r 
 
 REESE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Deceived 
 ^Accession No. / ~ / Y .... . Claxs No. 
 
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14 DAY USE 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 LOAN DEPT. 
 
 RENEWALS ONLY TEL NO. 642-3405 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
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 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
 LD 21A-40m-2,'69 
 (J6057slO)476 A-32 
 
 Brkeley 
 
THE NEW 
 
 ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT 
 
 A MANUAL OF REFERENCE FOR THOSE HAVING TO DO WITH 
 THE PERMANENT WAY OF AMERICAN RAILROADS 
 
 GEORGE HEBARD PAINE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 This volume is the successor to the Roadmaster's Assistant written by 
 
 William 5. Huntington in 1871 and revised by 
 
 Charles Latimer in 1877 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE RAILROAD GAZETTE, 32 PARK PLACE NEW YORK 
 l8 9 8 
 
Copyright, 1898, 
 
 BY 
 THE RAILROAD GAZETTE. 
 
To my Father, CHARLES PAINE, as a slight evidence 
 of my admiration, gratitude and affection, this book is 
 dedicated. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER. PAGE. 
 
 1. GENERAL REMARKS, ........ 1 
 
 2. ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OF WORK, . 9 
 
 3. FENCES, HIGHWAY CROSSINGS AND PLAT- 
 
 FORMS, 19 
 
 4. MISCELLANEOUS FIXTURES AND STATION 
 
 GROUNDS, 31 
 
 5. WATER SUPPLY, 47 
 
 6. DRAINAGE, 55 
 
 7. CULVERTS, TRESTLES AND BRIDGE FLOORS, 67 
 
 8. BALLAST, 75 
 
 9. CROSS TIES, 95 
 
 10. RAILS AND F-ASTENINGS, 107 
 
 11. TRACK WORK, . . . . 127 
 
 12. TOOLS, 147 
 
 13. FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH STANDS, . 165 
 
 14. EMERGENCIES AND TRAIN SIGNALS, . . . 193 
 
 15. FIXED SIGNALS, 201 
 
 16. RULES AND TABLES, 229 
 
 INDEX, 255 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Iii his preface to the u Road-Master's Assistant and 
 Section-Master's Guide," Mr. William S. Huntington 
 explained that his wish was to make a " practical book 
 for practical men." How well he succeeded is shown 
 by the great demand for it from men of all ranks in 
 railroad service, while to those just entering the main- 
 tenance of way department it has been a guide and 
 counsellor. 
 
 To the labor begun in 1871 by Mr. Huntington, the 
 revision made by Mr. Charles Latimer in 1877 brought 
 the scope of the work down to his period ; nor did he, 
 in the fullness of his knowledge and experience, depart 
 from the rule that Mr. Huntington had adopted. 
 
 It has been a pleasant but difficult task to follow in 
 the footsteps of these men ; to be clear, concise and 
 comprehensive but without dogmatism, or a too great 
 insistence on his own opinion ; to be practically useful 
 and theoretically correct has been the object of the 
 present author. 
 
 Nearly all maintenance of way knowledge is basecl 
 upon the experience of predecessors ; few can truth- 
 fully say, " I was the father of that idea," since the 
 present practice is the outcome, of more than a half- 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 century of labor and tkought. But of all this travail 
 a large proportion has been mistaken, the proof of 
 which lies before us in the scrap-heap. 
 
 Nevertheless, our mistakes of to-day beget the suc- 
 cesses of to-morrow : therefore it behooves us of the 
 present to regard our views with diffidence, in the cer- 
 tain assurance that many notions which we consider 
 sound will on trial prove wrong, and much which we 
 now condemn is to be the practice of the future. 
 
 The drawings in this book are original and their 
 correctness and simplicity are largely due to Mr. 
 Arthur Tartas. The author is indebted to Mr. James 
 D. Hawks, President of the Detroit & Mackinac Kail- 
 way Company, and to Mr. Augustus Torrey, Chief 
 Engineer of the Michigan Central Railroad Company, 
 for advice and criticism. 
 
 G. II. P. 
 
 MARCH, 1898. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 An experience of something like sixty years construe- 
 in railroad construction has demonstrated the tion< 
 fact that the preparation of a piece of track 
 for the passage of trains can be done best, cheap- 
 est and most quickly by well-organized gangs 
 of men, each of them under the command of 
 one who is experienced in his particular branch 
 of the work. For this reason, a modern rail- 
 road is usually built and perhaps ballasted by 
 contractors and is turned over to the mainten- 
 ance- of- way department with the tracks and 
 switches laid. 
 
 The first duties which fall upon a road-mas- Finishing 
 ter, after receiving charge of a newly built U P- 
 line, are the not very agreeable ones of finish- 
 ing up. Contractors are quite likely to leave 
 their work in an unfinished condition, and the 
 permanent officers of a railroad then find that 
 the cuts and banks are not sufficiently sloped ; 
 that the track needs re-lining and re-surfacing ; 
 the ties re-spacing ; and that the ditches, if any 
 have ever been dug, are nearly, if not quite, 
 filled up. 
 
 After having seen that the track is in a safe Opening 
 condition and that loose rocks and rotten trees 8treams - 
 are not likely to fall upon it, the roadmaster 
 should at once make an inspection of all water- 
 ways. The beds of the streams should be 
 cleared of all loose material, both above and 
 below, as well as underneath the openings; 
 
THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Cleaning 
 culverts. 
 
 Cleaning 
 ditches. 
 
 Progs and 
 switches. 
 
 Trees near 
 track. 
 
 this should be particularly looked after in the 
 case of wooden structures where the danger 
 of fire is added to the liability of washouts. 
 
 Culverts are frequently built too small to 
 accommodate even ordinary high water ; there- 
 fore if they are permitted to remain choked 
 with weeds and driftwood they become doubly 
 dangerous. 
 
 Because good track cannot exist with bad 
 drainage, prompt attention should be paid to 
 the condition of the ditches, which should be 
 opened as soon as possible and in such a way 
 as to permit of the quickest passage of the 
 water from the ballast to some regular water 
 course. 
 
 Frogs and switches should be rigidly in- 
 spected and, although mistakes in their design 
 or construction cannot often be remedied after 
 they are once in place, it should be ascertained 
 that guard rails are properly located and 
 braced; that the throw of the switches is cor- 
 rect ; that their points are sufficiently protected 
 by the curve in the main rail and that the frog 
 points are in line with the main track. 
 
 Trees are often left standing on or near the 
 right-of-way in such a position, if they should 
 be blown over, as to endanger passing trains. 
 These must be felled in short order, although 
 their removal may be put off to some less busy 
 time. In some states railroads are permitted 
 to condemn trees outside the right-of-way (if a 
 price cannot be agreed upon with the owner), 
 and it is important for trackmen to knoAV of this 
 wherever the right exists. A simple and suffi- 
 ciently accurate way of determining whether or 
 not a tree is at a safe distance from the track, if 
 the base of the tree is neither much above or 
 much below the level of the track, is as follows : 
 Let one man hold a track-gage vertically, 
 resting it on top of the rail nearest the tree. 
 
GENERAL REMARKS. 3 
 
 Let another man place his eye close to the 
 opposite rail and sight over the upper end of 
 the track-gage. If the sight line clears the 
 top of the tree, the tree is at a safe distance 
 otherwise, not. 
 
 Generally speaking, the only vegetation Encourag- 
 which should be permitted on the right-of-way in rass - 
 of a railroad is grass and this should be en- 
 couraged in every way, for it is of the greatest 
 use in preventing sliding in cuts and on other 
 slopes and much improves the appearance of 
 a line as seen from a passing train. 
 
 Section-foremen should be authorized to em- Extra men. 
 ploy a limited number of men to assist them 
 in times of threatened danger from floods, 
 landslides, etc. If the privilege is abused it 
 may easily be taken away or the foreman re- 
 placed by a more judicious one ; since it is 
 better to spend a few dollars at the right time 
 than that the whole traffic of a railroad should 
 be stopped indefinitely for want of a little 
 extra help. 
 
 Snow storms, especially, should be promptly snow 
 dealt with, and as it devolves upon the main- 8torms - 
 tenaiice-of-way department to keep the switches 
 and platforms clean, roadmasters and section- 
 foremen should be prepared at all times to 
 meet any storms with a sufficient force to per- 
 form their work in a satisfactory manner. 
 
 The track should be completely walked over Track 
 by the roadmaster at least three times, and 
 better still four times, a year, in the company 
 of each section-foreman, for the purpose of 
 making a general comparison of progress and 
 planning the work for the future. These walks 
 should take place at the opening of spring, 
 early in July, the middle of September and at 
 the beginning of* winter. Between times, 
 each section should be attended to as occasion 
 requires, while the fact should be borne in mind 
 
THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 that the best way to inspect a piece of track 
 is to do it on foot. 
 
 Although the accounts and reports which 
 are required of roadmasters and section-fore- 
 men are not difficult, they are apt to cause 
 considerable trouble to the men and annoyance 
 at the department head-quarters. The only 
 easy way is to have them ready when they are 
 due and to have them right, since delaying 
 the performance of a duty makes it harder to 
 fulfill and increases the likelihood of error. 
 The section time-books should be made up 
 every night after the quitting time, and, while 
 the matter is still fresh in the mind, all of the 
 charges to different kinds of work should be 
 made. The tie, rail and material reports of 
 the roadmaster should be kept in a form 
 which will enable him to fill them up and 
 send them in at the end of the month, without 
 having to spend several clays in the office at a 
 time when he should be out on the road among 
 his men. 
 
 The use of the section hand-cars by a road- 
 master should be resorted to only on rare 
 occasions and under the most urgent necessity. 
 Although it is, for the roadmaster, an ex- 
 tremely pleasant and convenient method of 
 getting from place to place, it is expensive for 
 the railroad company, and, what is worse, 
 leads to lax habits on the part of the men. For 
 ordinary touring a velocipede should be used. 
 
 The hand-car should never be used except 
 in charge of the foreman himself, or someone 
 in whom he has confidence, and when on the 
 track should be the object of care and watch- 
 fulness. Where the trains are frequent, on a 
 crooked road, during a fog, or at night, the 
 car should be protected t>y a flag, and the 
 fact that a hand-car has been struck by an 
 engine should be regarded as presumption of 
 
men. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 5 
 
 criminal carelessness on the part of the fore- 
 man. The cars should not be "taken off" on 
 highway crossings in such a way as to block 
 them, but frequent places, formed of old rail, 
 ties or earth, should be provided for the 
 purpose. 
 
 It should never be taken from the house with- Hand-car 
 out the following equipment: two red flags, equip, 
 one green flag, six torpedoes, a well-sharpened 
 mattock, an oil can, a monkey wrench, a spike 
 maul, a track chisel and a claw bar. Other 
 tools will be found convenient, but with those 
 named, the track can be protected and nearly 
 any kind of small repairs can be made. 
 
 Let it be always remembered that men can- comfort of 
 not work without food. When they are kept 
 out late at night in the cold or wet it puts them 
 in good humor and gives them new strength, 
 to supply them with sandwiches or bread and 
 butter and hot coffee. For this purpose the 
 work train caboose, as well as the wrecking 
 car, should be provided with boilers for making 
 coffee. The master who sees to the comfort of 
 his men will, other things being equal, have 
 more influence over them and get more out 
 of them than the one who treats them with 
 indifference. 
 
 Reliable men should never be dismissed Discipline. 
 except for cause or to comply with a general 
 order for reduction. The frequent discharge 
 of employes for trivial reasons tends to breed 
 dissatisfaction and uncertainty in the minds of 
 the men who should be made to feel confident 
 of keeping their positions during good behav- 
 ior. On the other hand, a man who is dis- 
 charged for a good and just cause should not 
 be re-instated. Admonition should be tried, if 
 it is possible, with men whose work is at all 
 satisfactory, before the final act of discharge ; 
 but, whatever course is followed, it should be 
 
6 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 made clear to everyone that some notice will 
 be taken of any careless or wanton breaking of 
 the rules. 
 
 Knowledge It is of the first importance that a road- 
 of details. ma ster should know his road and his men, and 
 it is more important that he should know the 
 bad places and unworthy men than to know 
 the good ones. Good things do not require 
 so much watching as bad ones. 
 
 Emergency The 1'oadmaster should also know the exact 
 material, location of all material under his charge ; and 
 
 O / 
 
 this knowledge is absolutely necessary at times 
 when it is important that a large amount of 
 material of a certain kind shall be delivered at 
 a certain point at the earliest possible moment. 
 Spare material, for the same reason, should be 
 stored at convenient points and so placed as to 
 permit of its being loaded easily and rapidly 
 on short notice. If the roadmaster is prudent, 
 he will always have some timber, rails, a few 
 switches and some frogs on hand for sudden 
 emergencies, no matter how poor the railroad 
 company may be. 
 
 intoxicants The use of intoxicants should be absolutely 
 forbidden, prohibited during working hours. Men known 
 to frequent saloons do not belong on a railroad, 
 and for many reasons should not be employed 
 there. The example they set is bad, and it 
 cannot be foretold when someone in the hum- 
 blest position may be required to perform work 
 of immense importance, as for instance flagging 
 a train which is in danger. At such a time a 
 man must be in the full possession of his facul- 
 ties, and if he drinks, he cannot be relied upon. 
 competi= A spirit of competition and emulation once 
 tion. aroused among the men will prove a valuable 
 
 help, and for this purpose tours of inspection, 
 at stated intervals, over all the sections and 
 shared in by all the foremen, should be made. 
 They should be asked to criticise each other's 
 
GENERAL REMARKS. 7 
 
 work freely, and discussions as to the best way 
 of accomplishing various things should be 
 encouraged. This interchange of ideas will 
 not only add greatly to the general stock of 
 information but it will let each man see how 
 far his work is advanced in comparison with 
 that of the others. 
 
 At all times there should be held in line for Men for 
 promotion a number of bright, active young P romotl 
 men who may be called upon to act as substi- 
 tutes or to take the places of men whom it is 
 desired to discharge. They may be familiarized 
 with the use of authority by employing them 
 as extra foremen during the summer, as track- 
 walkers and upon detached service during the 
 winter. The ability to enforce an order or 
 inaugurate a reform will frequently depend 
 upon this particular, since men are often re- 
 tained in their positions for the sole reason 
 that there are none to supplant them who will 
 certainly do better. It must also be remem- 
 bered that frequent small promotions have a 
 better effect than a single considerable one; 
 therefore in making a change it is well to see 
 if two or three cannot be benefited instead of 
 simply the one who is directly interested. 
 
 A. section-foreman's place is with his men, Attention 
 whom he should not leave if it can be avoided, to business. 
 The roadmaster's place is everywhere. He 
 should ride over his division continually; 011 
 the rear end and on the locomotives of passen- 
 ger trains, on way freights and on a velocipede 
 hand-car, while occasional trips should be made 
 at night to see that the switch lamps are burn- 
 ing properly and that the track- walkers are 
 attending to their duties. No man should 
 undertake the duties of a roadinaster who will 
 not cheerfully give himself up to the require- 
 ments of the work. , He should be available at 
 any hour of the day or night, and for this rea- 
 
8 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Attention son his whereabouts*should always be known 
 to business. either ^ the telegraph office or at his home, 
 and any serious damage to the main track 
 should have his immediate personal attention. 
 In short, his habits, life and language should 
 be an example to his men in order that he may 
 consistently correct any failures on their part. 
 Inasmuch as he occupies one of the most 
 responsible and onerous positions on the road, 
 he should attempt to perform his duties with 
 credit to himself or else earn his living in some 
 other way. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OF WORK. 
 
 The number of men necessary to properly Number of 
 maintain a railroad is determined by such vary- men - 
 ing conditions that it is impossible to lay down 
 any general rule which is applicable to every 
 case. The amount and quality of the ballast, 
 the condition and weight of the rail, the charac- 
 ter and amount of the traffic, the climate ; all 
 these tend to affect the ease with which a piece 
 of track may be kept up. On a well-ballasted, 
 double-track railroad, equipped with good ties 
 and heavy steel rails, having sections five miles 
 long, five men and a foreman (exclusive of 
 watchmen and track- walkers) for eight months 
 beginning with April 1st, and three men and a 
 foreman for the other four months of the year 
 should be able to keep the road bed and track 
 in first-class shape. This estimate is intended 
 to cover only the routine work of a section 
 with perhaps a little grading for a new side- 
 track occasionally added. As an example of 
 what is believed to be a remarkable economy 
 in maintenance, it is stated that the Michigan 
 Central Railroad employs but three men and a 
 foreman in summer and two men and a fore- 
 man in winter on sections five miles long. 
 This obtains on both single and double track 
 since it is found that the increased train move- 
 ment on single track fully compensates for the 
 greater length of double- track sections. The 
 Detroit & Mackinac Railway employs two 
 men and a foreman in summer and one man 
 
10 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 and a foreman in Writer on eight to ten-mile 
 sections of single-track road. Most of the 
 tamping is shovel-tamping in sand and the traf- 
 fic of course is light. 
 
 Length of The sections, except those embracing large 
 sections, yards, should be as nearly as possible of equal 
 length in order that a comparison may be made 
 of the work performed by the different gangs. 
 On main lines, sections should not exceed live 
 miles in length, while on branch lines they may 
 be seven or eight miles long, but seldom more 
 because of the loss of time in ffoinsr over them. 
 
 O 5 
 
 Extra help. As nearly as possible each foreman should 
 perform all of the work of ordinary repairs on 
 his own section. The practice of transferring 
 one gang to help in the regular work on another 
 section is not commonly a good one, since each 
 foreman should be held responsible for, and 
 capable of performing, his own duties, to which 
 end he should be encouraged in every "N'tiy. 
 If the amount of work to be done is too great 
 for the regular force, its number should be 
 increased, but any help or interference from 
 foreign gangs is apt to arouse the resentment 
 of an ambitious man or to encourage in a 
 lazy man a certain shiftless feeling of satis- 
 faction. 
 
 Floating During the working months, a floating gang 
 in charge of some bright young man, who is 
 on the list for promotion to a regular section, 
 will be found of great use in such matters as 
 cutting new ditches, sloping rough banks, 
 building new fences, etc., etc. These gangs 
 are easily moved from place to place, may 
 have their own hand-cars and tools, and for 
 such work as they can do are useful and 
 far more economical than a work train. If 
 necessary (and it is frequently advisable) t he- 
 foreman of the section where these men hap- 
 pen to be at work, may be permitted to 
 
ORGANIZATION AND METHODS o? WORK. 11 
 
 guarantee their board and deduct it from their 
 wages on pay-day. 
 
 The work train, although absolutely necessary work 
 for some purposes, is in many cases an expensive trains - 
 luxury. Since it has no rights beyond those 
 given by special orders, it must keep out of the 
 way of all regular trains and, if the road be a 
 busy one, it is apt to become a loafing place for 
 the men, because it must of necessity spend a 
 large amount of time in running from one 
 point to another or in waiting for orders at 
 some place where there is no work to be done. 
 To secure good results the roadmaster should 
 watch its movements closely and work sufficient 
 to keep the hands employed should be laid out 
 some time in advance and distributed over the 
 division in such a way as to provide constant 
 employment for the men. 
 
 The foreman of the work train should be 
 bright, active and pushing, intent upon keep- 
 ing his train in motion, always on the lookout 
 for something to occupy his men and well 
 acquainted with all the details of track work. 
 The train should be provided with tools of all 
 kinds in order that, no matter what service the 
 men may be called upon to perform, they will 
 have something to do it with. On long divi- 
 sions and in some other cases the men must 
 sleep and eat on the train. When this is so, it 
 is a simple matter to have a man run the com- 
 missariat, charging an agreed price ibr each 
 man per day. The railroad company can then 
 collect his pay from the wages of the men and 
 can also make the contract an object to the 
 boarding boss by shipping his materials to him 
 free and by furnishing the sleeping, dining and 
 cooking cars. 
 
 Valuable help may be got out of the way Useofway- 
 freights, if properly handled, which is usually frei hts - 
 required of the work train. The distribution 
 
12 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 of cross ties, small" amounts of rail, ballast, 
 building stone and other articles which need 
 not delay the train long, may with a little fore- 
 sight be thus accomplished at comparatively 
 slight cost. Such work as heavy ballasting or 
 ditching in long cuts requires an extra train, 
 but by the use of an unloading plow, the 
 presence of laborers on the train while the 
 material is being handled and dumped may 
 usually be dispensed with. 
 
 combining A common method of concentrating labor 
 gangs. is the massing together of men from a number 
 of sections in order that a large amount of 
 work may be accomplished in a short time. 
 This plan is expensive but is applicable upon 
 poor roads where the permission to employ 
 extra men is not often granted. 
 
 Routine The routine work upon a railroad should be 
 
 work. performed in a regular manner and in pursu- 
 ance of well-considered plans. Certain days, as 
 well as certain seasons, should be set apart for 
 certain kinds of work. On Monday morning 
 the section should be carefully inspected by 
 the foreman for the purpose of remedying any 
 defects which shall have developed during 
 Sunday, and as much as is necessary of Satur- 
 day afternoon should be devoted to cleaning 
 up. At this time the scrap, which in the 
 meantime should have been thrown into small 
 piles by the track- walker, must be collected and 
 taken to the tool-house, the wrought and cast 
 iron being thrown into separate bins. Unsightly 
 objects should be disposed of and the line should 
 be left in a neat and orderly condition. 
 Rainy There is always some work to be done 
 
 days. around a section-house in the way of fitting 
 handles, sharpening tools, slight repairs to the 
 hand-car or house itself, which may be per- 
 formed on rainy clays when the men are wait- 
 ing for it to clear up. 
 
ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OP WORK. IB 
 
 The watching of track is a most important watch- 
 feature of maintenance-of-way work, and is men> 
 more likely to be neglected from a false sense 
 of economy than it is to be overdone. In a 
 properly organized department the slope watch- 
 men will be furnished with the ordinary tools 
 for tamping, renewing ties, ditching, etc., and 
 will be expected to use them pretty steadily 
 except in bad weather, when their attention 
 should be directed to patrolling and looking 
 for obstructions. 
 
 Track- walkers, however, should not be re- Track- 
 quired to make any but the most incidental walkers - 
 repairs, such as knocking in a spike, tightening 
 bolls, or some little thing which will not dis- 
 tract their attention or detain them lon<z* from 
 
 O 
 
 their inspection. They should be required to 
 look out for burning fences or fires which 
 threaten, or appear likely to threaten, any 
 property on or near the right-of-way. They 
 should be particularly on the look out for 
 broken rails, switches, frogs, etc. The position 
 of track-walker is one of great responsibility 
 and should be filled by a man of judgment, 
 sobriety and experience in railroad work ; one 
 who is familiar with the book of rules, well 
 acquainted with the time card, and able to 
 immediately recognize a dangerous condition 
 of the track or road bed. The track- walker is 
 in fact the eye of the foreman. Many rail- 
 roads do not employ track- walkers, and when 
 this is so the section-foreman must be re- 
 quired to patrol his track every morning on a 
 hand-car. 
 
 It is a mooted point as to whether or not Foremen 
 foremen should themselves work with their *j! s labo ' 
 gangs, and a good deal is to be said on both 
 sides of the question. In small gangs of three 
 or four it is certain that the foreman should be 
 able to perform a considerable amount of actual 
 
14 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 labor in addition tt> directing his men, but 
 where there are eight or ten men to keep busy 
 it is doubtful if anything is gained by distract- 
 ing his attention from their movements. 
 
 Division of As in the division of labor between the sec- 
 
 labor. tions, it is advisable to divide the labor of a 
 gang into several equal parts. Some men will 
 always shirk unless there is a certain means of 
 comparing their work with that of others who 
 are not lazy. 
 
 Residence. The residence of foremen will be largely de- 
 termined by circumstances, but if possible 
 they should make their homes at stations where 
 there are night telegraph offices. Road- 
 masters should live at some place from which 
 they can easily reach all points lying within 
 their jurisdiction. 
 
 winter The railroad year, in most sections of this 
 
 country, may be divided into two parts, the 
 first of which extends from early in December 
 until late in March. During this time as little 
 as possible actual track work should be under- 
 taken during the winter season. A little 
 shimming, spiking and perhaps the renewal of 
 switches and frogs where the ties are in good 
 surface and do not require shifting, is about all 
 that should be attempted and even these only 
 for the purpose of keeping the track absolutely 
 safe for the passage of trains. Many other 
 useful things can be done, at odd times when 
 the weather permits, such as ditching, repairing 
 road crossings, fences and platforms, sloping 
 banks, taking down loose rock, etc., which will 
 greatly facilitate the work on the section. 
 While cold weather lasts labor is cheap and 
 plenty and advantage may be taken of this 
 fact during moderate periods. The very last 
 of the winter season is the best time to " renew 
 rail. 7 ' Since the ties must often be re-spaced in 
 order that the rail may be properly supported 
 
ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OP WORK. 15 
 
 at the joints, the most urgent part of this 
 re-spacing must be done as soon as the frost is 
 out of the ballast and may be finished when 
 the new ties are put in. 
 
 The period from April to December should summer 
 be devoted to the real work of the section. work * 
 Lining and surfacing, although of great im- 
 portance, stand second to ditching, which 
 should begin as soon as the frost is out of the 
 ground. If this fact were better understood 
 much valuable time would be saved, for it is 
 probable that any lining or surfacing of track 
 before the ballast is thoroughly drained must 
 be done over again in a very short time, and 
 when trackmen are required or permitted to 
 "putter," that is, rush from one point to an- 
 other, picking up joints which are a little low, 
 they will not have much time to do those things 
 which most tend to preserve their track in 
 good condition. There are only a few secrets 
 not generally known about track work, and 
 one of them is not to allow the section gang to 
 "putter." 
 
 After the ditching has been completed and Tis 
 the track made fairly smooth, the work of renewin s 
 putting in ties should begin in earnest. For 
 many reasons this part of the work should be 
 pushed to as early a finish as possible, for, if it 
 is carried on in a desultory manner, cold 
 weather frequently arrives to find the work 
 incompleted. No paying work can be done 
 on track until the ties are in, and no good 
 track can be secured unless ties are put in 
 early in the season. The desirability of having 
 all ties for the season's renewals on hand and 
 distributed before the beginning of spring is 
 therefore apparent. 
 
 Weeds, shrubs and underbrush should be Cutting 
 exterminated, and to this end should be cut at y 
 some specified time, which time varies in dif- 
 
16 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Cutting 
 weeds. 
 
 Organized 
 effort. 
 
 Thorough 
 work. 
 
 ferent parts of the United States. The object 
 is of course to kill the weeds while they are 
 small and before they ripen. In many of 
 the states laws have been passed compelling 
 the owners of land to cut the Canada thistles be- 
 fore a certain time in the summer under a pen- 
 alty for neglect. The terms of this law, as it 
 relates to their locality, should be known to 
 every roadmaster and section-foreman. From 
 this time on the force must be employed in the 
 general work of the section, such as lining 
 and surfacing, deepening water courses, laying 
 drains, sodding banks and ballasting. About 
 the middle of September a second cutting of 
 the weeds will be found necessary, and this 
 should be followed by a careful alinement 
 and surfacing of the track and a general 
 preparation of the road for the severities of 
 winter. 
 
 Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon 
 the necessity for organized effort in the imiin- 
 tenance-of-way department. There is a 
 proper season for each different class of work 
 and a regard for the old proverb which says 
 "a place for everything and everything in its 
 place " will secure as good results on a railroad 
 as elsewhere. 
 
 It should be unnecessary to insist on so 
 plain a fact as the importance of thorough 
 work, but there is a too common idea that a 
 piece of track which looks as if it were good 
 is good "to stay." Hurried tamping may 
 make track appear well when it is first put up, 
 but a few trains passing over it cause it to be- 
 come as bad as before, while the men are kept 
 running from one low joint to another, losing 
 time on the way, doing the same thing over 
 and over again, when a little more effort in 
 the first place would have resulted in a perma- 
 nent job. 
 
ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OF WORK. 17 
 
 Order and neatness are of the first import- Neatness, 
 ance, not so much in themselves, as in what 
 they indicate. Although a foreman may have 
 a dirty car-house and good track, it is more 
 probable that ungathered scrap and other evi- 
 dences of carelessness will be accompanied by 
 loose bolts and badly tamped ties. 
 
 Reports should be required of all fires, with Locomo- 
 a statement of the numbers of the locomotives ^* rks 
 which are believed to have caused them. Since 
 bad nettings are usually the cause, the loco- 
 motives which require repairs in that particu- 
 lar will be detected. 
 
 One of the most destructive agencies to a Hoiiow 
 railroad track are locomotive tires with hollow t!res - 
 treads. On most railroads these tires are 
 turned down before they have been worn to a 
 dangerous depth, but occasionally a motive 
 power department is found which does not re- 
 gard this fault so seriously as it should. To 
 correct it the roadmaster should occasionally 
 try the wheels of the locomotives by means of 
 a pocket template and enter a protest when- 
 ever a wheel is found with a hollow tire 
 deep enough to injure the frogs and switches. 
 Journal-bearings which are worn so as to pro- 
 duce excessive side-motion should also be re- 
 ported whenever they can be detected. 
 
 There is a well recognized tendency on the cause of 
 part of trainmen to account for any delay or dama * e - 
 damage to a train while it is in their charge by 
 assigning it to a cause beyond their control ; 
 occasionally from a disinclination to take the 
 trouble to find out the real cause and at other 
 times to escape blame. The situation of the 
 track force makes them particularly liable to 
 these charges, and for this reason if for no 
 other the roadmaster should require, and the 
 section-foreman should furnish, a short but 
 exact account of any unusual occurrence to a 
 
18 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 train which might* in any way be charged to 
 track. 
 
 Caution Any track which is not considered safe for 
 
 signs. trains running at full speed should be pro- 
 tected by caution signs or by a slow order 
 posted on the bulletin board at division head- 
 quarters ; but since engine men are known at 
 times not to regard these means as carefully as 
 they should, caution signs and slow orders 
 should be resorted to as little as possible. 
 When they are used any neglect of them 
 should be at once reported. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 FENCES, HIGHWAY CROSSINGS AND PLATFORMS. 
 
 A well-fenced right-of-way, although an Fences 
 expensive thing to construct, is most assured- dcsirable - 
 ly a desirable thing for a railroad, since the 
 amount paid for damaged stock is usually 
 large and does not seem to be a judicious out- 
 lay on general principles. Good fences are 
 easily built and will last seven or eight years 
 without much attention beyond the occasional 
 straightening of a post, nailing on of a board, 
 or tightening of a wire. 
 
 The greatest enemy of wooden fences is fire, Fire. 
 and on this account the ground around and 
 under them should be kept free from under- 
 growth and long grass. A simple means of 
 doing this is to plow a furrow r close to the 
 fence and on each side of it with the sod turned 
 away from the fence. 
 
 The best timber for posts is cedar, since it Posts and 
 decays slowly and holds the nails and staples stretchers, 
 well. Chestnut and white oak are also good, 
 but decay more rapidly. In fact almost 
 any wood which will make good crossties is 
 suitable for fence posts but whatever the 
 timber used, it should always be stripped of its 
 bark before being planted. For the stretchers, 
 pine or hemlock boards, 1 in. x 6 in., were until 
 a few years ago almost universal. At the pres- 
 ent time, however, steel wire has taken the 
 place of lumber. For ordinary right-of-way 
 fence, the most suitable form is "woven" or 
 
20 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Wire 
 fences. 
 
 laced in rectangular or triangular shapes, or 
 else stretchers of twisted ribbon or rope, of 
 which there are numerous kinds on the mar- 
 ket, varying little in price. Several forms are 
 illustrated in figs. 1, 2 and 3, all of which are 
 
 FIG. 1. Page Woven-Wire Fence. 
 
 \/v\ 
 
 l/\/\/V\/Vv\/\/\/\/\/\ 
 
 \/\/\/W\/\/\/\/\/\/V 
 
 \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ 
 
 /Bin/ 
 
 \XAXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxx> 
 
 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx> 
 
 XXX 
 
 ffl 
 
 FIG. 2. Ellwood Woven- AVire Fence. 
 
FENCES, HIGHWAY CROSSINGS AND PLATFORMS. 21 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 J^na- 
 
 FIG. 3. McMullen Woven- Wire Fence. 
 
 of the kind known as " woven "; a kind which 
 seems to be rapidly increasing in use since it 
 is said to be able to turn all kinds of stock, 
 from the largest to the smallest, without injury 
 to them or to the fence. 
 
 The old-fashioned barbed wire is illustrated Farm gate, 
 in fig. 4, together with a simple and useful 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 FIG. 4. Barbed Wire with Pine Stretchers and Farm Gate. 
 
 style of farm gate which needs for its construc- 
 tion nothing but a saw, hammer, nails and 
 boards, while a chain and padlock make the 
 very best fastening possible. 
 
 For station grounds and for the right-of- 
 way through towns, the product called " ex- 
 panded metal," see fig. 5, formed of a steel plate 
 
22 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 that has been pmfctured and spread apart, 
 makes an excellent and permanent fence. 
 
 fletal 
 
 FIG. 5. Expanded-Metal Fence. 
 
 Steel or iron posts are used where durable 
 wooden posts are expensive, and some forms 
 of them make a handsome and substantial 
 fence. Eigs. 6, 7 and 8 show convenient 
 
 FIG. 6. The Anchor Post. 
 
 and neat forms of posts. Fig. 6 is made of 
 1 in. T-iron, twisted at the ground line and 
 provided with blades which are driven into 
 the ground and serve to brace the post in a 
 
FENCES, HIGHWAY CROSSINGS AND PLATFORMS. 23 
 
 direction at right angles to the line of the netai 
 fence. Figs. 7 and 8 are formed from a thin posts * 
 
 sheet of steel. Of the two posts shown in 
 fi<r. 7, the one on the left is the ordinary form, 
 
THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 while the other one^s used at corners or gates 
 and is substantially braced. 
 
 When boards are used for stretchers the 
 posts should be placed 8 feet apart, but with 
 wire fence this space may be safely increased 
 to 12 feet ; the latter distance, however, should 
 not be exceeded, and in the best barbed wire 
 fence, a board, (see fig. 4) 1 in. x 6 in. is used 
 as the top line and nailed on the side of the 
 post for the purpose of attracting the attention 
 of cattle, who might otherwise tail to notice 
 the wire. The end posts of each break in a 
 wire fence, whether road-crossing or gate, 
 should be braced as shown in fio\s. 1, 4 or 8, to 
 
 O " 
 
 enable them to withstand the pull of the wire. 
 
 Ordinary repairs to fences may be made by 
 the regular gang of section men, but for ex- 
 tended improvements, additions, or general 
 repairs, it will be found that much cheaper 
 and better fences can be built if a special fence 
 gang is employed. This gang should have its 
 own tools and hand-car and should consist of 
 from four to six men and a foreman. 
 
 Open cattle-guards, with the rails laid 
 directly upon the stringers, are no longer ad- 
 missible. They are extremely dangerous to 
 trains, as in case of a derailment they will 
 surely cause a wreck. Neither are cattle- 
 guards desirable with the ties laid upon 
 stringers and an open space underneath, for 
 cattle are frequently caught in them and are 
 killed, sometimes wrecking a train. 
 
 Surface cattle-guards are now allowed by 
 law and some one of the recognized forms 
 should be used. The particular land decided 
 upon should not be easily damaged by drag- 
 ging brake-beams, etc., should have inter- 
 changeable parts and should be susceptible of 
 easy and quick repairs. Several different 
 forms are illustrated in fi<rs. 9 to 14 inclusive. 
 
FENCES, HIGHWAY CROSSINGS AND PLATFORMS. 25 
 
 FIG. 9. Bush Cattle-Guard. 
 
 FIG. 10. Kalaraazoo Cattle-Guard, 
 
 FIG. 11. National Cattle-Guard. 
 
26 
 
 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 FiG. 12. Standard Cattle-Guard. 
 
 FIG. 13. Merrill-Stevens Cattle-Guard. 
 
 FIG. 14. Merrill-Stevens Cattle-Guard. 
 
 Highway 
 construe 
 
 Road-crossings, as usually built, are most 
 conveniently maintained under ordinary cir- 
 cumstances when formed of a frame built of 
 4 in. (or 5 in., depending on the height of the 
 rail) x 10 in., yellow pine, (never white oak, 
 which warps badly), chamfered on the inside 
 and filled level with the top with broken stone, 
 furnace slag, or a similar material. On the 
 outside of the track, planks should be laid 
 parallel with and close to the rails, and sloped 
 
FENCES, HIGHWAY CROSSINGS AND PLATFORMS. 27 
 
 away from the track to meet the paving or Highway 
 dirt of the road. 
 
 Fig. 15 illustrates this idea, crossings. 
 
 FIG. 15. Open Highway Crossing. 
 
 In cities, or at any highway crossing where 
 the teaming is heavy, a piece of old rail placed 
 between the main rail and the timber, in such 
 manner as is illustrated in fig. 16, will add 
 
 FIG. 16. Old-Rail Protection for Highway Crossings. 
 
 greatly to the life of the crossing-plank by 
 protecting it from the grinding of ice and dirt 
 during the passage of trains, while it also 
 facilitates the cleaning of the flange way. 
 
 In laying timber at highway crossings, plat- 
 forms or at any other place where it is exposed 
 to the wet, it should always be placed as in 
 fig. 17 A, in which it is seen that the dip of the 
 grain tends to shed the water and not as in 
 17B, where it is evident that water would be 
 absorbed and held for a considerable time. 
 
 FIG. 17. 
 
 The drainage of highway crossings is of Highway 
 especial importance and should be accomplished crossing 
 by running small tile or broken stone drains 
 under the ends of the ties, communicating 
 
28 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Terra= 
 
 cotta 
 
 flooring. 
 
 Station 
 platforms. 
 
 Roads at 
 stations. 
 
 with the nearest waterway. Great care must 
 be exercised in maintaining highway cross- 
 ings, because an injury caused to a horse or 
 vehicle is soon heard from in the shape of a 
 demand for damages. 
 
 Within a few years, what is to modern en- 
 gineers at least, a new material has been de- 
 veloped and apparently perfected. It is com- 
 posed of clay, baked very hard and is used in 
 the form of tiles, as a substitute for asphaltum, 
 cement and flag-stones. For station platforms 
 it is the ideal material, since it costs little if 
 any more per square foot than oak planking, 
 is nearly indestructible and does not decay. 
 If carefully laid in the proper sizes at high- 
 way crossings it would furnish a permanent 
 and even surface at an ultimate cost much less 
 than that of timber and with great satisfaction 
 to the public. Since it can easily be taken up 
 and relaid by trackmen of average intelligence, 
 the repairs to track would not be interfered 
 with or made more expensive than they are 
 now at such places. 
 
 Platforms at unimportant stations are easily 
 constructed and prove quite satisfactory when 
 built of coarse broken stone for a foundation, 
 dressed and surfaced with crusher dust, clean 
 gravel or cinders from locomotives. The last 
 is somewhat dirty but otherwise is very good 
 for the purpose. The foundation should be 
 well drained and if the platform is maintained 
 
 with reasonable intelligence it will 
 
 last 
 
 a long 
 
 time at a nominal cost for repairs. 
 
 Driving roads beside unloading tracks may 
 be easily constructed after the old-fashioned 
 "corduroy" plan, by the use of cross ties, the 
 end sills and bolsters of cars and other ma- 
 terial of a like character, which through par- 
 tial decay or for some other reason is no 
 longer suited for its original purpose. A 
 
FENCES, HIGHWAY CROSSINGS AND PLATFORMS. 2 
 
 cobble stone pavement laid on six inches of Roads at 
 sand, properly drained, is still better and is 8tations - 
 one of the best of the cheap pavements so far 
 as cost and permanency are concerned. In fact, 
 the usual conditions surrounding places of this 
 kind are so bad as to suggest the idea that 
 almost anything which could be done would 
 improve matters, and it is therefore recom- 
 mended to trackmen that there is an opportu- 
 nity in many localities for effecting a change 
 which will prove a great benefit to the patrons 
 of the railroad and indirectly to the railroad 
 itself. 
 
 Like the roads beside unloading tracks, the 
 approaches to most stations, except those in 
 cities and their immediate suburbs, are usually 
 in a disgraceful condition. For this the rail- 
 road companies can hardly be blamed since 
 the country roads are little, if any, better. 
 But a new sentiment is being aroused, and the 
 farmers are learning that cheap highways are 
 more costly in the end than good ones. Laws 
 favoring the construction of good roads are 
 being made, and the maintenance-of-way force 
 on railroads must be prepared to meet the 
 demand for better roads in station grounds. 
 * Macadam roads are in every way the best for 
 the purpose until the travel becomes great 
 enough to demand a regularly paved way. 
 The drainage question is here, as in so many 
 other places, of the utmost importance. Suf- 
 ficiently drained, a macadam road may be 
 easily maintained under a heavy travel ; insuf- 
 ficiently drained, it cannot be kept up without 
 considerable expense under even slight use, for 
 the frost alone will destroy it in time. 
 
 * For a most instructive short treatise on this subject, read 
 ''Roads and Pavements in France," by Alfred Perkins Rockwell. 
 Published by John Wiley & Sons, New York. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FIXTURES AND STATION 
 GROUNDS. 
 
 In the location of all buildings, signals, clearance, 
 high platforms, etc., nothing should be placed 
 nearer the main track than 5 ft. from the near- 
 est rail. Although a less distance will clear 
 upon straight track, the 5 ft. leaves little to 
 spare at the top of a car when the outer rail is 
 elevated six inches. 
 
 The section-house should be located in such sectum- 
 a way that the car may be got out at any time house. 
 without the likelihood of being hemmed in by 
 standing cars. It should have work-benches 
 at the sides, with racks at the end and in the 
 ceiling for storing tools. A vise, a draw-knife 
 for shaping handles, a carpenter's cross-cut 
 saw, a two-man saw for platform and highway 
 crossing planks, one or two coarse files, a tri- 
 angular file, a brace and bits and a grindstone 
 are the tools which, besides the ordinary track 
 tools, are essential in every section-house, 
 although others will be needed in special cases. 
 
 The house should be not less than 12 ft. 
 square and may well be 16 ft. square since it 
 costs but little more and is then quite large 
 enough for several men to work in while the 
 hand-car and push-car are housed. The ap- 
 pearance of the house (fig. 18) should be neat 
 but quite plain, while there should be windows 
 at the sides and at the end opposite the door. 
 The door should be made in two pieces and 
 slide into the front wall. 
 
32 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Bumping 
 posts. 
 
 FIG. 18. Section-House. 
 
 Although bumping posts are not strictly a 
 part of the track, roadbed or buildings, track- 
 men will often be required to furnish some 
 means of stopping cars at the end of a track. 
 For ordinary purposes, where nothing but the 
 wild car itself will be damaged, if it runs be- 
 yond the end of the track a few feet, the 
 methods exhibited in figs. 19 and 20 will do 
 
 FIG. 19. Curved Rail Bumper. 
 
 FIG. 20. Clamped Bumper. 
 
 quite well. Those arrangements shown by 
 figs. 21, 22 and 23 are effective when they are 
 
 SECTION AT A. B. 
 
 FIG. 21. Triangular Bumper. 
 
FIXTURES AND STATION GROUNDS. 33 
 
 SIDE ELEVATION SECTION AT C. D. 
 
 Fm. 22. Timber Bumper with Rods. 
 
 Bumping 
 posts. 
 
 SIDE ELEVATION 
 
 FIG. 23. Braced Spring Bumper. 
 
 made of heavy timbers with sufficiently strong 
 tie-rods. The device (fig. 24) rests upon ma- 
 
 FIG. 21 Ellis Bumping Post. 
 
34 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 sonry and is expected to stop nearly anything 
 which is likely to be run against it, since the 
 blow is changed from a horizontal to a verti- 
 cal motion, and the force is largely absorbed 
 by the earth instead of by the apparatus 
 itself. 
 
 FIG. 25. Ordinary Mail Crane. 
 
 Hail 
 
 cranes. 
 
 The, mail bag deliverer (fig. 25) is of the 
 simplest, both in idea and construction, and is 
 typical of the usual method. In the upper 
 left hand corner is shown a gage for placing 
 the arrangement, giving the distance of the 
 upper hook above the rail (10 ft.) and its 
 distance from the center of the track. In fig. 
 26 there is illustrated an invention which is 
 for the purpose, both of delivering a mail bag 
 to a train and receiving one from a train at 
 the same time. It is but a slight amplification 
 
FIXTURES AND STATION GROUNDS. 35 
 
 of fig. 25, and is of great use in avoiding the Mail 
 danger which must always accompany the cranes - 
 
 FIG. 26. Crane for Delivering and Receiving Mail. 
 
 throwing of mail bags from a rapidly moving 
 train. The Post Office Department furnishes 
 plans of acceptable mail-cranes, and this is 
 probably the best source of information. 
 
 Highway crossing signs, whistle signs, mile Track 
 posts and other notices put up to attract the signs ' 
 attention of the public or the servants of the 
 railroad company, should be conventional in 
 form, that is, of a commonly known pattern, 
 and all signs for a certain purpose should be 
 ill ike in size, shape, color and in position with 
 regard to the railroad track. 
 
 The sign indicating an approach to a grade Grade 
 crossing with another railroad is only needed crossing 
 when there is no interlocking plant. Its best 8lgn ' 
 form is like fig. 27, which has arms 4 ft. long 
 by 6 in. wide with 4-in. letters. The post 
 should l)e 10 ft. long above the ground and 6 
 or 8 inches square. 
 
36 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Crossing /\ 
 signs. A ^ 
 
 <j? 
 
 n 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^v^, 
 
 
 
 v\v* 
 
 
 FIG. 27. Railroad Crossing Sign. 
 
 FIG. 28. Highway Crossing Sign. 
 
FIXTURES AND STATION GROUNDS. 37 
 
 The "highway crossing " sign (fig. 28) is a Highway 
 conventional one which has boards about 5 ft. crossing 
 long by 6 in. wide with 4-in. letters. The post sign< 
 should be not less than 12 ft. long above 
 ground with an end section of about 8 in. by 
 5 in. but tapered in the manner shown be- 
 tween the points C and D. Occasionally it 
 will be found convenient to provide both sides 
 of the post with a sign, in which case the 
 appearance would be as in the side elevation, 
 where the dotted lines represent the second 
 sign. In many states, however, the form and 
 lettering of these signs is prescribed by law. 
 
 BRIDGE 
 338 
 
 ? STOP SLOW WX 
 
 YARD CAutioN 
 
 DO NOT WALK 
 ||QN TH^TRACKJj 
 
 FIG. 29. Various Signs. 
 
 Iii fig. 29 are illustrated various signs of the Various 
 same pattern but different letters, which may slgns - 
 be either raised or not. The base is an iron 
 plate, ^ in. thick, with a border, J in. thick 
 and \ in. wide, and it is mounted on a post, 
 6 in. by 6 in., 5 ft. above ground. Of those 
 which do not explain themselves in fig. 29, 
 " W X " means " whistle for road crossing ; " 
 " W S " means " whistle for station." 
 
 The "mile post" (fig. 30) is the well-known Mile posts, 
 form, made of a piece of 8-in. by 8-in. timber, 
 8 ft. long, 3 ft. of which should be in the 
 ground. It should be placed with an edge 
 toward the track, by which means the distance 
 to each terminal may be seen at the same time. 
 
38 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 rule posts. Wherever possible all of the posts should be 
 on the same side of the track. 
 
 FIG. 30. Ordinary Mile Post. 
 
 rietal 
 signs. 
 
 FIG. 31. Mile Post. 
 (Bond Steel Fence Post Company.) 
 
 The use of metal for signs increases their 
 cost, but they defy decay and the guns of the 
 
FIXTURES AND STATION GROUNDS. 
 
 daring huntsmen who use the track as a high- 
 way and the sign as a target. 
 
 Fig. 31 exhibits a mile post built entirely of 
 metal, a material which is to be recommended 
 for all purposes of this sort where perma- 
 nency is of value. It can be used to advantage 
 on the signs shown in fig. 29 as well as for the Monu _ 
 mile post or the monument (fig. 32), which last ments. 
 
 FIG. 32. Monument. 
 (Bond Steel Fence Post Company.) 
 
 is intended for marking boundary lines or the 
 intersection of the railroad with town, county, 
 or state lines. It is well to mention here that 
 these intersections should always be perma- 
 nently marked and also the corners made by 
 changes in the width of the right-of-way. 
 
 On some railroads these sign-posts are 
 finished by a heap of round stones, a little 
 
40 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 smaller in size thaii, man's fist. Sometimes a 
 heap is conical, as in fig. 28, and sometimes it 
 is hemispherical in form. This heap is usually 
 whitewashed, and is for the purpose of adding 
 to the appearance of the post and to prevent 
 the growth of vegetation, which exposes the 
 post to damage by fire. It is a somewhat ex- 
 pensive plan and the benefits hardly justify 
 the expense. 
 
 FIG. 33. Bridge Warning. 
 
 Fig. 33 is a "bridge- warning," and is nearly 
 self-explanatory. The hanging ropes are each 
 | in. in diameter, served with twine, not knot- 
 ted at their lower ends and attached to the 
 crane by \ in. round rods. 
 
 The most permanent letters and figures for 
 wooden boards or posts are made of very thin 
 cast-iron and they are probably cheaper in the 
 
FIXTURES AND STATION GROUNDS. 41 
 
 end than letters or figures which must be re- 
 newed by a. regular painter. Next to them in 
 permanency come those of a good quality of 
 black graphite paint, applied with a brush. 
 This paint should always be used for the black 
 on woodwork. 
 
 The fences at road-crossings should be white- white- 
 washed at least once a year, since a white- wash - 
 washed fence may be seen at a considerable 
 distance at night and it is important that en- 
 ginemen shall know when they reach a high- 
 way. Salt used in whitewash causes it to 
 flake off rapidly and should therefore never be 
 used under any circumstances. 
 
 The white paint used on switch targets, sig- Paint, 
 nal blades, etc., should be the best white lead. 
 The red paint intended for the same purposes 
 should be real English vermillion, while both 
 .white and red should be mixed in linseed oil. 
 Any odor of kerosene or gasoline in an oil 
 paint, means that it has been adulterated. 
 
 For the iron work of water cranes, switch 
 stands and sign posts, an honest black asphalt- 
 urn varnish is the best. 
 
 Two methods are known, otherwise than by Crossing 
 watchmen, for the protection of the public at bells * 
 grade highway crossings. The first is by 
 means of an electric bell (fig. 34), located at 
 the crossing and rung automatically by the 
 approaching train. Usually these bells are 
 actuated by what is called a ' ' track instru- 
 ment " (fig. 35), which consists of a lever sup- 
 ported by the cross ties, the short end of which 
 is in contact with the rail, as in fig. 35. In 
 other forms it is so placed as to be depressed by 
 the wheels of a passing train. The other end 
 of the lever, by this up and down movement, 
 is caused to make and break the electric cir- 
 cuit in which the bell is placed, every time a 
 wheel passes over the track instrument. 
 
42 
 
 Crossing 
 bells. 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 In another arrangement the bell is control- 
 ed by what is called the "track circuit," 
 
 FIG. 34. O'Neil Crossing Bell. 
 
 FIG. 35. O'Neil Track Instrument. 
 
 wherein a portion of the two rails of the track 
 form a part of the bell circuit, and the bell is 
 
FIXTURES AND STATION GROUNDS. 43 
 
 rung by the mere presence of a pair of wheels 
 on the ' track circuit." The crossing bell is 
 generally regarded as suitable only at rural or 
 suburban crossings. 
 
 The highway crossing "gate" (fig. 36) is crossing 
 the most recent development of this idea which gate> 
 is the one usually applied to busy grade cross- 
 ings. Originally the gates were operated by 
 means of chains or wires worked from a crank 
 located on one of the posts ; but in fig. 36, 
 compressed air is the motive power. For this 
 reason one man is often able to handle the 
 gates at several adjacent crossings, since the 
 pump and valves are usually placed in an 
 elevated cabin from which a clear view may 
 be obtained. 
 
 In fig. 36, P is the air pump, T - T ' the valves . 
 which, by their position, determine the gates 
 to be moved and whether they shall be moved 
 up or down. A - A ' are the air-pipes, D D ' 
 are flexible diaphragms contained in the ()- 
 shaped air chambers ; these diaphragms rest 
 against the plungers R-R' which connect 
 with the cranks K - K ' and in turn transmit 
 the motion of R-R' to the sprockets S-S' 
 and the chain C-C'. The gates are directly 
 operated by the system of small cranks and 
 levers which lie immediately above S-S'. 
 The weights W-W are for the purpose of 
 counterbalancing the gates G-G. In the 
 illustration the gates are down, and if it is 
 desired to raise them, T-T' are put in that 
 position which will cause the compressed air 
 to enter A and will open A' to the outside air. 
 The pump is then worked. D (of the post 
 on the right) is pressed toward R, moving R 
 and at the same time K, S, G and C. But C 
 and C ' are continuous, and any movement of 
 this chain tends to simultaneously either raise 
 or lower both gates, depending only in which 
 
 3 
 
44 
 
 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Crossing 
 gate. 
 
FIXTURES ANI> STATION GROUNDS. 45 
 
 direction it moves. In other words, when the 
 gates on the right are to be raised, the dia- 
 phragm on the right acts for both gates, and 
 when they are to be lowered the reverse ac- 
 tion takes place. 
 
 Where a street is narrow, one gate on each 
 side of the track is enough, but frequently two 
 on each side of the track are required while a 
 means of still further extending is found by 
 placing the posts on the curb line and using 
 small side- walk arms in addition. These arms 
 are shown broken in fig. 36. 
 
 But of all the means for protecting the separation 
 public at highway crossings the separation of of s rades - 
 the grades surpasses all others in safety and 
 ultimate cheapness, except in unusually diffi- 
 cult localities. This proposition cannot be too 
 strongly stated since any railroad which, from 
 indifference or any other cause, neglects to 
 efface every grade crossing which they have 
 the power to avoid, is surely nursing some 
 future trouble. 
 
 It is not often that too much attention is station 
 given to neatness and an attractive appearance s rounds - 
 on our railroads ; on the contrary it is a matter 
 which seems to be regarded, except in a few 
 cases, as of little or no importance. It is not 
 intended to inquire into the reasons for this, 
 but it is necessary to call attention to the fact 
 and to urge an improvement so far as it lies in 
 the power of each roadmaster, supervisor and 
 section-foreman. 
 
 When the ordinary appearance of a country 
 station is recalled, with its muddy roads, dilapi- 
 dated fences, dirty platforms, scrap of all kinds 
 kinds lying everywhere in sight, the things 
 which must be clone to make the place attract- 
 ive instead of repugnant and their small cost 
 become evident. The work of one man for a 
 week in a year will usually maintain the fences; 
 
46 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 station some engine cinders* or field stones will fix the 
 grounds. roa j s {l f ew trees at the borders of the com- 
 pany's land ; a little grass plot near the station 
 and some vines at the corners of the buildings 
 will cause the place to look like a gem instead 
 of an open sore. The trees and vines will cost 
 only the labor of transplanting them (elms, 
 maples or oaks, but never fruit or nut-bearing 
 trees, because boys will surely injure them) 
 from the nearest woods, while suitable turf 
 can be secured along the right-of-way or from 
 almost any pasture. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 WATER SUPPLY.* 
 
 The question of water supply is one which 
 does not naturally have a bearing upon main- 
 tenance-of-way work, but it is a question which 
 will often be forced upon the roadmaster by 
 circumstances, and a few suggestions here may 
 easily prove of value. 
 
 Given a sufficient quantity at each of several selection of 
 available sources, the only question of impor- source 
 tance is as to the quality of the water. It 
 "must not (if it can possibly be avoided) carry 
 much free lime, and it should not be muddy. 
 The first condition is most apt to be found in 
 springs and the last in streams, but the lime is 
 a practically incurable fault, while the mud 
 may be much reduced in quantity by allowing 
 the water to settle before finally delivering it 
 to the locomotives. There are many other 
 impurities which render water undesirable, 
 and for that reason it is best to have water 
 subjected to a chemical test before finally 
 arranging to use it, but the two objections 
 already noted, lime and mud, are the most 
 common. 
 
 To detect an excess of lime in water it is Testing 
 only necessary to dissolve a piece of white soap water. 
 the size of a pea in a tablespoonful of freshly 
 fallen rain water. When this preparation is 
 put in a glass of the water to be tested, it will 
 
 * Many of these notes were suggested by "The Elements of 
 Railroading," by Charles Paine. Published by the Railroad 
 Gazette. 
 
48 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Cost of 
 plant. 
 
 Wind- 
 mills. 
 
 Hydraulic 
 ram. 
 
 Gas and 
 
 steam 
 
 pumps. 
 
 Storage 
 reservoir. 
 
 cloud immediately* if there is much lime in the 
 water. By using the same quantity of soap- 
 water in several glasses, each holding the same 
 amount of water to be tested, a comparison of 
 different sources may easily be made, for if 
 they contain different quantities of lime those 
 which contain the most lime will appear the 
 most clouded. 
 
 If the samples of water are equally free 
 from impurities then there remains the ques- 
 tion of cost. If the water comes from a point 
 30 ft. or more above the track and is not more 
 than half a mile away (and sometimes even 
 further) then a gravity supply will almost al- 
 ways be found on investigation to be the cheap- 
 est and easiest to maintain. 
 
 Where locomotives take water only at long 
 intervals, a wind-mill may sometimes be used 
 economically and satisfactorily, but they are 
 often out of service for two or three days at a 
 time for lack of wind. So unless there is a 
 very large supply reservoir or but three or 
 four engines a week are to be expected, they 
 cannot be relied upon. 
 
 AVhat is known as a hydraulic ram will, 
 where economy of water is not an object, 
 automatically raise considerable quantities of 
 water with practically no attention. 
 
 In point of convenience and amount of at- 
 tention necessary, a gasoline or kerosene pump 
 comes next to a hydraulic ram. These pumps 
 are fired automatically and stopped by the 
 filling of the tank, and are usually less costly 
 in operation than a steam pump where an 
 attendant is needed for at least part of the 
 time. But whatever pump is used, let it be a 
 good one and of comparatively large capacity 
 for the work to be performed. 
 
 The storage reservoir must be near the track', 
 its bottom at least 25 ft, above the rails and 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 49 
 
 the pipe connecting it with the cranes should 
 be not less than 8 in. inside diameter. Oc- 
 casionally it will be found that the storage 
 tank may consist of a paved earthen reservoir 
 located somewhere near the right-of-way, in 
 which case it should be covered with a conical 
 or pyramidal roof, to protect the water from 
 leaves, sticks, etc. 
 
 Usually, however, a wooden tank mounted Frost-proof 
 on posts will .be found necessary. This should tank< 
 be (fig. 37) of frost-proof construction and 
 
 FIG. 37. Frost-proof Water Tank. 
 
 when located at a station should be placed at a 
 distance from the tracks and where it will not 
 have to be moved because of changes. Where 
 
50 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Reservoir 
 capacity. 
 
 Size of 
 pipe. 
 
 the tank stands beside a single-track road a 
 spout may be attached to it, as in fig. 37, but 
 on double track or where the tank is removed 
 from the line a separate water crane must be 
 provided, in which case the spout is omitted. 
 
 The storage reservoir, of whatever kind, 
 should contain not less than 25,000 gallons, 
 which would be held by a tub 16 ft. in diame- 
 ter by 16 ft. (about) high, the common size. 
 This is sufficient to entirely fill the tanks of 
 from six to seven locomotives. 
 
 Pipe which is too small in diameter is fre- 
 quently used for connecting the source with 
 the storage tank. This is clone through igno- 
 rance usually, but that does not help to relieve 
 the embarrassment of the situation when it is 
 found, too late, that what should be a full 
 stream of discharge into the tank is nothing 
 but a ridiculous trickle. Although the factory 
 cost of 3 in. pipe is twice as great as that of 
 2 in. pipe, the cost of fitting and burying them 
 is practically the same, while the capacity of 
 the 3 in. pipe is twice as great as that of the 
 2 in. At the same time the fractional loss, 
 >" choking," is much less in the 3 in. pipe than 
 in the 2 in. This means that on long lines it 
 will take a much more powerful pump to force 
 
 the water 
 
 through a 2 
 
 in. than through a 3 in. 
 
 Care in 
 designing. 
 
 pipe. 
 
 There is no thumb-rule for arriving at the 
 correct dimensions of the pump and pipe line 
 which are best for any given case. They de- 
 pend upon the amount of water which must 
 be delivered in a given time, the height to 
 which it must be pumped, and the length of 
 the pipe line. It may sometimes be cheaper 
 to put in a comparatively large pump and a 
 comparatively' small pipe line, but such a case 
 would be very rare, and it is well to stick 
 to the idea of using large pipe ; it is also well 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 51 
 
 to remember that sharp corners in the line are 
 a considerable obstruction. 
 
 In the choice of a water crane there is a water 
 considerable opportunity for selection ; the cranes - 
 points to be considered are size and general 
 arrangement. The size is easily determined ; 
 it should deliver a stream of water not less 
 than 8 in. in diameter, which size should con- 
 tinue all the way to the tank. Smaller cranes 
 are built but they deliver water so slowly as to 
 cause annoying delays. The general arrange- 
 ment of the crane is usually best determined 
 by the reputation of its maker, but one thing 
 
 J \ 
 
 "Q3T 
 
 FIG. 38. Poage Water Crane. 
 
 must be borne in mind : the valve must be 
 nicely graduated, for if it is not, when shut- 
 
52 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 ting off the water, tRe pipe line is apt to be 
 burst by a rise in pressure clue to a too rapid 
 stopping of the flow. 
 
 The ease of control is closely allied to this. 
 Usually it is best to have the valves operated 
 from the end of the crane, as in figs. 38 and 
 39, which are of standard makes, so that the 
 
 Crane pit. 
 
 FIG. 39. Sheffield Water Crane. 
 (Fairbanks, Morse & Co.) 
 
 fireman may start and stop the water and 
 watch his tank fill without getting down from 
 the tender. 
 
 The pit should be about six feet deep with 
 stone or brick walls and a cover which con- 
 tains an air space of four or five inches, the 
 best method of preventing the penetration of 
 frost. There should also be a drain under the 
 
WATER SUPPLY. 53 
 
 Track 
 tank. 
 
54 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 end of the crane to cany off the drippings, 
 and this drain should be easily opened in order 
 to be able to free it of ice in winter. 
 Track Many railroads with fast trains have equip- 
 
 tanks - ped their high-speed tracks with troughs, 
 by means of which and by scoops that are 
 attached to certain locomotives, the fast trains 
 are not required to stop or even slow down 
 very much when they wish to take water. 
 Fig. 40 is from a drawing of the track tank 
 used by the Michigan Central Eailroad, and 
 does not differ much from those used on other 
 lines. The trough is made from a series of 
 plates curved in the form of a flat u. It is 
 fed at intervals throughout its length from a 
 frost-proof tank located somewhere near the 
 track, through the 3-in. pipe. This pipe also 
 serves to supply steam to the trough in winter 
 to prevent ice from forming. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 DRAINAGE. 
 
 Since the greatest enemy of the track is Time for 
 water, good drainage becomes a matter of the dltchmg - 
 last importance. Without sufficient ditches, 
 the best ballast fails in its office, soon be- 
 comes filled with sand or clay, and, in winter 
 when quick drainage is a necessity, acts as a 
 reservoir to hold the water, with heaving track 
 and all its miseries as a consequence. Although 
 in Chapter II it was stated that ditching 
 should be commenced in the spring as soon as 
 the frost is out of the ground, it must be under- 
 stood that this item of track work is never 
 unseasonable, but should be pushed whenever 
 necessary even to the exclusion of other work, 
 because it quickly and amply repays all of 
 the labor spent upon it. 
 
 Each section should be provided with a 
 ditching line, which should always be used in 
 cleaning out an old ditch or opening a new one. 
 Nothing looks worse than a water-way which 
 staggers, now toward, now away, from the 
 track, narrow in some places and wide in others. 
 Both in a flat country and through cuts a cross 
 section of the track and ditch should appeal- 
 some what like fig. 41. 
 
 The " berm," or shoulder next to the track, section of 
 should be lower than the bottom of the ballast road=bed - 
 at the centre of the track, and sufficiently wide 
 to insure its acting as a support for the ballast, 
 for which purpose it is principally intended. 
 
56 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Section of 
 road-bed. 
 
DRAINAGE. 57 
 
 In fig. 41 it will be noticed that all of the 
 corners tire rounded, a form which nature will 
 eventually force them to take and consequently 
 the form which should be given to the earth at 
 the start ; otherwise the ditches must soon be 
 cleaned of the material which will fall from 
 the edges. 
 
 The width of the sub- grade from corner to 
 corner varies greatly on different railroads. 
 On double track, 13 ft. centers, 8^ ft. ties, 12 
 in. of ballast and a 3 ft. berm 30 ft. would be 
 the width, but if in the practice on any railroad 
 any of these dimensions is different, it is evi- 
 dent that the width of the sub-grade will also 
 be different. On single main track with 
 8Jft. ties, 12 in. of ballast and a 3ft. berm, 
 the width of the sub-^rade becomes about 
 17 ft. 
 
 The practice ot beginning a ditch at the Ditching 
 upper end is so ridiculous that one would " 
 suppose it unnecessary to caution trackmen 
 against it. Experience, however, proves the 
 contrary to be the case, since it is a common 
 and serious mistake. 
 
 In many heavy cuts, as well as in making new 
 ditches, a ditching plow which can be hauled 
 by the locomotive of the work train will be 
 found of considerable assistance in loosening 
 the earth preparatory to loading it on cars, 
 while, for disposing of more than five or six 
 carloads of waste material, the unloading plow 
 should be brought into play. 
 
 Fig. 42 illustrates a complete ditching ma- Ditching 
 chine. All the motions of the crane are per- machine - 
 formed by means of compressed air, while it 
 has connected with it a plow for loosening the 
 earth and a scoop for loading the earth on cars. 
 An unloading plow is also provided, and these 
 three articles are shown at rest upon the crane- 
 car. Where much ditching must be done, 
 
58 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 some such device is necessary from the stand- 
 point of economy. 
 
 FIG. 42. Compressed-air Ditching Outfit. 
 (American Steel Foundry Company.) 
 
 Disposition The material taken from ditches should 
 of waste. never be thrown up on the bank where it will 
 be washed down again by the first rain, but 
 should be loaded at once on the work train or 
 the push car and permanently disposed of. In 
 this connection it is well to say that every p<>>- 
 sible means should be taken to protect the 
 ballast from this waste material which, if it be- 
 comes mixed with the ballast, is harmful. For 
 all but the heaviest ditching long-handled 
 'shovels should be used, in order that the men 
 may easily reach the top of a loaded flat car 
 from the bottom of a ditch, and also that they 
 shall not be forced to stoop too low in making 
 a thin cut with the shovel. 
 
 Large stones are not only unsightly when 
 left in the path of a ditch, but are detrimental. 
 They may be sunk and buried w r here they lie, 
 blasted and so broken up, or a fire may be 
 built over them until they are very hot, when it 
 is often possible to shiver them by pouring cold 
 water on them. 
 
 Paving In towns, or where the work done is likely 
 
 ditches. k e Q a lagfjug character, it w T ill be found 
 
 desirable to pave the ditches with large cobble 
 
 stones, which can often be taken from gravel 
 
DRAINAGE. 59 
 
 ballast, where they are always undesirable. 
 Ditches paved in this way, when given suf- 
 ficient fall, flush themselves during each heavy 
 rain and retain their shape for a long time, 
 particularly when located at the foot of a well- 
 sodded bank or a retaining wall. 
 
 Tile drains have been used from the most Tiiedrains. 
 ancient times, and although their value is well 
 known to many people, they have not until 
 recently been used to a considerable extent on 
 railroads, where, in hundreds of serious cases, 
 they would effect a perfect cure. Tiles should 
 be placed below frost (which varies from noth- 
 ing in the South to at least five feet in the ex- 
 treme Northern States), with the ends of the 
 tiles nearly but not quite touching, since they 
 are intended for collecting the w r ater quite as 
 much as for carrying *it off. To prevent dirt 
 from being carried into the drain a sod should 
 be turned upside down over each joint and the 
 efficiency of the drain is greatly increased by 
 covering the liup of tile with several inches of 
 coarse gravel or locomotive cinders. In wet 
 slopes the tiles should be laid in parallel lines 
 running diagonally clown the face of the bank 
 in the direction of the fall of the track, and of 
 a size or frequency depending upon the amount 
 of Avater to be carried away. 
 
 The diagonal drains (fig. 41) should be con- 
 nected at their lower ends to a larger drain 
 laid under the ditch, which should increase in 
 size in the direction of its fall. If a spring 
 exists in the bank a separate line of pipe 
 should be laid from it to one of the diagonal 
 drains, or to the large drain, while to secure 
 perfect drainage on double track another line 
 of tiles must be run between the tracks, just 
 below the ballast, which last line should have 
 frequent outlets communicating Avith the large 
 drains located on the outside of the tracks. 
 
THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 These tiles are made in many forms and 
 sizes and of many different kinds of clay ; 
 some are glazed and are therefore quite costly, 
 but between these and the poorest quality are 
 plenty of grades sufficiently good for the work 
 in question and not high in price. A special 
 shovel is made for tile ditching (illustrated in 
 the chapter on Tools) which is the most con- 
 venient form for this work. 
 
 The desultory way in which a section gang 
 is usually forced to carry on a large piece of 
 work does not lead to economical results ; 
 therefore if a large amount of tile is to be 
 laid it will be most cheaply done by organiz- 
 ing a special gang for the purpose, or by letting 
 the job to some outsider at so much per run- 
 ning foot. 
 
 Wherever a cut has higher ground above 
 the slope line, a ditch (fig. 41) should be dug, 
 somewhat above it, to interrupt all surface 
 water which might otherwise flow down and 
 so destroy the slope. % 
 
 As a substitute for tiles, straight poles 
 roughly trimmed of their branches will serve. 
 They should be laid heads and points, in a 
 bunch of three or four, with their ends slightly 
 overlapping, and at about the same depth as a 
 tile drain. They make an excellent medium 
 and will carry off large quantities of water, 
 but are never so good as tiles. 
 
 There are many points around a track, such 
 as highway crossings, wagon tracks at stations, 
 etc., etc., where a ditch cannot be placed, or 
 would be of no use, which might be made per- 
 fectly dry by sub-drainage at small cost, in- 
 stead of being allowed to remain in the bad 
 condition so often seen at such places. 
 
 After a cut has been properly drained its 
 banks should be sown with grass seed, or better 
 still, sodded, as a grassy slope is not only at- 
 
DRAINAGE. 61 
 
 tractive in appearance but it will hold the 
 earth firmly in position. The difficulty in 
 making grass grow at these points is chiefly 
 due to poor soil and a too great steepness of 
 the banks. The only means therefore of obviat- 
 ing the trouble is to supply a good covering of 
 loam on a properly sloped bank. On em- 
 bankments the turf should be made to grow 
 over and on top of the sub-grade for about a 
 foot, forming a sightly border and affording 
 protection to the shoulder of the bank. 
 
 The form of a bank will differ somewhat siopcof 
 according to the material of which it is made. embank - 
 The commonest slope is 1^ to 1 ; that is in fig. 
 43 (which represents either a cut or fill), the 
 
 BOTTOM 3. 
 OF SLOPE 
 
 FIG. 43. Slope Diagram. 
 
 middle line is seen to be 10 ft. above C at A 
 and 15 ft. away from C at B. The first dis- 
 tance given, 1J, refers to the horizontal line 
 B C, and the second distance, 1, refers to the 
 vertical measurements C-D, C-A, C-E, 
 which in fio;. 43 are 15 to 7 A (2 to 1), 15 to 10 
 (li to 1), and 15 to 15 (1 to 1). 
 
62 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 With such poor nfaterial as clay or fine sand 
 the inclination may have to be reduced as 
 much as two feet out to each one in height, that 
 is, 2 to 1, while with loose rock 1 to 1 is 
 usually sufficient until, as the character of the 
 ground gradually approaches solid rock, the 
 sides become more and more steep, so that 
 they will finally reach an almost, if not quite, 
 vertical position. 
 
 FIG. 44. Slope Gage. 
 
 slope gage. j gage (fig. 44) for determining the slope of 
 any embankment is a convenient and inexpens- 
 ive device. It is formed of three pieces of 
 3-in. by 1-iii. pine with a fixed diagonal dis- 
 tance of 6 ft. from pin to pin. The other two 
 pieces have each three holes which are marked 
 1-1, 1 J- 1 and 2 -1 ; when they are fastened 
 together at these corresponding points by a 
 movcable pin, and the top piece (which is pro- 
 vided with a level) is held level, the diagonal 
 piece will show the slope desired. This tool 
 may be folded up when not in use by simply 
 taking out the pin in the upper left-hand 
 corner. -Experience is the only successful 
 teacher in enabling one to previously deter- 
 
DRAINAGE. 63 
 
 mine what slope to give a bank, and even the 
 best judgment will occasionally prove at fault. 
 
 When an error of this kind is made and a Preserving 
 bank is found to be continually sliding there 
 are several ways of treating it. If it is a fill 
 the drainage question seldom enters and the 
 trouble is "usually cured gradually, by either 
 sodding the bank, if that seems likely to be 
 sufficient, or by dumping new material as 
 fast as it is required. It will be often found, 
 however, that this cannot be done without 
 buying additional land along the right-of-way, 
 or else paying damages to the neighboring 
 proprietors for the occupation of their lands. 
 When none of these methods will answer, a 
 retaining wall of some kind becomes necessary, 
 which, if it is to be permanent, must be built of 
 stone although it will last for many years if 
 made of old timber or cross ties in the form of 
 a, crib. The same conditions hold in cuts 
 except with regard to drainage, which there 
 is apt to be the most important question. 
 One cure has already been suggested in the 
 treatment by tile drains, but cases may be met 
 in which both tile drains and retaining walls 
 will be required. 
 
 If, as occasionally happens, an old embank- 
 ment begins to slip, it may usually be stopped 
 by placing tile drains in the manner already 
 mentioned or by digging trenches four feet 
 wide and four feet deep every forty or fifty 
 feet, at right angles to the track, and filling 
 these trenches with rubble stone or small 
 nigger-heads. Heaving may sometimes occur 
 on embankments five or six feet high, due to 
 the absorption of water from the bottom, and 
 this also will yield to the usual and useful 
 remedy, the tile drain. 
 
 Retaining or " face walls " of considerable Retaining 
 size should be built by masons, but smaller wa " 8 ' 
 
64 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Retaining 
 walls. 
 
 ones are often needed and these may be readily 
 constructed by the track men, particularly if 
 the stone is conveniently situated and easily 
 worked. Small boulders and loose rock when 
 hammered roughly into shape, carefully laid 
 and well backed, make a good wall. There 
 should be (fig. 45) a firm and reliable bed for 
 
 ,f> 
 
 FIG. 45. Retaining Wall and Ditch. 
 
 the foundation, begun below the point to which 
 frost penetrates, and means must be taken 
 to provide a quick and easy passage of the 
 water from the back to the face of the wall. 
 This is best accomplished through loop holes, 
 " weepers," in the masonry every few feet, the 
 bot'tom of the holes slightly above the high- 
 water line of the ditch, while the rapidity of 
 drainage will be increased by a back filling of 
 coarse gravel or locomotive cinders. At ex- 
 cessively wet places a line of tile drain just 
 back of the wall and connected with the loop 
 holes, will be found of assistance in disposing 
 of the water, and will in that way offer great 
 protection to the foundations as well as to the 
 rest of the wall. The face of the wall should 
 slope from the top to the bottom or have what, 
 
DRAINAGE. 65 
 
 in other words, is called si " batter." The 
 amount of the batter will vary somewhat with 
 the circumstances, but for ordinary walls (as 
 in fig. 45) 2 in. for 1 foot in height is sufficient. 
 The base of the wall proper (that is, the top 
 of the foundation) should equal one-half its 
 height, and the top of the wall should equal 
 one-third of its height, so that a wall extend- 
 ing 6 ft. above the ground line would have 
 a base 3 ft. wide and a top 2 ft. wide, as is 
 shown in fig. 45. 
 
 The foundation, as will be seen, has no bat- 
 ter and no particular depth is given ; this, as 
 has been stated, must depend upon the quality 
 of the bed and the distance to which frost 
 penetrates. The poorest bed for a foundation 
 is composed of quicksand or bog ; the best is 
 solid rock or coarse gravel. Between these 
 are different kinds of material, some fairly 
 good, many very bad and since so much de- 
 pends upon a successful selection it is best to 
 ask advice where the matter seems at all un- 
 certain. Much time and expense may be 
 saved bv sinking test holes before the work is 
 
 / 
 
 begun, which if done will show what may be 
 expected and thus enable one to make all 
 necessary preparations. The resistance of a 
 wall is greatly increased by slightly sloping the 
 stones that lie above the foundation, as shown 
 m fisf. 45. 
 
 O 
 
 A cheaper, but not nearly so effective, way 
 of holding the toe of a bank is accomplished 
 by laying upon their edges stones which are 
 somewhat flat in form, following always the 
 natural slope of the bank. This method will 
 tend to prevent the surface earth from sliding 
 and may also be used with advantage at the 
 foot of banks that are washed by a stream, 
 particularly where the course of the stream is 
 curved. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 CULVERTS, TRESTLES AND BRIDGE FLOORS. 
 
 The main track should never be laid directly use of 
 upon stringers. Cross ties should always be 
 interposed to bear the continual pounding of 
 the rails as well as to counteract their tendency 
 to crowd apart. On coal trestles, and other 
 structures of a like character where it is neces- 
 sary to unload material by dumping it, the rails 
 niiiy.be laid upon stringers and these should 
 be frequently tied together by 1-in. round iron 
 rods. Reverse pointed spikes (fig. 46), if any, 
 must be used, for fastening clown the rail, as 
 the ordinary form tends to split the stringer. 
 Better than the spike, however, for this pur- 
 pose, is the interlocking bolt (fig. 47), which 
 
 FIG. 46. Reverse Pointed Spike. 
 
 FlG. 47. Bush Interlocking Bolt n 
 
68 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 does not work loose, wear out quickly, or split 
 the stringer, or else a lag screw with a clip to- 
 cover the base of the rail (see fig. 112, Chap. X). 
 Culverts. The use of wood as a support beneath the 
 ties of a main track cannot be recommended. 
 It rots and it burns, two faults not shared by 
 steel, which is now so cheap and is rolled in 
 so many varying shapes as to adapt it to almost 
 all kinds of work. When therefore, an open 
 culvert is unavoidable it is best built with 
 stone walls, iron stringers and a standard bridge 
 floor. In small openings, I-beams tied together 
 at the ends and well braced may be used where 
 the culvert cannot be covered in the form of a 
 box or an arch. 
 
 Cast-iron pipes are the best material for small 
 culverts, and up to an end area of about fif- 
 teen square feet are cheaper than an arch. Less- 
 substantial, but cheaper than iron, are baked 
 clay pipes, which are now widely used with 
 good results. Both kinds may be laid singly 
 or in numbers, one beside the other. At the 
 upper end, such a culvert (fig. 48), should 
 
 FIG. 48. Pipe Culvert. 
 
 begin in a stout, deep wall of stone laid in 
 cement to prevent the water from leaking 
 under it, around it, or washing the bank. At 
 the down-stream end, the outlet should be 
 paved for a short distance, particularly if the 
 water has any fall on leaving the pipe, while 
 the earth under the whole length of the pipe 
 
CULVERTS, TRESTLES AND BRIDGE FLOORS. 
 
 should l)e rammed and well settled before the 
 pipe is laid. 
 
 Old wooden culverts can frequently be 
 repaired and made permanent by inserting 
 through them cast-iron or earthenware pipes, 
 afterwards tilling around them with dirt well 
 rammed in. It is well to remember that the 
 material for this tilling should be the same as 
 that which constitutes the rest of the bank up 
 to the bottom of the ballast, in order that the 
 rate of heaving in winter shall remain the same. 
 
