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FIRST PRINCIPLES 
 
 OF 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD B. VOORHEES, A.M. 
 
 DiBBCTOB OF THE NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIOK, 
 
 AND Professor of Agriculture in Rutgers College, 
 New Brunswick, N.J. 
 
 SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY. 
 New York. BOSTON. Chicago. 
 

 GENERAL 
 
 COPTRIOHT, 1896, 
 Br SILVKE, BUBDSTT AMD COMPANH; 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The purpose of this book is to state in logical order 
 the elementary principles of scientific agriculture, and 
 to show the relation of these scientific facts to farm 
 practice. The need of such a book has been strongly- 
 felt by the author in his work as a teacher, not only of 
 college students, but of those already engaged in farming. 
 
 His experience, both as a practical farmer and as a 
 teacher of the theory and application of agricultural 
 science, leads him to believe that the principles and 
 relations of scientific agriculture, if set forth clearly and 
 in a scientific manner, can be successfully taught in our 
 country district schools. It is here that such education 
 must begin, if it is to reach and influence the mass of 
 farmers, upon whom rests the chief burden of irrational 
 practice, and through whom must come any direct pro- 
 gress in the true development of the farming industry. 
 
 In the preparation of the book no attempt has been 
 made to cover the whole field of the various sciences 
 in their relations to agriculture ; in many branches, only 
 simple facts are stated, though it has been the aim to 
 make the book scientific as far as it goes, and thus a 
 safe guide to practical men in their farming operations, 
 as well as a foundation upon which further study may 
 be based. 
 
 Z 
 
 1G6379 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 The accomplislimeiit of the work is due in no small 
 degree to the endorsement of the plan by the New Jersey 
 State Board of Agriculture and the New Jersey State 
 Grange, as well as their hearty co-operation with, and 
 cordial appreciation of, all genuine efforts made in behalf 
 of agricultural education in the public schools of the 
 State. 
 
 E. B. V. 
 Nkw Bbdnbwick, N. J. 
 November. 1885. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGB 
 
 I. The Constituents of Plants 1 
 
 II. Oeigin and Formation of Soils 18 
 
 III. Composition of Soils 29 
 
 IV. The Improvement of Soils 41 
 
 V. Natural Manures . 52 
 
 VI. Artificial and Concentrated Manures ; Ni- 
 trogenous Materials 68 
 
 VII. Artificial and Concentrated Manures ; Phos- 
 phates 80 
 
 VIII. Artificial and Concentrated Manures ; Su- 
 perphosphates AND Potash Salts .... 90 
 
 IX. Artificial Manures or Fertilizers ; Methods 
 
 OF Buying ; Valuation ; Formulas .... 101 
 
 X. The Rotation of Crops 113 
 
 XI. The Selection of Seed ; Farm Crops and 
 Their Classification ; Cereals ; Grasses ; 
 Pastures ; Roots ; Tubers ; and Market- 
 Garden Crops 122 
 
 XII. The Growth of Animals ; The Constituents of 
 Animals and Animal Food ; The Charac- 
 ter AND Composition of Fodders and Feeds, 137 
 5 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTSB PAGB 
 
 XIII. The DiGESTTBrLiTT op Foddebs and Feeds ; 
 Feeding Standards ; Nutritive Ratio ; The 
 Exchange of Farm Products for Concen- 
 trated Feeds 154 
 
 XrV. Principles op Breeding ; The Pure Breeds op 
 
 Farm Stock 170 
 
 XY. The Products of the Dairy ; Their Character 
 
 AND Composition ; Dairy Management . . 182 
 
 Appendix — 
 
 Tables 199 
 
 Index 209 
 
FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTEE, I. 
 The Constituents of Plants; Plant Growth. 
 
 Parts of Plants. — Most agricultural plants possess 
 three distinct parts, — the root, the stem, and the leaf. 
 The main uses of the root are to secure food from the soil, 
 and to serve as a support to the plant during its period 
 of life. The stem acts as a support for the leaves, as 
 a medium for the circulation of food through the plant, 
 from the leaf to the root and from the root to the leaf, 
 and as a storehouse of nutriment for future growth. The 
 leaves secure food from the atmosphere, and permit the 
 escape into the air of the water taken up by the roots. 
 
 These different parts all co-operate, or work together, 
 to secure and distribute the constituents necessary to the 
 complete growth and development of the whole plant. 
 What is plant food, or of what constituents is a plant 
 composed, is a question of the first importance in a study 
 of the growth of plants. 
 
 The Water contained in Plants. — A plant in the 
 first place is composed of two distinct classes of sub- 
 stances, — water and dry matter. Water is contained in 
 all growing plants; forest and fruit trees seldom contain 
 
 7 
 
8 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 less than four-fifths, while vegetables and young plants 
 are frequently nine-tenths water. 
 
 When plants are removed from the soil, and brought in 
 contact with the air and warmth, a large part of the water 
 contained in them escapes in the form of water vapor ; 
 they become what is termed " air dry." The proportion of 
 water lost in this way, and the time or rapidity of loss, 
 depend upon the moisture contained in them, and the 
 warmth of the atmosphere; the drier and warmer the 
 atmosphere, the greater the loss of water. This loss of 
 water is nicely illustrated in hay-making, the time re- 
 quired to dry or cure depending upon the kind of plant 
 and the character of the weather. 
 
 Air-dry Plants. — In temperate climates, air-dry plants 
 still contain from eight to twelve per cent of water. To 
 effect its complete removal they are heated to a temper- 
 ature of 212° r., that of boiling water, until there is no 
 further loss of weight. The portion remaining after the 
 drying is termed the "dry matter." The dry matter of 
 plants contains all the constituents of their growth; that 
 is, all those necessary for perfect growth, no one of which 
 can be removed without destroying it. 
 
 Water, while it is essential in the growth of plants 
 and serves a useful purpose, is not a constituent in the 
 same sense as those which are contained in the dry 
 matter, since, as has already been noted, it can be removed 
 without destroying the structure and form of the plant. 
 
 The Total Dry Matter. — The total dry matter of 
 plants contains all those substances or compounds which 
 are useful for the purposes for which they are grown. 
 The constituents contained in it may also, for convenience 
 
THS CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 9 
 
 of study, be divided into two classes: first, those which 
 are lost or driven away by burning, or are capable of being 
 burned ; and second, those which are contained in the ash 
 or residue after burning. The first are called "combus- 
 tible" or burnable constituents; the others are called the 
 " incombustible " or ash constituents. 
 
 The part that is removed by burning contains the con- 
 stituents that have been derived largely from the air, 
 while the remainder contains the mineral substances which 
 have been derived largely from the soil. The burning 
 of wood illustrates the separation of these two classes 
 of constituents and the proportions of each. 
 
 Each one of the constituents contained in a plant is 
 a distinct chemical element; and the number and kind 
 which have been found to be absolutely essential to the 
 growth of plants are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, 
 potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, phosphorus, and 
 sulphur. These are called plant-food elements, and all 
 healthy plants contain them; if, by any chance, any 
 one of them could not be obtained, the plant could not 
 make normal growth, and in this sense no one of them 
 is of more importance than another. 
 
 Besides these, however, the chemical elements, silicon, 
 chlorine, sodium, manganese, and sometimes others, do 
 exist in the plant, though plants can be grown without 
 them. Thus, at most, but fourteen only of the seventy 
 known chemical elements are necessary for the growth 
 of a plant, and form its food. The large number of 
 different species and varieties of plants now existing is, 
 however, capable of being produced from them, the 
 different properties and forms being entirely due to a 
 
10 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 different grouping or combining of the constituents in 
 the plant. 
 
 Source of Plant-food Elements. — Plants derive the 
 elements of their growth from two sources, — the atmos- 
 phere and the soil. The atmosphere, while the original 
 source of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, fur- 
 nishes direct chiefly the element carbon. Hydrogen and 
 oxygen are furnished mainly through the soil in the 
 form of water; though the original source is the atmos- 
 phere, where they exist in the form of "water vapor." 
 Nitrogen is also largely taken up by the roots of plants ; 
 though certain classes of plants, as we shall see later, 
 have the power, under proper conditions, of obtaining it 
 from the atmosphere, of which it constitutes about four- 
 fifths of the whole bulk. 
 
 The Proportion of Food derived from the Air. — 
 These constituents derived from the atmosphere constitute 
 about ninety-five per cent of the total dry matter of 
 plants, of which carbon constitutes nearly one-half; the 
 remaining five per cent is the " incombustible " or ash 
 constituents. The soil is the exclusive source of these 
 elements; they are, however, indispensable, for without 
 them the carbon of the atmosphere, the hydrogen and 
 oxygen of the water, and the nitrogen of the soil or at- 
 mosphere, would not have been able to enter into plant life. 
 
 The atmospheric constituents are usually termed the 
 " organic ; " and the soil constituents, the " inorganic," 
 or ash elements. This distinction, though not entirely 
 accurate, serves a good purpose in helping to get a proper 
 understanding of the relations of the compounds formed 
 in the plant. 
 
THE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 11 
 
 The Essential Constituents, How Determined. — 
 
 The sources of the chemical constituents necessary to the 
 growth of plants, as well as their kind and number, 
 have been determined by careful experiments, conducted 
 in the following manner : — 
 
 Sand, which is an inert substance, is thoroughly burned, 
 which destroys all combustible matter; then carefully 
 washed, which removes all traces of plant-food; a por- 
 tion is then put in a suitable jar or box, and seed of 
 wheat or corn planted, and moistened with pure distilled 
 water. The sand contains no food, yet the weight of 
 the dry matter in the growth made is shown, by careful 
 analysis of both seed and plant, to be much greater than 
 the weight of the seed planted; also, that the increase 
 in weight consists entirely of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen, which must have been obtained from the air 
 and water. This establishes the fact that air and water 
 furnish food, and that this food consists of atmospheric 
 
 elements. 
 
 In another series of experiments, to the sand and water, 
 in one experiment, the various essential ash or mineral 
 constituents alone, are added ; to another, nitrogen alone ; 
 while to a third, both the ash constituents and nitrogen 
 are added. In the first and second experiments, but little 
 addition is made in the weight of the crop over that 
 secured when water alone was added ; the growths are not 
 perfect; minerals alone, and nitrogen alone, are not suffi- 
 cient. In the third experiment, however, the crop is fully 
 developed in every particular, proving that the addition 
 of minerals and nitrogen is absolutely essential. 
 
 The necessity of each of the mineral constituents, and 
 
12 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGBICULTUBE. 
 
 their influence, are shown by omitting in each case, in 
 another series of experiments, one of the mineral ele- 
 ments; the crop secured in each experiment is found to 
 be imperfect. Perfect growth is only reached when all 
 the elements named are present. 
 
 Pood obtained from the Atmosphere. — The leaves 
 and roots are called organs of nutrition; the leaves take 
 material from the air, the roots from the soil. 
 
 The dry substance of a plant is made up chiefly of 
 carbon, and the proper absorption of this element depends 
 upon the activity of the leaves. The leaf is made up of 
 rows of cells, placed side by side, which in the under 
 portion are loosely held together, forming "air spaces" 
 between them, and over the whole leaf there is a thin, 
 transparent skin. This skin, called the " epidermis,'^ is 
 not entire, but is dotted with little holes called " stomata ; " 
 through these the atmospheric air passes freely into the 
 cellular spaces in the leaf, and through the porous walls 
 of the leaf cells, which contain a green substance called 
 " chlorophyll." 
 
 In these cells, containing chlorophyll, the carbonic acid 
 of the air is broken up through the influence of light and 
 warmth, and the oxygen set free and the carbon retained. 
 This process is called "assimilation," and is active only 
 during the daytime ; during the night the food, formed by 
 day, undergoes a change, whereby it can be transferred in 
 solution to the places where it is needed. Daylight, as 
 also the presence of iron in the plant, is necessary for 
 the formation of chlorophyll. 
 
 In the daytime, growing plants purify the air by con- 
 suming the carbon ; in the night, the process is reversed, 
 
THE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 13 
 
 oxygen being then consumed. The quantity of oxygen 
 set free by young plants is, however, greatly in excess of 
 that consumed. The food directly supplied by the atmos- 
 phere is, therefore, chiefly carbon. 
 
 The carbon absorbed by the plant, in connection with 
 the hydrogen and oxygen of the water, forms starch, dex- 
 trine, sugar, fat, cellulose, substances serviceable in the 
 growing plant, and to be stored away for future use in 
 seeds, roots, and stems ; and the same elements, together 
 with nitrogen and a little sulphur, form the albuminoids. 
 All of these are vegetable substances with which we are 
 familiar, and which are termed "organic.'' 
 
 Pood obtained from the Soil. — Eoots are of two 
 kinds, — the " tap root,'' the chief use of which is to sus- 
 tain the plant in an upright position; and the "fibrous 
 root," which is engaged mainly in absorbing food from 
 the soil. These roots are made up of cells, through the 
 walls of which solid matter cannot pass ; all food absorbed 
 by the root must be in solution. The surface membrane 
 of the root, unlike that of the leaf, is not full of holes ; 
 the absorption of solids is, therefore, impossible. The 
 absorption of the solution by the root is obtained by 
 means of what is called "diffusion." By this means 
 water is absorbed, and, with the water, the dissolved 
 food elements usually contained in the ash of plants. The 
 absorption of food is, however, not confined to the taking 
 up of ready formed solutions. 
 
 The root grows at its tip, and it is through the delicate 
 cells located there that the plant absorbs nutriment. The 
 tips are protected by a sheath, or cover, of dead or dying 
 cells, which protects the delicate fibres, and permits the 
 
14 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGBICULTUBE. 
 
 root to penetrate the soil witliout injury. The acid sap 
 or fluid which is produced by the root, hair, or cell, when 
 it comes in contact with soil particles, has a solvent effect 
 upon them ; thus is insoluble matter in the soil, containing 
 ash ingredients, made soluble to the plant. 
 
 These elements derived from the soil are, however, not 
 taken up in the form of individual chemical elements, but 
 chiefly as acid or salts. Nitrogen, for instance, is com- 
 bined with oxygen to form nitric acid ; which, united with 
 bases like sodium or calcium, forms sodium or calcium 
 nitrates. The very weak solutions of the compounds 
 taken up by the roots are concentrated in the upper part 
 of the plant, owing to the rapid evaporation of the water 
 through the leaves, and are employed in the formation of 
 new tissues. 
 
 Supply of Pood Constituents. — The atmosphere 
 contains relatively a very small proportion of carbonic 
 acid, from which the carbon is obtained ; it is less in the 
 open country and over large bodies of water, and more in 
 the vicinity of towns, yet the supply in the aggregate is 
 enormous, and is sufficient to meet all the demands of 
 vegetation for carbon. 
 
 The atmosphere also contains small quantities of nitro- 
 gen, existing both as ammonia and as nitrates ; these are 
 brought to the earth by means of dew and rain, and thus 
 act as a direct source of this element to plants. The 
 amount so provided is, however, insufficient for the 
 entire needs of vegetation. 
 
 The moisture, or " water vapor " in the atmosphere does 
 not, to any great extent, serve to supply the plant with 
 water, the absorption of water being a function of the 
 
THE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 15 
 
 roots rather than the leaves. The leaves absorb water 
 when there is an insufficient supply in the soil, or when 
 the weather is such as to cause a very rapid exhalation 
 from the leaves. The supply of the mineral constituents 
 depends upon the character and composition of the soil, 
 upon the season, and climate ; these conditions are not uni- 
 form, hence the increased variation in the character of the 
 natural vegetation found in different parts of the world. 
 
 Functions of the Constituents. — The exact work 
 that each constituent performs in plant nutrition has not 
 yet been definitely determined. It has been shown that 
 nitrogen is of vital importance, since it is an essential 
 constituent of the living principle of plants called "pro- 
 toplasm." Phosphorus and sulphur have been found 
 essential constituents in the formation of albuminoids, a 
 very important compound of all plants. Potash is neces- 
 sary to the formation and distribution of starch, while the 
 green color of plants, or chlorophyll, cannot be formed 
 without iron. All the constituents mentioned are neces- 
 sary, and are concerned in the various processes which 
 result in the perfect plant. 
 
 The Natural Tendency of Plant Growth. — The ulti- 
 mate object of all plants in their natural state is to form 
 seed, or the beginning of new plants. The seed of every 
 plant contains within itself a sufficiency of food to nourish 
 the germ till the root and leaves of the new plant are 
 sufficiently developed to acquire food from the sources 
 mentioned. 
 
 Germination : the Conditions Necessary. — The 
 first evidences of growth are shown in the germination 
 or sprouting of the seed. This beginning depends chiefly 
 
16 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 upon three conditions, — first, tlie presence of moisture ; 
 second, of warmth, or a proper degree of temperature ; 
 and third, the access of air. The seed of the wheat plant, 
 for instance, will retain its form and remain a seed for a 
 long time if kept dry. As soon as it is enabled to absorb 
 moisture it increases in size, oxygen is absorbed from the 
 air, and heat develops; it separates the germ, and is no 
 longer a seed, but a young plant. Seeds do not germi- 
 nate below a certain temperature, usually about 37° F. ; 
 the warmth necessary for germination is, however, differ- 
 ent for different seeds. Wheat will not germinate below 
 41° F., and corn below 49° F. There is also a certain 
 temperature above which seed will not germinate; the 
 higher limit is 108° F. for wheat, and 115° F. for corn. 
 The temperature of most rapid germination lies between 
 79° F. and 94° F. 
 
 The presence of air is universal, and care in this 
 respect is only important when plants are grown in 
 comparative confinement. 
 
 Duration of Life. — Plants which germinate, grow, 
 and produce flower, fruit, and seed in one year, and then 
 die, are called "annuals." Wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat, 
 peas, and beans are good examples of annual plants. 
 Certain other plants require two seasons for this work; 
 these are called " biennials." During the first season, the 
 organs of growth are developed, viz., the root and leaf; 
 the second season, the flower, fruit, and seed are formed, 
 after which the plants die. Examples of biennial plants 
 are cabbages, turnips, parsnips, celery, lettuce, beets, etc. 
 
 In order to secure seed it is not necessary that the 
 plants remain in the ground throughout the winter. Cer- 
 
THE CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 17 
 
 tain quick growing biennials, as radishes, may produce 
 seed in one year, if removed from the soil after the root 
 is full grown, topped, and transplanted. 
 
 "Perennials'^ are plants that live for more than two 
 years; timber-trees, fruit-trees, berries, grape-vines, etc., 
 are good examples, though perennials are not confined to 
 trees and shrubs; asparagus, a number of the clovers, 
 and various grasses, also belong to this group. 
 
 Plant Development. — The development of the plant 
 after germination is not uniform ; the substances obtained 
 by the roots are greatest in the young plant, which is 
 always rich in nitrogen and ash elements. As the plant 
 grows, the proportion of food derived from the atmos- 
 phere through the action of the leaves steadily increases. 
 The wheat crop contains practically all of its nitrogen 
 and potash when in full bloom ; carbon increases as long 
 as the plant remains green. When the seeds begin to 
 form, the food gathered by the leaf and root is largely 
 transferred from the stem and leaf of the plant, and 
 concentrated in the seed. 
 
 Cereals and grasses cut while the crop is green are 
 much richer in nutritive matter than when they are 
 allowed to ripen seed. In such crops as turnips, beets, 
 and potatoes, the development of root and leaf is the 
 same as in wheat; but at the completion of growth, food 
 is stored up or contained in the root, or tuber, and the 
 leaves die after the food in the plant has been largely 
 transferred. In trees, the plant-food gathered by the 
 root is concentrated by the end of summer in the pith 
 of the tender branches and in buds, and serves as food 
 for the new growths of another season. 
 
18 FIB8T PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Origin and Formation of Soils. 
 
 Soils: Their Origin, Formation, and Classification. 
 — Every growing thing can be traced back to two primary 
 sources, — the atmosphere and the soil. Every chemical 
 element contained in plants or in animals produced from 
 plants can be found either in the soil or atmosphere. 
 
 The constituents which plants derive from the atmos- 
 phere are so abundant everywhere that the continuous 
 growth of maximum crops cannot exhaust them, and no 
 particular efforts are required to increase their efficiency 
 to the plant. The constituents of the soil are much less 
 abundant, and the power of the plant to secure them 
 depends very largely upon the effort of the farmer. To 
 the farmer, then, the soil is the object of first attention. 
 
 What is a Soil ? — The soil is the name given to that 
 part of the earth that can be cultivated, and in which 
 plants can grow. 
 
 Origin of Soils. — Soils are derived, directly or in- 
 directly, from the rotting or decay of rocks. If all the 
 earthy matter which composes soils could be removed 
 from the surface of the earth, the remainder would be 
 solid rock. Rocks have been formed by the action of 
 fire and water ; hence they are classed as " igneous," that 
 is, produced by the action of fire, or " aqueous," produced 
 
OBIGIN AND FOBMATION OF SOILS. 19 
 
 by the action of water. The igneous rocks form but a 
 small proportion of the outer rocks of the world; yet 
 they are of great importance, because it is through their 
 decay or breaking up that the other rocks have been 
 formed. 
 
 The most important of the igneous rocks are granite 
 and trap. These contain silica and alumina as their chief 
 constituents, and greater or less amounts of potash, lime, 
 magnesia, iron, and the other mineral constituents of 
 plants. These rocks are also called " primary rocks," 
 because they are supposed to constitute the primary or 
 first crust of the earth, and to be similar in character 
 and composition to the now molten interior of the earth. 
 This view is based upon the fact that the lava ejected 
 from active volcanoes resembles in composition the trap 
 rocks. 
 
 The trap rocks consist mainly of two minerals, feldspar 
 and hornblende. Feldspar is particularly rich in potash 
 and soda, and poor in lime and magnesia. Hornblende 
 is poor in potash and soda, and rich in lime and mag- 
 nesia. Granite rocks consist mainly of quartz, feldspar, 
 and mica. Quartz is almost pure silica; while mica con- 
 tains nearly all the compounds found in both feldspar and 
 hornblende, and is one of the most abundant minerals. 
 
 The aqueous rocks are formed from the minerals con- 
 tained in igneous rocks, the proportion of the different 
 constituents contained in them depending upon the method 
 of their formation. Limestone and red sandstone are 
 good examples of aqueous rocks. 
 
 Subsoil. — The subsoil lies immediately underneath 
 the soil, and rests upon the solid rock. The main dis- 
 
20 FIRST PBINCIPLE8 OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tinction between soil and subsoil is that the soil contains 
 more organic or vegetable matter, is more finely divided, 
 and is less compact than the subsoil. The subsoil may 
 be regarded as something between the soil and rock, 
 and partaking in part of the characteristics of both. 
 The subsoil serves to gradually supply the constituents 
 that are removed by crops from the surface soil, and 
 also performs important functions as a reservoir of 
 moisture, and as a medium for the roots of plants. Its 
 character thus materially modifies the fertility and pro- 
 ductiveness of the soil proper. 
 
 The Formation of Soil. — Certain agencies are con- 
 stantly at work converting rock into soil. This gradual 
 conversion is termed "weathering," and is observed on 
 all sides. The rapid crumbling of shale, so familiar in 
 New Jersey, on exposure to the atmosphere, is an ex- 
 cellent illustration of this process, — the air, temperature, 
 and water all playing an important part. 
 
 The Action of the Atmosphere. — The atmosphere 
 causes what is termed ** oxidation," a slow burning or 
 decay. The oxygen of the air combines with the miner- 
 als, forming new substances called "oxides." A familiar 
 illustration of this process is seen when iron is exposed 
 to the air ; the red rust that forms is an oxide of iron, 
 a substance very different from the iron itself. 
 
 The Influence of Water. — The most powerful agent 
 in the rotting or breaking up of rocks is water. It acts 
 both mechanically and chemically. Most rocks contain 
 cracks or fissures into which the water readily penetrates ; 
 by freezing the water expands, and forces the rock apart. 
 Thus the solid rock is gradually separated into fragments 
 
OBIGIN AND FOBMATION OF SOILS. 21 
 
 of different sizes. Tlie force of the water in rains and 
 streams grinds the fragments together continually, wear- 
 ing them smaller, and the smallest are first carried away 
 by the water to lower levels. 
 
 The overflow of rivers always leaves a deposit of soil 
 particles, more or less finely divided, carried in suspen- 
 sion in the water; this sediment gradually accumulating 
 forms soil. What are termed by geologists " sedimentary, 
 or aqueous, rocks " have also been formed by the action 
 of water, followed by heat or pressure, or both. 
 
 Water also has a decided effect chemically. The 
 carbonic acid in the water absorbed from the atmosphere 
 dissolves certain of the chemical ingredients of the soil, 
 particularly lime, though its solvent effect is not confined 
 to this substance; soda, potash, silica, and iron are also 
 attacked to a greater or less degree. 
 
 The Growth of Plants. — The growth of plants is 
 also active in the rotting of rocks. In their growth 
 the roots penetrate the crevices and force the particles 
 of rock to separate ; they also attack and absorb certain 
 portions of the constituents that are made soluble. In 
 the decay of plants, the soil is kept moist, gases are 
 generated and absorbed by the water, which, again pene- 
 trating the rocks, has a solvent effect upon them. 
 
 It is a matter of common observation to see rocks 
 covered with the lower orders of plants, like lichens 
 and mosses ; the removal of these frequently shows the 
 rocks furrowed and eaten into by the roots, due to the 
 action described. This growth and this decay of vege- 
 table life, continued through a long series of years, gradu- 
 ally deepen the soil, and prepare it to produce the higher 
 
22 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 order of agricultural plants, or those useful as food for 
 man. 
 
 Earth "Worms. — Earth worms and other living crea- 
 tures living in the ground also aid in preparing the soil 
 for the growth of plants. They burrow deep into the 
 ground; the passages thus made aid in drainage and 
 circulation of air, and facilitate the penetration of roots, 
 which increases their power to secure food. They also 
 drag into their underground passages considerable vege- 
 table matter, which in its decay aids in forming true soil. 
 
 Movement of Soils. — While our present soil remains 
 almost constant in quantity, the parts removed by various 
 causes being supplied by the gradual decay of the rocks, 
 the same agencies which form soils, particularly weather 
 action, are wasting or carrying them away. Soil is almost 
 constantly moving; it is thinnest at the top of the hill, 
 and deepest in the valley. This is very noticeable in 
 mountainous or hilly districts; great furrows are formed 
 in the hillsides after heavy rains, the swollen and muddy 
 streams carrying the soil in suspension to lower parts 
 of the land. 
 
 Soils in Place. — Soils which have been formed from 
 the decay of the underlying rock are called sedentary 
 soils, or soils in place; they have not been moved from 
 the place in which they originated. These partake of the 
 nature and composition of the rock underneath; though, 
 from the method of their formation, viz., the growth 
 and decay of plants, they contain considerable vegetable 
 matter obtained from the atmosphere. 
 
 Transported Soils. — Transported soils are those 
 which have been moved from the place where they 
 
ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 2B 
 
 originated, and deposited from water or ice. The former 
 are called " alluvial ; " these occur not only in valleys 
 and river-beds, but in inland places, where they have 
 been deposited in lakes or other bodies of water. Those 
 deposited from ice are called "drift soils;" these have 
 been formed by the action of "glaciers,'' vast bodies of 
 ice moving like a river, which carry considerable quanti- 
 ties of earth as well as numerous rocks. 
 
 The results of glacial action are found, not only in 
 valleys, but in high mountains, where rocks show, by 
 well-defined scratches, the wearing and grinding effect of 
 the moving ice. 
 
 Drift soils are distinguished from all others by the 
 presence of rounded rocks or bowlders, and, though not 
 uniform either in composition or character, are usually 
 fertile, the fertility being due chiefly to the bringing 
 together, from numerous sources, of a variety of min- 
 eral substances. 
 
 Classification of Soils. — The principal ingredients 
 of soils are sand, clay, carbonate of lime, and vegetable 
 or organic matter. They are, therefore, divided into four 
 natural classes; viz., sandy, clayey, limy, and peaty, ac- 
 cording to the greater proportion in each case of one 
 of these four ingredients. 
 
 "What is Sand? — Sand or silica is composed of the 
 mineral silicon united with the chemical element oxygen, 
 and does not serve directly as food for plants. A soil 
 consisting entirely of sand would be useless to the farmer, 
 for he could produce nothing from it in its natural con- 
 dition. It possesses distinct properties, however, which 
 render soils containing considerable sand light and open, 
 
24 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGBICULTUBE. 
 
 and therefore permeable to air, moisture, and warmth. 
 The stony particles of sand are also rapidly heated by 
 the rays of the sun, thus very greatly influencing the 
 temperature of the soil. 
 
 What is Clay? — Pure clay contains silica, together 
 with alumina, a compound of aluminum and oxygen. 
 From a chemical point of view, pure clay would be 
 quite as useless as sand as a source of plant-food, neither 
 silica nor alumina being essential constituents of plants. 
 The properties of clay are almost the reverse of those 
 of sand. Particles of sand do not adhere to each other 
 — moist sand pressed firmly in the hand will fall apart 
 immediately the pressure ceases ; particles of clay, on the 
 contrary, readily adhere to each other, and, when moist, 
 can be moulded into any desired shape, which is retained ; 
 on heating, the particles adhere still more strongly, a 
 characteristic taken advantage of by the manufacturers 
 of brick, tile, etc. Sand from its porous nature rapidly 
 loses water; clay from its compact nature retains mois- 
 ture. Sand absorbs heat rapidly, and soon becomes dry; 
 clay absorbs heat more slowly, and remains cool. Clay, 
 like sand, is, however, a valuable constituent of soils; its 
 tenacious character enabling it to retain both moisture 
 and the useful constituents applied in manures. 
 
 Lime. — The lime of soils usually exists in the form 
 of carbonate of lime, or limestone. Limestone is a valu- 
 able ingredient of soils, not only because it furnishes 
 the important constituent of plants, calcium, but because 
 of its relative ease of decomposition, and of its valuable 
 action upon and reaction with other soil constituents ; 
 it aids in the decay of vegetable matter, and in the 
 
OEIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 25 
 
 formation of nitrates. It exerts a favorable physical 
 effect upon soils; its presence helps to separate the adhe- 
 sive particles of clay, and makes heavy soils loose and 
 friable, which permits the easy passage of water through 
 them. Lime also increases the absorbing and retaining 
 power of sandy soils, by causing the particles to adhere 
 more closely to each other. 
 
 Humus. — The decaying vegetable matter in soils, 
 which is made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and 
 nitrogen, is called ^^ humus.'' In virgin soils it is derived 
 from the dead roots and leaves of a former vegetation. 
 It has a dark brown or blackish color. Leaf mould, 
 found in forests, is largely composed of humus. It was 
 believed at one time that humus served as a direct food 
 for plants, but this idea has been proved to be incorrect; 
 it is the final products of its decay, chiefly carbonic acid, 
 ammonia, and water, that serve as plant-food. 
 
 Humus is a very useful ingredient in all kinds of 
 soils, though a soil may contain too much decaying 
 organic matter. Humus improves sandy soils, not only 
 on account of the nitrogen and other plant-food con- 
 stituents which it contains, but because it increases their 
 absorbing and retaining power. Humus will absorb and 
 retain more moisture than any other ingredient of soils. 
 Clay soils are improved by it, however, on account of its 
 property of loosening and aerating them. 
 
 The four principal ingredients of soils are useful, there- 
 fore, not altogether because they furnish plant-food, but 
 because they give to soils certain physical properties 
 which enable them to retain heat, moisture, and plant- 
 food. These properties give to soils what is called phys- 
 
26 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ical character, which is very important in determining 
 fertility. 
 
 Sandy Soils. — Land which contains over seventy per 
 cent of sand is called sandy. Such soils are not only 
 poor in plant-food, but they can absorb and retain but 
 little moisture. The soil, loosely held together, permits 
 the rapid passage of water, and the stony particles readily 
 absorb heat. In hot, dry seasons, the crops are soon 
 parched; in wet seasons, however, these same properties 
 enable the soil to dry quickly, thus permitting, if suffi- 
 cient food is provided, the growth of maximum crops, 
 when they would be destroyed from excess of mois- 
 ture on soils of a more dense or tenacious character. 
 Sandy soils are easy to work, and may be cultivated 
 when quite wet without injury, and are well adapted 
 to quick-growing crops; when overlying clay subsoils, 
 they are susceptible of a high degree of fertility. 
 
 Clay Soils. — A clay soil is one which contains over 
 fifty per cent of clay. A clay soil is almost the reverse 
 of a sandy soil. The finely divided particles adhere so 
 closely as to make the access of air, moisture, and 
 warmth, difficult; they are, therefore, called cold and 
 tenacious. They are hard to work, and, unless well 
 drained, crops are liable to suffer both in wet and dry 
 seasons ; in wet seasons because the moisture is not freely 
 movable, and in dry seasons because the land becomes 
 so hard as to prevent the penetration of roots. They 
 are well adapted to the growth of cereals and grasses. 
 
 Limestone Soils. — The term " lime " or " calcareous," 
 is applied to a soil when it contains over twenty per 
 cent of lime. Limy soils are usually of a good char- 
 
ORIGIN AND FOEMATION OF SOILS. 27 
 
 acter, are easy to work, and well adapted to cereals or 
 fruit. 
 
 Peaty or Vegetable Soils. — A peaty or vegetable 
 soil consists almost entirely of vegetable matter, more 
 or less decayed. Such soils are very productive if well 
 drained, and furnished with a sufficiency of the mineral 
 constituents. 
 
 Soils, however, which are best adapted to the purpose 
 of farming do not belong strictly to either of these 
 classes, but are rather those which contain more even 
 proportions of the ingredients ; hence, a further division 
 of soils is usually made, based upon the relative propor- 
 tions of the principal ingredients, sand and clay. 
 
 Loamy Soils. — A soil consisting of a mixture of 
 sand and clay is called a loam; if it contains from ten 
 to twenty per cent of clay, it is a sandy loam; if from 
 twenty to thirty per cent of clay, it is a loam; if from 
 thirty to fifty per cent of clay, a clay loam. Gravelly 
 or limy loams are those in which gravel or coarse sand 
 and lime ♦are contained in considerable amounts. Loams 
 are suitable for most purposes, and soils of the different 
 natural classes are improved as they approach the char- 
 acter of loams. 
 
 It would be impossible to describe and classify the 
 almost infinite variety of soils which exist in nature, and 
 which are made up from different proportions of the 
 four ingredients mentioned. 
 
 Perfect Soil. — A perfect soil is one which contains 
 the ingredients in perfect proportions : sand, to enable it 
 to absorb air and moisture in proper amounts, and to 
 render it warm and friable ; clay, to keep it cool, and 
 
28 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 prevent a too rapid leaching or evaporation of water ; 
 lime, to assist in the decay of vegetable matter ; and 
 humus, to retain the best amount of moisture, and to 
 furnish material for the various chemical processes con- 
 tinually going on in good soils. 
 
 These conditions are rare, and seldom occur in nature, 
 though it is in the power of man to produce them: still, 
 perfect soils are not to be had without a great deal of 
 labor and care; and frequently it is more important for 
 the farmer to adapt himseK to his soil, and make it 
 produce the best which, from its natural character, it is 
 best capable of doing, than to attempt to change its 
 character. He should not attempt to raise wheat when 
 the soil is peculiarly fitted to grow early vegetables or 
 fruits, nor to grow early vegetables on soils only adapted 
 for the grasses. 
 
COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 29 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 Composition of Soils. 
 
 A SOIL, like a plant, consists of two distinct classes 
 of substances, — first, organic or vegetable, derived, as we 
 have seen, from decaying growths ; second, inorganic or 
 mineral constituents, derived from tbe rocks which form 
 the earth's surface. 
 
 Organic Substances. — Organic substances are made 
 up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Of these 
 the nitrogen is of the most direct importance in the 
 growth of the plant, and is the valuable constituent of 
 the humus already described. 
 
 Inorganic Substances. — The inorganic or mineral 
 substances of the soil are also identical with the sub- 
 stance of the ash of plants (with the addition of alu- 
 mina, which is not taken up by the latter), namely, 
 silica, alumina, lime, potash, magnesia, phosphoric acid, 
 soda, iron, chlorine, and sulphuric acid. The first three 
 of these, as has already been noted, are the principal 
 ingredients of soils, and give to them their distinctive 
 character; with the exception of lime, they do not aid 
 materially in furnishing food. The more important con- 
 stituents are phosphoric acid and potash. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. — Phosphoric acid is an ingredient 
 of all fertile soils, but is contained in very small quan- 
 
80 FIBST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTUBE. 
 
 titles as compared with other constituents. Its most 
 common combination is with lime, though it is frequently 
 found in combination with iron and aluminum. Eocks 
 which contain "fossils," or fossiliferous rocks, frequently 
 contain high percentages of phosphoric acid. 
 
 Potash. — Potash is also derived from rocks, and 
 varies in the amount contained in different soils. Those 
 derived directly from granite or trap are the richest in 
 this element; it exists in the soil in combination with 
 silica, forming substances called " silicates," which are 
 of great importance. 
 
 Lime. — Lime is an ingredient of most soils, and is 
 derived from the decay of limestone, or from fossils. 
 
 The Natural Fertility of Soils. — The mineral con- 
 stituents, phosphoric acid and potash, though contained 
 in soils in relatively small amounts, ranging from less 
 than one-tenth per cent to over one per cent, give to 
 soils their chief claims to natural fertility; since most 
 agricultural plants require relatively large proportions 
 of these in proportion to other mineral constituents. 
 
 The quantity of phosphoric acid and potash contained 
 in a soil is, however, comparatively great, since the sur- 
 face soil at a depth of nine inches will weigh, when per- 
 fectly dry, three to three and one-half million pounds 
 per acre ; hence, with even one-tenth per cent, it would 
 contain from three thousand to three thousand five hun- 
 dred pounds of each of these constituents. 
 
 The other necessary mineral ingredients are found in 
 greater or less, and usually in sufficient amounts in all 
 soils. These, while all essential to the complete develop- 
 ment of the plant, are of course less liable to exhaustion. 
 
COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 31 
 
 The immediate fertility of a soil depends, however, 
 not so much upon the quantity of the constituents con- 
 tained in it as upon the amount of each that may be 
 available to the plant. 
 
 Analysis of Soils. — The composition of a rich wheat 
 soil and of a wheat plant, as shown by analysis, in 
 the diagrams^ (page 32), indicates the relation of the 
 composition of the plant to the composition of the soil. 
 
 The chemical analysis of a soil shows the percentages 
 of the different constituents contained in it. It is ob- 
 served that the constituents which the soil possesses 
 to only a limited extent are contained in the plant in 
 relatively large amounts; these are, therefore, termed 
 essential plant-food constituents, because of their greater 
 liability to exhaustion. 
 
 Weight of Soils. — In studying a soil from a state- 
 ment of its analysis, regard must be had to the weight 
 of soils. The constituents of the analysis are expressed 
 in per cent or pounds per hundred ; it is evident, there- 
 fore, that a soil weighing one hundred pounds per cubic 
 foot, and containing four-tenths of a per cent of phos- 
 phoric acid, would contain a much greater amount of 
 phosphoric acid per acre than a soil showing the same 
 percentage, but weighing fifty pounds per cubic foot. 
 
 It is estimated that dry sand weighs from one hun- 
 dred to one hundred and twenty pounds per cubic foot j 
 loam, from ninety to one hundred pounds ; clay, seventy 
 to eighty pounds; and peat, thirty to fifty pounds. An 
 analysis, therefore, which shows the same per cent 
 of the constituents in one soil may not indicate its 
 1 Adapted from Ville. 
 
32 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Composition of Rich Wheat Soil. 
 
 POUNDS PKB HUNDRED. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydrogen . . 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Silica .... 
 Alumina . . . 
 Iron .... 
 
 . 12.67 
 
 . 71.55' 
 . 6.94 
 . 5.17 
 
 Magnesia . . 
 Soda .... 
 
 . 1.08 
 . 0.43 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 . 0.04^ 
 85.21 
 
 Nitrogen .... 0.12 
 
 Elements which, though essential, are abun* 
 dantly supplied by the air and water. 
 
 Elements which are either non-essential or 
 are required by the plant in minimum 
 amounts. 
 
 
 Potash . . . . 0.35r 
 
 Lime 1.22 j 
 
 2.12 
 
 tively large amounts are required. 
 
 Composition of Wheat Plant. 
 
 POUNDS PEB HUNDRED. 
 
