ean Kaiiwa UC-NI ' - .>-,y , .< r - 1 ! iilii! mmflu ill 5 H KH nn GIFT OF ENGINEERING LIBRARY OF WILLIAM B. STOREY A GRADUATE OF THE COLLEGE OF MECHANICS CLASS OF 1881 PRESENTED TO THE UNIVERSITY 1922 C77T* = C O EatS ill C OJ C 8|8 Ilf H O C _ 218 +J re ._ 2 a o p x 88" O ra.2 o * FRANCE 43 light equipment this principle works very well and there is not the familiar taking-up of slack in the starting of a train that we experience in America. Autogenous Welding The Paris, Lyons & Mediterranean mechanical officials have given the subject of oxy-acetylene weld- ing a great deal of careful and detail study. Wher- ever it is feasible to apply the process economically it has been developed. The seams of casings of all kinds are welded together instead of being riveted; defective and worn castings are filled out so as to be usable; crank axles are repaired, and even light and heavy parts that have been broken are welded together. Similarly the oxy-acetylene process has been used to a large extent in work on the frames and brake rigging of cars. As at Crewe, in England, I found that the practice of safe-ending flues was to braze the ends on; in the last year this practice has been discontinued in favor of oxy-acetylene welding. The safe end is butted to the flue and welded, while turning slowly in a machine like a flue cutting-off machine. I was told that this gave an extremely good weld and that there are no failures in flues at the weld, the weld being actually stronger than the rest of the flue. My observation, both of the manner of actually doing the weld, and of the finished flues con- firm this information, and later I had the opportunity of seeing welded flue sections at the Royal Mechanical Institute in Cologne. In addition, I was told that great savings had been made in the Paris shops in the restoration of flues wherever they had pitted. The process was to clean the flues by thoroughly rattling after which they were examined for any pits and cracks and these were filled up by the oxy-acety- lene welding process. End view of Collet tamping motors, on track, showing portability of appa- ratus. A gasoline-electric generator supplies the power. Application of electric machinery to track work in France. The portable tamping bars shown above have been laid aside to permit a train to pass. Use of power mechanisms to aid this class of labor is an inevitable advance that Americans must adapt from modern European practice. FRANCE 45 The Serve tube is in quite general use. These are in. inside diameter, and are provided with longi- tudinal ribs or flanges extending inward radially for about YZ in., there being about 6 or 7 such ribs in each flue. These ribs extend lengthwise parallel to the axis of the flue, and are not spiralled; the advan- tage claimed for them is that the extra metal in the flanges takes up more of the heat as the gases pass through the flues, conducting this heat to the flue walls and into the water of the boiler, thus giving a higher rate of evaporation per square foot of flue surface than the plain flues. However, I am informed that the actual thermal advantages are slight, and that the construction has given rise to practical ob jections in the way of the flues tending to clog up easily with soot and cinders, and are therefore more expensive to clean out than the ordinary tubes. The theoretical increase in evaporative efficiency is not obtained, and the higher first cost is not warranted. Copper and Brass Used Extensively Again, as in England, I observed the use of copper for fireboxes and staybolts. I was informed that on the newer locomotives a fine quality of manganese bronze was used in the fireboxes and the flue sheets. The large fire doors are divided into three sections, only one of which is swung inwardly and upwardly at a time, admitting only one-third of the quantity of cold air and permitting the distribution of coal (or briquettes) to the right, left or middle, according to the section of door used. Another use of brass unusual in America was in connection with the jackets. These brass parts are not polished as they used to be when they were used on American railroads in the days of red-painted 46 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE driving wheels and landscape-painted tenders. The French jackets, like the English, are carefully painted, although the engines do not present the harmonious simplicity of appearance and color which makes British locomotives famous. Method of Paying Shop Men Throughout all of the locomotive repair operations, although the men are guaranteed their day's wages, the pay is proportionate to the amount of work turned out, this practice seeming to be much more generally employed, both on the Paris, Lyons & Mediterranean and at the great Crewe shops than we find on many American railroads. There were evidences on every hand of painstaking and careful workmanship, a workmanship which made itself felt later in the nice working of the locomotive and in the enormous mileages obtained from the locomotives. The super- intendent of the Paris shops told me that the engines coming to him for repair average between three and four hundred thousand kilometers between repairs. This is equivalent to over 200,000 miles, and is a most creditable performance. Notwithstanding the fact that the mechanics were working under a stimulative method of pay their movements seemed to be very listless and leisurely, compared with the activity of the American or English workers. I would attribute this condition in part to the fact that smoking was permitted while the men were at work. Perhaps also the influence of the form of trade unionism practiced in France had a restrictive effect on output. I was told that about one-third of the men were organized, although the organization did not have any agreement with the company as such, but was secret on the part of the men. A peculiar form of trade unionism has origi- FRANCE 47 nated, known as syndicalism. The belief of. the syndi- calists is that each industry should be owned and operated by the workers in that industry, the foremen and other officials necessary to direct the operations being elective like the legislative and administrative bodies of a municipal, county or state government. The method of possible compensation to the present owners of these industries has as yet not found a place in the syndicalists' programme. The men work from 6:45 in the morning to 11:45. After \y 2 hours for lunch they work from 1:15 to 6:15, making a 10-hour day. , The clerical forces at the shops work 2 hours less, quitting an hour earlier in the morning and also in the afternoon. The men are paid in cash twice a month. Drink Discouraged While the drinking of ales, beers and light wines is general among all classes in Europe, there seems to be in France a resentment against excessive thirst for alcohol. Preachments against alcoholism are framed upon the shop walls. Engine House Design Peculiar The roundhouses are similar to those in America except that they are built on a smaller circle. How- ever, the entire turntable pit is covered by a circular platform that turns with the turntable. This prac- tice is true also of England, and has the advantage that material can be trucked across the platform from any direction, the whole space between the rails and the radial roundhouse tracks being paved so that this trucking may be done. The covering of the turn- table pit will further appeal to anyone who has had any experience in running a roundhouse, as men often fall into the pit, especially at night, and from 48 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE the point of view of safety alone the expense of the covered pit would seem justifiable. In another respect also, these French roundhouses differ from those in the United States, in that they are roofed over completely in the center. Where good smoke jacks are used, these covered round- houses are quite as free from smoke and gases as our open roundhouses, and give much greater pro- tection to the men in the winter time, although the winters in France are not nearly so severe as those experienced by our northern railways. One interest- ing feature of the roundhouse was the little clock tower surmounting its roof. It was of graceful, though archaic design, and showed the French love for architectural embellishment even as to a round- house. GERMANY IV GERMANY AMONG all the countries in Europe, the traffic conditions most nearly approximating those of the United States are found in Germany. The methods there used in operating and handling locomotives will therefore be of interest to American railway officers. German passenger and freight trains and locomotives are heavier than those commonly found elsewhere in Europe, and while the most modern of the express and heavy freight locomotives are of considerable size and power, compared even with American standards, their weights and dimen- sions, of course, do not nearly equal those found in our largest locomotives, the primary limitations being the axle load allowed by the track and bridges and the clearance limits of tunnels. Types of Locomotives The use of freight locomotives without a leading truck is quite common practice, but not to the extent prevailing in England where leading trucks are seldom used on freight locomotives. Tank locomo- tives are frequently used in both freight and pas- senger service, and almost universally in switching service. An example of the types of locomotives pre- vailing upon a dense traffic division of a German rail- road is given in the following table : Type. Service. No. of Locos. 0-4-0 (tank) Switch 9 2-4-0 Passenger 2 0-6-0 Freight 14 0-6-0 (tank) Switch 23 4-4-0 Fast Passenger , . 36 51 52 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE Type. Service. No. of Locos. 2-4-2 (tank) ............. Passenger ................ 7 2-6-0 .................... Passenger ................ 7 2-6-0 .................... Freight ................... 25 2-6-0 (tank) ............. Passenger ................ 33 0-8-0 .................... Freight ................... 15 Total On some of the lines with heavy grades I observed freight engines with five pairs of drivers, but with- out leading or trailing trucks. As yet very few articu- lated engines of the Mallet type have been used in Germany, although they are being introduced to a certain extent in Belgium, Hungary and the moun- tainous Balkan regions. The principal reasons why such locomotives with their great tractive effort are not used in Germany are that the topography is gen- erally favorable to moderate grades, and also because of the limitations placed upon train length, this limit being 120 axles, with a very few districts where 150 axles can be employed. Inasmuch as the German freight cars have a rigid wheel base with only two pairs of wheels, two German cars are about equal in capacity to one American freight car with its two four-wheel trucks, and we may consider the German limitation as to train length as equivalent to what would be a limit of thirty cars with us. This does not take into account the much greater clearance of our cars and the consequently heavier load carried per axle. Terminals The handling of the locomotives at a terminal has features of interest to Americans and offers some contrasts to our practice. There are usually two freight yards at a large terminal. Passenger trains are assembled in a portion of these yards. One freight yard is devoted to arriving trains, the other GERMANY 53 to departing trains, both being worked like a hump yard in America. A locomotive is supposed to enter upon the classification tracks itself only when coup- ling on to its train to depart. This, of course, les- sens the shock given the cars as they come together on the classification tracks, as they are propelled only by the gravity of a light grade and meet end on against the large side spring buffers. There is con- sequently very much less damage to rolling stock on account of rough handling than is the case in Amer- ica where in the last two or three years freight car repairs have taken the first place away from locomo- tive fuel as the principal item of railroad operating expense. As car by car is uncoupled from the string of cars, and allowed to drift down on the classifica- tion tracks, a head switchman calls out a number which another switchman marks in large chalk fig- ures upon one of the buffers. These numbers can be distinguished easily at a distance of 200 feet. The switch tenders are provided with very narrow but quite comfortable shelter houses placed conveniently between the tracks. I have described the operation of the freight yard to some extent because the han- dling of the yard, as well as of the roundhouse, comes under a man holding the title of "Ausfahrrangier- bahnof-Stationsvorstand," which being interpreted means "General Foreman of the Out-going Yard and Engine Terminal/' The roundhouses themselves are quite similar to those in America, the radius, however, being smaller and the turntable pits usually being covered. The turntables are generally operated by hand. I did not see any roundhouses in Germany with the central portion covered over, as was the case in France. Practically no work in the way of repairs