 For covered waterways a stone arch is by 
 all means the best form of culvert, although 
 a strong, flat, stone cover, where the span is 
 very short, will do quite as well. 
 
 The theory that it i's best to endeavor to Bridge 
 re-rail a derailed truck before it reaches a floors - 
 bridge has given way to the practice of build- 
 ing floors in such a manner as to carry a 
 derailed wheel across the bridge without caus- 
 ing a wreck. This last plan is sometimes 
 accomplished by placing the ties very close 
 together, or by putting heavy iron plates on 
 each side of the rails and on top of the ties or 
 both, thus providing a nearly smooth floor 
 along which a flange may travel without much 
 shock or jar. A modern method, concerning 
 the economy of which opinions differ, is to 
 provide a floor system which will permit the 
 standard track, including ties and ballast, to 
 be carried entirely across the bridge. On 
 metal bridges this is done (usually) by means 
 of what are called "buckle plates," and since 
 it is a method entirely beyond the powers of 
 the track force, it need not be .discussed here. 
 
 Fig. 49 illustrates one form of ballasted 
 wooden trestle whereon it will be seen, by 
 comparison with fig. 52, that the only essential 
 additions to the ordinary trestle are four string- 
 ers, a floor of planking and a curb on each 
 
70 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Bridge 
 floors. 
 
 danger of fire is 
 
 side of the planking. The 
 almost banished, the cost of maintenance 
 should be reduced and the life of the trestle 
 prolonged. On the Louisville & Nashville 
 
 It -ro g - , 
 
 : 14-28 Stringers sized over capslo 7xl3 3 /4 
 
 .14*0- 
 
 FIG. 49. Lee's Ballasted Trestle. 
 
 Railroad the flooring planks of such trestles 
 are creosoted in order to preserve them. 
 
 In fig. 50 it is proposed to re-rail a pair of 
 trucks which have left the rails, first by forc- 
 ing them into the straight position by means 
 of the outside guard timbers (which are shod 
 with iron plates) and the inside guard rails ; 
 then, by means of the castings A and B, to 
 raise the wheels so that those outside will be 
 carried up to the top of the rails and gradu- 
 ally pulled into place. The inside guard rails 
 are often finished off and brought together 
 some distance from the bridge with an iron 
 
CULVERTS, TRESTLES AND BRIDGE FLOORS. 71 
 
 point, taken from a condemned frog. It is 
 doubted Avhether this is a good plan since, in 
 
 device - 
 
 SECTION AT C-D 
 FIG. 50. Bridge-approach Re-railing Device. 
 
 .many cases, the wheels of a derailed car are 
 diverted more than half the gage of the track 
 and the pointed guard rails then become a 
 source of danger. 
 
 SIDE VIEW OF BENT RAILS 
 
 l~1 PI r^t t~i r*1 r-~i 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 ^ 
 
 uuuuu 
 
 C D E 
 
 1 1, 1 
 
 T T ~^~ 
 
 1 1 SECTION AT A-B 1 1 
 
 FIG. 51. Protected Bridge Floor. 
 
 Fig. 51 illustrates a method, used 011 some Bridge 
 roads, of providing a nearly solid floor but floor - 
 
72 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 with no attempt to replace any derailed 
 wheels. The central rails C - D - E are bent 
 down at the ends of the bridge so that noth- 
 ing will catch upon them, and the ties are 
 placed closely together in order that the 
 shocks to the derailed wheels may be very 
 slight. It is evident that a strip of heavy 
 metal plates laid on each side of the main 
 rails will still further add to the protection 
 of the ties and the efficiency of the device. 
 On all bridge floors, where the ties are laid 
 directly on the stringers, the ties should be 
 frequently bolted to the guard timbers on the 
 outside of the track, and inside guard rails 
 should be provided, securely braced and fast- 
 ened to the ties. 
 
 shimming Trackmen should be very cautious about 
 floors' shimming the ties or stringers at bridges, 
 trestles and culverts. The practice is much 
 overdone and should by all means be left to 
 the bridge gang, except in cases of extreme 
 necessity. 
 
 Trestles. The construction of trestles must usually be 
 left to the bridge gang, but occasions will often 
 *arise on small roads where the knowledge as 
 to how a temporary trestle should be built 
 may be of considerable assistance to the road- 
 master in repairing the road after a wreck or 
 a washout. 
 
 A simple form of trestle is shown in fig. 52, 
 and consists of abutments and piers called 
 " bents," spaced 12 ft. apart from center to 
 center. These support the "stringers" on which 
 the cross ties and rails are laid. The top and 
 bottom pieces of a bent are called respectively 
 the "cap" and "sill," the outside inclined 
 posts are called " batter posts," while the in- 
 side posts are called "plumb posts." All of 
 these pieces should be formed of sound timber 
 and, except the stringers, of not less than 12 
 
CULVERTS, TRESTLES AND BRIDGE FLOORS. 73 
 
 in.. by 12 in. squaie, nor more than 20 ft. long, Trestles, 
 because this method is not adapted to higher 
 
 FIG. 52. Typical Trestle. 
 
 structures. The stringers, if formed of clean 
 white pine, should be four in number, two 
 under each rail, and with an end section of 8 
 in. x 16 in. Either the size or the number of 
 stringers must be increased if the material is 
 not perfectly good. Wherever it is possible 
 the joints of the stringers should be broken, 
 but this will require 24-ft. timbers, which can- 
 not always be secured when they are needed, 
 and the necessity may be avoided in tempo- 
 rary work by substituting strong knee braces 
 overlapping the joints and nailed firmly to the 
 stringers with heavy boat spikes. 
 
 If the trestle is likely to remain long in place, 
 the posts should be fastened to the cap and 
 sill by 1 in. drift bolts 2 ft. long. Parallel 
 stringers 'should be joined by 1 in. bolts and 
 separated from each other for the purpose of 
 drainage by washers 1 in. thick, while to pre- 
 vent them from shifting sideways a two-inch 
 plank may be nailed along the top of the cap, 
 close up to and in contact with the stringers. 
 The stringers must also be securely braced 
 
74 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 against the bank at each end in order that the 
 trestle shall not lean. Where there are more 
 than three or four bents, longitudinal braces of 
 3 in. x 12 in. material must be provided to 
 stiffen the trestle through its length as shown 
 in fig. 52. 
 
 Erecting In rapid streams it is sometimes necessary to 
 float the bents into place, but this can usually 
 be accomplished by means of an anchor line 
 up stream and eight guy lines, two at each end 
 of the cap and two at each end of the sill. Care 
 must be taken that the sill shall rest on an 
 even foundation and, if possible, one whose 
 material, when exposed to the wash of a stream, 
 will not scour from under the sill and let it 
 sink. To prevent this it is well to dump some 
 large stones and brush at the sides of and at 
 the up-stream end of each bent, after it is in 
 place, particularly if the trestle is to remain 
 for any length of time. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 BALLAST. 
 
 The usual reasons given for not having good 
 ballast under a track are that it cannot be 
 found near enough the place where it is want- 
 ed, Or that the road is too poor to get it when 
 it is close by. Ninety-nine times out of a hun- 
 dred the first reason is a wrong one. Gravel 
 or sand is probably near at hand if someone 
 will only wake up and look for it. The sec- 
 ond reason is not worth discussing, for an un- 
 ballasted track is expensive to maintain ; much 
 more costly than if well ballasted. 
 
 The different kinds of ballast occupy about Kinds of 
 the following order of merit : broken stone, ballast. 
 clean coarse gravel, furnace slag, engine cinder 
 and clean sand. Almost any limestone or 
 granitic rock will form a good ballast, but very 
 soft sandstones and clay or shale rocks should 
 not be used. Soft sandstone breaks in tamp- 
 ing, while the clay or shale rocks, although 
 they may be hard when put into the track, 
 fall to pieces very rapidly when exposed to 
 the weather. Burnt clay has also been tried 
 but, so far as can be learned, it is much infe- 
 rior to either broken stone or gravel. This is 
 usually because the ballast partakes too much 
 of the character of ordinary building brick 
 and is too little uniform in hardness. Even the 
 best of it is said to fracture quite easily. How- < 
 ever, where stone and gravel are practically 
 unobtainable with coal and clay available, burnt 
 clay is probably the best material for that 
 part of the country. 
 
76 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Broken 
 stone. 
 
 Stone 
 quarries. 
 
 It is not by any means an universally ac- 
 cepted opinion that broken stone ballast is bet- 
 ter than gravel. Many engineers believe that 
 the greater ease with which gravel may be 
 handled more than compensates for the lasting 
 quality of stone, but it seems almost certain that 
 for roads having many and heavy trains nothing 
 ill the end is so good as clean broken stone. 
 
 Stone is practically indestructible and al- 
 most immovable when once placed and prop- 
 erly tamped. When kept clean it permits of 
 the most perfect drainage, and when it be- 
 comes foul, may be cleaned by simply hand- 
 ling it with forks, when it is as good as new. 
 It costs more to prepare a track with stone 
 ballast, but on the other hand costs less to 
 maintain it, while in addition it is probable 
 that the ties last considerably longer in stone 
 than they do in gravel ballast, other circum- 
 stances being the same. 
 
 There are two general ways of procuring 
 stone ballast, the first of which is for the rail- 
 road company to own and operate a quarry 
 and crusher ; the other is for the company to 
 buy its broken stone of some contractor deliv- 
 ered on cars. Each way has its special ad- 
 vantages, but it is usually more satisfactory 
 for a road to own and operate its quarry, 
 since it will then have a supply of ballast 
 under all contingencies. 
 
 Quarries differ so in location that none but 
 the most general description of the best wny 
 of operation can be of much use. The crusher 
 should if possible be placed high enough to 
 discharge the ballast into the cars by gravity, 
 and far enough from the loading track to per- 
 mit of placing a car between the ballast car 
 and the crusher to receive the screenings. The 
 screenings are a valuable by-product of stone 
 ballast and should not under any circumstances 
 
BALLAST. 77 
 
 be wasted. For certain purposes such us side- 
 walks and platforms at small stations they are 
 excellent, but they should be excluded from 
 the track since they will impair, to a large 
 extent, the drainage capacity of the ballast. 
 
 Although it is desirable to transmit the Conveyors, 
 crushed stone directly from the crusher to the 
 cars by gravity, a good quarry need not be 
 ignored because that cannot be done. The art 
 of conveying by buckets, which are filled and 
 dumped automatically, has reached a high state 
 of perfection, and material may now be trans- 
 ported for long distances, up, down and around 
 corners without the interposition of a single 
 pair of hands and at a small cost of operation. 
 
 If it is desired to supplement the supply of 
 stone from the quarry, by stone brought from 
 other points, a track may be carried from the 
 level of the main track up to the top and back 
 of the crusher, by means of which the stone 
 may be conveniently unloaded. This track 
 should gradually descend from the crusher 
 until it meets and connects with the track on 
 which the crushed stone is loaded. The switch 
 connected with this may be automatic and 
 fitted with a spring so that when the car de- 
 scends from the top of the crusher it will of 
 itself set the switch right, and the spring will 
 replace the switch to that position which will 
 send the car under the crusher on its return 
 journey. The tracks running under the dis- 
 charge of the crusher should be built on a 
 grade of not less than 50 ft. to the mile so 
 that cars may be moved without the help of 
 an engine. 
 
 Stone should be crushed so that it will pass size of 
 through a 2 J inch ring ; anything larger is 8tone - 
 too large for good track work, and if the stone 
 be broken smaller the percentage of screenings 
 will become too great. Certain flat stones, 
 
THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 much larger than tins will slip through the 
 crusher, and these, if they are not returned to 
 the crusher and so reduced to the proper di- 
 mensions, must be broken by hand after the 
 ballast has been dumped on the track ; in any 
 event every section gang using stone ballast 
 should have a supply of napping hammers. 
 
 Of crushers there are two general types. 
 The "Kotary" (fig. 53a) consists of a heavy 
 
 FIG. 53a. Rotary Stone 
 Crusher. (Gates.) 
 
 FIG. 53b. Jaw Stone 
 Crusher. 
 
 cast-iron casing which has a conical opening 
 down through the center. In this opening is 
 supported a powerful, solid, corrugated cone 
 which not only revolves around its own axis 
 but is supported at the bottom by an eccen- 
 tric which also revolves and forces the cone 
 now near to and then away from the sides of 
 the inner casing. The stone is dumped into 
 the top, and by the eccentric motion of the 
 solid cone is gradually broken as it passes 
 down where, at the bottom, it is discharged 
 from the chute, of the proper size. 
 
 The "Jaw" crusher is shown in fig. 53b, and 
 operates by means of a fixed plate, which has 
 opposed to it another plate hinged at its upper 
 end and moved at the lower end ; this alter- 
 nately increases and diminishes the opening 
 between the two plates, crushing the stone in 
 the operation. 
 
BALLAST. 79 
 
 Stone ballast should never be placed upon New 
 a new embankment, for it Ayill certainly settle 
 and destroy the established grade ; further, if 
 any ballast has been laid, it will be covered by 
 the material which is 'used to bring the track 
 up to the proper level. The use of stone for 
 this purpose is too expensive, and it is there- 
 fore better to wait until the track has settled 
 before stone ballasting is begun. The sub- 
 grade should be made of the full width and 
 crowned sufficiently to discharge water freely 
 before any ballast is placed upon it. 
 
 Stone ballast should never be handled on Cleaning 
 the ground with anything but a fork (see illus- ballast - 
 tration in chapter on tools) which will not pick 
 up dirt and can be pushed into the ballast with 
 comparative case. A screen should also be 
 provided for cleaning the stone whenever it is 
 taken from the ties. This should be done at 
 intervals, usually of about three years, at 
 which periods it will be found that the inter- 
 stices between the stones are nearly, if not 
 quite filled up with cinders. 
 
 Although, as has been suggested, stone bal- Gravel 
 last is the best material for supporting a rail- ballast - 
 road track for a heavy train service, clean 
 coarse gravel is a thing which every trackman 
 should think himself extremely lucky to get. 
 It is cheaper than stone, easier to handle, easier 
 to raise tracks with, permits of fairly good 
 drainage and, through its use, a good track 
 may be secured, for a time. Gravel how- 
 ever will not carry the water off so fast as 
 broken stone and it cannot be successfully 
 cleaned except by an expensive process of 
 washing. 
 
 The gravel pit should be located as near the Gravel 
 railroad and as near the center of the division pits< 
 to be ballasted as possible. The deeper the 
 cutting in good material, the better, in order 
 
80 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Gravel 
 pits. 
 
 to avoid moving tne shovel oftener than is 
 absolutely necessary, while the pit should be 
 as long as possible so that the switching engine 
 may handle a large number of cars at one 
 time. There should also be plenty of room 
 for switching tracks so that the loading and 
 distributing trains need not be delayed by 
 waiting for each other. 
 
 The cheapest way is to buy the land, strip 
 it of gravel and then if possible sell it ; but if 
 that plan is not convenient the gravel may be 
 paid for by the yard, purchased for a lump 
 sum to be removed in some specified time or 
 an annual rental may be paid for the land with 
 the privilege of taking out as much or as little 
 gravel as the railroad company pleases. In 
 any case the pit must be carefully stripped 
 before the ballast -is removed because nothing 
 is worse in the track than the loam which 
 covers most gravel deposits. 
 
 If much work is to be done, a steam shovel 
 ing gravel, (figs. 54 and 55) must be used and worked 
 day and night if necessary, for in these days 
 ^of ballast plows and electric or gasoline lights 
 there is no difficulty in loading and unloading 
 ballast at night. In this way double the track 
 force can be worked with each steam shovel 
 and double the work accomplished with each 
 plant. It' the road is poor on which the bal- 
 lasting is being done, much may be accom- 
 plished in having the cars unloaded by way 
 freights. The cable may be left, each time it 
 is used, at the end of the dump, ready for the 
 next day's work, and the unloaded cars may 
 be switched on to some convenient side track 
 to be returned to the pit by the next freight 
 going in that direction. If, however, a great 
 deal of work is to be done, a sufficient number 
 of trains should be assigned to the service, 
 well manned by intelligent trainhancls and 
 
 Distribut- 
 
BALLAST. 81 
 
 equipped with good engines, suitable cars and 
 special appliances for unloading the ballast. 
 The engines particularly should be reliable 
 and able to haul a full train without breakino- 
 
 t5 
 
 down. It has been a common idea that any 
 old engine, out of repair and almost ready for 
 the scrap-heap, is good enough for maintenanee- 
 
 FIG. 54. Sixty-ton Steam Shovel. 
 (By the Bucyrus Company.) 
 
 FIG. 55. A Steam Shovel, showing interior of cabin. 
 
 of- way service, but if the cost of the delay 
 that is caused by breaking down at inconven- 
 ient times were considered, it is certain that a 
 considerable economy would result from the 
 use of reliable motive power in this service. 
 No simple delay of any train is so costly to a 
 railroad as the delay of a work train. 
 
 The steam shovel (figs. 54 and 55) should be steam 
 able to move itself forward without the use of shovel - 
 
82 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 a rope and should * have a long reach. It 
 should be carefully and regularly inspected, 
 and any little damage should be promptly re- 
 paired. Six or eight men, besides the engine- 
 man, will be necessary in attendance on the 
 shovel, whose duties will be the poling down 
 of the ballast, and the laying of track for the 
 shovel. 
 
 Baiiast Aii unloading plow is now a necessity to 
 
 every railroad, and one which uses stakes on 
 the side of a flat car for guiding the plow as 
 in fi<r. 50 instead of the old-fashioned center 
 
 FIG. 56. Barnhart Ballast Plow. 
 
 strip, is the best. The center strip is not only 
 an expense but an inconvenience because it 
 unfits the car for certain kinds of freight, and 
 *when required for ballast is often not present. 
 When side stakes only are necessary, any flat 
 car may be taken from its regular service and 
 placed at once in the ballast train. If the 
 brake- wheels are on the ends they must first be 
 changed to the sides in any case. 
 Unloading Three kinds of unloading arrangements are 
 
 methods. ghown in fig 5? t() 62> j u fi 5? a form of 
 
 hoisting engine (which however exerts in this 
 case a horizontal pull) is mounted on a flat car 
 and receives its steam directly from the loco- 
 motive. It is said to be able to unload any 
 material which could be used for ballast or be 
 taken from a ditch or cutting. From the fact 
 that the unloading device is independent of 
 the locomotive, the plow may be moving in 
 
BALLAST. 83 
 
 Ballast 
 
 un loader. 
 
84 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Baiiast one direction while the train is moving in the 
 cars. opposite direction' making it possible to have 
 
 the ballast distributed between the extremes, 
 of all in one place, or in a thin sheet over a 
 long piece of track. The method illustrated 
 in fisrs. 58 and 59 involves the use of a train 
 
 O 
 
 of bottom-dump cars (fig. 58) which are fol- 
 lowed by a plow (fig. 59) for clearing the 
 track of the ballast. 
 
 FIG. 58. Rodger Ballast Car. 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 59. Rodger Plow Car. 
 
 Figs. 60, 61 and 62 illustrate an all-steel car 
 which dumps in several different ways by means 
 of the inclined sides which are hinged at the 
 
 FIG. 60. Goodwin Dump Car. Side View. 
 
BALLAST. 85 
 
 FIG. 61. Goodwin Dump Car. Sectional View. 
 
 FIG. 62. Goodwin Dump Car. End View. 
 
THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 top, and by valves (traps) in the bottom of the 
 car and running its whole length. The dump- 
 ing is done by compressed air or by a hand- 
 lever located on the end platform. This car 
 will discharge half its load on one side and 
 half on the other ; half in the center and half 
 on the outside ; all on one side or all in the 
 center as is desired by the operator. The 
 changes are accomplished by the simple move- 
 ment of a lever, and the operation of dump- 
 ing occupies but a second or two. 
 
 In re-ballasting long stretches of road, the 
 track is usually found full of small sags and 
 hills, which frequently cause the breaking in 
 two of trains and largely increase the cost of 
 hauling. The opportunity should then bo 
 taken of re-establishing the original, or a bet- 
 ter, grade. For this purpose, levels should be 
 run on the rail and after a careful inspection 
 of the profile, grade stakes should be set for 
 the guidance of the trackmen. It is surpris- 
 ing what good results at small cost can be 
 secured by a little care and forethought in 
 this matter. The alinement of the track may 
 lilso be corrected at this time better than at 
 any other, particularly on bad curves and long 
 tangents. 
 
 In certain spots on nearly all railroads the 
 usual amount of ballast will not stop heaving 
 even when the road is properly drained ; these 
 spots or "pockets" may be dug out and filled 
 in with gravel or a special line of tile may be 
 laid from them to the ditch, while in extreme 
 cases a recourse may be necessary to both 
 plans. 
 
 Not less than 8 in. of ballast should be 
 placed under the ties, and the more there is, 
 the better the track will be, although for prac- 
 tical purposes 12 in. is sufficient. An inspec- 
 tion of figs. 63, 64 and 65, which are the bal- 
 
BALLAST. 
 
THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
BALLAST. 89 
 
90 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Ballast last sections of three great railroads, will show 
 sections. .^ diversity of practice. It is not the inten- 
 tion of the writer to judge between them, but 
 the attention of readers is called to the full 
 and generous lines of the gravel section on 
 fig. 65 ; these seem to promise a greater sta- 
 bility than where the material begins to slope 
 from the rail or from the center of the track. 
 Ballast In fig. 66 is shown what is probably the 
 
 average of all practice as regards the top and 
 side lines of the ballast, wherein the portion 
 of each section on the left represents stone, 
 and that on the right, gravel. In this case, 
 however, the sub-grade of the double track 
 differs from the ordinary types, in that the 
 drainage is made to simulate that of single 
 track by sloping its top at a grade of 25 to 1 
 in each direction from the center of the ties. 
 The water between the tracks is then collected 
 by a line of 6 in. tile having open joints, which 
 is tapped at right angles every 100 ft. by cross 
 lines of 3-in. tiles with closed joints. Some- 
 thing of this sort is quite common in Europe 
 and might well be used here, where perfection 
 *is the aim. 
 
 Track ! Some form of track jack, of which there 
 
 jacks. , ire several good ones, should always be used 
 in raising track. The jack should be strong, 
 but light enough to be moved short distances 
 by one man, and when in use should never be 
 placed between the rails. At least one fearful, 
 accident has occurred through the carelessness 
 of a trackman who left the jack under the rail 
 where a train struck it and was derailed, caus- 
 ing the injury and death of a large number of 
 people ; a sufficiently strong incident to show 
 the results of carelessness on a railroad. 
 
 The jacks shown in figs. 67, 68, 69 and 70 
 are of the prevailing form and are all of 
 well-known make. Figs. 71, 72 and 73 rep- 
 
BALLAST. 91 
 
 T 
 
 Ballast 
 sections. 
 
92 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT, 
 
 Track 
 jacks. 
 
 FIG. 67. Jenne Track Jack. 
 
 FIG. 68. Barrett Track and Bridge Jack. 
 (The Duff Mfg. Co.) 
 
 FIG. 69. Barrett Trip Track Jack. 
 (The Duff Mfg. Co.) 
 
BALLAST. 
 
 Track 
 jacks. 
 
 FIG. 70, Boyer & Radford Track Jack. 
 
 FIG. 71. 
 
 FIG. 72. 
 
94 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Track 
 jacks. 
 
 FIG. 73. 
 FIGS. 71, 72 and 73. Track Jacks for use Under the Rail. 
 
 resent the effort to reduce the jack to such a 
 height that none of it will be above the rail. 
 This is laudable so far as it goes, but is objec- 
 tionable because it may lead to carelessness 
 through the notion of some trackman that a 
 jack is strong enough to support a train. 
 Raising Great care must be taken in raising track, 
 
 track. | o nave cau tion signs located or flagmen sent 
 out a sufficient distance from where the work 
 *is going on to enable trains to reduce their 
 speed. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 CROSS TIES. 
 
 The proper selection, inspection and dis- 
 tribution of cross ties is one of the important tion - 
 duties of a roadmaster, since in this matter he 
 comes more in contact with those persons who 
 have something to sell than in any other way. 
 All sorts of tricks are practiced to conceal de- 
 fects in the material ; red oak passes as first- 
 class white oak, ties are piled in such a way 
 as to show only those parts which are up to 
 the specifications etc. A roadmaster should 
 therefore be forever on his guard against such 
 possibilities. 
 
 Where ties are bought along the line, a cer- Date of 
 tain time in each month should be taken for 
 inspecting and counting them. This gives the 
 dealers a chance to be present when their ties 
 are counted and enables the roadmaster to 
 settle almost all questions and disputes, (some 
 of which are sure to arise) without wasting 
 time and with very little trouble. All ties 
 should be plainly and indelibly marked on one 
 end with paint or a stamp, when they are in- 
 spected, in such a way as to make it impossible 
 for them to be presented a second time, and to 
 facilitate the work of inspection they should 
 be piled in alternate layers at right angles to 
 each other, with a space of 6 or 8 inches be- 
 tween each two ties of the same layer. It is 
 well to distribute the ties as soon as possible 
 after inspection, and dealers should be required 
 to remove all their rejected ties from the right- 
 of-way within a stated time. 
 
96 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Size and 
 quality. 
 
 Sawed or 
 hewed. 
 
 The ordinary dimensions for cross ties are 
 6 in. x 8 in. x 8J ft., and they should not be 
 less but may properly be increased to 7 in. x 9 
 in. x 8^ ft. They must be of perfectly sound 
 material and only one . tie should be cut from 
 a section of a tree. This latter practice in- 
 sures the fact that the timber is young and of 
 second growth. It is best that all ties shall be 
 cleared of bark before they are paid for by 
 the railroad company but in order that the 
 inspection may be reliable, the bark of white 
 oak must be left on until after the inspection. 
 When the ties are shipped from a distance this 
 arrangement may iiot be convenient but it may 
 nearly always be managed by an agreement 
 with the contractor and should be if it is a 
 possible thing. 
 
 If the ties arc hewed, they must be dressed 
 with the faces parallel, for a warped tie will 
 surely make bad track. A prejudice against 
 sawed ties exists which is to a large extent 
 founded on the belief that a sawed tie will not 
 last so long as a hewed tie taken from the 
 same tree. This is probably not true. The 
 'reason that sawed ties do not as a rule last so 
 long as hewed ties is that they are frequently 
 cut from large (and that often means old) 
 timber, which has already survived its useful- 
 ness. The same objection exists with regard 
 to split ties and on the other hand is impossible 
 in the case of hewed pole ties. Sawed ties, 
 which are surely known to have been cut from 
 young, vigorous timber are perfectly fitted for 
 the main track, while at switches or frogs, 
 on bridges and in all places where the ties 
 are laid upon stringers, no hewed ties should 
 be used since their surfaces are neither flat nor 
 parallel. 
 
 It is well, in any case, to purchase a certain 
 proportion of sawed or split ties at a reduced 
 
CROSS TIES. 97 
 
 price for use in side-tracks, as they will do 
 quite as well for that purpose, and it will prob- 
 ably tend to lessen the cost of first-class ties 
 by permitting the farmers and dealers to make 
 use of timber which would otherwise prove a 
 loss. 
 
 Where it is possible to require it, ties Time for 
 should be cut in the middle of summer or in cuttin &- 
 winter, at which times the sap is not in motion. 
 The winter is the best time, since then they 
 may be distributed exactly where they are 
 wanted before the spring work begins. By 
 this practice, a time of the year is utilized 
 during which little else can be done and the 
 way is prepared for the rapid placing of the 
 ties in the track as soon as the season permits. 
 
 Next to white oak, which combines the qual- Tie timber. 
 ities of holding a spike and resisting decay 
 longer than any other timber that we have in 
 common use, chestnut, yellow pine and black 
 and red cypress are probably the best, but are 
 closely followed by cedar, tamarac, and in the 
 far western States, redwood. 
 
 The supply of white oak fit for cross ties is 
 nearly exhausted in the northern States, and 
 the larger roads now procure many hundreds 
 of thousands a year from Virginia, West Vir- 
 ginian, Kentucky and some of the other south- 
 ern States. 
 
 The probable annual rate of steam and Tie plates, 
 electric railroad building in the United States 
 will draw still further on a rapidly decreasing 
 supply, both for the construction of new roads 
 and their maintenance after they are built. 
 It is therefore of great importance that some 
 means shall be taken to lengthen the life of 
 ties, not only because there is real danger of 
 exhausting the supply but because of the 
 direct economy which will follow their in- 
 creased service. It may be extended consider- 
 
98 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Tie plates, ably by the use of a tie plate of the type 
 known as the " Servis " (fig. 74), a device 
 which long since passed the experimental 
 
 FIG. 74. Servis Tie Plate. 
 
 stage. In this form, the plate is made from 
 a piece of steel whose longitudinal^ outside 
 edges are sharpened and bent downwards at 
 right angles. Sometimes intermediate ribs 
 and a rail brace are added, but these are not 
 essential and it is quite doubtful if they 
 increase the value of the plate ; they are 
 shown Us dotted lines in fig. 74. The first 
 pbject of the tie plate was to preserve the tie 
 from the pounding and crushing effect of the 
 rail, but time developed other qualities of al- 
 most equal value. The lateral strength of the 
 track was much increased by the support which 
 the plate offered to the spike. It is of course 
 on curves that this action is most plainly seen, 
 but even on tangents it may be noticed, par- 
 ticularly where track is not maintained in 
 good surface. Simple as it is, this little piece 
 of metal has rendered immense benefits to the 
 railroads of the United States. Tic plates of 
 flat metal had been tried mmry times but they 
 failed in every case, either because they wore 
 too thin and buckled, or because they were 
 too thick and acted as anvils ; and in either 
 they Avere loose and permitted abrasion of ties 
 
CROSS TIES. 99 
 
 and spikes. It is the longitudinal ribs which 
 give the plate value. 
 
 Some wood-preserving process, such as creo- Wood 
 sotino-. will probably become a necessity and, preserving 
 
 p' i. -i , T i process. 
 
 it is believed by many, would prove an econo- 
 my even now. There is some uncertainty as 
 to how much the lite of a tie would be pro- 
 longed by this process, but from European and 
 American experience it is probable that instead 
 of having to renew all of the ties in the main 
 track every seven or eight years, it would be 
 necessary to do so only once in every fifteen 
 years or even more. The saving resulting 
 from this would be greater than is apparent, 
 not only in the price of the ties, but in all the 
 labor of inspecting, distributing and of put- 
 ting them in, as well as from having to disturb 
 the track so infrequently, a reason which every 
 trackman will appreciate. In Europe, where 
 timber is much scarcer than here, creosoted 
 ties have been for many years in common use 
 and are giving, on the whole, the best results.* 
 
 Iron and steel ties have also been used exten- Metal ties. 
 sively in Europe, and in this country to a very 
 1 imited extent. There are many forms of metal 
 ties, each of which claims to have special ad- 
 vantages over all others, and several of which 
 resemble each other closely, so that if their 
 use is decided upon a choice should not be 
 difficult. There are a fe\v situations, as in busy 
 tunnels, where it is possible that their use is 
 warranted even at their present cost, for they 
 may be expected to last as long as the rails. 
 
 In fig. 75 are shown two typical forms 
 of metal ties. Each of them is made from a 
 
 * Bulletin Xo. 9, of the Forestry Division, United States De- 
 partment of Agriculture, gives an account of this question to- 
 gether with that of tie plates and of metal ties which should be 
 read by every maintenance-of-way officer. It can be procured 
 by an application to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, 
 
100 
 
 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Metal ties, thin sheet of iron or steel, rolled or pressed into 
 shape, and the rail is held to them usually by 
 a clip, bolt and nut, as in fig. 76, although as 
 
 SECTION AT C-D 
 
 FIG. 75. Two Forms of Metal Ties. 
 
 explained below, the sheets of fibre which sur- 
 round the rail are only used under exceptional 
 conditions. 
 
 Tie insuia- Where metal ties are used in conjunction 
 with the electric track circuit (see Chapters IV 
 
 tion. 
 
 Sectional View. 
 
 FIG. 76. Method of Fastening the Rail to a Metal Tie, with a, 
 Fibre Insulation. 
 
CROSS TIES. 101 
 
 and XV), it is necessary to prevent the electric Tie insuia- 
 current from passing from one rail to another tion> 
 by means of the cross ties. This can only be 
 done by some method of insulation. Fig. 76 
 illustrates one of the methods. Here there 
 are some fibrous sheets interposed between the- 
 rail and all of the surrounding metal ; since 
 the fibre is a non-conductor of electricity, the 
 rail becomes what is called "insulated." 
 
 A certain side of the track should be fixed Lining 
 upon for lining the ties, if the road is single tieSt 
 track. On a double track road the ties should 
 be lined always on the outside of the track 
 except on curves where they should always be 
 lined on the inside of the curves. 
 
 The track jack should be used as much as Track 
 possible for putting in ties, since it saves the iacks> 
 labor of a man who would otherwise be en- 
 gaged in holding up a tie for another man to 
 tamp. It should be particularly provoking to 
 an ambitious roadmaster to go over his track 
 and see men on every section lazily roosting 
 on a crowbar. 
 
 Late in the fall the roadmaster should, in counting 
 the company of each section foreman, make tfes ' 
 a careful examination of his track for the pur- 
 pose of ascertaining the number, kind and 
 location of the ties which must be renewed 
 during the next year. When this location is 
 known the new ties can be distributed at any 
 time during the winter. 
 
 Unfortunately, ties in any section of track Entire 
 do not all decay together. The practice of removal - 
 removing all at once, quite desirable on some 
 accounts, may easily result in serious waste ; 
 and in this connection it should be remem- 
 bered that ties made from different kinds 
 of wood should not be mixed in the track, 
 since they will decay in different lengths of 
 time. 
 
102 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 spacing On main track, from fourteen to sixteen ties, 
 
 ties. depending on their size, should be laid under 
 
 a thirty-foot rail, and on side track from eleven 
 to thirteen ties. If the ties are large there 
 will be less than this number, and if they are 
 small there will be more. They should be 
 evenly spaced with reference to their bearing 
 edges (not their centers) and sufficient room 
 for tamping should be left between each two 
 ties. For joint ties in main track this distance 
 should be from eight to ten inches, not more, 
 and for intermediate ties from ten to fourteen 
 inches. The largest ties should be reserved 
 for placing under the joints. 
 
 Tamping Ties should be tamped hard at the ends and 
 for about a foot inside the rails, but in the 
 ^ middle less tamping should be done ; just. 
 enough to solidify the earth and hold the end 
 tamping in place. The shocks to which a tic 
 is subjected, all come under the rail at which 
 point the tie will first settle. If the tie is 
 tamped hard in the middle, it, in time, becomes 
 center-bound and rocks, which is bad for the 
 track, and disagreeable to the passengers. 
 Neither should ties be tamped too high at the 
 joints in the expectation that they will gradually 
 settle down to the proper level of the track. 
 A joint which is too high is as injurious to 
 the rail, and has as bad an effect on the train 
 as a low joint. 
 
 Time to As has been said in a previous chapter, the 
 
 renew. work of putting in ties should be commenced 
 in the spring as soon as the most important 
 of the ditching has been completed, and ought, 
 if it is a possible thing, to be finished by the 
 first of July. This is a rule which cannot be 
 too strongly insisted upon. 
 
 Disposal of After the decayed ties have been taken from 
 
 ties yCd ^ ne track they should be disposed of promptly 
 
 and not be left to disfigure the right-of-way. 
 
CROSS TIES. 103 
 
 They may be burned on the spot, taken to the Disposal of 
 nearest engine-house to be used for starting fires J^ ayed 
 in the locomotives, or the people living in the 
 neighborhood may be permitted to haul them 
 away, but before they are disposed of in any 
 way they must have been carefully inspected 
 by the roadmaster. This should never be 
 omitted, since it is the only possible means of 
 checking the care with which the section fore- 
 men select the ties for removal. It is of course 
 best to utilize them if possible, and there are 
 many ways in which to do it. They make 
 good temporary retaining walls when placed 
 ends into the bank, and if laid side by side 
 across very muddy roads form a good substi- 
 tute for "corduroy." If no better use pre- 
 sents itself, they can be piled- around stumps 
 and burned, thus -'killing two birds with 
 one stone." In any event, they should not 
 be left scattered along the track but should 
 be gathered into neat piles at the close of 
 each day's work. 
 
 In yards, in the neighborhood of switches, Useofpegs, 
 or where the track heaves, cross ties are often 
 rapidly destroyed by the frequent drawing and 
 re-driving of spikes which, each time it is clone, 
 leaves an opening for the water to settle in and 
 exposes the center of the tie to decay. To 
 prevent this, a supply of pegs a little larger 
 than a spike, should be kept on hand for filling 
 these holes and should be used invariably where 
 a spike is drawn from a tie which is to remain 
 in the track. The pegs are best made by 
 machinery, but if the supply should become / 
 exhausted they may be split out of good tim- 
 ber at the hand-car house on rainy days. The 
 practice of driving a pick into a tie on any 
 and every occasion for testing or moving it is 
 a bad one. It makes a hole in which Avater 
 will settle and start a center of decay. If it is 
 
104 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Shims. 
 
 Spiking 
 ties. 
 
 Level and 
 
 gage. 
 
 ever really necessary* to pick a tie, a sound 
 peg should be driven tightly into the hole and 
 cut, not broken off at the surface. 
 
 Shimming is a makeshift at the best and 
 is apt to be greatly overdone, often to a 
 dangerous extent. It is almost entirely due 
 to bad drainage, and to correct this is the 
 only proper course. If, however, circum- 
 stances require shims let them be made and 
 used in the right way. Hard wood is the 
 only suitable material from which to make 
 shims, white oak preferably, and they should 
 be sawed and bored by machinery ; they then 
 are of the best form and cost the least money. 
 Those more than an inch and less than two 
 inches in thickness should have four holes, 
 two for the rail spikes and two for spiking the 
 shim to the tie. All shims more than two 
 inches thick should have the ends beveled with 
 two holes bored in each end for spiking them 
 to the tie. For this purpose, long boat-spikes 
 should be used. 
 
 In spiking ties the arrangement of the spikes 
 should be invariably as shown on fig. 121, will) 
 both inside spikes on the same side of the tie 
 and with both butside spikes on the other side 
 of the tie. If the spiking is done in any other 
 way the tie will twist instead of remaining 
 always at right angles to the rail. Although 
 apparently a small matter this is really of much 
 importance. Driving spikes properly requires 
 some skill and is more often badly than well 
 done. The gage should always be used and 
 the spike stood up straight beside the rail and 
 touching it, then driven down straight, not 
 leaned in either direction to suit the conven- 
 ience of the trackman. 
 
 Any work which tends to disturb the ballast 
 of track should be performed with the assist- 
 ance of a track level, and the work of putting 
 
CROSS TIES. 105 
 
 in ties should prove no exception to this rule. Track 
 The level should be moved from place to place Ievels - 
 where the men are tamping and no track should 
 be considered finished until it has been finally 
 tested with the level and gage and is known 
 to be right. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 RAILS AND FASTENINGS. 
 
 Many of the details of track have been Recent 
 greatly modified during the last few years, chan es - 
 particularly as to the form of the rail and to 
 those parts which have to do with holding the 
 rails together. The simple fish-plate has prac- 
 tically disappeared except for side tracks ; the 
 six-hole angle bar is driving out the four-hole 
 angle-bar, and some form of trussed or bridge 
 joint may take the place of the six-hole angle- 
 bar. The iron rails are already a thing of the 
 past, except for scrap, and at the present time 
 if any railroad company could be found to pur- 
 chase them they would cost more than those 
 made from the best steel. 
 
 The form of the rail itself has undergone a Early 
 radical change during the last ten years, r 
 brought about by a great many, and at the 
 time, largely unaccountable failures, which 
 attracted the attention of railroad engineers, 
 rail makers and inspectors, and resulted in a 
 careful and accurate investigation into the 
 causes of the trouble. 
 
 Speaking in general terms, this investigation 
 showed that the form of the rail was largely 
 at fault. Through defects in design, the rail 
 makers were forced to finish it too hot, result- 
 ing in a rail the head of which had been 
 insufficiently worked and, what was still worse, 
 received its last working at a high heat. The 
 same faulty design caused the rail to cool 
 quicker in the head than in the flange, which 
 made it difficult to finish it straight, and gave 
 rise to internal strains. 
 
108 
 
 Rail Ac- 
 tions. 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 The present most 'approved form is illus- 
 trated below in fig. 77, and is the section of an 
 eighty-pound rail now in use on some of the 
 most important railroads in the country. This 
 
 FIG. 77. Typical 80-lb. Rail. 
 
 section has been developed from the labors of 
 P. H. Dudley, long identified with the improve- 
 ment in track on the New York Central & 
 Hudson River, Boston & Albany, and other 
 railroads, together with the efforts and inves- 
 tipitions of Messrs. Robert "VV. Hunt, J. D. 
 Hawks and D. J. Whittemore, aided by several 
 others, members of the American Society of 
 Civil Engineers. This society has now put its 
 stamp of approval upon the general form of 
 rail urged by these gentlemen, and there seems 
 little likelihood of a return to the old hit-or- 
 miss practice. 
 
 The aim of the new section is to secure the 
 best possible distribution of the metal, in order 
 to correct the troubles which experience has 
 developed. For the purpose of comparison 
 an eighty-pound rail (fig. 78), designed in 1887, 
 is illustrated, and in fig. 79 the two first sec- 
 tions are superposed ; ^hey show quite plainly 
 the difference between what was commonly 
 
RAILS AND FASTENINGS. 
 
 considered a very good section in 1887 and * all8ec " 
 that which conforms closely to the best pres- * 
 ent practice. The most important differ- 
 ence is in the general form, which has been 
 
 FIG. 78. 80-lb. Rail of 1887. 
 
 FIG. 79. Comparison of Figs. 77 and 78. 
 
 made higher in proportion to weight ; the 
 web has been thickened and increased in length 
 while the head is much thinner with both base 
 and head wider than formerly. The increase 
 in the height of the rail has greatly strength- 
 ened it as a girder, and the increased width in 
 
110 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Composi- 
 tion. 
 
 Rolling. 
 
 Spik< 
 
 the head has provided a larger surface for 
 carrying the heavy modern rolling stock which 
 rapidly destroys the earlier forms of rail by 
 literally squeezing the metal from the top of 
 the narrower heads. 
 
 Rails are now being made much harder than 
 was usual in the past, since instead of contain- 
 ing but 0.25 or 0.30 per cent, of carbon, they 
 often have 0.55 or 0.60 per cent, and the 
 tendency is to still increase. It is not decided 
 as to what is just the proper quantity of car- 
 bon in order to secure the most efficient com- 
 bination of hardness, toughness and elasticity, 
 for it must be understood that, speaking in a 
 general way, the greater the percentage of 
 hardening elements, the more brittle the metal. 
 
 It will be seen by a comparison of figs. 77 
 and 78, that the relative quantities of metal 
 in the head, the web and the base of each sec- 
 tion are much more nearly equal in the former 
 than in the latter. This has rendered it pos- 
 sible to roll the rails at a much lower temper- 
 ature than could be done when such forms as 
 ijg. 78 prevailed. As a consequence the dens- 
 ity, toughness and reliability of the metal 
 have been greatly increased. 
 
 There are many forms of spikes, varying 
 slightly from each other, but no one form seems 
 to have gone far toward superseding the old- 
 fashioned spike. The lag screw (fig. 80) (in 
 the opinion of many trackmen), in connection 
 with a clip to hold the rail down, as in fig. 112, 
 is likely to supersede the driven spike, and 
 other persons just as well informed regard it 
 already as a demonstrated failure. Fig. 81 is 
 the same as fig. 82, but twisted mid with a 
 sharp point. Fig. 82 is the common -fain. 
 by 5|-in. spike ; figs. 83 and 84 are modifica- 
 tions of fig. 82, while fig. 85 is quite different 
 since it is intended to be driven at an angle 
 
RAILS AND FASTENINGS. Ill 
 
 across the tie but parallel with the base of spikes, 
 the rail. 
 
 FIG. 80. FIG. 81. FIG. 82. FIG. 83. FIG. 84. 
 
 FIGS. 80-85. Different Forms of Lag-screws and Spikes. 
 
 There are also large numbers of nut locks, Nut 
 most of which have followed the well known Iocks * 
 "Verona 77 idea. The original and the latest 
 Verona patterns are shown in figs. 86 and 87, 
 while figs. 88, 89, 90, 91 and 92 illustrate 
 variations of it. The first Verona nut lock 
 (fig. 86) was formed of a square steel rod, 
 bent into a circle, whose ends were cut diag- 
 onally and then forced a little apart. It acts 
 in two ways : When the nut is screwed up 
 tight the nut lock acts as a spring, forcing the 
 
 FIG. 86. Original Verona. FIG. 87. Recent Verona. 
 
 FIG. 88. Eureka. 
 
 FIG. 89. American. 
 
112 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Nut locks. 
 
 FIG. 90. Harvey. 
 
 FIG. 91. National 
 
 FIG. 92. Excelsior. 
 Spring Nut Locks. 
 
 threads of the nut and bolt together, while 
 its sharp ends form cutting edges which bear 
 respectively against the splice-bar and the nut 
 and oppose the effort of the nut to revolve. 
 In its new shape, one of the ends is prolonged, 
 which when it strikes a projection, acts as a 
 stop to prevent the nut lock from turning. 
 An entirely different arrangement is presented 
 in fig. 93. Here the washer is put on flat as 
 in the upper figure, and as shown by the dot- 
 ted lines of the lower figure. The nut is then 
 screwed home, when the pressure forces the 
 small projections in the center hole against the 
 thread of the bolt. The tongues are then 
 
 FIG. 93. The Warren 
 Washer for Metal. 
 
 FIG. 94. The Warren 
 Washer for Wood. 
 
RAILS AND FASTENINGS. 113 
 
 turned up against the side of the nut. Fig. 94 Nut locks, 
 is of the same order, but is intended for wood 
 and may therefore be used on timber culverts, 
 trestles and bridges. Although not of the 
 same class as the previously described nut 
 locks, fig. 95 comes under the same category. 
 
 Fia. 95. Grip Nut. 
 (Oliver Iron & Steel Company.) 
 
 It differs from the ordinary nut only in having 
 the three outside threads made at a little dif- 
 ferent angle from the others and this causes 
 the nut to bind against the bolt. 
 
 Of joint fastenings there is a great variety, Ran joints. 
 many of which will be found illustrated in 
 figs, 96 to 105. Theoretically, the rail at the 
 joint, in order to secure a perfect track, should 
 be exactly as flexible and as strong as the 
 rest of the rail. So far, however, the fault 
 has been chiefly that the joints have been too 
 weak. The requisites in a joint are, in the 
 order of their importance, strength, ease of 
 application, fewness of parts and cheapness. 
 Cheapness is put last because a poor joint at 
 a less price, will prove more costly than a 
 higher priced good joint. Fewness of parts 
 is a very desirable feature since the more parts 
 a joint has, the more there are to become 
 loose and get lost and the longer it takes 
 to put them together. Ease of application 
 is also requisite because the operation of renew- 
 
114 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 <8 
 
RAILS AND FASTENINGS. 115 
 
116 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTERS ASSISTANT. 
 
RAILS AND FASTENINGS. 117 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 
 I ! 
 
 KPJ 
 
118 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
RAILS AND FASTENINGS. 119 
 
 ing rails is usually done in a great hurry and 
 at a time when every moment counts. 
 
 It would be impossible in the limits of this Angle 
 book to give so much space as would be re- bars - 
 quired to illustrate a tithe of the various joint 
 fastenings which are even now being experi- 
 mented with. A large proportion of them are 
 foredoomed failures while in the case of many 
 others experience seems to show that they 
 must also end in that railroad limbo, the | 
 scrap heap, there to remain until they are re- 
 melted or re-rolled into some form of use- 
 fulness. 
 
 Fig. 96 shows a four-bolt angle joint, 
 although it is not quite a typical joint except 
 at the section A-B, for in the center the bar 
 has been thickened. This accomplished its 
 purpose, that of preventing the tearing apart 
 of the bar at the joint, but it did not prevent 
 the bar from bending and remaining bent per- 
 manently. The six-hole angle-bar is probably 
 much better but there is almost a certainty 
 that it is not good enough and that, it cannot 
 be made so. Fig. 97 illustrates a fair example 
 both as to its length and the distance between 
 the bolts. These angle-bars vary considerably 
 in total length, from 32 in. to 42 in., and in 
 extreme cases even less and more. A com- suspended 
 paratively small proportion are used as sus- 
 pended joints (that is with two ties) but this 
 defeats one of their chief advantages and 
 practically places them in the class of four- 
 hole anHe-bars. This is a fact which seems 
 
 O 
 
 to have escaped many people since it appears 
 quite evident that the useful effect must dimin 
 ish in proportion as the bolts are further from 
 the junction between the rails unless, as with 
 the three-tie joint, the bars are re-inforced by 
 the resistance of another tie. It is widely 
 believed that no spike-slot should be placed at 
 
120 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 or very near the center, since this is the point 
 of greatest strain and it is here that most 
 (substantially all) of the fractures occur. One 
 of the best informed and most careful inves- 
 tigators of track materials has stated that 
 u the angle-bar should be high in carbon and 
 low in phosphorus, so that it may be very 
 stiff and elastic. The mild steel splice takes 
 a * set ' after which it holds the rail-ends down, 
 ^ causing a permanent low joint which cannot 
 
 be corrected until new splices are put in." 
 Descrip- Fig. 98 is, like fig. 96, of historical inter- 
 
 johrts* cs ^' sulce it snows one f the earliest attempts 
 at a " bridge joint," in other words the use of 
 two cross ties to sustain the shock of the 
 wheel-blow and the inherent weakness at the 
 break between the two rails. Fig. 99 is the 
 descendant of fig. 98, but neither in form or 
 idea does it resemble its ancestor. It is exactly 
 what its name indicates, since it provides a 
 vertical as well as a horizontal " fishing," and 
 to all intents and purposes, rejects the assist- 
 ance of the ties. 
 
 * Fig. 100, it will be seen, is like fig. 96, but 
 with its flanges widened and turned under to 
 act as a support to the bottom of the rail. 
 The great resemblance between figs. 100 and 
 101 needs nothing more than mention. 
 
 In fi^. 102 we find one of the most recent 
 
 , 
 
 joints. The splicing parts are exceptionally 
 heavy and the wide flanges are bent down 
 between the ties to act as a further opponent 
 to the up and down movement of the rail. 
 
 Something of the ideas expressed in figs. 98 
 and 102 are found in fig. 103, but with the 
 addition of bolts to assist in the labor performed 
 by the downward bent flanges of 102. The 
 " Long " truss joint (fig. 104) differs but slightly 
 from fig. 103, since it is intended to overcome 
 the same strains in practically the same way. 
 
RAILS AND FASTENINGS. 121 
 
 Fig. 105 is the six-hole angle-bar of fig. 97, 
 plus the bottom support of figs. 98, 100, 101, 
 103 and 104, plus a wooden filling-piece and a 
 cover-plate, to protect the wood and equalize 
 the pressure of the nuts. 
 
 Besides the changes which have taken place Various 
 in the joint fastenings, it has been suggested rai| - end8 - 
 to change the form of the joint itself. Four 
 methods are shown in figs. 106 to 112. The 
 intention is the same in all of these suggestions, 
 that is, to transfer the load gradually from one 
 rail to the next instead of all at once as is done 
 where the rail has a square end. 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 FIG. 106. Mitred Rail-end. 
 
 Fig*. 106 shows what is called 
 
 the " mitred 
 
 end," a plan that has been largely followed on 
 the Lehigh Valley Railroad. 
 
 FIG. 107. Vertically-Halved Rail. 
 
 In fig. 
 
 107 is seen a method which contem- 
 plates rolling the rail in halves. This was first 
 tried with iron rails which broke clown rapidly 
 but since then, a rail after this fashion has been 
 used in Germany with apparent success. The 
 plan followed, differed from the original one, 
 since with it the rails were permanently joined 
 through the web by frequent rivets. It proved 
 expensive, however, and it is believed that the 
 plan next to be described will be found cheaper 
 and better in every way. 
 
122 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 rr 
 
RAILS AND FASTENINGS. 123 
 
 SECTION AT A.B. 
 
 FIG. 110. Haarmann-Vietor Eail. 
 Section at Joint. 
 
 SECTION AT C.D. 
 
 FIG. 111. Haarmann-Vietor Rail. 
 Section at Middle. 
 
 Figs. 108,109, 110 and 111 illustrate that Haarmann- 
 system of track known as the ' k Haarmann- Vietor g y 8 - 
 Vietor," named for its designers, two German 
 engineers of reputation. As will be seen from 
 fig. Ill, a rail of irregular shape is used, which 
 permits that one-halt" the head and base shall 
 be cut away for about ten inches at each end 
 without removing any of the web of the rail 
 in the operation. The webs are then overlap- 
 ped and further reinforced by angle-bars as 
 shown in figs. 108, 109 and 110, while the two 
 lines of rails are joined at frequent intervals by 
 tie-straps, shown in different positions on figs. 
 108, 109 and 111. This rail is very large. It 
 has a height and base of about eight inches each, 
 and is embedded in the ballast. A pecu- 
 liarity of the plan is that the rails rest directly 
 upon the ballast without the use of any cross 
 ties. The reports of its performance state that 
 a record of ten years' service prove that the 
 cost of maintenance in Germany did not ex- 
 ceed twenty dollars per mile per year, while 
 the stiffness of the splice and the continuity 
 of support secure an unparallelled smooth- 
 ness of track. It is evident that nothing but 
 the best construction throughout and the most 
 
124 
 
 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 thorough drainage can be used in this method 
 of laying track, which seems to have given 
 good results in experimental service. 
 Kattepian. Mr. Katte, chief engineer of the New York 
 Central & Hudson River Railroad, has pro- 
 posed the use of a rail which is composed of 
 two parts (fig. 112), a head and a base. These 
 
 FIG. 112. KattS Rail. Combined Bail and Splice. 
 
 Longer 
 rails. 
 
 portions overlap each other one-half, and they 
 evidently dispose pretty thoroughly of the 
 "joint question/' since the angle-bars (or rather 
 what corresponds to them) have in this case 
 become continuous. 
 
 Right in line with the attempts which are 
 being made to secure perfectly tight and rigid 
 joints are the comparatively recent experi- 
 ments in laying 45 ft., 60 ft. and even 90 ft. 
 rails. This has already been largely done and 
 proved to be a decided advantage ; an easily 
 understood matter when it is remembered that 
 45, 60 and 90 ft. rails have respectively but 
 |, and J as many joints as a 30 ft. rail. 
 
 Practically continuous rails have been suc- 
 cessfully used in this country. The idea, 
 which was patented on one occasion by a 
 section-foreman named Noonan, seems to have 
 been first tried on what is now a branch of 
 the Norfolk & Western Railway. The rails 
 were bolted together as tightly as possible and 
 their ends were butted, allowing no room for 
 expansion. Roughly speaking, steel expands 
 one inch in every 100 feet for an increase of 
 
RAILS AND FASTENINGS. 125 
 
 100 degrees Fahrenheit in temperature. Until 
 recently it has been believed that the rail should 
 be able to move through the joint or it might 
 buckle, destroy the gage of the track and cause 
 a derailment, but in the light of some experi- 
 ments made on the Michigan Central Railroad 
 by Mr. Torrey, its chief engineer, some doubt 
 exists as to whether it would not be better to 
 combine the movement of the several joints at 
 particular points considerable distances apart, 
 in the form of special expansion joints. The 
 experiments indicate that the movement of the 
 rail is not so great as might be expected 
 under the changes of temperature which take 
 place, and after four years of service Mr. Tor- 
 rey still calls a stretch of track which has riveted 
 rails 500 ft. long the best piece of track on the 
 Michigan Central Railroad. The method fol- 
 lowed has been to insert split points in the 
 track some hundreds of feet apart, in the 
 manner suggested in Chapter XI for taking 
 up the movement in creeping track and to 
 rivet the intermediate rails ends together in 
 such a way as to make a practically continu- 
 ous rail. 
 
 Extensive arrangements have also been casting 
 designed for welding or casting the rail ends f nd weld " 
 together. The first method and that which Ingen 8 " 
 
 O 
 
 promises the best results is an electric weld- 
 ing plant, mounted on a car, w r hich heats the 
 adjacent ends of rails and melts them together 
 by means of the electric current, thus forming 
 one piece out of several rails. The other plan 
 contemplates the use of a portable cupola or 
 furnace for melting iron, and -a series of molds 
 which are clamped around the joints of the 
 rails. The melted iron is then poured into 
 the molds which are allowed to cool and are 
 then removed. There is not much doubt that 
 there is a strong tendency to eliminate at 
 
126 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Welded least a part of the joints in our railroad track 
 joints. jjy some O f the methods indicated, and it must 
 be counted as a powerful factor in the pro- 
 gress of the immediate future. Not only is 
 this to be seen on steam railroads experiment- 
 ally, but street railroads have been and are 
 being built, wholly without regard to the 
 expansion and contraction of the rails due 
 to changes in temperature. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 TRACK WORK. 
 
 The rails are usually received from the mill counting 
 oil flat or gondola cars and should be care- |^ d *^" 
 fully counted at the time they are unloaded ** 
 for the purpose of detecting any error in the 
 shipping list. The brand is always on the same 
 side of the rail, as it lies in the car. Since 
 many railroads do and all railroads should re- 
 quire the rails to be laid with the brands either 
 all on the inside or all on the outside of the 
 rail when in the track, it must be seen to that 
 the cars point in the right direction when the 
 rail is taken out to be unloaded. If the turn- 
 ing of the cars (when they point in the wrong 
 direction) is not done, each rail must be sepa- 
 rately turned in order to get the brand on the 
 proper side. In any event, a string of rails 
 should always have the brand on the same side, 
 because the top and bottom surfaces of the rail 
 are not always parallel, owing to an imperfect 
 adjustment of the rolls in the mill ; therefore, 
 if the rails are not laid uniformly a rough 
 track is apt to result. 
 
 A great deal has been written and said con- unloading 
 cerning the proper way to unload rails in order rai!s - 
 that they shall sustain the least possible dam- 
 age in the process. The dangers likely to occur 
 are the breaking and kinking of the rail. The 
 breaking of a rail in unloading may be caused 
 by carelessness, but on the other hand may 
 result in the detection of a flaw which would 
 have rendered it unfit for use in the track. 
 The dropping of a rail on its end or among a 
 lot of other rails is very likely to break or 
 
128 
 
 Unloading 
 rails. 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 bend it in such a way as to render it prac- 
 tically useless, but when it is squarely dropped 
 on the bare ground, the fact that it breaks is 
 sufficient proof that it should never have gone 
 into the main track. 
 
 Among other methods which have been de- 
 vised for unloading rails, there are three which 
 seem to offer some advantages. The first con- 
 templates the use of two drag ropes with a hook 
 at each end. Each rope is handled by a gang 
 of men, who attach it to the track at one end 
 (by placing the hook under the rail) and insert 
 the hook at the other end of the rope in one 
 of the bolt holes of a rail on the car. The 
 train is moved slowly forward, the rope drag- 
 ging the rail from the car, while the men pre- 
 vent it from dropping suddenly by receiving it 
 on hand-spikes before the car has quite passed 
 from under it. It is then carefully lowered to 
 the ground. The two gangs alternate in their 
 movements, one gang being engaged in lower- 
 ing a rail to the ground, while the other is 
 attaching its rope to a rail on the car. Of 
 course it is only possible to use this method 
 when the rails are loaded on flat cars, or on 
 cars with openings in the ends. The second 
 plan (fig. 113) provides a pair of hangers, of 
 
 FlG, 113. Rollers for Hanging to the Side of a Gondola. 
 
TRACK WORK. 129 
 
 different heights, in which rollers are mounted, unloading 
 When the hangers are hooked over the side of rails ' 
 a gondola car, the rail is placed in them by 
 one gang of men on the car, and by reason of 
 its slope, the rail slides easily to the ground 
 where it is received by another gang. This 
 arrangement is evidently suited to any car with- 
 out a roof and also permits, as does the first 
 method, that the rails shall be unloaded with- 
 out injury while the train is in motion. A 
 third method (fig. 114) is much like the 
 
 FIG. 114. Kail-chute to be Hung to the Side of a Gondola. 
 
 preceding, except that a chute is used instead 
 of the two hanging rollers. Neither is it 
 necessary to provide a gang to lower the rail 
 to the ground, since the upper end is supported 
 by the chute at all times during the passage. 
 
 The skidding of rails is hardly possible 
 under ordinary circumstances, unless time is of 
 no importance. 
 
 In re-laying rails it is necessary that every 
 preparation shall be made to facilitate the work rails 
 before breaking the main track. The rails 
 should be laid end to end, at least partially 
 bolted, and the spacing should be carefully 
 
130 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 looked after with regard to the joints on the 
 other side of the track. 
 
 spacing for In separating the rail ends from each other, 
 expansion. j ron snmls must be used which should vary in 
 thickness from an eighth to three-eighths of 
 an inch. During cold weather the three-eighths 
 inch shim should be used and the one-fourth 
 inch for average temperatures, but in ordinary 
 summer weather an eighth of an inch is quite 
 sufficient, while on days when the thermometer 
 goes above 90 degrees Fahrenheit no opening 
 at all is necessary. The practice of using pieces 
 of wood for this spacing ought not to be per- 
 mitted. Fig. 115 illustrates a convenient im- 
 
 FIG. 115. Shimming Tool for Laying Rails. 
 
 plement, which can be made in any blacksmith 
 shop, where the three thicknesses are provided 
 in the shape of arms set around a stem. 
 
TRACK WORK. 131 
 
 For a temporary connection with the old Temporary 
 rail a split point should be kept on hand, ^ O n n nec " 
 which can be bolted to the end of the new 
 rail in a moment and spiked up against the 
 old rail or vice verm, when it is desired to let 
 some train go by, or to close up for the night. 
 
 Where trains are close together the work of 
 tearing out the old rail and laying the new 
 rail should be carried on at the same time, so 
 as to make the most of what interval there 
 is between trains. In this way and by keep- 
 ing the split point at the head of the gang, 
 the track can be kept open until the last 
 minute. 
 
 If the new and old rails are of different offt 
 heights, " offset splices, 7; (of which three 8 P |ices - 
 kinds are illustrated in figs. 116, 117 and 118), 
 
 FIG. 116. Hawks' Offset Splice. 
 
 FIG. 117. Fisher Offset Splice. 
 
 SECTION ON A. B. 
 
 SECTION ON C.D. 
 
 FIG. 118. Weber Offset Splice. 
 
132 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT, 
 
 Speed of 
 trains. 
 
 Time to 
 re-lay. 
 
 Short 
 pieces. 
 
 should be provided for the joint at which the 
 connection is to be made. 
 
 When the new rail has a wider base than 
 that which it replaces, the ties must be pre- 
 pared to receive it, for the old rail will have 
 cut in to a certain extent, leaving a shoulder 
 which must be trimmed clown before the new 
 rail is laid. This can be done by special men 
 provided with adzes, who will follow the gang 
 which is throwing out the old rail. 
 
 In preparing for the removal of the old rail 
 most of the inside spikes and some of the out- 
 side spikes may be drawn and trains may still 
 be permitted to pass at a low rate of speed ; 
 but care should be taken to locate caution sig- 
 nals or men with green flags, sufficiently far 
 from the work which is going on, to warn 
 approaching trains that the. track is not safe 
 for high speed, while, if there is any doubt as 
 to the safety of the track even for low speed, 
 red, flags must be sent out. 
 
 As has been stated, one of the best periods 
 for relaying rail is that which immediately 
 precedes the opening of spring work. This, 
 however, cannot always be done in actual 
 practice, since rail must usually be laid when 
 it is received, or very shortly after, and this 
 will be at different times in the year. But no 
 matter at what season, it is most important, 
 when new rail is put into the track, that the 
 joints shall be promptly attended to. Where 
 old rail has been in for some time the ends are 
 apt to be bent down and the ties not level, 
 consequently, where all of the ties cannot 
 immediately be raised to support the rail, 
 shims must be used in such a way as to give 
 it an even bearing on all the ties. 
 
 The ordinary length of rails is 30 feet, but 
 among all lots of new rails some shorter 
 pieces will be found which are very useful in 
 
TRACK WORK. 133 
 
 maintaining the proper distance between 
 joints on the opposite sides of the track, 
 while going around curves, or past frogs 
 and switches. By a judicious use of these 
 short pieces almost all cutting of rails may be 
 avoided. 
 
 The bolts, nuts, nut-locks, etc., necessary for careof 
 re-laying rail, should be carefully distributed materlal - 
 immediately before they are needed and should 
 not be thrown around helter-skelter to be lost or 
 buried in the ballast. Men will not be careful 
 of material which does not belong to them 
 unless they are closely watched, and this is a 
 matter which should never be lost sight of in 
 doing any kind of track work. 
 
 The question of opposite or broken joints opposite 
 has now been generally decided in favor of the 
 latter. The prevailing practice on almost 
 every important road in the country is in favor 
 of this, since there is good reason for believing 
 that trains ride more easily over them and with 
 less noise than they do over opposite joints ; 
 it is probable too that the track is more easily 
 maintained. 
 
 The increased height in the rail has made it Track 
 possible to place the nuts on the inside of the ** 
 track without fear of having them cut off by 
 deeply worn tires. This enables a track- walker 
 to see at a glance all of the nuts on a single 
 piece of track as he patrols his section, without 
 being forced to step from one side of the track 
 to the other, or to patrol different sides of the 
 track at different times. Track bolts should 
 be regularly tightened, for when only slightly 
 loose they do not unscrew nearly so rapidly as 
 when loose enough to receive a considerable 
 motion from the passing of trains, that is, the 
 looser they are the more rapidily they shake 
 off. With reference to their form it is only 
 necessary to state that square nuts are prefer- 
 
134 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Elevation 
 on curves. 
 
 able to hexagon nuts since they do not wear 
 out at the corners. 
 
 The amount of super-elevation which shall 
 be put in the outer rail on curves is a difficult 
 matter to settle and it is probable that no 
 practicable rule, which can be applied to every 
 case, will ever be arrived at. The three ele- 
 ments in every question are, the general char- 
 acter of the traffic, the maximum speed of 
 trains and the degree of curve. If it were 
 not for the first it would be possible to com- 
 promise the requirements of the last two 
 elements very satisfactorily. But it is evident 
 that to arrange a track for a speed of sixty 
 miles an hour, around curves of five or six 
 degrees, would be inadvisable if there were 
 but one or two trains to use the track at that 
 speed. A happy mean is therefore the nearest 
 that can usually be arrived at and the simplest 
 is also the best rule for this purpose. Three- 
 fourths inch for each degree of curve with a 
 maximum of six inches is easy enough to 
 remember and is a safe rule. The result 
 would be as follows : 
 
 SUPER-ELEVATION FOR A SPEED OF 40 MILES PER HOUR. 
 
 Degree of Curve, - 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ii 
 
 2 
 
 2i 
 
 3 
 
 3i 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 5i 
 
 6 
 
 6J 
 
 7 
 
 n 
 
 8 
 
 Elevation in Inches, 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ij 
 
 li 
 
 IS 
 
 21 
 
 O5 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 3f 
 
 3f 
 
 4J 
 
 4J 
 
 4g 
 
 5J 
 
 5| 
 
 8 
 
 If the rail is to be elevated for still higher 
 speeds, the rate of increase may be put at 1 
 inch per degree of curve, that is 1 inch for a 
 1 curve, 2 inches for a 2 curve and so forth. 
 It would not be safe to advise a higher eleva- 
 tion than six inches for any curve except under 
 rare conditions. If the rail, ties and ballast 
 are respectively as heavy, sound and deep as 
 the best service demands, then and only then 
 
TRACK WORK. 135 
 
 is it advisable to exceed six inches of super- 
 elevation. Eight inches is in any case the 
 maximum. 
 
 But after all the true way to test the riding 
 quality of a curve is to ride around it. If, on 
 entering a curve, the engine gives a back- 
 breaking twist or the rear car slams against the 
 outer rail in a crack-the-whip fashion, it is a 
 pretty good argument that something is wrong 
 even if the curve has been put up according 
 to an authorized rule. 
 
 Where the curve is not " eased, " as will be Tapering 
 explained later on, the elevation on the curve off - 
 must be carried back on the tangent and the 
 commonest distance is 100 feet for each inch 
 of elevation. This however would not be 
 possible at reverse curves where there is little 
 or no connecting tangent, in which case the 
 
 O O 7 
 
 rate must be shortened to suit the conditions. 
 
 Trackmen are seldom required to arrange Elevation 
 for the super-elevation on bridges since the Ol 
 work requires more accuracy than the force is 
 able to command with the ordinary tools of 
 the section. In consequence, special ties, 
 sawed to the necessary taper are usually pro- 
 vided ; or else substantial shims, of the same 
 length as the ties, also sawed to the required 
 taper are placed between the rail and tie and 
 spiked or bolted to the latter. If the shims 
 are used, they should be at least an inch wider 
 than the tie, in order that they shall overhang 
 a half-inch on each side and prevent moisture 
 from penetrating and resting between the shim 
 and the tie. The ordinary shim used on heav- 
 ing track should never be placed under the 
 outer rail of the curve on a bridge. This is 
 
 O 
 
 because the two rails of the track will not 
 then lie m the same plane and the wheel- 
 treads will consequently roll on the edges of 
 the rails instead of directly on the tops. 
 
136 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 curve The only satisfactory and proper method 
 
 easements. wn j c h j s applicable to all commencements of 
 curvature, is "easement." This is done by 
 inserting what is called a "transition curve" 
 between the tangent and the main curve. The 
 transition curve begins at the straight line with 
 no curvature whatever and gradually increases 
 in sharpness until, when it joins the main 
 curve, the two have the same rate of curva- 
 ture. By this plan, it is possible to begin the 
 super-elevation at the point where the tangent 
 joins the transition curve, gradually increasing 
 the super-elevation as the curve becomes 
 sharper.* 
 
 widening Jt is sometimes necessary to widen the gage 
 of the track ; this happens frequently at 
 switches and on side tracks which are used by 
 consolidation or other locomotives which have 
 a long wheel-base. Two inches is the most 
 that the track should be widened and when 
 this is done, guard rails should be placed close 
 inside the outer rail of the curve and close 
 outside the iimer rail, in order that the blind 
 drivers may not run off the track. There are 
 many things which would qualify any rule for 
 guidance in this matter, but the principal one 
 is the width of driving wheels, which may 
 vary between five and a half a-nd six and a 
 half inches, so that what is perfectly feasible 
 on one railroad may be impossible on another, 
 owing to the peculiarity of its motive power. 
 Although it is hardly necessary to widen the 
 gage on main tracks (owing to the compara- 
 tive slightness of the curvature) it is neverthe- 
 less the practice on some lines. A fairly aver- 
 age rate for this purpose would be -jV inch per 
 degree of curve, increasing by jumps of two 
 
 * One of the simplest methods of laying out transition curves 
 is explained in Torrey's " Switch Lay-Outs and Curve Ease- 
 ments, " published by the Railroad Gazette. 
 
TRACK WORK. 137 
 
 degrees. That is inch for a 2 degree curve, 
 | inch for u 4 degree curve, f inch for a 6 
 degree curve, etc. 
 
 Rail braces, figs. 119 and 120, must be used Ran 
 on the outside of both rails at curves of more braces - 
 
 FIG. 119. Weir Frog Company's Rail Brace. 
 
 FIG. 120. Elliot Frog & Switch Company's Rail Brace. 
 
 than three degrees, and at all other places 
 where the track is likely to spread. On the 
 easy curves three braces to the rail is enough, 
 but these must be increased as the curvature 
 becomes sharper until there are two braces 
 on every tie. They may be made of die- 
 formed steel as are the figs. 119 and 120, 
 which is the best plan, or of malleable iron 
 or of wrought iron, but a cast-iron rail brace 
 is likely to be worse than useless and should 
 never be used at an important place. 
 
 Creeping rails are the source of much Creeping 
 annoyance and sometimes cause serious clam- ralls * 
 age v/hen not promptly and regularly attended 
 to. They occur under different conditions 
 and require different remedies which are often 
 determined by the local circumstances sur- 
 
138 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Creeping 
 rails*. 
 
 rounding the trouble, but on bridges where 
 there is a heavy grade the fault is most likely 
 to be found and has been entirely corrected 
 by filling the space between the cross ties 
 under the rail with short blocks of oak of the 
 thickness of the ties and spiking the rail 
 closely to them as in fig. 121. The common 
 
 FIG. 121. Filling-blocks on Bridge Floors. - 
 
 practice of spiking in the slot holes or at the 
 ends of the angle bars to prevent rails from 
 creeping on bridges is bad and, while it does 
 not often cure the trouble, the ties, if they are 
 not damaged, will usually be disturbed. 
 
 On the ground the joints may be braced to 
 the ties by straps of iron, and, if all other 
 plans fail, single split points should be placed 
 in the track, for they may move back and 
 forth a distance of several inches and do no 
 harm. When they have moved the allowed 
 distance, the rails back of them can be changed 
 by inserting pieces of different lengths which 
 must be kept on hand for the purpose. An 
 ingenious and useful application of this idea 
 is shown in fig. 122. Here the split rail is 
 unspiked but is held firmly against the main 
 
TRACK WORK. 139 
 
140 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 rail by the springs which may be seen in the 
 sectional view. 
 
 Curving Rails on all curves above three degrees 
 ratl8 ' should be' carefully curved before being laid 
 when a good track is desired, for if this is not 
 done, even when the track was originally left 
 in good line, the elasticity of the metal will 
 soon cause it to spring in at the center and out 
 at the joints, resulting in a track composed of 
 several short pieces of straight line instead of 
 a regular curve. The frequent fault of not 
 carrying the curve out to the end of the rail 
 should be particularly avoided. And even 
 though the rails have been properly curved, if 
 the spikes have not been driven tight against 
 the rails both inside and outside, the passage 
 of trains will soon develop unexpected and 
 annoying kinks. 
 
 Rail For bending rails there are many devices ; 
 
 the best known and the cheapest is the " Jim 
 Crow," fig. 123, which is worked by a capstan 
 
 FIG. 123. "Jim Crow" Rail-bender. 
 
 and bar. The device illustrated in fig. 124 
 bends the rail by a series of blows delivered 
 by means of the lever. The traveling rail- 
 bender, fig. 125, is placed at one end of the 
 rail where it is adjusted to the proper curve, 
 then by revolving the capstan in the center of 
 the mechanism the device is propelled along 
 the rail, curving it as it goes. The hydraulic 
 rail-bender, fig. 126, is an adaptation of the 
 
TRACK WORK. 141 
 
 Rail 
 benders. 
 
 FIG. 124. Emerson Rail-bender. 
 (M. N. Brown.) 
 
 FIG. 125. Travelling Rail-bender. 
 (Fairbanks, Morse & Co.) 
 
 FIG. 126. Hydraulic Rail-bender. 
 (Watson & Stillman Company.) 
 
142 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 hydraulic jack and is an efficient tool, since it 
 
 operates very rapidly and with great force. 
 
 Boit and If it is necessary to make holes in the web 
 
 spike holes. () f a m -| t 'fog used in the main track it should 
 
 not be done with a hand punch, fig. 127, except 
 
 FIG. 127. Hand Rail Punch. 
 
 under the most powerful necessity ; neverthe- 
 less the hand punch may be used for side track 
 work and is a handy tool to have on hand 
 when putting in bolts. The hydraulic punch, 
 fig. 128, is a comparatively recent form, while 
 
 FIG. 128. Hydraulic Rail Punch. 
 (Watson & Stillman Company.) 
 
 some well known drills are shown in figs. 129 
 to 134. Of these, fig. 130 is driven forward 
 by both movements of the handle, while figs. 
 131, 132 and 133 have an automatic feeding 
 arrangement. 
 
TRACK WORK. 143 
 
 FIG. 129. Typical Ratchet Drill. 
 
 FIG. 130. Schuttler Double-motion Drill. 
 
 Rail drills 
 
 & f 
 
 FIG. 131. Beal'a Self-feedins- Ratchet Drill. 
 
144 THE NEW RGADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Rail drills. 
 
 FIG. 132. Paulas Drill. 
 (Buda Foundry <fc Manufacturing Company.) 
 
 FIG. 133. Buda Drill. 
 
TRACK WORK. 145 
 
 FIG. 134. The Buda Drill Withdrawn. 
 
 An ingenious application of the hydraulic 
 jack is illustrated in fig. 135 for cutting spike 
 
 FIG. 135. Hydraulic Punch for Spike-slot. 
 (Watson & Stillman Company.) 
 
 slots in the base of a rail ; this is greatly to be 
 preferred to a chisel or hand punch. 
 
 For cutting rails in an emergency and for cutting 
 general rough work the track chisel, fig. 136, rails - 
 
 FIG. 136. Track Chisel. 
 
 is likely to hold its own, but like the rail punch 
 it must not be used on the main track. Its 
 best work is coarse compared with that of tools 
 
146 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 cutting especially designed for the purpose as are those 
 ralls - & hown in %s. 137 and 138. Besides, it is slow, 
 
 FIG. 137. Bryant Rail Saw. 
 (Q. & C. Company.) 
 
 FIG. 138. Smith Rail Saw. 
 
 uncertain and the rail is apt to be bent in 
 dropping it. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 There is so large a variety of tools used in 
 maintaining a railroad track that beyond illus- 
 trating and describing typical ones of each 
 class, little can be said. Many of them have 
 already been mentioned in previous chapters 
 but many others remain and they will be 
 treated of here. 
 
 Each roadmaster, unless the passenger trains velocipede 
 are frequent, should have a velocipede-car. cars * 
 Two well known forms are illustrated in fifs. 
 
 O 
 
 139 and 140, which, however, are likely to Jbe 
 supplanted by the models, figs. 141, 142 and 
 143. Of these the last two have a distinct 
 
 FIG. 139. Kalamazoo One-man Velocipede. 
 
148 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Velocipede 
 cars. 
 
 FIG. 140. Sheffield One-man Velocipede 
 (Fairbanks, Morse & Co.) 
 
 " \ 
 
 FIG. 141. Kalamazoo "Safety" Velocipede. 
 
 advantage in that the rider sits in the middle of 
 the machine, from where he sees his track better 
 and is not apt to tip over while going around 
 curves. Convenient and simple locomotive 
 
TOOLS. 149 
 
 Velocipede 
 cars. 
 
 / / I I \ \ \ 
 
 FIG. 142. Hartley & Teeter Velocipede. 
 
 FIG. 143. Roberts, Throp & Co. Velocipede with Switch-lamp 
 Attachment. 
 
 cars are shown in figs. 144 and 145. They are 
 
 operated by gasoline 
 
 at a cost of 
 
 (it is said) a few cents a day and attain a 
 considerable speed. They are light in con- 
 struction and fig. 145 is roomy. It should, 
 therefore, prove of great use for monthly in- 
 spections when it is often necessary that two or 
 three persons shall take part. It is not then 
 desirable that the attention of the inspectors 
 should be distracted from their duties by the 
 necessity for performing manual labor, as would 
 
150 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 FIG. 144. Sheffield Gasoline Motor. 
 (Fairbanks, Morse & Co.) 
 
 FIG. 145. Kalamazoo Gasoline Motor. 
 
 be the case if a velocipede were used. If 
 the claims made for it are true, it is much 
 cheaper than to take men from a section gang 
 to propel a car. 
 
TOOLS. 151 
 
 Each of the sections, except the very short Hand cars, 
 ones, should be provided with an easy-running 
 hand-car, figs. 146, 147 and 148, as light as is 
 
 FIG. 146. Early Kalamazoo Hand Car. 
 
 FIG. 147. Hand Car. 
 (Buda Foundry & Mfg. Company.) 
 
 consistent with strength, for the transportation 
 of men and tools, but not material unless it be 
 of the lightest. Push-cars of two varieties are 
 illustrated by figs. 149 and 150. Here strength 
 
152 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT 
 
 Hand cars 
 
 FIG. 148. Hand Car. 
 (Roberts, Throp <fc Company.) 
 
 FlG. 149. Sheffield Push Car. 
 
 FIG. 150. Push Car. 
 (Roberts, Throp & Company.) 
 
TOOLS. 153 
 
 and stability are of greater importance than 
 with hand-cars and should be the main feature 
 of their construction. 
 
 The track gage should be not only a gage Track 
 but a square, so formed that, when placed gage- 
 against the rail, it will stand at right angles to 
 it. The old and well known Huntington gage 
 fulfils these conditions. In fig. 151 the lugs 
 
 FIG. 151. Modified Huntington Track-gage. 
 
 pointing downward at the ends are made the 
 width necessary to. gage the distance of the 
 guard rail from the main rail opposite the point 
 of a frog ; this is not a feature of the gage in 
 its original form, but is a modification which 
 will be found convenient and assist in reaching 
 accurate results. All track gages must be 
 compared from time to time with a standard 
 measure kept at headquarters and no track spik- 
 ing of any kind should be performed without the 
 use of the gage, where the track is unspiked 
 for more than two ties or where the neighbor- 
 ing spikes have been driven for a long time. 
 
 The track level, fig. 152, should be substan- Track 
 tial but light, formed of white pine, free from leveh 
 
 FIG. 152. Ordinary Track-level. 
 
154 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 knots and bound all around with one-eighth- 
 inch iron. Another form is shown in lig. 153; 
 
 Tape line. 
 
 FIG. 153. Adjustable Track-level. 
 
 this one admits of a closer adjustment but is 
 more apt to be damaged and it is likely to prove 
 misleading in the hands of a careless man, or 
 unless it is closely watched. The addition of 
 two gaging-lugs would render it a valuable 
 combination tool for carrying upon the road- 
 master's velocipede car, since it is light and by 
 folding back the slotted scale, becomes very 
 compact. The track-level, like the gage, should 
 be constantly used when working around the 
 track and should be occasionally tested to see 
 that it is really correct. This test can easily 
 be made at any time by setting the level so 
 that the bubble appears exactly in the center 
 of the opening ; then after turning it end for 
 end, if the level is correct, the bubble will still 
 remain exactly in the center of the opening. 
 
 Each section-foreman should have a 50-ft. 
 tape line which need not and should not vary 
 more than two inches from the correct stand- 
 ard in its whole length. These tape lines in 
 order to remain correct must be well made and 
 of substantial material. The miserable printed 
 calico affairs often supplied by the purchasing 
 agent are worse than useless and probably cost 
 
TOOLS. 155 
 
 nearly as much in the end as a strong and Tape line, 
 accurate tape. The roadmaster should have 
 in his pocket at all times when on duty, a 
 25-ft. steel tape. It is an absolutely necessary 
 implement and it will be found useful on many 
 occasions. 
 
 In connection with the tape line, the road- 
 master will find the clamp, fig. 154, a useful 
 
 - 
 
 FIG. 154. Clamp for holding a Tape Line. 
 
 and unusually convenient device. It will take 
 the place of a man in making most of the 
 measurements necessary around the track, and 
 with two clamps (which can easily be carried 
 on the velocipede) it is possible to erect and let 
 fall perpendiculars with considerable accuracy. 
 
 Of the track bolt wrenches, figs. 155 and wrenches. 
 15G, it is only necessary to say that, for rapid 
 work, they should be as light as is commen- 
 surate with strength and that they should fit 
 easily. It is possible to make the square wrench 
 fit somewhat more loosely than the hexagonal 
 wrench without running the chance of rounding 
 the corners of the nuts, and this is one of the 
 principal reasons for perferring the square nut. 
 The monkey wrench, fig. 157, is subject to 
 such rough usage that it should be made as 
 substantially as possible and because of this the 
 metal handle is better than a wooden one. 
 
156 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Wrenches. 
 
 FIG. 155. Square Nut Wrench. 
 FIG. 156. Hexagonal Nut Wrench. 
 
 FIG. 157. All-metal Monkey-wrench. 
 
 nattock. For grubbing and cleaning up a right-of- 
 way and for the rough work to which a finely 
 sharpened axe or adze should not be put, the 
 mattock, fig. 158, is invaluable. Since it 
 
 Picks. 
 
 FIG. 158. Mattock. 
 
 combines the useful qualities of two entirely 
 different tools and costs little more than either 
 of them, it presents many obvious advantages. 
 The clay pick, fig. 159, need not be heavy 
 but it must be of finely tempered steel, very 
 strong and not much curved. 
 
FIG. 159. Clay Pick. 
 
 Fig. 160 represents the best form of tamp- 
 ing tool for stone ballast. It, like the clay 
 
 TOOLS. 157 
 
 Picks. 
 
 (t 7) 
 
 -< Hgq 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 160. Ballast Pick. 
 
 pick, must be hard and finely tempered. The 
 weight should be so distributed that the pick 
 will not have a tendency to turn over while 
 the tamping end is in use and this end must be 
 quite heavy and considerably curved in order 
 that the pick may find its way under the tie. 
 
 A novel kind of pick is shown in fig. 161 
 for which many advantages are claimed. It 
 
 D 
 
 i ju 
 
 FIG. 161. Eyeless Pick. 
 (Eyeless Tool Company.) 
 
 may have any form of end as is evident, but 
 the one illustrated is suited only to coarse 
 gravel although the writer has seen it used for 
 stone. It is said that because no eye need be 
 forged in this pick, steel of the same quality 
 may be used throughout and that the pick 
 never needs new points but only sharpening 
 and tempering. The protection afforded by 
 
158 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 the handle grip is also claimed to increase the 
 
 life of the handle. 
 
 Baiiast The only suitable instrument for handling 
 
 fork - stone ballast is that represented in fig. 162. 
 
 FIG. I r 2. Ballast Fork. 
 
 It is shaped somewhat like a manure fork but 
 
 is much larger and has square tines. 
 
 Tamping Gravel ballast requires different treatment 
 
 bar. from stone and therefore a different instrument 
 
 for packing it. The time honored tamping 
 
 bar is illustrated m fi<r. 163 and remains the 
 
 FIG. 163. Tamping Bar. 
 
 same as it has probably been since the first 
 *davs of railroads and perhaps longer. 
 Hammers. Napping luiiiiincrs, fig. 164, for breaking 
 stone ballast by hand should have either very 
 
 FIG. 164. Napping Hammer. 
 
 long or very short handles depending on 
 whether the men are to stand or be seated 
 while at work. It is usually preferred that 
 they shall stand, but the hammer in either case 
 should be extremely light, not to exceed three 
 pounds without the handle, Avhich should be 
 
TOOLS. 159 
 
 quite large at the grasp and small where it siedges. 
 enters the head. The amount of ballast that 
 a man can make depends very largely on the 
 kind of hammer and handle which he has to 
 work with. Both the napping hammer and 
 a 10-lb. sledge, fi<r. 165, are a necessity where 
 
 FIG. 165. Sledge. 
 
 stone ballast is used and a convenience on 
 every section. 
 
 A spike maul of the ordinary form is exhibi- 
 
 ted ill hV 166. drawing 
 
 tools. 
 
 FIG. 166. Spike Maul. 
 
 Few devices are better designed for the 
 work which they are to perform, than the 
 spike puller, fig. 167. It will draw a spike 
 
 c )( ) i 
 
 FIG. 167. Spike Puller. 
 
160 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 spike- from between a guard rail and its main rail 
 wne11 nothing else will move it. 
 
 The claw bar has two distinct and common 
 forms, the "bull's-foot" fig. 168 and the 
 " goose-neck," fig. 169. Most persons who 
 
 PIG. 168. Bull's-Foot Claw Bar. 
 FIG. 169. Goose-Neck Claw Bar. 
 
 have used it prefer the goose-neck, since it 
 has a longer reach and does not require a 
 spike or a stone to be placed under it when a 
 spike is half pulled. Neither is the goose- 
 neck so apt to bend the spikes in drawing 
 them as is the bull's-foot. 
 
 Lining and The lining bar, fig. 170 is particularly in- 
 raising tended for lining and surfacing track and it 
 
 ]?IG. 170. Lining Bar. 
 
 should therefore be quite long and heavy. It 
 is not suited for much of the work which is 
 required of a crow-bar and if crossing planks 
 or platform planks are to be raised without 
 destroying them, the pinch bar, fig. 171, must 
 
 FIG. 171. Pinch or Eaising Bar. 
 
 be used. As its name implies, a car can also 
 be moved with the pinch bar. 
 
 shovels. The snow shovel shown in fig. 172 is of 
 simple construction, strong, durable and is 
 
TOOLS. 161 
 
 FIG. 172. Snow Shovel. 
 
 particulary intended for cleaning platforms or shovels. 
 bringing snow into piles whence it may be 
 shovelled into a car and taken away. 
 
 The dirt shovel, fig. 173, is for the ordinary 
 work of a section. 
 
 FIG. 173. Dirt ShoveL 
 
 The long-handled, sharp-pointed ditching 
 shovel, fig. 174, is the one which will be found 
 
 FIG. m. Ditching Shovel. 
 
 most generally useful for its purpose. It will 
 take up as much dirt as a man can properly 
 throw from a ditch to a partly loaded flat car ; 
 it penetrates the earth easily by reason of the 
 point and it will take a sufficiently thin slice. 
 Fig. 173 is also made with a long handle 
 but, except for some particular reason, is not 
 usually required on a section. 
 
162 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 shovels. Fig. 175 shows the long, narrow shovel 
 best adapted to tile drain work j because of 
 
 PIG. 175. Tile Drain Shovel. 
 
 its shape, a trench scarcely wider than the 
 tile drain, may be excavated to a considerable 
 depth, with a corresponding saving in the 
 quantity of material which must be moved. 
 
 For digging post holes, fig. 176 represents 
 the form of tool most generally useful. In 
 
 Post holes. 
 
 FIG. 176. Post Hole Shovel. 
 
 soft, even soil however, the "scissors" digger, 
 fig. 177 works very rapidly. This is driven 
 
 Rail tongs 
 and fork. 
 
 FIG. 177. Post Hole Digger. 
 
 into the ground with the handles as they are 
 shown in the drawing ; they are then spread 
 apart (which brings the scoops together), the 
 digger is withdrawn and the earth emptied 
 onto the ground. 
 
 It seems unnecessary to do more than men- 
 tion the rail tongs, fig. 178, for carrying rails 
 
 FIG. 178. Rail Tongs. 
 
TOOLS. 163 
 
 and the rail fork fig. 179 for turning rails on 
 cars or when it is desired to inspect them. 
 
 FIG. 179. Rail Fork. 
 
 A flag and lantern-holder of some sort is 
 necessary in raising track and a simple arrange- holder - 
 
 ment is shown in fig. 180! 
 
 It is formed of a 
 
 _i 
 
 ^i 
 
 FIG. ISO. Flag Holder. 
 
 piece of gas-pipe about six feet long, pointed 
 at the bottom and with an ordinary cast-iron 
 " tee " screwed to the top. The lantern is sup- 
 ported on the hook at A which is bent around 
 the "tee" and is made of J-in. round iron. 
 If a hole be bored through the end of the flag 
 stick, and a pin be put through the hole after 
 the flag has been placed in the holder, the flag 
 will be prevented from falling out while a piece 
 of telegraph wire, bent into the proper shape, 
 
164 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 will, if sewed into the edges of the cloth, pre- 
 vent the flag from being rolled up by the wind, 
 care of A number of tools should be assigned- to 
 
 tools. eacn section sufficient to keep all of the men 
 employed at any kind of work that may be- 
 going on and to replace dull tools which have 
 been sent to the blacksmith shop for sharpen- 
 ing. Before being issued the tools must be 
 branded or stamped with the initials of the 
 railroad company in uch a way as to make it 
 impossible to efface them without destroying 
 the tool, and except in rare cases, a track-fore- 
 man should be forced to turn in his old tools 
 at the time new ones are issued to him. The 
 tool report well repays attention, but it is the 
 one most frequently lost sight of. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 
 
 In the chapter following this, and among 
 other rules and tables, will be found a simple, 
 diagrammatic method of laying out switches, 
 together with explanations of frog numbers, 
 angles, etc. ; here we shall deal only with 
 the physical characteristics of various classes 
 of material. 
 
 It is necessary first, however, to state that Frog 
 all switch nomenclature is based directly upon n 2 Ies and 
 what is known as the "number" of its frog. " 
 In other words, a number 6 switch lead is that 
 lead which would be used with a number 6 frog. 
 
 There are many kinds of switches (almost varieties of 
 all of them patented), which it is impossible to switches. 
 describe here. Most of them are intended to 
 keep on the track a train which is passing over 
 an open switch in a trailing direction. From 
 the fact that none of them, except one (the 
 Wharton) has been widely used, it would 
 appear that they have not proved more valu- 
 able than the simple split switch which is now 
 in almost universal use on main tracks in the 
 United States. 
 
 The Wharton switch was designed to accom- Wharton 
 plish two things in particular : first, to provide 8witch - 
 an unbroken rail for trains on the main track ; 
 second, for protecting trains approaching an 
 open switch in a trailing direction, and these 
 were quite successfully done but at a cost 
 which caused its abandonment in most locali- 
 ties. One form of this switch, the " Robin- 
 son-Wharton," illustrated in fig. 181, differs 
 
166 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 167 
 
 considerably from the original, in having its 
 two moving rails made from ordinary ~[~-rails 
 instead of from specially shaped materials. 
 
 Improved designs and processes of inanufac- split 
 ture, added to the general use of steel in rail- switches. 
 road tracks are the causes which have tended 
 to produce so simple and satisfactory an article 
 as is a well-made split switch. 'There is illus- 
 trated in fig. 182 A and B a typical split 
 switch, combining in many of its details the 
 best methods known at the present time. Some 
 trackmen prefer flat rods, and some round 
 rods ; some wish to have the jaw of the rod 
 placed on the switch rod fastenings and some 
 prefer to have it on the switch rod itself. 
 Generally speaking, the less moveable parts 
 there are about a switch the better, and in the 
 design above mentioned there is not a single 
 bolt, nut or weld. The fastenings are riveted 
 to the rail, the rods are formed of two pieces 
 of flat iron riveted together, which, being sep- 
 arated at the end, form jaws. The rods and 
 feet are connected by turned pins furnished 
 with cotters, while the connecting rod and 
 switch rod are also joined by a turned pin and 
 cotter. 
 
 The common practice of using four and switch 
 even five rods in a split switch, is an inherit- rods - 
 ance from the old stub switch, which depended 
 on the rods to hold the rails together. In a 
 split switch however, the rail which is in use, 
 can and should be always braced on the out- 
 side for more than half its length this 
 renders more than one rod an unnecessary 
 complication. The only purpose that the 
 additional ones could possibly serve would be 
 to hold the rails together in case of a break 
 
 O 
 
 and it is hard to see how they could do even 
 this much. In any event there is a much 
 better plan, that of reenforcement, and one 
 
THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 i i 
 
 O I'Q) 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 169 
 
 wonders why any of the old four or five rod * 
 switches are built. 
 
 Two ways of reenforcing split points are Reenforce= 
 shown. The first, at C in fig. 182 is the most ment - 
 obvious method and is accomplished by rivet- 
 ting through and on each side of the web, two 
 bars of steel. Although this is probably inferi- 
 or to the plan shown in fig. 183, it is far 
 stronger and more reliable than the old 
 method. The plan illustrated by fig. 183, has 
 a plain bar on the side next to the main rail 
 but the bar on the other side is replaced by a 
 strip of angle steel to which the switch rod is 
 attached. It is evident that the horizontal 
 flange of the angle is much stiffer laterally and 
 lighter than the flat form of metal. Two par- 
 ticular advantages which are to be expected 
 from the reenforcement of split points, through 
 the removal of the switch rods, are the lessen- 
 ing of damage from dragging brake-beams and 
 the absence of interference from snow and 
 ice. 
 
 Fig. 184, although not a split switch in the Stewart 
 true sense of the term, resembles it enough to 8witch - 
 entitle it to a place in the same class. It is 
 rather heavy, since but little of the head and 
 apparently none of the base is removed ; at 
 the same time its construction leads one to 
 expect great strength and durability. 
 
 Three-throw switches have always been the Three= 
 bane of a trackman's life. The yardmen like throw 
 them because they save running about and switches, 
 because that other blessed nuisance, " a flying 
 switch " can be made through them so easily. 
 They are always to be avoided if possible and 
 usually can be, particularly in main track, al- 
 though sometimes a set of circumstances will 
 be met where no other solution of the problem 
 is evident. By means of the reenforcement of 
 the points, this form of switch has been robbed 
 
170 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 of at least a part of its terrors and a three- 
 throw switch of this sort is shown in fig. 185. 
 
 Three- 
 throw split 
 switches. 
 
 U ~] I 
 
 I c 
 
 B 
 I 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 171 
 PLAN OF RAILS 
 
 SECTIONS 
 
 n 
 
 n n 
 
 u u u u u 
 
 PLAN OF SWITCH 
 
 FIG. 184. Stewart's Switch. 
 
 The throw of split switches should not be Throw of 
 less than 3-J inches nor more than 5 inches. 8witches - 
 On some railroads five inches is preferred, for 
 the reason that all switch stands, whether 
 for stub or split switches may then be inter- 
 changeable but the increasing use of split 
 switches even in side tracks and the fact 
 that for all interlocking the throw must be 
 small leads to the belief that 3J inches is the 
 better distance. 
 
 The adjustment of a switch may take place Adjust= 
 by either of two methods. The first plan is ment * 
 presented in fig. 186, where there is a plate 
 (shown in the illustration) containing two 
 holes by means of which it is riveted to the 
 switch rod. The ends of the plate are also 
 bored with large holes and bent in at right 
 angles. Through them are loosely fitted two 
 sleeves which in turn are mounted upon the 
 connecting rod and are held in position there 
 by four nuts, one 011 each end of each sleeve. 
 The switch rod may move through the plate 
 only an amount depending on the distance 
 
172 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT,, 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 
 
 ' Y .1 ' ' , 1 1 , .', YI' ' ' ' i 
 
 FIG. 186. Union Switch and Signal Co.'s Switch-throw Adjustment. 
 
 apart of the sleeves, since it is stopped on 
 both sides by onsets on the outside end of 
 each sleeve. The switch stand must always switch- 
 have a throw somewhat greater than the throw ad- 
 throw of the switch and one advantage of this J" stment - 
 method is that it may be considerably greater. 
 If an adjustment is necessary the two sleeves 
 are moved away from or toward each other 
 depending 011 whether the throw of the switch 
 is to be diminished or increased. A distinct 
 disadvantage of this plan is the ease with 
 which the adjustment can be made (it is only 
 necessary to turn the nuts) whereas, next to 
 destroying the switch, the adjustment should 
 be made as inconvenient as possible, since in 
 that way the chance of someone's tampering 
 with it is reduced. But on the other hand there 
 is with this plan an unbroken switch rod, a 
 condition not possible in the method next to 
 be described. Fig. 187, presents the second 
 
 FIG. 187. Weir Frog Co.'s Switch-throw Adjustment. 
 
 plan and that is by means of a turn-buckle, 
 but it must not be one of the ordinary form 
 which has a right hand thread in one end and 
 a left hand thread in the other. This must 
 have either a right or left hand thread at both 
 
174 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Rail 
 braces. 
 
 Point 
 guard- 
 rails. 
 
 Stub 
 switches. 
 
 ends ; then if the jam nuts become loose, the 
 turn-buckle will revolve perhaps, but it can- 
 not change the throw of the switch. It is 
 therefore evident that in order to adjust by 
 this method, one end of the rod must be 
 removed from its rail. 
 
 Not less than five rail braces as in fig. 182, 
 should be used on each side of a split switch 
 and in connection with them tie plates should 
 always be provided to prevent the rail from 
 cutting into the tie and to form a surface on 
 which the split rail may move easily. 
 
 If the track is properly gaged and the 
 switch properly put in, guard rails at the 
 point should not be necessary. Since the 
 throw of a split switch should never be less 
 than 3J inches, a wheel which would catch 
 the open point would scarcely pass over the 
 numerous highway crossings which exist, with- 
 out being derailed at one of them. 
 
 The stub switch is composed of ordinary T- 
 rails with two head chairs and some switch 
 rods. It is almost unnecessary to say that it 
 should never be used for main track as it is 
 dangerous in many ways and is extremely dif- 
 ficult to maintain under a heavy traffic. The 
 best practice requires that the head chairs, 
 188, shall be of wrought iron, wrought 
 
 fig- 
 
 FIG. 188. Wrought Stub Switch Chair. 
 
 steel (not cast) or malleable iron ; that two 
 bridle rods shall be used and that the switch 
 rods shall be formed of not less than 1-in, 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 175 
 
 round or square metal. The throw should 
 be 5 in. 
 
 The arrangement of main track and side Frog guard 
 track guard rails at frogs is shown in fig. 189. ralls - 
 
 ! U U U! U U U 
 
 6 FT. CURVED ~*3FT. STRAIGHT^ 
 
 6 FT. CURfED- 
 
 -Track Gage 4'8/2"or4'9 n 
 
 Guard Rail Distance 4' 5" Opposite Frog Point >j 
 
 "Gage^"" ^pl 
 
 FIG. 189. Arrangement of Guard Rails. 
 
 They should be respectively 15 ft. and 10 ft. 
 long, with their centers opposite the point 
 of the frog. Three feet of the main track 
 guard rail at the middle portion should be 
 straight, spaced 2 in. from the main track 
 rail for 4 ft. 9 in. track, and 1| in. for 4 ft. 
 8J in. track. Side track guard rails should 
 be curved in the same general way, but the 
 straight piece three feet long should be omitted. 
 Not less than six braces should be used on 
 
176 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Guard main track nor less than four on side track 
 guard rails. As a substitute for the rail brace 
 (figs. 119 and 120) at guard rails, the clamp, 
 fig. 190, is suggested. Although more ex- 
 
 FIG. 190." Standard " Guard Rail Fastener. 
 
 pensive, it is much more certain and efficient 
 than the rail brace. 
 
 For spacing guard rails as well as for all 
 other track spiking, a gage is necessary, with 
 *lugs having a width equal to the distance 
 between the guard rail and the main track rail 
 heads. Such a gage, represented in fig. 151, 
 is simple in form, inexpensive and more im- 
 portant still, because of the yoke, it acts as a 
 square. 
 
 Foot Many states require that employees shall be 
 
 guards. protected from the danger due to frog open- 
 ings, but whether the law on the subject is 
 operative or not, there is a moral obligation 
 which railroads cannot afford to ignore. 
 
 These openings are sometimes closed with 
 wedges of wood which are a makeshift at best 
 and there are other arrangements which are 
 built into the frog and may be purchased of 
 any switch and frog maker. Still other forms 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 177 
 
 which are removable are Illustrated in figs. 191 Foot 
 and 192. **<** 
 
 End view. 
 
 Side view. 
 
 FIG. 191. Foot Guard for Frogs and Switches. 
 (Roberts, Throp & Co.) 
 
 Of these, fig. 191 is provided with springs 
 for the purpose of holding it tightly in posi- 
 tion. It is made in several different forms to 
 suit the particular place which it is to fill. 
 
 FIG. 192. Sheffield Foot Guard. 
 (Fairbanks, Morse & Co.) 
 
 That detail shown in the left-hand portion of 
 fig. 192, is the form built for the wing spaces 
 of frogs and the heels of switches. The right- 
 hand detail is for the crotches of frogs and 
 is built of two pieces, hinged at one end 
 in order that any guard may be adapted to a 
 crotch of any number. 
 
178 
 
 Slip 
 switches. 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 The "slip switch" is illustrated in two 
 forms in figs. 193, A and 193, B. Its main object 
 
 FIG. 193A. Single Slip with Rigid Frogs. 
 
 FIG. 193B. Double Slip with Movable Frogs. 
 
 is for the economizing of track room, and this 
 it does in a complete and beautiful manner. 
 Fig. 193 A, is what is known as a "single slip 
 with rigid frog" and evidently provides two 
 routes from both C and D, but only one route 
 each from A and B. In fig. 193B, which is 
 called a " double slip with movable frog" two 
 routes are possible from all four of the en- 
 trances E, F, G, H. 
 
 For general work the best length is that 
 which would be used in connection with a 
 No. 7 or No. 8 frog. If a frog of larger 
 angle is used, the curves become too sharp 
 for passenger train movements, unless the gage 
 of the track is widened. When the frog 
 angle is smaller than No. 8, it becomes neces- 
 sary to use movable (fig. 193B) frogs, since 
 trains are apt to be derailed by taking the 
 wrong side of one of the rigid double pointed 
 frogs,"x in figs. 193, A and 195. The movable 
 frog is also a simpler, cheaper, better and safer 
 device than the rigid frog. 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 179 
 
 There are few places where either of figs, 
 194 and 195 may be used (for they are inter- 
 
 FIG. 194. Movable Frog. 
 
 changeable in that both the movable frog and 
 the rigid frog, X m n g- 195, are used in similar 
 places) at which the movable frog would not 
 be the better of the two. The movable frog 
 requires 110 guard rails because there is no 
 opening at the point, whereas the rigid frog 
 has and must always have openings between 
 the points, and these cannot be protected. The 
 movable frog is nothing but two bent rails and 
 two sets of planed points ; it may be used in 
 connection with either of figs. 193, A and 
 193, B or alone, as at a simple crossing ; last 
 but not least, it furnishes a continuous rail and 
 makes the track as smooth as at a split switch. 
 
 For larger angles than are possible with the Continu- 
 movable frog some other form is required if ous ' 
 the track is to be continuous. Many attempts 
 have been made to fulfill this condition but 
 without great success, commercially at least. 
 But if grade crossings are to prevail in this 
 country some means is needed to improve their 
 construction and behavior. The most rational 
 
 crossings. 
 
180 
 
 THE NEW Ho ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 181 
 and substantial of the continuous-rail, wide- Continu 
 
 ous rail 
 
 angle crossings is represented in fig. 196, and crossings. 
 
 FIG. 196. Fontaine Crossing. 
 
 consists of four revolving turrets, supported in 
 a wrought-steel frame and carrying rail heads 
 on their tops. 
 
 The narrow-angle crossing has already been Rigid 
 shown and spoken of in connection with fig. 
 195. The wide-angle crossing is illustrated in 
 fig. 197. It is impossible here, to discuss the 
 
 FIG. 197. Wide Angle Crossing. 
 
182 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Street 
 
 railroad 
 
 crossings. 
 
 different methods of construction, which are 
 numberless, complicated and would require a 
 book in themselves. Suffice it then to say that 
 the heaviest, strongest crossing cannot be too 
 strong for the work it must perform. 
 
 The intersection of steam railroads by electric 
 street railroads requires a crossing of a some- 
 what different construction from that in ordi- 
 nary use. Fig. 198 illustrates a crossing which 
 
 SECTION-X.Y. 
 
 Crossing 
 founda- 
 tions. 
 
 FIG. 198. Steam Railroad and Street Railroad Crossing. 
 
 is designed for this purpose and is very strong. 
 A is the main rail of the steam railroad, B is 
 a reenforcing rail to carry the worn treads of 
 the steam cars over without damage to the 
 electric car rail D, and C is the guard rail of 
 the steam railroad. A full-sized flange- way is 
 left for the steam trains but a small notch only 
 is cut for the electric ars at E. 
 
 All crossings, of whatever kind, should be 
 placed on substantial white oak and broken 
 stone foundations, for they are the most diffi- 
 cult parts of a railroad track to keep up. 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 183 
 
 The single pointed or " switch-frog " is made switch 
 in two general forms, commonly known as frogs< 
 " rigid " and " spring-rail " and these are again 
 subdivided according to the way in which the 
 rails are put together. Figs. 199, 200 and 201 
 
 FIG. 199. Rigid Plate Frog. 
 
 FIG. 200. Rigid Yoke Frog. 
 
 show respectively a " riveted plate " frog, a 
 "clamped" (or "yoke") frog and a "bolted" 
 frog, all of them "rigid." Of these three 
 forms the " yoke " is probably the best and the 
 "plate" frog the least desirable, since the ties 
 must be cut out to receive it. 
 
184 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 FIG. 201. Rigid Bolted Frog. 
 
 spring-rail The spring rail frog, which is intended to 
 
 frogs. furnish a continuous rail on the main track, is 
 
 also built as a "plate," "yoke" and bolted 
 
 fro"-. Through faults of design, as is believed 
 
 O O O 7 
 
 by many persons, the spring-rail frog was the 
 cause of some serious wrecks, which did much 
 to discredit its use on several important rail- 
 roads. But notwithstanding this it has been 
 continued in service by the larger portion of 
 our lines, until now its construction has been 
 so improved, and its parts so strengthened 
 that it is safe to recommend its use when prop- 
 erly designed and built. A typical spring rail 
 frog is illustrated in fig. 202. This particular 
 form (which is the commonest) requires that 
 the spring rail T H shall be unspiked and free 
 to move sideways, held only by the splices at 
 T, the springs S S and the guides G G. To 
 obviate this necessity another method has been 
 devised, illustrated in fig. 203, which permits 
 the main-track rail to be fastened to the ties as 
 far as T. The spring rail is pivoted at A and 
 opposed by the spring at B. A variation of 
 this form places a hinge at P and the spring 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 185 
 
 H 
 
 Spring~rail 
 frogs. 
 
 FIG. 202. Typical Spring Rail Frog. 
 
 nearer A, while still another kind following 
 the same idea is exhibited in fig. 204. Within 
 the last few years a small number of double 
 spring-rail frogs have been built and these pro- 
 vide a continuous rail for both tracks. They 
 are not much needed except in busy yards 
 and at the entrances to terminal passenger 
 stations. 
 
 In ordering frogs, the number (or angle) Ordering 
 and the total length of the frog, the gage of frogs - 
 the track, the section and drilling of the rail 
 should be given, and if a spring-rail frog, 
 whether a "right hand" or "left hand" is 
 desired. This is determined by standing at 
 the head of the switch and looking toward 
 the frog. It will then be seen whether the 
 frog is to go into the rail upon the right hand 
 or into the rail upon the left hand. In short 
 
186 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER s ASSISTANT. 
 
 Spring-rail 
 frogs. 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 187 
 
 Spring- rail 
 frogs. 
 
188 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 switch 
 stands 
 
 fig. 203, is a right hand and fig. 204, a left 
 hand frog. 
 
 Automatic Switch stands may be divided into two gen- 
 eral classes, automatic and rigid. Automatic 
 stands are those which if set wrong will be 
 
 O 
 
 thrown by the train itself whether going over 
 the main track or the side track route. Two 
 of them, both operated by a concealed spring, 
 are shown in fig. 205 (a high stand) and in 
 fig. 206 (a low stand). A second form of low 
 
 205. Eamapo High Automatic Switch Stand. 
 
 FIG. 206. Ramapo Low Automatic Switch Stand. 
 
 automatic stand in which the throwing mech- 
 anism consists of gearing, is shown in fig. 207, 
 while still another where the mechanism is 
 also of gearing (somewhat differently ar- 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS. 
 
 ranged from that in fig. 207) is exhibited in fig. Automatic 
 208. Fig. 207, combined with a high target, is 
 
 FIG. 207. Pennsylvania Steel Co. Automatic Switch Stand 
 and High Target. 
 
 FIG. 208. Eclipse Automatic Switch Stand. 
 
 an extremely good arrangement, since it can be 
 seen at a greater distance than low targets, and 
 
190 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Switch 
 stands. 
 
 will almost always distinguish main line from 
 other switches. All of the previous stands are 
 intended for single-throw split switches, but 
 fig. 209 is to be used at three-throw split 
 switches. 
 
 (209) 
 
 (210) (211) 
 
 (Weir Frog Co. Three-Throw Stands.) 
 FIG. 209. Low, For Split Switches. 
 FIG. 210. Low, For Stub. Switches. 
 
 FIG. 211. High, For Stub Switches, with Target-Throwing Attach- 
 ment. 
 
 Rigid 
 stands. 
 
 Figs. 210 and 211 show ingenious stands 
 especially intended for stub switches. Fig. 211 
 is to be particularly recommended since by 
 means of the cog wheels on its top plate, the 
 target is made to show red for both side tracks, 
 no matter whether the main track is in the 
 center or not. This is an impossibility with 
 the ordinary three-throw switch stand. These 
 target-moving cogs may also be applied to 
 
FROGS, SWITCHES AND SWITCH-STANDS 191 
 
 fig. 209. The old reliable "jack knife" stand Switch 
 which may be used anywhere and with any stands - 
 target, single switch or movable frog, is illus- 
 trated in fig. 212. It is the best representative 
 
 FIG. 212. Jack-Knife Switch Stand. 
 
 of the rigid stand except at busy switches 
 where deep snow is to be expected, at which 
 points the harp stand, fig. 213, may be sub- 
 stituted. 
 
 FIG. 213. Harp Stand for Single or Three-Throw Switches. 
 
 The switch lamps and the signal lamps switch 
 should not be taken from the stands in the 
 
192 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 switch morning until the fargcts can be seen for a con- 
 lamps. siderable distance. They should be cleaned 
 and filled every day and the wick should be 
 trimmed by rubbing, not by cutting it ; finally 
 the lamps should be lighted and allowed to 
 stand for at least half an hour in the evening, 
 before being taken out, so as to make it cer- 
 tain that they will not smoke. 
 
 On some roads it might appear to an ob- 
 server that the switch lamps are put up more 
 as a formality than for actual use. The writer 
 believes that one of the most frequent causes 
 for their going out is loose head blocks which 
 are left untamped at the end under the switch 
 stand and this is evidently an easy matter to 
 correct. A Limp of bad construction or poor 
 oil the trackman is of course not responsible for. 
 
THl 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 EMERGENCIES AND TRAIN SIGNALS. 
 
 Since nearly everything which can happen 
 to stop the traffic of a railroad will, in some 
 particular, damage the permanent way, the 
 presence of the trackmen will usually be re- 
 quired to make repairs. It follows, therefore, 
 that they must be prepared at all times to turn 
 out in full force with the tools and materials 
 necessary for the work. The tool-house should 
 be placed next to a track which is not used for 
 standing cars. The tools of all kinds should 
 be kept at hand and in good order while the 
 men should live within easy call of the section- 
 foreman. 
 
 On each section, some rails, bolts, spikes, Extra 
 anofle bars and cross ties should be stored in matenal - 
 
 O 
 
 convenient and safe places to meet the sudden 
 demand caused by train wrecks, floods, land- 
 slides, and so forth. At the subdivision head- 
 quarters there should be kept on hand some 
 timbers of different lengths, preferably 12 in. 
 square, since that is the most useful size. 
 
 If the seat of trouble is not more than fif- Getting 
 teen miles from the tool-house, the trackmen 
 upon being notified should start at once on 
 their hand-cars, rousing those gangs whose 
 houses they pass and who are not located near 
 a telegraph office. When a large force is re- 
 quired it will probably pay to start an engine 
 and car to pick up the most distant gangs, 
 unless the wrecking train must pass over that 
 track. 
 
194 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Wrecking 
 force. 
 
 Knots. 
 
 Because most roads have a regularly organ- 
 ized wrecking crew made up from the car 
 repairers or some other class of men who are 
 familiar with the construction of rolling stock, 
 it is not likely that the maintenance-of-way 
 force will be called upon to do much indepen- 
 dent work of this kind. Trackmasters and 
 section-foremen nevertheless should familiarize 
 themselves with the general features of clear- 
 ing up wrecks of all kinds ; how to move 
 heavy weights, how to tie different kinds of 
 knots, the best way of putting a derailed car 
 on the track and the use of a block and tackle. 
 
 Seven different kinds of knots are shown in 
 fig. 214 : A is a square knot which will not 
 
 FIG. 214. Rope Knots. 
 
 slip and is used in joining the ends of two ropes, 
 but it is difficult to untie. Most persons 
 attempting to tie a square knot fail, and make 
 a " granny knot," which will slip. The failure 
 is due to winding the short ends together in 
 the reverse way. A few experiments with a 
 string will teach one how not to do it. B 
 and C are alike and for the same purpose, 
 except that the rope x takes one more turn 
 in C than it does in B. These knots may 
 either of them be used with a loop, as in B, to 
 
EMERGENCIES. 195 
 
 join the ends of two ropes or to fasten a rope Knots, 
 x to the middle of a rope y-z as in C. E and 
 G are two methods of fastening to a tree, post 
 or cross tie. E is a slip-noose, and G is a 
 bow-line loop, which does not slide. Both 
 will untie readily Avith a large rope. F is seen 
 to be for attaching the end of a rope to the 
 hook of a block. All of this will prove useful 
 knowledge, not only when trackmen are called 
 upon to do actual train- wrecking but in regu- 
 lar maintemmce-of-Avay service as well. 
 
 Upon arriving at the place where traffic is Duties at 
 stopped, the first thing to do is to make sure awreck - 
 that flagmen are so placed as to warn trains in 
 time to prevent any further trouble. At a 
 wreck, the trainmen themselves are expected 
 to perform this duty but that fact should not 
 prevent roadmasters and section-foremen from 
 seeing that the matter is receiving attention. 
 Safety is, in all questions connected with a rail- 
 road, the first consideration. 
 
 The procurance of material for repairs should use of 
 receive early attention in order that the track materia! - 
 may be made ready for trains as fast as the 
 obstructions are removed. Material should 
 be used carefully at all times but in emergencies 
 it may be necessary to ignore many ordinary 
 ideas of cost for the sole object of putting the 
 track and road-bed into a condition for the 
 resumption of traffic. For instance, in the case 
 of a washout where it may be better to fill 
 the opening with crib work built of new ties 
 than to wait until dumping material can be 
 secured. 
 
 In the meantime those men who are not Orderly 
 doing flag duty, or absent after material, 
 should turn in and help in every possible way. 
 A ready obedience should be granted to the 
 person in authority at the time and no depart- 
 ment jealousy should be allowed to interfere 
 
196 
 
 Repairs to 
 track. 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 with the work in hand. Shouting and swear- 
 ing by the foremen, grumbling or, shirking by 
 the men should not be permitted. Everyone 
 on the ground should work hard, cheerfully 
 and, with the exception of those directing the 
 work, in silence. 
 
 The track at a wreck should be roughly 
 straightened as fast as the wreckage is cleared 
 away but general repairs should not be 
 attempted until the way is clear and no more 
 car bodies or tenders are to be skidded on the 
 rails or dragged along the ties. 
 
 Steel rails which have been distorted in any 
 way by a sudden blow can never be safe for 
 the main track unless cut and spliced at the 
 bend, which is bad practice for it makes one 
 more joint to keep up. They should therefore 
 be taken out before fast traffic is resumed and 
 replaced with sound metal. 
 
 The final repairs to a piece of damaged track 
 should be made before withdrawing the men, 
 even temporarily, if it is a possible thing. The 
 track should be re-lined, re-surfaced, fully spiked 
 'and bolted, and if it is a train wreck which 
 caused the damage, that part of the wreckage- 
 which is of no value, should be got out of the 
 way immediately, in order to remove it from the 
 public eye, which is quick to see and comment 
 on such things. 
 
 FIG. 215. Alexander Car-Replacer. 
 
TRAIN SIGNALS. 197 
 
 On smaller railroads where there is no 
 regular wrecking force, the trackmen will be 
 forced to act in many cases which would ordi- 
 narily be out of their province. Under such 
 conditions many tools will be required, not 
 usually included in the maintenance-of-way 
 list. Among the most important of these is a 
 car-replacer, and one of many forms is shown 
 in fig. 215. 
 
 TRAIN SIGNALS. 
 
 It is a necessary part of the equipment of a 
 roadrnaster, supervisor or section-foreman that 
 he shall be acquainted with the rules govern- 
 ing the use of signals of all kinds and for this 
 reason certain of the rules contained in the 
 Standard Code are inserted here as follows : 
 
 All employees whose duties may require General 
 them to give signals must provide themselves struc = 
 with the proper appliances, and keep them in 
 good order and always ready for immediate 
 use. Flags of the proper color must be used 
 by day, and lamps of the proper color by night 
 or whenever from fog or other cause the clay 
 signals cannot be clearly seen. 
 
 Red signifies clanger and is a signal to stop. 
 
 Green signifies caution and is a signal to <ro 
 
 i i e< > e 
 
 slowly. 
 
 White signifies safety and is a signal to go on. 
 Green and white is a signal to be used to 
 
 O 
 
 stop trains at flag stations for passengers or 
 freight. 
 
 Blue is a signal to be placed on a car or 
 an engine to forbid its being moved. 
 
 A torpedo placed 011 the top of the rail, is Torpedoes 
 
 a signal to be used in addition to the regular and fusees - 
 
 . i 
 signals. 
 
 The explosion of one torpedo is a signal to 
 stop immediately ; the explosion of two tor- 
 
198 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 pedoes not more than 200 feet apart is a signal 
 to reduce speed immediately, and look out for 
 a danger signal. 
 
 A fusee is a signal which may be used in 
 addition to the torpedoes or other signals. 
 
 A flag or lamp swung across the track, a hat 
 or any object waved violently by any person 
 on the track, signifies danger and is a signal 
 to stop. 
 
 Train flags Each train, while running, must display two 
 
 and lamps. g reen fl {l g s ^y d a y an j two green lights by 
 
 night, one on each side of the rear of the train, 
 
 as markers, to indicate the rear of the train. 
 
 Yard engines will not display markers. 
 
 Each train running after sunset, or when 
 obscured by fog or other cause, must display 
 the head-light in front, and two or more red 
 lights in the rear. Yard engines must display 
 two green lights instead of red, except when pro- 
 vided with a head-light on both front and rear. 
 
 Two green flags by day and night and, in 
 addition, two green lights by night, displayed 
 in the places provided for that purpose on the 
 'front of an engine, denote that the train is fol- 
 lowed by another train, running on the same 
 schedule and entitled to the sa-nic time-table 
 rights as the train carrying the signals. 
 
 Two white flags by day and night and, in 
 addition, two white lights by night, displayed 
 in the places provided for that purpose on the 
 front of an engine, denote that the train is an 
 extra. These signals must be displayed by all 
 extra trains, but not by yard engines. 
 
 A blue flag by day and a blue light by 
 night, placed on or at the end of a car, engine 
 or train, denote that workmen are at work 
 under or about the car, engine or train. The 
 car, engine or train thus protected must not be 
 coupled to or moved until the bine signal is 
 removed by the person who placed it. 
 
TRAIN SIGNALS. 199 
 
 When a car, engine or train is protected by 
 a blue signal, other cars must not be placed 
 in front of it, so that the blue signal will be 
 obscured, without first notifying the workman, 
 that he may protect himself. 
 
 One long blast of the whistle is the signal whistle 
 for approaching stations, railroad crossings and si s nals - 
 junctions (thus, ). 
 
 One short blast of the whistle is the signal 
 to apply the brakes stop (thus, -). 
 
 Two long blasts of the whistle is the signal 
 to throw off the brakes (thus, ). 
 
 Two short blasts of the whistle is an answer 
 to any signal, except "train parted" (thus, ). 
 
 Three long blasts of the whistle is a signal that 
 the train has parted (thus, ). 
 
 Three short blasts of the whistle, when the 
 .train is standing, is a signal that the train will 
 back (thus, ). 
 
 Four long blasts of the whistle (thus, 
 
 -) is the signal to call in a flag- 
 man from the west or south. 
 
 Four long followed by one short blast of the 
 
 whistle (thus, --) is the 
 
 signal to call in a flagman from the east or 
 north. 
 
 Four short blasts of the whistle is the engine- 
 man's call for signals from switch-tenders, 
 watchmen, trainmen and others (thus, ). 
 
 Five short blasts of the whistle is a signal to 
 the flagman to go back and protect the rear of 
 the train (thus, ). 
 
 One long followed by two short blasts of 
 the whistle is a signal to be given by trains 
 when displaying signals for a following train, 
 to call the attention of trains to the signals 
 displayed (thus, ). 
 
 Two long followed by two short blasts of the 
 whistle is the signal for approaching road 
 crossings at grade (thus, ). 
 
200 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 A succession of short blasts of the whistle 
 
 is an alarm for persons or cattle on the track, 
 
 and calls the attention of trainmen to danger 
 
 ahead. 
 
 Hand and A lamp swung across the track is a signal 
 
 A lamp raised and lowered vertically is the 
 signal to move ahead. 
 
 A lamp swung vertically in a circle across 
 the track, when the train is standing, is the 
 signal to move back. 
 
 A lamp swung vertically in a circle at arm's 
 length across the track, when the train is run- 
 ning, is the signal that the train has parted. 
 
 A flag, or the hand, moved in any of the 
 directions given above, will indicate the same 
 signal as given by a lamp. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 FIXED SIGNALS. 
 
 The practice of placing fixed signals on the 
 Hue of a railroad is becoming so general that 
 trackmen should be acquainted with the sig- 
 nificance and appearance of the most modern 
 kinds. No attempt will be made in this chap- 
 ter to explain many details of construction; for 
 the maintenance of signal plants on most large 
 railroads is now, and should remain, under a 
 separate department. 
 
 AH of the railroad signals with which we now Purpose of 
 deal are for the general purpose of maintaining 8| 2 nals - 
 a, safe interval of space between moving trains, 
 in order that they shall not collide, and this is 
 effected in two ways. First, by interlocking 
 signals, which relate solely to trains running 
 upon separate but converging tracks. Second, 
 by block signals (for description see page 224), 
 which refer only to trains running upon the 
 same track. The '-signals" to be described, are 
 devices located at fixed points, close to the line 
 of a railroad, for telling the men in charge of 
 a train whether or not the track they are upon 
 is ready for their occupation beyond the point 
 at which the signal is placed. These signals 
 are said to "command," "govern" or "con- 
 trol " the movement of trains over the tracks 
 to which they relate, and trainmen are said to 
 be "governed" or "controlled" by the sig- 
 nals as they pass from one point to another on 
 the tracks of a railroad. 
 
202 
 
 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Inter- 
 locking. 
 
 Interlocking signals are those which are 
 made to work in connection with the shifting 
 parts of a railroad track, such as movable frogs 
 and switches. They are so arranged that, 
 first, no train shall proceed until all of the 
 tracks have been placed in their proper posi- 
 tion ; second, no train shall proceed until all 
 other trains which might collide with it have 
 been warned to stop ; third, none of the shift- 
 ing parts of a track can be moved so long as 
 a signal gives the indication to proceed. The 
 term "interlocking," therefore, refers to the 
 relation which exists between the movable 
 parts of a system of tracks and the signals 
 which control the operation of trains through 
 that system. 
 
 Names of 
 signals. 
 
 Machine. 
 
 FIG. 216 Single Track Joined by Side Track. 
 
 Fig. 216 is a conventional drawing ot a single 
 main track joined by a siding. It is sufficient 
 now to give the names of the different parts, 
 because their office and construction will )m 
 explained further on. In fig. 216 numbers 
 2A and B and 7 A are home signals ; 7B is a 
 dwarf signal ; 1 and 8 are distant signals, 4 is 
 a switch, 5 is a facing-point lock, while num- 
 bers 3 and 6 are not used but are retained as 
 spare levers in the machine, fig. 217. 
 
 All of these devices are operated by a col- 
 lection of levers placed side by side in a com- 
 mon frame. This collection is called a machine 
 and is located in a buildin conveniently 
 
 situated (see fig. 216) known as a cabin. 
 Forming a part of the machine arc various 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 20B 
 
 pieces spoken of as "the interlocking" which, inter 
 following the motion of the levers, interfere 
 
 FIG. 217. Interlocking Machine. 
 
 with each other after a certain manner and 
 accomplish the purposes named in the forego- 
 ing paragraph entitled " Interlocking." 
 
 The signals used in interlocking are sem- Descrip- 
 aphores, that is arms (also called blades), 
 projecting from a vertical post and so pivoted 
 
 tion of 
 signals. 
 
204 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Home 
 signal. 
 
 to it as to be capable of swinging up and 
 down. Semaphores are of three styles, home, 
 distant and dwarf. The home signal, fig. 218, 
 
 FIG. 218 Home Signal. 
 
 is an arm about 5 ft. long by 8 in. wide with 
 a square end, painted red (usually) on the face 
 and white on the back ; placed about 25 ft. 
 above the rail and if possible to the right of 
 the track which it controls. When more than 
 one arm is placed on a post, fig. 216, No. 2, 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 205 
 
 the upper arm is for the most important track Home 
 (sometimes called "route" in this connection) si nal - 
 and the lower arm is for all other routes which 
 connect with that track and at the same time 
 come under the control of that signal. The 
 home signal is used only for movements on 
 main track. On double track, fig. 219, the 
 home signal is used in only one direction for 
 each track. On single track, the home signal 
 
 FIG. 219. Home Signals on Double and Single Track. 
 
 is used for both directions, since trains are 
 run in both directions. To indicate danger, 
 see fig. 218, the arm stands horizontally and 
 shows a red light (usually) at night ; to 
 indicate safety the arm is inclined about 65 
 deg. from the horizontal and shows a white 
 light (usually) at night. 
 
 The distant signal, fig. 220, is an arm about Distant 
 5 ft, long by 8 in. wide with a notched end, si nal - 
 painted green (usually) on the face and white 
 on the back ; placed at the same height as the 
 home signal, about 1,500 feet away from it, 
 and on that side of the home signal first reached 
 by the trains which it governs. It is used only 
 in conjunction with some particular arm of a 
 home signal, never alone, and merely for the 
 purpose of warning enginemen as to the prob- 
 able position of that home signal. It indicates 
 either caution (go slowly) or safety by the 
 positions shown "in fig. 220 in the day time. 
 At night, caution is indicated by a green 
 
206 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Distant light (usually) and safety by a white light 
 signal. (usually). 
 
 Fm. 220. Distant Signal. 
 
 Dwarf The dwarf signal, fig. 221, is a blade about 
 
 signal. i ft long, with a square end, painted red 
 (usually) on the face and white on the back. 
 It is placed about 3 ft. above the rail and us- 
 ually to the right of the track that it governs. 
 It is used only for train movements against the 
 usual direction of the traffic on double main 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 207 
 
 track, but never on single main track, see Dwarf 
 fig. 219, and it is used to control all move- 8| nal - 
 
 'STOP) 
 
 FIG. 221. Dwarf Signal. 
 
 ments in any direction on "side" tracks. 
 The dwarf signal gives its indications by the 
 same relative positions and lights that are used 
 by the home signal. It seldom carries more 
 than one arm and this one governs all routes 
 over which it has control. 
 
 On almost all railroads in this country, sem- Pointing 
 aphore arms point to the right when viewed of arms> 
 from approaching trains which they govern, 
 and, although a semaphore post may carry 
 arms which govern trains moving in opposite 
 directions, as in fig. 222, a certain arm never 
 governs trains moving in opposite directions. 
 
 FIG. 222. Semaphore controlling trains from both directions. 
 
 No two home signals which are located on the 
 same post, as in fig. 216, No. 2, can be lowered 
 at the same time. 
 
 No ordinary semaphore posts, such as are Bracket 
 shown in fig. 216, Nos. 1, 2A and B, 7A and posts ' 
 
208 THE NEW ROADMASTER s ASSISTANT. 
 
 Bracket B, ever control trains moving on more than 
 posts. one track. When it is necessary to do so 
 a special post called a "bracket-post" is pro- 
 vided, see fig. 223, where a siding stands so 
 
 MAIN -TRACK 
 
 S/Of TRACK 
 
 [A 
 u 
 FIG. 223. Bracket Post. 
 
 close to a main track that it is impossible to 
 place a post between them. The arm A there- 
 fore controls trains moving to the right on the 
 main track and the "dummy" upright U, 
 which carries a blue light at night, indicates 
 that the side track is not signalled. 
 Movement \\\ fig. 216 all of the interlocked parts are 
 of trams. S } 1OW11 j u w hat is called their "normal" posi- 
 tion. This corresponds to the forward position 
 of the levers in the machine. It will be noted 
 that the signals are all at danger and the switch 
 is set for the main track as indicated by the 
 flare, thus : 
 
 If the switch were set normally for the sFdo 
 track, a thing often done, it would be indicated 
 by a flare thus : 
 
 In the case of the facing-point lock, Xo. 5, 
 fig. 224, since the switch is always unlocked 
 
 FIG. 224. Tracks and Signals. 
 
 when the facing-point lock lever is " normal " 
 (that is " torward ") and unlocked when the 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 209 
 
 facing-point lock lever is "reversed," or in riovement 
 other words "pulled back," the position o f oftrains - 
 the facing-point lock needs no other identifica- 
 tion on the drawing than to merely show its 
 presence. 
 
 If now a train bound for X were to approach 
 from Y, it should find the signals set as in fig. 
 224, which, because the distant signal 1 and the 
 home signal 2 A are " inclined " (also expressed 
 as " cleared," "dropped." " lowered ") would 
 indicate that the main track route had been 
 cleared throughout the system. A train bound 
 from Y to Z would find the signals and switch 
 as shown in fi^. 225. Here the bottom arm B 
 
 em / 
 
 Fig. 225. Tracks and Signals. 
 
 on home signal post, 2, must be lowered be- 
 cause the switch has been prepared for a 
 "diverging route," that is a route which would 
 carry trains aAvay from the most important 
 track. The distant signal 1, must remain at 
 caution for it cannot be cleared until the home 
 signal, 2A, has been previously cleared. In 
 both of the cases illustrated in figs. 224 and 
 225 the facing-point lock, 5, must have been 
 reversed before any of the signals could have 
 been cleared, and this together with the rela- 
 tions between home signal, 2 A, and distant 
 signal, 1, are made unavoidable by means of 
 the "interlocking" feature of the machine 
 mentioned in the beginning of this chapter. 
 A train coming from X, in fi\ 226, has but 
 
 V 
 
 FIG. 226. Tracks and S'rrnals. 
 
210 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 novement one route possible and this is indicated as 
 of trains. c i ear wne n the train reaches home signal 7 A. 
 It must have approached at a slow speed 
 however for distant signal, 8, was found at 
 caution. A distant signal cannot be cleared 
 until after the home signal with which it 
 works, has been cleared, but there is nothing 
 to force the clearing of the distant signal at all 
 
 O O 
 
 unless the signal-man wishes it so. The last 
 combination possible- with the tracks shown 
 in figs. 224, 225, 226 and 227, is exhibited in 
 
 MAIN TRACK 
 
 Placing of 
 
 signal 
 
 posts. 
 
 FIG. 227. Tracks and Signals. 
 
 fig. 227, and contemplates the movement of a 
 train from Z to Y. In this case switch, 4, has 
 been previously reversed and the dwarf signal, 
 7B, has alone been cleared. In each case the 
 clearing of any home signal has locked fast all 
 of the other home and dwarf signal levers in 
 the cabin, for it is evident that if 7A and 7B 
 were cleared at the same time a collision might 
 result. The same is equally true of the rela- 
 tions between 2A and B and 7A and B. 
 
 A particular meaning is attached to the way 
 iii which signals are shown on a plan, and this 
 - g f ur ther explained in fig. 228. Ordinarily 
 signals B 1 -2 would stand at A in the form of 
 a straight two-arm post or at H on a bracket- 
 post shaped like D, but the first is impossible 
 because the space between the tracks is assumed 
 to be insufficient, and the second because of the 
 freight-house which stands in the way. The 
 arms are therefore placed on a bracket- post, 
 pointing to the left, and are shown as white 
 with black bands, which is the appearance they 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 211 
 
 present when seen from an approaching train Placing 
 which they do not govern, as would be the 
 case if a train went towards them from 5. 
 The function of signals C, D, E and K is 
 
 JX 
 
 FIG. 228 Placing of Signal Posts. 
 
 plain from reasons before stated. D is evi* 
 dently the distant signal for B', and it is 
 placed at D rather than at J, because if possi- 
 ble it is preferred to have all signals on the 
 right of the tracks which they govern when 
 viewed from an approaching train. This is not 
 possible (we assume) at L, so the dwarf signal 
 for the "crossover" is placed at F, that is on 
 the left of the track, 1-2, but with its blade 
 pointing to the right and marked in black, 
 showing that it controls trains moving from 1 
 to 2 or 1 to 4. 
 
 The simple " split switch/' the "derail," the combma- 
 *' double-slip" with or without the "movable tions of 
 frog," and the "single-slip " with or without the switches - 
 " movable frog," are all used in connection 
 with interlocking machinery, and the way in 
 which they are indicated on a plan is shown in 
 tig. 229. Here l J -4 3 -6 1 are simple "split 
 
 FIG. 229. Switches and Frogs. 
 
212 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Combina- switches," 2 ! -l 2 -2 2 is a "single-slip with 
 IwKchL movable frog," 3 l -3* is a "double-slip with 
 rigid frog," 4 1 is a "movable frog," 6 2 is a 
 "derail," and 5 ] -5 2 an ordinary crossover 
 formed of two simple split switches. Certain 
 combinations of these arrangements may be 
 operated from one lever in a machine and those 
 combinations will now be described. The 
 large figures indicate those parts which are 
 worked from the same lever as I 1 - I 2 , while 
 the small figures serve only to distinguish 
 them from each other. All of the derails, 
 frogs and switches are shown in their nor- 
 mal positions and are marked with the num- 
 bers of the levers which operate them. The 
 small figures at the top of each number 
 are for reference here and are not used in prac- 
 tice. The "crossover" I 1 -! 2 is now set so 
 that a train on tracks A or B would follow the 
 straight route, but if set like 5 1 -5 2 , a train 
 would be forced to go from one track to the 
 other ; therefore both switches may be worked 
 from the same lever, 1. This is also the case 
 'with I 1 and 4 2 , which might properly be worked 
 together except for the fact that they would 
 cut oft* all traffic on tracks B, C, I) and E 
 during the time they might be reversed. 
 There is of course an inevitable limit to the 
 number of switches that may be operated 
 from one lever, which is determined by the 
 amount of power which may be applied, 
 and experience dictates, when switches are to 
 be operated by a man, that not more than two 
 when arranged as I 1 -I 2 or four when arranged 
 as 3 1 3 2 shall be connected, when the rail 
 does not exceed 80 Ibs. per yard in weight. 
 With the above in mind it is easy to under- 
 stand the reason for the combinations in fig. 
 229, remembering always that they are not the 
 only ones possible but are given because they 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 213 
 are proper and serve the purpose of explana- facing- 
 
 tioil. pointlocks. 
 
 The facing-point lock, fig. 230 (indicated as 
 No. 5 in fig. 216), consists of a casting bolted 
 
 DETECTOR BAR 
 
 DRIVING ROD 
 
 SWITCH 
 
 ^CONNECTING 
 ROD 
 
 FIG. 230. Facing-Point Lock. 
 
 to the ties in front of the point of a switch, 
 through which slide the lock-pi linger and lock- 
 rod at right angles to each other. The lock- 
 plunger is connected directly with a lever of 
 the machine in the cabin by means ot cranks 
 and 1-in. pipe, while the lock-rod is also con- 
 nected with the machine but receives its motion 
 through the switch, to the front rod of which 
 it is fastened. A complete movement of the 
 switch brings one or other of the openings in 
 the lock-rod into place in front of the lock- 
 plunger, which, when it is reversed by its lever 
 in the machine, locks the switch fast. But if 
 the switch be not given its full travel, the lock- 
 plunger will impinge against the solid metal 
 of the lock-rod. The lock-plunger lever will 
 thus be prevented from completing its journey 
 and, the interlocking parts of the machine 
 being in consequence out of place, it will 
 become impossible to clear the home signal. 
 The facing-point lock therefore has two duties : 
 first, to lock the switch if it is in the proper 
 position and, second, to prevent the clearing 
 of the home signal if the switch happens to be 
 wrong. 
 
214 
 
 Detector 
 bar. 
 
 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 A detector-bar is almost invariably used 
 with a facing-point lock and is assumed to be 
 present unless it is specifically stated to the 
 contrary. This device is illustrated in fig. 231 
 
 FIG. 231. Detector Bar. 
 
 and is seen (fig. 230) to be connected with the 
 same lever in the cabin which operates the facing- 
 point lock. It is to prevent the unlocking of 
 a switch while a car is standing over (stradd- 
 ling) a switch. This is necessary since any 
 movement of a switch at such a time might 
 result in a derailment. The bar is a piece of 
 iron or steel usually about 45 ft. long, (which 
 distance is expected to be greater than the 
 greatest distance between any two wheels of 
 a train), extending from the point of the 
 switch as shown in fig. 230. In this arrange- 
 *ment only one bar is necessary, but in fig. 232, 
 Avhere it is back of the head -block of the 
 
 FIG. 232. Special Arrangement of Detector Bars. 
 
 switch two bars must be used, since the train 
 may be standing on either of the two tracks. 
 The detector-bar, fig. 231, is placed close 
 against the rail with its top A-B, fig. 231, 
 normally about J in. below the top and us- 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 215 
 
 Detector 
 bar. 
 
 ually on the outside of the rail. It is sup- 
 ported on links pivoted at their bases in such 
 manner as to force the bar to rise about an 
 inch as indicated by the dotted line above the 
 rail, when it is moved back and forth by the 
 detector-bar driving-rod. By so rising above 
 the rail, the bar strikes any wheel which might 
 be standing there and because it is unable to 
 follow its full course, prevents the facing-point 
 lock from being withdrawn. 
 
 On side-track switches and on trailing- point switch and 
 
 i -A i i ^ moo 11 i lock move- 
 
 mam-track switches, a device, hg. 233, called ment> 
 
 FIG. 233. Switch and Lock Movement. 
 
 a " switch-and-lock-movement " is often used 
 for combining the operation of a switch, a 
 lock and a detector-bar from one lever, instead 
 of dividing it between two levers as in fig. 230. 
 It is an inferior method but is cheaper and is 
 only proper where the speed of trains is uni- 
 formly sloAV. The alligator-crank, A, and the 
 slide-bar, B, are mounted upon the same base. 
 To the arm of A is fastened the connecting 
 rod of the switch, while to the slide-bar, B, 
 are fastened the lock pins, L, the roller, R, 
 the driving-rod of the detector-bar and the 
 pipe connection to the cabin. As fig. 233 is 
 shown, the lever in the cabin is in one of its 
 extreme positions, the switch is set for the main 
 track and is held there by the lock pin, L 1 , which 
 
216 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Switch and is SCGll projecting thl'Ollgll tllC lock rod. UpOll 
 
 ock move- mov i n g the lever in the cabin, B is pushed to the 
 left, which immediately operates the detector- 
 bar and L 1 is withdrawn. In the meantime R is 
 sliding along the face, F 1 of the alligator-crank, 
 but no movement in the switch takes place 
 until R reaches the face F 2 . By this time the 
 lock, L 1 , is entirely clear and the detector-bar 
 has reached its highest position above the rail. 
 Then R forces A around until F 2 is parallel 
 with B. This corresponds with the new posi- 
 tion of the switch and takes place just before 
 L 2 enters the opening in the lock rod, which 
 together with the complete lowering of the 
 detector-bar is the last operation of the move- 
 ment. The same sequence of action takes 
 place in the contrary course of B. 
 
 Bolt lock. A "bolt-lock," fig. 233, is sometimes used 
 as a check on the action of a switch-and-lock- 
 movement (occasionally elsewhere) and con- 
 sists of a rod (the extension of the lock-rod) 
 and a bolt-lock. Its purpose is to prevent the 
 clearing of a signal should the switch not be 
 ^exactly right. To each end of the bolt-lock 
 is connected the wire which joins the signal to 
 its lever in the cabin. In fig. 233, the signal 
 has been cleared because the bolt- lock is seen 
 to have entered the opening in the lock-rod, 
 but if the opening had not stood directly 
 opposite the bolt-lock, that piece would have 
 impinged against the solid metal of the rod 
 and its further movement have been stopped, 
 while as a result the signal would have re- 
 mained at danger. 
 
 selector. It remains to mention but one more of the 
 devices used in interlocking, before proceeding 
 to a description of the machine, and that one 
 is the " selector." Its object is to reduce the 
 number of levers in a machine by enabling 
 two or more signals to be operated from the 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 217 
 
 same lever and its essential parts are illus- 
 trated in fig. 234. Theoretically, any number 
 
 / P/P TO c/iei, 
 
 B * 
 
 FIG. 234. Selector. 
 
 of signals which govern trains mo 
 
 in the Selector. 
 
 same direction may be operated from a certain 
 lever of a machine, if but one of those signals 
 can be properly cleared at the same time. 
 Practically not more than seven or eight sig- 
 nals are ever operated from the same lever. 
 A selector is always described according to the 
 number of switches in connection with which 
 it works and not with regard to the number 
 of signals, for in fig. 235, although switches 1 
 
 FIG. 235. The "Selection" of Signals. 
 
 and 2 regulate the selectors for 3 signals (A) 
 in one direction and for two signals (B) in the 
 other direction, yet a " 2- way selector" is 
 used in each case. This is so because although 
 
 there are three routes, 
 
 signal 
 
 B 2 is cleared 
 
 whichever of the switches 1 or 2 is set for the 
 divergent route. In consequence of this rule 
 the selector of fig. 234, is a " 1-way." A box, 
 
218 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 selector. S, fig. 234, contains two hooks, H, (three in a 
 two-way, four in a three-way, etc.) which form 
 the connection with the signal wires, a lug, L, 
 (only one lug is used for all " ways ") and a 
 driving rod, D, (a separate driving rod is used 
 for each switch and the number in a selector 
 therefore corresponds exactly with the size, 
 1-way, 2- way, etc., of the selector). The 
 crank, C, connects D with the line of pipe 
 which joins the switch with its lever in the 
 machine, and D, consequently acts in accord- 
 ance with the motion of the switch lever. 
 Through a hole in D, L is loosely passed so 
 that although it is moved by D laterally, noth- 
 ing prevents the longitudinal motion of L. 
 As the drawing is made, the switch stands for 
 the main track and L is in connection Avith H 1 
 (the main-track signal hook). If the switch 
 should be reversed by moving its pipe to the 
 left, I) would force L into connection with H* 
 and L then being moved to the left would 
 result in lowering B a . 
 
 Pipe con- Switches, facing-point-locks, detector-bars 
 nections. sw itch-and-lock-movements toether with 
 
 a few other special devices, should be operated 
 always, where man-power is used, by iron or 
 steel, seamless pipe, having an internal diame- 
 ter of one inch and an external diameter of 
 1^ inch. These pipes are placed side by side, 
 2 1 in. center to center, and are supported in 
 " pipe-carriers," fig. 236, containing rollers at 
 
 "Fin. 92fi Pino Cnrriftra. 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 219 
 
 the top and bottom which confine the pipe and Beii crank, 
 reduce the resistance to its motion. Changes 
 in the direction of a pipe line are made (usu- 
 ally) by "bell-cranks," fig. 237, which rest 
 
 FIG. 237. Bell Crank. 
 
 upon the base and revolve about the center. 
 
 At the ends of the arms, J, the pipe is con- jaws. 
 
 nected by means of "jaws," fig. 238, which 
 
 FIG. 238. Jaw. 
 
 constitute the common method of attaching a 
 pipe to some other article. The pipe is passed 
 over the "tang" and is screwed into the sleeve, 
 S. 
 
 Signals only, should be operated by wire wirecon- 
 and this should be of No. 9 galvanized steel, nections. 
 supported in "wire-carriers," fig. 239, which 
 
 FIG. 239. Wire Carrier. 
 
 are provided with rollers for the wire to rest 
 upon 
 
 The changes in the direction of a line 
 
220 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 wire con- of wire are made by inserting into the line a 
 nections. pj ece o f i_j n chain with short links, and pass- 
 ing the chain around a wheel, fig. 240, which 
 has a fixed center. 
 
 FIG. 240. Chain Wheel. 
 
 Adjust, 
 
 111 Cllt 
 
 Both pipe and wire will vary in length as 
 the temperature changes and through other 
 causes ; they should therefore be provided 
 with turnbuckles, fig. 241, to provide for small 
 
 MRE ADJUSTING SCREW 
 
 PIPE ADJUSTING SCREW 
 FIG. 241. Pipe and Wire Adjusting Screws. 
 
 compensa- adjustments. It is desirable also that they 
 shall be automatically compensated but up to 
 the present time, no perfectly satisfactory 
 automatic wire-compensator has been devised, 
 although there seems to be every reason to 
 hope for one. The ordinary pipe-compensator, 
 the "lazy-jack," fig. 242, is eminently success- 
 full. 
 
 FIG. 242. Pipe-Compensator ("Lazy- Jack"). 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 221 
 
 The machine, figs. 217 and 243, consists of a inter- 
 frame to support the other parts, a series of 
 levers for operating the different switches, sig- 
 nals, etc., and the interlocking mechanism 
 which permits the movement of a lever at 
 
 FIG. 243 . Interlocking Lever and Mechanism. 
 
 certain times. In fig. 243, L is one of a series 
 of levers, E its lever-shoe, H a latch-handle, 
 R a latch-rod, K a latch-block, C a rocker, 
 N a rocker-link, S a locking-shaft and B a 
 locking-bar, all belonging to that lever. In 
 any machine a series of levers are placed 5 in. 
 center to center, side by side in a frame. 
 Each L is fastened to an E which is supported 
 
222 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 inter. in the frame by a horizontal pin at P. L is 
 machine > snown i 11 tne drawing in the normal position ; 
 when reversed it coincides with the dotted 
 line. The signals, switches, etc., are joined to 
 the short arm of L at its lower end. H is 
 pivoted at its lower end to L and when grasped 
 by the hand, raises R, which in turn raises C 
 by means of the block K. C is pivoted to 
 the frame at Y so that, when raised at K by 
 R, it assumes a position circumferential to P ; 
 since it is formed on a curve whose radius is 
 equal to K-P, it permits K to move through 
 it freely as L is thrown forward and back. 
 When L has been reversed, H is released, R 
 is lowered and C assumes a third position. 
 When L is normal, the right-hand end of C is 
 depressed. During the movement of L, the 
 two ends of C are at the same height, while 
 when L is reversed and II released, the left- 
 hand end of C is depressed. As L passes 
 backward and forward between its two posi- 
 tions, K passes over a stop which prevents it 
 from being lowered during any movement of L. 
 The vertical action of C causes N to be 
 raised or lowered (depending upon whether L 
 is to be moved from the normal or reversed 
 position) which since N is connected with the 
 crank-arm, A of the horizontal locking-shaft 
 S, transmits the rise and fall of N to S, in the 
 form of a rotary motion. Mounted upon B 
 is a filling block, G, fitting into the driver, D, 
 which is fastened rigidly to S. The rotary 
 motion of S is thus transferred to a horizontal 
 movement in B, while the final relation be- 
 tween the latch II and the locking-bar B, is 
 completed as well as the way in which the 
 three positions of C are communicated to B. 
 From the preceding it follows that when L is 
 changed from the "normal," B first moves to the 
 left, then stops and finally completes its move- 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 223 
 
 ment to the left. The contrary takes place inter- 
 when L is changed from the "reverse." The lock "]& 
 
 -. -i machine. 
 
 interlocking parts are mounted upon and arc 
 operated directly by the locking bars B, which 
 are arranged in such a way that by the move- 
 ment of any lever, all other levers are locked 
 fast which if moved might in any way inter- 
 fere with the train which it is intended to 
 signal. 
 
 "The details of the "interlocking'''' proper 
 are however, too complicated to permit of 
 explanation in a book not solely devoted to 
 that subject and it must be taken for granted 
 that the objects which are sought are success- 
 fully accomplished. , 
 
 The principal devices used in manual inter- Power 
 locking have now been described and since |^ terlock - 
 that is the sole intention, a mention only will 
 be made of other methods of operation. 
 These are few. Man power it is believed 
 must always remain the usual method of 
 accomplishing the combined action of switches 
 and signals, since it is the simplest and most 
 easily controlled, so far, of all the forces at 
 our disposal and must in any event be the 
 means of intelligently controlling those forces, 
 since it is self-evident that "interlocking" 
 cannot become automatic. Hydraulic pressure 
 for moving switches and signals has been tried 
 and abandoned for many reasons. At the 
 present time the field of power-interlocking 
 is monopolized by what is known as the 
 " TV r estinghouse Electro-Pneumatic Interlock- 
 ing System" which indicates its character. 
 All switches and signals are moved by com- 
 pressed air conveyed to them by pipes from 
 an air compressor. The valves which direct 
 the action of the air are controlled by electro- 
 magnets. The machine is most ingenious, 
 combining in itself all of the usual interlock- 
 
224 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 ing features, together with certain electrical 
 checks on the mutual operation of the switches, 
 signals and machine levers. The system finds 
 its best field at large installations where it is 
 singularly successful through the great rapid- 
 ity with which the changes in combinations 
 may be made and because of the few lever- 
 men who are required. 
 
 BLOCK SIGNALING. 
 
 It will be remembered that in the definition 
 naiing. o f K interlocking " it was stated that the object 
 of that branch of signaling is to preserve from 
 collision, trains which are- running upon sepa- 
 rate but converging tracks ; that is, tracks 
 which either cross each other or join each 
 other through the medium of a switch. In 
 Block-Signaling the problem is quite different 
 since its object concerns only those trains which 
 are moving upon the same track and this 
 includes both single track, where trains may 
 be either approaching or following each other, 
 *and double track where trains only follow each 
 other. To accomplish the separation of trains, 
 a railroad is divided into sections of approxi- 
 mately equal length, called "blocks," with a 
 signal placed at the beginning of each block. 
 When a block is occupied, its signal should bo 
 in the danger position and when a block is 
 empty, its signal may be in the clear position 
 and a train may enter. This is block-signal- 
 ing pure and simple. 
 
 Block The signals used in block-signaling are pre- 
 
 signais. ferably of the same appearance and meaning 
 as those which have been described and are 
 illustrated by figs. 218 and 220. There is 
 consequently 110 reason for describing them a 
 second time since every statement made con- 
 cerning their functions in interlocking applies 
 
FIXED SIGNALS. 225 
 
 equally to block-signaling. Until quite re- Block 
 cently "semaphore 7 ' signals, except in rare signals< 
 and unimportant instances, (the term used to 
 describe signals having an "arm") have only 
 been used where compressed air could be 
 applied to operate them, as in the Westing- 
 house automatic system, or where they could 
 be directly moved by the signal-man in a 
 cabin. But a few months before the issue of 
 this book, purely automatic semaphores have 
 been tried which derived their motion from an 
 electric current. These have worked with 
 encouraging success and if they finally inspire 
 confidence they will probably become the pre- 
 vailing form of automatic signal. 
 
 FIG. 244. The Banjo Signal. 
 (The Hall Signal Co.) 
 
 The "banjo" signal, fig. 244, is operated Banjo 
 wholly by electricity and consists of a trans- s '2 nal - 
 parent colored screen, enclosed in a case, 
 which shows through the opening of the case 
 when the signal is at danger (or caution for a 
 
226 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Banjo distant signal) and is withdrawn from sight 
 when the signal indicates safety. A lamp 
 which shines through the small, upper opening 
 in the case illuminates the signal at night. 
 
 FIG. 245. The Banner Signal. 
 (The Union Switch & Signal Co.) 
 
 Banner The " banner " signal, fig. 245, is operated 
 
 signal. by a weight which is wound up periodically 
 and is controlled by clock-work. This is 
 alternately held and released by an electric 
 current which operates a governing device, 
 contained in the box upon which the signal 
 rests. The signal revolves on a vertical shaft 
 and exposes to the view of an approaching 
 train, a banner of one form for danger ana 
 another form for safety. At night the signal 
 indications arc given by a revolving lamp, hav- 
 ing lenses of different colors ; this is mounted 
 on the banner-shaft and therefore follows 
 exactly the movements of the banners. 
 Track Nearly all purely automatic block-signals 
 
 circuit. ;irc controlled by what is known as the " track 
 curcuit." This consists in having the rails in 
 
FIXED SIGNALS, 227 
 
 each "block" on the same side of the track, Track 
 connected with each other electrically by short circuit - 
 pieces of wire. The blocks are electrically 
 separated by placing insulating material be- 
 tween the end rails and angle-bars of adjacent 
 blocks. At one end of each block the last 
 rails on the two sides of a track are joined by 
 a wire in which an electric battery is placed, 
 and at the other end of each block is placed 
 a wire containing a track relay which controls 
 the signal governing that block. This estab- 
 lishes an electric circuit which operates in 
 such a way that, when a train occupies a 
 certain block, the signal governing that block 
 is cut out and forced to exhibit clanger because 
 the electric current is cut out from it by the 
 presence of the train on the track. A clear 
 (empty) block consequently results in a clear 
 signal. Switches are also included in the track 
 circuit so as to cause the signal to show dan- 
 ger in case the switch is not set and locked 
 for the main track. 
 
 In all work about a railroad, trackmen must Careof 
 be especially chary of changing in any way a PP |iances - 
 the operations or material of an interlocking 
 or block signal plant. A mistake in this mat- 
 ter, such as the breaking of a piece of wire, 
 may result not only in delays and inconven- 
 ience, which will be troublesome, but even in 
 the loss of life. Repairs which require the 
 movement or temporary abandonment of any 
 signaling material should if possible be made 
 under the direction of a man connected Avith 
 the signal force and a sufficient notice should 
 therefore be given whenever any such work is 
 contemplated. Ignorant interference in signal- 
 ing matters is more apt to result disastrously 
 than iii most other branches of railroad affairs 
 and it should for that reason be more sedul- 
 ously avoided. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 RULES AND TABLES. 
 
 Railroad spikes are usually packed in kegs spikes. 
 weighing 150 Ibs. or 200 Ibs. each. The spikes 
 of common size, 5 J in. long by -^ in. square, 
 run 280 to the 150 Ib. keg. In other words, 
 each spike weighs a little more than ^ Ib. 
 
 Track bolts are more frequently packed in Bolts. 
 kegs containing a certain number of bolts 
 rather than a certain number of pounds. The 
 ordinary bolt with its nut weighs something 
 less than 1 Ib. 
 
 Rails are always sold by the "gross ton' 7 Rails. 
 which weighs 2,240 Ibs., as distinguished from 
 the "net ton 77 which weighs 2,000 Ibs. 
 
 7 in. by 9 in. by 8| ft. sawed, white oak, cross ties, 
 cross ties weigh about 195 Ibs. each ; 6 in. 
 by 8 in. by 8| ft. sawed, white oak, cross ties 
 weigh about 150 Ibs. each. Hewed ties of the 
 same classes weigh considerably more than the 
 amounts given. Ties when purchased at a 
 distance are received loaded on cars, which 
 may be expected to contain from 150 to 250 
 ties each. 
 
 An ordinary flat car 33 ft. long by 8 ft. Capacity 
 wide, with temporary sides 1 ft. high will of cars> 
 carry about 18 cubic yards of loose material 
 without spilling ; without sides about 8 cubic 
 yards. A gondola 33 ft. long by 8 ft. wide 
 by 3 ft. 4 in. high, when loaded full but not 
 heaped up, will carry about 32 cubic yards. 
 
THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 
 I- CO CO 
 
 5 
 
 C-l O t- C CO i t - 
 
 O rH *H Ol CO "^ 
 
 (M 00 
 
 m <M 
 
 co o 
 
 s 
 
 (M >n 
 
 oT c^r 
 
 g 
 
 8. 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 ill 
 
 02 
 
 6 g 
 
 .13 
 
 3 
 
 PPcc 
 
 ^ . t*- os 
 o3 bD o; 
 
 ^^$H 
 
 .2 ^ a ^ 
 
 00 
 
RULES AND TABLES. 231 
 
 Every roadmaster and section-foreman is, or inches and 
 should be, equipped with a tape-line 50 ft. long, tenths - 
 divided into feet, inches, halves and quarters of 
 an inch. But there should also be provided 
 for the special work which will fall upon the 
 roadmaster, a steel tape-line which is divided 
 into feet, tenths and hundredths of a foot. 
 All railroad surveyors in this country now use 
 the last-named arrangement, which does away 
 entirely with vulgar fractions, substituting 
 for them the " decimal point." Fig. 246 rcp- 
 
 INCHES. TWELFTHS 
 1 234 56 789 IO 11 
 
 12 
 
 1234 
 
 ! 
 
 TENTHS. 
 56 89 
 
 IO 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 246. Comparison between Inches and Tenths of a Foot. 
 
 resents a foot measure which is divided accord- 
 ing to these two methods. The upper line 
 contains twelve equal parts which are called 
 " inches." The lower line, although exactly 
 the same length as the upper one, contains but 
 ten equal parts and these are called "tenths." 
 If now a tenth of a foot is divided into ten 
 parts, each of the last-named parts will equal 
 a hundredth of a foot, and again if each hun- 
 dredth of a foot is divided into ten parts, one 
 of these parts will equal a thousandth of a foot. 
 The great advantage of the "tenths " is seen 
 when one must add, subtract, multiply or 
 divide several figures. Suppose that it is 
 necessary to add 3i z g- in., 5| in., 7-J in. and 9| 
 in., and get an answer in feet, inches and a frac- 
 tion. One must first change all these vulgar 
 fractions to sixteenths, then add up the six- /or 
 tceiiths, then divide the sum by sixteen and Ip 5 
 add the result to the inches; then the inches |y,-j 
 must be added up and divided by twelve to get 
 them into feet. The answer is 2 ft. 1 y| in. w 
 
232 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 But by using the decimal parts of a foot and 
 adding them together like this, 
 
 3 I I 6 - = 0.286 
 5f =0.469 
 7* =0.625 
 9| =0.771 
 
 Use of 
 Table II. 
 
 Erecting a 
 perpendic- 
 ular. 
 
 2.151, 
 
 the answer is got by one operation and is ex- 
 pressed as two, and one hundred fifty-one 
 thousandths feet. In multiplication and divi- 
 sion the use of "tenths" simplifies the opera- 
 tion still more* 
 
 By means of Table II all of these figures 
 may be got in a moment ; look in the column 
 headed 3 inches, opposite -fa and .286 will be 
 found ; that is, two hundred and eighty -six 
 thousandths of a foot. Or taking another 
 figure in our addition, .625, suppose that it is 
 desired to know how many inches this equals. 
 Look in Table II until .625 is found, when it 
 will be seen that it is under 7 and opposite |, 
 which means seven and one-halt' inches. If a 
 number must be used at any time which does 
 not exactly agree with the numbers in the table, 
 as for instance .364, then look for the nearest 
 to it which is seen to be .365 ; this equals 4| in. 
 Thus it is evident that this table may be used 
 either to convert inches to decimals of a foot 
 or decimals of a foot to inches. 
 
 How to "erect a perpendicular," in other 
 words lay out a line at right angles from a 
 certain point on another line, is a necessary 
 thing for every trackman to know. In fig. 
 247, let A-B be the first line, C-D the second 
 line and A the point from which the perpen- 
 dicular is to be erected. Take a tape and 
 have the end and the 12 ft. mark held together 
 at A; have the 3 ft. mark held on the same 
 
RULES AND TABLES. 233 
 
 Ill 
 
 ^ r*. ^ 
 
 * E: * ^ 
 
 r& ofc a**> ~& 
 
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 rH 
 
 t- CM t- CM 
 
 rH CM CM CO 
 OS OS OS OS 
 
 ill! 
 
 CO -^ OS T*< 
 
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 OS * O lO 
 
 t- GO OS CS 
 OS OS OS OS 
 
 
 rH 
 
 GO GO GO GO 
 
 T* OS 10 
 
 iT5 lO CO - 
 
 CO CO GO GO 
 
 lO O to i-H 
 
 t CO GO OS 
 
 GO CO GO (X) 
 
 CO r-l CO rH 
 
 OS O O rH 
 
 CO OS OS OS 
 
 os 
 
 kO to CO CO 
 t- t- t- IT- 
 
 rH CO rH CO 
 
 t^ t cc cc 
 
 CM IT- CM t- 
 
 os os o o 
 IT- IT- 00 GO 
 
 CM GO CO CO 
 rH rH (M CM 
 CO CO CO GO 
 
 GO 
 
 1T- CM t- CM 
 CD t- t- GO 
 
 IT CO GO CO 
 
 CO OS OS O 
 
 CO CO CO t- 
 
 GO Tf< OS T* 
 
 rH rH CM 
 
 3 3 
 
 t- 
 
 GO GO OS OS 1 
 
 Tf OS O O 
 
 O O rH CM 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 CM CO CO T? 
 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 CO rH CO rH 
 
 CO CO CD CO 
 
 CC D 
 
 CO 
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 kO o ko to 
 
 rH CO rH CO 
 CM CM CO CO 
 
 CM t- CM t- 
 
 Tt< -rfl to tO 
 
 to to to to 
 
 CM CO CO GO 
 CO CO t- IT- 
 tO lO to kfl 
 
 rH 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 t- CM t- CM 
 
 rH CM CM CO 
 
 tr CO GO CO 
 
 CO ^ 05 T*H 
 
 lO CO CO t- 
 
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 t- GO OS OS 
 
 * 
 
 CO CO -*fi "* 
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 "^ OS IO O 
 
 10 10 co IT 
 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 IO O IO rH 
 IT- GO CO OS 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 CO rH CO rH 
 S5 ^ ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 O kO O CO 
 kl to CO CD 
 CM CM CM <M 
 
 rH CO rH CO 
 1^ t- GO GO 
 CM CM CM CM 
 
 CM t- CM t- 
 
 OS OS O O 
 CM CM CO CO 
 
 C^l OO CO GC 
 
 CO CO CO CO 
 
 CM 
 
 r- CM IT- CM 
 co IT- IT- GO 
 
 t- CO CO CO 
 
 GO OS -OS O 
 
 , * 0, * 
 
 ills 
 
 rH 
 
 fill 
 
 ^ os to o 
 
 rH ?1 
 
 a : 88 
 
 CO rH CO rH 
 ^ kO kO CO 
 
 O 
 
 3 S 
 
 
 
 rH CO rH CO 
 CM CM CO CO 
 
 OT t- <M t- 
 
 Tfl T+< Ift l'^ 
 
 0000 
 
 M X CO GO 
 cc co IT- IT- 
 
 0000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -2 2 -" 
 
 ._. to i ^'w 
 
 ue ks 
 
 
 
 <~ 
 
 O -^ H" 1TH 
 
 
 
 
234 
 
 THE NEW Ro ADM ASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Erecting a line at D, then when the tape is stretched and 
 perpendic- brought to an angle at the 8 ft. mark as at B, 
 
 I 
 
 Letting fall 
 a perpen- 
 dicular. 
 
 D * A C 
 
 FIG. 247. Erecting a Perpendicular. 
 
 the line joining A and B will be perpendicular 
 to C-D at A. It is seen in fig. 247, that the 
 numbers 3, 4 and 5 are the lengths of the dif- 
 ferent sides of the triangle A B D. If the 
 figures 3-4-5 are not convenient, any multiple 
 of them may be used instead, if they arc all 
 multiplied by the same number as for instant e 
 6-8-10 which are multiples of 2, or 9-12-15 
 which are multiples of 3. 
 
 To " let fall a perpendicular " or in other 
 words lay out a line from a point A, fig. 248, 
 
 c \ B ^o 
 
 1 IG. 248. Letting Fall a Perpendicular. 
 
 at right angles to another line C D, take a 
 tape or any other cord longer than the distance 
 between A and B and hold one end at A. 
 Have the other end carried first to C and a 
 
RULES AND TABLES. 235 
 
 mark made there, next to D and a mark made 
 there. Then if a mark be placed exactly half 
 way between C and D at B, the line A-B 
 will be perpendicular to C D from A. 
 
 Carves are commonly spoken of with refer- Degree of 
 ence to the angle at the center, subtended by curve< 
 a 100 ft. chord. This idea is illustrated in 
 tigs. 249, A and B, the first of which repre- 
 
 '(6 
 
 Center. 
 
 A 
 FIG. 249. A, Six-Degree Curve. 
 
 Center. 
 
 B 
 B, Nine-Degree Curve. 
 
 scuts a 6 (six degree) curve and the second a 
 9 (nine degree) curve. 
 
 To find the degree of curve in a railroad Finding 
 track, take a line exactly 62 ft. long and 
 stretch it so that the ends just touch the gage 
 side of the outside rail as in fig. 249 : then at 
 
 FIG. 250. Method of Finding Degree of Curve. 
 
 the center of the line (31 ft. from each end) 
 measure from the line to the gage side of the 
 
236 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 rail and the number of inches found will equal 
 the decree of the curve. That is, if the dis- 
 tance is 3 in., as in fig. 250, it will be a three 
 degree (3) curve, if 4| inches a 4^ curve. 
 By this process the proper elevation for a 
 curve may be found approximately and at any 
 time, with nothing but a measuring tape or a 
 foot rule and ditchiug-line. 
 
 Laying out Long pieCCS of track which follow a 11CW 
 
 line and do not run parallel to any old track 
 should, if at all important, be first located 
 with a transit ; but short tracks even when on 
 a curve may be quite accurately staked out 
 with a tape line by means of the " versed sine " 
 method or with the assistance of Table III, 
 which irives the deflections for curves up to 
 20. 
 
 The simplest way of running curves is 
 known as the " versed sine " method ; and is 
 illustrated in fig. 251. It has the peculiar 
 advantage of requiring no tables and scarcely 
 any effort of memory, while at the same time 
 it is as correct as any plan can be in which no 
 f transit is used. 
 
 Assuming that there are two tangents K 
 A - C and B - C which it is desired to connect 
 })y means of a regular curve, the first thing to 
 do is to mark the exact place where the tan- 
 gents come together at C. This is readily 
 accomplished by setting up two thin stakes on 
 each tangent and sighting them in until C is 
 found to be in both lines. The drawing repre- 
 sents a side-track B - J - E - G - A - K which 
 starts at the frog point B where it is tangent 
 to the frog rail and proceeds on a regular 
 curve to A where it is tangent to the straight 
 line A - K. 
 
 After having located C it is necessary to 
 find out the distance to the nearest point from 
 which the curve must stall, remembering 
 
RULES AND TABLES. 237 
 
 always that the further A and B are from C, Laying out 
 the easier the curve will be. If as in the curves - 
 drawing the curve must begin not further 
 away than the frog point, that fact at once 
 limits the distance B - C but if the curve is 
 removed from any other track, and is to join 
 two simple tangents then there is no reason 
 why it should not begin anywhere else back 
 of A or B as at K. 
 
 When the distance C - B has been deter- 
 mined, next mark the distance C A exactly 
 the same as C - B ; lay off the straight line 
 A - B and place a stake at A exactly half way 
 between and exactly in line with A - B. Then 
 measure the distance C - D ; exactly half way 
 between and exactly in line with C and D 
 place the stake E. This stake will be on the 
 curve. Next join A - E and half way between 
 place the stake F; join E-B and half way 
 between place II, then on a line perpendicular 
 
 FIG. 251. Versed Sine Method of Laying Out Curves. 
 
 to A - E at F and on a line perpendicular to 
 E-B at H lay off F-G and H- J, each of 
 them exactly one quarter of the distance from 
 E to D. The stakes at B-J-E-G and A 
 are then all of them in the line of a curve 
 which is tangent to straight lines at A and B. 
 If the curve is not more than two hundred 
 feet long, these five stakes are enough to locate 
 it but if for any reason more points are needed, 
 
238 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Laying out they may easily be supplied by joining A and 
 
 curves. Q Q ^ ft ft ^ j j ^ jg by g^^f. 
 
 lilies ; then exactly half Avay on these lines 
 and perpendicular to them, lay off other points 
 one quarter of the distance between G and F. 
 
 Sometimes an obstruction or the character 
 of the ground will interfere with producing 
 both of these tangents as far as C, in which 
 case a recourse must be had to another plan 
 which is equally correct but, because it involves 
 the use of Table III and requires the location 
 of more points, is not quite so convenient. 
 
 Like the preceding plan, the one now to be 
 described will usually be needed for laying out 
 new side tracks and, because of this, the curve 
 is shown, in fig. 252, as beginning at a frog. 
 
 FIG. 252. Laying Out Curves. 
 
 There is no reason however, if the circum- 
 stances are different, why the curve should not 
 begin at any other point, in which case the 
 50-ft. spaces may be laid off and the curve 
 located in exactly the same way, except that 
 there will be no frog to start from. 
 
 In fig. 252, the line C I) represents the 
 "tangent" (the straight line from which the 
 curve starts) which is parallel with the outside 
 gage line of the frog, and 2 ft. 4J in. (or 2 ft. 
 4J in. with a 4 ft. 9 in. gage) distant from it. 
 This is the most correct way but if it be pre- 
 ferred, the " line of frog" may be used as the 
 tangent with results which are practically just 
 as good. In consequence of this offset C is 
 on the center line of the new track at the frog. 
 
TABLES. 2! 
 
 Since it is best to start the curve at the heel of Laying out 
 
 the frog, C is located opposite that place and curves - 
 
 becomes the point of curve. C and D are 
 
 marked on the ground by slender sticks about 
 
 4 ft. long, set upright. Beginning at C, in 
 
 line with these two sticks, lay off the 50, 100, 
 
 150 ft., etc. marks and then at these last named 
 
 points erect the lines F, G, II perpendicular 
 
 to the line C-D, according to the rule given 
 
 in connection with fig. 247 ; mark these lines 
 
 with stakes at F, G and II and also beyond 
 
 where the curve is likely to reach. On F, G, 
 
 II lay off the distances given in Table III for 
 
 the curve that has been decided upon. If it 
 
 is to be a 10 deg. curve the radius will be 574 
 
 ft. loii and the respective distances on the 
 
 lines F, G, II in fig. 249, will be 2.2 ft., 8.8 
 
 ft. and 2.0.0 ft. This method is sufficiently 
 
 accurate for all ordinary purposes if care is 
 
 used in locating the different points. 
 
 In order to fiud out what curve is required 
 from a certain tangent in order to strike a 
 certain point in a railroad track, the same 
 method already described may be used or else 
 the reverse of it which is as follows. Suppose 
 for instance that in front of a factory, as in fig. 
 2 ">;>, from a tangent A- C it is desired to lay 
 off a curve which will not reach beyond C and 
 will be tangent to the line of fro"" near E. 
 
 FIG. 253. Laying Out Curves. 
 
240 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 I 
 
 
 as o o m os 
 
 l 1 T*< CO* O Tf 
 CM T*1 CO OS i I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O rH CO O CM 
 
 GO'* 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Tf< 00 CM r- ~1 
 
 i-l CM ^ 1C t- 
 
 r- Tf 
 
 CO 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 t~ 1C CO -<ti t- 
 
 Tf 1C fM CO 
 
 
 
 .1 
 
 
 O 1-1 CM CO <* 
 rH <N CO ^ C 
 
 CD CO i 1 ^ 
 
 co t~ ai o 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 GQ 
 
 CO GO GO CO O 
 
 ^ OS CO r-l t- 
 
 ^ OS 
 
 
 1 
 
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 *d 
 
 1- 1C CO r-l 
 rH CM CO TJI 
 
 00 CD 1C 1C "* 
 ^ 1C CD t- CO 
 
 ^ 1C 
 
 OS 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 CO rH O rH CO 
 
 GO C 00 
 
 CO 
 
 1C 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
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 CO Oi kC rH t- 
 
 CO CO -^ C 1C 
 
 2 
 
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 OS OS OS rH Tf< 
 
 OS CM CD 
 
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 1-1 Tf co <n co 
 
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 OS CO t- CM D 
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 ig8 
 
 
 
 
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 C5 OS O5 O O 
 
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 Sc^^ 
 
 
 
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 71 rH O OS CO 
 
 t^co ic "*i co 
 
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 ic CD t- r- co 
 
 05 rH Cq CO 
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 rH rH rH 
 
 
 | 
 
 (71 -^ t- OS rH 
 
 CO 1C CO O M 
 
 -HH CO OS i-l CO 
 
 1C O 1C 
 
 
 
 
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 ^H rH rH (M (M 
 
 ?M (M C^ CO CO 
 
 CO -^ -^ 
 
 si 
 
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 O O O O O 
 
 T-H N CO ^ 1C 
 
 O O O O O 
 
 CO t^ CO OS O 
 
 O O O O O 
 
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 o o o 
 
 CD GO 
 
 H fe 
 
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 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
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 2 
 
 O C O CO CO 
 CO <^> i-l CO Tj< 
 t~- GO 05 T* i-l 
 
 1C OS t- t> rt* 
 1C i I T I CO t~- 
 OS CO t^ SO iC 
 
 CM GO (M O CO 
 C^l t- ^< rH GO 
 
 1C Tt< Tfl ^ CO 
 
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 1C CM 00 
 CO CO CM 
 
 H 
 
 # 
 
 1C (M T-t rH i-l 
 
 
 
 
RULES AND TABLES. 241 
 
 First stake off the tangent A - C - K parallel Laying out 
 with the factory and locate the 50 ft. points curves - 
 beginning at C. Erect the perpendiculars at 
 If, G, II and then by means of Table III, lay 
 off any curve, as C - B, which is a 6 curve. 
 This is too flat so next a 12 curve, C-D is 
 tried ; this proves too sharp but after continual 
 trials the right one will be found which in fig. 
 
 O O 
 
 253 is seen to be C-E, a 10 curve. 
 
 Frequently in this method, it will be found 
 that the curve, although it strikes near E, will 
 not fit the frog. In this case the point C must 
 be moved nearer to E and new curves tried 
 until the right one is found. But no matter 
 what trouble is experienced at first, let it be 
 remembered that any trackman can use this 
 table successfully if he will only try. 
 
 In bending rails to fit the curves at switches Curving 
 and in the inain track, Table IV will be found rails 
 useful. 
 
 6%' ff - ff- ---- *)*- --- ff/ff- - JE ---- tf/*' j| 
 
 --- ----- 26 )\ 
 
 FIG. 254. Bending Rails. 
 
 Fig. 254 represents a 26 ft. rail which is 
 to be made to conform to an 11 curve. Take 
 a line jind stretch it on the gage side of the 
 head from one end of the rail to the other ; 
 mark the middle at A, 13 ft. from each end, 
 and the quarters B and C, 6 J ft. each from the 
 middle and the ends. According to Table IV, 
 when the rail is properly bent, the perpendic- 
 ular distance A (middle ordinate) from the line 
 to the rail-head will be 2 inches, while B and 
 C (ordinates at the quarters) will each of them 
 be | of this distance, which is \\ inches. 
 
 Frogs which arc used with a switch, are Frognum- 
 most often described by their numbers, but bersand 
 sometimes according to the angle formed by 
 
242 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 TABLE IV. MIDDLE-ORDINATES FOR CURVING RAILS. 
 
 (Ordinates at the quarters are of Middle -Ordinates.) 
 
 8 . 
 
 p 
 
 LENGTH OF RAILS (Feet). 
 
 h 
 
 . 
 
 B W 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 24 ! 22 1 20 | 18 
 
 16 1 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 INCHES. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 i 
 ft 
 
 it 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 i i i A 
 A i i A 
 A 1 A i 
 1 i i 1 
 1 1 A A 
 
 A A 
 i i 
 i A 
 A i 
 1 i 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 V 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 IA H IA H i i A A i A e< 
 7 IH H H IA i if TV 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 r . IH IA IA IA t H A i A i 
 21 H it it n i t i t i 
 21 2,v IH n IA IA * H A 2 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 
 f 2- LH.iAJAit I A A 
 
 2H2A2- IH If 4 
 
 3A 21 2J- 21 Hf li l t V ] f T V 
 3 f V 3J 2ft 21 lf| 1-^g- 1-jV 1^ | ^i 
 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 
 16 C 
 
 ir 
 
 18 C 
 19 ( 
 20 C 
 
 3f 3^ 21 2 T V 2^ IH If li if A 
 
 4- 3| 3^ 2 T v 2A IH I T V IA t H A 
 
 4i 3u A 2 ii 2 A H IA H if H t 
 
 4J 3f 3| 21 2 T V 2- If l f V 1- |- 
 
 4| 44- 3^3-^2^24 mif i^ A 
 
 16 
 17 
 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 
 ^j 5 03 03 O11O3 113.1711 i _991 
 
 4 A ^T d A ^TIT ^A A l 6 A TV - 1 8" 1 A Zi 
 
 5_3 41 314 3-5 24- 2- 5 1-^- 1-- !- - 1 *- s - *^2 
 
 KJL 4JJ 41 "^ T_ 9 1 5 93 11_5 1 '9 13 15 5 i 9Q 
 
 lV 4 T 4 TT rf A *TT Z "8 -"-if *A *TT T6 I Zrf 
 
 5| 4^ 41 3| 3-ig. 2|- 2 T V IH li if | 24 
 
 5j 5^ 4 T v 3f 3^- 2| 2-1 If lyV 1 - H 25 
 
 fi 1 ^ 5 A 5 <: i^I ^5 9 11 93 113 13 1 1 1 
 
 b A lV 4 t d 4 d T F Z T ^TT 1 T'B- 1 8^ - 1 ~ TIT 
 
 6 A 54 4 ! 4 A 3 A 2|f 2 T v 11 IA IA H 
 0A 5 H 4 if 4 A 3A 2 i| 2| i|| IA l-i I 
 
 6 5* 51 4| 3| 3- 2A2- H H f 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 
RULES AND TABLES. 243 
 
 the two running rails ; this latter method is Frog num- 
 always used when speaking of crossing frogs. bers and 
 
 The number of a frog is determined by divid- a ' 
 ing distance, B, in fig. 255, into distance, A, 
 
 FIG. 255. Frog Numbers and Angles. 
 
 remembering always to use the true (or " the- 
 oretical") point of the frog; this is not the 
 end of the rails but may be found by laying a 
 straight edge on each gage side of the frog and 
 marking the place where the straight edges 
 come together. As an example let it be sup- 
 posed that A equals 48 inches, and B equals 8 
 inches. Then 48 divided by 8 equals 6, and 
 the frog is therefore a number 6. 
 
 Since the object of this calculation is only 
 to find the proportion existing between the 
 length and the width of the frog, a divided 
 measure is not at all necessary for it ; anything, 
 a lead pencil or a stick, which is shorter than 
 
244 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Frog num. the width of the frog at the heel, will do. 
 
 bersand pl ac e the article where its length is exactly 
 equal to the distance between the gage lines 
 and measure with it from there to the true 
 point. The number of lengths made in the last 
 measurement equals the number of the frog ; 
 that is if the place from which the measurement 
 started is six times as far from the point as the 
 lead pencil is long, it is a number six frog. 
 
 When only the angle of a frog is known 
 and the number is also desired, tirst reduce 
 the angle to minutes (there are sixty minutes 
 in a degree) and then divide 3440 by it. The 
 result will equal the number of the frog. 
 
 Example : What is the number of a 5 44 f 
 (five degrees and forty-four minutes) frog ? 
 
 5 44' = 5 X 60 -f 44 = 344'. 3440 divided 
 by 344 = 10. That is, a No. 10 frog. 
 
 Conversely, when only the number is known 
 and the angle is also desired divide 3440 by 
 the number of the frog and reduce the result 
 to degrees and minutes. 
 
 Example : What is the angle of a No. 8 frog ? 
 f 3440 divided by 8 = 430', and 430 divided 
 by 60 = 7-J& = 7 10'. That is a seven degree 
 and ten minutes (7 10') frog. 
 
 switch A common rule for the calculation of a 
 
 leads. switch lead was to multiply twice the gage of 
 the track by the number of the frog. This 
 rule is well enough for the shorter leads, but 
 in the case of a No. 10 frog, it amounts to a 
 distance of 94 feet, which besides being un- 
 necessarily great, requires that the point of 
 the switch rail shall be planed to a too fine 
 point. The method of calculating has there- 
 fore been changed in the table contained in 
 this volume. It will be noticed in Table Y 
 that an 18 ft. point is provided for the 1.1 and 
 12 split switch leads. This was done because 
 those two frogs are seldom used except where 
 
RULES AND TABLES.' 245 
 
 trains are expected to run fast ; in that case, switch 
 the easier the bend at the main track, the bet- leads< 
 ter. With the 4 and 5 split switches a 10 ft. 
 point is arranged for, because these frogs 
 should not be used except to make the lead 
 as short as possible ; hence the necessity of 
 contributing to this object in every legitimate 
 way. In determining the leads and cross dis- 
 tances of all the switches, a regular curve is 
 assumed to begin at the heel of the switch and 
 continue to within exactly 5 ft. of the theoreti- 
 cal point of frog. It is believed that with the 
 distances shown in fig. 256 and the correspond- 
 ing amounts in Table V, any of the switches 
 named there, may be put in accurately and 
 without difficulty. The distances A, B, C and 
 D are all of them to be marked with chalk on 
 the main track rail, measuring from the the- 
 oretical point of frog as a starting point. 
 Then at these places and from the gage side 
 of the main track rail to the gage side of the 
 side track rail, the distances a, b and c are to 
 be laid off perpendicular to the main rail. The 
 distance d of course, is nothing but the gage 
 minus the offset of 6 in. for split switches, and 
 the gage minus the 5 in. throw for stub 
 switches, since these are constant distances 
 for all numbers of frogs. For convenience, 
 the diagrams (fig. 25(3) are shown with a 
 .straight main track ; but it is to be understood 
 that if the main track is curved, the degrees 
 of curves and the radii of the side track rail 
 will be different from those named in Table V. 
 If the frog is in the outer rail of a curved 
 main track, the degree of curve of the lead 
 will be equal to the degree of curve given in 
 the table, minus the degree of curve of the 
 main track. If the' frog is in the inner rail of 
 a curved main track, the degree of curve 
 of the lead will equal the degree of curve 
 
246 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
RULES AND TABLES. 247 
 
 01 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 g 
 
 = 
 
 CO ^?rH 
 
 Wrt 
 
 7t 
 
 rH 
 
 n:t 
 
 -r-s? 
 
 CM 
 
 cT 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 *l 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 rH 
 
 sl 
 
 1 i 1 
 QO-XSTH 
 
 ri CO O 
 
 f2 
 
 1 
 
 "^ 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 to 
 
 rH <?1 CO 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 CM 
 
 -i 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 J 
 
 * 
 
 -r 
 
 
 -let 
 
 HO 
 
 n 
 
 le. 
 
 
 vH 
 
 r< 
 
 
 
 
 GC 
 
 M ? 
 
 77? 
 
 CO 
 
 *? 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 T**^ 
 
 CM 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 rH~ 
 
 rH 
 
 h CM 
 
 rH CO m 
 
 to 
 
 1- 
 
 CO 
 
 P" 
 
 rH C^ CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <T 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 in 
 
 rH 
 
 M P 
 
 Wrt^H-Kt 
 rH CO O 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 m o in 
 
 rH CO TJH 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 rH 
 1 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 t- 
 
 rH 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 ^coS? 
 
 f 
 
 CO 
 
 Q 
 
 CM 
 
 X 
 
 -T 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 g 
 
 C 
 
 cT-"t<r 
 rH .51 r 
 1 1 1 
 
 "T 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 I 
 
 to co t- 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 to 
 
 GO 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 rH 
 
 -4J CO 
 
 CO t-rH 
 
 in 
 
 X 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 r^o'.CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 "* 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 r f-r r f 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 1 
 
 to co t- 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
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 *ct 
 
 -4^ O 
 
 C--I *O t^~ 
 
 
 01 
 
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 rH CM CO 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
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 in 
 
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 to 
 
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 kc 
 
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 l 
 
 
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 5 
 
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 t-rH CC 1 ' 
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 sr 
 
 f 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
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 11 OS 
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 2ff 
 
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248 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 given in Table V phis the degree of curve of 
 the main track. The distances along the main 
 track rail and the cross distances will remain, 
 for all practical purposes, the same as though 
 the main track were straight. 
 
 Three- The combinations which are possible between 
 
 throw two switches arc so numerous that no table can 
 switches. jj f ramcc | which will begin to meet the re- 
 quirements. With split switches these com- 
 binations are infinite as is evident from rig. 
 257, where are illustrated the three bases of 
 procedure. In A, which is comparatively 
 rare, the points begin at practically the same 
 place which results in a lead to all intents the 
 same as that of a three-throw stub switch. 
 This is the plan followed in Table VII. 
 B assumes that the frogs are placed opposite 
 each other and that the switch-point of the 
 short lead is far enough back of the other 
 switch-point to leave room for the "throw" 
 and the attachment of the connecting-rod. 
 This is not a very rational method since it 
 leaves too small a choice of frogs to meet the 
 'special cases which will surely arise. Plan C 
 is the one which offers the greatest variety. 
 Since a three-throw switch should never be 
 used if there is any way of putting in two en- 
 tirely separate single switches this plan is the 
 best one of the three that have been described. 
 It is not only the best because it permits the 
 greatest variety of leads but because it more 
 nearly secures the same track conditions that 
 exist when two entirely separate leads are 
 used.* Although, as has been stated, it is 
 impossible to frame a table fulfilling these con- 
 ditions, fig. 258 and Table VII present one 
 
 '* In that useful work already mentioned, "Switch Layouts 
 and Curve Easements," Mr. Torrey has included nearly a hundred 
 diagrams of various three-throw switch leads which contain all 
 the information necessary for putting them in, together with a 
 table of switch-timbers for each one. Table IV is adapted from. 
 
RULES AND TABLES. 249 
 
 \ 
 
 
 A B | I C 
 
 FIG. 257. Methods of Arranging Three-Throw Split Switches. 
 
250 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 TABLE VI. NUMBER OF SWITCH-TIES FOR USE WITH 
 TABLES V AND VII. 
 
 1 Head- Block 8 in. by 12 in. 16 ft. long with each Single Split and Stub 
 Switch and each Three-Throw Stub Switch. 
 
 2 Head-Blocks 8 in. by 12 in. 16 ft. long with each Three-Throw Split 
 Switch. 
 
 All other Switch-Ties 7 in. by 9 in. 20 in. center to center. 
 Standard Cross-Ties 8 ft. 6 in. long. 
 
 NUMBER OF FROG 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 
 Feet 
 Long 
 
 Number of Pieces 
 
 7 in. by 
 
 9 in 
 
 
 fStub Switch, 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 
 Split Switch, 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 1 1 
 
 SINGLE 
 
 ( 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 Alike 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 SWITCHES 
 
 for Split j 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 and Stub 1 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 ;) 
 
 6 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 s 
 
 
 Switches 
 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 I 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 (> 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 f Stub Switch, 
 
 . 
 
 
 Split Switch, 
 
 V 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 f> 
 
 
 Stub Switch, 
 
 1 t\ 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 ;") 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 r> 
 
 6 
 
 
 Split Switch, 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 r 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 THREE- 
 
 Alike 
 
 
 12 
 13 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 a 
 4 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 THROW < for 
 
 
 14 
 
 IT) 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 SWITCHES 
 
 Split 
 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 , * 
 
 IS 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 g 
 
 4 
 
 
 and 
 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 Stub 
 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 Switches 
 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i ( 
 
 Long 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NUMBER OF FROG. 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 I) 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
RULES AND TABLES. 251 
 SPLIT SWITCHES. 
 
 K-Head Block to Middle Froq *l 
 
 STUB SWITCHES. 
 
 k Head Block to Middle Froq 
 
 FIG. 258. Diagram to accompany Table VII. 
 
 TABLE VIL THREE-THROW SPLIT AND STUB-SWITCH 
 
 LEADS. 
 
 Offset at heel of Split Switches = 6 inches. 
 Throw of Stub Switches = 5 inches in each direction. 
 Left-hand Split Switch to be placed 18 inches in advance of Right-hand 
 Split Switch. 
 
 ii 
 
 MIDDLE 
 
 MIDDLE 
 FROG TO 
 
 HEAD BLOCK TO 
 MIDDLE FROG. 
 
 SWITCH RAIL LENGTH. 
 
 * 
 
 FROG 
 
 TVT ATVT 
 
 
 
 
 H * 
 
 8 5 
 
 ANGLE. 
 
 FROG. 
 
 Split Switch 
 
 Stub Switch 
 
 Split Switch Stub Switch. 
 
 I* 
 
 Deg. Min. 
 
 Feet Inches 
 
 Feet Inches 
 
 Feet Inches 
 
 Feet Inches Feet Inches 
 
 4 
 
 22 - 58 
 
 9 - 8J 
 
 
 24-9 
 
 16-6 
 
 10-0 10-11 
 
 5 
 
 17 - 52 
 
 12 - 5^ 
 
 
 28-0 
 
 19 - oi 
 
 10-0 12-9 
 
 6 
 
 14 - 30 
 
 15 - 2^ 
 
 
 38-4 
 
 25 - 8* 
 
 15-0 16-8 
 
 7 
 
 12 - 14 
 
 18 - 0^ 
 
 
 41-7 
 
 29-1 
 
 15-0 18-6 
 
 8 
 
 10 - 38 
 
 20 - 9^ 
 
 
 44 - 41 
 
 31 - 10| 
 
 15-0 20-8 
 
 9 
 
 9-28 
 
 23-6 
 
 47-0 
 
 34 - 6i 
 
 15-0 23-4 
 
 10 
 
 8-32 
 
 26-2 
 
 49-5 
 
 37-0 
 
 15-0 25-0 
 
 11 
 
 7-40 
 
 29 - 01 
 
 57-3 
 
 42 - 1| 
 
 18-0 25-0 
 
 12 
 
 7-04 
 
 31 - 74 
 
 59-6 
 
 44-8 
 
 18-0 25-0 
 
252 
 
 THE NEW ROADMASTER'S ASSISTANT. 
 
 Locating 
 frogs. 
 
 method of putting in both split and stub 3- 
 throw-switches. 
 
 The ordinary rule for determining the dis- 
 tance between frogs in crossovers is to subtract 
 twice the gage from the distance between cen- 
 ters and multiply the result by the number of 
 the frog. This does perfectly well for frogs 
 of large number but is not close enough for 
 number 4 and 5 frogs. As for example 
 
 Distance between centers = 
 Gaffe =4.71 ft. Twice 4.71 = 
 
 Number of frog = 
 
 - 13.00ft, 
 
 - 9.42 ft. 
 
 3.58 
 4 
 
 14.32 ft. 
 
 That is, 14 ft. 4 in. from frog to frog along the 
 main rail. 
 
 But Table VIII, under the heading of 13 ft. 
 between centers of tracks, gives this distance 
 
 TABLE VIII. DISTANCE D. FROG TO FROG ALONG THE 
 MAIN RAIL IN CROSS-OVERS G-age, 4 ft. 8-J in. 
 
 DISTANCE BETWEEX CENTERS OP TRACKS. 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 11-0 
 
 Ft. In. 
 11-6 
 
 Ft. In. 
 12-0 
 
 Ft. In. 
 12-6 
 
 Ft. In. 
 13-0 
 
 Ft. In. 
 13-6 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 14-0 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 
 5-7 
 7-4 
 9-0 
 10-8 
 12-4 
 13-11 
 15-6 
 17-2 
 18-9 
 
 7-6 
 9-9 
 12-0 
 14-1 
 16-3 
 18-5 
 20-6 
 22-8 
 24-9 
 
 9-6 
 12-3 
 14-11 
 17-7 
 20-3 
 22-11 
 25-6 
 28-2 
 30-8 
 
 11-5 
 14-8 
 17-11 
 21-1 
 24-3 
 27-5 
 30-6 
 33-8 
 36-8 
 
 13-5 
 17-2 
 20-10 
 24-6 
 28-3 
 31-10 
 35-6 
 39-2 
 42-8 
 
 15-4 
 19-7 
 23-10 
 28-0 
 32-2 
 36-4 
 40-5 
 44-8 
 48-7 
 
 17-4 
 22-0 
 26-9 
 31-5 
 36-2 
 40-10 
 45-5 
 50-2 
 54-7 
 
 FIG. 259. Diagram to accompany Table VIII. 
 
RULES AND TABLES. 253 
 
 as 13 ft. 5 in., a difference of nearly a foot. In 
 placing the frogs according to the above rule, 
 or Table VIII, first let fall a perpendicular 
 from one of the frog points, A fig. 259, to the 
 nearest rail of the other track at B. From B 
 lay off the proper distance D; then C will be 
 the location of the other frog point. 
 
NDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Alexander car replacer, 196. 
 American nut-lock, 111. 
 American Steel Foundry, ditch- 
 ing- machine, 58. 
 Anchor fence post, 22 
 Angle bars (see rail joints). 
 Avery steel fence post, 23. 
 
 B. 
 Ballast, 75. 
 
 stone, 76 
 
 conveyers, 77. 
 
 crushers, 78. 
 
 cleaning, 79. 
 
 gravel, 79. 
 
 plow, 82. 
 
 unloader, 83. 
 
 cars, 84. 
 
 heaving, 86. 
 
 sections, 87-89, 91. 
 
 drains, 90. 
 
 picks, 156. 
 
 forks, 158. 
 
 car capacity for, 229. 
 
 quantities per mile, 230. 
 Barnhart ballast plow, 82. 
 Barrett track jack, 92. 
 Bell-crank, 219. 
 Bending (see curving rails). 
 Block signaling, 224. 
 
 banjo signal, 225. 
 
 banner signal, 226. 
 
 track circuit, 226. 
 Bolt- lock, 216. 
 
 Boyer & Radford track jack, 93. 
 Bogue & Mills crossing gate, 44. 
 Bond steel fence post, 23. 
 Bracket post, 208. 
 Bridge floor, 69. 
 
 ballasted, 70. 
 
 protected, 71. 
 
 shimming, 72. 
 Bridge -warning, 40. 
 Bryant rail saw, 146. 
 Bucyrus steam shovel, 81. 
 Buda Foundry Co., drills, 144. 
 
 hand car, 151. 
 
 Bumper, curved rail, 32. 
 
 clamped, 32. 
 
 triangular, 32. 
 
 timber, 33. 
 
 braced spring, 33. 
 
 Ellis, 33. 
 
 Bush cattle guard, 25. 
 Bush interlocking bolt, 67. 
 
 C. 
 
 Car replacers, 196. 
 Cattle guards, 24. 
 
 Bush, 25. 
 
 Kalamazoo, 25, 
 
 National, 25. 
 
 Standard, 26. 
 
 Merrill-Stevens, 26. 
 Caution signs, use of, 18. 
 Chain wheel, 220. 
 Churchill joint, 117. 
 Clamp for tape line, 155. 
 Claw bar, 160. 
 Compensators, 220. 
 Competition, 6. 
 Continuous joint, 116. 
 Creeping rails, 137. 
 Crossings, signs, 36. 
 
 bells, 41. 
 
 gate (pneumatic), 43. 
 
 continuous, 179. 
 
 narrow angle, 180. 
 
 Fontaine, 181. 
 
 wide-angle, 181. 
 
 steam and street, 181. 
 Cross ties (see ties). 
 Culverts, cleaning, 2. 
 
 pipe, 68. 
 
 wooden, 69. 
 Curves, elevation on, 134. 
 
 elevation on bridges, 135. 
 
 easement, 136. 
 
 widening gage on, 136. 
 
 degree of, 235. 
 
 laying out, 236-240. 
 
 radii and offsets, 240. 
 Curving rails, 140. 
 
 ordinates for, 241. 
 
256 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 D. 
 
 Decimals of a foot in inches, 
 
 231-233. 
 
 Detector bars, 214. 
 Discipline, 5. 
 Distant signal, 205. 
 Ditches, cleaning, 2. 
 
 paving, 58. 
 
 sodding banks, 60. 
 
 slope, 61. 
 
 slope gage, 62. 
 Ditching, methods, 57. 
 
 machine, 57. 
 
 shovel, 161. 
 Drainage, 55. 
 
 Dump-car (Goodwin), 84, 85. 
 Dwarf signal, 207. 
 
 E. 
 
 Elliot Frog & Switch Co., rail 
 
 brace, 137. 
 spring-rail frog, 187. 
 Ellis bumping post, 33. 
 Embankments, 63. 
 Emergencies, 193. 
 Emerson rail-bender, 141. 
 Ei'ie railroad ballast sections, 87. 
 Eureka nut-lock, 111. 
 Eureka spring-rail irog, 187. 
 Eyeless tools, 157. 
 
 F. 
 