 Carbon .... 47 
 Hydrogen . 
 Oxygen .... 40 
 
 93.56 
 
 17.69 ) 
 5.54 C 
 10.32 ) 
 
 These are derived from the air and rain. 
 
 Soda *. . . . . 0.09^ 
 
 Magnesia . . . 0.20 
 
 Sulphuric Acid . 0.31 
 
 Chlorine .... 0.04 
 
 Iron 0.06 
 
 SiUca 2J5 
 
 3.45 
 
 These are abundantly provided by the soil, 
 and it is unnecessary to add them in any 
 
 Nitrogen .... 1. 
 Phosphoric Acid . 0.45 
 Potash .... 0.66 
 
 Lhne 0.29J 
 
 3.00 
 
 These the soil possesses only to a limited ez> 
 tent, and the deficiency most be supplied. 
 
COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 33 
 
 true character in reference to the amount of plant-food 
 contained in it, unless it is accompanied by a descrip- 
 tion of its general character, whether sandy, clayey, or 
 peaty. 
 
 It will be observed from the foregoing, too, that the 
 ordinary idea of the weight of soil has reference to the 
 physical character, rather than actual weight. A sandy 
 soil is called " light," and a clay soil " heavy ; '^ while in 
 reality a sandy soil is heavy, and a clay soil is light. 
 
 The sandy soil is called light because it is easier to 
 work, — the particles of sand are readily separated from 
 each other, and no particular force is required ; while in 
 the case of clay soils the particles adhere tenaciously, and 
 it requires considerable force to separate them. 
 
 Classes of Soil Constituents. — The constituents of 
 a soil may again be divided into three classes, — first, 
 those which serve mainly as a mechanical support for the 
 plants, like sand, clay, limestone, and gravel; second, 
 dormant or reserve substances, which not only act the 
 same as the first class, but are capable of changing to 
 such a form as to furnish nutrition to the plant; these 
 are of both vegetable and mineral origin; and third, 
 active constituents, or those directly available to plants. 
 
 The mechanical constituents constitute the bulk of all 
 soils — frequently over ninety-five per cent. The second 
 class, or dormant, are contained in most soils in rela- 
 tively small amounts as compared with the first class, 
 though the quantity that a soil may contain varies con- 
 siderably, depending upon its formation. 
 
 The active constituents, those that are immediately 
 available to the plant, are never present in even the 
 
34 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 best soils in large amounts ; they are formed slowly from 
 those that are dormant. Humus is not a direct food, 
 but is capable of being changed into food. 
 
 Clay and substances containing phosphoric acid, by 
 weathering, or the action of frost, heat, and moisture, 
 are changed to such an extent as to give up, in time, 
 portions of their potash, phosphoric acid, and lime. 
 
 The True Measure of Fertility. — The active constit- 
 uents, however, measure the true fertility of any soil. 
 The dormant substances may be rich in phosphates, pot- 
 ash, lime, and humus, and yet it may be impossible to 
 produce a single plant from them, because the surround- 
 ing conditions are never favorable for the activities that 
 cause their change into active substances. 
 
 An analysis of the soil does not show true fertility, 
 unless it shows how much of the total constituents of 
 the soil are capable of being made active, and thus 
 useful to the crops : it simply shows the possibilities 
 that are lying dormant. 
 
 One Element Cannot Substitute Another. — An- 
 other point is also important in this connection ; namely, 
 that, of the three active constituents, nitrogen, phos- 
 phoric acid, and potash, which exist in small quantities 
 in all soils, the one contained in minimum amounts in 
 the soil determines its power of producing plants; that 
 is, the crop cannot rise above the point measured by 
 the element existing in the smallest amount — one ele- 
 ment cannot be substituted for another. For example, 
 if we have in an acre of soil only sufficient nitrogen for 
 ten bushels of wheat, the crop could not be increased 
 to any considerable extent beyond that point, even though 
 
COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 35 
 
 phosphoric acid and potash were contained in unlimited 
 quantities ; a balance of the plant-food constituents is 
 essential to full and complete growth and development. 
 
 Exhaustion of Soils. — Exhaustion of soils has refer- 
 ence mainly to the four constituents, nitrogen, phosphoric 
 acid, potash, and lime ; the amount of the others is usually 
 contained in excessive quantities in all soils. Exhaustion 
 is, however, a relative matter, since it is not possible 
 to completely exhaust a soil of its active constituents. 
 Exhaustion means properly the reducing of the constit- 
 uents to that point which makes the production of crops 
 unprofitable; hence the question of exhaustion is a vari- 
 able one, determined in a large measure by local circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Exhaustion, too, may have reference to one constituent 
 only; for instance, there may be an abundance of nitro- 
 gen and phosphoric acid, and a deficiency of potash. 
 By growing a class of crops which take more of the 
 constituents that are present in relatively large amounts, 
 and less of those that exist in small amounts, the period 
 of exhaustion is deferred. 
 
 Natural Strength of Soils. — The power which soils 
 possess of gradually forming active ingredients is termed 
 natural strength. It is obvious that the character and 
 origin of the soil have an important bearing upon this 
 point. 
 
 The natural strength of a light sandy soil may be 
 measured by a crop of wheat of five bushels per acre; 
 while the natural strength of rich valley or prairie soil 
 may be measured by an annual yield of twenty-five 
 bushels of wheat per acre; that is, in the one case, the 
 
36 FIB8T PRINCIPLES OF AGBICULTUBE. 
 
 substances which form the soil are of such a character 
 as to permit of the change of but a small proportion of 
 its dormant into active constituents, while, in the other, 
 a large proportion of the constituents are annually ren. 
 dered available. 
 
 Soils overlying limestone and granite, and those formed 
 by the gradual accumulation of vegetable matter, as in 
 the prairies of the Western States, possess a high natu- 
 ral strength. They contain large quantities of the dor- 
 mant constituents, which are of such a character as to 
 be readily changed into activity under ordinary condi- 
 tions of season and farm practice, and large crops are 
 possible each year for a long period. 
 
 Sandy soils, perhaps, are the best examples of soils of 
 low natural strength ; in these the purely mechanical con- 
 stituents are in great excess, no considerable quantity of 
 dormant or reserve substances exist, and the constituents 
 made active are only sufficient for minimum annual yields. 
 
 Texture of Soils. — Another point to be taken into 
 consideration, when studying the composition of a soil, 
 is the power it possesses of absorbing and retaining such 
 constituents as may become active. This characteristic 
 of a soil is termed its " texture ; " and it has not only a 
 bearing upon the adaptability of the soil to the growth 
 of plants, but also exercises a decided influence upon 
 such growth. 
 
 Soil so open in texture as to freely admit the circular 
 tion of water is more liable to be depleted in its active 
 constituents than a soil which is close in texture, and 
 retains for a considerable time the water which falls 
 upon it. 
 
COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 37 
 
 The nature of the subsoil is also an important consid- 
 eration. If the soil rests immediately upon a rock, or 
 upon sand, it will be found to dry out much more rapidly 
 than if it rests upon a clay subsoil. In the first place, the 
 water passes rapidly beyond the reach of the roots, and 
 cannot readily get back ; in the second place, it does not 
 percolate so rapidly, while at the same time it retains its 
 connection with the surface. 
 
 This point is very apparent to one who has observed 
 the red shale soils in central New Jersey. They are 
 reasonably rich in all forms of plant-food, yet those which 
 lie directly upon the shale or rock are much less pro- 
 ductive than those which lie upon a clayey subsoil. The 
 shale permits a too free escape of water, and crops suffer 
 more severely from drouth than those which lie upon a 
 clayey subsoil. It is essential that water be freely mova- 
 ble in soils, in order to properly prepare the food, as well 
 as to carry it to the roots of plants, but it must be freely 
 movable in all directions. 
 
 Climate. — The climate is also a matter of importance : 
 rainfall, temperature, location, all exert an influence in 
 determining the value of a soil, and should be taken into 
 consideration in connection with its chemical composition. 
 
 The average rainfall may be sufficient ; but if it is not 
 properly distributed throughout the growing season, nor- 
 mal growth is impossible. The same is true of tempera- 
 ture ; cold in harvest time is ruinous, though the normal 
 temperature for the year may have been attained. 
 
 Loss and Gain to Soil. — A soil, whether cultivated 
 or not, is continually changing, the various causes which 
 combine to form soils being ever at work to make them 
 
38 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 richer or poorer. If left to themselves, the constituents 
 rendered soluble by air, moisture, and chemical action, 
 as well as the finer particles of earth, are carried by 
 rains in greater or less amounts into the streams and 
 brooks. Certain of the soil constituents are, however, 
 less liable to be lost through drainage than others; that 
 is, soils do not exert the same retentive power for all 
 constituents. 
 
 The constituents of the greatest interest to the farmer 
 are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. Of 
 these, nitrogen and lime form certain compounds that 
 are extremely soluble and freely movable in the soil; 
 drainage waters are seldom free from traces of nitrates, 
 and of chlorides of sodium and calcium (lime). 
 . On the other hand, ammonia, a compound containing 
 nitrogen, and phosphoric acid and potash are seldom found 
 under natural conditions in any considerable amounts in 
 drainage waters. For these the soil possesses a strong 
 retentive power, though they are not held so strongly as 
 to be unavailable to plants. 
 
 This power of soils is not only important in showing 
 the probable loss or gain of fertility in uncultivated soils, 
 but has a wide bearing upon their possible improvement. 
 Phosphoric acid and potash particularly, when added to 
 soils, are fixed, and remain until removed by the plants. 
 
 Clay, humus, and lime are the ingredients in soils 
 which exert the greatest influence in retaining the solu- 
 ble phosphates, potash salts, and ammonia compounds. 
 
 Absorptive Properties of Soils. — The property 
 which a soil possesses of breaking up such compounds, 
 and holding fast to the essential elements, is both physi- 
 
COMPOSITION OF SOILS. 39 
 
 cal and chemical. The holding of such bases as potash, 
 lime, etc., is due to the presence in the soil of ^hat are 
 termed simple silicates; these are capable of combining 
 with other silicates to form double silicates. A silicate 
 of alumina, for instance, will combine with a silicate 
 of ammonia to form a double silicate of alumina and 
 ammonia. All soils possess this absorbing power in 
 some degree, though it belongs particularly to soils con- 
 taining clay. 
 
 Soils do not, however, possess an equal absorbing power 
 for acids. Nitric acid is not absorbed, but is freely 
 movable. The only acid of importance absorbed by the 
 soil is phosphoric acid, which combines with lime, iron, 
 and alumina, forming phosphates, — compounds of great 
 importance in plant nutrition, which are not removed 
 from the soil except through the growth of plants. 
 
 This absorbing property of soils may be nicely illus- 
 trated by filling a cylinder of suitable length with a good 
 soil, and pouring upon it a dilute solution containing 
 one or more bases, including potash and lime, and both 
 nitric and phosphoric acid. An examination of the solu- 
 tion which passes through will show the presence of nitric 
 acid, and an absence, at least in any amount, of the potash 
 and phosphoric acid. Good soils fix all of the essential 
 constituents, except nitrogen when it is in the form of a 
 nitrate. 
 
 The farmer can reduce the losses due to drainage by 
 careful management. The drainage waters contain least 
 nitrates when crops are growing and well cultivated. 
 This carrying away of plant-food constituents by the rain 
 into the drains may be regarded, therefore, as a natural 
 
40 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 loss to soils, and is greater or less according to the char- 
 acter of the soil, and the treatment it receives. On the 
 other hand, there is a gain in the fertility of soils due 
 to natural causes. 
 
 Rain carries to the soil appreciable amounts of nitric 
 acid and ammonia, as well as certain solid substances, 
 existing in the atmosphere. The gain from this source 
 is greatest in the vicinity of cities, and least in the open 
 country. The gain due to the action of water, heat, cold, 
 and decaying vegetable matter has already been referred 
 to in previous sections, though the changes taking place 
 in vegetable matter require further notice. 
 
 Nitrification. — Vegetable matter is the source of 
 humus of soils, and the active principle of humus is 
 nitrogen. The nitrogen in humus is combined with car- 
 bon, and in this form it is not available to plants. In 
 order to become most useful to them it must be changed 
 into a nitrate, since plants take up their nitrogen chiefly 
 in this form. This process is called "nitrification," and 
 is caused by minute "organisms" or "ferments," which 
 are present in all fertile soils. 
 
 These ferments are most active in warm, moist, well- 
 drained soils, when nitrification proceeds rapidly; they 
 are not active when the temperature is lower than 41° F. 
 or higher than 131° F. In winter, in temperate climates, 
 nitrification practically ceases altogether, while in sum- 
 mer it proceeds most rapidly. As soon as nitric acid is 
 formed by this process, it immediately combines with 
 some base, preferably lime ; hence, if drainage is allowed, 
 the loss of nitrates is always accompanied by a loss of 
 lime. 
 
THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS, 41 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The Improyement of Soils. 
 
 The improvement of soils may be regarded as of two 
 kinds, — first physical, and second chemical ; though this 
 classification is not always well defined. Frequently an 
 improvement in the physical character of soils is also 
 accompanied by important chemical changes. The im- 
 provement of soils due to natural causes, while consider- 
 able in the aggregate, is insignificant, in point of time, 
 compared with that which may be secured by the farmer 
 through artificial means. The true aim of the farmer 
 should be to bring the soil into a condition to produce 
 crops which are well adapted to his location, and which 
 are as large as the average conditions of climate and 
 season will permit. 
 
 The first point to determine is whether the land is 
 worth improving ; the kind of crops that can be raised, and 
 their probable market value, must guide in this respect. 
 
 Physical Imperfection. — One of the chief imperfec- 
 tions in natural soils, aside from their chemical character, 
 is in respect to water ; they contain too much or too 
 little. If too much, the imperfections may be in many 
 cases corrected by proper drainage ; if too little, by 
 adding water or such materials as may increase the 
 absorbing and retaining power of soil for water. 
 
42 FIBST PBINCIPLE8 OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The earth may be compared to a sponge full of water, 
 which rises towards the surface with heavy rainfalls, and 
 falls below as evaporation and percolation proceed. 
 
 Drainage. — If a hole dug into the soil partly fills 
 with water, and remains with slight fluctuations through 
 the season, the water contained in it is called "bottom 
 water," and the point to which it rises is called the 
 "water level." If the water level is constantly near 
 the surface, the soil is liable to be too wet ; for most 
 plants suffer if their roots are immersed for any length 
 of time in stagnant water. Plants need air, both for 
 root and branch. Too much water in a soil prevents 
 the circulation of air, and also keeps it too cold for 
 most crops ; the cranberry and rice plants are prominent 
 exceptions to this rule. The soil may also be too wet, 
 even when the water level is deep into the earth, by 
 reason of absorbing too much of the rain that falls upon 
 it. Drainage corrects in the first case by lowering the 
 water level, and in the second by permitting a more 
 rapid passage of water through the soil. 
 
 Land well drained is improved, not only by the removal 
 of water from it, but because the more rapid diffusion 
 and passage of the water through the soil carry the air 
 and warmth to lower levels, which are, as has already 
 been shown, important factors in making soil constitu- 
 ents soluble, and thus increasing the power of plants 
 to secure food. 
 
 In too many cases half-developed crops are secured 
 year after year upon land, which, if properly drained, 
 would be capable of maximum production. Where springs 
 occur, and where the land is composed of clay overlying 
 
THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 43 
 
 clay subsoils, drainage usually results in great improve- 
 ment and profit to the owner. 
 
 Methods of Drainage. — The efficiency of drains de- 
 pends upon the free passage of water through them. They 
 should always lead to the lowest portion of the field ; if 
 the land is level, they must be gradually sloped — one 
 foot in five hundred will furnish sufficient grade for the 
 flow of water. On a slope, the drains may be laid at a 
 uniform depth from the surface ; the main drain should 
 always occupy the lowest part of the field. 
 
 The depth of drains and their distance from each other 
 are governed by the character of the land. On light, open 
 soils, they should be deeper and farther apart; on heavy 
 land they should be nearer to the surface and to one 
 another. The mouth of the drain should be well pro- 
 tected, and kept free from all obstructions. 
 
 Irrigation. — When lands contain too little water irri- 
 gation is frequently resorted to, though the best results 
 from irrigation are attained on well-drained land. Irri- 
 gation not only softens the land, thus making it more 
 permeable for the roots of plants, but it is effective in 
 dissolving the dormant constituents of soils. Large tracts 
 of now barren land in the United States only require water 
 to make them fruitful. 
 
 The advantages of irrigation are, perhaps, most con- 
 spicuous in the States of Colorado and California. In 
 portions of the Eastern States crops are frequently ruined 
 by a lack of water at the right time ; the irrigation of 
 these areas is only a question of time. 
 
 Claying and Sanding. — Further imperfections in 
 the physical character of natural soils are also common. 
 
44 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Sandy soils are improved when made more compact and 
 tenacious; this may be accomplished by adding clay, or 
 organic matter, or both. Clay soils are improved as they 
 are made more porous and open; this may be accom- 
 plished, in part at least, by the addition of sand. Clay- 
 ing and sanding are expensive processes, and are seldom 
 resorted to in this country except in cranberry culture; 
 though in districts where clay marls are abundant, the 
 same object is accomplished by the application of this 
 material. Marling, however, materially improves their 
 chemical character, because of the mineral constituents, 
 potash, phosphoric acid, and lime, one or all of which 
 may be contained in them. 
 
 Green Manuring. — The addition of organic vegetable 
 matter to soils, for the purpose of improving both their 
 physical and chemical character, is readily accomplished 
 by means of green manuring. The term " green manur- 
 ing " is used when the crops themselves are plowed under 
 in their green state. Any plant, of course, may serve for 
 this purpose, though those most commonly used are red 
 and crimson clover, cow pea, rye, and buckwheat. 
 
 Plants most Useful. — Of these crops the clovers and 
 peas are more useful than the others. Clovers, peas, 
 beans, lupins, vetches, and a number of others of less 
 importance, belong to a class of plants called "legumes," 
 which have the power of securing nitrogen from the air, 
 and can, therefore, make perfect growth under proper 
 conditions without depending upon soil nitrogen. This 
 function of the legumes has long been known by practi- 
 cal farmers, but the method by which the nitrogen is 
 obtained is a quite recent discovery. 
 
THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 45 
 
 These plants have small, knotty growths, called " tuber- 
 cles," on their roots, which are believed to be caused 
 directly or indirectly by certain bacteria which are present 
 in soils in which this class of plants are grown. Eecent 
 experiments have shown, too, that soils which do not 
 contain these bacteria may be inoculated by applying a 
 light dressing of soil from a field in which the plants have 
 previously grown to perfection, without direct applications 
 of nitrogenous material. It is through these tubercles that 
 the plants are supposed to gain free nitrogen from the 
 atmosphere. Experiments have shown pretty clearly that, 
 where they have been formed, the nitrogen in the crop is 
 far greater than when they are absent. The fact that 
 such is the case is sufficient for us to make use of this 
 free source of the expensive element, nitrogen; and it 
 makes green manuring with these plants a most impor- 
 tant part of farm work, not only as a means of securing 
 nitrogen for the crop itself, but as a source of nitrogen 
 for crops unable to secure it except from soil sources. 
 
 An acre of an average crop of red or crimson clover, 
 or of cow peas, will contain one hundred and fifty pounds 
 of nitrogen, equivalent to that contained in fifteen tons of 
 average stable manure. Eye or buckwheat, or other plants, 
 which do not possess this power of securing nitrogen, are 
 much less valuable for this purpose. 
 
 Green manuring is particularly useful in the improve- 
 ment of light lands usually deficient in humus, and in 
 that method of farm practice where exhaustive crops are 
 grown without the addition of yard manure or other forms 
 of organic matter. By the use of the legumes as green 
 manures, and the addition of materials furnishing the 
 
46 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 essential mineral constituents, potash, phosphoric acid, 
 and lime, light lands may be rapidly improved and made 
 very fertile, while lands used for growing vegetables or 
 fruits may be kept in a high state of cultivation and 
 in good mechanical condition, without the expenditure of 
 money and labor for stable manure, now regarded as so 
 essential by the majority of farmers. 
 
 Rye and Buckwheat as Catch Crops. — Rye and 
 buckwheat are of considerable advantage, even though they 
 are able to secure their nitrogen only from soil sources, 
 because their habits of growth permit them to be used as 
 catch crops, or those not interfering with regular rotations. 
 
 The addition of the vegetable carbonaceous matter 
 which is contained in these crops is, of course, quite as 
 advantageous as that contained in those having the special 
 power of securing nitrogen; though recent studies of 
 crimson clover show it to be quite as well adapted for a 
 catch crop as those already mentioned, thus limiting the 
 usefulness as green manures of other crops than the 
 clovers or legumes. 
 
 Care in the Use of Green Manures. — The turning 
 under of heavy crops of clover or rye in the summer, when 
 the conditions are most favorable for rapid decay, namely, 
 a high temperature, and an abundance of moisture, is some- 
 times followed by unfavorable results. Whether this is 
 due to the too great development of organic acids from the 
 rapid decay of vegetable matter, as some believe, is not 
 thoroughly established ; though it is known that where the 
 soil contains sufficient lime, or when lime is added, the 
 danger in this direction is very much reduced, or altogether 
 obviated. 
 
THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 47 
 
 Green Manures add no Minerals to the Soil. — It 
 
 is observed, from the foregoing, that the use of green 
 manures can add no minerals to the soil; nevertheless, 
 its chemical qualities are improved. In the first place, 
 constituents existing in the soil, as well as in the subsoil, 
 have been collected by the roots and stored in the whole 
 plant, which, turned under, concentrate these constituents 
 in the surface soil ; and, secondly, the constituents con- 
 tained in combination with vegetable matter are readily 
 given up again, because of the tendency of such sub- 
 stances to decay. 
 
 Improvement Due to Lime. — The addition of lime 
 also improves the physical nature of soil. Upon sandy 
 soils its effect is to fill up the openings, which makes 
 them more adherent and more retentive of moisture, thus 
 absorbing less heat during the day, and retaining more 
 at night. On clay soils, the effect of lime is still more 
 important; the fine particles are separated, and the soil 
 made more open, porous, and friable ; air and water cir- 
 culate more freely ; the soil is warmer and easier to work. 
 
 Tillage. — Natural soils are further improved by til- 
 lage. Tillage includes the operations of plowing, culti- 
 vating, harrowing, rolling, etc., the result of which is to 
 destroy weeds and foreign growths ; to subject larger 
 portions of the soil to contact with air, thus increasing 
 the tendency to decay ; and to pulverize the surface soil, 
 and render it more absorptive and porous, and more favor- 
 able for the germination of seeds, and for the penetration 
 and activity of the fine roots. 
 
 Methods of Plowing. — The methods followed in 
 plowing vary with the conditions and character of the 
 
48 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 soil. It should be deep enough to include all of the 
 surface soil, and the furrow should be turned in such a 
 manner as to subject the largest surface to the action of 
 the air. 
 
 Narrow furrows thrown on edge expose the greatest 
 surface area to the influence of the atmosphere, while 
 a wide furrow, turned nearly flat, presents the least 
 exposed surface. The former method is best adapted 
 for heavy soils, rich in the dormant constituents, and 
 the latter more useful where the object is rather the 
 production of a good tilth or seed-bed. 
 
 Proper plowing also greatly assists in surface drain- 
 age. The distance between the ridges is called a land, and 
 the narrower the land the better the drainage. Where 
 the natural drainage is good, ridge plowing is not so 
 important. On such lands level plowing is advisable; 
 an even surface possesses many advantages in the culti- 
 vating and harvesting of crops. 
 
 As a rule, it is not well to bring the subsoil to the 
 surface when the planting of the crop immediately fol- 
 lows the plowing; though on alluvial soils this practice 
 is often followed for the purpose of deepening the sur- 
 face soils. 
 
 Pall Plowing. — Pall plowing is useful in economiz- 
 ing time in the spring, in improving heavy soils, and in 
 destroying many injurious insects. Land plowed in the 
 fall or very early spring is also better able to with- 
 stand drouth than if plowed immediately preceding the 
 planting of the crop, particularly if the drouth occurs early 
 in the season. 
 
 The gradual deepening of the soil is better accom- 
 
THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS. 49 
 
 plished on average soils by deep fall plowing ; since a 
 small quantity of subsoil, then brought to the surface, is 
 greatly improved and mellowed by alternate freezing and 
 thawing during the winter. 
 
 The cultivation and harrowing of the soil before seed- 
 ing in the spring should be deep and thorough; all 
 clods should be crushed, and the particles of soil made 
 as fine as possible; the finer the soil is made the more 
 food is made available, and the more moisture is re- 
 tained. The seed-bed should be deep, clean, and moist, 
 for the proper germination and growth of plants. 
 
 Subsoil Plowing. — By subsoil plowing is meant the 
 breaking up of the subsoil, without bringing it to the 
 surface; this is accomplished by a plow of special con- 
 struction, following in the furrows made by a surface 
 plow. Subsoil plowing is of great importance where the 
 subsoil is hard and compact, and improves the soil, by 
 making the movement of water easier, by admitting the 
 free access of air, and the easy penetration of the roots 
 of plants. 
 
 Capillary Attraction. — Water escapes from the sur- 
 face of soils by means of what is termed "capillary at- 
 traction." That is, the interstices, or spaces, between the 
 particles of soil serve as little tubes to conduct the 
 water from the lower levels of soils to the surface, to 
 supply that carried away by evaporation. The coarser 
 the particles of soil and the more porous it is, the 
 larger will be the openings, the less water will be ab- 
 sorbed from the rains, and the more rapid the escape 
 from the surface by evaporation into the atmosphere. 
 In soils the particles of which are not too finely di- 
 
50 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 vided and too compact, the reverse is the case. The 
 tubes and pores through which the water passes, if un- 
 disturbed, admit of the rapid escape of water ; if dis- 
 turbed, the evaporation is arrested. 
 
 Tillage Conserves Moisture. — Cultivating, harrow- 
 ing, and rolling disturb or break the connection of the 
 pores with the surface, thus reducing the evaporation 
 until the connection of the tubes with the surface is 
 again established. The amount of water transpired by 
 growing plants is enormous — from three to five hun- 
 dred pounds for each pound of dry matter formed ; 
 and its escape, other than through the plant, should be 
 prevented as far as possible. 
 
 Tillage also destroys weeds, which require for their 
 growth quite as much plant-food and moisture as culti- 
 vated plants. 
 
 For cultivated crops frequent tillage is recommended in 
 dry seasons, in order that the greatest possible amount 
 of moisture may be retained where the feeding roots are 
 located ; the dry, pulverized surface soil acts as a mulch 
 or blanket, and diverts more of the moisture to the 
 roots of the plant. Too deep cultivation in dry seasons 
 frequently does more harm than good, unless, in the 
 preparation of the seed-bed, the soil has been thor- 
 oughly and deeply pulverized. 
 
 Chemical Improvement. — Soils are improved chemi- 
 cally by the addition of materials which contain constit- 
 uents that are liable to be lacking, or which have the 
 power of converting dormant into active constituents. In 
 many cases both of these objects are accomplished at 
 the same time. Materials containing nitrogen, phosphoric 
 
THE IMPBOVEMENT OF SOILS. 51 
 
 acid, and potash are usually regarded as belonging to the 
 first class ; while lime itself, and materials containing 
 lime, belong more particularly to the second class. Lime 
 is one of the most useful agents of the farmer, and does 
 not, as is commonly believed, have the tendency to ex- 
 haust soils unduly, when its use is properly understood. 
 Lime acts powerfully upon and hastens the decay of 
 organic matter from both vegetable and animal sources, 
 by virtue of which the nitrogen becomes more quickly 
 available to plants, and, as already stated, lime also as- 
 sists in the process of nitrification. Lime further aids 
 in liberating potash from insoluble compounds in the soil, 
 thus increasing the store of active plant-food ingredients ; 
 it also promotes the formation of compounds with alu- 
 mina, which have the power of retaining ammonia and 
 potash. The direct effect of lime, as well as the other 
 materials furnishing plant-food, will be discussed in de- 
 tail in the chapter on manures. 
 
52 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Natural Manures. 
 
 A MANURE is, in a broad sense, anything that aids or 
 increases the production of farm crops. Manures may 
 be direct in their effect, by adding to the actual plant- 
 food in the soil, or indirect, by aiding the decay, and 
 making active insoluble plant-food constituents in the soil. 
 
 It was shown in previous chapters, that, of all of the 
 constituents which plants need, but four were liable to 
 be exhausted by any system of cropping; these were 
 nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. Direct ma- 
 nures contain one or two or all of these constituents. Any- 
 thing called a "direct manure," which does not contain 
 one or more of these constituents, cannot add to the stock 
 of true plant-food. 
 
 Essential Fertilizing Elements. — Nitrogen, phos- 
 phoric acid, potash, and lime are called the essential fer- 
 tilizing elements, because they are more important in 
 manures than the others that plants require ; and a direct 
 manure is useful in proportion to the amount and avail- 
 ability, or direct usefulness, of these constituents con- 
 tained in it. 
 
 Direct manures may also be indirect at the same time ; 
 that is, they may contain materials which add no plant- 
 food directly, but which act upon the soil constituents. 
 
NATURAL MANURES. 63 
 
 Indirect manures are valuable in proportion to the 
 effect which, they have upon the soil constituents, and 
 this effect may be due to both physical and chemical 
 causes. Through this distinction, in reference to the 
 action of manures, we are ready to classify them into 
 natural manures and artificial manures. 
 
 Natural Manures. — A natural manure is one which 
 may be either direct or indirect, but which has been 
 derived from natural sources, or, in other words, which 
 has not undergone any specific treatment or manufac- 
 ture. These include all vegetable and animal refuse of 
 the farm and yard, also factory wastes, which contain 
 one or more of the essential constituents. Natural ma- 
 nures are as a rule bulky, and are low grade in the sense 
 that they contain small amounts of the direct plant-food 
 constituents. 
 
 Earmyard manure is one of the most important and 
 useful of the natural manures ; it is both a direct and 
 an indirect manure : direct, in containing nitrogen, phos- 
 phoric acid, potash, and lime, which are actual fertiliz- 
 ing constituents; and indirect, in containing organic or 
 vegetable matter, which aids in the improvement of the 
 physical character of the soil. 
 
 It is sometimes called a "general manure,'^ because, 
 as it contains all of the constituents of plant growth, it 
 is liable to be generally useful on all soils. 
 
 Farmyard Manure. — Yard manure varies in its 
 composition according to the character of the animals 
 producing it, and the quality of the food, and the object 
 of feeding. Its composition is also influenced by the 
 amount and kind of litter used, and its management after 
 
64 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 it is secured. The manure from young animals is less 
 valuable than that made when the animals are full 
 grown. 
 
 Manure made from fattening animals is richer than 
 that produced by dairy cows; animals fed upon hay and 
 straw furnish manure much less valuable than when the 
 cereal grains constitute a part of the ration. 
 
 Manure Produced by Different Animals. — Horse 
 manure is richer in nitrogen, contains less water, and is 
 less variable in composition than that obtained from cows. 
 The manure made from animals consuming rich food is 
 more liable to fermentation than that produced when 
 they are fed upon bulky fodders or watery feeds. 
 
 Horse manure is called a " hot manure " because of 
 its tendency to hot fermentation; and is for this reason 
 particularly useful for hot-beds, and for forcing early 
 growth. Cow manure, on the other hand, is called a 
 " cold manure," because less liable to fermentation. Sheep 
 manure contains less water, and is richer in the fertiliz- 
 ing constituents than either horse or cow manure. Pig 
 manure, while quite as watery as cow manure, is richer 
 in nitrogen. 
 
 Composition of Stable Manure. — Manure from horse 
 stables in large cities also varies considerably in compo- 
 sition. It contains on the average seventy-five per cent, 
 or fifteen hundred pounds per ton, of water, and twenty- 
 five per cent, or five hundred pounds per ton, of dry 
 matter, which contains all of the manurial ingredients. 
 The water is of no particular value ; it simply increases 
 th^ cost of handling. The dry matter consists of from 
 ten to twelve per cent of ash, and from twelve to fif- 
 
NATURAL MANURES. 55 
 
 teen per cent of organic matter. The ash contains from 
 eight to ten pounds each of phosphoric acid and lime, 
 and six to eight pounds of potash ; while the organic 
 matter contains from eight to ten pounds of nitrogen. 
 
 Its indirect value, however, is often quite as great as, 
 and frequently greater than, its direct value, — first, be- 
 cause of its vegetable matter, which materially improves 
 the absorbing and retaining power of soils ; and second, 
 because of the lower forms of life, or bacteria, contained 
 in it, which induce useful fermentations in the soil. 
 Not including the lime, the average ton of city manure 
 contains but twenty-eight pounds of actual fertilizer con- 
 stituents. 
 
 Solid and Liquid Portions. — The nitrogen digested 
 from the food, as well as a large part of the potash, is 
 found in the liquid portions of the manure ; while the 
 nitrogen in the undigested portions, as well as a large 
 part of the phosphoric acid, is contained in the solid 
 residue. The nitrogen in the urine is largely in the 
 form of '^urea,'' a compound soluble in water, and is 
 easily decomposed; the potash is also soluble in water. 
 These constituents are, therefore, the most active. 
 
 Sources of Loss in Manures. — Manures are sus- 
 ceptible to two direct sources of loss, the first of which 
 is due to fermentation, which results in the loss of ni- 
 trogen ; and the second is due to leaching, which may 
 finally result in a loss of all the constituents, though it 
 is confined largely to the soluble nitrogen and potash. 
 By fermentation, the nitrogen in the manure is changed 
 to ammonia, usually in the form of a carbonate, which 
 is volatile, and escapes into the atmosphere. 
 
56 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Care of Manures. — Fermentation, causing loss, may 
 be prevented by keeping the manure moist and well 
 packed. The loss through leaching may be stopped if 
 the passage of water through it is prevented. The best 
 method to preserve it is to make it under cover, and in 
 pits made water-tight; by such a method of shelter and 
 protection the maximum amount of manurial value is 
 obtained. The soluble constituents are prevented from 
 being washed into the drain, and the loss of volatile 
 compounds is reduced to a minimum. Where it is not 
 practicable to have water-tight pits, it should be kept in 
 yards that drain to the centre, plenty of absorbent used, 
 and drainage from the roof not allowed to run in the 
 yard ; and the product should be removed to the field as 
 often as possible. 
 
 Experiments conducted to determine the extent of the 
 loss of valuable constituents dde to improper fermenta- 
 tion and to leaching have shown, that, under average 
 conditions of season, the loss from exposure for six 
 months will range from one-third to one-half of the total 
 constituents; this loss falls upon the most active forms, 
 the constituents remaining in the manure after being sub- 
 jected to such losses are the least active and directly 
 useful. 
 
 Manure Preservers. — The loss of ammonia, both in 
 the stables and in manure pits, may also be prevented by 
 the use of land plaster, of kainit, or of superphosphate, 
 which has the power of fixing and retaining the vola- 
 tile gases. A pound a day per grown animal, sprinkled 
 around in the stable, is sufficient to attain the object. 
 The same proportion and amount may be used on the 
 
NATURAL MANUBES. 57 
 
 manure heap. The value of this practice is, however, 
 measured by the care of the manure afterward, since the 
 fixed constituents are still liable to loss from leaching. 
 
 The Improvement of Manures. — Manures are im- 
 proved as they are reduced in bulk, and as the constit- 
 uents are made available or directly useful; this is 
 accomplished by well-regulated fermentation, or rotting. 
 By well-regulated fermentation is meant that which re- 
 sults in the decay of organic matter with the least loss 
 of nitrogen. The loss from fermentation is greatest 
 when the manure lies in loose heaps, the access of air 
 aiding the decay; the loss is least when it is packed 
 and moist. The mixing of the manures of the various 
 farm animals, hot and cold, also tends to reduce fermen- 
 tation. 
 
 If the fermentation becomes too active, great heat is 
 developed, which causes the rapid escape of moisture; the 
 manure is burned and has a whitish and mouldy appear- 
 ance, — it is what is called ^^ fire-fanged.'' Under these 
 circumstances there is frequently a loss of nitrogen. The 
 *^ fire-f anging " may be prevented by keeping the heap 
 moist. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that the improvement of 
 manures, while it reduces bulk and increases availability 
 of the fertilizing elements, requires care and labor. 
 Whether such improvement will pay or not depends, 
 first, upon the cost of labor, and second, upon the object 
 of use of the manure. Where labor is expensive, and 
 the manure is used for the growing of such gross-feed- 
 ing field crops as corn, the advantages derived are least. 
 When the handling can be performed by the regular 
 
58 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 labor of the farm, and where the manure is applied to 
 garden or quick-growing crops, the advantages of such 
 improvement are greatest. 
 
 On the whole, however, it is safe to estimate that the 
 least labor necessary to get the manure from the animal 
 to the field is the best policy ; that is, while there may 
 be loss, and while the constituents may not be so active, 
 still, the financial results attained are, because of the 
 saving of labor, quite as good. 
 
 There is another advantage in the careful fermentation 
 of manures which should not be overlooked, particularly 
 on soils poor in vegetable matter j that is, the development 
 of useful bacteria, the work of which has been already 
 described. What has been said in reference to yard 
 manure is also true for other manures of the farm. 
 
 Poultry Manure. — This is richer in all of the essen- 
 tial elements than any other natural manure of the 
 farm. It contains less water, and is not so liable to hot 
 fermentation if kept moist. 
 
 Application of Yard Manure. — Two points should 
 be kept in mind in the application of yard manures, — 
 first, that they are essentially nitrogenous products; and 
 second, that they are particularly valuable because of 
 the useful ferments contained in them. If too much is 
 added at one time, a loss of nitrogen is liable to follow, 
 and the benefits derived from the ferments are limited 
 to small areas. The manure of the farm should be 
 distributed as far as possible, and supplemented by 
 more concentrated materials. Coarse manures are better 
 adapted for heavy lands, while those which are well 
 rotted are more useful on light soils. 
 
NATURAL MANURES. 59 
 
 Composts. — In addition to the yard manure, there 
 are about most farms wastes of considerable importance, 
 weeds, grasses, and coarse growths of any kind, which 
 all contain greater or less amounts of the manurial con- 
 stituents. These should be carefully utilized, and may 
 be profitably used as absorbents in the barnyard. When 
 this method is adopted, the weeds should be cut before 
 they have matured, or they furnish an excellent means 
 of transmitting foul seeds. These waste products may 
 also be used in making what are called "composts." 
 These, of course, differ according to the conditions of 
 the farmer. Where peat or muck is available, they 
 are more advantageous than where such products are 
 not at hand. The main object of the compost heap is 
 to cause a more rapid decay of such products, and without 
 the loss of essential constituents. 
 
 A good compost heap may be made by placing a layer 
 of manure, then a layer of the weeds or waste products 
 of any kind, then a layer of lime or ashes, the whole 
 well moistened, and the order repeated until all of the 
 products are used. The manure starts fermentation, the 
 lime aids in the rotting, as well as to prevent acidity 
 and to keep the heap alkaline, and the moisture pre- 
 vents too hot fermentation. By careful management 
 destructive fermentation is prevented, the bulk is very 
 materially reduced, and the quality of the constituents 
 greatly improved. The chief difficulty in the making 
 of composts, as well as with other methods used in the 
 improvement of manures, is the expense of labor. 
 
 It pays to take good care of, and to save, manurial 
 products, and to see to it that wastes are reduced, and 
 
60 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the improvement of the quality of the constituents by the 
 methods suggested is frequently of considerable financial 
 advantage. 
 
 Muck, or Peat. — On many farms there are low, wet 
 places where the conditions are favorable for the collec- 
 tion of partially decayed vegetable matter. The mate- 
 rial thus formed is called "muck," or "peat." The 
 thickness of the deposit and its character depend upon 
 the time during which it has been formed, and the 
 character of the climate. 
 
 Muck is used mainly as a source of humus, and as 
 an absorbent for use in stables or yards. Eresh muck 
 contains on the average seventy-five per cent of water, 
 three-tenths per cent of nitrogen, and traces of potash, 
 phosphoric acid, and lime. Air-dry muck contains on 
 the average twenty-one per cent of water, one and one- 
 third per cent of nitrogen, one-tenth per cent each of 
 phosphoric acid and potash, and nine-tenths per cent of 
 lime. The value of the muck as a source of humus is 
 measured by its content of nitrogen, while its value as 
 an absorbent depends upon its content of organic matter. 
 The usefulness of muck for either of these purposes is 
 further modified by the labor necessary to secure it in a 
 dried condition. 
 
