•rffu-riymiytT t«'v OCSI300H3C5CX; .- -#* ii _•"»•: Zl ■'H. Ky,:/P'^^-yim £».?■! trS'l ■^u: r^'^i^ L^r^^ K»*:»iiB2 l« lil ^ ■'a*-;^.,':: V Lv««f- 2«^ ks^xf. £X^.i,Jpf-*^ l^t/is » THE HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE FIRST INVASION OF IT BY THE ROMANS UNDER JULIUS C^SAR. WRITTEN ON A NEW PLAN. By ROBERT HENRY, D. D. OXE OF THE MINISTERS OF EDINBURGH, MEMBER OF THL SOCIETY OF ASTIQU\RtA\S OF SCOTLAND, AND OF THE ROYAL SOLitTY OF EUINBUROH. THE SIXTH EDITION. IN TWELVE VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON : PRINTED FOR T. AND J. ALLMAV, PRINCE's STREET, HANOVER SQUARE; W. BATNESAND SON, PATERNOSTER ROW; A. E. DULAU AND CO. SOHO SQUARE; C. SMITH. STRAND ; W, WRIGHT, FLEET STREET; WESTLEY AND PARRISH, STRAND; JOHN ANDERSON, JUN. EDINBURGH; M. KEENE AND JOHN CUMMING, DUBLIN. 1823. i. G. Barnard, Sldnner Street, Londoo. THE LIBKAKY t, UNIVERSIT\> or CALIFORNIA J' '1 - SANTA BARBARA V . / ADVERTISEMENT. The Author of this Work, who died in 1790, left some part of the Volumes wliich are now offered to the Public unfinished ; for Chapter V. on Arts^ and Chapter VII. on Manners^ &c. he had only sketched out a few of the authorities, and no part of the narrative was written by him : Those two Chapters are entirely the work of Malcolm Eaing, Esquire, who has finished them at the request of Dr Henry's Executors. The whole of the Appendix is also Mr Laing's; but the reader may be assured, that every other part of the volumes was completed by Dr. Henry himself, and is faithfully published from his manuscript. - TO THE MEMORY OF WILLIAM Earl of MANSFIELD, THESE POSTHUMOUS VOLUMES OF THE HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN, ARE RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY Dr HENRY'S EXECUTOR.S, H. MONCREIFF WELLWOOD, Wm. BALDERSTONE, Wm. FINLAY. (j;j» Dr Henry was always proud of the friendship with wliich the late Earl of Mansfield had honoured him ; and it was the wish of his heart that the last part of his lite- rary labours should be introduced to the world under His Lordship's patronage. The death of that Nobleman has deprived the follov.ing Volumes of this advantage. But the Executors of Dr Henry are persuaded that they could not better fulfil the intention of the Author, than by inscribing this Work to the Memory of the Earl of Mansfield. Dr Henry's friends have the satisfaction to believe, that a man whom His Lordship esteemed as an Author, can- not be soon forgotten ; posterity will know that the His- tory of Great Britain written by Dr Henry was encou- raged and protected by one of the wisest and greatest men of his time, whose old age was as venerable, as his active life was meritorious and distinguished. London, 22d Ajiril 1793. THE LIFE OF y.- 'J ROBERT HENRY, D.D. Ur Robert Henry, author of the " History of Great Britain, written on a new plan,*' was the son of James Henry, farmer at Muirtovvn, in the parish of St Ninian's, North Britain, and of Jean Galloway, daughter of Galloway of Bur- row-meadow in Stirlingshire. Hewasborn on the 18th of February I7I8; and, having early resolv- ed to devote himself to a literary profession, was educated, first under a Mr John Nicholson at the parish school of St Ninian's, and for some time at the grammar school of Stirling. He completed his course of academical study at the University of Edinburgh, and afterwards be- came master of the grammar school of Annan. He was licensed to preach on the 27th of March 17'1'fi, and was the first licentiate of the Presby- tery of Annan after its erection into a separate Presbytery. Soon after, he received a call from a congregation of Presbyterian Dissenters at Car- voL. I. a VI LIFE OF DR HF.NRY. lisle, where he was ordained in November 1748. In this station he remained twelve years; and on the 13th of August I7G0, became pastor of a Dissenting congregation in Berwick-upon- Tweed. Here he married, in 17^3, Ann 13al- derston, daughter of Thomas Ealderston, sur- geon in Berwick; by whom he had no children, but with whom he enjoyed, to the end of his life, a large share of domestic happiness. He was removed from Berwick to be one of the minis- ters of Edinburgh in November 17^8; was mi- nister of the church of the New Grey Friars from that time till November 177^; and then became colleague-minister in the Old Churcli, and remained in that station till his death. The degree of Doctor in Divinity was conferred on him by the University of Edinburgh in 1770; and in 177^, he was unanimously chosen Mode- rator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and is the only person on record who obtained that distinction the first time he was a member of the Assembly. From these facts, which contain the outlines of Dr Henry's life, few events can be expected to suit the purpose of the biographer. Though he must have been always distinguished among his private friends, till he was translated to E- dinburgh, he had few opportunities of being known to the public. The composition of ser- Tnons must have occupied a chief part of his time during his residence at Carlisle ; and his in- dustry in that station is known to have render- ed his labours in this department easy to him LIFE OF DR HENRY. Vll during the rest of his life. But even there he found leisure for other studies; and the know- ledge of classical literature, in which he emi- nently excelled, soon enabled him to acquire an extent of information which qualified him for something more important than he had hither- to had in his view. Soon after his removal to Berwick, he published a scheme for raising a fund for the benefit of the widows andorphansof ProtestantDissenting Mi- nisters in the north of England. This idea was probably suggested by the prosperity of the fund which had, almost thirty years before, been esta- blished for a provision to ministers' widows, &c. in Scotland. But the situations of the clergy of Scot- land were very differentfrom the circumstances of dissenting ministers in England. Annuities and provisions were to be secured to the families of Dissenters, without subjecting the individuals (as in Scotland) to a proportional annual contribu- tion, and without such means of creating a fund as could be the subject of an act of parliament to secure the annual payments. The acuteness and activity of Dr Henry surmounted these difficul- ties; and, chiefly by his exertions, this useful and benevolent institution commenced about the year 1762. The management wasintrustedtohimfor several years; and its success has exceeded the most sanguine expectations which were formed of it. The plan itself, now sufficiently known, it is unnecessary to explain minutely. But it is men- tioned here, because Dr Henry was accustomed, in the last years of his life, to speak of this Institu- Vlll LIFE OF DR HENRY. tion with peculiar affection, and to reflect on its progress and utility with that kind of satisfac- tion which a good man can only receive from ** the labour of love and of good works. " It was probably about the year 1763, that he first conceived the idea of his History of Great Britain ; a work already established in the pub=^ lie opinion, and which will certainly be regard- ed by posterity, not only as a book which has greatly enlarged the sphere of history, and gra- tifies our curiosity on a variety of subjects which fall not within the limits prescribed by preced- ing historians, but as one of the most accurate and authentic repositories of historical informa- tion which this country has produced. The plan adopted by Dr Henry, which is indisputably his own, and its peculiar advantages, are sufficient- ly explained in his general preface. In every period it arranges, under separate heads or chap- ters, the civil and military history of Great Bri- tain; the history of religion; the history of our constitution, government, laws, and courts of justice; the history of learning, of learned men, and ofthe chief seminaries of learning; the history of arts; the history of commerce, of shipping, of money or coin, and of the price of commodities; and the history of manners, virtues, vices, customs, language, dress, diet, and amusements. Under these seven heads, which extend the province of an historian greatly beyond its usual limits, every thing curious or interesting in the history of any country may be comprehended. But it certainly required more than a common share of literary LIFE OF DR HENRY. IX courage to attempt, on so large a scale, a subject so intricate and extensive as the history of Bri- tain from the invasion of Julius Ca3sar. That Dr Henry neither overrated his powers nor his industry, could only have been proved by the success and reputation of his works. But he soon found that his residence at Ber- wick was an insuperable obstacle to the minute researches which the execution of his plan re- quired. His situation there excluded him from the means of consulting the original authorities; and though he attempted to find access to them by means of his literary friends, and, with their assistance, made some progress in his work, his information was notwithstanding so incomplete, that he found it impossible to prosecute his plan to his own satisfaction, and was at last compel- led to relinquish it. Bythe friendship of Gilbert Laurie esq. late Lord Provost of Edinburgh, and one of his Majesty's commissioners ofexcise in Scotland, who had mar- ried the sister of Mrs Henry, he was removed to Edinburgh in I768; and to this event the public are indebted for his prosecution of the History of Great Britain. His access to the public libraries, and the means of supplying the materials which these did not afford him, were from that time used with so much diligence and perseverance, that the first volumeof his History in quarto was pubhshed in 1771, the second in 177 i, the third in 1777, the fourth in I78I, and the fifth (which brings down the history to the accession of Henry VII.) in 1785. The subject of these volumes compre- LIFE OF DR HENRY. hends the most intricate and obscure periods of onr history; and when we consider the scanty and scattered materials which Dr Henry has digested, and the accurate and minute information which he has given us under every chapter of his work, we must have a high opinion both of the learn- ing and industry of the author, and of the vigour and activity of his mind; especially when it is added, that he employed no amanuensis, but completed the manuscript with his own hand ; and that, excepting the first volume, the whole book, such as it is, was printed from the original copy. Whatever corrections were made on it, were inserted by interlineations, or in revising the proof'Sheets. He found it necessary, indeed, to confinehimselfto a first copy, from an unfortunate tremor in his hand, which madew^riting extreme- ly inconvenient, which obliged him to write with his paper on a book placed on his knee instead of a table, and which unhappily increased to such a degree, that in the last years of his life he was often unable to take his victuals without assistance. An attempt which he made after the publication of the fifth volume to employ an ama- nuensis did not succeed. Never having been ac- customed to dictate his compositions, he found it impossible to acquire a new habit; and though he persevered but a few days in the attempt, it had a sensible ef^ecton his health, which heneverafter- wards recovered. An author.has no right to claim indulgence, and is still less entitled to credit from the public, for anything which can'be ascribed to negligence in committing his manuscripts to the LIFE OF DR HENRY. XI Press ; but considering tlie difficulties which Dr Henry surmounted, and the accurate research and information which distinguish his history, ^ the circumstances which have been mentioned are far from being uninteresting, and must add considerably to the opinion formed of his merit among men who are judges of what he has done. He did not profess to study the ornaments of language ; but his arrangement is uniformly re- gular and natural, and his style simple and per- spicuous. More than this he has not attempt- ed, and this cannot be denied him. He believ- ed, that the time which might be spent in polish- ing, or rounding a sentence, was more usefully employed in investigating and ascertaining a fact ; and, as a book of facts and solid infor- mation, supported by authentic documents, his History will stand a comparison with any other History of the same period. But Dr Henry had other difficulties to surmount than thosewhich relatedtothecompositionof his work. Not having been able to transact with the booksellers to his satisfi\ction, the five volumes were originallypublished at the risk of the author. When the first volume appeared, it was censured with an unexampled acrimony and perseverance. Magazines, reviews, and even newspapers, were filled with abusive remarks and invectives, in which both the author and the book were treated with contempt and scurrility. When an author has once submitted his works to the public, he has no right to complain of the just severity of criticism. But Dr Henry had to contend with the inveterate LIFE OF DR HENRY. scorn of malignity. In compliance with the usual custom, he had permitted a sermon tobepublish- ed wliich he had preached before the Society in Scothmd for Propagating Christian Knowledge in 1773; a composition containing plain good sense on a common subject, from which heexpectedno reputation. This was eagerly seized on by the adversaries of his History, and torn to pieces witli a virulence and asperity which no want of merit in the sermon couldjustify or explain. An anonymous letter had appeared in a newspaper to vindicate the History from some of the un- just censures which had been published, and as- serting, from the real merit and accuracy of the book, the author's title to the approbation of the public. An answer appeared in the course of the following week, charging him, in terms equally confident and indecent, with having written this letter in his own praise. The efforts of maligni- ty seldom fail to defeat their purpose, and to re- coil on those who direct th.em. Dr Henry had many friends, and, till lately, had not discovered that he had any enemies. But the author of the anonymous vindication was unknown to him, till the learned and respectable Dr Macqueen, from the indignation excited by the confident petu- lance of the answer, informed him that the letter had been written by him. These anecdotes are still remembered. The abuse of the Historv, which began in Scotland, was renewed in some of the periodical publications in South Britain ; though it is justice to add (without meaning to refer to the candid observations of English LIFE OF DR HENRY. XIU critics), that in both kingdoms the asperity ori- ginated in the same quarter, and that paragraphs and criticisms written at Edinburgh were printed in London. The same spirit appeared in Stric- tures published on the second and third volumes; but by this time it had in a great measure lost the attention of thepublic. The malevolence was suf- ficiently understood, and had long before become fatal to the circulation of the periodical paper from which it originally proceeded. The book^ though printed for the author, had sold beyond his most sanguine expectations ; and had receiv- ed both praise and patronage from men of the first literary characters in the kingdom ; and though, from the alarm which had been raised, the book- sellers did not venture to purchase the property till after the publication of the fifth volume, the work was established in the opinion of thepublic, and at last rewarded the author with a high de- gree of celebrity, which he happily lived to enjoy. In an article relating to Dr Henry's life, not to have mentioned the opposition which his History encountered, would have been both affectation and injustice. The facts are sufficiently remem- bered, and are unfortunately too recent to be more minutely explained. That they contri- buted at first to retard the sale of the work is undeniable, and may be told without regret, now that its reputation is established. The book has raised itself to eminence as a History of Great Britain by its own merits ; and the means em- ployed to obstruct its progress have only served to embellish its success. VOL. I. *a -XlV LIFE OF DR HENRY. Dr Henry was no doubt encouraged from the first by the decided approbation of some of his literary friends, who were allowed to be the most competent judges of his subject; and, in particu- lar, by one of the most eminent historians of the present age, whose history of the same periods justly possesses the highest reputation. The fol- lowino; character of the first and second volumes was drawn up by that gentleman, and is well en- titled to be inserted in a narrative of Dr Henry's life. " Those who profess a high esteem for the *' first volume of Dr Henry's History, I may ven- ture to say, are almost as numerous as those who have perused it, provided they be competent ^* judges of a work of that nature, and are ac- ^ quainted with the difficulties which attend such ** an undertaking. Many of those who had been " so well pleased with the first, were impatient to "see the second volume, which advances into a "field more delicate and interesting; but the " Doctor hath shown the maturity of his judg- " ment, as in all the rest, so particularly, in giving " no performance to the public that might appear " crude or hasty, or composed before he had fully ♦* collected and digested the materials. I ven- " ture, with great sincerity, to recommend this *^ volume to the perusal of every curious reader " who desires to know the state of Great Bri- ^' tain, in a period which has hitherto been " regarded as very obscure, ill supplied with ** writers, and not possessed of a single one that •* deserves the appellation of a good one. It is ** wonderful what an instructive, and even enter- cc LIFE OF DR HENRY. XV ** taining book theDoctor has been able to cotn- *' pose from such unpromising materials: Tantum " series junduraque pollet. When we see those *' barbarous ages delineated by so able a pen, we " admire the oddness and singularity of the man- ** ners, customs, and opinions of the times, and " seem to be introduced into a new world ; but *' we are still more surprised, as well as interest^ *' ed, when we reflect, that those strange person- " ages were the ancestors of the present inhabit- *' ants of this island. The object of an antiquary *' hath been commonly distinguished from that of " an historian ; for though the latter should enter " into the province of the former, it is thought " that it should only be quanta basta, that is, so far ** as is necessary, without comprehending all the " minute disquisitions which give such supreme ** pleasure to the mere antiquary. Our learned *' author hath fully reconciled these two charac* *' ters. His historical narrative is as full as those ** remote times seem to demand, and at the same *' time his inquiries of the antiquarian kind omit ** nothing which can be an object of doubt or *' curiosity. The one as well as the other is de- *' livered with great perspicuity, and no less pro- priety, which are the true ornaments of this " kind of writing. All superfluous embellish- ments are avoided; and the reader will hardly ** find in our language any performance that "unites together so perfectly tlie two great " points of entertainment and instruction. " — The gentleman who wrote this character died before the publication of the third volume* .% ** • The quarto Edition in six Volumes is referred to tliroughout. (( (i XVI LIFE OF DR HENRY. Tlie progress of Dr Henry's work introduced him tomore extensive patronage, and in particular to the notice and esteem of the late Earl of Mans- field. That venerable nobleman, who was so well entitled to the gratitude and admiration of his country, thought tlie merit of Dr Henry's History so considerable, that, without any solicitation, after the publication of the fourth volume, he ap- plied personally to his Majesty to bestow on the author some mark of his royal favour. In conse- quence of this, Dr Henry was informed by a let- ter from Lord Stormont, then Secretary of State, of his Majesty's intention to confer on him an annual pension for life, of 100/. " considering " his distinguished talents and great literary " merit, and the importance of the very useful " and laborious work in which he was so success- ** fully engaged, as titles to his royal counte- " nance andfavour." The warrant was issuedon the 28th of May I78I ; and his right to the pen- sion commenced from the 5th of April preced- ing. This pension he enjoyed till his death, and always considered it as inferring a new obligation to persevere steadily in the prosecution of his work. From the Earl of Mansfield he received many other testimonies of esteem, both as a man and as an author, which he was often heard to mention with the most affectionate gratitude. The octavo edition of his History, published in 1788, was inscribed to his Lordship. The quar- to edition had been dedicated to the King. The property of the work had hitherto remained with himself J but in April I786, when an octavo LIFE OF DR HENRY. XVIl edition was intended, he conveyed the property to Messrs Cadell and Strahan for the sum of 1000/.; reserving to himself what still remained unsold of the quarto edition. Dr Henry had kept very accurate accounts of the sales from the time of the original publication; and, after his last transaction, he found that his real profits had amounted in the whole to about 3300/. ; a striking proof of the intrinsic merit of a work which had forced its way to the public esteem, in spite of the malignant opposition with which the first volumes had to struggle. The prosecution of his history had been Dr Henry's favourite object for almost thirty years of his life. He had naturally a sound constitu- tion, and a more equal and larger portion of animal spirits than is commonly possessed by li- terary men: but from the year 1785 his bodily strength was sensibly impaired: notwithstanding this, he persisted steadily in preparing his sixth volume, which brings down the history to the accession of Edward VI., and it is now published by his executors; they flatter themselves that it will be found entitled to the same favourable re- ception from the public which has been given to the former volumes. It was written under the disadvantages of bad health and great weakness of body. The tremulous motion of his hand had increased so as to render writing much more difficult to him than it had ever been: but the vigour of his mind and his ardour were unim- paired ; and, independent of the general cha- voi,. I. b XVlll LIFE OF DR HENRY. racter of his works, the posthumous volume will be a lasting monument of the strength of his fa- culties, and of the literary industry and perse- verance which ended only with his life. Dr Henry's original plan extended from the invasion of Britain by the Romans to the present times : and men of literary curiosity must regret that he has not lived to complete his design ; but he has certainly finished the most difficult parts of his subject. The periods after the ac- cession of Edward VI. afford materials more ample, better digested, and much more within the reach of common readers. The works of an author make so considerable a part of his personal history, that the account of them is in danger of encroaching on the place which ought to be reserved for his private life. But though Dr Henry's character as a man was sufficiently interesting, his death is too recent to permit the minuteness of a biographer. An account of his habits, his friendships, his amuse- ments, his convivial intercourse, such as a reader of narratives of this sort expects, cannot be given to those who shared in his society, with- out mixing the history of the living with the character of the dead. Nothing but what is general can be said; and much must therefore be withheld which a friend might wish to read, and which might gratify the curiosity of a stranger. Though his literary engagements might have been supposed to have given him sufficient em- LIFE OF DR HENRY. XiX ployment, he always found time for what he be- lieved to be objects of public utility, as well as for the offices of private friendship. In public life, no man was more steady or active in pursu- ing his purpose, or sought the means of attain- ing it with more integrity. As an ecclesiastical man, he followed the unbiassed dictates of his own mind, uniformly promoting the measures which he thought most for the interest of reli- gion and of his country, and persevering in the principles he avowed, though in the General As- sembly they most frequently led him to be in- cluded in the votes of the minority. Of the public societies of Edinburgh, he was always one of the most useful and indefatigable members ; regular in his attendance as long as his health permitted him, and always pure in his inten- tions. But in serving and assisting his private friends, he discovered an ardour and activity through his whole life more interesting than the most distinguished literary fame ; even the sons of those who had once been his companions, were certain of every assistance in his power, if he thought they deserved itj and no considera- tion could persuade him to desert a man whom he esteemed, or whom he believed to have a claim on his friendship. He was particularly attentive to young men who were prosecuting a literary education. He had himself experienced difficulties in his youth, and mentioned them often as motives which he could not resist, to assist the industry and merit of other men. His b 2 XX LIFE OF DR HENRY. activity to serve his friends was always accom- panied with an earnestness and good will, which added greatly to the obligations he conferred. Besides his friends, he was particularly attentive to his relations, of whom he had a number, whose circumstances were not opulent; with them he shared his good fortune, as soon as the profits of his book enabled him to be useful to them ; and, with the exception of an annuity to Mrs Henry, and a few small legacies, left them by his will all the property he had ac- quired. His pension and the profits of his book had placed him at last in easy circumstances, and enabled him to do for his relations what gave great satisfaction to his worthy and bene- volent mind. Dr Henry was naturally fond of society ; and few men ever enjoyed society more perfectly, or were capable of contributing so much to the pleasures of conversation. Notwithstanding his literary pursuits, he was always ready to make one in a party of his friends ; and attached himself to pleasant and respectable companions wherever he found them, without any regard to the competitions or contrary opinions which un- happily so often prevent worthy men from as- sociating. His extensive knowledge, his cheer- fulness and pleasantry, his inexhaustible fund of humour and anecdote, would have made him a distinguished character among any description of men, although he had had no pretensions as an author. His great extent of solid informa- LIFE OF DR HENRY. XXI tion give a variety to his conversation, to which much was added by his talents for convivial plea- santry. He had a story or anecdote ready for every occasion, and adapted to every subject ; and was peculiarly happy in selecting the cir- cumstances which could render it interesting and pointed. If the same narratives were some- times repeated, a circumstance which was un- avoidable, they were always seasoned with a new relish; and even those who lived most with him, have seldom been in his company without hear- ing from him something which was as new to them as to strangers. His character was uniform to the end. He conversed with the ardour and even with the gaiety of youth long after his bodily strength had yielded to the infirmities of age ; and even within a few days of his death, which he was every day expecting, he could mix anecdotes and pleasantry with the most se- rious discourse. For several years he had spent a part of every season at Milnfield, a country-house with a few acres surrounding it, about twenty miles from Edinburgh, of which he had a lease for his own life and Mrs Henry's. He had been attracted to this situation by its vicinity to his friend Mr Laurie's estate, to whose family he had always an affectionate attachment. Here he prosecuted his studies without interruption ; and amused himself with such improvements and alterations on his small farm as his convenience or his fancy suggested to him. He built a small room for a XXll LIFE OF DR HENRY. library, which he had surrounded with trees, and inscribed " Otio et Musis ; " and, the situation admitting of it, he fitted up on the ground floor a place for a cokl bath, which his physicians had directed him to use, on the door of which he had written, " Be easily pleased ; " a circum- stance highly characteristical of his own temper in the common affairs of life. His health had been gradually declining since the year 1785. He had been unable to preach for several years, and an assistant had suppliedhis place. On this account he spent more of his time than usual at Milnfield. Till the summer of 1790 he was able to pursue his studies, though not without some interruptions ; but at that time, though he had no particular disease, a uni- versal relaxation and debility assured him that his constitution was exhausted. What rendered his situation more depressing still, Mrs Henry had for some time discovered symptoms of a cataract on her eyes, which in 1790 reduced her to a state of almost total blindness. In the month of Au- gustheaccompaniedher to Edinburgh, where she , submitted to an operation, which was so far un- successful, that she did not recover her sight 5. during his life. From the time of his return to i Milnfield in September, his strength was sensibly diminished ; and he was soon convinced that he .-vhad but a few weeks to live. No man could > meetdeatli witli more equanimity or fortitude, or with a fortitude derived from better sources. He iiixientioned his death easily, and often as an event LIFE OF DR HENRY. XXIU which in his situation was desirable, sensible that, from the exhausted state of his body, he could no longer enjoy this world, or be useful in it ; and expressing in the most explicit terms his firm per- suasion of the great doctrines of Christianity, and the full expectation he derived from tliem of " life and immortality through Jesus Christ our " Lord." His faculties were perfectly entire ; nor could any change be observed in his manner or conversation with his friends. He was never confined to bed, and conversed easily till within a few hours of his death. He had a strength of mind which falls to the lot of few ; and Pro- vidence permitted him to preserve the full pos- session of it. A few days before his death he executed a deed, which he dictated himself, by which he disponed his collection of books to the magis- trates, town-council, and presbytery of Linlith- gow, as the foundation of a public library; under certain regulations and conditions which he ex- pressed very distinctly, and by means of which he flattered himself that a library might at last be created, which might contribute to diffuse knowledge and literature in the country. This idea had been suggested to him by his experience !.in the public utility of libraries of this sort, wkich had been established at Berwick and at Kelso. By such institutions the means of know- ledge may be obtained in remote situations at a small expense, and are easily circulated among the different orders of men j and though his col- XXIV LIFE OF DR HENRY. lection of books was not a large one, he believed that the institution required only to be begun under proper regulations, and weight soon be- come considerable if proper attention should be given to it. His intentions were certainly pure; and the rules he suggested well suited to the de- sign. The magistrates of Linlithgow have pre- pared a room, and curators for the management of the library have been chosen in terms of the deed. The public have reason to expect from them every thing by which they can promote the benevolent and respectable intentions of the founder. He gave very minute directions with regard to his affairs, and even dictated a list of his friends whom he wished to be present at his funeral; and with a constitution quite worn out, died on the 24th of November 1790, in the seventy-third year of his age. He was buried in the church-yard of Polmont, where a monu- ment is erected to his memory. Dr Henry's personal virtues will not be soon forgotten. Among his friends he will always be remembered with tenderness; and his character as an author will be respected by posterity, long after the events of his private life shall become too distant to be interesting. TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE WILLIAM, EAEL OF MANSFIELD, ^'C. ^c. ^c. MY LORD, If the merits of this Work were as conspicuous as the dignity and vir- tues of its illustrious patrons, it would be well entitled to the atten- tion and favoiu' of the Public. I had the honour to dedicate the first impression of it to our Most Gra- cious Sovereign, the generous, mu- nificent promoter of every laudable undertaking. I have now the ho- nour to dedicate this impression of it to your Lordship, whose extra- ordinary talents, surprising penc- XXVI DEDICATION. tration, persuasive eloquence, con- summate wisdom, and inflexible in- tegrity in the administration of jus- tice, have long been the objects of universal admiration. I acknow- ledge that I am not unwilling to let the world and posterity know (if any thing of mine shall reach posterity) that I had the happiness to be encouraged in the prosecu- tion of this Work by one of the most virtuous Monarchs that ever adorned a throne, and by one of the wisest, best, and greatest men of the age in which I lived. While I continue to enjoy that encourage- ment, and the increasing favour of the Public, I shall proceed in the execution of my plan with all the attention and fidelity of which I am capable, and all the expedition the state of my health and the du- ties of my station will permit. DEDICATION. XXVll That the Almighty Ruler of the World may prolong your Lordship's valuable life to a very lengthened period, and after a long, happy, and honourable life, exalt you to a state of pure and sublime felicity that shall never end, is the sincere and fervent prayer of, MY LORD, Your Lordship's Most humble and Most obedient Servant, ROBERT HENRY. THE GENERAL PREFACR This History of Great Britain is written Necessity on a plan so different from that of any for- of the" pie*? mer history of this island, or indeed of any o- ther country, that it is necessary to lay before the reader — A plain account op the chief DESIGN AND OBJECT OF THIS WORK : A DE- LINEATION OF THE PLAN ON WHICH IT IS WRIT- TEN I— And, A FEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROBABLE AND EXPECTED ADVANTAGES OF THAT PLAN. The chief design then of this work is ci.ief de- this : — To give the reader a concise account oifjecrof of the most important events which have* ^"^"^ ' happened in Great Britain, from the first invasion of it by the Romans, under Julius Cse^ar, to the present times ; together with a distinct view of the religion, laws, learn- ing, arts, commerce, and manners of its in- habitants, in every age between these two periods. It is intended to draw a faithful XXX GENERAL PREFACE. picture of the characters and circumstances of our ancestors from age to age, both in public and in private hfe ; to describe, in their genuine colours, the great actions they performed, and the disgraces they sustain- ed ; the liberties they enjoyed, and the thraldom to which they were subjected; the knowledge, natural, moral, and religious, with which they were illuminated, and the darkness in which they were involved ; the arts they practised, and the commerce they carried on ; the virtues with which they were adorned, and the vices with which they were infected ; the pleasures and amuse- ments in which they delighted, and the dis- tresses and miseries to which they were exposed; not omitting even their fleeting fashions, and ever-changing customs -and modes of life, when they can be discovered. This, it is hoped, will give the reader as clear, full and just ideas of Great Britain, and of its inhabitants, in every age, as can reasonably be desired, or, at least, as can now be ob- tained from the faithful records of histgry. To accomplish this very extensive design within as narrow limits as possible, the author hath endeavoured to express every thing in GENERAL PREFACE. XXXi the fewest and plainest words; to avoid all digressions and repetitions ; and to arrange his materials in the most regular order, ac- cording to the following plan : The whole work is divided into ten books. Plan of Eachbook begins and ends at some remark- able revolution, and contains the history and delineation of the first of these revolutions, and of the intervening period. Every one of these ten books is uniformly divided into seven chapters, which do not carry on the thread of the history one after another, as in other works of this kind ; but all the seven chapters of the same book begin at the same point of time, run parallel to one another, and end together ; each chapter presenting the reader with the history of one particular object. For example : Thefirst chapter of eachbook contains the civil and militaryhistory of Great Britain, in the period which is the subject of that book. The second chapter of the same book con- tains the history of religion, or the ecclesias- tical history of Britain, in the same period. The third chapter contains the history of our constitution, government, laws, and courts of justice. The fourth chapter comprehends the history of learning, of learned men, and XXXll GENERAL PREFACE. of the chief seminaries of learning. The fifth chapter contains the history of the arts, both useful and ornamental, necessary and pleasing. The sixth chapter is employed in giving the history of commerce, of shipping, of money or coin, and of the prices of com- modities. The seventh and last chapter of the same book contains the history of the manners, virtues, vices, remarkable customs, language, dress, diet, and diversions, of the people of Great Britain, in the same period. This plan is regularly and strictly pursued from the beginning to the end of this work; so that each of the ten books of which it consists, may be considered as a complete work in itself, as far as it reaches ; and also as a perfect pattern and model of all the other books. To render this plan still more perfectly re- gular and uniform in all its parts, the author hath disposed the materials of all the chapters of the same number, in all the ten books, in the same order, as far as the subjects treated of in these chapters would permit. For ex- ample: The arts, which are the subject of the fifth chapter of every book, are disposed one after another in the same order of succession, in all the fifth chapters through the whole GENERAL PREFACE. XXXlll work. The same may be said of all the other chapters, whose subjects are capable of being disposed in a regular order and ar- rangement. By this means, as every book is a perfect model of all the. other books of this work, so every chapter is also a perfect model of all the other chapters of the same number. It is thought unnecessary to at- tempt to carry order and regularity of me- thod further than this. It is even imagined, that any endeavour to do this would defeat its own design, by rendering the plan too intricate and artificial. Such is the plan upon which the following Advantages work is written. That it is new, will not be disputed. The advantages of it (if the au- thor is not mistaken) are so many and ob- vious, that they might be safely trusted to the discovery of every intelligent reader. It may not however be improper to subjoin a few short observations on the probable and expected advantages of this plan. For, though these observations may appear su- perfluous to many, they may be useful to some. By this plan the sphere of history will be ist advan- very much enlarged, and many useful and en- tertaining subjects introduced into it, which VOL. I. C XXXIV ^ GENERAL PREFACE. were formerly excluded. The far greatest number of our historians have given us only a detail of our civil, military, and ecclesiastical affairs : a few of them have inserted occa- sional dissertations on our constitution, go- vernment, and laws : but not one of them hath given, or so much as pretended or de- signed to give, any thing like a history of learning, arts, commerce, and manners. All that we find in the very best of our histo- rians, on these interesting subjects, are afew cursory remarks, which serve rather to excite than gratify our curiosity. Are these sub- jects then unworthy of a place in history, especially in the history of a country where learning, arts, commerce, and politeness ' flourish ? Doth not the ingenious scholar, who hath enlarged and enlightened the fa- culties of the human mind ; the inventive artist, who hath increased the comforts and conveniences of human life ; the adven- turous merchant or mariner, who hath dis- covered unknown countr i es, and opened new sources of trade and wealth; deserve a place in the annals of his country, and in thegrate- ful remembrance of posterity, as well as even the good prince, the wise politician, or the victorious general ? Can we form just ideas GENERAL PREFACE. XXXV of the characters and circumstances of our ancestors, by viewing them only in the flames of civil and religious discord, or in the fields of blood and slaughter, without ever attend- ing to their conduct and condition, in the more permanent and peaceful scenes of so- cial life? Are we now in possession of pro- digious stores of natujal, moral, and religious knowledge ; of a vast variety of elegant and useful arts ; of an almost unbounded trade, which pours the productions of every cli- mate at our feet, to all which our fore- fathers were once strangers ? And have we no curiosity to know, at what time, by what degrees, and by whose means, we have been enriched with these treasures of learning, arts, and commerce? It is impossible. Such ctiriosity is natural, laudable, and useful ; and it is hoped, that this attempt to gratify it, by comprehending these important objects within the bounds of history, willbe received by the Public with some degree of favour. As by this plan the sphere of history isf^ '''^''''"' very much enlarged, so its order and regu- larity are not only preserved, but even very much improved ; and, by this means, the reader is presented with variety without con- fusion, which is of all things the most agree- c 2 tage. XXXVl GENERAL PREFACE. able. Writers of the greatest genius find it no easy task to form civil, military, and ec- clesiastical affairs, into one easy, clear, and imperplexed narration. It is sometimes al- most indispensably necessary to break off the thread of one story, before it is brought to a proper period, in order to introduce and bring forward another, of a very different kind. This unavoidably occasions some con- fusion. The reader's atttention is diverted, the gratification of his curiosity is disagree- ably suspended, and it is sometimes so long beforehe is brought back to his former track, that it is hardly possible for him to recollect the scattered members of the same narration, and to form distinct conceptions of the whole. Examples of some degree of perplexity, pro- ceeding from this cause, might be produced (if it were not unnecessary and invidious) from the works of our most justly admired historians: and the compilation s of many others are, on this account, little better than -■■■■ ' a heap of undigested materials. For this reason, it would have been equally absurd and vain, to have attempted to form all the various subjects which compose the following work, into one continued narration. This could have produced nothing but a perfect GENERAL TREFACE. XXX Vll chaos of confusion. But by the present plan, all this danger of intricacy and confusion is avoided. The materials belonging to one subject are divided, without violence or in- jury, from those belonging to another ; and each of them are formed into a separate nar- ration, which is conducted, from beginning to end, without interruption, or the inter- vention of any foreign matter. By this means, every thing appears distinct and clear ; and the reader pursues one subject to an end, before he enters upon another. It will probably appear to many readers 5d advan= no small advantage, that by this plan they will have an opportunity of indulging their peculiar tastes, and of studying, with the greatest attention, those particular subjects in the history of their country, which seem to them most useful and agreeable in them- selves, or most suitable to their respective ways of life, without being obliged to travel throuo'h lon«: and tedious details of other tilings, for which they have little relish. The soldier, for example, and those who take de- lio-ht in reading; of battles, sie*^NS, UNDER JULIUS C^SAR, A. A. C. 55, TO THE ARRIVAL OF THE SAXONS, A. D. 449. The larc'e and beautiful Island of Great Bri- a. a. c, tain had been inhabited many ages ; and had w!^ no doubt been the scene of many wars, revo- Ancient , n ' I'istory of lutions, and other important events, before it Britain was invaded by the Romans under Julius Cae- sar. * But almost all these events are either buried in profound oblivion ; or the accounts which we have of them are so imperfect, im- probable, and full of fables, that it is impos- sible to form them into a continued, unbroken * See the tliird chapter of this book ; the first part of which, contain- ing a description of the ancient British nations, will thrgw much ligU? «n the civil and military history of tliis period, VOL. I. A HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. CjBsar's motives for in- vading Britain. Ciaanr en- tleavours to get in- telligence. narration, supported by proper evidence. * Leavinc; therefore those dark and fabulous ages of the British history, which preceded the first invasion of the Romans, to the laborious re- searches of the industrious antiquarian, we shall begin our narrative at that period, where we meet with clear and authentic information. Julius Caesar, whose character and exploits arc well known to all who are acquainted with the Roman history, having made great progress ia the conquest of Gaul, began to cast an ambitious eye on the adjacent isle of Britain, and to think of adding this little sequestered world also to the Roman empire. He is said to have been j)rompted to form this design, by the beauty and magnitude of the British pearls, which he greatly admired ; and to have been provoked by the .nssistance which some of the British nations had given to his enemies in Gaul, t But his restless unbounded ambition was probably his strongest incentive to this undertaking. Britain, though at no great distance from the Continent, was at this time an unknown region to the Romans, and almost to all tlie rest of mankind, t In order therefore to get some intel- ligence of the state of the country which he designed to invade, Caasar convened, from dif- ferent parts of Gaul, a great number of mer- cliants who had visited this island, on account of "• Gaulfriid. Monomiit. passim. f Sutton, in vita. .fill. C'as. c. 47. Cas. -Bel.'.Gal. 1. -I.e. 18. I Dio. Cass. 1. 59. Chap. t. CIVIL AND MILITAIIY, S trade ; and asked them many questions concern- a. a. c. ing its dimensions ; the nnmber, power, and ciis- Va^-y,^ toms of its inhabitants ; their art of war ; their harbours which were fit to receive large ships, &;c. But these merchants, being either not able, or not willing, to give him sufficient in- formation, he despatched C. Volusenus with a galley, to get some intelligence, and to return with it as soon as possible. In the mean time, he himself marched with his whole army into the territories of the Morini, and collected a large fleet in the ports of that country ; that all things might be ready for the embarkation, as soon as Volusenus returned. * Some of the British states having received Britons notice of the impending storm, from the mer- bassaSs chants of Gaul, they endeavoured to divert it, ''* ^^^^^' by sending over ambassadors to make their sub- missions to the authority of Rome, and to ofl'er hostages for their fidelity. Caesar gave these ambassadors a very kind reception ; and having exhorted them to continue in their present dis- positions, he sent them back to Britain, with Comius, whom he had constituted King of the Atrebatians, in their company, t To Comius, on whose prudence and fidelity he very much depended, he gave instructions, to visit as many of the British states as he could ; to persuade * The Morini inhabited the seacoast about Calais and Bologne. f The Atrebatains were an ancient Bolgic nation who inhabited Artois. See chap. 3. sect, 1- ^ 5. A 2 # HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.A.c. them to enter into an alliance with the Romans 55- \m^^^-. Cccs.l. 4- c. CI. 6 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. usual spirit^ commanded some gallies, which drew less water than the transport ships, to approach tlie shore, and attack the enemy in flank, with their engines, slings, and arrows. The Britons, astonished at the shape and motion of the gallies, and playing of the engines, first halted, and then began to give back. But still many of the Ro- man soldiers hesitated to leave their ships and encounter at once the waves and the enemy : when the standard-bearer of the tenth legion, having first invoked the Gods, jumped into the sea, and, advancing with the eagle towards the enemy, cried aloud ; *' Follow mc, my fellow- soldiers, unless you will betray the Roman eagle into the hands of the enemy ; for my part, I am determined to discharge my duty ♦' to Cffisar and the commonwealth. " All who beheld this bold action, and heard this animating speech, were fired with courage and emulation, plunged into the sea, and advanced tow^ards the shore. Now ensued a fierce and bloody shock, between the Romans struggling eagerly to gain the land, and the Britons labouring with no less ardour to repulse them. At length, Caesar send- ing constant supplies in small boats, to such of his men as were hardest pressed, they gained ground by degrees, obliged the Britons to re- tire, and the whole army landed. * Tiio Bvi. The unhappy Britons, discouraged by the ill foils make ,, , . ' . . ,"^11 T n ti.eir sub- success of thcu' attempt to prevent the landmgot iSljsbions, • G*,sJ. -1. . '-'2, 'J5, 'Jl. Chap.t. CrVPL AND MILITARY. the Romans, began to think of renewing their subfiiivSsions, and obtaining peace. In order to this, they released Comius the Atrebatian from his coniinement, and sent him, in company with their ambassadors, to Cassar. These ambassadors made the best excuse they could for the violence which had been done to Comius, throwing the blame of it on the unruly multitude j they pro- fessed an entire submission to the commands of their conqueror, and offered hostages for a se- curity. Cffisar, having reproached them for the violation of their former engagements, granted peace? '*^ them peace, and ordered them to send him a certain number of hostages. Some of these hos- tages were immediately sent; and the rest pro- mised, as soon as they could be brought from the places of their residence, which were at some distance. In the mean time, the British army separated ; the chiefs of the several nations repaired to Caesar's camp, to settle their own affairs, and those of their respective states. * This peace was concluded on the fourth day a «torm, after Caesar's arrival in Britain ; and on the same day his transports with the cavalry sailed with a gentle gale. But when they approached the British shore, and were even within sight of the Roman camp, a violent storm arose, which pre- vented their landing, and obliged them to put back into different ports of the Continent. Nor was this the only injury which Caesar sustained • L'x^, 1. 1. c. 25. i HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.^A. c. fiom this storm ; for it being full moon, arid Smmy^m^ spring tides, his gallies, which were drawn up on the strand, were filled with water, and the transports which lay at anchor in the road were some of them dashed to pieces, and others of them so much damaged as to be unfit for sailing. This was a very great disaster; and the Romans, seeing themselves at once destitute of provisions to subsist them on the island, and of ships to carry them out of it, were seized with a general consternation. * Britons ic If the Romaus beheld these scenes of desola- war, tion with dismay, the Britons viev/ed them with secret joy. Their chiefs who were in Caesar's camp, held private consultations together ; and, observing the small numberof the Romanforces, and that they had neither corn, cavalry, nor ships, they began to entertain the mostsanguine hopes of being able to destroy this little army, either by force or famine ; and thereby defeating the present, and preventing all future attempts upon their island. Full of these hopes, they retired by degrees, and under various pretences, from the Roman camp, repaired to their re- spective states, collected their followers, and animated them to renew the war. Action be- Though Caesar was not fully apprized of their Romans^ dcsigus, yct obscrviug their afiected delays in and Bn- bringing in the hostages, and considering his own condition, he began to suspect that something . . YVIf. • C«s. 1, 4. c. 35i tons. Chap. r. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 9^ was in agitation, and resolved to provide against ''^• the worst. He employed one part of his army in repairing his fleet, and the other in bringing corn into the camp. The harvest was now all gathered in, except one field, in which, as the soldiers of the seventh legion were one day fo- raging, they were assaulted by a great multitude of British cavalry and chariots, who rushed out upon them from the adjacent w^oods. The Ro- mans, confounded at the suddenness and unex- pectedness of this attack, were thrown into confusion, some of them slain, and the rest sur- rounded, and in the greatest danger of being cut in pieces ; when they were delivered by the sa- gacity and alertness of their general. For Ca3sar being informed that an uncommon cloud of dust appeared on that side where the legion was fo- raging, and suspecting what had happened, took the two cohorts which were upon guard, andflew to the place ; leaving orders for the rest of the army to follow. When Csesar came to the scene of action, he found his troops in the most immi- nent danger. But they, being encouraged by this seasonable relief, redoubled their efforts, and put the Britons to a stand. This contented Caesar for the present, who, not thinking it pru- dent to bring on a general engagement, stood facing the enemy for some time, and then led back the legions to the camp.* The continual rains which followed, prevented Anothev ■*■ action. any further action in tlie field for some days. • Cees. 1. 4. c. C7, 28, 29, 30. 10 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A. A. c. Thig ti'i-ne was employed by the Britons in send- \m^rm^ ingmessengersintoall parts, to inform their coun- trymen of the small number and distressful state of the Roman troops ; and to exhort them to embrace the present favourable opportunity of enriching themselves with the spoils of their enemies, and of destroying the invaders of their country. Such multitudes complied with these exhortations, that they got togetiier so great an army, both of horse and foot, as emboldened them to approach the Roman camp, with a de- sign to force its entrenchments. But Cassar, not waiting for the assault, drew up his legions be- fore the camp, and fell upon the Britons with such fury, that they could not long sustain the shock. The Romans having pursued the fugi- tives for some time with great slaughter, and de- solated the surrounding country, returned victo- rious to their camp. * Ca-iar Tlic Britous, again disheartened by their de- J^.ace\vith feat, sent ambassadors that same day to Caisar to lonsfaiid sue for peace. This was granted without delay, returns to ^ QU uo harder conditions than doubling the number of hostages, which were to be sent after liim into Gaul. This facility of CiEsar pro- ceeded from his impatience to leave the island before winter, which was now approaching. Havinor now refitted his fleet with the loss of no more than twelve ships, he embarked his army with all possible expedition j and, after a stay of little more than three weeks in Britain, Cics. 1. 1. i. 50, 31. Chap. r. eiVIL AND MILITARY. i. 1 1 he set sail and arrived safe in Gaul.* Thus ended a. a. c. 55. Caesar's first expedition into Britain ; which, v^^py"*^ though it was extolled by his partisans at Rome, as one of the most glorious and wonderful ex- ploits, was really attended with little honour, and less advantage, f His retreat at this time appears tohave been exceedinglyprecipitate,and his own manner of relating it is so veiy short and summary, that we can hardly help suspecting that there are some material circumstances sup- pressed. However this may be, he gave so spe- cious a representation of his expedition in his letters to the Roman senate, that a supplication of twenty days was decreed to his honour. As soon as Caasar arrived in Gaul, he be^an to a. a. c. ... 