is done in the roundhouses, such work being confined to the 54 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE adjacent shop buildings, the roundhouses serving for inspection, cleaning, oiling, etc. In the roundhouses are also found lockers which are assigned to the en- ginemen and in which they keep their clothes, tools, and other belongings. Crew's Duties The engineer and fireman of a German locomotive, although their duties have been much lightened dur- ing the past ten years, still give great attention to the maintenance and preparation of the engine and also to looking after it at the end of a trip. The engineer is scheduled to be at his engine an hour before the time of departure of the train; the fireman two hours before. The fireman builds and prepares the fire and hostles the engine until it is taken charge of by the engineer. The engine having been thoroughly oiled and any necessary supplies provided by the engine crew, it goes direct from the roundhouse to its train, stopping only to take water. At the end of the trip the engine goes first to the coaling plat- form, where coal is loaded on by a gang of men especially employed for the purpose. After being- coaled it goes to the ash track, and there the fire- man cleans the fire. The engine is then brought into the roundhouse where the engineer not only makes out his work report, but attends to minor adjustments himself. It is not the practice to keep engines under steam for many hours in the round- house, this being done only where a very large modern locomotive is double and, occasionally, treble crewed. Engines are assigned, not pooled, but full service is gotten out of the larger power by the prac- tice of double crewing. The men must have a mini- mum of eight hours' rest after a run. Premiums are given for savings in oil and small GERMANY 55 supplies, although the room for economies in this direction would seem to be less than exists in the United States because of the very thrifty nature of the German people. It was surprising to learn that the German authorities should take the trouble to keep the necessary records for the payment of these small premiums. The fires are built with bundles of faggots and small bundles of kindling impregnated with pine pitch. Many of these faggots appear to have been gathered up where they had fallen in the great State Forests, this being a practical application of the prin- ciple of conservation, that nothing should be wasted wood, otherwise useless, should be put to a good purpose. As a consequence of this kind of policy, Germany's annual forest growth is almost equal to her annual needs for timber. Fuel The Germans are very much more economical in fuel than the Americans, as the following compara- tive figures on fuel consumption per locomotive mile in different classes of service would indicate: Pounds fuel burned per locomotive mile. Class of service. i \ Prussian. American. Passenger 43.6 93 Freight 61.6 214 Switch 44.8 147 The above comparison is between a division of the Prussian State Railway and a division of a representative American road in a sim- ilar industrial locality. The difficulty of mining coal in Germany makes it a much more expensive commodity than it is in the United States, and the Germans have not such rich deposits of good coal. The Prussian State Administration, for instance, has to pay about $2.75 56 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE per ton of 2,000 Ibs., thus making economy of fuel in their railroad operations compared with cost of other items (such as labor, wages being about half those prevailing in the United States) a very impor- tant consideration. For this reason great care is used in the selection of the grades of fuel burned, in the utilization of the poorer grades for locomotive pur- poses, in the heat efficiency of the design of the loco- Coal is shoveled from cars to the ground; and is re-shoveled into small tram cars which are hoisted by elevator to the coaling platform, from which they are dumped into the locomotive tenders. Typical Modern European Concrete-Steel Coaling Station. motive, and in the care with which the locomotive is operated. Germany was the birthplace, about 1895, of the Schmidt locomotive superheater, and from about 1901 on, after the preliminary experimental stages with this device, its application to old as well as new- locomotives took on enormous strides, so that today, of the some 20,000 locomotives belonging to the GERMANY 57 Prussian State Railways, about 5,000 are equipped with superheaters. From the poorest qualities of coal, called "brown coal," a shaley stuff between lignite and peat, briquets are made having a very high fuel value. These briquets are used where it is desired to avoid smoke, as through passenger terminals, and also when it is desired to give the engine additional evaporative efficiency as on starting a train and in climbing a steep grade. About 25 per cent, of the fuel burned on Prussian locomotives is in briquet form, and the storage coal that is kept through the winter season and to guard against irregularities in mining and commercial demands, is largely in briquet form also, these briquets being very con- veniently piled as we w r ould pile bricks. Engineers and firemen are also carefully trained as to fuel and steam use, and with the assigned en- gines the men act as if they were footing the fuel bills themselves. This, taken in conjunction with the eagle-eyed watchfulness of the fuel performance of each train by the railway administrative officials, makes for an astounding degree of efficiency, and is in a large measure responsible for the comparatively low fuel consumption shown in the figures above quoted. In these figures there is, of course, no indi- cation of the relative amount of work done by the locomotives, nor of their size. It may be presumed that the American locomotives would require about twice as much coal as the German locomotives. Even allowing so great a margin which is high, as the German locomotives are the largest in Europe the discrepancy between the consumption in the two cases is very marked; and in view of the millions of dollars expended annually by every American rail- road system for fuel, would warrant a most careful 58 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE study as to causes and results, combined with an equal thoroughness in applying such practices as would be of benefit to American operating con- ditions. One of the most modern coaling stations that I saw in Germany, not yet entirely completed, handled the coal in the following manner. Upon either side of a double track was a concrete wall or parapet, the level of the platform at the top of this wall being several feet above the top of the locomotive tender. The edge of the platform was bordered by a pipe railing, broken at intervals by small automatic chutes. About twenty feet back from the edge of the parapet was a pile of coal which was shoveled by hand from cars of the gondola type, whose sides, however, swung out somewhat like the sides of ballast cars, thus reducing the amount of hand shoveling required. Several laborers shoveled the coal from this storage pile into little hopper trucks of about half a ton capacity, which were then pushed by hand along a narrow gage track to the automatic chutes through which the contents were dumped into the tender of the waiting engine by pressure upon a single lever. The whole procedure worked with neatness and des- patch, and a close record was kept of the amount of coal supplied to each locomotive. At the older coal- ing stations at smaller places the platforms are quite low and the coal was shoveled into straw baskets holding about 100 to 200 Ibs. each which were lifted up by hand and dumped into the tenders. Finally, in connection with the fuel, it was observed that the practice of storing large quantities of coal, and par- ticulirly briquets, was quite general. The sanding of tht locomotives was done in the roundhouse by a man who carried the sand around from engine to engine in a wheel-barrow. GERMANY 59 Pay and Living While the wages generally among the railroad employees in Germany are low compared with our standards, some of the ordinary laborers getting as little as about 70 cents a day, the comfort and well- being of the men and their families are well looked after, it being customary to provide what are called "living colonies" where modern houses are provided at a considerably lower cost than the men could find elsewhere. These "colonies" are located with con- venient access to the workshops or terminal yards where the men are employed, and are for the benefit of the men in train service, as well as for those sta- tioned at the terminal. A visit through one of them gave somewhat the same impression as a visit through a college dormitory, so neat, orderly and well kept were they. Not only are the ordinary employees provided with dwellings at low cost, but this is also done for the officers in direct charge of the terminal yards. These have their dwelling rooms on the upper floors of the handsome buildings that house the offices on the ground floors, and the group of buildings composing these combined offices and dwellings with their sur- rounding flower and vegetable gardens are located a short distance from the yard and roundhouse. As an indication of the way in which the general fore- man of such a terminal is provided for, it may be said that at a place despatching over 150 trains a day the man in this position receives a salary of 6,000 marks, or $1,500 annually, and in addition is provided with ample living quarters for which a rental of $100 a year is charged. One of these foremen, after show- ing me his quarters, assured me that he could not do as well in the suburbs of the city for $25 a month. GERMANY 61 This makes his salary equivalent to about $140 a month. Not only is the employee of the German State Railroad well looked after during his life of activity and health, but he is taken care of during times of illness, accident and in his old age, the whole scheme being worked out in a scientific manner so that the man can devote his life with entire confidence to his chosen profession of railroading, secure in the knowl- edge that he cannot be discharged or demoted with- out proceedings similar to a court trial in the army or navy; secure also in a certain minimum increase in wages with the completion of each period of service. In discussing railroad practices with several of the officials of the Prussian State Railroad System in Berlin, I was invited to spend a day in the technical and historical railway museum, for which a large building has been erected in a convenient location in Berlin. Teuton Thoroughness Before proceeding with an account of this most instructive visit, I should like to state that, while in railroad operations, as well as in other industrial or- ganizations, we in America have much of immediate and practical benefit to learn from the German methods of training and thoroughness of investiga- tion, there are many machine tools in European man- ufacturing establishments that had been imported from America, and our country undoubtedly ranks very high when it comes to standardization of pro- duction and production machinery. One of the chief engineers of one of the largest manufacturing con- cerns stated that nowhere could his company find the equal of American automatic machinery. The- 62 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE feeling persists, however, that we are frequently apt to develop a new machine, design, or device on an extensive scale without being sufficiently sure either of the correctness of the principles on which the de- parture from existing practice is based, or of the care with which details have been worked out practically. The German procedure after the discovery or inven- tion of a new idea, or change from existing practice, is first to examine the new practice in the light of all of its theoretical bearings, working out the apparent limitations of the new idea in all directions. This theoretical study is followed by an equally exhaustive -series of test constructions which are thoroughly tried out under laboratory conditions with the most pains- taking record of performance. Only as a result of this thorough and intense study on the part of the iDest trained minds is an application made of the new idea on a practical scale in collaboration with men of .sound practical experience. Berlin Railway Museum Probably no more striking example of this German .method of thoroughness and of their appreciation oi the value of adequate instruction can be found than in the official railway museum. Here is located .as complete a collection as exists, even in part, in all the rest of the world, showing the historical develop- ment of all parts of the railway, of its organization, personnel, and benevolent institutions, as well as of its physical attributes, such as track and track details, cars, locomotives, shops, and stations. Besides these historical exhibits, which are placed in such an order that one can follow the gradual de- velopment from the earliest forms to the most modern, there is also a most complete collection of everything representing present-day