 The usual method of procuring it is to throw it out 
 of the bed into heaps, and allow it to dry before it is 
 used either upon the fields or in the stables. Where a 
 muck bed exists upon a farm, it should first be studied 
 in reference to its possible drainage. If it can be drained, 
 it is liable to prove more useful where it lies than for 
 the other purposes mentioned; since soils rich in peaty 
 
NATURAL MANURES. 61 
 
 matter are particularly valuable, when properly managed, 
 for growing onions, celery, and potatoes. Large areas of 
 peaty soils in this country, that have been properly 
 drained, are now devoted to these crops j before draining 
 they were absolutely valueless. 
 
 In addition to the natural farm wastes, farmers fre- 
 quently have easy access to certain factory wastes. These 
 may be divided into two classes, nitrogenous and potassic. 
 Of the nitrogenous materials, wool and hair wastes are 
 probably the most important. These are very rich in 
 nitrogen; both are, however, usually mixed with other 
 materials, and vary widely in their composition. 
 
 Wool Waste. — Wool waste contains on an average 
 ten per cent of water, five and one-half per cent of nitro- 
 gen, one per cent of phosphoric acid, and two per cent 
 of potash. 
 
 Hair Waste. — An average analysis of hair waste, as 
 determined at the New Jersey Experiment Station, shows 
 it to contain thirty-two per cent of water, seven and two- 
 tenths per cent of nitrogen, and eight-tenths per cent of 
 phosphoric acid. 
 
 Pelt Waste. — Pelt waste is similar to wool waste 
 in that its nitrogen is contained in the wool, though 
 variable in composition on account of the varying pro- 
 portions of cotton used in its manufacture. Analyses 
 show it to contain about eight per cent of nitrogen. 
 
 Leather Meal. — Leather meal is a product found in 
 considerable quantities in towns where the manufacture 
 of shoes is an industry. It contains on the average ten 
 per cent of water, and seven of nitrogen. The nitrogen 
 (n the leather meal is even less available than in the 
 
62 FIB8T PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 other products mentioned, because the leather has passed 
 through a process, the very purpose of which was to make 
 it less liable to decay. 
 
 The purchase of these materials is only advisable when 
 they can be procured very cheaply. Their application is 
 useful when the object is gradual increase in fertility, 
 rather than immediate increase in crop. Hair wastes 
 have been found advantageous in the growing of ber- 
 ries, hops, and other slow-growing crops, while wool and 
 leather have materially improved meadows and perma- 
 nent pastures. The nitrogen in these materials is im- 
 proved in form, and made more quickly available, when 
 composted with manure. 
 
 Wood-Ashes. — Of the potassic manures, unleached 
 wood-ashes are the most useful. The pure ashes from 
 the different varieties of wood vary in composition ; as 
 a rule, the softer woods contain less, and the hard woods 
 more, potash, the range being from sixteen to forty per 
 cent. 
 
 Ashes also contain lime in large amounts, while phos- 
 phoric acid is contained in much smaller quantities. 
 Wood-ashes, as usually gathered for market, however, con- 
 tain very considerable portions of moisture, dirt, etc., 
 which cause a variability in composition not due to the 
 character of the woods from which they are derived. 
 The average analysis of commercial wood-ashes shows 
 them to contain less than six per cent of potash, two 
 per cent of phosphoric acid, and thirty-two per cent of 
 lime. Leached wood-ashes contain on the average thirty 
 per cent of moisture, one and one-tenth per cent of pot- 
 ash, one and one-half per cent of phosphoric acid, and 
 twenty-nine per cent of lime. 
 
NATUBAL MANUBES. 63 
 
 Ashes are probably one of the best sources of potash 
 that we have, so far as its form and combination are 
 concerned, being in a very fine state of division, and in 
 such a form as to be immediately available to plants. 
 As^es also have a very favorable physical effect upon 
 soils, the lime present, of course, aiding in this respect. 
 Canada is now the main source of wood-ashes, the sub- 
 stitution of coal for wood making the supply in this 
 country for commercial purposes very limited. Owing 
 to the variability of this product, it should always be 
 bought subject to analysis, and to a definite price per 
 pound for the actual constituents contained in it ; which 
 should not be greater than the price at which the same 
 constituents could be purchased in other quickly available 
 forms. 
 
 Marl. — Marl may contain one or more of the constit- 
 uents, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. Shell marls 
 are usually very rich in lime, but contain only traces of 
 phosphoric acid and potash. The green sand marls of 
 New Jersey often contain very considerable amounts 
 of phosphoric acid and potash, though they vary widely 
 in composition. They contain on the average two and 
 two-tenths per cent of phosphoric acid, four and seven- 
 tenths per cent of potash, and two and nine-tenths per 
 cent of lime. These constituents, particularly the potash, 
 are, as a rule, slowly available. 
 
 Marl, however, is an important amendment to soils, 
 not only because of its content of mineral constituents, 
 but because these constituents are associated with pro- 
 ducts that have a very favorable mechanical effect upon 
 soils. Large areas of land in the State of New Jersey 
 
64 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 formerly unproductive, chiefly because of physical imper- 
 fections, have been made very productive mainly through 
 the application of marl. 
 
 The use of marl is now less general than when the 
 fertilizing constituents from artificial sources were dearer, 
 and when the labor of the farm was more abundant and 
 cheaper. The quicker effect of more soluble fertilizer 
 constituents has had an influence in reducing the use of 
 marl where quick returns are desirable. Where farmers 
 have deposits upon their own farms, or within short dis- 
 tances of them, and can secure it at a low price per ton, 
 it is a desirable method of improving land. 
 
 The results from the use of marl are frequently due 
 quite as much to the improvement given to the physical 
 condition of soils as to the increase in fertility furnished 
 by the essential mineral constituents. Marls may be 
 carted and spread upon the land when other work of 
 the farm is not pressing, thus making it possible to get 
 a considerable addition of fertility at a small expense. 
 
 Lime. — Lime, while an essential constituent of plants, 
 is usually more abundant in soils than the other mineral 
 constituents, phosphoric acid and potash. It is, how- 
 ever, regarded as a direct source of plant-food in a great 
 many cases, though its greatest value lies in its favorable 
 action upon soils. This action is both physical and 
 chemical, and has already been discussed in a previous 
 chapter. 
 
 Lime, as is it generally understood, is an oxide of cal- 
 cium, and is produced by burning limestone, or carbonate 
 of lime. The lime loses the carbonic acid when burned in 
 the kilns, and the oxide of lime remains behind ; this is 
 
NATURAL MANURES. 65 
 
 usually termed " quicklime.'' The quicklime, before it is 
 applied to the soil, is usually slaked j this is done by 
 adding water, which the lime absorbs, and falls to a pow- 
 der. Slaked lime, also called caustic lime, is a calcium 
 hydrate. 
 
 The more completely limestone is burned, the better 
 the quicklime, and the more completely it slakes. We 
 have, when we speak of lime, three forms : limestone, 
 quicklime, or burned lime, and slaked lime, each differing 
 from the other in composition. 
 
 Quicklime absorbs moisture, and slakes when exposed 
 to the atmosphere. Lime thus slaked is called " air- 
 slaked lime," and is usually less completely changed to 
 a hydrate than when water is added. Quicklime also 
 absorbs carbonic acid from the air, and changes back to 
 the limestone form. Lime in the carbonated form, if 
 finely pulverized, is better for liming light lands than 
 the caustic lime ; for heavy lands, caustic is preferable 
 to the carbonate. 
 
 What is termed " marble lime " is made from pure 
 limestone. What are called " limestones " frequently 
 contain considerable magnesia, in which case they are 
 termed ^^ magnesian limestones.'' The larger number of 
 the limestones of New Jersey are of this class ; they 
 contain from fifty to sixty per cent of calcium oxide, 
 and thirty per cent or over of oxide of magnesia. 
 
 Oyster shells are nearly pure carbonate of lime ; oyster- 
 shell lime, though containing no magnesia, is usually 
 mixed with more or less dirt and other impurities, and 
 is therefore not as rich in lime as that derived from 
 pure limestone. 
 
66 FIRST rUTNCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Gas-Lime. — The lime from gas-works is also fre- 
 quently used as manure ; in these works quicklime is 
 used for removing the impurities from the gas. Gas- 
 lime, therefore, varies considerably in composition, and 
 consists really of a mixture of slaked lime, or calcium 
 hydrate, and carbonate of lime, together with sulphides 
 and sulphites of lime. These last are injurious to plant 
 life, and gas-lime should be applied long before the crop 
 is planted, or at least exposed to the air some time 
 before its application ; the action of air converts the 
 poisonous substances in it into non-injurious products. 
 Gas-lime contains on an average forty per cent of cal- 
 cium oxide. 
 
 Gypsum or Land Plaster. — Gypsum is a sulphate 
 of lime containing water in combination. Pure gypsum 
 contains thirty-two and one-half per cent of lime, forty- 
 six and one-half per cent of sulphuric acid, and twenty- 
 one per cent of water. 
 
 Plaster of Paris is prepared from pure gypsum by 
 burning, which drives off the water it contains. Gyp- 
 sum, like other forms of lime, furnishes directly the 
 element calcium, and also exerts a favorable solvent 
 effect upon the soil. It was formerly used in large quan- 
 tities, particularly for clover; and it is believed that its 
 favorable effect was due, not so much to the direct addi- 
 tion of lime, as to its action upon insoluble potash com- 
 pounds in the soil, in setting free potash. Thus the 
 application of plaster caused an increase in crop because 
 of the potash made available. 
 
 We have in the Eastern States two main sources of 
 gypsum, namely, Nova Scotia and Cayuga, N.Y. Nova 
 
NATUBAL MANURES. 67 
 
 Scotia plaster is purer than that obtained from New 
 York. The New York plaster, however, frequently con- 
 tains appreciable amounts of phosphoric acid. 
 
 Salt. — Common salt is sometimes used as a manure. 
 It supplies no essential plant-food constituents; and its 
 value is still a disputed point, though it is admitted 
 that, where its use is favorable, it is due to indirect 
 action in aiding the decomposition of animal and vege- 
 table matter, increasing the absorbing power of soils, and, 
 by its reaction with lime, acting as a solvent for phos- 
 phates. Salt is frequently applied in connection with 
 nitrate of soda for wheat crops, to prevent a too rapid 
 growth of straw. 
 
 The Application of Lime. — The quantity of lime to 
 be applied may vary according, to circumstances ; heavy 
 lands, rich in organic matter, may receive more, and 
 lighter lands, less. The usual amount in the Eastern 
 States, on average land, ranges from one to three tons 
 of quicklime per acre. This is applied once in six or 
 seven years, the application of small quantities being 
 frequently more useful than large quantites applied at 
 wider intervals. Lime should be applied on the surface, 
 as its tendency is to work into the soil, and gradually 
 get below the surface soil. The time of application, 
 also, varies with the kind of crop and the character 
 of the soil. For pasture-lands or mowing-fields, the 
 early spring or fall are the best seasons to apply it. 
 It should never be used directly with commercial fertil- 
 izers containing ammonia and soluble phosphoric acid, 
 as it sets free the ammonia, and reduces the solubility 
 of the phosphates. 
 
68 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Artificial and Concentrated Manures; Nitrogenous Materials. 
 
 As farm lands become exhausted of their essential 
 plant-food constituents by the continual sale of crops, 
 the manures available to the farmer, both from the 
 natural wastes of the farm and from such materials as 
 lime, ashes, etc., are often insufficient to keep up their 
 original fertility. At the present time, too, the tendency 
 of farming in this country, especially in the Eastern 
 States, and in the vicinity of large cities, is toward 
 special crop farming, which requires that soils should 
 be abundantly supplied with active plant-food. 
 
 These conditions have caused a rapid development of 
 the sources of supply of suitable materials that furnish 
 the constituents liable to be lacking, or contained in too 
 small amounts, in the soil ; viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
 and potash. 
 
 Classes of Materials. — These materials are divided 
 into three distinct classes, — namely, nitrogenous, furnish- 
 ing nitrogen ; phosphatic, furnishing phosphoric acid ; and 
 potassic, furnishing potash. 
 
 Manures made from these materials are called " arti- 
 ficial," "concentrated," or "commercial." They differ 
 from the natural manures mainly in being more con- 
 centrated, though frequently the constituents in them 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 69 
 
 are more immediately available to the plant. The manu- 
 rial elements, if in a form in which plants can nse 
 them, are quite as much actual plant-food when contained 
 in these materials as when furnished by the more familiar 
 natural manures. 
 
 Natural manurial products, or homemade materials, 
 are used in their original state or applied directly to the 
 soil. Artificial products, as a rule, require treatment 
 previous to their use. 
 
 Nitrogen. — Nitrogen is the most costly element of 
 manures. It is absolutely essential to all organized life, 
 whether animal or vegetable; it is the basis of the al- 
 buminoids of plants, the casein of milk, and the fibrin 
 of blood. Nitrogen occurs in three forms, and all these 
 forms- exist as commercial manure products. The form 
 means its combination with other chemical elements; 
 namely, nitrogen as nitrates, nitrogen as ammonia, and 
 nitrogen as organic matter. 
 
 Forms of Nitrogen. — Nitrogen in the form of a 
 nitrate means its combination with oxygen in such pro- 
 portions as to form nitric acid, united with a base like 
 soda or potash; thus, we have nitrates of soda, potash, 
 lime, etc. 
 
 Nitrogen as ammonia means its combination with 
 hydrogen in such proportion as to form ammonia. Am- 
 monia gas consists of one part of nitrogen and three 
 of hydrogen. This gas readily combines with various 
 acids, as sulphuric, nitric, etc., to form ammonia salts. 
 
 Nitrogen in the form of organic matter means its com- 
 bination with the chemical constituents, carbon, hydrogen, 
 and oxygen, either as animal or vegetable substances. 
 
70 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 A large number of materials, differing widely in their 
 character and composition, contain nitrogen in this form. 
 
 Plants that derive their nitrogen from the soil absorb 
 it chiefly in the form of a nitrate; when nitrogen is 
 applied in this form, no changes are required to enable 
 it to serve as a direct food. Materials furnishing nitrates 
 are, therefore, regarded as of the greatest importance in 
 the manufacture of commercial manures. 
 
 Ammonia, while it does nourish plants directly, usually 
 undergoes a change into nitrate first, though this change 
 proceeds rapidly when the conditions mentioned as favor- 
 able for nitrification are present. As a rule, therefore, 
 an appreciable time does elapse before all the nitrogen 
 in ammonia serves as plant-food. 
 
 Nitrogen in organic forms is first changed by the 
 decay or rotting of the substance into ammonia, and the 
 ammonia is then changed into a nitrate. The rapidity 
 of this decay depends both upon the character of the 
 substance itself, and upon its physical form and its 
 mechanical conditions or fineness of division. The 
 tougher and more dense the substance, and the coarser 
 the particles, the longer the time required to rot, and 
 the more slowly available as nitrogenous food. The rapid- 
 ity with which nitrogen may become useful as food to 
 plants is, therefore, determined by its chemical form. 
 
 Nitrates, since they are immediately useful to the 
 plant, may all be absorbed by the crop upon which they 
 are applied, while ammonia salts and organic nitrogen 
 may be only partially used, because the necessary changes 
 for them to undergo may not take place completely 
 before the plant is fully matured. 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 71 
 
 The different results obtained from the use of the 
 different forms of nitrogen determine what is called its 
 *^ agricultural value/' or the improvement it causes in 
 the growth of the plant. 
 
 This agricultural value, which is true of any manure, 
 is, too, separate and distinct from the commercial value, 
 or cost in market ; which is determined by market and 
 trade conditions, as cost of production, transportation, 
 selling, and the demand for it in other industries. It 
 is for this reason that the best forms of plant-food may, 
 and frequently do, cost less per pound of the actual 
 ingredient than when furnished by other more slowly 
 available, and less directly useful, forms. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda. — Nitrate of soda, also called Chile 
 saltpetre, is the chief source from which nitrogen as a 
 nitrate is secured for manurial purposes. It possesses 
 chemical and physical properties which distinguish it 
 from all other materials ; it is a salt with a definite 
 chemical composition. When pure it contains sixteen 
 and forty-seven hundredths per cent of nitrogen. 
 
 Vast natural deposits of the crude nitrate salts occur 
 in the rainless districts of South America, though mainly 
 in Chile. The crude salts are relatively poor, and also 
 variable in their content of nitrogen ; hence before ship- 
 ment they are purified by dissolving in water and recrys- 
 tallizing, the impurities remaining being chiefly water 
 and ordinary salt. 
 
 The commercial product is quite pure, containing on 
 the average sixteen per cent of nitrogen. It resembles 
 in appearance ordinary salt, though the use of salt as 
 an adulterant has not been practised to any extent in 
 
72 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 this country. It is completely soluble in water, diffuses 
 readily throughout the soil, and, since it forms no in- 
 soluble compound with soil constituents, is liable to be 
 washed into the lower layers of the soil, and finally into 
 the drains, if applied in the fall of the year, or in too 
 large quantities. It is very beneficial for early and 
 quick-growing crops, particularly upon light sandy soils, 
 because it is ready for use as soon as applied. 
 
 The soda with which the nitrate is combined does not 
 possess any value as a plant-food constituent, though 
 it is believed to exert a beneficial effect upon the phys- 
 ical character of soils. This value is not taken into 
 account in commercial transactions. 
 
 The use of nitrate is rapidly increasing where its ad- 
 vantages are well known. 
 
 Nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, is another nitrate salt 
 used to some extent, though its cost of production is 
 too great to admit of its competition with the nitrate 
 of soda. It is a concentrated product, and furnishes 
 potash in addition to the nitrogen. 
 
 Sulphate of Ammonia. — Ammonia for fertilizing 
 purposes is secured almost entirely from sulphate of am- 
 monia, which is another chemical salt of definite com- 
 position, and is one of the most concentrated forms in 
 which nitrogen occurs. It contains, when pure, twenty- 
 one and two-tenths per cent of nitrogen. It is derived 
 chiefly as a by-product from the manufacture of gas by 
 the dry distillation of coal, and is also secured in smaller 
 quantities in the manufacture of bone-black for sugar re- 
 fineries, and in the distillation of refuse animal matter. 
 
 The nitrogen contained in these products is, by the 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 73 
 
 process of distillation, viz., in the absence of air, driven 
 off in the form of ammonia gas, which is conducted 
 into receptacles containing sulphuric acid, which fixes 
 the ammonia in the form of a sulphate. This is a 
 crude product, and is usually dissolved, recrystallized, 
 and purified, and is then reasonably uniform in compo- 
 sition, and contains on the average twenty and one-half 
 per cent of nitrogen. When sold without this method of 
 purification, it is called "brown sulphate of ammonia;" 
 this is more variable in composition, with moisture, and 
 insoluble and oily matters as impurities. Brown sulphate 
 often contains less than eighteen per cent of nitrogen. 
 Sulphate of ammonia, while freely soluble in water, is 
 readily absorbed by the soil, and may be applied in the 
 fall without danger of serious loss, and is, next to ni- 
 trate of soda, one of the best forms of nitrogen for 
 fertilizing purposes. It is a particularly useful form on 
 clay and clay loam soils. 
 
 Nitrates and ammonia salts possess two chief advan- 
 tages; viz., solubility, hence ease of distribution in the 
 soil, and availability, or quick usefulness to the plant. 
 
 The cost per pound of nitrogen in the form of am- 
 monia is usually greater than for the nitrate of soda, 
 because of the comparatively limited supply, and be- 
 cause more largely used in the arts. 
 
 Organic Nitrogen. — Organic nitrogen is obtained 
 from a wide variety of sources, and is composed of both 
 animal and vegetable matter. The commercial materi- 
 als, from whatever source derived, unlike the salts men- 
 tioned, are not definite chemical compounds; those of 
 the same name, even, vary in their composition, and 
 
74 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 also in their agricultural value or usefulness to plants, 
 largely according to their method of preparation for 
 market. 
 
 Dried blood, for instance, is rich in nitrogen when 
 carefully prepared, though commercial samples show 
 wide variations in composition, and in the quality of 
 the nitrogen. A pound of nitrogen, therefore, may have 
 a very different value in one sample than in another, 
 under uniform conditions of use, while under the same 
 conditions of use a pound of nitrogen in the form of 
 nitrate is equally valuable from whatever source de- 
 rived. 
 
 Materials containing organic nitrogen are not soluble 
 in water, and the nitrogen is not immediately available 
 to plants. Their value as a source of this element is, 
 therefore, measured by conditions which favor the rapid 
 change of their nitrogen into soluble and available forms. 
 The first condition is fineness of division, which permits 
 of a more even distribution, and the exposing of a 
 larger surface area to the action of the agencies in the 
 soil and air; and the second is the physical character 
 of the material itself. If it is hard and dense, decay 
 will be slower, since the processes which cause it are 
 resisted; if soft and porous, the rotting is more rapid, 
 because the agencies which cause it are encouraged to 
 act. 
 
 Dried Blood. — Dried blood is one of the most valua- 
 ble sources of organic nitrogen. Its fineness of division 
 permits of its easy and uniform distribution, and its 
 physical character is such as to encourage rapid decay 
 under suitable conditions. 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 75 
 
 What is called " high-grade blood '' is red in color, and 
 is quite uniform in composition, ranging from twelve to 
 fourteen per cent of nitrogen. This form of blood is 
 used largely in the arts, hence the supply for manurial 
 purposes is limited: lower grades are in greater supply; 
 these are darker in color, vary widely in composition 
 and physical character, and frequently contain, as im- 
 purities, moisture, hair, bone, etc. ; the two latter, to be 
 sure, contain nitrogen, but in forms less useful than in 
 the blood. 
 
 Dried Meat, or Azotine. — This material is proba- 
 bly, next to blood, the most important source of organic 
 nitrogen. It is obtained by separating the meat from 
 the bones, extracting the fat by steaming or solvents, 
 and drying and grinding into powder. It is usually in 
 excellent mechanical condition, and when free from bone 
 is quite uniform in composition, containing on the aver- 
 age twelve per cent of nitrogen. 
 
 Tankage. — Tankage is the dried refuse from slaughter- 
 houses and butcher-shops, and is composed of various 
 wastes — as offal, skin, bone, hair, and meat ; it contains 
 both nitrogen and phosphoric acid, though usually classed 
 as a nitrogenous product. 
 
 The source from which this material is derived indicates 
 at once that it must be variable in composition ; it shows 
 wide ranges in its content of both nitrogen and phosphoric 
 acid. These variations in composition are largely due to 
 the quantity of bone contained in it. The larger the pro- 
 portion of bone, the lower the percentage of nitrogen, and 
 the smaller the proportion of bone, the higher the content 
 of nitrogen. What is called "concentrated tankage'' is 
 
76 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 made up more largely of extractive animal matter, and 
 is more uniform in composition, and much richer in 
 nitrogen. 
 
 The lack of uniformity in both the chemical composition 
 and physical character of tankage, makes it impossible to 
 give to it a distinct position as a fertilizing product, since 
 the results derived from its use under uniform conditions 
 in other respects must naturally be variable. 
 
 Dried Fish. — Dried fish was formerly an important 
 and considerable source of organic nitrogen. It is derived 
 mainly from the waste resulting from the extraction of 
 the oil from the menhaden, a fish not used for food, though 
 valuable for this purpose. The waste from fish-canning 
 establishments also furnishes a considerable amount of 
 this product. 
 
 The " menhaden pomace " is rich in quickly available 
 nitrogen, and also contains considerable phosphoric acid, 
 derived from the bone contained in it; it is reasonably 
 uniform in composition. The waste from the canneries 
 contains more of the skin and bone, and is more variable 
 in composition. Aside from the source from which it is 
 derived, the chief cause of variability in composition is the 
 content of water. Frequently, too, acid is used to prevent 
 decomposition, which, while useful in making the constitu- 
 ents more available, renders the product less concentrated 
 and less easily dried. Well-dried samples contain on the 
 average seven to eight per cent of nitrogen, and the same 
 of phosphoric acid. Finely ground, it decays rapidly in 
 the soil, and is highly regarded as a manure. 
 
 Fish was one of the first materials used as a fertilizer. 
 The custom in this country in early times, of using a fish 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCBNTEATEB MANURES. 77 
 
 in each hill of corn, is still practised in regions near the 
 sea where they are easily procured. 
 
 Leather Meal. — This material, already described in a 
 previous chapter, is frequently treated by various proces- 
 ses, in order to render its nitrogen more available. Chief 
 among these are heating to a high temperature, and steam- 
 ing, which change its original form and structure, making 
 it mealy and crumbly. Methods of treating with borax 
 and benzine, and dissolving in sulphuric acid, are also 
 practised. Experiments have shown that all of these 
 processes aid materially in improving the quality of the 
 nitrogen in this product. 
 
 Horn and Hoof Meal. — These materials are rich in 
 nitrogen, and are quite uniform in composition, though in 
 their original condition they are slow to decay. They 
 are frequently treated in somewhat the same manner as 
 leather, in order to render the constituent nitrogen more 
 directly available to plants. 
 
 Thus, while these products, containing a high content of 
 nitrogen in very slowly available forms, do have some value, 
 it is doubtful whether their use, either in their original or 
 treated form, is advisable, except when they can be pur- 
 chased at a much lower price per pound than in forms 
 of known value. 
 
 Cottonseed Meal. — A few vegetable waste products 
 contain sufficient nitrogen to warrant their use as concen- 
 trated manures. Among these cottonseed meal is probably 
 used to the greatest extent. The cottonseed is first hulled, 
 ground and steamed, and the oil extracted. It is quite 
 uniform in its composition, and contains on the average 
 six and eight-tenths per cent of nitrogen. Its value as 
 
78 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 a food for stock, however, limits its use as a fertilizer 
 at points distant from place of production. It is fine and 
 dry, and decays rapidly in the soil, and is regarded as one 
 of the best forms of organic nitrogen. 
 
 Castor Pomace. — Castor pomace is similar to cotton- 
 seed meal, both in its composition and in the quality of its 
 nitrogen. It is the refuse castor bean after the oil has 
 been extracted. It is not an important source of organic 
 nitrogen, though practically the whole product is used as 
 a manure. 
 
 Organic Nitrogenous Materials are Variable. — As 
 has been indicated, organic nitrogenous materials are, on 
 the whole, variable products, both in respect to their 
 content of nitrogen, and to its availability. Those that 
 are uniform in respect to their composition are more valu- 
 able than the others, since their availability may be tested, 
 and an average arrived at. 
 
 Those high-grade products, like dried blood, azotine, 
 dried fish, and cottonseed meal, which are fairly uniform 
 in these respects, show, both by chemical and field tests, 
 a high percentage of availability, which does not vary 
 greatly with different samples ; while those like tankage 
 sometimes show a high and sometimes a low availability, 
 because of the lack of uniformity in the proportions of 
 their component parts. 
 
 The Use of Nitrogen. — Great care should be exercised 
 in the purchase and use of nitrogen, first, because it is an 
 expensive element ; and second, because when it is in a form 
 useful to plants it is entirely soluble in water and freely 
 movable, and, therefore, liable to be washed away and lost. 
 The other elements, phosphoric acid and potash, cost much 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 79 
 
 less than nitrogen, and are fixed in tlie soil, and, as a rule, 
 are taken out of the soil only by the plants themselves. It 
 is estimated that, even when the greatest care is exercised, 
 not more than two-thirds of the nitrogen applied as manure 
 is used by the crop. Carelessness in its use results, of 
 course, in much greater losses. 
 
 Application of Nitrates. — Nitrates being completely 
 soluble, should not be applied in large quantities in the fall 
 of the year, or in the early spring before vegetation begins. 
 The most economical use of this form of nitrogen lies in 
 its fractional application to growing crops in quantities 
 sufiicient for their needs. An overabundance of available 
 nitrogen frequently causes a too rapid development of leaf. 
 It should be applied when the foliage is dry, either pre 
 ceding or following a rain, in order to effect its solution, 
 unless it is cultivated into the surface soil. The favorable 
 effect of nitrates applied in this way is very quickly 
 noticeable, especially upon vegetable and garden crops. 
 
 The above is true, though in a less degree, of am- 
 monia salts. Frequently losses occur through too heavy 
 applications at the wrong time. 
 
 Application of Organic Nitrogen. — Organic forms 
 of nitrogen may be applied at any time, and in larger 
 quantities. The more insoluble materials should be ap- 
 plied in amounts known to be in excess of the needs 
 of the crop; since, even under the best conditions, the 
 nitrogen contained in them is slowly available. 
 
 Materials like blood and fine-ground fish will rot com- 
 pletely in an average season ; while horn, hoof, hair, 
 leather, wool, etc., may require several seasons to effect 
 their complete decay. 
 
80 FIEST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Artificial and Concentrated Manures; Phosphates. 
 
 The phosphoric acid in artificial manures is derived 
 from compounds called <^ phosphates.". In phosphates 
 the phosphoric acid is united with lime, iron, and alu- 
 mina, forming phosphates of lime, iron, and alumina, as 
 the case may be. The phosphates of lime are better 
 calculated for the purpose, and are, therefore, used more 
 largely than any other as a source of phosphoric acid 
 in the manufacture of artificial manures. 
 
 The phosphates available for this purpose are not, 
 however, pure salts, but exist in combination either with 
 organic substances, or with minerals, or both ; the con- 
 tent of phosphoric acid and its combination with other 
 substances determining the usefulness of the phosphate 
 to the manure-maker. 
 
 The phosphoric acid in these materials is difficultly 
 soluble in the soil water ; and hence in their original con- 
 dition, or in the crude raw forms, they give up this ele- 
 ment in proportion as they decompose or decay in the 
 soil. Those in combination with organic substances, 
 either animal or vegetable, are, as a rule, more quickly 
 useful as a source of phosphoric acid than those com- 
 posed entirely of mineral constituents. 
 
 Animal Bone. — The bones of animals are the chief 
 source of phosphates that exist in combination with or- 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 81 
 
 ganic matter, and were for a long time tlie main source 
 for manurial purposes. 
 
 Bone consists chiefly of three classes of substances; 
 viz., moisture, organic matter, containing nitrogenous and 
 fatty matter, and phosphate of lime, — the proportion, 
 particularly of the nitrogen and phosphoric acid, depend- 
 ing upon the kind of bone, and the method of its treat- 
 ment. 
 
 Bone from the same kind of animal differs in compo- 
 sition according to the age of the animal, and according 
 to its location in the body. In a general way the younger 
 the animal the softer the bone, the poorer in phosphate 
 of lime, and the richer in nitrogen; the older the animal, 
 the richer in phosphate of lime, and the poorer in nitro- 
 gen. The large and hard thigh bones of an ox, for in- 
 stance, differ in composition from the softer and more 
 porous bones of other parts of the body. 
 
 Treat a bone with dilute hydrochloric acid, and you 
 dissolve the phosphate of lime, and leave the soft pulpy 
 animal matter, which retains its original shape. Burn 
 the bone, and you drive off the organic matter, and leave 
 the porous phosphate of lime in the original shape, show- 
 ing the structure of the bone. The phosphate of lime 
 of the harder bones is dense and compact ; that from 
 the softer bone is more open and porous. The chief cause 
 of variation in the composition of bones used as manure, 
 however, is due to the treatment they receive. This is 
 recognized by manufacturers and dealers, and different 
 names of brands are used to indicate the method of 
 manufacture or treatment; as applied, however, they do 
 not always correspond to the methods of treatment. 
 
82 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 Raw Bone. — The term "raw bone" is properly ap- 
 plied to bone that has not suffered any loss of its origi- 
 nal constituents in the processes of its manufacturp ; and 
 is for this reason highly regarded by farmers, who be- 
 lieve that it is purer than any other form. This is 
 true in a large measure, though the fact that it is raw 
 bone is not altogether an advantage from the standpoint 
 of usefulness. Eaw bone too often contains consider- 
 able fatty matter, which makes it a difficult process to 
 grind it fine, and which also has a tendency to retard the 
 decay of the bone in the soil. A considerable amount of 
 fat also reduces proportionately the percentage of the val- 
 uable constituents, phosphoric acid and nitrogen. Good 
 raw bone, free from meat and excess of fat, should con- 
 tain on the average twenty-two per cent of phosphoric 
 acid, and four per cent of nitrogen. 
 
 Fine Bone. — The trade terms " bone meal," " bone 
 dust," and "fine bone" are used to indicate mechanical 
 condition, or fineness of division, and do not refer es- 
 pecially to composition. These names should not be 
 taken as indicating the fineness without personal exami- 
 nation, since frequently the products do not, in this 
 respect, correspond to the name. Fineness is an impor- 
 tant consideration, since, the finer the bone, the quicker it 
 will decay, and its constituents become available to plants. 
 
 Boiled and Steamed Bone. — The larger portion of 
 the bone used as manure has been boiled or steamed for 
 the purpose of freeing it from fat and nitrogenous matter, 
 both of which are products valuable for other purposes. 
 The fat is, of course, of no value as a manure, and its 
 absence is an advantage. The nitrogen, while useful 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 83 
 
 as a manure, is extracted chiefly for the purpose of mak- 
 ing glue and gelatine. 
 
 By boiling or steaming, the bone suffers a loss of its 
 original constituents, the chief result of which is to 
 change the proportions of the nitrogen and phosphoric 
 acid contained in it. Steamed or boiled bone contains 
 more phosphoric acid, and less nitrogen, than raw bone, 
 and is also more variable in composition, the relative 
 percentage of these constituents depending upon the de- 
 gree of steaming or boiling to which the bone has been 
 subjected. 
 
 Bone that has been used for the purpose of making 
 glue, where the chief object is to extract the nitrogenous 
 matter, contains from twenty-eight to thirty per cent of 
 phosphoric acid, and from one and one-quarter to one 
 and three-quarters per cent of nitrogen. The steaming of 
 bone, particularly when conducted at high pressure, also 
 exerts a favorable effect upon the physical and mechani- 
 cal character of the bone. It destroys its original struc- 
 ture, makes it soft and crumbly, and often reduces it to 
 a finer state of division than can be readily accomplished 
 by grinding; and, since it is also free from fat, and is 
 finer, it is more directly useful as a source of phosphoric 
 acid to plants than purer raw bone. 
 
 Experiments have shown that the phosphoric acid in 
 fine steamed bone may all become available in the soil, 
 under average conditions, in one or two seasons; while 
 that in the coarser, fatty raw bone is not completely used 
 in three or four years, and sometimes longer. 
 
 In some cases, the fat is extracted from bone by means 
 of such solvents as petroleum or benzine. These meth- 
 
84 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ods of extracting the fat have the advantage of increas- 
 ing the relative proportion of the nitrogen, this element 
 not being attacked by the solvents. 
 
 The more complete extraction of the fat and moisture 
 by these methods also aids in the final preparation of the 
 bone by grinding. Bone prepared in this way frequently 
 contains as high as six per cent of nitrogen, and twenty 
 per cent of phosphoric acid. 
 
 The nature and composition of animal bone is such as 
 to make it a valuable source of phosphoric acidj and, 
 while it is largely used with nitrogenous and potassic 
 materials in the manufacture of artificial manures, its 
 best use is, perhaps, in the fine ground form, particularly 
 for soil improvement and for slow-growing crops. 
 
 Phosphoric acid applied in this form gradually gives 
 up nitrogen and phosphoric acid to the plant; and its 
 physical and chemical conditions are such that it forms 
 in the soil, during the growing season, no compounds 
 more insoluble than the bone itself. Of all the phos- 
 phatic materials available as manure, bone is the only 
 one that is now used to any extent without further treat- 
 ment than simple grinding. 
 
 Bone-black or Animal Charcoal. — This material 
 becomes an important source of phosphoric acid for arti- 
 ficial manures after it has served its chief and first pur- 
 pose in clarifying sugar. In making bone-black only the 
 best bones are used; they are cleaned and dried, and 
 placed in air-tight vessels, and heated until all volatile 
 matter is driven off; the resultant product, which retains 
 in part the original form of the bone, is then ground to 
 a coarse powder ; it then becomes a bone charcoal, con- 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 85 
 
 sisting chiefly of carbon and phosphate of lime, though 
 also containing small amounts of magnesia and carbonate 
 of lime. 
 
 Bone-black, as received from the refineries, contains the 
 impurities gathered there, consisting chiefly of vegetable 
 matter and moisture. It is somewhat variable in compo- 
 sition, containing from thirty-two to thirty-six per cent 
 of phosphoric acid and a small amount of nitrogen. It 
 decays slowly in the soil, and is not now used to any 
 extent directly as a manure. 
 
 Bone-ash. — Bone-ash, though not a largC; is an ex- 
 cellent source of phosphoric acid. It is exported in con- 
 siderable quantities from South America, where the bones 
 are burned, and the bulk reduced, in order to facilitate 
 transportation. It does] not contain nitrogen, and is more 
 variable in composition than bone-black, though usually 
 somewhat richer in phosphate of lime. Good samples 
 contain from twenty-seven per cent to thirty-six per cent 
 of phosphoric acid. 
 
 Bones themselves, and the phosphates derived from 
 bones, constitute a class differing from other phosphates 
 used in making manures, in that they are derived directly 
 from organic materials ; and, as a class, they possess char- 
 acteristics due to this fact, which render them more use- 
 ful than those derived from purely mineral sources. 
 
 Mineral Phosphates. — These constitute a class of 
 products differing from those of immediate or recent ani- 
 mal origin, mainly in the fact that they are not combined 
 with organic matter, and are more dense and compact in 
 their structure. They occur in several different forms, 
 and are procured from distinct sources. 
 
86 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 South Carolina Rock Phosphates. — These are found 
 both on the land and in the beds of rivers in the vicinity 
 of Charleston, S. C, and are sometimes called " Charles- 
 ton Phosphates.'' The deposits vary in thickness from 
 one to twenty feet, through which the phosphate is dis- 
 tributed in the form of lumps or nodules, ranging in 
 weight from an ounce to over a ton. These nodules 
 are irregular, non-crystalline masses, often full of holes, 
 which contain clay or other non-phosphatic materials. 
 That obtained from the river is called " river phosphate," 
 or "river rock;" and that from the land, "land phos- 
 phate," or "land rock." The two varieties do not dif- 
 fer materially in composition, particularly in the content 
 of phosphoric acid. 
 
 The rock contains from twenty-six per cent to twenty- 
 eight per cent of phosphoric acid. Its uniformity, in 
 connection with the fact that it contains but small per- 
 centages of compounds of iron and alumina, minerals 
 which prevent its best use by the manufacturer, makes 
 it a highly satisfactory source of phosphoric acid. 
 
 The river rock is secured by dredging; that from the 
 land is largely dug. In either case, it is washed to 
 remove the adhering matter, and then dried, when it is 
 ready for grinding or shipment. South Carolina rock 
 phosphate, when very finely ground, is called "floats." 
 It is sometimes used upon the land in this form. 
 
 These deposits were first worked in 1868, though the 
 presence of phosphate at this point was known at a 
 much earlier date. 
 
 Florida Phosphates. — The presence of phosphate in 
 commercial quantities in Florida was discovered in 1888, 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTEATED MANURES. 87 
 
 since which, time very great progress has been made in 
 developing the deposits. These deposits occur in a num- 
 ber of forms, — first, " soft phosphate," a whitish product, 
 somewhat resembling clay, and largely contaminated with 
 it ; second, ^^ pebble phosphate," consisting of hard peb- 
 bles, occurring both in river-beds and upon the land, and 
 mixed with other materials ; and third, '^ rock," or " bowl- 
 der phosphate," which occurs in the form of stony masses, 
 or bowlders, both large and small. These three forms 
 also differ widely in composition, both in reference to 
 their content of phosphoric acid and in respect to the 
 presence of other minerafs. 
 
 The soft phosphate is the poorest in phosphoric acid : 
 it is easily prepared, and is largely used directly upon 
 the land; it is also the most variable in composition, 
 ranging from eighteen to thirty per cent. The pebble 
 rock is also variable in composition, though, when washed 
 free of sand and clay, it is richer in phosphoric acid 
 than the soft variety; good samples contain as high as 
 forty per cent and over of phosphoric acid. The bulk 
 of the "Morida Phosphate" is believed to exist in the 
 pebble form. 
 