54. make preparations for a second expedition into c^-esar Britain, which he designed to undertake the next prepara- year, at a more early season, and with a much *'°" ^f * J ' J second ex- more formidable army. In order to this, before petition •^ . into Bri- be left his winter-quarters to go into Italy, as taia. was his yearly custom,, he gave orders to his lieutenants to repair his old ships, and to build as many new ones as possible, during the winter. He also gave directions to build these ships lower, broader, and lighter than usual; thatthey might draw less water, approach nearer the shore, and be more convenient for embarking and landing his troops, especially his cavalry. These orders were executed with so much diliirence, that, at his return out of Italy in the spring, he • C«s. I. ^, G. 3'J, t Dio. 1, 59, ^^ HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Boole I. *54; • found no fewer than six hundred transports, of ^^^"^^ the construction which he had prescribed, and twenty-eight gallies, almost ready for launching. He bestowed the highest praises on his lieu- tenants and soldiers, for their great activity in this service ; and having left a sufficient number of men, to finish his ships, and conduct them to the general rendezvous at Portus Itius, now Ca- lais, he led the rest of his army against the Tre- viri, or people of Treves. * lanSrhis Cassar having brought the Treviri to submis- BrTuin" ^^^"> marched his army to Portus Itius, where he found all his fleet (except about forty ships which had been disabled in a storm) completely rigged and ready to sail. At this place he wa? met, according to his orders, by all the cavalry, and chief ndbility of the several estates of GauL The greatest part of the nobility he determined to carry with him into Britain, to prevent their raising commotions in his absence. Having spent about three weeks here, in settling the af- fairs of Gaul, embarking his troops, and waiting for a fair wind, he sailed one evening about sun- set, probably in the month of May or June, with a gallant army of five legions and two thousand horse, on board a fleet consisting of more than eight hundred ships. The wind being south- west, and the tide retiring, the fleet fell too far to the north-east during the night ; but next morning, the soldiers plying the oars with great * Cas. Bel. Gal. 1. 5. c. 1, 2, 3. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 13 vigour, and being assisted by the returning tide, -^•^^- ^* they gained the coast of Britain about noon» at ^^^^^^ the same place where they had landed the year before. * Here he disembarked the whole army without delay or opposition. For though the Britons had received early intelligence of the mighty preparations which were making for a second invasion of their island, and had formed a strong confederacy, and collected a powerful army for its defence ; yet when they beheld this prodigious fleet approaching their coasts, they were struck with consternation, despaired of being able to prevent the landing, and retired some miles up the country. Caesar having landed his troops, and received Twoac- . p . /I . tions be- information from some prisoners where the Bri- tween the tons lay, he left only ten cohorts and three hun- and BrU dred horse upon the coast, under Q. Atrius, to ^°"^ guard his fleet, and set out that very evening in quest of the enemy, with all the rest of his army. After a fatiguing march of twelve hours, mostly in the night, he came in sight of the British army, which was posted behind a river, probably the Stour, on some rising grounds ; and from thence they attacked the Romans, and endea- voured to prevent their passing the river. But the cavalry having cleared the way, the whole army passed ; and the Britons retired towards some adjacent woods, into a place strongly for- tified botli by art and nature, perhaps whe^e • Csn. V 5. c. -1, 5. 7. 14. HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. Canterbury now stands. In this fastness the Bri- tons lay close for some time, and only sallied out in small parties. But the soldiers of the seventh legion, advancing under cover of their shields, and having cast up a mount, forced the intrench- ments without much loss, and obliged the enemy to abandon the place. Csesar did not think it prudent to permit any pursuit at so late an hour, and in a country so much unknown ; but re- calling his men, he employed the remainder of the evening in fortifying his camp. * A storm. Early next morning this active, indefatigable general renewed his operations ; and having di- vided his army into three bodies, sent them in pursuit of the enemy. When they had marched a little way, and had discovered the rear of the British army, a party of horse arrived with des- patches from Q. Atrius to Csesar, acquainting him, that a dreadful storm had arisen the night before, and had fallen upon the fleet with so much fury, that it had driven almost all the ships ashore, after they had sustained unspeakable da- mage by running foul of one another. As soon as he received this unwelcome news, he recalled his troops from the pursuit of the enemy, and marched with all expedition to the seacoast. When he arrived there, he found his fleet in as bad a condition asithadbeen represented. Forty ships were entirely destroyed, and the rest so much damaged that they were hardly reparable. He * Cacs. 1. 5. c. 8. Horsley Brit, Rom, p. 14. Chap. T. CIVIL AND IMILITARY. 15 immediately set all the carpenters in his fleet a. a. c. and army to M^ork, sent for others from Gaul, and despatched orders toLabienus,his lieutenant there, to build as many ships as possible. Cassar, being now convinced by his repeated losses, that there was no safety for his fleet in riding at an- chor in the open road, determined to draw all his ships on shore, and enclose them within the fortifications of his camp. Though this was a work of prodigious labour and difficulty, yet, by the vigorous and incessant toil of the whole army, it was accomplished in the short space of tea days. Having thus repaired and secured his fleet, and left it under the same guard as be- fore, he marched his army to the place where he had desisted from the pursuit of the enemy. * It is verv surprising- that the Britons ssive the Cassibek- ► -i c *-" nils ctioseu Romans no disturbance while they were repair- generaiissu , *, ^ mo of tlie ing then' fleet. It a}>pears that they were em- Britons. ployed in this interval in strenghening their con- federacy, increasing their army, and in choosing a commander in chief, that they might exert their force with greater union and effect. The choice fell upon Cassibelanus, Prince of the Cassi or Cattivellauni, t who had the chief command and administration of the wai' conferred uporj liim by common consent. This was in some re- spects a wise and prudent, and in others an un- happy, choice. For Cassibelanus was a prince • CsDS. I. 5. c. 9. f The ancient inhabitants of Ilprtfonl.shirp, Bidfurtlshirr, sHii Bijikinghain^liirc. tons. 16 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A. A. c. of great courage and military experience, and was at the head of one of the most warhke and powerful tribes in the confederacy ; but he and his subjects had been engaged in continual wars with some of the neighbouring states, which could not but weaken the attachment of these states to the person of the commander, and to the common cause. * The Britons, however, under this new leader, waited the approach of the Romans with undaunted countenances. Several ac As soou as the hostilc armies drew near to each tw^en the othcr, theybcgau to skirmish. The British horse, ^Tfiri supported by their chariots, charged the Roman cavalry with great vigour. They were repulsed, indeed, or pretended to be so, when the Romans, pursuing with too much eagerness, sustained a considerable loss. Some time after these first skirmishes, as the Romans were one day em- ployed in fortifying their camp, the Britons sal- lied out upon them from the adjacent woods, routed the advanced guard, defeated two choice cohorts, which were sent to the assistance of the guard, killed Q. Laberius Durus, military tribune, and at last retired without loss. By this last action, wliich happened within view of the camp, Caesar and his whole army were convinced, that they had a dangerous enemy to deal with, who were equally brisk in their attacks, quick in their retreats, and sudden in turning upon their pursuers. The day after this action, the Britons • CiC5. Bell. Gall. 1. 5. c 9. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY, tf appeared upon the hills, at a greater distance, in a. a. c. smaller bodies, and seemed less forward to skir- ^^ \_' mish than usual. This encouraged Caesar to send out three legions, with all his cavalry, to forage, under the command of C. Trebonius his lieute- nant. About noon, the Britons rushed suddenly from the surrounding woods upon the foragers. But here they met with a more vigorous resist- ance than they expected ; and being repulsed, the Roman cavaliy, supported by their foot, pursued them with such order and firmness, that they had no opportunity of practising their usu- al stratagems, and were at length entirely broken and dispersed. * The Britons had no sooner received this severe Defections check, than their ill-cemented union began to Shons. ' dissolve ; and such of tlie confederates as lay at a distance from immediate danger, abandoned" the common cause, and retired to their own homes. Cassibelanus, discouraged by this defec- tion of his allies, and convinced that his troops were not a match for the Romans in pitched battles, resolved to retire into his own territories, and stand on the defensive, t Caesar, who had not as yet penetrated flu' into c.-esar the country, now seeing no enemy to oppose Thames!'"^ him, advanced towards the Thames, with a de- sign to pass that river, and make war on Cassibe- lanus in his own kingdom. When he reached the Thames, at a place called Coway-stakes, he saw • C.Ts. Bel. Gal. c. 12, \3. f Id. ibid. c. 12, 15, VOL. I. • n IS HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book L the enemy drawn up in great numbers on the opposite banks, which were also ibititied with sliarp stakes ; and he was informed by prisoners and deserters, that many stakes of the same kind were driven into the bed of the river. Not dis- couraged by all these obstacles, he commanded the cavalry to ford the river, and the infantry to follow close after, though it was so deep that their heads only appeared above the water. Tlie Britons, astonished at the boldness of this at- tempt, after a feeble resistance, abandoned the banks, and fled. * War cha- Cassibelauus, now observino; that the greatest riots. ' » o part of his troops, especially his infantry, were so much dispirited, that they were of little use, dismissed them ; and retained only the war- chariots of his army, amounting to four thou- sand, about his person. With this small, but formidable body, he watched all the motions of the Roman army, harassed them in their mar- ches, and frequently sallied from the w oods up- on their foraging and plundering parties. This not only annoyed the enemy, but preserved the country from devastation. For Caesar, observ- ing the dangers to which his cavalry were ex- posed, when they ventured to make excursions into the fields, would not permit them to re- move to any great distance from the legions, nor to pillage the country, unless when they were supported by the infantry, t 1 « Caes. Bel. Gal. c. M. 7t /siif Id. ibj^j*. ifc?.' mi i .li! ¥ .1 ,n&... tfeap.i. CIVIL AND MILITARV. 19 jji But the want of a cordial union among t&e a. a. a British states, and the secret rancour which some \,.i^.^^^ of them entertained against Cassihelanus for lor- Several mer injuries, defeated all the efforts of tliat ge- states neral. The Trinobantes,* in particular, retained peace with a deep resentment against him, for his having ^*^*"'" slain their prince Imanuentius, and obliged his son Mandubratius to fly into Gaid to avoid the same fate. As soon, therefore, as Caesar ap- proached their confines, they sent ambassadors to him, with offers of obedience and submission, and to implore hisprotection against the violence of Cassibelanus, and to entreat him to restore feW Mandubratius (who was then in his army) to the government of their state. Caesar accepted of their submissions, granted their requests, and, having demanded and obtained forty hostages, and a quantity of corn for his army, he took them under his protection, and secured their persons and properties from all injuries. This induced many of the neighbouring states, as the Ceni- magni, Segontiaci, AncaHtes, Bibroci, and Cassi, t to send ambassadors to Caesar to make their submissions, which were accepted with the same facility, t Casar derived great advantages from the sub- ^aSbeia^ missionof so many British states. Amongstother "u« tai^on. things, they gave him intelligence, that he was not far from the capital of Cassibelanus, into * See chap. 3. sect. 1. People of Essex, Middlesex, and Surrey. t vSee chap. 3. sect. 1. t Ctes. Bel. Gal. ). 5. c 16, 17, B 2 eO HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. jt, A. c. which great multitudes of men and cattle had ^^ retired for safety. This town, w^hich was little more than a wood with a number of straggling villages in it, and surrounded with a ditch and rampart, was situated where the flourishing city of Verulamium afterwards stood, and near where the town of St Albans now stands. * Though this place was very strong both by art and na- ture, Caesar soon made himself master of it, and of a great booty in cattle and prisoners which he found in it. t The Bri- Cassibelauus, not yet dispirited by the defec- tons make ' ^ i ,/ an unsuc- tion of his allies, the loss of his capital, and all CGSSflll at- tempt on his othcr losscs, formed a scheme, which, if ithad camp.""''*" been as successfully executed as it was prudently planned, would have involved the Romans in , very great difficulties. This artful general, ob- serving that Caesar was now at a great distance from his fleet, which he had left under a weak guard, he formed the design of destroying it. With this view, he sent messengers to Cingcto- rix, Carmilius, Taximagulus, and Segonax, the four chieftains of the Cantii, to draw all their forces together, and fall suddenly on the naval camp of the Romans, which was in their coun- try, t These chieftains obeyed his orders, and assaulted the Roman camp ; but were repulsed ywith great loss, and Cingetorix was taken pri- soner. § ■^'''« Camb. Brit. p. 550, i Caes. Bel. Gal. 1. 5. c. 17. f See diap. o. sect. 1. § Cxs. Bel. Gal. 1. 5. c. 18. €hap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. '^1 Cassibelainis,\vhohaddischargedalI the duties a. a. c. of a general and a patriot with great courage and v^ L^ abilities, seeing all his schemes miscarry, was Cassibeia-" , , . Ill- • ""' makes" now convniced that it would be ni v am to i.is ptace struggle any longer. He determined, therefore, to make his peace on the easiest terms he could; andfor this purpose he sentambassadors to Caesar, and also employed the mediation of Comius the Atrebatian, to whom he had probably done some friendly offices, when he was a prisoner amongst the Britons. These advances from Cassibelanus were highly agreeable to Caesar, who seems to have been heartily tired of his British expedition, and earnestly desirous of returning to the Conti- nent, where he dreaded some commotion. The ambassadors, therefore, found little difficulty in their negotiation; and apeace was soon concluded on these terms — that Cassibelanus should offer no injury to Mandubratius, or his subjects the Trinobantes — that Britain should give a certain number of hostages, and pay a certain yearly tribute to the Romans. * Neither the number of hostages, nor the nature or quantity of the tri- bute stipulated by this treaty, are mentioned by Ca?sar. It seems indeed probable, that he insist- ed upon these stipulations, rather with a view to save his own honour, and the honour of the Ro- man name, than from any expectation that they would be performed. We should have been very glad, however, to have known what kind, * Cacs. Bel. (jal. 1. 5. c. 19. HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. and what quantity of tribute Britain was ca- pable of affording at this early period. Cffisar re- The peacc being now concluded, Cassar march- his army ed liis army back to the seacoast, and immediate- *" ^" ' ly gave orders for launching his fleet, which he found completely repaired. But he had lost so many ships in the late storm, and had received so few from Gaul (those built by Labienus having been mostly put back or destroyed in their pas- sage), that he had not a sufficient number to contain his whole army, together with his hos- tages and prisoners, which were very numerous. Rather than stay to build more ships, or wait for them from the Continent, he resolved to transport his troops, &c. at two embarkations. So great was the good fortune of this general, that he did not lose so much as one ship which had soldiers on board, in any of his two British expeditions, though several empty ones, particularly many of those employed in the first embarkation, were lost in their return to Britain. Ceesar, withthelast di- vision of his army, set sail about ten at night, and arrived safe, with his whole fleet, on the conti- nent of Gaul, by day-break the next morning, being September 26th, in the 54th year before the beginning of the Christian era. * Sentiments Sucli is tlic accouut givcu by CdnssiY himself, of* several authors on (who was ouc of the most elegant writers, as well as one of the most illustrious warriors, of anti- • •Cass. Bel. Gal. I. 5. c. IP. Cicero, Epist, ad Atticuni, 1. 4. I'P. 17. Chap.a. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 23 quity), of his two expeditions into Britain. Some a. a. c. of his cotemporai'ies have insinuated, that in his i_^- ^ Commentaries he did not very strictly adhere two expe-^ 11 1 • • • /' • ditions to truth, but set his own actions m too lair a into Bn-! light. * Nor is this, considering his excessive love of fame, a very improbable suspicion. But even from tliis account it appears, that he had no great reason to boast of his success in Britain. For after he had been at an immense expense, and had exposed himself and his army to many toils and dangers, he abandoned the island at last, without having erected a single fort upon it, or left a single cohort in it to secure his conquest. The other ancient writers speak of these expe- ditions of Caisar into Britain very differently, as they were well or ill affected to his fame and per- son. On the one hand, Velleius Paterculus says, that Cassar passed twice through Britain ;| which cannot be true, because it appears from his own account, that in his first expedition he never left the seacoast j and in his second, he never penetrated farther into the country than about iSt Albans. The historians, Diodorus Siculus, Suetonius, and Eutropius, speak of Caesar's ex- ploits in Britain, in terms which might imply that he conquered it, and made it tributary, t But these expressions are evidently too strong, if -.^.j^g they mean any more than that he gained some '^1^'^- victories in Britain, and imposed a tribute (which ^^^^^ • Siiclon. 1. 1. c. 56. ill Jul. Caesar. f Vcl. Pater. 1. 2. c, 47. ^ Dio, Chap^. CIVIL AND MILITARY. ^7 vera! times gave out, that he intended an expe- dition into Britain. Particularly in the 6th year of his reign, and 25th before tlie beginning of, the Christian era, when he was in Gaul regulat- ing the tribute of that country, he threatened to pass over into Britain for the same purpose. But being suddenly called away from these parts by the Cantabrian war, these threats had no great influence on the British princes. * About four years after this, w hen the Roman empire was in a state of great tranquillity, he again threatened to invade Britain ; and several of the British na- tions were so much intimidated bv these threats, that they sent ambassadors to Augustus to pro- mise submission, and the payment of the stipu- lated tribute, f But these promises were but ill performed, except by a few princes who courted the favourandprotectionof Rome, which obliged Augustus to threaten a third time an invasion of this island ; from which also he was diverted, a. a. c. 21. by a revolt of the Byscayans and some other tiatibns. To these intended or rather threat- ened expeditions of Augustus into Britain, the verses of Horace, the favourite poet of this great emperor, (which are quoted below), un- doubtedly refer ; and they show at least, that such expeditions were the subject of conversation at the imperial court, t But though this em- * Djo, 1. -10. t Dio, 1. 53. I Crelo toiiantem credidimiis Joveni Rcf^narc: j)ra;scn5 Divus liabebitur Au;^UiUis, adjc'ctis Britannis Inijicrio. — L. iii. Ode 5. Te 1>8 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A. A. c. peror never actually invaded, and perhaps never really intended to invade Britain, yet he derived considerable profits from it, arising partly from the presents and tributes of some of its princes who cultivated his friendship, and partly from certain customs which he imposed upon all goods which were either exported from the Con- tinent into this island, or from hence to the Continent. * A. p. 15. nciTiberius, the son-in-law and successor of Au- •^ Iiuei'ius. gustus, pursued the same measures with regard to Britain, accepting of such presents, tributes, and customs, as were willingly given, and ab- staining from hostilities, t During the reign of this emperor, there seems to have been a good understanding, and an intercourse of friendly offices between the Romans and Britons. For when some of the ships of Germanicus*s fleet, which had been dispersed by a dreadful storm, wTre wrecked on the coast of Britain, the petty princes of that country received and entertained the soldiers with great kindness, and sent them to their general, t A.p. 40. Caligula, the nephew and successor of Ti- berius, formed a design of invading Britain, if Te belluosus, qui rumotis Obstrepit Oceanus Britannis, Te non paventes funera Gallic, Durscque tellus audit Iberia. — L. iv. Ode 11. Serves iturura Ca;sarem in ullimos Orbis Britannos.^L. i. Ode 35. * Strabo, 1. 4. f Tacit, vita Agric. c. 13. i Tacit. Anna], I. 2. e. 25. Caligula, Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 09 any thing that came into the head of such a a.d. 40. frantic wretch can be called a design. He was ^"^' met upon his march by Adminius, a British prince, who, having been expelled the island by his own father Cunobelinus, now surrendered himself, and the few followers of his desperate fortune, to the Emperor, who was as much elated upon it, as if the whole island, and all its princes, had submitted to his authority. The letters which he wrote to Rome on this occasion were full of the most pompous expressions of his wonderful success ; and he commanded the bearers of these letters to drive up to the senate- house, and to deliver them to the consuls in the temple of Mars, in a full assembly of the se- nators. * When he reached the seacoast op- posite to Britain, with an army of 200,000 men, he acted in a most ridiculous and fantastical man- ner. For having drawn up his army in order of battle upon the shore, with all the balistai and other engines of war, he embarked on board a galley, sailed out a little way, and then returning suddenly, he mounted a lofty throne, and from thence gave the word of command to engage. But no enemy appearing, he commanded his soldiers to gather shells upon the shore. For this noble service he highly praised and lavishly rewarded them ; the shells, which he styled the spoils of the conquered ocean, he sent to Rome, as the chief ornaments of his triumph for tliis • Sueton. in C. Ciilis. c. 41. -^ army luto Britain. HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D. 40. glorious exploit. * Such a composition of cow- ^•^Z"*^ ardice, vanity, folly, and madness, was this mighty master of the world 1 A.D. 43. Buttlie time was now approaching when Bri- •cndsan taiu was to bc invaded in good earnest, and re- duced to the same subjection with other nations, to the almost unbounded power of Rome. This calamity was brought upon her by one of her own degenerate and factious sons. It seems to have been a custom in these times, for such per- sons of distinction as were expelled, or obUgedto fly out of this island, to take shelter in the court of Rome, t One of these fugitives, named Be- ricus, who had been driven out of the island for sedition, persuaded the Emperor Claudius, the successor of Caligula, to attempt the conquest of Britain. This enterprise being resolved upon, AulusPlautius, who was of consular dignity, and a general of great wisdom and valour, was com- manded to conduct a considerable army out of Gaul into Britain, and begin the war ; with or- ders to acquaint the Emperor if he met with great opposition, that he might come to his assistance. The soldiers expressed great aversion and re- luctance to embark in this expedition, which, they said, was to make war beyond the limits of the world ; so little was Britain still known to the bulk of the Romans, and so frightful were the ideas which they entertained of the country and * Sueton. in C. Cali.L'. c 46. Dio, 1. 59. p. 659. f Sueton. in C. Claud, c. 17. Cliap.i. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 31 its inhabitants ! Being at length prevailed upon A.b. -is. by Plautius to follow him, he divided them into three distinct bodies, which all arrived safe on the British coast, and landed without opposition.* This army consisted of four complete legions, with their auxiliaries and cavalry, making about fifty thousand men ; and was commanded under the general, by Vespasian, who was afterwards emperor, Sabinus his brother, and other excel- lent officers, t The British princes do not seem to have been The Bri- sufficiently apprehensive of their danger on this not make occasion, nor to have made suitable preparations paragons?* for their own defence. We hear of no confe- deracy formed, no commander in chief elected, nor of any armies raised to guard the coasts. They no doubt had received intelligence of this expedition before it took place ; but they pro- I bably flattered themselves, that it would end in empty threats, or in some such ridiculous way as that of Caligula had lately ended. It was also no small misfortune to the Britons, that their great prince Cunobelinus was now dead, and his dominions divided between his widow Cartis- mimda, and his two sons, Caractacus and To- godumnus, who did not act with that union which their near relation and common danger required. These two princes, however, armed their respective subjects, resolved to stand upon the defensive, and endeavour to protract the war * Dio, 1. 60. + Sec Appcn. No. 8. -^ Romans $Q HISTORY OF BRITAIN. A.D. 43. till winter, when they hoped that the Roman ''^^y^ general would return into Gaul with his army, as Julius Caesar had formerly done. * Several ac- Aulus Plautius, havini lures. t Tacit. Anna!, 1, 12. v, 5J. Chap.*. CIVIL AND MILITAIIY. 44 reality. For being made only of loose stones, It a.d. 51. was easily demolished, and the Romans breaking ^•"'V"*^ in, engaged hand to hand. The Britons, not able to sustain the shock, retired slowly towards the ridge of the mountain, and were closely followed by the Romans. There again the battle was renewed with great fury, but on very unequal terms. For the bows and arrows of the Britons, who had no defensive armour, were not a match in close fight, to the swords and javelins of the legionaries, and the great sabres and pikes of ? the auxiliaries. The Britons were therefore soon broken, and defeated with great slaughter. The wife and daughter of Caractacus were taken prisoners on the field, and his brothers surren- dered soon after the battle, * '^ ^ ' ' r?i.sr,,'.;i 'The unhappy Caractacus made his escape A.fef^sl.^' from this fatal battle; but it was only to fall into euscanied new misfortunes. For, having taken shelter in ^"me!' ^ the court of Cartismandua, Queen of the Bri- gantes, that unkind stepmother delivered him in chains to the conqueror, and he, with his whole family, were carried prisoners to Rome, s This prince had been long renowned over all the British islands, and the neighbouring Continent, for the noble stand which he had made in defence of his country ; his fame had reached Italy and Rome itself, and had excited an earnest desire in ^ ■■all to beliold the hero who for nine years had de- fied the Roman arms. The Emperor too, being « Tacit. Anna). 1, 12, c, ,16, 42 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D. ,)2. proud of such a prisoner, determined to render ^^""^^ his entry into Rome as solemn and pubHc as possible. On the day appointed for that solem- nity, the people were summoned to behold him as an object of admiration ; the praetorian bands were drawn up under arms, and the Emperor and Empress were seated on two lofty tribunals. The servant and followers of the British king, with the military harness, golden chains, and other spoils, which he had taken from his neighbours in war, appearedfirst ; then followed his brothers, liis wife, and his daughter ; and Caractacus himself closed the procession. All the other pri- soners were dejected by their misfortunes ; but Caractacus appeared undaunted and erect, with- out betraying one suppliant look, or uttering one word that implored mercy. When he came be- fore the imperial throne, he addressed Claudius in the following sensible and noble speech : * caracta- " If ^'^J moderation in prosperity, O Clau- rich to *' ^^^^^ • ^^^^ been as conspicuous as my birth and Claudius, u fortune, I should now have entered this city " as a friend, and not as a prisoner ; nor would •' you have disdained the friendship of a prince *' descended from such illustrious ancestors, and " governing so many nations. My present con- " dition, I own, is to you honourable, — to me " humiliating. I was iatelypossessed of subjects, " horses, arms, and riches. Can you be sur- " prised that I endeavoured to preserve them ? * Tacit. Aiinal. 1. 12. c. D6. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 4.3 " If you Romans have a desire to arrive at uni- a.d. 52. " versal monarchy, iniist all nations, to gratify ^T"*^ " you, tamely submit to servitude ? If I had " submitted without a struggle, howmuch would ** it have diminished the lustre of my fall, and " of your victory ! And now, if you resolve to " put me to death, my story will soon be buried " in oblivion ; but if you think proper to pre- ** serve my life, I shall remain a lasting monu- •' ment of your clemency." It is greatly to the honour of Claudius, that he was so much charmed with the boldness of his illustrious prisoner, that he pardoned him and his whole family, and commanded their chains to be immediately taken off. * The late victory over the Silures, and the cap- Rejoicings tivity' of Caractacus, caused no little joy at for the Rome. The senate being assembled on the occa- "oyl^^uo sion, many pompous speeches were pronounced, snmes. Some of the senators declared, " That the taking " of Caractacus was an event no less glorious " than those of old, when Siphax was by Pub- " lius Scipio, Perses by Lucius Paulus, or any " other conquered kings were, by any of our ** greatest captains, presented in chains to the *' Roman people. " In so important a light did a victory over this brave prince, and his hardy Rri-- tons, appear to the conquerors of the world! The senate, as a farther proof of their satisfaction, de- creed the triumplial ornaments to Ostorins. t * Tacil. Annul. 1. 12, c. 37. f Id. ilml c. j8. 4-1. HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book. I. A.D. 52. Thus fiirOstorius had been successful in all his ***^/"*^ enterprises inBritain; but the concluding period untortun- of Iiis commaud and life was not so prosperous. ^ ' Though the Silures had sustained a grievous loss in the late battle, yet their spirits were still un- -• broken, and their hearts more inflamed than ever with resentment, and the desire of revenge. They made a sudden attack upon the camp- marshal and legionary cohorts, who were build- ing forts in their country, killed the marshal Iiimself, eight centurions, and a great number of their bravest men ; and would have obtained a more complete victory, if succours had not arrived very opportunely from the neighbouring garrisons. Soon after this, they defeated the Roman foragers, the troops that guarded them, and others which were sent to their relief. ,,,JE]>i? obliged the general to draw out the legions, and march to the assistance of the fugitives ; which brought on a general engagement, in which the Britons were at length forced to give way ; but they retired, with little loss, under the favour of approaching night. In a word, the Silures being still more exasperated by an angry expression, which it was reported had fallen from Ostorius, " That their name was to be utterly extinguish- " ed, like that of the Sugambrians, who were all " either killed or transplanted into Gaul; '* they gave him and his army no rest, but harassed him dav and niffht with skirmishes, ambushes, and surprises. In one of these, they carried off two cohorts of auxih'aries, who were phmdering the Chap. f. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 4o country; and, by dividing the captives and spoils a.d. 52. among the neighbouring nations, were endea- ^^/"^"^ vouring to excite a general revolt; when Osto- y rius died of vexation and a broken heart, to the inexpressible joy of his enemies. * As soon as the Emperor received the news of a.d, 53. • -r» • • 1 • Aulius the death of his lieutenant m Britain, he imme- oidius, diately appointed Aulus Didius to be his sue- of bTS, cessor ; being sensible of the impropriety of Jj;"'^"^^"''* leaving that province any long time without a g-'fj^'^^^^'® chief governor, in its present unsettled state. But though Didius made all possible haste to come over and take possession of hisgovernment, he found things in very great confusion at his arrival. The Silures had defeated the legion commanded by Manlius Valens, and were mak- ing incursions on all hands into the territories of the Romans, and of their allies. But Didius soon gave a check to these incursions. The courage and animosity of the Silures rendered them very formidable enemies ; but they were now become more formidable, by the accession of a new ally and leader. This was Venusius, chieftain of the Huiccii,t who, after Caractacus, was the most famous of all the British princes of his time for his military talents. He had been a faithful friend and ally of the Romans, but was alienated from them in the following manner. Venusius had married Cartismandua, Queen of « Tacit. Annal, 1. 12. c. 38, 39. f See chap. 5. sect. 1. The HuiccH inlwbited Warwickshire and Wwcwtertthiie. 4G HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book L A.D. .w. the Brigantes, who was also an ally of the Romans. This marriage proved very unhappy to the parties themselves, to their country, and to the Romans. All these misfortunes flowed from the criminal levity of the Queen, which excited the jealousy of her husband. These family- dissensions at length broke out into a civil war, which the Romans for some time left them to manage by themselves, without declaring for either party. But Cartismandua having gained some advantages, and got the brother and other kindred of Venusius into her hands, imagined that she was no longer under any necessity of paying any regard to appearances, or the opinion of the world. She publicly espoused Vellocatus, her armour-bearer and gallant, and declared him king. This scandalous action gave great of- fence to her subjects the Brigantes, who so gene- rally revolted, that the Queen was in greatdanger of falling into the hands of her enraged husband. In this extremity, she implored the assistance of the Romans, with whom she had mu^h merits for betraying Caractacus ; and they sent some troops to her relief. This naturally provoked Venusius to abandon their interest, and put him- self at the head of those Britons, who appeared in defence of their country. Didius, who was now become unwieldy through age, managed this war between the Romans and Cartismandua on one side, and the Britons and Venusius on the other, by his lieutenants. It continued for a considerable time with various success ; but Chap. r. CIVIL AND MILITARY. ^7 at length Cartismandua found herself obliged to A.D.5,7. leave her kingdom in the possession of her in- ^'V^^ jured husband. * ' While tliese things were doing in Britain, the a.d. -1. Emperor Claudius died, and was succeeded by Nero. During the three first years of his reign, Aulus Didius still continued propraetor in this island ; but contented himself with restraining the incursions of the enemy, without attempting to extend his conquests. Nero, who was a most abominable and capricious tyrant, entertained thoughts of withdrawing the Roman forces alto- gether out of Britain, where they had lately been so much harassed. But he was restrained from executing this design, by the fear of being thought to detract from the glory of his father Claudius, for whose memory he pretended to have a very hi^rh regard, t AulusDidiuswas succeededinthegovernment a.d. 57. of the Iloman province in Britain by Veranius, ^o^e^lw a man who had been much esteemed for virtue "^ i^'''^'"- and severity of manners. He performed nothing very memorable in this island ; for, after having made a few slight incursions into the territories of the Silures, he was carried off bv death, in less than a year after his arrival. It then appeared., from the singular strain of his last-will, that he had not been so free from ambition, vanit}', and the love of court-favour, as ithadbeenimagaied; Tacit. Aiinal. 1. V2. r. 4(i. Idem Hist. 1. 'T,. c. -15. f .Siieton. in Xer. c. 18. . ' 4S HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D. 57. for in that writing, after he had bestowed many ^**'V*^ flatteries on the tyrant Nero, he added " That " if his life had been prolonged for two years, " he would have subjected all Britain to his " obedience. " * A vain boast, which there is no probability he could have made good ! A.D. 59. Veranius was succeeded by Suetonius Pauli- Suetonms •' Pauiinus nus, ouc of tlic most Celebrated generals of these i\ngiesey. times, and the great rival of the renowned Cor- bulo, in military fame and popularity. He was very desirous of eclipsing the glory which Cor- bulo had lately gained by his conquests in Ar- menia, by making greater conquests in Britain.t In the first two years of his government, all his undertakings were crowned with success ; he subdued several British tribes, and planted a number of garrisons to keep them in subjection. A.D. 61. Encouraged by this success, Suetonius, in his third year, engaged in a more important enter- prises This was the conquest of the Isle of Anglesey, at that time a kind of sacred place, the residence of the archdruid, and the asylum of all the enemies of the Roman government. Suetonius, having marched his army to the coast, transported his foot into the island, in flat-bot- tomed boats provided for that purpose, and his cavalry, partly by fording, and partly by swim- ming. At his landing, he found the British army drawn up in order of battle, and ready to engage. This army made a very strange ap- • Tacit, Annal. 1. 14, c. 20. f Id. ibid. "^i. tlvEANb MILITARY. pearance : for besides the fighting men, there a.d.6i were many women, clad in funeral apparel, their ^*V^ hair dishevelled, and torches in their hands, run- ning frantickly up and down, like furies in their wildest transports* Besides these, there were great multitudes of druids standing round the army, with their hands lifted up to Heaven, and pouring out the most direful imprecations against their enemies. These horrid spectacles at first struck the Roman soldiers with conster- nation ; and for some time they stood motion- less as marks to the wounds of the Britons. But being at length roused from this inglorious ter- ror, by the animating speeches of their general and officers, they advanced to the charge, and soon dispersed the British army. Suetonius made a cruel use of this victory, not only cut- ting down the sacred groves, and demolishing - '"^*' their altars, but even burning the druids in their own fires * While Suetonius was thus employed in the Revolt of isle of Anglesey, a dreadful storm was brewing Jons. '*' against him on the Continent of Britain. Many causes concurred to raise this storm, and to render it violent and universal. Those Britons who had been constrained to submit to the Roman power, still retained a fond remembrance of their for- mer freedom, and were very impatient under the yoke, wliich became every day more heavy and « Tacit. Annal. I. H. c. 30, Vita Ajrric. r. V4. VOL. r. U 50 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I, A.D.G1. galling, through the insolence, Inst, and avarice '^'*^'"*^ of the Roman officers and soldiers. Some of the British states had also received particular af- fronts and injuries, which blew up their secret discontents into an open flame. The Trino- bantes were cruelly oppressed by the veterans settled amongst them in the colony of Camalo- dunum, who, not contented with turning them out of their houses, and depriving them of their native lands, insulted them with the opprobrious name of slaves. Their neighbours, the Iceni, groaned under pressures and indignities still more intolerable. Prasutagus, the late king of that nation, a prince long renowned for his opu- lence and grandeur, had, by his last will, left the Emperorhis jointheirwith his own two daughters, in hopes of procuring his protection to his king- dom and family by so great an obligation. But this measure produced an effect very different from what was expected, and involved his sub- jects and family in the most deplorable calami- ties. For he was no sooner dead, than his do- minions, his houses, and all his possessions were seized and plundered by the Roman officers and soldiers : his queen, remonstrating against this injustice, was, without regard to her sex or qua- lity, beaten with stripes ; her virgin daughters violated; and the other relations of the late king were taken and kept as slaves. Nor were the . . royal family the only sufferers on this occasion. The whole country was spoiled and plundered, Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 51 and all the chiefs of the Iceni were deprived of a.d. gi. their possessions. * So insupportable was the ^"^^""^ Roman government now become, under a suc- cession of tyrants ! The distance of Suetonius and his army gave The Bri- the wretched Britons an opportunity of consult- st'roy cL ing together, and inspiring each other with the numf"" thoughts of vengeance. " Our patience (said ** they) serves only to draw upon us greater in- " juries. Formerly we were subject only to one " king, now we are enslaved to two tyrants. " The governor lords it over our persons, the '** procurator over our fortunes. The union and " discord of these two oppressors are to us equal- " ly destructive, the one by his blood-thirsty sol- " diers, the other by his greedy officers ; and ** every thing falls a prey either to their lust or ** avarice. " At length the Iceni, having inflamed one an- other with the most furious resentment, and be- ing joined by the Trinobantes and some others, flew to arms, and poured like an irresistible tor- rent on the Roman colony at Camalodunum. The veterans of this colony, not apprehending such an assault, were ill provided for resistance. The place was not fortified, the number of men within it capable of bearing arms was but small, and Catus Decianus, procurator of the province, sent no more than two hundred men to their as- sistance. The enraged Britons broke in at the very * Tacit. Annal. 1. 14. c. 31- D 2 52 lUSTOnV OF BPJTAtN. Book 1 A.ui&i. first assault, put all to the sword who fell into "^^^*^ their hands, and laid every thing in ashes. The soldiers of the garrison retired into the temple of Claudius; a fabric of great beauty and strength, which was also taken by storm, after a siege of two days. * Thus was the first lloman colony in liritain utterly destroyed, after it had subsisted only a few years, and the whole province was in the greatest danger of being lost. The ninth .. JVhen Suetonius set out on his expedition into U'gion (le- _ ... fwted. the isle of Anglesey, he left Petilius Cerialis with the ninth legion, of which he was com- mander, to defend the province. As this officer was marching with his troops to the relief of Ca- nialodunum, he was met by the victorious Bri- tons in their return from the destruction of that {)lace, and totally defeated. In this action the whole infantry of the ninth legion were cut in })ieces, and Cerialis and his cavalry made their escape with great difficulty to their camp. Catus Decianus, the procurator of the province, whose insatiable avarice h.ad been oneirreat cause of the revolt, seeing all things falling into confusion, and justly dreading the most cruel punishments if he fell into the hands of the enemv, made his escape into Gaul, i Veruiarai- As soou as Suctouius (wlio was building forts LmXn i" Anglesey for the security of his conquest) re- tht'^Hri'.^ eeiyed the news of all these disasters, he left that ton*. ..,,'. V.-. -.- -^ • Tarit. Annal.l. 14. c. Z1. Vita Aorir. i-, 1>. t Tacit. Annal. I. H. c. Sii... Ctiapri. CIVIL AND iMlLlTARY, 55 island, and, niiirching his army with great bold- a.d. ei. ness and expedition through some part of the re- volted country, arrived safe in London. This city, though not honoured with the title of a colony, was ah-eady become large, populous, and wealthy, abounding in all kinds of provisions. At first, Suetonius had some thoughts of staying in this place with his army, and defending it against all the efforts of the enemy. But after- wards, considering that it would be very impru- dent to coop himself up in a place so ill fortified, he determined rather to take the field. The in- habitants of London endeavoured, by theirtears, their lamentations, and most earnest entreaties, to persuade him to stay for their protection. Bnt lie was inflexible, and, resolving rather to hazard the loss of one city, than of the whole province, he marched away wdth his army, and such of the inhabitants as thought proper tofollow him; leav- ing behind all those who were unable, or unwil- ling to forsake the place. * Soon after Suetonius had left London, it was entered by a great army of Britons under Boadicia, Queen of the Iceni, who put all whom they found in it to the sword. From thence they marched to Verulamium, now St Alban's (which was a free city and a very populous place), where they exercised the same unrelenting cruelties. So Adolent was the fury of the enraged Britons on this occasion, that they reserved no prisoner'^ no if • 'I'atit Aimal. 1. M. c. 53. 54. HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D. 61. either to sell or exchange, but piii: all to death, by killing, gibbeting, burning, and crucifying, without distinction of age or sex. So great was the carnage, that it is computed no fewer than seventy thousand Romans and their confederates perished at Camalodunum, London, Verulamium^ and other places. * Great Tlic British army, having received reinforce- army of the Bri- mcuts from many different nations, who were en- Boadicia.^"^ couragcd to take up arms by the success of the first insurgents, was now become exceeding nu- merous, amounting to no fewer than 230,000 men. t This prodigious army, composed of so many fierce and warlike nations, was command- ed- in chief by the renowned Boadicia, whose injuries had excited, and whose resentments had inflamed this great revolt, and who, by her he- roic spirit, was entitled to that distinction. The Britons, flushed with their late successes, and exulting in their numbers, were so confident of victory, that they brought their wives to the field in waggons, to be spectators of the de- struction of their enemies. The Roman army was indeed very inconsiderable in point of num- bers, consisting only of the fourteenth legion, the vexillation of the twentieth, and some auxi- liaries, making about ten thousand men ; but in all other respects it was very formidable, being composed of the bravest, best armed, and best * Tacit. Annal. 1. 14. c. 35. f Xiphilin. ex Dione in Ncron, Chup. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 55 disciplioed troops in tlie world, under the com- a.d. si. mand of a general of great courage and long ^j~_.V^ experience. Suetonius discovered great pru- dence in the choice of his ground. The rear was secured by an impenetrable wood, and the ground before him stretched out into a hollow and narrow vale, with very steep sides; so that he was accessible only in front. * Here he drew up his army in order of battle, placing the legion- aries in the centre, supported by the light-armed foot, with his cavalry in the two wings ; and in ^^ this posture waited for the enemy. When the Britons drew near their enemies, Speeches and were ready to eno'a that every thing depended on tlie event of this battle, encouraged his soldiers to despise the clamour and multitude of their enemies, who were ill armed, and worse disciplined, and would betake themselves to flight, as soon as they felt the edge of their swords. He directed them to keep firm in their ranks, and, after they had dis- charged their javelins, to rush upon the enemy sword in hand. * The signal of battle being given, the Britons advanced to the charge with dreadful shouts, and poured a shower of darts and arrows upon the enemy. The Romans stood Arm, sheltering themselves with their shields and the narrowness of the place, until the Britons had exhausted all their darts, and advanced within reach of their javelins, which they discharged with great force. The legion, supported by tlie auxiliaries, then rushed out upon the Britons with the navels of their shields and swords, and the cavalry with their pikes, with such impetuosity and weight as bore down all resistance. The disorder and con- fusion among the unhappy Britons soon became universal and irrecoverable, and, beingentangled in their flight by their own waggons, which they had placed in aline in the rear with their wives, they were slauglitered in great multitudes. Such .-■( iX 03 • Tacit. Annul. I. 1 t. i: 35, o6. Xipliilin. ex Dionc in Ncron, Chap.*. - CIVIL AND MILITARY. 57 was the fury of the Roman soldiers, that they a.d.gi...,^ killed all who came in their way, men, women, ""^^/"^ and even beasts, without distinction ; and the . ' carnage was so great, that some authors have af- ', firmed that no fewer than eighty thousand of the Britons were killed in the battle and pursuit. The Romans had about four hundred men killed, ' ' and not many more w^ounded. * The wretched Boadicia, unable to survive the calamities of that day, put an end to her life and miseries by poison. ^' ' Suetonius, a little before this battle, had sent Panius orders to Poenius Posthumus, camp-marshal of "mskiiis ' *''S the second legion, to join him with the troops *"°'''^'" f, under his command. But that officer, afraid . "'^ perhaps of being intercepted by the Britons on his march, declined obeying these orders, and continued in his camp. When he heard of the glorious victory which Suetonius and his little army had obtained, dreading the punishment of disobedience, and distracted at the thoughts of having deprived himself and his troops of their '[• share of the honour of this victory, he ran him- ' / self through with his sword, f *'*; If Suetonius had been possessed of the happy S"t'io"ius art of gaining the affections of those by mildness whom he had subdued by force, he would have had the honour of putting a final period to this great revolt, and of reducing a great part of South Britain, under the peaceable obedience of ""^ , >■ • Tacit, Annal. I. 11. c. 57. •)■ Id, ibid. 5S HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book L A.D. 61. the Romans. But tliat general, being naturally severe, and also greatly irritated by the cruelties which had been perpetrated by the Britons in the beginning of their revolt, pursued that wretched people (who at the same time suftered all the horrors of a cruel famine) with unrelenting ri- gour. This obliged them, in their own defence, to keep the field, and continue in a hostile pos- ture and disposition. They were encouraged in this disposition, by a misunderstanding which subsisted between the governor and Julius Clas- sicianus, the new procurator, who gave out every where, '* that a new governor was to be ex- " pected, who being free from the anger of an '* enemy, and the arrogance of a conqueror, *' would treat all who submitted with tender- " ness. " He also wrote to court, *' that unless " a successor was sent to Suetonius, the war " would prove endless. " When Nero received these letters he despatched Polycletus, one of his favourite freedmen, with a pompous retinue into Britain, to examine into the state of affairs, and to endeavour to reconcile the governor and pro- curator. Polycletus having made a report ra- ther favourable to Suetonius, he was continued in his government. But soon after, upon the slight misfortune of losin* a few gallies, he was finally recalled, about the end of this very busy year, or the beginning of the next. * • Tacit. Annal. 1. 14. c. 35. o'X Chspit CIVIL AND MILITARY. 59 The brave and active Suetonius was succeeded a.d. 62. in the government of the Roman province, and .^!^^'|!^)(J^ the command of the Roman army in Britain, by nusgover- 1111 11 ""*■ °^ ^"" Petronius Turpilianus, who had been consul the tain. preceding year. Under this governor, the war between the Romans and Britons seems to have languished and died away, by a mutual absti- nence from hostilities, rather than to have been terminated by any formal peace. Bythis inaction of Turpilianus, which the great historian of these times terms inglorious, Britain happily enjoyed a profound tranquillity during his administration, which continued about three years. * Turpilianus was succeeded by Trebellius Ma- a.d. gs. ^ . -11 J Trebellius ximus, who was still more indolent and un- Maximus. warlike than his predecessor. This governor en- deavoured to preserve the peace of his province by treating the native Britons with the greatest mildness and indulgence, with which they were so well pleased, that they gave him no disturb- ance. But he found it not so easy to govern his own army. The legions which served in Britain had long been famous for their modest and or- derly behaviour. This was partly owing to their situation in an island at a distance from the ca- bals of the other legions, and partly to their being kept constantly employed, t But the late inaction of these legions had produced a very fatal change in their disposition and manners, * Tacit. Annal. 1. 14. c. 35. 39. Vita Agric. c. 16. f Tadt. Hist, 1. I. c. 9. ik) HISTOKY OF BKITAIN. B»ok L / A.D. 65. and they were now become unruly and mu- tinous. This disposition was much inflamed by Roscius Caelius, commander of the twentieth legion, who had long hated the governor, and charged him with defrauding and plundering the army. The disaffection of the soldiers at length became so violent, thatTrebellius abandonedthe island, and fled to Vitellius, who had lately been declared Emperor. After the departure of Tre- bellius, Britain was for some time governed by the commanders of the legions, amongst whom Caelius, by his superior boldness, bore the chief sway. * Vitellius sent Vectius Bolanus into Britain to succeed Trebellius, who had returned and re- sumed his command there for a little time, but without suitable authority. Bolanus was no less indolent, but more innocent thanhispredecessor; and though he could notcommand the respect of the soldiers by his spirit, he gained their aflections by his lenity. When Vespasian was declared emperor by his army, Vitellius sent to Bolanus for succours out of Britain ; but that general, who was really wavering between the two com- petitors, excused himself, by alleging the un- settled state of his province. Bolanus was recalled from the government of Britain soon after the death of Vitellius, and the accession of Vespasian, t A.D. 69. Vectius liolanus. :i't .11. .J, ?.v'd'.' • Tacit. Hifct. 1. 1. c. 60. . • ' >■; I Tacit, irita Ayic. c. 1(5. Hist.^v'lZ.'c.'st. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. M As soon as Vespasian was peaceably seated in a.d. to. the imperial throne, the government of the em- ^[^[^JV^ pire became every where more vigorous, parti- Ceriaiis. cularly in Britain, where brave and active ge- nerals were employed. Petilius Cerialis wasthe first Roman governor of Britain, in the reign of this emperor, who, immediately after his arrival* made war upon the Brigantes, themostnumerous and powerful nation of the ancient Britons. * , In this war, which was long and bloody, Ce- rialis was greatly assisted by the renowned Agri- cola, who at that time commanded the twentieth legion, whose conduct and courage in the execu- tion of the most dangerous enterprises, could '*,^^„^ only be equalled by his modesty, in ascribing the uUca honour of them to his general. The Brigantes, animated and conducted by their warlike king Venusius, made a brave defence, and several battles were fought, of whicli some were very bloody; but before Cerialis was recalled, he had quite reduced the greatest part of their coun- try, and ravaged the rest, t Petilius Cerialis was succeeded in the govern- a.d. 73. mentof Britain by Julius Frontinus, who was in V"o','uinu». no respect inferior to his predecessor, and met with enemies no less formidable than the Bri- gantes. These were the Silures, who, of all the British nations, made the longest and most ob- stinate defence against the Romans. But ,tlM>^ • S^e chap. 3. sect. 1. ^ 21. f Tacit, vita Agric. c. S. t. IT. 62 HISTORY OP BRITAIN. Boole J. A.D. 75. brave people, notwithstanding all their valour, ^^^Y^^ their ardent love of liberty, and the difficult situation of their country, were now^ at last con- strained to yield to the superior power and for- tune of Rome. * A.p. 78. Frontinus was succeeded by CnaE'Us Julius Julius . '' ^ _^ Agricoia Agricok, the greatest, best, and most famous of of Britain, all the Rouiau governors of Britain ; and pe- culiarly happy in this, that his exploits in this island have been recorded at full length, and set in the fairest light, by one of the most eloquent historians of antiquity, t Agricoia entered upon his government with great advantages and expectations, being then in the prime of life, adorned with the highest honours of the state, learned, eloquent, brave, and virtuous, equally- admired and beloved by the army w^hich he was to command, and well acquainted with the country which he was to govern. For he had Jearnt the first rudiments of war in the Roman army in Britain, under the brave Suetonius in the time of the great revolt, and served several .t years afterw^ards in the same army with great ,, honour, as commander of the twentieth legion. He improved all these advantages to the utmost, and exceeded the highest expectations which had been formed of him. firft'cam-^ The summcr was far advanced when Agricoia paign. arrived in Britain, and the army was already se- parated and gone into quarters, expecting no • Tacit, vita Agric. c. 8. c 17. . | 'i'acitus. Chap. I- CIVIL AND MILITARY. GS further action that campaign. Biitbeing sensible a.d. that the success of a general depends very much on the boldness of his first measures, he deter- mined immediately to take the field, in order to chastise the Ordovici, who had cut in pieces al- most a v/hole wing of horse quartered on their confines ; and to give an early check to a ge- neral spirit of disaffection which prevailed in se- veral British states. Having therefore drawn together a choice body of legionaries, with a few auxiliaries, he marched into the country of the Ordovici, and took a very severe vengeance upon them, that he might thereby deter others from the like attempts. Not even content with this, he resolved to finish and secure the conquest of the isle of Anglesey, which Suetonius had been obliged to leave imperfect. The chief dif- ficulty of this enterprise lay in transporting his «ien into the island without ships, which he had not leisure to provide. But his resolution and capacity surmounted this difficulty. He se- lected from amongst the auxiliaries a choice body of excellent swimmers, and commanded them to pass the narrowest part of the channel with their horses and arms, but without any bag- gage. The Britons, astonished at the suddenness and boldness of the attack, surrendered them- selves and their island without resistance. These two exploits, executed with so much facility and expedition, at a season which other governors had been accustomed to spend in idle parade and 64 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book h A.D. 7?. ceremony, excited the admiration of both Ro- ^■^-'^""^ mans and Britons. * Civil ad- If the conduct of Agricola in this first cam- miuistra- • i i i • i tion of paign had got hnn the reputation of a great com- thfringUie mandcr, his behaviour during the succeeding vinttT. O winter gained him the still more aimable cha- racter of a gracious, wise, and equitable ma- gistrate ; who was determined to redress all grievances, and to do impartial justice to all un- der his government. He introduced a thorough reformation into his own household, suffering none of his domestics to be guilty of the least oppression. In bestowing employments in the state, and preferments in the army, he regarded only merit, known to himself, esteeming itbetter to employ such as would not transgress, than to punish them for transgressing. The complaints of the provincials he heard with the greatest pa- tience, and redressed with the greatest readiness. He delivered them from the extortions of pub- licans and the oppressions of monopolists ; and, though he did not remit their tribute, he made the payment of it as easy and commodious as possible. In a word, by his wise and mild admi- nistration, the Britons began to be reconciled to the Roman government, and to relish the sweets of peace, which before had been as un- safe and oppressive as even war itself, f * Tacit. Tita Agile, e. 18. f Id. ibid, c. 19. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. As soon as the season for action returned, AgrU a.d. 79. cola drew his army together and took the field, ^^^^^^ directiufi: his march northward, into those parts ^^•'^o"'^. ,,. ,,of the island which had not yet submitted to the - ...Koman arms. As the country was unknown to tlie Romans, and much of it covered with woods, he was at great pains to guard against surprises, commending such of the soldiers as kept their ranks, and checking such as straggled. He did not trust the choice of the ground for encamp- ing to any of his officers, but pitched upon it himself, and was always amongst the foremost in exploring the rivers, marshes, and woods throuofh which he was to march. To such of the natives as made resistance he gave no rest, distressing them with incessant incursions and ra- vages; but to those who yielded, he showed the greatest kindness and humanity. In this man- ner, partly by the terror of his arms, and partly by the fame of his clemency, he brought several British nations to submit to the authority of the Romans in the course of this campaign. These nations are not named by Tacitus; but they were most probably the remainder of the Brigantes, who had not been subdued by Cerialis, the Ot- todini, the Gadeni, and perhaps the Selgovas. * To secure these conquests, he built a consider- able number of fortresses in very well chosen situations, from sea to sea (as it is thought), in • See chap. 3. sect. 1. 1 22, &c. &c. VOL. I. E 0g HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book L A.T>. 79. or near that tract where Hadrian's rampart and ^"•^v^*^ Severus's wall were afterwards erected. * Agricoia's Agricok spcnt the succeeding winter in still second further civilizincr the Britons, and teaching them ■winter. ■■"*''» o ' *-■ the most necessary and useful arts. In order to this, he persuaded them to live in a more social and comfortable manner, to build commodious and contiguous houses, and to adorn their towns with halls and temples. On such as yielded to these persuasions, and were active in these useful and ornamental works, he bestowed the highest commendations ; thereby raising amongst them a noble spkit of emulation. He was at great pains to have the sons of the British chieftains instructed in the language, learning, and elo- quence of the Romans ; for which, he said, they had a genius superior to the youth of Gaul. By these and the like means, this great man made an amazing change in the face of the country, and the manners of its inhabitants, in a very little time, t But unhappily, together with a taste for the Roman arts, the British youth con- tracted also a relish for the Roman luxuries and paign. Vices. A.D. 80. In his third campaign, Agricola led his army thfrdcam- still furthcr north, and entered Caledonia, a country hitherto unknown to the Romans. Marching from south-west towards the north- * See Append. No. 9. Tacit, vita Agric. c. 20- f Tacit, vita Agric. c, 21. dhap. t. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 67 east, he traversed the territories of several British a.d. so. tribes, and penetrated to the river Tay, without ^*'V*^ meeting with any enemy in the iieid. This was not owing to the cowardice of these Caledo- nians, nor to their willingness to submit to the Roman yoke, but to their policy ; hoping to recover without difficulty in the winter, after the retreat of their enemies, what they had lost in the summer. But in these hopes they were disappointed by the wisdom of Agricola, who spent the remainder of this season in building forts in the most convenient situations for keep- ing possession of the country. As soon as these forts were finished and stored with provisions, he put his army into them for their winter-quarters, that his troops might be every where at hand to check the attempts of the natives to shake off the yoke. Many such attempts they made, but to no purpose. For these fortresses were so well situated, constructed, and defended, that not so much as one of them was either taken by force, or abandoned in despair. * We are not directly informed by his historian, whether Agricola spent this winter in Caledonia, or in the more southern parts of Britain. But wherever he resided, it was no doubt employed, like his former winters, in the beneficent works of peace. The fourth campaign of Agricola was also a.d. si. bloodless 5 and he spent this whole year in se- fourth curing the extensive conquests which he had al- '^''""p^'S"' * Tacit, vita. Agric. c. C2. E 2 GS HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A,D.8i. ready made. In order to this, he built a line of ^^''""^^ forts quite cross the narrow neck of land which separates the firths of Forth and Clyde, exactly in the tract where the rampart of Antoninus Pius was afterwards erected. * Nature seems to have pointed out this place as the most proper bound- ary to the Roman empire in Britain. For by this chain of forts, all to the southward was se- cured to the Romans, and the unconquered Britons were removed, as it were, into another island, t A.D.82. ]^u^ A^icola did not here set bounds to his Agricola s Y . fifth cam- own ambition and curiosity. For, in his fifth year, he transported his army over the firth of Clyde, into the north-west parts of Caledonia, himself leading the van, and being in the first ship that landed. Here he discovered, and had some successful skirmishes with several British tribes, hitherto quite unknown to the Romans. These were probably the Epedii, Cerones, and Carnonacae, the original inhabitants of Cantyre, Argyleshire, Lorn, and Lochaber. t From these coasts he had a distinct view of Ireland, and began to entertain thoughts of making a descent upon that island, at a convenient opportuni- ty. He was encouraged in this design by an Irish chieftain, at that time a refugee in his army ; who gave him a very inviting description of the country, and assured him that it might * See Append. No. 9. f Tacit, vita Agrfc. c. 23^ H Ilorsley Brit. Rom. p. 3GG, 367. 369. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. O9 be conquered and kept by a single legion and a a.d. 82. few auxiliaries. With a view to facilitate this ^'""V*^ enterprise at a proper season, he left some forces in these parts ; and having reconducted the rest of his army to the south side of the firth of Clyde, he put them into winter-quarters, in the several forts which he had built in the two preceding years. * In his sixth year, Agricola turned his eyes to- a.d. s.^ wards the north-east parts of Britain, which lay si^ft'ircam''- beyond the firth of Forth ; and having passed p^'^'"* that river, perhaps somewhere near Stirling, he marched along the north banks of it, and the coast of Fife. In this march he was attended by his fleet, which, having sailed early in the spring from Rutupee (Richborough near Sandwich), at- tended the army in all its motions, and support- ed it in all its operations. The fleet kept so near the shore, that the marines frequently landed andencampedwiththe land forces; each of these corps entertaining the other with surprising tales of the wonders which they had seen, and the ex- ploits whicli they had performed in these un- known seas and regions. The sight of the fleet was very alarming to the Caledonians ; as they now found that the encirclin^ocean would be no longer any security to them against these bold invaders. They were not however dismayed ; but being very numerous, they determined to take up arms, and to defend their country to the * Tacit, vita Agric. c. 21, 70 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book. I. A.D. 85. last exti'emity. In consequence of this resolu- tion, they advanced with great boldness, at- tacked the Roman forts and parties, and spread a general consternation through the whole army. Some of his officers endeavoured to persuade Agricola to retire witli his army to the south side of the firth of Forth, to prevent the disgrace of being defeated and driven back by force. But that brave general, not so easily intimidated, de- termined to persevere in his enterprise ; and, having received intelligence that the enemy, con- fiding in their superior numbers, and knowledge of the country, designed to assault him on all sides, and in distinct bands ; to prevent his being surrounded, he divided his army into three se- parate bodies. As soon as the Caledonians were informed of this, they suddenly united their whole forces, resolving to fall upon each of these bodies one after another. The ninth le- gion formed one of these divisions. This le- gion, which had lost all its infantry in the great revolt under Boadicia, had been recruited with two thousand legionary soldiers, and eight co- horts of auxiliaries. * But it was still by far . the weakest in the Roman army ; and therefore they begun the execution of their design by at- tacking tlie camp of this legion. This attack, which was in the night-time, and wholly unex- pected, had like to have been crowned with suc- cess. The centinels and guards were killedj * Sfe Append, No. 8. Chap.i. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 71 pai'tof the enemy had entered the camp, where a.d, s5. all was in confusion, and the whole legion in the ^""y^^ greatest dangerof being cut in pieces. But they were rescued from destruction by their brave and vigilant general, who, having received intelli- gence from his spies, of the enemy's march, pur- sued their track, and fell upon their rear with his iight-armed foot and cavalry. The battle now raged with redoubled fury, and the Caledonians were so hard pressed both in front and rear, that they were obliged to retire with precipi- tation into the neighbouring woods and marshes, whose vicinity preserved them from a total rout. * This success revived the spirits of the Roman The Caie- oiiians soldiers; and even those among them who had m^keprc. been m.ost diffident and cautious, became ea^er parations ' ci in the will' for the prosecution of the war. " No country," tcr. cried thev, " can resist the valour of the Ro- ** mans. Let us penetrate into the deepest re- *' cesses of Caledonia, and, by a succession of ** victories, push our conquests to the utmost *' bounds of Britain. " On the other hand, the Caledonians were rather irritated than dispirited by their late miscarriage, which they ascribed, not to the superior bravery of their enemies, but to some accidents, and the prodigious address and vigilance of the Roman general. In a word, both sides retired into quarters full of animo- tiity, and spent the winter in preparing for a * Tacit, vjUi Agric. c. 23, 26. 72 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D. 83. more vigorous and bloody campaign than the Agricoia's AgHcola began his seventh and last campaign campaign, in Britain, by sending his fleet to make descents on different parts of the coast of Caledonia ; thereby to spread a general alarm, and distract the attention of the enemy. Soon after he drew his army together, and having reinforced it with some bodies of provincial Britons, on whose long-tried fidelity he could rely, he took the field, and directed his march northward. When he arrived at the Grampain hills, he there found the enemy encamped, and ready to dispute his farther progress, rrepara- The Calcdoniaus were at great pains, during tions of the ,-i • , . ^ , . . , Caiedo- the wmter, to prepare lor this campaign, that they might make one great effort for the preser- vation of their country. With this view, they held a general assembly of their several states, in which they entered into a strict alliance against the common enemy, and confirmed it by so- lemn sacrifices: they enlisted and trained all their young men who were capable of bearing arms; and even many of their aged warriors, who had laid aside their swords, resumed them on this great occasion. That they might act with all their united force, they chose Galgacus, one of the greatest and bravest of their chieftains, to commantl all the troops of the confederacy. At the approach of summer, they removed their • Tacit, vita Agric. c, 27. mans. Galgacus. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 73 wives and children from the open country into a.d. 84 woods and fastnesses ; and, having collected the troops of their several communities, form- ed an army of about 30,000 men, with which they encamped on the skirts of the Grampian hills ; m.ost probably at a place which is now called Fortingall, about sixteen miles from Dun- keld. ^ No sooner did the Roman army approach the Spcedi of Caledonians, than Galgacus drew up his troops in order of battle ; and, riding in his chariot along the ranks, he endeavoured to rouse and in- flame their courage by animating speeches. He put them in mind, that they were not now to fight only for fame or victory, but for their lives and liberties, their parents, wives and children, and every thing that was dear. He painted the hor- rors of slavery, the tyranny, cruelty, and oppres- sion of the Romans, in the most frio-htful co- lours; and assured them that there was no way of escaping all these dreadful evils but by victory ; that flight was now become as unsafe as it was dishonourable; their enemies having penetrated into the heart of their country, and even covered their seas with their fleets. He concluded by calling upon them to look back upon their ancestors, who had long m.aintained the charac- ter of the bravest of all the Britons; and forward to their posterity, whose freedom and happiness depended on their valour, and the event of that • Ilorslcy 13iit. Koni. p. 11. Tacit, vita Ajrnc. c. 29. 74 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D. 84. (lay. These speeches were answered by his ^"^y^^ troops with mihtary songs, with loud affrighting shouts, and all possible expressions of alacrity and ardour for the fight. * Agricoia Ainicola bein^ abundantly sensible of the crreat draws up , *-" " / O his army importauce of the approaching battle, exerted his in ordur i mi i • • i • -i • of battle, utmost skill and attention in drawing up his ar- my. He placed a strong body of eight thousand auxiliary foot in the centre, and three thousand horse on the two wings ; extending his line to the same length with that of the enemy, to prevent his being flanked; and formed the legions into a second line in the rear, a little without the camp. He made choice of this uncommon disposition, in hopes of gaining the victory by the auxiliaries alone (who were best suited to encounter such an enemy), without theeffusion of Roman blood: or that, if the auxiliaries were defeated, the legions might then advance to the charge fresh and en- tire. Though he observed with pleasure an ex- traordinary eagerness in his troops for the en- gagement, yet he thought proper still further to inflame them by a spirited and eloquent ha- rangue, after which he commanded the signal of battle to be given, t „ , , As long: as the two armies fought at a little tween the distaucc, and by their missive weapons, theCale- Romans i i i i -n i i and caic- douiaus had the advantage, ror, dexterously warding off the darts of their enemies with their * Tacit, vita Agric. c. 30, 31, 32, 55. ■}• Id. ibid, c j!3, .^J, 55. don Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITAllY. 76' little targets, they poured in upon them a" shower a.d. 84. of their own. Agricola ohserving this, com- manded three cohorts of Batavians, * and two of Tungrians, t to advance and engage the enemy hand to hand ; a way of fighting to w4iich these troops had been long accustomed. It now appeared that the long, broad, unwieldy swords of the Caledonians were very unfit for a close en- gagement ; and they were forced to give way, rather to the superior arms than to the superior strength and valour of their enemies. The other auxiliaries, seeing the success of the Tungrians and Batavians, imitated their example, and pressed the Britons so hard with the spikes of their bucklers, and their sharp-pointed swords, that they threw them into confusion. This con- fusion was very much increased by their own war-chariots. For the horses taking fright, scoured through the field, and overturned every thing that came in their way. A great body of Caledonians, who had been stationed near the summit of the hill, perceiving all these misfor- tunes, resolved to make an attempt to retrieve the fortune of the day, and turn the scale of victory, by taking a compass, and falling upon the rear of the enemy, as they were engaged in the pursuit. But as they softly descended the liill, they were discovered, attacked, and defeat- ed by four wings of horse, which Agricola kept a- * The ancient inliabitanls of Holland. t The ancient inhabitants ol' the coiuilrii;!, of Licgc, Cologn, &c. 76 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D. 84. bout his own person to answer such emergencies. ^""Y"^ After this the Caledonians made no regular re- sistance, but fled in straggling parties towards the neighbouring woods, where they once more faced about, and gave a severe check to the most forward of their pursuers. The loss of the Romans by their too great eagerness would hav6 been considerable, if their general had not come up and rallied them ; commanding them to con- tinue the pursuit in strong and regular bodies. Upon this the Caledonians disbanded, and fled a thousand different ways; everyone shifting for himself, without any regard to his companions. In this fatal battle and pursuit, no fewer than ten thousand of the wretched Britons are said to have been slain, while the Romans lost only three hundred and forty men, and, amongst those, only one officer of note, Aulus Atticus, commander of a cohort. * Agricoia The ragc and despair of the Caledonians after his army tlicir dcfcat wcrc inexpressible. They set Are to m^oquar. ^j^^-^, ^^^ houscs, and some of them even slew their wives and children, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, and being made . slaves, which they esteemed more deplorable than death. On the day after the battle a profound and mournful silence reigned over the whole •country, and nothing was to be seen but clouds . of smoke ascending from the burning houses. The scouts reported that tliey could not meet with one of the inhabitants, nor discover any ' Tiicit. vila Ai;ric. t. 5C, 37. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 77 traces of the enemy, who were entirely dispersed a.d. 84. and fled to a great distance. Agricola, consi- "^"•^z'**' derina; that the season was too far advanced to push his conquests any further northward, march- ed his army into the country of theHoresti (now Called, Angus), from whom he received hostages. Here he gave orders to his fleet to sail north- ward, and, turning that point, to proceed to their winter station by the western coast. These or- ders were happily executed, and the fleet arrived safe at the same harbour from whence they had sailed eastward in the spring, havingcoastedquite around Britain, and discovered from their own experience that it was an island. His land forces he conducted byslow and easy marches, through the lately conquered countries, in order to strike further terror into the minds of the inhabitants, and then put them into their winter-quarters. * In the beffinninff of this year, Asrricola sent ^•^- ^^• c> f J ' O ^ Agricola a plain and modest account of these transactions recaUed. in Britain to the Emperor Domitian ; which that jealous and artful tyrant perused with much seemingsatisfactioninhiscountenance,andmuch real rancour in his heart. For, being destitute of all virtue himself, he was an inveterate enemy to all who excelled in any virtue. On this occa- sion, however, he thought fit to conceal his male- volent purposes under an appearance of kind- ness. He caused the senate to decree triumphal ornaments to Agricola, a statue crowned with * Tatit. vha Agric. c. 38. 78 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I, A.D. 85. laurel, and every thing that could be given in- ^"^^'^"'^ stead of a real triumph; and he accompanied all these favours with many gracious expressions of esteem and honour. He carried this dissimu- lation so far, as to encourage a report that he designed to bestov/ upon him the government of Syria, which was then vacant. But this was only intended to palliate the disgrace of removing him from the government of Britain, from whence he was accordingly recalled in the course of this year. * A.D. 86. The renowned As^ricola was succeeded in the governor govemmeut of Britain by Sallustius LucuUus, to whom he left that province very much enlarged, and in a state of profound tranquillity. Lu- cuUus did not long enjoy his authority, but was at once deprived of that and of his life, by the wanton cruelty of Domitian. That vain capri- cious tyrant, though he was at no pains to de- serve fame, was desirous of engrossing it entirely to himself; and mortally hated every person who seemed to aspire to any kind of eminence or re- nown. Lucullus had invented a lance or spear of a new form, which he permitted to be called the Lucullean Lance ; and for this very pardon- able piece of vanity Domitian commanded him to be put to death, t Chasm in From this period to the reign of Hadrian, for of^'BriS about thirty years, under the Emperors Nerva * Tiicit. vita Agri;'. c. ~9, iO. f SuL'ton. in Doiuit. c, 10, . i. Chap. I. CIVIL AND ?/riLITARY. 79 and Trajan, the Roman historians give no parti- a.d. sg. cular account of the affairs of Britain ; nor do ^"^'Y"*^ they so much as name one of the governors of this province under these two Emperors. The silence of these writers does not seemtohave been owing to a total want of materials, or to the perfect tranquillity of this island during that period. Por one of them informs us in general, that the Britons, at this time, bore the yoke with impa- tience, and could hardly be kept in subjection. * It seems also probable, that some considerable works of peace were executed here in this inter- val; particularly thatsome of the famous military ways, whose vestiges are still visible in many parts of Britain, were either constructed or very much improved in the reign of Trajan, who is greatly celebrated for works of that kind. Julius Severus was governor of Britain in the ^.p. 117. former part of the reign of Hadrian, by whom vems and he was afterwards recalled from hence, and sent lSus, to command the army against the Jews, who had revolted.! Severus seems to have been suc- ceeded in the government of this province by Priscus Licinius, who had also been employed in the Jewish war. 1: These are the only two go- vernors of Britain of whom we can discover any traces in the reign of this Emperor ; nor do we know any particulars of their transactions. * Script. Hist. Aug. vita Hadrian, p. 22. t Xiphiliii.l. CD. p. 795. | Camd. Brit, Introd. p. 81. HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D..121. Hadrian was certainly one of the wisest, most -r^*"' active and accomplished princes that ever filled imperor i r Haiirian tlic impciial thronc of Rome. He visited in arrives in ijritain. pei'son all the provinces of hisprodigious empire, examining into the civil and military affairs of each of them, with a minuteness which is hardly credible. When this illustrious inspector arrived in Britain, he corrected many things which he found out of order. One great object which Hadrian had in view in visiting the several pro- vinces of his empire, was to fortify and secure their frontiers against the incursions of enemies. Where the natural bulwarks of mountains, seas, and rivers, were wanting, he substituted ditches, walls, and ramparts. Such a rampart or wall of earth he raised in Britain, as the boundary of the Roman province, from the mouth of the river Tine on the east, to the Solway firth on the west, near the track where Agricola had built his first . chain of forts. * Some imagine that all the country to the north of this rampart had been recovered fromthe Romans by the native Britons after the departure of Agricola ; while others think it was now voluntarily slighted by Hadrian. But which of these conjectures is most agreeable to truth, it is impossible to determine, t When this mighty monarch resided in Britain, superin- tending these works, and regulating the afrairs of this province, he carried on a friendly and * Sec Appendix, No. 9. f Eiitrop. 1. 8. c. 7. Xipbilln. i. flH. p. T02. Script. Hibt. August, viia H;iiiiian. p. 51. .'57. Chap. r. CIVIL AND MILITARY. SI familiar correspondence by letters in verse, with a.d. 121. a poet at Rome, named Florus : of which the ^"T**^ reader will find a short specimen below ; which is at the same time intended as an evidence of the condescension, wit, and good-humour of this great prince. * How long Adrian continued in Britain, we are nowhere expressly told ; but only that his departure was hastened by the news of a sedition which had arisen at Alexandria, f LolHus Urbicus was governor of Britain in the a.d. iss. reign of Antoninus Pius, the adopted son and uibicus. successor of Hadrian. Though this excellent emperor was more studious of preserving than • - enlarging the empire, and ruled with gi'eat mild- ness, there were some commotions in Britain in his time ; and he found it necessary to enlarge the limits of the Roman province in this island, in order to secure its peace. This he accom- plished by his lieutenant Lollius Urbicus, who defeated the Maeatae in several engagements, and recovered the country as far as the isthmus between the firths of Forth and Clyde. In order to secure his conquest, and to keep the Cale- * Florus to tlie Emperor Hadrian. Ego nolo Ciesar esse, Ambulare per Britannos. Scythicas pati pruiuas. The Emperor's answer to the poet Florus. Ego nolo Florus esse, Ambulare per tabernas, Latitare per popinas, Culices pati rotundos. Script. Hist. August, vita Hadrian, p. 75, 74, f Id. ibid. p. 54. VOL. 1. F a-^ HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book L A.D. 15R. (lonians at a greater distance, Urbicus, by di- 'i^yCy^ rection of the Emperor, raised another strong rampart, in imitation of that of Hadrian, be- tween these two firths, alono; the line of forts wliich had been formerly built there by Agricola. This rampart, with its ditch and forts, was in- tended for the ontmost boundary of the Roman empire in Britain. * The famous passage of Pausanias, whicli hath been the subject of much debate amongst our antiquaries and historians, very probably refers to tlie transaction which is above related. " The Emperor (says that au- " thor) deprived the Brigantes in Britain of " much of their lands, because they began to ** make incursions into Genounia, a region sub- *' ject to the Romans. " f The plain meaning of which seems to be, that the Ma^atae, who were of the same race, and were often called by the same name with the Brigantes, assisted by some of their countrymen within the wall of Hadrian, made incursions into Genounia or North Wales; , for which insult the Romans made war upon them; and, having defeated them in several en- gagements, deprived them of the sovereignty of all the country between the walls of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. A.D, TGK Antoninus Pius was succeeded in the imperial ^^*Agn. throne by his adopted son M. Aurelius Antoni- nus, the philosopher, a prince of great wisdom • Eutrop. 1. 8. c. H. Script. Ilist. August, vita Ant. Tii, p. l.':'^. ApjieiMl. No. 9. I Puusan. A read. p. 27. V iinis cola. Chap. r. CrVIL AND MILITARY. 8,S and virtue. The Roman empire, which had a.d. ini. enjoyed great tranquillity in the latter part of the '^""^/"'^ preceding reign, in the beginning of this, began to be threatened with disturbances in many of its provinces. Amongst others, the Britons, most probably the Maeatir, who had lately been sub- jected anew to the Roman power, discovered a strong tendency to revolt. To prevent or to suppress this, Calpurnius Agricolawas sent into Britain in quality of lieutenant or governor ; and he seems to have succeeded without much difficulty, as we hear no more of these com- motions. * The imperial throne of Rome, which, for a.d. iso. more than eighty years, had been filled by great ufj^'and and good princes, was now again dishonoured by a',j"^'Xi' a vain, lewd, and cruel t3Tant. This was Com- ""s,snc. Ill ^ cessively modus, the degenerate and unworthy son of Au- governors relius Antoninus, the philosopher. The loose, °* ^''^^'"' disorderly, and oppressive governm.ent of this prince gave occasion to many wars, none of which was more dangerous than that of Britain. The Caledonians, having broke through the wall of Antoninus, and being joined by the ^featav invaded the Roman province. To repel this in- vasion, the government of Britain was bestowed upon Ulpius Marcellus, a man of a very different character from those commonly employed by this emperor ; perhaps jbecause those profligate wretches who used to purchase provinces with no * Script. Hist. Aug. vita Antonin. Philos. p. IG9, i F 2 84 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book 1. A.D. 180. Other view but to plunder them, declined a station so full of danger and difficulty. Marcellus was brave, abstemious, and indefatigable; and having first restored the discipline of the Roman troops, he led them against the enemy, and defeated them in several battles. * But this success, which was so salutary to the Roman province, had like to have been fatal to Marcellus, by excit- ing the jealousy of his unworthy master; and he thought himself happy that he escaped with the loss of his government, t The immediate successors of Marcellus are not named; but they were so unworthy of their station, and so dis- agreeable to the army, that they were much en- raged against Perennius, who had the chief direction of military affairs; and sent a deputa- tion of fifteen hundred of their number to Rome, to complain of him to the Emperor, for giving them such contemptible commanders. Peren- nius was put into their hands; and they showed him no mercy, but first scourged, and tlien be- headed him. To extinguish that spirit of mutiny which still reigned in the army, even after this sacrifice, Pertinax was sent over to command in Britain. That excellent person, who was after- wards emperor, found great difficulty in the execution of this commission, and was often in great danger of losing his life, in suppressing the tumults of the soldiers. At length however he • Xiphilin. ex Dione, in Commod. I Itl. ibid. Script. Hist. Aug. vita Commod. p. 275. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 85 succeeded ; and having brought the army into a.d. iso. tolerable order and discipline, he was recalled, at his own earnest request. * Pertinax wasi probably succeeded in the government of Britain by Clodius Albinus, who, it is certain, com-' manded in this island in the latter part of the reign of Commodus, and during the short reigns of his two successors. Commodus was indeed so much offended with Albinus, for a speech which lie made to the army in Britain, on receiving a premature report of that emperor's death, that' he appointed Junius Severus to succeed him. -}■' But Commodus was actually slain so soon after, that Junius never got possession of his govern- ment. Pertinax, who had a few years before com- PerUnix^* manded in Britain, succeeded Commodus; but ^nd juiia- ' ' mis em- was allowed to reign only three months and three p^''^''"^- days, being then murdered by the Praetorian soldiers, whose licentiousness he designed to re- form. He was a prince worthy of a better fate and better times. The imperial diadem was now exposed to sale by the murderers of the last possessor, and was purchased by one Didius Ju- lianus, who wore it without dignity only two months and ten days, being then put to death by the same Praetorian troops. These two short tumultuary reigns afford no materials for the history of Britain, t All things were kept in * Script. Hist. Aug. vita. Conimod. p. 301. f Id. ibid. p. 402, 405. ' > " \ XiphHiii. ex Dionc, in rcrtiuax. Script. Hist. Aug. vita Pert. p. 503. S(i HISTORY OF milTAIN. Book I. A.D. 193. profound tranquillit}^ in tliis island, by Clodius **'*~V"'^ Albinos, who, seeing himself at the head of a great province and gallant army, by whom he was much beloved, began to entertain more ambitious views, which he afterwards discovered, A.D. 191. Septimius Severus being declared emperor by asM.'inl's the armies in Spain and Germaiiy, and Pescen- ilriiSin. "i"^ Niger by those in the East, prepared to dis- pute the prize. Severus, who was the best poli- tician, as well as the greatest general, dreading a second competitor in Albinus governor of Bri- tain, declared him C«:'sar, and flattered him with the hopes of a higher title, in order to keep him quiet, till he had finished the dispute with Niger. This policy had the desired effect. Albinus re- mained quiet till some time after the death of Niger, when, finding himself disappointed in his hopes of being admitted a partner in the empire, -i« he assumed the })urple in Britain, and, having '% strengthened his army with the flower of the British youth, transported them to the Continent to dispute the empire of the world with Severus. At length, these two competitors met, February A.D. 197. 19th this year, in a plain near Lyons, where a bloody and decisive battle was fought, in which, Albinus being defeated, killed himself, and left Severus sole master of the Roman empire. * A.D. 19S. Duringthese transactions on the Continent, this viriusLu- ij>]j^j-|j became a scene of ffreat confusion. The pus. ~ ^ Masatae and Caledonians, observing the defence- » Ilcrpdiaii. I. 3. c. 20, 21, '22, Aurel, Victor, in Septim, Chap. 1. CIVIL AND MiLITAIlY. 87 less state of the Roman province, made iftcm'sions a.T)/ i^s. intoit,and spread desolation wherever they came. ^"V*^ As soon as Severus received the news of this, he sent Virius Lupus with a body of troops to take possession of Britain, and repel these invaders of the province. Lupus, not finding himself able to accomplish this by force, prevailed upon the plunderers to retire, by purchasing their prison- ers from them with a sum of money.* This was not the way to put an end to their incursions. They were renewed- with great violence, front time to time, for several years : till the governor of Britain (probably Lupus) wrote to the em- peror, entreating him either to send over a nuich l^irger body of troops, or to come over in persoii to quell these disturbances, and restore the tranquillity of the province, t ThouG'li the Emperor Severus was old and very ^•'">- 207. mfirm when he received these letters, he imme- p^ror Se- diately resolved upon an expedition in person in- JiTeTi^' to Britain. To this he was prompted by his love ^"'^'"' of military glory, and his desire of keeping his soldiers in action, and of rescuing his two sons from the pleasures and debaucheries of Rome, in which they were deeply plunged. Having settled liis affairs on the Continent, he left the city, and, pursuing his journey with great eagerness, arriv- ed in Britain, accompanied by his sons Caracalla and Geta. The news of his arrival, and of his mighty preparations of all kinds for an invasion * Xiiihiltn. ex Dionc, in Sever. j litiodian. I. 5. c. 16. ' 88 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. BqoM. A.D. 207. of their country, greatly alarmed tlieMaeatjeand Caledonians, and induced them to send ambassa- dors to promise submission, and to sue for peace. But Severus, unwilling to lose the fruit of the toils and expenses which he had been at, and the glory which he expected to gain in the war, dismissed the ambassadors without any satisfac- tory answer ; and soon after begun his march northward, at the head of a very great army. He left his youngest son Geta behind him to govern the Roman province in South-Britain, with a council to assist him, and carried the eldest along with him into the north. After the im- perial army had passed the wall of Hadrian, they met with many difficulties and dangers. The enemy, too weak to encounter them in the open field in pitched battles, harassed them with continual skirmishes, and decoyed them into many ambushes. But their greatest difficulties arose from the nature and state of the country, which, being in many places covered with thick woods, and in others abounding in steep moun- tains, deep marshes, lakes and rivers, rendered their progress very slow and dangerous. To sur- mount these difficulties, the Emperor employed one part of his army in cutting down woods, draining lakes and marshes, making roads, and casting bridges over rivers, while the other de- fended the labourers from the enemy. By these means he at length penetrated into theveryheart of Caledonia, and struck such terror into its in- Iiabitants, that they renewed their supplications Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 89 for peace, which was at last granted them, on a.d. 'jov. condition ofreh'nquisliingapartof their country, ^"V*^ and delivering up their arms. The invincible resolution of the aged Emperor in this expedi-' tion is the more worthy of our admiration, that he was, during the greatest part of it, so mucll^ afflicted with the gout, as to be unable to ride, and was carried in a litter ; that he was in con- tinual danger of his life by the machinations of his unnatural son Caracalla ; and that he beheld his troops sinking in such multitudes undertheir fatigues, or falling by the hands of their ene-' mies. In this expedition (if we may believe a contem.porary historian) he lost no fewer than fifty thousand men. Butnothing could make him desist from his enterprise, till he had brought it to an honourable conclusion. * Severus, having concluded a peace with the a.d. 209. Caledonians, conducted his army back into the builds his north parts of the Roman province. Being now Britain. at leisure, and observing that Hadrian's rampart of earth was but a tender security to the pro- vince, against the incursions of the more nor--* thern Britons, he determined to erect a more substantial barrier. With this view, he employed his troops, for about two years, in building a stupendous wall of solid stone, twelve feet high,' and eight feet thick, strengthened with many towers, castles, and stations at convenient dis-^ tances, and accompanied with a ditch and mi-^ •,iUj;..7 ':■'/■ • Hcrodian. 1. 5. c. 46, Xiphilia. ex Dionc, in Scvy:. ,y 90 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D. 209. litary way. * Tliis prodigious wall (the vestiges V**^ of which are still visible in several places) was built nearly parallel to that of Hadrian, at the distance of a few paces further to the north, and from the east coast near Tinmouth, to the Solway firth, at Boulness, on the west coast.t A.D. 210. Severus being now^ almost worn out with age, Miihuno'. infirmities and toils, retired to York, in hopes of enjoying some repose and comfort as the fruit of so many victories, by which he had quelled all the commotions of the empire, and restored uni- versal peace, t But he was disappointed in these hopes, and the last year of his life was very un- comfortable and unhappy. This was partly owing to the increase of his bodily infirmities, and partly to the vices and mutual enmity of his sons, and their impatient longing for his death, to which he was no stranger. The public affairs of Britain took also an unfa vourableand vexatious turn, which added to his chagrin. For the Mseatae and Caledonians, being informed of the declin- ing state of the Emperor*s health, and the dis- tracted condition of his familv, renewed the war, in hopes of recovering that part of their country which they had been obliged to resign. Theaged emperor, become peevish by his sufferings, fiew into the most violent rage at the news of this revolt, and gave orders to exterminate these two Spartian. vita Sevcii. Eutrop. Orosius, 1. 7. c. II. f Sec Append. No. 9. - .0 J Spartiaii. Script. Hist. Aug. p. 361. Chap, u CIVIL AND MILITARY. 91 nations, without sparing the very infants in their a.d. 210. mother's womb. "^ v-^V*^ But Severus being no longer able to appear a.d. 211. at the head of his troops to execute his own de- peror Se- signs, these cruel orders were not obeyed. For TnTritahl his eldest son Caracalla, whom he appointed to command the army in this expedition, instead of attacking; the enemv, bent his whole endeavours to corrupt his soldiers, and prevail upon them to declare him sole emperor, after his father's death, to the exclusion of his brother Geta. Nay, that unnatural son, it is said, did not abstainfrom persuading the physicians and attendants of his aged and languishing parent, to put an end to his life, by some violent means. But nature pre- vented this crime ; and the wretched Emperor expired at York, February the 4th, A.D. 211, not so much of his bodily infirmities, as of a broken heart. In his last moments, he appointed his two sons his heirs and successors in the em- pire ; recommending them both, in the most earnest and affectionate manner, to his surround- ing friends. As soon as Caracalla received the long expected and earnestly desired news of his \ father's death, he concluded a peace with the MaeataL' and Caledonians, and marched his army southward, to take possession of the empire, which, to his unspeakable regret, he was obliged to share for some time with hisbrother Geta. The two young emperors did not continue long in * Xiphilin. ox Dioiic, in Sever. 92 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D, 211. Britain, but made all possible haste to Rome, to ^^"y^ enjoy the honours and pleasures of that great ca- pital of the Roman world. * ^MOsH' After the departure of these emperors, the Ro- chasmin man historiaus take very little notice of the af- tlie history ,. . n^ • r i mi • of jjiitain. lairs 01 i>ritain lormore than seventyyears. Ihis long silence of these writers probably proceeded from the great tranquillity which this island en- joyed in this period j and that tranquillity seems to have been owing to the concurrence of the followinGj causes. All the British nations to the south of Severus*s wall had now quietly sub- mitted to the Roman government, and had laid aside all thoughts of revolting ; and the autho- rity of the Romans had put an end to the wars of these nations against one another. These two circumstances securedthe internal quiet of South Britain. The emperors of these times, being cither unwarlike,or employed at agreat distance, contented themselves with the peaceable posses- sion of their large and flourishing province in the south of Britain, and gave no disturbance to the British nations in the north. These nations, thinking themselves veryhapjjyin being allowed to enjoy their woods and mountains unmolested, and looking upon the wall of Severus, with its turrets, forts, and castles, as impregnable, made no attempts to break through it for many years. By this means, this island now enjoyed a longer peace than in any former or later })eriod of its » Xijiliilin. ex Diouc, in &vcr. llciodiaii, 1. 5. c. 49, 50, 5L Chap. r. CIVIL AND MILITARY. liistoiy, and thereby happily escaped the atten- a.d.sh, tion of those writers, who were almost wholly employed in describing scenes of blood and slaughter. It is impossible to fill up this chasm which is left in the history of our country by the Roman historians, from any other quarter. A few unconnected, unimportant particulars, as tlie names of some of the governors of Britain in this period, &c. might be collected from inscrip- tions; ^ but they could give the reader little or no satisfaction. It is also imagined that some of the thirty tyrants, as they are commonly called, who disturbed the empire in the reign of Gal- lienus, from A.D. 259 to A.D. 268, acted their part in Britain ; because some of the coins of live or six of them have been found in the island, t If they did so, it is probable, that the part they acted was not very illustrious, as it hath not found a place in history. -.v.i- In this yearDioclesian ascended the imperial A.D.2a4, throne, into which he soon after admitted M axi- a^ssumi" mianus Herculius, as his partner in the toils and ^^'''.i'"''?'^ honours of that exalted station. Nor was it lono- before these two emperors, finding themselves unable to defend all the provinces of their pro- digious empire, made choice of two Caesars, Ga- lerius Maximianus, and Constantius Chlorus. While these four great princes governed the Roman empire, the seas and coasts of Gaul and Britain began to be invested by new enemies. * Ilorsley Brit. Rom. p. 2S'.), 290, 276. t Speed's C'bron. j). 210'. 9-i HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book L A.D.284. These were the Franks and Saxons, two nations who afterwards made an illustrious figure in the history of Europe. At this time they acted chiefly as pirates, seizing such merchant-ships as they were able to master, and making short descents on the coast for the sake of plunder. Against these new enemies, who became daily more formidable by their ferocity and valour, the emperors prepared a very powerful fleet in the harbour of Boulogne, and gave the command of it to Carausius, an officer of great courage and experience, especially in sea affairs. If Carau- sius had been as faithful as he was capable, this would have been a very happy choice. But it soon appeared, that he had selfish and ambitious designs in view, and studied more to enrich him- self than to execute his commission. For it w^as observed, that he never attacked the pirates as they were outward bound, but waited their return with their prizes, which he seized and appropriated to his own use, instead of re- storing them to the original proprietors, or ac- counting for them to the imperial treasury. The Emperor Maximianus, being greatly alarm- ed at this proceeding, gave orders to have him privately put to death. But Carausius escaped this danger; and having engaged the fleet under his command to follow his fortunes, he sailed into Britain, and there assumed the purple. The army here, both legionaries and auxiliaries, soon after imitated the example of the fleet, and declared for him : by which means he became no Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 95 contemptible pretender to the imperial diadem ; a.d. 234. being absolute master of the narrow seas — of all ^*^ the Roman dominions in this island — and of some important places on the Continent. He took also tlie most effectual measures to preserve his acquisitions, by making an alliance with the Franks and Saxons, and taking many of them into his fleet and army. Tlie Emperor Maximi- anus, being engaged in other wars, and not having a fleet equal to that of Carausius, thought it most prudent to make peace with him, by grant- ing him the title of Emperor, with the govern- ment of Britain, and of a few ports on the Con- tinent; all of which he enjoyed in great tranquil- lity for several years. In this interval, it seems probable that he enlarged the limits of the Ro- man empire in Britain, by subduing the Ma^atae; since we are told, that he repaired the wall be- tween the Forth and Clyde, by adding to it seven castles, and some other works. * In the division of the empire this year, between a.d. 297. the two emperors, Dioclesian and Maximianus, SH^r""* and their two Caesars, Constantius and Galerius, all the provinces boyond the Alps westward fell to the share of Constantius Caesar ; who imme- diately resolved to attempt the recovery of Bri- tain, one of these provinces, out of the hands of Carausius. For though Maximianus had been constrained, by the necessity of his aftairs, to • Aurel. Victor. Eutrop. I. 9. c. 21, 22. Eumcn. Panegyr. S, 9. Antiq. Ttutiip. p. CS. Nennii Hist, IJn't. c. \9. 9G mSTORY OF BRITAIN. Book L A.D. 292. make peace with that adventurer, yet he was still ^"^y"*'^ considered as an usurper, by the other sovereigns of the empire. Constantius begun this war by - besieging Boulogne, both by sea and land. This being one of the best harbours, and strongest places belonging to Carausius on the Continent, he made great efforts for its relief. But as he was not able to break through a strong bank of stone, with which Constantius had blocked up the port, he was obliged to desist, and suffer it to . . betaken. The imperial fleet not being yet suffi- ciently strong to undertake the invasion of Bri- tain, Constantius gave orders for building ships *m the several ports of Gaul ; and in the mean time he employed his army in reducing some of the neiG-hbourins: nations v/ho had revolted. Carausius applied himself with great diligence to prepare every thing necessary for resisting the A.D. 295. threatened invasion. But while he was thus en- gaged, he was treacherously murdered at York, by Alectus, one of his chief officers and confi- dents; who immediately assumed the purple, and the government of Britain, which he enjoyed about three years without molestation. * A.D. 29G. AH thino;s beinc: now prepared for the expe- tius reco- dition into Britain, Constantuis divided his fleet uhu "" and army into two, in order to distract the al- ' tention of the enemy, by making a descent upon 'two different parts of the coast at the same time. -He gave the command of one of these divisions • Eumcn. Panegyr. S. Ncnnii Hist. Brit. c. 19. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITAUY. 97 to Ascleplodotus, the captain of bis guards, an a.d. 29c. officer of great courage and conduct ; and. led the other in person. The squadron commanded by Asclepiodotus, having happily escaped the fleet of Alectus near the Isle of Wight, by tlie favour of a great fog, landed without opposition on the neisfhbourino' coast of Britain. As soon as Asclepiodotus had disembarked his troops, he set fire to his ships, that they might not fall into the hands of the enemy, and that his own men might have no hopes but in victory. Alectus no sooner heard of the landing of this army, than he marched in a very hasty and tumultuary manner to attack them, leaving that part of tlie coast where he had encamped before quite de- fenceless. This gave an opportunity to Con- stantius, who arrived there soon after with the greatest part of his fleet, to land his troops with- out the least resistance, and to march immediate- ly to join the otlier division of his army. But he received the agreeable news by the way, that Alectus was slain, and his army routed and dis- persed by Asclepiodotus and the troops under his command. The danger, however, was not yet quite over, nor the victory complete. For a great body of Franks and Saxons, of which the army of Alectus had chiefly consisted, having escaped from the battle, entered London, and began to plunder it, in hopes of making their escape by sea, after having enriched themselves with the spoils of that great city. But tlie same felicity vol.. I. G 98 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I, A.i>. Gf)c. wliich liad attended Constantiiis in the whole of ^^'^*^ this expedition appeared again on this occasion. For a part of his fleet and army, which had been separatedfrom him inthe fog, having entered the Thames, arrived at London in that critical mo- ment, and, falling npon the plunderers, made a great slaughter of them, and preserved the city from ruin. By this series of happy events, Bri- tain was re-united to the Roman empire, after it had been dismembered from it more than ten years ; the seas were cleared of pirates, and the freedom of navigation restored. These events were no less agreeable to the Britons than to the Romans ; and Constantius, who was a great and good prince, was rqceived by them rather as a deliverer, and guardian angel, than a con- queror. * A.D. 305. Xhe two emperorSjDioclesian and MaximianuSj^ tion of being satiated with the honours, and wearied with anTiviaTi- thc toils aud cares of empire, took the singular n^'anus. pesolution of resigning their authority, and re- tiring into a private station. This resolution they executed on the first day of May this year, and their two Cassars, Constantius and Galerius, were declared emperors. In the division of the em- pire between these two princes, the western pro- vinces fell to the share of Constantius, who re- sided in Britain, and had some disputes with the Caledonians, of which we know no particulars, but that he reduced them to sue for peace. This • Eutrop. 1. 9. c. 22. Eumen. Panegyr. R. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 99 excellent prince did not long enjoy the imperial a.d. 305. dignity ; but, falling sick at York, on his return """"y^^ from his Caledonian expedition, he died there July^25th, A. D. 306 ; having in his last mo- ments declared his illustrious son his heir and successor in the empire. * Constantine the Great was the son of the em- a.d. ,tog. peror Constantius by his first wife Helena, a ^/con°" princess greatly celebrated for her piety and vir- Jhe"'i"eat, tue. Many of our ancient and some of our mo- dern historians affirm positively, that this illus^ trious princess was a native of Britain, and the daughter of a British king named Coil ; and not a few of them are equally positive, that her illus* trious son was also born in this island, t Both these facts maybe true ; but it must be confessed, thatneitherof them is supported by the testimony of any contemporary writer. It is more certain that Constantine the Great began his auspicious reign at York, where he was present at his father's death, and where he was immediately after saluted emperor, with the greatest and most universal joy. t It is more probably to his ac- cession to empire, than to his birth, that the following exclamation of his panegyrist refers : " O fortunate Britain ! more happy than all " other lands, for thou hast first beheld Con- " stantine Caesar ! " § The new emperor staid , 1 }^ J. t * Eutrop. 1. 10. c. I. Aurcl. Vict, in Constantino, f Vide Usser. de primord. Ecclcs. Brit. c. 8. I Eutrop. I. 10. c. 11. Aurel. Victor, in Constantino. § Eumcn. Paiicgyr. 9. G 2 100 MigTORY OF BKITAIN. Book I. A.D. 50G. some time in Britain, to pay the last honours to ^"y"^ his father's ashes, to finish the remains of the war with the Meeatae and Caledonians (who about this time began to be called by the new names of Picts and Scots), and to settle the peace of this island on a solid basis. Having accomplished these designs, and having re- cruited his army with a great number of British youth, by whom he was much beloved, he de- parted to the Continent, to reduce the Franks, who had revolted, and to dispute the empire with Maxentius, the son of the abdicated Emperor Maximianus, who had assumed the purple at Rome. * One of our greatest antiquaries, and best historians, is of opinion, that Constantine the Great returned again into Britain some years after his first departure, and that it was then he subdued the nations in the north parts of this '''island, t But of this there is not sufficient evi- dence; and the short hint in Eusebius, on which that writer founds his opinion, most probably re- • ' fers to what Constantine performed here, in the beginning of his reign. 1^ For this island seems to have enjoyed a profound peace, from that time to the death of this great prince, which happened May 22, A.D. 337. Ajy. 337. Constantine the Great was succeeded by his tine,' Con- thrcc SOUS, Constautiue, Coustaus, aud Coustatt- Toustl'u^ tius ; among whom the provinces of the empire tins, em- perors. . Euseb, Panegyr. 10. Lactant. c. 26. ■\ Cnml). Brit. p. 08. i Etisel). lie vita Constant. 1. 'J. c. I'.K Chai). 1. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 101 were divided. Coiistantine, the eldest of these a.d. 357. princes, wlio iiad Gaul, Spain, Britain, and part """^T*^ of Germany, was never contented with his share of his father's dominions, which he thought in- ferior to that of either of his brothers. After several fruitless complaints and negociations, he at last had recourse to arms, and, invading the territories of his brother Constans, fell into an t\«"t^'.'- tine slain. ambush near Aquiieia, and was cut in pieces, with the greatest part of his army, in the spring of the year 340. * His brother being thus slain, Constans seized a.d. 345. all his dominions, and became sole master of visits Wi- the Western empire. This Emperor having esta- blished peace and tranquillity in all his pro- vinces on the Continent, imposed an extraordi- nary tax upon his subjects, prepared a great fleet, and visited his British dominions in the beginning of this year, in order to chastise the Scots and Picts, for their attempts upon the Ro- man province. The particulars of this expedi- tion are lost with the first part of Ammianus Marcellinus's history, in which they were re- corded. If we could depend on the testimony of his medals, we should be led to believe, that Constans had slaughtered great multitudes of the enemy on this occasion. But medals were by this time become great flatterers, and made a mighty matter of every trifling advantage, t • Eutrop. I. 10. c. 5. I Ammiaii. Maiccl. I. 20. c. 1. Du Cange de inlcr. acvi aum. c. 53. 10^2 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D. 54o. Firmiciis, who seems disposed to magnify this ^""Y"^ exploit of the Emperor as much as possible, says nothing of his victories, but celebrates, in a very high strain, his courage in passing the sea in winter, and terrifying the Britons by his arrival at that season of the year. * Libanius even asserts, that there was no war in Britain at this time that required the presence of the Emperor, t A.D. 350. Constans, after his return to the Continent, by Mac;nen- •• . i • /v • t • i • i tius usurps neglectmg his anau's, and pursumg his pleasures pire.^'"" ^^th too much eagerness, ruined his health, and lost both the esteem and affection of the army, and of his other subjects. This encouraged some of his chief officers to conspire his destruc- tion, and to set up Magnentius, one of their own number, in his room. This design was exe^ cuted in the city of Autun, on the 18th of Ja- nuary this year, amidst the festivity of a great entertainment, at which Magnentius suddenly appearing arrayed in purple, v/as saluted em- peror, first by the officers, then by the soldiers, and at last by the people. The unhappy Con- stans, who was then at some distance, engaged in a party of pleasure, having received intelli- gence of this revolution, attempted to save his life, by flying towards Spain ; but being aban- doned by all the world, was overtaken and put **^"'-' 'to death at Elna in Rousillon. t Britain, and * Firmic. dc error, prof, relig. c. 29. f Liban. Oral. 5, jf:!^; Eutrop. I. 10. c. 6. Amm. Marcel. 1. 15. c.5. Zosiin. 1. 2, Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 103 all the other provinces on this side the Alps, a.d. 350. immediately submitted to the usurper, and Italy ^"V^^ soon after followed their example. ..;,:*., Constantius, emperor of the East, the youngest ^^- ■''■'^^• and only surviving son of Constantine the Great, tins sole no sooner received tlie news of this unexpected '^'°^'"'^"'^' revolution, than he laid aside all his other de- signs, and made greatpreparations for revenging the death of his brother, and recovering his do- minions. Marching at the head of a great army into the West, he defeated Magnentius in one of the most bloody battles that ever was fought, near Mursa in Pannonia, on the 28th of Sep- tember, A. D. 351. The usurper, having sus- tained several other losses, and dreading to fall into the hands of his justly enraged enemy, first slew his mother and other relations, and then killed himself at Lyons, on August the 11th, A.D. 353 ; and Britain, with all the other pro- vinces of the West, submitted with pleasure to the conqueror, who became sole master of the whole Roman empire. Constantius appointed Gratianus Funarius, father of Valentinian, who was afterwards emperor, to be governor, or, as he was then called, vicar of Britain. Gratianus does not seem to have enjoyed that dignity long, as we find Martinus soon after in that station. * If Constantius had acted with clemency and a.d. 354* moderation after his success, he would have se- of con- stantius. ' Eutrop. 1. 10. c. b. Zosim. 1. 2. Amtn. Maicel. 1. 10. Jul. Oral. 1, 2. 101. HISTORY OF BRlTAm. , Book I. A.D.3J4. cured his own glory, and the felicity of his sub- jects, wlio were universally disposed to the most cheerful submission. But corrupted-by prospe- rity, and yielding to the persuasions of his cour- tiers, who lioped to enrich themselves by con- fiscation, he set on foot a cruel inquisition after all who had favoured the late usurper, or had submitted to his authority. Nothing was heard of, in all the provinces of the Western empirCj but imprisonments, tortures, confiscations, and executions. Britain had her full share of these calamities. One Paulus a Spaniard, and secre- tary to the Emperor, was sent as commissary or inquisitor into this island ; who executed his commission with the most flagrant injustice, and unrelenting cruelty, involving the inno- cent and guilty in one common ruin. Marti- nus, the governor, a man of virtue and huma- nity, having endeavoured in vain to put a stop to these proceedings, drew his sword, and attempted to kill Paulus ; but missing his blow, and knowing that he could expect no mercy after such an attempt, he plunged it into his own bosom, and expired on the spot. * Nor did the infamous Paulus triumph much lon- ger in his villaniesj but came to an end suitable to his crimes ; for he was soon after burnt alive by command of the Emperor Ju- lian, t • Amin. Marcel. I. 14. c. 5. Liban. Oral, 12. j Amni. Marcel. 1. 22. c, 5. Chap.i. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 105 The Roman province in South Britain had re- a.d. seb. ceived very little disturbance, from the British ^]^^[X^ nations in the north, for about one hundred and of the Scots and fifty years. The wall of Severus, benig then in Pkis. full repair, and defended by regular garrisons, effectually protected the province from all in- sults on that side. This long tranquillity had enabled the provincial Britons, with the in- structions and assistance of the Romans, greatly to improve their country, and render it a very inviting object to their less industrious, but more warlike neighbours. Accordingly, the Scots and Picts, tempted by the prospect of plunder, made an incursion, by some means or other, into the province, about the beginning of the year. Ju- lian the Apostate, who had lately been declared Caesar, and soon after became emperor, had the chief direction of affairs in the Western empire at this time, and resided in Gaul. Having re- ceived intelligence of this invasion of the Ro- man territories in Britain, he sent over Lupi- cinus, an officer of rank and character, with some cohorts of light-armed troops, to assist in repulsing the enemy ; who no sooner heard of his arrival, than they retired into their own country with their booty. Lupicinus proceeded no farther than to London, where, having set- tled some affairs, he returned to the Continent. * The reinforcement of the Roman army, and their greater vigilance and activity, deterred the • Aram. Marcel. 1. SO. c. I. oas. lOG HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D.360. Scots and Picts from making any further at- *'*'V'*^ tempts upon the province for some time ; and they continued quiet, during the short reign of the Emperor Juhan, and the still shorter one of his successor Jovian. A.D. 364. Soon after the accession of Valentinian and «.f the his hrother Valens to the imperial throne, the rSsi and empire was assaulted almost on all sides, by the ^iTdeprc- surrounding nations. In Britain, while the pira- dationsof tical Franks and Saxons plundered the southern the r ranks _ '■ and Sax- coasts, the Scots, Picts and Attacots, * invaded the Roman province on the north. These na- tions, having found, by their late attempt in the reign of Julian, that the wall of Severus was not impregnable, and that the country within it, being rich, afforded abundance of valuable plunder ; they rushed into it with their united forces, and pushed their depredations much fur- ther than they had done before. As they ad- vanced, they had frequent encounters with the Roman forces stationed in this island; and in one of these, they slew Bulchobandes the Roman general, and Nectaridius, count of the Saxon shore, f As soon as the Emperor Valentinian received intelligence of this formidable invasion, and of the death of his generals, he sent over Severus, an officer of distinction in his house- hold, to command in Britain j who, being soon after recalled, was succeededby Jovinus, a cap- tain who had acquired great military fame in » See chap. 5. sect. 19. f Amm. Marcel. 1. 27. c. 9. Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 107 Germany. But as neither of these generals a.h.oca. brought any considerable reinforcement of ^^'Y^*''^ troops with them into Britain, they were not able to expel the enemy from the Roman pro- vince ; where they carried on their destructive ravages for three years successively, before they received an effectual check. At length the Emperor Valentinian, being de- ^^^j/J^^* termined to put an end to the war in Britain, sius gover- and deliver this province from these cruel plun- Britain, derers, appointed Theodosius, one of the best and wisest men and greatestgenerals of that age, to command in this island, and sent him over with an army. At his arrival, Theodosius found his province in a very deplorable condition. The enemy had penetrated as far as London, and had collected a prodigious mass of booty, as well as taken a great multitude of men, women, and children prisoners. The Roman general, having assembled his army with great expedition, fell upon the enemy while they were loaden with plunder and incumbered with prisoners, and obliged them to fly, leaving behind them all their prey and captives. He set all the prisoners immediately at liberty; and havingbestowed part of the spoils, whose owners could not be found, on his soldiers, he restored the rest to the ori- ginal proprietors ; gaining as much glory by his justice and generosity after the victory, as he had done by his wisdom and valour in the battle. He marched his victorious army to London (then called xlugusta), which he entered in 108 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. A.D. 3o7. triuiiipli, amidst the joyful acclamations of the ^""V*^ inhabitants, who viewed him as their deliverer from impending rain. Here, reflecting on the state of the country, and the further prosecution of the war, he invited over Civilis, a person of great probity and v/isdom, and committed to him the administration of tiie civil government : he also sent for Dulcitius, a captain renowned for his couras^e and conduct, to assist him in the command of the army. During the late times of confusion, many Roman officers, soldiers and others, had deserted to the enemy, either through fear, or a desire of sharing with them in their plunder, and still continued with them, through despair of mercy. To reclaim these, Theodo- sius issued a proclamation, promising a pardon to all who returned to their duty before a certain day. This gracious and prudent measure pro- duced the happiest effects, great numbers em- bracing the promised amnesty. * A.D. 368. Theodosius, having spent the winter in esta- ccss'and blisliiug ordcr and tranquillity in the south parts duct of"" of Britain, took the field in the spring, direct- Hir'^"' i"g ^^is march northward. The enemy every where fled before him, abandoning not only the open country, but also many forts, stations, and cities which they had seized, though not without leaving behind them many marks of their ra- pacious and destructive dispositions. The Ro- ^ ,^^^,^ ,4nan3 still advancing, took possession of the • Atmn. Martcl. 1. 27. c. 7. CJiap. r. CIVIL AND MILITARY. 109 places which the enemy had abandoned, and ad. scs. repaired such of them as they had destroyed, ''*^'"*^ until they recovered the whole country to the south of Severus's wall, which had long been the boundary of the empire on that side. But Theodosius, not yet satiated with victory and success, pursued the flying enemy still further, and drove them bevond the wall of Antoninus Pius, which he repaired, and made once more the frontier of the Roman territories in Britain. The country between the two walls he reduced into the form of a province, which he named Valentia, in honour of the emperor Valens. But while this excellent person was engaged in these glorious toils, a dangerous plot was form- ing against his authority and life. One Valen- tinus, who had been banished into Britain for his crimes, was the author of this conspiracy, in which he found means to engage several other exiles, and even some Roman officers and sol- diers. But this plot was happily discovered when it waB on the point of being carried into execution; and Theodosius having commanded Valentinus and a few of the most guilty of his accomplices to be put to death, very wisely and generously prohibited any further inquiry or prosecution. * Theodosius was no less fit for the cabinet than a.d. -cp. the camp, and excelled as much in the arts of slu's nlu'rh securing and improving, as of making conquests, jfj'j^^,'! '" • Amm. ^lavfcl. 1. '_'S, c.~. 7. 110 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book L A.T>.3G9. Of this he gave many proofs while he com- manded in Britam. During the long peace which had reigned in this island, the walls, forts, and castles w^hich had been built for the protection of the province, were very much neglected, and military discipline very much relaxed. He repaired the former, and revived the latter. Having discovered that the Ar- cani, a kind of light troops, who were sta- tioned in the advanced posts on the frontiers, and designed to act as scouts or spies, had be- trayed their trust, and corresponded with the enemy, he cashiered them with disgrace, and established another corps in their room, for that important purpose. He corrected many abuses in the collection of the public revenues, and even persuaded the Emperor to make some abatement in the taxes. He gave all possible encouragement and assistance to the provincials, in repairing the damages which their villages, towns, and cities had sustained in the late in- cursions. In one word, from the greatest con- fusion, distress, and misery, he brought the Roman territories in Britain to a state of the most perfect order, happiness, and security. * The many great and good actions which this excellent person performed in this island, as well as in other places, not only furnished a theme to the best poets of that age, t but * Amm. Marcel. ]. 28. c.j. 7. f Ille Caledoniis posuit qui eastra pniinis Qui mcdios Libyie sub cassidc pcrtulit .xstus, Tt'iribilis Chap. I. CIVIL AND MILITARY. Ill excited the warmest gratitude and affection in a.d. 369. all who had enjoyed the benefit of his wise ^"V**' and virtuous administration. "When he was re- called by the Emperor, to be raised to one of the highest dignities in the empire, he was at- tended to the place of his embarkation by infi- nite multitudes of people, who loaded him with blessings, and pursued him with the most fervent prayers for his prosperity. The Roman territories in Britain enjoyed the A.D.575. ^ *' Maximus most profound tranquillity for several years after assumes the departure of Theodosius. The south coasts in Britain, were secured by a powerful fleet against the de- predations of the Saxons ; and the Scots and Picts had received so severe a check, that they made no attempts upon the northern frontiers. This tranquillity might have been of much longer continuance, if the provincial Britons, as well as the Roman soldiers, had not espoused the cause of an unfortunate pretender to the imperial purple. This was Maximus, an officer of great reputation in the Roman army in Britain. The Emperor Gratian, the son and suc- cessor of Valentinian, finding himself and his infant brother Valentinian II. very unequal to Tcrrlbills Mauro, dcbellatorque Britanni Littoris, ac pariter Bori5 Strabo, 1. I J. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. j 49 was made public, being adapted to the capaci- ties and superstitious humours of the people, and calculated to promote the honour and opulence of the priesthood. — It cannot be expected that we should be able ^^'^"^!- *■ ^ doctrines to ffive a minute detailof the secret doctrines of of the the Druids. The Greek and Roman writers, from whom alone we can receive information, were not perfectly acquainted with them, and therefore they have left us only some general hints, and probable conjectures about them, witli which we must be contented. The secret doc- trines of our Druids were much the same with those of the Gymnosophists and Brachmans of India, the Magi of Persia, the Chaldeans of Assyria, the priests of Egypt, and of all the other priests of antiquity. All these are fre- quently joined together by ancient authors, as entertaining the same opinions in religion and philosophy ; which might be easily confirmed by an induction of particulars. * The truth is, there is hardly any thing more surprising in the history of mankind, than the similitude, or rather identity, of the opinions, institutions, and man- ners of all these orders of ancient priests, though they lived under such different climates, and at so great a distance from one another, without in- tercourse or communication. This amounts to a demonstration, that all these opipions and in- stitutions fiowed originally from one fountain j * Mfl.i, Sliatio, Dioil. Situ]. Dipgen. Laeit, A;c. 150 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. the instructions which the sons of Noah gave to their immediate descendants, and they to their posterity ; many of which were carefully pre- served and handed down through a long suc- cession of ages, by an order of men in every na- tion set apart for that purpose. Though these streams of religious knowledge therefore flowed through different channels, into very distant countries, yet they long retained a strong tinc- ture of their original fountain. The secret doc- trines of the Druids, and of all these different orders of priests, were more agreeable to primi- tive tradition and right reason, than their public doctrines ; as they were not under any temp- tation, in their private schools, to conceal or disguise the truth. It is not improbable that they still retained, in secret, the great doctrine of One God, the creator and governor of the universe.* This, which was originally the belief of all the orders of priests which we have men- tioned, was retained by some of them long after the period we are now considering, and might therefore be known to the Druids at this period. This is one of the doctrines which the Brachmans of India are sworn to keep secret : " That there is one God, the creator of heaven " and earth. " t Caesar acquaints us, that they taught their disciples many things about the nature and perfections of God. t Some writers * Augustin. de civitate Dei, 1. 8. c. 9. f Francisc. Saver. Epist. do Urachman, ^ Cspsar. de Bel. Gal. 1. G, c. 15. Cnap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. 151 are of opinion, and have taken niacli learned pains to prove, that onr 13ruids, as well as the other orders of ancient priests, taught their dis- ciples many things concerning the creation of the world — the formation of man — his primi- tive innocence and felicity — and his fall into guilt and misery— the creation of angels — their rebellion and expulsion out of Heaven — the universal deluge — and the final destruction of this world by fire : and that their doctrines on all these subjects were not very different from those which are contained in the writings of Moses, and other parts of Scripture. * There is abun- dant evidence that the Druids taught the doc- trine of the immortality of the souls of men ; and Mela tells us, that this was one of their secret doctrines whicli they were permitted to publish for political rather than religious reasons. " There is one thing which they teach their dis- *' ciples, which hath been made known to the " common people, in order to render them more " brave and fearJ ess ; viz. That souls are immor- " tal, and that there is another life after tlie pre- " sent. " f Cassar and Diodorus say, that the Druids taught the Pythagorean doctrine of the transmigration of souls into other bodies, t This was perhaps their public doctrine on this subject, as being most level to the gross concep- tions of the vulgar. But others represent them • Cluvcr, German. Antiq. 1. 1. c. 32. f Mela, 1.5. c. 11. \ Cwsar. de Bil. Gal. 1. G. c, 13. Diocl. Sicul. I. 5. 152 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. as teaching, that the soul after death ascended into some higher orb, and enjoyed a more sub- lime felicity. This was probably their private doctrine, and real sentiments. * But however agreeable to truth and reason the secret doctrine of the Druids might be, they were of no benefit to the bulk of mankind, from whom they M^ere carefully concealed. For these artful priests, for their own mercenary ends, had embraced a maxim, which hath un- happily survived them, that ignorance was the mother of devotion, and that the common people were incapable of comprehending ra- tional principles, or of being influenced by ra- tional motives ; and that they were therefore to be fed with the coarser food of superstitious fables. This is the reason assigned by Strabo for the fabulous theology of the ancients. " It is not possible to bring women, and " the common herd of mankind, to rehgion, " piety, and virtue, by the pure and simple " dictates of reason. It is necessary to call in " the aids of superstition, which must be nou- " rished by fables and portents of various kinds. " With this view, therefore, were all the fables *' of ancient theology invented, to awaken su- " perstitious terrors in the minds of the igno- " rant multitude. " f As the Druids had the same ends in view with the other priests of anti- quity, it is highly probable that their public • Ammian. Maiccl. !. 15. Lucan, 1. I. v. 455, &c. f Strabo, 1. I. Chap. 2. Sect. I. RELIGION. 133 theology was of the same complexion with theh's; consistinc: of athousandmvtholoQ:ical fables, con- cerning the genealogies, attributes, offices, and actions of their gods ; the various superstitious ' methods of appeasing their anger, gaining their favour, and discovering their will. This farrago of fables was couched in verse, full of figures and metaphors, and was delivered by the Druids from little eminences (of which there are many still remaining) to the surrounding multitudes. * With this fabulous divinity, these poetical de- claimers intermixed moral precepts, for the re- gulation of the lives and manners of their hearers; and were peculiarly warm in exhorting them to abstain from doing any hurt or injury to one another, and to fight valiantly in defence of their country, t These pathetic declamations are said to have made great impression on the minds of the people, inspiring them with a su- preme veneration for their Gods, an ardent love to their country, an undaunted courage, and sovereign contempt of death, t The secret and public theology of the Druids, together with their system of morals and philosophy, had swelled to such an enormous size, in the begin- ning of this period, that their disciples employed no less than twenty years in making themselves masters of all their different branches, and in * Rowland's Mona Antiq. f Id. ibid. p. 25-3. Diogtiii. Lacrt. in rioem. I Lucan. 1. 1. v. 4G0, &c. Ccesar. de Bel. Gal. 1. 6. c. \o. tons. 154 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. getting by heart that infiiiite muititude of verses in which they were contained. * The Gods How lono; the several nations who descended or tlic ail- ~ c^ein Bri- from Gomer, the son of Japhet, and in parti- cular, the ancient Gauls and Britons, continued to worship only the one living and true God, and at what time, or by what means, the ado- ration of a plurality of Gods was introduced amongst them, it is impossible for us to dis- cover with any certainty ; though we have suf- ficient evidence that this change had taken place before the beginning of our present period, t It is highly probable that this fatal innovation was introduced by slow degrees, proceeded from, and was promoted by, the three following causes. The different names and attributes of the true God were mistaken for, and adored as, so many different divinities. The sun, moon, and stars, the most striking and illustrious objects in na- ture, were at first viewed with great veneration, as the most glorious works and lively emblems of the Deity, and, by degrees, came to be adored as Gods. Great and mighty princes, who had been the objects of universal admiration during their lives, became the objects of adoration after their deaths. The Britons had Gods of all these different kinds, as will appear from the following brief detail. * Cajsar. de Bel. Gal. 1. G. c. 15. Mela, 1. 3. c. 2. f Cxsiir. dc Bel. Gal. 1. G. c. 15. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. 155 The Supreme Being was worshipped by the Hcsus. Gauls and Britons under the name of Hesus, a word expressive of his attribute of Omnipotence, as Hizzuz is in the Hebrew. * But when the worship of a plurality of Gods was introduced, Hesus was adored only as a particular divinity, who by his great power presided over war and armies, and was the same with Mars, t As the Germans, Gauls and Britons, were much ad- dicted to war, they were great worshippers of Hesus, when become a particular divinity, from whom they expected victory; and they paid their court to him by such cruel and bloody rites, as could be acceptable only to a being who de- lighted in the destruction of mankind, t Teutates w^as another name or attribute of the Teutates. Supreme Being, which, in these times of igno- rance and idolatry, was worshipped by the Gauls and Britons as a particular divinity. It is evidently compounded of the two British words Deu-Tatt, which signify God the parent or creator, a name properly due only to the one true God, § who was originally intended by that name. But when these nations sunk into idolatry, they degraded Teutates into the sove- reign of the infernal world ; the same wdth the * Tsal. 24. V. 8. f Boxliorn. Grig. Gal. c. 1. p. II. I Casar dc Eel. Gal. 1. 6. c. 17. Lucaii. 1. 1. v. 445. § Et quibus immitis placatur sanguine diro Teutates : horrensque fei-is altaribus Hesus. Lucan. I. 1. vcr. 115. 15C) HISTOllY OF BRITAIN. Book I. Dis and Pliito of the Greeks and Romans (or, as others tliink, with Mercury) ; and worship- ped him in such a manner as could be agreeable to none but an infernal power. * Taraiiis. So tremcudous and awful is the sound of tliunder that all nations seem to have agreed in believing it to be the voice of the Supreme Being ; and as such it was no doubt considered by the Gauls and Britons, as well as by other nations, while they continued to worship only one God. t But when they began to multiply their Gods, Taranis, so called from Taran, thunder, became one of their particular divini- ties, and was worshipped also by very inhuman rites. The Sun The Suu seems to have been both the most ancient and most universal object of idolatrous v/orship ; insomuch, that perhaps there never was any nation of idolaters which did not pay some homage to this glorious luminary. He was worshipped by the ancient Britons with great devotion, in many places, under the various names of Bel, Belinus, Belatucardos, Apollo, Grannius, kc. all which names in their language were expressive of the nature and properties of « in • Baxter Gloss. Brit. p. 227. Caesar, de Bel. Gal. 1. 6. c. 18. Dionys. Halicar. 1. 1, p. 16. f Et Taranis Scythicaj non raitior ara Diana;, Lucan. 1. 1. V. 446, Job, chap. '10. V. 9. Psalm 29. 3, 4, 5. nous names. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. 1^7 that visible fountain of light and heat. * To this illustrious object of idolatrous worship, those famous circles of stones, of which there are not a few still remaining, seem to have been chiefly dedicated, where the Druids kept the sacred fire, the symbol of this divinity, and from whence, as beino: situated on eminences, thev had a full view of the heavenly bodies. As the Moon appeared next in lustre and utility tho to the Sun, there can be no doubt that this ra- ^^'"'" dient queen of heaven obtained a very early and very large share in the idolatrous veneration of mankind. AVhat Diodorus says of the ancient inhabitants of Egypt, may perhaps be said with equal truth of all other idolatrous veneration. " When they took a view of the universe, and " contemplated the nature of all things, they " imagined that the Sun and Moon were the " two first and greg,test Gods."t The Moon, as we are told by Caesar, % was the chief divinity of the ancient Germans, out of gratitude, it is probable, for the favours which they received from her lunar majesty, in their nocturnal and predatory expeditions ; nor did they think it proper to fight, or engage in any important enterprise, while this their protectress was in a state of obscurity. § The Gauls and Britons seem to have paid the same kind of worship to the • Baxt. Gloss. Brit. p. 55. Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 20G. 261. M'Phersou's Dissert, p. 313. f Diod. Sicul. 1. 1, \ C»sar, 1. 6, c. 21. § Id. ibid. 1. 1. 158 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. Moon as to the Sun ; and it hath been observed, that the circular temples dedicated to these two luminaries were of the same construction, and commonly contiguous. * ihhl-m -^^^ ^ great number of the Gods of Gaul and who had Britain, as well as of Greece and Rome, had been men. been men, victorious princes, wise legislators, inventors of useful arts, &c. who had been deified, by the admiration and gratitude of those nations which had lost the knowledge of one infinitely perfect Being, who was alone entitled to their supreme admiration and gratitude, t It is even certain, that those deified mortals who were adored by the Gauls and Britons were in general the very same persons who were wor- shipped by the Greeks and Romans. These were Saturn, Jupiter, Mercury, and the other princes and princesses of the royal family of the Titans; who reigned with so much lustre, both in Asia and Europe, in the patriarchal ages, t The only question is, whether the Gauls and Britons, and other Celtic nations, borrowed their Gods of this class from the Greeks and Romans, or these last borrowed theirs from tliem. To convince us that the Celtic Gods were the ori- ginals, and those of the Greeks and Romans the copies, it is sufficient to observe, that all those deified princes belonged to the Celtae by their • Martin's Description of the Western Isles, p. 565. f Cicero de Natura Deorum, 1. I. Diod. Sicul. 1. 5. Cscsar. de Bel. Gal. 1. 6. c. 17. t Pczrou Antiq. Celt. 1. 1. c. 9, 10, II, I^', 13, 14, 15. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. 159 birth, and were sovereigns of the Celtic tribes, who peopled Gaul and Britain— that all their names were significant in the Celtic language, and expressive of tiieir several characters — and that the Gauls and Britons, and the other nations who were called Barbarians, were much more tenacious of the opinions and customs of their ancestors, than the Greeks and Romans, who discovered a great propensity to adopt the Gods and religious ceremonies of other nations. * Of these deified princes who were worshipped by ail the Celtic nations, and by many others, the fol- lowing were the most illustrious : Saturn was one of the greatest of the Titan Satum. princes, and the first of that family who wore a crown, and assumed the title of King, his an- cestors having contented themselves with that of chieftains, t His name in the Celtic language signifies Martial, or Warlike, a name to which he was well entitled, having dethroned his father Uranus, subdued his brother Titan, and ex- tended his empire over the greatest part of Eu- ruope. J Though Caesar doth not name Saturn among the Gods of Gaul and Britain, yet there is sufficient evidence that he was known and wor- shipped in these parts. / Cicero says, that he was worshipped chiefiy in the West; § and Dion. Ha- licarnassus directly affirms, that he was adored by all the Celtic nations who inhabited the west of [] Dionys. Ilalicar. 1. 7. p. 474. f Tertul. do Corona, p. 17. \ Pezron Antiq. Celt. I. 1. c. 10. § Cicero dc Natura Deoium, 1. 5. IGU HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. Europe. * Saturn was represented as a criie] and bloody, as well as a martial prince ; and his deluded worshippers seemed to have imagined that he still retained these odious qualities in his deified state ; for they endeavoured to gain his favour by human victims, t j-^hcT. Jupiter, the youngest son of Saturn, was still a greater and more renowned prince than his father, whom he dethroned. He so far eclipsed his two elder brothers, Neptune and Pluto, that they acted only as his vicegerents in the govern- ment of certain provinces of his prodigious em- pire. The true name of this illustrious prince was Jow, which in the Celtic language signifies young, he being the youngest son of Saturn, and having performed very great exploits while he was in the flower of his youth, t To this name the Latins afterwards added the woi-d Pater (father), but still retained the true name in all the other cases but the nominative. Jow or Jupiter seems to have been a prince of great personal accomplishments, though in some particulars not of very strict morals ; and as he reigned in prodigious splendour over an immense empire, we need not wonder that he was extravagantly flattered during his life, and deified (as was be- come the custom) after his death. The same hidi strains of adulation were addressed to him in his deified state ; and at length he came to be • Dion. Halicar. 1. 1. c. 4. f Id. ibid. ^ I'ozron Anticj. C\'!. 1. 1. c. 11, 12. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. l6l considered by Greeks, Romans, Gauls, Britons, and many other nations, as the greatest of all Gods, to whom they impiously ascribed every divine perfection, as will appear from the verses quoted below. * Mercury was the favourite son of Jupiter by Mercury, his cousin Maia, and the most accomplished prince of all the Titan race. He was so much beloved by his father Jupiter, that he gave him the government of the West of Europe in his own lifetime. His name in the Celtic tongue was compounded of the two words, Mercs, which signifies merchandise, and Wr, a man ; a name whichwas justly conferred upon him, on account of his promoting commerce, as well as learning, eloquence, and all the arts, in his dominions. It was on these accounts also, that in his deified state he was esteemed the God of merchants, orators, and artists : and as thieves will some- times thrust themselves into good company, they too claimed his protection, t The Gauls (and probably the Britons) having enjoyed the benefit of the wise and good government of this prince, • Primus cunctorum est et Jupiter ultimas idem : Jupiter et caput et medium est : sunt ex Jove cuncta. Jupiter est terras basis, et stellantis Olympi. Jupiter et mas est, estque idem nympha perennis. Spiritus est cunctis, validusque est Jupiter ignis. Jupiter est pelagi radix : est lunaque solque. Cunctorum rex est, princepsque et originis auctor. Namque sinu occultans, dulces in luminis auras Cuncta tulit : sacro versans sub pectore curas. Apuleius de Mundo, I. 1. f Pezrou Antiq. Celt. 1, I.e. 14. VOL. I. i^ lC2 . HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. their esteem and gratitude made them regard him as their chief God. * Many Besidcs these, there is sufficient evidence that Gods, oar unhappy ancestors, in those times of igno- Goddesscs, j.^^^Q^ j-jj^^ many other imaginary Gods, who had been real men, to whom they paid religious homage ; but there seems to be little necessity for making such a detail as this complete, t They worshipped also several female divinities or God- desses ; as Andraste, who is supposed to have been the same with Venus or Diana ; Onvana, Minerva, Ceres, Proserpine, &c. &c. t Nay, into such an abyss of superstition and idolatry were they sunk, that, according to Gildas, they had agreater number of Gods than the Egyptains J and there was hardly a river, lake, mountain, or wood, which was not supposed to have some divinities or genii residing in them. Il Such were the unworthy objects to whom the benighted Britons paid religious worship and adoration of various kinds ; some of which we shall now pro- ceed to enumerate. Worship The great ends which the ancient Britons had kinds."^ in view in tlie worship which they paid to their Gods, seem to have been these four — To express their admiration of their perfections, and grati- tude for their favours — to obtain from them such • Cajsar. de Bel. Gal. 1. 6. c. 17; f See Sanirais Brit. Antiq. cap. 9. \ Id. ibid. Cses.ar. de Bel. Gal. 1. 6. 0. 15. U Historia Gildoe, c. 2. relloutier Hist. Celt v. 2. p. 56 to 41, &c. &c. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. lT)3 things as they wanted and desired — to appease their anger, and engage their love — and to dis- cover their designs and counsels with regard to future events. In consequence of this, their acts of religious worship were also of four kinds, and consisted of— songs of praise and thanksgiving — prayers and supplications — offerings and sacri- fices — and the various rights of augury and divination. Piety, it hath been imagined by some writers. Hymns of _ - -^ praise jinu was the parent or poetry : and the iirst poems thanksgiv- were hymns of praise and thanksgiving to the ^"^" Supreme Being. However this may be, it is very certain that such hymns were of the highest antiquity ; and the most ancient poetical com- positions now extant are of that kind. * Nor was the use of such sacred hymns less universal than it was ancient, and they have always made a part of the religious worship of every nation. For which reasons we may conclude in general, that such songs of praise and thanksgiving, ex- pressive of their admiration, love, and gratitude to their Gods, were used by the ancient Britons (who were a very poetical people) in their leli- gious solemnities. If we could be certain that the famous Hyperborean island described by Diodorus Siculus was Britain, or any of the British isles, we should then have a direct proof, that the religion of the ancient Britons consisted chiefly in singing hims to Apollo, or the Sun, • Deuteronomy, chap. ."2. Judges, chap. 5. L 2 (( <( iGi HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. accompanied with the music of various instru- ments. *■■ " Hecatsus and some other ancient " writers report, that there is an island about *' the bigness of Sicily, situated in the ocean, " opposite to the northern coast of Celtica " (Gaul), inhabited by a people called Hyper- " boreans, because they are beyond the north " wind. The climate is excellent, and the soil " is fertile, yielding double crops. The inha- " bitants are great worshippers of Apollo (the " Sun), to whom they sing many hymns. To this God they have consecrated a large terri- tory, in the midst of which they have a mag- " nificent round temple, replenished with the " richest offerings. Their very city is dedicated " to him, and is full of musicians and players on " various instruments, who every day celebrate ** his benefits and perfections. *' Besides this, the Britons and other nations had another reason for employing songs and musical instruments in great numbers, in their religious worship. This was to drown the cries of those human victims which they offered in sacrifice to their Gods. * There was, as we have already seen, a particular class of the priesthood appointed to compose those sacred hymns, and to perform the musical part of worship ; though it is not improbable that, on some occasions, all the Druids, and perhaps all the people present, joined in these songs. The hymns composed by the Eubates or Faids, and • Diod. Sicul. 1. 11. c. S9. f Plutarch, de Superstitione. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. l05 sung at their sacred solemnities, no doubt made a part of that poetical system of divinity, in which the Druids instructed their disciples; but as they were never committed to writing, they are now lost. As it hath always been one end of religious Prayers worship to obtain certain favours from the objects cation^^ '" of it ; so prayers and supplications for these fa- vours have always made a part of the religious worship of all nations, and in particular of that of the ancient Britons. When in danger, they im- plored the protection of their Gods j prayers were intermixed with their praises, accompanied their sacrifices, and attended every act of their religion. * It seems, indeed, to have been the constant invariable practice of all nations, the Jews not excepted, whenever they presented any offerings or sacrifices to their Gods, to put up prayers to them to be propitious to the persons by whom, and for whom the offerings or sacrifices were presented ; and to grant them such particu- lar favours as they desired. These prayers were commonly put up by a priest appointed for that purpose, witli his hand upon the head of the victim, immediately before it was killed. | Pliny acquaints us with the substance of one of these prayers, which was usually made by a Druid at one of their most solemn sacrifices. " Which " done, they begin to offer their sacrifices, and * Dili. Gas. 1. 62. t Ovid. Mtl. 1. 7. V. 2-ij, &.C. Vir^. .Entid. 1. 6. v. O-iS, &t. Lcvit, diap. 1. V. 4.— chap. 16. ^. 21. 16G HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. " to pray to God, to give a blessing with his " own gift to them that were honoured with " it." * When we consider the })oetical genius of the ancient Britons, as well as the practice of other nations of antiquity, we have some reason to think, that tlieir prayers, as well as praises, were in verse, and made part of their poetical system of divinity, t Offerings. Mankind having found, by experience, the great efficacy of gifts and presents in appeasing the anger, and gaining the favour of their fellow- creatures, began to think that they might pro- bably make the same impressions on the objects of their religious worship ; and employed them to that purpose, t Offerings of various kinds constituted an important part of the religion of the ancient Britons, and of many other nations. These offerings were of different kinds and de- grees of value, according to the different cir- cumstances of those who presented them j and consisted generally of the most useful and excel- lent things which they could procure, and which they were taught would be most agreeable to the Gods. II This was a mode of worship which the Druids very much encouraged; and their sacred places were crowded with those pious gifts, ex- pressive of the gratitude of the donors for fa- vours which theyhad already received, or of their cj j*.Plin. Nat. Hist. 1. 16. c. 44, f Exorant magnos carmina soej^e Dcos. Ovid. Trist. 1. 11, J M\uiera crcde mihi placcaut homincsque Deosque. II Plin, IJist. Nat. 1. 16, c. 44. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. I67 desires of obtaining others ; and not a few of these offerings were in consequence of vows which had been made in a time of trouble. When armies returned from a successful campaign, they commonly offered the most precious of their spoils to some God to whom they imagined them- selves indebted for their success. These spoils were piled up in heaps in their consecrated groves, or even by the side of some hallowed lake ; and were esteemed so sacred, that they - were seldom or never violated. * Mankind, in all ages, and in every country. Sacrifices. have betrayed a consciousness of guilt, and dread of punishment from superior beings, on that ac- count. In consequence of this, they have em- ployed various means to expiate the guilt of which they were conscious, and to escape the punishments of which they were afraid. The means which have been most universally employ- ed by mankind for these ends, were sacrifices of living creatures to their offended Gods j which constituted a very essential part of the religion of the ancient Britons, and of almost all other ancient nations. The animals which were sacri- ficed by them, as well as by other nations, were such as they used for their own food ; which, being very palatable and nourishing to them- selves, they imagined they would be no less agreeable to their Gods. These victims were examined by the Druids with great care, to see * Cwsar. de Bel. Gal. 1. 6. c. 16. ' lOS HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I, iiUA that they were the most perfect and beautiful in their several kinds; after which they were killed, with various ceremonies, by priests appointed for that purpose. On some occasions, the victims were consumed entirely by fire upon tlie altar ; but more commonly they were divided into three parts, one of which was consumed upon the altar, another fell to the share of the priest who offici* ated ; and on the third, the person who brought the sacrifice feasted with his friends. * Human Jt had bccu wcU, if our British ancestors had confined themselves to the sacrificing of oxen, sheep, goats, and other animals ; but we have undoubted evidence, that they proceeded to the most horrid lengths of cruelty in their supersti- tion, and offered human victims to their Gods. It had unhappily become an article in the druidi- cal creed, " That nothing but the life of man " could atone for the life of man." In conse- quence of this maxim, their altars streamed with human blood, and great numbers of wretched men fella sacrifice to their barbarous superstition. On some great occasions, they formed a huge co- lossal figure of a man, of osier twigs, and having filled it with men, and surrounded it with hay . and other combustible materials, they set fire to the pile, and reduced it, ^Yith all the miserable creatures included in it, to ashes, t For this abominable purpose, indeed, they are said to ' Cluvcr. German. Antiq. 1. I. c. 35. t CiEsar. dc Bel. Gal. 1. 6. c. 16. Stiabo, I, 4. CJiapi 2^'Scct. 1. RELIGION. ' l6i) have preferred such as had been guilty of theft, ,, robber)'-, and other crimes, as most acceptable to ' their Gods ; but when there was a scarcity ot. criminals, they made no scruple to supply their place with innocent persons. These dreadful , sacrifices were offered by the Druids for the j^ub-' lie at the eve of a dangerous war, or in a time of any national calamity ; and for particular per-" sons of high rank, when they were afflicted with any dangerous disease. By such acts of cruelty did the ancient Britons endeavour to avert the displeasure, and gain the favour of their Gods. But that we may not on this account entertain a more unfavourable opinion of their manners and dispositions than we ought, or be led to think, them greater barbarians than they were, it is but justice to observe, that many of the most polite and learned nations in the heathen world, as the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans, were guilty of the same superstitious barbarities. * This observation is not made to diminish our horror at such savage and sanguinary superstitions, for that cannot be too great ; but to prevent us from imagining that our British ancestors were naturally more cruel, or more stupid, than other nations ; and to show us to what deplorable excesses the most humane and intelligent people upon earth are capable of pro- ceeding, when they are left to themselves, and are destitute of the light of Revelation. * Euseb. dc Laud. Constant, i. 1. c. T. Lactam. I, L c. 21. Cluver. German. Antiq, 1. 1. c. oj, lyO HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. Divina- It seems to have been one article in the creed of the ancient Britons, and of all the other na- tions of antiquity, that the Gods whom they worshipped had the government of the world, and the direction of future events in their hands, and that they were not unwilling, upon proper application, to discover these events to their pious worshippers. * " The Gods (says Ammia- " nus), either from the benignity of their own " natures, and their love to mankind, or because '* men have merited this favour from them, take "* a pleasure in discovering impending events by " various indications. " t This behef gave rise to astrology, augury, magic, lots, and an infinite multitude of rehgious rites and ceremonies ; by which deluded mortals hoped to discover the counsels of Heaven, with regard to themselves and their undertakings, t We learn from Pliny, that the ancient Britons were greatly addicted to divination, and excelled so much in the practice of all its arts, that they might have given a lesson to the Persians themselves. It will not certainly be thought necessary to give a minute laborious detail of all these arts of divination. It is sufficient to observe, that besides all those which were practised by them in common with other nations, they had one of a very horrid nature, which is thus described by Diodorus 8iculus : "They have a great veneration for » JElian. Variar. Hist. 1. '2. c. 51. { Plin. HisU Nat. 1. 50. c. 1. f Ammian. 3Iarctllin. 1. t'l. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. I7I " those who discover future events, either from ^' the fliglit of birds, or the inspection of the en- " trials of victims; and all the people yield an ** implicit faith to their oracles. On great oc- " casions, they practise a very strange and incre- *' dible manner of divination. They take a man " who is to be sacrificed, and kill him with one *' stroke of a sword above the diaphragm ; and, ** by observing the posture in which he falls, his " different convulsions, and the direction in *' which the blood flows from his body, they " form their predictions, according to certain " rules which have been left them by their " ancestors. " * By such acts of religious worship did the an- cient Britons, in those times of darkness, express their pious affec^ ions, and endeavour to gain the favour, and discover the will of their Gods. These , acts of religion were performed by them, at cer- tain stated times, and in certain places, which were esteemed sacred, and appropriated to reli- gious purposes ; which, with some other cir- cumstances, claim a little attention. i . It is impossible to support a public or national Times of religion, witliout having certain times fixed for the J,\ celebration of its solemnities. Accordingly, there have been such times settled by the laws and cus- tomsof allnationsinallages; andamongstothcrs, by those of our British ancestors. When we consider how much the Gauls and Britons were • Diod. Sicul. 1. 5. c. 35. their wor- P- HISTORY OF BRITAIN. " BookX addicted to superstition, we shall be inclined to think, that they had daily sacrifices and other acts of religion, at least in their most famous places of worship. The hours for these daily services were perhaps at noon and midnight, when they believed, according to Lucan, that the Gods visited their sacred groves. * At noon, they probably paid their homage to the Sun and the celestial Gods; and at midnight, to the Moon and the infernal powers. The Britons certainly were not ignorant of that ancient and universal division of time into weeks, consisting of seven days each ; for several writers of unquestion- able veracity assure us, that this was known, not only to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, but to all the barbarous nations, t But whether one of these seven days in every week was conse- crated to religion, is not so well known. The Bri- tons divided their time by lunar months, reckon- ingneither from the change, nor from the full, but from the sixth day of one moon to the sixth day of another; and thefirstdayof everylunarmonth, according to their way of reckoning, or the sixth, according to ours, was a religious festival. " This " (speaking of one of their most sacred solem- nities), says Pliny, is always done on the sixth * day of the moon ; a day so esteemed among them, that they have made their months, and " years, and even ages, which consist but of * Lucan. 1. 5, v. 423, &c. t Joseph. conUa Appion. 1. 2.t. 69, i'hilo. 1, 2. p. 6j/< Dio.-Caa*. h 37. c, 1«, ■-■■'^' ^-._ (I a Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. 173 " thirty years, to take their beginning from it. " The reason of their chasing that day is, because " the moon is by that time grown strong enough, " though not come to the half of its fuhiess. " * The Gauls and Britons had several annual fes- tivals, which were observed with great devotion and solemnity. Of this kind was the august so- lemnity of cutting the mistletoe from the oak by the Archdruid; which is thus described by Pliny. " The Druids hold nothing so sacred as the " mistletoe of the oak. As this is very scarce, " and rarely to be found, when any of it is dis- " covered, they go with great pomp and cere- ** mony on a certain day to gather it. When " they have got every thing in readiness under " the oak, both for the sacrifice and the banquet ** which they make on this great festival, they " begin by tying two w^hite bulls to it by the " horns. Then one of the Druids, clothed in " white, mounts the tree, and with a knife of " gold cuts the mistletoe, which is received in a " white sagum. This done, they proceed to their *' sacrifices and feastings. " t This festival is said to have been kept as near as the age of the moon permitted to the tenth of March, which was tlieir New-year's-day. The first day of May was a great annual festival, in honour of Belinus, or the sun. t On this day prodigious fires were kindled in all their sacred places, and on the tops PHn. Hist, Nat, 1, 16, c 44. f Id. ibid. \ Toland's Hist. Druids, p. 74. Mem. de I'Acad. lloyalc, v. 19. p. 489. 