practice. The GERMANY 63 exhibit includes a large number of examples of rail, axle. 2nd wheel breakages, boiler explosions, and other causes of accident or failure in railroad opera- tion, constituting a permanent and growing study of cause and effect, so that the future may learn from the past what mistakes to avoid. Very complete models of the best locomotive and car-repair shops were on exhibition. Each of these models covered a considerable area and was complete in showing the materials and design of the building structure, of the shop layout, of the method of rout- ing the work through the shop, showing also the new machines, such as lathes, planers and cranes in the shop. Many of the models could be set in operation. For instance, a complete operation of putting a wheel in the wheel lathe, turning it and then handling it again with the crane would work itself out auto- matically in this model, so that those not familiar with shop practice, or others, could come to this museum and see in miniature the complete operation. Ocular and physical demonstration on a three-dimen- sion scale was here substituted for a mere written or printed description, or even photographic repre- sentation, as a method of instruction which would leave a more complete and lasting impression. As another example, a cross-section of a modern rail- way storehouse was shown, with all of the materials, in miniature, in their allotted places, and little pup- pets representing the store clerks receiving and filling the orders from the shop. Of course, a bird's-eye view of such a storehouse, shop, terminal station, yard, or engine house, many of them in actual move- ment, is much more readily gra'sped in a short time than it would be in a trip of several hours over the full-size actual plant. The instructive nature of these models did not end 64 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE with those who might see them in the museum, but fulfilled a similar function when the models them- selves were being made. The making of the models is very largely carried out by the apprentices in the shops, who from the building of the models must, of course, learn much of the nature of the subject they are working on. A better method of instruction in the most careful use of tools, appreciation of niceties of design, stimulation of pride in the workmanship of the finished product, and instruction in the prin- ciples of the various aspects of railroad operation could hardly be devised for an apprentice. Some of the models, both of locomotives and of machines, were supplied by the big manufacturing firms who engage in these branches of business, and served as an advertisement of the excellences of their products as well as being most useful to the student of the existing types of machines and equipment. Utility Similar museums are maintained at Nuremberg and Munich in Bavaria, the great museum at Berlin representing only the Prussian State Railway Ad- ministration, the largest railway system in the world. It is well known that in the past twenty years Ger- many has made tremendous strides industrially, rank- ing today among the leading manufacturing and commercial nations. This enviable position has been won through the natural frugality and the careful, saving disposition of the German, applying in his manufacturing industries the principle of converting wastes into profitable by-products. The German is not at all given to extravagant and useless show, and these museums are not exhibits on which large sums have been spent in the mere pride of past achieve- ment. Thev have been instituted with the idea that GERMANY 65 their instructive character would have a practical effect on the understanding and esprit de corps of all classes af railway employees and officials, far out- weighing the comparatively trifling expenditure of money for this purpose. A Museum for America This practice, for instance, would seem to furnish an object lesson to American railway men and rail- way supply manufacturers, whereby, through co- operation, a similarly instructive, permanent exhibit, of value alike to the railway men and the manufac- turers, could be established. Of course, we already have had for many years our Master Mechanic's and Maintenance of Way convention exhibits where the latest developments have been shown in full size. The expense not only of the preparation of these ex- hibition devices but of their shipment to the place of exhibit and back again, and the number of demon- strators required to explain the advantages of the new development, has amounted to a considerable amount of money annually, and, as stated before, these full size objects are not always so readily grasped, nor can the ground required to show them be covered so readily as would be the case if small but carefully made models were in most cases used. This is particularly true in the case of big machines, cars, cranes, building fixtures, etc. Small objects like tie plates, metallic packing for locomotives, can, of course, be shown usually in full size. To some extent an effort is being made to create a permanent railway exhibit in the Karpen building, in Chicago, but the railroads have no official connection with this enter- prise and it has a purely commercial character. HUNGARY V HUNGARY THE motive power and rolling stock of the Hun- garian State Lines is cared for in two large central manufacturing and repair shops located at Budapest and at fifteen independent division shops. Manufacturing of standard locomotive and car parts and tools is carried on, on a large scale, in the main shops at Budapest. New Equipment New locomotives are built by a separate locomo- tive works, a private concern that the government took over and that has a rather interesting history. The Hungarians were for so many centuries a buffer people between the invading Moslem hordes and Christian Europe that through the tribulations of relentless conflict they have developed the strongest kind of self-reliant patriotism. In more modern times with the development of peaceful pursuits this same spirit of martial self-reliance has shown itself in workaday life. Instead of depending on the alien for manufactured products, such as railroad and agricul- tural machinery, the people established works of their own, and one of these large manufacturing works devoted itself to the building of locomotives (orders being placed by the State Railway Lines as well as by the private railroad companies in Hungary) and also to the construction of agricultural machinery. When, in the course of time, this concern got into financial difficulties the government, rather than see this business get into the hands of foreigners, took 69 HUNGARY 71 over the works, so that today practically all the loco-- motives and agricultural machinery used in Hungary are manufactured by this government works, keeping the industry at home and furnishing work for Hun- garian subjects. These locomotive building works are entirely in- dependent of the Railway Administration, the latter concerning itself merely with the repair of its equip- ment. Cars are built by another large independent works, appertaining to Ganz & Co. Equipment Repairs At the central repair and manufacturing shops of the State Railway at Budapest, which come directly under the jurisdiction of the director of motive power and rolling stock, is made only the heaviest class of repairs. The division shops come under the divi- sion operating officers, and at some of the larger of these also such heavy work as firebox replacement is done, although practically no manufacturing of new parts is done at any of these outlying shops. In those fifteen division shops are the following aggregate facilities for the repair of equipment: Locomotive pits 537 Boiler shop pits 69 Passenger car pits 1,413 Passenger painting shop pits 207 These facilities take care of the following equip- ment: Locomotives 3,430 Passenger cars 7,448 Baggage cars, etc 2,500 Freight cars 82,086 The force which handles this work is as follows : Engineer inspectors 120 Foremen 234 Assistants 255 Workmen 10,183 HUNGARY 73 Engineer Inspectors A word of explanation is required as to the status of the engineer inspectors. These are men of the best technical training who have served four years in prac- tical shop work. They report to the highest officers of the division to which they are assigned, being, therefore, independent of the local shop administra- tion. The function of these men is to exercise the closest supervision and control over the quality and costs of doing the work and to be instrumental in correcting methods where either the cost or the quality of the work is not up to standard. For instance, when a locomotive enters a shop the engineer inspector prescribes precisely what work should be done, there being already in effect standard schedules for the cost, the routing and the doing of each item of work. Departures are not made from the prescription of this engineer inspector without his authority. This supervision at the initial stage of the locomotive repair extends not only to the cost of doing the work, but is also concerned with the costs of the materials, the engineer preparing a de- tailed bill of material, whether the parts are to be re- paired or new, to accompany his schedule of the work to be done. In this way the material costs are held down to the lowest figure which necessity demands. After getting the repairs on the locomotive well under way the engineer inspector follows up the work actually done in the shop, inspects its condition, sees that one gang does not hold another one back, sees that work is done within the standard cost, but is not slighted, and sees that the engine is returned to serv- ice as per the schedule before it was taken out of service. A similar system upon a smaller scale obtains in roundhouse management, and due to the care that is HUNGARY 75 exercised, both in general and in running repairs, en- gine failures are almost unknown. I must say that I find this condition of absolute reliability in the operation of the locomotives surprising in the ex- treme. There is, however, a source of satisfaction in knowing that it is possible, with proper organization of working forces, to obtain such perfection in loco- motive running and upkeep. Some of these one hun- dred and twenty engineer inspectors are, of course, allotted to supervision of car work, on the average about one hundred workmen coming under the purview of one engineer. Working Conditions The average ten hour days worked per month by the shop forces is 24.5. The average earnings per day are about $1.40 for all classes of labor. This figure must not be compared with American shop- men's wages, for the reason that living and compara- tive wage conditions in Europe are so different from those obtaining in the United States. Also* it must be emphasized that the conditions are better for the men in the way of dwelling quarters provided at very low rents, and in the way of the provident and wel- fare institutions which care for the needs of the men and their families, both in active service and in old age. It is worth something to a man to' be secure in reasonable earnings for the present and for his de- clining years when he gives up active service. Performance Schedules We spoke of the schedules of doing work in the shop. In conjunction with these shop schedules are similar standard schedules of the performance of the equipment in service. A locomotive or a car is not due to receive general repairs until it has performed HUNGARY 77 this service. Below are listed these standards of per- formance: Between shoppings. Passenger locomotives 56,000 miles Freight locomotives 37,000 miles Old locomotives of the second class 28,000 miles Old locomotives of the third class 19,000 miles It should be explained that locomotives are classi- fied according to age, and that the same treatment as to policy of repairs is not accorded to the older locomotives as is accorded to the newer ones. This division into grades according to age could very well be adopted as an American practice. Below are statistics as to the locomotive perform- ance for the 3,500 locomotives of the Hungarian State Lines, for the year 1911: Total coal consumption for the year 3,580,000 tons Thousand ton-miles run 20,300,000 Price per ton of coal $1.48 Coal consumed per thousand ton-miles. . . . 