 Facing-point lock, 213. 
 Fairbanks, Morse & Co., rail- 
 bender, 141. 
 
 one-man velocipede, 148. 
 
 gasoline motor, 150. 
 
 push car, 152. 
 
 loot guard, 177. 
 Feet and inches (decimals), 231- 
 
 233. 
 Fence, 19 (see wire fences). 
 
 gangs, 24. 
 
 Fence-posts, (see posts). 
 Filling blocks, 138. 
 Fires, 17. 
 Fisher joint, 115. 
 
 offset splice, 131. 
 Fixed signals, 201. 
 Flag holder, 163. 
 Fontaine crossing, 181. 
 Foot guards, 176. 
 
 Foremen, as laborers, 13. 
 
 residence, 14. 
 Frogs, inspection, 2. 
 
 angles and numbers, 165, 
 242-244. 
 
 movable, 179. 
 
 rigid plate, 183. 
 
 rigid yoke, 183. 
 
 rigid bolted, 184. 
 
 spring rail, 185-187. 
 
 putting in, 252, 253. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gangs, combining of, 12. 
 
 Gasoline motors, 149. 
 
 Gate, farm, 21. 
 
 Goodwin dump car, 84, 85. 
 
 Grass, 3. 
 
 Gravel, ballast, 79. 
 
 pits, 79. 
 
 distributing, 80. 
 Grip nut, 113. 
 Guard rails, 174, 175. 
 
 fastener, 176. 
 
 H. 
 
 Haarmann- Victor rail, 122. 
 
 Hammers, 158. 
 
 Hand-cars, use and abuse, 4. 
 
 types of, 151. 
 Harp switch-stand, 191. 
 Hartley & Teeter velocipede, 149. 
 Harvey nut lock, 112. 
 Hawks offset splice, 131. 
 Highway crossing, 19. 
 
 open, 27. 
 
 old-rail protection, 27. 
 
 bells, 41. 
 
 gates, 43. 
 Hollow tires, 17. 
 Home signals, 204. 
 Hydraulic ram, 48. 
 
 I. 
 
 Inches, decimals, 231-233. 
 Interlocking signals, 201. 
 
 machine, 203. 
 
 levers, 221. 
 
 pneumatic, 223. 
 Intoxicants, 6. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jack-knife switch-stand, 191. 
 Jaws (interlocking), 219. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 257 
 
 Jenne track jack, 92. 
 Jim crow, 140. 
 Joints (see rail joints). 
 
 K, 
 
 Kalamazoo cattle guard, 25. 
 
 one-man velocipede, 147. 
 
 safety velocipede, 148. 
 
 gasoline motor, 150. 
 
 early hand-car, 151. 
 Katte rail, 124. 
 Knots, 194. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lamp signals, 200. 
 
 Lazy jack, 220. 
 
 Leads for switches, 244-251. 
 
 Lee's ballasted trestle, 70. 
 
 Lidgerwood unloader, 83. 
 
 Lining bar, 160. 
 
 Long truss joint, 118. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mail cranes, 34. 
 Material, location of, 6. 
 
 extra, 193. 
 
 quantities per mile, 230. 
 Mattock, 156. 
 
 Merrill- Stevens cattle guard, 26. 
 Metal posts, 22, 38, 39. 
 Mile posts, 37. 
 Monument, 39. 
 
 N. 
 
 Napping hammer, 158. 
 National catt.e guard, 25. 
 
 nut lock, 112. 
 New road, finishing, 1. 
 New York Central ballast sec- 
 tions, 89. 
 
 Nuts, quantities per mile, 230. 
 Nut locks. 111. 
 
 quantities per mile, 230. 
 
 0. 
 
 Offset splices, 131. 
 
 Oliver Iron & Steel Co., grip 
 
 nut, 113. 
 O'Neil crossing bell, 42. 
 
 track instrument, 42. 
 Opposite and broken joints (see 
 rail joints). 
 
 P. 
 
 Paint, 41. 
 
 Pennsylvania Railroad ballast 
 
 sections, 88. 
 
 Pennsylvania Steel Co., 3-th row 
 switch, 170. 
 
 automatic switch stand, 189. 
 Perpendiculars, erecting and let- 
 
 ting fall, 234. 
 Picks, 156. 
 Pinch bar, 160. 
 Pipe and wire adjusters, 220. 
 
 carriers, 218. 
 Platforms, 19. 
 
 terra-cotta, 28. 
 Pneumatic interlocking, 223. 
 Poage water crane, 51. 
 Pole drains, 60. 
 Posts, 19. 
 
 anchor, 22. 
 
 Bond steel, 23, 38, 39. 
 
 Avery, 23. 
 
 distances apart, 24. 
 
 mile, 37. 
 
 Post-hole shovels, 162. 
 Promotion, 7. 
 Pumps, 48. 
 
 Q & C Co., Servis tie-plate, 98. 
 Bryant rail saw, 146. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rail, form and comparisons, 107. 
 ends, 121. 
 
 Haarman-Vietor, 122. 
 Katte, 124. 
 long, 124. 
 continuous, 124. 
 welded, 125. 
 
 counting and turning, 127. 
 unloading, 128. 
 re-laying, 129. 
 spacing, 130. 
 time to relay, 132. 
 short pieces, 132. 
 braces, 137. 
 expansion device, 139. 
 curving, 140. 
 benders, 140. 
 
 Sunch, 142. 
 rilling. 143. 
 drills, 143. 
 
258 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Rail (Continued). 
 
 cutting, 145. 
 
 saws, 146. 
 
 tongs, 162. 
 
 fork, 163. 
 
 at switches, 174. 
 
 quantities per mile, 230. 
 Rail joints, 113-118. 
 
 suspended and supported, 
 119. 
 
 offset, 131. 
 
 opposite and broken, 133. 
 Rainy days, 12. 
 Ramapo automatic switch stand, 
 
 188. 
 
 Ratchet drills, 143. 
 Re-ballasting, 86. 
 Re-laying rails, 129. 
 Reports, 4. 
 Retaining walls, 63. 
 
 fou i ulations of, 65. 
 "Re-railing device, 71, 
 Reverse pointed spike, 67. 
 Road (highway), 28. 
 Roadmaster, duties, 7. 
 Road bed, section, 55. 
 Roberts, Throp & Co., veloci- 
 pede, 149. 
 
 hand car, 152. 
 
 push car, 152. 
 
 foot guard, 177. 
 Rodger ballast car, 84. 
 
 plow car, 84. 
 Routine work, 12. 
 
 S. 
 
 Samson joint, 114. 
 Section, house, 31. 
 
 men, number per mile, 9. 
 
 length of, 10. 
 Selector, 216. 
 Separation of grades, 45. 
 Servis tie plate, 98. 
 Sheffield water crane, 52. 
 
 one-man velocipede, 148. 
 
 gasoline motor, 150. 
 3 push car, 152. 
 
 foot guard, 177. 
 
 Shimming tool for bridges, 130. 
 Shims, 104. 
 Shovels, 161. 
 Sign, crossing-, 30. 
 
 bridge, etc., 37. 
 
 Sign (Continued). 
 
 letters, 40. 
 Signals, train, 197. 
 
 whistle, 199. 
 
 lamp, 200. 
 
 fixed, 201. 
 
 interlocking, 201. 
 
 home, 204. 
 
 distant, 205. 
 
 dwarf, 207. 
 
 block, 224. 
 
 Six-hole angle-bar, 114. 
 Sledges, 159. 
 Smith rail saw, 146. 
 Snow shovel, 161. 
 
 stoi'ms, 3. 
 Spike, reverse pointed, 67. 
 
 holes, 103. 
 
 various patterns, 111. 
 
 maul, 159. 
 
 puller, 159. 
 
 size, weight, etc., 229. 
 
 quantities per mile, 230. 
 Standard cattle guard, 26. 
 Station grounds, 31, 45. 
 
 platforms, 19, 28. 
 Steam shovel, 81. 
 Stewart switch, 171. 
 Stone, quarries, 76. 
 
 size of, 77. 
 
 crushers, 78. 
 
 Street-railroad crossing, 182. 
 Stringers, 67. 
 Summer work, 15. 
 Super-elevation, 134. 
 Surface cattle guards, (see Cattle 
 
 guards). 
 Suspended and supported joints, 
 
 119. 
 Switches, inspection, 2. 
 
 Wharton, 105. 
 
 Robinson-Wharton, 166. 
 
 split, 167. 
 
 rods, 1 67. 
 
 reenforcement, 169. 
 
 Stewart, 169, 171. 
 
 three-throw, 169, 170, 172, 
 248, 249. 
 
 throw of, 171. 
 
 adjustment, 171. 
 
 slip, 178. 
 
 leads for, 244-251. 
 
 timbers for, 250, 
 
 Switch and lock movement, 215. 
 Switch lamps, 192. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 259 
 
 Switch stands, 165. 
 
 high automatic, 188-190. 
 
 low automatic, 188-190. 
 
 for stub switches, 190. 
 
 jack-knife, 191. 
 
 harp, 191. 
 Switch-throw adjustment, 173. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tamping bar, 158. 
 Tape line, 1 54. 
 Testing water, 47. 
 Thomson joint, 110, 117.. 
 Ties, renewing 1 , 15. 
 
 tamping, 16. 
 
 inspection, 95. 
 
 sawed or hewed, 96. 
 
 time for cutting, 97. 
 
 preserving, 99. 
 
 metal, 99. 
 
 insulation, 100. 
 
 spacing, tamping, etc., 102. 
 
 weight, 229. 
 
 quantities per mile, 230. 
 Tie plates, 97. 
 Tile drain, 59. 
 
 shovel, 162. 
 Tools, 147. 
 
 care of, 164. 
 Track, inspection, 3. 
 
 walkers, 13. 
 
 signs, 35. 
 
 tank, "53. 
 
 jacks, 90-94. 
 
 bolts, 133. 
 
 chisel, 145. 
 
 gage, 153. 
 
 level, 153. 
 
 circuit, 226. 
 
 weight of bolts, 229. 
 
 quantities of bolts per mile, 
 
 230. 
 
 Trailing-point switches, 215. 
 Train signals, 197. 
 Trees near track, 2. 
 Trestle, 67. 
 
 ballasted, 70. 
 
 typical, 73. 
 
 erecting, 74. 
 
 U. 
 
 Union Switch & Signal Co., 
 switch- throw adjustment, 
 173. 
 
 banner signal, 226. 
 Unloading rails, 127. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vaughan spring- rail frog, 186. 
 Velocipede cars, 147. 
 Verona nut lock, 111. 
 
 W. 
 
 Warren nut lock, 112. 
 
 Watchmen, 13. 
 
 Water crane, Poage, 51. 
 
 Sheffield, 52. 
 
 pit, 52. 
 Water supply, 47. 
 
 pipe, 50. 
 
 tank, 49. 
 
 Watson & Stillman, rail bender, 
 141. 
 
 rail punch, 142. 
 
 spike slot punch, 145. 
 Way freights, use of, 11. 
 Weber joint, 118. 
 
 offset splice, 131. 
 Weeds, cutting, 15. 
 Weir Frog Co., rail brace, 137. 
 
 expansion device, 139. 
 
 reenforced switch, 172. 
 
 switch- throw adjustment, 
 
 173. 
 
 Whitewash, 41. 
 Widening gage on curves, 136. 
 Windmills, 48. 
 Winter work, 14. 
 Wire carriers, 219. 
 Wire fences, 20. 
 
 Page woven-wire, 20. 
 
 Ellwood woven-wire, 20. 
 
 McMullen woven-wire, 21. 
 
 barbed wire, 21. 
 
 expanded metal, 22. 
 Work trains, 11. 
 Wrecking force, 194. 
 Wrecks, duties at, 195. 
 Whistle signals, 199. 
 Wrenches, 155. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Alexander Car Replacer Mfg-. Co., 12 
 
 American Steel Foundry Co., 8 
 
 Bog-ue & Mills Mfg-. Co., 25 
 
 Bond Steel Post Co., 4 
 
 Boyer & Radford, 19 
 
 Brown, M. H 21 
 
 Bucyrus Co., The, . 24 
 
 Buda Foundry & Mfg-. Co., 13 
 
 Continuous Rail Joint Co. of America, 6 
 
 Duff Mfg-. Co., The, 18 
 
 Elliot Frog- & Switch Co., 28 
 
 Ellwood Mfg-. Co., The, I. L., . . 9 
 
 Eureka Nut Lock Co., 33 
 
 Eyeless Tool Co., The, 5 
 
 Fairbanks, Morse & Co. . 16, 17 
 
 Goodwin Car Co 23 
 
 Iron City Tool Works. Ltd-, 33 
 
 McMullen Woven Wire Fence Co., The, 10 
 
 Motley & Co., Thornton N., . . 35 
 
 Norton, A. O., 19 
 
 Oliver Iron & Steel Co., . 37 
 
 O'Neil Crossing Alarm Co., The, 26 
 
 Page Woven Wire Fence Co., 11 
 
 Pantasote Co., The, . . . 3(3 
 
 Pennsylvania Steel Co., The, . . 34 
 
 Poage, John N., 30, 31 
 
 Q & C Co., The, 1, 2, 3 
 
 Roberts, Throp & Co., 14, 15 
 
 Rodger Ballast Car Co., 22 
 
 Tudor Iron Works, 12 
 
 Union Switch & Signal Co., The, 27 
 
 Warren Lock Washer Co., 32 
 
 Watson-Stillman Co., The, 20 
 
 Weber Railway Joint Mfg-. Co., The, 7 
 
 Weir Frog- Co., 29 
 
CLASSIFIED INDEX TO ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 BALLAST CARS 
 
 Goodwin Car Co.. . .New York, N. Y. 
 
 Rodger Ballast Car Co. . . Chicago, 111. 
 BLOCK SIGNALS 
 
 Union Switch & Signal Co., The, 
 BOLTS AND NUTS Swissvale, Pa. 
 
 Motley & Co., Thornton N., New York. 
 
 Oliver Iron & SteelCo. Pittsburgh,Pa. 
 
 Tudor Iron Works St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 CAR REPLACERS 
 
 Alexander Car Replacer Mfg. Co. 
 
 Scranton, Pa. 
 
 Buda Fdy. & Mfg. Co. , .Harvey, 111. 
 
 Motley & Co. ,Thornton N. , New York. 
 CATTLE GUARDS 
 
 Fairbanks, Morse & Co. Chicago, 111. 
 CROSSING ALARMS 
 
 O'Neil Crossing Alarm Co., The, 
 
 Cleveland, O. 
 
 Union Switch & Signal Co., The, 
 CROSSING GATES Swissvale, Pa. 
 
 Bogue & Mills Mfg. Co. Chicago, 111. 
 CROSSINGS . 
 
 ElliotFrog&SwitchCo. E.St.LouisJH. 
 
 Pennsylvania Steel Co . . Steelton, Pa. 
 
 Union Switch & Signal Co., The, 
 
 Swissvale, Pa. 
 
 Weir Frog Co , Cincinnati, O. 
 
 DUMP CARS 
 
 Goodwin Car Co. , . .New York, N Y 
 
 Rodger Ballast .Car Co. .Chicago, III. 
 EXCAVATORS 
 
 Bucyrus Co., The..S. Milwaukee,Wis. 
 FENCES 
 
 Ellwood Mfg. Co., I. L. . .De Kalb, 111. 
 
 McMullen Woven Wire Fence Co* 
 
 Chicago., IU. 
 
 Page Woven Wire Fence Co. 
 FENCE POSTS Adrian, Mich. 
 
 Bond Steel Post Co Adrian, Mich 
 
 FROGS 
 
 ElliotFrog&SwitchCo. E.St.LouisJH. 
 
 Pennsylvania Steel Co .. Steelton, Pa. 
 
 Union Switch & Signal Co., The, 
 
 Swissvale, Pa. 
 
 Weir Frog Co Cincinnati, O. 
 
 HAND AND INSPECTION CARS 
 
 Buda Fdy. & Mfg. Co. . . .Harvey, 111. 
 
 Fairbanks, Morse & Co. Chicago, 111 
 
 Roberts, Throp & Co. 
 
 Three Rivers, Mich. 
 INTERLOCKING SIGNALS 
 
 Union Switch & Signal Co., The, 
 JACKS Swissvale, Pa. 
 
 Boyer & Radford Dayton, O. 
 
 Duff Mfg. Co., The.. .Allegheny, Pa. 
 
 Fairbanks, Morse & Co. Chicago. 111. 
 
 Motley & Co., Thornton N., New York. 
 
 A. O. Norton Boston, Mass. 
 
 Q & C Co. , The Chicago, 111. 
 
 Watson-Stillman Co., The, 
 
 New York, N. Y. 
 NUT LOCKS 
 
 Eureka Nut Lock Co. Pittsburgh,Pa. 
 
 Motley & Co., Thornton N., New York. 
 
 Oliver Iron &SteelCo. Pittsburgh,Pa. 
 
 WarrenLockWasherCo.Boston,Mass. 
 
 PANTASOTE 
 
 Pantasote Co., The, New York, N. Y. 
 PUSH CARS 
 
 Buda Fdy. & Mfg. Co. . . .Harvey, 111. 
 Fairbanks, Morse & Co. Chicago, 111. 
 Roberts, Throp & Co. 
 
 Three Rivers, Mich. 
 RAIL BENDERS 
 
 Brown, M. H New York, N. Y. 
 
 Buda Fdy. & Mfg. Co. . . .Harvey, 111. 
 Watson-Stillman Co., The, 
 
 New York, N. Y. 
 RAIL JOINTS 
 American Steel Fdy. Co. 
 
 St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Continuous Rail Joint Co. of Amer- 
 ica Newark, N. J. 
 
 Tudor Iron Works St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Weber Railway Joint Mfg. Co. , The, 
 
 New York, N. Y. 
 RAIL PUNCHES 
 Watson-Stillman Co., The, 
 
 New York, X. Y. 
 RAIL SAWS 
 
 Q & C Co., The Chicago, 111. 
 
 RAILS 
 
 Pennsylvania Steel Co .. Steelton, Pa. 
 SIGNAL POSTS 
 
 Bond Steel Post Co. . . .Adrian, Mich. 
 SPIKES 
 Motley & Co., Thornton N., New York. 
 
 Tudor Iron W T orks St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 SWITCHES 
 Elliot Frog & Switch Co. 
 
 E. St. Louis, III. 
 
 Pennsylvania Steel Co. .Steelton, Pa. 
 Union Switch & Signal Co., The, 
 
 Swissvale. Pa. 
 
 Weir Frog Co Cincinnati, O. 
 
 SWITCH STANDS 
 Buda Fdy. & Mfg. Co. . . .Harvey, 111. 
 Elliot Frog & Switch Co. 
 
 E. St. Louis, 111. 
 
 Pennsylvania Steel Co. .Steelton, Pa. 
 Union Switch & Signal Co., The, 
 
 Swissvale, Pa. 
 
 Weir Frog Co Cincinnati, O. 
 
 TANK VALVES 
 Fairbanks, Morse & Co. Chicago, 111. 
 
 Poage, John N Cincinnati, O. 
 
 TIE PLATES 
 Motley & Co., Thornton N., New York. 
 
 Q&CCo.,... Chicago, 111. 
 
 TRACK TOOLS 
 
 Buda Fdy. & Mfg. Co. . . .Harvey, 111. 
 Eyeless fool Co.,The, NewYork',N. Y. 
 Fairbanks, Morse & Co. Chicago, 111. 
 Iron City Tool Works, Ltd. 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Motley & Co., Thornton N., New York. 
 Oliver Iron & Steel Co. 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Q & C Co., The Chicago, 111. 
 
 WATER COLUMNS AND TANKS 
 Fairbanks, Morse & Co. Chicago, 111. 
 
 Poage, John N Cincinnati, O. 
 
 Motley & Co., Thornton N., New York. 
 
SERVIS TIE PLATE 
 
 L 
 
 Only Tie Plate in successful use for a period 
 of ten years 
 
 THK Q & C Co. 
 
 CHICAGO NEW YORK 
 
BRYANT RAIL SAW 
 
 TIIMIIE _^3ST3D 
 
 THE Q & C Co., 
 
 CHICAGO NEW YORK 
 
The Best is as 
 
 Good .as any 
 
 The.Q&C 
 Compound 
 Lever Jacks 
 
 MADE IN 19 SIZES 
 ALL PURPOSES 
 
 THE d H SELF-FEEDING RAIL D8ILL 
 
 Furnished with 
 
 OVER OR 
 
 UNDER-RAIL 
 
 CLAMPS 
 
 Will Drill a ^-inch Hole in Less 
 than One Minute 
 
 Q & C COMPANY 
 
 CHICAGO 
 NEW YORK 
 
STKBL BRIDGES 
 
 UNSAKK 
 
 IF MADE OF LIGHT INFERIOR STOCK. 
 
 BOND STEEL POSTS 
 
 R. R. Signals, Fences, &c., 
 
 are made on the 
 
 SAFE BRIDGE 
 PRINCIPLE. 
 
 HEAVY PLATES 
 
 BEST QUALITY STEEL 
 
 SCIENTIFICALLY PLANNED 
 
 HONESTLY MADE 
 
 They are covered inside and out with a coating which is not affected 
 by air or water, acids or alkali. Used by United States Government, 
 and many first-class railroads. Write for Circulars. 
 
 BOND STEEL POST CO. 
 
 ADRIAN, MICH. 
 
THE EYELESS TOOL CO. 
 
 26 CORTLANDT ST. 
 
 HEW YOHK, U. S. A. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 Eyeless Steel Picks 
 
 Standard Railroad Track Tccls 
 
 Machinists', Blacksmiths' 
 
 and Mining Tccls 
 
 OUR PRODUCT IS 
 
 GUARANTEED TO BE UNSURPASSED 
 
 in material, workmanship and general finish, and is 
 
 STANDARD 
 
 on many of the largest 
 
 RAILROAD SYSTEMS 
 
 in the United States. 
 
 TOOLS OF SPECIAL DESIGN 
 
 made to Railroad Companies' drawings. 
 
CONTINUOUS RAII, JOINT COMPANY 
 OF AMERICA 
 
 SOLE MANUFACTURERS 
 
 912 PRUDENTIAL BUILDING, NEWARK, N. J. 
 
 Patented in United States and Europe 
 
 Rail Joints, Step Joints and Insulating Joints 
 
 ALL OF THE CONTINUOUS PATENT TYPE 
 
 Rapidly Taking the Place of Angle Bars 
 
 In Successful Use on 78 Railroads 
 
 Connecting 85-Pound and 70-Pound Rail with the Continuous Step Joint 
 
 ROBERT GRAY, Jr., President L. F. BRAINE, General Manager 
 
 F. C. RUNYON, Secretary F. T. FEAREY, Treasurer 
 
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Established 1873 
 
 THE I. L ELLWOOD MFG. CO. 
 
 DE KALB, ILLINOIS 
 
 MANUFACTURERS AND CONTRACTORS OF 
 
 Steel Wire Railroad Fences 
 
 58 INCH. 
 
 '' A A//\ A\ A/ 
 
 ELLWOOD WOVEN RAILROAD FENCE (Standard Style) 
 
 GREATEST DURABILITY 
 
 GREATEST EFFICIENCY 
 
 GREATEST ECONOMY 
 
 Estimates promptly furnished and contracts taken in any part of the country for 
 RAILROAD FENCES, either Ellwood Woven Railroad fence, genuine Glidden Barb 
 Wire, or the two combined. 
 
 _ Can furnish everything or such part of the work and material only as may be 
 desired. Having several large Railway Fencing Outfits, our facilities for doing this 
 work quickly, satisfactorily and at the least possible cost are unequaled. All work and 
 material fully guaranteed. 
 
 43 PAGE CATALOGUE SENT ON APPLICATION. 
 
McMullen's Railroad Fencin 
 
 The above cut represents our Steel Wire Cable Fencing 
 
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 The above cut represents our Spring Steel Wire Fencing with horizontal 
 wires spirally curved 
 
 We make both of the above kinds of fencing in all the various 
 widths, and with narrow meshes at bottom, as desired. We can 
 also furnish them in especially heavy wire if desired. Corres- 
 pondence solicited. 
 
 THE MCMULLEN WOVEN WIRE FENCE Go. CHICAGO 
 
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TUDOR IRON WORKS 
 
 ST. LOUIS, MO. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 TRACK SPIKES, BOLTS AND SPLICES 
 BOAT SPIKES, BRIDGE BOLTS AND BLANK NUTS 
 BAR IRON AND STEEL 
 
 PRESSED STEEL CAR AND ENGINE REPLACER 
 
 THE BEST IK THE WORLD 
 
 GUARANTEED TO CARRY 100 TONS 
 
 SEHD FOR CIRCULAR 
 
 ALEXANDER CAR REPLACER MFG. CO. 
 
 SCRANTON, PA. 
 
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THE CYRUS ROBERTS 
 
 IMPROVED HAND CARS 
 
 EQUIPPED WITH improved Gallows Frame, which can be detached and removed 
 by simply loosening the Main Clamping Bolt and disconnecting Pitman Turnbuckle. 
 
 THE DRIVING MECHANISM can be thrown in or out of gear by means of our 
 Patented Slip Pinion. 
 
 THE ENTIRE GEARING is located beneath the Platform, so that in removing the 
 Gallows Frame the entire platform surface can be utilized for the uses of a regular 
 Push Car; has proven especially serviceable for track patrol as an emergency Car. 
 
 No. 1 Car. 
 
 IMPROVED BRAKE, giving much greater leverage than the ordinary pattern of brake. 
 THE DIAGONAL TRUSS RODS connected to each corner of the car, by means of 
 
 turnbuckle the car body can be kept squared properly, boxes kept in line, and all 
 
 twisting or "wringing" tendency of car frames, as found in all other types of light 
 
 cars, is entirely overcome. 
 THE STEEL PEDESTALS provide an unmovable seat for axle boxes and journals, 
 
 reducing friction. 
 
 ROLLER BEARINGS if desired. 
 THE RESULTS FROM ACTUAL TESTS show a great saving in power required 
 
 to propel our Car as compared with the ordinary type of Walking Beam Car. 
 
 ROBERTS, THROP & CO. 
 THREE RIVERS, MICH. 
 
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SECTION HAND CARS 
 
 LIGHTEST EASIEST RUNNING 
 MOST DURABLE 
 
 Pressed Steel Wheels, Machine Cut Gears, 
 Tapering Wheel Fit, no Keys required, 
 Largest variety of designs for all purposes 
 
 PUSH CARS, TRACKLAYING CARS, 
 VELOCIPEDES, GASOLINE 
 
 MOTOR CARS, CATTLE GUARDS 
 
 Track Levels, Gauges, Drills 
 FAIRBANKS, MORSE & Co. 
 
JACKS 
 
 AUTOMATIC LOWERING 
 JACK 
 
 For Track Work 
 
 Ballasting Bridge Gangs 
 
 Car Repairing, Oil Boxes, &c. 
 
 LARGE NUMBER OF MODIFICATIONS 
 
 TRIP" JACK 
 
 GASOLINE PUMPING ENGINES 
 IMPROVED STEAM PUMPS 
 
 IMPROVED WATER COLUMNS 
 TANKS AND FIXTURES 
 
 WATER STATIONS ERECTED 
 
 FAIRBANKS, MORSE & CO. 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 Cleveland 
 Cincinnati 
 Indianapolis 
 
 Louisville 
 St. Louis 
 St, Paul 
 
 Kansas City 
 
 Omaha 
 
 Denver 
 
 San Francisco 
 Los Angeles 
 Portland, Ore. 
 
THE BARRETT TRACK JACK 
 
 Recommended as a Standard by the 
 
 ROAD MASTERS' ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA 
 
 
 These Jacks are made with Malleable 
 Iron Frames, Steel Pawls, Machinery 
 Steel Bearings and Pivots, Forged Steel 
 Rack. The wearing parts are remov- 
 
 No. 2, Automatic 
 Lowering 
 
 able and readily renewable at slight 
 expense. The rectangular base gives 
 great lifting strength and fits into close 
 quarters better than other shaped 
 stands. Adaptable to either high or 
 low set loads. 
 
 The Barrett Jack is the safest, best 
 and strongest known to the railroad 
 world to-day. 
 
 Lifting capacity, 10 to 15 tons. 
 
 FOR CATALOGUE 
 
 AND PRICK LIST 
 APPLY TO 
 
 No. I. Trip 
 
 THE DUFF MAHUFACTURIHG Co. 
 
 Marion and Martin Avenues 
 
QUICK DROP TRACK JACK 
 
 No. 18 A Maxon Pat. 
 
 QUICK AND POSITIVE, SAFE AND DURABLE 
 
 IN CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Load can be raised or lowered one or two 
 notches at a time or dropped instantly. 
 
 Ratchet bars reinforced a full length by a ^ 
 inch iron bolt, which gives more rigidity and 
 s trength. Impossible to throw the track out of line. 
 
 Hardened steel bushings and pins 
 used. 
 
 SIZE OF BASE yx 12 INCHES. 
 
 SEUD FOR CATALOGUE AND DISCOUNTS. 
 
 MANUFACTURED BY 
 
 BOYER & BRADFORD 
 
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 THE GREATEST VALUE EVER OFFERED 
 IN A TRACK JACK 
 
 To THE ROADMASTERS OF AMERICA 
 
 Gentlemen .-Are you looking for a good SAFE Track 
 Jack, at a PRICE TO SUIT THE TIMES ? How would 
 something of this kind strike you for all round work ? 
 
 Say a Jack 24 inches high, to weigh 60 Ibs. light enough 
 
 for section work. 
 
 Capacity 10 tons powerful enough for ordinary yard work. 
 Raise of bar, 15 inches clear enough for ordinary ballasting 
 
 or new work, one Jack taking the place of tiuo. 
 Easy and positive trip cannot be Stuck under any condi- 
 
 tions. 
 
 With only Six (6) Pieces and Two (2) Pins in the whole Jack. 
 Thoroughly made of Malleable Iron and Steel throughout, wearing parts all Hardened 
 Steel Interchangeable. 
 
 IT IS 
 
 THE "NORTON" "SURE DROP," No. 5 
 
 THE NEAREST PERFECTION of any Jack made up to date 
 WE MAKE IT, YOU TAKE IT and TRY IT j IF YOU LIKE IT, BUY IT at $14.25 LIST. 
 
 This Jack, after trial in competition with all the leading Jacks, has been adopted as 
 standard by the Canadian Pacific Ry. Co. on its system. 
 
 A. O. NORTON, 167 Oliver St., BOSTON, MASS. 
 
CO 
 
 Bends, Straightens and Takes Kinks 
 out of Rails already laid 
 
 PERFECT for TAKING OUT SURFACE BENDS 
 
 Immediate Shipments. 
 
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 S 9 Size No. i for Tee Rails up to 45 Ibs. to yard. 
 " No. 2 " " 
 " No. 3 " " 
 " No. 4 " " 
 
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 45 " 65 " 
 65 90 
 90 " 115 
 
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 Also No. 4 machine fitted to order with steel dies 
 for bending street rails of ordinary or peculiar shape. 
 
RODGER BALLAST CARS 
 
 Showing track after unloading a train load of gravel. The distribut- 
 ing car was left off the rear of this train while unloading in order to show 
 the ridge of ballast left between the rails while unloading. * 
 
 Showing condition in which same track was left after the distributing 
 car had been run over it. The distributing car is always at rear of train 
 while unloading and always leaves track cleared and flanged as shown. 
 
 Por Illustrated Catalogue and further information address 
 
 RODGER BALLAST CAR Co. 
 
 1301 FISHER BUILDING 
 
 CHICAOO, 
 
23 
 
THE BU CYRUS COMPANY 
 
 SO. 
 
 BUILDERS OF 
 
 DREDGING AND 
 EXCAVATING 
 MACHINERY 
 
 EVERY 
 
 No. i . . . .12 tons 
 
 SIZE DIPPER 
 
 2 yards. 
 
 < 6 65 " 2y?. " 
 
 1 7 75 " 3 
 
 FOR FURTHER INFORMATION ADDRESS 
 
 THE BUCYRUS COMPANY 
 
 SO. MILWAUKEE, WIS. 
 
THE 'NEIL 
 
 HIGHWAY CROSSING ALARM 
 
 EIGHT YEARS SUCCESSFUL USE 
 
 on 40 of the trunk line railroads 
 has proven the O'NEIL HIGH- 
 WAY CROSSING ALARM to be 
 the cheapest and most economi- 
 cal and reliable safeguard known 
 for the protection of public high- 
 way crossings. 
 
 Their use on all dangerous and 
 obscure highway crossings would 
 save many valuable lives and 
 prove of great economy to all rail- 
 roads using them. 
 
 They are always on guard and 
 
 sure to sound the alarm on 
 
 approach of train. 
 
 WRITE FXDR FURTHER IN- 
 FORMATION. 
 
 THE O'NEIL CROSSING ALARM CO, 
 
 , OHIO 
 
 21! 
 
THE 
 
 SWITCH AND SIGNAL COMPANY 
 
 OF SWIS3YALE, ALLEGHENY COUNTY, PA, 
 
 IJ. S. A. 
 
 Designers and Manufactur- 
 ers of Interlocking and Block 
 Signal Appliances, Frogs, 
 Slips, Switches, Switch 
 Stands, etc. 
 
 Sole Manufacturers and Patent 
 Owners of the Westinghouse Elec- 
 tro Pneumatic Interlocking and 
 Block Signals ; Automatic Track 
 Circuit Block Signals of the Disc, 
 Banner or Semaphore patterns ; 
 Electric Locking ; The Union Block 
 and Lock System ; The Baker- 
 Knight Lock and Block System ; 
 Electric Crossing Alarm Bells; 
 Special Appliances for the protec- 
 tion of Draw-Bridges, Tunnels, etc. 
 
 In fact, everything in the Signal- 
 ing or Interlocking line. 
 
 Plans and Estimates furnished on 
 application. All Materials and 
 Workmanship guaranteed. 
 
Elliot Frog A Svritch Co. 
 
 EAST ST. LOUIS, ILLINOIS 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 Rigid and Spring Rail Frogs, Split Switches 
 of New and Improved Designs, Switch Stands. 
 Stub Switch Fixtures, etc. 
 
 StEEL CLAMP FROG 
 
 SLIP SWITCH CROSSINGS 
 
 Switches and Movable Points operated success- 
 fully by one HASTY-ELLIOT Switch 
 Stand. 
 
 THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCHES 
 
 operated by same Stand. It is simple and with 
 
 few pieces. We make the Stand High 
 
 or Low Pattern. 
 
 Make any other special work in Frogs, Cross- 
 ings and Switches from plans furnished. 
 
 CATALOGUE AND ESTIMATES FURNISHED ON APPLICATION 
 
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 DESIGN MO. 19 
 
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POAGE'S AUTOMATIC 
 WATER COLUMN 
 
 FOR TAKING WATER FROM WATER WORKS or TANKS 
 
 DISTINCTIVE 
 
 IT CLOSES ITS OWN VALVE WITHOUT CONCUSSION 
 
 ONE MAN OPERATES IT 
 
 IT WILL NOT FREEZE UP 
 
 IT IS AUTOMATIC IN ITS MOVEMENTS 
 
 CTOHIItT IDT. ZPO-A-O-IE 
 
 SOLE MANUFACTURER 
 CINCINNATI, OHIO 
 
POAGE'S TANK VALVES 
 
 WITH UNIVERSAL JOINT 
 
 CONNECTED WITH BOTTOM OR SIDE OF OPEN OR 
 ENCLOSED TANKS 
 
 Is raised and lowered the same as the common 
 
 tank valve. 
 
 It may be moved around laterally. 
 It has a perfect universal joint. 
 This construction obviates the necessity of bringing 
 
 the train exactly opposite the spout. 
 
 CTOIHIItT IsT. ZFOJLO-IE! 
 
 SOLE MANUFACTURER 
 CINCINNATI, OHIO 
 
IF YOU WANT ABSOLUTE SAFETY AND ECONOMY COMBINED, USE THE 
 
 WARREN LOCK WASHERS 
 
 Six years in use by the railroads alone is sufficient proof of their great 
 merit; besides the numerous other consumers who have used large quan- 
 tities. Workmanship first class. Made of fine steel. Every Washer 
 warranted. Tons in use. 
 
 For track, iron and wooden 
 bridges, trestles, ma- 
 chinery, cars, 
 locomotives, 
 etc. 
 
 WARREN LOCK 
 
 WITH BOLT GRIP. 
 
 WASHER POP WOOD. 
 
 SHOWING GRIPTONGUES 
 
 AND TEETH THAT 
 ENGAGE: THE BOLT. 
 
 SHOWING PROJECTING 
 POINTS THAT ENTER. 
 
 The only general utility and positive lock washer that can be relied 
 on. Savers 25 per cent, in common washers, check nuts and extra length 
 of bolt. Can be used many times. Easy to apply and remove. 
 
 MCH AND PEEN 
 
 ^ N HAMMER 
 A* EALLT H TOOL* NEED,, 
 
 PRICES RIGHT SAMPLES FREE CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED 
 
 Refer to: New York Central, Boston & Maine, Boston & Albany, Concord & 
 Montreal, Boston & Lowell, and many others 
 
 TO 
 
 WARREN LOCK WASHER CO. 
 
 CHAS. H. WARREN, Mgr. 
 Washington and Norfolk Sts., Dorchester District, BOSTON, MASS. 
 
IRON CITY TOOL WORKS, Ltd. 
 
 PITTSBURGH 
 
 Makers of Standard R. R. Track Tools 
 
 THE 
 
 BEST 
 
 TRACK 
 
 TOOLS 
 
 ffyoo Want^e 
 
 BEST TOOLS 
 
 FROM 
 
 CITY 
 
 Made frofn Special 
 'I CRUCIBL SPRING STEZ 
 Cannot be 
 
 fffVfft KNOW ft .TO rAll,' 
 ttl IOOU OB WOOOWORK * 
 
 THE 
 
 BEST 
 
 N UX 
 
 LOCK 
 
 THE STRONGEST SPRING LOCK EVER MADE 
 
 Far exceeds any device ever used for holding nuts 
 
 and bolts secure on track joints, cars, car 
 
 trucks, bridges, engines, etc. 
 
 NUT LOCK: 
 
THE PENNSYLVANIA STEEL GO. 
 
 STEELTON, PENNA. 
 
 D A 1 1 C A " PATTERNS & SIZES 
 
 t\ f\ I L O for Steam & Elec, Roads 
 
 BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS 
 
 FROGS 
 
 AND 
 
 GROSSINGS 
 
 FOR ALL KINDS OF TRACKS. Special designs of extreme durability and 
 safety. Several other designs of less cost: also several kinds of SLIPS 
 (combining Crossing and Switches) and fixtures for same. 
 
 SPLIT OR POINT SWITGHES 
 
 with the usual number of connecting bars of various patterns now "standard " 
 on many roads. Some with parts of SOLID IRON, machine forged, that are else- 
 where welded. Some with point rails variously reenforced ; also our Soeclal 
 Switch (see sectional view) with point rails STIFFENED 
 by special angle, requiring only one connecting bar, 
 adjustable as shown, or plain. 
 
 THREE-THROW (DOUBLE THROW) SPLIT SWITCHES 
 
 of various patterns. Valuable for Three Way Turnouts. 
 
 IMPROVED SWITCH STANDS 
 
 This Low Target Stand is an es'pecial favorite for use in 
 yard tracks, where the low down weighted lever, parallel 
 to track, easy to handle, holding switch secure, makes it 
 extremely convenient. Is also widely used for main 
 tracks. Another favorite is the LONG SAFETY STAND, 
 which lets train through trailing, but holds switch to the position, as locked, 
 for either track, and detects any obstruction in switch. Various other patterns 
 of Upright Stands, Ground Levers, etc. 
 
 GUARD RAIL CLAMP 
 
 Secures the Guard Rail immovably on main 
 track rail. Variable flangeway, for various 
 gauges or to compensate for wear of guard 
 rail. Applied without drilling of main track 
 rail. 
 
 WROUGHT IRON STUB SWITCH TIE BARS, for all sizes of Rail, 
 RAIL BRACES of Pressed Steel, RAIL BENDERS with Racket Wrench, 
 
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