174 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. --■ Book I. of all their cairns, and many sacrifices were offer- ed to that glorious luminary, wliich now began to shine upon them with great warmth and lustre. Of this festival there are still some vestiges re^ maining, both in Ireland and in the Highlands of Scotland, where the first of May is called Beltein, i. e. the fire of Bel, or Belinus.* Mid- summer-day and the first of November, already mentioned, were likewise annual festivals;-]- the one to implore the friendly influences of Heaven upon their fields, and the other to return thanks for the favourable seasons and the fruits of the earth ; as well as to pay their yearly contribu- tions to the ministers of their religion. Nay, it is even probable, that all their gods and god- desses, their sacred groves, their hallowed hills, lakes and fountains, had their several anniver- sary festivals ;t so that the Druidish calendar was perhaps as much crowded with holidays as the Popish one is at present. On these festivals, after the appointed sacrifices and other acts of devotion were finished, the rest of the time was spent in feasting, singing, dancing, and all kinds of diversions. § Places of It is uo Icss ucccssary to the support of a public and national religion, to have certain places ap- pointedfor the performanceof its various offices. There appear to have been many such places in * Toland's Hist. Druids, p. 69, &c. \ Id. ibid. \ Pelloutier, Hist. Celt. 1. 5. c. 9. § Tacit, dc Mor. German, c. 40. worship. Chap. '2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. 175. Britain, in the period we are now considering ; but verydifferent from those structures which have been erected for the purposes of rehgion in later ages. It was an article in the Druidical creed, That it was unlawful to build temples to the Gods, or to worship them within walls and " under roofs.'' * All their places of worship, therefore, were in the open air, and generally on eminences, from whence they had a full view of the heavenly bodies, to whom much of their adoration was directed. But that they might not be too much incommoded by the winds and rains, distracted by the view of external objects, or dis- turbed by the intrusion of unhallowed feet, when they were instructing their disciples, or perform- ing their religious rites, they made choice of the deepest recesses of groves and woods for their sacred places. These groves were planted, for . ' that purpose, in the most proper situations, and with those trees in which they most delighted. The chief of these was the strong and spreading oak, for which tree the Druids had a very high and superstitious veneration. " The Druids (says " Pliny) have so high an esteem for the oak, that *' they do not perform the least religious cere- *' mony, without being adorned witt garlands of ** its leaves. — These philosophers believe, that " every thing that grows upon that tree doth " come from Heaven ; and that God hath chosen • Tacit, (le Mor, German, c. 9. 176 HISTORY QF, BRITAIN. BoqM L, " that tree above all others. " * In this venera- tion for the oak, from whatever cause it proceed- ed, the Druids were not singular. The priests of many other nations, and even the Hebrew pa- triarchs, seem to have entertained an almost equal veneration for that tree, f These sacred groves were watered by some consecrated fountain or river, and surrounded by a ditch or mound, to prevent the intrusion of improper persons. In the centre of the grove was a circular area, en- closed with one or two rows of large stones set perpendicular in the earth ; which constituted the temple, within which the altar stood, on which the sacrifices were offered. In someof their most magnificent temples, as particularly in that of Stonehenge, they had laid stones of prodigious weight on the tops of the standing pillars, which formed a kind of circle aloft in the air, and added much to the grandeur of the whole. Near to the temple (which is so called for want of a more proper word) they erected their carneddes, or sacred mounts ; their cromlechs, or stone tables, on which they prepared their sacrifices, and all other things which were necessary for their worship. Though the sacred groves of the Druids have been lojig ago destroyed from the very roots, yet of the temples, carneddes, and cromlechs, which were enclosed within them, there are still • Plin. Hist Nat. 1. 16. c. 44. I Gen. ehap. 31. v. 4. S. Josh. 24. v. 26, &c. Cluvcr. German. Antiq. 1. 1> c. 34. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. . 177 many vestiges remaining in the British Isles, and other parts of Europe. * Many readers will pro- bably be better pleased with Lncan's poetical description of one of these Druidical groves than with the tedious prosaic one given above, f There seems to be no necessary connexion be- tween polytheism and idolatry, or the worship of many Gods and the worship of idols; though the one hatli often introduced the other. The Egyp- tians, Persians, Romans, and other ancient na- tions, had no idols, images, or statues, for along time after they began to worship many Gods, t .This was the case with the inhabitants of Britain when they were first invaded by the Romans. • Rowland's Mona Antiq. sect. 7 — 9. Keysler Antiq. SeptentiioDy'' p. 77. Martin's Description of the Western Isles, p. 9, &c. ■J- Lucus erat longo nunquara violatus ab a;vo, Obcurum cingens connexis aera ramis Et gelidas alte submotis solibus umbras. Hunc non ruricola; Panes, nemorumque potentes Silvani, Nymphaeque tenent, sed barbara ritu Sacra deum, structa; diris altaribus arse, Omnis et huraanis lustrata cruoribus arbor, &c. &c. Lucan, Phars. 1. 3. v, 399. Not far away for ages past had stood An old unviolated sacred wood ; Whose gloomy boughs thick interwoven made A chilly cheerless everlasting shade : There, nor the rustic Gods, nor satyrs sport, Nor fawns and sylvans with the nymphs resort : But barb'rous priests some dreadful pow'r adore, And lustrate ev'ry tree with human gore, &c. &c. Rowe's Lucan, book 3. 1. 594. t Cluver. German. Antiq. 1. 1. c. 34. p. 241. VOL. I. M ':» 178 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. They^worshipped many Gods, but they liad no images of these Gods, at least none in the shape of men or other animals, in their sacred groves. * Eut whether this proceeded from a religious principle, or from their ignorance of the art of sculpture, may be doubted. For though they had no artificial statues, yet they had certain vi- sible symbols or emblems of their Gods. " All . " the Celtic nations (says Maximus Tyrius) 1 " worshipped Jupiter, whose emblem or repre- ** sentation amongst them was a lofty oak. " t The oaks which were used for this purpose were truncated, that theymight be the better emblems of unshaken firmness and stability. Such were those in the Druidical grove described by Lu- can. t Those images, which Gildas says were still remaining in his time, both within and without the walls of the ruinous heathen tem- Cples, had been erected by the Romans, or by the Britons after they were conquered, as well as the temples themselves. § Decline of The British Druids were in the zenith of their Sr, and'of power and glory at the beginning of this period; their rcit- gjyQying au almost absolute authority over the minds and persons of their own countrymen, and * Tacit, de Mor. Ger. c. 9. f Maxim. Tyr. Dissert. 58. \ , . . . Simulacraque moesta deorum Arte carent. Csesisque extant informia truncis. Lucan, 1. 5. ver. 412. .... Strong knotted trunks of oak stood near, 4M >j And artless emblems of their Gods appear. , jioi^,' § Gilds Historia, c. 2. Chap. 2. Sect. 1. RELIGION. I79 being greatly admired and resorted to by stran- gers. * But as' the Romans gained ground in this island, the power of the Druids gradually declined, until it was almost quite destroyed. For that victorious people, contrary to their usual policy, discovered every where a very great animosity against the persons and religion of the Druids. This animosity seems to have proceeded from the two following causes. Though the Romans still sacrificed millions of mankind to their ambition, and had formerly sa- crificed great numbers of them to their Gods ; yet they now began to entertain a just abhorrence of those cruel rites, and to persecute the Druids and others who were guilty of them. The other and chief cause of the hatred of the Romans against the Druids, was of a political nature. Those priests were not only the ministers of re- ligion, but (as we shall see in the next chapter) they were the civil judges, legislators, and even sovereigns in their several countries. They were sensible that if the Romans prevailed, it would be impossible for them to preserve their power ; and therefore they employed all their influence in animating their countrymen to make a vi- gorous resistance against those invaders, and in stirring them up to frequent revolts after they had submitted. On the other hand, the Romans were no less sensible that they could not establish their own authority, and secure the obedience of * Csesar. de Bel. Gal. 1, 6. c. 13. M 2 aSO HISTORY OF BRITAIN. ^^^^ ,B^^^J. Gaul and Britain, without destroying the autho- rity and influenceof the Druidsin these countries. With this view they obligedtheir subjects in these provinces to build temples, to erect statues, and offer sacrifices after the Roman manner ; and iriade severe laws against the use of human vic- tims. They deprived the Druids of all autho- rity in civil matters, and showed them no mercy when they found them transgressing the laws, or concerned in any revolt. By these means, the authority of the Druids was brought so low in Gaul, in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, about A. D. 45, that he is said by his historian to have destroyed them in that country. * A- bout the same time they began to be persecuted ^in the Roman province newly erected by that Emperor in the south-east parts of Britain ; from •.«fesno.i ^whence many of them retired into the Isle of !u"SS XA^S^^^^^' which was a kind of little world of ^aoiMias^ ?itheir own. But they did not remain long undis- turbed in this retirement. For Suetonius Pau- linus, who was governor of Britain under Nero, y-A. D. 61, observing that the Isle of Anglesey ,?was the great seat of disaffection to the Roman government, and afforded an asylum to all who • ^(:>vere forming plots against it, he determined to gisubdue it. Having conducted his army into the 'Idsland, and defeated the Britons who attempted ,i(to defend it, though they were animated by the «npi:esenp.e, the prayers, and exhortations of a great • Sueton* in vita Claudii, c. 25. Vk Sect. I. Rl^LmiON!^^'^' multitue of Druids and Druidesses, he made a v6ry cruel use of his victory. For not contented with cutting down their sacred groves, demolish- itig their temples, and overturning their altars, he burnt many of the Druids in those fires which they had kindled for sacrificing the Roman pri- soners, if the Britons had gained the victory. ^ So many of the Druids perished on this occasion, % and in the unfortunate revolt of the Britons un- der Boadicia, which happened immediately after, that they never made any considerable figure af- ter this period in South Britain. Such of them as did not think fit to submit to the Roman go- vernment, and comply with the Roman rites, fled into Caledonia, Ireland, and the lesser Bri- tish isles, where they supported their authority and superstition for some time longer. But though the dominion of the Druids in Long du- South Britain was destroyed at this time, many SeTr^u- of their pernicious principles and superstitious p^'^"'''*"^- practices continued much longer. Nay, so deeply rooted were these principles in the minds of the people both of Gaul and Britain, that they not only baffled all the power of the Romans, but they even resisted the superior power and di- vine light of the Gospel for a long time after they had embraced the Christian Religion. This is the reason that we meet wdth so many edicts of emperors, and canons of councils, in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, against the worship • Tacit. Annal. 1. H. c. 3. 182 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. of the sun, moon, mountains, rivers, lakes, and trees. * Tliis wretched superstition continued even longer in Britain than in some other coun- tries, having been revived first by the Saxons, and afterwards by the Danes. It is a sufficient and melancholy proof of this, that so late as the eleventh century, in the reign of Canute, it was found necessary to make the following law a- gainst those heathenish superstitions : " We " strictly discharge and forbid all our subjects ** to worship the Gods of the Gentiles ; that is " to say, the sun, moon, fires, rivers, fountains, " hills or trees, and woods of any kind.*' f Having given this brief delineation of Druid- ism, and traced it from the beginning of this period to its decline and final extinction, we now proceed, with pleasure, to the more agreeable subject of the second section of this chapter. • Pelloutier Hist. Celt. 1. 5. c. 4. f L.L. Politic. Canuti Regis, c. 5. apud Lendcnbrog. in Glossar, p. 14 7 J. Chap. A. Sect. 2. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, &c. 183 SECTION II. HISTORY OP THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION, FROM ITS FIRST INTRODUCTION INTO SOUTH BRITAIN, TO THE AR- RIVAL OF THE SAXONS, A. D. 449. Among the many evidences of the truth and Rapid pro- — .- f ross Or divine origin of the Christian Religion, that the Gospel. which arises from its rapid progress in the world, and the astonishing success of its first preachers, is not the most inconsiderable. It is not, indeed, the province of the historian to pursue this argument, and set it in its full light, but only to lay the foundation on which it is built, by giving an impartial account of the time and manner in which the several nations were brought to the knowledge and belief of the Gospel. This is what we are now to attempt with regard to Britain. The religious as well as civil antiquities of no Bntkh nations are commonly involved in much ob- oTthe"^* scurity. This is evidently the case with regard c™4tla-^" to the precise time in which the Christian Re- ""ty ^^'=»s . ... . ^""st plant- ligion was introduced into this island. Either ed in Bii= the first British Christians kept no memoirs of this happy event, or these memoirs have long since perished. Giidas, the most ancient of our historians, who flourished in the sixth century, declares that he could find no British records of 18i ...HISTORY OF BlilTAIN. Book I, Testimo- nies of writers about the time of planting Christia- nity in Eritain. the civil and ecclesiastical affairs of Britain, while it was subject to the Romans ; and assures us, that if any such records had ever existed, they had either been destroyed by their enemies, or carried into foreign countries by some of the exiled Britons. * We must, therefore, with that ancient historian, be contented with what light and information we can collect from the writers of other nations, who incidentally mention the time, and other circumstances, of the planting of Christianity in this island. It is highly probable, if not absolutely cer- tain, from the concurring testimonies of several writers, and from other circumstances, that Bri- tain was visited by the first rays of the Gospel before the end, perhaps about the middle, of the first century, t TertulHan, in his book against the Jews, which was written A. D. 209, posi- tively affirms, " That those parts of Britain into " which the Roman arms had never penetrated, " were become subject to Christ. " t From hence we may conclude, that Christianity had been known some time before this in the Ro- man provinces in South Britain. Eusebius, Bishop of CcCsaria, who flourished in the begin- ning of the fourth century, was equally famous for his learning and integrity, and being in higli favour with Constantine the Great, had the i-J :.■. Gilda; Historia, c. 1. t Du Pin's Cliurch Hist. Cent. 2d. in TcrtiiU. \ Tcrlull. contra Judaos, c. 7. ;:!i'J J'l Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 185 best opportunities of being well-informed of thiei state and history of the Christian Religion in all the provinces of the Roman empire. He wrote a book to demonstrate the truth of the Gospel; in which he endeavours to prove, that the apostles must have been assisted by some power more than human, since they had preached with so much success, in so many remote cities and countries, " to the Romans, Persians, Arme- ** nians, Parthians, Indians, Scythians, and to " those which are called the British Islands. " * Now, as the strength of this reasoning depend- |^ ed entirely on the truth of these facts, we have ';""■' reason to suppose that Eusebius knew they were undeniable: and if they were so, it follows that * the Gospel was preached in this island in the apostolic age. This is further confirmed by the following testimony of Theodoret: " These, " our fishermen, publicans, and tent-makers, *' persuaded not only the Romans and their " subjects, but also the Scythians, Sauromatae, " Indians, Persians, Serae, Hyrcanians, Britons, " Cimmerians, and Germans, to embrace the " religion of him wlio had been crucified. " t Theodoret flourished in the former part of the fifth century, and was unquestionably one of the most learned fathers of the church. To these we may subjoin the testimony of Gildas, who seems to fix tlie time of the first introduction of * Euseb. Demonst. Evang. 1. 5. c. 7. p. 115. f Theod. luiii. i. 9<;i. 9. p. 610. 18G ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY Book L the Christian Religion into South Britain about the period of the great revolt and defeat of the Britons under Boadicia, A. D. 61. For having briefly mentioned these events, he adds, " In •« the mean time, Christ the true sun afforded " his rays ; that is, the knowledge of his pre- " cepts to this island, benumbed with extreme " cold, having been at a great distance from the " sun ; I do not mean the sun in the firmament, " but the eternal sun in heaven. " * This was, no doubt, the tradition about this matter which prevailed in Britain in the beginning of the sixth century, when Gildas wrote ; and it was proba- bly not far from the truth. Evidences We shall be more disposed to give credit to Imt^ of ^ these testimonies concerning the early introduc- Britain of ^j^j^ ^f ^\^q Christian Religion into Britain, when the early "^ introduc- -we considcr the state of that country, and of the christia- church in these times. The Emperor Claudius established a Roman province in the south-east parts of Britain, A. D. 43 : a Roman colony was soon after settled at Camelodunum ; Lon- don and Verulam had become large, rich, and flourishing municipia, or free cities, crowded with Roman citizens, before the revolt under Boadicia. All this must certainly have occa- sioned a constant and daily intercourse between Rome and Britain ; so that whatever made any noise, or became the subject of attention in that great capital of the world, could not be long * Gilda- Ilistoria, c. S. nity. Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 187 unknown in this island. Now, it is unques- tionably certain that the Christian Religion had not only made great progress at Home in the reign of Claudius, but had even engaged the attention of the government. * It must there- fore have been heard of, at least in Britain, be- fore A. D. 54, when Claudius died. Before that year also, many Britons of high rank had been carried prisoners to Rome, and others had gone thither to negociate their affairs at the Imperial court ; and a much greater number of Romans had come from Rome into Britain, to occupy civil and military posts in this island. Can it be supposed, therefore, that none of these Britons, on their return into their own country, or of these Romans on their coming into this island, brought with them the knowledge of the Christian Religion? It is much more probable, that among those great multitudes of people of all ranks who came from Rome into Britain be- tween A.D. 43, and A.D. 54, there were some, perhaps many Christians. Such, we have reason to think, was that famous lady Pomponia Grao- cina, the wife of Aulus Plautius, the very first governor of the Roman province in Britain ; of whom Tacitus gives this account: " Pomponia " Graecina, an illustrious lady, married to Plau- *' tins, who was honoured with an ovation or *' lesser triumph for his victories in Britain, was " accused of having embraced a strange and * Suetonius in vita Claud, c. 25. 188 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. Book I. " foreign superstition ; and her trial for that " crime was committed to her husband. He, ** according to ancient law and custom, con- " vened her whole family and relations ; and " having, in their presence, tried her for her " life and fame, pronounced her innocent of " any thing immoral. Pomponia lived many ~ " years after this trial, but always led a gloomy " melancholy kind of life." * It is highly pro- bable, that the strange superstition of which Pomponia was accused, was Christianity; for the Roman writers of these times knew very little of that religion, and always speak of it in such slight contemptuous terms, t The great innocence of her manners, and the kind of Hfe which she had led after her trial, render this still more probable. Now, if this illustrious lady was really a Chris- tian, and accompanied her husband during his residence in Britain, from A.D. 43 to A.D. 47, she might be one of the first who brought the knowledge of Christ into this island ; and ^might engage some of the first preachers of the Gospel to come into it in this very early period. But if the Christian Religion made great pro- gress and much noise at Rome in the reign of Claudius, it made much greater in that of his successor Nero. For about the third year of that reign, A.D. 57, St Paul, the most zealous, eloquent, and successful of the apostles, arrived • Tacit. Annul. 1. 13. c. 32. t fkicton. Neio, c. 16. Tacit. Annal, 1. 15. c. 41. Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. X89 at Rome, where he continued two whole years. preaching the kingdom of God, and teaching those things which concern the Lord Jesus Christ, with all confidence, no man forbidding him. * In this time, that great apostle made a prodigious number of converts of many different nations and of all ranks. For, in a letter which he wrote from that city to the Philippians, he acquaints them, that his having been sent a prisoner to Rome, had fallen out rather into the furtherance of the Gospel ; so that his bonds in Christ were manifest in all the palace, and in all other places, t Besides, there were many other Christian preachers at Rome, at that time, who all spoke with great boldness, and had their share of success, t Now, among all these numerous converts, is it not very probable that there were some Britons, or some Romans who had occasion soon after to go into Britain ; or at least some who had friends in this island, to whom they would naturally communicate an account of the new religion wliich they had embraced? There seems to be strong evidence, that there was at least one Briton of high rank and great merit among St Paul's converts. This was Claudia, mentioned with Pudens, 2 Tim. iv. 21., who is thought to be the same with Claudia, the wife of Pudens ; a British lady so much celebrated by Martial for her beauty and virtue, in the t^vo • Acts, chap. 28. V. 31. f Philippians, chap. 1. v. 12, 15. \ Ibid. v. 14. 190 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY Book L epigrams in part quoted below. * But however this may be, it appears to be morally certain, from all these testimonies and circumstances, that the first rays of the light of the Gospel reached the south-east parts of this island, some time between A. D. 43, and A. D. 61. Small j^Lit though the name of Christ was not alto- number of ^ Christians gcthcr uutnown in Britain in this very early in Britain • ■, , in /-^i • • • i » before the pcrioQ, yct tlic numbcr ot Christians m this lion m"der islaud was thcu certainly very small ; consisting Nero. perhaps of a few particular persons or families, who contented themselves with the private ex- ercise of their religion, and with recommending it to their friends and neighbours, without much noise or observation. But this little flock sera- dually increased by converts at home, and ac- cessions from abroad. After the suppression of the great revolt under Boadicia, Provincial Bri- tain enjoyed great tranquillity for many years, under a succession of mild and good governors, and presented an inviting asylum to Christians who were cruelly persecuted in other parts, par- ticularly at Rome. For the greatest part of that imperial city having been reduced to ashes by a • Claudia, Rufe, meo nupsit peregrina Pudenti : Macte esto tasdis O Hymcnsee tuis, &c. L. 4. Epigram. IS. Claudia cenileis cum sit Rufina Britannis Edita, cur Latia pectora gentis habet ? Quale decus forma; ! llomanam credere matres Italides possunt, Atthidcs esse suam, &c L. 11. Epigram. liU Chap. 2. eect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. -;iQl dreadful fire, A. D. 64, the infernal tyrant Nero, to divert the suspicion of his having been the incendiary, laid the blame of it upon the Chris- tians ; and on that false pretence put prodigious numbersof these unpopularinnocents to the most cruel kinds of death. " Some of them (says " Tacitus) were wrapt in the skins of wild beasts, " and torn in pieces by dogs ; others were cru- " cified ; and others being burned, served as " torches to enlighten the streets of the city in " the night-time. " * From those direful suffer- ings, according to the permission of their graci- ous Master, great nmltitudes of Christains fled into other cities and countries ; of whom, it is highly probable, not a few took shelter in this island, as a place of the greatest safety, and thereby greatly increased the number of Christi- ans in Britain. From about this time, therefore, we may suppose the Christians in Britain began to be formed into religious societies, under spi- ritual guides, for the instruction of their minds and regulation of their manners, and, in a word, began to assume the face and form of a Chris- tian church. If it be not easy to ascertain the precise time who when a Christian church was first planted in Bri- chHsuv tain, it is still more difficult to discover by whose Sahi, ministry that church was planted. The ac- counts which are given us of this matter by an- cient writers, are very various and unsatisfac- « Tacit. Annal. I. 15. c. 44. 402 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. Book L toiy ; some ascribing the conversion of the Bri- tons to one, and some to another of the apos- tles, or other primitive preachers of the gospel. It may not, however, be improper to mention, in a very few words, the most considerable of these accounts, though some of them are not.a. little absurd and improbable. St James. If this qucstion were to be determined by a, plurality of votes, the apostle James, the son of Zebedee and the brother of St John, would cer-, tainly be declared the apostle of the Britons, as well as of the Spaniards. For a great crowd of ancient historians, martyrologists, and other writers, collected by the most learned Arch- bishop Usher, affirm, that this apostle preaclied • . the Gospel in Spain, in the British Isles, and in other countries of the West. * But it is almost impossible that this can be true ; for we are as- sured by St Luke, that so early as A. D. 44<, " Herod the King stretched forth his hands " to vex certain of the church. And he killed ** James the brother of John with the sword, "t Simon Ze- Somc Other writers acquaint us, that it was the apostle Simon surnamed Zelotes, who first preached the Gospel in the West, and particu- larly in the British Isles j and that he suffered martyrdom, and was buried in Britain. But a far greater number of writers, with much greater * Usser. de primord. Eccles. Brit. c. 1. p. 6. f Arts, cli. 12. V. 1, 2. lotes. Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. ■^^' probability, fix the scene of this apostle's la- bours and sufferings in the East. * Baronius, and some other writers of the church of Rome, who take all opportunities of magni- fying the apostle Peter, though sometimes at the expense of his brethren, contend with great ear- nestness, that he was the first who preached the Gospel, and planted a Christian Church in Bri- tain, t But they can produce no tolerable evi- dence or authority for this opinion ; and it is certain nothing can be more improbable. Me- taphrastes indeed says, and he is the only writer of any antiquity that says any thing of the mat- ter, " That St. Peter spent twenty-three years " at Rome, and in Britain, and other countries of the West ; and particularly, that he con- tinued a long time in Britain, converted many nations, constituted many churches, in which, having ordained bishops, presbyters, and dea- " cons, he returned to Rome in the 12th year of " Nero. " t But Metaphrastes was a mere mo- dern in comparison of the apostolic times, and his testimony, as Baronius acknowledges, is of little or no weight. § It appears from Scripture, that the charge of preaching the Gospel to those of the circumcision, was in a pecuhar manner • Ussorius de primord. Eccles. Brit. o. 1. p. 7. t Baron. Annal. torn. 1. p. 537. Parson's Conversion of Brit, p. 19. t Usser. de Ecdcs. Brit primord. p. 7. § Caron. Annal. torn. 1. A. D. 61. VOL. I. 'N a ';i|94 ECCLESIASTICAL IILSTORY Book I. committed to St. Peter. * From whence we may be certain, aswellasfromotlierevidence, that this apostle spent his life in preaching in Judea, Alex- andria, Antioch, Babylon, and such countries as abounded with Jews, and not in Britain, where tliere were few or none of that nation at this time. It is not necessary to say any thing of the Caledonian apostleship of St. Andrew, for which very respectable authorities might be alleged ; though it is certainly no better founded than that of his brother St. Peter's, in Provincial Britain, t St. Paul. There is only another of the apostolic college to whom the introduction of Christianity into Britain hath been ascribed, viz. the apostle Paul. And it must be confessed, that the tradition con- cerning him, is not only supported by very an- cient and venerable authorities, but also that it doth not seem to be any way inconsistent with what we know with certainty of the character and history of that apostle. Theodoret, whose testimony hath been already produced to prove, that the Christian Religion was not altogether unknown in Britain in the days of the apostles, in some other places of his works insinuates, that the apostle Paul preached the Gospel in this island, as well as in Spain and other coun- tries in the West, t Clemens Romanus and St. Jerome say the same thing, in rather plainer • Galat. ch. 2. v. 7. t ^' M'Pherson's Dissert, p. 353. J Usser. dc Ecclcs. Brit, primord. p. 8. Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. I95 terms. * These testimonies of ancient writer^, to which, if it were necessary, some others might be added, are confirmed by the consideration of several particulars in the writings, the character, and history of this apostle. Nothing is more certain, than that he was animated with the most fervent zeal for the propagation of the Christian Religion, and that he flew like lightning from one country to another in the execution of this design. It appears from his own writings, and from the canonical history of the Acts of the Apostles, written by St. Luke, that from the time when this apostle first began to preach the ? >' Gospel, to the time when he was sent prisoner to Rome, he had made an almost incredible num- ber of journies into many countries of the East, where he preached the Gospel, and planted Christian Churches, t It appears too, from the same unquestionable authority, that some time before his imprisonment, he had a presage of that event, and a certain knowledge that he should never return again into the East ; and that none of those among whom he had hitherto preached should see his face any more, t He was released from his confinement at Rome, and set at full liberty to go where he pleased, A.D. .58 ; from which, to the time when he suffered martyrdom at Rome, A. D. 67, in the last year of Nero, was no less than nine years. Wliere * Stilliiigflcet's Orig. Brit. p. 37, 38. f Acts, chap. 13—21. \ Ibid. chap. 20. v. 2^. N 2 : 19(3 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY Book L tfieii cticl' this most active and zealous apostle spend these last nine years of his laborious life? To this question, it must be confessed, no very satisfactory answer can be given. The writings, as well as the persons, of the primitive teachers of Christianity, were exposed to the most cruel persecutions, and both very often perished in the same flames ; wliich is the reason that we know so little of some parts of their history. But fiom several circumstances, it appears most pro- bable, that St. Paul spent the last years of his life in the western provinces of the Roman em- pire, of which Britain was one. He had taken a final leave of the clnirches in the East, into which he had been assured, by a Divine revela- tion, that he never should return. He writes to Timothy from Rome, immediately after his deliverance, that the design of Providence in delivering him out of the lion's mouth, i. e. from the tyrant Nero, was, that his preaching might be fully known ; and that all the Gentiles might hear;^ probably meaning those of the West, as well as those of the East. This apostle was always ambitious of preaching in countries where the name of Christ was not at all, or very little known, lest he should build upon another man's foundation. \ Now, the Western pro- vinces of the Roman empire presented him a large uncultivated field, where the name of Christ was very little known at the time of his « 2 Tira. ch. 4. V. 17= f Romans, ch. 15. v. 20. Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. I97 deliverance. It appears too, in particular, that his heart was very much set upon making a journey into Spain, by way of Rome, to preach the Gospel in that country. * Is it not rea- sonable to suppose then, that he accomplished this design after he was released from his con- finement at Rome? If he did this, and travelled through Gaul into Spain, and spent some years in these countries, it is not improbable that he also visited Britain, which was then become a large and flourishing province of the Roman empire. In a word, though it would be rash and unwarrantable in a modern writer to affirm po- sitively, that the apostle Paul preached the Gos- pel in Britain, yet it is certainly no presumption to affirm, that if any of the apostles preached in this island, it was most probably the apostle Paul, t " The conversion of the first British Christians Amtobu. is, by some authors, ascribed to Aristobulus, who is mentioned by St. Paul, in his Epistle to the Romans, t This extraordinary person, of whom St. Paul says so little, was, according to these authors, very happy in a great number of ex^ cellent relations. For he was, as they pretend, the same with Zebedee, the father of the two apostles James and John, by his wife Salome ; he was also brother to Barnabas, and father-in- law to the two apostles Peter and Andrew. A * Romans, ch. 15. v. '24. 2S. t StUlinifleet'& Oiig. Brit. ^i. 39—48. $ Chap. 16. v. 10, 198 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY Book L person so well related could hardly fail to meet with preferment in the church. Accordingly^ they tell us, that he was ordained a bishop by his son-in-law St. Peter, and sent to preach the Gospel in Britain, where he suffered martyrdom.* All this is so palpably absurd and legendary that it merits no serious confutation. josoi.hof The honour of planting the first Christian thea. church in South Britain, hath been bestowed by others upon Joseph of Arimathea, who buried our Saviour in his own new tomb, t Now, though the tradition of Joseph's coming into Britain is altogether improbable, and supported by no tolerable authority, yet as it has been se- riously defended by some Popish writers, and (which is almost as absurd) seriously refuted by some Protestants, it may not be improper to gra- tify the reader's curiosity, by laying before him the first and most simple edition of this story, and also some of the embellishments which were af- terwards added to it by other monkish writers. A¥illiam of Malmsbury, in the beginning of his History of the Antiquities of the Church of Glastenbury, having mentioned the dispersion of the apostles by the persecution in which St. Stephen suffered martyrdom, he proceeds to this purpose : " That St. Philip came into *' the country of the Franks, where he con- '* verted many to the Faith ; and being de- sirous of propagating the knowledge of Christ <( '• Usscr. dc Eccles. Brit, primord. p. 9, 10. \ St. Matthew, iliaj). 'J7 . v. CO. « ti « sK;ilJ« Clwp. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BllITAIN,^' 190 f* still further, he chose twelve of his disciples, " and having devoutly laid his right hand upon " each of them, he sent them to preach the " word of life in Britain, under the conduct of " his dear friend Joseph of Arimathea, who bu- " ried the Lord. These missionaries arriving in " Britain, A. D. 63, from the assumption of the " blessed Mary the 15th, they preached the " Gospel with great zeal. The barbarous king " of the country, however, and his subjects, re- "jected their new doctrine, and would not " abandon their ancient superstition ; but as' f^* Joseph and his companions had come from a very distant country, and behaved modestly, he granted them a certain island in the bor- ders of his kingdom, called Iniswitrin, for J* their residence ; and two other Pagan princes " successively granted them twelve hides of land 5" for their subsistence. These holy men living *' in this wilderness, being admonished by the ** angel Gabriel to build a church to the honour ** of the blessed Virgin, the mother of God, >** they were not disobedient to the divine com- ff*,inand, but built a small chapel of wattles in "a place pointed out to them ; a humble struc- " ture indeed, but adorned with many virtues ! o" For as this was the iirst Christian church in .** these regions, the Son of God was pleased to do ** it the singular honour of dedicating it himself ** to tlie honour of his mother. " * Though this * Gulichn. Malinsb. de Aiilii]. GlasU licclco. z[)\id Gal. torn., Up. 202, ►XV! ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY Book fec^rj original story hath a very decent proportion of the marvellous, it did not satisfy the luxuriant fancies of the monks of Glastenbury, who made almost as great a change in it, as they did in Ss'a *^^i^ old church of wattles, by their successive^cg '■ embellishments. It will be sufficient to convince us of this, to give the following short extract,Yj which is said to have been taken out of the ai^2£ chives of the church of Glastenbury : " There " were six hundred men and women who were *' to come over into Britain with Joseph of Ari^^fj •* mathea, who having all taken a vow of ab- " stinence till they came to land, they all broke •* it, except fifty, who came over the sea on the ** shirt of Josephus the son of Joseph. But the " rest having repented of the breach of their " vow, a ship was sent to bring them over, " which had been built by King Solomon>Ji3 " There came over with them a duke of the'^-f " Medes, called Necianus, formerly baptized " by Joseph in the city of Saram, with the king "of it, called Mordraius, who valiantly killed. . " a king of North Wales, who kept Joseph %w " prisoner, " &:c. &c. * It will not be neces-io sary to spend any time in proving, that these^ monstrous fictions were the pure inventions of the monks of Glastenbury^, to promote the re*£u- putation and riches of their monastery. For notiq thing could equal the wantonness and effrontery>>t of the monks in the middle ages, in inventing • Stillingllcet's Oiig. Brit, p. 13, •""''^ f r:r\' i ih Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BIUTAINv' ' ScS^"' anft propagatiiig such 6xtravagatillegeil3s3ii^^f the great simplicity of the people in believin^"'"^ them, tt wii vv t ^ lis - '^^^ A modern writer of no little learning and sa- "^ "l*- gacity, hath advanced it as a probable opinion, from tuc that Christianity was first planted in this island by missionaries who came immediately from the" East, sent (as he thinks most likely) by the fa- mous St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, who suffer- ed martyrdom, A. D. I70. t The only reason which he gives for this new and singular opinion is, the conformity of the British Christians with the churches of the East, about the time of keeping Easter. But nothing can be more cer^ tain, than that the Christian Religion was intro-^ duced into Britain, long before there was any talk, at least before there was any controversy^ about the time of keeping Easter. That contro- versy doth not seem to have made any noise in the church, till about the middle of the second century, and probably did not reach Britain till some time after. Now, as the British church was not then under any subjection to the church of Rome, nor indeed any one national church subject to another, when this controversy about the time of keeping Easter came to be agitated among the British Christians, it is not at all sur- prising, that they chose to conform to the prac- tice of the Eastern church, which was the mother • Vide Usscr. de Ecclcs. Biit. piimord, c. 2. f Dr. M'riiersou's Dissert. 2(>. o, ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY Book L First planters of Christia- nity in South Bri- tain not certainly- known. Cent. 2. I'rogress of tlie Gospel gradual. ol' all other churches, and most likely to be in the right. To this they might be persuaded by some persons of influence amongst them, who had studied the controversy, and were well enough acquainted with the arguments on both sides. Upon the whole, it must be acknowledged, that after all that hath been written on this sub- ject, it is now impossible to discover with cer- tainty, who were the first preachers of the Gos-; pel, and the chief instruments of planting a Christian Church in this island. Nor have we any reason to be much concerned at this, since we know that we are indebted for this inestimable blessing to that gracious Being from whom every, good and perfect gift cometh ; and that to him, and not to the visible instruments of his provi- dence, our supreme gratitude and thanks ai'e due. As the Christian Religion was very early in- troduced into Britain, so, after its introduction, it continued to diffuse its light from one of the Bri- tish nations unto another, luitil they were all in some measure illuminated. The progress of the Roman arms, though without any intention of theirs, contributed not a little to the progress of the Gospel, by reducing all the different na^ tions of South Britain under one government, and thereby opening a free and uninterrupted in- tercourse over the whole country. As the con- quest of South Britain was completed by the Romans before the end of the first century, we have reason to think, that the name and religion cms. Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. '203 of Christ were known, in some degree, in almost every corner of that country, aboutthe beginning of the second. We have the greater reason to be of this opinion, when we consider, that, by the destruction of the Druids, which had happened before that time, one great obstacle to the pro- gress of the Gospel was removed ; and the minds of the Britons were left open to the impressions of a more pure and rational religion. But thousrh the first dawnings of the Gospel Convcr- had so early visited this island, and were so widely Kin- Lu- diffused, we cannot suppose that the number of Christians here was either very great in the se- cond century, or that they were in general of the most distinguished rank. The perfect tranquil- lity, and freedom from persecution, which the Christiansin Britain enjoyed during the whole of the second, and the greatest part of the third century, is a proof, not only of their prudent and peaceable behaviour, but also that they were not thought formidable for their power or num- bers, by the Roman government. In other pro- vinces of the Roman empire, where the number of Christians was become very great, they were severely persecuted in the beginning of this cen- tury, even by the most humane governors, under the mildest emperors ; as by Pliny, under the Emperor Trajan, in Pontus and Bithynia.* In- deed, if the famous story of the conversion of Lucius, King of Britain, and of his subjects, to * riin. Epist. 97. 1. 10. ■204. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY Book L the Christian faith, which is so gravely and cir- cumstantially related by so many authors, could be believed, we should be led to entertain much higher ideas of the state of the British church in this period. But certainly there never was any story more evidently false, absurd, and con- tradictory, in almost every circumstance, than this of king Lucius, as it is related by different authors. Some of them make this Lucius kin^ of all the British isles j some kingof Britain j some king of South Britain ; and some only a petty king of some part of South Britain, they know not where 5 and (to mention only another of the contradictory circumstances of this story) no fewer than twenty-three different dates have been assigned for this event of the conversion of king Lucius, by different writers. * If there is any truth at all in this story, it requires more than human penetration and sagacity, to distinguish it from the heap of fables and contradictions un- der which it is buried. But that the reader's curiosity may not be disappointed, we shall lay before him the very short account of this matter which is given by Nennius, the most ancient of our historians by whom it is mentioned ; and also the more pompous and circumstantial narration of Jeffrey of Monmouth. By comparing these two accounts together, he will observe how ^luioui Q^^ch this famous tale had improved between the seventh century, in which Nennius lived, • Usscr. Etclcb. Brit, primord. c. 5. Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 205 and the twelfth, in which Jeffrey of MonmQuth flourished. ■^■un. 4 " In the year 164 fsays Nennius) from the Keiation . . ^ of it by 4 ^* incarnation of our Lord, Lucius, monarch of Nennius. " Britain, with all the other petty kings of all '* Britain, received baptism, from a deputation sent by the Roman Emperors, and by the Roman Pope Evaristus." * This is but a very short story, and yet it contains at least two as great falsehoods and absurdities as can well be imagined. What can be more absurd and false than to assert that there was a great British mo- narch named Lucius, with many petty British kings under him, at a time when all South Bri- tain, and a considerable part of North Britain, were under subjection to the Romans ? Unless it be still more absurd to affirm, that the two heathen Emperors, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, and Lucius Verus, sent deputies to convert and baptize the kings and people of Britain. On this foundation, however, which was laid by Nennius, subsequent writers, by degrees, raised a very magnificent structure, which was at length brought to perfection, by the inventive and romantic genius of Jeffi'ey of Monmouth, as appears from the following narration. " Coilus had but one son, named Lucius, who. Relation ** obtaining the crown after his father's death, jj^nvpy^of " imitated all his acts of goodness, and seemed ^^""■; f^ ' ^ . month. *• to his people to be no other than Coilus him- • Nennii Hist. Brit. o. 18. (( 50G ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY BookL " self revived. As he liad made this e'ood " beginning, he was wilhng to make a better " end: for which purpose he sent letters to Pope " Eleutherius, desiring to be instructed by him " in the Christian Religion. For the miracles " which Christ's disciples performed in several " nations, wrought conviction in his mind, so " that being inflamed with an ardent love of the " true faith, he obtained the accomplishment of his pious request. For that holy pope, upon receipt of this devout petition, sent to him " two most religious doctors, Faganus and ** Duvanus, who, after they had preached con- *' corning the incarnation of the Word of God, " administered to him baptism, and made him a proselyte to the Christian Faith. Imme- diately upon this, people from all countries assembling together, followed the King's ex- ample, and, being washed in the same holy " laver, w^ere made partakers of the kingdom of " Heaven. The holy doctors, after they had " almost extinguished Paganism over the whole " island, dedicated the temples, that had been " founded in honour of many Gods, to the one " only God and his saints, and filled them with ** con o-reciations of Christians. There were then " in Britain eight-and-twenty flamens, as also " three archfiamens, to whose jurisdiction the " other judges and enthusiasts were subject. "These also, according to the apostles' com- " mand, they delivered from idolatry, and where " they were flamens made them bishops, where Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITATK. ^O' " archflameiis archbishops. The seats of tlic " archflameiis were at tlie three noblest cities, " viz. York, London, and Caerleon iiponUske, " in Glamorganshire. Under tliese three, now ** purged from superstition, were made subject " twenty-eight bishops, with their dioceses. "^t An astonishing revohition indeed ! and the more astonishing, that it was brought about by the in- fluence of a British king, at a time when there could be no British king on the south side of the firths of Forth and Clyde, except in a state of entire subordination to the Romans. But honest Jeffrey does not stop here. Though he had pro- vided the infant church of Britain with a very decent set of archbishops and bishops, who had been archflamens and flamens, he was sensible that they would have made but an awkward figure in their new character without good houses and good livings, and therefore he hath taken care to make them rather better in that respect than they had been before, that they might have no reason to repent the change of their religion. For a little further he adds, " That the glorious " King Lucius, being highly rejoiced at the " great progress the true faith and worship had " made in his kingdom, granted, that the pos- " sessions and territories formerly belonging to " the temples of the Gods, should now be con- " verted to a better use, and appropriated to " Christian churches. And, because greater • Gaulfrid, Monumut. 1. -1. c. 19- ^08 ECCLESIASTICAL HIST0RY::>2 eBoDk I. ** honour was due to them than to the others, " he made large additions of lands and mansion- " houses, and all manner of privileges to them." It was very fortunate for these right reverend converts that good king Lucius was of so differ- ent a disposition from his famous successor, Henry VIII. Jeffrey at last finishes the history of this wonderful monarch by telling us, " That " he departed this life in the city of Gloucester, " and was honourably buried in the cathedral " church, in the hundred and fifty-sixth year " after our Lord's incarnation. " * Such is the account which is given by Jeffrey of Monmoutli of the conversion of king Lucius, and its im- portant consequences. A late church historian says, very gravely, " That this account looks " very suspicious ; " and takes much learned pains to prove, that the Pagan and Christian hierarchy were not so very like, and so easily convertible into one another as Jeffrey hath represented them. " That there were British *' bishops (says he) in Lucius's time, is without *' question ; " but he seems to think that this good king had it not in his power to provide quite so well for them, t The truth is, that it is almost equally ridiculous to draw any serious consequences from this extravagant story, or to take any pains in refuting it ; since every one who knows any thing of the state of Britain at • Gaulfrid. Monumut I. £. c. 1. , ... d»> .?*>*- >.v>c.^ Collier's Eiclcsiaaf. Hist. v. 1. p. fS, 14. Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRIT AM 209 that time, must know, that it contains as minf falsehoods and impossibilities as sentences. \ilf there is any truth at all in this story of King j^j|^;^'^^jj, Lucius, it cannot possibly be any more than this: there . 1 1 might be That some time or other in the second century, in the there was apettyprince or chieftain of the Britons King Lu- in favour with the Romans, and indulged by *^'"''* them with some degree of authority in his coun- try, who embraced the Christian Religion, and promoted the conversion of his friends and fol- lowers, to the utmost of his power. This might possibly happen ; but whether it did happen or .Jlpt.is certainly very doubtful, since Giidas, the most ancient of our historians, who was a Briton and a zealous Christian, gives not the least hint of such a thing. The happy situation of the Christians in Bri- tain preserved them from tlie contagion of those fatal heresies which were broached in the second century, and greatly disturbed the peace of the Christian church, and obstructed the progress of the Gospel in other places. Fortheheresiarchs of this early period, as Basilides, Carpocrates, Valen- tinus, Montanus, &c. being either Egyptians or Asiatics, countries with which Britain had little or no intercourse, the Christians in this island remained in a happy ignorance of their peculiar opinions ; and continued to enjoy the light of the Gospel in the same purity in which it had "been communicated to them by their first teachers. This circumstance contributed not a little both to the internal peace and external VOL. I. O Christia- nity. 210 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOR%.,.p 3oqk,f^ safety of the infant church of Britain, and pre-^ served it from many calamities which fell upon other churches which were infected with these heresies. Cent. 3. ., Though it is abundantly evident, that the progr'i Of (Christian Religion was very far from being esta- blished in Britain in this early period, so generally, or with so much eclat and splendour as the Mon- kish writers pretend, yet it plainly appears, that it not only subsisted, but even continued gradu-^ ally to gain ground. For about the beginning of this century (according to the testimony of Ter- tuUian, already quoted) it had extended beyond the limits of the Roman province, into those parts of Britain which had not submitted to the arms of that victorious people. * This was probably brought about by the ministry of some, of the provincial Britons, who having embraced Christianity, and being animated with an ardent zeal for the propagation of their new religion, communicated the knowledge of it to the free and independent Britons, who were of the same stock, and spoke the same language with them- selves. How far the light of the Gospel pene-^ trated, at this time, into the wilds of Caledonia, it is impossible to discover. 'The Christian churches in Asia, Africa, and on the Continent of Europe, were, during the whole of this century, persecuted andrelievedby turns, according to the diflTerent dispositions of the * Tertul. contra Judasos, c. 7. CUp. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 211 ^.,^ reigning emperors, and of the governors, priests,- and people of the provinces where they were planted. * It was the peculiar felicity of the Christians in Britain, to enjoy a profound tran- quillity and peace, for the greatest part of this jigefi This might be owing, under Providence, to their distant situation ; to the humanity of thfeir governors ; to the want of power in the heathen priests; to their own prudent and peace- able behaviour ; and perhaps to other causes, to us unknown. At last, the flames of persecution, which had P^rsecu- often raged with so much violence in other coun- Britain, tries, reached this peaceful and sequestered corner of the Roman empire. This persecution brok6^ out in Britain some time in the reign of the Em;^ peror Dioclesian, who assumed the purple A. D.? 284, and laid it aside A. D. 305 ; but in what year of this reign it began, and how long it con- tinued, cannot be discovered. Gildas, the most ancient of our historians, says, that it continued iiine years in some other countries, but only two in Britain ; and expresses himself in such a man- ' ner, as would lead us to think they were the last two years of Dioclesian's reign, t This agrees well enough with the accounts of the most ancient church historians, who represent thispersecution as raging with the greatest violence in the begini • Moshemii Hist. Eccles. tacul. o. c. 2. Gildac Hist. Brit. c. 7. Bedaj Hist Eccles. 1. 1. c. 4. f GildnB Hist. Brit. c. 7, 8. o 2 -USj ;v:ns!/ ^It ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. } Bo^kl. ningof the fourth century.* Butvenerable Bede^ ^'incl the greatest number of our old historians, place this persecution, and the martyrdom of St Alban, in the vear 286. The truth is, if either Dioclesian.or hiscolieao^ue IMaximianusJiadanv : hand in this persecution, it must have been either ■• near the bei^innin^: or near the end of their ioint V, .... reign; for, in the intermediate time, Britain was i;«i5 3:r>n governed more than ten years, first by Carausius, "^^J^yjand afterwards by Alectus, in a manner quite independent of these emperors, t Not only are we thus uncertain about the precise time of this persecution, but the accounts which we have of its other circumstances are very unsatisfactory; t)eing given us by Monks, a set of men who could not abstain fi'om the marvellous, where religion was concerned, t The truth, when sepa- -rated from the legendary and miraculous em- ^bellishments with which it is adorned by these writers, seems to have been this : That some time near the end of the third, or beginning of the fourth century, the Christians in the Roman >provincein Britain were persecuted for their reli- gion : that in this persecution St Alban, a native of Verulamium, suffered martyrdom in that city, and was the first British martyr : that besides him, Aaron and Julius, two citizens of Caerieon, and many others, both men and women, in / • Euseb. Hist. Eccks. 1. I.e. 6. lactant. de Movt. Perseq. c. 14. p. <501. " ^^ 3, f Bed»JtIisU^Eccles.l. 8.,c. 6, Biogr?pl«i^.priU^nicft, p^^,!- -Sa, note E. • . -v^ - -^^ i , ", .^ i "^ • ■^f Giy« Hist. Brh. c. 8. B«ls Hist. Ecdcs. I. 1 . f. T.-^*^^ ^" tiineii. Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. ^il3 severaUlifterent places, suffered at the same time, in the same glorious cause : but that a stop was soon put to this cruel persecution by the good providence of God, and the church restored to a state of tranquillity. : We have not materials to enable us to ffivc a f^ovcm. . n 1 mciit, doc- satisfactory and authentic account or the govern- trine, and ment, doctrine, and worship ofthe ancient British the Bwtish churches in the first three centuries, before they f.l'u'ie'Trsi received any protection and support from the ^'"■'''' '^*-'"" civil government. We have already seen the pompous plan of Jeffrey of Monmouth, said to have been copied from the Pagan hierarchy by King Lucius. His countryman, Giraldus Cam- brensis, presents uswith a still more splendidand extensive form of ecclesiastical government, in imitation ofthe civil government of the Romans, which (as he says) was settled in Britain in the days of this wonderful king, above two hundred years before the arrival ofthe Saxons. " Accord- ** ing to the number of provinces which were in *' Britain in the times of Paganism, five metro- ** politans were settled, one in each province ; " with twelve suffragans under each metropolitan *' in twelve difierent cities. The metropolitan *' of the first province was seated at Caerleon, ** with twelve suffragans under him : the metro- ** politan of the second province at Canterbury, ** with twelve suffrao'ans under him : the metro- ** politan of the third province at London, witji '"*^* twelve suffragans under him : the metropolitan •' of the fourth province at York, withtvyelve S214 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORYjooc Book L " suffragans under him : the metropolitan of the " fifth province at St Andrews, with twelve " suffragans under him. "* A most regular and beautiful plan, consisting of five archbishops and sixty bishops, very properly disposed ! But, as Sir Henry Spelman modestly observes, " Giral- " dus Cambrensis seems to have run riot as " much in this narration, as Jeffrey of Mon- " mouth." The doctrine of the British churches, in the first three centuries, was probably much the same in substance with that of the apostle^ creed, as we are assured both by Gildas and Bedethat they were not infected with any heresy, till they came to be tainted with that of Arius.t In their ceremonies and rites of worship, it is not to be imagined they differed much from the other churches of these times, or had any thing very singular ; only in the keeping of Easter, they imitated the churches of Asia, rather than that of Bome. t How the It is natural to inquire in what manner the ofSgion clergy were maintained, churches built, and the fraywi hi othcr expcuscs of religion defrayed, in the ancient Ihree'cen- ^^'itish church, as Well as in other primitive turies. churches, in the first three centuries, when they received no favour, protection, or support from the state. The apostles, their fellow-labourers, and perhaps some of their immediate successors, were * Giraldus, apud Spelman. Concilia, torn. l.p. 15, 16. f GiUla; Hist. Brit. c. 9. Bcda; Hist. EccUs. 1. 1. c. 8. I Sec King's Inquiry into the Constitution, &c. of (Im Primitive Church, Tart the Second. Chap.2. Sect;2n-:7 OF GREAT BRITAIN., 2\§ supported partly by the work of their own haiitk/ and partly by the gratefid contributions of tlie- fliithfuh ^ In these primitive times, when a competent number of persons were converted to;: the Christian Rehgion in any place, sufficient to- constitute a decent congregation, they formed themselves into a church or religious society j- and every member of this society contributed,^ according to his abilities, to the maintenance of those who ministered in holy things, to the sup^ portof thepoor,andtoall other necessary charges^ The contributions for these purposes were com- monly made in their religious assemblies on tlie first day of the week, according to the apostolic direction. iti -Many of the primitive Christians, full of the most ardent zeal for their religion^ 4id not content themselves with giving thein share to these stated contributions for those pious uses, but bestowed houses, gardens, and even lands upon the church, or left them to it by their last wills, t It appears, however, that the rib won Christians of Britain, in this early period, were either not very liberal to their clergy, or, which is more probable, not very rich. For the British ■-^'* ^^* bishops, as we shall see by and by, were re- .^sby^ markably indigent, even in the next century, when the church enjoyed the flivourof the civil government. But whatever was the stiite of the • ! Thess. c. 2. V. 9. 2 Thess. c. 3. v. 8. Galatians, c. §(,v* ^, , i j ■f- 1 Corinth, c. 16. v. 1,2, -if'i^' •* ,1 StiUingflcct's Orig. Brit, c. 4,.P' Ik?7* ! ;. . aaZ i Si@ EeCLESIASTieikL HISTORY J>5?{ Soi^it) revenues of the clergy in those times of poverty and persecution, no inference C2.n certainly be drawn from it to determine what it ought to be in more opulent and happy ages. Cent. 4. After the churches of Christ, in almost all the rhnstians delivered provinccs 01 the lioman empire, had been so long Becmion. cxposed to the most cruel persecutions which '■*2'i' broke out upon them from time to time, it pleas- ed the Divine Providence to put an end to their .*iE ,ci trials and sufferings of this kind in the former part of the fourth century. The British Chris- tians were the very first who enjoyed the advan- tage of this great deliverance. For Constan- tius Chlorus being in Britain when he was de- clared Emperor, upon the resignation of Dio- clesian and Maximianus, A.D. 305, he imme- diately put a stop to the persecution of the Christians, which before he had been obliged to permit, in obedience to the edicts of these emperors. * This excellent prince having died -at York the year after, he was succeeded by his illustrious son Constantine the Great, who proved the glorious instrument of delivering the Christian church from all the grievous op- pressions under which it had so long groaned. ^Though there is no reason to think that Con- stantine the Great v/as a Christian at the time • of his accession, yet it appeared, even before che left Britain, that he Vv'as determined to pro- tect the Christians from persecution, and to sliow them stiilgreater favour than his father haddonc, * Euscb. Hist 1. ^^'^^'l^^^ ^'^"'^ "^ '' Chap. 2. Sect.^. OF GREAT BRITAIN.^ ^If l^hcouraged by these favourable dispositions in thfe new Emperor, who had assumed the purple in their country, the British Christians came out . of the lurking-places, into which they had re- tired to avoid the late persecution, rebuilt their ruined churches, and kept their sacred solem- 'ibb nities with pure and joyful hearts.* 'K2 It had been usual, fi'om the very days of the ^^jj^p^^ j„ apostles, when any dispute arose among the the^«'uncii faithful about doctrines, discipline, or worship, a. d. 514. for as many of the clergy to meet together as g'-eo ECCIwESIASTICAL HISTORYj:^'>i Book 1/ Doctrines of the British churches ill this centujy. offer, than be a burden to their brethren ;*' H proof that all the bishops of the Western empire, except a very few, were ah'eady raised to n state of independency, within less than forty vears after the makino; of the last-mentioned edict. So great was the zeal and liberality of the Christians of these times ! The Christian church was no sooner delivered from external violence, by the conversion of Constantine, than it was torn in pieces by inter- nal discord; and the flames of persecution were quickly succeeded by the no less violent and de- structive flames of religious controversy. The most fatal of these controversies was that which broke out A.D.317,between Arius,a presbyterin the church of Alexandria, and Alexander, bishop of that city, about the divinity of Christ. This dispute was managed with great warmth, made a mighty noise, and in a little time destroyed the peace of almost every corner of the Christian church. It is difficult to discover how soon the opinions of Arius became known in Britain, or to what degree they prevailed here in this cen- tury. If we could depend upon the testimony of Gildas, we should be led to think, that Arian- ism had made great progress in this island, soon afteritsfirst appearance. For having describedthe happy and peacefulstate of the British church for iSome time after the conclusion of the Dioclesian persecutipR, he proceeds in this strain : ** Tliis Suipit. ScVer.,His^,:l.,2. Chap. 2. Sect:2. OF GKEAT BRITAIN. mi *i SAveet concord between Christ the head and |6his members continued until the Arian perfid^f if appeared, and, like an enraged serpent, poui> I'' ing in upon us its foreign poison, inflamed ''brethren and countrymen with the most cruel ,** hatred : and a passage being thus made over ** the ocean, every other wild beast, who carried f . the venom of any heresy in his horrid mouth, It easily instilledit into the people of this country, -'f who are ever unsettled in their opinions, and --ajm d*j always fond of hearing something new. " * But ■^"'-"'"-* the truth is, this lamentable declaimer being de- termined to load his unhappy countrymen with the imputation of every thing which he esteemed bad and odious, and having a great abhorrence of - all heresy ingeneral, and of Arianismin particular, represented them as deeply infected with that and every other heresy, perhaps without much ground. For the opinions of Arius had been condemned w^ith so much solemnity by the famous council of Nice, A. D. 325, (at v/hich it is very pro- bable the bishops of Britain assisted), and had been opposed with so much zeal by Constantine the Great and his son Constans, that they made little progress for a long time in the Western pro- vinces of the Roman empire. It is true, indeed, that at the council of Ariminum, A.D. 359, "which was called by the Emperor Constantius, who favoured the Arian party, alinost all the bishops of the West, who were there assembled to • Gilda Hist. Brit. C. 9. m^ ECCLESIASTICAL HTSTOKY^^-^f^ Bdolc t. the number of four hundred, and, amongst others, those of Britain, subscribed a creed, which differed a little from that of the council of Nice.* But this appears to have been the effect of mere force. For, at the beginning of th6^ council, they unanimously declared their appro- bation of the Nicean creed, and pronounced anathemas against the errors of Arius; and after their return into their respective dioceses, they renewed their former declarations in favour of the faith of Nice, and renounced their involuntary subscriptions at Ariminum, as soon as they could do it with safety, t This is a certain proof that the opinions of Arius had as yet made little or no progress among the clergy in the Western em- pire; though it is at the same time an evidence, that the spirit of enduring persecution was very - much abated. St. Athanasius, and the bishops assembled in the council of Antioch, A.D. 363, assure the Emperor Jovian, in their letter to him, that the bishops of Spain, Gaul, and Britain,- continued to adhere to the faith of the council of Nice; of which they had been informed by letters from these bishops, t Both St. Jerome and St. Chrysostom speak often of the orthodoxy of the British church in their writings. § From all which it seems highly probable, that the Ariah * Du Pin. Eccles. cent. 4. vol. 2. p. 263, f Hilar. Fragment, p. 451. - f Athaiias. Graeco. Lat. torn. 1. p. 599. -•- -^ -' '- -i " i-'""^ ''-* § Hicrou. ad Eiiagrium, ad Jlareil. Chryso?it. torn. 5, p. C96. torn. 6. p. 635. torn. 8. p. 111. Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 2^ opinions did not prevail mucli in the ancient JBritish churches j at least not in this century. (Afterthe conversion of Constantine, he andhis ^^^t^f' successors interested themselves greatlyin thead- ^^^ ^,"*'^'* '^ '' church in ministration of ecclesiastical affairs, and acted as cent. 4. the supreme heads on earth of the church, as well as of the state. By their authority the hier- archy was brought to an almost perfect confor- mity with the civil government of the Roman » empire. In order to this, several new ecclesias-* tical dignitaries, as patriarchs, metropolitans^] and archbishops, were established in the church*^; to correspond to the praefecti, prastorii, vicarii, and praesides provinciarum in the state. * Acij cordino: to this model there should have been one metropolitan, and first three, then four, and at last five archbishops in Britain; as it was one vicariate under the prefectus praetorii of Gauly and consisted, first of three, afterwards of four and at last of five provinces. But it seems pro-: bable, that this model of church government was never fully established in Britain, on account of the unsettled state of the country, and the po^- verty of the British churches, which could not well support so many prelates of so high a rank agreeable to their dignity. But whatever was the state of ecclesiastical government in the Bri- tish churches in this period, tliere is no evidence that they were subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome, or of any foreign bishop, t • Mosheitn. Hist. Eccles. swcul. 4. p, I5(». t Stillingfleefs Orig. Brit. cU. .3. ^> ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY Book L Rites of ...'While the churches of Christ were obnoxious worship 1 ' '^ in the to the Civil powci's, and every moment in dan- uirj'. ^ ' ger of persecution, they performed the rites of their reh'gious worship with much privacy and little pomp. This was most agreeable to the pure and spiritual nature of the Christian worship, and most conducive to real piety. But after they came to enjoy security, wealth, and royal favour, they began to embellish their worship with many new-invented ceremonies, andevenadoptedsome of the Pagan rites and practices with little alte- ration. Great numbers of magnificent churches were built, and adorned with the pictures of saints and martyrs, in imitation of the Heathen temples; the Christian clergy officiated in a va- , I'iety of habits, not much unlike those of the Pa- gan priests; fasts, festivals, and holidays were multiplied; and, in one word, an ostentatious . -and mechanical worship, hardly to be distinguish- ,ed in its outward appearance from that of their Heathen neighbours, was introduced in the place of pure and rational devotion. * The Christian clergy were betrayed into this criminal and fatal imitation of their Pagan predecessors, partly by their vanity and love of pomp, and partly by their hopesof thereby facilitating the conversion of the ^^leathens. There was, indeed, an almost infi- .jaite variety in the forms of religious worship in the Christian.,,cl;iw:cli.^t this time ; and^nost • IMosIieim. Hist. Eccles. saccul, 4, c.-4. P?4t5. .■ ; Pr Middleton's Let- ter from Rome, in his Works, vol, 3, ... .K^ ^ Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. o^$ every particular church had sbm ethirig peclillar ' '" ' ^ in its way of worship. The British churches differed considerablyfromthoseof Gaul, and still more from those of Italy, in their public service, and had not as yet departed so far from the ge- nuine simplicity of the Gospel. * The British Christians, however, of this age did not v/ant their share of superstition ; of which it will be sufficient to give one example. About this time it began to be imagined, that there was much sanctity in some particular places, and much merit in visiting them. The places which were esteemed most sacred, and were most visited, were those about Jerusalem, which had been the scenes of our Saviour's actions and sufferings. To these holy places prodigious numbers of pilgrims crowded from all parts of the Christian world, and particularly from Britain. " Though the Britons (says St. Jerome) are separated from our world by the intervening ocean, yet such of them " as have made any great progress in religion, ** leaving the distant regions of the West, visit *' those sacred places at Jerusalem, which are " known to them only by fame, and the rela- " tions of Holy Scripture. '* t Nay, some of these deluded superstitious vagabonds, who had more strength or more zeal than others, went as far as Syria, to see the famous self-tormentor Simeon Stylites, who lived fifty-six years on the ' . • Stillingfleet's Orig. Brit p. 216, &c, t HieroD, torn. 1. epis-t. 17. VOL. I. P (( 22^ ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORYiooS Book L top of a high pillar. " Many people came to " see him (says Theodoret his histonan) from " the most remote corners of the West, particu- " larly from Spain, Gaul, and Britain. " * Origin of jjrj ti^is century, a new order of ecclesiastics the monas- t • t^ mi i t tic life in appeared in Europe. Ihese were the monks, or Britain. ., , , . r» , * i regular clergy, who, m process or time, mane a most conspicuous figure in the Christian church, and, by professing poverty, and pretendingto re- nounce the world, arrived at a prodigious pitch of worldly wealth and power. This extraordinary order had its origin in Egypt, the native country and favourite soil of superstition. In the times of persecution, several Christians in Egypt retir*< ed into deserts to avoid its fury, and there lived a very solitary and abstemious life, subsisting for the most part on the pure element, and the sponta- neous productions of the earth. St Anthony,^ the father of the monastic life, was one of these solitaries, and acquired so great a fame for sanc- tity, that many persons flocked around him in his retirement, and put themselves under his con- duct. These he formed into fraternities about the beginning of this century, placed them in monasteries, and gave them rules for their beha^ viour. * St Pachomius and Hilarion, two of his admirers, soon after founded monasteries in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria; and the East was irt: a few years overrun with these wretchedfanatics, who seemed to think that the perfection of reli- • Theodoret. Philotheus. c. 26. f Acta Sanctorum, tym. 2. p. 107. Chap. 2. SecUf. " DF GREAT BRITAIN. gion consisted in being useless and miserable. This spirit penetrated into Europe about the middle of this century, and unhappily prevailed almost as much in the West as it had done in the East. ^ It is difficult to discover at what time the monastic life was introduced into this island, and to what degree it prevailed in the ancient British church. For no regard is due to the absurd and impossible stories of our monks of the middle ages, about the famous mona- steries which were built here in the days of king Lucius, t Nor can we give credit to all the extraordinary things which are told us by the same authors, of the famous British monastery of Banchor, not far from Chester, which con- tained, as they pretend, no fewer than two thou- sand one hundred monks, divided into seven courses, each course containing three hundred, t But though this is probably very much exag-' gerated, we have reason to believe in general,' that there were monks and monasteries in Bri- tain before the end of this century, as well as in the other provinces of the Western empire, and particularly one at Banchor Monacliorum. There was one very essential difference between these ancient British monks, and those who suc- ceeded them in aftertimes. The British monks of Banchor, and no doubt in other places, sup- ported themselves in a frugal manner, by the WOi^k.Qf. their own hands; and while a certain * Mosheim Hist. Eccles. soecul. 4. a 3. f Usserii Brit. Eccles. primord. p. 194. f Bedse Hist. Eccles. 1. 2. c. 2. P ^ feog ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORTi^^d Book 1. number of them were performing the offices of religion, the rest were employed in labour, by a regular rotation.* But the monks who succeed- ed them, in the middle ages, were maintained in sloth and luxury, by the mistaken charity and profuse donations of kings, nobles, and other wealthy persons. Cent. 5. From the beginning of the fifth century to the arrival of the Saxons, the inhabitants of South Britain were involved in a variety and succession of national calamities, which seemed to threaten their ruin and extirpation. Besides the desolat* ing evils of war, pestilence, and famine (meib- tioned in the first chapter of this book), they were distracted and torn in pieces by religious disputes, in this unhappy period. These dis- asfj yifdoic putes were occasioned by the introduction and «mvrtad spreading of the peculiar opinions or relagius, tltxob which were maintained by some, and impugned l)y others with the most vehement and acrimo- nious zeal. This famous heresiarch was a na- tive of Britain; which might be one reason why 'his opinions met with so favourable a reception, -and so many advocates in this island, t It is not necessary to enumerate all the opinions of Pe- ^lagius ; tlie most important andplausible of them -were these following : *' That Adam was natu- ** rally mortal, and would have died though ** he had not sinned ; that Adam's sin affected " only himself, but not his posterity; and,;tlift • BediB Hist. Eccles. 1. 2. c. 9. f Id. 1. 1. e. 10. -«d)i6 odi Chap. 2. Sectya^ " OF GREAT BRITAIN; md •^children at their birth are as pure and iuno- '^* cent as Adam was at his creation : That the ** grace of God is not necessary to enable men "to do their duty, to overcome temptation, " and even to attain perfection ; but tliey may ^' do all this by the freedom of their own wills, ** and the exertion of their natural powers. 'I* These opinions, so soothing to the pride" of ^ ^..^g, men, were propagated in Britain with great success by some of the disciples of Pelagius, particularly by one named Agricola, the son of Severianus, a bishop ; while Pelagius him- flelfj and his other followers, Celestus a Scots- man, and Julianus of Campania, were em- ployed in the same work at Rome and other places, t The orthodox clergy in Britain did every PuWic dis- thing in their power to put a stop to the pro- IftTclu gress of these errors ; but finding all their ef- liy';'^/,'^*' forts in vain, and that they were not so expert t^'^ I'eia- . . giaus. in the arts of controversy as their subtile adver- saries, they sent into Gaul for assistance in this spiritual warfare. The bishops of Gaul, being assembled in a great council, appointed two of their number, Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, and Lupus, bishop of Troyes, to go to the assistance -of their brethren in Britain, who were so hard f pressed. The two good bishops cheerfully obeyed '■ r[ ** * Usser. Eccics. Britaii. priraord. p. 218. Concii. Lab. tora.' 2. p. 1529. - • :• - J' -;■;■'. . ■■,:'■' t Bedw Hist. Eccics. 1. 1. c. 10 — IT, ^ ECCtESlASTICAL HISTORY '"^ '^bS the appointment, and embarked for the scene of action; but when they had proceeded about half way on their voyage, with a favourable gale, the devil (who it seems was a great friend to the Pelagians) raised a most violent storm with a design to drown them ; from which, however, they escaped by a miracle. At their arrival on the British shore, they found a great multitude of orthodox Christians waiting to receive them, having got intelligence of their approach in a very extraordinary way. * The bishops, without delay, engaged in the important work on which they were sent, and by their preaching, some- times in the churches, and sometimes in the highways and open fields, they filled the whole island with the fame of their virtues, their learn- ing, and eloquence ; confirmed the orthodox in their faith ; and reclaimed many of the Pela- gians from their errors. The champions of Pe- iagianism were at first dispirited, and declined ' the combat ; but seeing themselves in danger of losing all their reputation, and all their fol- •-'•lowers, they took heart, and challenged their ^'formidable adversaries to a public disputation. This challenge was joyfully accepted by Ger- manus and Lupus, and both parties came to the field of battle (which was probably at Veru- ^"T,Tb2i '■ lamium) attended by a numerous train of their botleinngru ^^, .» goiy,g g^ji spirits (says Bede) being dispossessed by the exorcists, were constrained to tell the story of the tempest, and the approach of the bishops. ,.2. Sect. % Qf GflE;AT BBiT^l^ 231 friends and followers ; and a prodigious multi- tude of other people came also to the place, to hear and judge for themselves, on which side tlie truth lay. The external appearances and real characters of the two contending parties at this famous congress, it is said, were very dif- ferent. The Pelagian champions and their chief followers were richly dressed, and full of pride and presumptuous confidence in their own abi- lities ; the two bishops and their attendants were very plain in their attire, diffident of themselves, and devoutly depending on divine assistance. The Pelagian orators opened the debate, and spent a great deal of time in making an osten- tatious display of their eloquence, and in long rhetorical speeches, which contained little solid argument, and produced no conviction. When they had finished their harangues, the venerable prelates stood up, and poured forth such an ir- resistible torrent of arguments from Scripture, reason, and the testimonies of authors, as quite confounded and silenced their adversaries, and fully convinced their hearers. The surrounding . multitudes testified tlieir assent and approbation by the loudest acclamations, and were with great difficulty restrained from knocking the Pelagian champions on the head.* Germanus and Lupus continued some time in Cennanus Britain after they obtained this complete victory pL, hav- overthe Pelagians, confirming the British Chris- '"^ • BcdcG Hisl. Eccles. 1. 1, c. 17. their work tlaiis 111 'the iifflit faitli by their reasonino- and f m Britain, , . i ^ i i return into preachiiig, aiid (as the monkish historians tell us) by their miracles. Germanus had, it seems, brought with him a very large and valuable cargo of relics of all the apostles, and of many martyrs, which he deposited in the tomb of St. Alban the proto-martyr of Britain. This precious hoard was opened some ages after in the presence of/ King Offa, and all the relics were found very-; fresh and in good keeping, and proved a very, i valuable treasure to the monks of St. Albans.*.. They did not indeed enjoy this treasure without rivals; for the monks of St. Pantaleon at Cologn affirmed, that St Germanus was so far from leaving any relics in Britain, that he i brought away with him from thence the body | of St. Alban, which he deposited at Home, and [ which was from thence transferred to their mo- - iiastery by the Empress Theophania, A. D. 986. 3 To demonstrate the truth of this assertion, they ; produced the body of the holy martyr, far (| fresher, and in much better condition, than i that at St. Albans in England, f Such were >; the gross and monstrous frauds of the monks j of the middle ages, to deceive the world and , enrich themselves! Germanus and Lupus hav-o ing at length finished the work for which they ; had come into Britain, prepared to return in*,., to Gaul, when they were detained some time ,' - :..:. >...; . . •' M^tli'/Fioi-ileg. Hist, arl annum TD I. -^Hlij f Surius Vita Sancton Jan. 28. torn. 3. Chap. SJ. Sect. S. OF GREAT BRITAIN. ^ ^I^T* longer by a very strange accident. The devili' ,«tK!ha ni being very much provoked at Germanus for the^^ "'"' ""'r,o defeat of his friends the Pelaecians, laid a snare * &• for him, and the saint falhnff into it, strained! iO I his foot. This was a piece of very ill-judged' malice, by which the devil did his friends no'^ service ; as it gave Germanus an opportunity of ^ working a great many more miracles. The Scots and Picts, who had no hand in the saint's ,1 misfortune, suffered greatly from it. For these tWo nations happening to invade South Britain' ; in this interval, they were totally and shame- " fully defeated by Germanus at the head of the British army, merely by crying out Alleluja .' three or four times, in which cry he was joined ^ by all his troops. At last, the two good bishops,'' liaving triumphed over both the spiritual and'^ carnal enemies of the Britons, set sail for Gaul,' and by their own merits, and the intercession of^ St. Alban, who was much pleased with the com- '^ pliment of the relics he had received frolli^| them, they obtained a safe and pleasant pas-' sage. * The reader cannot fail to observe, that'!.'' this account of Germanus's first expedition into.j'^ Britain, which is taken from venerable Bede, one^ ' of the best and most learned of our monkish his- * . torians, makes a ridiculous appearance, through that tincture of the marvellous which runs through it. But it would have appeared ten times more ridiculous, if all the :WORderful cir- • Bedae Hist. Ecclcs. 1. 1. c 19, 20. Bfi nus into Britain. ns.% ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY Book I. cumstances which are mentioned by that author and other monks, had been inserted. This pro- digious delight in mixing marvellous legends with all their narrations relating to religion and the saints, was the reigning taste of those dark ages, from which the most upright and intelli- gent writers could not emancipate themselves. Nor does this very much impair their credit, or diminish their use, since it is not, for the most part, very difficult to distinguish what is legen- dary from what is true, or at least probable, in their narrations. Second Though the advocates for the Pelagian opi- of GefmT- nions had been silenced by the arguments, or intimidated by the authority of Germanus and ; Lupus, yet it plainly appears that they had not been convinced. For these two prelates were no sooner gone, than they began to propagate their heretical notions with as much zeal, and, which is more surprising, with as much success as ever. Nor had the orthodox clergy profited so much by the instructions of their late venerable co- adjutors, as to be able to defend their own cause, but were obliged to apply to them a second time for their assistance. The wretched Britons, in this period, seem to have been sunk into such a state of imbecility in their minds, as well as bodies, that they could make as Httle resistance .against their spiritual as against their secular enemies. Germanus having heard of the dis- tress of his friends, and danger of the orthodox faith, hastened to their relief and support, ac- Chap. 2. Sect. 2. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 235 cbmpanied by Severus bishop of Treves, a dis- ciple of his former companion Lupus. The two bishops, at their arrival, were pleased to find that the defection from the right faith had not been so great as they had apprehended ; and immediately applied themselves with great zeal to accomplish the design of their mission. For this purpose, they preached and reasoned with great eloquence and power (to say nothing of their working miracles), and thereby reclaimed such as had apostatized, and confirmed those who were wavering. On this occasion, how- ever, these good bishops did not think fit to de- pend entirely on the efficacy of their spiritual weapons, but called in the assistance of the secu- lar arm, and procured the banishment of the chief Pelagians out of the island. By these means the orthodox faith was restored, and re- mained, for a long time, pure and inviolated. * It is a little strange that these two expeditions of Germanus into Britain are not mentioned by Gildas, the most ancient of our historians, who flourished only about a century after. This must ' be owing either to his intended brevity, or im- perfect information. For as they are related at great length by Constantius, a monk of Auxerre, who wrote the life of Germanus, not many years after his death, we have little reason to doubt of their reality, t There are also great diversity • Bedae Hist. Eccles. 1. I. c. 21. t Id. 1. 1. c. 17. uoU 1. by Dr Smith, ;l- ^•^:. -i^L 236 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, &c. Book L of opinions about the particular years in which these expeditions happened. It is sufficient to say, that they must have happened some time between the departure of the Romans and the arrival of the Saxons. For Germanus became bishop of Auxerre, A. D. 418, a very few years before the final departure of the Romans, and died A. D. 448, only one year before the ar- rival of the Saxons. * This last event pro- duced a melancholy revolution in the state of religion in Britain, which, together with the conversion of the Saxons to the Christian Re- ligion, and their church history, will be the sub- ject of the second chapter of the second book of this work. • Stillingfleet's Orig. Brit. p. 209. Usser. primord. Eccles.- Britaa. p. 282. ^■iJ- -0-., ■■>«% ^.'i F , t8«§9dT •>' ao <■- 219i\iXS,. % -^'& HA 8Sn ym dea TMB HISTORY OF ^ •I OREAT BRITAIN BOOK I. CHAP. III. THE HISTORY OF THE CONSTITUTION, GOVERNMENT, ^'^kirD' tAWS OF GREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE FIRST IN- VASION OF IT BY THE ROMANS UNDER JULIUS CiESAR, A. A. C. 55t TO THE ARRIVAL OF THE SAXONS, A. D. 449. SECTION I. A brief Account of the Names, Situations, Lintits, and other Circumstances of the several Nations which inhabited Great Britain before it "ucas invaded and conquered by the Ro- mans ; and of the Changes that were made in the State of these Nations, and of their Country, by that Conquest. Next to the laws and sanctions of religion, Tije^^^eat those of civil government have the greatest of laws oa f 11^ manners influence on the manners and characters ot nations, as well as on their fortunes and ex- 238. : ,HISTORY OF BRITAIN, .tosg Bo&k I. ternal circumstances. On the one hand, wise and equitable laws, a mild, prudent, and steady administration, contribute very much to render a people wise and virtuous, as well as great and happy: on the other hand, unjust and oppressive constitutions, a cruel and despotic exercise of authority, tend as much to debase their minds as to depress their fortunes, to make them worth- less as to make them wretched. It is impossible therefore to form just ideas of the character and manners of any people, in any period of their history, or to account for them, without an at- tentive investigation of the constitution of their government, the nature and spirit of their laws, the forms of their judicial proceedings, and other particulars of their police. For these are the great hinges on which both the characters and fortunes of nations have always turned. When- ever any remarkable revolution hath happened in the constitution and government of any peo- jile, either for the better or the worse, that re- volution hath always been attended, or very soon followed, by a proportional change in the spirit, character, and manners of that people. The truth of these observations might be demon- strated, if it were necessary, by examples out of the history of every nation. On this account, and for several other reasons, we have devoted the third chapter of every book of this work to a brief, but careful investigation of the constitu- tion, government, and laws of the inhabitants of Great Britain, in the several successive periods of their history. Chap. 5. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. Q3§ The fathers and heads of families were the first The first form of sovereigns, and the patriarchal was the most govern- ancient form of government amongst mankind, triarchli. This is so evident, from the whole strain of ancient history, so agreeable to reason and the natural course of things, and so universally ac- knowledged, that it is quite unnecessary to spend any time in proving it. * The first states or civil societies, therefore, in every country, were no other than large families, clans, or tribes, con- sisting of brothers, sisters, cousins, and other near relations, living in the same district, under the protection and government of their common parent, or of his representative, the head of the tribe or family. In these small patriarchal states there was little need of positive laws to limit the authority of the sovereign, or secure the ^ obedience of the subjects. The strong ties of nature, and the warm feelings of mutual affec-.? tion, supplied the place of laws on both sides*! The patriarchal sovereign, viewing his subjects as his family, his dearest friends, and near rela- tions, exercised his authority with mildness ; and the subjects, looking upon their sovereign as their parent, the chief and head of their family, whose honour and interest were inseparable from their own, obeyed with cheerfulness. But this patriarchal government, in its most Succeeded pure and simple form, was probably not of very narcinai. , • Origin of Laws, Sec. v. 1. p. 10, 1 1. Gen. c. 38. Horn. Odyss. 1. 9. V. 107. and Plato de Leg. 1. 3. p. 806. S40 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. fiook I. long continuance in any country. For as these distinct and independent tribes became each more and more numerous, they gradually ap- proached nearer to one another ; disputes arose between them, about their limits, tlieir pro- perties, the honour and dignity of their chiefs, and many other things. These disputes produced wars; and each of the contending clans, in order to defend themselves and annoy their enemies, contracted the most intimate alliances with one or more neighbouring clans, which were thereby, in a little time, consolidated into one large so- ciety or state. In this manner, and perhaps in several other ways, a great number of petty states or kingdoms were formed in almost every ^ .» country with whose history we are acquainted. These ancient kingdoms consisted of two, three, four, or more tribes or clanships, under one feking, who Avas commonly the head of the chief clan of which the state was composed ; while each of the heads of the other tribes still re- tained a great degree of authority in his own tribe. Many This seems to have been the state of society ^.kingdoms and government, both in Gaul and Britain, when '''- 111 Bntam "^ ^ when in- they wcrc first invaded by the Romans. Both the Uo-^ these countries were then possessed by many pet- *"""'* ty states, governed by kings, or chief magistrates under some other denomination, independent of, and for the most part at war with, one another. In each of these little states or kingdoms there were several chieftains, who governed eacli his I Chap. 3. Sect. J. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. .^t ^4-1 own tribe with a kind of subordinate authority. With respect to Gaul, while Tacitus tells us, that it was inhabited by sixty-four different states, Appian assures us, that it contained no fewer than four hundred different nations.* These two accounts are not really contradictory; as the former respects the kingdoms, and the latter the tribes of which these kingdoms were composed. According to this proportion of sixty-four king- doms, and four hundred tribes, each of these Gaulish kingdoms, one with another, contained about six tribes or clanships. Britain was in the same condition when it was first invaded by the Romans ; containing many independent states, each composed of several tribes or clanships. Of this it will be sufficient to give one decisive proof. When Caesar invaded Britain, the Cantii, or (•» ... J, people of Kent, formed one of the British king- doms ; and yet that illustrious writer mentions no fewer than four kings in Kent at the same time, which could be no other than the chieftains or heads of so many clans or families, of which that little kingdom was composed, t Before we proceedto speak of the constitution Desmp- and laws of these ancient British kingdoms, it Jhese°king- may not be improper to give a very brief descrip- ^°'"** tion of them; pointing out the situation, limits, and chief places in each of them, with the time '"^ and manner in which they ceased to be independ- • Tacit. Annal. 1. 3. c 44. Appian. de Bel. civil. Pop. Rom. 1. 3. p. 71. t Caesar, de Bel. Gal. 1. 5. c. 18. . v , ^; ■^%^ VOL. T. Q 2 jO HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book 1. ent states, and fell under the dominion of the Romans. This will enable us to form distinct ideas of the political state of our country when it was invaded by the Romans, and of the changes which w^ere made in it by that invasion. In giving this description, we shall begin at the south-west point of Britain, and proceed to its north-east extremity. Danmoni?. 1. The Danmouii inhabited the south-west parts of Britain. The name of this ancient Bri- tish nation is differently written by different au- thors. By Solinus they are called Dumnani 5 by Ravennas, Domnii ; and by Ptolemy, Dan- monii ; and all the conjectures that have been made concerning the derivation of these names are vague and uncertain. ^ The Danmonii seem to have inhabited that tract of country which is now called Cornwall and Devonshire, bounded on the south by the British Ocean, on the ^vest by St George's Channel, on the north by the Severn Sea, and on the east by the coun- try of the Durotriges. t Some other British tribes were also seated within these limits; as the Cossini and Ostidamnii, which were probably particular clans of the Danmonii j and, according to Mr Baxter, they were the keepers of their flocks and herds, t As the several tribes of the Danmonii submitted with- out much resistance to the Romans, and never joined in any revolt against them, that people * Baxt. Gloss. Brit. p. 108. f Camb. Brit. p. 2. I Baxt. Gloss. Brit. p. 190. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 243 were under no necessity of building many forts, or keeping many garrisons in their country. This is the reason why so few Roman antiquities have been found in that country, and so little mention is made of it and its ancient inhabitants by Roman writers. Ptolemy names a few places, both on the seacoasts and in the inland parts of this country, which were known to, and fre- quented by, the Romans. The most considerable of these places are the two famous promontories of Bolerium and Ocrinum, now the Landsend and the Lizard ; and the towns of Isca Danmo- norium and Tamare, now Exeter andSaltash.* As the Danmonii submitted so tamely to the Romans, they might perhaps permit them to live, for some time at least, under their own princes and their own laws ; a privilege which we know they granted to some other British states. In the most perfect state of the Roman government in Britain, the country of the Dan- monii made a part of the province called Flavia Caesariensis, and was governed by the president of that province. After the departure of the Romans, kingly government was immediately revived amongst the Danmonii in the person of Vortigern, who was perhaps descended from the race of their ancient princes, as his name signifies in the British language a chieftain, or the heati of a family. See Appendix. ^2 ges 244 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book !. Durotri- 2. The Durotriges were seated next to the Danmonii, on the east side, and possessed that country which is now called Dorsetshire. * The name of this ancient British nation is evidently derived from the two British words Dur, water, and Trigo, to dwell : and it is no less evident, that they got their name from the situation of their country, which lies along the seacoast. It is not very certain whether the Durotriges formed an independent state under aprince of their own, or were united with their neighbours the Dan- monii; as they were reduced by Vespasian under the dominion of the Romans, at the same time, and with the same ease, and never revolted, t The peaceable disposition of the inhabitants was probably the reason that the Romans had so few towns, forts, and garrisons in this pleasant coun- try. Dorchester, its present capital, seems to have been a Roman city of some consideration, though our antiquaries are not agreed about its Roman name. It is most probable that it was the • ^Durnovia in the 12th Iter of Antoninus. Many ' Roman coins have been found at Dorcliester ; the military way, called Jeening-Street, passed through it; and some vestiges of the ancient stone wall with which it was surrounded, and of the amphitheatre with which it was adorned, are still visible, t The country of the Durotriges was included in the Roman province called Flavia • Camd, Brit. p. 51. t Eutrop. 1. 5. e. 8. ■c*J Stukely Itin. curios, p. 153, 154, Ac. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 1245 Csesariensis, and governed by the president of that province, as long as the Romans kept any footing in these parts. S. To the east of the Durotriges, on the same Beig«. coast, were seated the Belgae, who inhabited the countries now called Hampshire, Wiltshire, and Somersetshire. * When Caesar invaded Britain, some part of this country was possessed by the Segontiaci, whose chief town was AVinchester, called by the Britons Caer-seguent, from the name of these its ancient inhabitants.! But this people seem to have been soon after subdued by, and incorporated with, the Belgae, as they are never afterwards mentioned. The name of the Belgae discovers their origin, and demonstrates that they were a colony of thatgreat and powerful nation of the same name, who inhabited a great part of Gaul, and are described by Caesar in the beginning of his Commentaries. There are many arguments to prove, that all the ancient inha- bitants of Britain originally came from Gaul, at different times, and under many different leaders; and that as one wave impels another towards the shore, so these successive colonies drove each other further and further north, till the whole island was peopled. But the time and other cir- cumstances of the arrival of these first colonies in - this island are buried in the impenetrable shades of antiquity, except a few of the latest of them, who settled here not very long before the Roman • Camb. Brit. p. 67, f Musgra^e Belg. Brit. p. 43, 246 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. invasion. With respect to these last colonies who inhabited the south parts of Britain, we have the express testimony of Caesar that they came from Gaul. " The seacoast of Britain is peopled with " Belgians, drawn thither by the love of war " and plunder. These last passing over from " different parts, and settling in the country, " still retain the names of the several states from " whence they are descended. " * The latest of these Belgic colonies came into Britain only a few years before Caesar's invasion. This colony was conducted byDivitiacus, King of the Suessiones^ one of the most powerful of the Belgic nations in Gaul; and, having obtained a footing on the British coast, he continued to reign over our Belgse in this island, as well as over his ancient subjects on the Continent, t He was succeeded in his Continental territories by Galba, and in his British dominions by another of his sons, perhaps Segonax, who attempted to destroy Caesar's fleet, t Though the Segontiaci sub- mitted to Caesar, we hear nothing of the sub- mission of the Belgae to that conqueror. The honour of subduing that British nation was re- served to Vespasian, who, landing an army in these parts, A. D. 495 fought thirty-two battles, took more than twenty towns, subdued two very powerful nations (one of which was the Belgae) and the Isle of Wight. § After this time the • Caes. Bel. Gal. 1. 5. c. 10. f Id. 1. 2. c. 9. I Baxt. Gloss. Brit. p. 214. fj Sueton. in vita Vespas. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 247 country of the Belgae was much frequented by the Romans, who made in it many excellent military ways, and built several beautiful townsy which are mentioned both by Ptolemy and Anto- ninus. * Tlie most remarkable of these towns were Venta Belgarium, Winchester, famous for the imperial weavery which was there established; and Aquae Solis, Bath, even then renowned for its warm and salutary springs. The country of the Belgae was also included in the Roman province called Flavia Caesariensis, and governed by the presidentofthatprovinceandhis inferior officers. . 4. To the north-east of the Belgee were seated Bibroci. the Bibroci, who inhabited that country, or at least a part of it, which is now called Berkshirc^f The name of this people leads us to the discovery of their origin, as well as of the place of their residence in this island. For they certainly came from that part of Gaul where the town called Bibrax was situated, which belonged to the Rhemi, and was attacked with so much fury by the otherBelgic nations, because it had declared for Ca2sar. t It is not certainly known when this colony of the Bibroci left their native coun- try and settled in Britain^ though it is probable that it was not very long before Ceesar's invasion, to whom, perhaps, they were engaged to submit by the influence andexample of their friendsand countrymen in Gaul. As the Bibroci were but • Sec Appendix. — Musgrave's Belgic. Brit. c. 4, 5, 6. f Baxt. doss. p. 41. Camd. Brit. [). 170. i Cojs. Bel. Gal. 1. 2. c. 7. 248 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. a small nation, they seem to have been subdued by some of their neighbours, before the invasion under Claudius, which is the reason they are no further mentioned in history. The name of the hundred of Bray in Berkshire is evidently deriv- ed from the name of these ancient inhabitants; as the ancient Bibracte in France now bears the same name of Bray. Attrebatii. •5». The Attrcbatii were seated next to the Bibroci, in part of Berkshire and part of Oxford- shire. * This was one of those Belgic colonies which had come out of Gaul into Britain, and there retained their ancient name j for the Attre- batii were a tribe of the Belgae, who inhabited that country which is now called Artois. They are mentioned by Caesar among the nations which composed the Belgic confederacy against him ; and the quota of troops which they engaged to furnish on that occasion was fifteen thousand, f Comius of Arras was a king or chieftain among j»»u«s.vthe Attrebatii in Gaul in Caesar's time, and he seems to have possessed some authority, or at least some influence, over our Attrebatii in Britain ; for he was sent by Cassar to persuade them to submission, t This circumstance makes it pro- bable that this colony of the Attrebatii had not been settled in Britain very long before that time. The Attrebatii were among those British tribes which submitted to Caesar j nor do we hear oi * Baxt. Gloss, p. 27. ifi. wie': t Cffis. Bel. Gal. I Id. 1, -I.e. 19. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 24^^ any remarkable resistance they made against the Romans at their next invasion under Claudius. It is indeed probable, that before the time of this second invasion, they had been subdued by some of the neighbouring states, perhaps by the powerful nation of the Cattivellauni, which may ' be the reason they are so little mentioned in -^ history. Calliva Attrebatum, mentioned in the ' seventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth .s;r..i Itinera of Antoninus, and called by Ptolemy Calcua, seems to have been the capital of the Attrebatii; though our antiquaries differ in their sentiments about the situation of this ancient city, some of them placing it at Wallingford, and others at Ilchester. * It is not very certain, -* whether the country of the Bibroci and the At-^^^ trebatii was within the Roman province called Britannia Prima, or in that called Flavia Caisa*'" riensis, though it seems most probable that it was in the last of these provinces. -J 6. Before we leave these parts and return to AncaUtcs. the seacoast, it may be proper to observe, that the people called Ancalites were seated near the Attrebatii, and were probably a clan of that>^ nation. Mr Baxter thinks they were the Ceangi, ^ or herdsmen and shepherds of the Attrebatii, and possessed those parts of Oxfordshire and Buck- inghamshire which were most proper for pastur--^' age. t After they were subdued by the Romans, ^^ • Camd. Brit. p. 164. Horsley Brit. Rom. p. 566. f Baxt, Gloss, p. 14, ^50 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. the government of them, with that of some other neighbouring states, was bestowed upon Cogi- dunus, the British king of the Dobuni, as a re- ward for his early submission and great fidelity to the Romans, liegiii. 7. To the east of the Belga?, and to the south of the Attrebatii, were seated the Regni, in the country now called Surrey and Sussex. * As this people possessed so large a tract of the seaco^st in the south of this island, it is highly probable they had come from the Continent and settled here not veiy long before the Roman invasion, perhaps at the same time with their neighbours tlie Belgae. For the Belgae and the Regni had been near neighbours on the Continent j the one having come from the country of the Suessiones, now Soissons j and the other from the country of the Rhemi, now Rheims. The Regni, like all the other Belgic Britons, early submitted to the Roman power, and continued steady in their obedience, without engaging in any revolt. We know not who was sovereign of the Regni when they submitted to the Romans; but soon after their submission they were put luider the govern- , ment of Cogidunus, king of the Dobuni. For tliis prince, who was then very young, had got so much into the favour of the Emperor Claudius and his ministers, that he was not only allowed to keep his own dominions, but he had several other neighbouring states put under his autho- • Camd. Brit. p. 179. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 251 rity. * It seems probable, from a famous in- scription discovered at Chichester, that Cogidu- nus governed the Regni, in quality of the Em- peror's lieutenant, or legatus Augusti ^ for on that inscription he is so styled, f He continued a faithful and useful friend and ally to the Ro- mans above sixty years, which so endeared him to that people, that, according to their custom in other countries, they permitted his posterity to succeed him, perhaps for several generations, t Though the Regni, therefore, were very early and very obedient subjects of the Roman empire, yet as they were long after under the immediate government of British princes, fewof the Romans seem to have settled amongst them. This is cer- tainly the reason that we meet with so few vesti- ges of that great and active people in those coun- tries, which were anciently inhabited by the Reg- ni. Chichester was certainly a considerable place in the Roman times, and probably the capital of the Regni, from whence it was called Regnum by the Romans. § The Neomagus of Ptolemy, and the Noviomagus of the Itinerary, was a city of the Regni, and most probably situated at or near Croydon. || In the most perfect state of the Roman government in Britain, the country of the Regni made a part of the province called riavia Caesariensis, and was governed by the president of that province. * Tacit, vita Agric. c. 14. f Hors. Brit. Rora. p. 55-'. \ Stilling. Orig. Brit. p. f52, 63. § Hors. Brit. Kom. p. Ml. il Id. p. 423. 252 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. Cantii. 8. Next to the Regni eastward were seated the Cantii, inhabiting that country which from them was anciently called Cantium, now Kent. * The name of this country and of its inhabitants was most probably derived from the British word Cant, which signifies an angle or corner, t It is highly probable, that this was the first district 'in Britain which received a colony from the Con- ' tinent ; and that it had frequently changed its masters, by new colonies coming over from timxC to time, and driving the inhabitants further north. It the midst of all these revolutions it still retained its ancient name (which was so agreeable to its shape and situation), and gave the same name to all the successive tribes by which it was inhabited. Those w^ho possessed it at the time of the first Roman invasion were evi- / dently of Belgic origin, and had come over so lately, that they differed in nothing from their countrymen on the Continent. " The inhabit- "" ants of Kent (says Cassar) are the most civi- probable that they, as well as the other ancient inhabitants of Britain, had come from some part or other of the neighbouring continent of Gaul. But from whencesoever they derived their ori- gin, they reflected no dishonour upon it, as their posterity have not degenerated from them. The * Camd. Brit. p. 683. f Carte Hist. v. 1. p. 108, BaxU Gloss. Brit. p. 217. \ Tacit. Vita Agric. ell. 268 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. Silures were unquestionably one of the bravest of the ancient British nations, and defended their country and their liberty againstthe Romans with the most heroic fortitude. For though they had receiveda dreadful defeat from Ostorius Scapula, and hadlost their renowned commander Caracta- cus, they still continued undaunted and impla- cable; andbytheirboldandfrequentattacks, they at length broke the heart of the brave Ostorius.* But all their efforts were at last in vain. They were repulsed by Aulus Didius, further weak- ened by Petilius Cerealis, and at last totally subdued by Julius Frontinus, in the reign of Ves- pasian, t As the Romans had found great diffi- culty in subduing the Silures, so they took great pains to keep them in subjection, by building strong forts, and planting strong garrisons in their country. One of the most considerable of these fortifications, and the capital of the whole country, was Isca Silurum,now Cearleon, on the river Wisk, in Monmouthshire, t Here the se- cond legion of the Romans, which had contri- buted greatly to the redaction of the Silures, was placed in garrison (as some antiquaries have imagined) by Julius Frontinus, to keep that people in obedience. § It is however certain, that this legion was very early, and very long, stationed at this place, il Isca Silurum was, in • Tacit. Annal. 1. 12. c. 30 to 37. f Id. c. 31. Id. vita Agric. c. 1 8. i Camd. Brit. p. 717. § Pliilosoph. Trans. No. 5S9. fl See Appendix. IIois. Brit. Kom. p. 76. << f( a Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 269 the Roman times, a city not only of great strength, but also of great beauty and magnifi- cence. This is evident from the description which is given us of its ruins by Giraldus Cam- brensis, in his Topography of Wales, several ages after it had been destroyed and abandoned. This (Caer-Leion, or the city of the legion) was a very ancient city, enjoying honoiu'able privileges, and was elegantly built by the Ro- " mans with brick-walls. Many vestiges of its ancient splendour are yet remaining : stately palaces, which formerly, with their gilded tiles, displayed the Roman grandeur. For it ** was first built by the Roman nobility, and " adorned with sumptuous edifices; also an ex- " ceeding high tower, remarkable hot-baths, " ruins of ancienttemples, theatres encompassed " with stately walls, partly yet standing. Sub- *' terraneous edifices are frequently met with not only within the walls (which are about three miles in circumference) but also in the suburbs; as aqueducts, vaults, hypocausts, " stoves," &c. * This description of Caer- Leion was composed in the twelfth century, and therefore we have no reason to be surprised that its very ruins are now so entirely destroyed, that they are hardly discernible. On the banks of the river Wisk, besides Isca Silurum, there stood two other Roman towns; Burrium, now Usk, and Gobannium, now Abergavenny, t • Girald. Cambrcn. Itinerar. Carnd. p. 836. f Hors, Brit. Rom. p. 465. Camd. Brit. 715. 717. ti (( 270 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. Venta Silurum, now Caer-Guent, near Chep- stow in Monmouthshire, was also a considerable Roman town, of which there are some faint ves- tiges still remaining. * Blestum, in the thirteenth journey of Antoninus, is supposed to have been situated at Monmouth ; and Magna, in the twelfth journey, at Kenchester, or, as others think, at Lidbury, in Herefordshire, t When the Roman territories in Britain were divided into five provinces, the greatest part of the coun- try of the Silures was in that province which was called Britannia Secunda. t DemetJE. l6. The Dcmetse, according to Ptolemy, were seated next to the Silures, and possessed the re- maining part of South Wales, which is now di- vided into Caermarthenshire, Pembrokeshire, and Cardiganshire. § This country is called, by some of the most ancient of our monkish writ- ers, Demetia, from the name of its inhabitants; and it is not improbable, that both they and their country derived their name from Deveit, which signifies sheep; in which these parts very much abounded. || As neither Pliny, Tacitus, nor indeed any ancient writer except Ptolemy, mentions any other nation in South Wales but the Silures, it seems probable that the Demetse were generally considered as a part of that na- • Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 460, f Id. p. 465. 467. Baxt. Gloss. Brit. p. 165. ^ See Appendix. § Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 368. Camd. Brit. p. 74.5. 754. 770. II Baxt. Clo5a. Brit. p. 102. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 271 tion, and were perhaps their Cangi, or the keep- ers of their flocks and herds. If this conjecture is just, the Demetae were perhaps that nation of Cangians who were subdued by Ostorius Scapu- la, after he had defeated the Iceni, For the country of these Cangians reached to the Irish sea, which agrees very well with the situation of Demetia. * As the Demetae did not resist the Romans with much obstinacy, and as their country lay in a remote corner, and was then, and long after, very wild and uncultivated, it seems to have been but little frequented by these conquerors, who had very few towns or stations within its bounds. As none of the jour- neys of Antoninus lay through any part of the country of the Demetse, so no place in that country is mentioned in the Itinerary. Ptolemy takes notice of the promontory Octapitarum, now St. David's Head ; of the mouth of the river Tobius, now the river Towy, in Caermar- thenshire; and of the towns Leuentium and Maridunum, now Lhan-Dewe-Brevi and Caer- mardin. t The country of the Demetae was si- tuated in the Roman province called Britannia Secunda. 17. Next to the Demeta^ were seated the Or- Ordoviccs. dovices, in that country which is now called North Wales, and contains the counties of Mont- gomery, Merioneth, Caernarvon, Denbigh, and Flint, t These Ordovices, or (as they are called * Tacit. Annal. 1. 12. c. 55. ■}• See Appendix. I Cimd. Brit. p. 778. 783. 794. 814. SJ2. 27^ HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. by Tacitus) Ordeiiices, are supposed to have been originally of the same tribe or nation with the Huicii of Warwickshire, who were under some kind of subjection to the Cornavii; but the Huicii of North Wales, being a free and inde- pendent people, were called Ordh-Huici, or the free Huici.* When they were invaded by the Romans, they shewed a spirit worthy of their name, and fought with great bravery in defence of their freedom and independency. Though they received a great defeat from the Roman ge- neral Ostorius, in conjunction with the Silures, tliey maintained the war for a considerable time, until they were finally subdued, with great slaughter by the renowned Agricola.t It was probably owing to the nature of the country, and to the vicinity of Diva, now Chester, where a whole legion was quartered, that the Romans had so few towns or stations in the territories of the Ordovices. Mediolanium, which is men- tioned by Ptolemy, was the capital of the na- tion, and was probably situated at Maywood, in Montgomeryshire, t It was a place of some con- sideration in the Roman times, but was after- wards quite demolished by Edwin, King of Nor- thumberland. § Besides this, the Romans had a few other towns in this country; as Segonti- um, now Caernarvon, Conovium, now Conway, • Baxt. Gloss. Brit. p. 189. f Tacit. Annal. 1. 12. c. 31. Vita Agric. c. 15. I Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 372. § Baxt. Gloss. Biit. p. 175. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &a. ^73 and Varae, now Bodvary ; which are all men- tioned in the eleventh journey of Antoninus. * The country of the Ordo vices was comprehended in the Roman province which was called Bri- tannia Secunda. Before we leave this part of Britain, to return to the eastern coasts, it may not be improper to take some notice of two ancient British nations, the Cangi and Attacotti, which some of our an- tiquaries believe to have been seated in these parts, though we cannot perhaps discover with certainty their real situation. 18. Ourantiquarieshave been much perplexed cangi. about the situation of the Cangi, Ceangi, or Can- gani, which are all the same people. Camden discovered some traces of them in many different and distant places, as in Somersetshire, Wales, Derbyshire, and Cheshire ; and he might have found as plain vestiges of them in Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Essex, Wiltshire, &c. t MrHorsley and others are no less perplexed and undeter- mined in their opinions on this subject, t But Mr Baxter seems to have discovered the true ~" cause of all this perplexity, by observing that the Cangi or Ceangi were not a distinct nation seated in one particular place, but such of the youth of many different nations as were employed in pas- turage, in feeding the flocks and herds of their * See Appendix. f Camd. Brit. p. 83. 216. 43G. Spelm. Villarc Anglican, v. Can. \ Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 31. 54, 55. VOL. I. S QJ4} HISTORY OF BRITAIN, t^^.^ Boqk I* respective tribes. Almost all the ancient nations of Britain hadtheirCeangi, their pastoritia pubes, tlie keepers of their flocks and herds, who ranged about the country in great numbers, as they were invited by the season, and plenty of pasture for their cattle. This is the reason that vestiges of their name are to be found in so many differ- ent parts of Britain j but chiefly in those parts which are most flt for pasturage. * These Ceangi of the different British nations, naturally brave, and rendered still more hardy by their way of life, were constantly armed for the protection of their flocks from wild beasts ; and these arms they occasionally employed in the defence of their country and their liberty. Attacotti. 19. The Attacotti are mentioned by Ammia- nus Marcel linus and St Jerome, as well as in the Notitia Imperii, t They are supposed by some antiquaries to have inhabited Wales ; and as a proof of this, they say that their name was derived from the British words At a coit, which signify Amongst woods, t This derivation of their name is certainly but a very weak argiunent that they inhabited Wales j because several other regions in Britain, in these times, abounded as much in woods as that country. It seems pro- bable that the Attacotti were seated somewhere further north than any part of Wales. For they • Baxt. Gloss. Brit. p. 7.?, 74, 75, 76. f Ammian. Marcell. 1. 27. c. S. Hieronym. 1. 2. contra Jovianum. t Baxt. Gloss, Brit. p. 26, 27. Chap. 5. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. T^5 are represented by Ammiamis Marcelliniis as allies and confederates of the Scots and Pictsi and therefore probably their neighbours. " The " Saxons and Franks (says the historian) ravaged " those parts of Britain which lay nearest to ** Gaul. The Picts, Attacots and Scots, over- " ran, plundered, and laid waste several other ** parts. " But these Attacots were such horrid savages, as we shall have occasion to observe in another place, that it is needless to spend any more time in inquiring where they were seated. * 20. It is now time to return to the eastern Pami. coasts of Britain, where we meet with the Parisi, who were seated to the north of the Coritani, and possessedthatdistrict which is called Holderness, or (as Mr Camden imagines) the whole east- riding of Yorkshire, f The Parisi are supposed to have derived their name from the two British words Paur Isa, which signify low pasture, and which are descriptive of the situation and use of their country, t It is uncertain whether the Parisi in Britain were a colony of the Parisi in Gaul, or had only obtained a similar name, from a similarity of situation. However this may be, it is evident that our Parisi never attained to any great degree of power or consequence ; but were always subject to the authority, and followed the fate of their more powerful neighbours, the Bri- gantes. For this reason, it is not necessary to be * See chap. vii. Dr Macpherson's Dissertations in the Preface. t Camd. Brit. p. 8S5. } Uaxt. Gloss. Brit. p. 191. S ^ 276 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. more particular in our description of them or their country. Brigantes. 21. To the Horth of the Parisi and Cornavii were seated the Brigantes, the most numerous, powerful, and ancient of the British nations. Their territories reached from sea to sea quite cross the island, and comprehended that large tract of country which is now divided into York- shire and the county of Durham on the east coast, and Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumber- land on the west. * The Brigantes are thought to have been descended from the ancient Phry- gians, who were the very first inhabitants of Europe, and to have come over into this island from the coast of Gaul, before the Belgge arrived in that country. To confirm this conjecture, it is pretended that these tribes of Phrygians, who peopled the sea-coasts of so many countries, were known by many diflferent names, which had all some affinity, and, amongst others, by this name of Brigantes, of which there are some traces still remaining in almost every country in Europe, t However this may be, it is certain that they were seated in this island in very ancient times, and esteemed themselves the aborigines, or first inha- bitants of it. The Brigantes were not in the least aftected by the incursion of the Romans under Julius CiEsar. Seneca, in the verses • Camd. Brit. p. 842. 931. 962. 983. 1002. f Baxt. Gloss. Brit, voce Brigantes. Carte Hist. Eng. v. I. p. 10. 18. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 277 quoted below, * insinuates that they were sub- dued by the Emperor Claudius. But in this, it is probable, there was more of poetical compli- ment than truth. It appears, however, that this state very soon contracted some alliance with, or made some kind of submission to, the Romans. For when Ostorius, the Roman go- vernor, had defeated the Iceni, S,nd was march- ing his army into the west against the Cangi, he was called away by the news of an insur- rection among the Brigantes, which he soon quieted, t But it also appears, that this people w^ere some time after this governed by their own princes, particularly by the famous Cartis- mandua, "who was a faithful and useful ally to a, the Romans, t The Brigantes having broken off their engagements with the Romans, of whatever kind they were, and commenced hostilities against them in the beginning of Ves- pasian's reign, A.D. 70, they were in part subdued by Petilius Cerialis, then governor of Britain, and soon after totally reduced by the renowned Agricola. § The country of the Bri- gantes composed almost the whole of the fourth Roman province in Britain, called Maxima Cae- sariensis, and was governed by the consular pre- sident of that province. As this, for the greatest • lUe Britannos Ultro noli littora ponti, ct coerulcos Scuta Brigantes, dare Ilomula'is colla catenis Jiissit. — Seneca in Ludo. f Tacit. Annal. 1. 12. c. 32. J Id. 1. 12. c. 36. § Tacit, ^'ita Agiic. c. 17. CO. ^78 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. part of the Roman times, was a frontier pro- vince, it was much frequented, and carefully guarded by that illustrious people ; so that to give the shortest possible account of the prodi- gious number of their castles, towns, cities, and of the other works executed by them in it, for use, ornament, and defence, would draw out this paragraph to a tedious and disproportionate length. It is necessary, therefore, to refer the reader, for satisfaction in these particulars, to the Appendix, otodini. 21. To the north-east of the Brigantes were seated the Otodini, in the countries now called Northumberland, Merse, and the Lothians. * As the Otodini are not mentioned by any of the Roman historians, but only by Ptolemy, it is uncertain whether they formed a distinct, inde- pendent state, or were united with the Brigantes. They were, however, a considerable people, and possessed a long tract of the seacoast, from the river Tine to the Firth of Forth, t Their name is derived by Baxter from the old British words, Ot o dineu, which signify a high and rocky shore ; descriptive enough of their country, t They were probably reduced by Agricola, at the same time with their more powerful neigh- bours the Brigantes ; but as they lived without the wall of Severus, they were, like the rest of the Ma^ata?, engaged in frequent revolts. In the most perfect state of the Roman government in • Camd. Brit p. 10G6. f Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 575, \ Baxt. Gloss. Antiq. Brit, voce Otodini. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. QJQ this island, the country of the Otodini made a part of the Roman province called Valentia; which comprehended all that large tract between the two walls. As this province was never long together in the peaceable possession of the Ro- mans, they had but few stations in the country of the Otodini, except those on the line of the wall of Severus, which are described in the Ap- pendix. Besides these, there were two or three Roman towns without the wall, situated on or near the military way which ran through their country into Caledonia ; which are mentioned both in Ptolemy and the Itinerary of Antoninus. These towns were Bremenium, now Riechester, and Curia or Corstupitum, now Corbridge. * Between these two towns, and at a little distance from the military way, at a place now called Risingham, there are very conspicuous vestiges of a Roman station; which, from the inscrip. tion of an altar found there, appears to have been named Habitancum. t 22, The Gadeni were seated to the north-west Gadeni. of the Otodini, and possessed the mountainous parts of Northumberland and Tiviotdale. Some imagine that the vestige of their name is still pre- served in the names of the river Jed and of the town of Jedburgh, which are both in the country anciently inhabited by the Gadeni. * The name of this small nation is supposed by Mr • Ilors. Brit. Rom. p. 596, 397. t W. ibid. f Baxt. Gloss. Biit, p. 120. 280 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. Baxter to have been derived from the British word Gedau, which signifies to fly or wander ; but another antiquary, who was no less skilled in the British language, derives it from Gadichin, which signifies thieves or robbers. * As the country which this people inhabited was very wild and mountainous, it is probable, that they led a wandering kind of life, and made frequent predatory incursions into the territories of their more wealthy neighbours, who, in revenge, gave them the opprobrious names of thieves and va- gabonds ; names which would not have been ill applied to the people of these parts in much later periods. It appears, from an inscription found at Risingham in Northumberland, that the national deity of the Gadeni was called Mogon, who might perhaps be the god of thieves among the Britons, as Mercury was among the Greeks and Romans, t The Gadeni jDrobably made some kind of submission to the Romans under Agricola, at the same time with their neighbours on all hands; but as their country was never much frequentedby that victorious people, who: seem to have had no towns or stations in it, their obedience to the Roman government was only occasional. The country of the Gadeni was included in the province called Valentia, after that province was erected. Baxt Gloss, Brit. p. 126. Dr Macphcrson's Dissert, p 113. f Hors. Brit Rom. p. 254, Chap. 3. Sect. I. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 281 d?gQ:Ti *riie Selgov^e were seated' to 'the west of Seigov*. tlie Gadeni, in the countries now called Eskdale, Annandale, and Nithsdale, lying along the shores of the Solway Firth, which is believed to have derived its name from that of this ancient British nation. * Mr Baxter supposes that the name of this people was compounded of the two British words Sel Giii, which signify salt waves, alluding to the Solway Firth, with which the coasts of their country were washed : but the modern antiquary, quoted above, thinks it more probable, that the name was derived from the British word Sealg, which literally signifies hunt- ing, and metaphorically theft, t The Selgovaa became first acquainted with the Romans, when Agricola marched his army through their country into Caledonia, in the second or third year of his government in Britain ; at which time they made their submissions to that victorious general, t From that period they were alternately under the dominion of the Romans, or enjoyed freedom as ' . that people extended or contracted the limits of their empire in this island. The Romans had several stations and camps in the country of the Selgovae, of which some vesticres are still re- mammg. 24. To the north-west of the Sel2:ova3 were Nova seated the Novanta:?, in the countries which are now called Galloway, Carrick, Kyle, and Cun- * Baxt. Gloss. Brit. p. 215. t Id. ibid. Dr Wacphcrson's Dissert, p. 115. f Gordon's Itin. Scptont. p. 15, &c. jj Id. ibid. — See Appendix. aiiluj. 282 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. ningham. * The name of this ancient British nation is supposed by Mr Baxter to be com- pounded of the two British words Now Hent, which, he says, signify New Inhabitants, t This was one of those new and unknown nations, situated on the coast of Britain opposite to Ire- land, and witliin sight of that island, which Agricola discovered and defeated in several battles, in the fifth year of his government, and in M'hose country he built some forts, and left some forces, with a view to favour an expedition which he meditated against Ireland. J But as this expedition never took place, these forces were soon withdrawn, and the forts abandon- ed; and this country, on account of its remote situation, was not much frequented by the Ro- mans. Damnii. 25. To thc uortli of the Gadeni and Otodini were seated the Damnii, in the countries now called Clydesdale, Renfrew, Lenox, and Stir- lingshire. The name of this nation, which is sometimes written Dumnii, might perhaps be derived from the British word Dun, which sig- nifies a hill or mountain, a great part of their country being hilly and mountainous. II This was one of those British nations, formerly un- known to the Romans, which were discovered by Agricola in the third year of his government, when he penetrated to the river Tay. § It was • Camd. Brit. p. 1199. t Baxt. Gloss. Brit. 184. < f Tacit, vita. Agric. c. 24. U Baxt. Gloss. Brit. 97. § Tacit, vita Agric. c. 22. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 283 in the country of the Daninii that Agricola built those forts into which he put his army in winter for the preservation of his conquests; as it was in the same country, and probably in the same tract, that the famous wall was built be- tween the firths of Forth and Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, to protect the Roman terri- tories from the incursions of the Caledonians. * On account of this wall, and the many forts and castles upon it, this country was more frequented by the Romans, than any other to the north of Severus's wall ; and more remains of that illus- trious people have been discovered in it, than in any other part of Scotland. These five last mentioned British nations, who Maeaiw. possessed the country between the walls of Se- verus and Antoninus Pius, are sometimes called, in the Greek and Roman writers, by the general name of the Meeatae. t This name, which was probably not unknown to the Britons them- selves, is believed by some to have been derived from two British words, Moi, a plain, and Aitich, inhabitants; by others, t from these two, Mtean, middle, and Aitich ; as being situated in the middle, between the provincial and unconquered Britons. We have sufficient evidence, that the Roman The Ro- mans had armies, under Julius Agricola and the Emperor butanim- Severus, penetrated a considerable way into that knowledge * Tacit vita Agric. c. 22.-^— See Appendix. f Xiphilin. e Dione in Sever. i Obsian's Woiks, v. :.'. p. '.'19, Dr IVIacphersoii'sDisicrt. p. 25. 284 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. of the part of Britain which lies to the north of the country beyond Wall of Antoninus Pius, between the firths of nu"'s wall. Forth and Clyde. Tacitus gives a very distinct account of the first of these famous expeditions in Caledonia, and Dio Nicaeus of the second. * Many Roman coins have been found in several parts of that country, and there are still remain- ing in it very distinct vestiges of several Roman camps, t But it is no less evident, that the Romans never formed any solid or lasting esta- blishment beyond the wall of Antoninus, which w^as always considered as the utmost limit of the Roman empire in Britain, t We have no reason, therefore, to be surprised, that they had but a '• very imperfect knowledge of the most northerly parts of this island, and of their inhabitants. That knowledge was indeed so imperfect, that they imagined the country beyond the wall of Antoninus extended about three times as far from west to east as it did from south to north, which is directly contrary to the truth. 1| The reader must therefore rest contented with the following very brief and imperfect account of the British nations which dwelt beyond the Roman wall between Forth and Clyde. Kpidii. 26. The Epidii, or Pepidii, were the ancient inhabitants of the peninsula of Cantyr, and per- haps of some of the adjacent islands, and of part • Tacit, vita Agric. c. 21. to 39. Xipliilin. c Dionc in Sever. f Gordon's Itin, Scptent. p. 56, &c. Hors. Brit. Horn. p. 66. .V.-.j- Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 65. H Id. P- 61. Chap. 3. Sect. 1, CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 285 of Argyleshire and Lorn. * Mr Baxter ima- gines the Pepidii derived their name from the British word Pepidiauc, which signifies any thing shaped like a flute or pipe, as was the pen- insula of Cantyr, the country of the Pepidii. t 27. The Cerones, who were probably the Cerones, same people with the Creones mentioned also by Ptolemy, were the most ancient inhabitants of Lochabar, and part of Rosse.t 28. The Carnonacae possessed that part of camo- Rosse which is called Assenshire. '^ "^'''*'' 29. The Carini seem to have dwelt about caiini. Lochbey, on the north-west coast of Rosseshire. By Camden they are placed in Caithness. ll , 30. The Cornavii were the ancient inhabi- Comavif, tants of the most northerly point of Britain, called Strathnavern, which seems to retain some vestige of the name of its first possessors. ^ 31. The Mertae, if they are rightly placed by Mert^p. Ptolemy, must have been an inland people, in- liabiting the north-west parts of Sutherland. ** 32. The Logi seem to have possessed the sea- Logi. coast of Sutherland, ft 33. the Cantse, according to Ptolemy, must Cant». have been seated on the north side of Tayne Firth. Mr Baxter placeth them in Buchan, which he derives from the British words Pow Chant, which he says signify the country of the CantfE. tt * Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 369. Camd, Brit. p. 1462. f Bftxt. Gloss. Brit. p. 1 93. | Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 368. § Id. p. 566. II Id. ibid. ^ Camd. Brit. p. 1279. *" Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 372. tt Id. p. 371. \\ Bast. Oloss. Brit. p. 65, 2S6 • HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Bookl. Caiedonii. S4. The Caleclonii seem to have possessed a very extensive tract of country, reaching from Lochfenn on the west, to the Firth of Tayne on the east coast, including Badenoch, Braidalbin, the inland parts of the shires of Murray, Bamf, Aberdeen, and Perth. The Greek and Roman historians and poets, who flourished in the first, second, and third centuries, when they have occasion to mention the affairs of Britain, give the general name of Caiedonii to all the British nations without the limits of the Roman pro- vince, and that of Caledonia to their country. * The reason of this might be, that the Caiedonii were the most powerful and warlike of all these nations, and maintained some kind of superio- rity over the rest, who were contented to fight under their conduct against their common ene- mies, the Romans and provincial Britons. The name of the Caiedonii, which, from being the proper name of one nation, became the common denomination of many, is evidently compound- ed of the two British words Cael and Dun, which signify the Gauls or Britons of the moun- tains ; t a name very proper for the real Caie- donii of Badenoch, Braidalbin, and the adja- cent tracts, which are the most mountainous parts of Scotland, and not very unsuitable to the other nations, to whom it was given by the Roman authors. No towns It may not be improper to take notice, that, among the t^i in 'tti i nine pre- according to rtolemy, who fiounshed aoout the ceding nU' tion3. * Tacit, vita Agric. c. 10. 25. 27. Xipliilin. e Dione in Sever. I Preface to Ossian's Poems, v. 2. p. -1. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 287 middle of the second century, there was not so much as one British town among all the nine nations above named, who were the ancient in- habitants of the Highlands, and most northerly parts of Scotland. This seems to be a proof, that these nations, or rather tribes, at that period, led a wandering unsettled life, strangers to agri- culture, subsisting on their flocks and herds, on what they catched in hunting or got by plunder, and on the spontaneous productions of the eartli ; which is exactly agreeable to the description which is given of them by Dio Nicasus, in the beginning of the third century. * The three fol- lowing nations, as they possessed a better coun- try, seem to have been more settled, and in a more advanced state of civilization. 35. The Texaliwere the ancient inhabitants of Texaii. the sea-coasts of Aberdeenshire ; and had a town called Devana, at the mouth of the river Deva (Dee) where old Aberdeen now stands, t 36. The Vacomagi, according to Ptolemy, vacomagi. seem to have possessed part of Murray, Athol, Mearns, and Angus. In this large and fine country they had these four towns, Bonatia, Tamea, Alata, Castra, and Tuesis ; about the situation of which, antiquaries are so much divid- ed in their opinions, that nothing certain can be determined. 37. It is not improbable that tlie Horesti, uorosti. who are mentioned by Tacitus, and were in * Xipliilin. c Dione in Sever. f Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 5f)9. ,.S83 Venicon- tes. Scots anil Picts. ^^ ^j^ISTORY OF BRITAIN. ^j9a„;Book I. Agricola's time the inhabitants of Angus, had been incorporated with, or subdued by, the Va- comagi, before Ptolemy wrote his geography.* 38. The Venicontes were the ancient inha- bitants of Fife ; and had a town named Orrea, which, some think, was situated where St. Ari- drew's now stands ; t while others imagine it was somewhere near the water of Ore, perhaps at Orrock. 1^ 4*1 1 1 It hath been already observed, that all the un^ conquered Britons, who dwelt without the limits of the Roman empire, were commonly called by the general name of Caledonii, by the Romans and provincial Britons, during the first, second, and third centuries. It is now necessary to take notice, that about the bc^^inninsf of the fourth century, these Britons were divided into two con- siderable nations, which began to be known in the world by the new names of Scots and Picts ; about the origin and meaning of which names many volumes have been written, and prodigious quantities of ink and paper w^asted. That we may not fatigue the reader, we shall not so much as mention the various opinions which have been advanced on the subject, but content ourselves with a few brief remarks. There is not then the least reason to imagine, that the British nations in the north andunconquered parts of this island, who, about the beginning of the fourth century,^ * Tacit, vita. Agric. c. 38. \ Hors. Brit. Rom. p. G73. f Bast. Gloss. Brit. p. 169. Chap. 3. Sect. 1. CONSTITUTION^ L AW, &c. 289 began to be called Scots and Picts, were a dif- ferent people from the Caledonians. For if any foreign nations had arrived in Britain at that time, and destroyed or conquered the Caledo- nians, and taken possession of their country, so great a revolution could not have escaped the notice of the Romans, who were very attentive to every thing that happened on their frontiers. It is almost equally certain that these new names were not assumed by the Caledonians themselves; for to this day they are not adopted by their genuine posterity in the Highlands of Scotland. * To advance one step further, it is highly probable, that these names of Scots and Picts were imposed upon the Caledonians by their neighbours and enemies, the Provincial Britons, out of revenge for the many injuries which they suifered, by their frequent depredations. What renders this conjecture almost a certaintyis, that these names, in the vulgar language of Britain at that time, were really names of reproach, ex- pressive of the fierce, rapacious character of the Caledonians. For Scuite in the British tongue (which being latinized made Scoti) signifies the wandering nation, which was the real character of the inhabitants of the western coasts of North Britain at that time; andPictich (latinized Picti) in the same language signifies thief or plun- derer ; which was no less characteristic of the • Dr Macpherson's IHssert. p. 107. VOL. I. X SQOi 3^ IHISTORY OF BRITAIN. ■] jaaB Book I. Caledonians on the east coasts* * For though they diftered from their countrymen in the west in several particulars, they most cordially united with them in plundering the Provincial Britons. It may be thought a further proof that this was the real origin of the names of the Scots and f Picts, that the most ancient Roman authors who ) mention these nations by these names, often / subjoin the epithets, vagantes, raptores, ferae, 1 and the like, which are literal translations of; the British words Scuite and Pictich. f «£ii)jjia^ Such seem to have been the political divisions 5 of the territories of this famous island, and dis- tributions of its inhabitants, in the period we are now considering. Such readers as are desirous of seeing a much more ancient survey of the political state of Great Britain in this period^ 5 may consult the work quoted below, t Populous- It is impossible to discover the precise number Brita*in. of the pcoplc of Great Britain at the first Roman^ invasion. As both agriculture and commerce were then in their infancy in this island, and ex- tensive tracts of it were covered with woods and marshes, we may be very certain it was far from being populous. If we allow twenty thousand persons of both sexes, and of all ages, to each of * Dissertation before Ossian's poems, v. 2. p. 5. Dr Macpherson's Dissertations, p. 110, 111. f Ammian. Marcellin. 1. 20. c. 1. p. 181. 1. 27. c. 8. p. 383. \ Ricardi Monachi Westmonasteriensis de Situ Britanniae, Libri duo. Havnis 1757. Chap. 5. Sect. 1 . C O'NSTI tUf ION, 1 AW, &c. Qc^ the thirty-eight British nations above mentionedp one with another, they will make in all 760,OOOi' The learned author quoted by Mr Anderson,f- in the Introduction to his History of Com- merce, makes only 360,000 persons to have been in England when Caesar invaded it ; which^ computation seems to be rather too low, when we consider what is said by Caesar of the popu- lousness of Britain, and by Tacitus and Dio of the numerous armies of the ancient British states. * Upon the whole, it is not improbable, that there are nearly as many people at present in the metropolis of Great Britain, and its en-* virons, as were in the whole island at the firsti Roman invasion. iioit It is now time to take a more attentive vieW'^ of the constitution, government, and laws of { these ancient British nations. n s jijii'u/-. .;>.r-.. - -malunc^. * Caesar Bel. Gal. h 5. c. 12. Tacit. Annal. 1. 14. p., 34. Xiphilin. ie ?ifsa ex Dione in Neron. ■'•( ' .niRjha Qgo ^-i HISTORY OF BRITAIN..^ .1o^^ Book I. J ^ V ft" f JYf hoc? ivO ■+ f ■; . ~j. -J. ;„ _-, SECTION II. The Constitution, Government, and Lam of the ancient Bri- tish Natio7is, before they were invaded and subdued by the Romans. x ciJ iiarchical. Govern- \^ ^^^ive sufficieiit Teason to believe, both mentof ,. , . ^ n the ancient f^Q^^ the iiatural course ot things, and trom states mo- thc testimonics of the best Greek and Roman authors, that the government of the ancient Bri- tish nations, before they were invaded by the Romans, was monarchical. This is the most obvious form of government; it bears the great- est resemblance to the patriarchal; and hatli therefore immediately succeeded it in almost all parts of the world. * That this was the case in Britain, we have the clearest evidence. Caesar every where speaks of the British states as under the government of kings, and hath preserved the names, and part of the history of several of these petty monarchs. t After the Emperor Claudius returned from his British expedition, he entertained the people of Rome, in the Cam- pus Martins, with a magnificent representation of the surrender and submission of the kings of Britain, at which he appeared in his imperial • See the Origin of Laws, &c. v. 1. p. 10. and the authors tliere quot- ed f Ctcs. ae Bel. Gal, 1. 4. c. 30. I. 5. c 19, 20. 22. Chap. 3. Sect. 2. CONSTITUTION, LA.W, &c. robes. * DiodorusSiculusand Pomponius Mela say expressly, that Britain contained many na- tions, which were all governed by kings. To these, if it were necessary, might be added the testimonies of Strabo and Solinus. t Dio Cassius seems to think, that the great success of the Romans in this island under the command of Aulus Plautius, the first Roman governor of Britain, was in some measure owing to this cir- cumstance ; " That the Britons were not then ;m^vo.i " a free people, but under subjection to many " different kings, "t It is necessary to consider a little more attentively what is said on this sub- ject by Tacitus and Dio Nicaeus ; because it seems, at first sight, to be inconsistent with the testimonies of these other authors. " The na- " tions of Britain, says Tacitus, were formerly ** subject to kings, but now they are miserably ** divided by the factious cabals of their leading ** men." But here Tacitus is evidently speaking of the state of the British nations in the south in his own time ; after their ancient government, which he confesses had been monarchical, was dissolved, and their kings were either killed, captivated, or subdued by the Romans. Dio Nicseus gives a very curious description of the British nations in the north, against whom the Emperor Severus was engaged ; and, amongst 'ill ^ ;■ ' • Siielon. vita Claud, c. '21. Diod. Sic. 1. 5. c 21. Pompon. IVfela, I. 3. c. 6, f Strabo, 1. 4. p. 200. Solin. c. 51. Y t Tacit, vita Agiic. c. 12. ^ , ^ '^ - ' .a i4- ,ts'! i s/^- .-, •"*/ i, -'HISTORY OF BtllTAIN. ?3o3 JBook I. many other things, says, ** that the people in V these nations have agreat share in the supreme '** power."*' These words refer only to the '^Ma'ata:', who lived between the wall of Severus and that of Antoninus Pius, and to the Caledo- nians, who lived beyond the last of these walls ; 'and they can mean no more than this, that the "ifierce and wandering tribes, which inhabited the 'woods and mountains of Caledonia, were vet^y free, and impatient of the restraints of govern- "Ifnent. ';^^'; -■ '- - -.v-^ -•^-^/^■' ^^-^ i^'.n. Rules of * 2. The Tuifes 01^ stic^essibn t6 fh^ rt^yaratltlio- J^^^^g^**'"" rity, in these ancient British monarchies, were tiironein probably not very well understood, nor very British firmly established. There is no appearance, how- ' 'evei', that they were purely elective ; but that ^'the succession proceeded in the royal family, "'though not perhaps always in the direct line. «*"When a prince, at his death, left a son of an ;^^ge and capacity fit for government, he suc- ceeded of course. This most obvious rule of *^succession seems to have been well known and "'much respected. Immanuentius, King of the "^^ Trinobantes, had been killed by his powerful "and ambitious neighbour Cassibelanus, and his ^ son Mandub rutins had been obliged to fly out ° "of tlie island to avoid the same fate. The young ^'prince put himself under the protection of ^ CaL'sar, and came ov^r with him into Britain in n-his second expedition. Though the .Trinobantes * Xiphilin. e Dione Nicaeo in Sever. states. Chap. 3. Sect. 2. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. had entered into the confederacy with the othei* British states under Cassibelanus, yet when they heard that their prince was in the Roman camp, they sent ambassadors to Caesar with offers of submission on this condition : " That lie sent " them Mandubratius to succeed his father in ;<* the government of their state, and that he pro- /* mised to protect him against the violence of /« Cassibelanus. " * This is a strong proof of iheir attachment to the family of their sovereign, and of their regard to this most natural rule of . succession, that of a son to his father. When , one of these ancient British monarchs left more noiae-j^uz •thanoneson of mature ageand suitable capacity, r^-'' \ little or no regard seems to have been paid to ^^, the rights of primogeniture, but the dominions of the father were equally divided among his sons. In this manner the dominions of Cu- ,nobelinus were divided between his two sons, .Caractacus and Togodumnus. f In this last case, and perhaps in some others, the will of the father appears to have been much regarded in the division of his dominions. For Cunobe- linus excluded Adminius, one of his sons who had offended him, from any share in his suc- cession, t When a British king left no sons, he jWas succeeded by his daughter or his widow. By this rule Cartismandua became Queen of the Brigantes, and BoadiciaQueen of the Iceni: and • Ca^ar. ac Bel. Gat 1 S.C. 20. ' "^-'"' ' ^- ' ^ tfio. Casi.t^O. \ SuL-lon. vita Calig. c. 41. i Tanistry. 29G .>, v^ISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book ir^ Tacitus acquaints us, " That in the succession *' to royal authority, the Britons made no dis- *l tinction of sexes. '* * We hear of no infant monarchs among the ancient Britons, and of re- gents governing in their name ; of which it is probable they had no ideas. But it is improper to pursue this subject any further ; for the truth is, that we are not furnished with a sufficient number of examples to enable us to discover what were the rules of succession in these an- cient British kingdoms in many cases ; nor can we be certain that those rules which we have already mentioned, were uniformly observed. Law of After states and kingdoms had been some time formed in any country, and men had en- joyed the advantages of law and government, they became sensible of the inconveniences of an interregnum and disputed succession, and en- deavoured to provide against them by various means. In Ireland, and in the northern parts qf .this island, the law or custom of Tanistry (as it is called) prevailed in very ancient times. By this law, one of the royal family, most commonly the eldest son of the reigning prince, or one of the nearest or most worthy of his relations, was appointed to be his successor, and was called the Tanist, which signifies the second in dignity, f A similar custom also prevailed in Wales in the ^ * Tacit, vita Agric. c. 16. °+ Dr MacphiTson's Dissertations, p, 182. -Sir James Ware's AntiJ, LAW, &c. 299 every part of the British history of this period, in which we never hear of an army in the field but under the conduct of a king or queen. But even in the time of war, and at the head of their armies, the authority of these ancient British princes was not unlimited. They were obliged to pay no little deference to the opinions of the chieftains who commanded the several tribes of which their armies were composed, and of the Druids who constantly attended these armies. In particular, the kings had no power to impri- son or punish any of their soldiers. This was wholly in the hands of the Druids. " None but " the priests can inflict confinement, stripes, ** or correction of any kind; and they do this ** not at the command of the general, but in " obedience to their Gods, who, they pretend, -'*■* are peculiarly present with their armies in ?" war, '* * Nor could these princes give battle until the priests had performed their auguries, and declared that they were favourable, t It )2would not be very difficult to prevail with a ipeople so brave and martial as the ancient Bri- tons were, to commence hostilities against their enemies on very slight provocation; and yet we have no reason to beHeve that the British kings took upon them to make a formal declaration of i"War without consulting at least with their nobles * Tacit, de Morib. German, c. 7. f Goes, do Bui. Gal. 1. I.e. 50. »« «^*M^.is^ ^ i8S ^^ ''^ISTO^ OF BltlTAIN? -^ i3o(«ll and Druids. * Among the ancient Germans and Gauls, this of declaring war was one of those great national affairs which was referred to the determination of all the warriors in it state, in their general assemblies; and in these they sometimes came to resolutions directly con- trary to the will of their princes, f Ambiorix, King of the Eburones, a people of Gaul, made this excuse to Caesar for having assaulted his camp ; " That it had been done contrary to his " advice and inclination, by the commands of ^" his subjects ; for that by the constitution of v->To<.u,, v3.';4 tU .'.^j/ Chap. 3. Sect. 2. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. power of the British nionarchs of these times» was much greater than that of their cotempo- f ary princes on the Continent, in those states in \vhich that form of government was settled. * In concluding peace, as well as in declaring war, the British kings were no doubt obliged to pay a regard to the advice and inclinations of their nobles and Druids. Several of those states which united under Cassibelanus in opposing the first invasions of the Romans, made their peace separately, very much against the will of that prince. 4. If the authority of these ancient kings of Authority Britain was thus limited in the time of war, it tuhmo-"" was almost annihilated in the time of peace. As SSed" it was the dread of being overpowered by their jj" """^^ "^ hostile neighbours, which engaged several inde- pendent tribes to unite into one state, and sub- mit to one sovereign; so, when that dread was at an end, the union of these tribes to one ano- ther, and their subjection to their common so- vereign, became very weak, and they returned almost to their former independent patriarchal state. It required the experience of several a- ges to convince those wild untutored clans of the necessity of union, order, and submission to J".- • As a proof of thiis, we may observe, that the British princes made an excuse to Csesar for having seized and imprisoned Comius, his ambassa- dor, of the same kind with that of Ambiorix, viz. that it had been done by the multitude, without any command from them. — (Ctes. de Bel. Gal. 1. 4. c. 27.) t Cass, de Bel. Gal. 1. 5. e. 20, 21. peace. 302 HISTORY OF BRITAIN/ '-- Book IJ law and government, in peace as well as in waru In some of the nations of Germany the royal authority entirely ceased as soon as a peace was concluded, and was revived again as soon as a war broke out. * Authority The British sovereicrns of this period had not of exe- , . . , r . cuting the much authority either in the making or executing hands of the laws, which are the principal acts of govern- idt ^^' ment in peaceful times. In that great relaxa- ' tion of political union and civil government''* which prevailed in times of peace, their religion seems to have been the chief bond of union '" among the British tribes and nations; and the Druids, who were the ministers of that religion^ '^ appear to have possessed the sole authority of making, explaining, and executing the laws ; an authority to which the clergy of the church of Rome long and eagerly aspired, but never fully ' obtained. One great reason of the superior sue- ' cess of the Druids in their ambitious schemes,- was this: the laws among the ancient Britons, to and some other ancient nations, were not con^>v sidered as the decrees of their princes, but as the; commands of their Gods; and the Druids were supposed to be the only persons to whom the Gods communicated the knowledge of their commands, and consequently the only persons who could declare and explain them to the people, t The violations of the laws were not • Caesar de Bel. Gal. 1. 6. c. 23. t Diod. Sicul. 1. 5. § 31. p. 354. Strabo, 1. 4. p, 197. Chap. 3. Sect. 2. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. SOS considered as crimes against the prince or state, but as sins against Heaven ; for which the Druids, as the ministers of Heaven, had alone the right of taking vengeance. * All these important prerogatives, of declaring, explaining, and exe- cuting the laws, the Druids enjoyed and exer- cised in their full extent. " All controversies * (says Caesar) both public and private, are ' determined by the Druids. If any crime is * committed, or any murder perpetrated ; if * any disputes arise about the division of in- * heritances, or the boundaries of estates, they * alone have the right to pronounce sentence ; * and they are the only dispensers both of re- * wards and punishments. " f " All the peo- * pie (says Strabo) entertain the highest opi- ' nion of the justice of the Druids. To them * all judgment, in public and private, in civil * and criminal cases, is committed. " t To ^^• these two, if it w^ere necessary, the testimonies ?' of several other ancient authors might be added. So fully did the Druids possess the power of judging in all cases, that they were not under the necessity of calling in the assistance of the secular arm to execute their sentences, but per- formed this also by their own authority, inflict- ^ * Agreeable to this idea, when criminals were put to death, they were sacriBccd to their Gods, and not to the justice of their country. — (Caesar de Bel. Gal. L 6. c. 16.) j f Ca;sar. de Bel. Gal. 1. 6, c. 13. \ Strabo ab Isaaco Casaub. edit. Lutetiae, 1620, 197; -■ O ;,#» .0* ,WA9I?.TSftX,Pf BRITAIN,,,,^ ,,Po«k I. ing with their own hands stripes and even death " ion those whom they had condemned. * These ghostly judges had one engine which contributed much to procure submission to their decisions. This w^as the sentence of excommunication or interdict, which they pronounced against par- ticular persons, or whole tribes, when, they re- fused to submit to their decrees. The interdicts -r of the Druids were no less dreadful than those of the Popes, when their power was at its greatest height. The unhappy persons against whom they w^ere fulminated, were not only, excluded from all sacrifices and religious rites j but they were held in universal detestation, as impious and abominable ; their company was avoided as dan* gerous and contaminating ; they were declared incapable of any trust or honour, put out of the protection of the laws, and exposed to injuries of every kind ; f a condition which must have rendered life intolerable, and have brought the most refractory spirits to submission. SrnTeTof ^' I^ is not possible to recover many particulars daV"ro" (-'oncerning the times, places, forms, and cir-. ceedings cumstauccs of tlic ludicial proceedings of these of the . '' ^ . awful judges. That they appropriated certain times and seasons for the discussion of such im- portant causes as required deliberation, and could admit of delay, there can be no doubt. In settling these seasons or terms for judicial pro- ;• Tacit, de Morib. German. 'c.^7; "Cffsair. cle Bel. GaLte: c. W. - f C%sar. de Bel. Gal. 1. C, c. 13. Chap. 3. Sect. 2.' " cb^km&iftoW^¥.AW, &c. '^^?) '5 Ceedings, they could hardly fail to attend to these two circumstances — -That they did not interfere with the times devoted to religion, of which they were the ministers, nor with the seasons of the most necessary occupations of the people, to whom they were to administer justice. On this last account, seed-time and harvest would be vacations. Agreeable to these observations, we find that there were but two law terms amono: the Welsh in very ancient times ; the one in summer, from the ninth day of May to the ninth of August ; the other in winter, from the ninth of November to the ninth of February ; * a custom which they probably derived from their British ancestors. Though the right of admi- nistering justice belonged to the order of Druids in general, yet there can be little doubt, that certain particular members of that order, in every country, were appointed to exercise that right, and execute the office of judges. How numerous these Druidical judges were, whether ,^^^yy they were all of one rank, or some of them sub- ':'":!! ordinate to others, what were the emoluments of their office, where, and with what forms and ceremonies they held their courts, with many other particulars which we might wish to know, cannot now be discovered with certainty. Their courts, it is probable, were held in the open air, for the convcniency of all who had occasion to attend them ^ and on an eminence, that all might "■'" " '"""^ -so t • Leges Wallica; in Prafat. et in Lcgib. p, 122. VOL. I. U 306, HISTORY OF BRITAIN. ,o- ^Opfcl. see and lieartheir judges; and near their temples, to give the greater solemnity to tlieir proceed- ings.* There was at least one of tliese places of judicature in tlie territories of every state, perhaps in the lands of every clan or trihe. Whenever tJiere was an Archdruid, he was the supreme judge in all causes, to whom appeals iniglit be made from the tribunals of inferior judges, and from wliose tribunal there was no appeal. To hear and determine all causes in the last resort, the Archdruid lield a grand assize once in the year, at a fixed time and place ; wliich was commonly at his ordinary or chief residence. The chief residence of the Archdruid of Gaul was at Dreux, in the Pais Chartrain ; and at this place the grand assize for Gaul was held, which is thus described by Ctesar.: " Once in the year, at a certain appointed time, " they assemble and hold a great court, in a cer- " tain consecrated place, in the country of the wimiv.Ji ;'f* Cornutes, which is thought to be in the very " centre of Gaul. Hither those who have any ** lawsuits depending, flock from all parts to " receive their final determination, to which ♦* they implicitly submit. " f The residence of the Archdruid of Britain, it is generally believed, was in the Isle of Anglesey; where it is imagined * By the ancient laws of Wales, the judge is directed to sit with his back to the sun or the storm, that they might not incommode him. — ^Leges Wallicw, 1. 2. c. 10. § 12, p. 123.)— Spdpaanoi Gloisarjum, VQCe Mallobergium. f Cossar Ue Bel, Gal. 1. Q. c, Id. (( Chap. 3. Sect. 2. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. S(J7 the grand assize was also held, and the supreme tribunal fixed. In this island, Mr Rowland thinks he hath discovered some vestiges of that tribunal still remaining, which he thus describes: *' In the other end of this township of Fre'p <' Dryw, wherein all these ruins already men- ** tioned are, there first appears a large cirque or ** theatre, raised up of earth and stones, to a great height, resembling a horseshoe, open- ing directly to the west, upon an even fair spot *' of ground. This cirque or tlieatre is made of ** earth and stones, carried and heaped there to *' form the bank. It is within the circumvalla- tion, about twenty paces over ; and the banks, where whole and unbroken, above five yards *' perpendicular height. It is called Bryn-Gwyn, " or Brein-Gwyn, i. e. the supreme or royal tri- " bunal. And such the place must have been, " wherever it was, in which a supreme judge " gave laws to a whole nation. " * 6. As the authority of tlie ancient British kinffs Revenues was very small, especially in times of peace, so tiihkin^! their revenues could not be very great. Besides their family estates, which were commonly the most considerable of any in their respective na- tions, they had probably certain lands annexed to their crowns, to enable them to support their dignity, and maintain their numerous followers. It is also probable that the custom of making presents to their princes prevailed in Britain as • Rowland's Mona Anfifj|ija, p. 89, 90. U 2 <( ^CS HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. ^ett Wiii Germany, and was onb' cBiisider^Kli branch of their revenues. It is tlius described by Tacitus ; " The communities are wont, of " their own accord, and man by man, to give ** to their princes a certain number of beasts, or " a certain portion of grain ; a contributidti " which passes for a mark of respect and honour, ** but serves only to supply their necessities.**"* These things, which were at first given voluii- tarily, might perhaps be afterwards demanded as of right; and gave rise to those numerous prestaf- tions of different kinds, which were afterwards paid by the proprietors of land to their sovereigns inalltheEuropeankingdoms.t Martial princes^ who were at the head of powerful and warlike na- tions, frequently received valuable presents from otherprinces and states who courted their friend- ship and protection. ** They chiefly rejoice (says ** Tacitus) in the gifts which come from the " bordering countries, sent not only by parti- " cular persons, but by whole states ; such as " fine horses, splendid armour, rich harness, " with chains of gold and silver. " t The riches of a British king, as they are described by Caractacus, in his famous speech to the Emperor Claudius, consisted of such things as these, and many of them were, no doubt, obtained in this manner. § There was another source from which • Tacit, de Morib. German, c. 15. f Historical Dissertation on the Antiquity of the English Constitu- tion, p. 105, &c. ^ii-j^j .. I Tacit, de Morib. German, c. 15. § Tacit. Annal. 1. 12. c. 36. Chap. 3. Sect. 2. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 309 some of these ancient British kings derived more ample revenues than from any of those which have been mentioned. This was their share of the booty or plunder which their subjects brought home by their predatory incursions into neigh- bouring states. Among the ancient Germans robbery was not m the least infamous or disho- nourable, if committed without the territories of the state to which the robbers belonged; but was rather esteemed a laudable enterprise, neces- sary to keep their youth in exercise, and prevent them from sinking into eifeminacy. * Their greatest princes often put themselves at the head of these predatory bands, and, by the plunder which they obtained, supported their families and rewarded their followers, t These incursions were indeed dignified with the name of wars ; but as they were undertaken without any provo- cation, and with no other view but to enrich themselves with the spoils of their neighbours, JtJiey deserve no better title than robberies. We l>ave no reason to imagine that the kings of Bri- •tarn; were more reserved or scrupulous in this respect than their good brothers of Germany. When Caractacus was conducted into Rome a prisoner, the fine harness, the gold chains, and other valuable things which he had taken from his neighbours in war, were carried before him with great ostentation, as a spectacle not un^ -U)h?t* Caasar de Bel. Gal. 1.6. c. 23. f Tacit, do IMorib. German, c. 14, ${lj -- '' HlStdKY orBMTAlK; JDo^ Book I. worthy of the attention of the people of Romci who had been accustomed to view the spoils of if^'io'SS the richest monarchs.* Long after this period, '<r ,,b*.7* Jt is highly probable that the constitution 9°°'^^*";jj of all the British states in this period was not the British - , . n 1 • • states not exactly the same; but that some oi their prmces the same. enjoyed greater powers and prerogatives than others. This, as we learn from the writings of Caesar and Tacitus, was the case both in Gaul and Germany at this time ; but we have not the advantage of such faithful and intelligent guides to enable us to point out the peculiarities in the constitution of the several states of Britain. History hath indeed preserved the knowledge of one ancient British kingdom, whose constitution was very singular, and whose princes enjoyed prerogatives of an extraordinary nature. This was the kingdom of the ^budae, or Western Islands of Caledonia, of which Solinus gives us the following account : " Next to these are the " JEhudaSf which, being only separated from " each other by narrow firths, or arms of the " sea, constitute one kingdom. The sovereign " of this kingdom hath nothing which he can " properly call his own, but he hath the free and " full use and enjoyment of all the possessions " of all his subjects. The reason of this regula- " tion is, that he may not be tempted to acts " of oppression and injustice, by the desire or " hope of increasing his possessions; since he ** knows that he can possess nothing. This • Tacit. Aiinal. 1. 14. c. 31. -.ox^// , J3 id $1$ , ' HISTORY OF BRITAIN, l^3::.9 Book Id " prince is not so much as allowed to have a "wife of his own, but he hath free access ta; "the wives of all his subjects; that having nai:> "children which he knows to be his own, he " may not be prompted to encroach on the pri**^ " vileges of his subjects, in order to aggran;. " dize his family." * This very singular scheme of government (if there is any truth in the a> bove narration) was probably the invention of some artful Druids, in whom these islands very ^" much abounded, who thought themselves suffi* "- ciently happy in the enjoyment of all things, without the anxiety and trouble with whigh th&)' 1 possession of them is attended. -ihili ni tmi>'- versaimo- S. Thcrc was uo suprcme monarch in Britain, Brii? ^^ ^^^^^ period, who had any paramount authority over the other monarchs. Sometimes, perhaps, ; one of these princes, by marriage, or by hisDi superior valour and good fortune in war, ob-.)Ci tained the dominion of two or more of these'r little kingdoms. But these kingdoms were sooni ; after divided among that monarch's sons, and returned to their former independency. Nor were there so much as any extensive alliances or ties of union among these princes and states. They were not only independent, but jealous ofc j one another; and, even in times of common danger, they had not so mucli political temper and wisdom, as to forget their animosity, audi ' form one general confederacy for their common * Julii Solini Polihistoria. BasiL>, sine aoiio, c. 55. p. 168. Chap. 8. Sect. 2. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. sW safety. To this want of union, Tacitus ascribes '^ the ruin of these states, and their subjection to the Romans. " Tiiere was one thing which " gave us a great advantage against these power- *' ful nations, that they never consulted together ' " in one body about the security of the whole. ^^ " It was even rare that two or three of these ' " states united their forces against the common > *' enemy. By this means, while each of them ^ " fought separately, they were all successively ' " subdued.'??; 'f?' ' II. States and kingdoms, as well as particular progress persons, have their birth and infancy. King- ^'^ *^"'^' doms in their infant state are small and weak : { they have few laws, and these few are rather the -ont ic^Tw dictates of necessity than of deliberation, esta^'^ ^ilaliS blished more by tacit consent than by any formal '^ decree. In that state of society neither princes " nor people are well qualified for being legislators j '^ and they are too much taken up with the more '^ pressing cares of defending and providing for ^ themselves, to have leisure for political specula- '' tions. But when they are well established, and '■ have provided for their subsistence and security, ■' they begin to think of making improvements in ' their government and laws. Crimes against the public and against individuals are prohibited and ' punished; the rights and duties of all the different ranks of men in the state are ascertained; pro- perty is secured; the rules of succession settled j ^ * Tacit, vita Agric. c. 12. ^^^^-^'^ ^^''<^ '^"^ * ' 314 '>'^ HISTORY OF BRITAIN. :33K ,Book li a code of laws is gradually formed, and courts and judges appointed for putting them in exe- cution. In their advances towards a state of political maturity, their laws are more or less complete, according to the stage of civilization at which they are arrived. rm ^isofi^ Antiquity Thc British kingdoms, we have reason to be- iiv^."^"^ lieve, were in possession of a system of laws of considerable extent, before they were subdued by the Romans. Some of these kingdoms had sub- sisted several ages before that period. Almost a whole century had elapsed between the first inva- sion under Julius Cssar, and the second under Claudius ; and yet we find no material difference in the political state of Britain in these two periods. In both it was divided into several little monarchies, each of which was governed by its own king ; and it had, no doubt, been in this state long before the first of these invasions. In so long a course of time they must have acquired some skill in government and legislation, espe- cially the Druids, who devoted their whole time to the study of learning, religion, and law, of which they were the great oracles and inteqiret- ers. This \vas certainly one important branch of that great system of learning, which required the constant application of twenty years; and as some of the Druids were designed and appointed judges in the several British kingdoms, these might perhaps apply more particularly to the study of law. But tliough it is thus highly probable, that the ancient Britons had a large in verse. Ciiap. 3. Sect. 2. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 315 system of laws, a minute detail of the particu- lars contained in that system cannot be expect- ed from any writer in this age. The most that can be done on this subject, is to make a few general observations on the nature and spirit of these ancient British laws, and to collect a few particulars which are preserved in history to support and illustrate these observations. /'The laws, as well as the other branchesof learn- composed ing among the ancient Britons, were couched in verse. Though this may appear a little extraor- dinary to us, it was far from being peculiar to the ancient Britons. *' The first laws of all na- «* tions (says a learned writer on this subject) <• were composed inverse, and sung. We have ** certain proof, that the first laws of Greece *^ were a kind of songs. The laws of the an- *^ cient inhabitants of Spain were verses which M they sung. Twiston was regarded by the ^* Germans as their first lawgiver. They said he " put his laws into verses and songs. This an- ** cient custom was long kept up by several na- " tions. " t This practice of composing their laws in verse, and forming them into songs, was owing to that surprising love which the nations of antiquity bore to poetry and music. t This also rendered those laws more agreeable to a poetical people, made it easier for them to get them by heart, and retain them in memory. • Origin of Laws, &c. by President de Goguct, v. 1. b. I. p. 28, 20. atquc autlor. ibi citat. t See CUap. I V. ^ 316 „^IgX^5!'?pfiMffl41«S..o.sl°§^,rl? Nuver It was one of the most inviolable laws of the commit- ' • -r» • • n i • ted to ancient iintons, never to commit any or their ^"*"°* laws to writing. * This is not ascribed by Ca2sar to their ignorance of letters, but to other reasons j for he expressly says in the same place, that they made use of letters both in public and private transactions, t To the two reasons which are assigned for this law, by that very intelligent writer, this third one may perhaps be added ; that while the laws were unwritten, they were more entirely in the hands, and at the disposal of the Druids ; who alone had lei- sure and opportunity to make themselves coiii- plete masters of them. But whatever were the reasons of this law, it was certainly the cause that we know so little of the laws of the ancient Britons. For as they were reposited in the breasts of the Druids, when they were destroyed their laws perished with them, .,exr cept a few particulars which have been pre- served by the Greek and Roman writers ; and a few others, which had taken such deep root in the minds and manners of the Britons, that they were discernible in the laws and customs of their posterity many ages after. Considered It hath becu already observed, that the laws of mandsT"' ^hc aucleut Britous were considered as the laws their Gods, ^f ^j^gj^. Qods, rather than of their kings. Nor was tliis peculiar to the ancient Britons, it was the same in all other ancient nations. The first legislators were convinced, that their own autho- (■ * Cffisar dc 1'>'A. Gal. 1. 6. c. M. f Id. ibid. Chap. 3. Sect. 2? ' CONSTITUTION, ESw, &c. %\^ ft4^%ls*^6t sufficient to bridle the impetuous _,w'^/ passions of those bold and fierce men to whom ^,,,,^ ;^ they gave laws. They called Heaven to thHr assistance ; and declared, that they had received their institutions from some Divinity, who would talce Vengeance on those who dared to violate them. Thus, Numa Pompilius, the great le- g!ilat<5r'Vf ariaent Rome, gave out, that he received all his laws from the Goddess Egeria, «^^ That' the Barbarians (as Florus observes) *" miglif receive andobey them. "* One conse- quence of this view of their laws we have already mentioned, viz. that the priests of their Gods were the oracles of their laws. Another conse- quence of it w^as, that the laws which related to their religion, the worship of the Gods, and the privileges of their ministers, obtained the first place in their system of jurisprudence, and were declared to be of the most sacred and invio- lable obligation. That the Gods are to be w^or- shipped, was probably the very first law in the Druidical system, t To this all the other pre- scriptions relating to the rites, times, places, and other circumstances of that worship, would na- turally follow, with proper sanctions to secure obedience. The laws ascertaining the honours/ ;^JJJ5"J',"J2 rights, and privileges of the Druids; those de- ,?''.^* 'l^-'f' daring their persons inviolable, and providing for their immunity from taxes and military ser- vices, were not forgotten. X'^"'" ""' ^^' "^ • Florus, 1. 1, c. 2, f Diogcn. Laert. in proem, t Cajsar dc Bel Gal. I. 6. c. H. , .; .j ,c ,i ui\j .ixj. m: i(o<:*J - 318 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. marnajce. Law of , Jn the state of nature the promiscuous inter- course of the sexes was productive of the most shocking disorders and grievous calamities. * It was one of the first cares, therefore, of all legislators, to regulate that intercourse, and se- cure the rights of marriage, on which the order, peace, and liappiness of society so much depend. Accordingly, the institution of marriage is as- cribed by all nations to their most ancient legislar tors.f That great law^, the marriage of one mail and one woman, which is so clearly pointed out by nature, w^as fully and firmly established among the ancient Britons. This is evident from their whole history, in which we never meet with the least hint, that any one man was allowed more than one wife, or any woman more than one husband. If such an indulgence had been allowed to any, it would have been to those who were invested with royal authority, as it was among the Germans at this period, t But kings and queens in Britain were subject to this great law, as well as their meanest subjects ; and when they presumed to violate it, they were hated and abandoned by all the world. This appears from the story of Cartismandua, who was queen of the Brigantes in her own right, which is thus jelated by Tacitus : " Cartismandua, queen of * Quos venerem incertam rapientes more ferarum, Viribus editior, caedebat ut in grege taurus. il9h lib. h sft, 5,y 19^'.^ ^ ■}■ Origin of Laws, &c v. 1 . p. 22. I Tacit, de Morib. Germ. c. IS. 3^ jv j„. Chap. 3. Sect. 2. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 319 *' the Briffantes, was descended from a long race " of royal ancestors, and famous for her power *^' and wealth, to which she received a great *^ accession for betraying Caractacus to tlie " Emperor Claudius, to adorn his triumph. ** Corrupted by her great prosperity, she aban- " doned herself to luxury; and, despising her hus- ^.^ band Venutius,she advanced her armour-bear- „^ ei' Vellocatius to his place in her throne and ** bed. This flagitious action proved the ruin of herself and family. For her subjects, the Brigantes, espousing the cause of her injured " husband, she was reduced to the greatest dis- *' tress, and implored the protection of the Ro- *' mans. We sent an army to her relief, which •** rescued her person, and fought several battles ^* in her cause; but she w^as at last obliged to leave " her kingdom in the possession of Venutius." * ' Where this great law was thus firmly established, we may be almost certain that all the circum- stances of marriage were regulated, and the rights of parents, husbands, wives, and children, were ascertained. In Gaul, and perhaps in Bri- tain, hsubands and fathers had a very great au- thority over their wives and children, even so great as to put them to death ; t but this au- thority was undoubtedly regulated by certain laws. In the ancient laws of Wales (which, in this and several other particulars, were very pro- bably derived from those of the ancient Britons) * Tacit. Histor. 1. 5. c. 45. f Cssar de Bd. Gal. 1. G. c. 10. $^ - ^ ' Hi^t6fif '^dF Britain. Book i. all the cases in which a husband was allowed to beat his wife are enumerated. * The matrimonial tie amonff the ancientBritons was far from beins: indissoluble. They were too little accustomed to moral discipline, and the government of their passions, to submit to a restraint which was to end only with life. The laws of Hoel Dda, King of Wales, who was a Christian prince, and flourished in the tenth century, allow of a divorce ibr so trifling a cause as an unsavoury or disagree- able breath, f This law is so contrary to the precepts of Christianity, which had been long established in Wales, that we may be almost certain that it was one of the laws of their Heathen ancestors, t The ancient Britons are accused by several authors of some practices which are very inconsistent with conjugal fide- lity. § But as these practices are such as we can hardly suppose were established by law, they will fall more properly under our consideration in another place. || • Leges WallIc£E, L 4. sive Triades Florences, Triad. 5. p. 300. Triad. 155. p. 552. f Ibid. Triad. 1. p. 298. I But though marriage among the Britons (and indeed among all the na- tions of antiquity) was too easily and too frequently dissolved, yet the laws provided with great care for the maintenance of the children, and the e- quitable division of the effects of the family according to the circumstan- ces of every case. The ancient laws of Wales descend to very long and particular details on this subject, and make provision for every possible case with the most minute exactness. — (Leges Wall icro, 1. ^ De Mulier- ibus, c. 1. p. 73, &c.) § Cws. de Bel. Gal. 1. 5. c. 14. II See Chap. VIL Of Manners. Cfciaife 3. Sect. 2, CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 3^21 .. The desire of procuring protection to their Penal laws '_ . PI respecting ,j|ives, persons, and properties, was one oi the men's per- vChief things which induced families to unite to-^""*^ gether, to form states and kingdoms, and to sub- mit to the restraints of law and government. In their independent state, they enjoyed unlimited liberty, but little safety ; and therefore they thought it prudent to resign a part of their liberty to obtain a greater degree of security against all acts of violence, and injuries of every kind. This security was obtained in society, and under regular government, by particular laws against all acts of violence, oppression, and injustice, enforced by proper penalties, and therefore called penal laws. By these laws, the whole power of the state was armed with vengeance against every particular member of it who dared to injure any other member, or to disturb the public peace and good order. The penal laws of almost all governments, at or near their first establishment, were remarkably severe ; it being no easy matter to deter men from those acts of violence to which they had been accustomed in their independent state. * Such were the most ancient penal laws of Germany, Gaul, and Britain, w'hich abounded very much in capital punishments, and those of the most dreadful kind. By the law^s of Gaul and Britain, a wife who was suspected of having occasioned the death of her husband, was tortur- ed as cruelly as the vilest slave, and, if convicted, • Origin of Laws, &c. v. 1. p. 20. VOL. I. ' X 32^ . HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. o was burnt to death in the most excruciating, manner. * By these laws also, not only mur- derers, but robbers, thieves, and some other cri-i minals (perhaps adulterers), were punished with the same cruel kind of death, t In Germany^^^ those who betrayed or deserted the cause of theii:] country, were hanged on trees ; and cowards^j sluggards, debauchees, and prostitutes, were suf-; focated in mires and bogs, t As there was so; very striking a resemblance between the Germans and Britons in this period, it is not improbable, , that these useless members and pests of humane society were punished in the same manner in this island. § But besides these greater crimes against the state in general, or against particular members of it, which were capitally punished, there were many smaller injuries, such as maim- ing, wounding, striking, &c. which required to be discouraged, but did not deserve to be so severely punished. With regard to these, the most natural and obvious idea of punishment was that of retaliation. Accordingly we find, that this law of retaliation, or an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, &c. was established, not only among the Israelites, but also among the Greeks and Romans, and very probably among the Germans, Gauls, and Britons, in the most an- • Caes. de Bel. Gal. I. 6. c. 19. t Ibid. c. 16. t Tacit, de Morib. Germ. c. 12. § Dr Macpherson's Dissert; xii. — Is not the ducking-stool a relic of this last kind of punishment ? Chap. S. Sect. 2. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. S28 cient periods of their several states. * But this law, so equitable in speculation, was every where found to be very inconvenient in practice ; and, when rigorously executed, it was often destruc- tive to the criminal, and afforded no reparation to the injured party. For this reason, this law had many exceptions and abatements made to it in every country, and in many it went quite into disuse. In many cases it was found to be for the good of the public, and for the interest of the in- jured party, to accept of a certain compensa- tion from the criminal in lieu of his corporal pu- nishment, t " In lighter transgressions, among the ancient Germans, the punishment was proportioned to the crime ; and the criminal, j.,, upon conviction, was condemned to pay a ' certain number of horses and cattle, which " were divided between the king or state, and ** the person who had received the injury or his '* family. " t Though we cannot produce so ex- press a testimony, that this practice of making compensation for corporal injuries prevailed in ' Britain before the Roman invasion, yet it seems probable that it did, and that the Druids, who had the administration of justice entirely in their hands, would encourage it for their own interest. After this law of compensations for bodily in- juries was introduced, it gradually prevailed more and more, until it put an almost total • Exod. c. 21. V. 23. 25. Pausin. 1. 1. c. 28. Aiil. Gel. 1. 20. c. 1. f Exod. C.21. V. 22. 50. \ Tacit de Moiib. Germ. c. 12. X "i €1 <( (I ii 3^4 , HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book h period to all corporal and capital punishments. Revenge, which is the prevailing passion in savage life, yielded to avarice, which is apt to prevail too much in the social state, when pos- sessions become secure ; and the family of a murdered person began to thirst more after the goods, than after the blood of the murderer ; thinking the former a much better compensation for the loss of their friend than the latter. But as this great revolution in the spirit of penal laws did not take place in this island in the ancient British times, it doth not fall so properly under our present consideration. iiespccting As mankind in the social state, even after the peitk-s. rights of property were established, were exposed to injuries in their possessions, as well as in their persons, it became necessary to secure the for- mer as well as the latter, by penal laws. Their flocks and herds were the most valuable posses- sions of almost all nations in the most earlyperiod of their history. Several of the British nations, 'when they were first invaded by the Romans, had no other possessions, or means of subsistence, but their cattle ; and therefore we may be cer- tain, that by their laws, the stealing or killing of any of these precious animals would be very pe- nal, probably capital. * Even when the severity of penal law was mitigated by admitting com- pensations, the compensations required for steal- ing, killing, or maiming horses, oxen, cows, sheep, '.:, ■-' ,. ' i.-,i I. . # Ca?s. (le Bel. Gal,,l»i5,( i • i r> - 1 • T the arts of miratioii or mankind, lor then' pohcy ni pre- menT"' sei'ving and governing, than for their valour in making their conquests. Their valour was sanguinary and destructive ; but their policy, though selfish and interested, was salutary and beneficial. By the former, they spread desola- tion and the horrors of war through all the countries of Europe, and through several pro- vinces of Asia and Africa ; by the latter, they introduced civility, order, wise laws, and regular ecovernment into all these countries. For there was nothing at which that extraordinary people laboured with greater earnestness, than to esta- blish their own laws and government in every country which they conquered. This they ac- complished in Britain, though one of the most distant provinces of their empire, as will appear from the following very brief detail of their civil and military arrangements in those parts of this island which were reduced to their obedience. Cffisar The tv/o expeditions of Julius Caesar were so Sang" hi short and transient, that they made no important ment?n ^^' lasting changc in the political state of Bri- Britain. ^r^[^^ After his departure, all things returned Chap. 3. Sect. 3. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 339 into their former course, and so continued, with very little variation, for more than ninety years. * The next invasion, under the Emperor Clau- Some ,. . Ill- changes dms, was more serious, and produced more im- made by portant consequences. As soon as some of the British nations in the south-east corner of this island had submitted to that Emperor, the Ro- mans began to practise here their usual arts for securing, improving, and enlarging their acqui- sitions. "With this view, they formed alliances with the Iceni, the Dobuni, the Brigantes, and perhaps with some other British nations, t From these alliances the Romans derived many ad- vantages, t They prevented these powerful na- tions from forming a confederacy with the other British states, in defence of their common li- berty, and for expelling the ambitious invaders of their country, before they had obtained a firm footing. They also gained a plausible pretence of obtruding their commands upon them on all occasions, under the appearance of friendly ad- vices ; and if these were not observed, of quar- relling wdth them, and reducing them to sub- jection. This was, sooner or later, the fate of all the allies of that ambitious and artful peo- ple, as well as of those in Britain. • Tacit, vita Agric. c. 13. f Tacit. Annal. 1. 12. c. 31. See sect. 1. of this Chap. % II, 12. 21. f Tacit. Annal. 1. 12. c. 52. y 2 340 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. the Ro mans. Policy of It was with the same interested views that the Emperor Claudius and his successors heaped such uncommon favours on Cogidunus, King of the Dobuni; who had early and warmly embraced their cause against that of his country. This prince was not only permitted to retain his own dominions, but some other states were put under his government ; to make the workl believe that the Romans were as generous to their friends as they were terrible to their enemies. *' For (as " Tacitus honestly confesseth) it was a custom " which had been long received and practised " by the Romans, to make use of kings as their ** instruments in establishing the bondage of na- " tions,and subjecting them to their authority." * The honours and favours which they bestowed on Cogidunus, and other kings who embraced their cause, were dangerous and deceitful ; much greater in appearance than in reality. They had no longer any authority of their own, but were wholly subservient to, and dependent upon, the Roman emperors, whose lieutenants they were, and by whom they might be degraded at plea- sure. This was the case of Cogidunus, as ap- pears from the inscription quoted below, t This very remarkable inscription, which was found at * Tacit, vita Agric. c. 14. f Neptuno et Minervse templum pro salute domus divina2, ex aucto- ritate Tiberii Claudii, Cogidubni regis, legati augusti in Britannia, col- legium fabrorum, et qui in eo a sacris sunt de suo dedicavcrunt donante arcem Pudente, Pudentini filio. Hors. Brit. Rom. No. 76. p. 192. 332. Chap. 3. Sect. 3. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 341 Chichester, A. D. 1723, shows, among many other curious particulars, that Cogidunus, King of the Dobuni, had assumed the name of Tibe- rius Claudius, in compliment to the Emperor Claudius ; and that he had been appointed im- perial legate, in which capacity he governed that part of Britain which was subjected to his authority. In order still further to secure their conquests, pknted the Romans, as soon as it was possible, planted '^°^°"'^^° a colony of their veteran soldiers and others at Camulodunum, which had been the capital of Cunobelinus ; agreeably to their constant prac- tice of colonising wherever they conquered. From this practice the Romans derived many great advantages. The soldiers were thereby rendered more eager to make conquests, of which they hoped to enjoy a share: their veterans were at once rewarded for their past services, at a very small expense ; and engaged to perform new services in defence of the state, in order to pre- serve their own properties : the city of Rome, and other cities of Italy, were relieved from time to time of their superfluous inhabitants, who were dangerous at home, but useful in the colonies : the Roman language, laws, manners, and arts, were introduced into the conquered countries, which were thereby improved and adorned, as well as secured and defended. For the capital of every Roman colony was Rome iu miniature, and governed by similar laws and magistrates, and adorned with temples, courts, 312 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. theatres, statues, &c. in imitation of that great capital of the world. The sight of this mag- nificence charmed the conquered nations, and reconciled them to the dominion of a people by whom their several countries were so much im- proved and beautified. This further contributed to accustom these nations to the Roman yoke, by engaging them to imitate the magnificence and elegance, the pleasures and vices, of the Romans; which rivetted their chains, and made them fond of servitude. * As the Romans enlarged their conquests in Britain, they planted new colonies in the most convenient places for preserving and improving these conquests ; as at Caerleon, at Lincoln, at York, and at Chester, t Free cities. Still further to sccure their conquest, and to gain the affections of those Britons who had sub- mitted to their authority, the Romans, accord- ing to their usual policy in other countries, made London and Verulamium municipia, or free cities ; bestowing on their inhabitants all the valuable privileges of Roman citizens, t By this means these two places were, in a few years, crowded with inhabitants, who were all zealous partisans of the Roman government. Both these facts are demonstrated by what happened to these two cities in the great revolt under Boadicia. The revolted Britons poured like a torrent upon • Tacit, vita Agric. c. 21. f Vide Lipiium de magnitudine Roniana, 1. I. c. G. \ Aul. Gell. 1. IC. c, 15. Spanheiin. Orbis Roman, p. 37, 38, apud GrtEviutn, torn. 2. vince. Chap. S. Sect. 3. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 3i3 London and Verulamium, on account of their attachment to the Romans, and destroyed no fewer than seventy thousand of their inha- bitants, which is a sufficient proof of their populousness. * By these arts, and by others of a military na- Presidents .,,',/ ^ . / , of the Ro- ture, which shall be hereafter mentioned, the man pro- Romans preserved, and, by degrees, enlarged that small province which they formed in the south-east parts of Britain in the reign of Clau- dius. The government of this province was committed, according to custom, to a president or imperial legate. The authority of these pre- sidents of provinces, under the first Roman em- perors, was very great. They had not only the chief command of the forts, garrisons, and armies within their provinces, but they had also the ad- ministration of justice, and the direction of all civil affairs in their hands. For by the Roman laws, all the powers of all the different magistrates of the city of Rome were bestowed upon every president of a province, within his own pro- vince : and, which was still more extraordinary, he was not obliged to exercise these powers according to the laws of Rome, but according to the general principles of equity, and in that manner which seemed to him most conducive to the good of his province, t The presidents of provinces had also a power to appoint com- * Tacit. Annal. 1. 14. c.33. f Digest. I. 1. tit. 18. § 10, 11, 12. S44 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. missioaers, to hear and determine such causes as they had not leisure to judge of and determine in person. * These extraordinary powers with which the presidents of provinces were invested, were no doubt frequently abused, to the great oppression of the provincials. This appears to have been very much the case in Britain before Julius Agricola was advanced to the government of this province. For that excellent person em- ployed hisfirstwinterin redressingthe grievances of the provincial Britons, which had been so great, that they had occasioned frequent revolts, and had rendered a state of peace more terrible to them than a state of war. t The Emperor Hadrian abridged this exorbitant power of the presidents of provinces, by an edict which he promulgated, A.D. 131. t This was called the perpetual edict, and contained a system of rules by which the provincial presidents were to re- gulate their conduct in their judicial capacity, in order to render the administration of justice uniform in all the provinces of the empire. Imperial Thc Only officcr who was in any degree inde- procurator. pgj^^jg^t of the prcsidcut of the province, was the imperial procurator, who had the chief direction in the collection and management of the imperial revenues. § This officer often acted as a spy upon the governor of the province, and informed J • Digest. 1. 1. tit. 18. § 8, 9. '' f Tacit, vita Agric. c. 19, 20. \ Histoire des Empercurs par Tillemont, torn. 2. p. 244, '^ § Tacit. Annal. 1. 12. c. 60. - • Chap. 3. Sect. 3. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 3io the Emperor of any thing tliat he had observed wronsr in his conduct. "^ At other times, these officersagreed too well in deceiving the Emperor, andin plundering and oppressing the provincials. *' Formerly (said the discontented Britons be- *' fore their great revolt) we were subject only " to one king, but now we are under the domi- " nion of two tyrants; the imperial president, " who insults our persons, and the imperial pro- lyl curator, who plunders our goods; and the a- " greement of these two tyrants is no less per- " nicious to us than their discord. "t Though this was the language of violent discontent, and therefore probably too strong, yet we have rea- son to believe, that when a perfectly good un- derstanding subsisted betw^een these two offi- cers, they sometimes agreed to enrich them- selves at the expense of the subjects; especially in those provinces that were at a great distance from the seat of empire. From the promulgation of the perpetual edict j^^™^" of the Emperor Hadrian, A.D. 131, to the final departure of the Romans out of this island, was about three hundred years; and during that long period the laws of Rome were firmly established in all the Roman dominions in Britain. To lay before the reader only a catalogue of the titles or subjects of these lav/s, could give him little satis- faction, and would swell this section beyond all proportion, and therefore must not be attempted. * See chap. I. t Tacit, vita Agric c. 15, 346 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. All these laws were collected into one body, di- gested into regular order, and published by the Emperor Justinian, under the title of his Digests, or Pandects. This admirable system of laws is still extant, and constitutes the greatest and most valuable part of the Corpus Juris Civilis, or body of civil law. * It is one of the noblest monu- ments of the good sense of that illustrious peo- ple, and of their great talents for government and legislation. The introduction and esta- blishment of these wise, just, and equitable laws, were among the chief advantages which mankind derived from the empire of the Ro- mans. The destruction of the authority, and loss of the knowledge of these laws, were a- mong the most fatal consequences of the fall of that empire ; and it may be added, that the happy discovery of a copy of the Pandects of Justinian at Amalphi, A. D. 1137, by which the knowledge of these laws was recovered, was one of the great means of raising the European nations from that deplorable barbarism into which they had long been plunged, f Britain di- Thc Roman territories in Britain, for more than one hundred and fifty years, made only one province ; but about the beginning of the third century, they were divided into two provinces, by the Emperor Severus.t At length, when the * Vide Corpus Juris Civilis. f See Dr Robertson's History of Charles V. vol. i. p. 65, &c. p.3I6,&c. \ Hcrodian, 1. 5. c. 24. ■■-i&mS. \q qfiK i-u i'jc vided into provinces. Chap. 3. Sect. 3. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 347 authority of the Romans extended over all that part of this island which lies to the south of the wall between the firths of Forth and Clyde, that whole country was divided into five provinces ; of whose names, situations, limits, and inhabi- tants, it may be proper to give the following brief account. 1. Beginning at the south end of the island, Fiavia the first province we meet with in this most per- sis. feet state of the Roman government in Britain, was called Fiavia Caesariensis. This province extended over the whole breadth of the island where it is broadest, from the Land's-end in Cornwall, to the South Foreland in Kent ; and wasbounded on the south by the English Channel, on the north by the Bristol Channel, the Severn, and the Thames. It comprehended the countries of the Danmonii, Durotriges, Belgce, Attre- batii, Regni, and Cantii ; which are now Corn- wall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Berkshire, Surrey, Sussex, and Kent.* Though this province, on account of its situation, is named first, it was not first e- stablished; but the countries comprehended in it made a part of the one Roman province in Britain, from the time when they were subdued to the reign of the Emperor Severus. When that Em- peror divided the Roman territories in Britairi into two provinces, these countries made a part of the southern one, and so continued until Con- stantinetheGreatformedtheminto a distinctpro- * See the Map of Britain, according to llie Notitia. 3i8 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. vince, which was called Flavia Caesariensis, from Flavins, one of the names of that Emperor. * BiitHnniu 2. Britannia Prima was probably so named. Prima. . , ^ . , . because it contained some of the countries which first submitted to the Romans in this island. This province was bounded on the south by the Thames, on the east by the British Ocean, on the north by the Humber, and on the west by the Severn; and comprehended the countries of the Dobuni, Cattiveliauni, Trinobantes, Iceni, and Coritani ; which are now Gloucestershire, Ox- fordshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, Hert- fordshire, Middlesex, Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Northamp- tonshire, Leicestershire, Rutlandshire, Lin- colnshire, Nottinghamshire, and Derbyshire, t sJcuu.rr 3. Britannia Secunda perhaps received that name, when Severus divided the Roman domi- nions in Britain into two provinces, of which this was the second. It was bounded on the south by the Bristol Channel and the Severn, on the west by St. George's Channel, on the north by the Irish Sea, and on the east by Britannia Prima. t This province contained the countries of the Cornavii, Silures, Demetaa, andOrduices; which are now Warwickshire, Worcestershire, Staffordshire, Shropshire, Cheshire, Hereford- shire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire, Monmouth- shire, Glamorganshire, Caermarthenshire, Pem- • Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 408. ■j- See the Map of Britain according to the Noiiiia. I Sec the IMap. Chap. 3. Sect. 3. CONSTITUTION, LAW, m.' Nica?o in Ncronc- 358 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. their empire. * Artists of all kinds paid a cer- tain tax for the liberty of exercising their several arts; those who administered toluxury, and made the greatest profits, paying the greatest sums : nor did the mighty monarchs of Rome disdain to claim a share in the dishonourable gains of female prostitution, t In this enumeration of taxes, no notice hath been taken of the portoria of the Romans, which corresponded to our cus- toms on all goods exported and imported, though they constituted one of the chief branches of their revenues in some provinces, and were not inconsiderable in Britain, because they will fall more naturally under our consideration in the history of commerce, t Caution. It is uot to be imagined, that all these taxes were imposed on the provincial Britons imme- diately after they submitted to the Roman go- vernment. It was the wise policy of the Romans to treat their new subjects with great lenity, and to accustom them to the yoke by degrees ; imposing one tax after another, as their improve- ments in arts and opulence enabled them to pay them. Nor is it to be supposed, that all these taxes were invariably and constantly exacted, even after they had been imposed. For it ap- pears from the clearest evidence, that there were great changes made by the Romans, both in the nature and measure of their taxes, accord- • Petnis Burmannus de Vcctigal. Pop. Rom. c. 12. f Id. ibid. J See Chap. VI. man reve- nues in Britain. Chap. 3. Sect. 3. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 359 ing to the circumstances of the state, and the dispositions of the emperors. Alexander Severus in particular, who filled the imperial throne from A.D. 223 to A.D. 236, prompted by the good- ness of his heart, made a very great and impru- dent reduction of the provincial taxes, which proved his ruin. * But it is improper to enter into any further detail of these changes and variations. Though it is impossible to discover the exact Amount value of the Roman revenues in Britain, we have ° reason to believe that these revenues were very ""^^ '" considerable. They were sufficient, not only to defray all the expenses of the civil government, and to support a very large military establish^ ment, but also to afford valuable remittances to the Imperial treasury. For the Romans were too wise a people to preserve an unprofitable conquest for so long a time, and with so much anxiety and labour. The British revenues were even so great, that they encouraged several generals to assume the Imperial purple, and enabled them to support that high dignity without any other income, t If the calculations of Lipsius, con- cerning the Roman revenues of Gaul, be just, those of Britain could not be less than two mil- lions sterling annually, t This is one proof, among many others, that this island did not recover the damage which it sustained by the * Lampridius in vita Alcxandri, c. 39. p. 965. I Sec Chap. 1. I Lipsiius dc Magnitud. Rom, I. 2. c. 5. 360 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. Military govern- ment. Disarmed the con- quered Britons. Im pressed the British youth. departure of the Romans, and the devastations wliich succeeded that event, for more than a thousand years. Such was the regular plan of the civil govern- ment of the Romans in Britain : it is now time to take a short view of their military arrange- ments in this island, which were no less prudent and regular. One of the first steps the Romans took, after they had subdued some of the British nations, was to disarm them, in order to put it out of their power to shake off the yoke, and recover their freedom. But as there is nothing a brave and martial people resign with so much reluc- tance as their arms, the Britons struggled hard to retain them, and opposed this measure with great vigour, in frequent revolts and insurrections. * At length however the Romans prevailed, and entirely disarmed all the provincial Britons, who soon after lost all their martial spirit, and be- .^ came an abject and dastardly people, without either inclination or ability to resist the will of > their lordly masters. r, Still further to secure their conquests in this ^ island, and to make these conquests the means of establishing their power in other places, the Ro- r^ mans pressed into their service great numbers of f the bravest and most robust of the British youth, trained them to the use of arms, and sent them * Tacit. Annal. 1. 12. c.31. Chap. 3. Sect. 3, CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 361 into different and distant provinces of their empire. * As the Romans advanced in their conquests Built fom. in Britain, they built chains of forts in the most proper situations, with a view of keeping those nations who had submitted in subjection, and of repelHng the incursions of those who were still unconquered.t But the chief engine employed by the Ro- standing mans, both in making and securing their con- quests here, as well as in other countries, was their standing army, which was constituted and regulated in the wisest manner for answering both these purposes. Though this is certainly not the proper place to give a minute delinea- tion of the constitution of a Roman army, it may not be improper to take notice, that the troops which were stationed in this island, were collected from many distinct and remote pro- vinces of the empire ; and differed from each other, and from the Britons, in their manners, customs, and languages, t By this contrivance they were prevented from forming conspiracies among themselves, or with the native Britons, '''"^^ in order to cast oft' the Roman yoke. After the . ^^"^"^ provincial Britons were so entirely subdued and disarmed, that no further insurrections were to . be apprehended from them, the Roman troops * Tacit, vita Agric. c. 13. to 31. t Tacit. Annal. 1, 12, c. 31. Vita Agric, c. 25. I Notilia Iinptrii, § 52. ('>5, the mili- tarj' go- vernment, QQO HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. were, for the most part, withdrawn from the in- ternal parts of the provinces, and stationed on the frontiers for their protection. Change in About the samc time that the new arrange- ments, which have been above described, were made in the civil government of the empire, a similar change was made in the government of its military forces. Constantine the Great, think- ing the praetorian prefects, who had the chief direction both of civil and military affairs, were too powerful, he divested them of their military authority, and appointed in their room two new officers, called Magistri Militum (Masters of the Soldiers); one of which had the chief command of the cavalry, and the other of the infantry. * Neither of these generals had their ordinary re- sidence in Britain, which was too remote from the centre of the empire; but the Roman troops in this island were commanded under them, by the three following officers : 1. Comes Littoris Saxonici per Britannium, the Count of the Saxon Shore in Britain. 2. Comes Britanniarum, the Count of Britain. 3. Dux Britanniarum, the Duke of Britain, t Of these three officers, and the forces under their command, the following short account will be sufficient. Count of In the third century the south and east coasts shore!^°" of Britain began to be much infested by Saxon pirates, and from thence got the name of Littus Saxonicum, the Saxon Shore. To protect the * Zosim. 1. 2. Notit. Imper. § 83. t I'^i'^- § ^2, 53. 63. Chap. 3. Sect. 3. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 363 country from the depredations of these pirates, the Romans not only kept a fleet on these coasts, but also built a chain of forts in the most conve- nient places, into which they put garrisons : and the officer who commanded in chief ail these forts and garrisons, was called Comes Littoris Saxonici per Britanniam, the Count of the Saxon Shore in Britain. The number of these forts was nine ; and they were situated at the following places, beginning at the most northerly, and advancing southwards. l.Branodunum, Bran- caster : 2. Garionnonum, Burghcastle, near Yar- mouth; both on the Norfolk coast: 3. Othona, Ithanchester, not far from Maiden, in Essex ; now overflowed by the sea : 4. Regulbium, Re- culver : 5. Rutupae, Richborough: 6. Dubris, Dover : J. Lemanas, Lime ; these four last on the coast of Kent : 8. Anderida, Hastings, or East-Bourn, in Sussex : and 9. Portus Adurnus, Portsmouth, in Hampshire. * These nine forts were garrisoned by about 2S00 foot, and 200 horse. The ensigns of the Count of the Saxon shore in Britain were, a book of instructions, and the figures of nine castles, representing the nine forts under his command. The court of this count was composed of the following offi- cers. A principal officer from the court of the master of the foot : two auditors from the above mentioned court: a master of the prisons, from the same court: a secretary: an assistant : an * Horslcy Brit. .Rom. p. 472. Sec Appendix. S6i. HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. under-asslstant : a register : clerks of appeals: Serjeants, and other under officers. * Counts of In the courts of the Roman emperors, from Augustus downwards, there were certain coun- sellors who attended the emperor, both at home and abroad, to assist him with their advice on all occasions. These counsellors were styled Co- mites Augustales, or Comites Augusti, compa- nions of the emperor, from their constant at- tendance on his person. They were divided into three orders or degrees, and those of each order had certain privileges and appointments, . while they attended the imperial court. As these comites or companions had frequent ac- cess to the emperors, they often stood high in their favour, and obtained from them the go- vernment of provinces, towns, forts, and castles, and other offices of profit and honour. When these comites left the imperial court, to take upon them the government of a province, town, or castle, or the exercise of any office, they were no longer called Comites Augustales, compa- nions of the emperor, but Comites of such a province, town, castle, or office, t Such were the Comites Littoris Saxonici per Britanniam, the Counts of the Saxon Shore in Britain : and such also were the Comites Britanniarum, or Counts of Britain. These last counts commanded • Notitia, § 52. See Appendix. f Selden's Titles of Honour, p. 24!, &c. Du Cange Gloss, voce Comites, Chap. 3. Sect. 3. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 365 the Roman forces in the interior parts of Britain, distributed into the towns, forts, and castles in these parts. The forces under the counts of Britain are supposed to have been originally about oOOO foot and 600 horse ; but after the internal tranquillity of the country was fully secured, these forces seem to have been removed out of the island, or to have been stationed on the frontiers ; for in the fifty-third section of - the Notitia Imperii, where the court of this count is described, no notice is taken of any forces under his command. * The word Dux (which originally signified the Duke of commander or leader of an army in general), under the lower empire, became the title of a particular military officer, who commanded the Roman forces in a certain district, most com- monly on the frontiers, f Such was the Dux Britanniarum, or Duke of Britain, who com- manded on the northern frontiers, over thirty- seven fortified places, and the troops stationed in them. Twenty-three of these forts under the government of the Duke of Britain, were situa- ted on the line of Severus's wallj and the other fourteen at no great distance from it.t In these - . thirty-seven forts or stations, about 14,000 foot and 900 horse were placed in garrisons. § The court of the Duke of Britain was exactly similiar • Notitia Imperii. § 40. 53. Brady Hist, v. I. p. 41. f Zosim. 1. 2. Du Cange Gloss, v. Dux. t Notitia Imperii, § 63. Horsley I3iit. Rom, p. 477. § Brady Ilist. v. 1. p. 47. 366 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. to that of the Count of the Saxon Shore above described. Number of From this short account of the military esta- the lloman » i. ^ n i -n troops. blishment of the Romans m Britain, it appears, that the ordinary standing army in this island consisted of about 19,200 foot, and I7OO horse. It is not indeed to be imagined that the several corps of which it v>^as composed were always complete, especially when it is considered that many of them received their recruits from very distant countries. It is rather probable, that the effective men in the ordinary standing army »' here, were several thousands short of the above number ; especially after the troops under the command of the Count of Britain were with- ' drawn. This army, besides performing the three important services of guarding the coasts against the Saxon pirates, securing the internal tran- quillity of the country, and piotecting the northern frontiers from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, executed many noble works of utility and ornament. From this very brief and imperfect delineation of the civil and military government of the Ro- mans in this island, it will appear, that they were not altogether unworthy of the high compliment which is paid them on this subject by the most il- lustrious of their own poets : , . • Excudent alii spirantia moUius sera. : '' • "• • Credo equidcm, vivos ducent de marmorc vultus : Orabunt caussas melius, ccclique meatus Describcnt radio, et surgcntia sidera diccnt. Chap. 3. Sect. 3. CONSTITUTION, LAW, &c. 367 Tu regere imperio populos, Romane : memento, ( Has tibi erunt artes) pacisque imponere morem, Parcere subjectis, et debellare superbos. ^neid. lib. vi, v, 849. The final departure of the Romans out of Bri- Effect of ^ , the de- tain seems to have been attended with an almost panure total dissolution of all order, law, and govern- mans. ment. The wretched Britons, instead of reco- vering their liberty by that event, beheld them- selves plunged into a state of anarchy and con- fusion, more deplorable than their former servi- tude. Thefamiliesof the ancient British princes hadbeen either extinguished or blended with the common people; so that few or none could pro- duce any title to seize the reins of government. The Romans had so entirely excluded the native Britons from all concerns in the administration of civil and military affairs, that few of them had any skill or capacity in the conduct of such affairs. Nothing can be more shocking than the picture which is drawn by our most ancient his- torian Gildas, of the political condition of the provincial Britons, after the departure of those who had been so long their governors and guar- dians. It represents them as a lawless, disorder- ly, abandoned rabble ; slaughtered by the Scots and Picts almost without resistance ; and slaugh- tering one another, as soon as these common enemies retired. * In a little time the miseries of this state of Cnush go- anarchy became so intolerable, that the Britons, ' Gilclcc Hist. c. 15, 10*. 368 HISTORY OF BRITAIN. Book I. in order to preserve tliemselves from total de- struction, found it necessary to restore monar- cliical government, in imitation of that under which they had formerly lived in great security. But they seem to have been very unfortunate in the choice of their first monarchs. " They set " up kings (says Gildas) but not in God ; and " these kings were, in a little time, cut off by *' those who had advanced them, and others " elected in their room, still more cruel and ' " unworthy. '* * History hath not preserved so much as the namesof these unfortunate moment- ary monarchs. We are only told, that when a report prevailed that the Scots and Picts were meditating a more formidable invasion than any of the former ones, with a design to conquer the whole country, and settle in it, a general conven- tion was called of all who possessed any authority among the Britons. In this assembly Vortigern (who is called by Gildas, Duke of the Britons, probably in imitation of the Roman officer who - , bore that title) had the chief sway. By his in- fluence the Saxons were invited into Britain, who broucfht about another revolution in the constitu- tion, government, and laws of the greatest part of this island ;| which will be the subject of the third chapter of the second book of this work. • Gilda Hist, c- 19. t I*^- i'j''^- c. 22, 23. END OF THE FIRST VOLUxME. so u./ THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara STACK COLLECTION THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW. 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