350 Ibs. Cost per thousand ton-miles $0.27 Average locomotive miles run per year: 1st Class engines 27,000 2nd Class engines 23,000 Car Repairs Car repairs are made, not after so many miles of service, but at periodic intervals, as follows: Passenger cars in fast service, without painting every 4 mos. Passenger cars on through lines, without painting every 8 mos. Passenger cars on branch lines, without painting every 12 mos. Passenger cars repainted every 5 yrs. Passenger cars wholly scraped, repainted and varnished, within and without every 10 yrs. Freight cars, general repair, without paint- ing every 3 yrs. Freight cars, general repair, with painting. .every 6 yrs. Repair Cost Schedules In conjunction with these standards of performance of the equipment are standards of repair cost upon a HUNGARY 79 mileage basis, an allowance or allotment being ap- propriated for repairs. This allowance is divided be- tween the car yards, shops and roundhouses main- taining the equipment in a running condition, and the main general repair shops. This plan of allowance, or allotment, is so thoroughly worked out that, gen- erally speaking, the predetermined cost and perform- ance are actually attained in practice. When the performance is materially below the standard set, or Boiler Shop with Traveling Crane; Hungarian State Railways at Budapest. the costs are very markedly above or below the stand- ard, an investigation is made as to the causes. It is. not considered a favorable sign when costs are greatly below the predetermined standard, as it is felt this work may have been done superficially, and the rigid inspection system is continually on guard against any such tendency. On the other hand, there is the re- verse of a disregard for excessive labor costs. So closely do the standards and the actual costs com- 80 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE pare that the amount of money spent upon the dif- ferent classes of equipment, divided by the mileage performance of these classes, is a financial measure as to the existing condition of the equipment. The Surgical Supply Cabinet in Physician's Compartment on Invalid Car. following table shows the actual repair costs of equip- ment of the Hungarian State Lines per one hundred miles run : Locomotives $3.44 Passenger cars 33 Baggage cars 12 Preight cars , 12 HUNGARY 81 It must be explained that the figures above quoted as to car performance are not on the car mile, but upon the axle mile, most of the cars being four wheeled (or two axle), with a few equipped with two four-wheeled bogie trucks, as in American practice. Most of the passenger cars are also four wheeled, with a large proportion of six-wheeled or three-axle cars, one of the axles being under the middle of the car. The modern through passenger equipment is to a large extent composed of four axle cars, the trucks being somewhat after the American arrangement. These figures are quoted merely as a matter of in- formation, the wage conditions, conditions of service and characteristics of design being so different in Hungary as not to furnish intelligible bases of com- parison with American practice. Main Shops At Budapest I had the pleasure of visiting one of the large shops of the Hungarian Railway in com- pany with the general superintendent of motive power, Johann Papp. At this place, although the shops are not nearly as large as at Crewe, England, I found that, as a whole, the layout was more com- plete in detail than in either the American or Euro- pean shops that it has been my pleasure to visit. Mr. Papp told me that the embodiments and refinements in shop and roundhouse layout which are applied in practice in Budapest were gathered by him, as a re- sult of many journeys, from the best practice of each of the civilized railroad countries, including the United States and Canada. Emergency Hospital For instance, on my first entering the office build- ing assigned to the superintendent of shops, I was 82 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE struck with the room, conveniently located at the entrance, for the reception of anyone who might be injured in the shops. This emergency hospital cham- ber was equipped with an operating table and the most modern surgical apparatus, so that major emergency operations could be conducted without a moment's delay. Not only are the shop employees so provided for, but men in the train service and passengers are simi- larly prepared for in case of any accident to trains, a Arrangement of Private Invalid Car Used on the Hungarian State Railways. full hospital train with road cars being held in readi- ness for departure to the scene of any accident upon telegraphic notice. The special equipment of these trains, allowing for the difference in purpose, is simi- lar to that of our emergency cars for mining dis- asters. The cars constituting these trains are not old converted coaches, ill adapted to the purpose in view, but are complete with every regard for the comfort and succor of the injured. HUNGARY 83 Apprentice System The next point that impressed me was the appren- ticeship school or shop. Here, in a separate building from the main plant, the apprentice spends the first two years of his service under the direct supervision of instructors. Tools are made, such as chisels, flatters, taps, and many small parts of locomotives, in addition to many models of either special machine or locomotive types. During my visit they had under construction, to be used as a permanent exhibit, a complete model of one of the beautiful railroad bridges that have just been completed, spanning the Danube. This work was done by the apprentices under the careful supervision of practical mechanics. What particularly impressed me was the explanation given by Mr. Papp as to the method and purpose underlying the instruction period of the apprentices. Instead of the boys and young men passing from one department of a shop to another in a rather indis- criminate manner, picking up knowledge of work, perhaps sometimes indifferently from a foreman or from the mechanics, or sometimes shop instructors, they were set apart during the first two impression- able years of their apprenticeship to be thoroughly grounded by those who are known to be most com- petent to instruct in skilled practical work, as to the right and best ways of doing each class of work so that bad or faulty habits of work would not be learned to be unlearned later. For the succeeding two years the boys work in the regular shops where they receive additional care and instruction, and gradually become amalgamated with the regular working organization. After the preliminary two years the boys are much better fitted to go into the main shops with the older mechanics and continue their apprenticeship. 84 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE During apprenticeship the boys have to attend school for two hours of each day, and for these study, lecture and drawing periods they are paid as they would be for productive work, the railway admini- stration knowing that the cost of this instruction is a most valuable asset in the working ability of its future mechanics. The schedule of study hours per week during the four years' of apprenticeship is as follows: Hours per week for each of the four school years. list 2nd 3rd 4tJT year. year. year. year. Reading and general instruction 1 1 1 Review instruction in reading and writ- ing 1 Composition 1 1 1 Arithmetic and geometry 2 2 1 Review instruction in mathematics.... 1 Time keeping and cost accounting 1 Physics and chemistry 2 1 Elements of mechanical design 1 1 Instruction in theory of machine power operation 1 1 1 Instruction in hygiene 1 Mechanical drawing 4 4 4 4 In selecting apprentices the first chance is given to those sons of railway employees who have capacity for this class of work. Candidates for membership must have passed through the middle grades of the common school, and be over fourteen years of age. Every year a theoretical and practical examination is held. In addition to giving oral and written answers to examination questions, the boys are per- mitted four hours in which to accomplish a certain piece of work according to a blueprint. The way in which this work is done, as well as the mental apti- tude shown by the pupil, determines his proficiency. The examinations are conducted in the presence of parents and others of the public that are interested. Prizes are awarded to those who are especially ad- vanced. HUNGARY 85 Before completing his fourth year of apprentice- ship, the apprentice must produce a masterpiece of work, usually a model of some machine, locomotive or structure used in the railroad service. During the apprenticeship course the boys are paid regular wages, which are increased from term to term, ten per cent, of their earnings being held out in a sav- ings fund until the end of the apprenticeship. Upon the completion of their apprenticeship there is no binding agreement upon the young men to con- tinue in railroad service, although places are pro- vided for those that desire them. The Government Railroad Administration considers it its duty to the industries of the nation to offer this sacrifice upon the altar of education for the advancement of the commercial development of the people. I regretted that in this visit there were not present such missionaries as George M. Basford, who for many years has been an advance prophet of railroad apprenticeship instruction in the States, and also those men who have followed up his inspiration by practical application on some of our largest railway systems, such as Mr. Thomas, Mr. Cross, Mr. Hen- shaw, and others, whose ideal has been to make think- ing, skilled mechanics of the younger generation, rather than specialized automatons. In Budapest was wrought into complete execution the kind of in- struction that these American pioneers are so earnestly developing on the roads that they serve, and too much credit cannot be accorded to the earnestness of their work and the support that is being given by their officers. What Becomes of the Apprentice? What becomes of these apprentices after they have completed their general grounding as all-round 86 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE mechanics? It is only after this general training that the special development of the particular abilities that the young man may have shown is undertaken. In no American shop have I seen specialized pursuits and occupations carried to the extent and thoroughness that exists in the shops at Budapest. In each class of work, such as erecting, rod, bench, piston rod and crank pin work, machine work, etc., each of the gangs was composed of carefully trained men who were especially fitted for the particular class of work to be performed by it. It was explained that certain qualities in mechanics, as in poets, are inherent and cannot be acquired by training. How often do we see men operating fast moving machinery requiring quick action and co-ordination of the eyes, the brain, and the hands, who may have quick action between the eyes and the brain, but do not have co-ordination of the hands, so essential to most efficient operation. These men would be much better adapted to their occupation if they were working on the erecting floor or at the bench. Again how often do we find men of a nervous and energetic temperament fretting away their time standing at machines when they should be working in the erecting shop where vent could be given to their energetic natures. And again we find men running lathes where great accuracy of touch is required, such as in making close fits, who are by temperament and physical make-up ponderous and clumsy, and who would be happier working in a steam pipe gang lifting and fitting up heavy steam pipes. The contrast and misfit of occupation is as glaring as the performance of a draft horse would be on a race track. The two years of training in a separate building gives those who are studying the character and capa- bilities of the apprentices an opportunity to later HUNGARY 87 select and assign them to that class of work which is especially fitted to their qualities and characteristics. A man does that thing best which he loves to do because he can do it well rather than because he is directed to do the work without consideration for or sympathy with his particular aptitudes. When the men are in the service their moral wel- fare continues to be the subject of a kindly paternalis- tic administration. Drinking Fountains An indication of this attitude appeared in the ma- chine shop. I observed a construction somewhat like a soda water fountain with a neatly dressed girl in attendance. This naturally surprised me very much, and I inquired. It developed that in order to offset the desire for alcoholic drinks, the superintendent of shops, Mr. Hermann, had decided to establish these soda fountains in the shops, where various kinds of soft drinks could be obtained by the workmen prac- tically at cost, the men being free to come and go for such refreshing beverages just as they would in our shops for ice water. Any small profit that might re- main over from the sale of the drinks was applied to a charity. Undoubtedly this institution is a most ex- cellent step in the interest of the sobriety and health of the employees, and the superintendent of shops, or chief of shops, as he is called, is to be congratu- lated for this practical humanitarian step. Saloons, Y. M. C. A.'s, Soda and Service This furnishes the germ of an idea which may well be adapted to our uses in America. Whether we belong to a prohibition or total abstinence movement or not, we are all agreed as to the evil effects of alcoholism, as to the benefits of temperateness, and 88 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE it is interesting to note in this connection that American railroads have probably done more (by stern discipline in enforcing Rule G) in the cause of practical temperance than have the political move- ments to this end. In the extirpation of an evil, we should seek its root. Why is a saloon? The saloonkeeper long recognized