice books, and statuary in the country. The Jewish Synagogue, on Touro street, was built in 1672, and up to the Revolu- tionary war was regularly opened for worship, and was the only place in New England where Hebrew was chanted and read weekly. There were many families of wealthy and influential Jews in Newport at that time; now there are none. Abraham Touro left $20,000 iu charge of the town,authorities, the interest to be expended in keeping the synagogue and grounds, and street leading to it, in repair ; and the wishes of the donor have been carefully complied with. Besides these places, the visitor should see the Perry Monument, Commodore Perry's house, built in 1763, and long known as the 'Granary;' the fortifications in the harbor, Fort Adams, Fort Wolcott, Fort Brown, and the Dumplings. Fort Adams, on Brenton Point, is one of the largest works in the United States, mounting 460 guns." * The harbor of Newport is unsurpassed by any in the world. It is deep and safe, and may be entered at all times without a pilot. It is defended by Fort Wolcott, on Goat Island, and Fort Adams, a power- ful work on Brenton's Point, a mile and a half southwest of the city. This fine harbor formerly made Newport one of the most important commercial cities of the Union, and until the dawn of the Revolution it was the rival of Boston and New York. Now it has but a small trade, the principal part of which is with the towns along the coast. * Book of Seaside Kesorts. 288 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. It has regular steamboat communication with Providence and New York, and is connected with Boston by a railroad. Newport was occupied by the British during several years of the Revolution. They quartered 8000 troops upon the town, destroyed 480 houses, robbed the library, which was then the finest in America, and carried off the town records. In the spring of 1776, Admiral Wallace was driven out of the harbor of New- port, by a vigorous attack, assisted by the Providence troops. But in December of the same year arrived the British fleet under Sir Peter Parker. It sailed up the West Passage, crossed from the north point of Conanic.pt, and landed an army of 8000 or 10,000 English and Hessians, commanded by General Clinton nnd Lord Percy, in Middletown, about five miles from Newport. The army im- mediately began to plunder, and was quartered upon the inhabitants until May, 1777, when Clinton and Percy, with a large party left for New York, and General Prescott succeeded to the command. He made himself obnoxious by petty tyranny, but Major Barton revenged the injuries of the island by a feat of memo- rable ingenuity and valor. Tarton was on duty with the Rhode Island line, and after the capture of Gen- eral Lee, in November, 1776, he considered how he might retort upon the enemy, and resolved to capture Prescott. When the English landed, Major Barton was stationed at Tiverton, upon the mainland, not far from the shore of Rhode Island. He waited for several months, but found no fit opportunity, until a British de- serter was brought into his quarters. Barton ascertained from him the situation of Prescott' s headquarters, and all the necessary details, and prepared to put his plan immediately into execution. He and his men were new to the service, and failure was permanent disgrace, as he well knew ; but without a moment's hesita- tion he selected his companions from the officers, told them the scope of the un- dertaking, and engaged their confidence and sympathy. Five whale-boats were procured and fitted. At the last moment Barton addressed his soldiers, and said that he wished the voluntary assistance of about 40 men. The whole regiment advanced, and declared itself ready to accompany him. On the 4th of July, 1777, the party left Tiverton, and crossed to the western shore of the bay. At 9 o'clock on the evening of the Oth of July, they left Warwick Neck in the whale-boats. That of Major Barton went in front, and was distinguished from the others by a handkerchief tied to a pole in the stern. The little fleet dropped silently down the bay, between the islands of Patience and Prudence. In the stillness of the night they heard the drowsy call of "All's well," from the sentinels on the English ships, and as they touched the shore of Rhode Island a sound as of run- ning horses was heard. It was too late to be alarmed, and the party landed in silence, Major Barton detailing one man to remain in each boat. They landed about a mile from the headquarters of General Prescott, and crept toward it in five divisions. There were three doors to the house on the south, the east, and the west. One division was to advance upon each door, the fourth was to guard the road, and the fifth to act as a reserve. As they reached the house they were challenged by the sentinel. "Friends," said Barton. "Advance and give the countersign," was the reply. " D n you, we have no countersign. Have you seen'any deserters to-night ?" RHODE ISLAND. 289 said Barton, advancing upon the sentry, seizing his musket, telling him he was a prisoner, and threatening him with instant death if he betrayed them by making a noise. The sentry said that the general was in the house. Each division had now reached its station : the doors were forced, and the soldiers rushed up stairs to the chamber of the host. He was speechless with fright, and pointed to the room below as that of the general. Making sure of the host, they returned into the entry, where Barton ordered them to fire the house at the four corners, as he meant to have the general, alive or dead. But at this moment, aroused by the noise, Prescott called to know what was the matter. The soldiers ran down stairs and entered his room, where Barton saw a man sitting on the side of the bed. " Are you General Prescott ?" demanded Barton. "I am, sir," replied the officer. "You are my prisoner," returned Barton. *'I acknowledge it, sir," said the general. Major Barton then told him that he must go with them, and to his request that he might be allowed to dress himself, replied that he was very sorry that his busi- ness required great dispatch, and the general was obliged to hurry off as he was. Prcscott's aid, Major Barrington, had leaped out of a window at the beginning of the fray, and had landed safely in the midst of the guard of reserve. Of the three prisoners, only the sentinel had -his shoes on ; and as the party hurried across the field of rye-stubble tangled with blackberry bushes, the general's feet and legs, as also those of Major Barrington, were sorely scratched. But the party was led along to the shore as directly and rapidly as possible, and reached their boats safely. Barton placed the prisoners in his boat, and wrapping his cloak around the shivering general, he ordered the little fieet to put off. The alarm was given from the shore by guns and rockets, but the boats darted silently and swiftly out of danger. General Prescott asked if Barton commanded, and said to him : ** You have made a bold push to-night," and expressed the hope that lie should not be hurt. *' Not while you are in my care," said Barton. The bay was in a wild confusion with the spreading alarm; but straight under the bows and sterns of the English ships, in that darkest hour preceding dawn, the prisoner was safely rowed, and morning broke upon the expedition arriving under the guns of its own batteries. General Prescott was afterwards exchanged for General Lee. MISCELLANY. In 1772, the famous seizure of the British schooner Gaspee occurred in Narra- ganset Bay. The following account of the occurrence was written by Colonel Ephraim Bowen, of Providence, who was an actor in the scene : In the year 1772, the British Government had stationed at Newport, Rhode Island, a sloop of war, with her tender, the schooner called the Gaspee, of eight guns, commanded by William Duddingston, a lieutenant in the British navy, ibr the purpose of preventing the clandestine landing of articles subject to the pay- ment of duty. The captain of this schooner made it his practice to stop and board all vessels entering or leaving the ports of Rhode Island, or leaving New- port for Providence. 19 290 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. On the 17tli of June, 1772, Captain Thomas Lindsay left Newport, in his packet, for Providence, about noon, with the wind at north ; and soon after, the Gaspee was under sail, in pursuit of Lindsay, and continued the chase as far as Namcut Point. Lindsay was standing easterly, with the tide on the ebb, about two hours, when he hove about at the end of Namcut Point, and stood to the westward ; and Duddingston, in close chase, changed his course and ran on the point near its end and grounded. Lindsay continued in his course up the river, and arrived at Providence about sunset, when he immediately informed Mr. John Brown, one of our first and most respectable merchants, of the situation of the Gasp6e. Mr. Brown immediately resolved on her destruction ; and he forthwith directed one of his trusty shipmasters to collect eight of the largest long boats in the harbor, with five oars to each, to have the oar-locks well muffled to prevent noise, and to place them at Fenner's wharf, directly opposite to the dwelling of Mr. James- Sabine. Soon after sunset, a man passed along the main street, beating a drum, and informing the inhabitants that the Gaspee was aground on Namcut Point, and inviting those persons who felt a disposition to go and destroy that troublesome vessel, to repair in the evening to Mr. James Sabine's house. About nine o'clock I took my father's gun, and my powder-horn and bullets, and went to Mr. Sa- bine's, and found it full of people ; where I loaded my gun, and all remained there till ten o'clock, some casting bullets in the kitchen, and others making ar- rangements for departure, when orders were given to cross the street to Fenner's wharf and embark, which soon took place, and a sea-captain acted as steersman of each boat, of whom I recollect Captain Abraham Whipple, Captain John B. Hopkins (with whom I embarked), and Captain Benjamin Dunn. A line from right to left was soon formed, with Captain Whipple on the right, and Captain Hopkins on the right of the left wing. The party thus proceeded, till within about sixty yards of the Gaspee, when a sentinel hailed, " Who comes there ? " No answer. He hailed again, and no answer. In about a minute, Duddingston mounted the starboard gunwale, in his shirt, and hailed, " Who comes there ? " No answer. He hailed again, when Captain Whipple answered as follows : " I am the sheriff of the county of Kent ; I have got a warrant to apprehend you ; so surrender, d n you.'* I took my seat on the thwart, near the larboard row -lock, with my gun at my right side, and facing forward. As soon as Duddingston began to hail, Joseph Bucklin, who was standing on the main thwart by my right side, said to me, "Ephe, reach me your gun, and I can kill that fellow." I reached it to him accordingly, when, during Captain Whipple's replying, Bucklin fired, and Dud- dingston fell ; and Bucklin exclaimed, "I have killed the rascal ! " In less than a minute after Captain Whipple's answer, the boats were alongside the Gaspee, and boarded without opposition. The men on deck retreated below, as Dud- dingston entered the cabin. As it was discovered that he was wounded, John Mawney, who had, for two or three years, been studying medicine and surgery, was ordered to go into the cabin and dress Duddingston' s wound, and I was directed to assist him. On ex- amination, it was found that the ball took effect directly below the navel. Dud- dingston called for Mr. Dickinson to produce bandages and other necessaries for the dressing of the wound ; and, when this was done, orders were given to the schooner's company to collect their clothing and everything belonging to them, and to put them into the boats, as all of them were to be sent on shore. All were soon collected and put on board of the boats, including one of our boats. RHODE ISLAND. 291 They departed and lauded Duddingston at the old still-house wharf at Pawtuxet, and put the chief into the house of Joseph Rhodes. Soon after, all the party were ordered to depart, leaving one boat for the leaders of the expedition, who soon set the vessel on fire, which consumed her to the water's edge. The names of the most conspicuous actors are as follows, viz : Mr. John Brown, Captain Abraham Whipple, John B. Hopkins, Benjamin Dunn, and five others whose names I have forgotten, and John Mawney, Benjamin Page, Joseph Bucklin, and Toupin Smith, my youthful companions, all of whom are dead I believe every man of the party excepting myself; and my age is eighty-six years, this twenty-ninth day of August, eighteen hundred and thirty- nine. CONNECTICUT. Area, 4,674 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 460,147 Population in 1870, 537,454 THE State of Connecticut lies between latitude 41 and 42 3' N., and longitude 71 55' and 73 50' W. ; and is bounded on the north by Mas- sachusetts, on the east by Rhode Island, on the south by Long Island Sound, and on the west by New York. Its extreme length from east to west is about 93 miles, and its greatest width from north to south 68 miles. It is, next to Rhode Island and Delaware, the smallest State in the Union. TOPOGRAPHY. The country bordering Long Island Sound is level, but a great part of the State is rugged and mountainous, though the mountains, as they are called, are little more than high hills. In the eastern part, be- tween the Connecticut River and the Rhode Island line, is a ridge, supposed to be the extreme prolongation of the White Mountains of New Hampshire. The western part is crossed by an extension of the Green Mountains of Vermont, which reach almost to the shore of the Sound. This range consists of a series of detached peaks. The Talcet or Greenwood Range passes across the State from the Massachusetts line to the immediate vicinity of New Haven. East of this range are the Middletown Mountains, which extend southward from Hartford to North Branford, east of New Haven, running parallel with the Greenwood .Range. In the northern part of the State there is a small range between the Green and the Greenwood Mountains. Though of a moderate elevation, these ranges are exceedingly picturesque, and give a peculiar charm to the scenery of the State. " Most of the ridges are 292 CONNECTICUT. 293 VIEW FROM MOUNT IIOLYOKE. parallel, and their western parts generally precipitous, so that in many places the country seems divided by stupendous walls. Immense masses of ruins are collected at their feet. These consist sometimes of entire cliffs and pillars of many tons weight, which are thrown off by the freezing of water in the gullies, and often fall with a mighty con- cussion into the valleys. On the opposite side there is generally a slope covered with trees In Meriden is a natural ice- house, in a narrow defile, between ridges of greenstone. The defile is choked up with the ruins of the rocks which have fallen from the 294 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ridges, and form a series of cavities overgrown with trees, and strewn with thick beds of leaves. The ice is formed in the cavities of these rocks, and remains the whole year. A portion of it melts during summer, causing a stream of cold water perpetually to flow from the spot. The space between the mountains is called Cat Hollow, and presents the most wild and picturesque scenery in the State." The principal peaks are Mount Tom, near Litchfield, and Bald Mountain in the extreme northern part of the State. The entire southern border is washed by Long Island Sound, into which flow the principal rivers of the State. There are several good harbors along the Sound, of which New London is the best, though New Haven Bay is the largest. The Connecticut River enters the State from Massachusetts, and flows through it into Long Island Sound, dividing it into two unequal parts. It is navigable for a distance of 50 miles for vessels drawing eight feet of water, and much higher for steamers. The scenery of the valley of this stream is very beautiful in many places ; Hartford, Middletown,.and Haddam are the principal places on its banks. The Housatonic River flows through the western part of the State into the Sound. It is navigable for 12 miles for small vessels. It rises in the northern part of Berkshire county, Mass., and in its course through Connecticut receives a number of small tributaries, which drain the little lakes or ponds, which are quite numerous in Litchfield county. The whole region through which it flows is noted for the beauty of its scenery, and the healthfulness of its climate. It is a region of bold hills and lovely valleys, through which the merry little streams come leaping to join the main river. The falls of the Housa- tonic, 67 miles from its mouth, are 60 feet in height, and are among the most beautiful in America. The Thames River is formed by the junction of the Quinebaug, Shetucket, and Yantic rivers, near Norwich, in New London county, and is about 14 miles long. It flows southward into the Sound. At its mouth it widens into the fine harbor of New London, which is the best in the State. It is navigable for its entire length. Norwich and New London are its principal towns. Nearly all the rivers of the State furnish excellent water-power. MINERALS. Connecticut is very rich in mineral deposits. Granite abounds, and marble of an excellent quality is found. The chrysoberyl and the CONNECTICUT. 295 precious beryl are found near Haddam, and the columbite near Middle- town, Dr. Frankfort, of Middletown, thus sums up the mineral re- sources of the State : " The State of Connecticut may be geologically divided into two large fields, the first of which is composed of the unstratified and metamorphic rocks, and the other of those secondary strata which, under the name of ' freestone/ are so extensively quarried in different parts of the State for building purposes, and constitute the new red sandstone of Lycll. The best place to study this peculiar formation is near Portland, in Middlesex county. In the vicinity of the new red sandstone, are to be found in nearly every part of the State, large dykes of trap, which protrude and traverse it, as for example, at Mer- iden. This gives Connecticut a great analogy to the Lake Superior copper region, in which large veins of native copper, unequalled as yet in any other part of the world, are found nearly always at the junction of these trapdykes with the red sandstone. From this fact we might expect that in Connecticut, also similar deposits of copper would exist. In several instances indeed, the vestiges of the presence of such have been found ; as, for example, near New Haven, where a large mass of native copper was discovered ; and also near Meriden, where ancient excava- tions made in search of copper may be seen. The State is very rich in mining resources, as veins of the different metals have been discovered, and more will undoubtedly be found. In every part of the world, such veins are chiefly known to exist where the metamorphic strata are injunction with the secondary; and the mineral veins of Connec- ticut are near these junctions, of which a great many may be found throughout the State. The following is a brief statement of the differ- ent localities in which valuable minerals are known to exist in veins or deposits. Gold has been found in small quantities in Middle Had- dam, Middlesex county; silver, in the argentiferous lead ore of the Middletown mines, now extensively worked. One of the richest copper mines in the United States has been worked in Bristol, Hart- ford county, for ten years. The ores found here are chiefly sulphurets. Copper deposits also exist near Litchfield, Simsbury, Plymouth, Granby, Farmington and Middletown. Lead occurs, as galena, at the mines near Middletown; also near Wilton and Brookfield, and near Monroe, Fairfield county. Iron is mined at Salisbury, where large furnaces are supplied with ' brown hematite/ the ore chiefly found at the mines. Roxbury furnishes an excellent ore, from which the very best of steel could be manufactured, if the large deposits of pure spathic 296 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. iron, known to exist there, should be worked. Bismuth is found at different places in the town of Monroe. The only vein containing these valuable metals (cobalt and nickel) in abundance in the United States is in the town of Chatham, where at present extensive mining operations for their extraction are carried on."* CLIMATE. The climate is severe in winter, but pleasant in summer, owing to the cool sea breeze which mitigates the heat. The spring comes earlier than in the other New England States, but is accompanied by keen northeast winds, which are neither pleasant nor healthful. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. Except in the valleys of the principal rivers, the soil of Connecticut is not remarkable for fertility. In the river valleys the lands are very good, especially along the Connecticut River. The northwestern part of the State is devoted to dairy farming and grazing. Agriculture receives great attention in this State, and the soil is skilfully and in- dustriously tilled. In 1869, there were 1,830,808 acres of improved, and 6 73,457 acres of unimproved land in Connecticut. The other agricultural products were stated as follows for the same year : Cash value of farms, - ... $125,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery, 3,500,000 Number of horses, 40,150 asses and mules, 110 " milch cows, 99,350 other cattle, 112,680 " sheep, 118,300 " swine, 90,450 Yalue of domestic animals, . $17,311,009 Bushels of wheat, ... 75,000 rye, ' 837,000 Indian corn, 1,950,000 oats, 2,100,000 Irish potatoes, 2,500,000 barley. 25,000 buckwheat, 270,000 Pounds of tobacco, . . 6,000,000 wool, 350,000 * Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 489. CONNECTICUT. 297 Pounds of butter, 7,620,912 " cheese, 3,898,411 " maple sugar, 44,259 " beeswax and honey, 67,101 Gallons of wine, 46,783 Tons of hay, 750,000 COMMERCE. Connecticut possesses little or no foreign commerce of her own, her trade with other countries, except that with the West Indies, being conducted almost entirely through the ports of New York and Boston. An active trade is maintained with the principal ports of the American coast, especially with New York. In 1863, the total tonnage owned in the State was 110,033. In 1861, the total exports of Connecticut amounted to $421,320, and the imports to $753,309. MANUFACTURES. Connecticut is extensively engaged in manufactures, and contains, perhaps, more small establishments conducted by persons of moderate capital than any of the New England States. The products of these little factories make up an imposing sum total, which compares favor- ably with that of the States containing larger establishments. The wooden clocks of this State (to say nothing of its " wooden nutmegs ") are famous, and of late years have even been exported to Europe. "Nearly all the inhabitants are directly or indirectly interested in some kind of manufactures. It is the genius of the people to attend to a multiplicity of pursuits, and consequently, while all are busy, undertakings on a large scale are seldom made. More recently, how- ever, combined capital, aided by men of means from other States, has much enlarged manufacturing operations. Much of the machinery used is the fruit of the inventions and improvements by the manufac- turers themselves, among whom we need mention but the names of Whitney, Goodyear and Colt. The people are always contriving and enthusiastic in whatever they undertake. The most extensive manu- factures are those of iron, clocks, carriages and india-rubber goods; iron of all possible varieties, from the heaviest castings to the finest cutlery, including anchors and boilers, firearms, edge-tools, wire, etc. Connecticut has almost engrossed the manufacture of clocks for our whole country, and for a large part of the civilized world. . . . The genius of Goodyear and of his co-laborers, has given greater variety to 298 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. the manufactures of india-rubber than of almost any other known sub- stance. In the manufacture of carriages, Connecticut is second to no State in the Union."* In 1860, there were in the State, 2923 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 65,780 hands, and a capital of $45,720,000, using raw material worth $40,140,000, and yielding an annual product of $83,000,000. There were 64 cotton mills, employing 3314 male and 4275 female hands, and a capital of $6,000,000, consuming raw material worth $4,000,000 ; paying $1,453,128 for labor; and yielding an annual product of $7,641,460. There were 90 woollen mills, employing 2291 male and 1460 female hands, and a capital of $2,494,000; consuming raw material worth $4,206,000; paying $917,437 for labor; and yielding an annual pro- duct of $5,879,000. The other manufactures are stated as follows in the same year : Value of agricultural implements, $206,162 " pig iron, 379,500 rolled iron, 175,500 steam engines and machinery, . . . 1,953,535 sewing machines, 2,784,600 sawed and planed lumber, .... 531,651 flour 1,719,294 leather, 953,782 boots and shoes, 2,044,762 furniture, 514,425 " jewelry, silverware, etc., 1,887,484 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. In the year 1868, there were 637 miles of railroad in operation in Connecticut, the total cost of which was $24,370,000. Lines cross the State in every direction, connecting its principal towns with each other, and with New York and Boston. A continuous line skirts the shore of Long Island Sound, from which several routes diverge, at various points, to the northward. An important "Air Line" between New York and Boston is now in construction across the State. There is but one canal in the State, and that a short one around Enfield Falls, in the Connecticut River. * Appleton's Cyclopaedia, vol. v. p. 617. CONNECTICUT. 299 EDUCATION. This State has always been noted for the excellence of its public school system. There is a permanent school fund, which, in 1870, amounted to $2,044,058. The interest of this sum is applied to the support of the schools, and the remainder of the amount needed for their maintenance is raised by taxation. In 1868 there were 1645 public schools. The attendance was as follows : in the winter, 80,148, average attendance 57,117, in the summer, 73,863, average attendance 52,299. The proportion of children attending school is less than in any other New England State, and truancy prevails to such an alarm- ing extent that the authorities of the State are urged by the Board of Education to take decisive measures to put a stop to the evil. They assert that less than one half the children of the State are found on an average in the public schools. The school system is under the control of the State Board of Edu- cation, which consists of the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor, ex officio, and one person appointed by the Legislature from each of the four Congressional districts, for a term of four years. The principal executive officer is the Secretary, who is chosen by the Board, and manages its affairs, and supervises the public schools under its direc- tion. The State is divided into 1620 educational districts, each of which is immediately in charge of a School Committee, elected by the people of the district. In order to be entitled to the benefits of the school fund, each common school must be conducted for at least six months in the year by a regularly licensed teacher. There is a State Normal School, for the education of teachers, at New Britain, and Teachers' Institutes are held in various parts of the State under the direction of the Secretary of the Board of Educa- tion. The Commonwealth makes an appropriation of $3000 per annum to defray their expenses. Seven cities, and several of the large towns, support public high schools. There are 35 incorporated academies, and a number of flourishing private schools in the State. Connecticut contains three colleges, Yale College, at New Haven, Trinity College, at Hartford, and Wesleyan University, at Middle- town. The first is a Congregationalist, the second an Episcopal, and the third a Methodist institution. Yale College was originally located at Killingworth, and was founded in 1700. It was removed to Say brook in 1707, and to New 300 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. YALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN. Haven in 1716. It embraces five schools, the academical, theological, medical, law school, and the school of science and the arts. Each of these has its own faculty. It is one of the best institutions of its kind in the Union, but is considerably hampered in its usefulness by a lack of means. Recently, however, it has received some assistance from the State and from private individuals. Trinity College was founded in 1823, is located at Hartford, and is under the direction of the Episcopal Church. The college is in a prosperous condition, and ranks high amongst the institutions of its kind in the Union. The Wesleyan University, at Middletown, is a flourishing institu- tion under the direction of the Methodists. The course is similar to that of other first-class colleges. In 1860 there were 490 libraries in the State (of which 194 were public), containing 404,206 volumes. In the same year there were CONNECTICUT. . 301 55 periodicals published in the State 45 political, 3 religious, 5 literary, and 2 miscellaneous. Of these, 14 were daily, 1 semi- weekly, 37 weekly, 1 monthly, and 2 quarterly. Their aggregate annual circulation was 9,555,672 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison is located at Wethersfield. The inmates work in silence during the day, and are confined in separate cells at night. Their labor is let out to contractors, and in 1868 the earnings of the institution were slightly in excess of its expenses. The commutation system is carried out here with great success, and concerts and other healthful entertainments are occasionally given in the prison by benevolent citizens. In March, 1870, there were 219 convicts con- fined here. The American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Hartford, is the oldest as well as one of the best institutions of its kind in America. It was incorporated in 1816, and opened the next year. In 1819 it received from Congress an endowment of 23,000 acres of land, and the Legislatures of several of the States made liberal provisions for it, upon the condition that they should each have the privilege of placing a certain number of pupils under its care. This arrangement is still in operation. " In the earlier periods of instruction much use was made of the system of methodical signs, so carefully elaborated by Dr. L'Epee and Sicard, in which each word had a definite and fixed sign, and could be given in the proper order in the sentence. These signs were greatly simplified and improved by Mr. Gallaudet and his early as- sociates. His successors continued to introduce such modifications and improvements as the experience of intelligent teachers suggested. The methods now pursued have the same general ends in view as at first, that is, to enable the pupils to hold communication with society by means of written language, but they secure this result earlier and more satisfactorily by leading the pupil sooner to use forms of con- nected language. Special attention has been given from the first to the religious and moral culture of the pupils." The average annual attendance at this institution is about 250. Nearly 1500 pupils have attended it since its establishment. The Retreat for the Insane, at Hartford, is supported in part by the State, and was incorporated in 1822. A General Hospital for the Insane has been established by the State at Middletown, on the 302 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. banks of the Connecticut River, and is now in operation. In 1868 the number of patients at the Hartford Retreat W as 413. Patients are maintained here by some of the other Eastern States. The State Reform Sehool, at West Meriden, was opened in 1854. Boys between ten and sixteen years of age, convicted of offences, other than those for which the penalty is imprisonment for life, may be sent to this school, and parents and guardians may indenture unruly youths to the school by paying a sum of $3 a week while they continue their connection with it. The boys are required to be in the school-room four hours each day, where they are thoroughly taught in the various branches of a plain, practical education, and for several hours are en- gaged in the workshop and on the farm. The receipts of their labor in 1870 were as follows : from the farm, $1087 ; from the workshop, $20,887. In March, 1870, there were 267 boys in the school. The State supports in part a School for Imbeciles, at Lakeville, and three Homes for Soldiers' Orphans, located at Darien, Cromwell, and Mansfield, and makes an annual appropriation for the support of patients at the Perkins Institution for the Blind, at Boston. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the total value of church property in Connecticut, was $13,428,109. The number of churches was 902. FINANCES. In 1870, the public debt, over and above the assets of the State, was $6,808,925. Not deducting the assets (sinking fund, bank stock, and cash on hand), the amount was $9,705,400. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending March 31st, 1870, were $1,738,766, and the expenditures $1,227,797. In 1868, there were 88 banks in the State (6 of which were State banks), with an aggregate capital of $25,994,220. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of Connecticut was adopted in 1818. Every male white citizen 21 years old and able to read any article of the Constitu- tion, who shall have resided in the State one year and in the town six months, may vote, upon taking the oath required by law. The Government of the State is conducted by a Governor, Lieu- tenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and Comptroller, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of not less than 18 nor more CONNECTICUT. 303 than 24 members), and a House of Representatives (of 237 members), all chosen annually by the people, on the first Monday in April. They enter upon their offices on the first Wednesday in May. The Legislature holds annual sessions, and meets alternately in Hartford and New Haven, the two capitals of the State. There is a Supreme Court of Errors, composed of one Chief Judge and three Associate Judges. Appeals from the lower courts are heard and decided in this body. Its judgment is final and conclusive. The Superior Court consists of six judges, exclusive of those who are judges of the Supreme Court, and has cognizance of all cases, civil or criminal. In criminal cases, where death is the penalty of the crime for which the prisoner is on trial, the court is required by law to be composed of two judges, one of whom must be a judge of the Supreme Court. The judges of these courts are elected on joint ballot by the Legis- lature, and hold office for a period of eight years. Upon reaching the age of 70 years, they are disqualified by the Constitution from holding office. Hartford and New Haven are the capitals of Connecticut. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 8 counties. HISTORY. In 1633, the Dutch built a trading house at Hartford, and defended it by a fort. As early as 1631, however, Seguin, the chief of the In- dians who owned the lands along the Connecticut River, had sent messengers to Governor Winthrop, at Boston, and Governor Winslow, at Plymouth, inviting them to come and settle his country. His in- vitation was accepted, and the present town of Windsor, above Hart- ford, was founded in 1633, by a company from Plymouth, who built a trading house there. This is regarded as the first permanent settle- ment of the State, although the Dutch trading post was in existence at the time. The first town which was built, however, was Wethers- field, which was established by a company of emigrants from Massa- chusetts, in 1634. By 1633, three towns, Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford, were established, with an aggregate population of 750 in- habitants. In 1638, New Haven was settled by emigrants from England, and continued to form an establishment distinct from that of Hartford until 1662, when Charles II. united the two colonies under one gov- ernment. 304 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. In 1637, the settlers of the Hartford or Connecticut colony were greatly harassed by the Pequot Indians. The authorities resolved to put an effectual stop to their depredations, and a levy of 90 men, half the number of able-bodied males in the colony, was ordered. This force was well armed, and placed under the orders of Captain John Mason, who at once made a descent upon the main stronghold of the Pequots, and inflicted upon them a blow that completely de- stroyed them as a tribe. The locality where this encounter took place is known as Mystic. The effect of this decisive action was most happy as regarded the other tribes. In 1639, the colony of Connecticut adopted its first Constitution ; and in 1662, Governor John Winthrop obtained from Charles II. a charter uniting the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven under one govern- ment, the name of the former being given to the whole province. New Haven at first opposed the measure, but at length consented to it in 1 665, when the union was finally accomplished. " The charter granted the colony jurisdiction over the lands within its limits; provided for the election of a governor, deputy-governor, and 12 assistants, and 2 deputies from each town substantially the same as provided for under the previous Constitution ; allowed the free transportation of colonists and merchandize from England to the colony ; guaranteed to the colonists the rights of English citizens ; provided for the mak- ing of laws and organization of courts by the general assembly, and the appointment of all necessary officers for the public good; the or- ganization of a soldiery, providing for the public defence, etc. This charter was of so general a character, and conferred so large powers, that no change was necessary when Connecticut took her stand as one of the independent States of the Union, on the declaration of inde- pendence in 1776 ; but it was continued, without alteration, as the Constitution of the State until 1818, when the present Constitution was formed. Until 1670, at the general election, all the freemen assembled at Hartford, and personally voted for the State officers and assistants. Thereafter they voted by proxy, or sent up their votes. In July, 1685, a writ of quo warranto was issued by the King's Bench, and served on the governor and company, with the design of taking away the charter and uniting the New England colonies in one gov- ernment under a royal governor. Sir Edmund Andros arrived in Boston, December 19th, 1686, with his commission as governor. In October, 1687, he came to Hartford, while the assembly was sitting, and demanded the charter. It was produced and laid upon the table. CONNECTICUT. 305 The discussion was protracted into the evening. Suddenly the lights were extinguished, and Captain Joseph Wadsworth seized and carried away the charter and hid it in the famous charter-oak. Andros seized the government, which he administered, or rather it was administered under him, in a very oppressive manner. On the dethronement of James II., and the consequent deposition of Andros, the government, on May 9th, 1689, resumed its functions, as if the period since the usurpation of Andros to that time, were annihilated; and as the char- ter had not in the King's Court been declared forfeit, it was, after a struggle, allowed to continue in force, the freest Constitution ever granted by royal favor. " During the wars with the French and Indians, the colony bore a liberal share of the burdens, and warmly supported the cause of American independence during the Revolution, in which struggle the shores of Long Island Sound suffered severely from the depredations of the British. New Haven was captured, and its inhabitants bar- barously treated, and New London and Groton were taken and burned by a force under Benedict Arnold. In 1814, the famous New England Convention met at Hartford, and during this and the preceding year New London was closely blockaded by the British fleet. During the recent Rebellion, Connecticut contributed 54,468 men to the military service of the United States. CITIES AND TOWNS. The important cities and towns are, New London, Norwich, Mid- dletown, Bridgeport, Waterbury, Stonington, Guilford, Danbury, Greenwich, Sharon, Meriden, Windsor Locks, Bristol, Falls Village, New Hartford, Norfolk, Greenville, Deep River, and New Milford. NEW HAVEN, One of the capitals of Connecticut, and the largest city in the State, is situated on a harbor of considerable size, 4 miles distant from Long Island Sound. It is in New Haven county, and is 76 miles northeast of New York, and 160 miles southwest of Boston. It is on the line of direct communication between those two cities, and from it railways diverge to all parts of New England. " The country round New Haven is very picturesque. Behind the town, at a distance of about two miles, -is an amphitheatre of rugged hills, not unlike some of our Scottish scenery; in front is an inlet from 20 306 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. NEW HAVEN. Long Island Sound, affording a safe and commodious harbor; to the right and left, a richly cultivated country, relieved by patches of forest; and, in wide expanse before it, the blue waves of the sea rolling in magnificence. Two large precipices, called East and West Rock, 400 feet high, and about two miles apart, form part of the semicircular range. They are prominent features in the landscape ; and events in the annals of our native country, with which they are associated, impart to them that traditional charm which is so often wanting in American scenery. In the fastnesses of these rocks, some of the regicides of Charles I. found shelter from their pursuers, when the agents of his profligate son hunted them for their lives." * Seve- ral small streams flow into New Haven Bay, as the harbor is called. Several bridges span them, and connect the city with the opposite shores. New Haven extends back about 2 miles from the harbor, and is about 3 miles broad from east to west. It is regularly laid out, and is one of the handsomest cities in America. The streets are unusually broad, and are shaded with the most magnificent elms in the New World. Temple street, and some other thoroughfares, are so thickly shaded that the rays of the sun rarely penetrate the thick foliage overhead. The abundance of these trees * Duncan's Travels. CONNECTICUT. 307 has gained for New Haven the sobriquet of " The City of Elms." There are several fine public squares within the corporate limits, and also one or two very beautiful cemeteries. The residences are sur- rounded by large grounds handsomely ornamented and planted with a luxuriant shrubbery. The principal public buildings are the State House, a stuccoed edi- fice, modelled after the Parthenon; and the City Hall, facing the green, a handsome Gothic edifice of Portland and Nova Scotia stone. The tower, 84 feet high, is surmounted by a spire 66 feet high, which contains an observatory and an alarm bell. The churches, 32 in number, are very handsome, and form conspicuous and attractive features in the general appearance of the city. New Haven contains several excellent institutions of learning, be- sides Yale College, and has one of the best free school systems in the world. It has a good public library, 5 or 6 banks, and is lighted with gas, supplied with water, and traversed by street railways. Nine newspapers and three magazines are published here. The population is 50,840. The city carries on an active trade with all parts of the country by means of its railroads. It has steamboat communication with New York and the towns on the Connecticut River. The harbor, though ' O extensive and admirably sheltered, is too shallow to admit vessels of ' a large size. It is rapidly filling up. The General Government has made several attempts to deepen it, but it is feared that nothing can resist the course of nature, which seems to be rendering the harbor too shallow to be fit for use. A wharf, 3493 feet the longest in the United States has been built out into the bay to accommodate ves- sels, but the water surrounding it is becoming very shallow. In spite of these disadvantages, however, the city possesses some foreign commerce, and an active coasting trade. New Haven is extensively engaged in manufactures, and it is esti- mated that fully one-fourth of the entire population is so employed. The principal wares produced are carriages, india-rubber goods, iron ware of various kinds, boots and shoes, and clocks. " The chief ornament and attraction of New Haven remains to be noticed, its college, the rival of Harvard University in literary respectability, and honorably distinguished from it by the orthodoxy of its religious character. The buildings of Yale College make a con- spicuous appearance, when entering the town eastward ; and the effect is considerably heightened by three churches, which stand at a little 308 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. distance in front, in a parallel line. The ground between the college and the churches is neatly divided and enclosed, and ornamented with trees. Including passage-ways, the principal edifices present a front of upwards of 800 feet. The buildings are chiefly constructed of brick, and consist of five spacious edifices, each four stories high, 104 feet by 40, containing 32 studies ; a chapel for religious worship and ordinary public exhibitions; a Lyceum, containing the library and recitation rooms ; an Athenaeum ; a Chemical Laboratory ; an extensive stone Dining Hall, containing also in the upper story, apart- ments for the mineralogical cabinet; a separate Dining Hall for The- ological Students; a dwelling house for the President; a large stone building occupied by the medical department; and the Truinbull Gal- lery, a neat and appropriate building erected as a repository for the valuable historical and other paintings of Col. Trumbull. " Yale College was originally established at Saybrook, in the year 1700, and was incorporated by the colonial legislature in the follow- ing year. The project of establishing a college in Connecticut ap- pears to have been seriously entertained fifty years before ; but it was checked, Dr. Dwight informs us, by well founded circumstances, by the people of Massachusetts, who justly urged that the whole popula- tion of New England was scarcely sufficient to support one institution of this nature, and that the establishment of a second would endanger the prosperity of both ; these objections put a stop to the design for the time; it was not, however, lost sight of. In 1718, the infant Institu- tion was removed by the Trustees to New Haven. It was originally intended simply for the education of young men for the ministry : but, as it gathered strength from individual liberality and public patron- age, the range of its plan of study was gradually extended, until it now embraces the more essential parts of a complete literary, scientific, and medical education. " The college received its name, in commemoration of the benefi- cence of the Honorable Elihu Yale, a son of one of the first settlers, who went to England in early life, and thence to India, where he be- came governor to Madras ; and on his return to England, he was elected governor of the East India Company. From this gentleman the college received donations at various times, between 1714 and 1718, to the amount of <500 sterling; and a short time before his death, he directed another benefaction to the same amount to be trans- mitted, but it was never received. Another of its early benefactors was the celebrated Dean Berkeley, afterwards Bishop of Cloyne, who CONNECTICUT 309 came to America in 1732, for the purpose of establishing a college in the island of Bermuda; a project to which he nobly sacrificed con- siderable property, as well as time and labor. His efforts being frus- trated by the failure of the promised support from Government, he presented to this Institution a farm which he had purchased in Ilhode Island, and afterwards transmitted to it from England a very valua- ble collection of books ' the finest that ever came together at one time into America/ Sir Isaac Newton, and many other distinguished men, presented their works to the library. " Although founded under the sanction of the colonial legislature, and partly endowed by it, the college was for a long time indebted for its support chiefly to individual patronage : the whole amount be- stowed by the colonial legislature, during the first 90 years of its ex- istence, did not much exceed 4500 sterling. But when the Federal Government was consolidated, a grant was made, in 1792, to Yale College, out of a fund created by uncollected arrears of war taxes, by which ultimately $60,000 were realized. " The library of the college has recently been much enlarged by the addition of many valuable volumes, selected by Professor Kingsley, who visited Europe with reference to that selection. The libraries of the different societies receive frequent additions. At present the libraries belonging to the institution form an aggregate of from 30,000 to 40,000 volumes. The college possesses the richest mineralogical cabinet on the continent." * The city was founded as a separate colony, in 1638, by a company of emigrants from London. It was incorporated as a city in 1784. During the Revolution, it was captured by the British. This occurrence took place on the 5th of July, 1779, and is thus described in the Connecticut Journal, of July 7th two days later : About two o'clock on the morning of the 5th instant, a fleet consisting of the Camilla and Scorpion men-of-war, with tenders, transports, etc., to the number of 48, commanded by Commodore Sir George Collier, anchored off West Haven. They had on board about 3000 land forces, commanded by Major-General Tryon ; about 1500 of whom, under Brigadier-General Garth, landed about sunrise on West Haven point. The town being alarmed, all the preparation which the con- fusion and distress of the inhabitants, and a necessary care of their families would permit, was made for resistance. The West Bridge on Milford road was taken up, and several fieldpieces were carried thither, and some slight works thrown up for the defence of that pass. The division under General Garth being landed, immediately began their march toward the town. The first opposition was made * The Land We Live In, pp. 153-154. 310 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. by about 25 of the inhabitants, to an advanced party of the enemy of two com- panies of light infantry. These, though advancing on the height of Milford hill, were attacked with great spirit by the handful of our people, and driven back almost to West Haven, and one of them was taken prisoner. The enemy then advanced in their main body, with strong flanking parties, and two fieldpieces ; and finding a smart fire kept up from our fieldpieces at the bridge aforesaid, chose not to force an entrance to the town by that, the usual road, but to make a cir- cuitous march of nine miles, in order to enter by the Derby road. In this march our small party on Milford hill, now increased to perhaps 150, promiscuously col- lected from several companies of the militia, had a small encounter with the enemy's flank near the Milford road, in which was killed their adjutant, Campbell, the loss of whom they lamented with much apparent sensibility. Our people on the hill, being obliged by superior numbers, to give way, kept up a continual fire on the enemy, and galled them much, through all their march to Thomson's bridge on the Derby road. In the mean time, those who were posted at the West bridge, perceiving the movements of the enemy, and also that another large body of them had landed at the South End, on the east side of the harbor, quitted the bridge and marched thence to oppose the enemy at Thomson's bridge. But by the time they had reached the bank of the river, the enemy were in possession of the bridge, and the places at which the river is here fordable : yet having received a small accession of strength by the coming in of the militia, they gave the enemy a smart fire from two fieldpieces and small arms, which continued with little abate- ment, till the enemy were in possession of the town, or through the town across the Neck bridge. The enemy entered the town between 12 and 1 o'clock. In the mean time, the division of the enemy, before-mentioned to have landed at the South End, which was under the immediate command of General Tryon, was bravely resisted by a small party of men, with one fieldpiece, who, besides other execution, killed an officer of the enemy, in one of the boats at their landing. This division marched up by land, and attacked the fort at Black Rock ; at the same time, their shipping drew up, and attacked it from the harbor. The fort had only 19 men, and three pieces of artilery, yet was defended as long as reason or valor dictated, and then the men made good their retreat. The town being now in full possession of the enemy, it was delivered up, ex- cept a few instances of protection, to promiscuous plunder ; in which, besides robbing the inhabitants of their watches, money, plate, buckles, clothing, bed- ding, and provisions, they broke and destroyed their household furniture to a very great amount. Some families lost every thing their houses contained : many have now neither food, nor clothes to shift. A body of militia sufficient to penetrate the town, could not be collected that evening : we were obliged therefore to content ourselves with giving the enemy every annoyance in our power, which was done with great spirit for most of the afternoon at and about the Ditch corner. Early on Tuesday morning, the enemy unexpectedly and with the utmost still- ness and despatch, called in their guards, and retreated to their boats, carrying with them a number of the inhabitants captive, most, if not all of whom, were taken without arms, and a few who chose to accompany them. Part of them went on board their fleet, and part crossed over to General Tryon at East Haven. On Tuesday afternoon, the militia collected in such numbers, and crowded so close upon General Tryon, that he thought best to retreat on board his fleet, and set sail to the westward. CONNECTICUT. 311 The loss of the enemy is unknown ; but for man}' reasons it is supposed to be considerable, and includes some officers whom they lament, besides Adjutant Campbell. Ours, by the best information we can obtain, is 27 killed, and 19 wounded. As many of our dead upon examination appeared to have been woun- ded with shot, but not mortally, and afterwards to have been killed with bayo- nets, this demonstrated the true reason why the number of the dead exceeded that of the wounded to be, that being wounded and falling into the enemy's hands, they were afterwards killed. A further confirmation of this charge is, that we have full and direct testimony, which affirms that General Garth declared to one of our militia, who was wounded and taken, that "he was sorry his men had not killed him, instead of taking him ; and that he would not have his men give quarter to one militia man, taken in arms." Although in this expedition, it must be confessed to the credit of the Britons that they have not clone all the mischief in their power, yet, the brutal ravishment of women, the wanton and malicious destruction of property, the burning of the stores upon the wharf, and eight houses in East Haven ; the beating, stabbing, and insulting of the Rev. Dr. Daggett, after he w r as made a prisoner, the mortally wounding of Mr. Beers, senior, in his own door, and otherways abusing him ; the murdering of the very aged and helpless Mr. English in his own house, and the beating and finally cutting out the tongue of and then killing a distracted man, are sufficient proofs that they were really Britons. HARTFORD, The other capital, and the second city in the State, is situated on the right bank of the Connecticut River, 36 miles northeast of New Haven, 124 miles southwest of Boston, and 112 miles northeast of New York. On the opposite side of the river lies East Hartford, with which it is connected by a long covered bridge 1000 feet long. The city is about 2 miles long by 1 J miles broad, and extends length- wise along the banks of the river. It is laid off regularly in some places, and irregularly in others. Main street, the principal thorough- fare, is broad and well built up, and contains the majority of the prominent buildings. The houses are mostly of brick or freestone, and render the general appearance of the place very handsome. The city contains about 25 churches, several fine libraries, 12 or 13 banks, and is supplied with water from the Connecticut River, and is lighted with gas. A street railway connects its various points. The public schools are numerous and are of a high character. There are also several fine institutions of learning in the city, the principal of which is Trinity College, founded in 1823. It has three handsome edifices of freestone, a fine library, apparatus, and cabinet, and ranks high amongst the educational institutions of the land. The Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, the Retreat for the Insane, and the Hartford Hospital are noble institutions, and are amongst the most prominent 312 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ornaments of the city. The old Charter Oak was until 1856, when it was blown down by a storm, one of the attractions of the city. There are 12 banks in Hartford, which is also the central point of a number of insurance companies, possessing a capital of between fifteen and twenty millions of dollars. A number of large book publishing houses are located here. In 1868 the gross amount employed in this business amounted to several millions of dollars. The principal public buildings are the City Hall and the State House. The former is a handsome building, the lower part of which is used as a market-house. The State House is the finest building in the State. It is surmounted with a cupola, and is 50 feet in width, 50 in height, and 130 in length. Hartford has railroad communication with all parts of the Union, and, except in the severe season of winter, when it ,'js closed by ice, the Connecticut is navigable for steamers. The city is extensively engaged in manufactures. The capital employed in them is over $10,000,000. Fire-arms and hardware of various kinds constitute the principal articles produced. The celebrated manufactory of the late Colonel Colt, the inventor of the " Colt Revolver/' is located here. There are 12 newspapers published in the city. The popula- tion is 37,180, and is increasing. Hartford was permanently settled by the English in 1635. The following is an abstract from some of the first laws of the town : 1635. It is ordered, that there shall be a guard of ... men, to attend with their arms fixed, and two shot of powder and shot, at least, . . . every public meeting for religious use, with two sergeants to oversee the same, and to keep out one of them sentinel .... and the said guard to be freed from boarding, and to have seats provided near the meeting house door, and the ser- geants repair to the magistrates for a warrant for the due execution thereof. It is ordered, that every inhabitant which hath not freedom from the whole to be absent, shall make his personal appearance at every general meeting of the whole town, having sufficient warning ; and whosoever fails to appear at the time and place appointed, shall pay sixpence for every such default ; but if he shall have lawful excuse, it shall be repaid him again ; or whosoever departs aw r ay from the meeting before it be ended, without liberty from the whole, shall pay the likewise. It is ordered, that whosoever borrows the town chain, shall pay two pence a day, for every day they keep the same, and pay for mending, if it be broken in their use. It is ordered, that there shall be a set meeting of all the townsmen together the first Thursday of every month, by nine o'clock in the forenoon, so that if any in- habitant have any business with them, he may repair unto them ; and whosoever of them do not meet at the time and place set, to forfeit two shillings and sixpence for every default. CONNECTICUT. 313 The 17th September, 1640. It is ordered, that .... Woodward shall spend his time about killing of wolves, and for his encouragement he shall have four shillings and sixpence for his board, in case he kill not a wolf, or a deer in the week ; but if he kill a wolf or a deer, he is to pay for his board himself ; and if he kill .... to have it for two pence a pound. This order is made for a month before he begins. It is further ordered, that if any person hath lost any thing that he desireth should be cried in a public meeting, he shall pay for crying of it two pence to Thomas Woodford, to be paid before it be cried ; and the crier shall have a book of the things that he crieth. ' At a general Town Meeting in April, 1643 It was ordered, that Mr. Andrews should teach the children in the school one year next ensuing, from the 25th of March, 1G43, and that he shall have for his pains 16 ; and therefore the towns- men shall go and inquire who will engage themselves to send their children ; and all that do so shall pay for one quarter at the least, and for more if they do send them, after the proportion of twenty shillings the year ; and if they go any weeks more than an even quarter, they shall pay sixpence a week ; and if any would send their children, and are not able to pay for their teaching, they shall give notice of it to the townsmen, and they shall pay it at the town's charge ; and Mr. Andrews shall keep the account between the children's schooling arid himself, and send notice of the times of payment and demand it ; and if his wages doth not come in so, then the townsmen must collect and pay it ; or if the engage- ments come not to sixteen pounds, then they shall pay what is wanting, at the town's charges. At a general Town Meeting, October 30th, 1643 It was ordered, that if any boy shall be taken playing, or misbehaving himself, in the time of public services, whether in the meeting house or about the walls .... by two witnesses, for the first time shall be examined and punished at the present, publicly, before the assembly depart ; and if any shall be the second time taken faulty, on witness, shall be accounted .... Further, it is ordered, if the parents or master shall desire to correct his boy, he shall have liberty the first time to do the same. It was further ordered, in the same general meeting, that there should be a bell rung by the watch every morning, an hour before daybreak, and that they are appointed by the constables for that purpose ; shall begin at the bridge, and so ring the bell all the way forth and back from Master Moody 's (Wyllys \\i\\) to John Pratt' s .... and that they shall be in every house, one up, and . . . . some lights within one quarter of an hour after the end of the bell ringing .... if they can .... the bell is rung before the time ap- pointed, then to be up with lights as before mentioned, half an hour before day- break, and for default herein is to forfeit one shilling and sixpence, to be to him that finds him faulty, and sixpence to the town. The other cities of the State are as follows : Norwich, at the head of navigation, on the Thames River. It has a population of 16,653, is connected with all parts of the country by railroad, and is the ter- minus of a line of steamers from New York. It is actively engaged in commerce and manufactures. Bridgeport, on Long Island Sound, has 19,876 inhabitants, and is connected with New York by steam- boat, and is on the line of the New York and New Haven Railway. 314 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. It is largely engaged in manufactures. Waterbury, on the Naugatuck Railway, 20 .miles from New Haven, is an important place for the manufacture of brass, German silver, buttons, and other small articles. It contains a population of 10,876. New London, on the Thames River, has 9756 inhabitants. It is a thriving manufacturing place, and is actively engaged in commerce, both foreign and domestic, having the best harbor in the State. Norwalk, on Long Island Sound, on the line of the New York and New Haven Railway, has a popu- lation of about 15,000, and is extensively engaged in maufactures. Middletown, on the Connecticut River (35 miles from its mouth), and West Meriden, on the Hartford and New Haven Railway (16 miles from New Haven), each has a population of 10,000 ; they are grow- ing manufacturing cities. MISCELLANIES. THE BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. The following is a transcript of the principal part of the celebrated judicial code, known as the Blue Laws, by which it is said the first colonists of Connecti- cut were governed for a considerable time. Some writers have questioned the genuineness of the laws, and it seems certain that, if genuine, the code was never written, but was declared and interpreted by the select men, the judges, and the pastors of the different congregations : The Governor and magistrates, convened in general assembly, are the supreme power, under God, of this independent dominion. From the determination of the assembly no appeal shall be made. The Governor is amenable to the voice of the people. The Governor shall have only a single vote in determining any question, ex- cept a casting vote when the assembly may be equally divided. The assembly of the people shall not be dismissed by the Governor, but shall dismiss itself. Conspiracy against this dominion shall be punished with death. Whoever attempts to change or overturn this dominion, shall suffer death. The judges shall determine controversies without a jury. No one shall be a freeman, or give a vote, unless he be converted, or a member in free communion in one of the churches in this dominion. No food or lodging shall be afforded to a Quaker, Adamite, or other heretic. No one shall cross a river without an authorized ferryman. No one shall run of a Sabbath day, or walk in his garden, or elsewhere, except reverently to and from the church. No one shall travel, cook victuals, make beds, sweep houses, cut hair, or shave, on the Sabbath day. No woman shall kiss her child on the Sabbath or fasting day. A person accused of trespass in the night, shall be judged guilty, unless he clear himself by his oath. No one shall buy or sell lands without permission of the select men. CONNECTICUT. 315 Whoever publishes a lie to the prejudice of his neighbor, shall sit in the stocks, or be whipped fifteen stripes. Whoever wears clothes trimmed with silver, or bone lace, above two shillings a yard, shall be presented by the grand jurors, and the select men shall tax the offender at the rate of 300Z. estate. Whoever brings cards or dice into this dominion shall pay a fine of 5?. No one shall read Common Prayer, keep Christmas or Saint's day, make minced pies, dance, play cards, or play on any instrument of music, except the drum, the trumpet, and jews-harp. When parents refuse their children suitable marriages, the magistrates shall determine the point. The select men, on finding children ignorant, may take them away from their parents and put them into better hands, at the expense of the parents. A man that strikes his wife shall pay a fine of 10Z. ; a woman that strikes her husband shall be punished as the court directs. Married persons must live together, or be imprisoned. Every male shall have his hair cut round according to a cap. THE REGICIDES. Soon after the restoration -of monarchy in England, many of the judges who had condemned King Charles I. to death, were apprehended. Thirty were con- demned, and ten were executed as traitors ; two of them, Colonels Goffe and Whalley, made their escape to New England, and arrived at Boston, July, 1660. They were gentlemen of worth, and were much esteemed by the colonists for their unfeigned piety. Their manners and appearance were dignified, command- ing universal respect. Whalley had been a Lieutenant-General, and Goffe a Major-General in Cromwell's army. An order for their apprehension, from Charles II., reached New England soon after their arrival. The king's commis- sioners, eager to execute this order, compelled the judges to resort to the woods and caves, and other hiding places ; and they would undoubtedly have teen taken, had not the colonists secretly aided and ''assisted them in their concealments. Sometimes they found a refuge in a cave on a mountain near New Haven, and at others, in cellars of the houses of their friends, and once they were secreted un- der the Neck bridge, in New Haven, while their pursuers crossed the bridge on horseback. While in New Haven, they owed their lives to the intrepidity of Mr. Daven- port, the minister of the place, who, when the pursuers arrived, preached to the people from this text : "Take council, execute judgment, make thy shadow as the night in the midst of the noonday, hide the outcasts, bewray not him that wandereth. Let my outcasts dwell with thee. Moab, be thou a covert to them from the face of the spoiler.' 11 Large rewards were offered for their apprehension, or for any in- formation which might lead to it. Mr. Davenport was threatened, for it was known that he had harbored them. Upon hearing that he was in danger, they offered to deliver themselves up, and actually gave notice to the deputy governor of the place of their concealment ; but Davenport had not preached in vain, and the magistrate took no other notice than to advise them not to betray themselves. After lurking about for two or three years in and near New Haven, they found it necessary to remove to Hadley, where they were received by Mr. Russell, with whom they were concealed fifteen or sixteen years. After many hairbreadth es- 316 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. capes, the pursuit was given over, and they were finally suffered to die a natural death in their exile. The following interesting incident is related in connection with the sojourn of the Regicides in Connecticut : In the course of Philip's war, which involved almost all the Indian tribes in New England, and, among others, those in the neighborhood of this town, the inhabitants thought it proper to observe the 1st of September, 1675, as a day of fasting and prayer. While they were in the church, and employed in their wor- ship, they were surprised by a band of savages. The people instantly betook themselves to their arms, which, according to the custom of the times, they had car- ried with them to the church ; and, rushing out, attacked the invaders. The panic under which they began the conflict was, however, so great, and their number was so disproportioned to that of their enemies, that they fought doubtfully at first, and in a short time began evidently to give way. At this moment, an ancient man, with hoary locks, of a most venerable and dignified aspect, and in address widely differing from that of the inhabitants, appeared suddenly at their head, and witli a firm voice and an example of undaunted resolution, reanimated their courage, led them again to the conflict, and totally routed the savages. When the battle was ended, the stranger disappeared, and no one knew whence he had come, or whither he had gone. The relief was so timely, so sudden, so unexpected, so providential ; the appearance and retreat of him, who had fur- nished it, were so unaccountable ; his person was so dignified and commanding, his resolution so superior, and his interference so decisive, that the inhabitants, without any uncommon exercise of credulit}', readily believed him to be an angel sent from heaven for their preservation. Nor was this opinion seriously contro- verted, until it was discovered, years afterwards, that Goffe and Whalley had been lodged in the house of Mr. Russell. Then it was known that their deliverer was Goffe ; Whalley having become superannuated some time before the event took place. There is an obscure and very doubtful tradition, that Goffe also was buried here. PENALTY FOR KISSING. In 1654, a trial took place in Connecticut, under the section of the "Blue Laws" prohibiting kissing. The culprits were Sarah Tuttle and Jacob Newton. It seems that Sarah dropped her gloves, and Jacob found them. When Sarah asked for them, Jacob demanded a kiss for his pay, and Sarah, not thinking the charge extortionate, paid it in full. Complaint was made by some sour-tempered individual, and the guilty parties were arraigned before the magistrate. The facts were clearly proved, and the parties were each fined twenty shillings. THE DARK DAY. The 19th of May, 1680, was remarkable for the intense darkness which pre- vailed throughout the New England colonies. At this time the Legislature of Connecticut was in session in Hartford. A very general opinion prevailed, that the day of judgment was at hand. The House of Representatives, being unable to transact their business, adjourned. A proposal to adjourn the council was under consideration. When the opinion of Colonel Davenport was asked, he answered, "I am against an adjournment. The day of judgment is either ap CONNECTICUT. 317 preaching, or it is not. If it is not, there is no cause for an adjournment ; if it is, I choose to be found doing rny duty. I wish therefore that candles may be brought." AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. The people of Connecticut resolved to maintain their independence of the Duke of York, as their charter was of prior date to that of the Duke. Detachments of militia were therefore ordered to New London and Saybrook, the troops at Say- brook being placed under the command of Captain Thomas Bull, of Hartford. Early in July, 1675, the people of Saybrook were surprised by the appearance of Major Anclros, with an armed force, in the Sound, making directly for the fort. They had received no intelligence of the hostile expedition of Andros, and having no instructions from the Governor, were undecided what course to take, when, at a critical juncture, Captain Bull with his company arrived, and preparations were at once made for the defence of the fort and town. The assembly met at Hartford on the 9th of July, and immediately drew up a protest against the pro- ceedings of Andros, which they sent by express to Saybrook, with instructions to Captain Bull to propose to Andros a reference of the dispute to commissioners. On the llth, Major Anclros, with several armed sloops, drew up before the fort, hoisted the king's flag on board, and demanded a surrender of the fortress and town. Captain Bull immediately raised His Majesty's colors in the fort, and arranged his men in the best manner possible. The major did not like to fire on the king's colors, and perceiving that, should he attempt to reduce the town by force, it would in all likelihood be a bloody affair, he judged it expedient not to fire upon the troops. Early in the morning of the 12th of July, Andros desired that he might have permission to land on the shore, for the purpose of an interview with the minis- ters and chief officers of the town. He probably flattered himself that if he could obtain a foothold upon the soil, and then read the Duke's patent, and his own commission, to the people, it would make a serious impression upon them, and that he would be able to gain by artifice that which he could never accomplish by force of arms. He was allowed to come on shore with his suite. Captain Bull and his officers, with the officers and gentlemen of the town, met him at his landing, and informed him that they had, at that instant, received instructions to tender him a treaty, and to refer the whole matter in controversy to commis- sioners, capable of determining it according to law and justice. Major Andros rejected the proposal at once, and forthwith commanded, in His Majesty's name, that the Duke's patent, and the commission which he had received from His Royal Highness, should be read. Captain Bull, comprehending at once the arti- fice of Andros, commanded him, in His Majesty's name, to forbear the reading. And when his clerk attempted to persist in reading, Captain Bull repeated his command, with such energy of voice and manner as convinced the major that it might not be altogether safe for him to proceed. The Yankee captain, having succeeded in silencing the valiant representative of the Duke, next informed him that he had a communication to deliver from the assembly, and he then read the protest. Governor Andros, affecting to be well pleased with the bold and soldier-like appearance of his opponent, asked, " What is your name ? " He replied, "My name is Bull, sir." " Bull ! " exclaimed the governor. "It is a pity that your horns are not tipped with silver." Finding that he could make no impression upon the officers or people, and that the Legis- 318 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. lature of the colony were determined to defend themselves in the possession of their chartered rights, Andros prudently gave up his design of seizing the fort. The militia of the town courteously guarded him to his boat, and, going on board, he soon sailed for New York, and Connecticut was no more troubled by his pres- ence or interference until after the accession of James the Second. ELECTION DAY IN THE OLDEN TIME. Previous to the adoption of the Constitution of 1819, the freemen of the State met annually at Hartford on the first Wednesday in May, to choose State officers. The following description of the counting of the votes, and the inauguration of the Governor, is taken form " Kendall's Travels," published in 1808 : I reached Hartford at noon, on Wednesday, the 19th of May, 1807. The city is on the west bank of the Connecticut, 50 miles above its mouth. The governor, whose family residence is on the east side of the river, at some distance from Hartford, was expected to arrive in the evening. This gentleman, whose name is Jonathan Trumbull, is the son of the late Governor Jonathan Trumbull ; and though the election is annual, he has himself been three or four years in office, and will almost certainly so continue during the remainder of his life. It was known that the votes at this time were in his favor. The governor has volunteer companies of guards, both horse and foot. In the afternoon the horse were drawn up on the bank of the river to receive him, and escort him to his lodgings. He came before sunset, and the fineness of the even- ing, the beauty of the river, the respectable appearance of the governor, and of the troop, the dignity of the occasion, and the decorum observed, united to gratify the spectators. The color of the clothes of the troops was blue. The governor, though on horseback, was dressed in black, but he wore'a cockade in a hat, which I did not like the less, because it was in the form rather of the old school than of the new. In the morning the foot guards were paraded in front of the State House, where they afterwards remained under arms, while the troop of horse occupied the street which is on the south side of the building. The clothing of the foot was scarlet, with white waistcoats and pantaloons ; and their appearance and demeanor were military. The day was fine, and the apartments and galleries of the State House afforded an agreeable place of meeting, in which the members of the Assembly and others awaited the coming of the governor. At about 11 o'clock his excellency entered the State House, and shortly after took his place at the head of a procession, which was made to a meeting-house or church, at something less than half a mile distant. The procession was on foot, and was composed of the person of the governor, together with the lieutenant-governor, assistants, high sheriffs, mem- bers of the lower house of the assembly, and, unless with accidental exceptions, all the clergy of the State. It was preceded by the foot guards, and followed by the horse ; and attended by gazers, that, considering the size and population of the city, may be said to have been numerous. The church, which from its situ- ation is called the South Meeting House, is a small one, and was resorted to on this occasion only because that more ordinarily used was at this time rebuilding. The edifice is of wood, alike unornamented within and without ; and when filled, Miere was still presented to the eye nothing but what had the plainest appearance. CONNECTICUT. 319 The military remained in the street, with the exception of a few officers, to whom no place of honor or distinction was assigned ; neither the governor nor other magistrates were accompanied with any insignia of office ; the clergy had no canonical costume, and there were no females in the church, except a few (rather more than twenty in number), who were stationed by themselves in a gallery opposite the pulpit, in quality of singers. A decent order was the highest characteristic that presented itself. The pulpit, or, as it is here called, the desk, was filled by three, if not four, clergymen ; a number by its form and dimensions it was able to accommodate. Of these, one opened the service with a prayer, another delivered a sermon, a third made a concluding prayer, and a fourth pronounced a benediction. Seve- ral hymns were sung ; and among others an occasional one. The total number of singers was between forty and fifty. The sermon, as will be supposed, touched upon matters of government. When all was finished, the procession returned to the State House. The clergy who walked were about a hundred in number. It was in the two bodies of guards alone that any suitable approach to magni- ficence discovered itself. The governor was full dressed, in a suit of black ; but the lieutenant-governor wore riding boots. All, however, was consistently plain, and in unison with itself, except the dress swords, which were worn by high sheriffs, along with their village habilaments, and of which the fashion and the materials were marvellously diversified. Arrived in front of the State House, the military formed on each side of the street ; and, as the governor passed them, presented arms. The several parts of the procession now separated, each to a dinner prepared for itself at an adjoining inn ; the governor, lieutenant-governor, and assistants to their table, the clergy to a second, and the representatives to a third. The time of day was about two in the afternoon. Only a short time elapsed before business was resumed, or rather at length commenced. The General Assembly met in the council room, and the written votes being examined and counted, the names of the public officers elected were formally declared. They were in every instance the same as those which had been successful the preceding year. This done, the lieutenant-governor administered the oath to the governor elect, who, being sworn, proceeded to administer their respective oaths to the lieuten- ant-governor and the rest ; and here terminated the affairs of the election day. Soon after C o'clock, the military fired three feu dejoies, and were then dismissed. On the evening following that of election day, there is an annual ball at Hart- ford, called the election ball ; and on the succeding Monday, a second, which is more select. The election day is a holiday throughout the State ; and even the whole remainder of the week is regarded in a similar light. Servants and others are now indemnified for the loss of the festivals of Christmas, Easter, and Whit- suntide, which the principles of their church deny them. Families exchange visits, and treat their guests with slices of election cake ; and thus preserve some portion of the luxuries of the forgotten feast of the Epiphany. PART III. THE MIDDLE STATES. 21 NEW YORK. Area, 47,000 'Square Miles. Population in 1860, 3,880,735 Population in 1870, , . . 4,382,759 IN population, wealth, and variety of resources, New York is the first State in the Union. It is situated between 40 29' 40" and 45 0' 42" N. latitude, and between 71 51' and 79 47' 25" W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Canada and Lake Onta- rio; on the east by Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut; on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania ; and on the west by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and Canada. TOPOGRAPHY, The following admirable sketch of the topographical features of the State is taken from French's " Gazetteer of the State of New York : " " Surface. This State lies upon that portion of the Appalachian Mountain system where the mountains generally assume the character of hills, and finally sink to a level of the low-lands that surround the great depression filled by Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. Three distinct mountain masses or ranges enter the State from the south and extend across it in a generally northeast direction. The first or most easterly of these ranges a continuation of the Blue Ridge of Virginia enters the State from New Jersey, and extends northeast through Rockland and Orange counties to the Hudson, ap- pears on the east side of that river, and forms the highlands of Put- nam and Dutchess counties. A northerly extension of the same moun- tains passes into the Green Mountains of western Massachusetts and Vermont. This range culminates in the highlands upon the Hud- 323 324 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. SCENE IN THE CATSKILL MOUNTAINS. son. The highest peaks are 1000 to 1700 feet above tide. . . . The deep gorge formed by the Hudson in passing through this range pre- sents some of the finest scenery in America, and has often been com- pared to the celebrated valley of the Rhine. " The second series of mountains enters the State from Pennsylva- nia, and extends northeast through Sullivan, Ulster, and Greene counties, terminating and culminating in the Catskill Mountains upon the Hudson. The highest peaks are 3000 to 3800 feet above tide; the Shawangunk Mountains, a high and continuous ridge ex- tending between Sullivan and Orange counties and into the south part of Ulster, is the extreme east range of this series. The Helder- berg and Hellibark Mountains are spurs extending north from the main range into Albany and Schoharie counties. . . . The declivities are steep and rocky ; and a large share of the surface is too rough for cultivation. The highest peaks overlook the Hudson, and from their summits are obtained some of the finest views in eastern New York. " The third series of mountains enters the State from Pennsylvania and extends northeast through Broome, Delaware, Otsego, Schoharie, NEW YORK. 325 Montgomery, and Herkimer counties to the Mohawk, and appears upon the north side of that river, and extends northeast, forming the whole series of highlands that occupy the northeast part of the State and generally known as the Adirondack Mountain region. South of the Mohawk, this mountain system assumes the form of broad, irregu- lar hills, occupying a wide space of country. It is broken by the deep ravines of the streams, and in many places the hills are steep and nearly precipitous. The valley of the Mohawk breaks the con- tinuity of the range, though the connection is easily traced at Little Falls, the Noses, and other places. North of the Mohawk, the high- lands, extend northeast in several distinct ranges, all terminating upon Lake Champlain. The culminating point of the whole system, and the highest mountain in the State, is Mount Marcy, 5467 feet above the tide. The mountains are usually wild, rugged, and rocky. A large share of the surface is entirely unfit for cultivation ; but the region is rich in minerals, and especially in an excellent variety of iron ore. West of these ranges, series of hills forming spurs of the Alleghanies enter the State^from Pennsylvania, and occupy the entire south half of the western part of the State. An irregular line extend- ing through the southerly counties, forms the watershed that sepa- rates the northern and southern drainage; and from it the surface gradually declines northward until it finally terminates in the level of Lake Ontario. The portion of the State lying south of this water- shed, and occupying the greater part of the two southerly tiers of counties, is entirely occupied by these hills. Along the Pennsylvania line they are usually abrupt and are separated by narrow ravines, but toward the north their summits become broader and less broken. A considerable portion of the highland region is too steep for profita- ble cultivation, and is best adapted to grazing. The highest summits in Allegany and Cattaraugus counties are 2000 to 3000 feet above tide. " From the summits of the watershed the highlands usually descend toward Lake Ontario in series of terraces, the edges of which are the outcrops of the different rocks which underlie the surface. These ter- races are usually smooth, and, although inclined toward the north, the inclination is generally so slight that they appear to be level. Between the hills of the south and the level land of the north is a beautiful rolling region, the ridges gradually declining toward the north. In that part of the State south of the most eastern mountain ringe the surface is generally level or broken by low hills. In New York and Westchester counties, these hills are principally composed 326 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of primitive rocks. The surface of Long Island is generally level or gently undulating. A ridge 150 to 200 feet high, composed of sand, gravel, and clay, extends east and west across the island north of the centre. " Rivers and Lakes. The river system of the State has two general divisions, the first comprising the streams tributary to the great lakes and the St. Lawrence, and the second those which flow in a generally southerly direction. The watershed which separates these two systems extends in an irregular line eastward from Lake Erie through the southern tier of counties to near the northeast corner of Chemung; thence it turns northeast to the Adirondack Mountains in Essex county, thence southeast to the eastern extremity of Lake George, and thence nearly due east to the eastern line of the State. "The northerly division has five general subdivisions. The most westerly of these comprises all the streams flowing into Lake Erie and Niagara River and those flowing into Lake Ontario west of Genesee River. In Chautauqua county the streams are short and rapid, as the watershed approaches within a few miles of Lake Erie. Catta- raugus, Buffalo, Tonawanda, and Oak Orchard creeks are the most important streams in this division. Buffalo Creek is chiefly noted for forming Buffalo Harbor at its mouth ; and the Tonawanda for 12 miles from its mouth is used for canal navigation. Oak Orchard and other creeks flowing into Lake Ontario descend from the interior in a series of rapids, affording a large amount of water-power. "The second subdivision comprises the Genesee River and its tribu- taries. The Genesee rises in the north part of Pennsylvania and flows in a generally northerly direction to Lake Ontario. Its upper course is through a narrow valley bordered by steep, rocky hills. Upon the line of Wyoming and Livingston counties it breaks through a moun- tain barrier in a deep gorge and forms the Portage Falls, one of the finest waterfalls in the State. Below this point the course of the river is through a beautiful valley, one to two miles wide and bordered by banks 50 to 150 feet high. At Rochester it flows over the precipitous edges of the Niagara limestone, forming the Upper Genesee Ealls ; and three miles below, it flows over the edge of the Medina sandstone, forming the Lower Genesee Falls. The principal tributaries of this stream are Canaseraga, Honeoye, and Conesus creeks from the east, and Oatka and Black creeks from the west. Honeoye, Canadice, Hemlock, and Conesus lakes lie within the Genesee Basin. " The third subdivision includes the Oswego River and its tribu- NEW YORK. 327 taries, and the small streams flowing into Lake Ontario between Gene- see and Oswego rivers. The basin of the Oswego includes most of the inland lakes which form a peculiar feature of the landscape in the interior of the State. The principal of these lakes are Cayuga, Seneca, Canandaigua, Skaneateles, Crooked, and Owasco, all occupying long, narrow valleys, and extending from the level land in the centre far into the highland region of the south. The valleys which they occupy appear like immense ravines formed by some tremendous force, which has torn the solid rocks from their original beds, from the general level of the surrounding summits, down to the present bottoms of the lakes. Oneida and Onondaga lakes occupy basins upon the level land in the northeast part of the Oswego Basin. Mud Creek, the most westerly branch of Oswego River, takes its rise in Ontario county, flows northeast into Wayne, where it unites with Canandaigua Outlet and takes the name of Clyde River ; thence it flows east to the west line of Cayuga county, where it empties into Seneca River. This latter stream, made up of the outlets of Seneca and Cayuga lakes, from this point flows in a northeast course, and receives successively the outlets of Owasco, Skaneateles, Onondaga, and Oneida lakes. From the mouth of the last-named stream it takes the name Oswego River, and its course is nearly due north to Lake Ontario. " The fourth subdivision includes the streams flowing into Lake On- tario and the St. Lawrence, east of the mouth of the Oswego. The principal of these are Salmon, Black, Oswegatchie, Grasse, and Racket rivers. These streams mostly take their rise upon the plateau of the great northern wilderness, and in their course to the lowlands are fre- quently interrupted by falls, furnishing an abundance of water-power. The water is usually very dark, being colored with iron and the vege- tation of swamps. " The fifth subdivision includes all the streams flowing into lakes George and Champlain.. They are mostly mountain torrents, fre- quently interrupted by cascades. The principal streams are the Chazy, Saranac, and Au Sable rivers, and Wood Creek. Deep strata of tertiary clay extend along the shores of Lake Champlain and Wood Creek. The water of most of the streams in this region is colored by the iron over which it flows. " The second general division of the river-system of the State in- cludes the basins of the Allegany, Susquehanna, Delaware, and Hud- son. The Allegany Basin embraces the southerly half of Chautauqua and Cattaraugus counties and the southwest corner of Allegany. The 328 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Allegany River enters the State from the south in the southeast corner of Cattaraugus county, flows in nearly a semicircle, with its outward curve toward the north, and flows out of the State in the southwest part of the same county. It receives several tributaries from the north and east. These streams mostly flow in deep ravines, bordered by steep, rocky hillsides. The watershed between this basin and Lake Erie approaches within a few miles of the lake, and is elevated 800 or 1000 feet above it. " The Susquehanna Basin occupies about one-third of the south border of the State. The river takes its rise in Otsego Lake, and, flowing southwest to the Pennsylvania line, receives Charlotte River from the south and the Unadilla from the north. After a course of a few miles in Pennsylvania, it again enters the State, and flows in a general westerly direction to near the west border of Tioga county, whence it turns south and again enters Pennsylvania. Its principal tributary from the north is Chenango River. Tioga River enters the State from Pennsylvania near the east border of Steuben county, flows north, receives the Canisteo from the west and the Conhocton from the north. From the mouth of the latter the stream takes the name Chemung River, and flows in a southeast direction, into the Susque- hanna in Pennsylvania, a few miles south of the State line. The upper course of these streams is generally through deep ravines bor- dered by steep hillsides ; but below they are bordered by wide and beautiful intervales. " The Delaware Basin occupies Delaware and Sullivan and portions of several of the adjacent counties. The north or principal branch of the river rises in the northeast part of Delaware county and flows southwest to near the Pennsylvania line; thence it turns southeast and forms the boundary of the State to the line of New Jersey. Its principal branches are the Pepacton and Neversink rivers. These streams all flow in deep, narrow ravines, bordered by steep, rocky hills. "The Basin of the Hudson occupies about two-thirds of the east bor- der of the State, and a large territory extending into the interior. The remote sources of the Hudson are among the highest peaks of the Adirondacks, more than 4000 feet above tide. Several of the little lakes which form reservoirs of the upper Hudson are 2500 to 3000 feet above tide. The stream rapidly descends through the narrow defiles into Warren county, where it receives from the east the outlet of Schroon Lake, and Sacondaga River from the west. Below the mouth of the latter the river turns eastward, and breaks through the NEW YORK. 329 VIEW ON THE HUDSON RIVER. barrier of the Luzerne Mountains in a series of rapids and falls. At Fort Edward it again turns south and flows with a rapid current, fre- quently interrupted by falls, to Troy, 160 miles from the ocean. At this place the river falls into an estuary, where its current is affected by the tide ; and from this place to its mouth it is a broad, deep, sluggish stream. About 60 miles from its mouth, the Hudson breaks through the rocky barrier of the Highlands, forming the most easterly of the Appalachian Mountain Ranges ; and along its lower course it is bordered on the west by a nearly perpendicular wall of basaltic rock 300 to 500 feet high, known as 'The Palisades/ Above Troy the Hudson receives the Hoosick River from the east and the Mo- hawk from the west. The former stream rises in western Massachu- setts and Vermont, and the latter near the centre of the State. At Little Falls and the ' Noses/ the Mohawk breaks through the moun- tain barriers in a deep, rocky ravine; and at Cohoes, about one mile from its mouth, it flows down a perpendicular precipice of 70 feet, forming an excellent water-power. Below Troy the tributaries of the Hudson are all comparatively small streams. South of the Highlands 330 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. LAKE GEORGE. the river spreads out into a wide expanse known as ( Tappan Bay.' A few small streams upon the extreme east border of the State flow eastward into the Housatonic; and several small branches of +he Pasaic River rise in the south part of Rockland county. " Lake Erie forms a portion of the west boundary of the State. . . . The harbors upon the lake are Buffalo, Silver Creek, Dunkirk, and Barcelona Niagara River, forming the outlet of Lake Erie, is 34 miles long, and, on an average, more than a mile wide. . . . Lake Ontario forms a part of the north boundary to the west half of the State." Between Warren and Washington counties, lies Lake George, sometimes called by its Indian name, Horicon, the most beautiful body of water in the State. It is 36 miles long, with a breadth vary- ing from three-quarters of a mile to 4 miles. " The water is remark- ably transparent, and in some parts is more than 400 feet deep. To a passenger traversing this lake, scarcely anything can be imagined NEW YORK. 331 more beautiful or picturesque than the scenery along its banks. The romantic effect of the prospect is greatly enhanced by a multitude of delightful islands of various forms and sizes, which meet the gaze of the beholder on every side. Of these,, if we include many little islets and rocks, there are more than 300 : a popular notion prevails that their number corresponds to that of the days of the year. Twelve miles from the southwestern extremity of the lake, there is an island of about 20 acres, called, from its position, Twelve Mile Island. A mile farther north there is a high point, or tongue of land, called Tongue Mountain, west of which projects a small arm of the lake, named Northwest Bay. Here the Narrows, that is, the narrowest part of the lake, commence and continue 7 or 8 miles. Near the west end of the Narrows, on the eastern side of the lake, is Black Mountain, the summit of which is regarded as the highest point in the immediate vicinity of the lake, having an elevation of 2200 feet above its surface. About 12 miles beyond Black Mountain there is a rock about 200 feet high, rising almost perpendicularly from the surface of the water. During the French War, Major Rogers, being closely pursued by the Indians, slid down this steep declivity, and landed safely on the ice, leaving his pursuers petrified with astonishment at the dangerous exploit which they had witnessed. From this circumstance, the rock has been named Rogers' Slide. Two or three miles beyond the place just mentioned, is Lord Howe's Point, where the division of the English army under Lord Howe landed previous to their attack on Ticonderoga." The greatest of all the natural wonders of the State, however, are the famous Falls of the Niagara, which lie partly within the limits of New York, and partly in Canada. The Niagara River, as has been stated, forms the outlet of the 4 great upper lakes, and discharges their waters which it receives through Lake Erie, into Lake Ontario. At the point where it leaves Lake Erie, the Niagara is very wide, but it narrows as it recedes from the lake, and about 16 miles from Lake Erie, it begins to contract suddenly, and the current increases in velocity. This is the beginning of the rapids, which are a mile in length. The fall of the river in this distance is 52 feet, and down this descent the immense volume of water rushes in great swells, until the Falls are reached. As it approaches the precipice, the river makes a curve from west to north, and spreads out to an extreme width of about 4750 feet. Goat Island, which extends down to the brink of the cataract, occupies about one-fourth of this space, leaving the river on the American side about 1100 feet wide, and on the Canadian side about double this 332 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. width. The line along the verge of the Canadian fall, is much longer than the breadth of this portion of the river, by reason of its horseshoe form, the curve extending up the central part of the current. In passing down the rapids the waters acquire a force which dashes them over the precipice in a grand, resistless torrent, and they fall in a magnificent curve, as they leap clear of the rocky wall into the boiling pool at its base. The fall is 164 feet on the American side, and 150 on the Canadian. The greater volume of water passes over the Canadian, or " Horseshoe Fall." The space between the cataract and the wall of rock over which it dashes, widens near the bottom, the strata being there of a loose, shaly character, and consequently hollowed out by the continual action of the spray. A cave is thus formed behind the fall, into which, on the Canadian side, persons can enter, and pass by a rough and slippery path toward Goat Island. Below the falls, the current, contracted to less than 1000 feet in width, is tossed tumultu- ously about, and forms great eddies and whirlpools as it sweeps down its rapidly descending bed. Small boats can pass the river in safety here, and a little steamer used to convey passengers almost to the foot of the falls. The river is crossed by two suspension bridges. One immediately below the falls, is used by vehicles and pedestrians, the other, a mile below, is used partly by these, and partly by the railway line entering Canada. Fourteen miles below, the river enters Lake Ontario. The Falls of Niagara are unsurpassed in grandeur and magnificence by any in the world. When the state of the atmosphere is favorable, the roar of the cataract may be heard for miles. It sometimes rolls over the land to Lake Ontario, and across its waters to Toronto in Canada, 46 miles distant. Anthony Trollopc has written of them as follows : " The falls, as I have said, are made by a sudden breach in the level of the river. All cataracts are, I presume, made by such breaches ; but generally the waters do not fall precipitously as they do at Niagara, and never elsewhere, as far as the world yet knows, has a breach so sudden been made in a river carrying in its channel such or any approach to such a body of water. Up above the falls for more than a mile the waters leap and burst over rapids, as though conscious of the destiny that awaits them. Here the river is very broad and com- paratively shallow ; but from shore to shore it frets itself into little torrents, and begins to assume the majesty of its power. Looking at it even here, in the expanse which forms itself over the greater fall, one NEW YORK. 333 FALLS OF THE NIAGARA. feels sure that no strongest swimmer could have a chance of saving himself if fate had cast him in even among those petty whirlpools. The waters,. though so broken in their descent, are deliciously green. This color, as seen early in the morning or just as the sun has set, is so bright, as to give to the place one of its chiefest charms. " This will be best seen from the farther end of the island Goat Island as it is called which, as the reader will understand, divides 334 TI1E GREAT REPUBLIC. the river immediately above the falls. Indeed, the island is a part of that precipitously-broken ledge over which the river tumbles, and no doubt in process of time will be worn away and covered with water. The time, however, will be very long. In the meanwhile, it is perhaps a mile round, and is covered thickly with timber. At the upper enj of the island the waters are divided, and, coming down in two courses each over its own rapids, form two separate falls. The bridge by which the island is entered, is a hundred yards or more above the smaller fall. The waters here have been turned by the island, and make their leap into the body of the river below at a right angle with it about 200 yards below the greater fall. Taken alone, this smaller cataract would, I imagine, be the heaviest fall of water known ; but taken in conjunction with the other, it is terribly shorn of its majesty. The waters here are not green as they are at the larger cataract ; and, though the ledge has been hollowed and bowed by them so as to form a curve, that curve does not deepen itself into a vast abyss as it does at the horseshoe up above. This smaller fall is again divided ; and the visitor, passing down a flight of steps and over a frail wooden bridge, finds himself on a smaller island in the midst of it. O / " But we will go at once on to the glory, and the thunder, and the majesty, and the wrath of that upper hell of waters. We are still, let the reader remember, on Goat Island still in the States and on what is called the American side of the main body of the river. Advancing beyond the path leading down to the lesser fall, we come to that point of the island at which the waters of the main river begin to descend. From hence across to the Canadian side the cataract continues itself in one unabated line. But the line is very far from being direct or straight. After stretching for some little way from the shore to a point in the river which is reached by a wooden bridge at the end of which stands a tower upon the rock, after stretching to this, the line of the ledge bends inward against the flood in, and in, and in till one is led to think that the depth of that horseshoe is immeasurable. It has been cut with no stinting hand. A monstrous cantle has been worn back out of the centre of the rock, so that the fury of the waters converges ; and the spectator, as he gazes into the hollow with wishful eyes, fancies that he can hardly trace out the centre of the abyss. " Go down to the end of that wooden bridge, seat yourself on the rail, and there sit till all the outer world is lost to you. There is no grander spot about Niagara than this. The waters are absolutely around you. If you have that power of eye-contrio which is so neces- NEW YORK. 335 sary to the full enjoyment of scenery, you will see nothing but the water. You will certainly hear nothing else ; and the sound, I beg you to remember, is not an ear-cracking, agonizing crash and clang of noises, but is melodious and soft withal, though loud as thunder. It fills your ears, and, as it were, envelops them, but at the same time you can speak to your neighbor without an effort. But at this place, and in these moments, the less of speaking, I should say, the better. There is no grander spot than this. Here, seated on the rail of the bridge, you will not see the whole depth of the fall. In looking at the grandest works of nature, and of art too, I fancy it is never well to see all. There should be something left to the imagination, and much should be half concealed in mystery. The greatest charm of a mountain range is the wild feeling that there must be strange, unknown, desolate worlds in those far-off valleys beyond. And so here, at Niagara, that converging rush of waters may fall down, down at once into a hell of rivers, for what the eye can s'ee. It is glorious to watch them in their first curve over the rocks. They corne green as a bank of emeralds, but with a fitful flying color, as though conscious that in one moment more they would be dashed into spray and rise into air, pale as driven snow. The vapor rises high into the air, and is gath- ered there, visible always as a permanent white cloud over the cataract ; but the bulk of the spray which fills the lower hollow of that horseshoe is like a tumult of snow. This you will not fully see from your seat on the rail. The head of it rises ever and anon out of that caldron below, but the caldron itself will be invisible. It is ever so far down far as vour own imagination can sink it. But your eyes will rest full upon the curve of the waters. The shape you will be looking at is that of a horseshoe, but of a horseshoe miraculously deep from toe to heel ; and this depth becomes greater as you sit there. That which at first was only great and beautiful becomes gigantic and sublime, till the mind is at a loss to find an epithet for its own use. To realize Niagara, you must sit there till you see nothing else than that which you have come to see. You will hear nothing else, and think of nothing else. At length you will be at one with the tumbling river before you. You will find yourself among the waters as though you belonged to them. The cool, liquid green will run through your veins, and the voice of the cataract will be the expression of your own heart. You will fall as the bright waters fall, rushing down into your new world with no hesitation and with no dismay ; and you will rise again as the spray rises, bright, beautiful and pure. Then you will flow away in your course to the uncompassed, distant, and eternal ocean. 336 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. " When this state has been reached and lias passed away, you may get off your rail and mount the tower. It is not very high, and there is a balcony at the top on which some half-dozen persons may stand at ease. Here the mystery is lost, but the whole fall is seen. It is not even at this spot brought so fully before your eye, made to show itself in so complete and entire a shape, as it will do when you come to stand near it on the Canadian shore. But I think that it shows itself more beautifully. And the form of the cataract is such, that here on Goat Island, on the American shore, no spray will reach you, though you are absolutely over the waters. But on the Canadian side, the road as it approaches the fall is wet and rotten with spray, and you, as you stand close upon the edge, will be wet also. The rainbows as they are seen through the rising cloud for the sun's rays, as seen through these waters, show themselves in a bow, as they do when seen through rain are pretty enough, and are greatly loved. " And now we will cross the water, and with this object will return by the bridge out of Goat Island, on the mainland of the American side. But as we do so, let me say that one of the great charms of Niagara consists in this : that over and above that one great object of wonder and beauty, there is so much little loveliness loveliness espe- cially of water I mean. There are little rivulets running here and there over little falls, with pendent boughs above them, and stones shining under their shallow depths. As the visitor stands and looks through the trees, the rapids glitter before him, and then hide them- selves behind islands. They glitter and sparkle in far distances under the bright foliage, till the remembrance is lost, and one knows not which way they run " Having mounted the hill on the Canada side, you will walk on toward the falls. As I have said before, you will from this side look directly into the full circle of the upper cataract, while you will have before you, at your left hand, the whole expanse of the lesser fall. For those who desire to see all at a glance, who wish to comprise the whole with their eyes, and to leave nothing to be guessed, nothing to be sur- mised, this no doubt is the best point of view "Here, on this side, you walk on to the very edge of the cataract, and, if your tread be steady and your legs firm, you dip your foot into the water exactly at the spot where the thin outside margin of the current reaches the rocky edge and jumps to join the mass of the fall. The bed of white foam beneath is certainly seen better here than else- where, and the green curve of the water is as bright here as when seen NEW YORK. 331 from the wooden rail across. But nevertheless I say again that that wooden rail is the one point from whence Niagara may be best seen aright. " Close to the cataract, exactly at the spot from whence in former days the Table Rock used to project from the land over the boiling caldron below, there is now a shaft, down which you will descend to the level of the river, and pass between the rock and the torrent. This Table Rock broke away from the cliff and fell, as up the whole course of the river the seceding rocks have split and fallen from time to time through countless years, and will continue to do till the bed of the upper lake is reached " In the spot to which I allude the visitor stands on a broad safe path, made of shingles, between the rock over which the water rushes and the rushing water. He will go in so far that the spray, rising back from the bed of the torrent, does not incommode him. With this exception, the farther he can go in the better ; but circumstances will clearly show him the spot to which he should advance. Unless the . water be driven in by a very strong wind, five yards make the difference between a comparatively dry coat and an absolutely wet one. And then let him stand with his back to the entrance, thus hiding the last glimmer of the expiring day. So standing, he will look up among the falling waters, or down into the deep, misty pit, from which they reascend in almost as palpable a bulk. The rock will be at his right hand, high and hard, and dark and straight, like the wall of some huge cavern, such as children enter in their dreams. For the first five minutes he will be looking but at the waters of a cataract at the waters, indeed, of such a cataract as we know no other, and at their interior curves which elsewhere we cannot see. But by and by all this will change. He will no longer be on a shingly path beneath a waterfall ; but that feeling of a cavern wall will grow upon him, of a cavern deep, below roaring seas, in which the waves are there, though they do not enter in upon him ; or rather, not the waves, but the very bowels of the ocean. He will feel as though the floods surrounded him, coming and going with their wild sounds, and he will hardly recognize that though among them he is not in them. And they, as they fall with a continual roar, not hurting the ear, but musical withal, will seem to move as the vast ocean waters may per^ haps move in their internal currents. He will lose the sense of one continued descent, and think that they are passing round him in their appointed courses. The broken spray that rises from the depths below, 22 338 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. rises so strongly, so palpably, so rapidly, that the motion in every direction will seem equal. And, as he looks on, strange colors will show themselves through the mist; the shades of gray will become green or blue, with ever and anon a flash of white ; and then, when some gust of wind blows in with greater violence, the sea-girt cavern will become all dark and black. Oh, my friend, let there be no one there to speak to thee then ; no, not even a brother. As you stand there speak only to the waters." The principal rivers are navigable for a greater or less distance, and canals connect the various parts of the State, and afford water transportation along the unnavigable parts of the rivers. The principal islands are Long Island and Staten Island. Long Island extends eastward from the mainland, and lies south of Connecticut. Its northern shore is washed by Long Island Sound, and its eastern and southern shores by the Atlantic Ocean, while the East River, a narrow strait, separates it from Manhattan Island. It is about 115 miles long, and about 20 miles broad. Its surface is generally level, rising only in slight elevations. The coast is broken into numerous bays and harbors, some of which are excellent. Gar- diner's and Great Peconic bays, at the eastern extremity of the island, extend into the land for about 30 miles. The majority of these bays form the harbors of flourishing towns. The coast is well lighted, and several fine summer resorts are situated along it. The soil is fertile and highly cultivated. Several important towns are located on the island, and railroads furnish sure and rapid communication between them. Brooklyn, the second city in the State, is located on the ex- treme western end of Long Island. Staten Island lies in the lower part of New York Bay. It is about 14 miles long, 4 miles wide, and is built up with a number of busy little villages. Its shores and heights are lined with handsome country seats, and a railroad extends throughout its entire length. MINERALS. The State is very rich in mineral deposits. Iron abounds. Ex- tensive beds of hematite ores are found in Columbia and Dutchess counties, magnetic ores in Putnam, Orange, and Westchester counties, and the region lying between Lakes Champlain and Ontario is espe- cially rich in specular and magnetic ores. The western counties also contain large deposits of this mineral. Coal is found in Steuben county, and lead in St. Lawrence, Ulster, Sullivan, Columbia, Wash- NEW YORK. 339 ington, Dutchess, Rensselaer, and Westchester counties. Zinc, copper, titanium, manganese, arsenic, silver, cobalt, and bismuth are found to a limited extent. Marble, gneiss, and sandstone abound. Sulphuret of iron is found in St. Lawrence county, and carburet in Essex, Clinton, and Dutchess counties. Mineral springs are numerous. There are fine salt springs in Onondaga (which yield in this county large quantities of table salt), Erie, Genesee, and Orleans counties. Natural issues of carbureted hydrogen exist in several counties in the State. In Chautauqua county, the village of Fredonia is lighted by means of this gas, as is also Barcelona lighthouse in the same county. CLIMATE. In the northern and western parts of the State, the summer is short and hot, the winter long and severe, and the spring cold and damp, and rendered unpleasant by chilly winds. In the eastern section the sea breezes temper the severity of the cold, and lessen the heat of the summer. The climate of New York City is the most delightful in the country, taking it " the year round." SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. In the valleys of the principal rivers of the State the soil is gene- rally of an excellent quality, and very fertile. In the mountainous regions it is poor. The average soil, however, is good, and the State as a whole is fertile. Agriculture is carried on to a very great extent, much care being given to scientific farming. The State is noted for its market gardens, as well as for its dairy and grazing farms. In 1869, there were 14,355,403 acres of improved land, and 6,616,553 acres of unimproved land in the State, whose agricultural wealth for the same year may be stated as follows : Cash value of farms (estimated) $1,000,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery (estimated), . . . . $38,000,000 Number of horses, 703,120 asses and mules, 1,960 milch cows, 1,980,300 young cattle, '2,450,600 sheep, 3,750,960 swine, ........... 4,960,300 Value of domestic animals, $108,856,290 Bushels of wheat, 9,750,000 " rye, 4,748,000 " Indian corn, 19,100,000 " oats, 31,250,000 343- THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Bushels of peas and beans, 1,909,339 Irish potatoes, 28,500,000 barley, 4,600,000 buckwheat, 278,109 Pounds of wool, ........... 9,500,000 butter, 103,097,280 cheese, 48,548,289 hops, 9,600,000 Tons of hay, 4,600,000 Maple sugar, 10,816,458 Gallons of wine, 62,000 Yalue of orchard products (estimated), . . . $4,000,000 market garden products (estimated) , $3,800,000 " home-made manufactures, " . $825,000 " slaughtered animals, " . $16,000,000 COMMERCE. The commerce of New York is the most important of any of the States. In 1863 the total tonnage owned in the State was 1,889,190 tons, of which 848,328 was registered, and 321,714 was steam tonnage. In addition to this, however, a very large proportion of the vessels owned in other States are engaged in trading with the ports of New York. This State possesses the principal harbor of the Republic, and is more extensively engaged in the foreign and coast trade than any other. A very large share of the exports, and nearly all the imports, of the country pass through the port of New York. The share of the State in the lake trade is immense. Buffalo is the great centre of this trade. The enrolled and licensed tonnage of the port in 1863 was 112,893 tons, of which 50,964 was steam tonnage. In the same year, 7647 American and foreign vessels were entered, and 7729 were cleared at Buffalo. The value of imports from the west by lake and railroad, in the same year, was estimated at $1 25,000,000. Of this sum, $2,957,021 were on account of imports from Canada. The total value of imports from all sections was $256,214,614. Immense quantities of grain are received annually from all parts of the west, and shipped eastward by the Erie Canal. In 1863, the value of canal exports was $56,644,792. In 1869, the tonnage of merchandise car- ried through them amounted to 1,000,000 tons, the capacity of all the vessels entered at the ports of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, and San Francisco. In the same year the tolls amounted to $1,278,507.52. These tolls are pledged by the Constitution for the support and repair of the canals, the repayment of the State indebtedness on their account, the reimbursement of the NEW YORK. 341 treasury for taxation upon the people, and for the support of the State Government. MANUFACTURES. The State is largely engaged in manufactures, almost every species of industry being represented in this branch of its wealth. In 1860, there were in the State 23,236 establishments devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 221,481 hands and a capital of $175,449,206, consuming raw material worth $209,899,890, and yielding an annual product of $379,623,560. There were 70 cotton mills, with a capital of $5,427,079, employing 3043 male, and 4288 female hands, consuming raw material worth $2,988,270, paying $1,271,592 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $3,250,770. There were 235 woollen mills, with a capital of $4,598,233, employing 3786 male, and 4255 female hands, con- suming raw material worth $4,979,631, paying $1,591,248 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $9,090,316. The other manufactures were as follows : Value of leather produced, $20,758,017 pig iron produced, 1,385,208 rolled iron produced, * 2,215,250 steam engines and machinery produced, 10,484,863 agricultural implements produced, . 3,429,037 sawed and planed lumber produced, 10,310,000 flour produced, , . 33,100,000 salt produced, ........ 1,289,000 malt and spirituous liquors produced, 12,694,000 ** boots and shoes produced, .... 10,878,797 " furniture produced, 4,996,092 musical instruments produced, . . 3,392,577 " jewelry, silver ware, etc., produced, 5,466,463 " soap and candles produced, .... 3,836,503 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The State of New York was the first member of the Union to en- gage in internal improvements upon a large scale. In 1817, the great Erie and Hudson Canal was commenced. It was completed in 1825 at a cost of $7,000,000. This magnificent work, connecting the waters of the Atlantic with those of the Great Lakes, is due to the genius aiid determination of De Witt Clinton, who more than any other man contributed to its successful accomplishment. The Erie Canal has several branches diverging from it, viz : one from Utica to Binghampton, one from Syracuse to Oswego, one from Geneva to 342 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Montezuma, and one from Rochester to Danville. The next import- ant main line is the Champlain Canal, from Albany to Lake Cham- plain, which is not far behind the " Erie " in the extent and value of its trade. The other canals are the Delaware and Hudson, connecting the Hudson River with the coal mines in northeastern Pennsylvania ; the Chemung, connecting Senaca Lake and Elmira; the Crooked Lake, between Penn Yan and Dresden ; and the Black River and Genesee Valley Canal, which is not yet completed. There are about 873 miles of canal navigation completed in the State. The various routes are all in successful operation, each commanding a large and profitable trade. They have all been constructed by the State. The railroads of New York are among the most important in the country. In 1870 there were 4773 miles of completed roads in the State. The total cost of these was about $225,000,000. The State is traversed in every direction by roads of this class, which connect its principal towns and cities, and extend into the States lying around it. Close connections are made with the most important roads of the Union, and by a judicious system, inaugurated within the last few years, travellers are conveyed from New York City to the principal cities of the Union without change of cars in the majority of instances, and with but one or two changes in the others. Freights are brought from the far South and the remote West to the metropolis in the cars in which they were originally placed. The New York Central Rail- way, extending from Albany to Lakes Erie and Ontario, at Buffalo and Oswego ; the Erie Railway, from Jersey City, opposite New York City (and lying for a short distance in New Jersey), to Lakes Erie and Ontario, at Buffalo, Dunkirk, and Rochester ; the Albany and Susquehanna, from Albany to Binghampton ; and the Hudson River and Harlem Railways, the last two from New York City to Albany, are the principal roads in the State. EDUCATION. "The institutions of higher education in this State are mostly under the general supervision of a board styled ' The Regents of the University of the State of New York.' The Board consists of the Governor, the Lieu tenant-Governor, the Secretary of State, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction, as ex-officio members, and of nineteen other persons chosen by the Legislature in the same manner as Senators in Congress. The officers of the Regents are a Chancellor, a Vice-Chancellor, a Treasurer, a Secretary and an Assistant Secretary, NEW YORK. 343 who are appointed by the Board, and who hold their offices at its pleasure. The leading duties with which the Regents are charged, are the incorporation of colleges, academies and other institutions of learning, under such general rules and regulations as they may from time to time establish, and the visitation and general supervision of all colleges and academies. " The Regents are the Trustees of the State Library, the Trustees of the State Cabinet of Natural History, and the Historical and Antiquarian Collection connected therewith. They annually apportion among the academies the sum of $40,000 from the income of the Literature Fund; also the sum of $18,000, or thereabouts, to acade- mies appointed to instruct classes in the science of common school teaching ; and $3000 to academies which shall have raised an equal amount, for the purchase of books and philosophical and chemical apparatus. "An organization consisting of the officers of colleges and academies, subject to the visitation of the Board, and called ' The University Convocation of the State of New York/ holds an annual session at Albany, commencing on the first Tuesday in August. " There are in the State 23 colleges, the oldest, Columbia College, having been incorporated by the colonial government in 1754. This college has, in addition to its academical department, a Law Depart- ment, and a School of Mines. The University of the City of New York has schools of Art ; of Civil Engineering and Architecture ; of Analytical and Practical Chemistry; and of Law. " Cornell University, at Ithaca, incorporated in 1865, and opened to students in 1868, has been liberally endowed by Mr. Ezra Cornell. It has also received the donation of land scrip made to this State by the General Government to found an agricultural college. In its plan and object, it combines the advantages of a university with the prac- tical benefits of a school of science and art. " Rutger's Female College, in New York City, provides a thorough collegiate course of instruction, surpassing even many colleges for young men. " Vassar College, at Poughkeepsie ; The Packer Collegiate Institute, Brooklyn ; and other institutions for young ladies, offer every facility desired for complete education. " The Superintendent of Public Instruction has the general super- vision of Public Schools in the State. School Commissioners in the different counties, city and town superintendents in the principal 344 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. cities and towns, and trustees in the school districts, exercise a local supervision over the schools in their respective localities. Great im- provements have been made in the public schools of the State. The schools were made free in 1867. There are four State Normal Schools in successful operation, and four others have been authorized by law. The State Normal and Training School at Oswego has been distin- guished for its influence in introducing special methods of primary instruction, known as Object Teaching. During the year 1867-68, 81 academies instructed teachers' classes in the science of common school teaching and government, under the supervision of the Regents of the University. Teachers' Institutes are held in nearly all the counties, principally under the direction of the County Commis- sioners." In the year 1870, there were 11,705 public schools in the State, conducted by 5283 male and 21,230 female teachers. The number of children at school during some portion of the year was 1,029,955. The amount expended on these schools in the same year was $9,929,462. In 1867 the number of private schools was 1433. In 1860 there were 8360 libraries in the State, containing 2,436,576 volumes. Of these 774 were public. In the same year the number of newspapers and periodicals was as follows: daily 74, semi-weekly 10, tri-weekly 7, weekly 366, monthly 69, quarterly 10, annual 6 total 542. Of these 365 were political, 56 religious, 63 literary, and 58 miscellaneous. Their total annual circulation was 320,930,884 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS, The charitable institutions of this State are, perhaps, the most complete and the best managed of any in America. They are under the general supervision of a Board of Public State Charities, appointed by the Governor. The New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, located at New York City, was founded in 1818. It is one of the largest and most complete in the world, and is famous for the excellence and success of its system of treatment. On the 1st of January, 1868, it contained 439 pupils. The New York Asylum for Idiots, at Syracuse, to which place it * American Year Book, vol. i. pp. 415-416. NEW YORK. 345 was removed from Albany in 1855, is in a flourishing condition. The number of inmates is 140. The State Lunatic Asylum is at Utica. It was opened in 1843, and is always full of patients. On the 1st of January, 1867, the number was 401. Besides this establishment the State maintains the Willard Asylum, at Ovid, and the Hudson River Asylum, at Poughkeepsie. The City and County of New York maintain a large Insane Asylum on BlackwelPs Island ; King's county has one at Flatbush, and the Commissioners of Emigration have one on Ward's Island. There are also several private, and a number of county asylums. The Inebriate Asylum is at Binghampton. Persons addicted to the use of -strong drink are reclaimed here. There were 40 inmates in the asylum on the 1st of January, 1868. The Western House of Refuge, at Rochester, is lor the confinement and reformation of juvenile delinquents. It was opened in 1849. On the 1st of January, 1868, there were 448 boys confined here. There are three State Prisons one at Sing Sing, one at Clinton, and one at Auburn. They are each managed by a warden, and are under the supervision of a Board of five persons appointed by the Governor by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They hold office ten years. The prisoners are required to labor during the day, and are confined in separate cells at night. The number of inmates in the Sing Sing prison on the 1st of September, 1867, was 1409 ; the number in the Auburn prison, 927 ; in the Clinton prison, 507. All the principal cities of the State are provided with excellent penal establishments of their own, and make liberal provision for the support of such charitable institutions as are needed. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870 the total value of church property was $66,073,755. The number of churches \vns 5474. FINANCES. On the 30th of September, 1870, the total funded debt of the State was $38,641,606.40, classified as follows: General fund, $4,040,026.40 Contingent, 68,000.00 Canal, 11,966,580.00 Bounty, 22,567,000.00 Total $38,641,606.40 346 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The following statement shows the amount of the State debt on September 30th, 1870, after deducting the unapplied balances of the sinking funds at that date : Balances. As provided for. General fund, $4,040,026.40 $1,008,975.74 $3,031,050.66 Contingent, 68,000.00 17,992.21 50,007.79 Canal, 11,966,580.00 2,149,884.61 9,816,695.39 Bounty, 22,567,000.00 3,055,609.58 19,511,390.42 $38,641,606.40 $6,232,462.14 $32,409,144.26 The State debt, on September 30th, 1869, after deducting the unapplied balances of the sinking funds, amounted to $34,848,035.73 On September 30th, 1870, to 32,409,144.26 Showing a reduction of ....... $2,438,891.47 The receipts of the State Treasury, on account of all funds except the Canal and Free School funds for the fiscal year, amounted to $13,846,258.39, and the expenditures to $14,787,804.98. The gross valuation of taxable property in the State for the year 1870 was $1,967,001,180. The total State tax amounted to $14,285,976, being a little more than seven mills on the dollar. On the 1st of October, 1870, there were 292 National Banks in operation in the State of New York, with an aggregate paid-in capital of $13,497,741, and an aggregate circulation of $67,077,668. At the same time there were 61 banks doing business under the State laws, whose outstanding circulation was $2,253,937.50. There were, at the same time, 133 Savings Banks, with assets estimated at $220,000,000. GOVERNMENT. The original Constitution of New York was adopted in 1777. It has been amended and changed since then. The last Convention for this purpose met in June, 1867, and continued its sessions for several weeks into the year 1868. The Government of the State is placed in the hands of a Gov- ernor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Comptroller, Treasurer, Attorney General, and a Legislature consisting of a Senate (of 32 members) and an Assembly (of 128 members). The Executive officers named above and the Senators are elected once every two years, and the members of the Assembly annually. The election for Governor and Lieutenant-Governor and that for the other officers are held on alternate years. The Canal Commissioners and Inspectors of State NEW YORK. 347 Prisons are elected for three years, one each year. The Canal Ap- praisers, the Superintendent of the Banking Department, and the Auditor of the Canal Department are appointed for three years by the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Adjutant-General and other officers of the military staff are appointed by the Governor. " The Court for the Trial of Impeachments is composed of the President of the Senate (who is president of the court, and when absent the chief judge of the Court of Appeals presides), the Senators, or the major part of them, and the judges of the Court of Appeals, or the greater part of them. It is a court of record, and, when sum- moned, meets at Albany, and has for its clerk and officers the clerk and officers of the Senate. " The Court of Appeals has full power to correct and reverse all proceedings and decisions of the Supreme Court. It is composed of eight judges, of whom four are elected (one every second year) by the people at large, for eight years, and four selected each year from the Justices of the Supreme Court having the shortest time to serve. These selections are made alternately from the First, Third, Fifth, and Seventh, and from the Second, Fourth, Sixth, and Eighth Judicial Districts. The judge (of the four chosen at large) whose term first expires, presides as Chief Judge. Six judges constitute a quorum. Every cause must be decided within the year in which it is argued, and, unless reargued, before the close of the term after the argument. " The Supreme Court has general jurisdiction in law and equity, and power to review judgments of the County Courts, and of the old Courts of Common Pleas. For the election of the Justices, the State is divided into eight judicial districts, the first of which elects five, and all the others four, to serve eight years. In eacfy district one justice goes out of office every two years. The justice in each district whose term first expires, and who is not a judge of the Court of Appeals, is a Presiding Justice of the court, and the clerks of the several counties serve as clerks. " The County Courts are always open for the transaction of any business for which no notice is required to be given to an opposing party. At least two terms in each county for the trial of issues of law or fact, and as many more as the County Judge shall appoint, shall be held in each year. " County Judges are elected for four years ; they are vested with the powers of justices of the Supreme Court at Chambers, are mem- 348 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. bers of Courts of Oyer and Terminer, and, with two Justices of the Peace, constitute Courts of Sessions. " The Criminal Courts are the Courts of Oyer and Terminer and the Courts of Sessions. The Courts of Oyer and Terminer in each county, except in the city and county of New York, are composed of a justice of the Supreme Court, who presides, the County Judge, and the two Justices of the Peace chosen members of the Court of Ses- sions. The Presiding Justice and any two of the others form a quorum. In the city and county of New York they are held by a justice of the Supreme Court alone. These courts are all held at the same time and place at which the Circuit Courts are held. Courts of Sessions, except in the city of New York, are composed of the County Judge and the two Justices of the Peace designated as members of the Court of Sessions, and are held at the same time and place as the County Courts." * The seat of Government is established at Albany. For purposes of government the State is divided into 60 counties. HISTORY. The first white man who trod the soil of New York, was Samuel Champlain, a French navigator, who entered the lake to which he has given his name, on the 4th of July, 1609. On the 12th of the same month, Hendrik Hudson, an Englishman, commanding a ship in the service of the Dutch East India Company, entered the bay of New York, having discovered the entrance to it three days previous. He explored the river which is called after him, as far as Albany ; and during the next ten years, frequent voyages for trade were made to this region by the Butch, and small trading posts were established by them at Manhattan Island (New York City ) and Fort Orange (Albany). In 1623, Fort Orange and Manhattan Island were permanently set- tled, 18 families locating themselves at the former place, and 30 at the latter, which was called New Amsterdam. The English claimed the territory by right of prior possession ; and in March, 1664, Charles II. granted it to his brother, the Duke of York. In August of the same year, the English took forcible possession of the province, which had been called New Netherlands by the Dutch, and changed its name to New York, which also became the name of the town of New Amsterdam. * American Year Book, vol. ii. p. 412. NEW YORK. 349 -"^tag^js^ ^?sjgi^|^3a=sa!=^ ~,^s^=~ t. NEW YORK rs 1664, Under the rule of James II., the colony was governed with an iron hand. Large grants of land and odious privileges were awarded to unworthy favorites, but the people at large were oppressed with heavy taxes, and their industry hampered by burdensome restric- tions upon manufactures and trade. Frequent conflicts between the authorities and the people were the result of these narrow measures. It was hoped that the accession of William and Mary to the throne would bring with it a change in the policy of the Government towards the province, but this expectation was doomed to disappointment. The new king was quite as fond of high taxes as the old one had been. Nicholson, the Governor appointed by King Jarnes, oppressed the people so grievously, that they rose against him in 1689, seized the government, and made their leader, Jacob Leisler, a merchant pf New York, Governor in the names of William and Mary. Leisler held his place for two years, although the home Government never formally recognized him. In 1691, the king sent Governor Sloughter over to supersede him. Leisler and his son-in-law, Milborne, made some slight resistance to the new ruler, and were arested, tried for treason, and executed. . The Indians gave great trouble to the first settlers, and the early history of New York is little more than a record of a continuous war- fare with the various tribes of the Five Nations. In 1689, Scheneo 350 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. tady was taken and burnt by the savages, and many of its inhabitants killed. During the wars with the French in America, many incur- sions were made into the province by the French and Indians, and con- siderable suffering was experienced by the settlers. The province bore a prominent part in these struggles, furnishing many men and much money, and providing some of the best officers connected with them. The country along Lakes George and Champlain was made historical by the events of these wars. The victory over Dieskau was won at the head of the former lake, which beautiful sheet of water was again made memorable by the fearful massacre of the garrison of Fort Wil- liam Henry, in 1757. The fort had been surrendered to the French, but their Indian allies refused to respect the capitulation. The next year, Abercrombie's army of 16,000 men, the largest and best equipped force that had ever been seen in America, was defeated before Ticon- deroga. Besides these important events of the last French war, there were many other enterprises connected with these struggles, in which the colony won considerable renown. New York contained, perhaps, more royalist partisans than any of the colonies ; but in spite of this, the people, as a whole, were warm in their resistance to the oppressions of England, and gave a hearty support to the measures adopted by the United Colonies for their common protection. In October, 1775, they forced Tryon, the last loyalist Governor, to take refuge on a British man-of-war. Some of the principal events of the Revolution occurred in this State, which, besides furnishing its fair share of men and means> gave to the cause many of the brightest names which adorn it. The fortresses of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, which were situated within the limits of New York, were seized by the " Green Mountain Boys," of Vermont, in May, 1775. The other events of the war occurring in this State, were the advance and retreat of the army of Montgomery and Schuyler, which was expected to conquer Canada, in July, 1775, the battle of Long Island, and the occupation of New York, in February, 1776; the invasion of the State by Burgoyne, in the summer of 1777, and his subsequent surrender at Saratoga, after the battles of Stillwater and Saratoga, in October of the same year ; the contests with the Six Nations, who had espoused the English cause, and the destruc- tion of their villages by General Sullivan, in 1779; and the evacua- tion of the city of New York by the British, on the 25th of Novem- ber, 1783. Immediately after the close of the war, the State was involved in NEW YORK. 351 the renewal of an old controversy respecting the territory now known as the State of Vermont. * For some time it seemed that the quarrel would result in open hostilities between New York and Vermont ; but it was at length compromised in 1790, as has been shown in another chapter. The original Constitution of New York was adopted in March, 1777. It was revised in 1801, 1821, and 1846. A fourth revision was made in 1868. Slavery existed in New York until 1817, when it was finally abolished. Indeed, at the time of the seizure of the province by the English, in 1664, it contained, in proportion to its population, more slaves than Virginia. New York was the eleventh State to ratify the Constitution of the United States, which was done on the 26th of July, 1788. The western part of the State was rapidly settled after the close of the Revolution, but suffered considerably from the attacks of the British during the war of 1812-15. The State bore a conspicuous part in this struggle. The principal naval depot of the Americans on the lakes was at Sacket's Harbor, on Lake Ontario, and was the object of an unsuccessful attack by the British. The battle of Platts- burg and the great naval fight on Lake Champlain both occurred within the limits of the State, which was also well represented in the gallant little navy which made such a glorious name on the high seas. "In 1796, the 'Western Navigation Company 7 was incorporated. This company built locks around the Rapids upon the Mohawk, and dug a canal across the portage at Rome, so that laden boats could pass from the ocean to Oneida Lake, and thence by the outlet of that sheet of water to Lake Ontario. Various plans were brought before the public from time to time for improving this channel of navigation and for building locks around Niagara Falls, so as to unite the waters of Ontario and Erie. In 1800, Governeur Morris conceived the bold plan of bringing the waters of Lake Erie to the Hudson by means of a canal directly through the centre of the State. In 1808, James Geddes made a partial survey of the proposed route, and gave a re- port highly favorable to the enterprise. De Witt Clinton soon after investigated the matter, and from that time forward gave to the pro- ject the whole weight of his influence. The war of 1812 caused a suspension of the work, but upon the return of peace in 1815, the dis- * See Chapter on Vermont. 352 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. cussion . was vigorously resumed; and in 1816, a law was passed authorizing the construction of the canal. The work was actually commenced in 1817, and the canal was finished in 1825. It speedily became the great channel of trade and emigration, and poured into New York City the rich streams of traffic which have made it the commercial metropolis of the western continent. The State has been covered with a network of railways, rendering communication between distant points easy and rapid. The early attention paid to internal improvements, and the consequent development of internal resources, gave to New York the impetus which has placed it first in commer- cial importance, and given to it the name of ' The Empire State/" * During the recent war, the State was amongst the first and most active in its support of the Government. It contributed to the ser- vice of the Union a force of 473,443 men, of which number the city of New York furnished 267,551. CITIES AND TOWNS. The cities and towns of importance are New York, Brooklyn, Buf- falo, Rochester, Troy, Syracuse, Utica, Watervleit, Oswego, Newtown, Poughkeepsie, Auburn, Newburgh, Elmira, Morrisania, Cohoes, Flushing, Hempstead, Johnson, Lockport, Binghampton, Fishkill, Rome, Schenectady, Kingston, Cortlandt, Yonkers, Oyster Bay, Og- densburgh, Brookhaven, Huntington, Ithaca, Rondcut, Saugerties, and Green burg. ALBANY, The capital and fourth city of the State, is situated in Albany county, on the right bank of the Hudson, at the head of tide- water and sloop navigation, in 42 39' 3" N. latitude, 73 32' W. longitude ; 145 miles north of New York, 164 west of Boston, and 370 northeast from Washington. It is finely located, the ground rising to the westward, from the river shore to an elevation of about 220 feet. These heights are divided into three distinct hills by ravines through which con- siderable streams of water flow, viz., the Foxen Kill, Rutten Kill, and the Beaver Kill. The ravines have been almost entirely filled up, and the creeks reach the river by means of huge sewers far below the surface. "The view from the most elevated points in Al- bany is very fine. To the north may be seen the city of Troy and adjacent vilages, and in the distance loom up the Green Mountains * New American Cyclopaedia, vol. xii. p. 269. NEW YORK. 353 ALBANY. of Vermont. To the east we behold a beautiful extent of country stretching beyond the Hudson as far as the eye can reach ; and to the south, the Helderbergs and the Catskill Mountains, with t'he river flowing at their base." Being situated at the head of sloop navigation, Albany has a large commerce with all parts of the State. The Hudson affords water communication with the sea, the Erie Canal connects it with the great lakes, and the Champlain Canal binds it to Lake Champlain and the lower St. Lawrence. Seven railways connect it with all parts of the Union. The Erie Canal enters the city at its northern limits. The boats are thence conveyed to a large basin covering 32 acres, which has been formed by constructing a pier, more than a mile in length, which cuts off and encloses a bend in the river. A safe and fine anchorage is thus secured for vessels and steamers during the season of ice, and the sides of the basin afford excellent wharfage. The trade brought to the city by the canals is immense, and has been the chief cause of its rapid growth and prosperity. The lumber trade is esti- mated at about $7,000,000. About 2,000,000 barrels of flour, over 23 354 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 3,000,000 bushels of corn, nearly 2,000,000 bushels of barley, and about 5,000,000 pounds of wool, pass through Albany yearly. The city is also largely interested in manufactures. Iron, hollow- ware, and malt are the principal articles. Large numbers of stoves and large quantities of beer are produced annually. Pianofortes, hats, caps, bonnets, sleighs, coaches, leather, are also produced in large quantities. The city is well built as a rule, and contains a number of handsome edifices. The streets are more crooked and irregular than those of any American city, save Boston, but, with this exception, Albany re- tains few traces of its origin. State street, extending from the river, westward to the Capitol, is the principal thoroughfare. The city con- tains a number of public squares, some of which are handsome. The public buildings are handsome, though not in keeping with the wealth and importance of the Empire State. The Capitol was erected in 1807, at a cost of $173,000. It is a plain building of brown stone, from the quarries on the Hudson River, with a Doric portico of white marble. It is 115 by 90 feet, and is 50 feet high. It is surmounted by a dome ornamented with a statue of Justice. In this building are the halls of the two Houses of the Legislature, the offices of the Governor, and Adjutant-General, and the chambers of the Court of Appeals and Supreme Court. Immediately in the rear of the Capitol stands the new State Library, a handsome modern fire-proof edifice, containing more than 60,000 volumes, among which are some of the rarest and most valuable works in print. The State Hall, a large edifice of white marble, stands opposite the Capitol, with a handsome park between them. It contains the offices of the Secretary of State and other State officials. It was built in 1843, at a cost of $350,000. A new and imposing Capitol is now in course of erection. Near the State Hall, and on the same side of the square, is the City Hall, also built of white marble, at an expense of $120,000. It is occupied by the officers of the city government, and by the city and county courts. The educational and scientific institutions of Albany are of a high character. They possess many of the handsomest buildings in the city. In addition to the free common schools, the Albany Academy, the Albany Female Academy, the State Normal School, for the educa- tion of teachers in common schools, and the Albany University are the principal. The University embraces departments of law, medi- cine, and science in its various branches, and connected with it is the NEW YORK. 355 Dudley Observatory, founded by Mrs. Blandina Dudley. The Mer- chants' Exchange, Post Office, and Exchange Bank are handsome edifices. The charitable and benevolent institutions are numerous, and are liberally supported. The city contains upwards of 50 churches and 6 missions. The most imposing church edifice is the Roman Catholic cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, one of the largest churches in the Union. It will seat 4000 persons. There are several fine libraries in the city, and the newspapers pub- lished here are influential and possessed of a large circulation. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water, which is distributed in pipes from a large reservoir built at an expense of $1,000,000. For purposes of government the city is divided into ten wards, each of which elects two aldermen, who, together with the Mayor and Recorder, form the Common Council, or city government. The population, according to the census of 1870, is 69,422. With the exception of Jamestown, in Virginia, Albany is the oldest settlement within the limits of the original thirteen States. Before the arrival of the whites, the Indians gave to the place the name of Scho-negh-ta-da, " over the plains," which name the Dutch settlers afterwards gave to an Indian settlement which marked the present site of Schenectady, as " over the plains " from Albany. In Septem- ber, 1609, Hendrik Hudson, having discovered the river which bears his name, ascended it to a point now marked by the city of Hudson, where he anchored, having spent nearly two weeks in the voyage from the mouth of the river. From this point the mate and a boat's crew ascended to the head of tide water, the present site of Albany, 27 miles higher up the stream. In 1614, a fort and a trading post were established by the Dutch on Boyd's Island, near the .southern limits of the present city. In 1617, the fort was carried away by a flood, and a year or two later, a new one was built near the present site of Fort Orange Hotel, on Broadway, and called Fort Orange in honor of the Prince of Orange. In 1630, Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, a dealer in pearls, of Amsterdam, bought from the Indians a large tract of land, including Fort Orange, on the west bank of the Hudson, and sent out a considerable colony of Dutch mechanics and farmers to oc- cupy his new estate. Seven years afterwards he purchased from the Indians another tract lying immediately across the Hudson, and thus became proprietor of a district extending for 24 miles along the river, and 48 miles from east to west. Over this region, to which he gave the name of Rensselaerswyck, he exercised sovereign authority, as its 356 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. patroon, committing the administration of matters of justice and fi- nance to a commissary -general. In 1664, the province passed into the hands of the English. Van Rensselaer was secured in his pos- session of the soil by a new patent from the king, but the sovereignty passed to the crown. The Van Rensselaer family still retain a large portion of the orinirial estate, and a part of the Van Rensselaer man- sion, built in 1765, is still standing in Albany. After passing into the hands of the English, the settlement, which had been known as Fort Orange, Beaverwyck, Williamstadt, and the Fuyck, was called Albany, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II., of England. Albany received a city charter in 1686, with Peter Schuyler as its first mayor. The selection of the mayor was fortunate, as both he and his family possessed the confi- dence and friendship of the Indians to such an extent that the savages never attacked Albany, though they made the neighboring settlements feel severely the terrors of their hostility. During the. Revolution, Albany gave an active support to the patriot cause, and contributed many troops to the American army. The defeat of Burgoyne at Sara- toga saved it from capture, as that general was marching directly upon it. Sir Henry Clinton also made two attempts to reach it, both of which resulted in failure. In 1807, Albany became the capital of the State, but it was a comparatively insignificant town until the in- troduction of steam navigation and the opening of the Erie Canal placed it in the path to its present prosperity. NEW YORK, The largest and most important city of the State and the United States, is situated in New York county, on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River, 18 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, latitude (of the City Hall) 40 42' 43" N., longitude 74 0' 3" W. The city limits comprise the entire county of New York, embracing Manhattan Island, Randall's, Ward's, and Blackwell's islands, in the East River, and Governor's, Bedloe's, and Ellis' islands in the bay, the last 3 of which are occupied by the military posts of the Federal Government. Manhattan Island is bounded on the north by Harlem River and Spuyten Duy vel Creek, on the east by the East River, on the west by the Hudson River, and on the South by New York Bay. It is 9 miles long on the east side, 13J miles long on the west side, and 2J miles wide at its greatest breadth. It is but a few feet in width at its southern extremity, but spreads out like a fan XEW YORK. 35t as it stretches to the northward. The southern point is but a few inches above the level of the bay, but the island rises rapidly to the northward, its extreme northern portion being occupied by a series of bold, finely wooded heights, which terminate at the junction of the Hudson River and Spuyten Duyvel creek, in a bold promontory 130 feet high. These heights, known as Washington Heights, are 2 or 3 miles in length. The southern portion of the island is principally a sand bed, but the remainder is rocky. The island covers an area of 22 square miles, or 14,000 acres. It is built up compactly for about 6 miles, and irregularly along the east side to Harlem, 3 miles farther. Along the west side it is built up compactly to the Central Park, 59th street, and irregularly to Manhattanville, 125th street, from which point, to Spuyten Duyvel creek, it is covered with country seats, gardens, etc. Three wagon and 2 railroad bridges over the Harlem River connect the island with the mainland, and 26 lines of ferries connect it with Long and Staten islands and New Jersey. The city is finely built, and presents an aspect of industry and liveliness unsurpassed by any city in the world. Lying in full sight of the ocean, with its magnificent bay to the southward, and the East and Hudson rivers washing its shores, the city of New York possesses a climate which renders it the most delightful residence in America. In the winter the proximity of the sea moderates the severity of the cold, and in the summer the heat is tempered by the delightful sea breezes which sweep over the island. Snow seldom lies in the streets for more than a few hours, and the intense " heated terms " of the summer are of very brief duration. As a natural consequence, the city is healthy, and the death-rate, in proportion to the population, is small. The southern portion is densely built up, and between the City Hall and 23d street, it is more thickly populated than any city in America. It is in this section that the " tenement houses," or build- ings containing from 10 to 20 families, are to be found. In this region there are many single blocks of dwellings containing twice the number of families residing on 5th avenue, on both sides of that street, from Washington Square to the Central Park, or than a continuous row of dwellings, similar to those of 5th avenue, 3 or 4 miles in length. There is a multitude of these squares, any one of which con- tains a larger population than the whole city of Hartford, Connecticut, which covers an area of 7 square miles.* The greatest mortality is * Annual Cyclopaedia, 1861. Hartford at that time contained a popula- tion of about 28,000. 358 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. SCENE IN BROADWAY. in these overcrowded districts, which the severest police measures cannot keep clean and free from filth. It must not be supposed, however, that poverty alone induces persons to live in such houses. Many of the most crowded districts are occupied by people, especially foreigners, who wish to avoid the expense and trouble of more com- modious residences. The southern portion of the city is devoted almost exclusively to trade, comparatively few persons residing below the City Hall. Be- low Canal street the streets are narrow, crooked, and irregular, but above this point they are broad and Straight, and are laid out at regu- lar intervals. Above Houston street the streets extending across the island are numbered. The avenues begin in the vicinity of 3d street, and extend, or will extend, to the northern limits of the island, run- ning parallel with the Hudson River. They are generally 100 feet wide, and are compactly built up. The numbered cross streets are usually 60 feet wide, but a few have a width of 100 feet. First street is about a mile and three quarters above the southern end of the island, which is known as the Battery. The main thoroughfare is Broadway, which extends throughout the entire length of Manhattan Island. It NEW YORK. 359 j's built up compactly for about 5 miles. There are over 420 miles of streets in the patrol districts, and 11 miles of piers along the water. The sewerage is good in the main, but is defective in some places. Upwards of 300 miles of water pipes have been laid. The streets are lighted by over 15,000 gas lamps, the footways are generally made of broad stone -flags, and the streets are laid in some cases with the wooden pavement, and in others with the Belgian, or stone block pavement. Cobble stones are rapidly disappearing. For so large a city, New York is remarkably clean, except in those portions lying close to the river, or given up to paupers. The city is substantially built. Frame houses are very rare. Many of the old quarters are built of brick, but this material is now used to a limited extent only. Broadway and the principal business streets are lined with buildings of marble, iron, brown and Portland stone, palatial in their appearance ; and the sections devoted to the residences of the better classes are built up mainly with brown stone or Portland stone, and in some instances with marble. Thus the city presents an appearance of grandeur and solidity most pleasing to the eye. The public buildings will compare favorably with any in the world, and there is no city on the globe that can boast so many palatial warehouses and stores. Broadway is one of the most magni- ficent thoroughfares in the world. The stores which line it are gene- rally from five to six stories high above the ground, with two cellars below the level of the pavement, and vaults extending to near the middle of the street. The adjacent streets in many cases rival Broad- way in their splendor. The stores of the city are famous for their elegance and convenience, and for the magnificence of the goods dis- played in them. The streets occupied by private residences are broad, clean, well paved, and are lined with dwellings inferior to none in the world in convenience and elegance. Fifth, Madison, Park, and Lexington avenues, and the numbered streets crossing them, are lined with magnificent residences of brown or light-colored stone and marble. The amount of wealth and taste concentrated in the dwellings of the better classes of the citizens of New York is very great. The city is well provided with public parks and promenades. The principal parks, commencing at the lower end of the island, are the Battery, containing 10 acres, and facing the Bay; the Bowling Grten; the City Hall Park, comprising an area of 10 acres, and containing the City Hall, the new Post Office, Court House, etc. ; Washington Square, about 9 acres ; Union Park ; Grammercy Park, belonging to 360 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. SCENE IN FIFTH AVENUE. the owners of the residences facing it ; Stuy vesant Square, about 3 acres, divided in the centre by the passage of 2nd avenue; Tomp- kins Square, about 11 acres; Madison Square, 6 acres; and Hamil- ton Square, 15 acres. These are handsomely laid off, with the excep- tion of Tompkins Square, which is used as a drill ground, and are ornamented with fountains, statues, etc., and are kept in good order by the city. The chief pleasure ground is the Central Park, situated on the eastern slope of an elevated ridge extending along the western side of the island, in the upper part of the city, from 59th street, on the south, to 110th street, on the north, and from 5th avenue, on the east, to 8th avenue, on the west. It is two miles and a half in length, by half a mile in width, and embraces an area of 843 acres. It is laid out with great taste and skill, and compri- ses a variety of landscape, which renders it one of the most beauti- NEW YORK. 361 VIEW IN CENTRAL PARK. ful and attractive parks in the world. Up to the present day the outlay upon it has exceeded ten millions of dollars. It is divided into the Lower Park, extending from 59th to 79th streets, and com- prising an area of 336 acres ; and the Upper Park, extending from 79th to 110th streets. Between the Upper and Lower Parks lie the vast reservoirs of the Croton water works, which cover an area of 137 acres, and have a capacity of 1,150,000,000 gallons. The Lower Park is generally level, and is laid off in lawns, terraces, walks, and drives, with two beautiful lakes, which cover an area of 40 acres; and is ornamented with statuary, flowers, and tasteful buildings. The Upper Park is more rugged, and is naturally the more beautiful. If is a succession of charming hills and dales, whose beauties have been increased and heightened by the best landscape gardeners and engi- neers. A museum of natural history, and the beginning of a zoolo- gical garden are located in the Lower Park, near the principal en- trance on 5th avenue; and a museum of statuary has been opened in one of the buildings at Mount St. Vincent, in the Upper Park. The management of the Park is entrusted to a Commission, appointed by 362 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE WATER TERRACE IN THE CENTRAL PARK. the Governor of the State. Naturally, the Park is an object of great pride to the citizens, and is one of the principal attractions to stran- gers visiting the city. It is usually full of pleasure seekers, of all ages, sexes, and conditions, and it is pleasant to record that no crime, of the most trifling character, has ever been committed within its limits. In 1870, the total number of persons visiting it, including the drivers and occupants of carriages, was 8,421,427. Pleasure boats ply on the principal lake, and may be engaged for a small sum ; and "park omnibuses," or open carriages of a peculiar construction, under the control of the Commissioners, convey visitors through the grounds for the sum of 25 cents each. The streets enclosing the Park are being rapidly built up with elegant mansions, and afford one of the most delightful quarters for residence on the island. New York is the commercial metropolis of the United States. The local trade of the city is necessarily very great, but its trade with the rest of the Union is enormous, and it conducts a large foreign com- merce. Only three lines of railway enter the city limits, but 14 lines, terminating on the shores of Long Island and New Jersey, connect it with all parts of the Union. At least 100 steamboats, large and small, ply between the city and the towns on the Bay, the Hudson River, and Long Island Sound, while fully as many steamships con- nect New York with the more distant pjrts of the Union. Besides these, the number of sailing craft engaged in the coasting trade is very large. About 120 first class steamers ply between New York and the ports of Europe, and about 20 sail to South American, Mexican, and West Indian ports. Being entirely surrounded by water, New NEW YORK. 363 York is admirably adapted to commerce. The largest ships can lie alongside of its piers, of which there are eleven miles, constantly crowded with shipping, on the North and East River fronts. During the year 1870, the foreign imports of New York were valued at $315,200,022, and the exports to foreign countries at $195,945,733, exclusive of $58,191,475 in specie and bullion. About two-thirds of all the imports, and about forty per cent, of all the exports of the United States pass through the port of New York. In the year 1868, the arrivals at New York from foreign ports were as follows : Vessels. Steamers, ,. . 694 Ships, '. . 390 Barks, 1,055 Brigs, 1,499 Schooners, 1,223 Total, 4,861 The domestic trade of New York is immense. During the year 1864, some of the receipts of the port were as follows : Barrels of wheat flour, 3,967,717 Bushels of wheat, 13,453,135 " oats, 12,952,238 corn, 7,164,895 Bales of cotton, 190,911 Packages of pork, 332,454 beef, 209,664 " cut mer.ts, 268,417 . u butter, 551,153 " cheese, 756,872 Tierces and barrels of lard, 186,000 Kegs of lard, 16,104 Barrels of whiskey, 289,481 " petroleum, 775,587 In June, 1863, the tonnage belonging to the port of New York was officially stated as follows : Registered permanent, 609,025 ; temporary, 237,420. Enrolled permanent, 745,330; temporary, 17,334. Total, 1,624,000. There was besides, 97,485 steam ton- nage. This does not include the vessels owned in other cities and States, or foreign vessels trading with New York. The city is amply provided with means of communication between its principal points. Lines of omnibuses and street railways traverse the island in every direction, the principal car lines continuing their trips through the night. The fares vary from five to ten cents. More 36.4 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. than 400 street cars and 200 omnibuses are engaged in transporting persons through the city. A steam railway, connecting the upper and lower portions of the island, is now in construction. Communication with the shores of Long Island, Staten Island, and New Jersey is maintained by 26 lines of ferries, employing over 100 steam ferry boats, and transporting, it is estimated, upwards of 80,- 000,000 of passengers, and more than 3,000,000 of vehicles annually. The railway lines leading to the city run over 400 trains to and from points 5 miles and upwards distant from the city. Fourteen rail- ways lead directly to the city. Three of these terminate within the city limits, six on the New Jersey shore, four in Brooklyn, and one on Staten Island. The hotels of New York are the best in the world. They are built upon extensive plans, and are among the finest specimens of architecture in the city. They are fitted up luxuriously, and afford their guests every comfort and convenience. The principal are the Astor House, the St. Nicholas, the Metropolitan, the Grand Central, the Fifth Avenue, the St. James, and the Grand Hotels; and the Everett, the Clarendon, the Albemarle, the Hoffman, the Coleman, the Sturtevant, and the Gilsay Houses. The Astor is built of gray granite, and presents a massive appearance ; the St. Nicholas, the Grand Central, the Fifth Avenue, the Hoffman, the Albemarle, the St. James, and the Grand are of pure white marble; and the Gilsay House, a magnificent modern structure, is of iron. These Houses are amongst the most elegant buildings in the city, and each is capa- ble of accommodating several hundred guests. The theatres are numerous, and will compare favorably in splendor and convenience with any in the world. They are more comfortably arranged than those of other American cities, and are much hand- somer. The performances are good, as a rule. There are about 30 first-class places of amusement in the city, including theatres, concert halls, lecture rooms, music halls, circuses, summer gardens, etc., be- sides a number of inferior places. It is estimated that during the fall and winter season about 30,000 persons nightly attend the per- formances at these places. The principal telegraph lines of the country begin or terminate in New York. There is also a line connecting the principal points of the city, and used for local business. The public buildings are numerous and imposing, and the city is surpassed by only a few of the capitals of Europe in this respect NEW YORK. 3G5 CITY HALL. The C'dy Hall is a fine edifice of white marble, 216 feet in length, situated in the City Hall Park. The foundation was laid in 1803, and the building was opened lor the use of the municipal Govern- ment in 1812. It is handsomely furnished and decorated with paint- ings and statuary. The County Court House, in the rear of the City Hall, is a splendid building of white marble in the Italian style of architecture, 250 feet long, 150 feet wide, and 3 stories high, the whole being surmounted by a fine dome, the summit of which will be 210 feet above the street. The Custom House, on Nassau street, corner of William, is a splendid building of Quincy granite, erected for a Merchants' Exchange, at a cost of over $1,800,000, including the ground. . It is entirely fire proof, and covers the whole block, being 200 feet long, by 171 to 144 feet wide, and 124 feet to the top of the dome. The front is ornamented with a portico, resting on 18 massive Ionic columns. The Sub-Treasury of the United States, on W^all and Nassau streets, is built of white marble, in the Doric style. It cost, including the ground, $1,105,000. The Hall of Justice, or the " Tombs," on Centre street, between Leonard and Franklin, includes 366 THE GREAT REPUBLIC the halls of the Court of Sessions, and the police courts, and the city prison. The prison contains 150 cells. The building is in the Egyp- tian style of architecture, is constructed of light granite, and is 253 feet long, by 200 wide. The Literary and Scientific institutions are numerous. There are about 260 free schools in the city, 89 of which are primary, and 15 for colored children. The buildings used are mostly of brick, are large, and are provided with every convenience. The annual atten- dance is about 200,000. They are liberally supported by the city. Besides these, a number of private institutions are supported in pai\ by the city. The University of New York occupies a gothic building of white marble, on University place, opposite Washington Square. It was founded in 1831. It has about 25 professors and tutors, and about 336 students. Its library contains over 5000 volumes. The New York Free College, Lexington avenue and 23d street, is a handsome building, erected in 1848. The students, whose number is limited to 1000, are chosen from the pupils of the public schools only, and here receive a thoroughly collegiate education free of charge. The Cooper Institute, on Astor place, is an imposing building of brown stone, erected at a cost of $600,000, and presented to the city of New York by Peter Cooper, Esq. It contains a free reading-room and library, and aifords a free education for the poorer classes in. the practical arts and sciences. One of its departments is a school of design for women. The basement is occupied by an immense lecture-room. The General Theological Seminary, West 20th street, between 9th and 10th ave- nues, is the principal school of the Protestant Episcopal Church. The other institutions of importance are Columbia College, 49th street, be- tween Madison and 4th avenues ; the Lyceum of Natural History, the Union Theological Seminary, the New York Historical Society, the American Geographical and Statistical Society, the New York Law Institute, the College of St. Francis Xavier, the College of Physicians and Surgeons, the College of Pharmacy, and Rutgers* Female College. The Libraries are excellent. The principal is the Astor Library, founded by John Jacob Astor, and enlarged by his son William B. Astor. The collection numbers over 150,000 volumes. It is free to the public, and is open daily (Sundays and holidays excepted), from 9 to 5 o'clock. The books cannot be taken from the reading-room. The Mercantile Library, in Clinton Hall, Astor place, contains about 90,000 volumes. Its privileges are extended only to members, who YORK. 36T ACADEMY OF DESIGN. pay a small subscription annually. The Society Library, 67 Univer- sity place, contains over 55,000 volumes, and consists of one of the most valuable collections of books in the city. Its privileges are limited to members and such friends as they may introduce. The New York Historical Library, 2d avenue and llth street, contains over 30,000 volumes, and a valuable collection of coins and antiqui- ties. The others are the Apprentices' Library, 18,000 volumes; American Institute Library, 10,000 volumes; City Library, 5000 volumes; Law Institute Library; Young Men's Christian Associa- tion Library, about 15,000 volumes; General Theological Seminary Library, 18,000 volumes ; and the Library of the Union Theological Seminary, 26,000 volumes. The Art Galleries are, the National Academy of Design, whose elegant hall, at the corner of 4th avenue and 23d street, forms one of the chief ornaments of the city ; and the Artists 1 Fund Society. The monuments, fountains, etc., are few in number, and insignifi- cant in appearance. The principal are the Worth Monument, at the intersection of Broadway and 5th avenue; and the Martyrs' Monu- ment, in Trinity Church-yard. The churches are numerous and represent every denomination of Christians. Many are magnificent structures, erected at great ex- 368 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. peuse and in the highest style of art. The principal is Trinity Churchy Protestant Episcopal, on Broadway, opposite Wall street. It was founded in 1696, and the present is the third edifice which has marked the site, the others having been destroyed by fire. The present church was begun in 1839, and completed in 1846. It is 1 92 feet by 80 feet, and 60 feet high. The steeple is 284 feet high, and from it the best view of the city and suburbs, the bay, etc., is to be obtained. The church is of brown stone, and is beautifully orna- mented with carvings, sculptures, stained-glass windows, etc. The spire contains a clock and a fine chime of bells. The church is situ- ated in the midst of an old grave-yard, which is one of the most inter- esting spots in the city. Trinity Church is the richest church in the Union, its property being estimated at over $60,000,000. Grace Church, Protestant Episcopal, Broadway and 10th street, is a beautiful structure of light-colored stone, built in 1845. The interior is very fine. The others, conspicuous for their elegance and splendor, are St. Patrick's Cathedral (Roman Catholic), now building, on 5th ave- nue and 50th street, St. George's, Trinity Chapel, St. Paul's (Metho- dist), St. Stephen's (Roman Catholic), and the Temple Emmanuel (Jewish). The Bible House, occupying the square bounded by 3d and 4th avenues, and 8th and 9th streets, is a massive brick struc- ture, and is the property, and the scene of the operations, of the American Bible Society. Upwards of 500 operatives are employed here. The Charitable and Benevolent Institutions are numerous, and of high and useful character. The New York Hospital, on West 59th near the Park, the Institution for the Blind, the Deaf and Dumb Asy- lum, the Bloomingdale Asylum for the Insane, the New York Orplian Asylum (besides which nearly all the religious denominations have similar institutions of their own), the Bellevue Hospital, St. Luke's Hospital, the Five Points Mission, the Home of Industry, the New York Juvenile Asylum, the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, the American Female Guardian Society, the Eye and Ear Infirmary, the City Dispensaries (of which there are 8), and the Lying-in Hospitals, are the principal. Large sums are annually expended for charitable and benevolent purposes, by the city and the citizens. The prisons of the city, with the exception of the Tombs, are located on Blackwell's Island. The city also provides a refuge for juvenile delinquents on Randall's Island, and a hospital for emigrants on Ward's Island. All of these are provided with splendid and spacious buildings. NEW YORK. 369 The cemeteries lie out of the city limits, with the exception of that belonging to Trinity Parish, which is located on the Hudson, near Washington Heights. The others number 12, and are situated on Long Island and in Westchester county. The principal are Green- wood and Calvary on Long Island, and Woodlawn in Westchester county. The journals of New York stand at the head of the American press. The principal dailies are the Herald, Tribune, Times, World, Suv. Standard, Evening Post, Express, and Evening Mail. There are 140 newspapers and periodicals published in the city, claiming a circula- tion of over 5000 copies. New York is also the principal place in the Union for the publication of books. The office of the New York Herald is one of the handsomest buildings in the city. The city is supplied with pure water by means of the Croton Aque- duct, from the Croton River, a small stream in Westchester county. The total length of the Aqueduct, to the reservoirs in the Central Park, is about 38 miles. It was begun in 1837, and completed in 1842, at an expense of $10,375,000. It is the largest and most mag- nificent of all modern constructions of its class, and supplies the city with an abundance of pure and delightful drinking water. The water is conducted by the Aqueduct from the Croton River to the reservoirs at the High Bridge (on which bridge it crosses the Harlem River) and those in the Central Park, from which it is distributed over the city in large iron pipes, there being a small distributing reservoir on 5th avenue, at the corner of 42d street. The buildings, both public and private, of the city are thoroughly supplied with water. Up- wards of 300 miles of water pipes have been laid through the streets, and every portion of the city is well supplied in this respect. The capacity of all the reservoirs is nearly 2,000,000,000 of gallons. The city is lighted with gas, which is supplied by several private companies. There are upwards of 1 5,000 gas lamps in the streets, which burn from dusk until dawn. The city is divided into 22 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Common Council, elected by the people. The Mayor is chosen once in two years. The council is divided into a Board of Aldermen, 17 in number, elected for two years, and a Board of Councilmen, 25 in number, chosen annually. The police force consists of a Board of Commissioners, to whom the direct control of the force is entrusted, a Marshal, and about 2100 officers and men. They are dressed in a neat uniform of dark blue cloth, are armed with clubs and revolvers, 24 310 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. HIGH BRIDGE, HARLEM. and are drilled regularly in military tactics. There are 33 precincts, including the detective squad. The force is charged with the duty of guarding about 300 day and 400 night posts, about 425 miles of streets, and 14 miles of piers. There are 25 station houses fitted up with lodging rooms for the men, and having rooms also for the ac- commodation of wandering or destitute persons, large numbers of whom thus receive temporary shelter. The Fire Department is under the control of a Board of Commis- sioners. It consists of a Chief Engineer, an Assistant Engineer, 10 District Engineers, and over 500 men and 46 horses. There are 34 steam fire engines, 4 hand engines, and 1 2 hook and ladder companies in the department. The men are regularly enlisted, and are paid by the city. There is a fire alarm telegraph, with about 800 stations, extending through the city, and it is so arranged that the most. inex- perienced person can at once telegraph the exact location of a fire to all the engine houses in the city. It requires but 15 seconds in the day, and one minute at night, to get the engines ready for action and start them on the way to a fire. A system of fire patrols is main- tained by the city and by the insurance companies. There are also a number of lofty look-out towers, from which a constant watch is kept. According to the United States census of 1870, the population of New York is 942,337. There can be no doubt, however, that the NEW YORK. 371 actual population is over 1,000,000. The rate at which the city has grown is shown by the following table : Year. Population. 1656, 1,000 1756, 10,381 1800, 60,489 1820, 123,706 1830, 202,589 1840, 312,852 1850, 515,547 I860, 814,287 On the 12th of September, 1609, Henry Hudson, an English navi- gator in the service of the Dutch East India Company, discovered Manhattan Island. The Dutch made a temporary settlement on the island in 1612, and established a permanent colony in 1623, when a fort was built, and the settlement named New Amsterdam. The first white child, Sarah Rapelje, was born in the same year, and in 1626, Peter Minuits, the Dutch Governor, arrived. In 1633, a new fort was begun on the present site of the Battery. Previous to 1638 to- bacco was cultivated and slavery was introduced. In 1656, there were 1000 inhabitants and 1 20 houses in the town ; in 1658, wharfs were constructed, and in 1662 a windmill was built. In August, 1664, an English fleet arrived in the bay, and took possession of the town in the name of the King of England. No resistance was offered, and the name of the town was changed to New York, in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II., to whom Charles II. had granted the entire province. In July, 1673, the Dutch fleet recaptured the town, drove out the English, and named it New Orange. The peace between Great Britain and the Dutch, which closed the war, restored the town to the English, November 10th, 1674, and the name of New York was resumed. The Dutch Gov- ernment was replaced by the English system under a liberal charter, and during the remainder of the seventeenth century the town grew rapidly in population and size. In 1700, New York contained 4500 white r and 750 black inhabitants, and about 750 dwellings. In 1689, there was a brief disturbance, known as Leisler's Rebellion. In 1702, a terrible fever was brought from St. Thomas', and carried off 600 persons, one-tenth of the whole population. In 1696, the first Trinity Church was built, and in 1719, the first Presbyterian Church was built. In 1711, a slave market was established; in 1725, the New York Gazette, the fifth of the Colonial newspapers, was estab- 372 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. lished; in 1732, stages ran to Boston, the journey occupying 14 days; and in 1735, the people made their first manifestation of hostility to Great Britain, which was drawn forth by the infamous prosecution by the officers of the Crown of Rip Van Dam, who had been the acting Governor of the town. In 1741, a severe fire occurred in the lower part of the city, destroying the old Dutch fort and the Dutch church, and in the same year the yellow fever raged with great violence. The principal event of the year, however, was the so-called negro plot for the destruction of the town. Though the reality of the plot was never proved, the greatest alarm prevailed ; the fire in the fort was declared to be the work of the negroes, numbers of whom were arrested ; and upon the sole evidence of a single servant girl a number of the poor wretches were hanged. Several whites were also charged with being accomplices of the negroes. One of these, John Ury, a Roman Catho- lic priest, and, as is now believed, an innocent man, was hanged in August. In the space of six months 154 negroes and 20 whites were arrested ; 20 negroes were hanged, 13 were burned at the stake, and 78 were transported. The rest were discharged. In 1750 a theatre was established, and. in 1755 St. Paul's Church was built. New York took a prominent part in the resistance of the Colonies to the aggressions of the mother country, and, in spite of the presence of a large number of Tories, responded cordially to the call of the Colonies for men and money during the war. On the 26th of August, 1776, the battle of Long Island having been lost by the Americans, the city was occupied by the British, who held it until the close of the war. It suffered very much at their hands. Nearly all the churches, except the Episcopal, were occupied by them as prisons, riding-schools, and stables ; and the schools and colleges were closed. On the 21st of September, 1776, a fire destroyed 493 houses, all the west side of Broadway from Whitehall to Barclay street, or about one-eighth of the city ; and on the 7th of August, 1778, about 300 buildings on East River were burned. On the 25th of November, 1783, the British evacuated the city, which was at once occupied by the American army. In 1785 the first Federal Congress met in the City Hall, which stood at the corner of Wall and Nassau streets, and on the 30th of April 1789, George Washington was inaugurated first President of the United States on the same spot. By 1791 the city had spread to the lower end of the present City Hall Park, and was extending along the Boston Road (Bowery) and Broadway. In 1799, the Manhattan NEW YORK. 373 UNION SQUARE. STATUE OF WASHINGTON. Company, for supplying the city with fresh water, was chartered. On the 20th of September, 1803, the corner-stone of the City Hall was laid. Free schools were established in 1805. In the same year the yellow fever raged with violence, and had the effect of spreading the population by driving them up the island, where many located them- selves permanently. In 1807, Robert Fulton navigated the first steamboat from New York to Albany. The War of 1812-15 for a while stopped the growth of the city, but after the return of peace, its onward progress was resumed. In August, 1812, experimental gas lamps were placed in the Park, though the use of gas for purposes of lighting was not begun until 1825. In 1822, the yellow fever again drove the population higher up the island, and caused a rapid growth of the city above Canal street. In 1825, the Erie Canal was completed. This great work, by placing the trade of the West in the hands of New York, gave a powerful impetus to the growth of the city, which was now increasing at the rate of from 1000 to 1500 houses per year. In 1832 and 1834, the cholera raged severely, carrying off upwards of 4484 persons in the two years. In 1835, the "great fire" occurred. This terrible conflagra- tion (December 16th) laid 648 houses, almost the entire business portion of the city, south of Wall street, and east of Broadway, in 374 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ashes, and inflicted a loss of more than $18,000,000 upon the city. New York rose from this disaster with wonderful energy and rapidity, but only to meet, in 1837, the most terrible commercial crisis that had ever been known in the country. Even this did not check the growth of the city, the population increasing 110,100 between 1830 and 1840. In 1842, the Croton water was introduced. In 1849 and 1854, the cholera again appeared, killing over 5400 persons. In 1852, the first street railway was built. In 1858, the Central Park was begun. Since then the city has grown rapidly in extent and population, and is fast becoming one of the most beautiful and brilliant in the world. It possesses every advantage for rapid improvement, and is moving on surely to the accomplishment of a glorious destiny. BROOKLYN, The second city in the State, and the third city in the United States, is situated in Kings county, on the western end of Long Island, immediately opposite the city of New York, from which it is separated by the East River. The city extends from Newtown Creek, including Green Point, to the boundary below Greenwood, a direct distance of 7J miles, and nearly 10 miles following the low-water line. From the river it stretches back inland for about 4 miles. The city proper is divided into the Western District (W. D.), Williamsburg, Greenpoint, the Eastern District (E. D.), and South Brooklyn. The ground on which the city is located is for the most part flat and low, and was formerly marshy, but a portion of the city is built upon a line of bold heights overlooking the bay, and commanding a fine view of New York and the harbor. The general appearance of the city is handsome and attractive. It is well built, and some portions of it will compare favorably with New York. The streets are broad, straight, and well- paved, and many of them are delightfully shaded with noble trees. Brooklyn covers nearly as much ground as New York, but its popula- tion is only about one-third as great, and is not so much crowded. Small houses are the rule in this city, large residences being rare, except in the wealthier quarters. Many of the streets are lined with tasteful cottage residences, in front of which are yards of considerable size, ornamented with flowers, shrubbery, etc. The site of Brooklyn was originally very irregular, but the constant improvements which have been carried on during the growth of the city have very much changed the primitive appearance of the land. Immediately opposite the lower end of New York, is a ridge 70 feet NEW YORK. 375 above the level of the East River, known as " The Heights." This is the wealthiest and most fashionable quarter of Brooklyn, though it is now rapidly giving way to business edifices. The principal tho- roughfare is Fulton street, stretching from the Fulton Ferry to the City Hall, from which point it turns abruptly to the eastward, and extends to the city limits, under the name of Fulton avenue. It is enclosed as far as the City Hall, about one mile, with large and hand- some stores and offices. From the City Hall eastward, it is less sub- stantially built. The proximity of Brooklyn to New York and its facilities for economical living have been the chief causes of its rapid growth. Thousands of persons living in Brooklyn conduct their business in New York, and pass and repass between the cities daily. The trade of Brooklyn is mostly local. The city is largely engaged in manu- factures, but its productions are sold chiefly through New York. Large quantities of tobacco are manufactured here, and the city has a large trade in flour, sugar and whiskey. The public buildings are among the handsomest in the country. The City Hall, at the southern end of Fulton street, is an imposing edifice of white marble, 162 by 102 feet, and 75 feet high, surmounted by a dome, the top of which is 153 feet from the ground. It was erected at a cost of $200,000. Just in the rear of the City Hall, and fronting on Joralemon street, is the County Court House, 140 feet wide, and 315 feet deep, built of white marble, in the Corinthian style of architecture. It cost $543,000. The Academy of Music, and the Mercantile Library, on Montague street, are built in the modern Gothic style, of a fine quality of brick ornamented with stone, and are among the handsomest buildings in the city. There are nearly 200 churches in Brooklyn, in consequence of which the place is frequently called " The City of Churches." Some of these are magnificent edifices, but the majority are simple and modest in their appearance. They are all in prosperous condition, and there are, perhaps, few cities in the land whose church finances make so favorable a showing as those of Brooklyn. The city is well supplied with public schools of every grade, and contains a number of thriving private schools and academies. The average attendance is over 50,000. There are also schools for colored children. During the year ending February 1st, 1864, the amount expended by the city for purposes of education was $229,845.61. The Literary Institutions are of a high character. The Mercantile 376 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Library contains about 35,000 volumes, and is supported by the sub- scriptions of its members. The Long Island Historical Society pos- sesses a fine collection of 15,000 volumes, besides numerous manu- scripts and historical relics. The United States Lyceum is located in the Navy Yard, and possesses a large and valuable collection of curi- osities, geological and mineralogical specimens. The Lyceum, in Washington street, possesses a splendid granite building and a fine lecture hall. The Art Association holds two exhibitions in each year. Besides these, are the Philharmonic Society, and several other societies devoted to literary, scientific, and musical ends. The Charitable Institutions are the Long Island College Hospital ; the City Hospital, in Raymond street, with beds for 170 patients; the Graham Institution, for the relief of respectable aged, indigent females; the Orphan Asylum of the City of Brooklyn, which shelters about 150 children ; the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, a noble charity, which has in a single year rendered substantial aid to 8000 persons; the Marine Hospital, belonging to the United States; the Church Charity Foundation, for the relief of indigent and desti- tute persons ; and the .Brooklyn and Homoeopathic Dispensaries. Be- sides these, are a number of religious and private charities, which are w r ell sustained. There are several small squares and parks in the city, the principal of which is Washington Park (Fort Greene), occupying an elevated plateau northeast of the City Hall. During the Revolutionary war, the site of this park was occupied by extensive fortifications designed to cover the Long Island approaches to the city of New York. The ruins of Fort Greene, the principal work, still remain. The park is tastefully laid out, and commands a good view of the city. During the last few years, a large park, known as Prospect Park, has been laid out in the southwestern portion of the city. It contains 550 acres, and promises to be one of the handsomest parks in the Union. The United States Navy Yard is situated within the city limits, on the south side of Wallabout Bay, which lies in the northeast part of Brooklyn. It occupies about 40 acres of ground, enclosed by a stone wall, and contains a large dry-dock, constructed at a cost of $1,000,000, several extensive shops for the construction of vessels, machinery, arms, etc. It is one of the principal naval stations of the Republic. To the north of the Navy Yard, stands the Marine Hospital, in the midst of extensive grounds. During the war of the Revolution, the NEW YORK. 3V 7 TJXITED STATES NAVY YARD, BROOKLYN. British prison ships were anchored in Wallabout Bay. Large num- bers of American prisoners of war were confined in these hulks, and it is said that 11,500 of them perished from ill usage and impure air. They were hastily buried on the shore of the bay. By 1808, their bones were entirely exposed, the tide having washed out their graves. In that year, their bones were collected and deposited in 13 coffins, inscribed with the names of the 13 original States, and deposited in a vault in Hudson avenue, near the present Navy Yard. The Govern- ment property at the Navy Yard, not, counting the shipping, is esti- mated at $25,000,000. The Atlantic Dock, in South Brooklyn, opposite Governor's Island, is a very extensive work. It embraces within the piers an area of nearly 41 acres, and can accommodate ships of the largest size. It was built by a company incorporated in 1840, with a capital of $l r 000,000. The outer pier extends for 3000 feet along Buttermilk Channel, and is covered with large granite warehouses. It is the centre of one of the largest grain trades in the world. The cemeteries of Brooklyn are used bv that city in common with 378 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. New York. The principal is Greenwood, in the extreme southern part of Brooklyn, about 3 miles from Fulton Ferry. The street cars run to the gates. It is beautifully laid out, contains 242 acres of ground, and is one of the most beautiful cemeteries in the world. Many of its monuments are noted as works of art. It commands ex- tensive views of the ocean and of the bay and city of New York. The cemeteries of the Evergreens and Cypress Hills lie about 4 miles to the eastward of Greenwood. Brooklyn is connected with New York by numerous ferries. It is lighted throughout with gas, and is abundantly supplied with pure water from the Ridgewood water-works. There is also a steam fire dopartment, and an efficient police force. The city is divided into 20 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Common Council. The population in 1870 was 396,300. Brooklyn was first settled in 1625, by a band of Walloons, sent out as agriculturists by the Dutch West India Company. These settled on the shores of the bay now used by the Navy Yard, and gave to their settlement the name of Waalboght, or Walloon's Bay, which has since been corrupted into Wallabout Bay. From this beginning sprang a straggling town, to which the Dutch gave the name of Breuckelen, from a village in Holland. The first white man who actually settled within the limits of the present city of Brooklyn, was George Jansen de Rapelje. The Dutch Government bought the title to the land from the Canarsee Indians, a large tribe which dwelt in the southern part of what is now Kings county. In 1641, the Dutch allowed the English to settle on Long Island, on the condition of their taking the oath of allegiance to the States General. In 1654, the erection of the first church was begun by order of Governor Stuy- vesant. It was located at Flat bush. Previous to this, the settlers on Long Island attended worship in New Amsterdam. The history of Brooklyn untij the period of the Revolution is un- eventful. During that struggle, it was the scene of several important events. On the 26th of August, 1776, the battle of Long Island was fought, the battlefield being within the present city limits in the direc- tion of Flatbush. The American army was defeated and compelled to abandon Long Island. The occupation of New York by the British forces was the result. Brooklyn grew very slowly after its settlement. In 1 698, it contained 509 persons ; in 1800, 3298 ; in 1820, 7175. In 1834, it was incor- porated as a city. In 1855, it was consolidated with the city of NEW YORK. 379 Williamsburg and the town of Bushwick, including the village of Greenpoint, under the general name of Brooklyn. BUFFALO, The third city in the State, is situated in Erie county, at the eastern extremity of Lake Erie, in latitude 42 53' N., longitude 78 55' W. It is 352 miles by the Erie Canal, and 300 miles by the New York Central Railway, west of Albany, and 460 miles northwest of New York by railway. It is connected with Albany and the Hudson River by the Erie Canal, and has railway connections with all parts of the Union. The water front of the city is 5 miles long, half of it lying along Lake Erie, and the rest along the Niagara River. Buffalo Creek extends through the southern portion of the city, and forms a part of the harbor. " The harbor of Buffalo is now one of the best in the great chain of lakes. The present harbor is formed by Buffalo Creek, the Black well Canal, the Erie and Ohio Basins, and North Buffalo Harbor. Buffalo Creek is navigable for more than 2 miles from its entrance into the lake for vessels drawing 12 feet of water. Nearly parallel to, and from 200 to 800 feet from it, is the Blackwell Ship- Canal, one mile and a quarter long, and connected with it by 4 ship- canal slips. About 1 mile from the mouth of the creek, and connected with it by a ship-canal slip, is the Ohio Basin, containing 10 acres. A pier or breakwater on the south side of the creek, and a sea wall next the lake, give ample protection from storms. On the end of this pier, extending about 1500 feet into the lake, is a mole on which is the Government light-house. On the north side of the creek is another pier, extending into the lake about 500 feet. At nearly right angles to the south pier, and distant from it and the north pier 600 feet, com- mences the Erie Basin Pier, extending towards North Buffalo Harbor 5000 feet, and about 1000 feet distant from the shore line of the lake. The intermediate space between this pier and the shore line, 1000 by 5000 feet, is called the Erie Basin Harbor, which has sufficient depth of water for vessels drawing 10 feet. At the lower end of the Erie Basin sea-wall is a mole, and vessels can enter it at this point, or from the entrance through Buffalo Creek. About three-quarters of a mile from the mole of the Erie Basin Pier is the Black Rock Pier, enclosing a portion of the Niagara River, about 2 miles long and from 200 to 600 feet wide, forming what is called ' Black Rock Harbor. 7 The water in this harbor is shoal, and only vessels of light draught can enter it 380 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. VIEW FROM WEST POINT. It forms for more than a mile the Erie Canal, and boats drawing 6 feet of water can pass through it. Buffalo Creek, the Black well Canal and slips, the Ohio and Erie Basin harbors, give abundance of sea-room to accommodate a fleet of 300 sail and steam vessels. The Erie Canal from Buffalo to Tonawanda, a distance of 12 miles, is nearly parallel with the Niagara River, and for a very considerable portion of the distance is only separated from it by an embankment of from 100 to 400 feet in width. The Niagara River from North Buffalo to Tona- wanda, a distance of 8 miles, has from 16 to 25 feet of water, with good bottom for anchorage and wide river for a harbor. The rapid growth of the West and the large augmentation in the receipt of cereals have given rise to immense grain warehouses, called elevators, which were introduced to facilitate and cheapen the transhipment of this kind of produce. There are now built and in successful operation 27 of these grain warehouses, besides 2 floating elevators. They have a storage capacity for 5,830,000 bushels, and have a transfer capacity equal to 2,808,000 bushels in each 24 hours. They were first intro- duced in 1842. There are 6 ship-yards in the city, 4 of which have NEW YORK. 381 dry-docks. They will admit the largest vessels navigating the lakes. There is a marine railway and a very powerful derrick for handling hoilers and heavy machinery." The position of Buffalo has placed in its hands the immense commerce of the Great Lakes and the Erie Canal, and its trade has been greatly increased by the great lines of railways which connect it with all parts of the United States and Canada. Its grain trade is enormous, and is growing rapidly. In 1S63, the total number of vessels entering and clearing at the port of Buffalo was 15,376. These had a total tonnage of 6,757,903. In the same year the trade of Buffalo by lake, rail, and canal amounted to $256,214,614. In the same year there were received at this port grain and flour estimated as wheat to the amount of 64,735,510 bushels. It is not an unusual sight during the season of navigation to see a fleet of 15.0 sailing vessels and steamers enter Buffalo harbor from the west during a period of 24 hours. The manufacturing interests are increasing rapidly. Iron, leather, agricultural implements, and oil refining are the most important. It is believed that Buffalo will soon rank next to Pittsburg in its iron manufactures. Its proximity to the iron and coal regions of New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio afford it great facilities for the econo- mical working of this metal. The city is well built. The streets are broad and well paved, and as a rule intersect each other at right angles. The stores and business houses arc substantial, and in many cases handsome. The business portion of the city lies near the water. Farther back are the streets devoted to private residences. These are generally well shaded, and are lined with tasteful and sometimes with elegant dwellings. There are six public squares, viz : Niagara, Lafayette Place, Washington, Franklin, Delaware Place, and Terrace Parks. The public buildings include the City Hall, 2 Court-Houses, the City Penitentiary, the City Jail, the Custom House, the State Arsenal, and the building of the Young Men's Christian Association. Among the Literary and Benevolent Institutions are the Buffalo University and Medical School; the Young Men's Association, with a library of over 13,000 volumes ; the Buffalo Female Acad- emy ; the City and Marine Hospitals ; St. Vincent's Orphan Asylum ; and the Hospital of the Sisters of Charity. All of these are provided with handsome and commodious buildings. There are upwards of 70 churches in the city, several of which are noted for their beauty and grandeur. 332 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water, and its thoroughfares arc traversed by street railways. The city is divided into 13 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Council chosen by the people. There are over 30 public schools, besides a Central High School, and a number of private institutions in the city. There arc 18 publications issued here, 6 of which are daily, 8 weekly, arid 3 semi-weekly newspapers. The population in 1870 was 117,714. Buffalo was laid out in 1801 by the Holland Company, and in 1812 it became a military post, at which time it contained about 200 houses. In December, 1813, it was captured and burned by the British and Indians, and only 2 houses left standing. Congress made a donation of $80,000 to the settlers to assist them in rebuilding the place. In 1832, it was incorporated as a city, and in 1852, the charter was amended so as to include Black Hock. Since 1814, the growth of the city has been very rapid. It contained only 2095 inhabitants in 1820, its wonderful growth being confined almost entirely to half a century. ROCHESTER, In Monroe county, is the fifth city in importance in the State. It is situated on both sides of the Genesee River, 7 miles from its entrance into Lake Ontario, 230 miles west by north of Albany, and 68 miles east-northeast of Buffalo. .Latitude 43 8' N., longitude 77 51' W. The ground upon which the city stands is generally flat, and the cor- porate limits cover an area of 8 square miles, nearly all of which is closely built up. The streets are broad and straight, and are well paved. In the business sections are many handsome buildings, and the private residences are generally tasteful and often elegant. The Genesee River is navigable to the city limits, but the docks are situated at the mouth of the river, 7 miles distant. These are con- nected with the city by railway, and by lines of steamers. Rochester controls a large trade on Lake Ontario. The Erie Canal passes through the city, crossing the river on a fine stone aqueduct. The Genesee Valley Canal connects with it here, and extends southward from Rochester to the Alleghany River. The Erie and New York Central railways and their branches have added much to the wealth and importance of the city. The unlimited water-power afforded by the Genesee, has been one of the chief sources of the prosperity of Rochester. Within a distance of 3 miles, the river has a descent of 226 feet, which it accomplishes in 3 perpendicular falls of 95, 20 and 75 feet. The upper falls lie within the city limits and are noted for their beauty. NEW YORK. 383 In consequence of the possession of this water-power, Rochester is now one of the principal manufacturing cities in the Union. The flour mills are the most extensive in the country. Shoes, iron ware, wooden ware, clothing, etc., are extensively manufactured. There is also an extensive trade in produce, which is collected here for shipment to other markets. The nurseries of Rochester are famous, and are unsurpassed. The public buildings of the city are handsome. The principal are the City Hall, and the Arcade, the latter containing the Post Office and other Federal offices. The Educational and Literary Institutions are the University of Rochester, with a fine edifice of brown stone, and an endowment of $200,000 ; the Rochester Theological Seminary, under the control of the Baptists; the Athenaeum; the Public Library; and the Free Aca- demy. There over 20 public schools, in excellent condition, and a number of private schools. The Charitable and Benevolent Institutions are St. Mary's Hospi- tal, the City Hospital, the Industrial School, the Home for the Friend- less, an Insane Asylum, two Orphan Asylums, and the Western House of Refuge, for boys, belonging to the State. There are over 45 churches in the city, many of them elegant structures. The city is well supplied with water, and is lighted with gas. Street railways afford communication between its various parts. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. The population in 1870 was 62,315. Rochester was settled in 1812, and was named in honor of Colonel Nathaniel Rochester, one of the pioneers of the city. It was incor- porated as a city in 1834. TROY, The sixth city in the State, lies on both sides of the Hudson River, at the mouth of Poestenkill Creek, at the head of steamboat naviga- tion, 6 miles northeast of Albany, and 151 miles north of New York. The principal portion of the city lies immediately along the river, for about 3 miles, communication between the two banks being main- tained by means of a bridge and ferry boats. The city lies in a plain. At the southern end of the east side rises a bold hill, called Mount Ida, from which an extensive view may be gained of Troy, the river, and the surrounding country. In the northern part of the city is a rugged mass of rock, 200 feet high, called Mount Olympus. 334 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The city is regularly laid out. The streets, GO feet in width, cross each other at right angles, except the principal business thoroughfare, River street, which follows the course of the Hudson, and is lined with large warehouses and hotels. The streets are well paved, as a rule, are handsomely shaded, and are lighted with gas. The city is well built, and those portions occupied with private residences are very beautiful. There are several handsome parks or public squares in the city limits. Troy is favorably situated for commerce, and has a large trade along the river, and with the interior. It has railway communicatidn with all parts of the country ; the Hudson gives it water transporta- tion to New York and the ocean ; the Erie Canal connects it with the Great Lakes, and the Champlain Canal with the lower St. Law- rence. Troy is extensively engaged in manufactures. Flour, paper, cotton and woollen goods, leather, nails and iron ware, including rail- road iron, carpets, brushes, and stone ware are made in large quanti- ties. The public buildings are handsome. The most imposing is the Court House, a fine marble edifice in the Doric style. The Educational and Literary Institutions are, the Troy Academy ; the Rensselaer Institute, affording a thorough education in the exact sciences ; the Troy Female Seminary, established by Mrs. Emma Wil- lard in 1821 ; the Lyceum, and the Young Men's Association. There are two public schools to each ward, besides a number of night schools. There are also several flourishing private schools. The Charitable and Benevolent Institutions are well supported. The principal are the Troy Hospital, the Marshal Infirmary, the Troy Orphan Asylum, and St. Mary's Orphan Asylum. There are a number of churches in Troy, some of which are amongst the handsomest in the Union. The city is supplied with pure water from a neighboring stream. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is provided with street railways, an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. The population in 1870 was 46,465. In 1720, Derick Yanderheyden acquired from Van Rensselaer the title to 400 acres of land, now included in Troy, at an annual rent of 3} bushels of wheat and 4 fut fowls. The tract was converted into a farm, and so used until 1786, when a company of New Englanders induced its ov, r ners to lay it out as a town. It was surveyed between 1786 and 1790, and was variously known as "Ferry Hook," "Van- NEW YORK. 385 derheyden's Ferry," and "Ashley's Ferry." In 1789, it contained about a dozen dwellings, and 5 small stores. A meeting of the free- holders was held on the 5th of January, 1789, and the place was named Troy. Until the completion of the Erie Canal it was a mere village. It owes its prosperity in a large measure to that great work. It was incorporated as a city in 1816. West Troy, on the west bank of the Hudson, in Albany county, and Green Island village, on an island of that name, above West Troy, are but suburbs of the city of Troy. SYRACUSE, The seventh city in the State, is situated in Onondaga county, at the southern end of Onondaga Lake, and on a creek bearing the same name. It is 148 miles west by north of Albany. The site is nearly level. The city is regularly laid out in squares, and the streets are broad and well paved. The business streets are lined with warehouses of brick and stone, and the private streets are delightfully shaded, and are occupied with tasteful cottages, and in some cases with more pretentious dwellings. The city is connected with all parts of the country by railway ; with the Hudson and Lake Erie by the Erie Canal ; and the Oswego Canal connects it with Lake Ontario. It is the centre of a large and thriving trade. Its principal industry is the manufacture of salt, of which it is the principal seat in this country. The land in which the saline springs are found, is owned by the State, and is leased free of charge for the manufacture of salt alone. The wells are sunk, and the water pumped from them, at the expense of the State, the manu- facturer paying a tax of 1 cent per bushel for this service. A few of the wells are 400 feet deep. In 1861, the total amount of salt pro- duced here was 9,053,874 bushels. The salt is fully equal in quality to the famous Turk's Island salt. Syracuse is also largely engaged in the manufacture of machinery, steam engines, agricultural imple- ments, stoves, woollen goods, leather, and flour. The City Hall is the principal public building. Besides this the city contains 2 immense halls used for public meetings. The public schools are well conducted, and generally attended. There are several fine private schools in the city. The Charitable and Benevolent Institutions consist of the Onondaga County Orphan Asylum, the Syracuse Home Association for the ^Relief of the Poor, and the New York State Asylum for Idiots. 25 386 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The churches are numerous and well supported, and are among the principal ornaments of the city. Syracuse is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is provided with street railways, is supplied with water, and is lighted with gas. The population in 1870 was 43,058. Syracuse was first settled by an Indian trader, named Ephraim Webster, who located near the mouth of Onondaga Creek in 1786. In 17&8 or 1789, John Danforth located at "Salt Point/' and began the manufacture of salt. The salt springs soon drew other settlers, and a town was speedily formed, which took the name of SaUna, and became the most important place in the county. Syracuse, Webster's village, did not thrive as rapidly as Salina at first, but in 1829, the popu- lation of the two towns, which lay side by side, was about the same. The completion of the Erie Canal gave a great impetus to both, but Syracuse became from that date the more prominent place. In 1847, the city of Syracuse was incorporated, including in its limits the towns of Salina and Lodi. UTICA, The eighth city in the State, is situated on the south bank of the Mohawk River, in Oneida county, 95 miles west-northwest of Albany. The site is nearly level, the ground rising slightly toward the north. It is one of the handsomest and best-built cities in the State or the Union. The streets are wide, well-paved, shaded with fine trees ; and the stores and residences, which are mostly of brick and stone, are substantial and showy. The public buildings are attractive, and are situated chiefly on Genesee street. The public schools are well conducted, and include all the depart- ments from the primary to a thorough academic course. Besides these the city contains several fine private schools. The State Lunatic Asylum, on the western verge of the city, is a noble institution, and is provided with handsome edifices. There are about 26 churches, the most of which are well built and tastefully decorated. Utica is connected with the East and West by the New York Cen- tral Railway, which passes through the town. It is the southern terminus of the Utica and Black River Railway. The Erie Canal connects it with the Hudson and the Great Lakes, and the Chenango Canal extends from Utica to Binghampton, 97 miles. The city lies NEW YORK. 387 in the midst of a populous and fertile country, and possesses a con- siderable trade. It is also, to a limited extent, engaged in manufac- turing enterprises. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water. The population in 1870 was 28,804. Utica is built upon the site of Fort Schuyler, one of the most im- portant forts of the Revolution. The settlement of the village began soon after the close of the war; but it grew slowly. In 1813, it had but 1700 inhabitants. The completion of the Erie CauaJ gave it the impetus which has carried it to its present prosperity. OSWEGO, The ninth city in the State, is situated, in Oswego county, on the southeast shore of Lake Ontario, at' the mouth of and on both sides of the Oswego River, 183 miles west-northwest of Albany. Although the ninth in population, Oswego is one of the most important cities in the State. It is the largest American to\vn on Lake Ontario. It is handsomely built. The streets are 100 feet wide, and intersect each other at right angles. The city is divided by the river into two parts, nearly equal in size, connected by bridges placed above the limits of ship navigation. The public buildings are handsome, and consist of a City Hall, Market House, Court House, Custom House, and Prison. There are 12 churches in the city. The public schools are organized under a special act of the Legis- lature, and are among the best in the State. Besides schools for each ward, there is a high school, in which the languages and higher branches of education are taught. There are several benevolent institutions in the city, the principal of which is the Orphan Asylum. The harbor of Oswego is one of the best on Lake Ontario. The mouth of the river admits vessels of the largest class navigating the lakes, and the erection of piers and a lighthouse by the United States Government, has made it one of the safest and most accessible harbors on the frontier. It combines all the advantages of canal and railway transportation with that of being the nearest lake port to tide- water. A hydraulic canal, extending along both sides of the river, is 'thickly lined with mills, grain elevators and warehouses, and manufacturing establishments. The Oswego River receives the waters of Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, Onondaga, and several other lakes, besides numerous 388 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. OSWEGO. tributary streams. These lakes form natural reservoirs, which pre- vent floods or undue exhaustion, the extreme elevation and depression of the river not exceeding 3 feet, so that destructive freshets, so com- mon to great water-power rivers, never occur. The river falls S i feet within the limits of the city, and thus furnishes immense water- power, but a small portion of which has been utilized. The situation of Oswego being nearer to the St. Lawrence and to New York than any other lake port, gives it peculiar advantages. It is connected with all parts of the country by rail, and with the Erie Canal and Hudson River by the Oswego Canal, which joins the Erie at Syracuse. It is the greatest wheat market in the State, and controls nearly one-half of the entire commerce of the United States with Canada. In 1862, its receipts of grain were as follows : Flour, 235,382 barrels; Wheat, 10,982,132 bushels; Corn, 4,- 528,962 bushels; Oats, 187,284 bushels; Rye, 130,175 bushel*; Barley, 1,050,364 bushels. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water. In 1870, the population was 20,910. Oswego was originally settled by the French, who established a NEW YORK. 389 trading post there, and erected a fort, soon after the settlement of Quebec. In 1700, the English explored the country of the Five Na- tions; and in 1722, built a fort at the mouth of the river. At the outbreak of the "Old French War/' 1753, Fort Ontario was built on the eastern bank of the river; and in 1755, another fort was built on the west bank. In the summer of 1756, the" French, under Mont- calm, crossed the lake from Fort Frontenac (Kingston), captured the forts, after a three days' siege, burned them, and withdrew. In 1758, Colonel Bradstreet, with 3350 men, crossed to Fort Frontenac, and destroyed it, and returning to Oswego, rebuilt the forts there. Fort Ontario was enlarged, and was reconstructed in the most substantial manner. In 1760, Lord Amherst's strong army embarked from Os- wego in the expedition against Quebec. During the Revolution it remained in the hands of the British, who kept a strong garrison in it. From this point they sent out many of the marauding parties that carried the torch and sword along the frontier. They held it until 1796, when it was surrendered in accordance with the provisions of Jay's Treaty. They destroyed the fortifications, and left it as new a.j though it were virgin to the white man's tread. In 1797, Neil McMullin, a merchant of Kingston, settled on the spot, bringing with him a frame house made in Kingston. By the beginning of the second war with England, a thriving settlement had been formed there. This war greatly retarded the growth of the town, which, in May, 1814, was bombarded and captured by the British fleet under Sir James Yeo. After the return of peace, Oswego increased in size and population, but was a place of but little impor- tance until after the construction of the Welland and Oswego canals. In 1816, steam navigation was introduced on Lake Ontario, and this has contributed considerably to the growth of Oswego. The principal pursuit of its inhabitants previous to the opening of the Os- wego Canal, in 1828, was ship building. It was incorporated as a city in 1848. The other important cities and towns of the State are, Poughkeep- sie, 20,080 inhabitants; Newtown, 20,274 ; Auburn, 17,225; New- burg, 17,014; Elmira, 15,863; Cohoes, 15,357; Flushing, 14,600; Hempstead, 13,999; Johnson, 12,273; Lockport, 12,426 ; Fishhill, 11,752; Kingston, 11,820; Yonkers, 11,997. 300 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MISCELLANIES. ANCIENT LAWS OF THE PROVINCE OP NEW YORK. The following laws are extracted from those established by the Duke of York for the government of New York, in the year 1664. This code (called the "Duke's Laws") was compiled under the direction of -Nicolls, the first English Governor. It continued in force till the period of the Revolution in England, and ceased to have effect in 1691, when the General Assembly of the Province began to exercise a new legislative power under the sovereignty of King William: Capital Laws. I. If any person within this Government shall by direct ex- prcst, impious or presumptuous ways, deny the true God and his Attributes, he shall be put to death. 2. If any person shall Commit any wilful and premeditated Murder, he shall be put to Death. '3. If any person Slayeth another with Sword or Dagger who hath no weapon to defend himself; he shall be put to Death. 4. If any person forcibly Stealelh or carrieth away any mankind ; lie. shall Vj put to death. 5. If any person shall bear false witness maliciously and on purpose to take away a man's life, He shall be put to Death. 6. If any man shall Traitorously deny his Majestyes right and titles to his Crowncs and Dominions, or shall raise armies to resist his Authority, He shall be put to Death. 7. If any man shall treacherously conspire or Publiquely attempt to invade or Surprise any Town or Towns, Fort or Forts, within this Government, He shall be put to Death. 8. If any Child or Children, above sixteen years of age, and of Sufficient under- standing, shall smite their natural Father or Mother, unless thereunto provoked and forct for their selfe preservation from Death or Mayming, at the Complaint of the said Father and Mother, and not otherwise, they being Sufficient wiinesses thereof, that Child or those Children so offending shall be put to Death. Bond Slavery. No Christian shall be kept in Bondslavery villenage or Cap- tivity, Except Such who shall be Judged thereunto by Authority, or such as wil- lingly have sould, or shall sell themselves, In which Case a Record of sucli Servitude shall be entered in the Court of Sessions held for that Jurisdiction where Such Matters shall Inhabit, provided that nothing in the Law Contained shall be to the prejudice of Master or Dame who have or shall by any Indenture or Covenant take Apprentices for Terme of Years, or other Servants for Term of years or Life. Church. Whereas the publique Worship of God is much discredited for want of painful and able Ministers to Instruct the people in the true Religion and for want of Convenient places Capable to receive any Number or Assembly of people in a decent manner for Celebrating Gods holy Ordinances. These ensueing Lawes are to be observed in every parish (Viz.) 1. That in each Parish within this Government a church be built in the most Convenient part thereof, Capable to receive and accommodate two Hundred Persons. 2. To prevent Scandalous and Ignorant pretenders to the Ministry from in- NEW YORK. CDi trading themselves as Teachers ; No Minister shall be Admitted to Officiate, within the Government but such as shall produce Testimonials to the Governour, that he hath Received Ordination either from some Protestant Bishop, or Minis- ter within some part of his Majesties Dominions or the Dominions of any foreign Prince of the Reformed Religion, upon which Testimony the Governour shall induce the said Minister into the parish that shall make presentation of him, as duely Elected by the Major part of the Inhabitants householders. 3. That the Minister of every Parish shall Preach constantly every Sunday, and shall also pray for the Kinge, Queene, Duke of Yorke, and the Royall fam- ily. And every person affronting or disturbing any Congregation on the Lords Day and on such publique days of fast and Thanksgiving as are appointed to be observed. After the presentments thereof by the Churchwardens to the Sessions and due Conviction thereof he shall be punished by fine or Imprisonment accord- ing to the merit and Nature of the offence, And every Minister shall also Pub- iiquely Administer the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper once every Year at the least in his Parish Church not denying the private benefit thereof to Persons that for want of health shall require the same in their houses, under the penalty of Loss of preferment unless the Minister be restrained in point of Conscience. Fasting Days and Days of Thanks gimn To be observed. Whereas by an Act of Parliament the fifth Day of November is annually to be observed for the Great deliverance from the Gunpowder Treason, And whereas by one other Act of Parliament The thirtyeth Day of January is annually to be observed with Fast- ing and Prayer in all his Majesties Dominions to shew a hearty and Serious Re- pentance and Detestation of that Barbarous Murther Commited upon the Person of our late King Charles the first, thereby to divert Gods heavy Judgment from falling upon the whole Nation, as also by another Act of Parliament we are en- joyned thankfully to acknowledge the providence of God upon the Nine and Twentyeth Day of May for his Majesties Birth and Resturation to the Throne of his Royall Ancestors whereby Peace and unity is Established in all his Majesties Domains, Every Minister within his Severall Parish is cr.joyned to pray and Preach on these days and all other Persons are also enjoyned to abstain from their Ordinary Laboure and Calling According to the true intent of both the said Acts. Every Person Licenced to keep an Ordinary shall always be provided of strong and wholesome Beer, of four bushels of malt, at the least to a Iloggshead which he shall not Sell at above two pence the quart under the penalty of twenty Shil- lings, for the first Offence, forty shillings for the Second, and loss of his Licence, It is permitted to any to Sell Beer out of Doores at a peny the Ale quart or under. No Licenced Person shall suffer any to Drink excessively or at unseasonable hours after Nine of the Clock at night in or about any their houses upon penalty of two shillings six pence for every Offence if Complaint and proofe be made thereof. All Injuryes done to the Indians of what nature whatsoever ; shall upon their Complaint and proofe thereof in any Court have speedy redress gratis, against any Christian in as full and Ample manner, (with reasonable allowance for dam-, age) as if the Case had been betwixt Christian and Christian. No Indian whatsoever shall at any time be Suffered to Powaw or perfornie out- *vard worship to the Devil in any Towne within this Government. Lying and False News. Every Person of age of discretion which shall be re- 392 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. puted of fourteen years or upwards, who shall wittingly and -willingly forge or Publish fals newes whereof no Certain Auther nor Authentique Letter out of any part of Europe can be produced, whereby the minds of People are frequently dis- quieted or exasperated in relation to publique Affairs, or particular Persons in- juried in their good names and Credits by such Common deceites and abuses Upon due proofe made by Sufficient witnesses before the Governour or any Court of Sessions the Person so Offending in ordinary Cases shall for the first of- fence be fined ten shillings, for the second offence twenty shillings and for the third offence forty Shillings and if the party be unable to pay the same he shall be Sett in the Stocks so longe, or publiquely whipt with so many stripes as the Governor or any Court of Sessions shall think fitt not exceeding forty stripes : or four houres Sitting in the Stocks, and for the fourth offence he shall be bound to his good behaviour, paying Cost or Service to the Informer and witnesses, such as shall be judged reasonable satisfaction, But in Cases of high nature and publique Concernes, the fine or punishment shall be increast according to the dis- . cretion of the Governor and Council onely. If any Masters or Dames shall Tyrannically and Cruelly abuse their Servants, upon Complaint made by the Servant to the Constable and Overseers, they shall take Speedy redress therein, by Admonishing the Master or Dame not to provoke their Servants, And upon the Servants Second Complaint, of the like usage It shall be Lawful for the Constable and Overseers to protect and Sustaine such Ser- vants in their Houses till due Order be taken for their Reliefe in the ensuing Sessions Provided that due Notice thereof be Speedily given to Such Masters or Dames, and the Cause why such Servants are Protected and Sustained, and in Case any Master or Dame by such Tyranny and Cruelty, and not casually, shall smite out the Eye or Tooth of any such man or maid Servant, or shall otherwise Maim or disfigure them such Servants after due proof made shall be sett free from their Service, And have a further allowance and recompence as the Court of Ses- sions shall judge meet. But in Case any Servant or Servants shall causelessly Complain against their Master or Dame If they cannot make proofe of a just occation for such Com- plaints such Servants shall by the Justices of the Court of Sessions be enjoyned to serve three Months time extraordinary (Gratis) for every such vndue Com- plaint. All Servants who have served Diligently ; and faithfully to the benifit of their Masters or Dames five or Seaven yeares, shall not be Sent empty away, and if any have proved unfaithful or negligent in their Service, notwithstanding the good usage of their Masters, They shall not be dismist, till they have made satis- faction according to the Judgment of the Constable and Overseers of the parish where they dwell. No man Elected into any Military Office, shall refuse to accept thereof, or dis- charge his trust therein under the penalty of five pounds whereof one half to be paid to the Governour and the other halfe to him that is chosen in his place, and accepts thereof. No man shall be Compeld to bear Armes or wage war by sea or Land, without the bounds and limits of this Government, But from Defensive warrs noe man shall be exempted. At a sessions held at the City of New York, Oct. 6, 1694, in the 6th year of William and Mary, present the Mayor, Recorder, Aldermen, and assistants of the Common Council. NEW YORK. 393 For the better preservation of the Lords day, no servile work to be done, or any goods bought or sold on the Lords day, under the penalty of ten shillings for the first offence, and double for every subsequent offence. The Doors of Publick Houses, to be kept shut, no company to be entertained in them, or any sort of Liquor sold in time of Divine service ; Strangers, Travel- lers, or such as lodge in such Houses excepted ; also no person to drink exces- sively, or be drunk, the penalty 10s. for every offence. No Negro or Indian servants to meet together, above the number of four, on the Lords Day, or any other day, within the City liberties ; nor any slave to go around with Gun, Sword, Club, or any weapon, under penalty of ten lashes at the publick whipping post, or to be redeemed by his master or owner, at six shil- lings per head. One of the Constables in the five wards on the south side the fresh Water, by turns to walk the streets of the city, in time of Divine Service, to see these laws observed, and to have power to enter into all publick Houses to put the same in execution. The Constable to make enquiry after all strangers, and give in their names to the Mayor, or in his absence to the eldest Alderman, no keeper of publick house &c, to entertain or lodge any suspected person, or men or women of evil fame, both these heads under penalty of 10*. for each offence. No person to keep shop or sell any goods by retail or exercise any handy-craft trade, but such as are Freemen of the City, under penalty of 5s. every offence. All Jesuits, Seminary Priests, Missionaries, or other Ecclesiastical person, made or ordained by any power or Jurisdiction derived or pretended from the Pope, or see of Rome, residing or being within the Province, to depart the same, on or before the first of Nov. 1700. If any such continue, remain, or come into the Province, after the said first of November, he shall be deemed an Incendiary, a disturber of the publick peace, an Enemy to the true Christian Religion, and shall suffer perpetual imprison- ment. If any such person, being actually committed, shall break Prison and escape, he shall be guilty of Felony, and if retaken shall die as a Felon. Persons receiving, harbouring, succouring, or concealing any such person, and knowing him to be such, shall forfeit the sum of 200 pounds, half to the King, foi and towards the support of the Government, and the other half to the prose- cutor, shall be set in the Pillory three days, and find sureties for their behaviour, at the discretion of the court. Any Justice of peace may cause any person suspected to be of the Romish Clergy to be apprehended, and if he find cause, may commit him or them, in order to a trial. Any person, without warrant, may seize, apprehend, and bring before a Magis- trate, any person suspected of the crimes above, and the Governor, with the Council, may suitably reward such person as they think fit. OLD TIME CUSTOMS OF NEW YORK CITY. The Dutch kept five great festivals of peculiar notoriety, in the year : Kerstydt (Christmas) ; Nieuwjar (New Year) ; a great day of cake, Paas (the Passover) ; Pinxter (i. e. Whitsuntide) ; and San Claas (i. e. Saint Nicholas, or Christ-Kinkle day). The negroes on Long Island on some of those days came in great crowds to Brooklyn, and heldJiheir field frolics. 304 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. It was the general practice of families in middle life to spin, and make much of their domestic wear at home. Short gowns and petticoats were the general in-door dresses. Young women who dressed gay to go abroad to visit, or to church, never failed to take off that dress and put on their homemade, as soon as they got home ; even on Sunday evenings, when they expected company, or even their beaux, it was their best recommendation. to seem thus frugal and ready for any domestic avocation. The boys and young men of a family always changed their dress for a common dress in the same way. There was no custom of offering drink to their guests ; when punch was offered, it was in great bowls.. Dutch dances were very common ; the supper on such occasions was hot chocolate and bread. The negroes used to dance in the markets, using tom-toms, horns, etc., for music. None of the stores or tradesmen's shops then aimed at any rivalry as now. There were no glaring allurements at windows, no over-reaching signs, no big bulk windows ; they were content to sell things at honest profits, and to trus;t to an earned reputation for their share of business. Many aged persons have spoken to me of the former delightful practice of families sitting out on their "stoops" in the shades of the evening, and their saluting the passing friends, or talking across the narrow streets with neighbors. It was one of the grand links of union in the Knickerbocker social compact. It endeared, and made social neighbors : made intercourse on easy terms ; it was only to say, Come, sit down. IU helped the young to easy introductions, and made courtships of readier attainment. I give some facts to illustrate the above remarks, deduced from the family B. with which I am personally acquainted. It shows primitive Dutch manners. His grandfather died at the age of sixty-three, in 1782, holding the office of alder- man eleven years, and once chosen mayor and declined. Such a man, in easy circumstances in life, following the true Dutch ton, had all his family to break- fast, all the year round, at daylight. Before the breakfast he universally smoked his pipe. His family always dined at twelve exactly, at that time the kettle was invariably set on the fire for tea, of Bohea, which was always as punctually fur- nished at three o'clock. Then the old people went abroad on purpose to visit relatives, changing the families each night in succession, over and over again all the year round. The regale at every such house was expected as matter of course to be chocolate supper, and soft waffles. Afterwards, when green tea came in as a new luxury, loaf sugar also came with it ; this was broken in large lumps and laid severally by each cup, and was nibbled or bitten as needed ! The family before referred to actually continued the practice till as late as sev- enteen years ago, with a steady determination in the patriarch to resist the modern innovation of dissolved sugar while he lived. While they occupied the stoops in the evening, you could see every here and there an old Knickerbocker with his long pipe, fuming away his cares, and ready 1 on any occasion to offer another for the use of any passing friend who would sit down and join him. The ideal picture has every lineament of contented comfort ana cheerful repose. Something much more composed and happy than the bustling anxiety of " over business" in the moderns. The cleanliness of Dutch housewifery was always extreme ; everything had to NEW YORK. 395 submit to scrubbing and scouring ; dirt in no form could be endured by them : and dear as water was in the city, where it was generally sold, still it was in per- petual requisition. It was their honest pride to see a well-furnished dresser, showing copper and pewter in shining splendor, as if for ornament, rather than for use. It was common in families then to cleanse their own chimneys without the aid of hired sweeps ; and all tradesmen, etc., were accustomed to saw their own fuel. No man in middle circumstances of life ever scrupled to carry home his one cwt. of meal from the market ; it would have been Ms shame to have avoided it. Men wore three-square or cocked hats, and wigs ; coats with large cuffs, big skirts lined and stiffened with buckram. None ever saw a crown higher than the head. The coat of a beau had three or four large plaits in the skirts, wadding almost like a coverlet to keep them smooth ; cuflfe very large, up to the elbows, open below and inclined down, with lead therein ; the capes were thin and low, so as readily to expose the close plaited neck-stock of fine linen cambric, and the large silver stock-buckle on the back of the neck ; shirts with hand ruffles, sleeves finely plaited, breeches close fitted, with silver, stone, or paste gem buckles ; shoes or pumps with silver buckles of various sizes and patterns ; thread, worsted, and silk stockings ; the poorer class wore sheep and buckskin breeches close set to the limbs. Gold and silver sleeve buttons, set with stones or paste of various colors and kinds, adorned the wrists of the shirts of all classes. The very boys often wore wigs ; and their dresses in general were similar to those of the men. The women wore caps (a bare head was never seen), stiff stays, hoops from six inches to two feet on each side ; high heeled shoes of black stuff, with white silk or thread stockings ; and in the miry times of the winter they wore clogs, gala shoes, or pattens. As soon as wigs were abandoned, and the natural hair was cherished, it became the mode to dress it by plaiting it, by queuing and clubbing, or by wearing it ill a black silk sack or bag, adorned with a large black rose. In time, the powder with which wigs and the natural hair had been severally adorned, was run into disrepute (about 38 or 30 years ago) by the then strange innovation of "Brutus heads;" not only then discarding the long-cherished powder and perfume, and tortured frizzle-work, but also literally becoming "round heads" by cropping off all the pendent graces of ties, bobs, clubs, queus, etc. The hardy beaux who first encountered public opinion by appearing abroad unpowdered and cropt, had many starers. The old men, for a time, obstinately persisted in adherence to the old regime ; but death thinned their ranks, and use and prevalence of numbers at length gave countenance to modern usage. From various reminiscents, we glean that laced ruffles, depending over the hand, was a mark of indispensable gentility. The coat and breeches were gene- rally desirable of the same material of "broadcloth" for winter, and of silk camlet for summer. No kind of cotton fabrics were then in use, or known. Hose were, therefore, of thread or silk in summer, and fine worsted in winter ; .shoes were square-toed, and were often "double channelled." To these suc- ceeded sharp-toes, as piked as possible. When wigs were universally worn, grey wigs were powdered ; and for that purpose sent in a wooden box frequently to the barber to be dressed on his block-head. But "brown wigs," so-called, were exempted from the white disguise. Coats of red cloth, even by boys, were con- siderably worn ; and plush breeches, and plush vests of various colors, shining and smooth, were in common use. Everlasting, made of worsted, was a fabric 396 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of great use for breeches, and sometimes for vests. The vest had great depend- ing pocket flaps, and the breeches were short above the stride, because the art, since devised, of suspending them by suspenders, was then unknown. It was then the test and even the pride of a well formed man, that he could by his natu- ral form readily keep his breeches above his hips, and his stockings, without gar- tering, above the calf of his leg. With the queues belonged frizzled side-locks and lout pies, formed of the natural hair, or, in defect of a long tie, a splice was added to it. Such was the general passion for the longest possible whip of hair, that sailors and boatmen, to make it grow most, used to tie theirs in eel skins. Nothing like surtouts were known ; but they had coating or cloth great-coats, or blue cloth and brown camlet cloaks, with green baize lining to the latter. In the time of the American war, many of the American officers introduced the use of Dutch blankets for great-coats. The sailors used to wear hats of glazed leather, or woollen thrums, called chapeaus ; and their "small clothes," as we now call them, were immensely wide "petticoat-breeches." The workingmen in the country wore the same form, having no falling-flaps, but slits in front ; and they were so full in girth, that they ordinarily changed the rear to the front, when the seat became prematurely worn out. At the same time numerous workiugmen and boys, and all tradesmen, wore leather breeches and leather aprons. Some of the peculiarities of the female dress were these, to wit : Ancient ladies are still alive, who often had their hair tortured for hours at a sitting, in getting up for a dress occasion, the proper crisped curls of a hair curler. This formidable outfit of head-work was next succeeded by "rollers," over which the hair was combed above the forehead. These were again superseded by "cushions" and artificial curled work, which could be sent to the barber's block, like a wig, " to be dressed," leaving the lady at home to pursue other objects. When the ladies first began to lay off their cumbrous hoops, they supplied their place with successive substitutes, such as these, to wit : first came " bishops," a thing stuffed or padded with horsehair ; then succeeded a smaller affair, under the name of Cue de Paris, also padded with horsehair. Among other articles of female wear, we may name the following, to wit : Once they wore a "skimmer-hat," made of a fabric which shone like silver tin- sel ; it was of a very small flat crown and big brim, not unlike the present Leg- horn flats. Another hat, not unlike it in shape, was made of woven horsehair, wove in flowers, and called "horsehair bonnets," an article which might be again usefully introduced for children's wear, as an enduring hat for long service. I have seen what was called a bath-bonnet, made of black satin, and so con- structed to lay in folds that .it could be set upon, like a chapeau bras ; a good article now for travelling ladies. The "muskmelon-bonnet," used before the Revolution, had numerous whalebone stiffeners in the crown, set an inch apart, in parallel lines, and presenting ridges to the eye between the bones. The next bonnet was the "whalebone-bonnet/' having only the bones in the front as stiffeners. A "calash-bonnet" was always formed of green silk; it was worn abroad, covering the head, but when in rooms it could fall back in folds like the. springs of a calash or gig-top ; to keep it over the head, it was drawn up by a cord always held in the hand of the wearer. The "wagon-bonnet," always of black silk, was an article exclusively in use among the Friends, and was deemed to look, on the head, not unlike the top of the "Jersey wagons," and having a pendent piece of like silk hanging from the bonnet and covering the shoulders. The only straw wear was that called the "straw Cheshire bonnet," worn gene- rally by old people. NEW YORK. 397 The ladies once wore " hollow -breasted stays," which were exploded as inju- rious to the health. Then came the use of straight stays. Even little girls wore such stays. At one time the gowns worn had no fronts ; the design was to dis- play a finely quilted Marseilles, silk, or satin petticoat, and a worked stomacher on the waist. In other dresses, a white apron was the mode ; all wore large pockets under their gowns. Among the caps was the "queen's nightcap," the same always worn by Lady Washington. The "cushion head-dress" was of gauze, stiffened out in cylindrical form, with white spiral wire. The border of the cap was called the balcony. Formerly there were no sideboards, and when they were first introduced after the Revolution, they were much smaller and less expensive than now. Formerly they had couches of worsted damask, and only in very affluent families, in lieu of what we call sofas, or lounges. Plain people used settees and settles, the latter had a bed concealed in the seat, and by folding the top of it outwards to the front, it exposed the bed, and widened the place for the bed to be spread upon it. In those days, there were no Windsor chairs : and fancy chairs are still more modern. Their chairs of the genteelest kind were of mahogany or red walnut (once a great substitute for mahogany in all kinds of furniture, tables, etcj, or else they were of rush bottom, and made of maple posts and slats, with high backs and perpendicular. Instead of japanned waiters as now ; they had mahog- any tea boards, and round tea tables, which, being turned on an axle underneath the centre, stood upright, like an expanded fan or palm-leaf, in the corner. An- other corner was occupied by a beaufet, which was a corner closet with a glass door, in which all the china of the family was intended to be displayed, for orna- ment as well as use. A conspicuous article in the collection was always a great cliina punchbowl, which furnished a frequent and grateful beverage, for wine drinking was then much less in vogue. China teacups and saucers were then about half their present size, ; and cliina teapots and coffeepots, with silver nozzles, was a mark of superior finery. The sham of plated ware was not then known, and all who showed a silver surface had the massive metal too. This occurred in the wealthy families, in little coffee and teapots ; and a silver tank- ard, for good sugared toddy, was above vulgar entertainment. Where we now use earthenware, they then used delfware, imported from England ; and instead of queensware (then unknown), pewter platters and porringers, made to shine along a "dresser," were universal. Some, and especially the country people, ate their meals from wooden trenchers. Gilded looking-glasses and picture frames of golden glare were unknown ; and both, much smaller than now, were used. Small pictures painted on glass, with black mouldings for frames, with a scanty touch of gold leaf in the corners, was the adornment of a parlor. The looking-glasses in two plates, if large, had either glass frames figured with flowers engraved thereon, or were of scalloped mahogany painted white or black, with here and there some touches of gold. Every householder in that day deemed it essential to his convenience and comfort to have an ample chest of drawers, in his parlor or sitting-room, in which the linen and clothes of the family were always of ready access. It was no sin to rummage them before company. These drawers were sometimes nearly as high as the ceiling. At other times they had a writing desk about the centre, with a falling lid to write upon when let down. A great high clock case, reaching to the ceiling, occupied another corner ; and a fourth corner was appropriated to the chimney placo. 398 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. They then had no carpets on their floors, and no paper on their walls. The silver sand on the floor was drawn into a variety of fanciful figures and twirls of the sweeping-brush, and much skill and even pride was displayed therein in the de- vices and arrangement. They had then no argand or other lamps in parlors, but dipt candles, in brass or copper candlesticks, was usually good enough for com- mon use ; and those who occasionally used mould candles, made them at home in little tin frames, casting four to six candles in each. A glass lantern with square sides furnished the entry lights in the houses of the affluent. Bedsteads then were made, if tine, of carved mahogany, of slender dimensions ; but, for common purposes, or for the families of good tradesmen, they were of poplar, and always painted green. It was a matter of universal concern to have them low enough to answer the purpose of repose for sick or dying persons a pro- vision so necessary for such possible events, now so little regarded by the modern practice of ascending to a bed by steps, like clambering up to a haymow. A lady, giving me the reminiscences of her early life, thus speaks of things as they were before the war of Independence : Marble mantels and folding doors were not then known ; and well enough we enjoyed ourselves without sofas, car- pets, or girandoles. A white floor sprinkled with clean white sand, large tables and heavy high-back chairs of walnut or mahogany, decorated a parlor genteelly enough for anybody. Sometimes a carpet, not, however, covering the whole floor, was seen upon the dining room. This was a show parlor up stairs, not used but upon gala occasions, and then not to dine in. Pewter plates and dishes were in general use. China on dinner tables was a great rarity. Plate, more or less, was seen in most families of easy circumstances, not indeed in all the vari- ous shapes that have since been invented, but in massive silver waiters, bowls, tankards, cans, etc. Glass tumblers were scarcely seen. Punch, the most com- mon beverage, was drunk by the company from one large bowl of silver or china; and beer from a tankard of silver. The use of stoves was not known in primitive times, neither in families nor churches. Their fireplaces were as large again as the present, with much plainer mantel pieces. In lieu of marble plates around the sides and top of the fireplaces, it was adorned with china Dutch tile, pictured with sundry Scripture pieces. Dr. Franklin first invented the "open stove," called also the "Franklin stove," after which, as fuel became scarce, the better economy of the "ten plate stove" was adopted. The most splendid looking carriage ever exhibited among us was that used, as befitting the character of that chief of men, General Washington, while acting as President of the United States. It was very large, so as to make four horses, at least, an almost necessary appendage. It was occasionally drawn by six horses, Virginia bays. It was cream colored, globular in its shape, ornamented with cupids, supporting festoons, and wreaths of flowers, emblematically arranged along the panel work ; the whole neatly covered with best watch glass. It was of English construction. Some twenty or thirty years before the period of the Revolution, the steeds most prized for the saddle were pacers, since so odious deemed. To this end the breed was propagated with much care. The Narraganset pacers of Rhode Island were in such repute that they were sent for, at much trouble and expense, by some few who were choice in their selections. It may amuse the present generation to peruse the history of one such horse, spoken of in the letter of Rip Van Dam of New York, in the .year 1711, which I have seen. It states the fact of the NEW YORE. 390 trouble lie had taken to procure him such a horse. lie was shipped from Rhode Island in a sloop, from which he jumped overboard, when under sail, and swam ashore to his former home. He arrived at New York in 14 days 1 passage, much reduced in flesh and spirit. He cost 32, and his freight 50 shillings. This writer, Rip Van Dam, was a great personage, he having been President of the Council in 1731 ; and on the death of Governor Montgomery, that year, he was Governor, ex-officio, of New York. His mural monument is now, to b3 seen in St. Paul's Church. ; " THE NEGRO PLOT IN NEW YORK. A robbery, which had been committed at trie house of Robert Hogg, a merchant in New York, on the 28th of February, 1740-1, seemed to have led to the dis- covery of a plot, which was afterwards called the negro plot. One Mary Burton, an indentured servant to John Hughson (a man of infamous character, and to whose house slaves were in the practice of resoiting to drink antl gamble, and of secreting the goods they had stolen), was the instrument, in the hands of the magistrates, for the detection and punishment of the offenders. On the 18th of March, after the robbery, a fire broke out in the roof of His Majesty's house at Fort George, near the chapel, consuming the house, the chapel, and some other buildings adjacent. Most of the public records in the secretary's office, over the fort gate, were fortunately rescued from the flames. A week after, another fire broke out at the house belonging to a Captain Warren, near the long bridge, at Lie southwest end of the city. Both these fires were, at first, supposed to be ac- cidental. But about a week after the last fire, another broke out at the store house of a Mr. Van Zandt, towards the east end of the town. Three days after, a fourth alarm was given, and it was found that some hay was on fire in a cow- stable near the house of a Mr. Quick, or a Mr. Vergereau. The fire was soon sup- pressed. The people, in returning from that fire, were alarmed by a fifth cry, at the house of one Ben Thompson, next door west of a Captain Sarly's house. It appeared that fire had been placed between two beds, in the loft of a kitchen, where a negro usually slept. The next morning coals were discovered under a haystack, near the coach house and stables of Joseph Murray, Esq., in Broadway. All these circumstances having occurred in quick succession, the people were in- duced to believe that some designing persons intended to destroy the city by fire. What strengthened this belief was, a seventh alarm of fire the next day, at the house of a Sergeant Burns, opposite the fort garden, an eighth alarm, occasioned by a fire breaking out the same day, in the roof of a Mr. Hilton's house, near the fly market ; and again, the same afternoon, and within a few hours after, a ninth fire occurring at Colonel Philipse's store house. This strange coincidence of events leaves indeed little room for doubt that some one or more of the fires oc- curred through design. It was soon rumored that the negroes were the perpe- trators. One Quacko, a negro belonging to a Mr. Walter, was said to have made use of some mysterious language and threats, indicating his knowledge of a plot. A proclamation was issued, offering rewards for the discovery of the offenders. Quacko and several other negroes were apprehended and closely interrogated, but without effect. The Supreme Court, at its April term, strictly enjoined the grand jury to make diligent enquiries as to the late robberies and fires within the * Watson's Historic Tales of Olden Time. 400 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. city. Mary Burton, who had been apprehended as a witness, relative to the rob- bery at Mr. Hogg's, gave the grand jury reason to believe that she was also privy to the design to set fire to the city. After some difficulty, she made a disclosure, which, in all probability, was greatly exaggerated, though some of its parts might have been true. She stated that meetings of negroes were held at her master's (Ilughson). That their plan was to burn the fort and city. That one Caesar (a black) was to be Governor, and Hughson, her master, king! That they were to destroy the whites. That she had known seven or eight guns, and some swords, in her master's house. That the meetings at her master's house consisted of twenty or thirty negroes at a time. Upon this evidence, warrants were issued, and many negroes committed to prison. , One Arthur Price, a ser- vant, charged with stealing goods belonging to the Lieutenant-Governor, like- wise became informer. Being in prison himself, and having access to the negroes there committed, he received, or pretended to have received, much information from them. He was afterwards employed by the magistrates, to hold private conferences with the negroes in prison, and to use persuasion and other means to gain confessions from them. In this business he was peculiarly expert, and received the most unqualified approbation of the magistrates. Yet many of his stories are of such a chivalrous and romantic description as to excite suspicion of their truth. But everything he related was implicitly believed. The more extravagant the tale, the more readily was it received and credited. A white wo- man, who was a common prostitute, and familiar even with negroes, of the name of Margaret or Peggy Salinburgh, alias Kerry, alias Sorubiero, likewise declared she could make great discoveries. The magistrates eagerly hastened to take her ex- amination, and the consequence was, that fresh warrants were issued for the ap- prehension of many other negroes, not before implicated. Informers were now rapidly increasing. Arthur Price, while in prison, was making great discoveries. Operating on the fears and hopes of the negroes, many declared themselves ac- complices. The magistrates were unceasingly engaged. The grand jury were daily presenting bills of indictment against the parties accused. To be inculpated by Mary Burton, Arthur Price, or Peggy Salinburgh, was sufficient to authorize the indictment and conviction of any person. It is to be regretted that on proof of such suspicious characters so many lives were placed in the hands of the exe- cutioner. Not that we dispute the fact that some of the fires were designedly set, but that we mean to be understood as doubting the extent and nature of the plot ascribed to the negroes. It is evident that Mary Burton was wholly un- worthy of credit. Independent of the absurdity and improbability of many of her stories, she had, on the 22d April, in her first examination and disclosure under oath, declared, "that she never saw any white person in company when they talked of burning the town, but her master, her mistress, and Peggy ; " yet, on the 25th of June following, she deposed that one John Dry, a Catholic priest (a white person}, was often at her master's, and "that when he came to Hugh- son's, he (Ury) always went up stairs in the company of Hughson, his wife and daughter, and Peggy, with whom the negroes used to be, at the same time, con- sulting about the plot ; " and that " the negroes talked in the presence of the said Ury about setting fire to the houses and killing the white people." She after- wards, on the 14th July following, declared, on oath, that one Corry, a dancing master (also a white person), used to come to Hughson's and talk with the negroes about the plot. Yet, on evidence of this kind, Ury, who had previously been committed, under the act against Jesuits and Popish priests, was indicted, NEW YORK. 401 tried, convicted, and executed. At the place of execution, he solemnly denied the charge, and called on God to witness its falsity. But Ury was a Catholic, and the public prejudice was so strong that it required very little more to ensure his condemnation. Had not Ury been obnoxious, on account of his religion, the accusation against him would perhaps never have been made, or, if made, would have been little regarded. Mary Burton received the hundred pounds which had been promised as a reward for discovering the persons concerned in setting fire to the city. We shall now dismiss this article, after giving the number who were accused, tried, and suffered on this occasion, with some remarks, which grow out of this subject. One hundred and fifty-four negroes were committed to prison, of whom 14 were burnt at the stake, 18 hanged, 71 transported, and the rest pardoned, or discharged for want of proof. Twenty white persons were committed, of whom 2 only, John Ilughson and John Ury, were executed. At this time the city of New York contained a population of about 12.000 souls, of whom one-sixth were slaves. If a plot, in fact, existed for the destruction of the city and the massacre of its inhabitants ; and if that plot was conducted by Ury, it certainly betrayed greater imbecility of intellect, and want of caution and arrangement, together with less union of action, than could have been expected from one who was evi- dently, if we believe his own account, a man of classical education, and profound erudition. It is worthy of remark, that Corry, the dancing master, accused by Mary Burton, was discharged for want of proof. It seems that Mary's testi- mony began, at length, to be doubted. Indeed, it well might ; for had the prose- cutions continued much longer, she would, more than probable, have accused a great portion of the white citizens of New York, as being concerned in this plot. Daniel Horsmanden, Esq., published, at the time, a history of this conspiracy, and labored hard to prove its existence and extent. But it is evident that that hostility to Catholicism, which the British Government so industriously incul- cated, tinctured his mind, and gave it a bias unfriendly to the fair development of truth, or to the full and impartial examination of facts and circumstances. The negroes were without defence. All the counsel in the city were arrayed against them, and volunteered their services on behalf of the crown, on the trial of those unfortunate slaves. The want of education, and utter ignorance of those infatuated wretches, easily made them the victims of craft and imposition. The hopes of life, and the promise of pardon, influenced some of them to make con- fessions. Yet falsehood was so ingeniously and artfully blended with truth, that it was not an easy task to separate the one from the other. It must, however, be admitted, that many circumstances aided the opinion that the plot, in fact, ex- isted, and if the people were mistaken in this, it was an error into which they might naturally fall at the moment of confusion and distress, and under the at- tending circumstances. A day of public thanksgiving for the deliverance of PI is Majesty's subjects from the alleged conspiracy, was appointed by the Lieutenant- Governor, and was devoutly and reverently observed by the inhabitants. Smith's History. HOW ROCHESTER WAS SAVED FROM THE BRITISH. In the spring of 1814 the war between the United States and Great Britain being in progress Sir James Yeo, with a fleet of 13 vessels, appeared off tlu mouth of the Genesee, threatening the destruction of the rude improvements i 26 402 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. tfnd around Rochester. Messengers were despatched to arouse the people in the surrounding country, for defence against the threatened attack. At this time there were but thirty-three people in Rochester capable of bearing arms. This little band threw up a breastwork called Fort Bender, near the Deep Hollow, beside the Lower Falls, and hurried down to the junction of the Genesee and Lake Ontario 5 miles north of the present city limits, where the enemy threatened to land ; leaving behind them two old men, with some young lads, to remove the women and children into the woods, in case the British should at- tempt to land for the capture of the provisions, and destruction of the bridge at Rochester, etc. Francis Brown and Elisha Ely acted as captains, and Isaac W. Stone as major, of the Rochester forces, which were strengthened by the addi- tions that could be made from this thinly settled region. Though the equipments and discipline of these troops would not form a brilliant picture for a warlike eye, their very awkwardness in those points, coupled as it was with their sagacity and courage, accomplished more, perhaps, than could have been effected by a larger force of regular troops, bedizzened with the trappings of military pomp. The militia thus hastily collected were inarched and countermarched, disappear- ing in the woods at one point, and suddenly emerging elsewhere, so as to impress the enemy with the belief that the force collected for defence was far greater than it actually was. (The circumstances here related arc substantially as mentioned to the writer by one who was then and is now a resident of Rochester.) An offi- cer with a flag of truce was sent from the British fleet. A militia officer marched down with ten of the most soldierlike men to receive him on Lighthouse Point. These militia men carried their guns upright, as might be consistent with their plan of being ready for action by keeping hold of the triggers. The British offi- cer was astonished : he "looked unutterable things." " Sir," said he, "do you receive a flag of truce under arms, with cocked triggers ?" " Excuse me, excuse me, sir : we backwoodsmen are not well versed in military tactics," replied the American officer, who promptly sought to rectify his error by ordering his men to ''ground arms." The Briton was still more astonished; and, after de- livering a brief message, immediately departed for the fleet, indicating by his countenance a suspicion that the ignorance of tactics, which he had witnessed, was all feigned for the occasion, so as to deceive the British Commodore into a snare. Shortly afterwards, on the same day, another officer came ashore with a flag of truce for farther parley, as the British were evidently too suspicious of stratagem to attempt a hostile landing, if there was any possibility of compromis- ing for the spoils. Captain Francis Brown was deputed with a guard to receive the last flag of truce. The British officer looked suspiciously upon him and upon his guard ; and, after some conversation, familiarly grasped the pantaloons of Captain Brown about the knee, remarking, as he firmly handled it, " Your cloth is too good to be spoiled by such a bungling tailor," alluding to the width an.1 clumsy aspect of that garment. Brown was quick-witted, as well as resolute, and replied, jocosely, that he was prevented from dressing fashionably by his haste that morning, to salute such distinguished visitors. The Briton obviously imagined that Brown was a regular officer of the American army, whose regi- mentals were masked by clumsy over clothes. The proposition was then made, that, if the Americans would deliver up the provisions and military stores, which might be in and around Rochester, or Charlotte, Sir James Yeo would spare the settlements from destruction. " Will you comply with the offer ? " " Blood knee deep first," was the emphatic reply of Francis Brown. NEW YORK. 403 While this parley was in progress, an American officer, with his staff, return- Ing from the Niagara frontier, was accidentally seen passing from one wooded point to another; and this, with other circumstances, afforded to the British "confirmation strong" that their suspicions were well founded ; that there was a considerable American army collected ; and that the Yankee officers pretended ignorance for the purpose of entrapping ashore the Commodore and his forces. The return of the last flag to the fleet was followed by a vigorous attack in bombs and balls, while the compliment was spiritedly returned, not without some effect on at least one of the vessels, by a rusty old six-pounder, which had been fur- nished and mounted on a log for the important occasion. After a few hours spent in this unavailing manner, Admiral Yeo ran down to Pultneyville, about 20 miles eastward of Genesee River, where, on learning how they had been out- witted and deterred from landing by such a handful of militia, their mortification could scarcely restrain all hands from^a hearty laugh at the " Yankee trick." --3: NEW JERSEY. Area, 7,576 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 672,035 Population in 1870, 906,096 THE State of New Jersey was one of the original colonies which formed Ithe American Union. It is situated between 38 56' and 41 21' N. latitude, and between 74 and 75 33' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by New York, on the east by New York (from which the Hudson River separates it) and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Delaware Bay, and on the west by the States of Pennsylvania and Delaware, from which it is separated by the Dela- ware River. TOPOGRAPHY. The southern and middle parts of the State are generally low, flat, and sandy, especially along the coast and for some distance inland. The northern part is rugged and mountainous. Schooley's, Trow- briclge, Ramapo, and Second mountains in the northeast part are ridges of the Alleghany range, making their way across the State from Pennsylvania into New York. The Blue Mountains cross the extreme northwestern part of the State, running parallel with the Delaware River at this point. Southeast of Raritan Bay, there is a range of high hills, extending for a short distance along the coast, called the Nevesink Highlands. They are crowned with a lighthouse and signal station, and are the first land seen by vessels entering the port of New York, and the last on leaving it. Along the Atlantic coast, the shores are cut up with numerous in- lets, into some of which flow the principal rivers of the State. Some of these furnish excellent harbors. Raritan Bay, in the northeast part, lies opposite the harbor of New York, and possesses many ad- 404 NEW JERSEY. 405 vantages for commerce over the waters of the Great Metropolis. New- ark Bay is connected with it by Staten Island Sound, and is really little more than a broad estuary by which the Passaic River finds its way to the sea. It also receives the waters of the Hackensack River. The Delaware River and Bay wash the entire western side of the State. The river rises on the western slope of the Catskill Moun- tains, in New York. It at first consists of two branches, which unite near Hancock, in Delaware county, on the southwest border of the State. Flowing southeast, it forms the boundary between New York and Pennsylvania as far as the northwest corner of New Jersey, where its course is inflected to the southwest by the Kittatinuy (or Shawan- gunk) Mountain. It pursues this course to near the 41st parallel of N. latitude, when it breaks through the Blue Mountains by the famous Delaware Water Gap, and flows southward. The " Gap " is one of the most celebrated places in the country. It lies in the State of Pennsylvania, but for convenience is mentioned here. The cliffs rise up perpendicularly from 1000 to 1200 feet high, and the river rushes through it in grand style. It is much visited by tourists. The river flows southward until it passes Easton, Pa., when it turns again to the southeast, which course it pursues to its mouth. Its cur- rent is broken by a succession of Rapids at Trenton, but below this city it is smooth and deep. The river is 300 miles long, and is naviga- ble for ships of the line to Philadelphia, about 40 miles from its entrance into Delaware Bay. Steamboats ascend to Trenton. A canal has been constructed from Bristol, below Trenton, to Easton, Pa., along the west side of the river. A heavy trade is carried on by means of it. The Delaware is bridged in several places along its upper course, commencing at Trenton. A canal, extending from Trenton to New Brunswick, connects it with the waters of the Raritan River and New York Bay. Philadelphia and Easton, on the right bank, and Trenton, Bur- lington, and Camden, on the left bank, are the principal towns on the river. The Hudson River washes part of the eastern shore of the State. The other streams are the Raritan, rising in Morris county, and flow- ing into Raritan Bay, navigable to New Brunswick ; the Passaic, rising in Morris county, and flowing into Newark Bay, navigable to Newark; and the Hackensack, which rises in Bergen county, and flows into Newark Bay. The Passaic has a perpendicular fall of 50 feet, at Paterson. A number of small streams flow into the inlets on the east coast. 406 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Cape May, on the extreme southeastern side of Delaware Bay, is one of the most fashionable watering places in America. Long Branch, on the Atlantic coast, near New York, is another fashionable resort, and ranks next to Newport in the list of sea-shore resorts. There are several others on the Atlantic coast. The scenery of the State is very beautiful in many places, and very dreary in others. The Falls of the Passaic are noted for their beauty when the stream is full ; and the mountainous region of the north, especially the country along the upper Delaware, is wild and pictur- esque. The Nevesink Highlands command a fine view of the ocean, and of Raritan and New York bays. The country northwest of New York is finely cultivated, and is well built up with numerous pretty towns and villages. MINERALS. Central and southern New Jersey contain immense beds of marl, which is now growing in favor as a fertilizer. The changes in the agriculture of the State, caused by the introduction and general use of this cheap manure, are almost marvellous. These deposits seem to be inexhaustible, and for the most part lie very near the surface of the ground. Bog ore is found in the southern counties, and hema- tite and magnetic ores in the hilly regions of the north. Marble, limestone, slate, beds of peat, copperas, and a fine sand used in mak- ing glass are found. In Sussex county are situated the most valu- able zinc mines in the Union. CLIMATE. The climate of the northern and northwestern parts of the State is severe. In the eastern and southern the winters are milder. The summers are hot and dry, but the spring comes early, and is pleasant. The southern and eastern parts are, to a great extent, marshy, and covered with rank, coarse vegetation. Agues and fever prevail along almost the entire water line of the State, and in many of the interior districts. The northern and northwestern portions are healthy. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. Along the sea coast, and in some of the interior regions, the soil con- sists of a fine white sand, and is worthless for agriculture. The hilly region of the north is devoted to dairy farming and, grazing. The soil of the greater .portion of the State is light and sandy, and was for NEW JERSEY. 407 GATHERING WATERMELONS. a long time esteemed too poor to justify cultivation, but the liberal and judicious use of fertilizers lias brought it to a high, and even re- markable state of fertility. Lying so near the great cities of New York and Philadelphia, unusual advantages are offered the farmers of this State for the rapid sale of their crops, and as a consequence they are largely engaged in market-gardening. In 1869, there were 1,944,441 acres of improved, and 1,039,086 acres of unimproved land in the State. The remainder of the agri- cultural wealth of New Jersey, for the same year, is given as follows : Cash value of farms (estimated), $250,000,000 Value of farming implements and machinery Number of horses . . . . . . 85,460 asses and mules, .... . . . 6,960 . . . 149,450 . . . 99,450 ... . 140,160 " swine, % . . . . 300,540 . . . $19,134,693 Bushels of wheat, . . . 1,646,000 403 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Bushels of rye, 1.500,000 Indian corn, 9,200,000 " oats, 6,440,000 potatoes, 5,300,000 barley, 26,000 " buckwheat, 800,000 Pounds of butter, 10,714,447 cheese, 182,172 " flax, 48,651 u beeswax and honey, 194,055 Gallons of wine, 22,000 Tons of hay, 525,000 . Value of orchard products (about), .... $1,000,000 market garden products (about), . . $2,000,000 " slaughtered animals (about), . . . $5,000,000 COMMERCE. Though admirably situated for commerce, it is the misfortune of New Jersey to lie just between the great ports of New York and Philadelphia, which of course manage her commerce for her. This situation, however, throws an enormous internal transit trade into her hands, and has given to her railroads and steamboat communica- tions an importance they would not otherwise have attained. Some idea of this may be gained from the following statistics. In 1867, the Camden and Amboy Railroad and Transportation Company car- ried over their road, 539,688 tons of freight, and 40,667 tons of coal. The Delaware and Raritan Canal in the same year transported 1,838,- 988 tons of coal, 2,636,738 cubic feet of timber, 20,348,288 feet of lumber, 2,605,012 bushels of grain and feed, 55,630 tons of iron, and 365,751 tons of merchandise. In 1861, the total value of the exports of this State was $46,067, and of the imports $5510. In 1863, the imports were valued at $3616, and the exports at $56,192. In 1863, the tonnage owned in the State was 138,046 tons. MANUFACTURES. The water-power of the State is excellent, and the manufactures are extensive. In I860 there were 4060 establishments in New Jersey, devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 127,720 hands, and a capital of $40,000,000, consuming raw material worth $42,600,000, and yielding an annual product of $81,000,000. The following is a list of the principal manufactures of the State in 1860; NEW JERSEY. 411 Value of cotton goods, $3,250,770 woollen goods, 1,527,209 leather, 1,297,627 pig-iron, 574,820 rolled iron, 1,370,725 steam engines and machinery, .... 3,215,673 agricultural implements, 198,211 sawed and planed lumber, ..... 1,600,000 flour, 6,400,000 malt and spirituous liquors, .... 1,357,000 boots and shoes, 1,850,137 jewelry, silverware, etc., ...... 2,281,344 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. This State is amply provided with railroad communication. Four great lines, the New Jersey, Erie, Central New Jersey, and Morris and Essex, afford direct and unbroken trans- portation to all parts of the West, and the Camden and Amboy extends across the State, from New York to Philadelphia. Five main routes centre in Jersey City, opposite New York, and four in Camden, opposite Phila- delphia. In 1872, there were 1265 miles of completed railroads in the State. Two canals, having an aggregate length of 147 miles, extend across the State, one from Bordentown (through Trenton) to New Bruns- wick, affording steam transportation between the Delaware and Rari- tan rivers, and the other extending from Jersey City and Newark to Easton, Pennsylvania. EDUCATION. The educational system of New Jersey is controlled by a State Superintendent and Board of Education, the latter consisting of 17 persons, who are appointed for two years. Each county is in charge of a County Superintendent, who has immediate charge of its schools. There is a Normal School at Trenton, and a Normal Preparatory School at Beverly, both in flourishing condition. There is a perma- nent School Fund amounting to $557,115. In 1870, the State expended the sum of $1,562,573 on its schools. The number of children in the State, between the ages of five and eighteen years, in 1870, was 258,- TIIE BERGEN TUNNEL. 412 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. 227. Of these, 161,683 attended the public schools, and 32,447 at- tended private schools, making a total of 194,130 children receiving instruction. A number of private schools, and several academies are in successful operation in the State. The College of New Jersey, at Princeton, is the oldest in the State, having been established in 1 746. It is in a flourishing condition, and is justly regarded as one of the principal educational establishments of the Union. Rutger's College, at New Brunswick, is also a flourish- ing institution. Connected with it is the State Agricultural College, which is in prosperous operation. The instruction is by the example of the college farm, and the lectures of the Professor of Agriculture, delivered in all the counties of the State. There are several other colleges and theological seminaries in the State. In 1870, there 2413 libraries in New Jersey, containing 895,291 volumes. Of these about 1300, containing over 300,000 volumes, are puhlic. In the same year, there were published in the State 20 daily, 1 semi- weekly, 95 weekly and 7 monthly newspapers and magazines. Of these, 105 were political, 2 religious, 10 literary and miscellaneous, making a total of 117, with an aggregate annual circulation of 18,625,740 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The State Prison, at Trenton, is overcrowded, and is in great need of more extensive buildings. The labor of the convicts is let out to contractors. The separate and silent systems are not in force in this institution, to the injury of its discipline. A library is provided for the prisoners. On the 1st of January, 1868, there were about 550 convicts confined here, or nearly 200 more than the prison was de- signed to accommodate. The State Lunatic Asylum, at Trenton, is a flourishing institution, with 450 patients on the 1st of November, 1867. The State also maintains a flourishing Reform School, at Jarnesburg, a Home for Dis- abled Soldiers, at Newark, and a Home for Soldiers' Children, at Tren- ton, and makes a liberal provision for its deaf, dumb, and blind, in the establishments of Philadelphia and Hartford. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the total value of church property in the State was $18,- 347,150. The number of churches was 1384. NEW JERSEY. 413 FINANCES. The State debt is due entirely on account of the late war, and amounts to $2,996,200. Deducting assets it is $1,880,594. The receipts of the Treasury for eleven months of 1870 were $631,303.66, and the expen- ditures, $562,123.71, leaving a balance on hand of $69,179.95. In 1868, there wer.e 54 national banks, with an aggregate paid in capital of $11,583,450. GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of this State was adopted in 1844. By its terms, every white male citizen of the United States, 21 years old, having resided in the State one year and in the county five months, is entitled to vote at the elections. The Government is confided to a Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Comptroller, Attorney-General, and a Legislature, consist- ing of a Senate (of 21 members), and a House of Representatives (of 60 members). The Governor is elected by the people for the term of three years. The Senators are elected for three years, one-third every year; and the Representatives annually for one year. The Secretary of State holds office for five years, is appointed by the Gov- ernor by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. The State Treasurer is elected by the Legislature, on joint ballot, and holds office for one year. The Court of Chancery is held by the Chancellor. The Supreme Court is composed of a Chief Justice and six Asso- ciate Justices. The members of this court and the Chancellor are appointed by the Governor, confirmed by the Senate, and hold office for seven years. The Court of Errors and Appeals consists of the Chancellor, the Judges of the Supreme Court, and six other judges (appointed and confirmed in the manner stated above, for a period of six years, one judge going out of office each year). The State is divided into seven districts. A Judge of the Supreme Court is assigned to each one of these, and holds in his district courts of Oyer and Terminer three times a year in each county. He is also ex-officio judge of the court of Common Pleas, Orphans Court, and Court of Quarter Sessions in his district. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 21 counties. The seat of Government is located at Trenton. 414 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. HISTORY. New Jersey was settled by the Dutch, soon after their arrival in New Amsterdam. They established a colony at Bergen, between the years 1617 and 1620. In 1630, they built a small fort on the Dela- ware, below the present city of Philadelphia. In 1634, a company of English settlers, under the authority of a patent from their king, settled on the shores of the lower Delaware; and in 1638, the same region was colonized by a party of Swedes and Finns. The Dutch and Swedes drove out the English settlers, and in 1655, the Swedes, themselves, were driven out by the Dutch, and nearly all sent back to Europe. When the province of New York was seized by the English, New Jersey went with it. Soon after this, Elizabethtown, Newark, Middletown, and Shrewsbury were founded. A little later, and the district was purchased from the Duke of York, by Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley, and erected into a separate province with its present name. The seat of government was established at Eliza- beth, and some little difficulty was experienced in inducing the in- habitants to submit to the new authorities. The province suffered considerably from the despotic rule of Sir Edmund Andros. For some time, the government of the province was a condition of semi-anarchy, owing to the refusal of the home Government to recog- nize the claims of the proprietors. This dispute was complicated by the claim of Pennsylvania to the southern part of the State. It was settled in 1702, by the proprietors surrendering the right of govern- ment to the Crown. The provinces of New York and New Jersey were allowed separate Assemblies, but were both placed by Queen Anne under one Governor. In 1708, New Jersey protested against this arrangement, and was given a separate Governor, in the person of Lewis Morris. The colony suffered very little from the Indians, but bore its share in the wars with the French. It gave a hearty support, and played a conspicuous part in the great Revolution. During this war, the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Millstone, Red Bank, and Monmouth, were fought in this State, whose territory was more or less occupied by the two armies during the greater part of the war. The first State Constitution was adopted in 1776. On the 18th of December, 1787, the Constitution of the United States was ratified by New Jersey; and in 1790, the seat of government for the State was established at Trenton. NEW JERSEY. 415 During the late war, New Jersey contributed a force of 79,348 men to the service of the Union. CITIES AND TOWNS. The principal cities and towns are, Trenton, the capital of the State, Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, Elizabeth, Camden, New Brunswick, Orange, Morristown, Rahway, Burlington, Hackensack, Bridgeton, Bloomfield, Middletown, and Bordentown. TRENTON, The capital, and fourth city of the State, is situated on the left bank of the Delaware River, in Mercer county, at the head of steamboat navigation. It is 30 miles northeast of Philadelphia, and 57 miles southwest of New York. The city is divided into two parts by the Assunpink Creek Trenton proper and South Trenton. It is regu- larly laid out, and has many fine stores and handsome dwellings. It is built on a tolerably uneven surface. State street, which runs par- allel with the river, contains many elegant residences. Main street, which intersects it at right angles, is the principal business thprough- fare. The situation of the city on the Delaware is very beautiful, and commands extensive views of the river and the vicinity. A fine, covered bridge crosses the Delaware at the lower part of the town, connecting Trenton with the Pennsylvania shore of the river. It is used by the railway and by vehicles and pedestrians. Another bridge, also covered, spans the river about a mile above. The Dela- ware and Raritan Canal passes through the city, connecting it with New York and Philadelphia. There is railway communication be- tween Trenton and all parts of the State and country. There is excellent water-power at Trenton, and the city is to a con- siderable extent engaged in the manufacture of iron and iron-ware, flour, paper, locomotives, cars, etc. The public buildings are, the City Hall; the State Capitol, a hand- some edifice of stone, 100 by 60 feet, situated on State street, and overlooking the river ; the County Court House, built in the Grecian style ; the State Lunatic Asylum ; and the State Penitentiary. The State Library is also located at Trenton. The city possesses a systenj of public schools equal to any in the State in usefulness ; it contains over 20 churches ; and is governed by a Mayor and Council. The population in 1870 was 22,874. 416 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Trenton was first settled by Phineas Pemberton and others, about 1680. In 1720 the settlement was called Trenton, in honor of Colonel William Trent, speaker of the Assembly. In 1790 it became the seat of Government for the State of New Jersey, and in 1792 was incor- porated as a city. The most important event in its history is the battle of Trenton, which was fought within the present limits of the city, on the 26th of December, 1776. The Americans had lost the battle of Long Island, and had been forced to evacuate the City of New York, which was promptly occupied by the British under Sir Henry Clinton. A series of disasters ensued, and at the end of the year 1776 Washington had been driven across the Delaware, and the only troops that remained faithful to their colors consisted of less than 4000 half-starved men, destitute of blankets and tents. The people of the country were rapidly coming to the conclusion that the Colonial cause was hopeless, and were beginning to make their peace with the Royal authorities. Washington alone was hopeful, and he alone was resolved to put an end to the gloom of the situation. Learning that a large force of Hessians had been thrown forward to Trenton, where they held an exposed position, he suddenly faced about, crossed the Delaware in open boats, despite the snow and ice, on the night of December 25th, 1776, and at daybreak the next morning made a sharp attack on the Hessian force, surprising them and routing them completely. He took about 1000 prisoners, 6 brass field pieces, 1000 stand of arms, and 4 standards, and lost but 4 of his own men. On the night of the 26th he recrossed the Delaware to his own camp in Pennsylvania. This victory was highly important, as it marks the close of the long series of reverses we have referred to, and the begin- ning of the successful resistance of the nation. From this time for- ward the despondent took fresh courage from the example set them by their great commander, and with stout hearts and strong arms fresh attacks were made upon the enemy, resulting finally in the nation's independence. Twelve years later, as Washington was returning from New York to Mount Vernon, he was accorded a most enthusi- astic and touching welcome by the citizens at Trenton Bridge. NEWARK, The largest and most important city in the State, is situated in Essex county, on the right bank of the Passaic River, 4 miles from its entrance into Newark Bay, 9 miles west of New York. The site of the city is chiefly a large plain, bounded on the west by a range of NEW JERSEY. 417 moderate heights which extend from the northern to the southern limits of the town. The city is regularly laid off, and the streets are hroad, straight, and shaded with fine trees. Broad street is the prin- cipal thoroughfare, and is one of the handsomest streets in the country. It is 120 feet wide, and is lined with noble elms. At intervals along its course, are tastefully laid off parks, famous for their beautiful trees. These parks are surrounded by elegant residences, and constitute the fashionable quarters of the city. Market street intersects Broad street, about the centre of the city, and communicates with the principal railway depot. The private streets are generally attractive. The more pretentious residences are of brown stone, freestone, or brick, but the city is, as a rule, built up with tasteful frame cottages located often in the midst of large grounds. Large numbers of persons doing business in New York have their residences in Newark. Upwards of 200 passenger trains go and come between the two cities every day. The public buildings are generally handsome. The principal are, the City Hall, the Custom House and Post Office, the Court House, and the Library Building. They are all elegant and costly edifices. In addition to these, there are several buildings used by banks, insurance companies, and merchants, which are worthy of special notice. The Literary and Educational Institutions are of a high character. Those most deserving notice are the New Jersey Historical Society, with a fine library of over 2000 volumes ; the Library Association, with an elegant building and a collection of over 14,000 volumes; the Newark Academy, beautifully located in the most elevated part of the city; and the public schools, of which there are 12, and a high school. There are more than 75 churches in the city, some of which are very handsome. The city is well supplied with street railways; it is lighted with gas, is supplied with pure water, has an excellent system of sewers, and has a police and fire alarm telegraph, a steam fire engine depart- ment, paid by the city, and an efficient police force. The Passaic River, which is navigable for steamers to the upper portion of the city, furnishes good water communication with New York and the ocean. The Morris Canal, extending from Easton, Pa., to Jersey City, passes through Newark. At its entrance into the western portion of the city is a steep inclined plain, over which loaded boats are passed on trucks, the motive power being furnished by the water of the canal. There is daily steamboat communication with New York, with which city Newark is connected by 3 lines of rail- 27 418 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. way. Railways diverge from Newark to the principal towns of the State. The city has grown with great rapidity during the last 25 years, and owes its prosperity chiefly to its manufacturing interests. These are scattered through a number of generally small establishments, but foot up an enormous aggregate. There are over 550 establishments in the city, the annual product of which is estimated at over $25,000,000. It is the principal point in the Union for the manu- facture of jewelry. India rubber goods, carriages, omnibuses, machinery, castings, leather, boots, shoes, saddles, harness, trunks, and clothing are manufactured in large quantities. The India Rubber Works are very extensive, as are those for the manufacture of car- riages, omnibuses, machinery, castings, etc. Newark is a port of entry, but its commerce is almost entirely confined to the coasting trade. Its proximity to New York renders it insignificant as a port. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. The population in 1870 was 105,059. The foreign population is very large, and the city is the see- of a Roman Catholic Bishop. In 1830 the population was 10,950; in 1840, 17,290; in 1850, 38,983; in 1860, 71,914. Newark was settled in May, 1666, by a company of 30 families from New Haven, led by Captain Robert Treat, and the next year they were joined by an equal number of settlers from Guilford and Branford, Conn., led by their minister, the Rev. Abraham Pierson. Mr. Pierson had come originally from Newark, in England, and the new settlement was called after his old home. " Their object seems to have been to establish a Puritan community, to be administered under the laws of God, by members of the church, on strictly demo- cratic principles. They left Connecticut because the colony of New Haven, to which they belonged, had been united to the Connecticut colony of Hartford, a union which interfered with their independence. The proprietors of New Jersey had just issued their liberal proposals to settlers, known as ' the grants and concessions ; ' and Treat and Pierson, and their associates, having obtained from Philip Carteret, the proprietary governor, a licence to purchase land, paid to the Indians for the tract which now constitutes Newark, Clinton, Orange, Bloomfield and Belleville, <310 New England currency, 12 Indian blankets, and 12 Indian guns. The settlers laid out the town plat of Newark, with its spacious streets and parks as they now exist. A homestead lot of 6 acres was assigned to each settler or head of family, NEW JERSEY. 419 with out-lands and meadow for agricultural purposes, farming having for several generations constituted the main pursuit of the inhabitants. They passed a law that none should become freemen or free burgesses of the town, or vote at its elections, or be chosen to the magistracy, or to any chief military trust or office, but such planters as were members of the congregational churches ; though all others admitted to be* planters should have right to their inheritances, and all other civil rights and privileges. Their first care was to build a meeting-house, and. in 1676 a school-house was established." The settlement pros- pered, and in 1683 contained 100 families. The troubles of the Revolution struck a severe blow at it, and scattered the population. After the close of the war its prosperity returned. The stone quar- ries in the vicinity were extensively worked, and the manufacture of shoes, carriages, and cider made it a place of importance. In 1794 bridges were built over the Passaic and Hackensack, which had until then been passed by means of ferry boats, and the intercourse of New- ark with New York was thus greatly facilitated. In 1832 the Morris Canal, connecting the city with Easton, Pa., was completed ; in 1834 the railway to Jersey City was opened ; and in 1836 Newark was incorporated as a city. JERSEY CITY, The second city in the State, is situated in Hudson county, on the right bank of the Hudson River, at its entrance into New York Bay, and immediately opposite the city of New York. The city limits at present include Jersey City, Hoboken, Hudson City, and the other towns in Hudson county. The site of Jersey City proper i* low and flat, as is that of Hoboken, but Hudson City and the other towns now included within the corporate limits lie on a range of bold heights, extending back from the Hudson, which command fine views of New York and the surrounding country on both sides of the Hudson. From the highest point on these heights, New York, Brooklyn, the neighboring towns in Westchester county, New York, Jersey City, Newark, Paterson, Orange, and Elizabeth, the Hudson, East Hack- ensack, and Passaic rivers, New York and Newark Bays, Long Island Sound, and the Atlantic Ocean, may all be seen. The streets are generally wide and straight, crossing each other at right angles. The appearance of the city is not prepossessing, though there are some handsome localities. There are no public buildings worthy of mention, though the city promises to improve in this re- 420 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. spect. Jersey City is, in fact, but a mere suburb of New York, hav- ing very little importance of its own. Its public schools are good; it has a number of churches; is well supplied with street railways; is lighted with gas, and furnished with pure water from the Passaic River, 7 or 8 miles distant. It is, to a limited extent, engaged in manufactures. Being included within the limits of the port of New York, it has no commerce of its own! It is the terminus of the Morris Canal, connecting it witli Easton, .Pa., by means of which it carries on a large coal trade. It is also the terminus of the New Jersey Central, the New York and Newark, the New Jersey, the Northern New Jersey, the Erie, and the Morris and Essex railways. The Cunard Mail Steamers, sailing to Liverpool, and the steamers to Bremen and Hamburg, have their docks in Jersey City. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the popu- lation was 82,547. The peninsula upon which Jersey City proper stands was granted to Sir William Kieft, Director-General of the Dutch West India Company, in 1638, but it was used almost exclusively for farming purposes until the beginning of the present century. It was known as Paulus Hook. In 1802, there were but 13 persons living on the peninsula, and but one house and its outbuildings on the site of the present city. In 1804, the place was laid out in blocks. In 1820, the "city of Jersey" was incorporated, with a board of select-men; and in 1838, the place was reincorporated as Jersey City. In 1870, its limits were extended so as to include Hoboken, Hudson City, and the neighboring towns. PATERSON, The third city in the State, is situated in Passaic county, New Jer- sey, on the right bank of the Passaic River, immediately below the falls of that stream, 13 miles north of Newark, and 17 miles north- west of New York. Although the third city in population, it is the second in importance, in consequence of its manufactures. The city is well laid out, and is handsome in appearance. The streets are straight, well paved, and lighted with gas. There are many elegant dwellings in the private portions, the city being a favorite place of rasidence with persons doing business in New York. The scenery in the vicinity of the falls is very beautiful, and attracts many visi- tors. NEW JERSEY. 421 FALLS OF PASSAIC AT PATEHSOX. The Morris Canal furnishes water transportation to the ocean, and the Erie and other railways afford communication with all parts of the Union. The Passaic has here a total descent of 72 feet, and a perpendicular fall of 50 feet. This affords an immense water-power, which has been improved by 'a dam and canals. The power thus supplied by the falls turns many factories, several of which occupy extensive buildings of stone. There arc over 20 establishments in the city, including the largest silk works in the United States. Silks, cotton goods, machinery, locomotives, guns, paper, carnages, steam engines, etc., are extensively produced here. The city contains a number of excellent public schools, about 16 churches, and is supplied with water from the Passaic. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, elected by the people. In 1870 the popu- lation was 35,582. Paterson was laid out in 1791, by an incorporated company, pos- sessing a capital of $1,000,000. Their object was to use the falls for the manufacture of cotton cloth, but this being forfnd premature was abandoned. In 1860 the population was 19,586. 422 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ELIZABETH, The fifth city in the State, is situated in Union county, 15 miles west- southwest of New York, and 5 miles south by west of Newark. It is pleasantly located on elevated ground, and is one of the handsomest cities in the State. It is mainly taken up with frame cottages and villas, but brown stone and brick are now coming into general use. Street railways connect its various parts, and the New Jersey and 'New Jersey Central Railways intersect each other here, and connect it- with New York and the various parts of the country. It contains several large manufactories, a number of handsome buildings devoted to business, and over 20 churches, some of which are very handsome. Large numbers of persons doing business in New York reside here. Its public schools are noted for their excellence. It is lighted with gas; is supplied with water; and is provided with an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, elected by the people. In 1870 the population was 20,838. Elizabeth was settled in 1655, and was for a long time the capital and chief town of the Colony and State. It has always been noted as one of the most cultivated towns in the Union. C AMD EN, The sixth city of New Jersey, is situated on the left bank of the Delaware River, in Camden county, immediately opposite the city of Philadelphia, with which it is connected by means of 4 steam fer- ries. It is 32 miles south-southwest of Trenton. It is located in a large plain, and is 'regularly laid off.' It is well built, and contains some handsome residences and commercial buildings. It owes its importance to its powerful neighbor, Philadelphia. It contains some extensive manufacturing establishments, and is the terminus of the Camden and Amboy, New Jersey Southern, and West Jersey rail- ways. It is lighted with gas ; is supplied with water ; and has a steam fire department, and an effective police force. Its public schools are good and numerous, and it contains one or two literary institutions. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, chosen by the people. In 1870, the population was 20,045. The city was incorporated in 1831. The other important towns of the State are New Brunswick, on the Raritan River; Rah way, between New Brunswick and Elizabeth; Burlington, on the Delaware River, below Trenton ; and Orange, near NEW JERSEY. 423 Newark. Long Branch, in Monmouth county, and Atlantic City, in Atlantic county, on the sea shore, and Cape May, in Cape May county, at the mouth of the Delaware Bay, are among the most fashionable watering places in the Union. THE BATTLE OF TREXTOX. The summer and fall of 1776 was the most gloomy period of the American revolution. General Washington had been obliged to retreat from Long Island to New York, thence over the Hudson to New Jersey, and through New Jersey to Pennsylvania, vigorously pursued by an enemy flushed with a series of success. The retreat through New Jersey was attended with circumstances of a painful and trying nature. Washington's army, which had consisted of 80,000 men, was now diminished to scarcely 3000, and these were without supplies, without pay, and many of them without shoes or comfortable clothing. Their footsteps were stained with blood as they fled before the enemy. The affairs of the Ame- ricans seemed in such a desperate condition, that those who had been most con- Iklent of success, began despairingly to give up all for lost. Many Americans joined the British, and took protections from them. In this season of general despondency, the American Congress recommended to each of the States to observe "a day of solemn fasting and humiliation before God." General Washington saw the necessity of making a desperate effort for the sal- vation of his country. On the night of the 23th of December, 1776, the American army recrossed the Delaware, which was filled with pieces of floating ice, and marched to attack a division of Hessians, who had advanced to Trenton. The sun had just risen, as the tents of the enemy appeared in sight. No time was to be lost Washington, rising en his stirrups, waved his sword towards the hos- tile army, and exclaimed, " There, my brave friends, are the enemies of your country f and now all I have to ask of you is, to remember what you are about to fiyhtforf March!" The troops, animated by their commander, pressed on to the charge ; the Hes- sians were taken by surprise, and the contest was soon decided ; about 1000 were taken prisoners, and 40 killed, among whom was their commander, (a German officer,) Colonel Rahl. In this important expedition, Washington divided his troops into three parts, 424 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Which were to assemble on the banks of the Delaware, on the night of the 25th of December. One of these divisions, led by General Irvine, was directed to cross the Delaware at the Trenton ferry, and secure the bridge below the town, so as to prevent the escape of any part of the enemy by that road. Another division, led by General Cadwallader, was to cross over at Bristol, and carry the post at Burlington. The third, which was the principal division, and consisted of about 2400 Continental troops, commanded by General Washington in person, was to cross at M'Konkey's ferry, about nine miles above Trenton, and to march against the enemy posted at that town. The night fixed on for the enter- prise was severly cold. A storm of snow, mingled with hail and rain, fell in great quantities ; and so much ice was made in the river, that the artiller}' could not be got over until three o'clock ; and before the troops could take up their line of march it was nearly four. The general, who had hoped to throw them all over by twelve o'clock, now despaired of surprising the town ; but knowing that he could not repass the river without being discovered and harassed, he de- termined, at all events, to push forward. He accordingly formed his detachment into two divisions, one of which was to march by the lower or river road, the other, by the upper or Pennington road: As the distance to Trenton by these two roads was nearly the same, the general, supposing that his two divisions would arrive at the place of destination about the same time, ordered each of them, immediately on forcing the outguards, to push directly into the town, that they might charge the enemy before they had time to form. The upper division, accompanied by the general himself, arrived at the enemy's advanced post ex- actly at eight o'clock, and immediately drove in the outguards. in three min- utes, a firing from the division that had taken the river road, gave notice to the general of its arrival. Colonel Rahl, a very gallant Hessian officer, who com- manded in Trenton, soon formed his main body, to meet the assailants ; but at the commencement of the action he received a mortal wound. His troops, at once confused and hard pressed, and having already lost their artillery, attempted to file off by a road on the right, leading to Princeton ; but General Washington perceiving their intention, threw a body of troops in their front, which inter- cepted and assailed them. Finding themselves surrounded, they laid down their arms. About 20 of the enemy were killed ; and 909, including officers, surrendered themselves prisoners of war. The number of prisoners was soon increased to about 1000, by the additional capture of those who had concealed themselves in houses. Six field pieces, and a 1000 stand of small 'arms, were also taken. Of the Americans, two privates only were killed ; two were frozen to death ; one officer and three or four privates were wounded. General Irvine being prevented by the ice from crossing the Delaware, the lower road toward Bordentown remained open : and about 500 of the enemy, stationed in the lower end of Trenton, crossing over the bridge in the commencement of the action, marched clown the river to Bordentown. General Cadwallader was prevented by the same cause from attacking the post at Burlington. This well-judged and successful enterprise, revived the depressed spirits of the colonists, and produced an immediate and happy effect in recruiting the American army. THE MURDER OF THE REV. JAMES CALDWELL. The next summer, in June, Knyphausen made his sudden and apparently objectless inroad into New Jersey. On the night of the 24th, Mr. Caldwell slept NEW JERSEY. 425 in his own house, but was wakened early in the morning by the news of the ap- proach of the enemy. Mounting his horse in haste, he started for headquarters with the information. He had proceeded but a short distance, however, when he began to have serious fears for his wife and family that he had left behind. The former, when she bade him good-bye, told him that she had no apprehen- sions for her own safety, for the enemy, she said, would not harm her and her little children. He had often left them in a similar way before, and always found them safe on his return, but now he was oppressed with unusual anxiety, and, after striving in vain to shake it off, turned his horse and galloped back. As he rode up to the door, his wife came out to inquire what he wanted. He told her t'.iat he wished her and the children to accompany him to camp, for he felt very uneasy about leaving them behind. But she, knowing they would encumber his movements, smiled at his fears, saying there was no danger at all, and declined entirely to leave the house. In the meantime she went in and brought from the breakfast table a warm cup of coffee. While he sat on his horse drinking it, the enemy came in sight. Handing back the cup, and flinging her a hasty farewell, and commending her to the care and mercy of the God in whom they both trusted, he struck his spurs into his horse and dashed away. He had not been gone long before she had cause to regret that she had not yielded to his entreaties, for columns of smoke rising in the distance the screams of terrified women and children running through the streets, told her that the enemy was on a raid, and murder and devastation were marking their passage. She saw at once that she was surrounded with deadly perils, but calm as became the wife of a hero as well as clergyman, she took her infant and retired into a private room to commit herself and children in prayer to God. Arising from her devotions, she sat down upon the bed, and was pondering on her desolate condi- tion, when the maid, who had accompanied her with the other children, stepped to the window to look out. As she did so, she saw a " red coat " jump over the fence into the yard. Alarmed, she turned quickly and told Mrs. Caidwell. The latter knew at once that evil was intended her, and arose from the bed either to watch the man's actions or to pass out of the. room, when the villain caught a glimpse of her through the window. He knew her at a glance, and, having come on purpose to kill her, he raised his musket and fired at her through the window, when she fell amid her terrified children, pierced by two balls. In the midst of the alarm and confusion that followed, the torch was applied to the house, and soon the little parsonage was wrapped in flames. It was with great difficulty that some of the neighbors, whom the maid informed of the murder, were enabled to drag the body out of the burning building. But, having ac- complished this, they were compelled to flee, leaving it exposed in the hot sun in the public street, where it lay for hours with no one humane enough to throw a covering over the pale and ghastly face. At length some of her friends ob- tained permission from the enemy to remove it into the only house left standing near by. Mr. Caidwell was at the "Short Hills," with the army, while this murderous scene was being enacted at his quiet home. That evening passing by chance two soldiers who were talking in whispers, he heard the name of "Mrs. Caidwell" repeated two or three times. Suspecting at once that something was wrong, he asked them what they were talking about if anything had happened to Mrs. Caidwell. They at first hesitated to reply, unwilling to break to him the painful \ntelligence, but he besought them so earnestly to let him know the worst that 426 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. they finally told him all. The good man staggered like a smitten ox under tho sudden blow, and turned pale as death. Rallying, however, he murmured a broken prayer and turned away to weep alone. That was a painful night to the noble patriot, for not only did he mourn deeply over the tragical end of his wife, whom he loved tenderly, but he was filled with apprehension respecting his or- phaned children, one of whom was an infant now in possession of the enemy. In the morning he procured a flag of truce and went over to " Connecticut Farms." The quiet little village was a heap of smoking ruins, with only here and there a solitary building standing as monuments to mark the desolation. In one of these lay the lifeless body of his wife, and in an adjoining apartment were grouped his weeping children. The enemy, after burning Connecticut Farms, kept on towards Springfield, with the intention of committing the same barbarous cruelties there. Mr. CaKl- well, after seeing his wife buried and his children placed in the care of one of his parishioners, hastened forward to join the army. At Springfield, a sharp en- gagement took place between the enemy and the American troops, and though the former were compelled to beat a hasty retreat, it was not till they had burned the village to the ground. Mr. Caldwell was in the hottest of the fight, and see- ing the fire of one of the companies slackening for want of wadding, he galloped to the Presbyterian meeting house near by, and, rushing in, ran from pew to pew, filling his arms with hymn books. Hastening back with these into the battle, he scattered them about in every direction, saying, as he pitched one here and another there, "Now, put Watts into them, boys." With a laugh and a cheer, they pulled out the leaves, and ramming home the charges did give the British Watts with a will. The next year this patriotic, gifted man met the tragical fate of his wife, and sealed his devotion to his country with his blood. New Jersey remained comparatively tranquil after the raid of Knyphausen, and flags of truce were constantly passing to and fro to New York, and only sol- diers enough were left in the State to act as sentinels at main points. At this time there lived in New York a -family by the name of Murray, who had rela- tives residing in Elizabethtown, and who were much beloved by the people in the vicinity for their kindness to Jersey prisoners confined in the city. One of the family, Miss Murray, wishing to visit Elizabethtown, came to Elizabethtown Point on the 24th of Novemtie^ under a flag of truce. Mr. Caldwell went down in a carriage to meet heryland accompany her to the town. The details of the events that followed, I will let Dr. Murray tell in his own language. "A sentry was kept up at that time at the fort. Tying his horse outside the sentinel, Mr. Caldwell proceeded to the wharf, and taking with him Miss Murray, placed her in his carriage, and then returned to the boat for a small bundle that belonged to JierT Thus he passed three times the man who was keeping guard. With a small package he was returning a second time to his carriage, when the sentinel ordered him to stop, thinking, probably, that there was something contraband in the bundle. He replied that the bundle belonged to the young lady in his car- riage. The sentinel said that it must be examined. Mr. Caldwell turned quickly about to carry it back to the boat, that it might be opened there, when the fatal ball struck him. The captain of the guard, hearing the report of a gun, looked around, and saw Mr. Caldwell staggering before him. He ran and caught him in his arms and laid him on the ground, and without speaking a word he almost instantly expired, the ball having passed through his heart. NEW JERSEY. 427 " The man who shot him was James Morgan, belonging to the Jersey militia' an Irishman by birth, and a man of the most debased and profligate character. He was always drunk when he could be ; and liquor turned him into a savage. His family resided near a well in Elizabethtown, into which a child of his fell one day and was drowned. When he returned, he found his child dead, and taking it by the arms he beat the broken-hearted mother with the dead body of her own child until her cries brought some of the neighbors to her rescue." Whether Morgan was on duty as a sentinel when he shot Caldwell is at least questionable. It is said that on his trial it was proved that he had just been re- lieved. Different motives are assigned for the murder. Some say that Morgan was angry because he had not received his regular wages, and, inasmuch as Caldwell was commissary, supposed "he was responsible for the neglect;" others, again, say that he was bribed by the British, or Tories. Whatever the motives might have been that influenced him, he was, after a fair trial, convicted of murder, and hung the next January. The body of Mr. Caldwell was placed on some straw in the bottom of a wagon, and taken up to town, and the next Tuesday buried. A MUTINY IN THE CONTINENTAL ARMY. The situation of General Washington was often, during the war, embarrassing, for want of proper supplies for the army. It was peculiarly so while at Morris- town, in 1780, where he had encamped during the winter. The cold was un- commonly severe, and the army suffered extremely. The following account of the state of the American army is taken from "Grimshaw's History of the United States: " " The distress suffered by the American army did not arrive at its highest pitch until the present season. The officers of the Jersey line now addressed a memo- rial to their State Legislature, complaining, that four months' pay for a private would not procure for his family a single bushel of wheat ; that the pay of a colonel would not purchase oats for his horse ; and that a common laborer re- ceived four times as much as an American officer. They urged, that unless an immediate remedy was provided, the total dissolution of their line was inevitable; and concluded by saying, that their pay should be realized, either by Mexican dollars, or something equivalent. Nor was the insufficiency of their support the only motive to complaint. Other causes of discontent prevailed. The original idea of a continental army, to be raised, paid, and regulated upon an equal and uniform principle, had been, in a great measure, exchanged for that of State es- tablishments ; a pernicious measure, partly originating from necessity, because State credit was not quite so much depreciated as continental. Some States, from their superior ability, furnished their troops not only with clothing, but with many articles of convenience. Others supplied them with mere necessaries ; whilst a few, from their particular situation, could give little or perhaps nothing. The officers and men, in a routine of duty, daily intermixed and made compari- sons. Those who fared worse than others were dissatisfied with a service that allowed such injurious distinctions. Mutiny began to spread, and at length broke out among the soldiers at Fort Schuyler. Thirty-one privates of the gar- rison went off in a body. They were overtaken, and 13 of their number instantly killed. About the same time, two regiments of Connecticut troops mutinied, and got under arms, determined to return home, or gain subsistence by the bayonet. 428 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Their officers reasoned with them, and used every argument that could interest their passions or their pride. They at first answered, 'Our sufferings arc too great, we want present relief;' but military feelings were, in the end, trium- phant ; after much expostulation, they returned to the encampment. "It is natural to suppose that the British commander would not lose so favor- able an opportunity of severing the discontented from their companions, and attracting them to his own standard. He circulated a printed paper in the Ameri- can camp ; tending to heighten the disorders by exaggeration, and create desertion by promises of bounty and caresses. But, so great was the firmness of the sol- diery, and so strong their attachment to their country, that on the arrival of only a scanty supply of meat, for their immediate subsistence, military duty was cheerfully performed, and the rolls were seldom dishonored by desertion. "The necessities of the American army grew so pressing that Washington was constrained to call on the magistrates of the adjacent counties for specified quan- tities of provisions, to be supplied in a given number of days ; and was compelled even to send out detachments to collect subsistence at the point of the bayonet. Even this expedient at length failed ; the country in the vicinity of the army being soon exhausted. His situation was painfully embarrassing. The army looked to him for provisions ; the inhabitants for protection. To supply the one, and not offend the other, seemed impossible. To preserve order and subordina- tion, in an army of republicans, even when well fed, regularly paid,' and com- fortably clothed, is not an easy task ; but to retain them in service, and subject them to the rules of discipline, when wanting not only the comforts but often the necessaries of life, requires such address and abilities as are rarely found in human nature. These were, however, combined in Washington. lie not only kept his army in the field, but opposed those difficulties with so much discretion as to command the approbation of both soldiers and people. " To obviate these evils, Congress sent a committee of its own members to the encampment of the main army. They confirmed the representations previously made of the distresses and the disorders arising from commissarial mismanage- ment, which everywhere prevailed. In particular, they stated that the main army was unpaid for five months ; that it seldom had more than six days' pro- vision in advance ; and was on different occasions, for several successive clays, without meat ; that the horses were destitute of forage ; that the medical depart- ment had no sugar, tea, chocolate, wine, or spirituous liquors of any kind ; that every department was without money and without credit ; and that the patience of the soldiers, worn down by the pressure of complicated sufferings, was on the point of being exhausted/ "Misfortunes, from every quarter, were at this time pouring in upon the United States. But they seemed to rise in the midst of their distresses, and gain strength from the pressure of calamities. When Congress could obtain neither money nor credit for the subsistence of their army, the inhabitants of Philadelphia gave $300,000 to procure a supply of necessary provisions for the suffering troops ; and the ladies of that city, at the same time, contributed largely to their immediate relief. Their example was generally followed. The patriotic flame which blazed forth in the beginning of the war was rekindled. The different States were ardently excited ; and it was arranged that the regular army should be raised to 35,000 effective men." PENNSYLVANIA. Area, 46,000 Square Miles. Population in 1SGO 2,906,115 Population in 1870, .3,521,951 THE State of Pennsylvania, one of the original members of the Union, lies between 39 43' and 42 15' N. latitude, and between 74 42' and 80 35' W. longitude. Its extreme length is about 310 miles, and its extreme width, from north to south, about 160 miles. It is bounded on the north by New York and Lake Erie, on the east by New York and New Jersey, from which it is separated by the Delaware River, on the south by Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia, and on the west by West Virginia and Ohio. TOPOGRAPHY. "No State in the Union presents a greater variety of surface than Pennsylvania. Though they do not rise to any great elevation (sel- dom above 2000 feet), its mountains spread over about one-fourth of the State in parallel ridges, in a direction generally from northeast to southwest, and occupy the southern, central, and eastern counties. Though all forming parts of the great Appalachian chain, they are known by various local appellations. Commencing below Easton, on the Delaware, we have the South Mountain ; then in order, pro- ceeding west or northwest, the Blue or Kittatinny Mountains (both entering the State from New Jersey, and passing southwest into Maryland), and the Broad Mountain, which lies south of the North Branch of the Susquehanna. We now cross the river just mentioned, but still have with us the Broad Mountain, under the name of the Tuscarora; passing which, we come upon another ridge, lying mostly 429 430 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. south of the Juniata River, known as Sideling Hill; which is suc- ceeded in turn by the Alleghany Mountains proper, the dividing ridge between the Atlantic slope and the Mississippi Valley. De- scending the very gradual Ohio slope, we cross two inferior but well- defined chains, known as Laurel and Chestnut Ridges. As before stated, these mountains do not rise too, great height; the South Moun- tain is within 1000, and the Blue Mountain within 1500 feet. Broad Mountain is said to rise higher above its immediate base than the Alleghany range, but to be inferior to them in elevation above the soa. These different ridges are separated by valleys, now contracted within narrow limits, and now spreading out to a width of from 15 to 30 miles. The entire belt in Pennsylvania spreads over a space of 200 miles the greatest breadth the Alleghany range attains in its whole course from Maine to Alabama. In the northern part of the State the mountains become high and rugged hills ; the west is also hilly, and the southeast and northwest moderately so, but occasionally level. The rivers of the western part of the State, cutting their way through the table-land, present sometimes precipitous shores of several hundred feet in height, and many valleys bear evident marks of their having been formed by running water." * The Delaware River washes the eastern shore of the State, and fur- nishes the principal means of access to the sea. The city of Philadel- phia, the second in size in the Union, is situated on this stream, about 40 miles from its entrance into Delaware Bay. The Susquehanna is the principal river of the State. It is formed by two branches, the eastern rising in Otsego Lake, in central New York, and the western in western Pennsylvania. They unite and form the main stream at Northumberland, GO miles above Harris- burg. Then flowing in a southeasterly direction, it enters the State of Maryland, and empties into Chesapeake Bay. The East, which is also called the North, Branch is 250 miles long, and the West Branch 200 miles. The length of the main stream is about 150 miles. They all flow through a very beautiful and fertile country, which is also rich in mineral resources. A series of canals extends from the mouth of the river to Northumberland, and the navigation of its branches is improved in several places. The principal tributary of the Susque- hanna is the Juniata, which enters it above Harrisburg, and which is famous for its beautiful and picturesque scenery. * Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1453. PENNSYLVANIA. 431 VIEW ON THE JUNIATA RIVER. The Alleghany River is the principal stream in the western part of the State. It rises in Potter county, and flows northward into New York, after which it sweeps back into Pennsylvania, and pursuing a southwesterly course, unites at Pittsburg with the Monongahela (which rises in West Virginia and flows northward to Pittsburg), and forms the Ohio. It is navigable for small steamers for about 200 miles above Pittsburg. The Ohio lies in this State for the first fifty miles of its course. The SchuylTdll is a beautiful river in the eastern part of the State. It empties into the Delaware at Philadelphia, and supplies that city with fresh water. The Lehigh flows into the Delaware at Easton. Lake Erie, already described in another chapter, is the only lake lying in the State. It washes the northwest part of Pennsylvania for about 50 miles. MINERALS. "Pennsylvania stands first among the United States in the abun- dance of her coal and iron. Though not possessing a great variety 432 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. SUiiUYLKILL ABOVE PHILADELPHIA. of rare minerals, and none of the precious metals, she has those which have made England the wealthiest and most powerful nation on the globe, while Spain and Portugal, with their gold, silver, and diamond mines, have become poor in national wealth, and have sunk to a low degree of political influence. Owing no doubt to her homely, but useful minerals, Pennsylvania has advanced, between 1840 and 1850, in a greater ratio in population than even the Empire State (New York), or that vigorous and youthful giant of the West, Ohio. The vast anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania lie mostly between the Dela- ware and Susquehanna rivers, about the head- waters of the Lehigh, Schuylkill, and Lackawana. In 1854 this region sent to market, 5,919,555 tons of coal ; in 1864, the product had increased to 10,564,- 926. Nearly half of this came from Schuylkill county. At Bloss- burg, in Tioga county, and in Clinton county, are mines of bituminous coal, said to be equal, if not superior, to the Newcastle coal of Eng- land ; while the region around Pitteburg, the commencement of the coal field of the Mississippi Valley, abounds in coal of the same kind, but little inferior in purity. Cannel coal of fine quality is found in Beaver county. The bituminous coal mined in western Pennsylvania, in 1864, was estimated at 3,000,000 tons. Petroleum abounds in PENNSYLVANIA. 433 MOUNT PISGAII AND THE COAL REGION. the western part of the State. The best evidences of the quantity and excellence of the iron of Pennsylvania is the fact, according to the census report of 1850, that nearly half of the pig, cast, and wrought iron manufactured in the Union was from her forges and furnaces. This State also abounds in lime, marble, slate, and stones suitable for building. Marble is particularly abundant in Chester and Mont- gomery counties. The most important copper mines in Pennsylvania are in the same counties. Zinc is mined in the vicinity of Bethlehem, plumbago in Bucks county, and lead in Chester and Montgomery counties. A bed of this mineral, of great richness, is reported to have been discovered recently in Blair county. Chromium occurs in Ches- ter and Lancaster counties. Scattered over the State are some of the following minerals: titanium, plumbago, magnetic iron ore, iron pyrites, magnesia, talc, asbestos, barytes, zircon, tourmalin, marl, etc. Salt springs exist on the Monongahela, Kiskeminitas, and Beaver rivers, and in other parts of the State. Nearly 12,000,000 bushels of salt were manufactured here in 18GO. Nitre or saltpetre has re- cently been discovered in an extensive deposit, and of great richness, 28 434 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. in the central part of the State. There are several medicinal springs, generally chalybeate, the most noted of which are Bedford, in the county of the same name; York, in Adams county; Doubling Gap, in Cumberland; Yellow Springs, in Chester; and Ephrata, in Lan- caster county." * CLIMATE. The southern and eastern portions of Pennsylvania have a milder climate than the western part. In the latter, the winters are long and severe. The summers are very hot all over the State, and all parts are liable to sudden changes from heat to cold. The spring comes early in the southern counties, but is late in the others. As a whole the State is one of the healthiest in the Union. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. As a general rule the soil of the State is good. That of the lime- stone regions, and along the river valleys is excellent, and there are some fine lands in the mountain valleys. Pennsylvania is largely engaged in agriculture, being one . of the first States in the Union, with respect to its productions. The system of farming is enlightened and progressive, and the people are amongst the most industrious in the world. In 1870 there were 11,515,965 acres of improved land in the State, and 5,740,864 acres of unimproved land. The remainder of the agri- cultural wealth of the State for the same year was as follows : Cash value of farms, $1,043,481,582 Value of farming implements and machinery, $35,658,196 Number of horses, 460,339 milch cows, . 706,437 working oxen, 30,048 sheep, 1,794,301 " swine,,, 867,548 Value of all live stock, ........ $115,647,075 Bushels of wneat, 19,672,967 rye, 3,577,641 Indian com, 34,702,006 oats, 36,478,585 barley, 529,562 Irish potatoes, 12,889,367 buckwheat, 2,532,173 Tons of hay, , 2,848,219 Lippincott's Gazetteer, p. 1454. PENNSYLVANIA. 435 Pounds of maple sugar, 1,545,917 " tobacco, 3,467,530 " beeswax and honey, ....!. 824,022 wool, 6,561,722 butter, 60,834,644 cheese, 1,145,209 Gallons of milk sold, 14,411,729 Value of orchard products, ....... $4,208,094 " market garden products, . . . . $1,810,016 slaughtered animals, $28,412,903 " forest products, $2,570,370 COMMERCE. The returns of the port of Philadelphia do not fairly exhibit the foreign 'trade of this State, since a large portion of its commerce passes through the port of New York. The railroads and canals of the State transport immense quantities of freight every year, and the trade with the South and West, by the Ohio River, is enormous. The dis- covery of petroleum has greatly increased the foreign and domestic trades of the State. The export of this article from Philadelphia in 1868 was 40,505,620 gallons. In the same year the petroleum trade of Pittsburg amounted to about 13,000,000. In 1860 the State pro- duced $21,266,906 worth of coal, which amount has been greatly increased since then. In 1863, the tonnage of the State was 300,741, of which 94,305 was steam tonnage. In 1861, the total imports of the State amounted to $12,628,348, and the exports to $10,013,097. MANUFACTURES. Pennsylvania is largely engaged in manufactures, ranking in this respect amongst the most important States in the Union. In 1860, there were 21,000 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, employing 223,250 hands, a capital of $189,000,000;* consuming raw material worth $145,300,000, and yielding an annual product of $285,500,000. There were 151 cotton mills, employing a capital of $8,253,640, and 5350 male and 7370 female hands, consuming raw material worth $6,732,275, paying $2,- 265,912 for labor, and yielding an annual product of $11,759,000. There were 447 woollen factories, employing 6682 male and 4022 female hands and a capital of $5,642,425 ; consuming raw material worth $6,770,347; paying $2,239,936 for labor; and yielding an * The largest amount so invested in any State. 436 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. annual product of $12,744,373. The other manufactures for the same year were valued as follows : Leather, $12,491,631 Pig-iron, 11,424,879 Rolled iron, 12,643,500 Steam engines and machinery, ' 7,243,453 Agricultural implements, 1,455,760 Sawed and planed lumber, 11,311,000 Flour, 26,570,000 Malt and spirituous liquors, 5,430,000 Boots and shoes, . . 8,178,935 Furniture, 2,938,503 Jewelry, silverware, etc., 4.132,130 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Pennsylvania was one of the first states in the task of providing means of rapid and direct communication between her various points. The first great work ever undertaken in this country was the turnpike from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, which until the completion of the Erie Canal of New York, was the great highway between the East and the West. In 1825, the State began an extensive system of canals. This undertaking was badly managed, however, and she did not at once derive the great advantages from them she had expected. Many of these works were injudiciously located in parts of the State where there was no need for them. The consequence was that the profits of the paying lines had to be used to defray the expenses of these unprofitable routes, and in the course of time the State was burdened with a heavy debt on their account. The railroads have taken away the greater part of their business, and have thus greatly increased the burden to the State. The railroads of Pennsylvania are amongst the most important in the country. Philadelphia has direct railroad communication with all the important towns of the State, with New York, Baltimore, and all parts of the Union. Seven or eight main lines centre in this city, and three or four in Camden, New Jersey, immediately opposite. These bring through freights and passengers from all parts of the Union to Philadelphia. In 1872, there were about 1100 miles of canal navigation in Penn- sylvania, constructed at a cost of over $40,000,000. In the same year there were 5113 miles of completed railroads in the State. The cost of construction was about $250,000,000. This makes. Pennsylvania the first State in the Union with respect to the length and cost of her railroad system. PENNSYLVANIA. 437 EDUCATION. The State has always been noted for the excellence of its schools. One of the first efforts of the original settlers was to provide for public education, and we find that the plan of Government drawn up by William Penn in 1682, provided for the establishment of public schools, and their control by the Governor and Provincial Council. The first Constitution of the State (1776) required the establishment of at least one such school in each county, and in 1786, the State made a donation of 60,000 acres of the public lands for the support of the public schools. In 1836, a permanent school fund was established. The educational system is under the control of a State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, who is appointed by the Governor. The State is divided into 2002 school districts, each of which is immediately controlled by six school directors, two of them being elected each year. They hold office for three years. They manage all the business affairs of the schools, appoint the teachers, select the text-books, and make an annual report to the county superintendent. This officer is required to be an experienced teacher, and is elected for three years by the school directors of the county. It is his duty to make a thorough inspection of the schools in his county, to satisfy himself of the com- petency of the teachers and the proficiency of the pupils, and to jnake an annual report of his observations to the State Superintendent. The Public Schools of the city of Philadelphia are distinct from those of the State, and are supported by the municipal authorities. Includ- ing these, there were 14,212 public schools in Pennsylvania in 1870. The number of teachers was 17,612, of pupils, 828,981. The whole amount expended during the year for public instruction was $7,771,- 761.20. In Philadelphia, in the year 1867, there were 374 schools, with a force of 1314 teachers. The total number of pupils was 129,226, the average attendance, 66,333. There are five normal schools ; at Millersville, Mansfield, Edinboro, and Kutztown. The city of Philadelphia has a fine normal school of its own. The law provides for the establishment of twelve such schools in the State, whenever they may become necessary. The present number of pupils is 2675. There are 13 colleges in Pennsylvania. One of these, the College of Agriculture, is a State institution. It is in vigorous operation, and is meeting with great success. The Medical School of the University 438 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of Pennsylvania, and the Jefferson Medical College, the former founded in 1765, and the latter in 1824, are amongst the best schools of their kind in the world. Besides these are 6 other Medical Colleges. There are 7 Theological Seminaries, 1 Law School, and 9 Colleges of Literature and Science in the State. The University of Pennsylvania and Girard College at Philadelphia; Dickinson College at Carlisle; Washington College at Washington ; the Lewisburg University at Lewisburg; Franklin and Marshal College at Lancaster; and the Pennsylvania College at Gettysburg, are the principal institutions in the State. In 1870, there were 601 academies, seminaries, and private schools in the State, with 848 teachers, and 24,815 pupils. In 1860, there were 1416 libraries in Pennsylvania, containing 1,- 344,924 volumes. Of these, 529, with 761,299 volumes were public. In the same year, the number of newspapers and periodicals pub- lished in the State was as follows: daily 29, semi-weekly 3, tri-weekly 1, weekly 297, monthly 28, quarterly 6, annual 3, total 367. Of these 277 were political, 43 religious, 25 literary, and 22 miscellaneous. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The public institutions of this State have long been noted for their extent and excellence. The Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, at Philadelphia, the State Lunatic Hospital, at Harrisburg, and the Western Pennsylvania Hospital, near Pittsburg, are among the best establishments of their kind in the world. Besides these there are three incorporated hospi- tals, and several private establishments. The Pennsylvania Institutionjor the Deaf and Dumb, established in 1820, and the Institution for the Blind, established in 1833, both at Philadelphia, are open to pupils from New Jersey and Delaware. Those States, consequently, contribute to the support of these esta- blishments. The Training School for Feeble-minded Children is at Media. It is supported in part by the State. There are two Houses of Refuge. One, for Western Pennsylvania and located at Pittsburg, is maintained entirely, and the other, at Philadelphia, in part, by the State, which also maintains 39 schools and homes for the support and instruction of soldiers' orphans. There are two great Penitentiaries in Pennsylvania one at Phila- delphia, and the other at Alleghany City. The Philadelphia peni- PENNSYLVANIA. 439 tentiary is one of the most complete establishments of its kind in the country. Both prisons are conducted on the silent system, and the prisoners are kept separate from each other. The discipline is mild but firm, and every effort is made to reform as well as punish the prisoner. In 1866 there were 569 convicts in the Philadelphia prison, and 418 in the Alleghany prison. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Pennsylvania was $52,758,384. The number of churches was 5668. FINANCES. The total debt of the State in December, 1870, was $31,111,661.90. The funded debt was $30,997,700.33, and the unfunded debt $113,964.57. The receipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending November 30, 1870, amounted to $7,737,465.73, and the expenditures to $6,434,522.91. A large part of the debt was discharged in the same year. In September, 1868, there were 197 National Banks in operation in the State, with a capital of $50,247,390. GOVERNMENT. Every male freeman, twenty-one years old, who has paid a State or County tax, within two years, (except in cases of male freemen between 21 and 22 years, who are not required to pay tax as a condition to this right,) and has resided in the State for one year, and in his election district ten days, is entitled to vote at the elections. The State Government is conducted by a Governor, Auditor-Gen- eral, and Surveyor-Qeneral, and a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 33 members, elected for 3 years, one-third retiring annually), and a House of Representatives (of 100 members, elected annually), all chosen by the people. There are, also, a State Treasurer, elected annually by the Legislature, and a Secretary of State, Attorney-Gen- eral, and Adjutant-General, and several other executive officers, appointed by the Governor. The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania consists of a Chief Justice and four Associate Judges, elected by the people for fifteen years. The Judge who has the shortest term to serve, is Chief Justice. This is the High Court of Errors and Appeals. 440 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The District Courts are two in number, and are established at Philadelphia (for the City and County of Philadelphia) and at Pitts- burg (for the County of Alleghany). Their jurisdiction extends over all civil suits in which the claim exceeds $1000, and in certain other cases prescribed by law. They are the principal commercial courts for the cities in which they are held. The Courts of Common Pleas are each presided over by one Judge, elected for ten years, and one or more Associate Judges, elected for five years. There is a court in every county. They are also Judges of Oyer and Terrniner and general jail delivery in their respective counties. Besides these, there are police courts in the cities. For purposes of government, Pennsylvania is divided into G5 coun- ties. Harrisburg is the capital of the State. HISTORY. In 1627, a colony of Swedes and Finns, well provided with means from Europe, settled along the lower part of the western shore of the Delaware, and in a short time spread their settlements to the mouth of the Schuylkill River. In 1655 they were compelled by the Dutch to submit to the authorities of New Amsterdam, and in 1664 passed under the rule of the English. In 1681, Charles II. granted the territory west of the Delaware to William Penn, in payment of a debt due by the British Government to Penn's grandfather. Penn colo- nized his grant at once with members of his own faith (Friends or Quakers), and in 1682 founded the City of Philadelphia. His grant included the present State of Delaware, which was then known as the "lower counties." In 1699, Pennsylvania granted these counties a separate Assembly, but they continued subject to the authority of her Governor until 1776, when, upon the breaking out of the Revolution, they formed an independent establishment. Perm's charter failed to define with exactness the boundaries of his grant, and this led to considerable unpleasantness with the neighboring provinces, which was not settled until 1767, when the surveys of Mason and Dixon defin- itely established the boundaries of the province. The first years of the colony were passed in peace with the Indians, whose friendship was won and retained by the wise and just policy pursued towards them. Upon the outbreak of the war of the Revo- lution, however, they waged upon the colonists a cruel and extermin- ating warfare, the character of which is well shown by the terrible massacre at Wyoming. PENNSYLVANIA. 441 DEEP CUT, PENNSYLVANIA ItAILROAD. The lower counties of the State were settled by the Swedes origin- ally, and after them by the Friends or Quakers. These thrifty people soon brought the colony to a flourishing condition, and made it, per- haps, the most successful of all. They were joined in 1750 by a large number of no less thrifty Germans, who settled in the counties around and west of Philadelphia, in the southern part of the State, to which they gave the peculiar characteristics which distinguish them to-day. The colonists contributed their full share to the wars with France, and gave a hearty support to the measures for securing American independence. Philadelphia was at this time the largest and most important city in America, and was the place at which the Continental Congresses first met. It continued to be the seat of Government until the occupation of the city by the British in 1777, compelled Congress to withdraw to York. The battles of Brandywine and Germantown were fought in this State about the same time. The massacres of Wyoming and Paoli, in the same year, and the memor- able winter at the Valley Forge, are thrilling incidents in the revolu- tionary history of Pennsylvania. 442 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The Convention which adopted the Constitution of the United States held its sessions in the city of Philadelphia, 'which had already been made memorable by the adoption of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. The Whiskey Insurrection, to which we have already alluded, occurred during Washington's administration. The State bore its share of the burdens of the war of 1812, and has since always maintained its position as one of the wealthiest, most progressive, and influential members of the Union. During the late Rebellion, it contributed (exclusive of militia) a force of 362,284 men to the army and navy of the United States. The southern counties suffered very much from the incursions of the Confederates. In one of these raids the town of Chambersburg was burned. In June, 1863, the State was invaded by the Confede- rate army under General Lee. This force was defeated at Gettysburg, in Adams county, on the 3d of July, in one of the most memorable and decisive battles of the war. In consequence of this defeat, Gen- eral Lee retreated into Maryland, and recrossed the Potomac. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Philadel- phia, Pittsburg, Alleghany City, Scranton, Reading, Lancaster, Erie, Easton, Norristown, Potts vi lie, York, Allentown, Danville, Carlisle, Williarnsport, Chambersburg, West Chester, Oil City, Wilkesbarre, Johnstown, and Altoona. HARRISBURG, The capital, and sixth city of the State, is situated in Dauphin county, on the east bank of the Susquehanna River, 106 miles west by north of Philadelphia, and 110 miles north of Washington. Latitude 40 16' N.; longitude 76 50' W. The city is beautifully located, and its elevated points command fine views of river and mountain scenery. It lies in the midst of a fertile and healthy country, and is regularly laid off. The business of the place is extensive, owing to the fact that it is one of the principal railroad centres of the State, and has canal transportation to the tide- waters of Pennsylvania and Maryland. Its proximity to the great coal and iron regions of the State also adds to its importance. It is already engaged in manufacturing enterprises to a considerable extent. Several extensive iron furnaces, rolling mills, a cotton factory, a manufactory of railway cars, and other works are PENNSYLVANIA. 443 SUSQUEHANNA ABOVE IIARRISBURG. carried on. The city is rapidly growing in size and population, and promises to be a large and important inland city. The streets are wide and well paved, and the city is substantially built. In its general appearance it resembles Philadelphia, the build- ings being generally of red brick trimmed with white marble. Front street, a handsome avenue, overlooks the Susquehanna, and contains many of the handsomest residences in the city. The Public Buildings are few in number. The State House is an imposing edifice, and occupies a picturesque and commanding position upon a natural eminence, a little north of the centre of the city; and from its dome a fine view may be obtained of the broad and tortuous river, its beautiful islands, its bridges, and the adjacent ranges of the Kittatinny Mountains. The Land Office, a brick building, stands on the right of the State House ; and the State Department, also of brick, on the left. To the south of the Land Office, is the State Arsenal. The Court House, on Market street, is a stately structure, built of brick and surmounted by a dome. The State House contains a large and valuable library. There are 9 public schools in the city, and 19 churches. There are 444 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. also an efficient police force, and a steam fire department. The city is lighted with gas, and supplied with pure water from the river. It is governed by a Mayor and Council, elected by the people. In 1870, the population was 23,109. The first white settlement made at Harrisburg was in 1719, by an Englishman named John Harris. He purchased from the proprieta- ries of Pennsylvania a grant of 300 acres of land near his residence, and bought of other grantees 500 acres adjoining. He carried on a considerable trade with the neighboring Indians. In 1753, the Penns granted to his son, John Harris, jr., the right to establish a ferry across the Susquehanna -at this point, and the settlement became known as Harris' Ferry. In 1784, the town was laid out. It was made the seat of justice of the new county formed from Lancaster and called Dauphin, in honor of the heir to the Crown of France. The town itself was called Louisburg, in honor of Louis XVI. In 1791, it was incorporated as a town, and its name changed to Harris- burg. In 1812, it became the capital of the State; and in 1860, it was incorporated as a city, and divided into six wards. PHILADELPHIA, In the county of Philadelphia, the largest and most important city of the State, and the second city of the United States, lies between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, 5 miles from their junction and nearly 100 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, following the course of the Dela- ware River and Bay. It is 136 miles northeast of Washington City, and 87 miles southwest of New York. The city proper is located in a perfectly level plain; but the recent additions, especially those on the northwest, are built on a fine rolling country, which abounds in picturesque views which offer a striking contrast to the uniform flat- ness of the old city. As originally laid out in 1701, the city was bounded by the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, and by Vine and Cedar streets. In 1854, the adjoining districts of Spring Garden, Penn, Northern Liberties, Kensington, and Richmond on the north, West Philadelphia on the west, and South wark, Moyamensing and Passyunk on the south, were consolidated with the city in one muni- cipal government. These constitute, with old Philadelphia, the city proper; but by a recent Act of the Legislature, the limits of the city of Philadelphia have been made coextensive with those of the county, which include an area of 120 square miles. The entire length of the city, from north to south, is 20 miles; and its greatest breadth, from PENNSYLVANIA. 445 VIEW OF PHILADELPHIA FROM FAIRMOUNT PARK. east to west, 8 miles. The suburbs are very beautiful, and are thickly built up with handsome country seats, villas, cottages, etc. They abound in exquisite scenery, especially in the vicinity of the Wissa- hickon. The most densely settled portion of the city is the southern part, between the two rivers, where the peninsula is only about 2 miles in width. From this point it widens to the northward. Unlike New York, the population is not crowded into a few houses. The dwel- lings contain one family as a rule, and rarely more than two. They are small as a general thing, large mansions being the exception, save in the richer portions of the city. The densely inhabited portion covers an area of about 9 square miles, extending for about 5 miles along the Delaware, and 2 miles along the Schuylkill. The largest part of the business of the city is transacted between Vine and Spruce streets, east of 12th street. The wealthiest private section, that inhabited by the "fashion/' is south of Walnut, and west of 7th street, Walnut being considered the most desirable street in the city. Business is making considerable inroads upon this section. Here are to be found some of the most beautiful and elegant residences in the Union. Arch street, north of Market, and Broad street towards its northern end, are among the handsomest and most desirable thorough- fares. Market street, which is entirely devoted to business, extends 446 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE WISSAHICKON AT CHESTNUT HILL. throughout the city from east to west, beginning at the Delaware and crossing the Schuylkill. It is 100 feet in width, and is lined with large warehouses, usually of brick. Broad street, 113 feet wide, extends from the northern to the southern limit of the city. Its northern portion is lined with elegant residences. The central and southern portions are devoted to business, and contain some of the handsomest buildings in the place. Philadelphia is laid out with great regularity. The original plan of Penn contemplated a city with 10 streets running from river to PENNSYLVANIA. 447 PHILADELPHIA SMALL HOMES. river, and crossed by 25 other streets at right angles to them. Broad and Market streets were to divide this city into four nearly equal por- tions, a considerable area being reserved at the intersection of those streets for four large squares. These constituted the famous Penn Square, which has been recently stripped of its magnificent trees and shrubbery to make way for the new municipal buildings which are to occupy its four divisions. The streets are usually from 50 to 66 feet in width, with a few of greater breadth. Those running from north to south are numbered, beginning at the Delaware or eastern side ; those extending from east to west are named. In the old sections of the city, the sewerage is defective, in consequence of the flatness of the land, but the higher portions have nothing to complain of in this respect. Considering its size and importance, Philadelphia is remark- ably deficient in good pavements. The streets are generally paved with cobble stones, but Belgian and wooden pavements are now begin- ning to make their appearance. The general aspect of the city is bright and pleasing, mingled with a certain primness, however, due to its Quaker origin. Except in those portions along the water, it is very clean, and is healthy. Market street divides it into two 448 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE LEDGER BUILDING. portions, called north and south. The houses are numbered according to the streets between which they are located, 100 to a block. Thus 740 would be located between 7th and 8th streets. This system renders it comparatively easy to find a building in any part of the city. That portion of the city lying east of the Schuylkill is called Philadel- phia, and all west of that river West Philadelphia. As a rule the city is built of brick, but of late years many edifices of brown and free stone, iron and marble, have been erected. Market street is the principal business thoroughfare, and is lined with immense stores, generally devoted to the wholesale trade. Chestnut street corresponds to Broadway in New York, and is the handsomest business street. It is quite narrow, but contains the most elegant buildings in the city, and is one of the handsomest and most attractive streets in the Union. It contains the principal hotels ; Independence Hall ; the Custom House ; and the Post-Office. Third street is the great money centre, and is occupied for a considerable distance with the offices of bankers and brokers, many of which are handsome buildings. Now that Penn Square has been destroyed, there are 7 public squares in the city. These are Independence, Washington, Ritten- house, Logan, Franklin, Jefferson, and Norris Squares. They cover each from 6 to 8 acres, are enclosed with tasteful iron railings, and are ornamented with magnificent trees, shrubbery, fountains, etc. They are surrounded with large and elegant residences. PENNSYLVANIA. 449 x- The principal pleasure ground is Fairmount Park, in the northwest portion of the city. This magnificent pleasure ground lies on both sides of the Schuylkill River, from the Fairmount water- works to the mouth of the Wissahickon, and along both banks of the latter stream to Chestnut Hill, a distance of 7J miles along the Schuylkill and 6 miles along the Wissahickon, making in all, a distance of 13 J miles. The entire park comprises nearly 3000 acres, making it the most extensive pleasure ground in the world. Its great length enables it to include the most beautiful portions of the Schuylkill and the far-famed 29 450 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE WISSAHICKOX. Wissahickon, and it abounds in views. of landscape and river scenery unsurpassed in any portion of the world. It is rich in forest trees, on which the white man's hand has never been laid. It is still in its infancy as a park, the work of improvement having been scarcely begun : but what has been accomplished gives promise of a judicious and tasteful assistance of nature. In its primeval state, this park PENNSYLVANIA. 451 THE UNION LEAGUE, BROAD STREET. constituted one of the loveliest regions in America. When art and wealth have done their part, it will be indeed worthy of the pride of the people of Philadelphia. The Park contains the Fairmount water-works, and a number of interesting and historical localities. Small steamers ply on the Schuyl- kill from Fairmount water-works to the Falls, and carriages supplied by the Commissioners convey visitors to the principal points at a moderate rate of fares. From the high grounds in the northern por- tion a fine view of the city and the surrounding country is obtained. The public buildings are numerous and handsome. Girard College, in the northern portion of the city, is the finest specimen of Grecian architecture in the United States. It is built of white marble, and is entirely fire-proof. There are two additional buildings on each side of the main building, all of which are of marble. The U. S. Custom House, on Chestnut street, also of white marble, is a magnificent struc- ture in the Doric style. It is built on a raised platform, and both fronts are ornamented with noble colonnades of fluted Doric columns. The U. 8. Mint, on Chestnut street, extends back to Olive street, 220 feet. It is built of marble, and is the principal establishment of the Federal Government for the coining of money. The Merchants' Ex- change, at the intersection of Walnut, Third, and Dock streets, is a handsome building of white marble. The State House, or as it is 452 TJ3E GREAT REPUBLIC. NEW MASONIC TEMPLE, ON BROAD STREET. better known, Independence Hall, is a plain edifice of brick, remark- able only for its venerable appearance and its interesting history. It was in this building that the early sessions of the Continental Congress were held, and here was adopted the famous Declaration of Independ- ence, on the 4th of July, 1776. The Union League House on Broad street, is a handsome edifice of brick, used as a club house by the Union League of Philadelphia. The Masonic Temple, t now in course of construction, on Broad street between Market and Arch, will be one of the most magnificent structures in the city. Many of the churches are elegant and imposing. The theatres are about 6 in number, and besides these there are a number of inferior places of amusement. The Academy of Music on Broad street, is one of the largest and finest halls in the country ; but the other theatres, though handsome, are not equal to those of the other large cities of America. The hotels are large, elegant, and well kept. The principal are the Continental, the La Pierre, the Girard, the Merchants', the American, and Colonnade Hotel. The Continental is a splendid building, and in its internal arrangements is equal to any house of the kind in the Union. The city is well supplied with provisions by means of its excellent markets, of which there are 24. Some of these are handsome struc- tures of brick and iron; others are less pretentious; but the display of edibles of all kinds to be seen in them is perhaps the finest in the PENNSYLVANIA. 453 world. The great market garden regions of the Middle States lie so close to Philadelphia, that but a few hours intervene between the gathering of the articles and their delivery to the purchaser in the market. The Educational, Literary, and Scientific Institutions are numerous and of a very high order. The Public Schools have long been noted for their excellence. They are distinct from the State Schools of this kind, and are conducted by the city. There are about 375 free schools within the corporate limits, including two high schools. The average attendance of pupils is about 67,000. There are numerous private schools and academies, which are well attended. Phi- ladelphia has always been famous for the care bestowed by its people upon the educa- tion of the young, and no doubt owes a large share of its prosperity to this care. The University of Pennsyl- vania, 9th street, between Chestnut and Market, em- braces four departments, viz. : the Academical, the Collegiate, the Medical, and the Law. It ranks among the first in- stitutions of its kind in Amer- ica, and its Medical College is the oldest in the Union. The Jefferson Medical College is also a famous and flourishing institution. The Female Medi- cal College is devoted to the object indicated by its name. The others are an Eclectic and Homoeo- pathic Medical College, a College of Pharmacy for the education of druggists and chemists, a College of Dental Surgery, a College of Phy- sicians, which is one of the principal sources of the American Phar- macopoeia, and a Polytechnic College, organized on the plans of the Industrial Colleges of France and Germany. The Wagner Free Institute, the gift of Professor Wagner, is a fine institution. Girard College, in the northwest portion of the city, about two miles from the $tate House, was founded by Stephen Girard, a native of France and HEMLOCK GLEN ON THE WISSAHICKON. 454 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. NEW ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES. a merchant of Philadelphia, who died in 1831. He bequeathed $2,000,000 for this purpose. The buildings were completed in 1847, and the institution was opened January 1, 1848. It is devoted to the " gratuitous instruction and support of destitute orphans." The build- ings, 6 in number, are of white marble. The American Philosophical /Society has a valuable library and collection of minerals, fossils, and ancient relics. The Franklin Institute is a flourishing society composed of manufacturers, artists, mechanics, and persons friendly to the mechanic arts. It possesses a library of over 8000 volumes, and holds an annual exhibition in October. The Academy of Natural Sciences is one of the best insti- tutions of its kind in the Union. It possesses a library of 26,000 volumes, and a remarkably fine collection of specimens, embracing over 200,000 subjects. The Historical Society of Pennsylvania was founded for the purpose of diffusing a knowledge of local history, especially in relation to the State of Pennsylvania. It has published a number of valuable works on this subject. It possesses a library of 18,000 volumes, and a valuable collection of contemporary documents and relics. The Philadelphia Library was founded in 1731 through the influ- ence of Benjamin Franklin. It numbers about 90,000 volumes, and is free to all who wish to use it. The Mercantile Library is supported by the subscriptions of its members. It contains over 40,000 volumes. The Athanceum Library numbers about 25,000 volumes. Connected PENNSYLVANIA, 455 with it are a news and reading room and a chess room. The Appren- tices' Library contains 22,000 volumes ; the Friends' Library 7000 volumes ; and the Law Association Library 7500 volumes. The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts possesses a valuable per- manent collection of paintings, and holds an annual exhibition of new works. The Artists' Fund Society, the Numismatic Society of Phila- delphia, and the School of Design for Women are the other art societies. The Benevolent and Charitable Institutions number more than 100. We can mention but a few of the most prominent. In respect to her institutions of this kind, Philadelphia is second to no city in the land. The Pennsylvania Hospital is a noble institution, founded in 1751. It possesses an anatomical museum, and a library of more than 10,000 volumes. The County Alms House is an immense struc- ture, situated in the midst of large grounds in West Philadelphia. Connected with it is a hospital with 600 beds. The Pennsyl- vania Insane Asylum is in West Philadelphia. It is one of the best institutions of its kind in existence. Its grounds cover an area of 114 acres. The main building is 430 feet long. The United States Naval Hospital, on the east bank of the Schuylkill, below South street, is for the use of invalid officers and seamen of the U. S. Navy. The Pennsylvania Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, the Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind, the Preston Retreat, the House of Refuge, the House of Correc- tion, and Wills Hospital are noble charities. The Prisons are well conducted. The Eastern State Penitentiary occupies an area of 11 acres, enclosed by a stone wall, 30 feet high. It is built of stone, and consists of an octagonal building in the centre, from which radiate wings, with rows of cells on each side, and a ON THE WISSAIIICKON DRIVE. 456 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. SCHUYLKILL RIVER, FROM THE FALLS. passage way extending the entire length of each wing. It is a model institution in every' respect. The Philadelphia County Prison is a massive building of stone. It is used for the purposes of a peniten- tiary as well as a county jail and work-house. There are about 375 churches in the city. As a rule they are handsome and substantially built. The meeting-houses of the Friends are generally plain brick structures, remarkable for their absence of display. They are 14 in number. The Cemeteries are, Laurel Hill, Glenwood, Mount Vernon, Monu- ment, Woodlands, Ronaldson's, Odd Fellows', and Mount Moriah. They are noted for their beauty. Laurel Hill is considered by many persons the most beautiful cemetery in the Union. It is located on the banks of the Schuylkill, in a lovely country, and contains many handsome tombs. Philadelphia is lighted with gas of an excellent quality, which is supplied at a reasonable rate to the citizens. The gas works are con- ducted by the city, and the consumers are secured the best quality of gas that can be made, and are protected from the extortions of private companies. The total length of street mains is about 500 miles. PENNSYLVANIA 457 CHESTNUT STREET BRIDGE, OVER THE SCHUYLKILL, PHILADELPHIA. The city is supplied with water from the Schuylkill River. In 1812 the Fairmount Water Works were begun, and in 1827 water was introduced into the city. Since then the city has constructed additional reservoirs. The Fairmount Water Works, on the Schuyl- kill River, in the northwest part of the city, are very interesting and constitute one of the chief attractions to visitors. The average amount used per diem exceeds 25,000,000 gallons. Philadelphia is connected with the Jersey shore on the opposite side of the Delaware by six lines of steam ferries. Numerous steamers ply on the Delaware between Philadelphia and the towns on that river. The street railway lines are 22 in number. They constitute the best system of street transportation in the Union. By the use of transfer tickets almost any point within the city limits can be reached at a uniform fare of seven cents. There are 9 bridges in and near Philadelphia. Some of these are used exclusively by the railway lines entering the city. The bridge over the Schuylkill at Chestnut street is a beautiful structure of iron, 390 feet long, 42 feet wide, and 40 feet above high water. It cost $500,000. The city is provided with a strong and efficient police force, a fire 458 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. alarm telegraph, and a steam fire department, with more than 30 steam engines. It is divided into 24 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Council elected by the people. There are 10 daily, and 40 weekly newspapers, and about 50 peri- odicals, weekly and monthly, published in Philadelphia. A large share of the book publishing trade of the Union is carried on here. Philadelphia is largely engaged in manufactures. The district of Manayunk is almost wholly engaged in these enterprises, devoting itself principally to cotton and woollen goods, and carpets. Sugar refining is carried on extensively in the city. Large quantities of shoes, chemicals, medicines, paints, umbrellas, parasols, carts, wheel- barrows, household furni- ture, jewelry, iron manu- factures of every descrip- tion, steam engines, water and gas pipes, military goods, flour, soap, ale and beer, glass, clothing, can- dles, hosiery, etc., etc., are manufactured annually. The total capital invested in manufactures in Phila- delphia is estimated at nearly $100,000,000. Ship building js also Carried on to a limited extent. The commerce of Phi- ladelphia is large, and is growing rapidly. Its for- eign trade passes principally through the port of New York. Efforts are now being made to establish direct communication between Philadelphia and Liverpool. In 1865, there were 541 arrivals from foreign po.rts. The city carries on an immense coasting trade, and its harbor is usually crowded with vessels. In 1865, there were 31,705 arrivals from American ports. The total value of exports from the port of Philadelphia in 1865 was, $11,278,603. The imports in the same year amounted to $7,164,744. The city also conducts a large trade with all parts of the country, and especially with the West, by means of its railroads. Immense quantities of coal and petroleum annually pass through Philadelphia, thus adding to its wealth. PUBLIC FOUNTAIN. PENNSYLVANIA. 45^ Philadelphia is at present the fourth city in the Union in commercial importance, but it is making rapid progress towards a higher position. The U. 8. Navy Yard is located on the Delaware River in the southeastern part of the city. It covers an area of 12 acres, and contains 2 large ship-houses, and all the necessary works. Some of the best vessels in the Navy have been constructed here. It also con- tains a sectional floating dock. In 1870, the population of Philadelphia was 674,022. In 1684, it had 2500 inhabitants, in 1778, 42,520 ; in 1820 (up to which time it was the largest city in the Union), 167,325 ; and in 1860, 565,529. The city of Philadelphia was founded by William Penn immediately upon taking possession of the grant of a province by Charles II. He sent out a body of colonists in August 1681, and in 1682, came over himself, and superintended the surveys of the new city. During the latter year, a large number of colonists arrived, the majority of whom were Friends or Quakers, and persons of respectability and wealth. Penn's deliberate intention was to found a large city, and the general plan of the present city differs very slightly from his original design. The new settlement was named by him Philadelphia, partly from the city of that name in Asia Minor, but principally because of the signi- ficance of the term. Penn's first care was to make an equitable treaty with the Indians, who, on their part, carefully abstained from molest- ing the new city, which prospered in a marked degree, and became the largest and most important place on the continent, which preeminence it held until about 30 years after the opening of the Revolution. Philadelphia T)ore its full share in the events of the early wars of the country with the French and Indians, though it was itself never " In 1741, the city was divided into 10 wards. In December 1719, a printing press was set up, and Andrew Bradford began to publish the American Weekly Mercury, which was continued until 1746. In 1728, the Gazette was begun, which fell to Franklin to conduct in 1 729. In the latter year, the building of a State House was author- ized, the site was selected in 1730, and the building begun in 1732, and completed in 1735. The bell tower was not erected till 1750; and on June 7th, 1753, the new ' great bell/ cast here, weighing 2080 pounds, with the motto, ' Proclaim liberty/ etc., was raised to its place; this is the bell celebrated in connection with the Declaration of Independence, and now in Independence Hall. The first Colonial Congress met in Philadelphia at Carpenters' Hall, a building still in 460 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA. use as a hall, on September 4, 1774. Congress held its sessions at the State House in 1776, and here adopted and signed the Declaration of Independence. The British forces occupied the city from September, 1777, to June, 1778. A census was then taken by General Corn- wallis, and there were found to be 21, 767 inhabitants and 5470 houses, but the people were then much scattered. Congress resumed its PENNSYLVANIA. 4G1 sessions at Philadelphia after the British left it, and continued to make this the national capital until the removal to Washington City in 1800. The battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777, was fought within the present chartered limits of the city, 7 miles northwest of the centre of the old city proper. The State Legislature removed its sessions to Harrisburg in 1800, simultaneously with the removal of the seat of the General Government to Washington. The foreign commerce and general trade of Philadelphia increased rapidly after the close of the Revolution. At the war of 1812 this commerce almost wholly ceased ; in 1816, business and speculation revived, but the results were not fortunate, and direct external trade never recovered its former import- ance. Previous to 1839, the banking capital of Philadelphia was large, and for most of the period previous to 1836, it was the monetary centre of the country. The First Bank of the United States, established by Act of Congress, in 1791, with a capital of $10,000,000, was located here ; and the Second Bank of the United States was established here in 1816, with a capital of $35,000,000. The subsequent failure of the bank under its State charter in 1839, and the loss of its large capital, greatly weakened the financial strength of the city, and the monetary centre was permanently transferred to New York. The re- vulsion of 1837, and the subsequent financial depression, fell heavily on the city and State, the recovery from them not being apparent until 1844. In 1793, the yellow fever made terrible ravages, nearly deci- mating the population, and driving numbers into the country ; and again in 1798, it was epidemic. In 1832, the Asiatic cholera was very destructive, the victims numbering 770. More recently, there have been milder forms of epidemic cholera and yellow fever, but as a whole the city has from its foundation been conspicuously healthy,." The separate municipalities proved for many years the source of considerable trouble, and in 1854, they were all consolidated into one city, under the general name of Philadelphia. By the same enact- ment, the corporate limits of the city were made to embrace the entire county. PITTSBURG, The second city in the State, is situated in Alleghany county, at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, which here form the Ohio River. It is 357 miles west of Philadelphia, and 223 north- west of Washington city. The city is located on the triangular plain enclosed by the Monongahela and Alleghany rivers, and by Grant's Hill 462 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and the other eminences at the eastern side of the plain. " The general outline and many other features of this city bear a striking resemblance to the lower part of New York. Along the Monongahela the streets were laid out at right angles to each other, and extend either parallel or perpendicular to the river. The same plan was also adopted on the Alle- ghany side, by which arrangement the cross streets meet obliquely a few squares south of the latter stream. The space included within these limits was found insufficient to meet the requirements of the rapidly increasing population, which soon extended itself to the opposite shores. Here have sprung up several large and flourishing towns, the most important of which are Alleghany City and Manchester, situated directly opposite the junction of the Alleghany River with the Ohio, and Birmingham, on the left bank of the Monongahela. In commer- cial and social interests, all these are identical with the city proper, and we should do Pittsburg injustice, not to consider them as a part of the same community." The situation of Pittsburg is exceedingly beautiful. The city lies in a plain surrounded by hills from 400 to 500 feet in height. At the base of these flow the three rivers we have named. The hills are very rich in coal, iron, and limestone. The soil is fertile to the very summit of the hills, which are covered with picturesque forests, orchards, and gardens, thus giving an additional beauty to the land- scape. An English traveller writes of the scenery as follows : "As regards scenery it is beautifully situated, being at the foot of the Alleghany Mountains, and at the junction of the two rivers Monongahela and Alleghany. Here, at the town, they come together, and form the River Ohio. Nothing can be more picturesque than the site, for the spurs of the mountains come down close round the town, and the rivers are broad and swift, and can be seen for miles from heights which may be reached in a short walk. Even the filth and wondrous blackness of the place are picturesque when looked down upon from above. The tops of the churches are visible, and some of the larger buildings may be partially traced through the thick, brown, settled smoke. But the city itself is buried in a dense cloud. The atmosphere was especially heavy when I was there, and the effect was probably increased by the general darkness of the weather. The Monongahela is crossed by a fine bridge, and on the other side the ground rises at once, almost with the rapidity of a precipice; so that a commanding view is obtained down upon the town and the two rivers and the different bridges, from a height immediately above them. I PENNSYLVANIA. 463 was never more in love with smoke and dirt than when I stood here and watched the darkness of night close in upon the floating soot which hovered over the house-tops of the city. I cannot say that I saw the sun set, for there was no sun. I should say that the sun never shone at Pittsburg, as foreigners who visit London in November declare that the sun never shines there." The city is handsomely built, brick and stone being the principal materials used; but the dense smoke soon defaces the handsomest structure. In consequence of this the place has a black grimy appearance, which effectually mars the work of taste and wealth. There are many handsome residences in the eastern section. The suburbs are preferred for purposes of residence however. They are very picturesque in themselves, and are beautifully built up, and present a very marked contrast to the city in cleanliness. The Public Buildings are among the handsomest in America. The Court House is situated on the summit of Grant's Hill, and is a hand- some edifice of granite, of the Grecian Doric order, with a noble por- tico. The summit of the dome is 148 feet from the ground. The new Custom House is built of freestone in the Grecian style. It con- tains the Post Office. Besides these are several others which are worthy of notice. Some of the churches and commercial buildings are among the principal ornaments of the city. There are also 2 fine market houses, one of which contains a large public hall. The Educational Institutions are in a flourishing condition. The public schools are numerous, and are attended by about 20,000 pupils. Besides these the city contains a nunlber of private schools. The Benevolent Institutions are the Mercy Hospital, under the charge of the Sisters of Mercy, the United States Marine Hospital, the Home for ike Friendless, the Church Home, designed chiefly as a home for children of all denominations, the Pittsburg Infirmary, the Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum and a House of Refuge. In addition to these are the Western Pennsylvania Hospital (which has a depart- ment for the insane at Dixmont, 8 miles from the city), and the House of Industry, situated in Alleghany City, but really to be regarded as among the institutions of Pittsburg. The Western Penitentiary of Pennsylvania is located in Alleghany City. It is an immense stone building in the Norman style. There are about 110 churches in the city of Pittsburg, and about 30 in Alleghany City. Some of them are imposing structures and are admirably located. 464 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Pittsburg is supplied with pure water from the Alleghany River, and is lighted with gas of an excellent quality. It is divided into 9 wards, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It is well provided with street railways, which also connect its business centres with the suburbs on both rivers. Four fine bridges connect it with Alleghany City, and two extend across the Monongahela to Birmingham. Alleghany City is simply an extensive suburb of Pittsburg, and is divided from it by the Alleghany River. It is well built in the main, and contains many handsome residences, being a favorite resi- dence of the people of the greater city, as it is very much cleaner. It contains a large number of manufacturing establishments, and is a place of considerable importance. Here are located the Western Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church ; the Theological Seminary of the Associate Reformed Church; and the Alleghany Theological Institute. In 1870 the population of Alleghany City was 53,181. The manufactures, etc., of the city will be treated of in con- nection with those of Pittsburg. Alleghany is a distinct corporation, and is governed by its own Mayor and Council. Birmingham and Manchester are considerable suburbs. The former is situated on the south side of the Monongehela -River, immediately opposite Pittsburg, and the latter is on the Ohio, 2 miles below the city. Mr. Geo. H. Thurston, in his Quarterly Circular, thus describes manufacturing Pittsburg : " Pittsburgh is not to be seen in a day, nor yet in a week ; and while the simple fact that it is a great manufacturing city is generally acknowledged, yet the details of that greatness are but little under- stood. Many years ago, before the iron horse had crossed the Alle- ghanies, while yet the transportation of the merchandise for the West was made in the old six-horse Conestoga wagons, the City of Wheeling claimed importance and coming greatness, inasmuch as that forty of those wagons had arrived in that city in one day. Since then Wheel- ing has grown into an active little competitor of Pittsburgh, the great parent of all western manufactures, and of which it, as well as a dozen other manufacturing towns, are off-shoots, the natural outspringing and colonization of Pittsburgh's growth. That growth has been so marked and so continuous that we have often, in the past few years, been tempted to remodel the language of Wheeling, and say : Forty miles of mills and factories every day in operation in Pittsburgh. This is no brag, but almost literally a reality, although no doubt a terse explanation of ' what Pittsburgh really is like ' is rather startling to her PENNSYLVANIA. 465 own citizens. The real fact" is that actual measurement shows that in the limits of what is known throughout the country as Pittsburgh there are thirty-five miles of manufactories of iron, of glass, of steel, of copper, of oil, of wools, of cotton, of brass, alone, not to include manufactories in other materials, nor including any of less grade than manufactories of iron chains in iron, or plows in wood. A measure- ment of the ground also shows that these 35 miles of factories are so closely contiguous that were they placed in a single row each factory would have but about 400 feet of front space for its workings. " The statistics of this statement of the extent of Pittsburgh manu- facturing power are these: From the point trf> the south bank of the Alleghany River to the Sharpsburg bridge is 5 miles ; in that dis- tance, between the river bank and Penn street, there are 115 factories of the classes designated. From Sharpsburg bridge down the north bank of the Alleghany River to Wood's Run is 8 miles, and in that distance there are 67 manufactories. From Temperanceville to Brownstown, up the west bank of the Monongahela River, is 4 miles, and in that distance there are 70 factories, between the river and Carson street. From the Monongahela bridge up the course of the Monongahela River, to a point beyond Brownstown, is 3J miles, and in that distance, between Carson street and the hill, there are 43 manufactories. From the Point to the Copper Works, on the east bank of the Monongahela, is 3J miles, and in that distance there are 55 factories. From Federal street out Ohio street to Duquesne Borough is 1J miles, and in that distance there are 15 factories. On Butcher's Run, in a distance of 2 miles, there are 32 factories. Along Liberty street, from the Point to the Outer Depot, there are 19 fac- tories in a distance of 2 miles. On 2d and 3d avenues, from Liberty to Try streets, a distance of 1 mile, there are 18 factories. Along Pennsylvania avenue to Soho street, a distance of ] J miles, there are 17 factories. Between Ohio street and the base of the hill there are, in a distance of 3 miles, 24 factories. "Thus in a distance of 35 J miles of streets, there are 475 manu- factories of iron, of steel, of cotton, of oil, of glass, of copper, occupy- ing an average of less than 400 feet front each. "Were these factories placed in a single row, it will be easily seen how compactly they would be crowded, each occupying no more terri- tory than was actually needed. They would be a continuous row, without interval, and show that in reality there are in Pittsburgh ab- solutely over 35 continuous miles of manufactures in daily operation. 30 466 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. " Pittsburghers, then, in answer to the question, what is Pittsburgh like? can readily answer Like a row 35 miles long of factories twisted up into a compact tangle all belching forth smoke, all glow- ing with fires, all swarming with workmen, all echoing with the clank of machinery. The territory over and around which this immense chain of machinery is strung, though all popularly known as Pitts- burgh, is composed of the city of Pittsburgh and the city of Alleghany, the boroughs of Temperanceville, West Pittsburgh, Monongahela, South Pittsburgh, Birmingham, and East Birmingham. The whole forms, however, one compact city, in effect, divided only by the two rivers, which, running through the district, are spanned by numerous bridges, over several of which street railroads link, with their almost continuous lines of cars, in one mass, a population in this hive of in- dustry numbering 200,000 souls. Although the name of Pittsburgh, and the term Pittsburgh manufactures, have been 'as household words 7 throughout the West, since the days of the earlier Western settlements, still its growth has been so equable with that of the West that but few realize the real magnitude of the community. " Called into existence by no sudden speculative rush of emigra- tion, drawn primarily by some adventitious circumstances, Pittsburgh has accumulated its population through the course of years from the solid advantages each passing year renders but more apparent. In all past years Pittsburgh has been a point of departure for much of the emigration to the West, a position the city still maintains. Thus naturally Pittsburgh became a supply point for the West, and the West the chief market for her productions. The increase of the popu- lation of the West has told with unerring certainty upon the business and the population of Pittsburgh. "In 1800, the population of the States through and along which Pittsburgh enjoys river navigation, was 385,667, and that of Pitts- burgh was 1565, or a little over ^ per cent., while the value of her business was, in 1803, but $350,000, or equal to 92 T 2 F per cent, of the population of the West. "In 1810, there were in the same western territory 1,057,531 in- habitants, and in Pittsburgh 4876, or j* Q per cent., being ^ over i!^> necessary increase to preserve the ratio of our increase in the city's population, in proportion to that of the West. The amount of busi- ness of the city was then estimated at $1,000,000, equal to 93 per cent, on the population of the territory indicated. "In 1830, there were 3,331,298 inhabitants in the section of the PENNSYLVANIA. 467 Union before indicated, and in Pittsburgh there were 16,988, still showing the growth of the city was not in the same ratio of increase as the West, as in past periods, but a gain of T V over what was neces- sary. "In 1840, there were 5,173,949 inhabitants in the western and southwestern States, and the population of Pittsburgh was 38,931, being %$ per cent., showing not only the maintenance of the progres- sive ratio, but a gain over it of ^ 5 per cent. "In 1836, the business of the city was estimated at $31,146,550, being something over 600 per cent., showing the business of the city had not only kept pace with the population of the West, as shown in previous ratios, but had compounded thereon 500 per cent. "In 1860, the population of the Mississippi basin and the western lake slopes (Pittsburgh's market), was shown by the census of that year to be in round numbers 17,000,000. At that date the business of Pittsburgh was estimated at over $100,000,000, showing the ratio of business on the population of the West, attained in 1836 and 1840, was still maintained. "The population of the district considered and claimed as Pitts- burgh, being the compact mass of population between and on both sides of the rivers to the city limits, was estimated at 140,000 in that year, showing that in population as well as business the ratio of Pitts- burgh's prosperity with the wealth of the West continues to be main- tained. What the population of the West may be as shown by the census of 1870 we know not, but those who know the great growth of Pittsburgh in the last nine years, the vast increase in her rolling- mills and in her workshops, cannot doubt that the ratio of increase is- still maintained. In the great swell of the population of the West, Pittsburgh seems not only to keep pace and to hold her trade, but that trade, like her population, seems to increase in arithmetical pro- portion with the growth of the country. Considering the competitors which have arisen for the market Pittsburgh supplies with her staples, this is worthy especial note as indicative of a natural force in her position and her resources not to be lost sight of in contemplating her future. " The force of Pittsburgh's position is seen at a glance. Distant only 300 to 400 miles from three of the greatest sea-board cities of the Union ; but 200 miles from the great chain of inland seas, and reaching in all directions by continuous river navigation an area of country 1200 by 960 geographical miles, she is at the same time the 468 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. key point of a railway route nearer by 40 miles from New York to the West than any now constructed. Situated in the heart of a bitu- minous coal formation of the Appalachian field, and equally advan- tageously located as to deposits of iron ore, her geographical relations to the staples for manufacturing are unequalled. She stands in a geo- graphical centre from which a circle with a radius of 400 miles em- braces Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecti- cut, Rhode Island, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Indiana, Michigan, Canada, parts of Illinois and South Carolina. This circle embraces every variety of climate, and nearly, if not quite all the staples of the United States and its valuable manufacturing minerals, over which she holds the magician's wand in her unequalled supply of fuel. For < coal/ says Vischers, ' is the indispensable aliment of industry. It is to in- dustry what oxygen is to the lungs water to the plant nourishment to the animal/ " The statistics of the coal by which Pittsburgh is -surrounded shows how inexhaustible is this element of her force and her progress. The extent of the bituminous coal fields by which Pittsburgh is surrounded is equal to 8,600,000 square acres. The amount of coal contained in that area it is difficult to estimate. It has been stated that the upper seam, rating it at 8 feet, contains 53,516,430,000 tons, which at $2 per ton, or a little over 7 cents per bushel, would be worth $107,032,- 860,000 a sum which, could it be realized, would pay the national debt thirty times. Of course although centuries will not see it taken from the earth, the figures show what a mine of wealth Pittsburgh has to draw from ; and how mighty is the magnet she possesses to attract to her boundaries minerals and staples of all the States, popu- lation and wealth. At the present time the coal trade of the city amounts to about $10,000,000 annually, and there are in the vicinity of Pittsburgh 103 collieries; the value of lands, houses, improve- ments, cars, etc., amounts to about $11,000,000. The amount of coal mined from these collieries in 1864 was 48,462,966 bushels, of which nearly 30,000,000 bushels were exported down the Ohio River alone. " But not in coal alone is her strength shown. In those things which coal enables her busy artizans to produce, is her power equally apparent. As nearly as can be ascertained, one-half of the glass fac- tories in the United States are located at Pittsburgh, where there are 40 firms engaged in the manufacture of glass, who run 60 factories producing the various descriptions of green, window, flint, and lime PENNSYLVANIA. 4G9 i glass, employing over 4000 workmen, and producing between four and five millions worth of glass. " In iron and steel, Pittsburgh claims and maintains to be the great market of the country. The exact money value of this great trade has always been difficult to arrive at. Much of the iron is shipped by rail to various points, and much by river. By figures we have at command of the shipments of plate, bar, sheet, and rod iron and steel from Pittsburgh in the year 1865, it would seem that there were ex- ported, by rail alone, to 24 diiferent States, over 143,000 tons, and 180,000 kegs of nails to 20 different States. These railroad exporta- tions, it must not be forgotten, are not probably half the manufacture. That of castings there were shipped by rail alone 5,143,008 pounds in 1864, to 22 different States; and that by one railroad alone there were received in 1864, into the city, 107,000 tons of pig-iron and blooms, exclusive of the yield of 6 or 8 furnaces running in the city of Pittsburgh, or the imports by river and other railroads. It is esti- mated that of shipments made from Pittsburgh, at least as much is sent by river as by rail. There are over 30 iron rolling-mills in Pittsburgh, 6 steel mills, and between 50 and 60 iron founderies. These figures but feebly indicate the full extent of the great iron and steel trade of the city, of which the sales alone of articles made of iron subject to tax, made and returned to the city, was from March, 1865, to March, 1866, over $27,000,000. " Oil is another great staple, and there are in Pittsburgh 58 re- fineries, in which is invested a capital of nearly 8,000,000 in buildings and machinery ; and in the tanks and barges necessary to the carrying- on of the business, nearly $6,000,000 more. The oil trade of the city for the 5 years from January, 1863, to January, 1868, amounted to about $56,000,000, or an average of about $11,000,000 annually. " Other branches of Pittsburgh manufactures might be cited to show its force and solidity, but enough has been stated to partially show what Pittsburgh is like. To show that she is like a great city cf nearly 200,000 population ; that she is a great arsenal for the supply of manufactured articles; that she grows with the growth, and in- creases in wealth with the prosperity of the West. Although she has apparently grown but slowly, yet she has grown like the oak, and but counts her infancy in the years in which other cities spring and ma- ture; and she stands like a sooty giant astride the head waters of the Ohio, rejoicing in the lusty strength of her fresh youth, while her powerful servant, the mighty Geni of the Mine, throughout the waters 470 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of the Ohio, along the shores of the Father of Waters, around the borders of the great lakes, on either hand of the pathway of the iron horse, athwart the Western prairies, proclaims her the dusky Queen of Industry, and commands homage to her iron sceptre in three- fourths of the States of the Union." Its very location has placed an enormous trade in the hands of Pittsburg. Lying at the head of the Ohio River, it has water com- munication with every town on the navigable portion of the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the Missouri rivers and their tributaries. Being one of the principal railway centres of the West, it has railway con- nections with all parts of the Union. The principal harbor is fur- nished by the Monongahela River, which lias a greater depth of water than the Alleghany. The Ohio is navigable to the confluence of those streams for boats of light draught, except at infrequent periods of very great dryness. The boats are generally built in such a manner as to adapt them to the lowest stages of water. Large side-wheel steamers also navigate the Ohio during the season of high water. By means of these steamers, a heavy trade is maintained with the States along the rivers we have mentioned. Pittsburg thus controls about 12,000 miles of water transportation, and can deliver its products without breaking bulk in over 400 counties of 17 States. In 1865, there were 159 steamboats owned in the city. The number is much greater at present. Besides these, hundreds of steamers, owned in other States, trade with Pittsburg. In 1870, the population of Pittsburg was 86,235. In February, 1754, a party of English settlers built a stockade and established a trading post on the point of land lying between the Monongahela and Alleghany rivers at their confluence, on the site of the present city of Pittsburg. In April, they were attacked and driven away by the French, who claimed the country. The con- querors erected a fort on the spot, and called it Duquesne, in honor of the Governor of Canada. This fort at once became the centre of all the military operations of the French in this part of the country. To the French claim, which was based upon their discovery of the region, the English advanced a counter claim based upon a charter from the Crown, strengthened by a treaty with the Iroquois. The importance attached to the position by the French made it a matter of the greatest moment to the English to obtain possession of it. General Braddock was sent, in 1755, at the head of the largest force that had ever crossed the mountains, to recapture it. He was attacked PENNSYLVANIA. 4U and defeated by the French and Indians, on the 9th of July of that year, at a point on the Monongahela, about 12 miles above the fort. On the 15th of October, 1758, a force of 800 men, under Major Grant, advancing to attack the fort, was defeated with terrible loss. " On the 25th of November, 1758, the fort fell into the hands of a force of 6000 men under General Forbes. The French and their Indian allies vainly endeavored to check Forbes 7 advance, and failing in this, set the fort on fire and retreated on the 24th, the day before the arrival of the English. General Forbes rebuilt and strengthened the fort. It was completed in January, 1759, and was called Fort Pitt, in honor of the great English Minister. The French made several efforts to recapture it, but without success. In 1764, the settlement of the town began, the houses being erected in the vicinity of the fort. In 1772, the fort was abandoned by the English, who had no further use for it as a military post. The site was claimed by Virginia under a charter from James I. Pennsylvania also claimed it under a char- ter from Charles II. Virginia prepared to assert her claim by force, and on the llth of August, 1775, threw a company of soldiers into Fort Pitt. The Revolution made this a minor question, however, and in August, 1779, Commissioners, appointed by the two provinces, met in Baltimore, and agreed upon the existing boundary which was ratified by their respective Legislatures. The excise troubles of 1791 4, made Pittsburg the scene of considerable violence. In 1845, a fire destroyed the entire business portion of the city, causing a loss of $5,000,000. Pittsburg was incorporated as a borough in 1804, and as a city in 1816. SCRANTON, The fourth city in population in the State, is situated in Luzerne county, on the left bank of the Lacka wanna River, 137 miles north- east of Harrisburg. It is the terminus of several railway lines lead- ing direct to Harrisburg, Philadelphia, and New York, and the centre of an immense coal trade. Iron ore is found in large quantities in the vicinity, and the city is largely engaged in the manufacture of iron wares of various kinds. The principal sources of its prosperity, however, are the rich coal mines which lie near the town. These mines are worked by the Pennsylvania and other companies, and em- ploy large numbers of miners of all nationalities. Scranton is a well built town, containing about 4 public schools, 11 churches, and 2 newspaper offices. It is prettily situated, and is THE GREAT REPUBLIC, SCRANTON. improving in its architectural pretensions. During the last few years, the population has increased with unprecedented rapidity. In 1860, the city contained 9223 inhabitants. In 1870, the population was 35,762. If Pittsburg and Alleghany are regarded as one -city, Scranton is the third city in Pennsylvania. BEADING, The fifth city of the State, is situated in Berks county, on the left or east bank of the Schuylkill River, 52 miles east of Harrisburg, and 52 miles northwest of Philadelphia, with both of which places it is connected by railways. It has railway connections with other parts of the State. The Schuylkill Canal brings it in direct commu- nication with the entire Schuylkill region. The river is here crossed by two bridges, one of which is 600 feet long. The city is beautifully situated on a sloping plain, which rises from the river, and is terminated on the east by an eminence called Penn's Mount. The city is well built, brick being the principal material. The streets are broad and straight, and intersect each other at right- PENNSYLVANIA. 473 angles. The streets are macadamized and afford a firm, smooth road- way, admirably adapted to travel. The general appearance of the town is clean. The principal buildings are the Court House and the churches, some of the latter of which are very handsome. The public schools are excellent, and there are several private schools. There are 23 churches in the city, and 2 daily and 6 weekly newspapers are pub- Jished here. Reading is lighted with gas, and supplied with water. The surrounding country is very beautiful, and as this section of the State is one of the finest agricultural regions of the Union, Reading is a place of considerable trade. It is also largely engaged in manu- factures iron, cotton, and flour being the principal articles. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 33,932. Reading was laid out in 1748, by Thomas and Richard Penn, and named from the town of Reading in England. In 1783, it was incor- porated as a borough ; and in 1847, as a city. LANCASTER, The seventh city of the State, is finely situated in Lancaster county, 1 mile west of Conestoga Creek, 70 miles west of Philadelphia, and 37 miles east-southeast of Harrisburg. The Pennsylvania Central Railway passes through the city, and connects it with Philadelphia, Harrisburg, and Pittsburg. The slack-water navigation of the Con- estoga gives it water transportation to the sea, and is a source of con- siderable wealth to it. It is situated in the wealthiest and most thickly populated section of the State, and possesses a large trade with the surrounding country and with Philadelphia. It is also largely engaged in manufactures, and is extending its efforts in this direction. It is noted for the production of rifles, axes, carriages, agricultural implements, locomotives, and cotton goods. The city is regularly laid off. The streets are straight and well paved, and intersect each other at right-angles. The city is lighted with gas, and is supplied with pure water from Conestoga Creek. The majority of the buildings are of brick, and this gives to the place a substantial appearance. Many of the dwellings are elegant and would do credit to any city. The Court House is a fine edifice of stone, in the Grecian style ; and the County Prison is a handsome structure, of sand-stone. There are several excellent public schools in the city, and about as many flourishing private schools. Lancaster 474 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. is the seat of Marshal College, organized in 1853, in connection with the old establishment of Franklin College, which was founded in 1787. The city contains 15 churches, and 2 public libraries. Two daily and 7 weekly newspapers are published here. Lancaster is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 20,233. Lancaster was laid out in 1730. It was settled principally by Germans, and the present inhabitants are mostly of German descent. It was for many years the largest inland town in the United States, and was the capital of Pennsylvania from 1799 to 1812. In 1818, it was incorporated as a city. ERIE, The eighth city of the State, is situated in Erie county, on the south- east shore of Lake Erie, 90 miles southwest of Buffalo, 129 miles north of Pittsburg, and 310 miles northwest of Harrisburg. It lies immediately opposite the island of Presque Isle, which was once a peninsula. The harbor is one of the largest and best sheltered on the lake. It is about 1 mile wide and 3J miles long, with a depth of from 9 to 25 feet of water along its entire length. It has been greatly improved and strongly fortified by the United States Government, and its entrance is marked by a light-house. It is connected with the Ohio River at Beaver, by the Erie Extension Canal, and has railway communication with all parts of the Union. It possesses a flourishing lake trade, and is largely engaged in the export of lumber, petroleum, and coal. It is also interested in manufactures to a limited extent, the canal affording extensive water-power. The town is well built, being constructed chiefly of brick. It is situated on an elevated bluff, overlooking and commanding a fine view of the lake. The streets are wide and straight, and cross each other at right-angles. Near the centre of the city is a tasteful park. Erie contains about 13 churches, a public library, 7 newspaper offices, and several public schools, which rank among the best in the State. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 19,646. It is the only lake port situated in Pennsylvania. Erie was settled about the beginning of the present century. In 1805, it was incorporated. Its history is uneventful, and its growth was slow. The principal event connected with it was the fitting out here of Perry's fleet during the war of 1812-15. PENNSYLVANIA. 475 EASTON. EASTON, In Northampton county, on the right bank of the Delaware River, at the junction with that stream of the Lehigh River and Bushkill Creek, is a flourishing city. It is regularly laid out in rectangular blocks, is well built, and is lighted with gas and supplied with pure water. It is finely situated in the midst of some of the most beauti- ful scenery of the State, and is in many respects one of the most pic- turesque cities in America. The Lehigh and Delaware are here crossed by fine bridges. The city possesses good water-power, and is largely engaged in manufactures. Flour, oil, iron, lumber, cotton goods, and fire-arms are the principal articles produced. The city is connected with New York, Philadelphia, and all parts of the State, by railway. By means of these and the Delaware, Lehigh, and Mor- ris Canals, large quantities of coal, lumber, and grain are received and shipped to the principal markets of the country. Easton is one of the most enterprising places in Pennsylvania, and is growing rap- idly in population and importance. It contains the county buildings, several handsome churches, and several excellent schools. It is the geat of Lafayette College, a flourishing institution. Five newspapers 476 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. are published here. The city is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 10,987. Easton was laid out in 1 738, and was incorporated as a town in 1789. The surrounding country is very beautiful, and is rich in iron ore and limestone. v MISCELLANIES. OLD TIME CUSTOMS IN PHILADELPHIA. Mr. Watson, in his "Historic Tales of the Olden Time," gives some interest- ing accounts of the customs of the people of Philadelphia prior to the Revolution. He sa} r s : They were distinguished for a frank and generous hospitality. They made many entertainments, but they were devoid of glare and show, and always abun- dant and good. Dr. Franklin, describing the state of the people about the year 1752, says they were all loyal, and submitted willingly to the government of the Crown, or paid for defence cheerfully. i; They were led by a thread. They not only had a re- spect, but an affection, for Great Britain, for its laws, its customs, and its man- ners, and even a fondness for its fashions, not yet subsided. Natives of Great Britain were always treated with particular regard ; and to be ' an Old England man ' gave a kind of rank and respect among us." The old people all testify that the young of their youth were much more re- served, and held under much more restraint in the presence of their elders arid parents, than now. Bashfulness and modesty in the young were then regarded as virtues ; and the present freedom before the aged was not then countenanced. Young lovers then listened and took sidelong glances, when before their parents or elders. It was the custom for the j'ounger part of the family, and especially of the fe- male part, to dress up neatly towards the close of the day, and sit in the street porch. Sometimes they would go from porch to porch in neighborhoods, and sit and converse. Tea was such a rarity that it was measured out for the teapots in small hand-scales. Afternoon visits were not made, as now, at night, but at so early an hour as to permit matrons to go home and see their children put to bed. Before the Revolution, no hired man or woman wore any shoes so fine as calf- skin ; coarse neats leather was their every day wear. Men and women then hired by the year men got 16 to 20, and a servant woman 8 to 10. Out of that it was their custom to lay up money, to buy before their marriage a bed and bedding, silver teaspoons, and a spinning wheel, etc. Among the rough amusements of men might be mentioned shooting, fishing, and sailing parties. These were frequent, as also mutton clubs, fishing, house and country parties were much indulged in by respectable citizens. Great so- ciability prevailed among all classes of citizens, until the strife with Great Britain sent ' every man to his own ways ; " then discord and acrimony ensued, and the previously general friendly intercourse never returned. We afterwards grew an- other and enlarged people. Our girls in the daytime used to attend the work of the family, and in the even- PENNSYLVANIA. 477 ing paraded in their porch at the door. Some of them, however, even then, read novels, and walked without business abroad. Those who had not housework employed themselves in their accomplishments, such as making shell-work, cor- nucopias, working of pocket books, with a close, strong-stitched needlework. The ladies, seventy years ago, were much accustomed to ride on horseback for recreation. It was quite common to see genteel ladies riding, with jockey caps. Boarding schools for girls were not known in Philadelphia until about the time of the Revolution, nor had they any separate schools for writing and cipher- ing, but were taught in common with boys. The ornamental parts of female education were bestowed, but geography and grammar were never regarded for them, until a certain Mr. Horton thanks to his name proposed to teach those sciences to young ladies. Similar institutions afterwards grew into favor. It was usual, in the gazettes of 17GO to 1770, to announce marriages in words like these, to wit: "Miss Betsey Lawrence, or Miss Elizabeth Caton, a most agreeable lady, with a large or a handsome fortune." In still earlier times, marriages had to be promulged by affixing the intentions of the parties on the court house or meeting house door ; and when the act was solemnized, they should have at least twelve subscribing witnesses. The act which imposed it was passed in 1700. The wedding entertainments of olden times were very expensive and harassing to the wedded. The house of the parent would be rilled with company to dine ; the same company would stay to tea and to supper. For two days, punch was dealt out in profusion. The gentlemen saw the groom on the first floor, and then ascended to the second, where they saw the bride ; there every gentleman, even to 100 in a day, kissed her. Even the plain Friends submitted to these things. I have known rich families which had 120 persons to dine the same who had signed their certificate of marriage at the monthly meeting ; these also partook of tea and supper. As they formally passed the meeting twice, the same entertainment was repeated. Two days the male friends would call and take punch, and all would kiss the bride. Besides this, the married pair, for two en- tire weeks, saw large tea parties at their home, having in attendance every night the groomsman and bridesmaids. To avoid expense and trouble, Friends have since made it sufficient to pass but one meeting. When these marriage enter- tainments were made, it was expected also that punch, cakes, and meats should be sent out very generally in the neighborhood, even to those who were not visi- tors in the family. Of articles and rules of diet, so far as it differed from ours, in the earliest time, we may mention coffee, as a beverage, was used but rarely ; chocolate for morn- ing and evening, or thickened milk for children. Cookery in general was plainer than now. In the country, morning and evening repasts were generally made of milk, having bread boiled therein, or else thickened with pop-robins things made up of flour and eggs into a batter, and so dropped in* with the boiling milk. A lady of my acquaintance thus describes the recollections of her early days, preceding the war of Independence : Dress was discriminate and appropriate, both as regarded the season and the character of the wearer. Ladies never wore the same dresses at work and on visits ; they sat at home, or went out in the morning, in chintz ; brocades, satins, and mantuas were reserved for evening or dinner parties. Robes or negligees, as they were called, were always worn in 478 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. fall dress. Muslins were not worn at all. Little Misses at a dancing school ball (for these were almost the only fetes that fell to their share in the days of discrimination) were dressed in frocks of lawn or cambric. Worsted was then thought dress enough for common days. As a universal fact, it may be remarked, that no other color than black was over made for ladies' bonnets, when formed of silk or satin. Fancy colors were unknown, and white bonnets of silk fabric had never been seen. The first inno- vation remembered was the bringing in of blue bonnets. The time was when the plainest woman among the Friends (now so averse to fancy colors) wore their colored silk aprons, say, of green, or blue, etc. This was at a time when the gay wore white aprons. In time, white aprons were dis- used by the gentry, and then the Friends left off their colored ones and used the white. The same old ladies among Friends, whom we can remember as wearers of the white aprons, wore also large white beaver hats, with scarcely the sign of a crown, and which was indeed confined to the head by silk cords tied under the chin. Eight dollars would buy such a hat, when beaver fur was more plentiful. They lasted such ladies almost a whole life of wear. They showed no fur. Very decent women went abroad and to churches with check aprons. I have seen those who kept their coach in my time to bear them to church, who told me they went on foot, with a check apron, to the Arch street Presbyterian meeting in their 3 r outh. Then all hired women wore short gowns and petticoats of domestic fabric, and could be instantly known as such whenever seen abroad. In the former days, it was not uncommon to see aged persons with large silver buttons to their coats and vests it \vas a mark of wealth. Some had the initials of their names engraved on each button. Sometimes they were made out of real quarter dollars, with the coinage impression still retained these were used for the coats, and the elevenpenny-bits for vests and breeches. My father wore an entire suit decorated with conch-shell buttons, silver mounted. The articles of dress in those early times would at the present day not be re- cognized by their names. The following is an advertisement for the year 1745 : " For sale. Tandems, isinghams, nuns, bag and gulix (these all mean shirt- ing), huckabacks (a figured worsted for women's gowns), quilted humhums, turketees, grassets, single allopeens, children's stays, jumps and bodice, whale- bone and iron busks, men's new market caps, silk and worsted wove patterns for breeches, allibanes, dickmansoy, cushloes, chuckloes, cuttanees, crimson dannador, chain 1 d soosees, lemouees, byrampauts, moree, naffermamy, saxling- ham, prunelloe, barragons, druggets, florettas," etc., etc. It was very common for children and working women to wear beads made of Job's tears, a berry of a shrub. They used them for economy, and said it pre- vented several diseases. Until the period of the Revolution, every person who wore a fur hat, had it always of entire beaver. Every apprentice, at receiving his "freedom," received a real beaver at a cost of six dollars. Their every day hats were of wool, called felts. What, were called roram hats, being fur faced upon wool felts, came into use directly after the peace, and excited much surprise, as to the invention. Gen- tlemen's hats, of entire beaver, universally cost eight dollars. The use of lace veils to ladies' faces is but a modern fashion, not of more than twenty to thirty years standing. Now they wear black, white, and green the last only lately introduced as a summer veil. In olden time, none wore a veil but as a mark and badge of mourning, and then, as now, of crape in preference to lace. PENNSYLVANIA. 479 Ancient ladies remembered a time, in their early life, when the ladies wore blue stockings and party-colored clocks of very striking appearance. May not that fashion, as an extreme ton of the upper circle in life, explain the adoption of the term, "Blue-stocking Club? 1 ' I have seen, in possession of Samuel Coates, Esq., the wedding silk stockings of his grandmother, of a lively green, and great red clocks. My grandmother wore, in winter, very fine worsted green stockings, with a gay clock surmounted with a bunch of tulips. The late President, Thomas Jefferson, when in Philadelphia, on his first mis- sion abroad, was dressed in the garb of his day after this manner, to wit : he wore a long waisted white cloth coat, scarlet breeches and vest, a cocked hat, with a black cockade. Even spectacles, permanently useful as they are, have been subject to the ca- price of fashion. Now they are occasionally seen of gold a thing I never saw in my youth ; neither did I ever see one young man with spectacles now so nu- merous. A purblind or half-sighted youth then deemed it his positive disparage- ment to be so regarded. Such would have rather run against a street post six times a day than have been seen with them. Indeed, in early olden time they had not the art of using temple spectacles. Old Mrs. Shoemaker, who died in 183"), at the age of 95, said she had lived many years in Philadelphia before she ever saw temple spectacles a name then given as a new discovery, but now so common as to have lost its distinctive character. In her early years, the only spectacles she ever saw were called "bridge spectacles," without any side sup- porters, and held on the nose solely by nipping the bridge of the nose. My grandmother wore a black velvet mask in winter, with a silver mouth-piece to keep it on, by retaining it in the mouth. I have been told that green ones have been used in summer for some few ladies, for riding in the sun on horse- back. Ladies formerly wore cloaks as their chief overcoats ; they were used with some changes of form under the successive names of roquelaurs, capuchins, and cardinals. In Mrs. Shoemaker's time, above named, they had no knowledge of umbrellas to keep off rain, but she had seen some few use kitisols an article as small as present parasols now. They were entirely to keep off rain from ladies. They were of oiled muslin, and of various colors. They were imported from India by way of England. They must, however, have been but rare, as they never ap- pear in an} r advertisements. Dr. Chancellor and the Rev. Mr. Duche were the first persons in Philadelphia who were seen to wear umbrellas to keep off the rain. They were of oiled linen, very coarse and clumsy, with ratan sticks. Before their time, some doctors and ministers used an oiled linen cape, hooked round their shoulders, looking not unlike the big coat capes now in use, and then called a roquelaur. It was only used for severe storms. About the year 1771, the first efforts were made in Philadelphia to introduce the use of umbrellas in summer, as a defence from the sun. They were then scouted in the public gazettes as a ridiculous effeminacy. On the other hand, the physicians recommended them, to keep of vertigoes, epilepsies, sore eyes, fevers, etc. Finally, as the doctors were the chief patrons, Doctor Chancellor and Doc- tor Morgan, with the Rev. Parson Duche, were the first persons who had the hardihood to be so singular as to wear umbrellas in sunshine. Mr. Bingliam, when he returned from the West Indies, where he had amassed a great fortune 480 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. in the Revolution, appeared abroad in the streets attended by a mulatto boy bearing his umbrella. But his example did not take, and he desisted from its use. HOW GENERAL BRADDOCK WAS KILLED. There had long existed a tradition that Braddock was killed by one of his own men, and more recent developments leave little or no doubt of the fact. A recent writer says : " When my father was removing with his family to the west, one of the Fan- setts kept a public house to the eastward from, and near where Uniontown now stands, as the county seat of Fayette, Pa. This man's house we lodged in about the 10th of October, 1781, twenty-six years and a few months after Braddock's defeat, and there it was made anything but a secret that one of the family dealt the death-blow to the British general. "Thirteen years afterwards I met Thomas Fausett in Fayette county, then, as he told he, in his 70th year. To him I put the plain question, and received a plain reply, ' / did sJioot him ! ' He then went on to insist, that, by doing so, he contributed to save what was left of the army. In brief, in my youth, I never heard the fact either doubted or blamed, that Fausett shot Braddock." Hon. Andrew Stewart, of Uniontown, says he knew, and often conversed with Tom Fausett, who did not hesitate to avow, in the presence of his friends, that he shot General Braddock. Fausett was a man of gigantic frame, of uncivilized half- savage propensities, and spent most of his life among the mountains, as a hermit, living on the game which he killed. He would occasionally come into town, and get drunk. Sometimes he would repel inquiries into the affair of Braddock's death, by putting his fingers to his lips and uttering a sort of buzzing sound ; at others, he would burst into tears, and appear greatly agitated by conflicting passions. In spite of Br^ddock's silly order, that the troops should not protect themselves behind trees, Jo*e^ii Fausett had taken such a position, when Braddock rode up, in a passion, and struck him down with his sword. Tom Fausett, who was but a short distance from his brother, saw the whole transaction, and immediately drew up his rifle and shot Braddock through the lungs, partly in revenge for the outrage upon his brother, and partly, as he always alleged, to get the general out of the way, and thus save the remainder of the gallant band, who had been sacrificed to his obstinacy and want of experience in frontier warfare. THE MASSACRE OF WYOMING. The year 1776 commenced a new era in the history of the American colonies, and in some measure gave peace to Wyoming in the midst of war, by removing from Pennsylvania the authority of the proprietaries, and royal governors. During this interval of comparative repose, three companies of troops were enlisted at Wyoming for the service of the united colonies. They were attached to the Connecticut line, and made part of the troops of that colony. At this time, a full enumeration of the population at Wyoming was made, and the settlements were found to contain 5000 souls. Their militia at the same time amounted to 1100 men, capable of bearing arms ; and of this force about 300 en- listed to serve against the common enemy. After their march, the settlers con- tinued to guard themselves with increased vigilance. Regular garrison duty waa PENNSYLVANIA. 481 performed in the several fortifications by classes of the militia in successive order ; in addition to which, a patrol called the "Scout," was established through the valley, which was on duty night and day in succession, exploring all thickets and unfrequented grounds, in search of any lurking enemy which might have come to disturb their peace, or spy out the land. The frontier settlements of the different colonies were at this time continually harassed by incursive parties of British troops and Indians from Canada ; and the surrender of General Burgoyne, which took place in October, 1777, did not produce an abandonment of the s} r stem. Early in the spring of 1778, a force consisting of about 800 men, and composed of British regulars, tories, and In- dians, under the command of Colonel John Butler, assembled at Niagara, and marched to the reduction of Wyoming. The Indians were in number about 400, and were commanded by Brandt, a warlike chief of mixed blood. At Tioga Point, these troops procured boats and rafts of wood, upon which they floated down the Susquehanna until they arrived about 20 miles above Wyoming Fort. Here they landed, the latter part of June. On the evening of the 3d of July, they took possession of a fort which the settlers had built on the bank of the river, about a mile below the head of the valley, called Fort Wintermoot. From this fort, which the British commander made his headquarters, were sent small scout- ing parties in search of plunder and provisions, as well as to ascertain the situa- tion and strength of the force which remained for the defence of the settlement. Upon the arrival of these troops, the settlers collected their principal forces in a fortification situated on the west bank of the river, at a large eddy in the stream below Monockonock Island, and about 3 miles above Wyoming Fort. This fort had been built and defended by 40 of the settlers in that vicinity, and had thence obtained the name of "Forty Fort." The garrison, now assembled here, con- sisted of the most active of the settlers, and amounted to 368 men, a small party being left in the other forts for the protection of the settlement in their immediate vicinity. About a month previous, messengers had been sent from the settlers to the continental army, to inform the commander-in-chief of their situation, and to request that a detachment might be sent to their assistance. On the morning of the 3d of July, the officers of the garrison at Forty Fort held a council to determine on the propriety of marching from the fort, and attacking the enemy wherever found. The debates in this council of war are said to have been conducted with much warmth and animation. The ultimate determination was one on which depended the lives of the garrison, and the safety of the settlements. On one side it was contended that their enemies were daily increasing in numbers that they would plunder the settlements of all kinds of property, and would accumulate the means of carrying on the war, while they themselves would become weaker ; that the harvest would soon be ripe, and would be gathered or destroyed by their enemies, and all their means of suste- nance during the succeeding winter would fail ; that probably all their messengers were killed, and as there had been more than sufficient time, and no assistance arrived, they would probably receive none, and consequently now was the proper time to make the attack. On the other side it was argued, that probably some or all of the messengers may have arrived at headquarters, but that the absence of the commander-in-chief may have produced delay ; that one or two weeks more may bring the desired assistance, and that to attack the enemy, superior as they were in number, out of the limits of their own fort, would produce almost certain destruction to the settlement and themselves, and captivity and slavery perhaps 31 482 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. torture, to their wives aiid children. While these debates were progressing, five men belonging to Wyoming, but, who, at that time, held commissions in the con- tinental army, arrived at the fort. They had received information that a force from Niagara had marched to destroy the settlements on the Susqnehanna, and being unable to bring with them any reinforcements, they resigned their appoint- ments and hastened immediately to the protection of their families. They had heard nothing of the messengers, neither could they give any certain information as to the probability of relief. The prospects of receiving assistance became now extremely uncertain. The advocates for the attack prevailed in the council ; and at dawn of day, on the morning of the 3d of July, the garrison left the fort, and began their march up the river, under the command of Colonel Zebulon Butler. Having proceeded about 2 miles, the troops halted for the purpose of detaching a reconnoitering party to ascertain the situation of the enemy. Colonel Butler rode along the flank of the column to invite volunteers for this service. Abraham Pike and an Irish companion offered their services, and they being the only volunteers, were accepted. The scout found the enemy in possession of Fort Wintermoot, and occupying huts immediately around it, carousing in supposed security ; but on their return to the advancing column, they met two strolling Indians, by whom they were fired upon, and upon whom they immediately returned the fire without effect. The settlers hastened their march for the attack, but the Indians had given the alarm, and the advancing troops found the enemy already formed in order of battle a small distance from their fort, with their right flank covered by a swamp, and their left resting upon the bank of the river. The settlers imme- diately displayed their column, and formed in corresponding order ; but as the enemy was much superior in numbers, their line was much more extensive. Pine woods and bushes covered the battle-ground ; in consequence of which, the move- ments of the troops could not be so quickly discovered, nor so well ascertained. Colonel Zebulon Butler had command of the right, and was opposed by Colonel John Butler at the head of the British troops on the left. Colonel Nathan Deni^ son commanded the left, opposed by Brandt at the head of his Indians on the enemy's right. The battle commenced at about 40 rods distant, and continued about 15 minutes through the woods and brush without much execution. At this time, Brandt, with his Indians, having penetrated the swamp, turned the left flank of the settlers' line, and with a terrible war-whoop and savage yell, made a desperate charge upon the troops composing that wing, which fell very fast, and were immediately cut to pieces with the tomahawk. Colonel Denison having asce/tained that the savages were gaining the rear of the left, gave orders for that wing to fall back, in order to prevent being surrounded by the enemy. At the same time, Colonel John Butler finding that the line of the settlers did not ex- tend as far towards the river as his own, doubled that end of his line, which was protected by a thick growth of brushwood, and having brought a party of his British regulars to act in column upon that wing, threw Colonel Zebulon Butler's troops into some confusion. The orders of Colonel Denison for his troops to fall back having been under- stood by many to mean a retreat, the troops began to retire in much disorder. The savages considered this as a flight, and commenced a most hideous yell, rushed forward with their rifles and tomahawks, and cut the retiring line to pieces. In this situation, it was found impossible to rally and form the troops, and the rout became general throughout the line. The settlers fled in every direc- PENNSYLVANIA. 483 tion, and were instantly followed by the savages, who killed or took prisoners whoever came within their reach. Some succeeded in reaching the river, and escaped by swimming across ; others fled to the mountains ; and the savages, too much occupied with plunder, gave up. the pursuit. When the first intelli- gence was received in the village of Wilkesbarre that the battle was lost, the women fled with their children to the mountains, on their way to the settlements on the Delaware, where many of them at length arrived after suffering extreme hardships. Many of the men who escaped the battle, together with their women and children, who were unable to travel on foot, took refuge in Wyoming Fort, and on the following day, July 4th, Butler and Brandt, at the head of their combined forces, appeared before the fort and demanded its surrender. The garrison being without any efficient means of defence, surrendered the fort on articles of capitu- lation, by which the settlers, upon giving up their fortifications, prisoners, and military stores, were to remain in the country unmolested, provided they did not again take up arms. In this battle, about 300 of the settlers were killed or missing, and from a great part of whom no intelligence was ever afterwards received. The officers killed were, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 10 captains, 6 lieutenants, and 2 ensigns. A considerable number of the inhabitants of the different settlements on the Susquehanna, who, from their attachment to the British cause, were denominated tories, joined the British and sa\iagc troops previous to the battle, and exhibited instances of the most savage barbarity in the manner in which they carried on the war against their former neighbors and friends. One instance may serve to show the desperate feelings which those times produced A short distance below the battle-ground, there is a large island in the river called "Monockonock Island." Several of the settlers, while the battle and pursuit continued, suc- ceeded in swimming to this island, where they concealed themselves among the logs and brushwood upon it. Their arms had been thrown away in their flight, previous to their entering the river, so that they were in a manner defenceless. Two of them in particular were concealed near and in sight of each other. While in this situation, they observed several of the enemy who had pursued and fired at them while they were swimming the river, preparing to follow them to the island with their guns. On reaching the island they immediately wiped their guns and loaded them. One of them with his loaded gun soon passed close by one of these men who lay concealed from his view, and was immediately recog- nized by him to be the brother of his companion who was concealed near him, but who, being a tory, had joined the enemy. He passed slowly along, carefully examining every covert, and directly perceived his brother in his place of con- cealment. He suddenly stopped and said, "so it is you, is it?" His brother finding that he was discovered, immediately came forward a few steps, and falling on his knees, begged him to spare his life, promising to live with him and serve him, and even to be his slave as long as he lived, if he would only spare his life. "All this is mighty good," replied the savage-hearted brother of the supplicating man, " but you are a d d rebel ; " and deliberately presenting his rifle, shot him dead upon the spot. The other settler made his escape from the island, and having related this fact, the tory brother thought it prudent to accompany the British troops on their return to Canada. The conditions of the capitulation were entirely disregarded by the British and savage forces, and after the fort was delivered up, all kinds of barbarities were committed by them. The village of Wilkesbarre, consisting of 23 houses, was 434 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. burnt ; men and their wives were separated from each other and carried into captivity ; their property was plundered and the settlement laid waste. The remainder of the inhabitants were driven from the Valley, and compelled to proceed on foot 60 miles through the great swamp almost without food or cloth- ing. A number perished in the journey, principally women and children some died of their wounds, others wandered from the path in search of food and were lost, and those who survived, called the wilderness through which they passed, "TJie /Shades of Death;" an appellation which it has since retained. On their way through the swamp, the unhappy fugitives met a detachment of regular troops from the continental army under the command of Captain Spalding, which, in consequence of the representations made by the messengers had been sent to the relief of the inhabitants at Wyoming ; but as all was now lost, they returned to the Delaware, and the remnant of the inhabitants proceeded to their former homes in Connecticut. THE SERMON BEFORE THE BRANDYWINE. There are contradictory opinions about the following sermon, said to be deliv- ered on the eve of the battle of Brandywine. Hence I give it without comments, just as I find it. The name' of the chaplain is said to have been Trout. " They that take tlie sioord shall perish by Ifte sword!' 1 '' Matt. xxvi. 52. " SOLDIERS AND COUNTRYMEN I We have met this evening, perhaps for the last time. We have shared the toil of the march, the peril of the fight, the dismay of the retreat alike we have endured cold and hunger, the contumely of the internal foe, and outrage of the foreign oppressor. We have sat night after night, beside the same camp fire, shared the same rough soldiers' fare ; we have together heard the roll of the reveille which called us to duty, or the beat of the tattoo which gave the signal for the hardy sleep of the soldier, with the earth for his bed, and his knapsack for a pillow. And now, soldiers and brethren, we have met in the peaceful valley, on the eve of the battle, while the sunlight is dying away behind yonder heights, the sunlight that to-morrow morn will glimmer on scenes of blood. We have met amid the whitening tents of our encampment ; in times of terror and gloom have we gathered together. God grant it may not be for the last time. " It is a solemn moment. Brethren, does not the solemn voice of nature seem to echo the sympathies of the town ? The flag of our country droops heavily from yonder staff. The breeze has died away along the green plain of Chadd's Ford the plain that spreads before us glistening in sunlight the heights of the Brandywine arise dark and gloomy beyond the waters of yonder stream, and all nature holds a pause of solemn silence on the eve of the uproar of the bloodshed and strife of to-morrow. '"They that take the sword shall perish by the sword;' and have they not .taken the sword ? " Let the blood-stained valley the desolated homes the burned farm house the murdered farmer let the whitening bones of our own countrymen answer ! Let the starving mother with the babe clinging to her withered breast, let her answer with the death rattle mingling with the murmuring tones that mark the last struggle for life ; let the dying mother and her babe answer ! ,. " It was but a day past, and our land sl.ept.iii the light of peace. War was no,t PENNSYLVANIA. 485 here, wrong was not here. Fraud, and woe, and misery and want dwelt not among us. From the eternal solitude of the green woods, arose the blue smoke of the settler's cabin ; and golden fields of corn looked forth from amid the waste of the wilderness, and the glad music of human voices awoke the silence of the forest. " Now ! God of mercy ! Behold the change. Under the shadow of a pretext, under the sanctity of the name of God invoking the Redeemer to their aid, do these foreign hirelings slay our people. They throng our towns, they darken our plains, and now they encompass our posts on the lonely plain of Chadd's Ford. "'They that take the sword shall perish by the sword.' Brethren ! think me not unworthy of belief, when I tell you that the doom of the Britisher is near ! Think me not vain when I tell you that beyond the cloud which now enshrouds us, I see gathering thick and fast, the darker cloud and the blacker storm of Divine Retribution ! They may conquer us on the morrow ! might and wrong may prevail, and we may be driven from the field but the hour of God's ven- geance will conic ! Aye, if in the vast solitudes of eternal space, if in the heart of the boundless universe, there throbs the being of an awful God, quick to revenge and sure to punish guilt, there will the man, George of Brunswick, called king, feel in his brain and in his heart the vengeance of the eternal Jeho- vah ! a blight will be upon his life a withered brain, an accursed intellect ; n, blight will be upon his children, and his people. Great God ! how dread thy punishment ! " Soldiers ! I look around upon your familiar faces with a strange interest. To-morrow we will all go forth to battle for need I tell you that your unworthy minister will march with you, invoking God's aid in the fight. We will march forth to battle. Need I exhort you to fight the good fight for your homesteads, your wives, and your children ? " And in the hour of battle when all around is darkness, lit by the lurid cannon glare, and the piercing musket flash, when the wounded strew the ground and the dead litter your path ; then remember, soldiers, that God is with you. The eternal God is with you, and fights for you. God ! the awful, the infinite, fights for you, and you \vill triumph. '"They that take the sword shall perish by the sword.' "You have taken the sword; but not in the spirit of wrong and revenge. You have taken the sword for your homes, for your wives, and for your little ones. You have taken the sword for truth, for justice, and for right, and to you the promise is, be of good cheer, for your foes have taken the sword in defiance of all man holds dear. They shall perish by the sword. "And now, brethren and soldiers, I bid you all farewell. Many of us may fall in the fight of to-morrow. God rest the souls of the fallen many of us may live to tell the story of the fight of to-morrow, and in the memory of all will rest the quiet scenes of this autumnal night. " Solemn twilight advances over the valley ; the woods on the opposite heights fling their long shadows over the green of the meadow around us arc the tents of the continental host the suppressed bustle of the camp, the hurried tread of the soldiers to and fro among the tents, the stillness that marks the eve 01 battle. " When we meet again, may the long shadows of twilight be flung over a peaceful land. God in heaven grant it ! Amen." 486 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. THE BATTLE OF THE BRANDYWINE, SEPT. llth, 1777. The American army, in order to encourage the partisans of independence and overawe the disaffected, marched through the city of Philadelphia ; it afterwards advanced towards the enemy, and encamped behind White Clay Creek. A little after, leaving only the riflemen in the camp, Washington retired with the main body of his army behind the Red Clay Creek, occupying with his right wing' the town of Newport, situated near the Christiana, and upon the great road to Phila- delphia ; his left was at Hockesen. But this line was little capable of defence. The enemy, reinforced by the rear guard under General Grant, threatened v, ith liis right the centre of the Americans, extended his left as if with the intention of turning their right flank. Washington saw the danger, and retired with his troops behind the Brandy wine ; he encamped on the rising grounds which extend from Chadsford, in the direction of northwest to southeast. The riflemen of Max- well scoured the right bank of the Brandywine, in order to harass and retard the enemy. The militia under the command of General Armstrong, guarded a passage below the principal encampment of Washington, and the right wing lined the banks of the river higher up, where the passages were more difficult. The passage of Chadsford, as the most practicable of all, was defended by the chief force of the army. The troops being thus disposed, the American general waited the approach of the English. Although the Brandywine, being fordable almost everywhere, could not serve as a sufficient defence against the impetuosity of the enemy, yet Washington had taken post upon its banks, from a conviction that a battle was now inevitable, and that Philadelphia could only be saved by a victory. General Howe displayed the front of his army, but not however with- out great circumspection. Being arrived at Kennen Square, a short distance from the river, he detached his light-horse to the right upon Wilmington, to the left upon Lancaster road, and in front towards Chadsford. The two armies found themselves w r ithin 7 miles of each other, the Brandywine flowing between them. Early in the morning of the llth of September, the British army marched to the enemy. Howe had formed his army in two columns ; the right commanded by General Knyphausen, the left by Lord Cornwallis. His plan was, that while the first sliould make repeated feints to attempt the passage of Chadsford, in order to occupy the attention of the republicans, the second should take a long circuit to the upper part of the river, and cross at a place where it is divided into two shallow streams. The English marksmen fell in with those of Maxwell, and a smart skirmish was immediately engaged. The latter were at first repulsed ; but being reinforced from the camp, they compelled the English to retire in their turn. But at length, they also were reinforced, and Maxwell was constrained to withdraw his detachment behind the river. Meanwhile, Knyphausen advanced with his column, and commenced a furious cannonade upon the passage of Chads- ford, making all his dispositions as if he intended to force it. The Americans defended themselves with gallantry, and even passed several detachments of light troops to the other side, in order to harass the enemy's flanks. But after a course of skirmishes, sometimes advancing, and at others obliged to retire, they were finally, with an eager pursuit, driven over the river. Knyphausen then appeared more than ever determined to pass the ford ; he stormed and kept up an incredible noise. In this manner the attention of the Americans was fully occupied in the neighborhood of Chadsford. Meanwhile, Lord Cornwallis, at PENNSYLVANIA. 437 the head of the second column, took a circuitous march to the left, and gained unperceived the forks of the Brandywine. By this rapid movement, he passed both branches of the river at Trimble's and at Jeffery's fords, without opposition, about 2 o'clock in the afternoon, and then turning short down the river took the road to Dilworth, in order to fall upon the right flank of the American army. The republican general, however, received intelligence of this movement about noon, and, as it usually happens in similar cases, the reports exaggerated its im- portance exceedingly ; it being represented that General Howe commanded this division in person. Washington therefore decided immediately for the most judi- cious, though boldest measure; this was, to pass the river with the centre and left wing of his army, and overwhelm Knyphausen by the most furious attack. He justly reflected that the advantage he should obtain upon the enemy's right would amply compensate the loss that his own might sustain at the same time. Accordingly he ordered General Sullivan to pass the Brandywine with his division at an upper ford, and attack the left of Knyphausen, while he, in person, should cross lower down and fall upon the right of the general. They were both already in motion in order to execute this design, when a second report arrived, which represented what had really taken place as false, or in other words, that the enemy had not crossed the two branches of the river, and that he had not made his appearance upon the right flank of the American troops. Deceived by this false intelligence, Washington desisted ; and Greene, who had already passed with the vanguard, was ordered back. In the midst of these uncertainties, the commander-in -chief at length received positive assur- ance, not only that the English had appeared upon the left bank, but also that they were about to fall in great force upon the right wing. It was composed of the brigades of generals Stephens, Sterling, and Sullivan ; the first was the most advanced, and consequently nearest to the English ; the two others were posted in the order of their rank, that of Sullivan being next to the centre. This gene- ral was immediately detached from the main body, to support the former brigades, and being the senior officer, took the command of the whole wing. Washington himself, followed by General Greene, approached with two strong divisions to- wards this wing, and posted himself between it and the corps he had left at Chads- ford, under General Wayne, to oppose the passage of Knyphausen. These two divisions, under the immediate orders of the commander-in-chief, served as a corps of reserve, ready to march, according to circumstances, to the succor of Sullivan or of Wayne. But the column of Cornwallis was aready in sight of the Americans. Sullivan drew up his troops on the' commanding ground above Birmingham meeting- house, with his left extending towards the Brandywine, and both his flanks covered with very thick woods. His artillery was advantageously planted upon the neighboring hills ; but it appears that Sullivan's own brigade, having taken a long circuit, arrived too late upon the field of battle, and had not yet occupied the position assigned it, when the action commenced. The English having recon- noitred the dispositions of the Americans, immediately formed, and fell upon them with the utmost impetuosity. The engagement became equally fierce on both sides about 4 o'clock in the afternoon. For some length of time the Americans defended themselves with great valor, and the carnage was terrible. But such was the emulation which invigorated the efforts of the English and Hessians, that neither the advantages of the situation, nor a heavy and well supported fire of small arms and artillery, nor the unshaken courage of the Americans, were able to resist their 488 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. impetuosity. The light infantry, chasseurs, grenadiers, and guards threw them- selves with such fury into the midst of the republican battalions, that they were forced to give way. Their left flank was first thrown into confusion, but the rout soon became general. The vanquished fled into the woods in their rear ; the victors pursued, and advanced by the great road towards Dilworth. On the first fire of the artillery, Washington, having no doubt of what was passing, had pushed forward the reserve to the succor of Sullivan. But this corps, on ap- proaching the field of battle, fell in with the flying soldiers of Sullivan and per- ceived that no hope remained of retrieving the fortune of the day. General Greene, by a judicious manoeuvre, opened his ranks to receive the fugitives, and after their passage having closed them anew, he retired in good order ; checking the pursuit of the enemy by a continual fire of the artillery which covered his rear. Having come to a defile, covered on both sides by the woods, he drew up his men there, and again faced the enemy. His corps was composed of Vir- ginians and Pennsylvanians ; they defended themselves with gallantry ; the former especially, commanded by Colonel Stephens, made a heroic stand. Knyphausen finding the Americans to be fully engaged on their right, and ob- serving that the corps opposed to him at Chadsford was enfeebled by the troops which had been detached to the succor of Sullivan, began to make dispositions for crossing the river in reality. The passage at Chadsford was defended by an intrenchment and battery. The republicans stood firm at first ; but upon intelli- gence of 'the defeat of their right, and seeing some of the British troops who had penetrated through the woods, come out upon their flank, they retired in disorder, abandoning their artillery and munitions to the German general. In their retreat, or rather flight, they passed behind the position of General Greene, who still defended himself, and was the last to quit the field of battle. Finally, it being already dark, after a long and obstinate conflict, he also retired. The whole army retreated that night to Chester, and the day following to Philadelphia. There the fugitives arrived incessantly, having effected their escape through by-ways and circuitous routes. The victors passed the night on the field of battle. If darkness had not arrived seasonably, it is very probable that the whole Ameri- can army would have been destroyed. The loss of the republicans was com- puted at about 300 killed, 600 wounded, and near 400 taken prisoners. They also lost ten field-pieces and a howitzer. The loss in the royal army was not in pro- portion, being something under 500, of which the slain did not amount to one-fifth. ADAM POE'S FIGHT WITH THE INDIANS. A REMINISCENCE OF THE EARLY HISTORY OF PITTSBURG. About the year 1782, six or seven Wyandotte Indians crossed over to the south side of the Ohio River, 50 miles below Pittsburg, and in their hostile excursions among our early settlers killed an old man, whom they found alone in one of the houses which they plundered. The news soon spread among the white people, seven or eight of whom seized their rifles and pursued the marauders. In this party were two brothers named Adam and Andrew Poe, strong and active men, and much respected in the settlement. The Indians had frequently been over before, had sometimes penetrated 20 miles into the country, and had always suc- ceeded in recrossing the river without being overtaken by our people. The Poes and their companions were, therefore, particularly anxious not to let them escape PENNSYLVANIA. 489 on this occasion. They pursued them all night, and in the morning found them- selves, as they expected, upon the right track. The Indians could now be easily followed by the traces left upon the dew. The print of one very large foot was seen, and it was thus known that a famous Indian of uncommon size and strength must be of the party. The track led to the river. Our people followed it di- rectly, Adam Poe excepted, who feared that they might be taken by surprise, and broke off from the rest to go along on the edge of the bank, under the cover of trees and bushes, and to fall upon the savages suddenly that he might get them between his own fire and that of his companions. At the point where he sus- pected they were, he saw the rafts, which they were accustomed to push before them when they swam the river, and on which they placed their blankets, toma- hawks, and guns. The Indians themselves he could not see, and was obliged to go partly down the bank to get a shot at them. As he descended, with his rifle cocked, he discovered two, the celebrated large Indian and a smaller one, sepa- rated from the others, holding their rifles also cocked in their hands. He took aim at the large one, but his rifle snapped without giving the intended fire. The Indians turned instantly at the sound. Poe was too near them to retreat, and had not time to cock and take aim again. Suddenly he leaped down upon them, and caught the large Indian by the clothes on his breast, and the small one by throwing an arm round his neck. They all fell together, but Poe was uppermost. While he was struggling to keep down the large Indian, the small one, at a word spoken by his fellow savage, slipped his neck out of Poe's embrace, and ran to the raft for a tomahawk. The large Indian at this moment threw his arms about Poe's body, and held him fast that the other might come and kill him. Poe watched the approach and the descending arm of the small Indian so well that at the instant of the intended stroke he raised his foot, and by a vigorous and skilful blow knocked the tomahawk from the assailant's hand. At this the large Indian cried out with an exclamation of contempt for the small one. The latter, how- ever, caught his tomahawk again, and approached more cautiously, waving his arm up and down with mock blows to deceive Poe as to the stroke which was intended to be real and fatal. Poe, however, was so vigilant and active that he averted the tomahawk from his head, and received it upon his wrist, with a con- siderable wound, deep enough to cripple, but not entirely to destroy the use of his hand. In this crisis of peril, he made a violent effort, and broke loose from the large Indian. He snatched a rifle and shot the small one through the breast as he ran up a third time with his lifted tomahawk. The large Indian was now on his feet, and, grasping Poe by the shoulder and the leg, hurled him in the air heels over head upon the shore. Poe instantly rose, and a new and more despe- rate struggle ensued. The bank was slippery, and they fell into the water, where each strove to drown the other. Their efforts were long and doubtful, each al- ternately under and half strangled, till Poe fortunately grasped, with his un- \vounded hand, the tuft of hair upon the scalp of the Indian, and forced his head into the water ; this appeared to be decisive of his fate, for soon he manifested all the symptoms of a drowning man bewildered in the moment of death. Poe re- laxed his hold, and discovered too late the stratagem. The Indian was instantly upon his feet again, and engaged anew in the fierce contest for life and victory. They were naturally carried further into the stream, and the current, becoming stronger, bore them beyond their depth. They wre now compelled to loosen their hold upon each other, and to swim for mutual safety. Both sought the shore to seize a gun, but the Indian was the best swimmer, and gained it first. 490 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Poe then turned immediately back into the water to avoid a greater danger, meaning to dive, if possible, to escape the fire. Fortunately for him, the Indian caught up the rifle which had been discharged into the breast of his smaller com- panion. At this critical juncture, Andrew, his brother, returned in haste, having left the party who had been in pursuit of the other Indians, and who had killed all but one of them, at the expense of three of their own lives. lie heard that Adam was in great peril, and alone in the fight with two against him. One of our people, following not far in the rear of Andrew, mistook Adam in the water with his bloody hand for a wounded Indian, and fired a bullet into his shoulder. Adam cried out to his brother to kill the big Indian, on the shore, but Andrew's gun had been discharged and was not again loaded. The contest was now be- tween the savage and Andrew. Each labored to load his rifle first. The Indian, after putting in his powder, and hurrying his motions to force down the ball, drew out his ramrod with such violence as to throw it some yards into the water. While he ran to pick it up, Andrew gained an advantage, and shot the Indian just as he was raising his gun to his eye for a deadly aim. Andrew then jumped into the river to assist his wounded brother to the shore ; but Adam, thinking more of carrying the big Indian home as a trophy than of his own wounds, urged Andrew to go back and prevent the struggling savage from rolling himself into the current and escaping. Andrew, however, was too solicitous for the fate of Adam to allow him to obey, and the Indian, jealous of his honor as a warrior even in death, and knowing well the intention of his white conquerors, succeeded in retaining life and action long enough to reach the current, by which his dead body was carried down beyond the chance of pursuit. This native was the most distinguished among five celebrated brothers belong- ing to the royal family of the tribe of Wyandottes. Notwithstanding he was en- gaged in this predatory expedition, he was acknowledged by all to be peculiarly magnanimous for an Indian, and had contributed, more than any other individual, to preserve and extend the practice which was known to prevail in his tribe, that of not taking the lives of prisoners, and of not suffering them to be treated ill. This practice was an honorable distinction for the Wyandottes, as was well un- derstood by the white people who were traders with the Indians, and by those of our early settlers and brethren who had been made prisoners in war. It was a common remark among them, u If we become the prisoners of the Wyandottes, we shall be fortunate. 1 ' The death of this large Indian and of his four brothers, who were all in the party, was more deeply lamented by the tribe, as was after- ward learned, than all the other losses sustained during the hostilities carried on between them and us. There was a universal, solemn, and distressing mourning. Adam Poe recovered from his wounds, and gave this account in person to James Morrison, Esq., from whom we have received it, and by whom we are assured that it is correct. The courage and enterprise, the suffering and forti- tude, the decision and perseverance of the early settlers of this western country, by whose labors we are now so peaceful and happy, ought not to be forgotten, but may well be related from time to time to excite in us the spirit of similar virtues, and to teach us how to consider the slight privations which we are, or may be, called to meet. Gratitude is more appropriate to our condition than discontent. DELAWARE. Area, 2,120 Square Miles. Population in 1860, 112,216 Population in 1870, 125,015 THE State of Delaware, one of the original members of the Union, is situated between 38 28' and 39 50' N. latitude, and 75 and 75 45' "W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania, on the east by Delaware River and Bay (by which it is separated from New Jersey) and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south and west by Maryland. It is about 96 miles long, from north to south, and 37 miles wide, from east to west. TOPOGRAPHY. The northern part of the State is a fine rolling country, healthy and beautiful ; but the southern and central counties are low and generally sandy. The lower part of the State is occupied by a large cypress swamp. Just north of this swamp, is a slight elevation running north and south. It is occupied with swamps, in which rise the waters flowing into the Delaware Bay. This State and the eastern shore of Maryland, lying between the Delaware and Chesapeake bays, form a low peninsula, over which the salt air sweeps with but little to interrupt it. The Delaware River, which washes the eastern shore of the State, has been described. . It is the principal stream. The Brandywine, which enters the State from Pennsylvania, on the north, and flows into the Delaware at Wilmington, is a fine mill stream. Indian River, which flows into the Atlantic in the southern part of the State, is the largest stream lying wholly within the limits of Delaware. A num- 491 492 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ber of creeks flow into Delaware Bay and the Atlantic, and the Nanti- coke and Choptank rivers of Maryland rise in the southwestern part of the State. Delaware Bay is a large arm of the sea, separating the States of Delaware and New Jersey. It is 13 miles wide at its mouth. Cape Henlopen, on the southwestern side, is in Delaware ; and Cape May, on the northeast side, in New Jersey, The bay is 60 miles long, from the capes to the mouth of the Delaware River, and is 25 miles wide at its broadest part. It is considerably obstructed with shoals, which make its navigation difficult in many places. It offers the only harbor between New York and the Chesapeake ; and for the purpose of protecting it, the Government has erected, at a cost of over $2,000,000, a magnificent breakwater consisting of two sides, extending out from the Delaware shore at Cape Henlopen. The upper side protects the harbor thus formed from floating ice, and the lower side guards it from the violence of the waves of the sea. The breakwater is built of massive stone, and is one of the best in the world. MINERALS. Delaware is almost without mineral resources. Bog iron ore exists in the southern swamps; and a fine white sand, used in making glass, is found near- the head of Delaware Bay. Large quantities of it are shipped to New England. CLIMATE. The sea breeze, which sweeps over the entire State, renders the climate mild and pleasant, as a general rule ; but the winters are sometimes severe and trying. The southern and central portions are afflicted with ague and fever, and are consequently unhealthy. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil in the southern portion of the State is sandy ; in the centre it consists of a mixture of clay and sand ; and in the northern part it is a fine, fertile loam. Since the census of 1860, the State has made great progress in agriculture, and the cultivation of fruit has increased beyond the most sanguine expectations. The abolition of slavery has drawn into the State a considerable emigration of small farmers from New England, and it is becoming one of the most pro- ductive sections of the Union. The peach crop is rarely a failure in DELAWARE. 493 * this State, and its small fruits, melons, and sweet potatoes have made it famous throughout the country. In 1869, there were 637,065 acres of improved, and 367,230 acres of unimproved land in Delaware. The other products for the same year were as follows : Cash value of farms (estimated), $31,426,357 Value of farming implements and machinery (estimated), $820,000 Number of horses, 25,160 asses and mules, 4,112 milch cows, 24,198 young cattle, 35,340 sheep, 19,540 swine, 51,360 Value of domestic animals, $5,144,706 Bushels of wheat, 830,000 rye, 35,000 " Indian corn, 3,200,000 oats, 1,723,000 14 peas and beans, 8,438 " potatoes, 200,000 barley, 6,000 " buckwheat, 12,000 Pounds of butter, 1,430,502 " cheese, , . . . 6,579 " beeswax and honey, 68,130 Tons of hay, 30,000 COMMERCE. Delaware has but little direct foreign trade, almost the entire busi- ness of the State passing through the ports of Philadelphia and Balti- more. In 1863, the tonnage owned in the State amounted to 25,963. Delaware exports large quantities of fruit to the northern States, together with a considerable quantity of lumber from her swamps. MANUFACTURES. The only manufacturing town in Delaware, is Wilmington ; but manufacturing establishments are located in various parts of the State. In 1860, the State contained 564 establishments devoted to manufac- tures. They employed 6192 hands and a capital of $5,360,000, con- sumed raw material worth $5,375,000, and yielded an annual pro- duct of $9,920,000. The following is a detailed statement of the value of the principal manufactures in 1860 : 4 494 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Cotton goods, $919,103 Woollen goods, 156,635 Leather, 37,240 Steam engines and machinery, 550,500 Agricultural implements, 90,581 Sawed and planed lumber, 260,000 Flour, 1,840,000 Boots and shoes, 226,470 Carriages, 608,580 The railroad cars and gunpowder of Wilmington rank high amongst the products of the State, but no estimates of them are at hand. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The principal public work in the State is the Canal, extending en- tirely across the State and connecting Delaware and Chesapeake bays. It is 16 miles long, 66 feet wide at the surface, 10 feet deep, and is pro- vided with two lift and two tide locks, 100 feet long by 22 feet wide. It was completed in 1829, cost $2,750,000, and affords /nland steam communication between Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. Near the eastern end of the canal, is the famous " deep cut," an ex- cavation 90 feet deep, .and 6 miles long, through which the canal passes. A railroad from Philadelphia to Baltimore, the main line of the through travel between the North and the South, extends across the northern part of the State. The Delaware Railroad extends from Wilmington through the centre of the State to the lower part of the eastern shore of Maryland. A branch road leads off from the main stem to Easton, Md., and another into the eastern part of Sussex county. Owing to the extreme narrowness of the State, the Delaware road brings every part of it below Wilmington within direct rail- road communication with all parts of the Union. In 1872, the State contained 227 miles of completed railroads, constructed at a cost of about $7,000,000. The Delaware road, it should be added, connects with steamers for Norfolk at Crisfield, Md., and thus forms the most direct route from Norfolk to Philadelphia and New York. EDUCATION. There is no regular public school system in Delaware, as in the other Middle States. The counties and towns are left to themselves in their efforts to provide public instruction. The State makes an DELAWARE. 495 annual appropriation for this purpose, of 50 cents for each pupil in Sussex and Kent counties, and 20 cents for each pupil in Newcastle county. In 1870, there were 326 public schools in the State, with 17,835 pupils. The number is about the same at present. A State Normal School was established in 1866. Besides this, there are two colleges in the State with about 90 students. Delaware College is located at Newark, and St. Mary's College at Wilmington. The schools being closed to colored children, about 24 colored schools have been opened in various parts of the State. In 1870, the State contained 473 libraries, of which over 200 were public. There were 14 political papers 1 daily, 10 weekly, and 3 semi-weekly and 1 literary paper (a weekly) published in Delaware. They had a total annual circulation of 1,607,840 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. Delaware maintains its insane, deaf, dumb, and blind, in the insti- tutions of other States, and has no such establishments of its own. The State is also without a penitentiary. Criminals are confined in the county jails. Until within a year or two, many offences were punished by whipping at the public whipping-post, and standing in the pillory. As late as the 5th of December, 1868, a scene of this kind occurred at Newcastle. KELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Delaware was $1,823,950. The number of churches was 252. FINANCES. At the beginning of the year 1871, the aggregate indebtedness of the State of Delaware amounted to $1,632,000, an increase of $1 76,000 in two years. The State has investments amounting to $1,074,150, which is $224,000 more than it held at the beginning of 1869. The receipts of the Treasury for the year 1870 were $120,577. In 1868, there were 11 National Banks in Delaware, with an aggre- gate capital of $1,428,185. GOVERNMENT. In this State every free male citizen, 22 years of age, who has re- sided one year in the State, and for the last month of this year in the 496 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. county, and who has paid a county tax assessed at least 6 months be- fore the election, is entitled to vote; but free male citizens between 21 and 22 years of age may vote without paying taxes, provided they have complied with the other conditions. The Government is conducted by a Governor, and Legislature con- sisting of a Senate (of 9 members) and a House of Representatives (of 21 members), all elected by the people. The Secretary of State is appointed by the Governor, and serves for 4 years. The Attorney- General is appointed in the same way, and holds office 5 years. The State Treasurer and Auditor are elected by the Legislature for 2 years. The Governor serves for 4 years, and the members of the Legislature for 2 years. The Legislature meets once in two years. The Judiciary consists of a Court of Errors and Appeals, Superior Court, Court of Chancery, Orphans' Court, Court of Oyer and Ter- miner, Court of General Sessions of the Peace and Jail Delivery, Register's Court, and Justices of the Peace. The Chancellor is the principal Judge of the State. Dover, in Kent county, is the capital. For purposes of government, Delaware is divided into three coun- ties, viz : Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex. HISTORY. The first settlements in this State were made by the Swedes and Finns, in 1627. As we have shown in the sketch of Pennsylvania, they were conquered by the Dutch, in 1655, and turned over to the English when New York passed into their hands, in 1664. Dela- ware formed a, part of the territory granted to William Penn, in 1682 ; and from that time until the Revolution, continued to form a part of Pennsylvania. It was allowed a separate Assembly about the year 1701, but remained subject to the authority of the Governor of Penn- sylvania until 1776, when it was granted an independent existence. It adopted a State Constitution, on the 20th of September, 1776, and was received into the Union of the States. The province bore its full share of the burdens of the wars with France; and in the Revolution, the Delaware regiment was known as one of the most efficient in the army. On the 7th of December, 1787, the State ratified the Consti- tution of the United States; and in 1792, a new State Constitution was adopted. In 1865, slavery was abolished in the State by the ratification of an DELAWARE. 49T amendment to the Federal Constitution. The number of slaves was 1798 in 1860, but had been considerably reduced by 1865. CITIES AND TOWNS. Wilmington is the largest town in the State. The other places of importance are, Smyrna, Dover, Newcastle, Delaware City, Seaford, and Lewes. DOVER, The capital of the State, is situated in Kent county, on Jones 7 Creek, 5 miles above the Delaware River. It is 50 miles south from Wilmington, and 114 northeast from Washington City. The town is prettily situated on high ground, and is built mostly of brick. The streets are wide and cross each other at right-angles, arid are prettily shaded with trees. The town contains a fine State House, and the buildings devoted to the public offices, all of which face an open and tastefully ornamented square. The railway from Wilmington to Crisfield, Md., passes through Dover, which is thus brought in communication with all parts of the State. There are several flourishing schools in Dover, 4 churches, and 1 newspaper office. Many of the residences are handsome and attractive. In 1870, the population was 1913. WILMINGTON, The largest and most important city of the State, is situated in New- castle county, on Christiana Creek, just above its junction with the Brandywine, and within 2 miles of the Delaware River. It is 28 miles southwest of Philadelphia, and 108 miles northeast of Washing- ton City. It is built on the southern slope of a hill, the summit of which is 110 feet above tide-water. The upper portions of the city command excellent views of the Delaware River and the surrounding country. The general plan of Wilmington is regular, with wide, straight streets intersecting each other at right-angles. The buildings are principally of brick, and give to the city a substantial air, which is being greatly improved of late by the frequent introduction of stone in the more modern edifices. The principal business thoroughfare is Market street, about a mile in length. It extends from the Chris- tiana to the Brandywine, intersects the other streets at right-angles, and crosses each of the creeks named by a handsome " * ; dge. Street railways connect the principal points of the city. 32 498 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. PEACH FARM. The Public Buildings are the Town, Hall, the Custom House, a fine granite structure, and the Institute. The Roman Catholic College, about 10 public schools, and 7 or 8 private schools constitute the educa- tional establishments. The Institute contains a spacious hall, a scien- tific lecture-room, and a library of over 8000 volumes. The city also contains a large hospital, an alms-house, and about 30 churches; is supplied with pure water from the Brandy wine, and is lighted with gas. It has a well organized police force, and a steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. Five newspapers are pub- lished here. Wilmington is accessible to steamers and ships, and is connected with Philadelphia and Baltimore by railway. It is also the northern terminus of the Delaware Railway. It is a place of considerable trade, and is also largely engaged in manufactures. The principal of these are iron steamboats, railway cars, steam engines, railroad wheels, locomotive and car springs, mill machinery, other iron goods, powder, carriages, flour, leather, shoes, cotton and woollen goods, and agricul- tural implements. The famous powder works of the Duponts are DELAWARE. 499 situated about 2 miles from the city. In 1870, the population of the city was 30,841. Wilmington occupies the site of Fort Christiana and the village built back of it, which the Dutch called Christianham. After the surrender of the Dutch possessions on the Delaware, it was called Altona. The town was first laid out in 1732, by Thomas Willing, and was called Willing Town, which name was afterwards changed to Wilmington. In 1777, it was occupied by the British. In 1809, it was chartered as the "Borough of Wilmington ;" and in 1832, it was incorporated as a city. The other towns of the State stand as follows, in respect to popula- tion: Smyrna, 2110 inhabitants; Newcastle, 1916; Delaware City, 1059 ; Seaford, 1308 ; Lewes, 1090. PART IV. THE SOUTHEKN STATES. MARYLAND. Area, , . . . 9,356 Square Miles.* Population in 1860, 687,049 Population in 1870, 780,894 THE State of Maryland, one of the original members of the Union, is situated between 38 and 39 44' N. latitude, and 75 10' and 79 20' W. longitude. It is 190 miles long from east to west in the ex- treme northern part, and 120 miles wide from north to south in the extreme eastern part. Its width, however, varies greatly in different localities. It is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania, on the east by Delaware, on the south by Virginia and West Virginia, and on the west by West Virginia. It is separated from the two Virginias on the south by the Potomac River. The District of Columbia, the seat of the Federal Government, lies on the banks of the Potomac, in the southwestern part of the State, and originally formed a part of the State of Maryland. TOPOGRAPHY, The Chesapeake Bay divides the State into two unequal portions, called the Eastern and Western Shore. The Western Shore is about twice the size of the Eastern, and comprises the more important part of the State. The Eastern Shore is mostly level, or at the best slightly rolling. The surface of the Western Shore rises as it recedes from the bay, and west of Baltimore is rugged and mountainous. The Alleghany Mountains cross the State in the western part, and are known as the Southeast Mountain, Sugar Loaf Mountain, Catoctiiij Blue Ridge, Kittatinny, Rugged Mountain, and Will's Mountain. * This estimate is exclusive of the area occupied by the Bay. Including the Chesapeake, the area of the State is about 11,124 square miles. 503 504 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The State is not over 6 or 7 miles wide in the greater part of this re- gion, but it is rich in magnificent scenery. The Chesapeake Bay lies in the eastern part of the State, and di- vides it, as we have stated, into two unequal 'portions. Tt receives the waters of the Susquehanna at its head, the Elk, Chester, Sassafras, Choptank, and Nanticoke rivers from the Eastern Shore, and the Patapsco, Patuxent, and Potomac from the Western. The bay is about 200 miles long, and for 120 miles lies entirely in Maryland. The lower part, from the mouth of the Potomac, lies in Virginia. Its northern point is called Cape Charles, and its southern Cape Henry. The width between these capes is 12 miles. Above this the bay varies in width from 10 to 40 miles. Its shores are thickly studded with inlets, many of which are fine harbors. It is navigable for the largest ships nearly to its head, and for steamers into the Susquehanna. It is one of the most beautiful sheets of water in the world. After passing the southern boundary of Maryland, it receives the waters, of the Rappahannock, York, and James rivers, of Virginia, on its western side. It connects Alexandria, Norfolk, and {Richmond} in Virginia, Washington City, in the District of Columbia, and Baltimore, in Maryland, with the sea. An immense trade is carried on over its waters. The Chesapeake is famous for the abundance and variety of the game which it furnishes. Its oysters are world-renowned, and seem inexhaustible. The bay and inlets abound in a variety of the finest fish and terrapin, and other salt-water delicacies are found all along its shores. These waters supply the principal markets of the Eastern States with such delicacies. " There is," says Dr. Lewis, in the "American Sportsman," "no place in our wide extent of country where wild fowl shooting is followed with so much ardor as on the Chesa- peake Bay and its tributaries, not only by those who make a comfort- able living from the business, but also by gentlemen who resort to these waters from all parts of the adjoining States to participate in the enjoyments of this far-famed ducking ground. All species of wild fowl come here in numbers beyond credence, and it is really ne- cessary for a stranger to visit the region if he wishes to form a just idea of the wonderful multitudes and numberless varieties of ducks that darken these waters, and hover in interminable flocks over these famed feeding grounds. It is not, however, the variety or extraor- dinary numbers of ducks on the Chesapeake that particularly attract the steps of so many shooters to these parts, as there are other rivers MARYLAND. 505 OYSTER FISHING. and streams equally accessible where wild fowl also abound. But the great magnet that makes these shores the centre of attraction, is the presence of the far-famed Canvass- Back, that here alone acquires its peculiar delicacy of flavor, while feeding upon the shores and flats of these waters/' "The canvass-baeks," says Dr. Sharpless, of Philadelphia, in a paper contributed to "Audubon's Birds of America," " pass up and down the bay, from river to river, in their morning and evening flights, giving, at certain localities, great opportunities for destruction. They pursue, even in their short passages, very much the order of their migratory movements, flying in a line of baseless triangle: and when the wind blows on the points which mav lie in their course, the sportsman has great chance of success. These points or courses of the ducks are materially affected by the winds ; for they avoid, if pos- gible, an approach to the shore ; but when a strong breeze sets them on to these projections of the land, they are compelled to pass within shot, and often over the land itself. In the Susquehanna and Elk rivers there are few of these points for shooting, and there success 506 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. depends on approaching them while on their feeding grounds. After leaving the eastern point at the mouth of the Susquehaima and Tur- key Point, the western side of the Elk River, which are both mode- rately good for flying shooting, the first place of much celebrity is the Narrows, between Spesutic Island and the western shore. These Narrows are about 3 miles in length, and from 300 to 500 yards in breadth. By the middle of November, the canvass-backs, in particu- lar, begin to feed in this passage, and the entrance and outlet, as well as many intermediate spots, become very successful stations. A few miles down the western shore is Taylor's Island, which is situated at the mouth of the Rumney and Abbey Island, at the mouth of Bush River, which are both celebrated for ducks, as well as for swans and geese. These are the most northerly points where large fowl are met with, and projecting out between deep coves, where immense numbers of these birds feed, they possess great advantages. The south point of Bush River, Legoe's Point, and Robbins' and Pickett's points, near Gunpowder River, are famous localities. Immediately at the mouth of this river is situated Carroll's Island, which has long been known as a great shooting ground. Maxwell's Point, as well as some others up other rivers, and even further down the bay, are good places, but less celebrated than those mentioned. Most of these places are let out as shooting grounds for companies and individuals, and are esteemed so valuable that intruders are severely treated." Nor- folk, Virginia, on the Elizabeth River, at the lower extremity of the bay, is the depot for the receipt and sale of the game taken in the Chesapeake, and there the best purchases can be made. The sport, as all who have joined in it full well know, is not without its diffi- culties and its dangers. Says the learned doctor from whom we have already quoted : " Notwithstanding the apparent facilities that are of- fered of success, the amusement of duck-shooting is probably one of the most exposing to cold and wet ; and those who undertake its en- joyment without a courage ' screwed to the sticking-point,' will soon discover that ' to one good a thousand ills oppose.' It is, indeed, no parlor sport; for, after creeping through mud and mire, often for hundreds of yards, to be at last disappointed, and stand exposed on points to the 'pelting rain or more than freezing cold,' for hours, without even the promise of a shot would try the patience of even Franklin's ' glorious nibbler.' It is, however, replete with excite- ment and charm. To one who can enter on the pleasure with a sys- tem formed for polar cold, and a spirit to endure the weary toil of MARYLAND. 507 inany a stormy day, it will yield a harvest of health and delight that the roamer of the woods can rarely enjoy." The rivers of the State are little more than arms of the bay. The Patapsco River rises in Carroll county, in the northern part of the State. It flows southward as far as the line of Baltimore and Anne Arundel counties, where it turns to the east, forming the boun- dary between those counties, and emptying into the Chesapeake, 14 miles east of Baltimore City. It is about 80 miles long. Until it reaches the border of Anne Arundel county, it flows through a hilly country, and, being broken by numerous falls, forms a fine mill stream. It flows into the bay through a wide estuary about 14 miles long, and 3 miles wide, which is navigable to Baltimore for the largest ships. The Patuxent River rises about 18 miles southeast of Frederick City, and flowing south-southeast between the counties of Montgomery, Prince George's, Charles, and St. Mary's, on the right, and Howard, Anne Arundel, and Calvert, on the left, empties into Chesapeake Bay, through a broad estuary, 3 or 4 miles wide. The river is 90 miles long, and is navigable for about 48 or 50 miles from its mouth. It flows through a fine agricultural region. The Chop- tank River rises in Kent county, Delaware, and flows into the Chesa- peake Bay, between Dorchester and Talbot counties, on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. About 20 miles from its mouth, it spreads out into a broad estuary, 3 or 4 miles wide, which affords some of the finest water scenery in America. It is about 100 miles long, is navi- gable for steamers for about 40 miles, for sloops for 10 or 15 miles higher, and lies for the greater part in Maryland. The other rivers are the Elk, Sassafras, Chester, Pocomoke, and Nanticoke. These, with the bay itself, cut up the Eastern Shore into so many inlets that vessels can lie alongside the shores of the majority of the farms in that part of the State and receive the crops on board. Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, opposite Annapolis, forms a part of Queen Anne's county, and is famous as having been the site of the first English settlement in the State. MINERALS. Coal and iron are found in large quantities in the western part of the State, and of the very best qualities. Copper is found in Frederick and Carroll counties, where important mines are located. Cobalt is found along the Patapsco, and traces of nickel have been discovered 508 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. in some of the copper mines. Lignites occur in quantities in Anne Arundel county, mixed with amber and iron pyrites. Alum, porce*- Iain-clay, lime, chrome, manganese, magnesia, barytes, marble, marl, and ochres are also found, and gold has been discovered. CLIMATE. Lying between the Northern and Southern States, Maryland does not share the extremes of the temperature of either section, but pos- sesses a climate noted for its evenness and mildness. The breezes from the bay sweep over the greater part of the State, and add much to this effect. The country along the bay and its tributaries, however, is sickly, being afflicted with chills and fevers. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. The soil of the eastern shore is sandy in the lower part, but consists of mixtures of clay and sand above the Choptank River. The lands of Talbot county are among the finest in the State. The southern counties of the western shore have also a sandy soil, but that of the other counties is very fertile. That of Frederick county will compare in productiveness with any in the Union. The agriculture of the State is backward. Manures have been but little used, although lime and marl exist in considerable quantities in the State. A change for the better has taken place of late, however. The abolition of slavery- has opened the way for the small farmers of New England and the Middle States, who are settling in the State, especially upon the eastern shore, in great numbers. Great attention is being paid to the growing of fruits, to which this State is peculiarly adapted. Large quantities of peaches and small fruits are annually sent to northern markets. Tobacco also forms an important staple. The land is easily brought to a high state of fertility, and in the eastern counties the winters are short and mild. Horses in the sandy counties do not require to be shod, and many of the farms having water boundaries need little or no fencing. In 1869 there were about 3,002,269 acres of improved, and 1,833,306 acres of unimproved land in the State. The other products for the same year may be stated as follows : - Number of horses, 99,112 " asses and mules, . . . . . . . 11,310 " milch cows, ... .... 100,030 MARYLAND. 509 Number of young cattle, ........ 170,110 sheep, 160,211 swine, . . . . . . . ... 398,120 Value of domestic animals, . $15,667,853 Bushels of wheat, 7,733,000 rye, 182,000 Indian corn, 12,300,000 oats, 7,100,000 peas and beans, 39,407 " potatoes, 1,050,000 " barley, 24,000 buckwheat, 150,000 Hhds of tobacco 25,000 Pounds of wool (estimated), 500,000 butter, 5,265,295 cheese, 8,342 Tons of hay, 191,000 COMMERCE. Baltimore is the chief commercial city of the State, and is actively engaged in an important trade with the Southern and Western States, and with Europe. The tonnage owned, in the State in 1863 was 288,860. During the same year the exports of the State amounted to $12,089,072, and the imports to $4,484,399. The coal of this State is coming into considerable prominence as fuel for steamers, and an important trade is carried on with all parts of the world in canned fruits, vegetables, oysters, etc., prepared in the Bay counties and in Baltimore. MANUFACTURES. Maryland is extensively engaged in manufactures. In 1860 there were 2980 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, min- ing, and the mechanic arts. They employed a capital of $51,800,000, and 40,900 hands, consumed raw material worth $21,900,000, and returned an annual product of $43,000,000. The value of the prin- cipal manufactures for 1860 was as follows : Cotton goods, $2,796,877 Woollen goods, 581,955 Leather, 1,723,033 Pig-iron, 739,600 Rolled iron, 556,000 Steam engines and machinery, 1,285,000 Agricultural implements, 318,980 Sawed and planed lumber, ........ 720,000 Flour, . 8,020,000 510 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Copper,, $60,000 Spirituous and malt liquors, 571 T 927 Boots and shoes, . ... . . . . .... I,244 y 167 Furniture, . 626,154 Soap and candles, . .. . .......... 433,345 INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. Maryland was one of the first -States in the Union to 'engage in internal improvements. Her first effort was to build the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, between Washington City and Cumberland. This work cost her over $7,000,000, but has never been a source of profit to her. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, extending from Baltimore across the mountains to the Ohio River", a't Wheeling, West Va., is one of the most important lines in the tJnion, and was the first ever opened in this country for purposes of general travel. Baltimore is connected with all the important towns of the State, and with all parts of the Union. In 1872, the State contained 820 miles of com- pleted railroads (including a few miles in the District of Columbia), constructed at a cost of about $45,000,000. The total length of canals in the State is about 200 miles, EDUCATION. Until recently the public school system of Maryland was not in keeping with the traditional enterprise and public spirit of the State. Since the close of the war, however, the system has been reorganized and established upon a much better plan. The supervision of schools is rested in a State Board, County Boards, and School District Boards. The State Board consists of four members, appointed by the Governor. The principal of the State Normal School is ex-offieio a member of this board. The State Board has the general control of the educational system of the State. Each county ; is in charge of a Board of County School Commissioners, appointed by the judges of the Circuit Court, and consisting of three members. Each District Board consists of three- persons, appointed by the County School Commissioners. The Cou'nty Commissioners appoint County Examiners, who have power to grant to teachers, after examination, certificates of two grades, which, are good for three years, but no longer. A State tax of 10 cents on each one hundred dollars of tax- able property throughout the State 'is to be levied annually for the support of the schools. MARYLAND. 511 The State formal School is located in Baltimore, and was opened in January, 1866. In September, of the same year, a Model School was added to it. A liberal provision is made for a system of colored schools thonghout the State. The schools of the city of Baltimore are distinct from those of the State, and are controlled by the municipal authorities. They have long been noted for their excellence. The school system in the city is of far older date than that of the State. In 1870 Maryland contained 1347 public schools, exclusive of those of Baltimore City, attended by 75,402 children. The total amount expended upon the public schools in the same year was $751,310. The principal collegiate institutions are Washington College, at Chestertown ; St. John's College, at Annapolis ; St. Mary's College, at Baltimore; St. Charles's College, at Ellicott's Mills; Mount St. Mary's College, at Emmittsburg; the College of St. James, in Wash- ington county; St. John's College, at Frederick City; St. Mary's Theological Seminary, at Baltimore ; the Medical School of the Uni- versity of Maryland, Washington Medical College, the College of Dental Surgery, and Baltimore Female College, at Baltimore; and the State Agricultural College, in Prince George's county. They are all prosperous. During the war some of them were temporarily closed, but all are again in operation. The State supports the Agri- cultural College, and assists St. John's College, at Annapolis, Wash- ington College, at Chestertown, and the Baltimore Female College, at Baltimore City. There were in Maryland, in 1870, about 3353 libraries, containing 1,713,483 volumes. In the same year the number of newspapers and periodicals pub- lished in the State was as follows : daily 8, tri-weekly 1, weekly 69, miscellaneous 10. In the same year several literary and religious papers were published in the State. The political journals had an aggregate annual circulation of 31,858,514 copies. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. The city of Baltimore is well provided with penal and charitable establishments of its own. Those of the State are the Penitentiary and the Hospital for the Insane. The Maryland Penitentiary is located at Baltimore. Extensive additions have been made to its buildings, of late, but there is still a 512 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. deficiency in the accommodations provided for the prisoners. In No- vember, 1867, the number of inmates was 679. The Maryland Hospital for the Insane, at Baltimore, is an excel- lent institution, and is liberally supported by the State. In January, 1868, it contained 113 patients. Two classes are received here State patients, and those who pay their own expenses. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. In 1870, the value of church property in Maryland was $12,038,650. The number of churches was 1389. FINANCES. In 1870, the public debt of the State was $13,317,475. The re- ceipts of the Treasury for the fiscal year ending September 30th, 1870, were $2,522,478, and the expenditures $2,475,069. In 1868, there were 32 National Banks, with a total capital of $12,790,202, doing business in the State. GOVERNMENT. In this State every male citizen of the United States, twenty-one years old, who has resided one year in the State and six months in the county, is entitled to vote at the elections. The first Constitution of Maryland was adopted in August, 1776. It has been changed several times, the present Constitution having been adoptee^ in 1867. The Government is vested in a Governor (elected by the people for four years), a Legislature, consisting of a Senate (of 24 members, elected for four years, one-half going out of office every two years}, and House of Delegates (of 86 members, elected for two years), a Comptroller, and Treasurer, elected for two years, a Secretary of State, and an Attorney-General and Superintendent of Labor and Agricul- ture, elected for four years. The Governor, Legislature, Comptroller, Attorney-General, and Superintendent of Labor are chosen by the people, the Treasurer by the Legislature, and the Secretary of State and other officers appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. No person holding an office under the United States, and no minister of the gospel is eligible to a seat in either house. The Leg- islature meets biennially. The general election is held in November.- The Court of Appeals consists of the Chief Judges of the first seven judicial districts of the State, and a judge from the city of Baltimore, MARYLAND. 513 \vho is specially elected for that purpose. The Chief Justice is nomi- nated by the Governor and confirmed by the. Senate. Four of the judges constitute a quorum, but a decision cannot be rendered with- out the concurrence of at least three. The judge who tried the cause in the lower court, is not allowed to participate in the decision in this court. The court has appellate jurisdiction only, but that in all parts of the State. The other courts are the Circuit Courts of the counties, Orphans' Courts, and Justices' Courts, held by justices of the peace. Besides these are the several courts Superior, Circuit, and Criminal of Baltimore City. Annapolis, in Anne Arundel county, is the capital. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 22 counties. HISTORY. The first settlement in the State was made on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, in the year 1631, by Captain William Clayborne, with a party of men from Virginia. On the 20th of June, the terri- tory of Terra Marise, or Mary's Land, so named in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria of England, was granted by Charles I. to Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore. Calvert sent out a colony in two vessels, the Ark and the Dove, in November, 1633. This expedition reached St. Clement's Island on the 25th of March, 1634, and on the 27th founded the settlement of St. Mary's (in what is now St. Mary's county), on the mainland. The expedition was composed mainly of Catholic gentlemen, their families, and followers, and was in charge of Leonard Calvert, the brother of Lord Baltimore, who was ap- pointed Governor. As soon as the colony was firmly established, other emigrants came from England in considerable numbers, and Clayborne, having refused to submit to the authority of the Gover- nor, was driven from Kent Island. The Indians gave the settlers some trouble, but were promptly made to keep the peace. The first Legislative Assembly met in 1639. In 1642, a band of Puritans, expelled from Virginia for refusing to conform to the worship of the Church of England, settled in Mary- land, and were not long in giving evidences of their determination to disregard the authority of the rightful government of the province. Clayborne also came back and regained possession of Kent Island. The Governor made an effort to expel him, but he and his followers, aided by the Puritan settlers, not only defeated this eifort, but seized 33 514 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. the government of the province, and forced Calvert to fly into Vir- ginia, in 1644. Clayborne held the control of affairs until 1646, when Calvert entered the province at the head of a considerable force, and reestablished the authority of the proprietary. In 1649, the As- sembly enacted this wise statute : " Whereas the enforcing of the con- science in matters of religion hath frequently fallen out to be of dangerous consequences in those Commonwealths where it has been practised, and for the more quiet and peaceful government of this Province, and the better to preserve -mutual love and amity among the inhabitants, no person within this Province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall be anyways troubled, molested, or discounte- nanced for his or her religion, or in the free exercise thereof." The Puritans gave great trouble to the colony. They had founded the town of Providence, which was afterwards called Annapolis, and were centred mainly in that part of the State. Finally they were granted the county of Charles. Upon the establishment of the Com- monwealth in England, they insisted that the colony ought to submit to it, but the authorities proclaimed Charles II. When the Assembly met again, it was found that the Puritans were largely in excess of the followers of the Proprietary. In 1652, the Commissioners sent out from England by the Parliament arrived, and completely estab- lished the authority of the Commonwealth. Governor Stone, the representative of Lord Baltimore, was removed. One of the Com- missioners referred to was no other than Clayborne, the old enemy of Lord Baltimore. Kent Island was given up to him, and he was also assigned Palmer Island, at the mouth of the Susquehanna River. In 1654, Lord Baltimore made a vigorous attempt by force of arms to regain his rights. A bitter contest was begun, and continued with alternate success and failure until March 25th, 1655, when Lord Baltimore's forces made an attack on Providence (Annapolis), and were repulsed with terrible slaughter by the Puritans, the whole force being killed or captured. Governor Stone was among the prisoners, all of whom were condemned to death. It is known that at least four of them were executed. The Puritans continued to hold the govern- ment until 1657, when Lord Baltimore's rights were restored, and his brother Philip Calvert appointed Governor. His family continued to hold the government until 1688, when William and Mary, having come to the throne of England, assumed the control of the Province. From this time the Governor was appointed by the Crown, until 1714, when Benedict Charles Calvert, the lineal heir of the first pro- MARYLAND. 515 prietor, was granted the government again. Unlike the rest of his family, he was a Protestant, which was the cause of his succession to his hereditary rights. In 1691, the seat of government was transferred to Providence, the name of which was changed to Annapolis. In 1695, a post route, the first in America, was established from the Potomac, through Anna- polis, to Philadelphia. In 1729, the town of Baltimore was founded, i Frederick City in 1745, and Georgetown (now in the District of Columbia) in 1751. By 1756 the population of the colony had in- creased to 154,188 souls, of whom over 40,000 were negroes. The colony also increased in material prosperity. By the year mentioned above, the annual export of tobacco was 30,000 hogsheads, and, in spite of the efforts of the home government to prevent it, there were 8 furnaces and 9 forges for smelting copper in operation in the province. During the wars with France, Maryland contributed liberally to the common cause. Between 1754 and 1758, her western frontier suffered severely from the savages, whose outrages were stopped only by the capture of Fort Duquesne. The colony offered a spirited resistance to the injustice of the home Government, and promptly made common cause in this matter with the other provinces. The outbreak of the Revolution caused the overthrow of the proprietary government, which patriotically sub- mitted to the necessity, and in August, 1776, a Convention of the people adopted a State Constitution, which went into immediate ope- ration. The State made liberal contributions of men and money for the maintenance of the war. The " Maryland Line" won a name in this struggle, which is one of the most precious legacies they have left to 'their children. Congress assembled at Baltimore, and afterwards at Annapolis, towards the close of the war, and it was at the latter place that Washington resigned his commission, on the 23d of Decem- ber, 1783. Upon the close of the war, great and successful efforts were made to settle the western part of the State. Maryland ratified the Federal Constitution April 28th, 1788. During the war of 1812, the shores of the Chesapeake Bay were brutally ravaged by a British fleet commanded by Admiral Cockbtirn. French town, Havre de Grace, Frederictown, and Georgetown were sacked and burned. The militia of the State were defeated at Bla- densburg, where they attempted to arrest the march of the British upon Washington City, yi 1814. They repulsed the same force A 516 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. North Point, near Baltimore, on the 13th of September, 1814, and killed the British Commander, General Ross; and on the 14th re- pulsed the attack of the enemy's fleet upon Fort McHenry, which protected the entrance to the city of Baltimore. When the question of establishing a seat of Government was brought up, near the close of the last century, Maryland granted to the United States 60 square miles of her territory, lying near the falls of the Potomac. Virginia united with her, and added enough of her own territory to make the grant consist of 100 square miles. The offer was accepted by the United States, and the District of Columbia was erected. The seat of Government was transferred to it in 1800. At the outbreak of the late war, it was generally supposed that Maryland would secede from the Union, and join the other States of the South in their attempt to establish a new Confederacy. This course would undoubtedly have been pursued, had the State been free to act as it wished ; but at the first opening of the struggle, it was promptly occupied by the forces of the General Government. During the war, it was nominally allowed to control its own affairs, but was really held down by force until the cessation of hostilities. It was invaded three times by a Confederate army, and, with the District of Columbia, formed the base from which the operations of the Federal Army of the Potomac were conducted. The battles of South Mountain and Antietam, or Sharpsburg, and Monocacy Bridge, near Frederick City, were fought in the western part of the State; and Maryland Heights, opposite Harper's Ferry, on the Potomac, bore a prominent part in the military operations around that place. Raiding parties entered the State repeatedly from Virginia, penetrat- ing upon one occasion beyond Baltimore, and a number of minor conflicts occurred between these parties and detachments of the Union army. During the war, the State furnished a considerable force to the army and navy of the United States ; but a much larger number of native Marylanders crossed the Potomac and entered the Southern army. Slavery was abolished by a State Convention in 1864. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the most important cities and towns in the State are, Baltimore, Frederick, Cumberland, Cambridge, Easton, and Chestertown. MARYLAND. 511 ANNAPOLIS, The capital of the State, is situated in Anne Arundel county, on the south or right bank of the Severn River, 2 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay. It is beautifully located in full view of the bay, of which it commands extensive and picturesque views. It is 30 miles south by east from Baltimore, and 37 miles east by north from Washington. It is one of the oldest towns in the country, and bears marks of its antiquity on every hand. The buildings are gene- rally in the style of a century ago, though the city contains many- handsome modern edifices. As a rule the town is well built. The plan of the city bears some resemblance to that of the National Capi- tal, all of the streets radiating from two points, the State House and the Episcopal church. The city bears ample evidence of the wealth and prosperity which it once possessed in many ancient and extensive mansions, with large ranges of offices and stables, now gone to decay, and in some cases uninhabited. The State House stands near the centre of the city, and is a vener- able edifice of brick, with a lofty dome and cupola. It is situated in a small park on the highest point of the city, and contains the halls of the Legislature, the offices of the Governor and Secretary of State, and the State Library. The hall now occupied by the State Senate was used for the sessions of the Continental Congress near the close of the Revolution, and it was here that Washington resigned his commission as Commander-in-Chief of the American armies. The hall is now ornamented with a large painting commemorating that event. It is from the pencil of Mr. Edwin White, of New York. To the east of the State House stands the official mansion of the Governor of Maryland, who is obliged to reside here during his term of office. Annapolis is lighted with gas, but many of the buildings still use oil lamps. It is connected with Baltimore and Washington City by a railway, and with the former city by a line of steamers. It was formerly a place of considerable trade, but is now important only as the capital of the State. It contains 6 churches, and 2 newspaper of- fices, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the popu- lation was 5744. The city is well supplied with public and private schools. St. John's College is a flourishing institution, supported in part by the State. It was closed during the civil war, but is now in a fair way to regain its former prosperity. 518 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Annapolis is the seat of the Naval Academy of the United States, established during the administration of President Polk, the Hon. Geo. Bancroft being Secretary of the Navy. It is located in the northeast part of the city, immediately on the shore of the Severn, and is de- signed for the education #nd training of officers of the United States Navy. Annapolis was founded about 1649, and was at first called Provi- dence. The events of its early history have been already related in the sketch of the history of the State. In 1708 it was chartered as a city, and 'named Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anne, who had be- stowed several valuable presents upon the town. It was for many years the most important city in Maryland, but was at length sur- passed by Baltimore, to which city its large trade was transferred. BALTIMORE, The largest and most important city of the State, and the sixth city of the United States, is situated in Baltimore county, on the north side of the Patapsco Kiver, about 12 miles from its entrance into Chesapeake Bay. It is 38 miles northeast from Washington, 98 miles southwest from Philadelphia, and 200 miles from the ocean by the course of the Chesapeake. The city is built partly along the river shore, and partly along a range of hills overhanging the Patapsco and commanding distant views of the bay. Below Baltimore the river widens into a broad estuary, several rniles in width. Some portions of the city are 100 feet above tide water, and the view of Baltimore from the river is very beautiful and attractive. This rolling charac- ter of the ground enables the city to provide the best system of sewerage in the country, and does much to render Baltimore a re- markably clean city. " Perhaps no city in the United States has such a picturesque sight as Baltimore, covering as it does a number of emi- nences, which, however inconvenient they may be for the residents, furnish a pleasant variety for the stranger. If the visitor ascends the Washington Monument, in the northern part of the city, on a hill, itself 100 feet above tide, he has one of the finest panoramas furnished by any city in the Union. Immediately beneath and around him are some of the most capacious streets, lined with residences rarely equalled in elegance, size, and position. To the north and northwest are the newer and finer buildings, constituting the fashionable part of the city, while to the south lies the great centre of trade; a little to the southeast is the harbor, and beyond it Federal Hill ; while far in the MARYLAND. 519 BATTLE MONUMENT. distance, but nearly in the same direction, stretches the beautiful arm of the bay on which Baltimore stands. To the east and southeast, across Jones' Falls (a small creek which divides the city into two portions), lie the Old Town and Fell's Point ; and to the west the newer portions, which are extending rapidly. The view is varied by the dome of the Catholic cathedral, the Unitarian church, and the Exchange, by the Shot-tower, by the Battle Monument, and by the steeples and towers of the various churches scattered in all directions; the whole girt on the northwest and east by beautiful hills crowned with a natural growth of trees. Although the site of the city is such as to cause irregularity in some of the streets, the different sections are laid out with great uniformity. Baltimore street, the fashionable promenade, and seat of the retail and jobbing business, divides the city into two nearly equal portions, the larger part lying to the north. Charles street, crossing this at right angles, also divides the city into two nearly equal parts, the portion called North Charles street being mostly occupied with elegant residences, and South Charles street, between Baltimore and Lombard streets, with extensive wholesale warehouses. 520 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. "From the number and prominence of its monuments, Baltimore has been denominated the ' Monumental City/ The most remarkable of these is the Washington Monument, standing in a small, open area at the intersection of Charles and Monument streets. Its base, 50 feet square and 20 high, supports a doric column 176J feet in height, which is surmounted by a colossal statue of Washington, 16 feet high, giving its summit an elevation of 312J feet above the level of the harbor. The shaft, 20 feet square at the base, and 14 at the top, is ascended by means of a winding stairway within. The whole is con- structed of white marble, and cost $200,000. Battle Monument, also a beautiful structure of marble, is situated in Monument Square, in Calvert street, near Lexington street. From the base, which is square and ornamented with various devices, rises a facial column, 18 feet high, on the bands of which are inscribed the names of those who fell while defending the city from the attack of the British, September 12th, 1814. This is surmounted by a beautiful statue of the Goddess of Liberty, 7J feet high, making the entire height of the monument 52J feet. Another object of much interest to strangers is the Mer- chants' Shot-tower, the highest, it is said, in the world, having an elevation of 246 feet."-* The public buildings are handsome. The City Hall, on Holliday street, is a magnificent building of white marble, covering an entire square ; the U. 8. Court House, on Fayette street, is a fine granite structure ; and the U. S. Custom House and Post Office, on Lombard and Gay streets, the City Jail, the Maryland and Peabody Institutes, the latter of white marble, and the Masonic Hall, also of white marble, are imposing structures. The depots of the Baltimore and Ohio and the Northern Central Railways are among the handsomest buildings of the city. There are also many elegant buildings of stone, iron, and marble, used for mercantile purposes, which must be included among the ornaments of the city. Many of the churches are also worthy of notice in this connection. The educational, literary, and scientific institutions of Baltimore have always been amongst the best in the land. The public schools were famous when those of the other large American cities were striv- ing for the excellence they have since attained. In 1870, the city contained 119 schools, attended by 23,913 pupils. In the same year the city paid $26,322 for schools for colored children. The private Lippincott's Gazetteer. MARYLAND. 521 schools are numerous, of a high character, and are well attended. The higher schools are the University of Maryland, the Medical Depart- ment of which was founded in 1807 ; Loyola College-, the Theological School, formerly connected with St. Mary's (R. C.) College ; the Balti- more College of Pharmacy ; and the College of Dental Surgeons. The Peabody Institute, on Charles and Monument streets, is the gift of George Peabody, and is devoted to literary and scientific purposes. It contains a good and growing library, and a gallery of fine arts. The Athanceum, St. Paul and Saratoga streets, contains the Mercan- tile Library, about 20,000 volumes, and the Baltimore Library, 15,000 volumes. It is also occupied by the Historical Society of Maryland, which possesses a library of 1000 volumes, and a collection of papers and other relics. An annual exhibition of paintings is held in the rooms of this society. The Maryland Institute occupies a large build- ing on Baltimore street near Jones' Falls. The lower part is used as a market. The upper part is an immense hall, in which an annual exhibition of the mechanic arts is held. It possesses a fine library. The reading room belonging to the Board of Trade is supplied with newspapers from all parts of the world. The benevolent and charitable institutions are the Maryland Hos- pital for the Insane, situated on a hill in the eastern part of the city ; the Mount Hope Institution, for the same purpose, under the charge of the Sisters of Charity ; the Baltimore Infirmary, with beds for 300 patients; the Maryland Institution for the Instruction of the Blind; the Church Home and Infirmary, connected with the Episcopal Church ; the Union Protestant Infirmary ; the Aged Women 9 s Home ; the Old Men's Home; the Home of the Friendless ; the House of the Good Shepherd, for the reformation of fallen women ; the Almshouse, and four Dispensaries. The prisons and reformatory establishments are the State Peniten- tiary, the City Jail, a handsome granite structure, and the House of Refuge, for the reformation of juvenile delinquents. The hotels of Baltimore are good. The principal are the City Hotel (Barnum's), and the Gilmore and Eutaw Houses. Baltimore is very far behind its eastern rivals in many things. The streets are badly paved, cobble stones predominating, and the side- walks are of brick. While the city contains a large number of mag- nificent buildings, its principal thoroughfare, Baltimore street, cannot compare with the corresponding streets of either New York, Phila- delphia, Boston, Chicago, or St. Louis. In the private portions, the 522 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. BALTIMORE STREET. principal material used is brick, with white marble trimmings. Brown stone is now becoming common in the wealthier sections. The city is noted for the large number of small dwellings which it con- tains. These furnish homes for the working classes, who live in greater comfort and privacy than in almost any other large city in the world. Few houses contain more than one family. The more fashion- able quarters are beautifully built up, and will compare favorably with any city in the country. Street railway lines connect the various parts of the city. The cars of every line touch Baltimore street below Calvert and above Gay street, and thus bring all points in connection with the business centre. Similar lines connect the city with its principal suburbs. There are between 160 and 170 churches in Baltimore. Some of these are very costly and beautiful. Baltimore is the See of a Roman Catholic Archbishop, who is the Primate of the United States. The city contains several parks and pleasure grounds. These are Union, Franklin, and Lafayette squares, and Patterson and Druid Hill parks. Patterson Park contains 36 acres, and embraces the MARYLAND. 523 earthworks thrown up for the defence of the city in the war of 1812. Druid Hill Park contains 550 acres, and abounds in fine trees and shrubbery. It is naturally one of the most beautiful of the American parks, and has been greatly improved and ornamented since its pur- chase by the city. It is situated in the northern suburbs of the city, beyond the extreme end of Madison Avenue. The cemeteries are Greenmount, Loudon Park, Baltimore, Mount Olivet, Mount Carmel, and the Western. Greenmount is very beauti- ful, and contains many handsome monuments. The theatres of Baltimore are behind those of the other large cities of the Union. The principal are the Holliday Street Theatre and the Concordia Opera House. Baltimore is the terminus of five railway lines, which connect it with all parts of the country. The Baltimore and Ohio Railway is one of the great trunk lines to the West, and one of the finest works in the world. By means of these it conducts an enormous trade with the West, and with the interior of the State of Virginia. Steamboats ply between Baltimore and the principal towns on the Chesapeake Bay and the rivers emptying into it, and a large coasting trade is carried on from this port. A line of first-class steamers connects the city with the port of Bremen, in Germany, and is bringing a large portion of the emigration from that country through the port of Balti- more. Baltimore enjoys very great facilities for commerce from its situation, and needs but the energy and enterprise of its former days to be a more important commercial city than it is. In 1864, the arrivals at the port of Baltimore, not counting the bay craft, were 1143 steamers, 38 ships, 137 barks, 197 brigs, 1025 schooners, mak- ing a total of 2540 vessels. In the same year, the foreign imports of Baltimore were $6,076,300; and the exports were $12,362,448. The registered tonnage for the same year was 45,198 ; enrolled and licensed, 203,497 ; making a total of 248,695 tons. By means of the Baltimore and Ohio and Northern Central Railways, a heavy coal trade is carried on through Baltimore. Large quantities of this are shipped from Locust Point. Baltimore is largely engaged in manufactures, Jones 7 Falls furnish- ing excellent water-power. Some of the largest machine shops in the country are located here. The principal manufactures are cotton and iron goods, machinery, steam engines, agricultural implements, and flour. The city is abundantly supplied with water from Swann Lake and 524 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Jones' Falls. The water is brought a distance of seven miles to the city reservoirs, which are from 110 to 1*50 feet above tide- water. The city is lighted with gas of an excellent quality, and is provided with a police and fire alarm telegraph, an efficient police force, and an admirable steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 267,354. In the year 1729, the General Assembly of Maryland took meas- ures for " erecting a town on the north side of the Patapsco in Balti- more county." The site had been settled as early as 1682, by David Jones, who gave his name to the small stream which now flows through the city of Baltimore, dividing it into " old " and " new " town. On the 12th of January, 1730, a town of 60 acres of land was laid out by the county surveyor and commissioners, and called Balti- more in honor of Cecilius Calvert Lord Baltimore. " In the same year, William Fell, a ship-carpenter, having purchased a tract east of the falls, called it Fell's Point, after his own name, which it still bears. In 1732, a new town of 10 acres in 20 lots, was laid out on the east of the falls, and called Jonestown, in honor of David Jones, the first settler. The name has long been forgotten, and as a settle- ment existed there before that of Baltimore, it was called ' old town/ Jonestown was united to Baltimore in 1745, dropping its own name, and two years afterward Baltimore, which properly lay up about the head of the < basin/ near the foot of the present South Charles street, was extended as far eastwardly as Jones 7 Falls, under an express pro- vision that there was nothing in the Act recognizing a right to 'elect delegates to the Assembly as representatives from the town.' This was the earliest manifestation of that singular jealousy, which has ever since been shown in the Legislature by the Maryland county mem- bers against the city of Baltimore." In 1755, Baltimore contained but 25 houses and 200 inhabitants, In 1767, it was made the county seat. In 1769, the first fire engine was introduced. In 1773, William Goddard began the publication of the " Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser/' In the same .year a line of stage coaches and a line of sailing packets were estab- lished between Baltimore and Philadelphia ; and a theatre was built on Albemarle street. In 1775, Baltimore contained 564 houses, and 5934 inhabitants. In 1776, Philadelphia having fallen into the hands of the British, Congress removed to Baltimore, and held its sessions in a building on the southeast corner of Baltimore and Lib- erty streets. In 1784, the streets were lighted with oil lamps, and MARYLAND. 525 SCENE ON BALTIMORE AND OHIO RAILWAY. 3 constables and 14 watchmen were appointed "for the security of the town." In 1796, Baltimore was incorporated as a city, the popu- lation being about 20,000. In 1800, the population was 26,514. The city was now highly prosperous, and was possessed of a large and thriving trade with all parts of the world. In 1814, it was attacked by the British, who were repulsed at North Point and at Fort McHenry, by both land and water. In 1829, the first public school was opened. In 1813, the first steamboat, called the Chesa- peake, was placed upon the line to Philadelphia via Frenchtown and Newcastle, Del. On the 4th of July, 1828, the corner-stone of the great Baltimore and Ohio Railway was laid by the venerable Charles Carroll of Carrollton. During the civil war, the city was occupied by the United States troops. It was the scene of a bloody riot on the 19th of April, 1861. FREDERICK CITY, The second city of the State, is situated in Frederick county, 2 miles west of the Monocacy River, 65 miles west of Baltimore, and 44 526 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. miles northwest of Washington City. It is 3 miles distant from the main line of the Baltimore and Ohio Railway, with which it is con- nected by a branch railway. The city is built chiefly of brick and stone; the streets are broad and straight, and cross each other at right-angles, and are shaded with fine trees. The Court House is a handsome building. The town contains the Deaf and Dumb Asylum of Maryland, 11 churches, a college and an academy and several fine schools, both public and private. Two newspapers are published here. Frederick is next to Baltimore in wealth and commercial impor- tance. It lies in the midst of a fine agricultural section, and pos- sesses a considerable trade. To a limited extent it is engaged in manufactures, leather, iron, wool, paper, and flour being the principal articles produced. It is lighted with gas, is supplied with water, and is provided with a steam fire department. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 8526. CUMBERLAND, The third city of the State with regard to population, is situated in Alleghany county, on the left bank of the Potomac River, 179 miles west-by-north of Baltimore, with which it is connected by the Balti- more and Ohio Railway. It is the eastern terminus of the National Road. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, whose eastern terminus is at Georgetown, D. C., ends here. The town is connected with Pitts- burg, Pa., by the Connellsville Railway. It is beautifully located at the foot of the mountains, and is generally well built. The Court House is the principal building. The importance of Cumberland is due to its vicinity to the coal and iron mines of Maryland, which lie but a few miles to the west of it, and in the mountains. Immense quantities of a semi-bituminous coal are mined in this region and shipped east and west. The city is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It contains about 6 churches, several schools, and 3 news- paper offices. In 1870 the population was 8056. MISCELLANIES. THE BALTIMORE RIOT. A few days after the declaration of war, the town of Baltimore was seriously disturbed. Some harsh strictures on the conduct of Government having appeared in a newspaper of that city, entitled the Federal Republican, the resentment of the opposite party was shown by destroying the office and press of that establish- MARYLAND. 52T ment. The commotion excited by this outrage had, however, in a great measure subsided, and the transaction was brought before a criminal court for investiga- tion. But events more alarming and tragical shortly afterwards succeeded. On the 26th of July, Mr. Hanson, the leading editor of the obnoxious journal, who had deemed it prudent to leave the disordered city, returned, accompanied by his political adherents ; amongst whom was General Henry Lee, of Alexandria, an officer distinguished in the Revolution for his bravery in partisan warfare at the head of a legion of cavalry, afterwards Governor of Virginia, and a representa- tive from that State in the Congress of the Federal Government. Determined to re-commence the paper, by first printing it in Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, and then transmitting it to Baltimore for distribution, a house was for this purpose occupied in Charles street, secured against external violence, and guarded by a party well provided for defence. On the 28th, papers were accord- ingly issued. These contained severe animadversions against the Mayor, police, and the people of Baltimore, for the depredations committed on the establishment in the preceding month, and were generally circulated throughout the city. In the course of the day it became known that Mr. Hanson was in the new of- fice in Charles street, and it was early whispered that the building would be as- sailed. A number of citizens who espoused his opinions went, therefore, to the house, and joined in its protection. Towards the evening, a crowd of boys col- lected, who, after using opprobrious epithets to those within, began to throw stones at the windows ; and about the same time a person on the pavement, en- deavoring to dissuade the youths from mischief, was severely wounded by some- thing ponderous thrown from the house. They were cautioned from the windows to desist ; but still continued to assail the place with stones. Two muskets we're then fired from the upper story ; charged, it was supposed, with blank cartridges, to deter them from further violence ; immediately the crowd in the street greatly increased ; the boys were displaced by men ; the sashes of the lower windows were broken, and attempts made to force the door. Muskets, in quick succession, were discharged from the house ; some military arrived to disperse the crowd ; several shots were fired in return ; and at length a Dr. Gale was killed by a shot from the office door. The irritation of the mob was increased. They planted a cannon against the house, but were restrained from discharging it by the timely arrival of an additional military force, and an agreement that the persons in the house would surrender to the civil authority. Accordingly, early in the follow- ing morning, having received assurances on which they thought themselves safe in relying, they surrendered, and were conducted to the county jail, contiguous to the city. The party consisted of about 20 persons ; amongst whom were Gene- ral Lee, General James Lingan, and Mr. Hanson. The Mayor directed the Sheriff to use every precaution to secure the doors of the prison, and the commander of the troops to employ a competent force to pre- serve the peace. In the evening everything bore the appearance of tranquillity ; and the soldiers, by the consent of the magistrate, were dismissed. But shortly after dark, a great crowd of disorderly persons reassembled about the jail, and manifested an intention to force it open. On being apprised of this, the Mayor hastened to the spot, and, with the aid of a few other gentlemen, for a while pre- vented the execution of the design : but they were at length overpowered by the number and violence of the assailants. The Mayor was carried away by force, and tlie turnkey compelled to open the doors. A tragedy ensued, which cannot be described : it can be imagined only by those who are familiar with scenes of 528 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. blood. General Lingan was killed ; eleven were beaten and mangled with weapons of every description, such as stones, bludgeons, and sledge-hammers, and then thrown as dead, into one pile, outside of the door. A few of the prisoners fortu- nately escaped through the crowd : Mr. Hanson, fainting from his repeated wounds, was carried by a gentleman (of opposite political sentiments), at the hazard of his own life, across the adjoining river, whence he with difficulty reached the dwelling of a friend. No effectual inquisition was ever made into this signal violation of the peace, nor punishment inflicted on the guilty. The leaders, on both sides, underwent trials ; but, owing to the inflammation of public feeling, they were acquitted. ANECDOTE OF CHARLES CARROLL. The name of Carroll is the only one on the Declaration to which the residence of the signer is appended. The reason why it was done in this case is under- stood to be as follows : The patriots who signed that document, did it, almost literally, with ropes about their necks, it being generally supposed that they would, if unsuccessful, be hung as rebels. When Carroll had signed his name, some one at his elbow remarked, " You'll get clear there are several of that name they will not know which to take." " Not so," replied he, and iminedi, ately added, "of Carrollton." DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Area, 60 Square Miles Population in 1360 75,080 Population in 1870, 131,706 THE District of Columbia originally embraced an area of ten miles square, but the portion ceded by Virginia was restored to that State in 1846, so that the present District comprises only the grant made to the General Government by the State of Maryland. It lies on the east side of the Potomac at the head of tide water, 160 miles from the mouth of the river. It includes the cities of Washington and George- town, and is the seat of the Federal Government of the Republic. In its physical features it is like those portions of the State of Mary- land immediately surrounding it. Until recently it was governed exclusively by Congress, and had no voice in its own affairs. Early in the year 1871, however, the two Houses of Congress passed a bill, which received the signature of the President on the 21st of February, making great changes in the affairs of the District. By this law the District of Columbia has been given the management of its own affairs. The District is organ- ized as a Territory, with a Government, consisting of a Governor and an Assembly. The Governor is appointed by the President of the United States by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. He holds office for four years and until his successor shall be appointed and qualified. He must be a citizen of the District for at least 12 months previous to his appointment, and have the qualifica- tions of a voter. His duties and powers are similar to those of the Governor of a Territory of the United States. The Assembly 34 529 530 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. consists of a Council and a House of Delegates. The Council is composed of 11 members, of whom 2 are residents of the City of Georgetown, 2 residents of the District outside of Washington and Georgetown, and 7 residents of the City of Washington. They are appointed by the President, by and. with the advice and consent of the Senate. They must have the qualifications of voters to be eligible to their office. They hold office for two years, five and six going out on alternate years. The House of Delegates consists of 22 members, 2 from each of the 11 districts into which the District of Columbia is divided. They are elected by the people, and must have the qualifi- cations prescribed for members of the Council. The right of suffrage is conferred upon all male citizens of the United States above the age of 21 years, who have resided in the Dis- trict for a period of 12 months previous to an election, except persons of unsound mind and those convicted of infamous crimes. The Assembly has no power to abridge or limit the right of suffrage. The Government must confine itself entirely to the affairs of the District of Columbia. The inhabitants of the District do not vote for President or Vice-President of the United States. They send one delegate to Congress, who is entitled to the same rights and privileges in that body as are exercised and enjoyed by the Delegates from the several Territories of the United States to the House of Representa- tives. He is by virtue of his position a member of the House Com- mittee for the District of Columbia. His term of office is 2 years. All the acts of the Legislative Assembly are subject at all times to repeal or modification by the Congress of the United States, which body retains its powers of legislation over the District as formerly. By this law the charters formerly held by the Cities of Washing- ton and Georgetown are repealed, and all offices of those corporations abolished. The cities are brought directly under the control of the District Government, which succeeds to the possession of the muni- cipal property. The cities retaijj their names and boundaries, but no longer exist as separate corporations, the government of both being confided to the authorities of the District. The Supreme Court of the District of Columbia is the highest judicial tribunal. It consists of four justices (one of whom is desig- nated as the Chief Justice), appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate of the United States. The other Courts are the Dis- trict and Criminal Courts, below which are the Justices of the Peace- 532 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. HISTORY. After the close of the Revolution, Congress continued to meet in the City of Philadelphia. In June, 1783, a band of mutinous soldiers broke into the hall where Congress was in session, and in a grossly insulting manner demanded the " back pay" due them, which amounted to a considerable sum. This insult was felt deeply by the members, and it was agreed by common consent that it would be better for the seat of Government to be removed to a part of the country where the danger of a repetition of the occurrence would not be so imminent. El bridge Gerry introduced a resolution authorizing the building of a Federal City, on the banks of the Delaware or Potomac, and the erection of buildings suitable for the use of Con- gress, provided a good location and the proper amount of land could be obtained on either of those rivers. This resolution was carried on the 7th of October, 1783, but was amended by a provision for build- ings on both rivers, and was repealed on the 26th of April, 1784. Congress met at Trenton, N. J., in October, 1 784, and appointed three commissioners, who were authorized to- lay out a district between two and three miles square on the Delaware, for a Federal City. The next January, Congress met in New York, and efforts were made to locate the district on the Potomac, but without success. In September, 1787, the present Constitution of the United States was adopted, which provides that Congress shall have power "to exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such dis- trict (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of Government of the United States." This clause of the Constitution fixed definitely the size of the new district, and was the first real step towards its acquisition. Appre- ciating the advantage of having the Capital within its limits, the State of Maryland, through its Legislature, on the 23d of December, 1788, offered to Congress "any district (not exceeding ten miles square) which the Congress may fix upon and accept for the seat of Government of the United States." The matter was debated in Con- gress in 1789. It was agreed on all sides that the district ought to be located in a section of the country easy of access from all parts of the Union, and ought to be as central as was consistent with the wealth and popula- tion of the section chosen. The North and the South for the sec- DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 533 tional division of the country had been made even at that early day each desired to secure the location of the new city within its own limits. The former demanded that the capital should be built on the banks of the Susquehanna, and the latter made a similar demand in favor of the Delaware or Potomac. New York, Philadelphia, Ger- mantown, Havre de Grace, Wright's Ferry, Baltimore, and Cono- cocheague (now Washington City), each had its partisans. The con- troversy ran very high, and came near resulting in a serious quarrel between the States. On the 5th of September, 1789, the House of Representatives passed a resolution, "That the permanent seat of Government of the United States ought io be at some convenient place on the banks of the Susquehanna, in the State of Pennsylvania." This resolution gave great oifence to the Southern members, and even Mr. Madison went so far as to declare that had such an action on the part of Congress been foreseen, Virginia would not have ratified the Constitution. The matter was made worse by the immediate passage of a bill by the House for the purpose of carrying the resolution into effect. The vote stood, 31 to 10. The Senate amended the, bill by inserting Germantown, Pennsylvania, instead of the location on the Susquehanna, which amendment was accepted by the House. The House further amended the Act by providing that the laws of Pennsylvania should continue in force in the new district until Con- gress should order otherwise. The Senate decided to postpone the consideration of this amendment until the next session, and the matter went over. Germantown was thus actually chosen as the Federal City, and it needed only the consent of the Senate to the last-men- tioned amendment to make the transaction complete. Thus far none of the States but Maryland had taken any official action in this matter. The South was greatly excited over the course of Congress, all of the Northern States were not pleased, and the matter was felt to be a very serious danger to the harmony of the new Confederation. On the 3d of December, 1789, the General Assembly of Virginia passed an Act ceding a district to Congress on the banks of the Potomac. The cooperation of Maryland was asked in inducing Congress to accept the offer, and a sum not exceeding $120,000 was pledged for the erection of public buildings, if Maryland, on her part, would contribute a sum not less than two-fifths of that amount for the same purpose. Maryland at once agreed to the request of Vir- ginia, and pledged herself for the money. Other States now made offers of territory to Congress, but no immediate action upon the sub- ject was taken by that body. 534 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. The great question which at that time occupied the attention of the people, was the funding of the public debt. Congress was divided upon the subject. An amendment had been presented to the House, and had been rejected, providing that the General Government should assume the State debts to the amount of $21,000,000. This question had become very closely interwoven with that of selecting a Federal district. The Northern members were in favor of the assumption, but did not desire the location of the district in the South ; and the Southern members, while divided upon the assumption question, were to a man in favor of having the offers of Maryland and Virginia accepted. Matters were *at a dead halt, and the future seemed ominous. Jefferson was at this time Secretary of State, and Hamilton Secre- tary of the Treasury. Both were anxious to avert the danger which the vexed questions threatened, and after discussing the matter confi- dentially, came to the conclusion that a compromise was necessary. Hamilton urged that the South should consent to the assumption of the State debts by the Government, and declared that he felt sure if they would do this, the North would agree to locate the capital on the Potomac. It was decided that Jefferson should ask the members whose votes would accomplish this, to dine with him the next day, and lay the matter before them. The dinner was given, the plan proposed by Hamilton discussed, and a sufficient number of votes pledged for the assumption bill. Hamilton undertook to win over the Northern members to the capital scheme, and succeeded. The assumption bill became a law, and Congress definitely accepted the offers of Maryland and Virginia. On the 3d of March, 1791, Congress amended the original Act so as to include the city of Alexandria in the district, and the following proclamation was issued by President Washington, establishing the new district : "Whereas, By a proclamation, bearing date the 14th of January of this present year, and in pursuance of certain Acts of the States of Maryland and Virginia, and of the Congress of the United States, therein mentioned, certain lines of experiment were directed to be run in the neighborhood of Georgetown, in Maryland, for the purpose of determining the location of a part of the territory of ten miles square, for the permanent seat of the Government of the United States; and a certain part was directed to be located within the said lines of ex- periment, on both sides of the Potomac, and above the limits of the Eastern Branch, prescribed by the said Act of Congress ; DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 535 "And Congress, by an amendatory Act, passed on the 3d day of this present month of March, have given further authority to the Presi- dent of the United States to make any part of the said territory, be- low the said limit, and above the mouth of Hunting Creek, a part of the said District, so as to include a convenient part of the Eastern Branch of the lands lying on the lower side thereof, and also the town of Alexandria ; " Now, therefore, for the purpose of amending and completing the location of the whole of the said territory of ten miles square, in con- formity with the said amendatory Act of Congress, I do hereby declare and make known that the whole of the said territory shall be located and included within the four lines following, that is to say : "Beginning at Jones' Point, being the upper cape of Hunting Creek, in Virginia, and at an angle in the outset of 45 west of north, and running in a direct line ten miles, for the first line; then beginning again at the same Jones' Point, and running another direct line at a right angle with the first, across the Potomac, ten miles, for the second line ; then, from the terminations of the said first and sec- ond lines, running two other direct lines, of ten miles each, the one crossing the Eastern Branch aforesaid, and the other the Potomac, and meeting each other in a point. "And I do accordingly direct the Commissioners named under the authority of the said first-mentioned Act of Congress to proceed forth- with to have the said four lines run, and by proper metes and bounds defined and limited, and thereof to make due report under their hands and seals ; and the territory so to be located, defined, and limited, shall be the whole territory accepted by the said Act of Congress as the District for the permanent seat of the Government of the United States. "In testimony whereof, I have caused the seal of the United States to be affixed to these presents, and signed the same with my hand. Done at Georgetown aforesaid, the 30th day of March, in the year of our Lord, 1791, and of the Independence of the United States, the fifteenth. GEORGE WASHINGTON." The District was laid out by three Commissioners, appointed by the President, in accordance with the Act of Congress, in January, 1791. These Commissioners were Thomas Johnson, David Stuart, and Daniel Carroll. On the 15th of April, in the same year, they superintended the laying of the corner-stone of the District, at Jones' DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 537 Point, near Alexandria. This act was performed with the ceremonies prescribed by the Masonic ritual. The District was named Columbia, in honor of the great discoverer of the continent. Having thus acquired a Federal District, and having definitely lo- cated its boundaries, the next step was to lay off the new city which was to be the capital of the nation. This task was confided to Major L/Enfant, a distinguished engineer, who was informed by the Com- missioners that the new city would bear the name of "Washington. 77 In February, 1871, the Government of the District was reorganized, as has been already described. The cities of the District are Washington and Georgetown. WASHINGTON CITY, The capital of the United States, is situated on the left bank of the Potomac River, between that stream and a tributary called the East Branch, a few miles below the head of tide water. It is 295 miles from the ocean, 226 miles southwest of New York, 432 miles south- west of Boston, 544 miles northeast of Charleston, 1203 miles north- east of New Orleans, 497 miles east of Cincinnati, 763 miles southeast of Chicago, 1200 miles northeast of St. Louis, and 2000 miles in an air line northeast of San Francisco. The Capitol, which is nearly the centre of the city, is located in 38 52' 20" N. latitude, and 77 O f 15" W. longitude from Greenwich. The city has connections by railroad and steamboat with all parts of the continent, and telegraphic lines extend from it all over the world. The Potomac is navigable for ships of the largest size as far as Greenleaf's Point, the site of the Arsenal and Penitentiary. The British fleet anchored here in 1814, and the frigate Minnesota was launched at the Navy Yard some years ago, and carried down the stream after being equipped. The situa- tion of the city is advantageous in many respects. Its front is washed by the Potomac, on the east is the East Branch, and on the left a stream called Rock Creek, which separates it from Georgetown. " The general altitude of the city plot is 40 feet above the river, but this is diversified by irregular elevations, which serve to give variety and commanding sites for public buildings. The plot is slightly amphitheatrical, the President's House, on the west, standing on one of the sides, and the Capitol on the other, while the space between verges towards a point near the river. The President's House and the Capitol stand centrally with regard to the whole, though situated at the distance of a mile and a half from each other, the former 44 feet 538 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. above the Potomac, and the latter 72 feet. The summit of the hill 011 which the Capitol stands is the commencement of a plain stretch- ing east, while that to the north of the President's House tends westward." Washington is laid off in a peculiar manner. According to the original plan, the Capitol was designed to be the centre of the city, and the starting point of the whole system of streets. This plan has been adhered to in the main, though it has been altered in some re- spects. The streets running east and west are designated by letters. They are divided into two classes or sets those north of the Capi- tol, and those south of it. Thus, the first street north of the Capitol is A Street North, and the first street south of it, A Street South ; the - next is B Street, North or South, and so on. The streets running north and south are numbered. Thus, the street immediately east of the Capitol is First Street East, and that immediately west of it, First Street West, and so on. These distinctions of North, South, East, and West are most important, as forgetfulness of them is apt to lead to very great blunders. The streets are laid off at regular distances from each other, but for convenience, other thoroughfares, not laid down in the original plan, have been cut through some of the blocks. These are called " Half streets," as they occur between and are parallel with the numbered streets. Thus, Four-and-a-half Street is between Fourth and Fifth streets, and runs parallel with them. The avenues run diagonally across the city, cutting the streets at right-angles. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware avenues intersect at the Capitol, and Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, and Connec- ticut avenues intersect at the President's house. Pennsylvania Ave- nue is the main thoroughfare. It is 160 feet wide, and runs the entire length of the city, from the Eastern Branch to Rock Creek, which latter stream separates Washington from Georgetown. It was origi- nally a swampy thicket. The bushes were cut away to the desired width soon after the city was laid off, but few persons cared to settle in the swamp. Through the exertions of President Jefferson, it was planted with four rows of fine Lombardy poplars, one on each side and two in the middle, with the hope of making it equal to the famous Unter den Linden, in Berlin. The poplars did not grow as well as was hoped, however, and, when the avenue was graded and paved by order of Congress, in 1832 and 1833, were removed. The street is now well paved and lighted. It is handsomely built up, and contains some buildings which would do credit to any city. The DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 539 view from either the Capitol or the President's House along the ave- nue is very fine. There are 1170 blocks or squares, bounded by 22 avenues ranging from 130 to 160 feet in width, named, as far as they go, after the different States ; and 100 streets, from 70 to 100 feet wide. The cir- cumference of the city is 14 miles. There are 199 miles of streets, and 65 miles of avenues. The paving and grading of the streets has been done almost entirely by the city. The Government claims every privilege accorded to it by the original design, but steadily refuses to carry out the part assigned it by that same plan. Were it not for the Public Buildings which it contains, Washing- ton would be a most uninteresting city ; but these have made it one of the principal attractions of the country. With the single exception of the City Hall and the Smithsonian Institute, these buildings are owned and used by the Federal Government of the United States. The- Capitol is the grandest and most majestic edifice in the New World, and one of the finest on the globe. It stands on the western brow of a commanding hill, and overlooks the city and the surrounding country. The site was chosen by Washington, who was greatly im- pressed with its advantages. The corner-stone of the original build- ing was laid by Washington, on the 18th of September, 1793. This edifice was finished in 1811, and was burned by the British army, in 1814. Its reconstruction was begun immediately after the close of the war, and the building was completed according to the original design in 1825. In 1851, work was begun on the Capitol for the purpose of enlarging and beautifying it. The principal additions con- sist of a massive dome over the central building, and a wing at the northern and southern extremities of the old structure. The building is not quite finished at present, but will require only a few years to complete it. The extension consists of two wings, each of which has a front of 142 feet 8 inches, and a depth of 238 feet 10 inches, not including the porticoes and steps. The porticoes front the east, and have each 22 monolithic fluted columns. They " extend the entire width of the front, having central projections of 10 feet 4 inches, forming double porticoes in the centre, the width of the gable. There is also a por- tico of 10 columns on the west end of each wing, 105 feet 8 inches wide, projecting 10 feet 6 inches, and like porticoes on the north side of the north wing and south side of the south wing, with a width of 121 feet 4 inches. The centre building is 352 feet 4 inches long and 121 feet 6 inches deep, with a portico 160 feet wide, of 24 columns, 540 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. with a double fagade on the east, and a projection of 83 feet on the west, embracing a recessed portico of 10 coupled columns. The en- tire length of the Capitol is 751 feet 4 inches, and the greatest depth, including porticoes and steps, is 324 feet. The ground actually cov- ered by the building, exclusive of the court-yards, is 153,112 square feet, or 652 feet over 3 J acres. " The material of which the extension is built, is a white marble slightly variegated with blue, and was pro- cured from a quarry in Lee, Massachusetts. The columns are all of white marble obtained from Maryland. The principal story of the Capitol rests upon a rustic basement, which supports an ordon nance of pilasters rising to the height of the two stories above. Upon these pilasters rests the entablature and beautiful frieze, and the whole is surmounted by a marble balustrade. The main entrances are by the three eastern porticoes, being made easy of access by broad flights of stone steps with massive cheek-blocks, and vaulted carriage-ways be- neath to the basement entrances." The building faces the east, and the rear is in the direction of the principal part of the city. This location was made under the impres- sion that the neighborhood of the Capitol would be first settled in the growth of the new city; but the designs of the projectors not having been realized, the building now faces the wrong way. Standing in front of the edifice, and at a distance sufficient to take in the whole view, the effect is indescribably grand. The pure white marble glitters and shines in the sunlight, and the huge structure towers above one like one of the famed palaces of old romance. The broad nights of steps of the wings and central buildings have an air of elegance and lightness which is surprising when their massive character is considered. The pediments of the porticoes will contain magnificent groups of sculpture. The central pediment is decorated with a group sculptured in alto-relievo. The Genius of America, crowned with a star, holds in her right hand a shield bearing the letters U. S. A., surrounded with a glory. The shield rests on an altar inscribed with the date, "July 4, 1776," encircled with a laurel wreath. A spear is behind her within reach, and the eagle crouches at her feet. She is gazing at Hope, who stands on her left, and is directing her attention to Justice, on her right, who holds in her right hand a scroll inscribed, "Constitution of the United States," and in her left the scales. The group is said to have been designed by John Quincy Adams, and was executed by Signer Persico. The northern pediment contains Craw- ford's famous group, representing the progress of civilization in the United States. America stands in the centre of the tympanum, in DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 541 the full light of the rising sun. On her right hand are War, Com- merce, Youth and Education, and Agriculture ; on her left the pio- neer backwoodsman, the hunter, the Indian and his squaw with an infant in her arms, sitting by a filled grave. The southern pediment has not yet been filled. It is said that the design adopted for it is by William R. Barbee, and represents the discovery of the country by Columbus. The cheek-blocks of the steps to the central portico are ornamented by two fine groups of statuary. The group on the right of the steps represents the discovery of America, and is by Persico. Columbus, landing in the New World, holds aloft in his right hand a globe, symbolic of his discovery. He is clad in armor, which is said to be a faithful copy of a suit worn by him. An Indian maiden crouches beneath his uplifted arm, her face expressive of the surprise and terror of her race at the appearance of the whites. The group on the left is called " Civilization" and is by Greenough. A terror- stricken mother, clasping her babe to her breast, crouches at the feet of a stalwart Indian warrior, whose arms, raised in the act of striking her with his tomahawk, are seized and pinioned by the husband and father, who returns at the fortunate moment, accompanied by his faithful dog, which stands by ready to spring to the aid of his master. The entire cost of the Capitol and its improvements, when completed, will be over $12,000,000. The interior of the Capitol is in keeping with the exterior. The Rotunda, which is the central portion of the old building, is sur- mounted by a grand dome, the ceiling of which is beautifully frescoed with allegorical designs. The walls are adorned with paintings and statuary, illustrating the history of the country. The effect of the whole is very beautiful. On the east side of the central building, opposite the main entrance, is the Library of Congress, a magnificent hall, filled with a collection of nearly 200,000 volumes. The copyright laws require a copy of each and every copyrighted bool published in the United States to be deposited in this library. The library is free to the public for use within the hall, but only Members of Congress and certain other per- sons are privileged to take the books from the hall. On the north side of the Rotunda is the portion of the building used by the Supreme Court of the United States, its officers, and its library, numbering between 25,000 and 30,000 volumes. A hand- some corridor leads from this portion to the new North Wing, used by the Senate of the United States and its Committees. The base* 542 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ment of this wing is exquisitely frescoed with illustrations belonging to the natural history of North America, the designs being painted from life. The Committee rooms in this wing are handsome apart- ments, elegantly fitted up. The corridors are beautiful, and are mostly of marble, with floors of encaustic tiles. Two handsome marble stairways lead from the basement to the second, or main floor. They are situated in the southeastern and southwestern ends of the wing. They are continued, on a much more magnificent scale, from the second floor to the galleries and rooms of the third floor. This portion of the two wings is on a level with the floor of the Rotunda, and contains the principal apartments of the Capitol. The main entrances are by the magnificent North and South Porticoes, which are now ornamented with the superb bronze doors designed for them. The doors of the Senate portico illustrate the 'events of the life of Washington. The retiring rooms of the Senate, and the rooms used by the Presi- dent and V ice-President of the United States are gorgeous apartments. The President's room is adorned with fresco portraits of Washington's first Cabinet. Lying between the President's and Vice-President's rooms is a suite of sumptuous apartments the most magnificent in the building known as the Marble Room. The total length of the three rooms is about 85 feet, the width 21 J feet, and the height 19 J feet. The floor is an exquisite piece of mosaic in marble, and the ceil- ing is in panels of slightly colored Italian marble, and rests upon a series of magnificent white Italian marble pillars with elaborate capi- tals. The walls are adorned with large and superb mirrors, and are veneered with the finest specimens of Tennessee marble in the country. The windows are richly curtained, the furniture is exquisite, and the apartment is lighted by a large brass chandelier. The suite is used by the Senators as a retiring and private reception room. The prin- cipal apartment in this wing is the Senate Chamber, a magnificent hall, 112 feet in length, 82 feet wide, and 30 feet high. The ceiling is constructed entirely of cast iron, deeply panelled, with stained glass skylights, and ornamented with foliage, pendants, and drops, of the richest and most elaborate description. The walls and ceiling are painted with strong, brilliant colors, and all the iron work is bronzed and gilded. A cushioned gallery extends entirely around the hall. That portion immediately over the chair of the Vice- President of the United States is assigned to the reporters of the press, and a section enclosed by handsome iron railings, and i mined lately DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 543 facing the Chair, is for the use of the members of the Diplomatic Corps. The rest of the gallery is divided into sections for ladies and gentlemen. A fine view of the hall can be obtained from any part of it. The space under the gallery is enclosed, and used as cloak-rooms, etc. The gallery will seat one thousand persons. Immediately opposite the main door of the Chamber is the chair of the Vice-President of the United States, who presides over the Senate. It is placed on a platform of pure white marble, and behind a desk of the same material. Just below this is a similar but larger desk, used by the Secretary of the Senate and his assistants, and at the foot of this table are the chairs of the short-hand reporters of the debates. The floor rises in the form of an amphitheatre from the space in front of the Secretary's desk to the rear. Along these rows of steps, the registers are built in the floor, and keep the temperature of the Chamber at a fixed heat. The desks of the Senators are of oak, of a handsome and convenient pattern, and are arranged in three semi- circular rows facing the Chair. A comfortable armchair is provided for each desk ; and sofas and chairs for the convenience of Senators and those entitled to the. privileges of the floor, are arranged around the sides of the hall. The choice of seats is determined by drawing lots. During the day the glass ceiling allows a soft and pleasant light to pass into the chamber, and at night the gas jets, which are arranged above the skylights, shed through the beautiful hall a radiance which can scarcely be distinguished from the light of the sun. In the South Wing of the old building, and opening upon the Rotunda, is the old Hall of the House of Representatives, one of the most beautiful apartments in the Capitol. In accordance with the popular wish this hall is preserved in its original state, and is now used as a gallery of Statuary. A fine corridor, ornamented with a pair of bronze doors, leads to the new South Wing, now used by the House of Representatives and its officers. These doors are the work of Ran- dolph Rogers, an American artist, and are said to be the finest works of their kind in the world. They illustrate the principal scenes in the life of Columbus. The basement of the South Wing contains the Committee rooms of the House of Representatives. These are equal in magnificence to those of the Senate. The corridors are not as handsome as those of the North Wing, but are still very beautiful. The first floor is reached by an elegant stairway of marble at each end of the wing 544 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. These stairways are continued to the second floor on a more magnifi- cent scale, and are ornamented with fine paintings by Leutze and other artists. The corridors contain several statues of the great men of America. The Speaker's Room, used by the .presiding officer of the House of Representatives, is a beautiful apartment, and is orna- mented with portraits of nearly every Speaker since the organization of the Government. The Hall of the House of Representatives occupies the central por- tion of the wing. It is 139 feet long, 93 feet wide, and 36 feet high. It is of sufficient size to afford comfortable accommodations for the increased number of members a century hence. It has an area of 12,927 square feet. The galleries extend entirely around it, and will seat 1200 persons. The seats are cushioned, and present a handsome appearance. That portion opposite the Speaker's chair is ornamented with a magnificent bronze clock. Immediately over the Speaker's chair is the Reporters' Gallery, which is for the exclusive use of the Press. It is furnished with handsome private desks, one of which is assigned to the accredited reporter for some particular journal for the entire session. Some 25 or 30 of the leading newspapers of the land are represented here. The rest of the gallery is divided into sections for the members of the Diplomatic Corps, for ladies, and for gentlemen unaccompanied by ladies. These are separated from each other by iron railings. The ceiling is of cast iron, and is similar to that of the Senate Chamber, but handsomer. In the centre is a large skylight containing a number of panels ornamented with the coats of arms of the various States and Territories of the Union. The hall is lighted by means of this skylight. "An arrangement of movable metallic plates, on the principle of Venetian blinds, is placed under the sunny side of the respective roofs of the House and Senate, so that the same amount of light may be admitted all the time." The ar- rangement of the gas lights is similar to that of the Senate Chamber. Fifteen hundred burners are placed over the glass of the ceiling, at a distance of an inch apart. Over each one of these passes an incom- bustible wire. The gas is turned on, an electric current flashes along the wire, and in an instant the hall is filled with a soft, pleasing light, which resembles that of the sun. Opposite the principal door, are three desks of pure white marble, ranged one above the other. The highest is occupied by the Speaker of the House, the next by the Clerk of the House and his assistants, and the lowest by the official reporters of the debates. The registers for warming the hall are built DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 545 in the sides of the different steps into which the floor is divided, and openings in the wall permit the heated air to pass off. The engines which work the heating and ventilating apparatus are situated in the basement, and are of such power that the air of the entire hall is re- newed every five minutes. The ceiling is magnificently painted, and the walls below the galleries are laid off in large panels, which are to be ornamented with paintings in fresco illustrative of the principal events in the history of the country. One of these panels has already been filled with a magnificent fresco, by Brumidi, illustrating an event which occurred at the Siege of Yorktown. On the right and left of the Speaker's chair are full-length portraits of Washington and Lafayette. The portrait of Washington was painted by Yanderlyn, by order of Congress, and that of Lafayette was presented to Congress by the great Frenchman himself, on the occasion of his visit to the United States, in 1825. Both pictures were among the ornaments of the old Hall of Representatives. The floor rises from south to north, like an amphitheatre. The seats and desks of the members (which are similar to those of the Senators) are arranged along this amphi- theatre, in successive circles, facing the Speaker. There are at present 236 of these desks and seats in use. The desks and chairs are all of a handsome pattern, and make a very showy appearance. Seats are chosen by lot at the beginning of every session. The desk of the Sergeant-at-Arms is on the Speaker's right, that of the Door-keeper on his left. The space under the galleries is enclosed and occupied by two cloak rooms for Members, a Barber Shop for Members, a Fold- ing Room, and Document Room. The Capitol grounds cover an area of several acres, and are hand- somely ornamented with statuary, fountains, shrubbery, etc. The dome of the Capitol is surmounted by Crawford's statue of Freedom, a magnificent work of bronze. It is placed at an altitude of 300 feet from the ground. From the gallery below the base of the statue magnificent views of the city, the Potomac, and the surrounding country may be had. The Executive Mansion, or, as it is more commonly called, the White House, is the official residence of the President of the United States. It is situated on Pennsylvania avenue, near the western end of the city, and is surrounded by the Treasury, State, AYar, and Navy Departments. The grounds in front are handsomely ornamented, and in the rear a fine park stretches away to the river. The location is attractive, and commands a magnificent view of the Potomac, but it 35 54G THE GREAT REPUBLIC 1 , UNITED STATES TREASURY. is not healthy. Ague and fever prevail in the spring and fall, and render it anything but a desirable place of residence. The building is constructed of freestone, painted white hence its most common name, the " White House." It was designed by James Hoban, and was modelled after the palace of the Duke of Leinster. The corner- stone was laid on the 13th of October, 1792, and the house was ready for occupancy in the summer of 1800. It was partially destroyed by the British in 1814. It has a front of 170 feet, and a depth of 86 feet. It contains two lofty stories of rooms, and the roof is surrounded with a handsome balustrade. The exterior walls are ornamented with fine Ionic pilasters. On the north front is a handsome portico, with four Ionic columns in front, and a projecting screen with three columns. The space between these two rows of pillars is a covered carriage way. The main entrance to the house is from this portico through a massive doorway, which opens into the main hall. The garden front has a rusticated basement, which gives a third story to the house on this ride, and by a semicircular projecting colonnade of six columns, with l/.vo flights of steps leading from the ground to the level of the prin- DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 547 cipal story. The interior is handsome, but simple, and contains the state apartments, or rooms used for public receptions, the Executive offices, and the private residence of the President and his family. The United States Treasury is located on Pennsylvania avenue, at the corner of Fifteenth street west, fronting G street. The old build- ing was commenced in 1836, and was constructed of inferior brown sandstone, painted in imitation of granite. In 1855, the extension was begun. It is now nearly completed. This extension has more than doubled the size of the original edifice, and has made the whole building one of the handsomest and most imposing in the country. The old building extended along Fifteenth street, and was ornamented with an unbroken Ionic colonnade, 342 feet long, which, though showy, was inconvenient, as it excluded the light from the rooms. The plan of the extension flanks the old building at each end with massive granite masonry, and makes beautiful terminations of the north and south fronts, which serve to relieve the dreary monotony of the long colonnade, besides providing a large new building at each end. " There are two inner quadrangles formed by the old rear building, extending back from the eastern entrance. These courts are each 130 feet square. The walls of the extension are composed of pilasters, resting on a base which rises some 12 feet above the ground on the southern or lower side. Between the pilasters or antse are belt courses, beautifully moulded, and the facings of the doors and win- dows are fine bold mouldings in keeping. In the centre of the southern, western, and northern fronts are magnificent porticoes. The west front has also the projecting pediments at the ends, corresponding with those on the east side, and each supported by square antse at the angles, with two columns between. The whole building is of the Grecian or Ionic order, and is surmounted by a massive balustrade. The new structure is of the best and most beautiful granite in the world, brought from Dix Island, on the coast of Maine. The antse and columns are monoliths. The large, solid antse weigh nearly 100,000 pounds, and the columns some 75,000. The facility with which the immense masses are hewn out of the quarries, swung on board vessels, brought to the capital, and raised to the positions which the architect in his studio designed them to occupy, conveys a high idea of American art and enterprise. The Treasury Building, as ex- tended, is 465 feet long, exclusive of the porticoes, by 266 feet wide." The courts are ornamented with handsome fountains. A very beau- tiful one adorns the space in front of the western portico, at the en- 548 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. trance to the President's Park, and another is now being constructed before the north front. The entrances are through massive gateways. The yard on the north and west sides is lower than the street, and broad flights of steps lead to it. A handsome granite balustrade ex- tends along the north wall. The interior arrangements are unusually fine. The architecture ranks next to that of the Capitol in its mag- nificence, and is peculiarly American in its details. Unlike most of the public buildings, the offices are large, airy, and handsome, pre- senting the appearance of splendid saloons, and affording a greater degree of comfort to the occupants than the narrow, cell-like apart- ments of the old Treasury. The Department of State will soon be located in the Treasury Ex- tension, where elegant and convenient apartments are being prepared for it. The Patent Office, or, as it is sometimes called, the Department of the Interior, is used by the Secretary of the Interior and his clerks, but was designed originally for the use of the Bureau of Patents. This bureau is entrusted with the duty of granting letters patent securing a profitable reward to any person inventing articles beneficial to civilization. The building, known as the Patent Office, occupies two whole squares, and fronts south on F street, north on G street, east on 7th street west, and west on 9th street west. The length of the building, from 7th to 9th streets, is 410 feet, and the width, from F to G streets, is 275 feet. It is built up along the four sides, with a large interior quadrangle about 265 by 135 feet in size. It is constructed in the plainest Doric style, of massive crystallized marble, and though devoid of exterior ornament, is one of the most magnifi- cent buildings in the city. It is grand in its simplicity, and its archi- tectural details are pure and tasteful. It is ornamented with massive porticoes, one on each front, which add much to its appearance. The eastern portico is much admired. That on the south front is an exact copy of the portico of the Pantheon of Rome. The interior is divided into three stories. The ground and second floors are arranged in offices for the accommodation of the business of the Interior Department, but the third floor is occupied by an immense saloon extending entirely around the quadrangle. This is used as the Model Room, but partakes, as far as the south hall is concerned, of the character of a museum. The models and other articles are arranged in glass cases on each side of the room, ample space being left in the centre for promenading. There are two rows of cases, one above the other the upper row be- DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 549 UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE. ing placed in a handsome light gallery of iron, reached by tasteful iron stairways, and extending entirely around the east, north, and west halls. The halls themselves are paved with handsome tiles. The ceiling is supported by a double row of imposing pillars, which also act as supports to the galleries, and both the walls and ceilings are finished in marble panels and frescoes. A more beautiful saloon is not to be found in America. Connected with the Patent Office is a valuable library, and the most interesting museum of American antiquities, etc., in the country. The General Post Office is used by the Postmaster-General of the United States, and his assistants. It covers an entire block, almost directly opposite the Patent Office, and is bounded by E and F streets north, and 7th and 8th streets west. It is 300 feet long, from north to south, and 204 feet wide, from east to west. It is built of white marble, in the Corinthian style of architecture, and is the best repre- sentation of the Italian palatial ever erected upon this continent. It is rectangular in form, with a spacious interior court-yard, 95 by 194 feet in size. On the 7th street side there is a vestibule, which consti- 550 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. tutes the grand entrance into the building. The ceiling is composed of exquisitely ornamented marble panels, supported by four marble columns ; and the walls, niches, and floor, are of marble, the floor being richly tesselated. On 8th street there is an entrance for mail wagons, handsomely ornamented. The City post-office is in the F street side of the building, and is tastefully arranged. The War Department is situated on Pennsylvania avenue, west of the President's House. It is a plain, old-fashioned edifice of brick, painted iu lead color. It contains the offices of the Secretary of War and his assistants. The Navy Department is situated immediately in the rear of the War Department, and fronts on 17th street west. It is a plain build- ing of brick, and contains the offices of the Secretary of the Navy and his clerks. It is proposed to erect new and handsome edifices for the War and Navy departments. The Bureau of Agriculture stands upon a portion of the Smith- sonian Reservation. The grounds about it comprise about 20 acres, and have been laid out with much taste. The building is of pressed brick, four stories high, and is surmounted with a French roof. It contains the offices of the Commissioner of Agriculture and his assistants, whose business it is to overlook and promote the agricultural interests of the country, and to receive and publish statistics concerning them. This is one of the most interesting departments of the Government. The Navy Yard, situated on the Eastern Branch, at the foot of 8th street east, covers an area of 20 acres, enclosed by a high brick wall. It is one of the principal establishments of the Government, and con- tains several ship houses, and machine shops for the manufacture of everything needed for the building, equipping, and fitting-out of ships of war. The Arsenal stands at the extreme southern end of the city, on Greenleaf 's Point, at the mouth of the Eastern Branch of the Potomac. It is quite an extensive establishment, and is one of the principal Arsenals of Construction in the country. It is interesting as having been the scene of the trial and execution of the persons concerned in the assassination of President Lincoln. The National Observatory is situated upon an elevated site, south- west of the President's mansion, near the Georgetown line, and com- mands a fine view of both cities and of the Potomac River as far down as Fort Washington and Mount Vernon. It is under the control of the Navy Department, and is in charge of a corps of naval officers selected DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 551 for their scientific abilities. It ranks high amongst the Observatories' of the world, that of Russia only being superior to it. It is in charge of all the nautical books, maps, charts, and instruments belonging to the Navy. The Smithsonian Institution stands on a part of the portion of the public grounds extending westward from the Capitol to the Potomac River, and called " The Mall." The grounds extend from 7th street west to 12th street west, and from the Canal (which forms the north- ern boundary) to B street south. They are very extensive, com- prising an area of 52 acres, and were laid out by the distinguished horticulturist and landscape gardener, Andrew Jackson Downing, who died while engaged in this work. A handsome monument to his memory stands in the grounds. It consists of a massive vase resting on a pedestal, the whole being executed of the finest Italian marble. The building stands near the centre of the park. The site is about 20 feet above the average level of Pennsylvania avenue, and the centre of the building is exactly opposite 10th street west. The structure is in the style of architecture belonging to the last half of the twelfth century, the latest variety t of rounded style, as it is found immediately anterior to its merging into the early Gothic, and is known as the Norman, the Lombard, or Romanesque. The semi- circular arch, stilted, is employed throughout in doors, windows, and other openings. The main building is 205 feet long by 57 feet wide, and, to the top of the corbel course, 58 feet high. The east wing is 82 by 52 feet, and, to the top of its battlement, 42 J feet high. The west wing, including its projecting apsis, is 84 by 40 feet, and 38 feet high. Each of the wings is connected with the main building by a range,, which, including its cloisters, is 60 feet long by 49 feet wide. This makes the length of the entire building, from east to west, 447 feet. Its greatest breadth is 160 feet. The north front of the main building is ornamented with two central towers, the loftiest of which is 150 feet high. It has also a handsome covered carriage-way, upon which opens the main entrance to the building. The south central tower is 37 feet square, 91 feet high, and massively constructed. A double campanile tower, 17 feet square, and 117 feet high, rises from the northeast corner of the main building ; and the southwest corner has a lofty octagonal tower, in which is a spiral stairway, leading to the summit. There are four other smaller towers of lesser heights, making nine in all, the effect of which is very beautiful, and which once caused a wit to remark that it seemed to him as if a " col lection 552 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. of church steeples had gotten lost, and were consulting together as to the best means of getting home to their respective churches." The entire edifice is constructed of a fine quality of lilac-gray freestone, found in the new red-sandstone formation, where it crosses the Poto- mac near the mouth of Seneca Creek. The Institution was founded by James Smithsdn, an eminent Englishman. He died in 1828, and left the sum of $515,169 to the United States for the purpose of founding the Institution which bears his name. The object of Smith- son in founding this institution was, in his own words, "to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an estab- lishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." The National Washington Monument stands immediately on the shore of the Potomac, directly west of the Capitol, and south of the White House. It is unfinished. Its total height is to be 600 feet, of which 184 feet have been completed. No work has been done on it for several years. It is to be finished by the voluntary contributions of the citizens of the Republic. It is to be built of white marble. The City Hall is the property of the City of Washington. It is a common place structure of white marble. Besides the public build- ings, there are a number of fine edifices used for business purposes and for residences. The city is improving rapidly in this respect. The trade of Washington is almost entirely local. The City is con- nected with all parts of the country by railways, and the Potomac is navigable for steamers. Its manufacturing, interests are in their infancy. The principal amount of the work done is on Government account. The principal points of the city are connected by street railways. Pure water is brought into the city from the Potomac above George- town. The Aqueduct is one of the finest works in the world. It was constructed by the U. S. Engineer Corps. The city is lighted with gas. It contains about 60 churches, some of which are very handsome. The Markets are bountifully supplied. The Hotels are numerous, but do not compare favorably with those of the other large cities of the country. The Public Schools are, as yet, in their infancy. There are five large " public schools," as they are called, which cor- respond to the " high schools" of most other cities, and a number of primary schools. The system is still incomplete, and capable of great expansion and reform. Of late years it has received more attention from the city authorities and the people, and there is now a fair pros- pect that the system will soon be placed upon a basis which will enable it to meet the wants of all classes of the community. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 553 There are many private schools, some of which are excellent, and the city also contains several male and female boarding schools. Columbia Gonzaga (a Roman Catholic Institution) and the National Medical Colleges are located here. The government of the city is merged with that of the District of Columbia. In 1870 the population was 109,204. The early history of Washington has been given in connection with the District of Columbia. In 1800, the period of the removal of the Government from Philadelphia, the population was 3210. By 1810 it had increased to 8208. In 1814 the city was captured by a British army under Lord Ross. Upon their withdrawal from the city, they set fire to the Capitol, the President's House, and the other public buildings, which were either wholly destroyed or greatly injured. In 1864, the city was attacked by a Confederate army under General Early, who failed to capture it, and was forced to retreat. The city has been the scene of some of the most interesting events of the late history of the Republic. GEORGETOWN Is situated in the District of Columbia, on the left bank of the Potomac River, at the head of tide water. It is separated from Washington City by Rock Creek. It is built along a range of hills, the highest of which are called the "Heights." These are occupied by numerous villas and tasteful residences, and command extensive views of Wash- ington and the surrounding country. The city is regularly laid off and is well built, though somewhat " old timey " in appearance. It was once a place of considerable trade, and possessed a large foreign commerce fifty years ago. At present the tonnage owned in the port does not exceed 3000 tons. It is still one of the most important fish markets in the country. Vast quantities of shad and herring are caught in the Potomac and arc brought to Georgetown to. be packed in barrels. The city is interested in manufactures to a considerable extent, and is improving rapidly in this respect. There are nearly 50 flour mills in the city. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal really terminates here, although there is a prolongation extending across the Potomac to Alexandria, in Virginia. The canal is carried over the Potomac in an aqueduct, a tremendous structure, 1446 feet in length, and 36 feet above the ordinary level of the river. The cost of this structure was $2,000,000. 554 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Georgetown is said to be a more agreeable place of residence than Washington. It is noted for its cultivated society, and the hospitality of its people. It is the seat of the Georgetown College, a Roman Catholic institution of high rank. The city has its public schools, and a number of private schools. A United States hospital for soldiers is located here. Georgetown is connected with Washington by a street railway. It is supplied with water from the Potomac, is lighted with gas, and contains 10 churches. The government of the city is merged in that of the District. In 1870 the population was 11,384. Georgetown is a much older place than Washington. It was laid out by act of the Colonial Government of Maryland in 1751, and was incorporated as a city in 1789. VIRGINIA. Area, 38,352 Square Miles. Population in I860,* 1,596,318 Population in 1870, 1,225,163 THE State of Virginia, the oldest of the original members of the Union, is situated between 36 30' and about 39 20' N. latitude, and between 75 10' and 83 30' W. longitude. It is bounded on the north by Maryland, West Virginia, and Kentucky, on the east by Maryland and the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by North Carolina and Tennessee, and on the west by Kentucky and West Virginia. TOPOGRAPHY. The following description of the natural features of this State is taken from a pamphlet recently issued by General John D. Imboden, the " Domestic State Agent of Immigration for Virginia." " No State in the Union presents a greater variety of surface and climate than Virginia from the mountains of the interior and the rugged hills east and west of them, to the rich alluvions of the rivers, and the sandy flats on the sea-coast. The greatest extent of moun- tains, and the greatest variety of timbers are found in this State. White Top Mountain, in Gray son county, attains an elevation of six thousand feet. "The State is by nature divided into five districts or regions, viz. : the Lower or Tide- water, the Piedmont, the Valley, the Alleghanies, and the Trans-Alleghanies. We will glance at them in their natural order. * Since the census of 1860, the western counties of the old State have been erected into the new State of West Virginia. 555 556 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. " LOWER OR TIDE-WATER DISTRICT. Thirty-seven counties, mostly bordering on the Atlantic Ocean and Chesapeake Bay, compose this district. It is generally level, not more than 60 feet above tide, even in the highest places. Great navigable streams traverse it in a southeastern direction, such as the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, with a multitude of smaller streams. The great slope which forms this district is * divided by natural boundaries into no less than twelve principal peninsulas/ says General Wise, of Virginia, in a recent address, replete with valuable information, ' the eastern shore of the Chesapeake, that between the Potomac and Rappahannock ; between the Rappahannock and Piankatank ; between the Piankatank and York ; the York and James ; the Mattapony and Pamunkey ; the Chickahorniny and the James; the Nansemond and Dismal Swamp and the Ocean ; the Nausemond and James and the Black- water; the Black water and the Nottoway; the Nottoway and Me- herrin ; the Meherrin and the Roanoke.' " This favored region contains every variety of soil. The delta of these rivers l in the borders of Virginia is richer and rarer in every production than the garden of the Nile/ There is nowhere near it any < arida nutrix leonum,' says General Wise, 'and its only quags of swamp, even in the Big Dragon of the Piankatank, and on the Chickahominy, and around the fire-fly camp of Drummond Lake, are capable of being converted into a New Holland, by dyke and ditch of easy spit and drain, or horticulture of every fruit and vegetable, where drought cannot parch, and of a temperature milder than that much farther south. Vegetation is confined to no one class of plants and trees, and flower, and fruit, and cereal, and staple crops of every variety flourish with a beauty and a fullness and a flavor to cheer industry and art with luscious plenty at home and a paying profit at the markets of every Eastern city. There is a navigable stream at almost every door. There are eligible sites on every creek and river in this region, not only for all the more common fruits, such as apples, peaches, pears, cherries, berries, plums, and melons, but for the rarer and more delicate fruits such as grapes, figs, pomegranates, apricots, nectarines, Persian cantelopes, strawberries, and cranberries. Accord- ing to Prince, there are no sites on the continent so Italy-like for fruits, as some of these peninsulas of lowland Virginia. " The crops of grain and vegetables are still more various, and the lands the easiest tilled in the world, with mines of marl and shell, and fossils and muck for manure in every part. It is a great mistake VIRGINIA. 557 to suppose that this section is not equally good for stock-raising of its kind, and for clothing as well as for food. It has the finest ranges in its savannas and salt marshes, for small cattle of the Devon breed, and the best for hogs and sheep and the hardiest blooded horses. The pony of the Chincoteague Island will sell for a higher price than any horse in America proportioned to his girth ; and the best racers of the two last centuries were foaled from the blood the south side of the James. Flax and hemp may be grown to any extent, and cotton has been grown profitably. Its forests furnish the choicest ship-timber from its salt sea atmosphere in thirty miles of the coast. Its Hampton Roads is the largest harbor of the continent, to which the eastern rivers converge from every point of the compass for commerce. And, everywhere, on land and water, nature has provided a meat-house of fisheries and game, venison, wild turkeys, quails and woodcock, rabbits, squirrels, robins, sora, reed-birds, shell-fish, scale-fish, terrapins, turtles, swans, wild geese, brant, wild ducks, and plover innumerable, and indestructible. "The salubrity 'of its climate/ says General Wise, ' will compare with that of any region since drainage and liming of the lands began to remove the causes of malarial fevers chiefly at the point where the tides of salt water meet the currents of the fresh water at the rivers. 7 " The entire region is favorable to the growth of the finer kinds of tobacco, offering great inducements for the settlement of growers from the various portions of European tobacco regions. There is no reason why the finest Cuban tobaccoes should not grow here, and with the now spreading cultivation of the Latakia tobacco plant, brought by Bayard Taylor from Palestine, and successfully introduced already by him in Pennsylvania, a great future is open for this staple in Virginia. Mr. Taylor thinks this variety incomparably better than the finest Yara or Cuba ever grown, and states that it does not deteriorate by being transplanted, but retains perfectly all its delicious characteristics. " Market gardeners near Norfolk cultivate early vegetables for the markets of Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York, having their produce ripening from three to four weeks earlier than in those more northern latitudes. They have been known, on from five to ten acres in cultivation, to make per annum from $2500 to $5000 clear profit. By the Anarnessic line of raflroad, which now in thirteen hours' travel connects the city of Norfolk with the metropolis of New York, market gardeners and farmers on the lower Chesapeake Bay, especially those who live in Accomac and Northampton counties, may directly, and 55$ THE GREAT REPUBLIC. those of Princess Anne, Norfolk, York, Gloucester, Mat-hews, Mid- dlesex, Lancaster, and Northumberland may, by means of their own little schooners, in one night's travel across the bay, offer their produce for sale within twenty -four hours, in the best market on the American continent. The fisheries on these coasts are world-renowned. On the whole line of the counties above mentioned, fish manure can be abundantly obtained for the labor of carrying it away. Wheat and other cereals flourish. During the war in this section, the inhabitants felt no apprehension on the score of living ; they could find fish and oysters, and wild ducks, everywhere, and in plenty. In Narisemoncf county, in the celebrated Dismal Swamp, peat has been discovered. It is now being cut, moulded and shipped to the northern cities, and found to be extremely profitable. " By allowing 100 inhabitants to the square mile, and giving 60 acres as a homestead to each family, the lowlands of Virginia can maintain a population of 1,600,000 souls. " PIEDMONT DISTRICT. At the foot of the mountains, stretching away to where the navigation of the rivers which traverse the lowlands ceases, a region embracing 32 counties, lies, more diversified in surface than the lowlands and, of course, more elevated, with a genial, healthful climate. Here are found the greatest inducements for the erection of manufacturing establishments, natural water- power being everywhere abundantly at command. This land is the Piedmont of Virginia like the vinous land of Italy, though not so naked. As General Wise says : ' For hill and dale, and grove and meadow, for lawns and orchards, and mountain spires and undulating surface of waving wheat-fields and green swards, and buoyant springs and sparkling fountains, and bracing air it surpasses all classic lands of Arcadia.' It is divided by the James into North and South Pied- mont, from the Point of Rocks to Lynchburg, and from Lynchburg to the North Carolina line. The difference in these two divisions of the Piedmont is attributable more to the difference in the past habits of cultivating the two than to any great variation of soil or climate. Though one is farther north, yet the climate of each is much the same as that of the other, both being affected by a mountain atmos- phere. The northern has the stiffest clay, and cultivates wheat and corn and artificial grasses, and raises live stock ; the southern culti- vates mostly tobacco and corn, though wheat also largely, and grazes but little. Both are beautiful and fertile and fit for farming capable of the highest culture; are cool and bracing in temperature and blessed with health. VIRGINIA. 559 "This district has an area of 10,000 square miles, and is capable of maintaining a population of 1,000,000 souls. It is not generally a lime land, but portions of it are very rich, viz. : Loudoun, Fauquier, Albemarle, and Bedford counties. The tobacco which is raised in the southern section of Piedmont, south of 38, is known as shipping tobacco. The fine tobacco counties in this section are Albemarle, Henry, Pittsylvania, Halifax, Campbell, etc. "Before we reach the third principal region of Virginia we must cross the Blue Ridge, where we find still some of the most beautiful forests of America, and an atmosphere of surpassing salubrity. The productions of this magnificent mountain-belt are similar to those regions on its sides. Waving wheat-fields and pastures and charming valleys, with grazing cattle and hardy husbandry, may everywhere be met. Vineyards are everywhere springing up, and its honey finds now, and its wines will soon find, a market in the world. " To the sturdy emigrant this ridge offers still thousands of acres of virgin lands, and nowhere in America will he have nature's assur- ance of a long life so plainly indicated as here. This ridge alone con- tains at least 2000 square miles, or 1,280,000 acres enough to divide into 6400 farms of 200 acres each, and to support a population of 50,000 more than it has now. " VALLEY DISTRICT. Crossing the Blue Ridge Mountains we come to the celebrated valley of Virginia (Shenandoah and South Branch), not only renowned for the fertility of its soil 8000 square miles in area, and capable of supporting 800,000 people but for the splendid characteristics of its inhabitants originally English, German, Scotch and Irish, now intermixed in one brave race. A continuation of the fruitful Cumberland Valley of Pennsylvania, it stretches between the Blue Ridge and Alleghany Mountains the entire length of Virginia, obliquely from northeast to southwest, nearly 300 miles, and is from 25 to 30 miles wide. Possessing the finest grazing country in the world, and having throughout a limestone foundation, its lands yield from 20 to 40 bushels ef wheat, and from 40 to 50 bushels of Indian corn is by no means an extraordinary crop. "To show the remarkable permanancy of its fertility, we cite the following from a traveller in the last century. Burnaby, in his travels, describes the condition of the Germans on the Shenandoah as follows: ' I could not but reflect with pleasure on the situation of these people, and think if there is such a thing as happiness in this life they enjoy it. Far from the bustle of the world, they live in the 560 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. most delightful climate and richest soil imaginable ; they are every- where surrounded with beautiful prospects and sylvan scenes, lofty mountains, transparent streams, falls of water, rich valleys, and majestic woods; the whole interspersed with an infinite variety of flowering shrubs, constitute the landscape surrounding them ; they are subject to few diseases; are generally robust and live in perfect liberty ; they are ignorant of want and acquainted with but few vices ; their inexperience of the elegancies of life precludes any regret that they possess not the means of enjoying them ; but they possess what many princes would give their dominions for health, content, and tranquillity of mind.' Seventy years later. Bernhard, Duke of Saxc- Weimer, says of this valley : ' The country was pretty well cultivated, and by the exterior of many country houses, we were induced to be- lieve their inhabitants enjoyed plenty/ Daniel Webster, twenty years after this, in a public oration in the Shenandoah Valley, said : ' he had seen no finer farming land in his European travels than in that valley/ Still twenty years later, and the Northern troops when they entered it victoriously, after its great defender, Stonewall Jackson, had fallen, exclaimed : ( Here is a second Canaan, let us rest here and pitch our tents.' What gives particular interest to this valley and to the Blue Ridge to the European and Northern emigrant is the fact that there have never been many negroes within them at this day the land is cultivated almost entirely by white laborers. "THE ALLEGHANIES. Beyond this valley westward rise the Alleghanies. Their range runs northeast and southwest 250 miles, by 50 miles of average width making of mountains, valleys, and dales, 12,500 square miles. Besides their aspect of rocks, ridges, caves, valleys, slopes, healing springs, streams, and fountains, they present to the eye a most luxuriant indigenous verdure of blue-grass spread over forests and fields, which offer grazing to live stock on nature's pastures without cost of clearing or cultivation. North of the High Knob and Haystack there are no negroes. The whole region of these mountains abounds in minerals of every description, which wait for capital to develop them. Wheat, rye, oats, and other grains, and the fruits of northern latitudes grow luxuriantly every- where in the valleys, dales, plateaus, and on the slopes of these rugged mountains, and offer a most inviting home to a Swiss, a Scot, a Swede, a Norwegian, etc. There is room enough in these mountains for 1,200,000 immigrants of every kind of occupation." The lower part of the State is divided by the Chesapeake Bay, two VIRGINIA 561 NATU1IAL BIUDGE. counties lying between the Bay and the Ocean. They are known as the Eastern Shore of Virginia. Below the mouth of the Potomac River, the Chesapeake lies wholly in the State, and receives the waters of the Rappahannock, Piankatank, York, and James rivers. The famous oyster fishing grounds of the Chesapeake are within this part of the State, and from them millions of bushels of oysters are gathered every year, and shipped to Baltimore and the northern cities. The Potomac River washes the entire northeast border of the State. It rises in two branches, in the eastern part of West Virginia. These branches unite in Hampshire county, West Va., from which point the main river pursues a generally southeast course to its mouth. It is 350 miles long, exclusive of its branches. It flows into the Chesa- peake Bay through a broad estuary, 50 miles long, and from 6 to 10 miles wide. It is navigable ta Washington for first-class vessels. 36 562 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. At Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, it is broken by a magni- ficent fall, over 50 feet high. The country along its upper waters is beautiful and grand beyond description. At Harper's Ferry, the river first touches the soil of Old Virginia. Here it breaks through the Blue Ridge, a mountain-pass of the greatest magnificence. It forms the boundary between Maryland and West Virginia and Vir- ginia. Leesburg and Alexandria are the principal towns of Virginia on the river. George Washington was born on the shores of the lower Potomac. The Rappahannock River is formed by the junction of the North and Rapidan rivers in the eastern part of Culpeper county. Flowing southeast, it empties into the Chesapeake Bay, about twenty-five or thirty miles below the mouth of the Potomac. It meets the tide at Fredericksburg, its principal town. Above this place it possesses almost unlimited water-power of the best descrip- tion. It is 125 miles long, and flows through a beautiful and fertile country. Together with the Rapidan, it has been rendered famous by the events which occurred on its shores during the late civil war. The York River is formed by the junction of the Mattapony and Pamunkey rivers, at the southeast end of King William county. It is about 40 miles long, with an average width of 3 miles, and flows southeasterly into Chesapeake Bay, directly opposite Cape Charles. West Point, at its head, now a mere hamlet, was once the most im- portant place in the colony of Virginia. Yorktown, so famous in the Revolution and the Rebellion, is situated on the right bank of the river, a mile or two from its mouth. The James River, the principal stream in the State, is formed by the confluence of the Jackson and Cowpasture rivers, on the borders of Alleghany and Bottetourt coun- ties. It flows southeast to the Blue Ridge Mountains, through which it forces its way, forming one of the grandest river passes in America. From this point its general course is northeast to the southern border of Albemarle county, after which it flows east-southeast to the bay, emptying into that body of water between Capes Charles and Henry. It is broken in several places by falls, and at Richmond flows over a succession of rapids six miles long. It is about 450 miles long, exclu- sive of its branches. It is navigable for ships and steamers to Rich- mond, 150 miles from the sea, at the head of tide water. The James River and Kanawha Canal furnish uninterrupted navigation from Richmond to beyond the Blue Ridge. The James flows through a beautiful and fertile country along its whole length. Above Rich- mond its water-power is magnificent. The lower part of the river is VIRGINIA. 563 known as Hampton Roads, and is defended by the powerful works of Fortress Monroe and Fort Wool. Lynchburg and Richmond are the principal towns on the river. Norfolk is situated on the Eliza- beth River, 14 miles from its entrance into the James, opposite Fort- ress Monroe. The Roanoke River of North Carolina, and the Hol- ston of Tennessee, rise in the southeast part of Virginia. The State is crossed by the Alleghany and Blue Ridge ranges, the former separating it from West Virginia. The Cumberland Mountains form the southwestern boundary, and separate Virginia from Kentucky. The region immediately south of Norfolk is occupied by an immense marsh known as the Dismal Swamp, through which a canal has been cut from Norfolk to Elizabeth City, North Carolina, connecting the waters of the Chesapeake with those of Albemarle Sound. " The celebrated swamp called the ' Dismal? lies partly in Vir- ginia and partly in North Carolina ; it extends from north to south nearly 30 miles, and averages, from east to west, about 10 miles. Five navigable rivers and some creeks rise in it. The sources of all these streams are hidden in the swamp, and no traces of them appear above ground. From this it appears that there must be plentiful subferraneous fountains to supply these streams, or the soil must be filled perpetually with the water drained from the higher lands which surround it. The latter hypothesis is most probable, because the soil of the swamp is a complete quagmire, trembling under the feet, and filling immediately the impression of every step with water. It may be penetrated to a great distance by thrusting down a stick, and when- ever a fire is kindled upon it, after the layer of leaves and rubbish is burned through, the coals sink down, and are extinguished. The eastern skirts of the Dismal Swamp are overgrown with reeds, ten or twelve feet high, interlaced everywhere with thorny bamboo briers, which render it almost impossible to pass. Among these are found, here and there, a cypress, and white cedar, which last is commonly mis- taken for the juniper. Towards the south there is a very large tract covered with reeds, without any trees, which being constantly green, and waving in the wind, is called the green sea. An evergreen shrub, called the gall-bush, grows plentifully throughout, but especially on the borders ; it bears a berry which dyes a black color, like the gall of an oak, and hence its name. Near the middle of the swamp, the trees grow much closer, both the cypress and cedar ; and being always green, and loaded with large tops, are much exposed to the wind., and 564 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. easily blown down in this boggy place, where the soil is too soft to afford sufficient hold to the roots. From these causes the passage is nearly always obstructed by trees, which lie piled in heaps, and riding upon each other; and the snags left in them pointing in every direc- tion, render it very difficult to clamber over them. On the western border of the Dismal Swamp is a pine swamp, above a mile in breadth, the greater part of which is covered to the depth of the knee with water: the bottom, however, is firm, and though the pines grow- ing upon it are very large and tall, yet they are not easily blown down by the wind; so that this swamp may be passed without any hinderance, save that occasioned by the deptli of the water. With all these disadvantages, the Dismal Swamp, though disagreeable to the other senses, is in many places pleasant to the eye, on account of the perpetual verdure, which makes every season like the spring, and every month like May. Immense quantities of shingles and other juniper lumber are obtained from the swamp, and furnish employ- ment for many negroes, who reside in little huts in its recesses. Much of the lumber is brought out of the swamp, either through ditches cut for the purpose, in long narrow lighters, or are carted out by mules, on roads made of poles laid across the road so as to touch each other, forming a bridge or causeway. There are very many miles of Such road. The laborers carry the shingles, etc., to these roads from the trees, on their heads and shoulders. The Dismal Swamp Canal runs through it from north to south, and the Portsmouth and Roanoke Railroad passes for five miles across its northern part. It looks like a grand avenue, surrounded on either hand by magnificent forests. The trees here, the cypress, juniper, oak, pine, etc., are of enormous size, and richest foliage ; and below is a thick entangled undergrowth of reeds, woodbine, grape-vines, mosses, and creepers, shooting and twisting spirally around, interlaced and complicated, so as almost to shut out the sun. The engineer who had constructed the road through this extraordinary swamp, found it so formidable a labor as almost to despair of success. In running the line, his feet were pierced by the sharp stumps of cut reeds; he was continually liable to sink ankle or knee deep into a soft muddy ooze ; the yellow flies and mosquitoes swarmed in myriads ; and the swamp was inhabited by venomous serpents and beasts of prey. The Dismal Swamp was once a favorite hunting-ground of the Indians ; arrow-heads, some knives and hatchets are yet found there; and it still abounds in deer, bears, wild turkeys, wild-cats, etc. The water of this swamp is gene- VIRGINIA. 565 rally impregnated with juniper, and is considered medicinal by the people of the surrounding country, who convey it some distance in barrels. This swamp is much more elevated than the surrounding country, and by means of the Dismal Swamp Canal might be drained, and thus a vast body of most fertile soil reclaimed ; and the canal might be transformed into a railroad ; and the juniper soil, which is vegetable, might, perhaps, be used as peat." MINERALS. The State of Virginia is especially rich in mineral resources, which are still comparatively undeveloped. Gold is found in Fluvanna, Orange, Spottsylvania, Goochland, and Buckingham counties, and the 566 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. mines in these regions can be made to yield a profitable return. The copper ore found in Fauquier county is said to yield 75 per cent, of pure copper. Coal and iron exist in great quantities. Immense beds of bituminous coal lie in the neighborhood of Richmond and in the mountain regions, while anthracite is found in quantities in and beyond the Valley. Numerous salt springs exist in the southwestern counties of the State, from which large quantities of salt were annually produced before the late war. The salt works were either destroyed or greatly damaged during the war, so that this branch of the industry of the State has not fully recovered its importance. The other minerals are lead, plumbago, gypsum, porcelain-clay, fine granite, marble, slate, soapstone, lime, water-lime, and fire-clay. The State also abounds in mineral springs of nearly every known variety. They are famous among the fashionable summer resorts of the Union, and are visited every year by persons from all parts of the country. PRODUCTIONS. The climate, soil, and products of the State having been already described in the quotation from General Itnboden's pamphlet, it is only necessary to offer here a statement of the principal agricultural products in 1 866. The following table is taken from the report of the Department of Agriculture for that year: Bushels of Indian corn, 24,369,908 wheat, 4,331,364 4 rye, 698,453 4 oats, 10,245,156 buckwheat, 162,686 4 potatoes, 1,592,166 Pounds of tobacco, 114,480,516 Tons of hay, 203,698 COMMERCE. Previous to the war, Virginia was engaged in a large and lucrative trade with the States of the Union, and had a growing foreign com- merce. Her tobacco commanded a high price in the markets of Europe, and her export of flour to South America and the West Indies amounted to near 200,000 barrels annually. Her oyster trade was extremely valuable. Her trade with Europe, however, was car- ried on mainly through the ports north of her. The statistics for 1860, the year before the war, include the present State of West Vir- ginia, but we give them, as there have been no accurate returns since VIRGINIA. 56t the close of the struggle. In 1861, the total exports of the State amounted to $5,858,024, and the imports to $1,326,249. MANUFACTURES. The figures given below represent the condition of Virginia in 1860, and, of course, include the present State of West Virginia. In that year there were 4890 establishments in the State devoted to manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts. They employed 36,590 hands and a capital of $26,640,000, consumed raw material worth $30,880,000, and returned an annual product of $51,300/H)0. The value of the principal products was as follows: Cotton goods, $1,063,611 Woollen goods, 809,760 Leather, 1,218,700 Pig-iron, 251,173 Rolled iron, 1,147,425 Steam engines and machinery, 1,478,036 Agricultural implements, 339,959 Sawed and planed lumber, 2,540,000 Flour, 15,210,000 Salt, 479,000 Manufactured tobacco, 12,236,683 The manufacturing interests of Virginia were almost fatally injured by the war, and are but slowly recovering from their reverses. The State possesses the most abundant water-power in the world, and is destined to become one day one of the principal seats of American manufactures. . INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. The great rivers of the State are navigable for a large part of their course, and a fine canal, extending from Richmond to Buchanan, in Bottetourt county, beyond the Blue Ridge, connects the mountains with the sea. Railroads extend through the State in various direc- tions, connecting its various cities and towns with the capital, and with all parts of the Union. Five lines centre in Richmond, four in Petersburg, two in Norfolk, three in Lynchburg, and three in Alex- andria. In 1872, the State contained 1416 miles of completed rail- road, constructed at a cost of $49,975,000. The canals of the State have an aggregate length of about 175 miles. 568 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. EDUCATION. There is no free school .system in Virginia, though a complete system, including colored schools, will probably be established during the present year (1871). In 1860, there were 23 colleges in the State, some of which are now in West Virginia. Others were burned. The University of Virginia, at Charlottes ville, is the principal school in the State. It was attended .by 600 students in 1860. Since the close of the war, it has been reopened, and has regained a large share of its former prosperity. At present the number of stu- dents is about 500. A student is admitted from each Senatorial dis- trict of the State, without charge for matriculation, tuition, or room rent, these expenses being borne by the State. In return for these advantages, the student enjoying them is required to teach in some school in the State for a period of two years after his graduation. William and Mary College, at Williamsburg, was established in 1693, and liberally endowed by William and Mary of England. It was in successful operation until 1860, and was regarded, next to the University, as the best school in the State. During the war, the buildings and other college property were destroyed by fire. Efforts are now being made to restore the institution to its former condition. The Washington-Lee University, at Lexington, was established as an academy before the Revolution. In 1798, it was endowed by Washington, and reorganized as a college. It resumed its operations after the close of the war under the Presidency of General R. E. Lee, assisted by an excellent faculty, and is one of the best and most pros- perous institutions in the State. It was formerly known as Washing- ton College. After -the death of General Lee, in 1870, it was given its present name. Hampden-Sidney College, in Prince Edward county, Randolph- Macon College, in Hanover county, and Emory and Henry College, in Washington county, are the other collegiate institutions in the State. The Virginia Military Institute, at Lexington, is entirely a State institution. It was in a high state of prosperity in 1860, but was burned during the war. It was reorganized upon the return of peace, and is now in a flourishing condition again. It is an admirable school, and furnishes its pupils with a thoroughly practical, scientific, and military training. VIRGINIA. 569 PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. State of Virginia possesses a Penitentiary, at Richmond, an Asylum for the Blind, an Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, and an Asylum for the Insane, at Staunton, and an Eastern Asylum for the Insane, at Williamsburg. No returns of these institutions are at hand. FINANCES. The finances of the State are not in a prosperous condition. The State debt is large and increasing, and the interest thereon has not been paid as it accrued. This is attributed to the increased expenses incident to the peculiar condition of affairs in the State, the adminis- tration of the Government by the military authorities, and the partial failure to collect the revenue. On the 1st of January, 1871, the amount of principal and interest due by the State was $47,390,840. The State holds about $10,048,267 of valuable assets, which, in a few years, will be available for the reduction of the public debt, and it is believed that the ad valorem system of taxation prescribed by the Constitution will produce an annual revenue more than sufficient to meet the annual expenses; and now that the control of the State is once more in the hands of its own citizens, it is very certain that its obligations will be faithfully met, and that its time-honored reputation for integrity will suffer no stain. GOVERNMENT. After the close of the civil war, Virginia was kept under military rule until the early part of 1870. In the summer of 1869, the people of the State, in accordance with the provisions of the Reconstruction Act, elected a State Government, and the Legislature thus chosen, acting provisionally, met at Richmond in October of the same year. Upon the reassembling of Congress, after the Christmas holidays, in 1869, measures were taken for the readmission of the State into the Union. On the 25th of January, 1870, a bill, which had passed both Houses of Congress, received the Executive signature. This bill re- admitted the State under certain stringent conditions, one of the prin- cipal of which was a guarantee on the part of the State never to alter its Constitution so as to deprive negroes of the right of suffrage, nor to pass laws depriving negroes of the right to hold office, or of their school privileges. On the 27th of January, General Canby, the mili- 570 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. tary commander of the department, transferred the government of the State to the civil authorities. The Legislature met, at the call of the Governor, on the 8th of February, 1870. By the terms of the new Constitution adopted in 1869, the right of suffrage is secured to every male citizen of the United States of the age of 21 years, who has been a resident of the State for one year, and of the county, city, or town, three months next preceding the election at which he desires to cast his vote. The Government consists of a Governor, and Lieutenant-Governor (who is ex-officio the President of the Senate), elected by the people for four years, and a Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Second Auditor, and. Register of the Land Office, elected by joint ballot of the two Houses of the Legislature. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 43 members, and a House of Delegates of 181 members. The two Houses are styled the General Assembly of the Common- wealth of Virginia. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court of Appeals. It consists of five judges, chosen for a term of 12 years. There are 16 Circuit Courts, the judges of which hold office for 8 years. The State is divided into 82 districts, for each of which a county judge is elected. The courts of the cities have their separate judges. The term of office of the county and city judges is 3 years. All the judges of the State are chosen by a concurrent vote of the two Houses of the General As- sembly. Elections for township and city officers are held on the fourth Thursday in May, and elections for State officers and members of Congress on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The State makes a liberal provision for the cause of education, and measures are now in progress for the establishment of a free school system. Richmond, in Henrico county, is the capital of the State. For purposes of government, the State is divided into 99 counties. HISTORY. Virginia was the first settled of the English colonies. On the 1 3th of May, 1607, a party of 105 settlers, sent out by the London Com- pany, to whom James I. had given a charter for South Virginia, settled on the north bank of the James River, and founded the town of Jamestown. This colony was composed of worthless adventurers, and came in search of gold, which, of course, was not found. It was VIRGINIA. 571 nominally under the control of Captain Newport, but its real leader was the celebrated Captain John Smith, one of the most remarkable men of that period. Nothing but his energy and firmness prevented the colony from becoming a disastrous failure. In 1609, the powers of the London Company were greatly enlarged, and the government of the colony placed in its hands. Additional emigrants were sent out to Virginia, to the number of about 500 persons, and Lord Dela- ware was appointed Governor. The settlers were greatly harassed by the savages, and suifered much from privation and famine, and in 1610 were reduced to only 60 souls, with scarcely food enough to last them ten days. They were reinforced at this juncture by the arrival of Newport, Gates, and Somers, with 150 men, who had been wrecked upon the Bermudas, on their passage from England. They expected to find the colony in a prosperous condition, and were so discouraged by the state of affairs at Jamestown, that they took the remnant of the colonists on board, and started down the river, intending to sail for Newfoundland, where they hoped to be able to take passage to England in some of the fishing vessels. Upon reaching the mouth of the James, they were met by Lord Delaware, the Governor, who had arrived from England with three ships, with supplies and addi- tional colonists ; and the whole party returned to Jamestown. Virginia now grew rapidly. The settlement at Jamestown was placed beyond all danger of failure; the Indians were punished for their attacks on the early settlers; and additional villages were founded. In 1619, 1200 colonists were sent over, including 90 re- spectable young women, who were sold to the planters as wives, for 100 pounds of tobacco (worth $75), the price of their passage from England. One hundred felons were also sent over from the English prisons, by the express order of the king, and sold to the colonists as slaves. In the same year, a Dutch trading ship anchored in the James, and sold a number of negro slaves to the planters, thus intro- ducing African slavery into the New World. The colony continued to thrive, and in 1649, contained 15,000 white inhabitants, and 300 negroes. About 30 ships came yearly to trade, and there were nearly 30,000 horses, cattle, sheep, goats, swine, and asses within its limits. During the great civil war in England, Virginia remained faithful to the king, and continued to maintain its loyalty, in spite of the efforts of the Parliament to win it over, until 1652, when it submitted to the Commissioners of the Commonwealth upon terms which were all that the colony could have desired. On the restoration of Charles 572 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. II., Sir William Berkeley, the leader of the Stuart party in the pro- vince, returned to Virginia, and was reflected Governor. Charles granted many unjust privileges to his favorites, who oppressed the people of Virginia so sorely, being assisted in their oppressions by the Governor, that a portion of the people of the colony took up arms to maintain their ancient rights. They were conquered by the Governor, who treated the vanquished party with such cruelty that he was severely rebuked hy the king. This struggle is generally known as "Bacon's Rebellion," from Nathaniel Bacon, the military leader of the so-called rebels. In 1698, the town of Williamsburg was built, and named in honor of William III. The country around Jamestown being marshy and sickly, the seat of government was removed to Williamsburg. The original settlement at once fell into decay, and at present only a ruined church tower marks the site. Virginia bore a prominent part in the wars with France. The war of 1754 originated in the efforts of the colony to break up the line of military posts which the French were establishing along the Ohio River. This struggle first brought into notice a young surveyor, George Washington, who acquired in it a reputation and experience, which made him the foremost soldier in the Province. In 1764 the General Assembly of Virginia made an energetic and spirited protest against the claim on the part of the English Crown to tax the colonies without their consent. The colony was not represented in the first Continental Congress which met in New York, in October, 1765, the Legislature having adjourned before the invita- tion of Massachusetts was received ; but the measures of that body were cordially endorsed at the next session of the Legislature, and throughout the whole struggle, Virginia and Massachusetts were the leading and most influential members of the colonial union. All the leading measures of resistance were originated by one or the other of these provinces. The Royal Governor, Lord Dun more, endeavored to check the efforts of the people, and was driven out of the capital, and forced to seek refuge on board a British man-of-war. He suc- ceeded in capturing the town of Norfolk, but was finally driven out of it, after which he bombarded it from his ships. During the summer of 1776, he continued to ravage the coast, but was finally driven southward. In 1779, the British General Mathews captured and destroyed the town of Norfolk, took the villages of Portsmouth and Gosport, and destroyed several ships of war in course of construe- VIRGINIA. . 573 tion there, and burned or captured 130 merchant vessels in the vicinity. In 1781, Benedict Arnold, the traitor, captured and burned the village of Richmond, but being hotly pressed by the American and French forces, retreated to the lower James, and reembarked for Newport, Rhode Island. A few months later, Cornwallis and Phillips entered eastern Virginia, and swept it with fire and sword, destroying and stealing $10,000,000 worth of property. These out- rages were partially avenged by the capture of Cornwallis' army at Yorktown, on the 19th of October, 1781. During the war, Virginia furnished her full share of men and means to the cause, besides con- tributing to it many of its great leaders. She gave to it, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and many other good and great men. At the outbreak of the war, Virginia was the first to propose a Confederation of the States, and at its close, perceiving that the system of Government in force was not suited to the necessities of the country, was the first to propose a Convention for the purpose of remedying its defects. This Convention met at Philadelphia, in 1787, and finally adopted the present Constitution of the United States, which was principally the production of James Madison, of Virginia. It was ratified by Virginia on the 25th of June, 1788, after encountering a strong opposition in the State Convention, led by Patrick Henry and George Mason. The State, in 1784, ceded to the United States its territory north- west of the Ohio river, which has since been organized into the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The present State of Kentucky also formed a part of the original State of Virginia, and was erected into a separate Territory, in 1789. During the war of 1812-15, the shores of the Chesapeake and its tributaries were ravaged by the British, and in 1814, the city of Alexandria was captured by them. During this struggle Virginia again gave a great soldier to the country, in the person of Winfield Scott, who, with Zachary Taylor, also led the American armies to victory in the war with Mexico. In 1831 a serious insurrection occurred, under the leadership of Nat Turner, among the negroes of Southampton county. It was suppressed and the leaders were executed, but not before a number of whites had been massacred. In 1859, the state was invaded at Harper's Ferry by John Brown and his adherents, the details of which event have already been given iu another chapter. 5U THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Upon the secession of the Southern States, Virginia made great efforts to secure a peaceful solution of the troubles between the sections ; but failing to accomplish this, withdrew from the Union, and joined the seceded States. Richmond was made the capital of the new Con- federacy, and the Confederate forces were transferred to Virginia, which was thus made the theatre of war. The events of this unhappy struggle are too well known to need repetition here. It is sufficient to say that this State was the scene of some of the most important events of the war. Seven Federal armies were defeated, and over thirty pitched battles, besides numerous minor conflicts, were fought on its Soil. Finally Richmond and Petersburg were captured by the Union army, and General Lee, the great military leader of the South, was made a prisoner with all his troops. Virginia seceded from the Union on the 17th of April, 1861, and on the 23d of May, the ordinance of secession was ratified by a popu- lar vote of 90,000. The people of the Western counties were opposed to this action, and being determined not to be forced out of the Union by the action of Eastern Virginia, summoned a convention, which met at Wheeling in June, 1861, and formed the new State of West Vir- ginia, which now includes that portion of the old State lying between the Alleghany Mountains and the Ohio river.* After the close of the war, the State was subjected to the process of reconstruction, and until January 26th, 1870, was governed by a military commander. Virginia was greatly impoverished by the war. Her manufactures were almost totally destroyed, and her agriculture crippled to a very great degree. The State is now slowly recovering from the effects of these disasters. Now that slavery has been abolished, Virginia offers so many inducements to settlers from other States and from Europe, and such great advantages to capitalists, in its water-power and mineral resources, that there can be little doubt that a few years more will see her embarked in a career of industry and prosperity, which will far exceed anything in her past career. CITIES AND TOWNS. Besides the capital, the principal cities and towns are, Norfolk, Petersburg, Alexandria, Lynchburg, Portsmouth, Winchester, Fred- * For a more complete account of this separation, see West Virginia. VIRGINIA. 575 ericksburg, Leesburg, Danville, Farmville, Lexington, Charlottes- ville, Salem, Liberty, Christiansburg, Staunton, and Wytheville. RICHMOND, The capital and the largest city of the State, is situated in Henrico county, on the northeast bank of the James River, at the head of tide-water. It lies at the foot of the lower falls of the James, and is about 184 miles from the sea by the course of the river, and 100 miles in an air-line south-by-west from Washington. Latitude 37 32' 11" K, longitude 77 27' 28" W. Richmond is one of the handsomest cities in the Union, and its situation is much admired for its romantic beauty. The city is built on several hills, which are separated from each other by a picturesque valley, through which flows Shockoe Creek. The principal are Shockoe and Church or Richmond hills. From any of these elevations a magnificent prospect may be gained, embracing the beautiful country around the city, and the noble river winding among its green hills, and leaping and dashing over the rocks which break its current for a dis- tance of several miles. Three fine bridges span the stream at inter- vals of from 100 yards to half a mile apart. Two are used by rail- ways entering the city, and connecting it with the States south of Vir- ginia. The other is for vehicles and pedestrians. Richmond is laid out with great regularity, in perfect squares. The streets are broad, straight, and well paved, and, with the exception of the business thoroughfares, are shaded with fine trees. The city is built generally of brick and stone, and the most of the houses are situated in yards adorned with flowers and shrubbery. The principal business thoroughfare, Main street, runs throughout the length of the city, and with the exception of the upper and lower portions, is one of the best-built streets in the Union. Broad street, parallel with Main, is a noble thoroughfare, and is occupied principally with retail stores. The general appearance of the city is handsome and attractive. The long streets, or those running parallel with the river, are named. Those crossing them at right-angles are numbered. The public buildings are handsome. The Capitol is the most con- spicuous object in the city. It stands on Shockoe Hill, in the midst of a handsome square of 10 acres. It is an imposing building, and is adorned with a portico of Ionic columns. It contains a marble statue of Washington, by Houdon, the famous French sculptor. To the west of the Capitol, and within the enclosure of the Capitol Square, 5T6 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. RICHMOND. is the monument erected to Washington by the State of Virginia. It contains an equestrian statue of Washington, by Crawford, and statues of Jefferson, Mason, Henry, Marshal, Lee, and Morgan, by Crawford and Randolph Rogers. The monument is of fine granite ; the statues are of bronze. To the south of the Washington monument stands a fine marble statue of Henry Clay. The Governor's Mansion, a fine old- fashioned edifice, occupies the northeast portion of the square. The City Hall is an elegant structure on Broad and Capitol streets, oppo- site the square. The Custom House extends from Main to Bank street, immediately south of the Capitol. It is an elegant building of granite, and contains, besides the customs offices, the city post-office, and the United States Court-rooms. During the civil war, the build- ing was occupied by the Executive, State and Treasury Departments of the Confederate Government. The Confederate Congress sat in the Capitol. VIRGINIA. 577 The public schools are good, though few in number. The city also contains the Richmond College, conducted by the Baptist church ; St. Vincent's College, a Roman Catholic institution ; and the Medical De- partment of Hampden-Sydney College, the last of which occupies a fine granite building of Egyptian architecture. There are a number of excellent private schools and seminaries in the city, which has always been celebrated for its schools of this character. The Virginia His- torical Society possesses a fine library. The State Library is in the Capitol. There are several colored schools in the city. There are over 30 churches in Richmond, some of which are very handsome. St. John's, on Church Hill, is interesting from its histori- cal associations. The Penal establishments are the City Prison and the State Peniten- tiary. The latter is situated on a hill overlooking the river, and is a large edifice of brick with a tirade nearly 300 feet in length. The Benevolent establishments are numerous, and consist of a city Alms-house, the Bellevue Hospital, the Roman Catholic Orphan Asy- lum, and several societies for the assistance of the poor and distressed. The Cemeteries are Holy wood and Shockoe Hill. The former is very beautiful. In the latter are buried some of the most distin- guished men of the country. Richmond is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the James River. Street railways connect its principal points. It is pro- vided with an efficient police force, and a steam fire department, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. It has always been a place of great political and commercial importance, and is noted for the culture and hospitality of its people. In 1870, the population was 51,038. Richmond is admirably situated for commerce and manufactures. It lies in the midst of one of the finest agricultural regions of the Union, and has railway connections with all parts of the country. The James River and Kanawha Canal afford water transportation to the very heart of the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Valley of Vir- ginia. The river is navigable to the city for vessels drawing 10 feet of water, and those drawing 15 feet can lie within 3 miles of the city. There is regular communication by steamers with Norfolk, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway is now completed across the mountains, and will soon be finished to the Ohio River. The city is one of the most important tobacco and wheat markets in the Union, and is one of the principal seats of the 37 578 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. manufacture of tobacco, which is exported in large quantities to the Northern cities for sale. Richmond is already largely engaged in manufactures, find is des- tined to become one of the most important manufacturing centres of America. It is already famous for its flour, its mills being among the most extensive in the country. Cotton and woollen goods, paper and iron ware are produced in considerable quantities. The water- power is derived from the James River, which in the course of a few miles descends 100 feet, thus furnishing an amount of power sufficient to turn all the mills of New England. The water is never too low to be used. The civil war struck a terrible blow at the manufactur- ing interests of Richmond, but the city is slowly recovering its former prosperity. Five daily papers, and a number of weeklies and month- lies are published in the city. Richmond was founded in 1742; and in 1779, while still but a small village, was made the capital of the State. In 1781, it was invaded and occupied by the British, under the command of Benedict Arnold. The invaders burned some public and some private build- ings, and a quantity of tobacco, and retreated towards the lower James. In 1789, the place contained 300 houses, and a bridge was built across the river by Colonel John Mayo. In 1800, it contained 5737 inhabi- tants. It was from the first a place of great political importance, ex- ercising a considerable influence over the country south of Virginia as well as over that State. After the secession of the Southern States and the beginning of hostilities in April, 1861, Richmond was made the Capital of the Confederacy, the Southern Government arriving there in June, 1861. From that time the city was the chief object of the efforts of the military forces of the United States. It was de- fended with great skill and determination, but was finally entered by the United States forces, on the 2d of April, 1865. It was set on fire by the Confederate forces on the night of their departure from it, and almost the entire business quarter, including the large mills, etc., was destroyed. Since then, it has been rebuilt on a handsomer and more substantial scale. NORFOLK, The second city of the State, is situated in Norfolk county, on the north bank of the Elizabeth River, 8 miles from Hampton Roads, 32 miles from the ocean, and 160 miles by water, or 106 miles by land, from Richmond. VIRGINIA. 579 The city is built principally of brick and stone, on a level plain, and is somewhat irregular in its plan. The streets are wide and are well paved, but the general appearance of the place is unattractive. There are, however, many fine stores and handsome dwellings, and of late the appearance of the city is being gradually improved. The City Hall and the Custom House are the principal buildings. The city contains 14 churches, a number of excellent schools, public and private, and a hospital. It is lighted with gas, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. Norfolk possesses one of the finest harbors in the world. It is easily reached from the sea, and vessels of the largest size can lie alongside the wharves. The entrance to the harbor is defended by the works at and near Fortress Monroe, which also command the entrance to Hampton Roads. The Dismal Swamp Canal connects the Eliza- beth River with Albemarle Sound. A very extensive trade in grain, fruits, and lumber is carried on by means of this canal, which is navi- gable for schooners. A railway connects the city with Petersburg, Lynchburg, and the southwest, and regular lines of steamers and steamships ply between Norfolk and Richmond, Baltimore, Philadel- phia, New York, and Boston. The foreign trade of the city is grow- ing rapidly. Its coasting trade is very great. An enormous traffic in market garden produce, fruits, eggs, etc., is maintained with the Northern Cities, the vicinity of Norfolk being devoted almost exclu- sively to truck farms. The trade in oysters and fish is also heavy. Portsmoutli, in the same county, lies immediately opposite Norfolk, and is separated from it by the Elizabeth River. It is the terminus of a railway to Weldon, N. C., and the far South. Previous to the war it was the principal naval station of the Republic, and was pro- vided with one of the largest and most complete navy yards in the world. These works were abandoned and destroyed by the United States authorities upon the secession of Virginia. It is doubtful whether they will ever be rebuilt upon as complete a scale. Ferry- boats connect the city with Norfolk. The war greatly injured the prospects of both cities, but they are gradually recovering from their losses. The foreign trade of Norfolk promises to increase rapidly, while the situation of the city will always throw into its hands a large coasting trade. In 1870 the population of Norfolk was 19,256. That of Ports- mouth was 10,492. Norfolk was laid out in 1705, and named from the county of that 580 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. name in England. In 1736, it was incorporated as a borough; in 1776, it was burned by the British, and in 1845 it was incorporated as a city. In May, 1861, it was occupied and fortified by the Con- federates, and in May, 1862, was captured by the United States forces, who held it until the close of the war. PETERSBURG, The third city of the State, is situated in Dinwiddie county, on the south bank of the Appomattox River, 10 miles from the junction of that stream with the James River at City Point, and 22 miles south of Richmond. It is connected with all parts of the country by railway, and by railway with City Point, where the large vessels -trading with the city discharge their cargoes. The city can be reached by vessels of 100 tons. Petersburg possesses a large trade in flour and tobacco, and is to a limited extent engaged in manufactures, the falls of the river, situated above the town, furnishing an enormous water-power. A canal has been cut around these falls, above which small boats can ascend the river for about 100 miles. The city is regularly laid off, and is well built. It contains a num- ber of handsome buildings, public and private ; several fine schools, including; a large female college, about 12 churches, and 3 newspaper offices. It includes the village of Blandford, in Prince George county. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the Appomat- tox, and is governed by a Mayor and Council. The city was severely injured by the bombardment to which it was subjected during the civil war. In 1870 the population was 18,950. Petersburg was founded by Act of the General Assembly in 1748, nnd was named after Peter Jones, the first settler on the spot. In 1752, a bridge was built over the Appomattox. In April, 1781, a British force under General Phillips, 2300 strong, landed at City Point, and advanced upon the city, defeating a small force of militia under Baron Steuben, which sought to oppose their progress, and cap- tured the town, to which they did considerable damage. They held Petersburg for about 24 hours. In May, of the same year, the town was occupied by Cornwallis' army. In 1784, the place became a city, and the towns of Blandford, Pocahontas, and Ravenscrofts were united with it. In the summer of 1864, General Grant crossed the James River with his army, and laid siege to Petersburg, continuing at the same VIRGINIA. 531 time his demonstrations against Richmond. The siege was continued until April, 1865, when the Confederates, after a series of severe bat- tles, were compelled to abandon their position around both cities. The retreat which ensued terminated in the surrender of the army of General Lee, which practically closed the war. During the siege Petersburg was frequently cannonaded, and was severely injured. ALEXANDRIA, The fourth city of the State, is situated in Alexandria county, on the right bank of the Potomac River, 7 miles below Washington City, with which it is connected by a steam ferry and a railway. The city is delightfully situated on undulating ground, and commands a fine view of the river and of Washington City. It is substantially built, and possesses some handsome buildings, but its general appearance is that of a quiet inland town. The streets cross each other at right angles, and are generally well paved. Some of them are shaded with mag- nificent trees. The city is supplied with water from Cameron's Run, a small stream close by, and is lighted with gas. It contains several public and private schools, and is the seat of a Theological Seminary and of a High School of the Protestant Episcopal Church. There are about 12 churches, and 3 newspaper offices in the city. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870, the population was 13,570. Alexandria was once a place of considerable commercial importance, and possessed a large foreign and domestic trade. Some shipping is still owned in the port. The river furnishes unlimited water trans- portation to the sea, which is continued to the mountains by the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and there is railway communication with all parts of the country. The city seemed on the point of recov- ering some share of its former importance when' the civil war put an end to its hopes. Alexandria was settled in 1748, and was incorporated as a city in 1779. In 1801 it was ceded with other territory to the General Government, and constituted a part of the District of Columbia until 1844, when it was restored to the State of Virginia. In the spring of 1861 it was occupied by the United States forces, and was held by them during the war. Eight miles below Alexandria, on the same side of the Potomac, and within the limits of Fairfax county, is Mount Vernon, the resi- dence and the site of the grave of George Washington. A few years previous to the civil war it was purchased from the Washington 582 THE GREAT REPUBLIC MOUNT VEBNON. family by a fund raised through the efforts of Edward Everett and others, and made the property of the nation. During the civil war it lay between the lines of the two armies, each of which scrupulously respected it. " Mount Vernon, then known as the Hunting Creek estate, was bequeathed by Augustine Washington, who died in 1743, to Law- rence Washington, who received a captain's commission in one of the four regiments raised in the colonies, to aid the mother country in her struggle against France and Spain, It was named after Admiral Yernon, under whom Lawrence Washington had served, and for whom he cherished a strong affection. The central part of the man- sion, which is of wood, was erected by Lawrence, and the wings by George Washington. It contains many valuable historical relics, among which are the key of the Bastile, presented by Lafayette, portions of the military and personal furniture of Washington, the pitcher, portrait, etc. The tomb of Washington, which is now fast going to decay, occupies a more picturesque situation than the present one, being upon an elevation in full view of the river. The new tomb, VIRGINIA. 583 into which the remains were removed iu 1837, and subsequently placed within a marble sarcophagus, stands in a more retired situa- tion, a short distance from the house. It consists of a plain but solid structure of brick, with an iron gate at its entrance. Above the area of this vault are inscribed the following lines : 4 Within this enclosure rest the remains of GENERAL GEOKGE WASHINGTON.' "The Mount Yernon domain, which has remained since the death of Washington in the possession of his descendants, was purchased a few years ago for the sum of $200,000, raised by subscription, under the auspices of a society of ladies known as the l Ladies' Mount Ver- non Union Association/ It is therefore, and will continue to be, the property of the nation. In this noble movement the late Hon. Ed- ward Everett took a distinguished and active part." LYNCHBURG, The fifth city of the State, is situated in Campbell county, on the south bank of the James River, 120 miles west-southwest of Rich- mond, and 20 miles from the Blue Ridge. It is built along a steep declivity, which rises from the river shore, and is situated in a beau- tiful and picturesque country. It is irregularly laid off, but contains several handsome buildings. It is lighted with gas, and is supplied with water from the river, which is pumped into a reservoir situated 253 feet above the level of the river. Lynchburg is one of the principal railway centres of the State, being the junction of roads leading directly from Norfolk, Richmond, \Yashington City, and Bristol, Tennessee. It is connected with Richmond by the James River Canal. These roads and the canal have made it a place of considerable trade. It is one of the principal tobacco markets of the State, and has also a large grain trade. Large quantities of tobacco are manufactured here. The city is, to a limited extent, engaged in manufactures, the river affording extensive water- power. Tobacco, cotton and woollen goods, and flour are the princi- pal articles. The city contains 10 churches, several public and private schools, and 3 newspaper offices. It is governed by a Mayor and Council. In 1870 the population was 6825. Lynchburg was founded in 1786, and named after John Lynch, one of the original settlers. In 1805 it was incorporated as a city. 584 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. MISCELLANIES. THE FIRST LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY IN AMERICA. One of the first acts of Yeardley, in Virginia, was to emancipate the remaining servants of the colony. The labor now being free, each man enjoying the fruits of his own industry, and anxious to increase his store, there was no fear of scarcity, and no time or opportunity for mutiny among the scattered and indus- trious planters. With the increasing strength and independence of the colony, all fear of the savages had vanished. It is manifest that in these altered circum- stances a modification of the despotic government ought to have been made, be- cause its severity was no longer necessary, and while the power existed it might be abused, as the colony seriously experienced in the case of Argall. The mo- ment the colonists began to take an interest in the country, by the enjoyment of their own labor and the possession of property, it was right that they should have some share in that government, in the prudent conduct of which they were most interested. Yeardley was aware of this, for, without any authority from home which we can trace, he called together a General Assembly, consisting of two members from every town, borough, or hundred, besides the Governor and Council, which met at Jamestown, near the end of June, 1619. In this Assembly seven corporations were represented, and four more were laid off in the course of the same summer. In this first North American legislature, wherein were " debated all matters thought expedient for the good of the colony," several acts were passed which were pronounced by the treasurer of the company to be "well and judiciously carried," but which are unfortunately lost to posterity. This was an eventful year to the colony, for, in addition to their Assembly, a college was established in Henrico, with a liberal endowment. King James had exacted 15,000 from the several bishops of his kingdom for the purpose of educating Indian children, and 10,000 acres of land were now added by the company ; and the original de- sign was extended to make it a seminary of learning also for the English. One hundred idle and dissolute persons, in custody for various misdemeanors, were transported by the authority of the king and against the wishes of the company to Virginia. They were distributed through the colony as servants to the plant- ers ; and the degradation of the colonial character, produced by such a process, was endured for the assistance derived from them in executing the various plans of industry, that were daily extending themselves. This beginning excited in the colonists a desire for using more extensively other labor than their own, an opportunity for the gratification of which, unfortunately, too soon occurred. In this eventful year, too, a new article was introduced into the trade of the com- pany with the colony, by the good policy of the treasurer, Sir Edward Sandys, which produced a material change in the views and feelings of the colonists with regard to the countrj r . At the accession of Sir Edward to office, after twelve years' labor, and an expenditure of 80,000 by the company, there were in the colony no more than 600 persons, men, women, and children. In one year he provided a passage for 1261 new emigrants. Among these were 90 agreeable young women, poor, but respectable and incorrupt, to furnish wives to the colo- nists. The wisdom of this policy is evident the men had hitherto regarded Virginia only as a place of temporary sojourn for the acquisition of wealth, and never dreamed of making a permanent residence in a place where it was impos- VIRGINIA. 585 sible to enjoy any of the comforts of domestic life. They had consequently none of those endearing ties of home and kindred to bind them to the country, or at- tach them to its interests, which are so necessary to make a good citizen. This new commodity was transported at the expense of the colony, and sol 1 to the young planters, and the following year another consignment was made of 60 young maids of virtuous education, young, handsome, and well recommended. A wife in the first lot sold generally for 100 pounds of tobacco, but as the value of the new article became known in the market, the price rose, and a wife would bring 150 pounds of tobacco. A debt for a wife was of higher dignity than other debts, and to be paid first. As an additional inducement to marriage, married men were generally preferred in the selection of officers for the colony. Do- mestic ties were formed, habits of thrift ensued, comforts were increased, and happiness diffused ; the tide of emigration swelled : within three years 50 patents for land were granted, and 3500 persons found their way to Virginia. In the month of August of this year an event occurred which stamped its im- press upon the Constitution of Virginia, and indeed of the whole southern portion of America. This was the introduction of 20 African slaves by a Dutch vessel, which availed itself of the freedom of commerce, which had been released from the shackles of the company's monopoly in the early part of this year, to- rivet the bonds of slavery upon a portion of their fellow creatures and their descend- ants. The indented and covenanted servants which had been long known in Virginia, and whose condition was little better than that of slavery, was a small evil and easily removed, because they were of the same color and country with their masters ; when they were emancipated, they leaped at once from their shackles to the full dignity of freedom. No one scorned to associate with them, and no one spurned their alliance ; if honorable and worthy in other respects, they were equal to their masters, and might even rise to distinction. But not so the poor African. Nature has fixed upon him a stamp which cannot be erased or forgotten, even when his fetters have crumbled to the dust. TREATY BETWEEN VIRGINIA AND ENGLAND. In 1650, the Government of the Commonwealth of England sent a powerful fleet to reduce the Colony of Virginia to submission, as that colony had until then refused to acknowledge any authority but that of King Charles. The fleet cast anchor before Jamestown, in the month of June, 1650. The colonists made a formidable show of resistance, which so impressed the Cromwellian officers that they consented to receive the surrender of the colony upon the following terms, which were highly honorable to Virginia. The reader will notice that the poor little colony is recognized by the Commonwealth as its "equal." The articles of surrender are concluded between the Commissioners of the Commonwealth, and the Council of State and Grand Assembly of Virginia, as equal treating with equal. It secures 1st. That this should be considered a voluntary act, not forced or constrained by a conquest upon the country ; and that the colonists should have and enjoy euch freedoms and privileges as belong to the freeborn people of England. 2dly. That the Grand Assembly, as formerly, should convene and transact the affairs of Virginia, doing nothing contrary to the Government of the Common- wealth or laws of England. 3dly. That there should be a full and total remission of all acts, words, or writ- ings against the Parliament. 586 THE GREAT. REPUBLIC. 4thly. That Virginia should have her ancient bounds and limits, granted by the charters of the former kings, and that a new charter was to be sought from Parliament to that effect, against such as had trespassed upon their ancient rights. [This clause would seem to be aimed at some of the neighboring colonies.] Sthly. That all patents of land under the seal of the colony, granted by the Governor, should remain in full force. 6thly. That the privilege of fifty acres of land for every person emigrating to the colony, should remain in full force. 7thly. That the people of Virginia have free trade, as the people of England enjoy, with all places and nations, according to the laws of the Commonwealth ; and that Virginia should enjoy equal privileges, in every respect, with any other colony in America. Sthly. That Virginia should be free from all taxes, customs, and impositions whatsoever ; and that none should be imposed upon them without the consent of their Grand Assembly ; and no forts or castles be erected, or garrison maintained, without their consent. 9thly. That no charge should be required from the country on account of the expense incurred in the present fleet. lOthly. That this agreement should be tendered to all persons, and that such as should refuse to subscribe to it, should have a year's time to remove themselves and effects from Virginia, and in the meantime enjoy equal justice. The remaining articles were of less importance. This was followed by a supplemental treaty, for the benefit of the Governor and Council, and such soldiers as had served against the Commonwealth in England allowing them the most favorable terms. ANECDOTES OP PATRICK HENRY. The wants of a large family compelled his father to find employment for his sons. At the age of 15, Patrick was put, behind the counter of a country mer- chant, and the year following entered into business with his elder brother, Wil- liam, with whom was to devolve its chief management ; but such were his idle habits, that he left the burden of the concern to Patrick, who managed wretchedly. The drudgery of business became intolerable to him, and then, too, "he could not find it in his heart " to disappoint any one who came for credit] and he was very easily satisfied with apologies for non-payment. He sought relief from his cares by having recourse to the violin, flute, and reading. An opportunity was presented of pursuing his favorite study of the human character, and the charac- ter of every customer underwent this scrutiny. One year put an end to the mercantile concern, and the two or three following Patrick was engaged in settling up its affairs. At 18 years of age he married Miss Shelton, the daughter of a neighboring farmer of respectability, and com- menced cultivating a small farm ; but his aversion to systematic labor, and want of skill, compelled him to abandon it at the end of two years. Selling off all his little possessions at a sacrifice, he again embarked in the hazardous business of merchandise. His old business habits still continued, and not unfrequently he shut up his store to indulge in the favorite sports of his youth. His reading was of a more serious character ; history, ancient and modern, lie became a proficient in. Livy, however, was his favorite ; and having procured a copy, he read it VIRGINIA. 587 through at least once a year in the early part of his life. In a few years his sec- ond mercantile experiment left him a bankrupt, and without any friends enabled to assist him further. All other means failing, he determined to try the law. His unfortunate habits, unsuitable to so laborious a profession, and his pecuniary situation unfitting him for an extensive course of reading, led every one to sup- pose that he would not succeed. With only six weeks' study, he obtained a li- cense to practise, he being then 24 years of age. He was then not only unable to draw a declaration or a plea, but incapable, it is said, of the most common and simple business of his profession. It was not until his 27th year that an oppor- tunity occurred for a trial of his strength at the bar. In the meantime the wants and distresses of his family were extreme. They lived mostly with his father- in-law, Mr. Shelton, who then kept a tavern at Hanover Courthouse. Whenever Mr. Shelton was from home, Henry took his place in the tavern, which is the identical public house now standing at Hanover Courthouse. The occasion on which his genius first broke forth, was the controversy between the clergy and the Legislature and people of the State, relating to the stipend claimed by the former. The cause was popularly known as the Parsons' cause. A decision of the court on a demurrer, in favor of the claims of the clergy, had left nothing un- determined but the amount of damages in the cause which was pending. Soon after the opening of the court, the cause was called. The scene which ensued is thus vividly described by Wirt : " The array before Mr. Henry's eyes was now most fearful. On the bench sat more than 20 clergymen, the most learned men in the colony, and the most ca- pable, as well as the severest critics before whom it was possible for him to have made his debut. The courthouse was crowded with an overwhelming multitude, and surrounded with an immense and anxious throng, who, not finding room to enter, were endeavoring to listen without, in the deepest attention. But there was something still more awfully disconcerting than all this ; for in the chair of the presiding magistrate sat no other person than his own father. Mr. Lyons opened the cause very briefly: in the way of argument he did nothing more than explain to the jury, that the decision upon the demurrer had put the Act of 1750 entirely out of the way, and left the law of 1748 as the only standard of their damages ; he then concluded with a highly-wrought eulogium on the benevolence of the clergy. And now came on the first trial of Patrick Henry's strength. No one had ever heard him speak, and curiosity was on tiptoe He rose very awk- wardly, and faltered much in his exordium. The people hung their heads at so unpromising a commencement ; the clergy were observed to exchange sly looks With each other ; and his father is described as having almost sunk with confusion from his seat. But these feelings were of short duration, and soon gave place to others of a very different character. For now were those wonderful faculties which he possessed for the first time developed ; and now was first witnessed that mysterious and almost supernatural transformation of appearance, which the fire of his own eloquence never failed to work in him. For, as his mind rolled along, and began to glow from its own action, all the exumcB of the clown seemed to shed themselves spontaneously. His attitude by degrees became erect and lofty. The spirit of his genius awakened all his features. His countenance shone with a nobleness and grandeur which it had never before exhibited. There was a lightning in his eyes which seemed to rivet the spectator. His action became graceful, bold, and commanding ; and in the tones of his voice, but more especi- ally in his emphasis, there was a peculiar charm, a magic, of which any one who 588 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. ever heard him will speak as soon as he is named, but of which no one can give any adequate description. They can only say that it struck upon the ear and upon the heart, in a manner which language cannot tell. Add to all these his wonder-working fancy, and the peculiar phraseology in which he clothed its images ; for lie painted to the heart with a force that almost petrified it. In the language of those who heard him on this occasion, 'he made their blood run cold, and their hair to rise on end.' " It will not be difficult for any one who ever heard this most extraordinary man to believe the whole account of this transaction, which is given by his surviving hearers ; and, from their account, the courthouse of Hanover county must have exhibited, on this occasion, a scene as picturesque as has been ever witnessed in real life. They say that the people, whose countenances had fallen as he arose, had heard but a very few sentences before they began to look up ; then to look at each other with surprise, as if doubting the evidence of their own senses ; then, attracted by some strong gesture, struck by some majestic attitude, fascinated by the spell of his eye, the charm of his emphasis, and the varied and commanding expression of his countenance, they Qould look away no more. In less than 20 minutes they might be seen, in every part of the house, on every bench, in every window, stooping forward from their stands, in death -like silence ; their features fixed in amazement and awe, all their senses listening and riveted upon the speaker, as if to catch the last strain of some heavenh r visitant. The mockery of the clergy was soon turned into alarm, their triumph into confusion and despair, and at one burst of his rapid and overwhelming invective, they fled from the bench in precipitation and terror. As for the father, such was his surprise, such his amazement, such his rapture, that, forgetting where he was, and the character which he was filling, tears of ecstasy streamed down his cheeks, without the power or inclination to repress them. ' The jury seem to have been so completely bewildered that they lost sight not only of the Act of 1748, but that of 1758 also ; for, thoughtless even of the ad- mitted right of the plaintiff, they had scarcely left the bar when they returned with a verdict of one penny damages. A motion was made for a new trial ; but the court, too, had now lost the equipoise of their judgment, and overruled the mo- tion by a unanimous vote. The verdict, and judgment overruling the motion, were followed by redoubled acclamation, from within and without the house. The people, who had with difficulty kept their hands off their champion from the moment of closing his harangue, no sooner saw the fate of the cause finally sealed, than they seized him at the bar, and, in spite of his own exertions and the continued cry of ' order ' from the sheriffs and the court, they bore him out of the courthouse, and, raising him on their shoulders, carried him about the yard in a kind of electioneering triumph." From this time Mr. Henry's star was in the ascendant, and he at once rose to the head of his profession in that section. In the autumn of 1764, having re- moved to Roundabout, in Louisa county, he was employed to argue a case before a committee on elections of the House of Burgesses. He distinguished himself by a brilliant display on the right of suffrage. Such a burst of eloquence from a man of so humble an appearance, struck the committee with amazement, and not a sound but from his lips broke the deep silence of the room. In 1765, he was elected a member of the House of Burgesses, when he intro- duced his celebrated resolutions on the Stamp Act. Among his papers there was found, after his decease, one sealed and thus endorsed : VIRGINIA. 589 " Enclosed are the resolutions of the Virginia Assembly, in 1765, concerning the Stamp Act. Let my executors open this paper." On the back of the paper containing the resolutions was the following endorsement : " The within passed the House of Burgesses in May, 1765. They formed the first opposition to the Stamp Act, and the scheme of taxing America by the British Parliament. All the colonies, either through fear, or the want of opportunity to form an opposi- tion, or from influence of some kind or other, had remained silent. I had been for the first time elected a burgess a few days before, was young, inexperienced, unacquainted with the forms of the house and the members who composed it. Finding the men of weight averse to opposition, and the commencement of the tax at hand, and that no person was likely to step forth, I determined to venture; and alone, unaided and unassisted, on the blank leaf of an old law-book, wrote the within. Upon offering them to the house, violent debates ensued. Many threats were uttered, and much abuse cast on me by the parties for submission. After a long and warm contest, the resolutions passed by a very small majority, perhaps one or two only. The alarm spread throughout America with astonish- ing quickness, and the ministerial party were overwhelmed. The great point of resistance to British taxation was universally established in the colonies. This brought on the war, which finally separated the two countries, and gave inde- pendence to ours. Whether this will prove a blessing or a curse, will depend upon the use our people make of the blessings which a gracious God hath be- stowed on us. If they are wise, they will be great and happy. If they are of a contrary character, they will be miserable. Righteousness alone can exalt them as a nation. Reader, whoever thou art, remember this ; and, in thy sphere, prac- tise virtue thyself, and encourage it in others. P. HENKY." It was in the midst of the above-mentioned debate that he exclaimed, in tones of thunder, "Caesar had his Brutus Charles the First his Cromwell and George the Third "("Treason !" cried the speaker " Treason ! treason I" echoed from every part of the house. Henry faltered not for a moment ; taking a loftier atti- tude, and fixing on the speaker an eye of fire, he finished his sentence with the firmest emphasis) "may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it." Henceforth Mr. Henry was the idol of the people of Virginia, and his influence as one of the great champions of liberty extended throughout America. In 1769, he was admitted to the bar of the general court. Without that legal learning which study alone can supply, he was deficient as a mere lawyer. But before a jury, in criminal cases particularly, his genius displayed itself most brilliantly. His deep knowledge of the springs of human action, his power of reading in the flitting expressions of the countenance what was passing in the hearts of his hearers, has rarely been possessed by any one in so great a degree. In 1767 or 1768, Mr. Henry removed back to Hanover, and continued a member of the House of Burgesses until the close of the Revolution, acting upon its most important committees, and infusing a spirit of bold opposition in its members to the pretensions of Britain. He was a delegate to the first Colonial Congress, which assembled Sept. 4, 1774, at Philadelphia. Upon Lord Dunmore's seizing the gunpowder at Williamsburg, in the night after the battle of Lexington, Henry summoned volunteers to meet him ; and, marching down towards the capitol, compelled the agent of Dunmore to give fi pecuniary compensation for it. This was the first military movement in Virginia. The Colonial Convention of 1775 elected him the colonel of the first regiment. 590 THE GREAT REPUBLIC. and the commander of " all the forces raised and to be raised for the defence of the colony." Soon resigning his command, he was elected a delegate to the Con- vention, and not long after, in 1776, the first Governor of the commonwealth, an office he held by successive re-elections until 1779, when, without an intermission, he was no longer constitutionally eligible. While holding that office, he was signally serviceable in sustaining public spirit during the gloomiest period of the Revolution, providing recruits, and crushing the intrigues of the Tories. On leaving the office of Governor, he served, until the end of the war, in the Legislature, when he was again elected Governor, until the state of his affairs caused him to resign in the autumn of 1786. Until 1794 lie regularly attended the courts, where his great reputation obtained for him a lucrative business. "In 1788 he w r as a member of the Convention of Virginia, which so ably and elo- quently discussed the Constitution of the United States. He employed his mas- terly eloquence, day after day, in opposition to the proposed Constitution. His hostility to it proceeded entirely from an apprehension that the Federal Govern- ment would swallow the sovereignty of the States ; and that, ultimately the liberty of the people would be destroyed, or crushed, by an overgrown and ponderous consolidation of political power. The Constitution having been adopted, the Government organized, and Washington elected President, his repugnance measurably abated. The chapter of amendments considerably neutralized his objections; but, nevertheless, it is believed that his acquiescence resulted more from the consideration of a citizen's duty, confidence in the Chief Magistrate, and a hopeful reliance on the wisdom and virtue of the people, rather than from any material change in his opinions." In 1794, Mr. Henry retired from the bar. In 1796, the post of governor was once more tendered to him, and refused. In 1798, the strong and animated reso- lutions of the Virginia Assembly, in opposition to the alien and sedition laws, which laws he was in favor of, "conjured up the most frightful visions of civil war, disunion, blood, and anarchy ; and under the impulse of these phantoms, to make what he considered a virtuous effort for his country, lie presented him- self in Charlotte county as a candidate for the House of Delegates, at the spring election of 1799," although he had retired to private life three years previously. His speech on this occasion, before the polls were opened, was the last effort of his eloquence. " The power of the noon-day sun w r as gone; but its setting splendors were not less beautifuland touching." Mr. Henry was elected by his usual commanding majority, and the most formidable preparations were made to oppose him in the Assembly. But "the disease which had been preying upon him for two years now hastened to its crisis ; and on the 6th of June, 1799, this friend of liberty and man was no more." By his first wife he had six children, and by his last, six sons and three daugh- ters. He left them a large landed property. He was temperate and frugal in his habits of living, and seldom drank anything but water. He was nearly six- feet in height, spare, and raw-boned, and with a slight stoop in his shoulders ; his complexion dark and sallow ; his countenance grave, thoughtful, and pene- trating, and strongly marked with the lines of profound reflection, which with his earnest manner, and the habitual knitting and contracting of his brows, gave at times an expression of severity. " He was gifted with a strong and musical voice, and a most expressive countenance, and he acquired particular skill in the use of them He could be vehement, insinuating, humorous, and sarcastic, by turns, an wheat, and tobacco are exported in large quantities. In 1736, the French selected the bluff, on which Memphis stands, as a suitable position for the establishment of a fort, but they neglected to occupy it. In 1783, the Spanish Government directed W. H. Gayoso, the Acting-Governor of Louisiana, to occupy and fortify the bluff, which was done. They held the place until the purchase of Louisiana by the United States. In the same year, Fort Pickering was established here by the United States forces. The settlement of the town was begun in 1820. During the first part of the civil war it was held by the Confederates. It was captured by the United States forces in June, 1862, and held by them until the close of the war. KNOXYILLE, The third city of the State, and the principal place in East Tennessee, is beautifully situated, in Knox county, on the north bank of the Holston River, 4 miles below its junction with the French Broad River, 185 miles east of Nashville. It is located on high ground, from which are obtained magnificent views of the river and distant 7SO THE GREAT REPUBLIC. Blue MOULI tains of Chilhowee. The town is well built, and is said to be an agreeable place of residence. It contains the University of East Tennessee, the State Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, 5 churches, several public and private schools, and 2 newspaper offices.- It is extensively engaged in the manufacture of window-glass. The city is connected with all parts of the country by railway, and the river is navigable for steamers at*all seasons. Fine marble quarries, iron ore, and bituminous coal abound in the surrounding country. In 1870, the population was 8882. Knoxville was laid out in 1794, in which year it was made the capital of the State, which it continued to be until 1817. During the civil war, it was the centre of the opposition to the Confederacy, which was maintained throughout the whole struggle by the East Tennesseans. It was taken by the United States forces in the fall of 1862. The next year it was besieged by the Confederates, under General Longstreet, and was reduced to severe straits. Several desperate battles occurred in the vicinity. It was relieved finally by the United States army, under General Burnside. MISCELLANY. THE BOYHOOD OF ANDREW JACKSON. His parents were Scotch-Irish emigrants from Carrickfergus, of the humblest condition in life, and to add to the struggles of the family with adversity, his father died just after the birth of his son. His mother was obliged to find a home, as housekeeper and poor relation, in the family of a brother-in-law, and here young