 The rock or bowlder phosphate, though apparently 
 much less in amount, is more uniform in composition, 
 and is much richer than either of the other forms. The 
 clean, dry bowlder phosphate often contains as high as 
 forty per cent phosphoric acid, far exceeding in richness 
 the South Carolina rock superphosphate. 
 
 Canadian Apatite. — This material is a crystallized 
 rock of true mineral origin, and occurs associated to a 
 greater or less extent with other materials. It is, there- 
 
88 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 fore, not uniform in character, the phosphoric acid vary- 
 ing according to the amount of the other substances 
 present. 
 
 It is mined in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario, 
 and separated into various grades at the mines. The 
 mining is expensive, and the necessity for grading in 
 addition makes the cost of production proportionately 
 high. The highest grade of this phosphate is very pure, 
 containing forty per cent of phosphoric acid. 
 
 Iron Phosphate. — This is a waste product from the 
 manufacture of steel from phosphatic iron ores, by what 
 is known as the " basic process.'' It is sold under several 
 names, as "Thomas Phosphate Meal," "Phosphate Slag,'' 
 " Basic Slag," and " Odorless Phosphate." It is produced 
 in large quantities in England, France, and Germany ; and 
 in those countries is not only one of the cheapest sources 
 of phosphoric acid, but is regarded as a very valuable 
 product. It is not produced to any extent in America, 
 is known under the name of "Odorless Phosphate," and 
 is not largely used. It contains from fifteen to twenty 
 per cent of phosphoric acid, in the form of phosphate 
 of lime, in connection with large amounts of lime and 
 oxide of iron. It is used almost altogether in the form 
 of a fine powder, since it is not suitable for the purposes 
 of the manufacturer. When very finely ground, the 
 phosphoric acid is quite as active as that contained in 
 fine bone meal, and is especially suitable for clay and 
 sandy soils and for meadows. 
 
 Phosphatic Guanos. — Previous to the discovery of 
 the phosphates in South Carolina, these guanos were a 
 very important source of phosphoric acid; they are now 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 89 
 
 but little used in this country. They are obtained from 
 the rainless districts of the world, chiefly from the 
 islands bordering the coast of South America and from 
 the West Indies. They are derived from the excrements 
 of birds, and frequently contain considerable organic 
 matter containing nitrogen. 
 
 The Peruvian guano of earlier times was particularly 
 rich in the best forms of nitrogen. The purely phos- 
 phatic guanos are rich in phosphoric acid, and are excel- 
 lent materials ; like the iron phosphate, they are not 
 suitable for the manufacture of artificial manures. 
 
 Insolubility of Phosphates. — The phosphates men- 
 tioned constitute what are called "raw materials," and, 
 with the exception of bone, are not largely used directly, 
 or without further treatment to render the phosphoric 
 acid more soluble, and thus more immediately available 
 to plants. As already stated, the phosphoric acid in 
 them becomes food in proportion to the rapidity of de- 
 cay, which is influenced both by the character of the 
 material and the fineness of its division. Fine mate- 
 rials, too, permit of a more even distribution, thus bring- 
 ing more particles of phosphate in contact with the 
 roots of the plants. 
 
90 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Artificial and Concentrated Manures ; Superphosphates and Potash 
 
 Salts. 
 
 Phosphate of lime is a chemical salt capable of exist- 
 ing in three forms. The first consists of three parts of 
 lime and one part of phosphoric acid; this is the insolu- 
 ble form, and it exists as such in all natural phosphates. 
 This form, because of the three parts of lime contained 
 in it, is also called "tricalcic," "tribasic," or "three- 
 lime phosphate." The second form consists of two parts 
 of lime and one of phosphoric acid, and is called "dical- 
 cic," " dibasic," or " two-lime phosphate ; " it is insoluble 
 in water, but readily soluble to the roots of plants. The 
 third form consists of one part of lime and one of phos- 
 phoric acid, and is called " monocalcic," "monobasic," 
 "acid phosphate," or "superphosphate." This form is 
 completely soluble in water, readily distributes itself 
 everywhere in the soil, and is immediately available to 
 plants. A " tetrabasic," or "four-lime phosphate," has 
 been found in basic slag. This form, though insoluble 
 in water, breaks up readily and is more available than 
 the insoluble "tribasic" form. 
 
 Superphosphates, or soluble phosphates, are made from 
 the raw materials containing insoluble tricalcic phos- 
 phate, by first grinding them to a powder and then 
 
ABTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 91 
 
 mixing them with sulphuric acid, which changes the 
 tricalcic — three-lime — into the monocalcic — one-lime 
 — form, or the insoluble into the soluble form. In this 
 process, two of the three parts of the lime, combined 
 with the phosphoric acid to form the insoluble phos- 
 phate, are removed and united to sulphuric acid, forming 
 sulphate of lime, leaving one part of lime combined with 
 phosphoric acid, which is the "monocalcic" or "super- 
 phosphate.'' 
 
 A pure superphosphate is, therefore, a mixture of a 
 soluble phosphate, and of sulphate of lime, or gypsum. 
 
 Soluble Phosphoric Acid. — Nearly all workable pro- 
 ducts containing phosphate of lime are capable of being 
 converted into an " acid phosphate " or a " superphos- 
 phate." The soluble phosphoric acid thus obtained is a 
 definite compound, and is identical in composition, from 
 whatever source derived. 
 
 The term "phosphate" is applied to any material con- 
 taining, as its chief constituent, phosphoric acid. The 
 term " superphosphate " is applied to any material con- 
 taining soluble phosphoric acid as its chief constituent. 
 
 Thus we have the phosphates already described, which 
 when treated with sulphuric acid are converted into 
 superphosphates, as bone superphosphate. South Carolina 
 rock superphosphate, bone-black superphosphate, bone- 
 ash superphosphate, and Florida rock superphosphate. 
 Care should be taken not to confound the terms "phos- 
 phate " and " superphosphate." They are, as we have 
 seen, very different both in composition and character. 
 
 Composition of Superphosphates. — Superphosphates 
 differ in their content of phosphoric acid according to the 
 
92 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGBICULTURE. 
 
 composition and character of the phosphates from which 
 they are made. Those made from organic phosphates, as 
 bone black and bone ash, are richer in soluble phosphoric 
 acid than those made from animal bone or from mineral 
 phosphates ; since these materials are of such a character 
 as to enable the manufacturer to add sufficient sulphuric 
 acid to convert all of the phosphate present into a soluble 
 form, and at the same time to secure a dry fine product, 
 which is an important consideration in making super- 
 phosphates. 
 
 Mineral phosphates, both because of their hardness and 
 of the presence of other minerals which are attacked by 
 the acid, are less easily dissolved, and require more acid 
 in proportion to the phosphate present than those from 
 organic sources. They are also less absorbent, hence it is 
 more difficult to secure good condition when sufficient acid 
 is used to dissolve all the phosphate. In making super- 
 phosphates from these materials, less acid is used than 
 is required to completely dissolve the phosphates; and 
 there is, therefore, always present in them more or less 
 of the insoluble phosphoric acid. 
 
 In the case of animal bone, too, less sulphuric acid is 
 used than is required to completely dissolve the phosphoric 
 acid; otherwise, a gummy, sticky product would result, 
 due largely to the organic matter in the bone. The in- 
 soluble phosphoric acid in bone, bone-black, and bone-ash 
 superphosphates is, however, of greater value than the 
 insoluble in the mineral phosphates, for reasons already 
 given. 
 
 In superphosphates, too, there is nearly always present 
 a greater or less amount — depending upon the material — 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES, 93 
 
 of the second form of phosphoric acid, the dicalcic, also 
 called "reverted" or "retrograde." This form exists in 
 the greatest amounts in those made from mineral phos- 
 phates, which is believed to be due either to the soluble 
 acting upon the insoluble portions, or to the presence of 
 oxide of iron and alumina, which combine with a portion 
 of the soluble phosphoric acid. The soluble goes back to 
 a less soluble form. 
 
 In stating the composition of superphosphates, the three 
 forms of phosphoric acid are all recognized. The sum of 
 the soluble and reverted is called the " total available," 
 because these forms are regarded as immediately useful 
 to the plant. 
 
 Bone ash and bone black contain on the average sixteen 
 per cent of total available phosphoric acid, practically all 
 soluble ; while those from mineral sources usually contain 
 less than fourteen per cent total available, which includes 
 one to three per cent of dicalcic or reverted. These also 
 contain from one to three per cent of insoluble phosphoric 
 acid. 
 
 Superphosphates made from animal bone are more vari- 
 able in their composition than those made from bone 
 black or the mineral phosphates; this being due largely 
 to the variability of the raw materials, chiefly in respect 
 to the content of phosphoric acid. These differ, too, from 
 the others mentioned in containing nitrogen in addition 
 to the phosphoric acid ; for this reason they are fre- 
 quently called " ammoniated superphosphates," or dis- 
 solved ammoniated bone. 
 
 Advantages of Soluble Phosphoric Acid. — Soluble 
 phosphoric acid, in addition to its direct availability, which 
 
94 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 is its first advantage, is chiefly valuable because of its ease 
 of self -distribution. When applied to the soil, it is taken 
 up by the water and more generally distributed than is 
 possible by any mechanical means, however fine the sub- 
 stance may be ground. The roots of plants come in con- 
 stant contact with it wherever they go. 
 
 The dicalcic or reverted phosphoric acid is believed to 
 be quite as available to plants, but it remains exactly 
 where it is placed ; if the roots are there they can make 
 quite as ready use of it as the soluble. The main differ- 
 ence between the soluble and reverted is that in the former 
 case the phosphoric acid goes to the roots, while in the 
 latter case the roots must go to the phosphoric acid. The 
 same is true of the insoluble, though in a different degree. 
 Here the roots must not only go to the phosphoric acid, but 
 the amount that can be used is measured by the activity 
 of the roots in aiding its solution. 
 
 A superphosphate, therefore, is valuable in proportion to 
 the amount of soluble phosphoric acid contained in it ; the 
 greater the amount of soluble, and the less the amount of 
 reverted and insoluble, the more valuable. If insoluble or 
 reverted forms are desired — and they are often quite as 
 useful as the soluble — they may be procured from un- 
 treated products. 
 
 Fixation of Phosphates. — Phosphoric acid, though 
 soluble in water, is not washed from the soil ; it is fixed 
 there by combining with the lime and other minerals pres- 
 ent. It is believed to assume first, by the appropriation 
 of lime, the dicalcic form, though it is not positively cer- 
 tain that the insoluble tricalcic phosphate is not sometimes 
 formed. It may also combine with iron and alumina and 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 95 
 
 form phosphates ; these forms are believed to be less 
 readily taken up by the plant than the dicalcic form. 
 
 The time required for this fixation, as well as the form 
 it takes, depends upon the character of the soil ; though on 
 soils in a good state of fertility the fixation is quite rapid. 
 On very sandy soils the fixation is sometimes incomplete, 
 because of the absence of lime and iron. 
 
 Use of Superphosphates. — Because of the tendency 
 of soluble phosphoric acid to form in time relatively in- 
 soluble compounds in the soil, it is often recommended 
 to use a mixture of superphosphate and of animal bone, 
 instead of either alone; the soluble for immediate use, 
 and the less soluble for use at later stages of growth, or 
 for the improvement of fertility. 
 
 Superphosphates are never better or more available 
 than when appli^ed; phosphates are probably never less 
 available than at the time applied. 
 
 Eecent experiments and studies show that fine ground 
 phosphates are very desirable under certain conditions, 
 and their use is gradually growing in favor. This point 
 has reference, however, to the economy of use, which 
 will be discussed in detail in its proper place. 
 
 Potash Manures. — Farm crops remove considerable 
 amounts of potash; and since many soils, particularly 
 those composed largely of sand, are not rich in this ele- 
 ment, potash becomes a very important constituent of 
 manures. 
 
 In the early history of the country, wood-ashes were 
 an important, and practically the only, source of potash 
 for manurial purposes, aside from yard manure and vege- 
 table wastes. At the present time by far the most 
 
96 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 important source of potash is the Stassfurt mines of 
 Germany. These mines consist of deposits of crude 
 salts, which have doubtless been formed by the evapo- 
 ration of the water in an inland sea. They have been 
 worked since 1862 ; and, while enormous quantities have 
 been removed, the extent of the deposits is so great 
 as to appear inexhaustible. 
 
 These salts, as mined, contain relatively small per- 
 centages of actual potash, and considerable quantities 
 of other salts, some of which are injurious to plants, 
 though a number of the crude salts are used directly 
 upon the land. 
 
 The crude products of the mines, shipped and sold in 
 this country, consist chiefly of kainit and sylvinit, and the 
 manufactured products are muriate of potash, sulphate of 
 potash, and sulphate of potash and magnesia. 
 
 These salts are all completely soluble in water, and 
 equally available as sources of food to plants. The 
 forms have reference mainly to the effect, good or bad, 
 upon the growth of plants, of the constituents with 
 which the potash is combined, or the other salts 
 with which the potash is associated. Chlorides are be- 
 lieved to be less desirable than the sulphates for cer- 
 tain crops. 
 
 Forms of Potash. — The commercial potash salts 
 used are of two distinct chemical forms, — one in which 
 the potash is combined with chlorine to form chloride 
 of potassium, or, as it is more generally called, "muriate 
 of potash ; " the other in which the potash is combined 
 with sulphuric acid to form " sulphate of potash." 
 
 Kainit. — This is the only crude product that is 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTRATED MANURES. 97 
 
 largely used directly upon the land. It is composed of 
 a number of salts, chiefly "sodium chloride/' or ordi- 
 nary salt, " magnesium chloride," " magnesium sulphate," 
 and "potassium sulphate." 
 
 Although the potash in kainit is in the form of a 
 sulphate, its effect is quite similar to that derived from 
 the use of muriate, because of the large quantities of 
 chlorides contained in it, in combination with magnesia 
 and soda. It is not rich in potash, containing on the 
 average twelve and one-half per cent of actual potash, 
 or potassium oxide. 
 
 Sylvinit. — This is a crude salt, similar to kainit in 
 that it contains relatively small amounts of actual pot- 
 ash, though the potash in sylvinit exists both in the 
 form of a sulphate and of a muriate, or chloride. There 
 is, too, in this salt less of the magnesia compounds than 
 in the kainit. Sylvinit is not largely exported to this 
 country. The analyses of the products used here show 
 an average of sixteen per cent actual potash. 
 
 Kainit and Sylvinit as Indirect Manures. — These 
 crude salts are valuable as indirect manures in that the 
 salts present, other than the potash, have a solvent effect 
 upon other soil constituents, particularly phosphates ; 
 they also aid in many cases in improving the physical 
 character of soils. It is believed, too, that the magnesia 
 contained in them serves as direct food under certain 
 circumstances, though this point is not regarded as of 
 great importance. 
 
 The Application of Crude Potash Salts. — In the 
 use of these forms of potash, it is recommended that 
 their application should precede by a considerable time 
 
98 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AORICULTURK 
 
 the planting of the crop, in order to avoid danger to 
 the young plant from an excess of magnesia salts, 
 which injure the tender rootlets of plants, and also that 
 the excess of chlorides, which sometimes influence un- 
 favorably the quality of the produce, may be washed 
 from the surface soil by the rains. 
 
 In Germany, where the use of these potash compounds 
 has received most careful study, their application is 
 almost invariably made in the fall of the year, or upon 
 the crop preceding the one which is in especial need 
 of potash fertilization. In this country, owing to our 
 heavy spring rains, an early spring application will 
 doubtless answer quite as well in most cases. 
 
 Muriate of Potash. — This salt is manufactured from 
 the crude forms, and is the richest in potash of the 
 Stassfurt products. It varies in composition according 
 to the method of manufacture, the commercial products 
 being divided into three grades. The grade most com- 
 monly met with upon the markets here contains about 
 fifty per cent actual potash, or potassium oxide. The 
 chief impurity is common salt, or sodium chloride ; the 
 lower the content of potash, the higher the content of 
 sodium salts. This form of potash is perhaps more 
 largely used than any other. 
 
 Sulphate of Potash. — This form of potash, often 
 called "high-grade sulphate," is regarded as preferable 
 to the "muriate" for many crops, particularly sugar- 
 beets, tobacco, potatoes, and fruit, chiefly because of its 
 more favorable influence on the quality of the produce. 
 It is, however, more expensive than the muriate, and is 
 not so largely used by the manure-makers. Its effect 
 
ARTIFICIAL AND CONCENTBATED MANURES. 99 
 
 upon yield is not believed to be superior to the muriate. 
 Commercial forms of sulphate of potash contain on the 
 average fifty per cent of actual potash. 
 
 Double Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia. — This 
 product is similar to the high-grade sulphate in its 
 effect. It contains, in addition to the sulphate of pot- 
 ash, over thirty per cent of sulphate of magnesia. The 
 potash contained in the product, as usually found, is 
 equivalent to about twenty-six per cent of actual pot- 
 ash, though lower grades are made. These are known 
 under the name of "double manure salts." The mag- 
 nesia is regarded as of considerable value, particularly 
 in potato manures. The cost of potash in the double 
 sulphate is also greater than in the muriate. 
 
 Appearance of Potash Salts. — Although all these 
 products exist in the form of salts, they differ in appear- 
 ance and character. The sulphates are usually in the 
 form of a fine powder, in color ranging from nearly white 
 to a dirty gray. The muriate is in the form of small, 
 though distinct crystals, varying in color from grayish 
 white to light brown. The kainit is composed of crys- 
 tals, varying in color from white to dark gray, giv- 
 ing the ground salt a rather pepper-and-salt appearance. 
 Upon standing, all of these salts have a tendency to 
 become hard, though, with the exception of kainit, they 
 are easily pulverized. Kainit often becomes very hard, 
 and requires regrinding in order to make its application 
 possible. 
 
 The Uses of Potash Salts. — Although these salts 
 are regarded mainly as sources of potash to the manure 
 manufacturer, their direct use upon the land is increasing 
 
100 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 rapidly. This is due in large part to the facts that they 
 are of such a character as to make their application, and 
 even distribution, a comparatively easy matter ; that the 
 quality of the potash is not improved by the manufac- 
 turer ; and that on many soils crops respond to liberal 
 applications of potash alone. The crops most benefited 
 are potatoes, white and sweet meadow grasses, clover, 
 and orchard fruits. 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURES OB FERTILIZERS. 101 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Artificial Manures or Fertilizers ; Methods of Buying ; Valuation ; 
 Formulas. 
 
 The fertilizing materials described in the three preced- 
 ing chapters are the raw materials, and are the main 
 sources of supply of plant-food to manufacturers and to 
 farmers. 
 
 Standard High-Grade Materials. — Such materials 
 as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, bone 
 black, and South Carolina rock superphosphates, and the 
 various potash salts, are called standard products. Dif- 
 ferent samples of any of these do not vary widely in 
 their composition, and those of the same kind are prac- 
 tically uniform in their action. For instance, any one ton 
 of nitrate of soda contains practically the same amount 
 of nitrogen as any other ton, and the nitrogen is always 
 in the form of a nitrate. 
 
 They are standard because they can be depended upon, 
 both in respect to composition and form of the essential 
 element. These are important advantages not possessed 
 by the natural manures or fertilizing materials derived 
 from other sources. They are also called " chemical " or 
 "high grade," because they are in most cases chemical 
 compounds, and because they furnish those particular ele- 
 ments in their most concentrated and active forms. 
 
102 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Incomplete and Complete Fertilizers. — Fertilizing 
 materials may contain but one or two of the essential con- 
 stituents, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Hence 
 the name " incomplete fertilizer " is sometimes applied to 
 them, signifying that they do not serve in all cases to 
 supply the probable needs of the crop. 
 
 The fertilizers manufactured from raw materials usually 
 contain all three of these essential constituents ; hence 
 they are called " complete fertilizers," signifying that they 
 completely meet the needs of the crop in reference to the 
 number of the constituents that are liable to be lacking. 
 
 Methods of Buying. — In buying a fertilizer, that 
 which gives direct value is the fertilizing constituent, 
 nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash ; hence the transac- 
 tion is virtually the buying of one or more of these con- 
 stituents. It is readily seen, therefore, that the more 
 concentrated the product, the less will be the actual cost 
 of the constituent desired. 
 
 Again, fertilizers may be bought and used either as 
 " incomplete," — raw materials, — or as " complete," — 
 manufactured products or mixtures, the process of man- 
 ufacture consisting chiefly in mixing, grinding, and pre- 
 paring the various materials described. There are cer- 
 tain advantages and disadvantages in both methods of 
 buying. The advantages in the purchase and use of raw 
 materials are : — 
 
 1. A better knowledge of the kind and quality of 
 plant-food obtained ; that is, these products as a rule pos- 
 sess characteristics which distinguish them from others 
 and from each other, and they are more liable to be 
 uniform in composition than mixtures. 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURES OR FERTILIZERS. 103 
 
 2. The using of one or more of the constituents as 
 may be found to be necessary, thus avoiding the expense 
 of purchasing and applying those not required for the 
 particular crop or soil. The farmer is also enabled to 
 adjust the forms and proportions of the various ingre- 
 dients to suit what he has found to answer the needs of 
 his soil or crop. 
 
 3. A saving in the cost of plant-food, since in their 
 concentrated form the expenses of handling, shipment, 
 bagging, etc., are reduced. 
 
 The chief disadvantages in the buying and use of 
 incomplete fertilizers are : — 
 
 1. They are not so generally distributed among dealers, 
 and thus not so readily obtained. 
 
 2. It is difl&cult to spread evenly and thinly products 
 of so concentrated a character, particularly the chemical 
 salts, which, unless great care is used, may injure by 
 coming in immediate contact with the roots of plants. 
 
 3. The mechanical condition, or degree of fineness, is 
 less perfect than in the manufactured products. 
 
 The advantages in the purchase and use of complete 
 manures are: — 
 
 1. They are generally distributed, and can be purchased 
 in such amounts and at such times as are convenient. 
 
 2. The different materials may be well proportioned, 
 both as to form of the constituents and their relative 
 amount for the various crops. 
 
 3. The products are, as a rule, finely ground and well 
 prepared for immediate use. 
 
 The chief disadvantages are : — 
 
 1. That it is impossible to detect in a mixture whether 
 the materials are what they are claimed to be, 
 
104 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 2. That without a true knowledge of what constitutes 
 value, many are led to purchase on the ton basis, without 
 regard to the quantity and quality of the plant-food offered. 
 
 Guarantee. — The fact that consumers are unable to 
 determine the value of a mixture from its appearance, 
 and the opportunity thus afforded for disguising the 
 presence of poor forms of plant-food, has led in many 
 states to the enactment of laws which require that all 
 manufacturers shall publish the actual composition of 
 their products, and also state the kind of material from 
 which the constituents have been derived; or, in other 
 words, that they shall guarantee the goods to contain 
 certain amounts and forms of the three plant-food ele- 
 ments, the state exercising a chemical control of the 
 products sold. 
 
 By this means, spurious articles are kept from the 
 market, and good manufacturers and farmers are pro- 
 tected, though it is left still to the intelligence of the 
 farmer to determine whether there is a proper relation 
 between the guarantee and selling price. 
 
 Interpretation of Guarantees. — The statement of the 
 guarantee is sometimes confusing to purchasers, as differ- 
 ent manufacturers use methods which seem to them most 
 desirable. The following examples illustrate this point : — 
 
 Guarantee No. 1. 
 
 Nitrogen (equivalent to ammonia) 3-4% 
 
 Available Phosphoric Acid (equivalent to bone phos. of 
 
 lime) 18-22% 
 
 Potash (equivalent to sulphate of potash) 10-12% 
 
 Guarantee No. 2. 
 
 Nitrogen 2.60- 3.25% 
 
 Available Phosphoric Acid 8.00-10.00% 
 
 Potash (actual) 6.60- 6.50% 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURES OR FERTILIZERS. 105 
 
 Tlie guarantees here given mean practically the same 
 in both cases. In No. 1 the percentages represent the 
 amounts in combination with other elements; while in 
 No. 2 percentages of actual constituents are stated, viz., 
 nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potassium oxide. 
 
 In order to convert the ammonia into its equivalent 
 of nitrogen, the percentage of ammonia may be multiplied 
 by eighty-two per cent, or divided by 1.214 ; since ammo- 
 nia is eighty-two per cent nitrogen, and since one part 
 of nitrogen is equal to 1.214 parts of ammonia. 
 
 Bone phosphate of lime is forty-six per cent actual 
 phosphoric acid; hence multiplying the bone phosphate 
 by forty-six per cent gives the per cent of actual phos- 
 phoric acid. Sulphate of potash is fifty-four per cent, 
 and muriate of potash is sixty-three per cent actual or 
 potassium oxide ; hence, to convert the percentages of 
 these forms into their equivalents of actual, they are 
 multiplied by the factors given. 
 
 In most raw materials another method of guaranteeing 
 is adopted, because in these the guarantee is simply 
 a statement of their purity. For instance, nitrate of 
 soda is guaranteed as ninety-five per cent pure nitrate; 
 muriate of potash is guaranteed eighty per cent pure 
 muriate, etc., which means that the products are respec- 
 tively ninety-five and eighty per cent pure, or in other 
 words, that in the case of nitrate five per cent of it is 
 Bomething other than nitrate of soda, and in the case of 
 the muriate twenty per cent of it is something other 
 than muriate of potash. 
 
 The factors necessary to use in the conversion of the 
 constitl^ejits in their usual form of combination into 
 
106 
 
 FIB8T PRINCIPLES OF AGBICULTURE. 
 
 the actual are shown in the following tabular state- 
 ment : — 
 
 TO CONVEBT 
 
 THE GUARANTEE OK 
 
 
 MUL.TIPLT BT: 
 
 Ammonia into an equivalent of nitrogen . . . 
 
 0.8235 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 
 * ammonia . . 
 
 1.214 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 
 ' nitrogen . . . 
 
 16.47 
 
 Bone phosphate 
 
 
 * phosphoric acid 
 
 0.458 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 
 * bone phosphate 
 
 2.183 
 
 Muriate of potash 
 
 
 ' actual potash . 
 
 0.632 
 
 Actual potash 
 
 
 * muriate of potash 
 
 1.583 
 
 Sulphate of potash 
 
 
 * actual potash . 
 
 0.54 
 
 Actual potash 
 
 
 * sulphate of potash 
 
 L 1.86 
 
 The Unit Basis or System. — What is known as 
 the "unit system" of stating the amount of plant-food 
 contained in a fertilizer is sometimes employed ; the 
 " unit " means one per cent on the basis of a ton, or 
 twenty pounds. For instance, a " unit " of nitrogen 
 means twenty pounds, and a dried blood guaranteed to 
 contain ten units, means that two hundred pounds of 
 nitrogen is contained in one ton. 
 
 This system is largely used by trade journals in stat- 
 ing quotations, particularly for nitrogenous and phosphatic 
 materials. Purchasing on the " unit basis '' is the true 
 method, and hence the most satisfactory of any to both 
 the producer and consumer, and should be adopted in 
 all transactions. It means that the consumer secures 
 what he pays for, and the producer is paid for exactly 
 what he delivers. 
 
 Purchasers should insist that any material, whether 
 mixed or unmixed, should be accompanied by a guarantee. 
 
 Commercial Values. — The commercial value of raw 
 materials is fixed by trade conditions, as supply and 
 demand, usefulness in the arts or manufacture, ajid 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURES OB FERTILIZERS. 107 
 
 market manipulations. The value of these products for 
 fertilizing purposes depends almost entirely upon the 
 constituents contained; hence the actual cost of the con- 
 stituent is readily determined when the factors, price, 
 and amount contained in a given quantity, are known. 
 The selling price of nitrate of soda, for example, is 
 $48.00 ' per ton ; and as a ton contains on the average 
 three hundred and twenty pounds of nitrogen, the cost 
 or commercial value of nitrogen is, therefore, fifteen 
 cents per pound. 
 
 In many States a system of valuation for mixed ferti- 
 lizers has been adopted, which furnishes a fair method 
 of comparison of different brands. This method assumes 
 that at points of supply a pound of nitrogen in the form 
 of nitrate, of ammonia, or of definite organic compounds, 
 or a pound of available phosphoric acid, or of potash in 
 the form of muriate or sulphate, is practically the same 
 to all manufacturers. A value for each of these con- 
 stituents derived as already described, when applied to 
 the constituents in the mixture, represents the cost of 
 the elements before they are mixed to form complete fer- 
 tilizers ; and hence the difference between the valuation 
 and selling-price of a brand represents the charges, includ- 
 ing profit, for mixing, bagging, shipping, and selling the 
 goods. 
 
 This valuation of a brand is commercial, and bears no 
 strict relation to its possible agricultural effect ; it simply 
 states that so many pounds of the constituents as are 
 contained in a ton are commercially worth the value given, 
 at point of production. It shows what a given lot or 
 brand of fertilizer is worth as a commodity of trade j 
 
108 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGBICULTUBE. 
 
 what it costs; and a comparison of the valuation and 
 selling-price of a number in connection with their com- 
 position indicates which is the best for the money. 
 
 Nitrogen from the same source is worth no more in 
 one brand than in another; the same is true in reference 
 to potash and available phosphoric acid. 
 
 Analyses of Fertilizers. — The chemical analysis of 
 a fertilizer should show, as far as possible, both the 
 amount and form of either or all of the three con- 
 stituents contained ; viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
 potash. Such a complete statement gives considerable 
 information as to the source and quality of the materials 
 from which the constituents have been derived. For in- 
 stance, if the analysis shows that three forms of nitro- 
 gen are present, that the "total available" phosphoric 
 acid is chiefly soluble in water, that the percentage of 
 insoluble phosphoric acid is low, and that the potash 
 is in the form of sulphate, it is good evidence that stan- 
 ard high-grade goods have been used. 
 
 The analysis cannot, however, give definite and positive 
 information as to the source of organic nitrogen, whether 
 from the best form, dried blood, or from the poorest, 
 leather. Neither is it possible to tell absolutely how 
 much of the insoluble phosphoric acid has been derived 
 from organic or mineral sources, when materials from 
 both sources have been used. 
 
 Fertilizer Formulas. — A fertilizer formula indicates 
 the kind and quantity of raw materials to be used to 
 secure certain proportions of the fertilizer constituents. 
 If it be desired to secure a mixture containing four per 
 cent nitrogen, eight and eight-tenths per cent available 
 
ARTIFICIAL MANURES OR FERTILIZERS. 109 
 
 phosphoric acid, and ten per cent of actual potash, the 
 following materials would furnish it, assuming an aver- 
 age analysis for them : — 
 
 Formula No. 1. 
 
 Containing Pounds op 
 Phosphoric 
 Materials. Amount. Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 500 lbs. 80 
 
 Bone-black Superphosphate . 1,100 176 
 
 Muriate of Potash .... 400 _200 
 
 Total 2,000 80 176 200 
 
 Guaranteed Analysis 4% 8.8% 10% 
 
 A mixture containing two and one-half per cent of 
 
 nitrogen, eight per cent of available phosphoric acid, and 
 
 two per cent of potash may be made from the following 
 
 materials : — 
 
 Formula No. 2. 
 
 Containing Pounds of 
 
 . ^^. Phosphoric 
 
 Materials. Amount. Nitrogen. ^^^^ Potash. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 150 lbs. 24 
 
 Dissolved Bone 1,300 26 160 
 
 Muriate of Potash .... 80 40 
 
 Land Plaster 470 
 
 Total 2,000 50 160 40 
 
 Guaranteed Analysis 2.5% 8% 2% 
 
 No. 1 is a high-grade product, both in respect to 
 quality of plant-food and concentration; while No. 2 is 
 high-grade only in respect to quality. In order to get 
 the plant-food distributed throughout the ton, it is neces- 
 sary to add what is called a "make-weight" or diluent. 
 
 High-grade mixtures cannot be made from low-grade 
 materials. Low-grade mixtures cannot be made from 
 high-grade materials without adding " make-weight.'^ 
 The advantages of high-grade products are concentration 
 and high quality of plant-food. 
 
110 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Special Formulas. — Frequently a large number of 
 different formulas or brands are placed upon the market 
 by the same manufacturers. The claimed purpose in 
 the multiplication of brands is to meet the various de- 
 mands of the consumer, as well as to furnish special 
 preparations which shall provide a large proportion of 
 that constituent which is believed to be of special ser- 
 vice to the particular crop. 
 
 For instance, special potato manures contain a much 
 larger proportion of potash than those intended for gen- 
 eral purposes. Formula No. 1 may be regarded as a 
 special potato manure, while No. 2 may be regarded as 
 a general formula. It must be remembered that the 
 amount of plant-food applied frequently exercises a 
 greater influence than mere proportion of the elements 
 contained in it. The multiplication of brands is seldom 
 of advantage to the consumer. 
 
 The Use of Fertilizers. — To use fertilizers to the 
 greatest advantage it is requisite that a great many 
 points should be carefully studied. The character of the 
 manure itself; the soil and previous treatment, both in 
 reference to manuring and cropping ; the climate ; the 
 character of the crop to be grown, and the object of 
 its growth, — are, perhaps, the chief factors to be taken 
 into consideration. 
 
 It has already been pointed out that the manurial 
 constituents exist in various degrees of availability, from 
 complete solubility in water to insolubility except in 
 strong acids; the character of both the soluble and the 
 insoluble determines its usefulness to the plant. A 
 correct knowledge of the action of these is, therefore, 
 
ABTIFICIAL MANURES OB FEETILIZJEBS. Ill 
 
 of the first importance in order to economically use 
 them. 
 
 Nitrogenous Manures. — In reference to nitrogenous 
 manures, it may be stated, that, because nitrogen in the 
 form of a nitrate is immediately available, and because 
 it is freely movable, and is not retained by the soil, 
 nitrate should not be applied in any considerable amount 
 before the plant is growing and ready to use it. While 
 in the case of nitrogen in the form of ammonia, though 
 it is completely soluble in water, it is absorbed by the 
 soil, and requires an appreciable time to change into 
 the form of a nitrate, and may, therefore, be applied 
 without risk of loss a short time before it is likely to 
 be used. 
 
 On the other hand, nitrogen in organic forms shows 
 a wide range of availability, the readily soluble blood 
 ranking with the nitrate and ammonia; while leather, 
 wool waste, shoddy, and like products, which decay very 
 slowly, should be applied a considerable time before the 
 nitrogen in them is required. 
 
 Phosphatio Manures. — In the case of phosphatic 
 manures, the soluble forms, or superphosphates, should 
 be applied but a short time before the plant requires 
 the food, since their tendency in the soil is to revert to 
 their original and insoluble forms. Coarse bone, ground 
 mineral phosphates, and products of like character, decay 
 slowly, and should be applied a long time before they 
 are likely to be used. 
 
 Potash Manures. — The potash manures from the 
 Stassfurt mines are readily soluble ; they should, how- 
 ever, be applied some time before they are required, in 
 
112 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 order to secure their complete distribution in the soil. 
 On soils of a heavy character a fall application is recom- 
 mended. 
 
 In order to attain the best results from mixed fertili- 
 zers, great care should be given to the proper adjustment 
 of the various kinds and forms of the materials used. 
 
 Kind of Soils. — Crops grown upon soils poor in 
 decaying vegetable matter are, as a rule, benefited by 
 nitrogen manuring, while those upon soils rich in this 
 substance are more benefited by phosphates and potash. 
 Upon heavy soils phosphates are likely to be more 
 beneficial than nitrogen, while the reverse is the case 
 on light, dry soils. All sandy soils are, as a rule, defi- 
 cient in potash, while clayey soils contain this element 
 in larger quantities. 
 
 Different Methods of Growth. — The difference in 
 crops in reference to their capacity for acquiring food 
 must also guide in the application of manures. Crops 
 that have deep roots, and grow throughout a long sea- 
 son, are able to acquire their necessary food where those 
 of shallow roots and short seasons of growth would 
 suffer hunger. 
 
 Crops of the same class, too, resemble each other to 
 some extent in their capacity for acquiring food. The 
 grasses, for example, do not possess a strong power of 
 assimilating nitrogen ; root crops possess a small capacity 
 for acquiring and utilizing phosphoric acid; while legu- 
 minous plants are unable to readily assimilate potash; 
 hence these crops are, in the order given, most benefited 
 by nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. 
 
THE ROTATION OF CROPS, 113 
 
 CHAPTEE X. 
 The Rotation of Crops. 
 
 The aim of the farmer, as well as those engaged in 
 other industrial pursuits, is to derive the greatest pos- 
 sible return both for his labor and money invested. The 
 selection of definite lines of farming, or the growth of 
 crops profitable for his conditions, becomes, then, of 
 great importance. 
 
 The Demand for Special Crops. — In the earlier 
 history of the country, selection was practically limited 
 to the staple crops of grain and hay. As the country 
 developed and increased in wealth, larger demands were 
 made for fruits, vegetables, and such special products 
 as were in former times regarded as luxuries, and the 
 production of which was confined to the areas of gardens 
 and yards. 
 
 At the present time, therefore, particularly in the 
 Eastern States, general farming is the exception rather 
 than the rule, and special farming is more profitable. 
 The raising of hay, grain, vegetables, and fruits, and 
 dairy products, now forms distinct lines. The adoption of 
 either or any of these depends upon a variety of cir- 
 cumstances, though chiefly upon the following : the condi- 
 tions of soil and climatic influences ; the location of the 
 farm in respect to markets; and the probable profit. 
 
114 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 In any or all of these lines, however, certain groups 
 of crops may be more profitable than others. This is 
 because it has been found to be more desirable in the 
 long run to have a variety, one following the other in 
 a definite rotation. In the cotton and sugar producing 
 States of the South, and the wheat growing States of the 
 Northwest, rotation is least practised, while in the East- 
 ern States and the Central West, rotations are the rule. 
 
 The practice of growing different crops in rotation, 
 while largely a matter of conditions, does possess cer- 
 tain advantages, — based upon scientific principles, as 
 having reference to the character of growth and feeding 
 capacities of plants, and upon business principles, as hav- 
 ing reference to a better division of labor and a more 
 certain income. 
 
 The Advantages of Rotations. — The advantages of 
 rotations may be stated as follows : — 
 
 1. The feeding capacities of plants differ, certain of 
 them requiring more of one particular element than of 
 another ; certain are surface feeders, and others send 
 their roots deep into the subsoil. The growth of a 
 variety of plants with different capacities, therefore, 
 prolongs the period of profitable culture, or retards soil 
 exhaustion. 
 
 2. The growing of but one crop leaves the soil bare 
 at certain seasons of the year, while a variety permits 
 of a continuous growth and covering of the soil. Soils 
 suffer loss when lying idle; they are improved by the 
 growth of crops. 
 
 3. The continuous growth of one crop renders it more 
 liable to insect attack, and to the development of dis- 
 
THE BOTATION OF CROPS. 115 
 
 eases that cause rot and blight. Crops lose vigor by- 
 being grown year after year, and thus are less able to 
 withstand these attacks ; besides, a change of crops de- 
 prives the pests of their particular kind of food, causing 
 them to disappear or perish. 
 
 4. Certain crops derive their nitrogen, phosphoric acid, 
 and potash entirely from the soil ; the cereals grown 
 for their grain, which is usually sold, belong to this 
 class. Certain others, the clovers, peas, and beans, de- 
 rive their nitrogen from the atmosphere ; their removal 
 does not decrease the store of nitrogen in the soil. A 
 rotation of crops, including the latter, therefore, lessens 
 the necessity for nitrogenous manuring. 
 
 5. A rotation of crops distributes labor throughout 
 the season, thus giving continuous work for men and 
 horses. In farming districts it is difficult to procure 
 labor for short periods, while horses have to be kept 
 throughout the year. 
 
 6. A variety of crops marketed at different periods, 
 permits a steady and regular income to the farmer, which 
 enables him to do business on a smaller capital; wages 
 can be paid when due, and his supplies of seeds, fer- 
 tilizers, implements, aud tools can be bought in the 
 lowest market for cash. 
 
 It has already been stated that the adoption of what 
 are now "systems of crop rotation" was largely a matter 
 of growth, due to circumstances, and was not in the be- 
 ginning based upon scientific principles. Science, how- 
 ever, furnishes the reasons why rotations are useful, and 
 why certain rotations are more useful than others. 
 
 The Need of Rotations. — The need of rotation as 
 
116 FIEST PRINCIPLES OF AGBICULTUBE. 
 
 a means of maintaining fertility was apparent in early- 
 times, when the manures were confined to the natural 
 wastes of the farm, and when the growth of livestock 
 and production of dairy products were industries of but 
 little importance. It is less apparent now, when the 
 materials furnishing available plant-food elements or arti- 
 ficial manures are so abundant and cheap. Formerly, 
 the proportion of active soil constituents was almost en- 
 tirely dependent upon the natural forces that were 
 brought to bear upon the dormant constituents to con- 
 vert them into activity; under the conditions that exist 
 now, it is frequently more economical to purchase the 
 active constituents and apply them to the soil; in other 
 words, to supplement natural forces by artificial. 
 
 Bare Fallow. — In the older systems of rotation, it 
 was customary to allow the land to lie bare, or "fallow," 
 once in two or three years, in order that the natural 
 agencies, sun, air, and water, might have free access, cause 
 a more rapid decay of the soil particles, and make it more 
 fertile, a practice extending the period of profitable crop- 
 ping without manure. Sometimes the fields were left 
 entirely to themselves, while in others they were fre- 
 quently plowed or stirred in order to hasten the decay. 
 
 Fallow Crops. — Following this method came "crop- 
 fallowing," which is still practised; that is, instead of 
 allowing the land to remain idle after a grain crop has 
 been removed, a cultivable crop, as turnips or roots, is 
 planted, or a catch crop, as clover, is seeded, the culti- 
 vation of the one assisting in the decay of vegetable and 
 mineral matter, thus improving for a subsequent grain 
 crop; while the other, because of its different method of 
 
THE ROTATION OF CROPS. 117 
 
 growth, and greater power of acquiring food, assists in 
 renovating and improving the soil. 
 
 Rotations to be Adopted. — The rules which govern 
 the adoption of systems of rotation, under the conditions 
 that now exist, are general and flexible, rather than spe- 
 cific and fixed. To grow the crops that pay the greatest 
 profit per acre should be the aim, and rotations should 
 be modified in such a way that the least profitable crops 
 should contribute as much as possible to the development 
 of the most profitable. The character of soil, climate, 
 availability of farm-labor, location, markets, — all have an 
 influence in determining what the most profitable crop 
 may be. 
 
 For instance, hay may be high in price in a given 
 locality: the soil is dry and sandy; hay burns on the 
 ground; the yield is light, and it does not pay to raise 
 it, even at high prices. In another locality sweet potatoes 
 may bring three dollars per barrel : the land is a clay, 
 cold and heavy ; it is suitable for hay, not sweet potatoes. 
 Reverse the order, and both may be profitable crops. On 
 the light, sandy land the rotations adopted should be such 
 as contribute to the best development of the sweet pota- 
 toes, and on the heavy clay, such as aid in preparing 
 the soil to produce the largest hay crop. 
 
 The climate, in the same manner, places a limit upon 
 the production of certain crops. A short, cool season is 
 not favorable for the corn crop ; it will not mature : hence 
 corn should not be included in a rotation under such 
 conditions. In many cases farms do not pay because 
 their owners have not studied their conditions in refer- 
 ence to paying crops, and adapted themselves to them. 
 
118 FIBST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Rotation Courses. — Tlie number of years intervening 
 between the growth of crops in regular order is termed 
 a "course." A rotation course may range from the sim- 
 ple two-year to the more complex six or eight year 
 course, though the four-year course is generally adopted. 
 The poorer the land the shorter the course; and the 
 reverse, the better the land the longer the course, — are 
 principles now well established. 
 
 Taking the number of crops and periods of rotation 
 possible, it is evident that the number of possible courses 
 is too large to admit of definite description or comment. 
 A few examples only are given and discussed, in order to 
 more clearly illustrate the principles already pointed out. 
 
 Examples of Rotation Courses. — These are adapted 
 to what is termed " arable farming," where the live stock 
 is only sufficient to provide labor and the necessities of 
 the family. 
 
 FiBST Yeajec. 
 
 Second Ybab. 
 
 Third Tear. 
 
 Fourth Tear. 
 
 1. Com. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 2. Com. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 
 3. Com. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 4. Cora. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 
 5. Potatoes. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 
 No. 1 is defective for two reasons : first, because uncul- 
 tivated crops similar in character and capacity of obtain- 
 ing plant-food succeed each other; and second, because 
 the oats preceding the wheat prevents a proper cultivation 
 of the soil and preparation of the seed-bed for wheat. 
 This rotation is widely used, mainly because it is eco- 
 nomical of labor. Until very recently the custom was 
 to plant the corn on clover-sod, follow with oats without 
 manure, and then lime and manure for wheat. 
 
THE ROTATION OF CROPS. 119 
 
 This custom is now rapidly changing, and for the bet- 
 ter; viz., to manure the corn, and to provide artificial 
 fertilizers for the oats and wheat. The latter method is 
 more reasonable, since it permits of the removal of the 
 manure from the yard to the field during the leisure of 
 winter and spring, and the increased profit from its use 
 is received in the year of its application. It is more 
 economical of labor and capital. In all the rotations 
 where clover follows wheat, it is usually seeded in the 
 growing wheat in early spring. 
 
 No. 2 is particularly adapted to light lands, as it 
 admits of a more frequent repetition of the renovating 
 clover crop. It is objectionable, however, where the 
 seasons are short, since to wait for seeding the wheat 
 until after the corn is fit to harvest does not allow it to 
 make sufficient top to withstand the winter well ; besides, 
 the early removal of the corn is very laborious and expen- 
 sive. 
 
 No. 3 is a typical rotation, since the crops of cereals 
 are separated by a root or clover crop. This rotation 
 corresponds to the Norfolk system, so widely adopted in 
 England; viz., turnips, barley, clover, wheat. In many 
 sections of this country the potatoes are the best paying 
 crop. The corn is planted on a clover-sod, and yard- 
 manure liberally applied; the corn, being a gross feeder, 
 utilizes sufficient food for its normal growth from the 
 partial decay of the manure, roots, and stubble, and the cul- 
 tivation of the corn puts the land in excellent tilth for 
 the potatoes. Artificial manures are mainly used for this 
 crop, frequently in large amounts, the residues from which 
 guarantee maximum crops of both wheat and clover. 
 
120 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 In No. 4 wheat is dispensed with, and in No. 5, corn. 
 Both are excellent where potatoes or root crops can be 
 grown to advantage; and, if the land is naturally rich, 
 the frequent tillage, and use of clover crops, provide an 
 abundance of available food for maximum crops, provided 
 the second crop of clover is not removed. 
 
 No. 5 may be reduced to a two-year rotation by plow- 
 ing the clover in spring before removing any crop. In 
 these rotations barley may be substituted for oats, rye 
 for wheat, and sweet potatoes or tomatoes for potatoes, 
 without interfering with the usefulness of the rotation. 
 
 Rotations on heavy land, where hay is an important 
 crop, differ mainly from those already mentioned in hav- 
 ing a larger number of crops. Timothy is seeded with 
 the wheat in addition to clover in the spring. The first 
 year after wheat, a mixed hay crop is gathered, which 
 becomes almost pure timothy in the next season, and 
 purer still in that following; hay is cut two or three 
 years or longer, as the strength and character of soil per- 
 mit. Cropping in this way is, however, exhaustive, and 
 requires careful manuring. These rotations have refer- 
 ence to what is termed "extensive practice,'* and do not 
 provide for the manuring of each crop, though it does 
 not follow that it cannot be made "intensive." 
 
 notations in Market-gardening and on Dairy 
 Farms. — In market-gardening and dairy-farming, ma- 
 nures are relied on to a greater extent, and less attention 
 is given to strict rotations. These lines of farming are 
 more on the " intensive plan," the areas are limited, the 
 cropping constant, the manuring liberal, and the crops as 
 large as conditions of climate and season will permit. 
 
THE ROTATION OF CEOPS. 121 
 
 The market-gardener, as soon as one crop is removed, 
 plants another, keeping the land constantly occupied. He 
 does not depend upon natural fertility, but forces growth 
 by the abundant supply of natural and artificial manures. 
 The rotation practised is governed by the conditions 
 which control the kind of crops he can grow to advan- 
 tage, rather than by considerations of soil fertility. 
 
 In dairying, the object is to provide a continuous sup- 
 ply of food ; hence the rotation adopted is the one which 
 will best meet this requirement. 
 
122 FIRST PBINCIPLE8 OF AGEICULTUEE. 
 
 CHAPTEE XI. 
 
 The Selection of Seed; Farm Crops and Their Classification; 
 Cereals ; Grasses ; Pastures ; Roots ; Tubers ; and Market-gar- 
 den Crops. 
 
 Selection of Seed. — The kind of seed used exercises 
 an important influence upon the yield and quality of the 
 crop, and also saves the farmer losses due to a poor stand. 
 The larger the proportion of living seed true to kind, the 
 greater the chances of a perfect stand and a normal and 
 healthy growth of crop. In the case of the larger seed, 
 as the cereals, it is not so difficult to determine quality 
 as in the case of certain grasses and garden seeds ; here 
 a careful examination and testing are required. 
 
 Good Seed. — The term ** good seed " implies that any 
 given lot should show a large proportion of mature seed, 
 true to kind and variety, and a small proportion of impu- 
 rities and adulterants. "Mature seed" are those that 
 have fully ripened, and are capable of performing well 
 all of the functions of germination ; that is, they are capa- 
 ble of using the food stored up in them, and developing 
 vigorous and healthy young plants. " Immature seed " 
 are those that have not fully developed or ripened, and 
 can only partially perform the functions of germination. 
 The young plant lacks strength and vigor. 
 
 Impurities. — Impurities include all foreign matter, 
 
SELECTION OF SEED ; FABM CROPS. 123 
 
 both injurious and harmless, that may be present in the 
 seed purchased, as seeds not genuine, dirt, dust, weed-seed, 
 chaff, and diseased seed. The presence of weed-seed per- 
 haps results on the whole in the greatest loss and annoy- 
 ance, — in the first place, the loss of return from land 
 taken up by the weeds, hence a reduction in crop; and 
 second, the difficulty and expense of eradicating the weeds 
 when well established. 
 
 Adulteration. — Adulteration of seed includes, first, 
 the substitution of cheaper seed for the more valuable, 
 which is frequently practised in the case of mixed seeds 
 that resemble each other, and second, the removal of the 
 evidences of age or disease. Seed that are musty or dark 
 are sometimes sweetened and brightened by bleaching 
 with fumes of sulphur. 
 
 Quality of Seed. — The quality of genuine seed is 
 influenced by age, size, weight, and smell. Old seed are 
 less likely to germinate than new; the loss of vitality 
 is gradual, though more rapid in unripe than in well- 
 ripened seed ; the larger and heavier seeds also die more 
 slowly than the smaller and lighter ones. 
 
 The seed of the cereals and grasses lose germinating 
 power and vigor rapidly after the first year ; though alive, 
 they germinate and grow slowly, thus causing a loss of 
 time at the beginning of the season, and the slow growth of 
 the plant at its most tender stage increases the tendency 
 to disease and insect attack. 
 
 Seed may also be killed by a too rapid or too complete 
 removal of water from them ; hence artificial drying, if 
 improperly conducted, that is, if too great heat is used, 
 may result in the death of the germ. 
 
124 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 If a crop from which seed is to be gathered is stored 
 before thoroughly dry in a damp place, it is liable to be- 
 come hot, which destroys in a great degree the germinating 
 power of the seed. Crops from which seed is to be se- 
 cured should be carefully dried, and stored in a dry place. 
 
 Change of Seed. — The improved varieties of farm 
 crops of the same kind have been developed by the careful 
 selection of the best seed of these crops grown under the 
 most favorable conditions of climate, season, soil, and man- 
 agement. The natural tendency of the plant, even under 
 favorable conditions, is to go back to its original and in- 
 ferior state ; hence, when the conditions of growth are 
 unfavorable, this tendency is increased. A change of cli- 
 mate, a season too cool or too hot, too dry or too wet, a 
 poor soil, lack of care in cultivation, — all aid in increas- 
 ing this backward tendency; the conditions are not per- 
 fect, and the seed, as it is commonly expressed, "runs 
 out," and a change becomes necessary. 
 
 In making the change, seed should never be taken 
 from good to poorer conditions, but rather from poor to 
 good; that is, the seed from crops grown under good 
 conditions of climate, soil, and management will not re- 
 tain their character so well when grown under condi- 
 tions poorer in these respects, while the seed from crops 
 which flourish well under poor conditions are likely to 
 not only retain their character, but improve when changed 
 to good conditions. 
 
 It is also true that seed from crops that do well in rig- 
 orous climates are more likely to improve when brought 
 under more favorable conditions in this respect than 
 when those that do well in a warm climate are brought 
 
SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CBOPS. 125 
 
 into a colder climate. In other words, in changing 
 seed, particularly of the cereals, they should be secured 
 from the North rather than from the South. These are, 
 however, general suggestions, to be used as guides rather 
 than as specific and definite rules. 
 
 Seed-Testing. — The number of pure seed and the 
 germinating power are the two factors which determine 
 the number of plants that may be obtained from a given 
 quantity, rather than the bushels of seed sown. Seed- 
 testing includes, therefore, a test of purity and of ger- 
 minating power. 
 
 Purity. — The purity may be tested by taking a def- 
 inite weight to represent the product, and separating the 
 foreign matter, either by hand or by means of a sieve, 
 then weighing the remainder of pure seed. For example : 
 
 Total weight taken . 100 grains or grams. 
 Weight of pure seed . 95 " " 
 
 Weight of impurities . 5 " " 
 
 The amount of pure seed is, therefore, 95 per cent, 
 while the amount of impurities is 5 per cent. 
 
 It is better in stating the impurity, consisting of for- 
 eign seeds, weed-seeds, etc., to use the number of seed in- 
 stead of their weight, as it gives a better idea of the 
 possible damage from its seeding. 
 
 Germinating Power. — In testing the germinating 
 power, only the seed true to kind are tested; hence, a 
 high germinating power is not in itself sufficient evi' 
 dence of quality. It must be accompanied by a statement 
 as to purity; for instance, if the germinating power is 
 ninety per cent, and the purity only twenty-five per cent, 
 
126 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 the quality of the seed is low, since out of one hundred 
 pounds only twenty-two and five-tenths pounds consist of 
 pure germinating seed. Good seed shows a high percen- 
 tage of both purity and germinating power. 
 
 To test germination, two lots of at least one hundred 
 seeds each are selected, and placed under conditions favor- 
 able for germination ; viz., moisture, warmth, and air. A 
 box containing a thin layer of fine soil, kept well moist- 
 ened, and in a warm place, answers the purpose nicely. 
 The chief precautions to observe are to keep the material 
 moist and the temperature between 80° to 90° F. 
 
 Plants are classified by botanists into families or nat- 
 ural orders; by farmers into groups, made distinct by 
 methods of rotation or other local causes. 
 
 Botanical Classification. — This is a useful guide 
 to the farmer in indicating habits of growth, as well as 
 methods of manuring and management, since plants of 
 common origin or ancestry, though differing in outward 
 form, are quite likely to be benefited by the same kinds 
 of food, to be subject to the same class of diseases, and 
 to be attacked by the same kind of insects. The differ- 
 ent families also include a number of plants not useful 
 as farm or garden crops, though all possess certain char- 
 acteristics in common. 
 
 The Grass Family. — The first natural order in point 
 of usefulness is the grass family. This includes the ce- 
 reals, wheat, rye, oats, barley, corn, and rice, valuable 
 chiefly for their seed or grain ; and the grasses, valuable as 
 hay and pastures, of which timothy, orchard grass, rye 
 grass, blue grass, and red-top, are prominent examples. 
 
 The Family which includes the Potato, valuable 
 
SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CBOPS. 127 
 
 for starchy food, tlie tomato and egg-plant, useful for 
 their fruit, and tobacco, a plant of great commercial value, 
 is also very important. Many plants of this family are 
 poisonous, of which " henbane " and deadly " nightshade " 
 are examples ; in fact, the fruit and vine of the potato 
 contain poisonous principles. In point of food value the 
 potato stands next to the cereals. 
 
 The Sweet Potato belongs to the morning-glory fam- 
 ily, and is the chief food-plant belonging to this order. 
 
 The Legume or Clover Family includes a very large 
 number of plants, as herbs, shrubs, and trees. A distin- 
 guishing feature of this order is the formation of seed 
 in a pod or legume. Those in which the seed or grain 
 is used as food, as peas, beans, and lentils, are called 
 " pulse ; " hence this name has been extended to all the 
 food plants of this order. Leguminous crops are called 
 "pulse crops." 
 
 The other plants of this family, useful as hay, green 
 forage, or pasture, are the various clovers, white or Dutch 
 clover, red clover, alsike or Swedish clover, and crimson 
 or scarlet clover, also lucerne or alfalfa, vetches, lupins, 
 serradella, and sanfoin. These plants are among the 
 most valuable of our forage crops. They have strong 
 foraging powers for mineral constituents, and are also 
 able to secure the nitrogen necessary for their growth 
 from the air; thus they enrich, rather than impoverish, 
 the soil of the most important element, — nitrogen. 
 
 The Turnip Family includes among the edible plants, 
 turnips, the various varieties of cabbage, as cauliflower, 
 kale, kohlrabi, mustard, radish, horseradish, and watercress, 
 and the forage plants, swedes and rape. This order also 
 
128 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTUBE. 
 
 includes a large number of weeds, of wMch shepherd's- 
 purse, charlock, and wild radish are prominent examples. 
 
 The Beet Family includes the food-plants, garden- 
 beets, sugar-beets, and spinach, and the mangel-wurzel, 
 an important fodder plant. The sugar-beet is of great 
 importance in Germany and France as a commercial 
 source of sugar, while the mangel-wurzel is extensively 
 raised as a fodder crop. 
 
 The Melon Family is extensive, though it does not 
 include any strictly farm crops. Cucumbers, melons, 
 pumpkins, and gourds are prominent examples of this 
 order: "cucurbs" is a term also applied to this group 
 of plants. 
 
 The Carrot Family includes carrots, parsnips, parsley, 
 and celery, while lettuce belongs to the dandelion family, 
 and the onion and asparagus to the lily family. 
 
 The Rose Family is an important natural order. It 
 includes herbs, shrubs, and trees, to which belong the 
 most important of our fruits. One type is represented 
 by the plum, peach, cherry, apricot, nectarine, and almond ; 
 another, by the raspberry, blackberry, and dewberry; and 
 still another, by the apple and pear. The bush-fruits, 
 gooseberry and currant, are both members of another 
 distinct natural order. 
 
 Agrrioiiltural Classification. — While the grouping of 
 plants by the method described is useful, an agricultural 
 classification, which groups the various crops according to 
 their similarity of growth, management, and treatment, is 
 also convenient to the farmer; and the following method 
 permits of a logical discussion of the principles involved 
 in their growth: — 
 
SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CROPS. 129 
 
 1. Cereal crops: Wheat, rye, oats, barley, and com. 
 
 2. Forage crops: Grasses and clovers for forage hay and pasture. 
 
 3. Root crops: Turnips, swedes, carrots, and mangels. 
 
 4. Tuber crops: White potato and sweet potato. 
 
 5. Miscellaneous crops: Market-garden and fruit crops. 
 
 Cereal Crops. — The chief object in the growth of 
 cereals is to obtain the grain or seed. They are all 
 annuals, though their natural period, or time of growth, 
 differs, certain of them requiring a longer time for their 
 growth and maturity than others. In the case of wheat, 
 ryC; oats, and barley, the natural period of vegetation has 
 been changed by careful selection and breeding, so that 
 we have both winter and spring varieties, the former 
 seeded in the fall, and the latter in the spring. The 
 winter varieties of wheat and rye, and the spring varie- 
 ties of oats and barley, are more generally grown. Indian 
 corn, or maize, is seeded in spring only. 
 
 The Root System. — In the cereals, the roots branch 
 just below the surface, and each shoot produces feeding- 
 roots, which distribute themselves in every direction to 
 gather food and directly nourish the plant. The roots of 
 the cereals, though they are regarded as shallow feeders, 
 also penetrate to considerable depths, — thirty-six inches 
 or more, — the depth corresponding to some extent with 
 the period of growth, winter wheat and rye showing the 
 deepest roots, and oats and barley, seeded in spring, the 
 shallowest. 
 
 The character of the soil also exercises an influence 
 in this respect. The deeper the root, the more food is 
 acquired ; and the power to resist drouth and other un- 
 favorable conditions is proportionately increased. A soil 
 too dense and hard prevents the penetration and develop- 
 
130 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ment of the root system. The root formation of the 
 winter cereals is encouraged by close contact with moist 
 earth, hence a soil of a compact nature is desirable for 
 their normal growth ; loose, shifting sands are unfavor- 
 able, moist clay loams are favorable. 
 
 Method of Feeding. — The general tendency of the 
 cereals is to absorb food from lower layers of the soil 
 as the plant grows older ; that is, the roots near the 
 plant die ; and only the fibrous roots at a distance and 
 in the lower layers of soil possess the power of absorbing 
 food : hence, to ensure maximum and continuous growth 
 throughout the whole period of life, the entire surface 
 soil must be enriched. 
 
 Power of Acquiring Food. — The cereals are able to 
 acquire food from the insoluble phosphate and potash 
 compounds of the soil in a greater degree than root 
 crops. They are on this account called "voracious feed- 
 ers." Oats and rye possess this characteristic more 
 largely than wheat or corn. Where the climate is suit- 
 able, oats and rye will — other conditions being equal — 
 thrive proportionately better on poor soil than wheat 
 or corn. 
 
 These crops are unable to feed to any extent upon 
 the insoluble nitrogen of the soil ; they absorb the nitro- 
 gen necessary chiefly in the form of nitrates. This form 
 of nitrogen must, therefore, be directly applied, or the 
 soil must have been previously supplied with nitrogenous 
 materials that decay readily. 
 
 On soils well supplied with mineral constituents, wheat, 
 oats, and rye — both because they are uncultivated crops, 
 and because their greatest development is in the early 
 
SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CROPS, 131 
 
 summer, before the conditions are favorable for tbe rapid 
 change of organic nitrogen into nitrates — are more bene- 
 fited by a direct application of nitrates than corn, which, 
 besides being a cultivated crop, makes its greatest growth 
 in late summer, when the decay and consequent nitrifica- 
 tion of the organic matter is most active. 
 
 Soil Exhaustion. — The cereals are exhaustive crops, 
 because the food constituents gathered are largely trans- 
 ferred from the stem and leaf, and concentrated in the 
 grain, which is sold from the farm. 
 
 Forage Crops ; Grasses. — Nearly all varieties of 
 grasses are perennial, though the length of life depends 
 upon the method of cropping and character of soil. 
 Where the grass is allowed to seed, it dies quicker than 
 when it is pastured or cut before maturity, because the 
 depth of root is measured to some extent by the length 
 of top. On poor, dry soils, also, the life is shorter than 
 upon moist soils of fair fertility. 
 
 Methods of Growth. — The grasses send out their 
 fibrous roots into the surface soil in the same manner 
 as the cereals, though they differ from the cereals in 
 forming each year a set of buds just below the surface 
 of the ground, which become active in the late summer, 
 and develop new shoots and roots ; as this budding 
 ceases, the plants die. Those which produce the great- 
 est number of branches, and continue the process for a 
 succession of years, are the most valuable permanent 
 grasses ; those that form their branches in compact tufts 
 have less hold upon the ground, and are more liable to 
 be uprooted by animals, and to be destroyed by unfavor- 
 able conditions of soil and season, than those which pos- 
 
132 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 sess a loose-brancliing system. A mixture of the tuft 
 and loose-growing grasses is, as a rule, better than either 
 singly. 
 
 Pood Requirements. — The chief object in the growth 
 of grasses is to obtain the nutrition contained in leaf 
 and stem in the form of pasture, forage, or hay. Nitro- 
 gen, which promotes this form of growth, is an important 
 constituent, and it is essential to provide a liberal sup- 
 ply, either directly, as nitrate of soda, or in organic forms, 
 which decay more or less rapidly. 
 
 The grasses resemble the cereals in their power of ac- 
 quiring mineral food ; hence clay soils, which are rich 
 in the minerals, are naturally well adapted for their 
 growth. Except when seed is grown, or hay is sold, 
 the grasses are not regarded as exhaustive crops. 
 
 Clovers. — The clovers are grouped with the grasses 
 because usually grown for the same purpose, — for pas- 
 ture, forage, or hay. They, however, belong to a family 
 of plants which possesses characteristics very different 
 from the grasses, both in reference to method of growth 
 and composition of product. The varieties usually grown 
 
 are: — 
 
 Scarlet or Crimson Glover, an annual. 
 
 Red or Broad Clover, a biennial. 
 
 Alsike or Swedish Clover, a triennial. 
 
 White or Dutch Clover, a perennial. 
 
 Of these the red and white are more extensively grown 
 than the others. 
 
 Methods of Growth. — The red, alsike, and crimson 
 clovers all possess a tap-root which penetrates downward 
 to considerable depths; and as it descends it throws out 
 root-fibres into the different layers of soil ; these gather 
 
SELECTION OF SEED; FAEM CBOPS. 133 
 
 the food which passes through the tap-root into the 
 branches. The branches are formed from buds, which 
 depend for their food upon the tap-root and its feeders, 
 the fibrous roots. From spring seedings of clover the 
 buds begin to develop in the late summer, lie dormant 
 through the winter, branch forth in the spring, and de- 
 velop into the mature plant. 
 
 With the exception of the annual crimson clover, the 
 process continues two, three, or more years, as the case 
 may be. Crimson clover is usually seeded in the late 
 summer or fall; it develops the buds in the spring, and 
 dies after maturing the plant. 
 
 In white clover the stem creeps along just under the 
 surface, throwing out roots at frequent intervals, which 
 penetrate the soil and gather food that is carried directly 
 into the stem, and by it to the branches. 
 
 Power of Acquiring Pood. — The clovers readily ac- 
 quire food from the mineral constituents of the soil, and 
 differ from the cereals in being able to acquire their nitro- 
 gen from the air; hence on most soils the application of 
 this element is not so essential for their growth. The 
 clovers demand an abundance of potash and lime. 
 
 Soil Improvers. — The clovers are not exhaustive 
 crops, but rather soil improvers. The nitrogen gathered 
 and stored as organic substance in roots and stubble en- 
 riches the soil in humus and nitrogen, while the method 
 of growth, viz., the formation of large tap-roots, which 
 penetrate deeply, materially improves the physical char- 
 acter of soils. 
 
 Root Crops. — Turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets, and 
 mangels are biennials. The first year or period of growth 
 
134 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 is the storage or vegetative period, and the second, the 
 period of seed-making. 
 
 Root crops are all provided with tap or storage roots, 
 and hence they flourish well only in deep, mellow soils. 
 They are supplied with absorbing roots, which spring 
 mainly from the lower end, spread into the soil, and 
 gather the food. The chief supply of food is needed late 
 in the season, when the formation of tap-root is most 
 rapid. 
 
 These plants cannot make ready use of the insoluble 
 mineral constituents of the soil ; hence, in order to insure 
 full crops, they must be liberally supplied with available 
 food. Of the three classes of fertilizing materials, the 
 phosphates are especially suitable for turnips, while the 
 slower-growing beets and carrots require an abundance 
 of nitrogen in quickly available forms. 
 
 Tuber Crops. — The white potato tuber is not a root, 
 but an enlarged underground stem. The true feeding- 
 roots are produced by the underground portion of the 
 main stem. The extensive growth of the plant under- 
 ground requires that the soil shall be loose and open, 
 in order to permit the free entrance and circulation of 
 both air and water. Potatoes, like root crops, do not 
 possess strong foraging powers. The food must be in a 
 soluble and available condition, in order to insure maxi- 
 mum production. Where soils are suitable, potash seems 
 to be the ingredient especially useful in the manures 
 applied, as it is a potash-demanding plant. 
 
 The sweet-potato tuber is an enlarged root, and not a 
 stem, as is the case with the white potato. The plant 
 is especially adapted to warm, dry soils; and, while it 
 
SELECTION OF SEED; FARM CROPS. 135 
 
 thrives well on soils too poor and sandy for the white 
 potato, it must be well supplied with the mineral con- 
 stituents, particularly potash. 
 
 Market-Garden Crops. — These include a large num- 
 ber which are distinguished not so much by their place 
 or method of growth as the object of their production; 
 viz., earliness and succulence, rather than maturity of 
 crop. Lettuce, beets, spinach, radishes, onions, cabbage, 
 turnips, celery, asparagus, tomatoes, egg-plant, cucumbers, 
 melons, peas, beans, sweet corn, and many others, are 
 included under market-garden crops. 
 
 To accomplish the two particular objects of their growth 
 requires a deep, warm soil, well supplied with vegetable 
 matter and with available forms of plant-food. Since 
 nitrogen is the element which encourages and stimulates 
 leaf and stem growth, its application, particularly in the 
 form of nitrates which are immediately available, is es- 
 pecially useful for all of these crops; and though peas 
 and beans belong to the legume family, they are materi- 
 ally benefited in their early growth by a supply of soil 
 nitrogen. 
 
 Fruit Crops. — These differ from other crops in that 
 there must be a longer season of preparation, in which 
 the growth shall be so directed as to prepare the tree for 
 the proper development of a different kind of product; 
 namely, the fruit. The fruit, too, differs very materially 
 in its character from that of ordinary farm crops, in that 
 its growth and development require a whole season; it is 
 necessary that there shall be a constant transfer of the 
 nutrition from the tree to the fruit throughout the grow- 
 ing-season. The growth for each succeeding year of both 
 
136 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tree and fruit is, too, dependent upon the nutrition stored 
 up in the bud and branches, as well as that which may 
 be derived directly from the soil. 
 
 Soils that are naturally well adapted for fruit- 
 growing must possess a good physical character; that 
 is, they must be sufficiently open and porous to permit 
 the penetration and growth of the roots, as well as a 
 free movement of air and water, and they must contain 
 nitrogen and the mineral constituents, lime, potash, and 
 phosphoric acid, in considerable amounts. 
 
 The first object should be to secure a good tree, though 
 it is not wood growth alone that should be kept in mind, 
 but the kind of growth as well ; that is, it must not only 
 be vigorous, but well matured. Well-grown trees some- 
 times produce poor fruit, but poor trees never produce 
 good fruit. 
 
 Manures for Fruits. — In the first place, there should 
 be sufficient nitrogen to provide for an abundant leaf 
 growth early in the season, . since the tree and fruit are 
 dependent for food both upon the leaves and upon the 
 roots. There should be an abundance of potash and phos- 
 phoric acid and lime, in order to secure a normal and 
 solid growth of stem and branch, which carry the fruit- 
 spurs, and the food necessary for their first development 
 in the spring, as well as to provide for the proper growth 
 and ripening of the fruit. 
 
GROWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD 137 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Growth of Animals ; The Constituents of Animals and Ani- 
 mal Food ; The Character and Composition of Fodders and Feeds. 
 
 In our study of the growth of plants, it was shown 
 that, with the exception of the food stored in the seed, 
 the plant was built up of single chemical elements, and 
 that these were derived from sources outside of itself, 
 viz., the atmosphere and soil, and formed by the living 
 plant into organized plant substances. The growing of a 
 plant, therefore, is a constructive process ; elements that 
 exist separately are gathered from different sources, and 
 combined and fixed in special forms. 
 
 The growth of the animal is more complicated. It is 
 built up and nourished by the consumption of substances 
 ready formed in plants, or which .have been derived from 
 them. It is a double process, — first, a disorganizing, or 
 tearing apart of these substances formed in the plant; 
 and second, a building or forming process in which they 
 are brought together again, and fixed in the form of 
 flesh and bone. 
 
 Composition of the Animal Body. — The animal 
 body, therefore, is composed of substances or elements 
 common to the plants from which it was directly or in- 
 directly derived. It may be divided, first, into two 
 classes of products, water and dry substance. 
 
138 FIRST PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Water. — This is an important constituent. It is 
 essential to the proper distribution of the nourishing fluids 
 throughout the system, and usually constitutes more than 
 one-half of the total weight of the live animal. As is 
 the case with plants, it is contained in the greatest 
 amounts in the young or immature, and decreases as 
 growth proceeds, and maturity is reached. It is possi- 
 ble to remove it from animal substances without entirely 
 destroying their form, thus differing from the constitu- 
 ents that constitute the dry matter; these cannot be 
 removed without destroying the character of the sub- 
 stances themselves. Here, too, is a striking analogy 
 between plant and animal. 
 
 Dry Matter. — This may also be divided into two 
 general classes, — first, that which is organic or volatile, 
 or that portion capable of being destroyed, or converted 
 into gaseous substances, by means of heat; and second, 
 ash or inorganic, mineral, or non-volatile, or that por- 
 tion which cannot be destroyed or dispelled by means 
 of heat. 
 
 Organic Substances. — These are usually divided 
 into two general classes, — first, non-nitrogenous, or those 
 free from nitrogen, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen only ; and second, nitrogenous, those containing 
 nitrogen in addition to the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 
 
 Non-Nitrogenous Substances. — The chief of these is 
 fat, a substance extremely rich in the element carbon, 
 and a very important constituent of food. It is found 
 distributed throughout the various organs of the animal 
 body, though mainly enclosed in cells on the kidneys 
 and between the muscular fibres. The fat contained in 
 
GROWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 139 
 
 the various kinds of animals, which, is a whitish, oily 
 substance, differs but little in appearance, though some- 
 what in composition. 
 
 Nitrogenous Substances. — These consist chiefly of 
 carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, though phos- 
 phorus and sulphur are always present in small amounts. 
 This class may be subdivided into three groups : 1. Albu- 
 minoids ; 2. Gelatinoids ; 3. Horny Matter. 
 
 Albuminoids. — These are the most important, because 
 animal life is dependent chiefly upon them and the or- 
 gans composed of them, and because they fui-nish the 
 material out of which the other groups are formed. They 
 are found in various forms in the body, the chief of 
 which are albumen, fibrin, and casein. These, while dif- 
 fering widely in appearance, agree in their chemical com- 
 position, in that each in a pure, dry state contains about 
 sixteen per cent of nitrogen, and from one to one and 
 five-tenths per cent of sulphur; albumen is represented 
 by the white of egg, fibrin by the white solid remaining 
 after the red color of coagulated blood is washed out, 
 while casein forms the basis of cheese. 
 
 Gelatinoids. — These form the nitrogenous substances 
 of bone, skin, and cartilage, and the connective tissue of 
 the animal body. They may be extracted by boiling 
 with water ; the resultant product is glue. Their com- 
 position is similar to the albuminoids, in that on the 
 average they contain about sixteen per cent nitrogen, 
 the cartilage containing less, and the bones and skin 
 more, nitrogen than the albuminoids. 
 
 Horny Matter. — The hair, horn, hoofs, claws, nails, 
 wool, and feathers are constituted mainly of horny matter. 
 
140 FIEST PRINCIPLES OF AGBICULTUHE. 
 
 The composition of horny matter is quite uniform, and 
 is similar to albumen in content of nitrogen, though con- 
 taining more sulphur. 
 
 Inorganic Matter or Ash. — The ash constitutes a 
 very small part of the total weight of animals. It ranges 
 from one and eight-tenths per cent to three per cent in 
 swine, and from four and five-tenths per cent to five 
 per cent in cattle. The ash constituents are greatest in 
 lean animals, and least in fat animals. Of the different 
 parts of animals, the dried bones contain the largest 
 portions, reaching fifty per cent in the bones of young 
 animals, and as high as eighty-five per cent in mature 
 animals. Bone-ash consists almost entirely of phosphate 
 of lime. Other very important constituents of the ash 
 are potash, soda, and chlorine. 
 
 Animal Food. — The animal body, consisting of the 
 two classes of substances, the nitrogenous and non-nitro- 
 genous, demands the same classes from the food. These 
 latter correspond in kind to those described as contained 
 in the animal body, with the addition of carbohydrates; 
 viz., 1. Albuminoids j 2. Fats ; 3. Carbohydrates ; 4. Min- 
 eral Salts. 
 
 Albuminoids. — The albuminoids of a feed include 
 vegetable albumen and fibrin, as well as other substances 
 which resemble in composition the albuminoids of the 
 animal body. The term "protein" is frequently used 
 to designate this class of substances when contained in 
 food. 
 
 The various albuminoids vary somewhat in their com- 
 position. They are distinguished by their high and quite 
 uniform content of nitrogen ; and, though differences exist 
 
GROWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 141 
 
 in them, it is believed that they are quite uniform in 
 their value as nutrients. They are not only the most 
 important of the food compounds, but are indispensable, 
 as they are the sole source directly of the albuminoids 
 in the body of the plant-eating animal. 
 
 Other nitrogenous compounds are also contained in 
 small quantities in most plants, though they are rela- 
 tively unimportant as sources of nourishment. 
 
 Pat. — The fat or oil contained in plants agrees closely 
 in chemical composition with that contained in animals. 
 Fats contain a much larger proportion of carbon, and 
 less of oxygen, than the carbohydrates. Fat exists in 
 all plants, and in some seeds, as flax and cotton, in such 
 quantities as to make them of considerable commercial 
 importance as sources of oil. 
 
 Carbohydrates. — These agree closely in composition. 
 They consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only, and 
 derive their name from the fact that the hydrogen and 
 oxygen in them always exist in the same proportions as 
 they exist in water. Cellulose, or woody fibre, and starch 
 are the most abundant of the carbohydrates, though the 
 sugars and gums are also well-known members of this 
 group. 
 
 Cellulose is the substance which composes the cell walls 
 or woody part of the plant. It is seldom pure, except in 
 young plants. In trees where great strength is needed, 
 the cell walls become thick and hard, and joined with the 
 cellulose is a harder substance called "lignin." In ordi- 
 nary farm plants the cellulose exists in greater propor- 
 tions in the ripe straw, and in the stems and husks of the 
 various plants, than in the seeds. This fibrous material 
 
142 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 is usually wMte in color, and is odorless and tasteless. 
 Manufactured flax and cotton, and unsized paper derived 
 from them, are good examples of nearly pure cellulose. 
 It is not readily soluble, and is capable of only partial 
 digestion. It is identical with starch in chemical com- 
 position, and may be converted first into dextrine, then 
 into grape sugar, by suitable treatment with acids or 
 alkalies. 
 
 Starch is a very abundant substance ; it is found in all 
 plants, and in nearly all parts of them. The cereal 
 grains, and the dry matter of root and tuber crops, are 
 especially rich in this substance; and because of its 
 abundance and ease of digestion it is one of the most 
 important of the non-nitrogenous substances. It is readily 
 converted into dextrine and grape sugar by treatment 
 with acids; in fact, the grape sugar or glucose of com- 
 merce is largely derived from the starch of corn. 
 
 Sugars are of four kinds, — cane, milk, grape, and fruit 
 sugar: these differ but little in composition; all resem- 
 ble each other in their properties. Cane sugar is derived 
 from sugar-cane and sugar-beet, and milk sugar from 
 the milk of the cow, while grape and fruit sugars usu- 
 ally occur together in the juices of plants, sweet fruits, 
 and in honey. These are all readily soluble in water, 
 and easily digested ; and, although occurring in small 
 quantities in ordinary feeds, they are very important, 
 because formed in large quantities from other carbo- 
 hydrates in digestion. 
 
 The gums exist in small amounts in plants used for 
 animal food, and are relatively unimportant food com- 
 pounds. 
 
GROWTH OF ANIMALS ; ANIMAL FOOD. 143 
 
 Mineral Salts. — These are contained in ordinary fod- 
 ders in sufficient quantities to supply the needs of the 
 animal body. 
 
 The Chemical Analyses of Animal Poods. — By 
 means of chemical analyses the amount of moisture and 
 of the various groups of food compounds described as 
 contained in a food, are determined; viz., albuminoids, 
 fats, carbohydrates, and mineral matter. This grouping 
 is, however, quite incomplete, though serving an excel- 
 lent purpose in indicating feeding value, and as a means 
 by which a comparison may be made of the various food 
 products. 
 
 Water or Moisture. — Water or moisture is deter- 
 mined by drying at a temperature of boiling water. 
 
 Crude Protein. — The nitrogenous substances are found 
 by determining the nitrogen, and multiplying the percen- 
 tage found by the factor 6.25, on the assumption that 
 all of the nitrogen is in the form of albuminoids, which 
 contain on the average sixteen per cent of nitrogen. The 
 substance found in this manner is called "crude protein." 
 In many cases, however, the nitrogenous substances, not 
 in the form of albuminoids, as amides and amines, and 
 contained in considerable amounts in immature plants, 
 are determined separately and deducted from the total 
 crude protein found, in which cases the results are stated 
 as " true albuminoids " and as " non-albuminoids." 
 
 Fat. — The content of fat is determined by extract- 
 ing with ether, or other solvents, and the result is stated 
 as crude fat or extractive matter, since other substances, 
 as gums and coloring matter, are extracted to some ex- 
 tent along with the fat. These may, however, be sep- 
 
144 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 arated; and wlien this is done the result is stated as 
 "pure fat." 
 
 Crude Fibre or Cellulose. — Crude fibre or cellulose 
 is determined by boiling the substance with weak acids 
 and alkalies, which dissolve the other constituents con- 
 tained in it. The residue is called " crude fibre," rather 
 than "cellulose," since it contains all the woody sub- 
 stance of the plant, including "lignin." 
 
 Ash or Mineral Matter. — The ash or mineral mat- 
 ter is determined by carefully burning the substance, by 
 which means the organic vegetable matter is completely 
 removed. 
 
 Nitrogen-free Extract. — The nitrogen-free extract, 
 which includes starch, sugar, and gums, is usually deter- 
 mined by difference; that is, by subtracting the sum of 
 the water, crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre, and crude 
 ash from one hundred. This group, together with the 
 crude fibre, makes the total carbohydrates. 
 
 Statement of Analysis. — An example of the usual 
 method of reporting an analysis of a food is here 
 given : — 
 
 Water 16.3 per cent. 
 
 Crude Fat (extractive matter) 3.3 
 
 Crude Protein (nitrogenous substances) .... 12.3 
 
 Crude Ash (mineral matter) 6.2 
 
 Crude Fibre (cellulose and lignin) 24.8 
 
 Nitrogen-free Extract (starch, sugars, gums, etc.) 38.1 
 
 Functions of the Animal Body. — The object of 
 feeding is to furnish material for maintaining life, and 
 for building up the animal body; and each of the com- 
 pounds of the food exerts a specific function in the pro- 
 cess, though alone they are incapable of completely 
 
GROWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 145 
 
 nourishing the body and maintaining life. The change 
 of the food compounds or constituents into similar 
 animal products is accomplished in the living animal 
 by a series of what are termed "nutritive processes or 
 functions/^ and include digestion, circulation, respiration, 
 secretion, and absorption. 
 
 Digestion. — By digestion the solid matter of the food 
 is brought into a form capable of being absorbed by 
 the blood. Soluble food compounds, as sugar, are ab- 
 sorbed without digestion. Digestion is accomplished by 
 means of the digestive organs, — the mouth, stomach, and 
 intestines. In the mouth the food is ground fine and 
 mixed with the saliva, which, besides softening the food, 
 makes it alkaline, and starts a fermentation, which 
 changes the starch into sugar; when the masticated 
 food passes into the stomach — the fourth stomach in 
 the case of animals that chew their cuds — it comes in 
 contact with the gastric juice. This is an acid substance 
 which acts chiefly upon the albuminoids, converting them 
 into substances called "peptones," which are capable of 
 passing through the lining membranes of the stomach. 
 The food remains in the stomach a sufficient time to 
 bring every portion in contact with the gastric juice; it 
 then passes into the first intestine, where it meets with 
 other alkaline secretions, pancreatic juice and bile, which 
 complete the digestion of the starch, albuminoids, and 
 fat. The absorption of the dissolved constituents of the 
 food now remaining takes place finally in the small in- 
 testines; the soluble product passes into the blood, which 
 then nourishes the whole body ; the undigested portion 
 is expelled in the form of manure. 
 
146 FmST PRINCIPLES OF AOHICULTURE. 
 
 Respiration or Breathing. — The air taken into the 
 lungs consists chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen. When it 
 passes out it has lost about one-quarter of its oxygen, 
 and also contains a large amount of carbonic acid; the 
 oxygen has been absorbed by the blood, and the carbonic 
 acid carried out is the product of the oxidation or burn- 
 ing of old tissue. By this oxidation the heat of the 
 body is maintained, and kept in a healthy condition. 
 
 Excretion. — The products of oxidation of the animal 
 tissues are carbonic acid, water, urea, and mineral salts. 
 The carbonic acid, as already seen, is chiefly removed by 
 the lungs, and to some extent by the skin; the urea and 
 salts are removed by the kidneys, and the water by all 
 of the organs of excretion. 
 
 What is Food ? — It is thus seen that, in the processes 
 of life the substances contained in the food are changed 
 into animal product, and that this change is always 
 accompanied by loss. Any material capable of replacing 
 this loss, in whole or in part, is called a "fodder" or a 
 "feed;" and any single compound, like albumen or fat, 
 is called a "nutrient." The first essential in a feed is, 
 then, nutritious compounds ; these must, however, be pal- 
 atable, that is, capable of being eaten, and must possess 
 a certain bulk, in order to properly distend the stomach 
 and supply the needs of the animal in this respect, and 
 must be capable of, at least, partial digestion. 
 
 Fodders and Feeds. — Common usage has divided 
 animal foods into two classes, coarse fodders and con- 
 centrated fodders, or fodders and feeds. By fodders are 
 commonly understood those products whose chief charac- 
 teristic is bulk; hay, cornstalks, and straw, belong to 
 
GBOWTH OF ANIMALS ; ANIMAL FOOD. 147 
 
 tMs class. By feeds are understood the more highly 
 concentrated materials ; the cereal grains, buckwheat, peas, 
 and the mill products belong to this class. Thus, fod- 
 ders may be classified as hay, straws, green fodders, roots, 
 and tubers; and feeds as grains, mill-feeds, and refuse 
 products. 
 
 Hay. — Hay produced from the true grasses, as tim- 
 othy, orchard grass, herd's-grass, and others, is bulky, and 
 is characterized by a high content of carbohydrates, in- 
 cluding crude fibre, and a low content of crude fat and 
 crude protein; that made from the clovers, — red, alsike, 
 and crimson, — while also bulky, is much richer in protein 
 than the others. Hay is variable in its composition; its 
 quality depending upon the kind or variety, the character 
 of soil, the stage of growth at time of cutting, and the 
 method of curing. The chief influence of the kind of soil 
 is upon the content of crude protein ; the richer the soil, 
 the richer the hay is likely to be in this substance. 
 
 Early or Late Cut Hay. — Early cut hay is also richer 
 in crude protein, and poorer in crude fibre, than late cut : 
 for, although an increase in the weight of dry matter may 
 occur, it is chiefly in the substance cellulose, or crude 
 fibre ; besides, a material loss of the more nutritious com- 
 pounds is likely to take place if it is allowed to ripen 
 thoroughly. 
 
 The Best Time for Cutting Hay. — The best time for 
 cutting is when the plants are in blossom ; since little, if 
 any, food is absorbed from the soil after that period. Hay 
 that has been subjected to frequent rains, and consequent 
 increased handling, suffers great loss, which falls almost 
 entirely upon the most nutritious parts. This is particu- 
 
148 FIRST PBINCIPLE8 OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 larly true of clover hay ; the leaves, which are subject to 
 loss in handling, contain the highest content of protein, 
 while the stems consist largely of cellulose or fibre. The 
 loss by repeated wetting, which may reach as high as 
 forty per cent of the dry matter, consists almost entirely 
 of the class carbohydrates. Crude fibre suffers but little 
 loss. 
 
 Corn grown for fodder, from which such ears as are 
 formed are not removed, corresponds more nearly with 
 hay in composition than with straw and stalks, though 
 containing much less crude fibre. 
 
 Straw and Stalks. — These possess, in a greater degree 
 than hay, the characteristic bulk, since the nutritive mat- 
 ter that first existed in the straw has passed into the seeds, 
 which have been removed ; the straw is consequently 
 poorer in protein and carbohydrates, and richer in fibre, 
 than good hay, and shows a proportionately lower rate of 
 digestibility. The food compounds in straw after diges- 
 tion are, however, quite as valuable, and serve their 
 purpose quite as well as those contained in hay. The 
 variations in composition of straw are due to the same 
 conditions as those which affect hay. 
 
 Wheat and rye straw are poorer in protein and fat, and 
 richer in the carbohydrates and fibre, and are coarser 
 and harsher, than oat straw. Corn stalks or stover — the 
 stalks from which the ears have been removed — are richer 
 in protein and fat, and poorer in fibre and carbohydrates, 
 than the straws ; they compare fairly well with hay in 
 their composition. All of these products, however, if prop- 
 erly cured, serve an excellent purpose in furnishing both 
 bulk and nutritious compounds, and should be utilized. 
 
GROWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 149 
 
 Green Fodders. — Green fodders are watery in char- 
 acter, though they contain the same proportion of food 
 compounds as the hay made from them, provided no loss 
 occurs in making the hay. The disadvantage of handling 
 the large amounts of water contained in green fodders is 
 frequently balanced by a decreased loss in dry matter, due 
 to handling in a green state, and by an increased palata- 
 bility and succulence. 
 
 Ensilage. — Ensilage is fodder corn, clover, rye, or other 
 green food, preserved in such a manner — usually in air- 
 tight buildings called silos — as to retain in large part 
 all of the qualities of the original product. It is highly 
 regarded, particularly on dairy farms, where succulence 
 in a fodder is a matter of importance. The losses due 
 to fermentation occurring in the silo or pit are con- 
 siderable, and fall chiefly upon the class carbohydrates; 
 though, according to experiments already conducted, the 
 total loss is less by this method than by curing in the field. 
 
 Tubers and Roots. — These all contain large amounts 
 of water, ranging from seventy-five per cent in potatoes 
 to over ninety per cent in turnips. Their value as food 
 depends, perhaps, quite as much upon their succulence, 
 palatability, high rate of digestibility, and good effect upon 
 the animal system, as upon the food constituents, which 
 consist almost entirely of carbohydrates. 
 
 Cereal Grains. — The grains or seeds of the cereals are 
 the most important of the feeds. They are especially 
 suited for all kinds of farm animals, and for the various 
 purposes of feeding. They are rich in the three groups 
 of food compounds described, are reasonably constant 
 in composition, and possess a high rate of digestibility. 
 
150 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Com and oats are the cereal grains most largely used for 
 animal food. Of these corn is richer in carbohydrates, 
 and is used to the greatest extent for fattening, and oats 
 almost exclusively as a food for horses, for which it is 
 peculiarly adapted, both in bulk and in proportion of 
 food constituents. 
 
 Mill-Feeds and Refuse Products. — These consist 
 of the ground grains of corn, oats, and rye, either singly 
 or mixed, and the residues of grains or seeds after their 
 use for other purposes has been accomplished. The latter 
 differ from the whole-grain feeds in showing a higher 
 content of nitrogenous matter. 
 
 Bran and Middlings. — Bran and middlings derived in 
 the manufacture of flour consist of the outer coverings 
 of the grains used, mixed with more or less of the germ, 
 and are richer in fat, protein, and ash than the original 
 grain, the flour containing a much larger proportion of 
 the carbohydrates. They are very useful when fed in 
 connection with the fodders, since they supply in a con- 
 centrated form the nutrients usually deficient in these 
 products. The middlings are, on the whole, better than 
 bran, since they contain less crude fibre and more carbo- 
 hydrates. Both bran and middlings vary somewhat in 
 composition, due to differences in methods of manufac- 
 tui-e, and also to variations in the composition of the 
 original product ; these variations are, however, less 
 marked than those which occur in the various fodders. 
 
 Brewers' Grains. — Brewers' grains, which represent 
 the bran of barley, and malt sprouts, which are the dried 
 germs of the same grain, are derived in the manufacture 
 of beer from barley. The grains when they have served 
 
GBOWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 151 
 
 the purpose of the brewer are very wet, containing, on the 
 average, seventy-five per cent of water ; in this condition 
 they are somewhat richer in the food compounds than 
 green fodders, and are an excellent feed. They are, how- 
 ever, liable to ferment rapidly, especially in warm weather, 
 which causes serious loss, besides making them unfit for 
 food. The grains, when dried before fermentation sets 
 in, make a wholesome and highly concentrated food, 
 richer in both fat and protein than bran or middlings, 
 and because of their high food value and bulk are an 
 excellent substitute for oats. Malt sprouts are also rich 
 in protein, though poorer in fat than the dried grains. 
 
 Gluten Feeds. — Gluten feeds occur as residues in 
 the manufacture of either starch or glucose (grape sugar) 
 from maize or Indian corn, and consist of a series of 
 products, which, when dried, are classed as gluten feed, 
 gluten meal, germ meal, and corn bran. Gluten feed 
 consists of the entire residue; it is quite bulky, and 
 much richer in fat and protein than the original com. 
 In gluten meal the hull or germ of the corn has been 
 removed, thus largely increasing the content of both fat 
 and protein. It is one of the most concentrated of the 
 nitrogenous feeds, and should be used with great care. 
 The germ meal contains a large proportion of the germ 
 of the corn. It contains more fat and less carbohydrates 
 than corn, and about the same amount of protein. Corn 
 bran usually consists of a mixture of the germ and hulls 
 of the corn. It contains about the same amount of fat 
 and protein as corn, with less carbohydrates and more 
 fibre. It is more bulky than the others. Germ meal 
 and corn bran serve as excellent substitutes for corn 
 
162 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGBICULTURE. 
 
 meal. Brewers' grains and all of the gluten products 
 contain much less ash than the original barley or corn, 
 the soluble salts being extracted in the process of manu- 
 facture. 
 
 Hominy Meal. — Hominy meal, a residue in the manu- 
 facture of hominy, consists chiefly of the germ and hull 
 of the corn, and corresponds in composition with the 
 germ meal, though much richer in ash. 
 
 Cottonseed Meal. — Cottonseed meal is derived in 
 the manufacture of cottonseed oil from the cottonseed. 
 This feed is of two kinds : one in which the hulls of the 
 seed have been removed, in which case it is called " de- 
 corticated;" the other called " undecorticated," in which 
 the hulls have not been removed. Both are rich in pro- 
 tein and fat ; though the former is far superior as a food, 
 both because of its higher content of nutrients, and its 
 greater palatability and digestibility. The concentration 
 and nitrogenous character of these feeds make them 
 very valuable, particularly when fed in connection with 
 coarse products, though because of their concentration 
 they should be used with great care. 
 
 Linseed Meal. — This product, sometimes called oil 
 meal, is a residue from the manufacture of oil from flax- 
 seed, and is of two kinds, called " old process " and " new 
 process ; " the former derived when the fat is extracted 
 by pressure, the other when solvents are used. There 
 is but little difference in their feeding value, the larger 
 amount of fat in the "old process" being balanced by 
 an increased amount of protein in the "new process." 
 Both are rich in protein, and show a high rate of di- 
 gestibility. 
 
GROWTH OF ANIMALS; ANIMAL FOOD. 153 
 
 Rice Bran, Peanut Meal. — These are also excellent 
 feeds, though not so generally distributed. It should be 
 remembered, however, that all these mentioned, and a 
 number of minor importance, are valuable for their con- 
 tent of fat, protein, and carbohydrates; that many of 
 them represent the more valuable parts of grains ; that 
 they are quite as much feeds as if existing in their 
 original natural condition, and should find a place on all 
 well-managed farms. 
 
154 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER XIIL 
 
 The Digestibility of Fodders and Feeds; Feeding Standards; 
 Nutritive Ratio ; The Exchange of Farm Products for Con- 
 centrated Feeds. 
 
 The nourishment tliat may be derived from any food 
 depends not only upon its composition in reference to 
 the specific food substances that it contains, but also 
 upon the amount of these that may be digested by the 
 animal. 
 
 Digestibility of Fodders and Feeds. — Pure nu- 
 trients, as albumen, starch, or fat, are regarded as 
 entirely digestible. These nutrients, however, do not 
 exist in the various feeding materials in a pure state. 
 They are associated with substances that are indigesti- 
 ble, or that hinder their digestibility; hence the entire 
 digestibility of a food is governed both by the purity 
 of the nutrients which it contains, and by the ab- 
 sence of those compounds which prevent the complete 
 action of the digestive fluids. 
 
 Seeds of plants, as a rule, contain matter of a readily 
 digestible character; that is, the nutrients contained in 
 them are relatively pure: but they are, in many cases, 
 enclosed in a hard shell, and, particularly if swallowed 
 whole, resist the action of the digestive processes, thus 
 preventing the digestion of the entire seed. In the 
 
FODDERS AND FEEDS. 155 
 
 same manner the nutrients in sucli products as hay and 
 straw frequently pass through the animal undigested, 
 because they are surrounded by the woody and almost 
 impervious fibre of the cell wall, which prevents the 
 attack of the digestive fluids. 
 
 Fodders, therefore, on account of the great proportion 
 of fibre they contain, are less digestible than the finely 
 ground concentrated feeds. The cutting and crushing 
 of the coarse fodders, and the fine grinding of the vari- 
 ous grains and seeds, favorably influence the rate of 
 digestibility. The digestibility of a fodder or a feed 
 is also influenced by other conditions, such as the pro- 
 portion of the three classes of food constituents con- 
 tained in it ; the period of growth at time of harvesting 
 the forage ; methods of curing and storage ; the kind 
 or breed of animal to which it is fed ; the age of the 
 animal, its* individual peculiarities ; and many other in- 
 fluences of a minor character, all of which should be 
 regarded in the preparation of rations. 
 
 The Digestion Co-efficients; Their Derivation and 
 Use. — The relative digestibility of the different prod- 
 ucts for various purposes under ordinary conditions of 
 feeding, have been determined by actual feeding experi- 
 ments. Such experiments have been conducted both 
 here and in Europe, and the data derived from a large 
 number are of great service in determining the com- 
 parative value of the different feeds. In these experi- 
 ments, the food and manure are weighed, and the 
 analyses made ; and the difference between the total 
 amount of the constituents in the food and in the 
 dung shows how much of each has been digested ; 
 
156 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the amount or the per cent digested is called "the di- 
 gestion co-efficient." 
 
 For example, it is found by experiments that clover 
 hay of average quality shows digestible : — 
 
 Fat 43 per cent. 
 
 Fibre 48 " 
 
 Protein 49 " 
 
 Nitrogen-free extract 58 " 
 
 These figures represent the proportion or pounds per 
 hundred of the various constituents digested, and are used 
 in calculating the digestibility of other samples of the 
 same kind of product of average quality. They are the 
 digestion co-efficients. 
 
 The average composition of clover hay is : — 
 
 "Water 15.3 per cent. 
 
 Crude Fat 3.3 
 
 Crude Fibre 24.8 
 
 Crude Protein 12.3 
 
 Crude Ash 6.2 
 
 Nitrogen-free extract 38.1 
 
 The calculation of the digestibility of clover hay is, 
 therefore, as follows : — 
 
 Digestible Fat . . . . 
 
 Digestible Fibre . . . 
 
 Digestible Protein . . 
 
 Nitrogen-free extract . 
 
 3.3x0.43= 1.42 per cent. 
 24.8X0.48 = 11.90 " 
 12.3 X 0.49= 6.03 " 
 38.1X0.58 = 22.10 " 
 
 The digestible fibre has been found to consist of cel- 
 lulose ; hence, in stating the digestibility of a food, the 
 per cent of crude fibre digested is added to the nitrogen- 
 free extract, and the result stated as follows : — 
 
 Fat 1.42 per cent. 
 
 Protein 6.03 " 
 
 Carbohydrates 34.00 " 
 
FODDERS AND FEEDS. 157 
 
 The Objects of Feeding. — The objects for which, 
 we feed are : 1. Simply to maintain life ; that is, to 
 replace by food the natural wastes of the body conse- 
 quent upon the simple exercise of the vital functions, 
 as described in the previous chapter; and 2. To main- 
 tain life, and at the same time to increase animal prod- 
 uct or work. It is in carrying out the second object 
 that skill and knowledge are required, in order that 
 the use of the food may result in the greatest and most 
 economical production. 
 
 Animal Products Differ in Their Character and 
 Composition. — The different results accomplished by 
 feeding, as maintenance of life, the production of milk, 
 flesh, fat, wool, etc., are not only different in their char- 
 acter, but in order to secure them at the least outlay of 
 actual nutrients, different proportions of the digestible 
 compounds contained in feeds must be provided. 
 
 In the simple maintenance of life, where there is no 
 gain in flesh, the chief nutrients required are those 
 which best supply the heat and energy necessary to 
 maintain the vital processes ; viz., non-nitrogenous sub- 
 stances : hence it is that hay, straw, and stalks, which 
 possess the requisite bulk, and are rich in this class of 
 substances, serve an excellent purpose in the prepara- 
 tion of maintenance rations for cattle and horses. 
 
 To secure a product rich in protein, as milk or flesh, 
 the feeds must contain a greater proportion of protein 
 than is necessary when the object of feeding is fat, 
 since the digestible protein of the food is the sole source 
 of the protein in the body ; while all the nutrients may 
 contribute to the formation of the fat. In a young ani- 
 
168 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 mal, too, a large portion of the nutriment is used in 
 making muscle, tissue, and bone; while in a mature ani- 
 mal the amount of the food constituents that go to form 
 new products is comparatively small, the larger portion 
 being used in maintaining animal heat. 
 
 The proportion of the three general classes of ^ood 
 compounds should therefore be different for the various 
 purposes of feeding. 
 
 The Proportion of the Food Constituents Re- 
 quired for the Different Purposes of Feeding. — 
 Experiments in feeding animals have been conducted 
 in which all variable conditions have as far as possible 
 been controlled, in order to secure exact data as to the 
 proper proportions in a ration, as well as the amounts of 
 the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous substances required 
 for the various purposes of feeding. The results of these 
 experiments have led to the fixing of what are termed 
 " feeding standards ; " that is, statements of the amounts 
 of digestible protein, or albuminoids, fat and carbohy- 
 drates, which appear to be, and are perhaps under aver- 
 age conditions, best adapted to the various conditions of 
 the animal and the numerous purposes of feeding. 
 
 Feeding Standards. — The " feeding standards " in 
 most common use are those of the German experimenter 
 Wolff, which are given in the Appendix. For example, 
 his standard ration per day for a milch cow of one thou- 
 sand pounds live weight, in full flow, requires twenty-five 
 pounds of organic substance, which shall contain 0.40 
 (i.e.y four-tenths) pounds of digestible fat, 2.60 pounds of 
 digestible protein, and 12.60 pounds of digestible car- 
 bohydrates. A ration for dairy cows showing these 
 
FODDERS AND FEED. 159 
 
 amounts and proportions, or, in fact, any ration conform- 
 ing to the required ^^ standard," is also called a " balanced 
 ration," and one showing other proportions is called ^' un- 
 balanced.'' These expressions are used to indicate that 
 the proportions in the "balanced ration" are such as to 
 insure the best use by the animal of all the food constit- 
 uents contained in it ; while in the " unbalanced ration " 
 the proportions are such as to indicate a waste of one or 
 the other classes of food compounds, because contained 
 in quantities exceeding the needs of the animal. For 
 instance, if a milch cow is fed a ration higher in car- 
 bohydrates, and lower in protein, than is indicated by 
 the standard, she will, of necessity, in order to secure 
 the requisite protein, consume more carbohydrates than the 
 system requires, thus entailing a waste of this sub- 
 stance. 
 
 The Usefulness of Feeding Standards. — It is evi- 
 dent that the amounts and proportions of digestible food 
 compounds given by the standard are not the best for 
 every cow under all conditions of full milk flow ; for dif- 
 ferent cows differ not only in their capacity to utilize 
 food, but also in the amount of milk produced when in 
 full flow. The same holds true of standards for other 
 animals ; that which is the best for one may not be the 
 best for another. 
 
 Feeding standards are, therefore, mainly useful as 
 guides in the selection of food products for the prepara- 
 tion of rations ; and, though they should not be regarded 
 as positive rules, the experiments conducted in connec- 
 tion with the experience of practical feeders indicate 
 that the amount and proportion of the digestible food 
 
160 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 compounds given by the standard can be followed with 
 great advantage. In many cases, too, while the propor- 
 tions given by the standards would furnish the greatest 
 return for the amount fed, other proportions, because 
 of the prices of feed, may give the largest money re- 
 turns to the feeder. The use of feeding standards must 
 be accompanied with judgment on the part of the feeder 
 regarding the individuality of the animal, and the char- 
 acter of feeds and their cost, as well as the object of 
 feeding. That is, animals must be fed as individuals, 
 with peculiarities of appetite, digestion, and assimila- 
 tion, not as fixed machines. 
 
 Nutritive Batio. — In a ration for simple mainte- 
 nance, the proportion of the fats and carbohydrates to- 
 gether may be greatly in excess of the digestible 
 protein; while for the production of milk, or of flesh 
 products which are rich in albumen and casein, the 
 direct and only source of these compounds, viz., digest- 
 ible protein, should be proportionately increased. The 
 proportion of the one class of substances to the other 
 is called "nutritive ratio," and is obtained as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 The sum of the digestible carbohydrates and two and 
 one-fourth times the digestible fat is divided by the 
 digestible protein in the ration ; the quotient gives the 
 nutritive ratio. The calculation of the nutritive ratio 
 of clover hay, from the analysis and digestibility given 
 on page 156, will serve as an example of the method : — 
 
 Digestible Fat, X 21 = 3.19 
 
 Digestible Carbohydrates = .'H.OO 
 
 37.19 
 Digestible Protein 6.03 
 
FODDERS AND FEEDS. 161 
 
 The nutritive ratio is 6.03 to 37.19, or 1 to 6.2 ; that 
 is, one part of digestible nitrogenous substances, some- 
 times called "flesh formers," to &,2 parts of digestible 
 non-nitrogenous matter, or " fat formers." 
 
 Wide vs. Narrow Rations. — If the quantities of 
 digestible fat and carbohydrates are large relatively to 
 the protein, this number will be large, and the ration is 
 called a " wide ration." If the quantities of digestible 
 fat and carbohydrates are relatively small, the quotient 
 is a small number, and the ration is a " narrow " one. 
 A ration where the nutritive ratio is much more than 
 1 to 6 may be called a " wide ration," if much less it may 
 be called a " narrow ration." 
 
 Very few natural feeds conform closely to the stan- 
 dards given for the various purposes of feeding. Coarse 
 farm products show a very wide nutritive ratio, and 
 are only well adapted for maintenance ; while many of 
 the concentrated feeds show a much narrower nutritive 
 ratio than is called for by the standards, even for the 
 production of milk or flesh. This makes it necessary, in 
 order to economically use food products, to combine those 
 rich in carbohydrates, or possessing a wide nutritive 
 ratio, with those rich in protein, and possessing a nar- 
 row ratio. 
 
 The Preparation of Rations. — The preparation of 
 rations requires, however, more than a simple combina- 
 tion of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous foods in such a 
 manner as to secure the proper nutritive ratio. The 
 bulk of the ration, as well as the palatability and digest- 
 ibility must be regarded; there must be sufficient bulk 
 to properly distend the stomach; food too concentrated 
 
162 FIB8T PRINCIPLES OF AORICULTUBE. 
 
 in character, though supplying the requisite nutrients, 
 causes an uneasy and unsatisfied feeling, and it is evi- 
 dent that bulk should be different for the cow than for 
 the horse or pig. For milch cows it may consist, in 
 large measure, of straw, which is partially digestible, 
 and usually palatable; while for the horse or pig an 
 abundance of straw would serve a less useful purpose, 
 because of the smaller size and different formation of 
 the stomach, and because in the latter the food is not 
 re-masticated, as is the case with the cow. 
 
 Palatability is also an important feature, since the 
 amount of animal product secured is largely dependent 
 upon the amount of food the animal can be made to 
 consume over an^" above that necessary to maintain life. 
 Too much indigestible matter must also be avoided ; since 
 it is liable to disarrange the system, because of the 
 extra work required to properly dispose of it. 
 
 To insure the minimum waste of nutritious matter, 
 such coarse products as corn-stalks and straw, which in 
 their original state are not readily and completely eaten 
 by animals, must be cut, the coarser and finer portions 
 intimately mixed, and feeds of known relish added. 
 
 The following examples show how various fodders and 
 feeds may be combined in order to secure such propor- 
 tions of the digestible food compounds as experiments 
 and experience have taught us are well adapted to the 
 purposes indicated, while at the same time possessing 
 the features discussed in reference to bulk and palata- 
 bility. The tables in the Appendix furnish the data 
 necessary for the calculation of digestibility and nutri- 
 tive ratio : — 
 
FODDERS AND FEEDS. 
 
 163 
 
 Daily Rations Based Upon 1,000 lbs. live Weight. 
 
 For Growing Cattle, 
 6-12 months' old. 
 
 15 pounds Com Stalks. 
 10 " Wheat Bran. 
 3 " Linseed Meal. 
 
 20 pounds Clover Hay. 
 6 " Com Meal. 
 2 " Linseed Meal. 
 
 For FATTENiNa Stock. 
 
 2. 
 
 10 pounds Timothy Hay. 
 8 " Oat Straw. 
 
 5 " Com Meal. 
 
 6 " Wheat Bran. 
 
 3 " Cottonseed Meal. 
 
 10 pounds Com Stalks. 
 6 ** Wheat Straw. 
 6 " Wheat Middlings. 
 3 " Linseed Meal. 
 5 ** Com Meal. 
 
 For Milch Cows. 
 
 1. 
 
 5 pounds Timothy Hay. 
 
 10 pounds Mixed Hay. 
 
 5 ' 
 
 Shredded Corn Stalks. 
 
 4 
 
 Com Meal. 
 
 6 • 
 
 Com and Oat Meal. 
 
 4 
 
 * Malt Sprouts. 
 
 6 ' 
 
 Wheat Bran. 
 
 3 
 
 ' Wheat Bran. 
 
 2 * 
 
 Cottonseed Meal. 
 
 2 
 
 * Linseed Meal. 
 
 8 * 
 
 Roots. 
 
 1 
 
 Cottonseed Meal 
 
 Horses for Farm Work. 
 
 12 pounds Timothy Hay. 
 6 •' Com. 
 4 " Oats. 
 1 " Linseed Meal. 
 
 Horses for Road Work. 
 
 10 pounds Timothy Hay. 
 10 " Oats. 
 
 6 " Wheat Bran. 
 
 2 " Linseed Meal. 
 
 These rations, however, are intended to show chiefly 
 good proportions of the various materials; the amounts 
 should be adjusted by the feeder to best meet the require- 
 ments of the individual animal. Care in respect to feed- 
 ing is quite as important as the selection of the various 
 products. The amount and kind of concentrated feed 
 are also matters of importance. The highly nitrogenous 
 cottonseed, linseed, and gluten meals must be fed in 
 small amounts, ranging from two to four pounds per day 
 
164 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 for milch cows; while bran, dried brewers' grains, and 
 com meal, can be safely fed in larger quantities. It is 
 desirable, when possible, to make the ration consist of 
 a small quantity each of a number of feeds, rather than a 
 larger quantity of one or two ; since it usually adds to the 
 palatability, lessens the danger of overfeeding, and per- 
 mits a frequent change of diet. 
 
 Practical Methods of Using Balanced Rations. — 
 Where the appliances for making weights at each feed 
 are not at hand, and it is preferable to measure, the dif- 
 ferent materials should be weighed at least once, and 
 the relation between a certain weight and a certain bulk 
 ascertained. The weight or measure of feed for a day's 
 ration for a herd may be mixed together in the propor- 
 tions given, and in feeding they should be distributed 
 in such a way as to give animals of different weights 
 and capacities for using food that amount best adapted 
 for them. In feeding dairy animals, where there are a 
 number of dry cows, the mixtures for each lot would 
 better be made separately. For horses, the grain or feed 
 rations for work and maintenance may each be mixed in 
 considerable quantities, and placed in separate bins. 
 
 Exchange of Farm Products For Concentrated 
 Feeds. — A comparison of the nutritive ratio of the 
 various natural farm products, — hay, grain, straw, and 
 corn stalks or fodder — and of the various feeding stand- 
 ards, as already indicated, shows that, with few excep- 
 tions aside from the maintenance ration, these contain 
 a decided excess of carbohydrates, or, in other words, 
 the nutritive ratio of the various farm products is too 
 wide when the purpose of feeding is increase in aTiimal 
 
FODDERS AND FEEDS. 165 
 
 product. This is even more striking if only the coarse 
 products — hay, straw, stalks, and corn — are retained by 
 the farmer for his purposes ; hence, in the purchase of 
 feeds that shall balance rations made from home-grown 
 produce, those should be selected which show a narrow 
 nutritive ration or an excess of protein. 
 
 Actual Practice is Often Wasteful In too many 
 
 cases in actual practice, in order to enrich the ration 
 fed, constituents are added that are already in excess ; 
 and hence, while an increase in result may be obtained, 
 there is also an increased waste of valuable constituents. 
 To add corn meal, an excellent food product, to corn 
 fodder or corn stalks, — that is, carbohydrates to carbo- 
 hydrates, — in the preparation of rations for dairy cows, 
 may increase the product of the dairy, but it is by 
 virtue of an increased total consumption of food, because 
 of the more concentrated character of the ration, rather 
 than by an economical use of the constituents. A waste 
 of food is only warranted when it is cheaper to waste 
 than to utilize. 
 
 Economy in Selling Grain and Buying Feed. — In 
 many cases, too, the cost of the nutrients in the com- 
 mercial concentrated feeds is much less than is secured 
 by the farmer for the same nutrients in whole grains ; 
 under such circumstances, to sell the larger part of his 
 grain and hay crops, and to purchase in return those 
 feeds which will enable him to utilize his coarse prod- 
 ucts, like straw and corn stalks, to the best advantage, 
 is a desirable practice. It must be remembered that the 
 waste or refuse feed products usually consist of parts 
 of grain, and hence, so far as nutrients go, are quite 
 as serviceable as the original products. 
 
166 FIB8T PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Fertility in Feeds A fodder or feed has a fertiliz- 
 ing value by virtue of the manurial constituents — nitro- 
 gen, phosphoric acid, and potash — contained in it. Corn, 
 oats, hay, wheat, or other crops, when sold from the 
 farm, carry with them a certain portion of these con- 
 stituents ; and the sale of these products continued for a 
 long time must result in the exhaustion of the soil. If 
 they are returned to the land in whole or in part, they 
 will aid in the growth of other plants, and the time of 
 exhaustion is postponed. 
 
 The Relative Fertility of Fodders and Feeds. — 
 Eodders are much less valuable as direct manures than 
 the feeds, — first, because they contain less of the essential 
 constituents ; and second, because, from their woody char- 
 acter, their decay is less rapid, though both are valuable 
 as indirect manures, because of their high content of or- 
 ganic vegetable matter. The direct fertilizing value of a 
 feed is largely measured by its content of nitrogen ; though 
 the ash constituents, phosphoric acid and potash, are also 
 of considerable importance. 
 
 Mill-Feeds vs. Commercial Fertilizers Fine- 
 ground mill-feeds, though less concentrated, are quite 
 as good sources of available organic nitrogen as the best 
 commercial forms furnishing that element ; the phosphoric 
 acid is less valuable than when contained in forms com- 
 pletely soluble in water, because decay must take place 
 before it becomes available to the plant ; while the potash, 
 which is largely soluble in water, is regarded as equiva- 
 lent in value to that contained in forms free from muri- 
 ates. Of all the feeds we have, cottonseed meal is the 
 richest in fertilizing constituents. In the Southern States 
 
FODDERS AND FEEDS. 167 
 
 it is used directly as a manure, and even in the Northern 
 States it is one of the cheapest sources of organic nitro- 
 gen. Linseed meal, malt sprouts, dried brewers* grains, 
 and a number of others, are much richer in nitrogen than 
 the average commercial fertilizer, though their higher rela- 
 tive cost forbids their direct use as nitrogenous manures. 
 
 Refuse Feeds are Rich in Fertility. — Feeds, there- 
 fore, in addition to their food value, possess an actual and 
 sometimes a considerable value as a fertilizer. This point 
 should be carefully regarded in their purchase, and espe- 
 cially as bearing upon the point already emphasized : viz., 
 the exchange of home-grown produce for them ; for it is 
 an important fact that the crops grown which contain the 
 highest amount of carbohydrates, and thus in many cases 
 the most desirable to dispose of from the standpoint of 
 economical feeding, are those which contain the smallest 
 amounts of the fertilizing constituents ; while those com- 
 mercial feeds containing protein in large amounts — the 
 substance usually deficient in home-grown produce — are 
 rich in nitrogen, and often richer also in ash constituents. 
 Hence it is that on farms where stock is kept, a judicious 
 exchange of farm products for concentrated feeds may 
 result in soil improvement, rather than soil exhaustion, 
 even with the continuous sale of crops. • It is a^ fact, too 
 that the prices of feeds, as well as the crops sold, are 
 governed entirely by market conditions ; that is, no ac- 
 count is made of the fertility value, hence the fertilizer 
 constituents gained by this exchange are a clear gain to 
 the farmer. 
 
 A good example of the advantages of a careful obser- 
 vation of these points is shown by a comparison of corn 
 
168 FIB8T PBINCIPLE8 OF AGBICULTURE. 
 
 meal and wheat middlings, valuable food products, which 
 
 contain practically equivalent amounts of total digestible 
 
 food, and which usually cost about the same price per 
 
 ton: — 
 
 Poxjinos OF 
 Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash. 
 One ton of Com Meal contains ... 33 14 8 
 
 One ton of Wheat Middlings contains .50 28 14 
 
 Excess in Middlings 17 14 6 
 
 That is, by the exchange of one ton of com meal for one 
 ton of wheat middlings, there is not only no loss of fertil- 
 ity, but a gain in mineral constituents nearly equivalent 
 to that contained in one ton of the corn meal. The use of 
 tables in the Appendix will enable the student to make 
 correct comparisons of the fertility values of the chief 
 farm crops and purchased feeds. 
 
 Manurial Value. — The direct fertilizing value of a 
 ton of feed is, however, greater than the manurial value of 
 the same; since, in feeding, a portion of the fertilizing 
 constituents is retained in the animal itself or obtained 
 in animal product, the amount depending upon the kind 
 of animal, and the object of feeding. 
 
 The quantity of nitrogen and ash constituents voided in 
 the manure of a grown animal, neither gaining nor losing 
 in weight, will be nearly the same as that contained in 
 the food consumed. In case animals are increasing in size, 
 producing young, or furnishing milk or wool, the nitrogen 
 and ash constituents in the manui'e will be less than in the 
 food, in direct proportion to the quantity of these sub- 
 stances which have been converted into animal products. 
 
 The data secured in experiments by Lawes & Gilbert, 
 at Rothamsted, England, contained in the following table, 
 
FODDERS AND FEEDS. 
 
 169 
 
 are perhaps fairly representative of tlie amounts of fer- 
 tilizer constituents retained from the feeds in the various 
 animal products : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Percentage 
 
 
 Percentage 
 
 OF NiTBOGEK. 
 
 OF Ash 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 '3 . 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 ti 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 ^^ 
 
 .^^ 
 
 S 
 
 2^ 
 
 se 
 
 
 §-§ 
 
 
 ^§ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ss 
 
 »*? 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 rt o -• 
 
 
 
 <D O 
 
 <c « 
 
 O fl 
 
 
 <s ^.^ 
 
 
 "Ss'S 
 
 -d H 
 
 'O >< 
 
 H £ 
 
 'Si^ 
 
 -d 5-S 
 
 
 SS 
 
 •SH 
 
 •sw 
 
 fl^ 
 
 :s^ 
 
 •3 a 2 
 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 t> 
 
 Horse at Best 
 
 None 
 
 43.0 
 
 57.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 None 
 
 100.0 
 
 Horse at Work .... 
 
 None 
 
 29.4 
 
 70.6 
 
 100.0 
 
 None 
 
 100.0 
 
 Fattening Oxen .... 
 
 3.9 
 
 22.6 
 
 73.5 
 
 96.1 
 
 2.3 
 
 97.7 
 
 Fattening Sheep .... 
 
 4.3 
 
 16.7 
 
 79.0 
 
 95.7 
 
 3.8 
 
 96.2 
 
 Fattening Pigs 
 
 14.7 
 
 22.0 
 
 63.3 
 
 85.2 
 
 4.0 
 
 96.0 
 
 Milking Cows 
 
 24.5 
 
 18.1 
 
 57.4 
 
 75.5 
 
 10.3 
 
 89.7 
 
 Manurial Constituents should be saved. — The 
 
 amount of fertilizer constituents voided in the manure 
 may, however, be greater than the amount actually pres- 
 ent when the manure is used, because of the losses that 
 may occur between the time it is produced and the time 
 it is applied to the land; hence the precautions given 
 in a previous chapter concerning the care and manage- 
 ment of manures should be carefully followed. 
 
170 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 CHAPTER Xiy. 
 Principles of Breeding ; The Pure Breeds of Farm Stock. 
 
 The various breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, and swine, 
 are the result in large measure of attempts to secure the 
 best. A single breed of cattle, for instance, could not meet 
 in the best manner all the requirements that the numerous 
 conditions now demand. We must have animals adapted 
 for a definite specific production, rather than for general 
 purposes ; viz., work, speed, endurance, butter, milk, meat, 
 wool, and fat. A distinct breed is one which possesses 
 distinct characteristics of color, form, and habit, which 
 are transmitted without material change to the offspring. 
 The best breed is that which best meets the demands 
 in any specific case. 
 
 Principles of Breeding. — Breeding is an art rather 
 than an exact science, though it is scientific in that it 
 is based upon scientific principles or natural laws. These 
 must be observed in order both to attain and to retain 
 the specific characteristics desired. 
 
 Heredity, or the law that "like begets like," is the 
 most important. It is regarded as the corner-stone of the 
 art. This law applies not only to outward form, but also 
 to the entire characteristics; animals inherit the quali- 
 ties, habits, and tendencies of their parents, both good and 
 bad. The results of this law of descent are observable 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BBEEDING. 171 
 
 on all sides, both in the lower animals and in man. Cer- 
 tain families have certain peculiarities or habits, good or 
 bad, that are directly traceable to their ancestors ; that 
 is, animals bred true to a given idea or type for a long 
 time acquire fixed characters or peculiarities, which they 
 are capable of transmitting unimpaired to their offspring. 
 
 The law of heredity is, however, only true in a general 
 sense. It is not absolute ; if it were, the improvement of 
 live stock would be impossible. Certain other natural 
 tendencies are constantly active to modify the law of 
 heredity. 
 
 Atavism, or Reversion, is the name given to qual- 
 ities or habits in the offspring which were not possessed 
 by the immediate parents, but which were possessed by 
 some remote ancestor. This law of atavism, or tendency 
 to go back to an original type, is familiar to all breeders, 
 and frequently causes annoyance, particularly where fine 
 points in breeding are regarded as important. Many in- 
 stances are recorded in the various herd-books of the ap- 
 pearance of calves with a color totally different from that 
 of their immediate parents, and the appearance of an ani- 
 mal with horns is a quite common occurrence among the 
 recognized hornless breeds of cattle. 
 
 Variation is a tendency in the offspring to be un- 
 like their parents. It is by virtue of this law of variation, 
 which is readily influenced by artificial conditions, that 
 rapid changes in types may be effected and new breeds 
 formed. 
 
 The great gain in maturity and meat-producing qual- 
 ities of certain breeds of cattle is due in a great measure 
 to better methods of feeding, in connection with greater 
 
172 FIBST PBINCIPLE8 OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 care in breeding. This influence has been so marked as 
 to give rise to the common expression that "feed makes 
 breed." Habit also exercises a marked influence in the 
 development of valuable characteristics, a striking example 
 of which is observed in the breeds of milch cows. The 
 habit of giving milk, which has been encouraged for a 
 long time, has caused a change in the structure and func- 
 tion of the animal. In the early breeds the tendency to 
 secrete milk was not a prominent characteristic; it was 
 only sufficiently developed to satisfy the demands of the 
 young. 
 
 Prepotency, or the superior influence of one parent over 
 the other in determining the character of the offspring, 
 is also a principle which exerts a decided influence in the 
 development and improvement of distinct breeds. Certain 
 breeds, as well as certain animals, possess this characteristic 
 in a marked degree ; that is, the offspring closely resemble 
 this particular breed or animal, whatever may have been 
 the character of the other parent. Among American trot- 
 ting-horses, Kysdyk's Hambletonian showed this power of 
 individual prepotency in a remarkable degree ; his get, as 
 a rule, not only resembling him in color, form, gait, temper, 
 vigor, and endurance, but in nearly every conceivable 
 quality that he possessed. 
 
 Lineage. — Various terms are used to express the birth 
 and descent of animals. " Pure-bred," " thorough-bred," and 
 sometimes " full-blood," are terms used to indicate animals 
 of a distinct and well-defined breed. " Pure-bred " is the 
 only strictly correct term ; " thorough-bred " is the name of 
 a distinct breed of English race-horses, while " full-blood " 
 hardly expresses the idea. 
 
PBINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 173 
 
 Cross-Bred refers to animals produced by breeding 
 together distinct breeds ; for example, the offspring from 
 the breeding together of pure-bred Shorthorn and Jersey- 
 cattle, or of pure-bred Berkshire and Chester white swine, 
 are cross-breeds. 
 
 Grades are the product of a cross between a pure- 
 bred and a native. The offspring of a pure-bred Jersey 
 sire and a cow of no fixed type is a " grade " Jersey ; while 
 a " high-grade '' animal is one in which the blood of a pure 
 breed is in excess. The offspring of a " pure-bred '' Jersey 
 and a " grade " Jersey is a " high-grade." 
 
 In-and-in Breeding means mating animals that are 
 closely related to one another. This method, as practised 
 by various breeders, differs both in respect to the degree 
 of relationship, and to the continuation of the practice. 
 Authorities have defined the term as applying " only to 
 animals of precisely the same blood, as own brother and 
 sister," and also as ^^ pairing of relations within the degree 
 of second cousins twice or more in succession." 
 
 In-and-in breeding, carefully followed, permits the rapid 
 establishment of a uniform breed; if carried too far it is 
 likely to be accompanied by a loss in size and constitu- 
 tional vigor, though the method is followed to a greater 
 or less extent by all breeders. 
 
 Pedigree is the record or statement of the ancestors 
 of an animal, and is usually registered only in the case of 
 pure breeds ; it is useful as a guide in tracing inherited 
 qualities. It is the custom when a distinct breed has been 
 established to issue a herd or flock book. The methods of 
 recording, and the rules governing the registry of pedigrees, 
 are adopted by the various Breeders' Associations; and 
 
174 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 while they differ somewhat in regard to form, the object 
 is the same : viz., to put in permanent form a true record 
 of the lineage, character, and performance of the indi- 
 vidual. 
 
 Value of Pure Breeds. — Pure breeds, as already 
 stated, are the result of attempts to secure the best animal 
 for some specific purpose j and they can be relied on not 
 only to accomplish that purpose better than any other, but 
 also to produce young that possess the same qualities. For 
 example, a specific milk or beef breed of cattle, or wool or 
 mutton breed of sheep, will produce either milk or beef, 
 wool or mutton, better than milk and beef, and wool and 
 mutton. Whereas, in the common or native stock — a 
 mixture of many breeds — a uniformity in production can- 
 not be depended upon, as the type and character are not 
 fixed, though individuals may possess superior qualities. 
 
 The pure breeds, too, because of their fixity of charac- 
 ter and prepotent power, are extremely valuable in improv- 
 ing native stock. The offspring of a pure-bred sire and 
 a native dam will possess in greater degree the character 
 of the pure-bred sire than that of the mixed-bred dam. 
 A pure-bred sire is, in such cases, more than one-half of 
 the herd or flock. 
 
 Breeding as a Business. — To be a successful breeder 
 of live stock requires large capital, broad knowledge and 
 experience, great patience, and a close attention to the 
 details of the work. As a rule, breeding is more success- 
 ful when conducted as a distinct branch of farming than 
 when added to the work of the general farmer. A 
 farmer may, however, greatly improve his stock by care- 
 ful attention to the principles which govern in breeding, 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 175 
 
 and, so far as the products of his herds and flocks are 
 concerned, get much better results than are possible from 
 common stock. The best animals for general farmers, 
 for instance, are without doubt "high grades," produced 
 from crossing pure-bred sires with good common stock. 
 For this work a knowledge of the conditions of the farm, 
 coupled with the knowledge of the characteristics of the 
 leading breeds, should serve as a guide for the selection 
 of that breed which shall best fulfil the conditions. In 
 this work it is quite as necessary to have a sire of a 
 high degree of excellence as in herds of pure-breds; for 
 the stronger the fixed qualities of the sire, the more 
 likely is he to impress them upon his offspring, and to 
 overcome the tendencies inherent in the common dam. 
 
 Crass-Breeding. — The crossing of the pure breeds 
 has not always proved successful, since the inherited 
 tendencies are too strong to admit of an equal mingling 
 of the characteristics of the parents ; however, many such 
 crosses have proved satisfactory. In this work, breeds 
 should be selected which possess certain qualities in 
 common, rather than those possessing distinctly opposite 
 characters; for instance, the breeding together of a very 
 small and a very large animal is not so likely to result 
 in offspring possessing the best characteristics of both, 
 as if the parents were more nearly alike in this and other 
 respects. 
 
 Breeds of Horses. — The distinct breeds of horses 
 are classified as draft breeds, heavy carriage breeds, 
 thorough-breds, American saddle-horses, American trotting- 
 horses, and pony breeds. 
 
 Draft Breeds. — Draft breeds, or large, heavy horses, — 
 
176 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 of weight ranging from one thousand six hundred to two 
 thousand pounds, and specially adapted for heavy team- 
 ing, — include the Percheron, and French and Norman 
 Draft, originating in France; the Clydesdale, native of 
 Scotland; the English Shire and Suffolk Punch, of Eng- 
 land; and the Belgian Draft, native of Belgium. Of 
 these, the Clydesdale is perhaps more suitable than the 
 others for heavy farm work. They are fast walkers, in- 
 telligent, gentle, and easily broken. 
 
 Heavy Carriage Breeds. — The Cleveland Bay, French 
 and German Coach and Hackney, constitute this class. 
 These breeds are large, active, and stylish, and, while 
 bred for heavy coaching, are well adapted for road or 
 farm work. The "grades" or "high grades" of the 
 Hackney, particularly, are highly valued, both for the 
 farm and for general driving. The use of sires of all 
 these breeds has proved of great value in improving our 
 common stock of horses. 
 
 Thorough-Brads and American Saddle-Horses. — 
 "Thorough-bred" applies only to the English running- 
 horse — the American " thorough-breds " being either im- 
 ported from England, or the descendants of horses so 
 imported. This breed had its origin in the East, and 
 is the improved breed of the Arab, Turk, or Barbarian. 
 It is the oldest as well as the most noted of all breeds. 
 The best qualities of many breeds are due to a greater 
 or less admixture of thorough-bred blood. 
 
 The American saddle-horse is a newly formed breed, 
 which was originated by a judicious mingling of the 
 blood of the thorough-bred with the pacer. 
 
 The American Trotting-Horse. — This class, which 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING, 177 
 
 traces directly to the thorougli-bred, is not yet recognized 
 as a distinct breed, though it is better known here than 
 are those of the pure breeds. 
 
 Pony Breeds. — These consist of the Shetland, 
 Welsh, Exmoor, Mexican, and Indian, each possessing 
 special characters, form, and habits. 
 
 Breeds of Cattle. — These are usually classified as 
 dairy and beef breeds, though many are regarded as pos- 
 sessing both dairy and beef qualities in a marked degree. 
 
 Dairy Breeds. — These may be further classified as 
 butter and milk breeds. Chief among the butter breeds 
 are the Jersey and Guernsey, natives of the Channel 
 Islands of the same name situated near the north-west 
 coast of France. 
 
 Jersey. — This breed is the most noted of all the dairy 
 breeds, both for its general elegance of proportion and 
 appearance and for its excellent qualities. For butter- 
 making it is not excelled. It has been brought to its 
 present perfection by very careful methods of breeding, 
 in which one idea, viz., butter, is constantly followed. 
 It is small, and possesses a rather delicate constitution, 
 and is thus not adapted to rigorous conditions of climate 
 and careless handling. 
 
 Guernsey. — The Guernsey is not so general a favor- 
 ite as the Jersey; it is larger and coarser, though the 
 texture of its skin is extremely delicate. It is dis- 
 tinctly a dairy breed, and is a much deeper milker than 
 the Jersey; the butter product is also richer in color 
 and of better texture. A crossing of the Jersey or 
 Guernsey upon our common stock is extremely useful in 
 improving their butter qualities. 
 
178 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Milk Breeds. — The chief milk breeds are the Ayr- 
 shire, Holstein-Friesian, and Shorthorn ; though the Dutch 
 Belted, Brown Swiss, Devon, and a few others have at- 
 tained considerable prominence in certain localities. 
 
 Ayrshire. — This breed is traceable to the county of 
 Ayr in Scotland. Their chief characteristic is their ex- 
 cellent milk, good in quality and large in quantity. The 
 prevailing color is brown and white ; it is extremely 
 hardy, active, and well adapted for mountain districts. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian. — The exact origin of this breed 
 is not well established. It is only known that for an 
 indefinite period, anterior to the records of history, there 
 existed a superior breed of cattle in the Duchy of Hol- 
 stein in North Holland and Priesland. They have been 
 used by the English for two hundred years to improve 
 their stock. In color they are almost universally black 
 and white. Their strong points are large size, deep 
 milkers, and hardy constitutions. 
 
 Shorthorn. — The Shorthorn breed was once spoken 
 of as the Teeswater, or Durham. The date since which 
 the breed has had a distinct existence has been dis- 
 puted, though it was certainly known to have been es- 
 tablished in the early years of the last century. The 
 Shorthorns are strong, deep milkers, possess hardy and 
 vigorous constitutions, and a great power of adaptation 
 to changes of soil, of climate, and of pasturage. In 
 many sections, and especially in America, its breeding 
 has been conducted with the sole view of the production 
 of beef; it has also achieved wonderful results through 
 crossing with other breeds. The ranch cattle of the 
 prairies of the West and in Texas have been largely 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BBEEBING. 179 
 
 graded up with, this breed. Their color ranges from the 
 blood red, to the pure white. Owing to their generally 
 valuable characteristics, they more nearly approach the 
 general purpose animal than any other breed, though 
 the Eed Polled and Devon are also included in this 
 classification. 
 
 Beef Breeds. — The chief distinctive beef breeds are 
 the Heref ords, Galloways, and Aberdeen, or Polled Angus ; 
 though, as already stated, certain families of the Short- 
 horn are bred exclusively for beef. 
 
 Hereford. — Hereford cattle originated in Hereford- 
 shire and adjoining counties in England ; they are highly 
 regarded there, and have also met with great favor in 
 the United States. The usual color is a rich, light or 
 dark red, with white face, throat, and chest. The use 
 of the Hereford for crossing with other breeds is not 
 usually attended with as good results as are secured 
 from the use of the Shorthorn. 
 
 Galloway. — The Galloway is a polled breed, and de- 
 rived its name from the province of Galloway in Scot- 
 land. The color is universally black, and the hair long 
 and shaggy. This breed has proved extremely valuable 
 for the Western ranges. The animals are easily accli- 
 mated, active, and hardy. 
 
 Aberdeen Angus. — These are also hornless, and re- 
 semble the Galloway in color and form, though they are 
 somewhat less hardy and mature earlier. 
 
 Breeds of Sheep. — The Merino, Southdown, Shrop- 
 shire, Hampshire, Oxfordshire, Cotswold, Leicester, Lin- 
 coln, and Horned Dorset are the leading breeds. 
 
 Merinos. — These now include many distinct strains. 
 
180 FIB8T PBINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 They are the most widely known of all the breeds of 
 sheep in America; they are bred almost exclusively for 
 their fine wool, for which purpose they are unexcelled 
 by any other breed. Their mutton qualities, while much 
 improved by careful breeding, are not of a superior 
 character. They are hardy, well adapted to warm cli- 
 mates, and the rams have been extensively used for 
 breeding up the flocks in the South-western States. 
 
 Southdown. — Next to the Merino, the Southdown is 
 the most extensively distributed breed in the United 
 States. In size they are above the medium, and for the 
 production of mutton take first rank. The ewes are 
 prolific, and the lambs are vigorous and hardy. 
 
 The other "down" breeds, viz., Shropshire, Hampshire, 
 and Oxfordshire, resemble somewhat the Southdown in 
 mutton and wool producing qualities, though showing 
 differences in size and in their ability to thrive under 
 varying conditions. 
 
 The Cotswold, Leicester, and Lincoln are bred 
 chiefly for their long wool. They are larger, and, as a 
 rule, less prolific than the various down breeds j they are 
 extensively used in crosses to improve size. 
 
 Horned Dorset is an old and well-established breed 
 in England, where it originated in the shire of Dorset. 
 It is not largely distributed in America. In size these 
 sheep are above the medium. For the production of 
 early, fat lambs this breed has no superior. With proper 
 management they may be made to breed at all times of 
 the year, are very prolific, dropping a large portion of 
 twins, and are good nurses. This breed should occupy 
 an important place here in the production of early lambs. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF BBEEBING, 181 
 
 Breeds of Swine are usually divided into classes 
 according to size. The large breeds, which, are well dis- 
 tributed in America, include the Berkshire, Poland-China, 
 Duroc, or Jersey Eed, and Chester White, and the medium 
 and small breeds, the Improved Berkshire, Cheshire, Small 
 Yorkshire, Essex, and Suffolk. 
 
 The larger breeds are more generally distributed in the 
 corn-growing States of the Central West, and are well 
 adapted for supplying the large pork-packing houses 
 located there ; while the smaller breeds are more gen- 
 erally distributed in the more thickly populated districts, 
 and, because of their early maturity, are better adapted 
 to supplying the demands for light pork for immediate 
 consumption. 
 
 The Duroc, or Jersey Red, the Chester White, and the 
 Poland-China are American breeds. The Berkshire, Chesh- 
 ire, Yorkshire, Essex, and Suffolk are English breeds. 
 
 The chief characteristics of a good hog are early 
 maturity, quietness of disposition, and small percentage 
 of loss in dressing. 
 
182 FIEST PRINCIPLES OF AGBICULTUEE. 
 
 CHAPTEH XV. 
 
 The Products of the Dairy ; Their Character and Composition ; 
 Dairy Management. 
 
 The distinct products of the dairy are milk, cream, 
 butter, and cheese; and the waste or by-products, skim- 
 milk, buttermilk, and whey. 
 
 The primary purpose of the milk of the cow is to feed 
 and nourish her young. The secretion or formation of a 
 larger quantity than is required for this purpose is, there- 
 fore, an acquired character, and is the result, in large 
 measure, of artificial conditions. 
 
 Milk is a Pood in the fullest sense. It not only con- 
 tains the nutrients necessary to sustain life and to cause 
 growth, viz., fats, albuminoids, carbohydrates, and min- 
 eral salts, but these exist in such a form as to be readily 
 digested. Milk also possesses physical properties which 
 distinguish it from other products. It is a white fluid, 
 throughout which the fat is distributed in the form of 
 small globules. The fat is lighter than the remainder of 
 the fluid, which contains the albuminoids, carbohydrates, 
 and salts in solution ; hence, on standing, the fat globules 
 rise to the surface. This property is taken advantage 
 of in the preparation of the products, cream and butter. 
 
 Fat of Milk, or Butter-Fat, consists of a number of 
 distinct kinds of fat, the chief of which are palmatin, 
 
THE PRODUCTS OF THE BAIBT. 183 
 
 stearin, olein, and butyrin. These may be classified as 
 fixed, that is, those which remain on heating, and as 
 volatile, those which may be driven off by heat : fixed 
 fats are also of two kinds, solid and liquid. 
 
 The volatile fats affect the flavor of dairy products 
 more than the fixed, and it is the proportion of liquid 
 fat (olein) which affects the solidity of butter. The 
 liquid fats increase with succulent foods, and the solid 
 with dry foods. 
 
 Albumen and Casein. — These two substances con- 
 stitute the chief albuminoids of milk; and while they 
 resemble each other in composition, they possess different 
 properties. The albumen, which is contained in small 
 amounts not usually exceeding one-half per cent, is co- 
 agulated by heat and not by acids, while casein is coagu- 
 lated by acids and not by heat. This property of casein 
 is very important in the manufacture of cheese. 
 
 Milk Sugar, called by chemists "lactose,'' possesses 
 practically the same food value as other sugars. It dif- 
 fers from cane sugar in appearance and in its properties. 
 When it is crystallized, it is very hard, and it does not 
 possess as high a sweetening power. 
 
 Ash, or Mineral Salts, consists of phosphates of lime, 
 magnesia, and iron, and chlorides and sulphates of soda 
 and potash. 
 
 Average Composition of Milk. — Milk is not a pro- 
 duct of fixed composition. Both the total amount and 
 the proportion of the constituents are influenced by a 
 variety of conditions, the chief of which are : breed of 
 the animal ; her age, health, and individuality ; the method 
 of feeding and kind of food ; period of lactation, and time 
 
184 FIBST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 and season of milking. Of the constituents, fat varies 
 more than the others, though each may vary sufficiently 
 to cause serious differences in the composition of the 
 products made from milk. The accompanying analysis 
 fairly represents the average amounts and proportions of 
 the constituents in normal milk : — 
 
 Water 87.50 per cent. 
 
 Fat 3.50 " 
 
 Casein and Albuminoids 3.75 " 
 
 Milk Sugar 4.50 " 
 
 Ash 0.75 
 
 100.00 
 
 This average composition of milk has served as the 
 basis in many States for the enactment of laws to pre- 
 vent watering and other forms of adulteration. It must 
 be remembered, however, that normal or whole milk will 
 show wide variations from this standard in both direc- 
 tions ; that is, it may be very much richer or very much 
 poorer. The solid matter in milk is called " Total Solids." 
 
 The Influence of Breed. — It has already been stated 
 that cattle are divided into two classes : on the one hand, 
 those in which the tendency to secrete milk is largely 
 developed ; and on the other, those in which the tendency 
 to form flesh and fat has been especially encouraged. 
 The result of this careful selection is the formation of a 
 distinct milk type, in which the width and depth of the 
 hind part of the animal and the udder are especially 
 prominent features. 
 
 The dairy breeds are, however, further classified into 
 milk and butter breeds ; that is, those which give a large 
 quantity of average quality, and those which give a 
 smaller quantity of a higher quality. The following 
 
THE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIBT. 
 
 185 
 
 table of averages, the result of experiments conducted 
 at the New Jersey Experiment Station, with representa- 
 tives of the leading dairy breeds, shows their relative 
 yields, and the composition of the milk : — 
 Average Yield and Composition of Milk of Different Breeds. 
 
 Herd. 
 
 1.2 1 
 
 Percentage of 1 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 .9 
 
 
 i 
 
 Ayrshire 
 
 Holstein-Friesian . . . 
 Shorthorn 
 
 9.0 
 11.0 
 9.0 
 
 87.30 
 87.88 
 87.55 
 
 12.70 
 12.12 
 12.45 
 
 3.68 
 3.51 
 3.65 
 
 3.48 
 3.28 
 3.27 
 
 4.84 
 4.69 
 4.80 
 
 0.69 
 0.6i 
 0.73 
 
 Average 
 
 9.7 
 
 87.58 
 
 12.42 
 
 3.61 
 
 3.34 
 
 4.78 
 
 0.69 
 
 Guernsey 
 
 Jersey 
 
 8.7 
 8.4 
 
 85.52 
 85.66 
 
 14.48 
 14.34 
 
 5.02 
 
 4.78 
 
 3.92 
 3.96 
 
 4.80 
 4.85 
 
 0.75 
 0.75 
 
 Average 
 
 8.6 
 
 85.59 
 
 14.41 
 
 4.90 
 
 3.94 
 
 4.83 
 
 0.75 
 
 While these results are not absolute, it is evident that 
 there is a distinct classification of breeds based upon the 
 relative yield and quality of milk. The milk from animals 
 which naturally produce large quantities shows average 
 quality, and that from animals which produce a smaller 
 quantity shows a quality considerably above the average. 
 That the content of fat in milk varies more than the 
 other constituents is also distinctly shown in this work. 
 The variations in the composition of milk, due to breed, 
 is, therefore, important in indicating the animals best 
 adapted for the production of a specific dairy product. 
 
 The Age and Health of the Animal also affect 
 the composition of milk. As a general rule, the milk of 
 young animals is richer than that of old; this is not 
 positive, however, since much depends upon the vitality, 
 vigor, health, and management of the animals. 
 
186 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 The Period of Lactation is the time which elapses 
 between the birth of the calf and dryness, and varies 
 with different animals even of the same breed. During 
 this period the yield and composition of the milk vary. 
 The milk flow is greatest and the quality poorest in the 
 beginning ; as the period 'increases the flow gradually falls 
 off, and, as a rule, the quality improves, though the rate 
 of improvement is dependent somewhat upon food and 
 management. The fat globules are larger at the begin- 
 ning and smaller at the end of the period. 
 
 Colostrum. — A few days elapse after the birth of the 
 calf before the milk is fit for use. The product obtained 
 is called "colostrum," and is especially suited to the 
 needs of the young offspring. It differs from milk in 
 containing a much larger amount of solid matter and 
 ash, and in showing but little sugar. 
 
 Milk Drawn at Different Times also differs in com- 
 position, though the influence of time of milking is not 
 the same for all animals. In some cases the morning's 
 milk will be greater in quantity and poorer in quality than 
 the evening's milk, while in others the reverse is the 
 case; hence the variation in the milk of a herd is not 
 so noticeable as that from individual cows. 
 
 It is also a matter of common observation that the milk 
 first drawn is poorer, particularly in fat, than the " strip- 
 pings," or that last drawn; frequently the " strippings," 
 or last pint drawn, contain six to eight times more fat 
 than the first pint, while the other constituents, albumi- 
 noids and sugar, are more evenly distributed; this vari- 
 ation in composition, in connection with the fact that 
 the fat globules are larger in the " strippings " than in 
 
THE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 187 
 
 the milk first drawn, indicates that the fat rises in the 
 udder. 
 
 The Influence of Pood is perhaps greater than any 
 other factor in determining the profit that may be de- 
 rived from the dairy ; its influence is felt, not only on the 
 quantity of milk produced, but on the quality of the 
 products derived from it. A specific breed possesses cer- 
 tain capabilities, the value of which are dependent in 
 large measure upon the food that is supplied. • 
 
 By proper feeding is meant, not only that the animal 
 should receive a sufiicient amount of nutriment in the 
 right proportions, but also that the materials furnishing 
 the nutrients should be clean and wholesome, and free 
 from any substance that may injure the quality of the 
 product. 
 
 Pasture and Hay. — Pastures and green foods, for 
 instance, composed only of the true grasses and clovers, 
 are nutritious and wholesome, and can have no injurious 
 effect upon the health of the animal or the quality of 
 the product; while those which include a large number 
 of weeds may not only be dangerous to the health of 
 the animal, but may cause an undesirable flavor in the 
 milk, and an inferior quality of the butter or cheese pro- 
 duced from it. Hay free from weeds, if well made and 
 the desirable properties retained, is an excellent food ; but 
 if improperly cured and the characteristic odor destroyed, 
 and so badly stored as to cause it to heat and mould, its 
 feeding will result in a much poorer quality of product. 
 
 Coarse Products and Concentrated Feeds. — The 
 coarse products, straw and stalks, and the concentrated 
 feeds composed of the cereal grains and refuse mill pro- 
 
188 FIB8T PBINCIPLE8 OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ducts, if clean and sweet, alfect the quality of milk 
 only by virtue of the variations in their feeding value, 
 though the character of the products made from it may 
 be influenced to some extent. The feeding of cotton- 
 seed, for instance, has a tendency to increase the pro- 
 portion of solid fat, while gluten meal, on the other 
 hand, is said to increase the proportion of liquid fat. 
 
 Useful Succulent Poods, as turnips, swedes, mangel- 
 wurzels, cabbage, etc., also affect the flavor of the milk; 
 and, in order to prevent as far as possible their unfa- 
 vorable effect, they should be fed immediately after 
 milking. Wet brewers' grains, distillery refuse, and en- 
 silage in an advanced state of fermentation, also exert 
 an unfavorable influence on the quality of the milk. 
 
 Changes in Milk. — It is well known that milk from 
 healthy cows, even under good practical conditions of 
 preservation, will remain sweet but a short time ; though, 
 if it could be drawn and placed so that no air could 
 come in contact with it, it would always remain sweet. 
 The changes in milk, or tendency to sour, are caused by 
 the entrance into it of ferments, or minute organisms 
 called " bacteria ; " and milk possesses in a marked de- 
 gree those properties which, given a suitable temperature, 
 favor their rapid development. 
 
 Good and Bad Ferments. — These bacteria are of 
 two classes, one of which includes those called " friendly," 
 which are necessary or helpful in the making of butter 
 or cheese, and the other, "unfriendly," or those which 
 introduce bad qualities into the milk and its products. 
 The ferments that injuriously affect milk are more abun- 
 dant in warm weather, in closed buildings, and around 
 
THE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 189 
 
 decaying matter, than in cold weather and in the open 
 air, because warmth, impure air, and unclean conditions 
 are favorable for their growth, while a low temperature, 
 sunshine, and pure air prevent their rapid development. 
 
 Cleanliness is Essential to Good Milk Supply. — 
 Milk from healthy cows, that are fed clean, wholesome 
 food and pure water, and are kept in clean stables, when 
 drawn by clean milkers, and then rapidly cooled and 
 kept in a clean place, will keep longer than that drawn 
 from animals that are poorly fed, improperly housed, and 
 badly cleaned; since in the one case the conditions are 
 such as to reduce the influence of the "unfriendly'' bac- 
 teria, while in the other the conditions are favorable for 
 their development and introduction into the milk. 
 
 It is not only essential that the animal, the stables, 
 the milker, the utensils, the dairy-room or cellar, should 
 be kept as clean as possible, but that all manner of de- 
 caying matter about the farm should be prevented or 
 removed. Eermenting foods, bedding consisting of decay- 
 ing straw or hay, muddy and filthy water in the pastures, 
 are frequently the cause of bad taints in milk. These 
 not only destroy in large measure its good qualities, but 
 render its use dangerous. Furthermore, no milk from 
 diseased animals, or that which has been exposed to the 
 germs of infectious human diseases that may be carried 
 and introduced by milkers, or diseases which can be in- 
 troduced through the animals themselves by means of 
 contaminated water supply, should ever be offered for 
 sale direct as milk, or indirectly as butter or cheese. 
 
 Cream consists of the fat globules mixed with more 
 or less of the other constituents of milk. Its richness 
 
190 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 in fat depends upon the quality of the milk from which 
 it is derived, and upon the method used in creaming. It 
 is, therefore, not a product of uniform composition ; in 
 fact, it is much less uniform than milk, its content of 
 fat — the chief constituent of value in it — ranging from 
 as low as ten per cent to as high as forty per cent. 
 
 Its purchase or sale, either as food for families or for 
 the production of butter at creameries, should be based on 
 the actual content of fat rather than its volume or measure. 
 
 Systems of Creaming. — These are divided iato two 
 classes, — first, the setting systems, in which the cream 
 rises under natural conditions ; and second, centrifugal 
 systems, in which mechanical force is used. 
 
 The simplest setting system is the open-air shallow 
 pan; it is also the most common, but it does not give 
 the best results. In order to get the largest quantity of 
 cream by this method, the milk has to stand too long, 
 which endangers the quality of the butter; besides, the 
 long exposure to the air induces rapid changes and sour- 
 ing, which render the skim-milk less valuable as food for 
 animals, and make it unfit for human food. The deep- 
 setting systems permit of a better regulation of the tem- 
 perature, and of a more perfect protection from the air; 
 while the rapidity and completeness of the creaming is 
 not decreased. 
 
 Mechanical separation is more economical of space, 
 time, and labor, and a larger percentage of the fat of 
 the milk is obtained by it than by any other method ; 
 besides, perfectly fresh cream and skim-milk can be im- 
 mediately obtained by this system. This system of cream- 
 ing has taken the place of the others to a great extent 
 
THE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 191 
 
 in large dairies and creameries, though the cost of the 
 separator and the power required to run it have pre- 
 vented its rapid adoption in the small home dairy. 
 
 The various large machines have now reached a remark- 
 able degree of perfection ; and it is only a question of time 
 before those adapted for the small dairy, both in point 
 of cost and power, will be available. 
 
 Butter. — Butter consists of the fat globules of milk 
 gathered into a solid form. Like other products of the 
 dairy, it is subject to wide variations in composition and 
 quality. Good butter should contain at least eighty-five 
 per cent of pure butter fat, not more than twelve per cent 
 of moisture, and less than one per cent of casein. The 
 content of ash, or mineral salts, depends upon methods 
 of salting, though it should not exceed one and one-half 
 per cent. 
 
 The yield of butter from a given quantity of milk de- 
 pends chiefly upon the amount of fat in the milk, and the 
 composition of the product secured. If milk is bought 
 for butter-making, it should be paid for on the basis of 
 content of butter fat, rather than by weight or volume. 
 The yield of butter from a given quantity of fat in differ- 
 ent lots of milk also varies slightly, since the fat in all 
 milks cannot be uniformly recovered as butter even under 
 uniform methods of treatment. This is believed to be 
 largely due to differences in the size of the fat globules ; 
 the larger the globule the greater the proportion of 
 fat recovered; in practice, however, this point is largely 
 disregarded. 
 
 The properties of butter which determine its edible 
 quality and appearance are flavor, keeping quality, solid- 
 
192 FIRST PBINCIPLE8 OF AGBICULTURE. 
 
 ity, texture, and color. These are the result in large 
 measure of the management of the milk and cream, and 
 the method of making the butter. Good flavor, for in- 
 stance, belongs to some extent to certain of the fats them- 
 selves, though largely to the changes which occur in the 
 ripening of the cream, a process of fermentation which 
 can be controlled by the butter-maker. In fact, certain 
 ferments have been discovered and isolated, which, if 
 added to the cream, will give to the butter the delicate 
 flavor so pleasing to the palate. This method of securing 
 uniform quality in respect to flavor is likely to become 
 an important feature of butter-making. 
 
 Bad Flavors or Odors may be due to certain foods, as 
 cabbage, poor hay, fermenting brewers' grains, and ensi- 
 lage, and to such weeds as garlic. Butter will also absorb 
 the odors of foods, decaying substances, etc., with which 
 it comes in immediate contact; hence products possessing 
 distinct flavors should not be stored in the dairy room. 
 
 The Keeping Quality of butter is governed to a great 
 degree by the method of making. If the cream is properly 
 ripened and churned, the butter well worked and evenly 
 salted, it will, even under ordinary conditions, retain its 
 original quality for a long time ; while if the processes 
 have been carelessly conducted, the buttermilk not com- 
 pletely removed, and unevenly salted, it will soon lose its 
 good qualities; the casein which has been left in it will 
 decay, and cause it to become rancid. 
 
 Texture. — When butter is solid, and shows a decided 
 granular structure rather than a greasy appearance when 
 broken, it is said to possess good texture. This is gov- 
 erned by the character of the milk and method of manage- 
 
THE PBODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 193 
 
 ment. Milk which, contains large fat globules, as that from 
 the Jersey and Guernsey, will, under the same methods of 
 making, produce butter of a better texture than that from 
 the milk containing small fat globules. Too much han- 
 dling, and too high a temperature in making the butter, 
 also injure the texture. 
 
 The Natural Color of butter is due to a substance in 
 milk called "lacto-chrome." The butter from the distinct 
 butter breeds or their " grades " possesses a better natural 
 color as a rule than that from the milk breeds. 
 
 Sweet Cream Butter is used to a limited extent in 
 certain localities ; it is made from unripened cream, and is 
 preferred by certain customers because only the original 
 flavors are retained. . 
 
 Cheese. — Cheese consists of the casein of the milk 
 with more or less of its butter fat ; it is of two distinct 
 kinds; viz., whole-milk cheese, which contains all the fat 
 of the milk that can be recovered in the process of manu- 
 facture, and skim-milk cheese, where the fat in the 
 milk has been' partially removed before it is made into 
 cheese. • 
 
 Manufacture of Cheese. — The principles involved in 
 the manufacture of cheese are practically the same for 
 the many different varieties. The various operations in- 
 clude the coagulation of the casein, removal of the whey, 
 salting, pressing, and ripening. The composition of whole- 
 milk cheese, as well as its edible qualities, depends upon 
 the composition of the milk used and the methods of 
 manufacture. Eecent experiments have shown that, other 
 things being equal, the fat in milk measures the amount 
 and quality of cheese that may be made from it. The 
 
194 FIBST PBINCIPLE8 OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 best cheese is produced, and the least loss occurs in manu- 
 facture, from milk rich in fat. 
 
 Good Cheese should possess richness, that is, good 
 proportions of fat and casein, good flavor, keeping quali- 
 ties, and firmness of texture; and can only be secured 
 by very careful attention to the details in the numerous 
 operations required in its manufacture. 
 
 Cheese as Food. — Whole-milk cheese, though vary- 
 ing in composition, is a very nutritious food, since it is 
 rich in the most valuable nutrients, casein and fat. Grood 
 products contain as high as thirty-five to forty per cent 
 of fat, twenty-five to thirty per cent of casein, and as low 
 as twenty per cent of water. Skim-milk cheese, though 
 an excellent food, is less valuable j it contains more water 
 and much less fat. 
 
 Skim-milk. — This consists of the remainder of the 
 milk after the removal of the fat, and varies in composi- 
 tion according to the completeness of skimming, or separa- 
 tion of fat ; as a rule, separator skim-milk is poorer in fat 
 than that derived by other methods. Skim-milk shows 
 less total solid matter and different proportion of the 
 food constituents than whole milk j fat is the most vari- 
 able constituent. It ranges from two-tenths of one per 
 cent to one per cent; casein and ash are slightly less, 
 while milk sugar is somewhat greater in amount than in 
 whole milk. An average composition would probably 
 show : — 
 
 "Water 90.00 per cent, 
 
 Fat 0.80 
 
 Casein and Albumen 3.60 " 
 
 Sugar 4.90 « 
 
 A*h 0.70 " 
 
THE PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY, 195 
 
 As a Pood, skim-milk, though dilute, is, when sweet, 
 a wholesome and nutritious human food. It is also, both 
 in its sweet and sour state, an excellent animal food, 
 and is especially adapted for pigs and calves ; though, 
 because of its highly nitrogenous character and narrow 
 nutritive ratio, it should be used in connection with those 
 of a fatty or carbonaceous nature, which will widen the 
 ratio. Skim-milk and flaxseed meal — which is rich in 
 fat — make an excellent and well proportioned ration 
 for young calves; while skim-milk and wheat middlings, 
 or other products showing a high content of digestible 
 carbohydrates and fat, make a good and economical ra- 
 tion for pigs. 
 
 Buttermilk contains the casein and sugar retained in 
 the cream from which butter is made, and such propor- 
 tions of the fat as are not recovered. It differs but little 
 in composition from skim-milk, and has about the same 
 feeding value, though usually containing more fat and 
 casein, and less su^ar ; it is also liable to considerable vari- 
 ation, owing to differences in methods of obtaining the 
 cream and of churning. 
 
 Whey is the residue from the manufacture of cheese. 
 It is more dilute than the other refuse products, and 
 as a food is chiefly valuable for its content of sugar. 
 
 Dairying. — The success and profit of the dairy de- 
 pend upon a number of conditions, which should be 
 carefully considered. The situation in reference to home 
 supplies, which include water, and natural fertility of 
 soil, access to good wholesome foods, location and char- 
 acter of markets, and the relative profitableness of dairy- 
 ing and other lines of farming, should all be carefully 
 studied before entering upon the business. 
 
196 FIBST PBINCIPLES OF AGBICULTUBE, 
 
 The Selection of a Specialty is also important ; for, 
 while a series of products may be made, the adoption of 
 a single line usually results in a greater concentration 
 of energy, and hence a better product. This involves 
 a knowledge of the special characteristics of the differ- 
 ent breeds, and the principles that govern in their selec- 
 tion, management, care, and improvement. 
 
 Testing the Animals. — The profits of the dairy are 
 also governed in large measure by the yield and quality 
 of the milk ; hence careful records should be kept of 
 individual animals in these respects. It has already been 
 shown that the yield and quality of the dairy products, 
 cream, butter, and cheese, are measured by the content 
 of butter-fat in the milk ; it is, therefore, of the great- 
 est importance that the content of fat in the milk of 
 each animal should be tested. This may be accurately 
 and rapidly accomplished by what are known as semi- 
 chemical methods ; of these the " Babcock Test," de- 
 vised by Dr. S. M. Babcock of the Wisconsin Experiment 
 Station, furnishes accurate results, and is so simple in 
 operation as to be readily performed by any careful 
 dairyman. 
 
 A careful study of the animals in these respects teaches 
 the dairyman the actual value of each, hence only those 
 which are profitable need be kept. 
 
 Dairy Products and Soil Fertility. — The relation 
 of the sale of the various dairy products to soil ex- 
 haustion is frequently disregarded in the selection of 
 specific lines, though it is a matter of some importance. 
 If whole milk is sold, there is removed from the farm 
 for each ton sold an average of twelve pounds of nitro- 
 
THE PBOBUCTS OF THE DAIBT. 19T 
 
 gen, four and a half pounds of phosphoric acid, and 
 three and a half pounds of potash. If it is manufac- 
 tured into cheese, the mineral salts are largely retained 
 in the whey, and nitrogen only is removed. If it is 
 manufactured into cream or butter, and the skim-milk 
 and buttermilk — foods of considerable value — are re- 
 tained, practically no loss in fertility results. The 
 exact value of these relations will differ with different 
 conditions, such as relative prices received for the vari- 
 ous products, the cost of actual fertilizing constituents, 
 and the usefulness of the foods, skim-milk and butter- 
 milk ; hence it can, of course, be determined only by the 
 individual dairyman. 
 
 The Purchase of Poods and Methods of Feeding 
 are also valuable factors. The feeds should not only be 
 well adapted in themselves, but should be so adjusted 
 to others in the ration as to result in the greatest pos- 
 sible product for the least outlay. The care of the an- 
 imals should also be kindly, regular, and punctual, and 
 all the processes of the dairy carried out in such a 
 manner as to guarantee the highest quality of product. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 CONTAINING TABLES 
 
 SHOWINa THB 
 
 Composition of Fertilizing Materials, Farm Manures, 
 Fodders, Feeds; the Coefficients of Digestibility of 
 Various Feeding Stuffs ; Fuel Value of Food ; Feed- 
 ing Standards for Different Animals and Different 
 Purposes of Feeding; and the Fertilizer Constituents 
 Contained in the Chief Farm Crops and Concentrated 
 Feeds. 
 
200 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FEKTILIZING MATERIALS. 
 Table I. Nitrogenous Materials. 
 
 
 Pounds Peb Hundred. 
 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Total 
 Phos. Acid. 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda 
 
 Sulphate of Ammonia 
 
 Dried Blood (high grade) .... 
 
 Dried Blood (low grade) 
 
 Concentrated Tankage 
 
 Tankage (bone) 
 
 Dried Fish'Scrap 
 
 Cottonseed Meal 
 
 Castor Pomace 
 
 15i to 16 
 19 to20J 
 12 to 14 
 
 10 toll 
 
 11 tol2J 
 5 to 6 
 7 to 9 
 6ito 7J 
 5 to 6 
 
 3 to 5 
 1 to 2 
 11 to 14 
 6 to 8 
 IJto 2 
 1 to IJ 
 
 2to3 
 ItolJ 
 
 Table II. Fhosphatio Materials. 
 
 Pounds Peb Hundbed. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. 
 
 Total. Available. Insoluble 
 
 S. C. Rock Phosphate . . . 
 S. C. Rock Superphosphate, 
 Fla. Land Rock Phosphate . 
 Fla. Pebble Phosphate . . 
 Fla. Superphosphate . . . 
 
 Bone-black 
 
 Bone-black Superphosphate, 
 
 Ground Bone 
 
 Steamed Bone 
 
 Bone (dissolved) 
 
 2} to4i 
 1| to2| 
 2 toS 
 
 26 to 28 
 13 to 16 
 33 to 35 
 26 to 32 
 
 16 to 20 
 32 to 36 
 
 17 to 18 
 20 to 25 
 22 to 29 
 15 to 17 
 
 12 to 15 
 
 14 to 16 
 
 15 to 17 
 
 5 to 8 
 
 6 to 9 
 13 to 15 
 
 26 to 28 
 1 to 3 
 
 33 to 35 
 
 26 to 32 
 1 to 4 
 
 32 to 36 
 
 1 to 2 
 
 15 to 17 
 
 16 to 20 
 
 2 to 3 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 201 
 
 Table HI. Potassic Materials. 
 
 
 Pounds Peb Hundred. 
 
 
 Actual 
 Potash. 
 
 Total 
 Phos. 
 Acid. 
 
 Tiime. 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen. 
 
 Chlorine. 
 
 Muriate of Potash .... 
 Sulph. of Potash (high grade) 
 Double Sulph. of Potash and 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Kainit • 
 
 50 
 
 48 to 52 
 
 26 to 30 
 12 to 12i 
 16 to 20 
 20 to 30 
 2 to 8 
 Ito 2 
 5 to 8 
 
 7 to 9 
 Ito 2 
 ItolJ 
 
 10 
 
 30 to 35 
 35 to 40 
 3.5 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 45 to 48 
 ^tolj 
 
 lito2i 
 30 to 32 
 
 Sylvinit 
 
 Cottonseed Hull Ashes . . 
 Wood Ashes (unleached) . . 
 Wood Ashes (leached) . . . 
 Tobacco Stems 
 
 42 to 46 
 
 Table IV. Average Composition of Farm Manures. 
 
 Farm Manures. 
 
 Pounds Per Hundred. 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen. 
 
 Total 
 Phos. 
 Acid. 
 
 Potash. 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.40 
 
 0.58 
 
 0.28 
 
 0.53 
 
 0.83 
 
 0.23 
 
 0.67 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.19 
 
 0.60 
 
 1.63 
 
 1.54 
 
 0.85 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.26 
 
 0.63 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Cow Manure (fresh) . 
 Horse Manure (fresh) 
 Sheep Manure (fresh) 
 Hog Manure (fresh) . 
 Hen Dung (fresh) . . 
 Mixed Stable Manure 
 
 0.31 
 0.21 
 0.33 
 0.08 
 0.24 
 0.70 
 
202 APPENDIX. 
 
 Table V. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds. 
 
 
 Pounds peb Hundbed. 
 
 ExNi> OF Fekdinq Stuff. 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 p' 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 « 
 
 •§ 
 
 « 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 GBKEK FODDEB8 AND ENSILAGK. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pasture Grass 
 
 70.3 
 
 1.2 
 
 6.5 
 
 4.7 
 
 2.8 
 
 14.5 
 
 Orchard Grass (in bloom) 
 
 73.0 
 
 0.9 
 
 8.2 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.0 
 
 13.3 
 
 Timothy 
 
 61.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 11.8 
 
 3.1 
 
 2.1 
 
 20.2 
 
 Corn (Maize) Fodder- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flint varieties 
 
 79.8 
 
 0.7 
 
 4.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 LI 
 
 12.1 
 
 Dent yarieties 
 
 79.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 5.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.2 
 
 12.0 
 
 Sweet varieties 
 
 79.1 
 
 0.5 
 
 4.4 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.3 
 
 12.8 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 70.8 
 
 1.1 
 
 8.1 
 
 4.4 
 
 2.1 
 
 13.6 
 
 Alsike Clover (in bloom) 
 
 74.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 7.4 
 
 3.9 
 
 2.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 Alfalfa (Lucerne) . 
 
 71.8 
 
 1.0 
 
 7.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 12.3 
 
 Crimson Clover O'tist heading) .... 
 
 89.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.2 
 
 4.9 
 
 Crimson Clover (full bloom) 
 
 81.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 5.1 
 
 3.2 
 
 L5 
 
 8.1 
 
 Cow Pea 
 
 83.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 4.7 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.7 
 
 7.2 
 
 Sorghum (whole plant) ....... 
 
 79.4 
 
 0.5 
 
 6.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 11.6 
 
 Rye Fodder 
 
 76.6 
 
 0.6 
 
 11.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 6.8 
 
 Oat Fodder 
 
 62.2 
 
 1.4 
 
 11.2 
 
 3.4 
 
 2.5 
 
 19.3 
 
 Corn (Maize) Fnsilage 
 
 79.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 6.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 L4 
 
 11.0 
 
 HAY AND DBY COAB8B FODDBBS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corn (Maize) Fodder 
 
 42.2 
 
 1.6 
 
 14.3 
 
 4.5 
 
 2.7 
 
 34.7 
 
 Com (Maize) Stalks 
 
 10.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 28.2 
 
 4.6 
 
 5.2 
 
 50.6 
 
 Hay, Mixed Meadow Grasses .... 
 
 16.0 
 
 2.1 
 
 29.9 
 
 6.4 
 
 4.6 
 
 41.0 
 
 Timothy Hay 
 
 13.6 
 
 2.5 
 
 28.9 
 
 5.9 
 
 4.4 
 
 44.7 
 
 Hay, Hungarian Grass 
 
 7.7 
 
 2.1 
 
 27.7 
 
 7.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 49.0 
 
 Red Clover Hay 
 
 15.3 
 
 3.3 
 
 24.8 
 
 12.3 
 
 6.2 
 
 38.1 
 
 Alsike Clover Hay 
 
 9.7 
 
 2.9 
 
 25.6 
 
 12.8 
 
 8.3 
 
 40.7 
 
 Alfalfa (Lucerne) Hay 
 
 8.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 25.0 
 
 14.3 
 
 7.4 
 
 42.7 
 
 Wheat Straw 
 
 9.6 
 
 1.3 
 
 38.1 
 
 3.4 
 
 4.2 
 
 43.4 
 
 Rye Straw 
 
 7.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 38.9 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 46.6 
 
 Oat Straw 
 
 9.2 
 
 2.3 
 
 37.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.1 
 
 42.4 
 
 BOOTS AND TUBBBS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mangels 
 
 90.9 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.1 
 
 6.5 
 
 Rutabagas 
 
 88.6 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 7.5 
 
 Turnips 
 
 90.6 
 
 0.2 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 6.2 
 
 Red Beets 
 
 88.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 Sugar Beets 
 
 86.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.9 
 
 9.8 
 
 Carrots 
 
 88.6 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.0 
 
 7.6 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 79.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 2.1 
 
 0.9 
 
 17^ 
 
 Sweet Potatoes 
 
 72.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.9 
 
 LI 
 
 1.3 
 
 24.0 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 203 
 
 Table V. Average Composition of Fodders and Feeds. 
 
 (^Concluded.) 
 
 
 Pounds per Hundrkd. 
 
 Kind of Feeding Stuff. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 (4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 5 
 
 GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corn (Maize) — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flint 
 
 11.3 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 10.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 70.1 
 
 Dent 
 
 
 
 
 10.6 
 
 5.0 
 
 2.2 
 
 10.3 
 
 1.5 
 
 70.4 
 
 Sweet 
 
 
 
 
 8.8 
 
 8.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 11.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 66.8 
 
 "Wheat (winter varieties) 
 
 
 
 
 10.5 
 
 2.1 
 
 1.8 
 
 11.8 
 
 1.8 
 
 72.0 
 
 Rye 
 
 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.7 
 
 10.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 72.5 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 
 
 11.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 11.8 
 
 3.0 
 
 59.7 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 
 
 
 12.6 
 
 2.2 
 
 8.7 
 
 10.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 64.5 
 
 MILIi PRODUCTS AND REFUSE 
 
 FEEDS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Com (Maize) Meal 
 
 
 
 14.4 
 
 3.8 
 
 1.9 
 
 9.3 
 
 1.4 
 
 69.2 
 
 Corn and Cob Meal . . 
 
 
 
 
 15.1 
 
 3.5 
 
 6.6 
 
 8.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 64.8 
 
 Com Bran 
 
 
 
 
 8.5 
 
 8.1 
 
 11.5 
 
 11.4 
 
 0.8 
 
 59.7 
 
 Wheat Bran (all analyses) 
 
 
 
 
 11.7 
 
 4.1 
 
 8.9 
 
 15.4 
 
 5.9 
 
 54.0 
 
 Wheat Shorts .... 
 
 
 
 
 11.7 
 
 4.5 
 
 7.0 
 
 15.1 
 
 4.4 
 
 57.3 
 
 Wheat Middlings . . . 
 
 
 
 
 11.8 
 
 4.0 
 
 4.4 
 
 15.7 
 
 3.2 
 
 60.9 
 
 Wheat Screenings . . . 
 
 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 3.0 
 
 4.9 
 
 12.5 
 
 2.9 
 
 65.1 
 
 Rye Bran 
 
 
 
 
 11.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.4 
 
 14.4 
 
 3.5 
 
 64.3 
 
 Rye Shorts 
 
 
 
 
 9.3 
 
 2.8 
 
 5.1 
 
 18.0 
 
 4.9 
 
 59.9 
 
 Buckwheat Bran . . . 
 
 
 
 
 12.9 
 
 5.9 
 
 13.4 
 
 22.1 
 
 4.3 
 
 41.4 
 
 Buckwheat Middlings . 
 
 
 
 
 12.8 
 
 7.5 
 
 3.8 
 
 28.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 42.9 
 
 Rice Bran 
 
 
 
 
 9.7 
 
 8.8 
 
 9.5 
 
 12.1 
 
 10.0 
 
 49.9 
 
 Malt Sprouts 
 
 
 
 
 9.3 
 
 1.9 
 
 10.6 
 
 25.9 
 
 6.5 
 
 45.8 
 
 Brewers' Grains . . . 
 
 
 
 
 75.7 
 
 1.7 
 
 3.7 
 
 5.9 
 
 0.9 
 
 12.1 
 
 Brewers' Grains, dried . 
 
 
 
 
 8.7 
 
 6.6 
 
 13.1 
 
 22.7 
 
 3.8 
 
 45.1 
 
 Gluten Meal 
 
 
 
 
 8.0 
 
 14.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 33.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 41.5 
 
 Chicago Gluten Meal . 
 
 
 
 
 9.1 
 
 5.5 
 
 1.3 
 
 33.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 49.5 
 
 Buffalo Gluten Feed . . 
 
 
 
 
 8.3 
 
 12.7 
 
 6.7 
 
 21.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 49.9 
 
 Grano Gluten Feed . . 
 
 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 14.2 
 
 11.4 
 
 31.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 34.7 
 
 Cerealine Feed .... 
 
 
 
 
 9.6 
 
 8.1 
 
 6.8 
 
 10.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 62.3 
 
 Hominy Chop .... 
 
 
 
 
 8.7 
 
 9.7 
 
 3.4 
 
 11.3 
 
 2.9 
 
 64.0 
 
 Com Oil Meal .... 
 
 
 
 
 9.0 
 
 13.5 
 
 6.7 
 
 24.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 43.6 
 
 Cottonseed Meal . . . 
 
 
 
 
 8.0 
 
 12.6 
 
 5.6 
 
 42.4 
 
 7.2 
 
 24.2 
 
 Linseed Meal (old process) . 
 
 
 
 9.2 
 
 7.7 
 
 8.4 
 
 33.5 
 
 5.7 
 
 35.5 
 
 Linseed Meal (new process) . 
 
 
 
 10.1 
 
 3.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 33.2 
 
 5.8 
 
 38.4 
 
204 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Table VI. Coefficients of Digestibility of American Feed 
 
 Stuffs. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH RUMINANTS. 
 
 Kind of Foddeb. 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 ® 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 HAY AST) DBY COABSB FODDERS. 
 
 Timothy Hay 
 
 53 
 60 
 61 
 61 
 
 77 
 58 
 
 43 
 46 
 48 
 50 
 53 
 43 
 
 67 
 61 
 65 
 
 74 
 
 52 
 75 
 59 
 76 
 80 
 53 
 68 
 
 61 
 49 
 55 
 51 
 60 
 38 
 
 50 
 53 
 43 
 46 
 50 
 48 
 
 52 
 63 
 74 
 74 
 
 76 
 74 
 74 
 63 
 74 
 65 
 80 
 
 48 
 59 
 60 
 61 
 
 72 
 
 66 
 55 
 49 
 69 
 66 
 69 
 
 52 
 56 
 59 
 64 
 
 53 
 77 
 46 
 70 
 79 
 67 
 62 
 
 44 
 
 91 
 75 
 
 60 
 52 
 83 
 68 
 91 
 
 63 
 
 Hay of Mixed Grasses (rich, in protein) 
 
 59 
 56 
 
 
 62 
 
 Dried. Pasture Grass 
 
 73 
 
 Oat Straw 
 
 53 
 
 HAY OF LEGUMES. 
 
 Cow-pea "Vine Hay (fair quality) 
 
 Clover Hay (late bloom, fair quality) 
 
 ninvftr TTav ftrnnA nualitv^ .......... 
 
 71 
 64 
 58 
 
 
 69 
 
 Alslke Clover 
 
 71 
 
 Alfalfa (Lucerne) . , 
 
 72 
 
 CORN FODDERS (PARTIALLY AIR DRY). 
 
 Com Stalks (whole plant) 
 
 Com Stalks (leaves of) 
 
 64 
 59 
 74 
 
 
 68 
 
 GREEN FODDERS. 
 
 74 
 
 Sweet Com Fodder (milk) 
 
 81 
 74 
 
 
 73 
 
 Soiling Rye (formation of head) 
 
 71 
 
 78 
 
 
 67 
 
 BOOTS, TUBERS, ETC. 
 
 91 
 
 Siiorar TtAAtii ............... 
 
 100 
 43 
 
 50 
 
 92 
 84 
 55 
 87 
 86 
 
 100 
 
 
 91 
 
 OBAmS. 
 
 Com fMaize^ Meal •••••• 
 
 93 
 
 
 45 
 26 
 76 
 71 
 
 88 
 
 Pea Meal 
 
 94 
 
 
 50 
 
 Sola-bean Meal 
 
 76 
 
 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 205 
 
 Table VI. Coefficients of Digestibility of American Peed 
 
 Stuffs. — Concluded. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH EUMINANTS. 
 
 Kind of Foddee. 
 
 BY-PRODUCTS. 
 
 Cottonseed Meal 
 
 Chicago Gluten Meal .... 
 
 Gluten Meal 
 
 Buffalo Gluten Feed 
 
 Chicago Maize Feed 
 
 Winter Wheat Bran 
 
 Spring Wheat Bran 
 
 Wheat Middlings 
 
 New-process Linseed Meal . . 
 Old-process Linseed Meal . . . 
 
 Malt Sprouts 
 
 Brewers' Grains Dried .... 
 
 u a> 
 
 go 
 
 100 
 82 
 28 
 24 
 36 
 74 
 57 
 34 
 53 
 
 93 
 97 
 93 
 94 
 92 
 65 
 76 
 85 
 94 
 89 
 100 
 91 
 
 be >3 >^ 
 
 78 
 
 Fuel Value of Food. 
 
 The different classes of food compounds or nutrients in a feed, in 
 addition to their special functions of forming protein and fat, yield 
 energy in the form of heat and muscular strength. The fuel or 
 heat value of these nutrients has been measured and is expressed in 
 calories. 
 
 A calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature 
 of a pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit. The calories in each 
 of the three classes of nutrients are, on the average : — 
 
 CALORIES. 
 
 In one pound of protein 1,860 
 
 In one pound of fats 4,220 
 
 In one pound of carbohydrates 1,860 
 
 The calories in a pound of fats are equal to those in about two and 
 one-quarter pounds of protein or carbohydrates. In calculating the 
 nutritive ratio of a ration, the fats are multiplied by two and one- 
 quarter, in order to convert them into terms of carbohydrates. The 
 digestible nutrients in the standard ration for milch cows contain 
 29,600 calories. 
 
2oa 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Table VII. Feeding Standards. 
 
 POUNDS PER DAT PER 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 
 
 
 S 
 
 DiGESTIBLB 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Nutrients. 
 
 03 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 _r 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 t 
 
 33 
 
 Kom OF ANIMAIi. 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 1^^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 •3* 
 
 S 
 
 ^1l 
 
 
 a i 
 
 s 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 2 
 
 s-sfi 
 
 i 
 
 o * 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 P4 
 
 o 
 
 Pm 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Horse, at light work 
 
 21,0 
 
 1.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 0.40 
 
 11.40 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 " average work . . . 
 
 
 
 22.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 11.2 
 
 0.60 
 
 13.60 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 " hard work .... 
 
 
 
 25.5 
 
 2.8 
 
 13.4 
 
 0.80 
 
 17.00 
 
 
 6.5 
 
 Oxen, at rest in stall .... 
 
 
 
 17.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 8.0 
 
 0.15 
 
 8.85 
 
 
 12.0 
 
 " ordinary work . . . 
 
 
 
 24.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 11.3 
 
 0.30 
 
 13.20 
 
 
 7.5 
 
 " hard work .... 
 
 
 
 26.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 13.2 
 
 0.50 
 
 16.10 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 Oxen, fattening, first period . 
 
 
 
 27.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 0.50 
 
 18.00 
 
 
 6.5 
 
 " " second period 
 
 
 . 
 
 26.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 14.8 
 
 0.70 
 
 18.50 
 
 
 6.5 
 
 " «♦ third period . 
 
 
 . 
 
 25.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 14.8 
 
 0.60 
 
 18.10 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 Milch Cows 
 
 
 , 
 
 24.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 12.5 
 
 0.40 
 
 15.40 
 
 
 5.4 
 
 Sheep, wool-producing (coarser breeds) 
 
 20.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 10.3 
 
 0.20 
 
 11.70 
 
 
 9.0 
 
 " " (finer breeds) . 
 
 22.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 11.4 
 
 0.25 
 
 13.15 
 
 
 8.0 
 
 " fattening, first period .... 
 
 26.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 15.2 
 
 0.50 
 
 18.70 
 
 
 6J) 
 
 " " second period 
 
 
 • 
 
 25.0 
 36.0 
 
 3.5 
 6.0 
 
 14.4 
 
 0.60 
 
 18.50 
 32.50 
 
 
 4.6 
 
 Swine, fattening, first period . 
 
 27 
 
 .5 
 
 6.6 
 
 " " second period 
 
 
 . 
 
 31.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 24 
 
 .0 
 
 28.00 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 " " third period 
 
 
 . 
 
 23.6 
 
 2.7 
 
 17 
 
 .5 
 
 20.20 
 
 
 6.6 
 
 GBOWTNO CATTLE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Age, Average live weight 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Months. per head. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-3 150 pounds .... 
 
 22.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 13.8 
 
 2.0 
 
 19.8 
 
 1: 4.7 
 
 3-6 300 " 
 
 
 . 
 
 23.4 
 
 3.2 
 
 13.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 17.7 
 
 1 : 6.0 
 
 e-12 600 '« . 
 
 
 . 
 
 24.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 13.5 
 
 0.6 
 
 16.6 
 
 1: 6.0 
 
 12-18 700 •• . 
 
 
 . 
 
 24.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 13.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 15.4 
 
 1: 7.0 
 
 1&-24 860 " . 
 
 
 • 
 
 24.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 12.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 13.9 
 
 1 : 8.0 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 20T 
 
 Table VIII. Fertilizer Constituents in Fodders and Feeds. 
 
 Kind of FxEDrNO Stuff. 
 
 Pounds per Ton. 
 
 t-l 
 
 1^ 
 
 1 
 
 14.4 
 
 6.8 
 
 11.2 
 
 14.6 
 
 4.6 
 
 19.8 
 
 18.4 
 
 6.6 
 
 28.4 
 
 89.6 
 
 7.2 
 
 42.0 
 
 55.8 
 
 13.9 
 
 44.2 
 
 41.0 
 
 13.4 
 
 44.6 
 
 10.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 14.4 
 
 9.6 
 
 5.8 
 
 15.8 
 
 12.8 
 
 4.4 
 
 24.2 
 
 33.6 
 
 14.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 33.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 37.8 
 
 18.6 
 
 12.8 
 
 34.0 
 
 17.0 
 
 11.2 
 
 37.8 
 
 17.8 
 
 13.4 
 
 32.0 
 
 9.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 49.2 
 
 57.8 
 
 32.2 
 
 50.2 
 
 28.2 
 
 14.0 
 
 46.0 
 
 32.0 
 
 19.2 
 
 36.4 
 
 3.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 70.8 
 
 34.0 
 
 22.8 
 
 89.6 
 
 44.2 
 
 23.0 
 
 82.8 
 
 32.6 
 
 37.0 
 
 18.8 
 
 6.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 72.0 
 
 21.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 105.0 
 
 11.2 
 
 1.4 
 
 110.4 
 
 5.8 
 
 1.0 
 
 68.8 
 
 7.6 
 
 1.4 
 
 33.8 
 
 25.0 
 
 13.4 
 
 36.2 
 
 29.8 
 
 14.6 
 
 79.2 
 
 29.0 
 
 3.4 
 
 135.4 
 
 61.6 
 
 38.0 
 
 107.2 
 
 38.6 
 
 28.2 
 
 106.2 
 
 35.6 
 
 27.2 
 
 Com Fodder 
 
 Corn Stalks < • • • « . 
 
 Timothy Hay 
 
 Red Clover Hay .... 
 Scarlet Clover Hay . , . 
 Alslke Clover Hay . . . 
 
 Wheat Straw 
 
 Jlye Straw 
 
 Oat Straw 
 
 Corn Kernels, Flint . , . 
 Com Kernels, Dent . . . 
 
 Winter Wheat 
 
 Rye 
 
 Oats 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Wheat Bran 
 
 Wheat MiddUngs . . . . 
 
 Rye Bran 
 
 Corn Bran 
 
 Buckwheat Bran .... 
 Buckwheat Middlings . . 
 
 Malt Sprouts 
 
 Brewers' Grains .... 
 Brewers' Grains, Dried . . 
 
 Gluten Meal 
 
 Chicago Gluten Meal . . . 
 Buffalo Gluten Feed . . . 
 
 Cerealine Feed 
 
 Hominy Crop 
 
 Com Oil Meal 
 
 Cottonseed Meal .... 
 Linseed Meal (old process) 
 Linseed Meal (new process) 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Aberdeen Angus cattle, 179. 
 Air, food derived from, 10, 12. 
 Albuminoids, 139, 140. 
 Ammonia, definition of, 69; sulphate 
 
 of, uses and composition, 72. 
 Analysis of soils, value of, 31. 
 Animal body, ash constituents of, 140 ; 
 
 composition of, 137 ; functions of, 
 
 144 ; nitrogenous constituents of, 
 
 139. 
 Animal bone, 80. 
 Animal charcoal, 84. 
 Animal food, chemical analysis of, 
 
 143 ; classes of, 140. 
 Apatite, 87. 
 Ash, determination of, in feeds, 144 ; 
 
 of animal body, 140. 
 Assimilation, 12. 
 Atavism in breeding, 171. 
 Atmosphere, action of, on soils, 20; 
 
 as source of food, 12. 
 Ayrshire cattle, 178. 
 Azotine, 75. 
 
 Bacteria, effect of, on milk, 188. 
 
 Basic slag, 88. 
 
 Beet family, 128. 
 
 Blood, dried, 74. 
 
 Bone, composition of animal, 81 ; 
 
 boiled, 82 ; fineness of, 82 ; raw, 82 ; 
 
 steamed, 82. 
 Bone ash, 85. 
 
 Bone black, 84 ; superphosphate, 91. 
 Bran, as a feed, 150. 
 Breathing, functions of, 145. 
 Breed, influence of, on milk, 184 ; value 
 
 of pure, 174. 
 Breeding, as a business, 174 ; atavism 
 
 in, 171 ; cross, 173, 175 ; heredity in, 
 
 170 ; in-and-in, 173 ; lineage in, 172 ; 
 
 prepotency in, 172 ; principles of, 
 
 170 ; variation in, 171. 
 
 Brewers' grains, as a feed, 150. 
 
 Buckwheat, as catch crop, 46. 
 
 Butter, color of, 193 ; composition of, 
 191 ; flavor of, 192 ; keeping qual- 
 ity of, 192 ; sweet-cream, 193 ; tex- 
 ture of, 192 ; yield of, 191. 
 
 Butter-fat, composition of, 182. 
 
 Buttermilk, composition of, 195. 
 
 Canadian apatite, 87. 
 Capillary attraction, 49. 
 Carbohydrates, composition of, 141; 
 
 determination of, 144. 
 Carrot family, 128. 
 Castor pomace, 78. 
 Catch crops, 46. 
 Cattle, breeds of, beef, 179; butter, 
 
 177 ; milk, 177. 
 Cellulose, 144. 
 Cereals, description of, 129 ; as feeds, 
 
 149. 
 Charcoal, animal, 84. 
 Cheese, composition of, 193 ; as food, 
 
 194 ; manufacture of, 193. 
 Clay, composition and properties of, 24. 
 Clay soils, 26. 
 Claying of soils, 44. 
 Climate, effect of, 37. 
 Clovers, description of, 127, 132. 
 Colostrum, 186. 
 Commercial values, 106. 
 Composts, 59. 
 Cotswold sheep, 180. 
 Cottonseed meal, as feed, 152; as 
 
 manure, 77. 
 Cow manure, 54. 
 Cream, composition of, 189. 
 Creaming, by centrifugal force, 190; 
 
 by setting, 190. 
 Crops, demand for special, 113. 
 Crude fibre, determination of, 144. 
 Cultivating, 50. 
 
 209 
 
210 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Dairy cattle, breeds of, 177. 
 Dairying, elements of success in, 195, 
 
 196, 197. 
 Diffusion, 13. 
 Digestibility of feeds, 154. 
 Digestion coefllcients, 155; function 
 
 of, 145. 
 Drainage, function of, 42 ; methods of, 
 
 43. 
 Dried blood, 74. 
 Dried fish, 76. 
 Dried meat, 75. 
 
 Earth worms, effect on soils of, 22. 
 
 Egg-plants, 127. 
 
 Ensilage, 149. 
 
 Excretion, functions of, 146. 
 
 Fallow, bare, 116 ; cropping, 116, 
 
 Farming, extensive, 120; intensive, 120. 
 
 Farmyard manure, 53. 
 
 Fat, in animal food, 141; determina- 
 tion of, 143. 
 
 Feed, definition of, 146; digestibility 
 of, 154 ; gluten, 151 ; manurial value 
 of, 166, 168; mill, 150, 166. 
 
 Feeding, economy in, 164, 165 ; fertility 
 in, 166 ; objects of, 157. 
 
 Feeding standards, 158 ; use of, 159. 
 
 Felt waste, 61. 
 
 Fermentation of manures, 67. 
 
 Ferments, effect of, on milk, 188. 
 
 Fertility of soils, 30; true measure of ,34. 
 
 Fertilizers, advantages of different, 
 103; analysis of, 108; complete, 
 102; formulas, 108; incomplete, 
 102; methods of buying, 102; 
 special, 110; use of, 110. 
 
 Fertilizing elements, essential, 52. 
 
 Fertilizing materials, classes of, 68; 
 standard, 100. 
 
 Fish, dried, 76. 
 
 Florida phosphate, 86. 
 
 Fodder, definition of, 146 ; green, 149. 
 
 Food, classes of animal, 140 ; definition 
 of, 146. 
 
 Fruit crops, 135 ; manures for, 136 ; 
 soils adapted to, 136. 
 
 Galloway cattle, 179. 
 Gas lime, 66. 
 Gelatinoids. 139. 
 
 Germination, 15 ; conditions necessary 
 for, 16. 
 
 Gluten feeds, 151. 
 
 Grades, breeding of, 173. 
 
 Grasses, description of, 126, 131. 
 
 Green manuring. See Manures. 
 
 Guanos, phosphatic, 88. 
 
 Guaranteed composition, 104; inter- 
 pretation of, 104. 
 
 Guernsey cattle, 177, 
 
 Gypsum, 66. 
 
 Hair waste, 61. 
 Harrowing, 50. 
 Hay, cutting of, best time for, 147 ; as 
 
 a feed, 147. 
 Heredity in breeding, 170. 
 Hereford cattle, 179. 
 Holstein-Friesian cattle, 178. 
 Hominy meal, as a feed, 152. 
 Hoof meal, 77. 
 Horn meal, 77. 
 Homed Dorset sheep, 180. 
 Homy matter in animal body, 139. 
 Horse manure, 54. 
 Horses, breeds of ; American trotting, 
 
 176; draft, 175; heavy carriage, 
 
 176 ; saddle, 176 ; thorough-bred, 
 
 176. 
 Humus, composition and effect of, 25. 
 
 Iron phosphate, 88. 
 Irrigation, 43. 
 
 Jersey cattle, 177. 
 
 TTalnlt, composition of, 97 ; use of, as 
 manure, 97. 
 
 Ijactation, period of, 186. 
 
 Land plaster, 66. 
 
 Leaf, structure of the, 12. 
 
 Leather meal, 61, 77. 
 
 Legumes, 127. 
 
 Leicester sheep, 180. 
 
 Lime, effect of, 24, 47, 61, 64, 67 ; gas, 
 
 65 ; shell, 65 ; slaked, 66. 
 Limestone, 66. 
 Limestone soils, 27. 
 Lincoln sheep, 180. 
 Lineage in breeding, 172. 
 Linseed meal, as feed, 152. 
 Loamy soils, 27. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 211 
 
 Magnesia, sulphate of potash and, 
 99. 
 
 Manure, agricultural value of, 71 ; ar- 
 tificial, 68 ; care of, 56 ; commercial 
 value of, 106 ; cow, 54 ; definition 
 of, 52; farmyard, 53; application 
 of, 58 ; for fruit crops, 136 ; green, 
 44, 47 ; crops useful as, 44 ; care in 
 use of, 46 ; horse, 54 ; improvement 
 of, 57 ; loss in, 55 ; natural, 53 ; ni- 
 trogenous, 69, 111 ; phosphatic, 80, 
 111 ; pig, 54 ; potassic, 95, 111 ; poul- 
 try, 58 ; preservers of, 56 ; sheep, 
 54 ; stable, composition of, 54 ; use 
 of. 111, 112. 
 
 Market garden crops, 135. 
 
 Marl, use and composition of, 44, 63. 
 
 Meat, dried, 75. 
 
 Melon family, 128. 
 
 Merino sheep, 179. 
 
 Middlings, as feed, 150. 
 
 Milk, changes in, 188 ; composition of, 
 182, 183, 185 ; effect of bacteria on, 
 188; influence of food on, 187; 
 properties of, 182; variations due 
 to time of drawing, 186 ; yield of, 
 from different breeds, 185. 
 
 Muck, use of, 59, 60. 
 
 Muriate of potash, 98. 
 
 Nitrate of potash, composition of, 72. 
 Nitrate of soda, composition of, 71. 
 Nitrates, application of, 79 ; use of, 69. 
 Nitrification in soils, 40. 
 Nitrogen, forms of, 69 ; as manure, 69, 
 
 78 ; organic, definition of, 69 ; uses 
 
 of, 73, 79. 
 Nutritive ratio, 160. 
 
 Oyster shells, 65. 
 
 Falatability of rations, 162. 
 
 Peanut meal, as feed, 163. 
 
 Peat, use of, 59, 60. 
 
 Peaty soils, 27. 
 
 Pedigree, 173. 
 
 Phosphates, animal, 80; composition 
 of, 90; definition of, 80; fixation 
 of, 94 ; Florida, 86 ; insolubility of, 
 89; iron, 88; mineral, 85; odorless, 
 88; South Carolina, 86. 
 
 Phosphatic guanos, 88. 
 
 Phosphoric acid, insoluble, 89; in 
 soils, 29 ; soluble, 91, 93. 
 
 Pig manure, 54. 
 
 Plant-food, sources of, 10. 
 
 Plant-food constituents, 9, 11 ; deter- 
 mination of, 11 ; functions of, 15 ; 
 supply of, 14. 
 
 Plants, agricultural classification of, 
 128 ; air-dry, 8 ; annual, 16 ; bien- 
 nial, 16; botanical classification 
 of, 126 ; development of, 17 ; dry 
 matter of, 8 ; life of, duration of, 
 16; parts of, 7; perennial, 17; 
 water in, 7. 
 
 Plaster, land, 66 ; New York, 67 ; Nova 
 Scotia, 66. 
 
 Plowing, fall, 48 ; methods of, 48 ; sub- 
 soil, 48. 
 
 Pony breeds, 176. 
 
 Potash, double sulphate of, and mag- 
 nesia, 99 ; muriate of, 98 ; nitrate 
 of, 72; in soils, 30; sulphate of, 
 98. 
 
 Potash manures, 95 ; forms of, 96. 
 
 Potash salts, appearance of, 99 ; uses 
 of, 99. 
 
 Potatoes, sweet, 127 ; white, 127. 
 
 Poultry manure, 58. 
 
 Prepotency in breeding, 172. 
 
 Protein, determination of, 143. 
 
 Quick-lime, 65. 
 
 nations, balanced, 164; examples of 
 good, 163 ; preparation of, 161 ; 
 wide vs. narrow, 161. 
 
 Respiration, functions of, 145. 
 
 Reversion in breeding, 171. 
 
 Rice bran, as feed, 153. 
 
 Rolling, 50. 
 
 Root crops, 133. 
 
 Roots, structure of, 13 ; functions of, 
 13. 
 
 Rotations, advantages of, 114; in 
 dairy farms, 120; examples of 
 good, 117, 118 ; for hay crops, 120 ; 
 in market gardening, 120. 
 
 Rose family, 128. 
 
 Rye, as catch crop, 46. 
 
 Salt, use of, 67. 
 Saltpetre, 72. 
 
212 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sand, composition and properties of, 
 23. 
 
 Sandy soils, 26. 
 
 Seed, adulteration of, 123 ; cliange of, 
 124; germinating power of, 125; 
 what is good, 122; impurities in, 
 122 ; quality of, 123 ; selection of, 
 122; testing of , 125. 
 
 Sheep, breeds of, 179. 
 
 Sheep manure, 54. 
 
 Shorthorn cattle, 178. 
 
 Skim-milk, composition of, 194; as a 
 food, 195. 
 
 Soils, absorptive properties of, 38 ; al- 
 luvial, 23 ; analysis of, 31 ; changes 
 in, 37 ; classification of, 23 ; chem- 
 ical composition of, 31 ; chemical 
 improvement of, 50 ; clay, 26 ; clay- 
 ing of, 44; constituents of, 33; 
 definition of, 18 ; drift, 23 ; effect 
 of atmosphere on, 20; efifect of 
 lime on, 24, 47, 51, 64, 67; effect 
 of growth of plants on, 21 ; effect 
 of water on, 20 ; exhaustion of, 35 ; 
 natural fertility of, 30; food ob- 
 tained from, 13 ; formation of, 20 ; 
 imperfections of, 41 ; improvement 
 of, 41, 50; inorganic substances in, 
 29 ; limestone, 27 ; loamy, 27 ; mar- 
 ling of, 44 ; movement of, 22 ; nitri- 
 fication in, 40 ; organic substances 
 In, 29; origin of, 18; peaty, 27; 
 perfect, 27; preparation of, 50; 
 sandy, 26; sedentary, 22; natural 
 strength of, 36; texture of, 36; 
 transported, 23; vegetable, 27; 
 weight of, 31. 
 
 South Carolina rock, 86; superphos- 
 phate, 91. 
 
 Southdown sheep, 180. 
 
 Stable manure, composition of, 54. 
 
 Stalks, as feed, 148. 
 
 Straw, as feed, 148. 
 
 Subsoil, definition of, 19 ; function of, 
 20. 
 
 Sulphate, of ammonia, 72; of potash, 
 98 ; of potash and magnesia, 99. 
 
 Superphosphates, composition of, 92 ; 
 definition of, 90 ; use of, 95. 
 
 Swine, breeds of, 180. 
 
 Sylvinit, composition of, 97; use of, 
 as manure, 97. 
 
 Tankage, 75. 
 
 Thomas phosphate meal, 88. 
 
 Tillage, 47. 
 
 Tomatoes, 127. 
 
 Tuber crops, 134; as food, 149. 
 
 Turnip family, 127. 
 
 Unit System, 106. 
 
 Values, commercial, 106. 
 Vegetable soils, 27. 
 
 "Wastes, utilization of, 61. 
 Water, action of, on soils, 20. 
 Wheat plant, composition of, 32. 
 Wheat soil, composition of, 32. 
 Whey, 195. 
 
 Wolff's feeding standards, 158. 
 Wood ashes, use and composition of, 
 
 62. 
 Wool waste, 61. 
 
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