that he could not alone draw his trade by selling alcoholic drinks, but to keep and hold his customers he would have to give them good service. For that reason he gives the whole and hearty cheer, the wayside warmth and companionship to the lonely shop or workmen, as in the inn of old, and with practical concession to mod- ern business needs, uses, etc. In the saloon the quick- est and cheapest of lunches may be had. Every saloon is (for men) a public comfort station. The barkeeper is the working shopmen's banker, in many instances, where his pay-check is cashed without inconvenient red tape, and if the workman is his customer in good standing and needs a dollar or five, he gets it. The saloon in America has made itself a public service institution not confined to the hours 10 to 3. How different might our workman's life here be if the soda fountains had set themselves to give the same service as the bars if they were such repre- sentative service institutions. In this we have the idea of our R. R. Y. M. C. A/s the true way, as the writer has already elaborated in an earlier book, to confirm men in moral habits; and when we add to the moral influences the growing utility of these Y. M. C. A/s and recreation clubs, such as Mr. Ripley of the Santa Fe has instituted, the railroads are develop- ing a public service of the highest order, one deserv- ing even of being fostered by government support, as is done in similar instances abroad. HUNGARY 89 Trades Organizations Of special interest is, of course, the organization and attitude of the body of the working men in the shops, etc. The policy of the Hungarian State Rail- ways is that of the open shop. Trade unions in the form that we know them in the United States are non-existent on the government railroads. In Hun- gary many recruits from all classes of trades (out- side the railways) are drawn to a political party known as the social democratic party, whose members are principally socialistic. This political party has a vigorous representative in the parliament, and its program is one of spirited protest against the con- stituted form of government. For this reason it is deemed against the interests of, and loyalty to, the state to permit those who serve the state to be affili- ated with a political organization in conflict with the administration of the state enterprises. No man in the state railroad employ may be a member of the social democratic organization, upon pain of dis- missal. Adjustment of Grievances On the other hand, excellent arrangements are made for the presentation or discussion of grievances, or desired changes in the working conditions of the men. The men have regularly elected representa- tives from among their own members, for each divi- sion of the railway, and for the railway as a whole. These representatives sit in session with officials selected by the railway for the mutual discussion and adjustment of matters affecting the welfare of the men. In practice this permanently constituted arbi- tration board seems to work out very satisfactorily, for both in working conditions and in rates of pay the railroad men, and particularly the shop men, are 90 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE better off than those in similar kinds of work in pri- vate employ elsewhere in the country. The railway administration has no difficulty in at- tracting to its service the most competent men in each of the trades, it being considered an honor to be in the government employ. When a man has served a probation period of three years, he then becomes a sworn worker for the state, and cannot be summarily dismissed. If there were just cause for dismissal or other corrective measure, this cause is determined as a result of evidence presented before a regularly constituted court, or committee of inquiry, and upon its recommendation a responsible officer will take action. In this way the men are guarded against in- justice due to action that is hasty, ill considered, tyrannical or born of personal feeling or prejudice on the part of some minor official or foreman. In the manifest love that the men have for their work it is seen that this security in their positions, so long as they do their duty, does not make them slothful or negligent. In spite of the fact that there is always a super- abundance of competent men in the various trades anxious to get into the railway service, the railway administration deems it to be to the interest of its employees and their families, that opportunities should be afforded their sons to specially fit them- selves for railroad positions, if they are capable of so doing. Because of this general method of training, the men not only turn out careful work of high quality, but the occupations being specialized favor large pro- duction of similar units or pieces at a minimum price per piece. A further factor in bringing the standard unit cost to a remarkably low figure is the system of paying the men upon an output basis instead of an HUNGARY 91 hourly wage. These two policies, careful training and intensive wage system, coupled with careful en- gine house inspection by the enginemen themselves, make for the best and cheapest locomotive opera- tion ; and when replacements or repairs are neces- sary, these operations are performed at the minimum cost. For these reasons, the costs of locomotive main- tenance are found to be extraordinarily low on the Hungarian lines, upon any unit basis selected for comparison, as compared with American or with other European lines. LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS VI LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS THE engine-house about to be described is at Budapest, Hungary, and consists of two round- houses, one a half circle with 22 pits, the other a three-quarter circle with 34 pits. These are the most up-to-date roundhouses that it has been my good fortune to visit, and, therefore, merit special attention. They are built of brick and stone, with steel roofs, and a double swinging door to each stall. Both buildings are equipped with the Fabel central smoke uptake. The engines are backed into the stalls, tender first, and over the small diameter circle above their stacks is a large rectangular duct into which the smoke jacks carry the fumes from the loco- motive stacks. One hundred and twenty degrees apart are ducts that lead from this inner circular duct to the outer wall where they are connected with tall brick stacks. In this way a good draft is secured that takes every vestige of smoke out of the roundhouse, and leaves a clear atmosphere. I had never seen such a thoroughly successful method of ventilating a roundhouse. The chimneys are about 125 ft. high. The turntables are 66 ft. long and are driven by electric motors. Adjuncts As adjuncts to the roundhouse, are the following buildings and rooms: Foreman's office with inter- communicating telephone connection; engine board; safe for the storage of valuables belonging to engine- men; alcove for receipt of laundry, including overalls, 95 LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS 97 etc.; running repair shop; rest room for enginemen with facilities for turning in time tickets, speed recorder diagrams, work books, etc. ; the clothes lockers of each individual engineer are in the round- house proper; rest room for firemen and hostlers, heated by gas and fitted with clothes lockers for each individual man; room for the care of oil cans, each individual engineer having his own cans and allotted shelf; room for care of engine lamps; room for ma- chinists; room for air brake instruction; room for foreman of the electrical equipment; carpenter's shop; electric transformer room; and rooms containing gas hot water preheaters for outgoing locomotives. A word should be said as to the care of the oil, oil cans, lamps and supplies for locomotives. These articles are assigned to the individual engineers so that notwithstanding the locomotive pooling system, the men retain their individual equipment of supplies and tools, and have an interest in their economical use. For boiler washing the Schilhan Wittenberg hot water system is installed, which utilizes the steam from incoming engines for heating the water. In the roundhouse is an electrically operated drop pit, using a 9 h. p. motor, which is kept in scrupulously clean condition. There are separate office buildings for the chief roundhouse foreman and the assistants and clerks attached to him; in this office building is, as in each of the shops, a small emergency surgical operating room. In the air brake instruction room are facilities for instruction in the use of the brakes, as well as in the use of lubricators, first aid to the injured, high tension electric apparatus, different locomotive valve gears, signals, etc. On the walls are charts and tables illus- trating these. Attached to the roundhouse is a small shop with 98 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE four pits for light locomotive repairs and the neces- sary machine shop equipment for carrying on these repairs. A jib crane of five tons capacity serves to hoist heavy parts to their respective machines. In Locomotive Tire Heater in Roundhouse of Hungarian State Railways. this shop building are also two smith fires, an oxy- acetylene welding outfit, pipe and coppersmith benches and fires, together with a babbitt furnace, etc. Attached also to the roundhouse is a complete LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS 99 store building with equipment for handling oils with- out waste, and for the safe storage and easy handling of new and scrap materials. A provision that was made for the personnel was most surprising; namely, an auto-bus service con- steel Ash Hoist and Conveyor; Hungarian State Railways. LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS 101 sisting of two auto-buses that made regular scheduled trips to outlying residence districts to take the en- ginemen to and from their runs. A garage, with a room for the chauffeurs of these auto-buses, was also provided. Another small building contained twelve compart- ments for engineers and firemen, with individual beds, besides six bath rooms, four showers, two wash rooms and two dining rooms with heating facilities for the lunches that the men might bring with them. Great importance was attached to absolute cleanliness and quiet in these lodging quarters. A lunch room where light refreshments and coffee could be purchased, and accommodating about 100 men at one sitting, was also provided. A sand drying and storage house formed a part of the plant, together with ash pits permitting the cleaning of the fires of ten locomotives at the same time, with ten water cranes placed so that water could be taken without moving the locomotives. In connection with the coaling plant, where the coal was unloaded from the cars first onto the ground, thence to tram cars which were carried by elevator to a concrete platform, where they were dumped direct in the tenders, was an electrically driven circular saw for sawing scrap wood into con- venient lengths for firing up locomotives. There was also a mechanical coal sorting device used to de- termine the quality of the coal received. An inspector would select arbitrarily certain cars of coal, dump these into the machine, which sorted the coal out and determined the proportion of each size, the chemical and heat unit analysis being made from samples of each size; the coal is purchased on the basis of certain specifications. A conspicuous feature of the roundhouse was the 102 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE water tower, which had a capacity of 260,000 gallons. The bottom of this tank was over 90 ft. above the level of the track, the top level of the water being over 120 ft. above it. The space in the enclosed brick portion underneath the tank served for certain stores. The accompanying photographs describe better than words the general excellence of the arrangement of this roundhouse, which, as stated before, is the most improved and completely equipped one I have ever seen. French Roundhouse, Covered Another modern European roundhouse is in France. One of the most important division points on the Eastern Railway of France is at Mohon, and complete facilities have been provided for the proper terminal maintenance of locomotives. The arrange- ment provides for two connecting engine houses of 32 stalls each and a moderate size repair shop, to- gether with coaling stations, etc. The most interest- ing feature of the terminal is the elaborate design of the engine house. As will be seen by reference to the illustration, which is taken from the Revue Generate des Chemins de Fer, the track arrangement is the same as is employed 'in this country, and provides a 75-ft. turntable. The turntable pit and the inner circle of the house are completely covered by a large dome having a clear span of 132 ft. 2 in. This has a large ventilator in the center and a series of sky- lights near the bottom of the arch. Surrounding this is a series of what practically corresponds to separate gabled roofed structures, arranged radially, each of which covers two pits. The roof beams are supported by a series of four posts and the outer brick pilasters; this part of the structure is of wood except for the outer wall, which is of brick. The central LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS 103 arch is of steel, and is covered with a zinc roofing. The smoke jack arrangement indicates that the locomotives are stored with the tenders outward. On each side of the gables are large skylights and the outside wall is about two-thirds glass; it is evident from the illustration that the lighting will be entirely satisfactory if the glass is kept clean. In the top of each gable are large ventilators. Each of these en- gine houses is about 275 ft. outside diameter. The pits are 65 ft. in length. The distance from the out- side wall to the steel columns supporting the dome is 71 ft. The dome is 54 ft. 10 in. high to the top of the ventilator in the center. Proposed American Practice While the .descriptions of European roundhouses may be of interest, the practical American will ask how far these principles would benefit our conditions here. I believe the benefits may be very substantial, very practical and not unduly costly. The present plan of roundhouse construction followed in this country possesses a number of highly objectionable features, some of which are outlined below together with suggestions for remedying them. The difficulty experienced in properly heating a roundhouse in winter is in a large measure due to the inability to keep closed the numerous large and un- wieldy doors necessitated by the type of construc- tion employed. On some of the northern roads like the Grand Trunk Pacific, special types of collaps- ing doors have been introduced. This difficulty has also been overcome on some European roads by the simple expedient of roofing over the central area, as shown in the accompanying perspective drawing, thereby avoiding the expense and trouble of a door for each engine stall. The only doors necessary in 104 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE this case are those at the entrance in the outer walls, which may be kept closed with much less difficulty. The roofed over central area may still further be made use of by paving the space between the tracks leading to the stalls and so making it available for trucking purposes. Further, by covering the turntable pit with a floor attached to and revolving with the turntable, much time may be saved in trucking from one part of the roundhouse to another, because it would then be pos- sible to take the shortest route over the pavement between the track and the covered turntable pit in- Turntable Pit Completely Covered by Revolving Floor Attached to Turntable and with Space Between Rails in Central Area Paved to the Level of the Tops of the Rails. stead of being obliged to follow around the outer wall of the roundhouse, as is now the case. The covered turntable pit would furthermore make it impossible for anything to fall into the pit and con- sequently prevent many accidents to the employees and to the turntable itself, with the resulting delays in getting engines into and out of the roundhouse. Carrying this plan a step further, it should be practicable to enlarge the turntable pit until it had a diameter co-equal with that of the circle bounding the inner ends of the stalls. This would require a turntable some 150 ft. or over in length, the construe- LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS 105 tion of which should involve no serious difficulty. Such a turntable could be supported on several con- centric rails and could also be so jointed and equal- ized as to allow of taking up slight inequalities of vertical movement due to the rails not being exactly level at all spots. But in turning, the engine would be balanced at the middle of the table as now, the main weight being borne by the center pivot. This pit might be very shallow, say 12 or 18 in. The girders supporting the turning locomotive, if raised above the floor level, should allow ample clearance so no men could be caught between them and the locomotive. By then covering this whole central area with a revolving floor (and doing away with the radial tracks, except in the stalls themselves), certain light machines and benches, clothes lockers, offices and other roundhouse appurtenances, taking up room but not involving heavy weights, could be carried on this great central table, thus utilizing fully the entire in- vestment in ground space and in roof. At the same time much greater convenience would result in the roundhouse handling and repair work,' because of the central location of these adjuncts. The smoke jacks commonly provided for smoke removal have proved themselves very inadequate and the atmosphere of the roundhouse is usually heavily charged with smoke, soot and gases, making a dis- agreeable and unhealthful environment for the work- men. This smoke filled atmosphere shuts off the light from the stalls, which condition is aggravated by the deposits of soot and grime on the windows, reducing the amount of light admitted, which is still further decreased by being absorbed by the smoke blackened walls and roof. Under such conditions it is impossible for the workmen to attain their highest 106 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE efficiency, especially in winter when the numerous doors make it impossible to keep the temperature in a roundhouse comfortable. We have referred to the European practice of re- moving the obnoxious gases and smoke by installing overhead circumferential smoke ducts or canals which are connected to tall chimneys located outside of the building. These ducts are provided with openings and hoods at each engine stall under which the stacks of the engines are placed. The strong draft induced by the tall chimneys carries away every vestige of the products of combustion discharged from the locomo- tive stacks and leaves the atmosphere of the building clear and well ventilated. If a steel stack were used instead of one of brick, and possibly a central support were adopted in con- nection with the turntable, a single stack at the center of the dome might economically take the place of the two or three commonly used in Europe for this purpose. Some mention should be made of the European practice of placing the locomotives in the stalls with their stacks toward the turntable. With the covered center and with adequate roof lighting, this should cause no difficulty in doing work on cylinders, valves, front ends, superheaters and flues, and should facili- tate the handling of material. This plan should also make simpler the installation of a crane for handling cylinders, bushings, cylinder heads, valve chests, pis- tons, rods, etc. ; in fact, the large revolving floor could be used as such a crane, carrying heavy material around to that part of the roundhouse near the ma- chine shop or smith fires. An advantage of this pro- posed construction of central roof and revolving floor, is that it may be readily applied at a moderate ex- pense to almost any existing roundhouse. LOCOMOTIVE TERMINALS 107 Lastly it may be observed that in many engine terminal layouts in this country and in Europe, there is a tendency to build too substantially, too perma- nently, too well, with brick and concrete, costly coal- ing stations, ash pits, and other structures. In five years, or in ten or fifteen, transportation conditions may so change that the facilities will also require ex- tensive changes. Therefore, engine houses and their appurtenances should be so designed and built that they are temporary and removable in their nature, so that changes in terminal track location, in engine handling movement, in extension of stalls, even in removing completely the engine terminal to a new location, or in moving a division terminal, may be made with the least expense and the least loss in abandoned facilities. Roundhouse with Roof over Central Area and Engine Stalls Con- nected to High Stacks by Circumferential Smoke Ducts. BLOW-PIPE WELDING Cutting a Hole Through a Boiler Plate with an Oxy-Acetylene Torch. VII BLOW-PIPE WELDING ONE development which was apparent in Euro- pean railway practice, and which is effecting; a thorough revolution in Germany, was the application of the oxy-acetylene blow pipe to metal working of all kinds. Not only is the process beingf repeatedly applied wherever it is found to benefit the work, either in economy or quality, in various rail- road shop operations, but it is also causing a revolu- tion in many of the industrial metal working trades, Metal Cutting VT. Metal Flowing During the past ten years the whole practice of metal cutting throughout the world, and particularly in America, has been greatly improved by the intro- duction of the high-speed tungsten alloy tool steels, there being scarcely a railroad shop in the United States that has not increased its production and cheapened its costs in such matters as turning tires, knuckle pins, boring cylinders, etc. Great as are the changes in shop practice due to high speed steels, the revolution that will be worked in the treatment of all kinds of metals by the oxy-acetylene flame in the forming, building up, repairing of worn or fatigued material, cutting apart and joining together, and, in fact, all kinds of metal forming and working, is bound to far overshadow it. Oxy-Acetylene Welded Piping For instance, in the piping of buildings for all pur- poses, and whether the pipes are of iron, steel, or in 112 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE some non-corrosive material, metal working is under- going a complete metamorphosis from the ground up. Piping heretofore used has walls relatively thick compared with its inside diameter, necessitated by the method of joining the ends of the lengths of pipe together, which consists in cutting a thread on the end of the pipe so that it may be screwed into a coupling, elbow, or tee; the depths of these threads determine the thickness of the pipe wall. With pipes or tubes that may be joined together by being oxy- acetylene welded this thickness is not necessary, and a tube of thinner material may be used. These thin walled pipes are easily rolled and butt welded from .; Examples of Large Heavy Piping Manufactured by Oxy-Acetylene Welding at the Works of A. Borsig in Tegel near Berlin. the strip. I was told that this method of making these thinner pipes was more economical than the present method of making wrought iron or steel pip- ing used for water, gas or steam purposes. Flat bands of steel or iron are run through rolling ma- chines to the desired diameter, and are then put through an automatic machine and oxy-acetylene butt welded. In place of having unions, elbows and couplings, BLOW-PIPE WELDING 113 as is the present practice in piping a building, these are eliminated and the joints are welded as the piping is being put in place. It will be readily seen that with this method there is no chance of leaks due to threaded connections, and as the walls of the piping are thinner, a saving is accomplished in the first cost of the pipe. When pipe is applied in a building, all of the joints and connections are as easily made in place as a wiped lead joint, and are much neater and stronger in proportion to the metal dealt with. 1 was informed by those in charge of this kind of work that joints made in this way were done more quickly and cheaply than with the threaded connections. An indication of the scale on which this oxy-acety- lene piping is being applied in buildings, is found in the High Court of Justice building, located at Cologne, which has 8 kilometers, or over 5 miles of welded piping and joints in it; and plumbers and pipe workers from all over Germany, and in fact from the other countries of Europe, are becoming expert in the new method as rapidly as they can. Pipes for railway usage may be applied thus in roundhouses, shops and water service installations, and for cars, eliminating the losses due to compressed air, steam and water leaks there being no mechanical joints. The application of oxy-acetylene welding to piping is given as a striking example of the use of the new process, although it is only one of thousands that might be cited. Instruction in Welding With the far-sightedness and the thoroughness with which the Germans prepare for any change in their methods, they easily recognized the importance of proper and careful training in the practice of doing this welding work. The Royal Prussian government 114 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE has co-operated, and, to an extent, endowed and sup- ported the foundation, first of a special advanced course in one of the largest technical industrial schools, where investigation and instruction as to the best and most skillful manner of applying oxy-acety- lene welding and cutting to the different trades have been completely worked out. This school is known as the Konigliche Vereinigte Maschinenbauschulen at Cologne. The first course in the new art was given in May, 1909, and since that time 29 successive courses of instruction in the different trades have been given. In the winter of 1911-12, for instance, 464 men from various trades and walks of life took this course at this particular technical school this in addition to those receiving instruction at the 21 other Royal Prussian technical or trade schools, and also in addi- tion to the instruction given in similar schools in the other German kingdoms. The subdivision of these 464 students was as follows: Factory owners ' 78 Factory managers and engineers 125 Foremen 116 Mechanics 113 Students 27 Others 5 Another classification according to the kind of trade is at follows : Boiler inspectors 17 Boiler workers, etc 118 Coppersmiths 18 Blacksmiths 12 Machinists 50 Ship-builders 12 Pipe workers 11 Electricians 9 Bicycle and automobile mechanics 11 Safe makers 6 Locksmiths 44 Employees of foundries and rolling mills 8 Gas works employees 6 Gun makers . 1 BLOW-PIPE WELDING 115 Aluminum workers 12 Carbide manufacturers 1 Teachers in technical schools 27 Master foremen in technical schools 21 Merchants and others 47 Plumbers 33 There is just now being founded at Nuremberg a special school devoted exclusively to practical and A Collection of Oxy-Acetylene Welded Articles in the Royal School of Machine Construction at Cologne. Perspective View. Steam Passage Wa// 2% f/iicft Cross-section of Cylinders. Section at a-a. The Cracks in This Low Pressure Cylinder of a Rolling Mill Engine Were Repaired by the Oxy-Acetylene Process. \ ./if JL-Jnw'. II Cutting Off the Riser from a Large Gun Carriage. Cutting Done by Oxy-Acetylene Blow Pipe. BLOW-PIPE WELDING 117 theoretical instruction in this new art, the first build- ing appropriation being about $40,000. In this school, as in all of the others throughout Germany and the rest of Europe, the instruction is being car- ried out along the best standard lines, each school being advised uniformly of the latest and best de- Replacing Flue Sheet of Marine Boiler by Oxy-Acetylene Welding on the Steamship "Sanai." At the Right the Welding Is Completed, While at the Left It Is in Progress. Flue Sheet Is One Inch Thick. velopments in the practice of oxy-acetylene welding, and through yearly meetings and reports from all of the schools and industries, the best developments are taken advantage of by the manufacturers and others, and a very rapid general introduction of the art is being made. 118 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE Variety of Work One of the illustrations shows a typical example of the saving that can be made by oxy-acetylene welding of large broken gray iron castings which are too large to carry in stock for replacement. The sketches show a low pressure cylinder for a blower engine in a rolling mill. This cylinder broke as indi- cated. To cast and machine a new cylinder would have meant a delay of a month and would have Main Base Casting of a Shear (Cast Iron) After Being Repaired with the Oxy- Acetylene Blow Pipe. thrown 400 men out of work for that time. The welding of cracks in a large complicated casting like this represents a very difficult feat, because of the tendency of cast iron to develop new cracks in the neighborhood of the weld. This is due to the strain set up in the metal when the casting cools after weld- BLOW-PIPE WELDING 119 ing. To overcome this the cylinder was covered with asbestos on the outside and kept at a dull red heat by a wood fire inside of the cylinder, while being welded by the oxy-acetylene flame. The operators wore wooden shoes and heavy felt gloves and worked behind asbestos shields to protect themselves from the heat. After the weld was completed the cylinder was covered with insulation and allowed to cool very slowly. After two days the insulation was removed and the welds were found to be perfect. The cylinder was then given a hydrostatic and a severe endurance test, both of which were stood without a sign of a flaw. In railroad work applications are made to the weld- ing of safe ends to flues; in the filling up of pitted spots on flues after they have been rattled; in the cutting out of all kinds of holes in steel sheets, such as fire-door holes before flanging; cutting out be- tween frame jaws in plate frames ; various classes of boiler repairs; equipping wrecking outfits with ap- paratus for cutting; welding together of cylinder and valve chest covers, dome covers, metal tool boxes, metal shovel handles, etc., and repairing blow-holes in all kinds of castings as is now done in the United States; and, in fact, an innumerable variety of work where it is required to cut two pieces of steel, iron or other metal apart, join them together, or add metal to worn or broken parts, or parts needing bosses or shoulders instead of having to use an originally thicker piece of metal. Although I had letters of introduction from the best sources, and was freely admitted into the works where these processes were generally employed, I found that where manufacturing concerns had specialists on certain articles and had been able to reduce the cost of production very much through the 120 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE art of oxy-acetylene welding, strangers were not ad- mitted to the plants, and the art was guarded as a sort of trade secret, showing the value attached by manufacturers to some of the most important de- velopments of the process so that they might retain some advantage over competitors. POLICIES AND PERSONNEL Typical of European excellence in refined design, selection of materials, pleasing appearance, good art, enduring construction, and substantial finish, even as to a railway water tank! This Hungarian State Railway tank is 140 feet high, 260,000 gallons capacity. VIII POLICIES AND PERSONNEL THE superiority of European railroad mechanical methods generally may be classed as: The training of personnel; and the selection and design of materials. In the treatment of the employees in the shops and in locomotive running service, the training is longer and more thorough and careful than it is with us; and this training has as its objective a more definite preparation for the predetermined vocation of the man. Apprentice Training For the service of the locomotive and car shops, for instance, apprentice courses and schools in con- nection with the works or shops are established in all of the countries, with the result that each succeed- ing generation of mechanics finds men not less skilled than their fathers, but, on the contrary, equally as well trained in practical work and with a far better understanding of the technical aspects of the con- tinued improvement in mechanical methods. The apprenticeship courses are almost equivalent to some of our institutes of technology in the techni- cal groundwork of instruction imparted; and at the same time, by having the young men devote the ma- jority of their time to practical shop work, often in shops especially set aside for the purpose where cer- tain classes of material, such as small locomotive parts and shop tools, are made requiring the most ac- 123 POLICIES AND PERSONNEL 125 curate workmanship, they become practical skilled mechanics. In America we cannot be said to train men that they may be fitted as mechanics. The young man does not set out consecrated, as it were, to the high calling of producing work mechanically and beauti- fully without flaws. He sets out rather with the de- sire to get through his journeyman and mechanic days as hastily as possible that he may the sooner be an inventor or a shop superintendent; instead of the consummation of his ambition being the perfection of his skill, such skill as he might acquire is con- sumed by his ambition. This is a price we are paying for democracy, and our industrial efficiency is foot- ing the bill. We must admit that in this aspect they do things better abroad, where the devotion of a life to the service of a (mechanical) calling is still a live and honored tradition. The enginemen receive similar careful training for their posts, having to go through a certain amount of shop experience, which gives them a knowledge of the machine they are to run and influences their attitude toward the careful nursing and treatment of that machine when it is entrusted to their care. The result of this attitude is on the one hand to keep the engine at all times in the best working condition, and on the other hand to get from it the maximum possible efficiency. By these methods of training, and also by the provident welfare and benevolent institutions, which find their highest development in Germany, the men fit naturally into a life work and position, and in these positions they are given op- portunity to remain. Not only are the employees carefully prepared for their respective trades, but the engineers who are to design the locomotives, machinery and other para- 126 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE phernalia of railroad operation are trained with a view to close working limits of the materials em- ployed. Attention is paid to the quality of the ma- terial that it should be of the best for the purpose in view, and that all parts, for instance, of a locomo- tive, shall be as light and small as is consistent with strength because of the limitations as to wheel loads and clearances. For these reasons greater attention is paid to the nature of the metal entering into cylin- der and other castings, into rod and other forgings, and to the reduction of the thickness of the walls and other sections to a minimum; and also to the most careful heat treatment and subsequent testing of all parts so as to eliminate internal stresses in the material. In view of this great care both in design and in selection of material, the locomotive parts are not generally subject to such heavy working stresses and fewer engine failures take place due to breakages of frames, rods, blowing out of cylinder heads, etc. Fiscal Policy The fiscal policy of the roads abroad with respect to the personnel, particularly of the shops, is such as to provide an even average of working hours and working output. The necessary financial reserves are maintained for this purpose irrespective of the current high or low tide of traffic receipts. The general policy of a great many of our Ameri- can railroads is to curtail the shop payroll and hours whenever a business depression sets in, which has unfortunate results in the disorganization of the working forces, causing many good workmen to seek employment in other towns, and tending to make our mechanics unsettled drifters from one branch of work to another. POLICIES AND PERSONNEL 127 None realize the drawbacks of this policy better than our operating officials themselves, and the nec- essary financial support should be given to the changes in this procedure that they would be only too eager to bring about. The annual result would increase the net earnings of the roads as compared with the losses entailed by the present practice, as as well as give better service and operating condi- tions. I have been told by responsible officers that the policy of retrenchment which is very frequently followed to curtail expenses at the close of the fiscal year, had the same effect on the momentum of the work in progress as the continual stopping and start- ing of a flywheel would have on the even running of a steam engine. Conservatism of Europeans I had often heard of the ultra-conservatism of Europeans in adopting changes, but I must confess that my personal observations inclined me rather to the opposite view. I found European engineers and shop officers only too ready to accept changes in ex- isting practice that could be shown to be an improve- ment. For instance, their new shop layouts are well designed and the most modern machinery is installed, some, of it, as stated, coming from America. Round- houses are modern in construction, such details as power driven turntables (even with the smaller loco- motives used abroad), efficient ventilation, etc., being given attention. In modern improvements in loco- motive design, we must give Europe credit for making the fullest practical use of superheaters, compound and multi-cylinder engines, tank engines for all classes of service except the heaviest long-distance through express and freight trains ; and we should POLICIES AND PERSONNEL 129 not ignore the practical conservation resulting from the general use of briquetted fuel. A conspicuous example of this alert development of the new in technical progress has already been dealt with in the description of oxy-acetylene weld- ing and cutting. Not only locomotive, but bridge and marine work have also applied this new art. Manufacture of Materials and Equipment In another respect, however, a tendency that was not so good, considered economically, either with reference to the railroad operation or the welfare of the industrial community, impressed me very strongly. I refer particularly to conditions obtaining in England. This tendency was towards the manu- facture of all kinds of material used in railroad con- struction and operation at the company's shops, turn- ing the railroad into a very large manufacturing con- cern. The result of this policy on the part of the English roads is that the locomotive building in- dustry there has received so little encouragement that it is placed at a great disadvantage in maintain- ing plants for the supplying of engines for the British colonies and for export to other countries in compe- tition with some of the great continental locomotive works. The same condition holds true with regard to the rolling of steel rails, the building of cars, etc. This is a policy we should avoid following to too great an extent in America, as railroads are, and should primarily confine themselves to being, a trans- portation enterprise. The manufacturing business presents entirely in- dependent and different problems, and can be handled quite as well, if not better, by individuals or com- panies devoted to the special kind of manufacture in question than is feasible by the large organization 130 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE of a railroad whose directors and principal officers are primarily concerned with the securing and han- dling of traffic and the financial problems involved. A manufacturer of an individual article, such as a bolt, for example, has to devote the greatest attention to that article to see that both its quality and its price enable it to survive as a product under competitive conditions. The manufacturer of bolts must make each bolt produce its share of profits or dividends; a railroad company, on the other hand, being organized for the production of transportation and not for the manufacture of materials, has no direct or competi- tive incentive to make each bolt pay a dividend or be of such design and quality that it may compete (in its efficiency as a bolt) with the kinds of bolts used by other railroads. Marked and indirect advantages accrue from leaving manufacture to concerns espe- cially equipped therefor, since not only can the work be produced as cheaply or more cheaply, with all the overhead charges included, and as well or better than can be done by the railroad shops; but also the em- ployees' families, and the financial supporters of these factories, are drawn into an attitude ^ sympa- thetic with the railroad enterprise instead of being indifferent as to its welfare. Also the labor position of the railroads is much improved, since an associa- tion of employees, that can make a simultaneous de- mand for an entire railroad system, will be split up among the different manufacturers and trades sup- plying railway materials, leaving to each industry the handling of its own special labor problems and requirements. It is well recognized in America that some of our stupendous organizations, employing tens or hun- dreds of thousands of men, have become unwieldy in their handling of questions relating to the personnel, POLICIES AND PERSONNEL 131 owing to the physical impossibility of a single man at the head deciding upon all matters . On the other hand there has been a tendency to take away the power of decision from subordinate officers, and officers in direct relation with the men and the ques- tions concerning them. In the past, in smaller con- cerns, where the employer was in direct touch with his men and with the industry, the working condi- tion of the men and the attention given to the char- acter of the product were more satisfactory and gave rise to less discontent, both on the part of the workers and on the part of the users of the materials, than is wont to be the case where the activities are carried on as part of a vast corporation. Our Railway Business Association has done much to calm popular clamor for the unreasonable in rail- road legislation and to counteract a tendency toward drastic rate cutting by government commissions. This organization, although unasked, took the side of the railroads in the recent period of stress, and by its makeup was able to accomplish much that the railroads themselves could not do. Its membership is made up of the largest and strongest, as well as of numerous minor concerns, scattered over the land from coast to coast. All members are active allies of the railroads. Their influence through their thou- sands of employees permeates and affects public opinion in a way impossible for any other organiza- tion. When one considers what this one organiza- tion, friendly to the railroads, has done, the advisa- bility of taking work from such concerns and per- forming it in railroad shops becomes questionable; in fact, it seems as if railroad friendships should be built up even more among outsiders by increasing the list of those from whom we purchase and the list of articles purchased. Some roads, however, seem 132 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE to be going in the other direction and are inclining toward the English practice in this matter. Operation of Equipment Besides the conditions under which the equipment and other materials of a railroad are produced, there is much that is instructive to us in Europe's example in the operation of this equipment. Reference has already been made to the few engine failures, which, for instance, on the Prussian state system, are of such rare occurrence that it is not necessary to make of them a matter of daily or hourly report with con- tinual irritating criticism of officers and men. Of course, reports are made of engine failures when they occur, but these are due almost entirely to some ex- ceptional and unavoidable accidental cause, failures due to wear or weakness of the locomotive parts be- ing corrected as to causes before a failure on the road can take place. This precaution is exercised by the most careful roundhouse inspection, both on the part of the engine crew to whom the engine is assigned, and on the part of the inspectors charged with this duty. This care in keeping the engine in condition results in a smoothness and reliability of working that is indeed enviable. Operating Economy Mention has also been made of the economy of the European locomotives in fuel and steam, this econ- omy commencing with the design of the locomotive and ending with the personal interest of the engineer and fireman and the supervision given to their in- dividual performances by the motive power and transportation officers. Despite our abundance of cheap but excellent coal in America, our fuel bill con- stitutes such a large percentage of railroad operating POLICIES AND PERSONNEL 133 cost that we surely should be as unsparing in pains and efforts to bring this fuel consumption to a mini- mum as have been the Europeans. In view of the several respects in which the European railroads are excellently maintained and operated with closest regard to excellence of service and detailed attention to economy in repair and operation, it may be wondered why European rail- roads are not more profitably run than are the Ameri- can roads. While abroad I gave my attention to the practical shop and locomotive aspects of the roads, rather than to a comprehensive study of their finan- cial and fiscal arrangements and conditions, but as far as I could gather from the published statistics available in these latter respects, and from conver- sations with the higher railroad officials, the greater first cost of the railroads in Europe, due to their hav- ing originally been built through thickly settled re- gions where the right-of-way had to be acquired at a high price from private owners, has imposed upon the roads abroad fixed charges much greater in pro- portion to the volume of traffic than obtains with us. Another influence is the small clearance of locomo- tives and cars, and the consequently short train lengths, these limitations having their origin in the fact that the early railroad equipment comprised car- riages and wagons transferred from the highways to the metal railed tracks by providing them with flanged wheels and pulling them by a steam locomo- tive instead of animal traction. With the extension of lines, the early wagon wheel gage, distance be- tween double tracks, sections of tunnels and cuts (often walled so that the least width or strip of land necessary would have to be purchased) were not in- creased, and it was not considered necessary in view of the greater cheapness of steam railroad haul com- 134 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE pared with the previous horse traffic. The reason we have employed larger clearances in America is that we were fortunate in building our railroads through a thinly settled and comparatively undeveloped coun- try where the land cost was not so serious a problem. Contrasts Since coming back to my native home, I have won- dered over the contrasts, the differences that have arisen in so many details in Europe and America, and I am most weighed down by the difference in the way the European and the American view the human aspects of the rail transportation problem. We have dealt with certain aspects of the employee his selec- tion, his formative period, his security in the enjoy- ment of the fruits of years of service. These methods are in distinct contrast to the individualistic shift- for-yourself free American melee, which has finally crystallized in making our unions so strong strong because they furnish the channel through which workmen have become more secure in their positions. How often have we seen workmen lose their posi- tions due to the fact that some gang foreman was tyrannical and wished to exercise the power to which he had recently been promoted. The contrast in the attitude toward and by the public is equally striking. Rates and bases for them typify such relations. In England and America rates have arisen almost entirely out of competitive activi- ties between either routes or localities. Certain maxima have been established by law. On the Con- tinent, and particularly in Germany, an attempt at a scientific kilometric-plus-terminal-charge classifi- cation has been attempted, governmental control of this matter being similar to the aim of our own Inter- state Commerce Commission legislation and decision POLICIES AND PERSONNEL 135 today. The result in Germany has been devious, as witness exceptions to the flat or zone tariffs. Certain commodity rates existed when the new scientific plan was adopted. Under these exceptions or "Ausna- hme" tariffs most of the German freight of today moves. These exceptional tariffs are more pliant to traffic growth than the rigid so called scientific rates, which have correspondingly diminished in propor- tion to traffic moved. Strangely enough, however, nowhere abroad do we see any indication of an attempt to base rates upon physical valuation of the property used to effect transportation. This is a new shibboleth that has raised its head in our land, and that is destined to wander a tortuous course; we cannot but wonder what will be the effect on two roads of different con- struction standards between the same termini, or two roads of similar construction, but different operating conditions. CONCLUSIONS IX CONCLUSIONS WE, of free America, may thank our stars that Europe's ways, Europe's traditions, Europe's limitations, are not ours. Particularly is this true with regard to railroad standards, practices, and limitations. The attempts that have been made to import, and use European track and locomotives, have resulted in conspicuous failure. European de- signs and methods are not adapted to our rough, heavy traffic, conditions, or our individualism. In service, in rates, in wages, in labor well-being, and in efficient operation and financial results, we may be thankful, like the Pharisee, that we are better than those others. But let us not be dulled into a smug and com- placent self-satisfaction with our condition. Our rail- road situation, being the very warp and woof of our whole industrial and social fabric and prosperity, is of vital concern to us all. And its. condition is not as healthy as it should be. We have reached a stage where rates tend to become stable, where public serv- ice on the one hand and organized labor on the other, demand greater expenditures for facilities and for operation, and where the lessening margin for net profits makes impracticable needed investment in im- provements. A new set of tactics must pilot us be- tween this Scylla and Charybdis. Europe, through a generation of experiment and experience, supplies us ready-made with methods which we may well adapt to our particular conditions. These methods involve very careful scrutiny of the 139 140 FOREIGN RAILWAY PRACTICE details of construction, maintenance, and operation; frugality in the use of selected materials; painstak- ing vocational railroad training; and the highest technical skill in improving designs and practice. In all these details Europe has reached a finished thoroughness unattained by us (save in our tool con- struction) that is of moment because of the economic results thereby attained. Under the patronage of the American Railway Association, two great movements in this direction are in process: improvement of rail quality; and better use of the two million freight cars that we have. If this same body would support a central laboratory, and a sufficient corps of technical and practical men, to seek out the very best of each detail method or design that had been developed on any railway in the world, and to sufficiently test the comparative worth of these, what a new era of not "scientific 11 but practical management would be at hand ! In sum, America needs yet to learn to use carefully, that which we have. '^r^S&ts BooM *^sss Vr!$** *^~~~ tO $ IA TCa^. na.ti P 61 '^f= sS: f Sa ^ REC'D FEB 2 1961 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY