(Jc 
 
 /r 
 
 oL- 
 
 4^i<^~ 
 
 cstn^ 
 
 / 
 
 *V~^> 
 
 f^ t 
 
 (k-*-*- - 
 
 
 - 
 
 
a 
 
 /* 
 
 ', 
 
 ff 
 
 
 - 
 
m 
 
 NORMAL DEVELOPERS FOR CRAMER PLATES. 
 
 PYRO DEVELOPER. 
 
 PYRO SOLUTION. 
 
 2 drachms Oxalic Acid Solution, (i part Oxalic Acid to 10 Water.). 
 i ounce Pyrogallic Acid, 
 15 ounces Water. 
 
 ALKALINE SOLUTION. 
 
 Water 60 ounces, 
 
 Sulphite of Sodium 5 ounces dried or 10 ounces crystals, 
 
 Carbonate of Sodium 2\ ounces dried or 5 ounces crystals, 
 
 f Sulphite of Soda Solution Hydrometer test 80] 
 
 or by Hydrometers > equal parts. 
 
 [ Carbonate of Soda Solution test 40 J 
 
 The Sulphite of Sodium and Alkaline Solutions must be kept in well stoppered bottles, 
 as they deteriorate by contact with air. 
 
 Mix in the following proportions for immediate use : 
 
 FOR WINTER. FOR SUMMER. 
 
 Alkaline Solution i oz. I 
 
 10 OZ " Water.... *<* 
 
 Alkaline Solution 2 oz. I 
 
 Water 8 oz. J 
 
 Pyro Solution i oz. 
 
 Pyro Solution , l.i oz . 
 
 always using twice as much Alkaline as Pyro Solution. 
 
 All developers work best at a temperature of 60 to 70 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 A more concentrated developer v/orks fast and with much contrast. A diluted de- 
 veloper works slower but with finer detail and is best for short exposures. A developer 
 which is too concentrated or too warm produces fog, unless it is restrained by the ad- 
 dition of a few drops of a 10 per cent Bromide of Potassium Solution. 
 
 EIKONOGEN DEVELOPER. 
 
 f Eikonogen i ounce 
 
 No. i. < Water 60 ounces 
 
 I Sulphite of Soda i ounces dry, or 3 ounces crystals 
 
 OR BY HYDROMETER, 
 
 Eikonogen i ounce 
 
 Water 50 ounces 
 
 Sulphite of Soda Solution, Test 80 10 ounces 
 
 Carbonate of Potassium i ounce 
 
 Water .'.. .40 ounces. t^l 
 
 For use : 3 parts No. I, i part No. 2. 
 
 No. 2. { 
 
 This developer keeps well and works best after 'being used a few times. It may 
 be left in the dish, immersing the plates therein, and occasionally adding fresh solution, 
 which should be cool in summer and moderately warm in winter. Pour the developer 
 back into the'bottle when the day's work is done. 
 
 When starting with fresh solution add some of the old, or, if no old is on 
 hnnd, adcl to 20 ounces fresh solution 10 minims (or drops) Bromide of Po- 
 tassium solution (1 to 10) 
 
 ALWAYS DEVELOP THE PLATE FAR ENOUGH TO INSURE GOOD PRINTING DENSITY. 
 
 USE MALUNCKRODT'S C. P. SULPHITE AND CARBONATE OF SODA. 
 

 
 SOME'OTHER 
 
 Photographic Publications. 
 
 Selected from Scovill's Catalogue of Books. 
 
 Price, 
 Per Copy. 
 
 ART RECREATIONS. A guide to decorative art. Ladies' popular guide in home 
 
 decorative work. Edited by MARION KEMBLE $2 oo 
 
 THE FERROTYPERS' GUIDE. Cheap and complete. For the ferrotyper, this 
 
 is the only standard work. Seventh thousand 75 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIOS OF EUROPE. By H. BADEN PRITCHARD, 
 
 F.C.S. Paper, 50 cts. ; Cloth i oo 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC MANIPULATION. Second edition. Treating of the practice 
 
 of the art and its various applications to nature. By LAKE PRICE i 50 
 
 HISTORY AND HAND-BOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY. Translated from the 
 
 French of Gaston Tissandier, with seventy illustrations. Cloth 2 50 
 
 AMERICAN CARBON MANUAL. For those who want to try the carbon print- 
 ing process, this work gives the most detailed information. Cloth 2 oo 
 
 MANUAL DE FOTOGRAFIA. By AUGUSTUS LE PLONGEON. (Hand-Book for 
 
 Spanish Photographers.) Reduced to TOO 
 
 SECRETS OF THE DARK CHAMBER.- By D. D. T. DAVIE i oo 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHER'S GUIDE. By JOHN TOWLER, M.D. A text-book for 
 
 the Operator and Amateur i 50 
 
 A COMPLETE TREATISE ON SOLAR CRAYON PORTRAITS AND 
 TRANSPARENT LIQUID WATER-COLORS. By J. A. BARHYDT. Practical 
 ideas and directions given. Amateurs will learn ideas of color from this book 
 that will be of value to them. And any one by carefully following the directions 
 on Crayon, will be able to make a good Crayon Portrait 50 
 
 THE BRITISH JOURNAL ALMANAC FOR 1888 5 o 
 
 PHOTO. NEWS YEARBOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY for 1888 50 
 
 CANOE AND CAMERA. A Photographic tour of two hundred miles through 
 
 Maine forests. By THOMAS SEDGWICK STEELE. Illustrated i 50 
 
 PADDLE AND PORTAGE. By THOMAS SEDGWICK STEELE i 50 
 
 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTOR OF PHOTO-SNGRAVING AND ZINC ETCH- 
 ING PROCESSES. By ALEX. F. W. LESLIE 5C 
 
 PHOTO-ENGRAVING on Zinc and Copper in Line and Half-Tone, and PHOTO- 
 LITHOGRAPHY. A Practical Manual, by W. T. WILKINSON. Cloth bound. 2 oo 
 
 SOME PHOTOGRAPHIC REFERENCE BOOKS. 
 
 Selected from Scovill's Catalogue of Books. Price, 
 
 Per Copy. 
 
 AMERICAN HAND-BOOK OF THE DAGUERREOTYPE.-By S. D. HUM- 
 PHREY. (Fifth Edition.) This book contains the various processes employed in 
 
 taking Heliographic impressions ]0 
 
 THE NEW PRACTICAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ALMANAC. Edited by J. H. 
 
 FlTZGIBBON t 2 S 
 
 MOSAICS FOR 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1875, 1878, 1882, 1883, 1884 each, 25 
 
 BRITISH JOURNAL ALMANAC FOR 1878,1882,1887 " 
 
 PHOTO. NEWS YEAR-BOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY FOR 1871, 1882, 1887... . 25 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHER'S FRIEND ALMANAC FOR 1873. 
 
FORM F. D. 12 H. 
 
 NOTE. These directions are intended for those somewhat skilled in the art. Absolute 
 novices should read Kodak " Manuals " in order to learn the details of development. 
 
 DEVELOPING 
 
 Eastman's 
 
 Transparent Films 
 
 PREPARATION FOR DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 Eastman's Transparent Films should all be treated in the same manner 
 chemically, but as they are spooled differently, the preparation and method 
 of handling in development vary somewhat. Briefly, the methods of manipu- 
 lation are as follows : 
 
 KODAK CARTRIDGE FILMS. 
 
 We recommend the development of cartridge films in the strip. The 
 operator can readily handle a 12 exposure strip (as described in Section I) up 
 to and including the 3% x 4^ size. In the larger sizes those desiring to follow 
 the strip method of development should use the 6 exposure cartridges if they 
 find the longer ones cannot be conveniently handled. 
 
 If the operator prefers to cut up the cartridge film before development, he 
 should carefully follow the directions given in Section II., or better still, should 
 provide himself with an Eastman Film Cutting Board. See price list, page 4. 
 
 ROLL HOLDER CARTRIDGES. 
 
 Roll Holder Cartridges are always to be developed in the strip. In order 
 to facilitate this method of development the films are perforated at a point 
 midway between exposures 6 and 7, at which point the film may be cut and 
 each half developed separately. In the smaller sizes, however, the operator 
 will usually prefer to handle the entire strip at once, in which case he need pay 
 no attention to the perforations. In the 4x5 and 5x7 sizes it is advisable to 
 cut the ffim at the perforations. Development is to be carried on as directed in 
 Section I. 
 
 OLD STYLE FILMS. 
 
 All of the old style Kodaks (including the ABC series) and Roll Holders 
 perforate the films between each exposure. With such films the exposures 
 may be cut apart and developed singly or may be divided into convenient 
 lengths for strip development, of course, chitting the strips at points where 
 perforations occur. 
 
SECTION I. 
 
 STRIP DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 a. Unroll the film and detach the entire strip of film from 
 the black paper, taking care not to touch the face of the film in 
 so doing. 
 
 b. Pass the film, face down, through the tray of clean cold 
 water, as shown in cut, holding one end in each hand. Pass 
 through the water several times, that there may be no bubbles 
 remaining on -film. When it is thoroughly wet, with no air 
 bubbles, place the strip of film in a pail or wash-bowl of clean 
 cold water which is large enough so that the film may be 
 immersed fully without folding tightly enough to crack it. 
 
 c. Now prepare the developer (see Section III.) and pass the 
 film through it in the same manner as described for wetting it, 
 and shown in cut. Keep it constantly in motion, and in about 
 one minute the high lights will begin to darken and you will 
 readily be able to distinguish the unexposed sections between 
 the negatives. If the negatives develop evenly, development 
 may be completed before cutting them apart. 
 
 d. If some of the negatives flash up more quickly than the 
 
 others, cut the negatives apart with a pair of shears and place them in a tray of clear 
 water. The negatives may now be immersed in tiie developer one at a time and developed 
 in the usual manner. 
 
 SECTION II 
 
 CUTTING UP KODAK CARTRIDGE FILMS. 
 
 If it is desired to cut up the film before 
 development, care must be taken that the end 
 be not allowed to roll up over the paper. The 
 exposures should be cut apart with the paper 
 on top. 
 
 RIGHT. 
 
 Fig. I. shows a Kodak cartridge unrolled 
 with the film on top. To correct this, simply 
 turn back the film, as indicated by the dotted 
 lines, thus bringing the film under the paper, 
 Fig. II. Pocket Kodak, No. 2 (3>^ x 3>) and No. 
 4 (4 x 5) Bulls-Eye films are to be cut by the 
 marks appearing midway between the figures 
 in the center of the black paper. No. 1, No. 1 A 
 and No. 3 Folding Pocket Kodak and the Cartridge Kodak films are to be cut at points 
 where numbers occur, as indicated by marks on edges of black paper. 
 
 For cutting up Panoram-Kodak Films see Special Instructions in Manuals. 
 
 "With the No. 4 Bullet and Bulls-Eye Films pay no attention to marks 0:1 the same edge 
 of black paper with the letters A, B, etc., except when used in Panoram-Kodak. 
 
SECTION III. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 Except when handled in the strip Transparent Films must be kept face down in all of 
 the solutions in order to avoid curling. Otherwise their treatment is the same as glass 
 
 TO DEVELOP TAKE 
 
 *One pair Eastman's Hydrochinon Developer Powders. Water, 4 ozs. 
 
 *See price list. 
 
 RESTRAINER. 
 
 Bromide of Potash, 1 oz. Water, 6 ozs. 
 
 Restrainer is to be used only in case of over-exposure. 
 
 Use 5 to 15 drops in 4 ozs. of developer according to amount of over-exposure. 
 As soon as developed rinse in three changes of water and transfer to a saturated 
 solution of common alxim for 2 minutes, then rinse again and fix. 
 
 FIXING SOLUTION. 
 
 Hyposulphite of Soda, 4 ozs. Water, 16 ozs. 
 
 If a number of films are fixed together in one tray they should be put in one at a time, 
 face down, to avoid scratching or cutting the sensitive side by contact with the sharp corners. 
 After fixing, wash thoroughly, then immerse for five minutes in the 
 
 SOAKING SOLUTION. 
 
 Water, 32 ozs. Glycerine, 1 oz. 
 
 t3i^Use no alcohol in Soaking Solution. 
 
 Remove from Soaking Solution and pin by corners on board to dry spontaneously. 
 
 Any tear drops of the Soaking Solution should be removed with a bit of blotting paper 
 or absorbent cotton. When the negative is thoroughly dry, wipe the back with a soft cloth. 
 
 The object of the Soaking Solution is to prevent the film, from curling when dry. The 
 negative must not be rinsed after the Soaking Solution. 
 
 13^ Always keep finished negatives fiat do not roll them up. An Eastman Indexed 
 Negative Album keeps them flat and in perfect order. 
 
 All solutions must be used ice cold. A piece of ice should be kept in the hypo. bath. 
 
 Complaints regarding faulty films must always be accompanied by the emulsion number. 
 
 The foregoing formula will be found particularly desirable for the amateur as East- 
 man's Hydrochinon Developer Powders do not stain the fingers. If, however, the photog- 
 rapher desires to mix his own developer, the following may be substituted, all the other 
 operations remaining the same as when Hydrochinon is used : 
 
 PYRO FORMULA. 
 
 Pyrogallic Acid Solution. Soda Solution. 
 
 Pyrogallic Acid, % ounce. Sulphite of Soda (crystals >, 6 ounces. 
 
 Sulphurous Acid, 20 Minims. Carbonate of Soda (.crystals), 4 ounces. 
 
 Water, 32 ounces. Water, 32 ounces. 
 
 TO DEVELOP, taKe 
 
 Pyro Solution, 1 oz. ; Soda Solution, 1 oz. ; Water, 2 ozs. 
 
 If desired, Eastman's Pyro Powders can be substituted for above Pyro formula and 
 used in same manner as described for Hydrochinon PowdersT (See price list.) 
 
 DATING FILM. 
 
 After a test extending over a period of eight years, the success of our system of dating 
 film has been fully demonstrated. Each package is labeled with the date beyond which it 
 will not be replaced, in cases of deterioration, thus : 
 
 Customers can thus tell at a glance just 
 how much time remains in which to use and 
 develop the film. After the date on the 
 label, film should nof be put to any important 
 
 30-SENSITOMETER. 
 
 NOTICE. This film must be devel- 
 oped before 
 
 use without testing. 
 
 Film that is incapable of making good 
 negatives will always be replaced free of 
 
 charge, provided it is returned to us prior to ' 
 
 the date on the label. But no film will be exchanged simply because it has become old. on 
 the customer's hands. 
 
 Recognizing the fact that films, like all highly sensitized products, are liable to deterior- 
 ate to a greater or less extent with age, we have established the above rules for the protec- 
 tion of consumers of, dealers in and manufacturers of Eastman's Transparent Film. 
 
 NOTE. By our method of film making, which years of experience'has shown to be the only practicable method of 
 turning out superior and reliable film, a joint occurs once in about twenty feet. This joint sometimes comes in the 
 middle of a roll of film where it is impossible to cut it out, thus causing one slight ridge across the film. Although 
 sometimes quite noticeable in the negative this joint will rarely show in the finished print. In case it Hoes the defect 
 can be easily remedied by scraping down the ridge on the back of the negative with a knife, or better yet, a bit of 
 pumice stone. 
 
U 
 H 
 
Tonn S. D. 7B. Feb. 1, 1899. 
 
 PP^ USE THE SOLIO HARDENER IN FIXING BATH USED WITH 
 
 THIS PAPER. _ 
 
 . . . DIRECTIONS FOR USING . . . 
 EASTMAN'S SOLTO PAPER 
 
 SEPARATE BATH FORMULA. 
 
 Wash in 5 or 6 changes of water or sufficient to remove the free silver. 
 
 Tone in a plain gold bath, using about i gr. of gold to 48 oz. of water. 
 Neutralize by adding a saturated solution of borax, bi-carbonate of soda or 
 sal soda. 
 
 When toned, immerse prints in running water where they may remain until 
 all are ready for the fixing. 
 
 If running water cannot be had put prints into 
 
 SHORT Salt, - i oz. 
 
 STOP : Water, - i gal. 
 
 If there is a large batch of prints to be toned do not allow prints to lie in 
 short stop solution, but put them into a tray containing clear water where they 
 may remain until all are ready for the fixing. 
 
 Fix Twenty Minutes in 
 
 Water, ... x gal. 
 
 Hypo, - - 13 oz. 
 
 Solio Hardener, - % oz. 
 
 To Mix with Hydrometer, take water i gal., add sufficient Hypo to test 
 25 gr. to the oz., and add l / 2 oz. of SOLIO Hardener. 
 
 On account of its simplicity and cheapness, we advise the SOLIO Hardener 
 Fixing Bath, but give the alum fixing bath for the benefit of those who prefer it, 
 
 Hyposulphite of Soda, - - 6 oz. 
 
 Alum Crystals), - - - 2 ^ oz. 
 
 RTH Sulphite of Soda (Crystals), - % oz. 
 
 BATH : water, - 7 o oz, 
 
 When dissolved add % oz. of borax dissolved in 10 oz. 
 
 hot water. 
 
 This fixing bath must be made about 10 hours before use. As it keeps 
 indefinitely before use it may be made up in large quantities. 
 
 "Wash i hour in running cold water or in 16 changes of cold water, keeping 
 prints separated so the water may have a chance to eliminate the chemicals. 
 
 DETAILS. 
 
 The toning bath should tone in 6 or 7 minutes. 
 
 Tone by transmitted light for the high lights and half tones only, paying no 
 attention whatever to the shadows. 
 
 We recommend a neutral bath and advise the use of Squibb's red litmus to 
 test with. 
 
 If the bath tones uneven or streaky, add water until it tones in 8 or 10 
 minutes, and make it slightly alkaline. 
 
 One gallon of fixing bath is sufficient for i gross cabinet size SOLIO or its 
 equivalent. 
 
 l^To Make SOLIO Hardener: 
 
 Chloride of Aluminum, - 3 oz. 
 
 Bi-Sulphite of Soda, - 2J/ oz. 
 
 Cold Water, - - 12 oz. 
 
 Put both chemicals in the water and shake until dissolved. 
 
 SOLIO HARDENER POWDERS. It is important that properly tested 
 chemicals should be used in mixing the SOLIO Hardener, as otherwise the 
 desired results may not be secured. We shall, therefore, put up in convenient 
 powder form, the amount of chemicals required to make 16 ounces of the SOLIO 
 Hardener at 40 cents each. 
 
COMBINED TONING BATH. 
 
 Stock J Hyposulphite of Soda, 8 oz. 
 
 Solution : -f*- Alum, (Crystals) - 6 oz. 
 
 Sugar, (granulated), 2 oz. 
 
 Water, - - 80 oz. 
 
 Dissolve above in cold -wafer, and 
 When dissolved add Borax, 2 oz. 
 Dissolved in hot water, 8 oz. 
 
 Let stand over night and decant clear liquid. 
 
 Stock r> Pure Chloride of Gold, - 7 V& grains.* 
 
 Solution : ' -*-* Acetate of Lead, (Sugar of Lead), 64 graii.s. 
 Water, - 8 oz. 
 
 Solution B should be shaken up before using and not filtered. 
 To tone J5 Cabinets take: 
 
 Stock Solution A, - - 8 oz. 
 
 Stock Solution B, ... ! oz. 
 
 Place prints without previous washing into the above. 
 
 Tone to desired color and immerse prints for 5 minutes in following Salt 
 Solution to stop the toning. 
 
 Salt, - - - x oz. 
 
 Water, - - 3:' oz. 
 
 The extra fixing bath should be used to ensure thorough fixing. 
 
 After the salt bath give one change of cold water and fix for 10 minutes 
 in the 
 
 EXTRA Hyposulphite of Soda, i oz. 
 
 FIXING Sulphite of Soda, (Crystals) - 60 grains. 
 
 BATH : Borax, - - ^ oz. 
 
 Water, - 20 oz. 
 
 Wash i hour in running cold water or in 16 changes of cold water, when 
 prints may be mounted same as albumen prints. 
 
 The combined bath must be used cold, not above 50' Fahr. This condition 
 can be obtained by placing a piece of ice in the bath when toning. If the bath is 
 too warm, it will cause yellow prints with a greenish cast in the half tones. 
 
 Use a Thermometer and keep it in toning bath all the time. 
 
 The combined bath is an acid soulution. The borax neutralizes only the 
 excess of acid in the alum. Any attempt to neutralize the bath wilf precipitate 
 the alum. 
 
 The combined bath should not be used a second time. 
 
 Clean Trays once a week with nitric acid or sulphuric acid and water to 
 prevent white spots or blotches on the prints. 
 
 *Or double the quantity of chloride of gold and sodium. 
 
s allowed to stand over night in water are liable to turn yellow, 
 they should be mounted as soon as washed. 
 
 GLACE FINISH. Clean the ferrotype plate with warm water each time it 
 is used. Polish with a soft cloth until plate is absolutely free from dirt or specks 
 of any description. Swab with a tuft of soft cloth or cotton batting wet with a 
 solution composed of benzine i oz., paraffin 10 gr. Rub dry with a clean cloth 
 .and polish with a chamois skin or very soft cloth. Use a soft brush to remove 
 particles of dust. Then squeegee the wet print on to the plate and rub down 
 with a dry blotter. The print must be in perfect contact to produce a uniform 
 and even surface. This can be obtained by placing a piece of cotton or rubber 
 cloth over the print and using a small print roller to rub down. 
 
 MOUNTING. The prints may be mounted with starch paste in the 
 ordinary manner ; use dry Castile soap for lubricator, or, if it is desired to mount 
 them with glace surface, the back of the print when nearly dry should be brushed 
 over with very thin solution of pure, white glue, after being well filtered. Use 
 a camel's hairbrush. When thoroughly dry the print should be stripped from 
 the ferrotype plate. To mount moisten card with a wet sponge. Place print in 
 proper position and rub down. 
 
 SPOTTING. The solution given below will prevent the spotting ink from 
 rubbing off in the burnisher, and will give a gloss equal to balance of print. 
 
 Solution A, Alcohol, i oz.; Thymol, 4 gr. 
 
 Solution B, - Water, i oz.; Gelatine, 15 gr.; A solution, i dr. 
 
 Heat Solution B at not over 120 Fahr. until thoroughly dissolved. 
 
 For use, mix with the spotting brush Solution B with the color and if too 
 thick the brush may be dampened with water or saliva. 
 
 To Gut Gold. Those who desire to cut their own gold can make Stock 
 Solution B as follows for the combined bath : 
 
 Metallic Gold, - i pennyweight. 
 
 Nitric Acid, ----- l dram. 
 
 Muriatic Acid, ------- 3 drams. 
 
 When cut add water 48 oz. and then add sufficient Bi Carbonate of Soda to 
 almost neutralize, leaving the solution slightly ac-id. Filter, and add 384 grains 
 Acetate of Lead. 
 
SOLIO PRICES. 
 
 JANUARY ist, 1899. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Groe.. 
 
 ' 
 
 3K 
 
 x 4> ... 
 
 2 
 
 .20 
 
 4 
 
 x 5, . ' . 
 
 2 " 
 
 
 2X 
 
 x 3^ Carte De V., 
 
 2 " 
 
 .20 
 
 3 
 
 x 4 Mantello, 
 
 2 " 
 
 .20 
 
 *3% 
 
 x 5 l / 2 Cabinet, 
 
 I " 
 
 -2C 
 
 4 
 
 x 6, ... 
 
 
 .20 
 
 5 
 
 x 7, ... 
 
 I ' 
 
 .30 
 
 5 
 
 x 8, ... 
 
 1 ' 
 
 .30 
 
 5K 
 
 y 73// 
 
 I 
 
 
 6 
 
 x 8, ... 
 
 I " 
 
 
 6K 
 
 x 8^, 
 
 1 
 
 
 7 
 
 x 9, ... 
 
 I " 
 
 .50 
 
 8 
 
 x ib, 
 
 1 4< 
 
 .60 
 
 10 
 
 X 12, ... 
 
 I 
 
 .90 
 
 ii 
 
 x 14, ... 
 
 ! 
 
 1.20 
 
 14 
 
 X I/, ... 
 
 
 i. So 
 
 20 
 
 x 24, . . . M < 
 
 &*. $1.85 I " 
 
 3.50 
 
 I.OC 
 I.OC 
 
 I-J' 
 
 1.60 
 
 *i.6o 
 
 i73 
 
 3.00 
 
 1.90 
 
 3.25 
 
 
 4.00 
 
 
 4.25 
 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 6.50 
 
 
 1000 
 
 7^0 
 
 13 oo 
 
 a so 
 
 20.00 
 
 0.50 
 
 40.00 
 
 Cabinet Seconds, $M O per gross. 
 
 4x5 mmed), i.oo 
 
 10 yd. Roll, (26 in. wide untrimmed), $4.50 
 
 10 ft Roll, do. $1.75. 
 
 ; vd. Roll, da $2.50 
 
 STANDARD CABINET SIZR -This size will be furnished on all order, for" 
 
 no special size is mentioned. 
 
 SOLIO SUPPLIES. 
 
 Concentrated toning and fixing solution. 
 
 8 Oz. Bottle of Solution, k W I u r i 
 
 * M i H r al Bottle of ****JE 
 
 Solio Hardener 
 
 8 Oz. Bottle of Solution, 
 Powder to make 16 oz. of Solution 
 
 $ Sa j 
 40 
 
 GaL Bott>e of Solution, 
 
 $500 
 
 11 75 
 
 EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY, 
 
 London, Paris, Berlin. 
 
 Rochester, N. Y. 
 
THE 
 
 Photographic Instructor, 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 PROFESSIONAL AND AMATEUR, 
 
 BEING THE COMPREHENSIVE SERIES OF PRACTICAL LESSONS ISSUED TO THE 
 STUDENTS OF THE CHAUTAUQUA SCHOOL OF PHOTOGRAPHY, 
 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED, i * 
 
 -re. A<( '' 
 
 EDITED BY ** ' 
 
 W. I. LINCOLN ADAMS, 
 
 II 
 
 Editor of the PHOTOGRAPHIC TIMES. 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX ON THE NATURE AND USE OF THE VARIOUS CHEMICALS 
 AND SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED IN PHOTOGRAPHIC PRACTICE. 
 
 BY 
 
 Prof. CHARLES EHRMANN, 
 
 Instructor of tht Chautauqua School of Photography. 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 
 SCOVILL MANUFACTURING COMPANY, 
 428 BROOME STREET. 
 
 1888. ' 
 
COPYRIGHT, 
 
 1888. 
 BY THE SCOVILL MANUFACTURING COMPANY. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 IN the autumn of 1 886 the authorities of the Chautauqua 
 University recognized the growing demand for photographic 
 knowledge by establishing a school of photography in accord- 
 ance with Chautauqua ideas and as an integral part of the 
 great university. 
 
 Prof. Charles Ehrmann was chosen the instructor of the 
 school, and The Photographic Times its organ. Practical in- 
 struction was given during the assembly season, the following 
 summer, at the Chautauqua grounds, and corresponding classes 
 were formed which regularly received the printed lessons by 
 mail, and the written criticism of work sent to Prof. Ehrmann 
 for that purpose, with his advice and suggestions, supplemen- 
 tary to the printed lessons, as the peculiar needs of individual 
 students seemed to require. Provision was made for answer- 
 ing all questions of the students, by number, in a department 
 devoted to that purpose in the The Photographic Times, and 
 the school rapidly grew in numbers, influence, and usefulness. 
 It has now become an important department of the great 
 Chautauqua University, with representatives from nearly every 
 State in the Union, with a few even from abroad, and a repu- 
 tation which has extended to countries beyond the sea. 
 
 Local classes for practical instruction at the school's head- 
 quarters, New York, during the autumn, winter, and spring, 
 have recently been started, and with entire success ; so that 
 now, personal, oral, and demonstrative teaching is given by 
 the instructor of the school during the four seasons of the 
 year, besides the written and printed instruction which is 
 
 309255 
 
^ 4 I 
 PREFACE. 
 
 mailed to a much larger number during the entire twelve 
 months. It was the great practical value of these printed 
 lessons, written as they were by authorities on the various sub- 
 jects of which they treated, that suggested the advisability of 
 issuing them in the permanent and convenient form whicli 
 their usefulness seemed so justly to deserve. 
 
 Carefully revised, rearranged, and enlarged, they have, there- 
 fore, been herein collected, with an appendix added, on the 
 nature and use of the various chemicals and substances em- 
 ployed in photographic practice, by Prof. Ehrmann, and some 
 tables, with other photographic information taken from " The 
 American Annual of Photography and the Photographic 
 Times Almanac." To Prof. Ehrmann is also due the credit 
 for contributing most of the lessons in this book, for he 
 originally wrote the greatest part of them. 
 
 Mr. Charles Wager- Hull, Superintendent of the School, 
 wrote several of the lessons which form the opening chapters ; 
 while Prof. Kandall Spaulding, of the Montclair High School; 
 Prof. Karl Klauser, of Farmington, Conn.; Mr. John Carbutt, 
 the dry-plate maker of Philadelphia ; Mr. O. G. Mason, of 
 Bellevue Hospital, New York; and Dr. Maurice N. Miller, 
 of the University of the City of New York, deserve the thanks 
 of the reader for the remaining lessons, not written by 
 
 The Editor of The Photographic Times. 
 EDITORIAL ROOMS, NEW YORK CITY, JUNE, 1888. 
 
 \ 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE, 
 
 INTRODUCTION, ... - 7 
 
 LESSON I. 
 APPARATUS, - - 11 
 
 LESSON II. 
 MANAGEMENT OF APPARATUS IN THE FIELD, - 16 
 
 LESSON III. 
 THE DARK-ROOM, - - 21 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 EXPOSING, - - 28 
 
 LESSON V. 
 DEVELOPING, ---------- .-33 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 FIXING, WASHING, VARNISHING, INTENSIFYING AND REDUCING, - - 39 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 PRINTING ON ALBUMENIZED PAPER, 44 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 PRINTING ON VARIOUS OTHER PAPERS, 53 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 PRINTING ON PERMANENT BROMIDE PAPER, 63 
 
 LESSON X. 
 ARTISTIC PRINTING, ,_71 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 TRIMMING AND MOUNTING THE PRINTS, - 76 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 SPOTTING AND BURNISHING THE PRINTS, 81 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 PORTRAITURE, 87 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 RETOUCHING THE NEGATIVE, 96 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIORS AND INANIMATE OBJECTS, - - - 103 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 COPYING, ENLARGING AND REDUCING, 108 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 ORTHOCHROMATIC, OR COLOR-SENSITIVE PHOTOGRAPHY, - - -113 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 TRANSPARENCIES, AND How TO MAKE THEM, 119 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY, - - 12ft 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY, t34 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 LIGHT AND LENSES, 137 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 PHOTO-MlCROGRAPHY, 146 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 PHOTOGRAPHING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT, 151 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 EMULSION MAKING, - 155 
 
 APPENDIX ON THE NATURE AND USE OF THE VARIOUS CHEMICALS 
 
 AND SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED IN PHOTOGRAPHIC PRACTICE, - 163 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE series of lessons which follow this, are written more 
 especially for those who know little or nothing of the charming 
 art of photography, yet who desire to be taught its mysteries 
 by easy, simple methods, leaving for later study the whys and 
 the wherefores, the chemistry and the science. Experience has 
 shown that the amateur and the beginner is far too much 
 inclined at first to ask questions that later on might be well 
 and proper enough ; too apt to become an experimenter while 
 yet a tyro ; too likely to fill his notebook and his head with 
 conflicting theories and formulae ; not patient enough under 
 simple instruction, and too anxious to do everything at once. 
 These rarely succeed ; success attends those who move only 
 so fast as they learn and understand. 
 
 To become even moderately successful, photography de- 
 mands of its votaries certain characteristics, a few of which it 
 is proper the beginner should know of and appreciate, for 
 upon them success depends. 
 
 PATIENCE. Photography being based upon chemical con- 
 ditions and changes, moves only just so fast ; it cannot be hur- 
 ried. You cannot make a better picture by using a stronger 
 developer, thus gaining time by " hurrying things up ;" it is 
 not like driving a nail or sawing a stick of wood. Patience to 
 wait for the right time of day and the right kind of light ; 
 patience to look your subject all over, to study it, and find 
 the most pleasing point of view. The resulting picture will 
 then satisfy you, and your labor will be rewarded. We all 
 know of amateurs who should have painted on their cameras, 
 " wholesale only," for they care not half so much for quality 
 as they do for quantity ; they can make more pictures in a 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 day than a painstaking, good working photographer can make 
 in a week, but not one in a dozen is worth the cost of the soda 
 contained in the developer. 
 
 This kind of a photographer reminds one of the boy who 
 busies himself on the Fourth of July by blazing away from 
 a revolver, and measures his patriotism by the number of 
 shots he fired. 
 
 ORDER. This is an absolute requirement. When it is un- 
 derstood that each chemical is used to produce a certain effect 
 when brought into relation with another chemical, it is obvious 
 that the bringing together of chemicals at the wrong time, or 
 in the wrong order, must destroy the work in hand. If, as is 
 constantly the case, various operations are going along ^at the 
 same time, the greatest care must be used, by continually wip- 
 ing the fingers, etc., that those solutions which should be kept 
 apart are so kept. Faith in your own efforts is essential to 
 success ; not that the methods of instruction or the formulae 
 to be given are any better than others but that they will en- 
 able the student to make as good a photograph as any one can 
 make. 
 
 Follow closely and exactly everything that you are instructed 
 to do and under no circumstances adopt or attempt changes ; 
 when all has been done as directed, the course is finished, and 
 good work made ; then, and not until then, plunge into the 
 boundless field of theory and experiment, and good may come 
 of it. 
 
 Those who think they know it all, or know somebody who 
 does ; who are not willing to follow as herein directed, will 
 do justice neither to themselves or to the teacher. Last, and 
 by no means the least important requirement is that those 
 who propose to learn the art of photography must love it. 
 
 BENEFITS. Hidden here and there along every roadside, 
 every mountain stream, every bit of woodland, everywhere, in- 
 deed, are beauties not seen by the uneducated eye ; but pick up 
 your camera on a fine bright morning, leisurely stroll along, 
 and you will find new beauties at every turn ; the more familiar 
 you become with nature's beauties, the more familiar nature 
 will become to you ; you will see what you never saw before, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 for the reason that you never observed before, you never be- 
 fore searched for her beauties ; now that you know of them, 
 you can never find the end. Pages might be written on this 
 benefit alone ; it is worth far more than any cost to acquire it. 
 
 Another of the chiefest charms of photography is its unsel- 
 fishness ; the pictures made on a morning ramble are not alone 
 enjoyed by the maker, but enjoyed as well by all his (or her) 
 friends ; and this cannot be said of all the ordinary pastimes 
 of our time." 
 
 Be patient and persevering ; maintain absolute order and 
 cleanliness in dark-room and afield ; and adhere to one line of 
 the subject until it is mastered, before branching out and ex- 
 perimenting here and there. The result will be a practical 
 skill in the making of good photographs, and an educated 
 eye to see, depict, and enjoy the beauties of nature alone and 
 with your friends. 
 
The Photographic Instructor. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 APPARATUS. 
 
 IN photography, as in all other industrial and artistic pur- 
 suits, certain apparatus, or tools, are needed to produce a 
 picture ; some you can buy ; others, with but little labor and 
 ingenuity, you can make. This lesson is written to inform you 
 of those tools which you must have, and leaves to your own 
 judgment the purchase of those which, though not absolutely 
 necessary, are, nevertheless, of considerable comfort in carrying 
 forward the various operations through which you are to be led. 
 
 The first group of essentials are, of course, the camera and 
 plate-holder, the lens, the tripod, the cloth to be used when 
 examining the image cast upon the ground-glass by the lens, 
 and the focusing-glass. 
 
 Cameras vary greatly in their design, and in the means 
 adopted to produce certain necessary conditions. They should 
 be as light as is consistent with the work they have to do, but 
 not so light as to be liable to injury from the accidental blows 
 they are almost certain to receive in out-of-door work. 
 
 Cost is too often held to be the first consideration ; but good 
 workmanship and simplicity is of greater value to the amateur 
 than the few dollars difference in price. 
 
12 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 For all the uses for which they are intended, the " Favorite 
 and " Waterbury " cameras meet every requirement. 
 
 THE "WATERBURY" CAMERA. 
 
 The first-named of these cameras is made of light walnut, 
 and the latter of mahogany. Ihey have rubber bellows, fold- 
 ing platform, single swing, vertical shifting front, record slides 
 and side latch for holding the platform rigid. The two feat- 
 ures last named are especially desirable. They are as light and 
 compact as substantial cameras can be constructed. The sizes 
 made of this style are for pictures 4 inches by 5 inches ; 
 5 inches by 8 inches, and 6 inches by 8-| inches. These, 
 with rare exceptions, are the sizes used by amateurs and most 
 beginners. 
 
 To those readers who know nothing about cameras, it is 
 well to explain the certain parts named, and their uses. The 
 bellows is that part between the front and back of camera, 
 made to allow them to be moved together or apart, as may be 
 required in adjusting the focus, or the making sharp and 
 distinct of the image on the ground-glass. The ground-glass 
 is that part which in the cut is represented as falling back, and 
 in the place of which, as will be described later on, the holder 
 containing the sensitive plate is secured. 
 
 The single swing is that part of the camera to which the 
 ground-glass is attached ; it is an adjustable arrangement held 
 in place by a thumb-screw, as shown in the cut, and may be 
 tilted to the front or to the rear, or may be placed vertically. 
 Its uses are many : it serves to equalize the focus, and by 
 proper use the foreground containing the near objects in a pic- 
 
APPARATUS. 
 
 13 
 
 ture is made clear and distinct, or, as photographers say, 
 " sharp." 
 
 The vertical shifting front of the camera is that part on which 
 the word "Scovill" is seen; it may be elevated or lowered at 
 will, and is held firmly in place by a thumb screw. On this front 
 the lens is placed ; by lowering it, more foreground is brought 
 into the picture ; by elevating or raising, less foreground. 
 
 The side-latch for holding the platform rigid, is the bolt seen 
 on the platform or bed-piece, and holds rigidly the folding plat- 
 form. 
 
 The platform folds up against the back of the camera, when 
 the back has been pushed forward until it meets the front. 
 
 This simple and effective arrangement not alone renders the 
 camera more portable, by reducing its size, but as well protects 
 the bellows from injury during transportation. 
 
 One of the most important factors in the production of the 
 photographic picture is the lens, of which, as in case of the cam- 
 era, there is an end- 
 less variety. Fortu- 
 nately for the begin- 
 ner of limited means, 
 the improvement in 
 lenses places within 
 the reach of all, good 
 lenses for very little 
 money. Nothing can 
 surpass, for all the 
 ordinary views of 
 still life, the "Water- 
 bury" .lens. It is 
 moderate in price, and, for the purpose stated, meets every 
 requirement. It has good depth of focus (by which is meant 
 that objects nearby and distant are both clearly defined), covers 
 a good field, or breadth of subject, and works with fair rapidity. 
 With it mostjexcellent landscapes and groups can be made in 
 a very few seconds ; but to those who wish to include in their 
 work pictures of moving objects, the more expensive lenses 
 must be employed, of which the Morrison, the Wale, and the 
 Gundlach lenses are representative types. 
 
 THE " WATERBURY " LENS AND DIAPHRAGMS. 
 
14: THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 The tripod is the stand on which the camera is placed ; it is 
 adjustable, and must be made of well-seasoned wood. When 
 not in use it is folded into compact form, placed in a bag, and 
 is easily carried in the hand. One of the best forms made is 
 that known as the Scovill Adjustable Tripod. 
 
 The extension tripod possesses, also, special advantages. It 
 can be set up ready for use quicker than any other, and with 
 less trouble. When placed on uneven ground, the camera it 
 
 SCOVILL EXTENSION TRIPOD. 
 
 supports may be brought to the proper level by simply adjust- 
 ing the length of the legs, and it has no detachable parts to be 
 misplaced or lost. Without this tripod, valuable time is often 
 wasted, or opportune moments lost in placing the tripod legs, 
 and changing their position, to include just what is wanted in 
 a picture, and to level the camera. 
 
 ]$Text in the order of essentials are the focussing cloth 
 and the focussing glass. 
 
 The cloth should be about one yard square, of some dark 
 material, and impervious to light ; such material can easily be 
 found in any home. Many prefer a cloth made of some water- 
 proof material ; this has the two-fold advantage of excluding 
 light, and, in case of a shower, protecting the camera from the 
 rain. 
 
APPARATUS. 
 
 15 
 
 SCOVILL FOCUSING GLASS. 
 
 This desirable little instrument is intended to aid the pho- 
 tographer in securing a sharply defined picture on the ground- 
 glass. To most people it is indispens- 
 able ; the image on the glass being 
 small and reversed, is at times some- 
 what difficult to determine as to exact 
 sharpness. 
 
 The dry-plate holder (each holding 
 two plates) which the next cut repre- 
 sents, is a device for holding the sensi- 
 tive plate, guarding it from light, and 
 is so constructed as to be secured upon 
 the back of the camera, in the place 
 occupied by the ground-glass, with slides to be withdrawn when 
 so placed that the image 
 which was thrown upon 
 the ground-glass may then 
 be thrown upon the face 
 of the plate which is con- 
 cealed in the holder. 
 
 The position of the face 
 of the plate is exactly that first occupied by the ground-glass ; 
 thus, whatever was seen upon it must now be thrown upon the 
 plate. If the image was " sharp " (a photographic term for 
 clearly defined) on the one, so it must also be on the other. 
 
 Of these holders as many are carried into the field as, in the 
 photographer's opinion he will need for the work he has be- 
 fore him. 
 
 The articles named camera, lens, tripod, focusing cloth, 
 focusing glass, and plate-holders comprise all that is neces- 
 sary to be carried into the field, neatly packed, as they 
 should be, in proper cases. This, at least so far as the hold- 
 ers are concerned, should never be neglected, for as little ex- 
 posure of them as possible to light should ever be the rule of 
 the careful photographer. 
 
 The next lesson will describe the 
 articles which are described in this. 
 
 methods for using the 
 
LESSON II. 
 MANAGEMENT OF APPARATUS IN THE FIELD. 
 
 IN the previous lesson effort was made to fully describe the 
 apparatus required. 
 
 Now let us suppose that we have the camera, with its lens 
 in place in the center of the sliding front where the word 
 " Scovill " appears, the flange of which has been neatly fitted 
 and firmly fastened with small screws ; the tripod, the focus- 
 ing cloth, and the focussing glass. For the present we will 
 leave the plate-holder behind. Picking up the articles named, 
 let us step out upon the lawn, taking position so that the 
 sun will be a little to one side, and behind us. We can 
 hardly expect to secure a good picture with the sun or 
 strongest light directly in front of us, neither can w r e look for 
 good effects of light and shade (and both are needed) if the 
 light be either immediately over head or directly behind us. 
 More, far more, depends upon the proper selection of the point 
 of view and the direction of the light than many suppose. 
 There is a proper time of day ; a proper direction from which 
 the light should come for every landscape ; a time when the 
 shadows will so fall as to give the proper effect, for from the 
 shadows in their relations to the strong or high lights, do we 
 get, when properly contrasted, the harmonious effect of the 
 whole. Let us place our camera here. Before us lies a view 
 combining conditions which will teach us the use of our lens 
 with its diaphragms. The first step to be taken is to choose 
 the best point of view. In choosing this we are governed by 
 the following considerations : The sun is to our back and to 
 the right ; in the immediate foreground we have a large rustic 
 seat ; further along and to the left is a rustic bower covered 
 with vines ; in the middle foreground a small pool of water, 
 
MANAGEMENT OF APPARATUS IN THE FIELD. 17 
 
 still and glassy as a mirror, with several small willows beauti- 
 fully reflected from within it ; further on to the left a magni- 
 ficent cluster of large trees ; beyond, in the distance, and a little 
 to the right, is a pretty villa, and not so thickly surrounded 
 with trees as to obscure its architectural beauties ; in front of 
 it a lawn stretches down to the little pool that is situated, as 
 mentioned, in the middle foreground. The light, coming from 
 the direction stated, falls in such a way as to penetrate well 
 into the large forest trees, casting the shadows of the others 
 aslant the lawn, and bringing the projecting angles of the villa 
 into bold relief. This effect of relief the bold standing out 
 from a flat surface is nowhere better seen than in a well- 
 painted sign ; proper shading, at a proper angle gives to the 
 letters every appearance of being solid, raised from the surface. 
 From this, it must be plain to all that the proper relief can 
 only be produced by. proper shading, proper kind of shadows; 
 these it must now be seen, cannot be had to good effect when 
 the light, as before stated, is either immediately over head or 
 directly in front or behind. 
 
 Having selected our point of view, place the tripod firmly 
 upon the ground, and upon it fix the camera, passing 
 through the head of the tripod the thumb-screw which secures 
 the camera to it, only setting up the screw tight enough to 
 hold the camera in place, and allowing it to be turned from 
 side to side as may later on be required. This done, see that 
 the camera is level, look at it from all sides ; this is an all-im- 
 portant step, especially when an architectural object forms part 
 of the picture. 
 
 The tripod resting firmly, the camera being level, next re- 
 move the cap from the front of the lens and place the focusing 
 cloth over all excepting the front of the lens. With the lens 
 there should be diaphragms. Of these there are several ; they 
 are flat, thin pieces of blackened metal, with holes of various 
 sizes in their center ; they are also known as " stops," and are 
 frequently spoken of as "openings." In focusing, which is 
 soon to follow, we shall use the largest opening or stop, for the 
 reason that the image is brighter on the ground-glass, due to 
 the letting in of more light than could be admitted through 
 
18 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 the smaller stops. Having arranged the stop as suggested, and 
 having removed the cap from front of the lens, next step to the 
 rear, raise the cloth, and place it over your head. 
 
 What do you see ? Nothing, unless you have used a camera 
 before. You would scarcely have thought so ; but there is quite 
 a " knack" in finding the image on the ground-glass. You are 
 probably too near. Raise the cloth a little and draw your 
 head slowly back, the image will soon appear. Now close the 
 cloth tightly, so as to exclude all the light, moving to or from 
 the glass, until you have the proper focus for your eye. Next 
 loosen the thumb-screw that holds the movable part of the 
 camera, so that by slowly and steadily moving the ground-glass 
 to or from you, you obtain a sharp image on it ; this your focus- 
 ing-glass will enable you to do exactly. In using, place it 
 against the back side of the glass and your eye at the lens in 
 the small end. It may be that the focusing-glass does not suit 
 your eye ; it is adjustable ; the eye-piece can be moved in or 
 out as may be required. Test it, however, by holding the 
 ground-glass between your eye and the light, the ground side 
 from you, and move the eye-piece until the glass on the ground 
 side looks rough and distinct, as it will do under proper condi- 
 tions. In the landscape before us so move your camera, by turn- 
 ing to right or to left on the tripod, as to bring the rustic seat 
 into or near the upper right-hand corner of the glass, and the 
 villa nearly to the lower left-hand corner, as you see the in- 
 verted image before you. This upside-down condition of 
 things will confuse you at first, and so will the appearing on 
 the right of objects which are on the left, and those of the left 
 on the right. However, you will soon become accustomed to 
 this new order of things. In examining the image you may 
 find that the villa is not all upon the plate. To bring it on, 
 raise the sliding front until it is all upon the plate, and a fail- 
 piece of sky as well. If in doing this you have not lost your 
 rustic seat in the foreground, all is right. If you have, then 
 you are too near your objects ; move back, taking up a posi- 
 tion that will give you on the ground-glass all the objects 
 you wish to have upon the sensitive plate. Your sliding- 
 front will bring in more foreground by lowering, more sky 
 
MANAGEMENT OF APPARATUS IN THE FIELD. 19 
 
 by raising. Be sure to fasten it tightly when the proper posi- 
 tion has been found ; and fasten also the camera to the tripod 
 by setting up the screw beneath. Nothing has been said as to 
 letting down and making fast the folding bed. This, it is 
 assumed, has been done. 
 
 In this picture you will find no use for the swing-back ; in- 
 deed, it is not often required for field work ; when you are so 
 placed as to have an object immediately in the foreground, so 
 near that you are unable to obtain sharpness, you may use the 
 swing-back to advantage. In this case, set back the top which 
 lengthens the foreground focus, so that the whole may be 
 equalized. When not in use, be careful to have it firmly fixed 
 at right angles to the bed or platform. 
 
 Now focus the image which has been arranged upon the 
 glass. Choose some object in the middle foreground, the bark 
 of a tree, a cluster of rocks that are moss- covered, any object, 
 in short, on which, by aid of your glass, you can sharply focus. 
 This done, examine the rustic seat in the near foreground, and 
 the villa in the right distance ; both are beyond doubt lacking 
 in sharpness ; now is the time to see what the stops will do. 
 See if by using the next smallest stop sharpness is obtained ; 
 if not, the next, until all parts of the image are sharp ; this, 
 within fairly reasonable bounds, providing the lens is suited to 
 the size of plate in use, can be had ; but, as you have seen, at 
 a great sacrifice of light ; which, however, we cannot avoid. 
 In using the stops or diaphragms, always use the one with the 
 largest opening that will give you the desired definition or 
 sharpness ; this for two reasons : you get more light on the 
 plate, thus making your picture in a shorter time ; and you 
 get a more crisp, brilliant, and pleasing result. Before the 
 camera has been long in use, the careful student will find 
 that the nearer an object is, the further apart will be his lens 
 and his ground-glass when he makes sharp the image, and 
 closer together when the object is at a greater distance. 
 He will also have observed that when the focus has been 
 found for an object 75 to 100 feet away, and the proper 
 stop has been used, that all beyond that distance is equally 
 sharp. Knowing this, a mark on the folding bed is made, and 
 
%0 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 all pictures within certain distances, can be made without 
 using the ground-glass ; the ground-glass is placed at the marked 
 spot, and the photographer goes ahead with certainty of suc- 
 cess. Were it not so, the beautiful pictures of moving objects 
 could not be made ; to locate them on the plate, a little instru- 
 ment is placed upon the camera, termed a tinder. Of this, 
 and its uses, however, more will be said when the methods of 
 making instantaneous pictures are described. 
 
LESSON III. 
 THE DARK-ROOM. 
 
 IN some part of your house a closet can be found with a 
 tight-fitting door which will meet all your wants ; the larger 
 the better, for your ruby light and your breath will very soon 
 destroy all the air for breathing purposes. If you can, build 
 a room in some part of your house, and when building pro- 
 vide for proper ventilation ; it will well repay the little cost 
 of the few boards needed. Make it six feet wide, ten feet 
 high, and twelve feet long. Ventilate it by having made at 
 the tinsmith's four tubes shaped like the letter U, one end 
 one-half the length of the other. On the long end have a 
 flange. Cut two holes in the wall of the room at the bottom 
 and two at the top, the size of the inside of the tube, and nail 
 the tube by the flange to the wall so as to cover these holes ; 
 the tubes should be a foot one way by six inches the other in 
 the clear ; paint them inside and out a dark, dead color to pre- 
 vent reflections of light. 
 
 This simple and inexpensive method will add to your com- 
 fort on hot days, and help to keep the air of your dark-room 
 pure. Locate the door of the room at one end, or as near one 
 nd as possible, using the end farthest from the door for 
 changing and developing plates. Construct around the room a 
 wide shelf at such a height that, when sitting on a chair, your 
 knees will pass comfortably under it ; on this shelf, at the side, 
 you can place the plate-holders when you wish to fill them ; at 
 the end you will have room for your developing operations. 
 
 Make other shelves above as you may wish them, on 
 which to place your " traps " and store your negatives. If 
 running water can be had in the room you will be most for- 
 tunate. It is assumed that you are not so fortunate. At the 
 
22 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 end of the room where developing is to be done, first settle 
 upon the spot where you are to place your ruby lantern, by the 
 light of which all your work is now to be done. Of these 
 there are many kinds ; the cut represents one that is inexpen- 
 sive and reliable. Should you want a larger one, it is easily 
 found.* In front of this place an ordinary 
 heavy sheet iron pan, such as is used; 
 for baking, measuring about sixteen inches 
 by ten inches wide ; this is to constitute 
 your sink, over which developing is to be 
 done, and it should be two or three inches 
 deep. In the bottom of this pan have a 
 piece of lead pipe soldered to carry the 
 water entering it to a pail underneath the 
 shelf. In this pan construct and adjust a 
 
 TXT T A RTT"RV T TPT-TT 
 
 PORTABLE LANTERN, wooden frame of four strips of wood, on 
 which your developing tray can rest clear of any dirty sedi- 
 ment that may collect in the bottom of your little sink. Next 
 construct a shelf on your left, and within handy reach without 
 leaving your seat ; on this set a pail, which is to hold your 
 supply of clean water. Put in this pail a stop-cock, and over 
 the cock slip a piece of rubber tubing long enough to reach to 
 the developing tray over your sink when in position in front 
 of your ruby lantern. 
 
 Have the pail in which the clean water is kept a little 
 smaller than the one into which the overflow passes; this pre- 
 caution may prevent marring the ceiling below you. 
 
 Sitting down to your work may be thought a lazy way of 
 doing things; it is comfortable, nevertheless. Having ar- 
 ranged our room for its uses, let us now see what is needed to- 
 do our work. Of chemicals we require sulphite of soda in 
 crystals, a small quantity of sulphuric acid, pyrogallic acid r 
 carbonate of potash, alum, hyposulphite of soda, and a bottle 
 of varnish ; also a pair of scales fine enough to weigh grains. 
 For weighing more than an ounce the ordinary house scales, 
 if good ones, will answer. If you buy the developer already 
 mixed you will not require scales, nor will you need either of 
 the first four named chemicals. To mix your own developer is 
 
 * The W. I. A. petite lantern is excellent, being an improved form of 
 the original W. I. A. EDITOR. 
 
THE DARK-ROOM. 
 
 23 
 
 scarcely cheaper, but it is better for a beginner, for it acquaints 
 him with what he is to use. After becoming perfectly familiar 
 with the developing solutions, their constitution and use, you 
 may save time and trouble, if not, indeed, some expense, by 
 buying the developer ready prepared. 
 
 You will require four glass graduates, one each of eight, 
 four, and two ounces, marked with drams, and a minim glass 
 to measure drops. 
 
 SCOVILL GLASS GRADUATE. 
 
 Three trays or agate iron pans must be had, one for devel- 
 oping, one for the alum solution, one for the hyposulphite or 
 fixing solution, each to be kept for its own use, and on no 
 account to be ever used for anything else. 
 
 For developing use the shallow pan ; the others should be 
 the deep style, being always the size next larger than the size 
 of plate you use. For the alum and the hyposulphite of soda 
 it would be better to employ the second size larger. 
 
 AGATE IRON PAN. 
 Agate iron pans with pouring lip, the following sizes are 
 
24 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 supplied, either shallow or deep: 5 by T, 7 by 9, 8 by 10, 
 10 by 13, 11 by 14, 14 by 17, 15 by 19, and 19 by 24. 
 
 A couple of funnels and a glass mortar you may be able to 
 dispense with, though to have them will add to the ease of 
 working. 
 
 AGATE IRON CORRUGATED FUNNEL. GLASS MORTAR AND PESTLE. 
 
 If about the house you have running water, by all means get 
 a negative washing-box, attach a rubber tube to the opening 
 in the lower left-hand side, as shown in the cut below, and the 
 other end of the tube slip over the faucet of the wash basin, 
 thus allowing a stream of water to pass into the box, around 
 the plates as they stand on edge in the grooves and overflow at 
 the opening on the right hand. 
 
 SCOVILL NEGATIVE WASHING-BOX. 
 One little thing more, and we shall be ready to develop a 
 
THE DARK-ROOM. 
 
 25 
 
 plate when the proper time comes, 
 itself ; its cost is but a few cents. 
 
 The cut below explains 
 
 SCOVILL'S PLATE-LIFTER. 
 
 Scovill's plate-lifter for raising plates out of the developing 
 solution without soiling the fingers. 
 
 RUSSELL NEGATIVE CLASP AND DRYING SUPPORT. 
 
 By using the Russell negative clasp and drying support, 
 there is no need of wetting or staining the fingers in the de- 
 veloper, or of touching a plate until after it has been devel- 
 oped, varnished, and dried. They are adapted for all sizes from 
 3i by 4J to 8 by 10, inclusive. 
 
 Of plates many manufacturers make several brands. Some 
 are intended for instantaneous work, others for landscape, or 
 subjects of still life, and for transparencies such as may be 
 hung in the window, made into lamp shades, or for use in the 
 lantern ; all are packed in the same way. 
 
 All are put up in paper boxes containing one dozen, in the 
 following manner : On the bottom of the box a plate is laid 
 face up that is, the side on which the sensitive preparation is 
 
26 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 placed ; on this either a thin piece of paper is laid, or some 
 other method is used to keep its surface from coming into con- 
 tact with the one next above it, which is placed face down. 
 The third plate is placed back to back to the second plate, and 
 so on face to face, or back to back, to the top plate, which is 
 back up. 
 
 Before opening the box containing the plates provide 
 yourself with a broad, flat, and very soft brush of camel 
 or sable hair at least two inches wide ; light your ruby 
 lantern, lay the brush on a clean piece of paper at your side^ 
 and all is ready for opening the box containing the sensitive 
 plates. It is to be assumed that in an outer room you have 
 opened and thoroughly dusted and cleaned the plate -holders 
 or shields, as they are often called. This should be done 
 quite often ; if not, you will probably find on your negatives 
 transparent spots, the result of small specks of dust from dirty 
 holders. 
 
 If you use the kind of holder shown in cut in Lesson I., you 
 will notice a slide at the left ; this acts as a partition between 
 the two plates ; on either side is a flat spring of sheet brass, 
 which presses against the back of each plate, holding it firmly 
 in position. When this partition or slide is in place, it is held 
 there by a catch on the edge of the holder. The slide on the 
 right is the one which is drawn out when the holder is placed 
 on the camera, and when all is ready to make the exposure. 
 Of these there are two one in front of each plate ; the other 
 in the cut is seen as closed. 
 
 Before we close the door of our dark-room let us loosen the 
 catch on the slide between the two plates, and pull each one 
 in each holder out a short distance and place them on the shelf 
 in order at our left, closing tightly the slides that are in front 
 of the plates. This done, we close the door and fasten it on 
 the inside to keep out any curious friend who, on entering, 
 would bring in a very bad friend light. This precaution 
 taken, we sit down comfortably in our chair facing the broad 
 shelf, having on one side the empty plate-holders, on the other 
 the brush, and in front the box of sensitive plates ; these, to 
 begin with, shall be Carbutt's B or landscape plates. 
 
 Take the box, open it with care, removing lid, and turning 
 
TJIE DAKK-ROOM. 27 
 
 back to each side the paper that covers the plates ; then by the 
 edge gently raise the top plate, which we find back up. This 
 can easily be determined, if in doubt, by holding it at an angle 
 towards the ruby light, the back showing a bright reflection, 
 the face a very dull one. Take the plate by one corner in the 
 left hand, being careful not to touch its face except just at the 
 corner, and pass the broad soft brush gently over the sensitive 
 surface to remove any particles of dust that, in the shaking it 
 has had in the box, may have lodged on it. This done, lay 
 down the brush, take plate in the right hand, and, having with- 
 drawn the partition slide from the plate-holder, put the plate 
 just dusted carefully into one side of it, facing the outside ; dust 
 another plate and put it into holder, face out, as before, thus 
 bringing the backs together ; then slip in the partition slide be- 
 tween the two plates and fasten it ; be sure that the other slides 
 are also closed, and holder 'No. 1 with two plates is ready for 
 use. Be careful in sliding in the plates that you do not bring 
 the face in contact with the holder, otherwise they may be 
 scratched ; the same care must be used in taking them out. 
 If any plates are left in the box, mark the number in it, 
 the kind of plate, secure it by a string, and put away in the 
 darkest corner of your dark-room for future use. 
 
 This work may appear to be most simple, and so it is ; all 
 things appear simple to those who know how to do them and are 
 in constant practice, but to the beginner the most simple thing 
 often seems difficult, until mastered. It will be awkward work 
 the first time ; you will not be able to work with ease in almost 
 total darkness ; yon will probably drop a plate or two on the 
 floor ; some of them will be put into the holder wrong side 
 out, or scratched putting them in, and, without doubt, you 
 will cut your fingers with the edges of the glass. None of 
 these blunders will be made oftener than is necessary to teach 
 you not to do it again, however. 
 
 There is considerable knack in handling a plate so that its 
 surface shall not be injured or one's fingers cut ; to save the 
 latter, be careful not to draw the fingers along the edges ; if 
 you do, it will probably spoil the plate and hurt your fingers. 
 
 On filling the plate-holders you are ready for exposing, 
 which will be treated of in the succeeding chapter. 
 
LESSON IV. 
 
 EXPOSING. 
 
 No FIXED rule can be given for this part of the photographic 
 operation. No end of conditions serve to change the time re- 
 quired even in a day's work out-of-doors ; in-doors it is much 
 more simple, shortening the time as we approach midday, and 
 lengthening as we pass into the later hours of the afternoon. 
 From eleven until two o'clock is the time when exposure 
 should be the shortest ; an hour or two before sunset the slowest, 
 for then we often have in the summer months a peculiar red or 
 yellowish light which renders photographing almost impossible. 
 
 The later spring and early summer months, as a rule, give the 
 quickest lights ; the fall months, though the days may be clear 
 to the eye, are often hazy and yellowish in their color of light. 
 Longer exposure will sometimes give us all we desire, always 
 providing there is no haze. This no amount of time will ever off- 
 set. When a haze or fog obscures the distance to the eye, do not 
 make any attempt to work on distant subjects. It may be 
 that subjects very near can be made, there being less haze or 
 fog to look through ; but this depends altogether on its density. 
 
 Under-exposure and over-exposure outside of certain com- 
 paratively narrow limits, is in a general sense fatal to the best 
 work ; yet there is what photographers call latitude of exposure, 
 which, be it more or less than just right, is not of necessity fatal to 
 good work. For instance, if four seconds should be exactly the 
 right time of exposure to give on a certain subject, and either two 
 or six seconds should have been given, the negative in the hands 
 of a skillful photographer would not be lost ; it would be noticed 
 in the operation of development, and, as will be later shown, the 
 method of treatment would be so changed as to produce a good 
 negative. The main trouble in over-exposed and under-exposed 
 plates lies in the fact that we do not discover the error 
 
EXPOSING. 29 
 
 soon enough to apply the remedy. It is much easier to save a 
 plate that has been over-exposed, however, than one which has 
 received too little time. 
 
 When in doubt, therefore, give the doubt to the side of over- 
 exposure. Time enough must always be given to impress the 
 image on the plate ; you can restrain an over-exposure, but no 
 amount of coaxing will ever bring out in the negative that 
 which has not been put there by your lens. You might as well 
 give it up first as last. Photography will do a great deal now- 
 a-days,but it will not make an instantaneous picture of a yellow 
 horse against a green back-ground ; it might do something for 
 you if the horse was white. This brings up another phase of 
 the subject, which at first may give you trouble. The photo- 
 graphic character of subjects varies as greatly as does the sub- 
 ject. The view of a house that is painted white will require 
 less time for exposure than one that is painted with the reds, 
 browns and yellows, so common of late. Spring foliage will 
 require less time than summer foliage that has faded some- 
 what, while the glorious tints of the fall are practically, if not 
 wholly, beyond our art. People with sallow complexions and 
 dark dresses will require more time than the child or young per- 
 son whose complexion is clear and bright, and clothing light in 
 color. Dark eyes, as a rule, photograph well ; light blue eyes do 
 not. An ordinary open view with a Waterbury lens and 
 medium stop will probably require, on a good clear day, about 
 two or three seconds' exposure ; with a Morrison wide-angle, 
 half that time. If the view to be made ' is through a well- 
 wooded lane or roadway, or of a house well hidden in trees, 
 the time might be ten or twelve seconds ; if of a dull lighted 
 interior it may take hours. 
 
 From what is written it may be that the reader is fear- 
 ful he will never know how much time to give. Do not 
 despair; you will learn more easily than you imagine. A 
 certain rule as to the time required for any given subject 
 the rule which the writer fancies must be the rule of all 
 out-door workers is this: The point of view having been 
 selected, the camera in position, everything ready for the 
 exposure, I stop a moment, look carefully over the view, call 
 
30 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 to mind a certain view which in character of subject and con- 
 ditions of light is similar to the one before me, and to which 
 the right time had been given, judge this one by that, and ex- 
 pose accordingly ; giving it the same, or more or less, as, in 
 my judgment, it may seem to demand. In my memory there 
 are stored away for such use a few instances, which I may 
 be allowed to term as samples ; one at least of them is quite cer- 
 tain to meet the present want ; by it, as stated, I measure this. 
 Of such samples there need not be many. A broad open view, 
 with distance, a view through a road well shaded by trees on 
 either side, a view in woods with heavy foliage, a view through 
 a grove with medium distance and rocky foreground ; such, and 
 others, that I do not need to name. Each have to me a certain 
 photographic value ; each I know well as to time given. I 
 choose my sample, as I have termed it, and use my judgment. 
 To one who has no standard in his mind this may appear diffi- 
 cult to understand ; later on, when you have made a few good 
 negatives, you will have them impressed on your memory and 
 can then choose your own samples. There seems to be a sort of 
 intuition about this matter of exposure that makes the subject 
 hard to explain, for even after you have taken the cap from 
 the lens, your mind made up as to the time, the chances are 
 more than ever that you will change it to a longer or shorter 
 exposure, which nine times out of ten will be the right thing 
 to do. This, of course, is after experience has been had. 
 
 An authority in photography said, many years ago : " In 
 the whole range of photographic manipulations, the sum of 
 which goes to make up the perfect picture, there is not one of 
 more importance than the correct time of exposure in the cam- 
 era." This is true to-day. 
 
 In generalities enough has been written ; let us now take 
 our camera and plates and have " a shot," as we call it. In 
 other words, let us make our first exposure. See that the cam- 
 era and lens are clean and free from dust ; see that the holders 
 are tightly closed before leaving the dark-room ; see that they 
 are in a good box to shield them from the light, not forgetting 
 that, although light we must have, we want only that which 
 passes through our lens ; it is our friend, yet, by carelessness, 
 it will prove our worst enemy. 
 
EXPOSING. 31 
 
 The plate-holders must always be well cared for, never laid 
 about upon the grass in the sun ; keep all in the box but the one 
 in use. Let us put up the camera here ; a good foreground, 
 moderate distance, bright foliage. Set tripod firmly, focus 
 with a large stop in lens on an object, say a hundred or so feet 
 away, adjust the sliding front, and turn the camera to one side or 
 the other until you have upon the ground-glass the subject you 
 wish. Keep the camera level, changing the stop to the size 
 that will make foreground and distance -both clear and distinct 
 upon the glass ; if immediate foreground is not as sharp as it 
 should be, draw back the swing-back at top until it is ; screw 
 up tightly all the set screws, and cap the lens. 
 
 After these things have been done, remove the ground-glass, 
 take plate-holder from box, throw your focusing cloth over it, 
 close box, and put holder in place of the ground-glass ; draw 
 the slide with a steady motion until nearly out, then with a 
 quick motion entirely out, keeping cloth over it the whole 
 time, and letting it remain over the holder until it is returned 
 to the box. You are now ready to expose ; study object, set- 
 tle in your mind the time you should give let us say it is 
 four seconds on a Keystone B plate uncap, give the time, 
 and re-cap. In taking off and putting on the cap do it quickly, 
 but be careful not to jar or shake the camera, particularly when 
 you uncap. If you do, you may cause vibration, and thus ren- 
 der the picture indistinct. 
 
 The lens being capped, raise the corner of the focusing cloth 
 that covers the holder, and return the slide you had removed. 
 Do this by a steady, quick motion, shielding it with the cloth 
 and putting in the slide squarely, not one corner first, for in- 
 side there is a spring to cut off the light when the slide is with- 
 drawn ; examine it when empty and you will see why it must 
 go in square. Be particular about this. 
 
 Having now made one exposure, which we will assume to be 
 exactly right, let us make two more, which, we shall find, later 
 on, are wrong ; one say for two seconds or a little less, and 
 one for six or seven seconds, giving us for a future lesson one 
 that is right, one that is under-exposed and one that is over- 
 exposed ; their action under the developer in the next lesson 
 will give us the proof. 
 
32 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Later, it will be seen that the plate to which was given four 
 seconds proves to be just right a good, clean, clear, sharp 
 negative of fine intensity, all that we want. You now have a 
 sample, as we have termed it, or standard, for that character or 
 class of views ; for such, in future, you now have something to 
 measure another exposure of similar subject by ; if of little 
 thicker foliage or foreground, or little less brilliant light, then 
 in your judgment a little more time ; if the reverse, then a 
 little less time. 
 
LESSON Y. 
 DEVELOPING. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT is that part of the photographic art which 
 brings to sight the latent or hidden image on the sensitive 
 plate after it has been exposed in the camera ; it is a delicate 
 operation, requires close attention, good eyesight and judg- 
 ment, oftentimes patience, always care and cleanliness. It 
 can only be carried forward when all but the ruby light has 
 been excluded ; if successful in it, we have our greatest pho- 
 tographic joy; if not, our greatest disappointment; for if a 
 success, we have a negative from which, with care in its 
 handling, hundreds of charming prints may be made. Before 
 proceeding to develop the plates exposed in the last lesson, let 
 us put our house in order, make the developer, etc., so that, 
 when we close the door of the dark-room, everything will be 
 at hand and just where it should be. A good motto for the 
 dark-room would be the old one of " a place for everything, 
 and everything in its place," not only for the reason that it is 
 always well to have it so, but that in the darkness of the dark- 
 room it must be so, otherwise we are not able to work. So 
 dim is the light, excepting only that which is just before us, 
 that, if anything is wanted, we must know just where to put 
 our hand to find it. 
 
 Always, before commencing, wash thoroughly each article 
 that is to be used ; cleanliness in photography is but the syn- 
 onym for success. The developer which we shall first use 
 will be made after Mr. Carbutt's formula ; it differs but little 
 from many others, is simple, and works satisfactorily. Just 
 here let us impress one thing upon the student. During these 
 lessons, use this developer only ; under no circumstances try 
 any other, for most excellent work can be made with it. 
 Leave experiments to the future, follow instructions closely ; 
 
34 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR 
 
 if you do not, confusion and failure will result. As a rule, 
 almost without an exception, beginners make very poor work. 
 There is no reason why they should make good work. They 
 blame their formulae instead of their own lack of knowledge 
 and practice ; somebody says use so-and-so, another something 
 else ; the work does not improve, discouragement follows, 
 sometimes the charming art is given up in despair. Stick to 
 the simple rules here given, and you are sure to make good 
 work. 
 
 Now for the chemicals needed to compound the developer : 
 
 Sulphite of soda, crystals 1 pound. 
 
 Carbonate of potash, granulated 1 pound. 
 
 Carbonate of soda, granulated 1 pound. 
 
 Pyrogallic acid 4 ounces. 
 
 Sulphuric acid 1 ounce. 
 
 Bromide of potash 1 ounce. 
 
 This quantity of chemicals will give you enough developer 
 for nearly three hundred plates of 6 by 8J size, and will, if 
 used with care and bought of a conscientious dealer in photo- 
 graphic chemicals, not cost you much over one cent for each 
 plate, reference being had to the proportions given below, and 
 used on plates to which proper exposure has been given. 
 
 To compound the developer for use, proceed as follows : 
 Procure two twelve-ounce bottles of clear white glass, for 
 reason that you can always see if they are clean, with well-fit- 
 ting corks ; mark one " No. 1, Pyro ;" the other " No. 2, Potash " 
 This done, take the eight-ounce graduate, put into it five 
 ounces of good, soft, spring water, or better still if in doubt as 
 to the quality of the water, use that from melted ice. Weigh 
 and add two ounces of sulphite of soda crystals, stir with a 
 glass rod or stick until dissolved, then add slowly half a dram, 
 fluid measure, of sulphuric acid ; to this add 240 grains of 
 pyrogallic acid ; when dissolved fill up to eight ounces with 
 water. 
 
 Next take the bottle which has been marked "No. 1, Pyro," 
 place in it the funnel, into the neck of which you have first 
 placed a little wad of clean wet cotton ; pour the solution into 
 the funnel, having the cotton loose enough to allow the solution 
 
 
DEVELOPING. 35 
 
 to tr'ckle slowly into the bottle. This solution is good for use 
 so long as it is clear. When it becomes opaque or muddy- 
 looking it must be rejected. 
 
 Next make up a solution for the bottle marked "No. 2, 
 Potash," by dissolving one ounce each of potash and soda in 
 five ounces of water ; then add water to make eight ounces ; 
 filter in same way, being sure that the filter has been thor- 
 oughly washed. In hot weather, when chemicals work more 
 rapidly than in winter, it is well to add to " No. 1, Pyro," 
 about fifteen grains of bromide of potassium. The contents now 
 in the two bottles form what is known as stock solution, 
 and for the process of developing are used as follows : 
 
 | -, 
 
 Water 4 fluid ounces. 
 
 No. 1, Pyro 2 fluid drams. 
 
 No. 2, Potash 2 fluid drams. 
 
 Of this, in the proportions as given, as much may be mixed t7^>v 
 as at one sitting is likely to be used. 
 
 The developer being ready, wash the pan or tray in which 
 it is to be used, and place over it the large pan described in a 
 previous lesson, in front of the lighted ruby lantern. Place the f^ e t^. 
 holders containing the exposed plates, and the developer in a++ji. 
 handy position within reach, close and fasten the dark-room 
 door, and take your seat facing the lantern and tray. 
 
 All being ready, remove the slide which divides the plates 
 in holder, and let the plate to which four seconds' exposure 
 was given, slide out slowly face up to prevent scratching the 
 film on face of plate, close holder, and lay the plate in the tray 
 face up (the dull-looking side), then with a sweeping motion 
 from one side to the other, pour the developer over it; do 
 not pour upon one spot, but gently sweep it over the whole 
 face. 
 
 This done, move the tray from side to side, being careful to 
 have the solution wash over all parts of the plate and keep it 
 gently in motion. Should an air bubble appear on any part of 
 the plate, gently touch it with a finger and break it, otherwise 
 you will have a spot, on which the developer not acting, after 
 the process of fixing, will be transparent. In a few moments 
 
 r 
 
36 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 a shadowy or darkening appearance on part of the plate will 
 be noticed gradually growing in distinctness ; this will be the 
 high lights, the sky, or objects of a light color on which the 
 strongest light has fallen, followed by an indistinct outline, as 
 it lies in the tray, of the view or picture thrown upon the 
 plate by the lens. In a moment or two it will slightly fade 
 from view, becoming less distinct ; then with the thimble on 
 your forefinger slip the point of the little spear on thimble un- 
 der the plate and raise it from the tray ; hold it up to the light 
 and examine as to its intensity and the detail of foliage, and 
 see if the objects which were in shadow have all appeared. 
 
 If not quite intense enough, in other words, not so opaque in 
 the sky as to shut out all light as viewed by the ruby flame ; if 
 the details in the shadows have not appeared, the bark on the 
 trees is not distinct, replace it in the solution and continue the 
 operation until these conditions are attained. Then wash it 
 with a gentle stream of water from the upper pail, and it is 
 ready to place in the alum solution. This we shall not do in 
 this lesson, but will stop with the development. 
 
 Next, let us take the plate to which we gave two seconds or 
 a little less, treat this in exactly the same way, and we shall 
 find that it " comes up," as photographers say, very slowly. 
 We wait patiently, but the details do not appear in the shad- 
 ows, the high lights become very opaque and intense ; there is 
 much more of the plate on which nothing appears than there 
 was in the other ; we continue twice as long in our efforts to 
 " get something out ; " it does not come ; we give it up and 
 wash as we did the other. 
 
 Lastly, we take the other and last plate, to which we gave 
 an exposure of seven or eight seconds ; treat this as the others ; 
 almost instantly we notice the action of the developer ; it 
 works rapidly ; the whole view seems to flash up at once, de- 
 tail in shadows, everything " comes up," almost instantly ; it 
 appears to finish at once ; we take it from the tray, and to stop 
 further action of developer wash it. Here we will let them 
 rest for future treatment, although the operation is, in practice, a 
 continuous one. For each plate a fresh solution must be used. 
 Between the development of each plate wash the tray by play- 
 
DEVELOPING. 37 
 
 Ing t'iie little hose into it to remove any of the old solution that 
 has become a dark-reddish color. 
 
 If in developing a plate that has had the right exposure 
 given it, you should stop short in the development, you 
 will find the details in the poorly-lighted parts of the 
 plate are wanting, and the intensity of the high lights and 
 sky not dense enough to shut off the light when you come 
 to print it on paper. This intensity should be such as to 
 give, when the print is made, just a faint tinge to the paper, 
 not so dense as to stop all light and leave the paper a pure 
 white, nor lacking in intensity to such a degree as to allow the 
 passage of too much light so as to make a dark, dull, heavy sort 
 of sky. If we push the development in the under-exposed 
 plate in our efforts to get out the details, we shall have the sky 
 very dense, and, lacking the details. We have, when finished, 
 a large portion of the plate that is little more than clear 
 glass, giving us a negative of severe contrasts, and worthless, 
 yielding a print with an absolutely white sky and heavy dark 
 .shadows. 
 
 The over-exposed plate will, if we push the development, or 
 continue it too long, grow up, as it were, all over the plate, 
 and, when finished, be of too even a tone, too much alike all 
 over, lacking in contrast ; if stopped short it will be lacking in 
 intensity in the high lights, and, like the under-exposed plate ? 
 -worthless. 
 
 Over-exposure, if not too great, we can control. If you have 
 reason to know that a plate has been over-exposed, make the 
 developer as before, with this change : use but half as much of 
 the No. 2 solution, and add half a dozen drops of a solution 
 of the bromide, made up 50 grains to the ounce of water. The 
 cutting down of the No. 2 will make the development slower ; 
 the bromide will also restrain the rapid action, and help to 
 gain intensity. If it still dashes up, pour off solution, and add 
 a little more bromide ; if too slow, add a little more of No. 2. 
 In this way, you may be able, by judgment in variously com- 
 pounding, to save a day's work that has been over-exposed. No 
 amount of writing can tell you more than this ; practice alone 
 will teach you. If a plate is but little under-exposed, it may 
 
38 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC! INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 be saved by using more of the No. 2; if much so, do not 
 bother with it, for an image not impressed on the plate cannot 
 be developed. 
 
 If at any time a fog seems to overspread the plate, a sort of 
 a veil, as it were, thrown over it, it may be from one of many 
 causes, among them over-exposure, improper shade of ruby 
 glass, light entering the dark-room, a camera or holders that 
 are defective, an old and decomposed solution of No. 1. Fine 
 transparent lines on the plate may come from using a brush to 
 dust off which had bristles that were too stiff; or from injury 
 to plate in putting in or taking out of the holder. 
 
 Spots may occur from not breaking air bubbles, or from dust 
 on the plate. A transparent patch along the edge of plate is- 
 often the result of not covering it with developer ; the same 
 careless act will give you a portion of the plate which varies Jn 
 intensity and detail from the other parts. A swelling up, or 
 " frilling," as it is termed, generally along the edges, is the re- 
 sult of using a developer at too high a temperature. 
 
 As yet the negative cannot be exposed to white light ; it 
 must pass through the alum and hyposulphite of soda before 
 it leaves the dark-room ; and in the next lesson we shall learn 
 how to perform these operations correctly. 
 
LESSON VI. 
 
 FIXING, WASHING, VARNISHING, INTENSIFYING, 
 AND REDUCING. 
 
 PJROCUBE two half-gallon glass jars with wide mouths. In 
 one make up the alum solution, one part of alum to eight or 
 ten parts of water ; in the other, the " hypo " solution, one 
 part of the hyposulphite of soda to five parts of water. When 
 dissolved, these solutions are ready for use ; they need not be 
 filtered. 
 
 These chemicals you can buy by the pound ; they are cheap 
 and come neatly packed in paper boxes. For this work, 
 purchase two trays of size eight by ten inches and about 
 two inches deep (see Lesson III.), one to be used for each 
 solution, of which pour enough in the tray to fully cover 
 the plate ; if a dozen plates are to be passed through, put in 
 a larger quantity than for a few plates ; when through, throw 
 it away. The " hypo " especially should be renewed when it 
 works slowly ; it should do its work, as will be explained later, 
 inside of ten minutes. 
 
 The negative having been washed after development, as di- 
 rected in last lesson, is placed in the alum solution, in which it 
 must be allowed to remain for four or five minutes ; wash again, 
 and then place in the " hypo " solution, where it must rest until 
 all of the whiteness has disappeared, as seen from the back. 
 This may be conducted in the dark-room with the door open, 
 in a weak light ; it is not well to trust to a strong outside light, 
 however, until all the whiteness has been removed by the 
 u hypo ;" after this you may expose it to any light. 
 
 This is known as the process of "fixing." If, after taking 
 the negative from the " hypo " and examining it by a strong 
 light outside the dark-room, you should notice any brownish- 
 mottled appearance in looking through it, return it to the 
 " hypo " until it is removed. The operations herein described 
 
40 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 do not need any great skill or judgment ; they are not as diffi- 
 cult to conduct as the exposure or the development; yet, 
 simple as they are, they need care and attention, especially 
 the "fixing." 
 
 Let us again impress on the attention of the student the 
 necessity of conducting this part of the process in a very weak 
 light; do not open your dark-room door until the plate has 
 been placed in the " hypo " ; even then it is better to cover 
 the tray while the door is opened. After it has been in the 
 " hypo " for five minutes the cover may be removed and the 
 plate examined by looking at the back, when in most cases 
 you will notice a whitish cloud on a portion of the plate not 
 yet dissolved by the action of the " hypo ;" permit it, as be- 
 fore stated, to remain until this has disappeared. 
 
 Thorough " fixing " is all-important ; on it depends the life 
 of the negative ; if but half done, you will some day (it may 
 be a week or months) discover a brownish stain on that part 
 of the plate on which the " hypo " had not fully acted. 
 
 WASHING. 
 
 After the "fixing,'' the plates are placed in water to wash; 
 running water, if you have it ; if not, in a large tub or pail in 
 which the water should be changed two or three times an hour 
 for several hours ; if running water is used, an hour will be 
 ample time for the washing. 
 
 In Lesson III. an illustration of the Scovill Negative Wash- 
 ing Box is seen, a cheap and effective apparatus for the 
 
 purpose. Upon removing the 
 plate from the water, place in a 
 drying rack, or in some way on 
 end, and allow it to dry spon- 
 taneously. 
 
 If in haste, place it in the sun 
 or near the stove, and you will 
 learn that it will not dry ; it will 
 melt the gelatine in the film, and 
 
 ScoyiU's Negative Drying Rack, made teacll yOU the leSSOU that will 
 with either Wooden or Corrugated prevent fa repe tition. 
 
FIXING, WASHING, VARNISHING, ETC., ETC. 41 
 
 Next in order is 
 
 VARNISHING. 
 
 The negative must be absolutely free from all moisture. This 
 will probably be the case on the day following development. 
 If in doubt hold the plates near the fire to drive out all moisture 
 for a few moments, or stand them in the sun for a while, an oper- 
 ation that may be performed, since the water no longer satur- 
 ates the film. For amateurs' purposes it is rarely necessary to 
 varnish. With care, scores of prints may be made from the 
 unvarnished negative without damaging it in the slightest, but 
 for those who may wish to varnish it is well to describe the 
 
 process. Yarnish can be had especially for this purpose already 
 prepared ; it is known as Scovill's Negative Yarnish. 
 
 The plate being dry, seize it by the lower left-hand corner, 
 
 as shown in the cut, holding it 
 level and pouring from "the bottle 
 on to the film quite a pool of the 
 varnish. Then slowly lower the 
 end farthest from you, allowing 
 the varnish to spread to the fur- 
 ther end ; then depress the upper 
 edge, flowing the varnish slowly 
 along to the spot where your 
 thumb is, then to the corner next 
 to you, gradually rising until you 
 reach the position shown in the 
 cut, when the surplus is drained 
 back into the bottle. While drain- 
 ing keep up a rocking motion to 
 and from you to break up any tendency of the varnish to set in 
 
42 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 ridges; cork bottle and put plate in drying-rack until the 
 varnish hardens. This will take at least two or three hours. 
 
 When a number of negatives have 
 been developed and varnished, there 
 are two methods of preserving them 
 from dust and from scratches. One 
 is by putting them in envelopes made 
 of stout paper, and called u negative 
 preservers," which are sold to corre>~ 
 pond with the different sized nega- 
 tives. Another way is to store the 
 negatives in boxes like the one shown. These are called " nega- 
 tive boxes," and are constructed to hold twenty-fournegatives, 
 which are slipped info the grooves at the two sictes, and thus 
 secured from rubbing each other. These boxes are also made 
 light-tight for holding unexposed and undeveloped plates. 
 Some, too, are provided with lock and key, which often is a 
 convenient addition. 
 
 The negative is now ready for printing, but before we pro- 
 ceed to describe that process let us consider some of the methods 
 for improving the quality of the negative by increasing or 
 reducing its density. 
 
 % INCREASING AND REDUCING INTENSITY. 
 
 It sometimes happens that a negative lacks intensity, from 
 causes which are not at this time worth reciting. If you have 
 a negative of a view which you cannot easily retake, and 
 which has all the needed details in the shadows, then it may 
 be well to try some strengthening or intensifying process, but 
 if you can duplicate it, by all means do that. If it has not the 
 requisite detail, throw it away, for all the intensifying 'that 
 can be done will but increase opacity ; detail you cannot add ; 
 if the image is not upon the plate a ton of chemicals will not 
 put it there. At its best, the operation is far from being 
 satisfactory, as a rule ; an intensified negative is never as fine 
 as one correctly exposed and properly developed. The formula 
 recommended by Edwards has acted as well as any. Prepare a 
 saturated solution of bichloride of mercury in water, and pour 
 
FIXING, WASHING, VARNISHING, ETC., ETC. 43 
 
 of this a sufficient quantity into a solution of iodide of potassium 
 (one and a quarter ounce of iodide to six ounces of water), until 
 the point is reached when the red precipitate is not dissolved 
 by shaking ; be careful not to add more mercury than is just 
 enough to leave a slight precipitate. 
 
 To this add one ounce of hyposulphite of soda in crystals, 
 and add water to make twenty ounces. 
 
 For use, take in proportion of one ounce of above to three 
 ounces of water, and in this place the plate to be. intensified. 
 Should the plate not have been well washed after the " fixing " 
 process, yellow stains will appear from the traces of hypo left 
 in the film. Be careful not to carry the operation too far ; 
 wash well. Hall's intensifier, which is sold already prepared, 
 is used by many because of its convenience. Merely now it 
 on the plate until the proper density of color is obtained ; then 
 wash in pure water and dry. 
 
 If in the development you have gone too far and the 
 negtive is too intense, it can be reduced by the following : 
 
 Red prussiate potash 1 ounce J & f*r 
 
 Water 16 ounces / * >, 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda 1 ounce . 
 
 Water 16 ounces 
 
 Pour out enough of the hypo solution to cover the plate ; 
 to this add, say, four drops of potash solution to each ounce of 
 the hypo solution. Mix well, and in this immerse the nega- 
 tive; watch closely, removing the plate from time to time, 
 that you may see how the reduction proceeds. When reduced 
 sufficiently, wash well and dry. 
 
 It is better in developing to err on the side of too great 
 intensity and then reduce, than to stop short in development 
 and endeavor to intensify. The first may prove a success ; the 
 last, as a rule, is scarcely satisfactory. 
 
 ' 
 
 r - 
 
LESSON VII. 
 PRINTING ON ALBUMENIZED PAPER. 
 
 THE SILVER SOLUTION. 
 
 The albumen paper that is sold by dealers has been soaked 
 in an alkaline salt, and when such paper is floated upon a solu- 
 tion of silver nitrate, two compounds are formed ; the organic 
 albuminate of silver, and silver chloride, both of which are 
 sensitive to light. 
 
 A sixty-grain solution of silver nitrate may be recom- 
 mended, that is, one which contains sixty grains of silver to 
 the ounce, although a much weaker one will answer the 
 purpose tolerably well. As a matter of course, the bath grows 
 weaker with use. 
 
 Such a bath may be made as follows : 
 
 Water ; 64 ounces 
 
 Silver nitrate 8 " 
 
 Ammonia nitrate 2 " 
 
 Magnesic nitrate 1 ounce 
 
 To each ounce of the solution add one drop of strong ammonia. 
 By adding silver nitrate, from time to time, the solution 
 may be kept up to the required standard. This may be ascer- 
 tained by the argentometer ; the figures at the surface of the 
 bath in which the instrument is floated indicating the number 
 of grains per ounce. The ordinary hydrometer will serve well 
 enough, since we may add silver, from time to time, in suffi- 
 cient quantity to keep the instrument at the same level when 
 floated in the bath. We may, indeed, employ any glass tube 
 closed at one end and open at the other. Cause the tube to 
 stand upright in the liquid by dropping shot into the open 
 end. The surface of the bath may be marked by a ring of 
 
PRINTING ON ALBUMENIZED PAPER. 45 
 
 thread, and tins mark may afterward be made permanent by a 
 three-cornered file. Of course the tube must always contain 
 shot of the same number and size. 
 
 On account of the presence of ammonic and magnesic 
 salts, the argentometer should read, not sixty, but eighty. 
 Only silver nitrate needs be added from time to time, as 
 the solution is not depleted of the alkaline salts, except as the 
 quantity of the liquid is diminished. The best way is to add 
 a quantity of solution compounded as above, and then add 
 silver nitrate to bring the whole up to the required reading on 
 the hydrometer. 
 
 The silver-bath should be kept in an alkaline condition by 
 adding, occasionally, a few drops of ammonia. The tendency 
 to become acid is due to the liberation of nitric acid from the 
 silver nitrate. 
 
 During the floating of the paper some organic particles 
 pass from the paper into the bath, where they soon decompose 
 and discolor the solution. The bath may be cleared by shaking 
 it up with a handful of china clay or kaolin, which adheres to 
 the particles and carries them to the bottom. The bath should 
 then be filtered, or, when used, it may be decanted, leaving 
 the sediment behind. Better yet, the bath may be drawn 
 from the bottle by two tubes, carried in one cork after the 
 manner of the wash bottle which is so much used in laboratories. 
 One tube is a syphon that reaches to the bottom of the bottle, 
 while the longer arm is outside the bottle and carries the solu- 
 tion into the tray. The other tube passes merely through the 
 cork, and through this a current of air is blown ; the pressure 
 from this starts the syphon. 
 
 FLOATING THE PAPER. 
 
 This must be done in a glass, porcelain or wooden tray. 
 If wood is used, the bottom and sides should be well shellacked. 
 A convenient tray for amateurs is the " Waterbnry " tray, of 
 a size large enough to float a whole sheet at a time. 
 
 Lift the sheet to be floated by two opposite corners, with 
 the film*side down, and let it touch the bath first near one end. 
 
4G THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Lower the rest of the sheet smoothly and quickly until it all 
 rests upon the bath. Across each end lay a light piece of wood, 
 until the curling of the edges has ceased. These edges may 
 easily be kept down also by breathing upon them. As soon as 
 possible, each corner of the sheet should be lifted and bubbles 
 of air adhering to the film should be broken with a glass rod, 
 or blown away by a smart current of breath. JSTo drops of the 
 solution should be spattered upon the top of the sheet. The 
 albumen paper commonly sold in the market should be floated 
 about two minutes in winter, and a minute and a quarter or a 
 minute and a half in summer. For printing with weak nega- 
 tives, the floating should be somewhat longer. 
 
 Withdraw the sheet by grasping two corners with wooden 
 clips and hold it over the bath to drain. It is an excellent 
 plan to draw the sheet over a glass rod fixed across one end of 
 the tray. This scoops all superficially hanging silver back into 
 the bath. The sheets may now be pressed between pieces of 
 blotting paper and hung up to dry, being supported by the 
 clips to stretched twine or across wooden rods. The drying 
 should, of course, take place in the darkness, or in extremely 
 weak light. 
 
 The albumenized side of the paper, either before or after 
 sensitizing, should not be handled more than is absolutely 
 necessary in cutting it to the proper size. The hands should 
 be clean and dry. The sensitized paper soon becomes discol- 
 ored and is seldom in its best condition after twenty-four 
 hours. In cold, dry weather, however, it will keep well for 
 several days. 
 
 FUMING. 
 
 The sensitized paper, after being thoroughly dried, by arti- 
 ficial heat or otherwise, should, before printing, be exposed for 
 a time to the fumes of ammonia. The ammonia is useful in 
 absorbing the free chlorine that is evolved during the exposure 
 of the paper to the sunlight. To this end, secure an old box 
 that is two or three feet long and half as wide and deep. 
 Paste black or brown paper over the cracks, and set the box 
 on end. The front should be removable, and might conven- 
 
PRINTING ON ALBUMENIZED PAPER. 47 
 
 iently work with a hinge. It should tit pretty accurately, and 
 around the margins it would be well to tack a strip of cloth. 
 Instead of this wooden front, a large piece of pasteboard or 
 blotting paper might be used, it being crowded in at the edges 
 and the whole box then covered with a cloth. 
 
 Provide the box with a false bottom placed about two inches 
 above the real one. This may consist of a porous cloth 
 stretched across, or of a perforated thin board or pasteboard. 
 The perforations should be numerous. 
 
 The paper is placed in the box by putting two sheets back to 
 back and hanging them, by means of clips provided with 
 hooks, to twine stretched back and forth across the top of the 
 box ; or, the sheets, back to back, may be pinned through the 
 corners to the sides and top of the box. A large number of 
 sheets may be fumed at one time. When all are in place, put 
 a shallow tray or plate containing strong ammonia under the 
 perforated bottom and close the front. The paper should 
 fume about fifteen minutes in warm weather, and nearly 
 double the time in cold weather. After fuming, a short time 
 should elapse before printing, to allow the paper that is moist 
 with the fumes of ammonia to contract and resume its normal 
 size. 
 
 PRINTING. 
 
 The word "printing," as used in Photography, is a mis- 
 nomer. The word, as seen in its etymology, means, properly, 
 to take an impression by some mechanical means. But photo- 
 graphic " printing " is a process of reproduction by a chemical 
 change that is effected in a sensitized surface through the 
 agency of light ; and might therefore be more properly styled 
 "copying," after the manner of the Germans. The only 
 mechanical changes involved are such as serve to bring the 
 sensitive surface into proper relation to the actinic power of 
 the light. 
 
 A frame that is at least one size larger than the negatives to 
 be printed from is a great convenience. In the first place, in 
 the larger frame the negative will be printed to the very 
 margins ; and, in the second place, the larger frame will be a 
 
48 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 great help if you desire to vignette upon your print clouds 
 from another negative. A clear glass plate of the same size as 
 the frame may be used to support the smaller negative. 
 
 Place the negative in the frame, film up, and upon it lay the 
 paper with the sensitive surface down, that is, next to the neg- 
 ative. Put the back of the frame in its place and press it 
 down with the springs. The frame is now ready to be expose^ 
 to the light. 
 
 The change effected by the light in the sensitive film may 
 be expressed by the formula : 
 
 Ag Cl + sunlight = Ag + Cl. 
 
 We see that free chlorine is evolved and metallic silver depos- 
 ited. It is this fine deposit of silver that constitutes, by its 
 greater or lesser amount, the lights and shadows of the picture. 
 
 If the negative is very weak and flat, that is, lacking in con- 
 trast, it were better not to print by direct sunlight ; otherwise, 
 the exposure may be made to the direct rays of the sun. To 
 effect this, a wide board may be thrust out of a window having 
 a southern exposure. It is better yet, however, to nail together 
 three boards in the form of a right-angle triangle, and so place 
 the triangle in the open window that the hypothenuse is per- 
 pendicular to the line of the sun's rays. Strips may be nailed 
 across the board for supporting the printing frame. 
 
 The progress of the printing must be carefully watched. 
 Withdraw the frame from time to time into the diffused light 
 of the room, slip the spring, raise one end of the back, and 
 examine the print. The print when ready to be taken out 
 should be considerably darker than the finished picture is to 
 be. This excess of blackness will disappear in the subsequent 
 washing and fixing. Rather weak and flat negatives should be 
 printed especially dark, as they lose more of their depth in 
 subsequent operations. Experience alone will determine just 
 how long to continue the exposure in order to secure the best 
 results. 
 
 WASHING THE PRINTS. 
 
 . The washing may be performed in a japanned or porcelain 
 tray. Lay the prints one by one face down into the tray and 
 
PRINTING ON ALBUMENIZED PAPER. 49 
 
 press them beneath the water. Twenty-five or thirty may be 
 \vashed at a time. After being placed in the tray they should 
 be moved by slipping them from the bottom and placing them 
 upon the top. After standing eight or ten minutes the water 
 may be poured off and a fresh supply added. The same 
 manipulation should be performed with each washing as with 
 the first. Into the fourth wash a quarter of an ounce of satu- 
 rated solution of sodic bicarbonate and half an ounce of 
 saturated solution of common salt may be placed. The soda 
 will bring the prints into an alkaline condition that is favor- 
 able to the action of the toning-bath. The prints should 
 remain in this mixture not more than five minutes, and should 
 then be well rinsed. They are then ready for the 
 
 TONING-BATH. 
 
 The office of the gold toning-bath is to substitute for the 
 reddish, disagreeable color of the print a bluish or brownish 
 black. The chemical change involved is not at present very 
 well understood. 
 
 It is a prime requisite of any toning-bath that it be slightly, 
 but decidedly, alkaline. It should be tested from time to time 
 with litmus paper, especially if it does not act properly. 
 
 Many toning-baths are in use and they differ somewhat in 
 results. We will describe but one or two. 
 
 STOCK SOLUTION. 
 
 Water ................ ........................... 15 ounces 
 
 Chloride of gold and sodium ..................... 15 grains 
 
 To make up a toning-bath for twenty prints, take 
 
 Water ........................................... 10 ounces 
 
 Sodic bicarbonate ............................. ... 3 grains 
 
 Sodic chloride (common salt) .................... 6 
 
 Stock solution of gold ........................... 3 ounces * 
 
 A good pinch of sodic bicarbonate and of sodic chloride will be 
 sufficiently accurate. To this bath add three ounces of the 
 stock solution of gold that has first received three drops of a 
 saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda. This last is to main- 
 tain the alkalinity of the bath. 
 
 3 5 
 
 1 7 
 

 50 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Another excellent toning-bath is as follows : 
 STOCK SOLUTION. 
 
 Water ........................................ 15 ounces 
 
 Chloride of gold and sodium ................. . . .15 grains 
 
 Pour three ounces of the stock solution into the toning-tray 
 and render it slightly alkaline by carefully adding a saturated 
 solution of sodic bicarbonate. Then add a pint of water and 
 about twenty grains of sodic acetate. After standing half an 
 hour this bath will be ready for use. 
 
 Lay *the prints in the bath one by one, face down, and move 
 them continually, so as to avoid sticking together of the prints, 
 and consequent unevenness of tone. Ten or twelve may be 
 toned at one time, and as these are taken out others may be 
 added. If the bath becomes very weak and slow in its action, 
 provided excessive cold be not the cause, more gold should be 
 added. 
 
 In ten or fifteen minutes the reddish color should begin to 
 disappear and to be gradually succeeded by a rich purplish 
 black in the shadows. The prints should not be withdrawn 
 from the bath until this stage has been reached. On the other 
 hand, they should never lie so long as to acquire a bluish or 
 slaty color. 
 
 As heat accelerates chemical action, it is important that the 
 bath be kept at about the same temperature as the room, sixty- 
 five or seventy degrees. To effect this the toning-tray may 
 be set on a hot soapstone ; or, better yet, as some one has sug- 
 gested, the tray may be set across a small open cask, in the bot- 
 tom of which stands a burning lamp ; but the bath must not 
 be overheated. The prints must be examined in light strong 
 enough to enable the operator to judge accurately of the tone. 
 After thorough rinsing the prints are ready for the 
 
 FIXING-BATH. 
 
 The office of the fixing-bath is to dissolve the silver chloride 
 not acted upon by light ; without which the picture is subject 
 to further light-action, will consequently not retain its bril- 
 liancy and definition, and will, in fact, assume a dark color all 
 over. 
 

 
 
 FEINTING ON ALBUMENIZED PAPER. 51 
 
 One of the products of the fixing process is a double salt, 
 the argento-sodic hyposulphite, wftich is again soluble in an 
 excess of sodium hyposulphite, and must be totally removed 
 from the print by subsequent washing, to secure its perfect 
 permanency. , 
 
 The following bath is recommended: 
 
 Water ". ". 1 gallon 
 
 Sodic hyposulphite 1 pound /Jj^ *t > 
 
 Sodic bicarbonate 1 tablespoonful 
 
 Common salt 1 " 
 
 .The prints should be placed in the bath one by one, enough 
 of the liquid being used to cover them well. Move them fre- 
 quently, as in toning, to prevent sticking together. They 
 should lie in the bath not less than fifteen minutes. It is bet- 
 ter to prolong the time to twenty minutes, if the bath is rather 
 cool. The bath should be made up some hours or days before- 
 hand, as the dissolving of the crystals lowers the temperature 
 materially. The fixing-bath should be thrown away after once 
 using. The fixing-tray should, under no circumstances, be 
 used for any other purpose. 
 
 To insure against blistering, it is well to transfer the prints 
 from the fixing-bath into a strong solution of common salt, in 
 which they may lie three of four minutes. 
 
 They are then ready for their final 
 
 WASHING. 
 
 A limited number may be washed well enough in a tray. 
 Hock the tray occasionally, or move the prints by continually 
 slipping out the bottom one, and placing it upon the top. The 
 water should be changed seven or eight times, and during the 
 earlier part of the process the changes should be more frequent 
 than during the latter part. A thorough elimination of the 
 fixing solution is essential to the permanence of the photo- 
 graph. There is little danger, therefore, of continuing the 
 washing too long. Some even allow water to run over the 
 prints all night. It is supposed by many, however, that? an ex- 
 cessively prolonged soaking in water weakens the print. 
 
52 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 The object of washing the print is to remove from it all sodic 
 hyposulphite and the derivatives of the fixing process. A test 
 for perfect elimination is the iodide of starch paper of dark 
 purple color, which, when brought into contact with prints, or 
 the water dripping from them, will bleach immediately if only 
 a trace of hyposulphite be present. 
 
 To remove these last traces of the obnoxious salt, a table- 
 spoonful of Flandreau's S. P. C. Hypo Eliminator, added to 
 one quart of the last washing water, and allowing the prints 
 to remain therein for a few moments, and then rinsing them 
 off again with pure water, will effect a thorough elimination, 
 without which albumenized paper prints will always be liable 
 to turn yellow or to fade. 
 
 The eliminator should not be used in large proportions, as by 
 too strong solutions the whole silver deposit might suffer. 
 
LESSON VIII. 
 PRINTING ON VARIOUS OTHER PAPERS. 
 
 FEINTING ON HEADY-SENSITIZED SILVERED PAPER. 
 
 WE have learned in the previous lesson how to sensitize 
 albumen paper, how to print upon it, and how to tone and fix 
 prints which have been made upon it. 
 
 For the convenience of professional photographers, as well 
 as for amateurs, a brand of paper, albumenized and sensi- 
 tized in the solution of nitrate of silver, quite ready for print- 
 ing, is now in the market, and extensively used. This paper, 
 being capable of giving universally good results, exempts the 
 operator from annoyances often encountered when silvering 
 paper, it is of especial value to the student, and some of our 
 attention should, therefore, be given to the mode of working 
 with it. 
 
 We have learned how to sensitize albumenized paper, and 
 how to fume it in the vapors of ammonia preparatory to print- 
 ing. With the paper before us, the first operation is dispensed 
 with ; the second, however, becomes an absolute necessity. 
 
 Before we advance further, it will be interesting to examine 
 the reasons for which the photo-chemist has been induced to 
 prepare ready- sensitized paper, and how it is done. Sensitive 
 paper does not keep in good working condition for any length 
 of time, in fact, through the influence of such adverse circum- 
 stances as heat, moisture in the atmosphere, or air tainted with 
 certain gases, it will lose its brilliant whiteness, assume a yel- 
 lowish tint, and will finally turn to a brown color, and thus 
 become unfit for photographic printing. The theories upon 
 which these changes are based, as well as those explaining the 
 other processes connected with printing, we shall consider in a 
 future lesson ; be it sufficient now to say that the desire to ob- 
 
54 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 tain a more durable sensitive paper lias resulted in the ready- 
 sensitized paper before us. 
 
 When floating a sheet of salted and albumenized paper upon 
 silver solution, the chloride in the albumen film converts the 
 silver nitrate to a chloride, the decomposition of which sub- 
 stance, by light, gives us the photographic picture. In remov- 
 ing the sheet from the silver-bath, much of the solution ad- 
 heres to the paper, dries there, and assists afterwards consider- 
 ably in making the print. This same silver prevents the paper 
 from being durable or retaining its whiteness, and must be re- 
 moved unless the paper be used the same day. This is done 
 by washing it in water after the chlorification has been thor- 
 oughly effected. In that state, we have upon the sheet a film 
 of the organic silver albuminate, finely interspersed with 
 silver chloride. To prevent a decomposition of these bodies 
 by atmospheric influences or high temperature, the back of the 
 paper is coated with other chemicals, like citric acid, citrates, 
 nitrites, sulphites, and carbonated alkalis; the latter being 
 probably the most effective of all. Without this precaution 
 the washing away of the excess of nitrate of silver would be 
 of no benefit to the paper, and it would be likely to turn color 
 in time. 
 
 The ready-sensitized paper of commerce, as we purchase it 
 from the dealer, may possibly give, under a very strong and 
 dense negative, a tolerably good print, but to secure good im- 
 pressions from comparatively feeble negatives, it is absolutely 
 necessary to fume it in the vapors of ammonia. The effects 
 produced by fuming cannot be the same as upon unwashed 
 paper, as, without the presence of free nitrate of silver, the 
 respective combination cannot form, and the ammonia will act 
 only as an absorber of the chlorine gas, which, during print- 
 ing, is liberated from the chloride of silver by the action of 
 
 light. 
 
 The great amount of acid matter employed to make the 
 paper durable, requires the aid of alkalis to establish that state 
 of neutrality requisite in printing upon albumenized paper. 
 Hence we understand how fuming assists to gain the desired 
 result, and the importance of fuming ready-sensitized paper 
 
FEINTING ON VARIOUS OTHER PAPERS. 55 
 
 cannot be too forcibly impressed upon the mind of the 
 student. 
 
 If printed copies are well preserved from humid air, toning 
 may be deferred to a convenient time, or until a sufficient 
 number of prints has accumulated. 
 
 TONING, FIXING, AND WASHING 
 
 does not differ from the processes as described before, but it will 
 be interesting to all to learn of the toning-bath, which has been 
 worked with such good success by the practicing classes of the 
 Chautauqua School, and by which equally good tones have 
 been obtained upon ready-sensitized and freshly-prepared albu- 
 men paper. 
 
 The washing of the prints before toning should be conducted 
 with all possible care and attention. It may be done either 
 by subjecting them, for at least fifteen minutes, to a continuous 
 stream of water, or to half-a-dozen changes of water at in- 
 tervals of ten minutes. If, toward the end of the washing, a 
 slight amount of alkali, say ordinary washing soda, be added, 
 the prints will be better disposed to receive the gold of the 
 toning-bath. 
 
 As a rule, ready-sensitized paper requires but a very slight 
 over-printing. Long continued toning, possibly with a view to 
 bleach out prints when too dark, is detrimental to the general 
 tone ; it turns the whites to a sickly gray, depriving the print 
 of its brilliancy. 
 
 After sufficient washing, toning may be commenced. The 
 gold bath, to which experts have given the name " Chautauqua 
 Toning-Bath," is prepared about thirty minutes before use, 
 and is as follows : 
 
 Make a stock solution of fifteen grains of chloride of gold 
 and sodium in fifteen ounces of water, of which two ounces 
 are poured into the toning-tray best of a light material, porce- 
 lain or white agate ware. 
 
 Chloride of gold reacts acid, but as it does not tone in that 
 condition, it must be rendered neutral, or slightly alkaline. 
 Test with blue litmus paper ; acidity changes the color to red, 
 alkalines restore the blue. Neutralize the acid gold solution by 
 
56 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 adding gradually, in small portions, a saturated solution of bi- 
 carbonate of soda, till the bluing of the litmus test paper in- 
 dicates neutrality. When in that state, ten grains of acetate 
 of soda are added, and when dissolved the solution must be 
 diluted with not less than eighteen ounces of water, before 
 prints can be subjected to its action. 
 
 Fixing, washing, and hypo-elimination are the same as with 
 prints made on freshly-prepared paper. 
 
 PRINTING ON PLAIN PAPER. 
 
 The term " plain paper " signifies photographic positive 
 paper, as it comes direct from the paper mills, without having 
 undergone any preparation for future use, such as salting, al- 
 bumenizing, or extra sizing. 
 
 If photographs on paper are to be finely finished in aquarell, 
 sepia, India ink, or similar pigments, albumenized, or otherwise 
 prepared surfaces present to the artist a variety of difficulties, 
 among which stands foremost its gloss and hardness, repelling 
 the aqueous mixture of color substances to such an extent as 
 to make it extremely difficult, even impossible, in some cases, 
 to wash in large surfaces, to blend colors into each other, or to 
 build up intensity by repeated application of shades, Non- 
 albumenized paper is also more pleasing to the artist, to 
 whom the photograph serves as a sketch, or base, to work 
 upon, and is much used by landscape, still-life, and portrait 
 artists. 
 
 Plain paper is absolutely necessary when photographic 
 half-tones are to be reduced into a system of lines, stipple or 
 cross hatchings for reproductions in high relief for mechanical 
 printing methods, for a variety of transfers, and the photo- 
 graphic tracing processes, which will be considered further on. 
 
 Plain paper is, of course, subjected to somewhat different 
 treatment from that of our old friend, the albumenized paper, 
 and of the great variety of methods practiced we select two 
 which have been generally approved of by professional photog- 
 raphers. 
 
 No. 1. A. Make a solution of 300 grains of chloride of am- 
 
PRINTING ON VARIOUS OTHER PAPERS. 57 
 
 % 
 
 monium in one gallon of water, and soak the paper in it for a 
 minute or two, being careful to avoid air bubbles. Then hang 
 up and dry. 
 
 B. Dissolve one and a-half ounces of crystallized nitrate of 
 silver in fifteen ounces of soft or distilled water. Divide the 
 solution into three parts ; set one of them aside, and add to the 
 two-thirds remaining, aqua ammonia fortior till the yellowish 
 brown precipitate formed is redissolved in an excess of the pre- 
 cipitant, being careful to add only enough ammonia to render 
 the solution perfectly clear again, and without exhibiting more 
 than only a perceptible odor. To this ammonio-nitrate of sil- 
 ver solution add the third of the original solution set aside, 
 which will cause a strong turbition of the liquid, but which 
 will vanish by the addition of a few drops of glacial acetic 
 acid. Then filter. 
 
 The salted paper may be floated upon this solution for two or 
 three minutes, or what is preferred by most practitioners, the 
 solution may be spread over the paper, fastened with pins upon a 
 clean board, either with a tuft of clean cotton wool, or a Buckle's 
 brush. After the paper has been thoroughly sensitized and 
 dried in the dark-room, it may be cut to the required size and 
 printed upon in the usual way. 
 
 Plain paper had best be toned and fixed in one operation, to 
 secure vigorous and brilliant prints. 
 
 Dissolve fifteen grains of pure terchloride of gold in seven 
 and a-half ounces of distilled water, and add it drop by drop, 
 and by constant stirring up to a solution of two ounces of hyposul- 
 phite of soda in twelve ounces of distilled water. If properly 
 prepared this solution remains perfectly clear and limpid ; if 
 brown or yellow, it is unfit for use. 
 
 Of this gold stock solution add three ounces to fifteen 
 ounces of a ten per-cent. hypo solution, and mix well. Prints 
 without a previous washing are immersed therein. It fixes 
 and tones simultaneously, although it requires a much longer 
 time to obtain neutral or black tones. Plain paper prints have 
 shown with this method a great durability. 
 
 No. 2. A printing method upon plain paper was given 
 by Mr. Hardwich as early as 1856, but has for its extremely 
 
58 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 tine qualities been retained to the present day. Based upon 
 the presence of citrate of silver in the sensitizer, any variety of 
 warmer tones, almost to a positive red, can be obtained with 
 it, and it is therefore especially commendable for the use of the 
 artist. Take of 
 
 Pure citric acid 100 grains 
 
 Chloride of ammonium 100 grains 
 
 Gelatine, previously swelled in cold water 10 grains 
 
 . Water 10 ounces 
 
 The gelatine is used to retain the layer of sensitive salt at 
 the surface of the paper, but it does not affect the tint. 
 
 Dissolve the citric acid in a small portion of water, and neu- 
 tralize with carbonate of soda; the quantity (of common wash- 
 ing soda) required for 100 grains of citric acid is 228 grains; 
 add the alkali cautiously, with continual stirring, until the last 
 portions produce no further effervescence, and the immersed 
 litmus paper, previously reddened by the acid, begins to 
 change to blue. 
 
 The best paper for this method is the " Papier Saxe," one 
 side of which is to be floated for two minutes upon this salt- 
 ing-bath. Owing to the gelatine, it is preferable to heat it 
 slightly. 
 
 Render sensitive upon a neutral solution of nitrate of silver, 
 50 grains to the ounce of water, allowing three minutes con- 
 tact. The sensibility to light is somewhat less than that of al- 
 bumenized, but greater than plain paper, sensitized with am- 
 monio-nitrate of silver. 
 
 "When the proof is removed from the printing-frame it is of 
 a brown or purple tint, which becomes bright red when 
 immersed in a plain solution of hyposulphite of soda. Red 
 prints of this sort are very popular for certain engraving or 
 photo-engraving purposes, but to make them adaptable for sub- 
 sequent operations, they must be kept from the influence of 
 the gold bath. 
 
 Toning and fixing in one operation, may be done with the 
 previously described gold and hypo bath, but prints should be 
 first washed in water, to which a trace of common salt has 
 been added, in order to remove all free nitrate of silver from 
 
FEINTING ON VARIOUS OTHER PAPERS. 50 
 
 them. Aqua ammonia, if substituted for the salt in the 
 washing, prevents changing of tones when being dried. Any 
 variety of tones, from rich violet purple to positive black, are 
 easily obtained, and the pictures are especially distinguished by 
 their brilliant whites. 
 
 The Chautauqua Toning-Bath may also be employed for 
 toning these plain prints. Gold acts upon them with great 
 rapidity, and it is, therefore, advisable to use the normal bath, 
 in a diluted state. As weak gold gives invariably the best re- 
 sults, the dilution might be with plain paper in the proportion 
 of 1:3. 
 
 Fixing plain paper, when toned in the alkaline bath, requires 
 no further admonition ; no other precautions than those with 
 albumenized paper being required. Washing and hypo elim- 
 ination are also the same ; but it will be observed that hy- 
 posulphite of soda is much easier and sooner removed from 
 plain paper prints than from albumenized paper. 
 
 CYANOTYPES OR "BLUE" PRINTS. 
 
 We have seen how to make photographic prints upon sil- 
 vered paper, and we have received, with those methods, tones 
 of various colors, from a warm brown to a positive black. 
 There is another kind of print made, not with the aid of the 
 salts of silver, but with a certain iron-combination, known by 
 the name of red prussiate of potash, whose tones are of a 
 beautiful and intense blue. They have gained immense popu- 
 larity on account of the ease and the simplicity of the making. 
 
 The labor required to make silver photographs, even when 
 printed upon ready-sensitized paper, consists of seven distinct 
 operations before a print is ready to be mounted. " Blue " or 
 cyanotype paper requires but one ; a simple washing in water. 
 
 The color of these prints, if properly made, is not unpleas- 
 ant, but, on the contrary, is quite attractive, and collections of 
 photographs interspersed with them offer a very attractive 
 variation. 
 
 Like the ready-sensitized chloride of silver paper, the cyano- 
 type paper has become an article of trade, and is manufactured 
 and sold in enormous quantities, cut up into sizes to corre- 
 
60 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 spond with the negative plates made with the cameras of the 
 American Optical Company and other manufacturers. 
 
 All that is necessary to produce a blue print is to bring the 
 prepared side of the paper into absolute contact with the nega- 
 tive, expose to light, and wash. 
 
 Besides being able to make a blue print, the student should 
 learn how to prepare the paper, and become acquainted with 
 the conditions required to produce a sensitive and durable 
 article. In the first place, a paper of any fine texture, free 
 from any chemical bleaching agents or their antidotes is 
 wanted. There is none so well adapted for this purpose as 
 the " papier Saxe " or the " Rives." Its sizing is quite impor- 
 tant, and although the ordinary commercial paper answers 
 quite well, it is advisable to give it a stronger body, by im- 
 mersing it in albumen beaten to a froth, and allowed to settle 
 again for the separation of the' clear liquid. Four parts of 
 water mixed with one part of the clarified albumen is a good 
 proportion. After leaving the paper in this mixture for a 
 minute, it may be hung up to dry spontaneously, and the albu- 
 men may be coagulated by placing the paper in a steam chest 
 or by hanging it up near a very hot stove. 
 
 For sensitizing the paper we prepare two solutions : 
 
 A. Citrate of iron and ammonia 1% ounce. 
 
 Water 8 ounces. 
 
 B. Red prussiate of potash 1^ ounce. 
 
 Water 8 ounces. 
 
 Filter and keep separate in the dark-room. Before use, 
 equal volumes of these are mixed together and poured into a 
 flat dish or tray. After all foam or air-bubbles have disap- 
 peared, the paper is floated upon this solution for three min- 
 utes, observing the same precaution required in silvering albu- 
 men paper. Then hang up to dry. 
 
 All this is done in the dark-room, or in a much subdued light. 
 When dry, the paper is printed at once, or it may be preserved 
 for future use. If intended to be kept for a length of time, 
 the pieces of the required size are best brought into close con- 
 tact with each other, wrapped up in waxed or paraffin paper 
 
FEINTING ON VARIOUS OTHER PAPERS. 61 
 
 and subjected to a slight pressure. This is done to prevent 
 moisture or impure air from coming into contact with the sen- 
 sitive surface, which would speedily change the original green- 
 ish-yellow color to a muddy greenish-blue, denoting a chemical 
 decomposition. Paper having undergone such a change is not 
 easy to print upon. It prints slow, for it has lost much of its 
 sensitiveness, the shadow parts of the negative do not print out 
 in detail, and to obtain pure whites is quite impossible. 
 
 The mode of printing being the same as that upon other 
 sensitive substances, requires necessarily absolute contact. 
 Printing in sunlight is advisable, and the operation should be 
 carried far enough to give the darkest parts, that is, those un- 
 der the clearest parts of the negative, a decided reddish bronze 
 color. "When completed, the print is removed from the press 
 and washed in pure water, till the picture is perfectly devel- 
 oped, and stands out with a beautiful blue tone upon a white 
 ground. 
 
 When the water dripping from it ceases to be of a yellow 
 tinge, the operation is completed, and the result is a permanent 
 and durable picture which is not affected by light and but 
 little by atmospheric influences. 
 
 A few drops of hydrochloric acid intensifies the blue color, 
 and a little sulphuric acid gives it a greenish tint. Ammonia 
 gives it a purple color, and renders the picture lighter, and can 
 be used, therefore, to reduce a print if too dark. 
 
 Blue paper is extensively used for the reproducing of tracings 
 and drawings. The copies are naturally negatives, that is, the 
 black lines of the original appear white upon a blue ground. 
 Although the general effect of the picture is thus reversed, 
 blue printing has found just in this particular line its most 
 extensive employment. 
 
 The tourist, anxious to see a proof of his negative, can 
 judge of its general qualities when printed upon cyanotype 
 paper without resorting to the troublesome silver printing and 
 gold toning ; and many amateurs are so partially inclined to- 
 ward blue prints that they even admit them to their albums. 
 
 Efforts have been made to convert blue prints into prints of 
 other colors, especially those of dark brown or black shades, 
 
62 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 but they have, according to all reliable authorties, signally 
 failed. An old method for changing color is to bleach the 
 blue by means of a carbonated alkali, leaving upon the paper 
 a deposit of sesquioxide of iron, which is afterwards developed 
 with tannic or gallic acid. Clear whites it is almost impos- 
 sible to obtain, and the general tone of the transferred print 
 may be acceptable to some, but it certainly is not to the 
 general public. 
 
 Red prussiate of potash, in substance or in solution, is sensi- 
 tive to light, and should, therefore, be kept in the dark. 
 
 The citrate of iron and ammonia is very hygroscopic, and 
 when exposed to air attracts so much moisture that it will be 
 decomposed and reduced to a black pulpy mass. We must, 
 therefore, keep it in well-stoppered bottles. 
 
LESSON IX. 
 
 PRINTING ON PERMANENT BROMIDE OF SILVER 
 
 PAPER. 
 
 THIS paper, entirely different in its preparation from those 
 we have already become acquainted with, is extremely sensitive 
 to light, and requires, therefore, but short exposures. The 
 mode of operating is not the same, nor similar, to any of the 
 sensitive papers which we have considered, and requires an 
 essentially different treatment. The picture is not secured by 
 a complete printing-out, but by development conducted as in 
 the negative processes, and with chemicals not described in 
 previous instructions. 
 
 The uses of the bromide paper are almost unlimited in their 
 variety. 
 
 For making contact prints from negatives of all kinds, por- 
 traits, views, interiors, architectural and mechanical subjects, 
 it is unsurpassed, both for quickness of execution, and artistic 
 effect. The pure, soft black and gray tones, and steel engrav- 
 ing effects obtained, and the absence of the conventional glossy 
 surface, usual in photographs, are points in its favor that are 
 appreciated by artists and connoisseurs of refined taste. 
 
 For copying patent office drawings, engineers' and architects' 
 plans, it surpasses all other processes in quickness and quality 
 of result. It is used by botanists for making copies of leaves, 
 etc., by contact printing. 
 
 It is invaluable for use in meteorological and astronomical 
 recording instruments. In making quick proofs from wet 
 negatives, it enables the photographer to see his result without 
 waiting for his negative to dry. 
 
 But perhaps the most important application of permanent 
 bromide paper is to the process of enlarging, i. e., the making 
 of large positives from small negatives. 
 
64 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Owing to its great sensitiveness, it will receive and retain an 
 image projected upon it by means of an apparatus similar in 
 principle to a magic lantern, thus enabling the photographer to 
 make prints of any size from small negatives. Such prints 
 present the effect of fine crayon drawings, at the same time re- 
 taining the photographic fidelity of likeness and detail. 
 
 The exposure required for this extremely sensitive paper 
 varies with the intensity of the negative, and the quality 
 and intensity of the light, but may be approximately 
 stated to be, using as thin negatives as will make good prints, 
 one-quarter second by diffused daylight, or ten seconds at a 
 distance of one foot from a No. 2 kerosene burner. Yery thin 
 negatives should be printed by weak }^ellow light, like that ob- 
 tained from a kerosene lamp turned down a little below the 
 normal intensity. In this way a strong, vigorous print may be 
 obtained from a negative that would otherwise be too thin and 
 flat. Strong, intense negatives are best printed by daylight. 
 
 Permanent bromide paper is manufactured in various grades 
 of sensitiveness and surface. For contact printing of proofs, 
 for drawings, tracings, or those from ordinary negatives, the 
 Eastman " A," with smooth surface, is best adapted ; while for 
 enlargements, especially when to be finished by the artist's hand, 
 the " C," of rougher grain, is preferred. All of the different 
 grades are sold cut in popular sizes, and put up in light-tight 
 packages, or in endless rolls, well protected against the action 
 of undue light. For contact printing the paper is laid in the 
 printing frame upon the negative as heretofore described, and 
 for enlargements is fastened against the easel, to be explained 
 later on. Owing to its gelatinized surface, the edges bf the 
 paper curl on the coated side, and to make the developer take 
 freely to it, immersion in water becomes necessary before de- 
 velopment. When perfectly flattened out, the water may be 
 poured off and the developer applied. 
 
 FORMULA FOR DEVELOPER. 
 
 1. Oxalate of potash 1 pound 
 
 Hot water 3 pints 
 
 Acidify with sulphuric or citric acid. Test with litmus 
 paper. 
 
PRINTING ON PERMANENT BROMIDE OF SILVER PAPER. 65 
 
 2. Protosulphate of iron 1 pound 
 
 Hot water 1 quart 
 
 Sulphuric acid (or citric acid, J ounce) dram ^ fVYft**&4 
 
 3. Bromide potassium 1 dram 
 
 Water 1 quart 
 
 These solutions keep separately, and mix only for immediate 
 use. 
 
 Take in a suitable tray : ~No. 1, six ounces ; No. 2, one 
 ounce; mix in the order given; use cold. 
 
 The image should appear slowly, and should develop up 
 strong, clear and brilliant. When the shadows are sufficiently 
 black, stop, pour off the developer, and flood the print with 
 the clearing solution, consisting of one-quarter of an ounce of 3 tf CC^ 
 citric acid to one quart of water. Repeat washing with the 
 acid water three or four times, rinse well with pure water, and . y 
 
 finally fix in hyposulphite of soda, three ounces of which is 
 dissolved in one pint of water. When perfectly fixed, which 
 takes about ten minutes, wash again, submit to the alum-bath 
 and final washing, which is greatly accelerated by the use of 
 Flandreau's hypo eliminator, as in the case of other kinds of 
 prints. 
 
 REMARKS ON DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 The developer in use is termed by photographers the 
 "ferrous oxalate." developer, and consists in reality of the 
 ferrous oxalate dissolved in an excess of oxalate of potash. The 
 mixture should present a clear, dark-ruby color. If turbid, 
 too much of the iron solution has been added, and the iron 
 oxalate formed is in excess, the oxalate of potash present 
 cannot keep it in solution, hence a part of the iron salt 
 remains undissolved, and precipitates in the form of a bright 
 yellow powder. Such developer is unfit for use. 
 
 Care should be taken to employ oxalate of potash only when 
 in a perfectly neutral state, or when acidity is slightly prevailing. 
 An oxalate, reacting alkaline, tends to make hard and chalky 
 prints without half tones, effects erroneously ascribed at times 
 to under-exposures. The only difficulty occurring with bro- 
 mide prints, is a misjudged time of exposure. Over and 
 
66 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 under-exposures can be observed with the ferrous oxalate de- 
 veloper in the same way as by the effects shown in the nega- 
 tive process with pyrogallic acid. Under-exposure gives hard, 
 black and white prints without any half tones or fine grada- 
 tions. 
 
 For over-exposures we have remedies on hand by which we 
 can counteract their effects. One of these is Bromide of Potas- 
 sium Solution No. 3, which, when judiciously used, will re- 
 strain the forcible action of the developer, and modify the 
 gray tone resulting without it. 
 
 Too much of it, however, tends to make a yellowish or olive 
 green tone which is by no means agreeable. With a careless 
 application of bromide of potassium there is danger of spoiling 
 the print entirely. 
 
 A better restrainer is undoubtedly a developer prepared 
 some time previous to its use, and when it has attained partly 
 to a higher state of oxidation. Whenever an over-exposure 
 may be suspected, it is advisable to commence development 
 with this partly oxidized solution, and when the general out- 
 lines and deeper shadows of the picture are fairly out, substi- 
 tute for it a freshly-made preparation, and counterbalance its 
 action, if too forcible, again with the old. The operation 
 probably requires a little more nicety than the ordinary 
 method, but the resulting tones are decidedly better and 
 richer than those resulting from an excessive use of bromide 
 of potassium. 
 
 The office of the acid clearing solution is to dissolve the iron 
 salt that has entered into the pores of the paper supporting the 
 gelatine film during the development. Without it the prints 
 would be of a yellowish, muddy color, wanting in the bril- 
 liancy and clearness for which bromide prints are noted. 
 
 Permanent bromide prints should not be dried between 
 blotters like albumenized paper, but should be hung over a 
 line, or laid back down upon glass or clean paper. 
 
 ENAMELING. 
 
 Squeegee the wet print, face down, on a polished piece of 
 hard rubber or ebonite ; when dry the print will peel off with 
 
PRINTING ON PERMANENT BROMIDE OF SILVER PAPER. 67 
 
 a fine polished surface. The print should be slipped on to the 
 rubber plate under water to avoid air bubbles. 
 
 FLEXIBLE PRINTS. 
 
 Permanent bromide prints soaked in a mixture of glycerine, 
 five ounces, and water, twenty-five ounces, and dried, will not 
 curl, and may be used for book illustrations, unmounted. The 
 heavier papers, " B " and " C," are especially adapted for this 
 purpose. 
 
 After drying, prints may be straightened by the scraping 
 action of a sharp-edged ruler applied to the back ; the corner 
 behind the ruler being lifted as the ruler is passed along. 
 
 The operation of enlarging on permanent bromide paper 
 involves the same principles as those underlying the making 
 of a negative ; it is simply photographing on a large scale the 
 negative instead of the original. To avoid the necessity of 
 using a large camera, the dark-room itself is made to take the 
 place of the camera body, and the negative is placed in an 
 opening in the dark-room shutter so that all the light will 
 come through it to the lens, as in Fig. 1. 
 
 FIG. l. 
 
 This cut represents an enlarging apparatus that any pho- 
 tographer can improvise from ordinary apparatus and material, 
 with the expenditure of a few hours' time. To construct it 
 proceed as follows : 
 
68 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Cut a hole in the dark-room shutter two sizes larger than 
 the largest negative to be enlarged from, fit into the opening a 
 frame about two or three inches deep, glazed on the outside 
 with a sheet of ground-glass. On the inside edges of the 
 frame, top and bottom, arrange grooves in which to slide the 
 negative ; when the negative is in position it will be bril- 
 liantly illuminated against the ground-glass. Now, on a table 
 or shelf, adjusted in front of the negative box, place an or- 
 dinary camera having the ground-glass removed, point the lens 
 toward the negative, and connect the lens and negative box by 
 means of a bag of opaque cloth, open at both ends and pro- 
 vided with elastic bands to close it tightly around the lens and 
 negative box. This will prevent any light from coming into 
 the dark-room, except that which passes through the lens. 
 (See Figs. 1 and 2). 
 
 In this apparatus the camera body serves no useful purpose ; 
 all that is required is to support the lens. In case a portrait 
 lens is used, it should be put in position so that the back lens 
 will be next the negative instead of as shown in the cut. 
 
 The easel to hold the sensitive paper is the next requisite, 
 and this may be constructed by' fastening a large, flat board in 
 an upright position, upon a box of suitable size, to serve as a 
 base, so that the whole may be moved to and fro to regulate 
 the size of the enlargement. The face of the easel should be 
 covered with white paper. Now, if the easel is put in position, 
 facing the camera, the image can be focused on the screen by 
 sliding the camera backward or forward on the shelf. 
 
 LENS. 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 The size of the enlargement will depend upon the length of 
 
PRINTING ON PERMANENT BROMIDE OF SILVER PAPER. 69 
 
 focus of the lens, and the distance the easel is set from the 
 negative. 
 
 Any lens that will make a negative can be used for enlarg- 
 ing, and the proper size for the lens depends wholly upon the 
 negative to be enlarged from, and not at all upon the enlarge- 
 ment to be made. If the lens will cover the negative, it will 
 make an enlargement from it of any size. 
 
 For enlarging from negatives 5x8 inches and under, a half- 
 size portrait lens is suitable. It can be worked nearly wide 
 open for heads, but must be stopped down for half and full- 
 length figures. Rapid rectilinear lenses are also suitable, but, 
 of course, do not work quite as quickly on heads as portrait 
 lenses, because they have not as large apertures. For full and 
 half-length figures and views they are quite as rapid, because, 
 for this purpose, the portrait lens requires to be stopped down 
 as far as the rapid rectilinear. 
 
 HINTS. 
 
 Mealy Mottled Prints. Over-exposure and short develop- 
 ment. 
 
 Greenish Tones are obtained by over-exposure and too much 
 bromide. 
 
 Forcing Development does not give good results for the 
 above reason. 
 
 Face of Permanent Bromide Paper can always be dis- 
 tinguished by its curling in. Convex side is always the back. 
 
 Fixing. The operator can tell when a bromide print is fixed 
 by looking through it or upon it in a good light ; unfixed por- 
 tions will be greenish yellow. 
 
 Yellow Prints. Prolonged development will cause yellow 
 prints by depositing iron in the paper. The exposure must be 
 correct, so as to allow of quick development. 
 
 Running Water is not so sure a means for washing prints as 
 changing them from one tray to another, allowing them to soak 
 at least ten minutes in each fresh water ; twelve changes are 
 sufficient ; no less. 
 
70 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 THE PERMANENCY OF BROMIDE PRINTS. 
 
 It should be understood that a print on permanent bromide 
 paper is a very different thing from an ordinary photograph on 
 albumen paper. In the first case, the image is produced by 
 development upon a substance containing no free nitrate of 
 silver. In the second case, the image is formed by light alone 
 acting upon an organic compound of silver in the presence of 
 ^free nitrate of silver ; in this case the image is known to be 
 unreliable as to permanence, while in the case of the permanent 
 bromide, all the evidence points to as great a permanence as 
 can be desired. 
 
LESSON X. 
 ARTISTIC PRINTING. 
 
 BUT a little time has passed since the primitive amateur 
 photographer thought his duty done by exposing his ready- 
 made dry plates and leaving to a "professional " the labor of 
 developing and printing. He has since discovered that his 
 own developing and printing are quite as essential as the mere 
 exposure, in order to reproduce the picture which he had in 
 his mind's eye. 
 
 On the proper development of correct and faulty expos- 
 ures, former lessons have given instructions. The following 
 remarks are intended for those, who, having mastered plain 
 printing, desire to have some knowledge of more artistic 
 methods, viz, : I. Of Printing in Medallion Style ; II. Vig- 
 netting; III. Flushing or Tinting the White Back-ground; 
 IV. Combining I. and II. ; Y. Printing in Back-grounds ; VI. 
 Printing in Clouds. 
 
 PRINTING IN MEDALLION. 
 
 In order to print portraits in medallion style it will be 
 necessary to procure some metal oval and circle guides and a 
 revolving Robinson print trimmer. It will be desirable to 
 have at least two sizes of the guides for the carte de visite and 
 two sizes for the cabinet form. Cut a suitable mask on orange 
 post-office paper and paste it on the face of the negative. This 
 will give you in printing an oval or circle with a white border. 
 In order to tint the border, paste the cut-out oval on a clean 
 glass of suitable size. Place your print on another glass, ad- 
 just the " cut-out" face down over it and expose to light, more 
 or less according to taste. The tinted border may be orna- 
 
72 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 mented in various ways by a piece of tulle or lace stretched 
 over it, etc. ; but the plain tinted border will be the most satis- 
 factory on the whole. 
 
 FOR VIGNETTING PORTRAITS. 
 
 It is desirable that the original should have been taken 
 against a light (not white) back-ground. If the back-ground be 
 too dark, it must be lightened artificially, asjf. i., by covering 
 the glass side of the negative with ground-glass varnish and 
 darkening it with a stump and black lead, beginning close to 
 the head. Next, cut out a mask close to the figure ; for a 
 portrait the pear shape will be found most suitable. Cut 
 the mask, not in straight, but in irregular wavy lines, similar to 
 the cut of Weymouth's vignetter. Cover your printing frame 
 
 with a stout card-board into which a square or an oval opening 
 is cut out, large enough to receive any size of masks. This open- 
 ing is to be covered, witli a piece of tissue paper of even tex- 
 ture. Underneath this paste your mask and back the whole on 
 the printing-frame, the tissue paper uppermost, next to the 
 light. Adjust the negative in proper position, looking through 
 against the light ; if a greater number of prints of the same 
 
ARTISTIC PRINTING. 73 
 
 negative is desired, paste the negative in proper position by 
 means of some strips of glued paper. If, after printing a 
 proof, the gradations of the vignette should prove too abrupt, it 
 may be remedied by (1) widening the space between the nega- 
 tive and the mask ; (2) by painting on the glass side of the 
 negative, with Russian or indigo blue, a contour in waving out- 
 lines according to taste ; (3) by encircling the head with loose 
 cotton wool, always on the glass side of the negative. 
 
 FLUSHING. 
 
 Flushing or tinting the white back-ground of a vignette 
 will be of N advantage in prints from flat negatives. The dull 
 lights in the print will be enhanced by subduing the extreme 
 white of the back-ground. The easiest and safest way to do 
 this is to cut out a mask slightly smaller than the head and 
 figure (omitting the shadows caused by the vignette printing). 
 Place the print into a printing- frame, and over the glass out- 
 side you mask and expose to light, moving with a darning- 
 needle (which hardly throws any shadow), waxed on- one end 
 in order to get a tack on your cut-out mask, moving it slightly 
 during exposure. 
 
 COMBINATION PRINTING. 
 
 A combination of the vignette, plain or tinted, can then 
 be made with the medallion style, for which no further instruc- 
 tions need be given. 
 
 Taste, and the quality of the negative, must guide the printer 
 to decide which of the described ways of printing will show 
 the subject to best advantage. A child's or a very young 
 lady's head will show best closely vignetted on a white back- 
 ground, while a gray head with whiskers will be most effective 
 on a plain, dark back-ground. 
 
 PRINTING- IN BACK-GROUNDS. 
 
 Printing-in back-grounds, either natural or artificial, for 
 portraits or groups, is a more difficult subject, and will require 
 some experimenting before success can be attained. The 
 
74 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 mode of operation consists (1) in obliterating any back-grounds 
 of your figures by the use of any opaque color close to the 
 figure or figures, and in printing them in proper position ; 
 (2) in choosing a back-ground which is lighted from the same 
 side as the figures ; (3) in cutting out masks of the figures 
 slightly smaller than the originals. Now place your fore- 
 ground negative into the printing-frame and your figures over 
 it and close. Cover outside of the glass of the printing-frame 
 the figures with your cut-out mask and expose to light, moving 
 the mask as before directed. The degree of intensity of the 
 back-ground must be examined from time to time in order to 
 get perfect harmony of tone between figures and back-ground. 
 
 PRINTING-IN CLOUDS. 
 
 Printing-in clouds into landscape photographs. A land- 
 scape photograph, be it ever so successful, with a clear blue 
 (in photography, a white) sky, is but a half-finished picture. 
 To give animation to the blank space, especially when the 
 horizon is low, it will be necessary to enliven it with cloud-life. 
 
 Secure on a favorable day cloud-negatives from some elevated 
 point, tilting the camera upwards in order to get the greatest 
 amount of sky on your plate. Avoid over-developing, as it is 
 desirable to have quick-printing negatives. Mark them ac- 
 cording to the exposure, scratching in some corner S. M., south 
 morning ; E. E., east evening, etc. Do not hesitate to point 
 your lens direct against the sun, especially on fine sunset even- 
 ings ; the transparent spot of the sun disc is easily blocked out 
 by a circular cut-out opaque paper, somewhat larger than the 
 sun disc, gummed on the glass side of the negative. 
 
 Having thus obtained a number of cloud-negatives suitable 
 in lighting for any of your landscapes, the difficult part 
 remains of printing them into your picture without showing a 
 dividing line. Proceed as follows : Make a mask of your 
 landscape on some opaque paper (post-office paper will do), 
 tracing the outlines of the horizon in a rough way, not 
 minding single tree tops rising above it. Place your print 
 over the selected cloud-negative in a printing-frame, and your 
 mask outside of the frame in position. Expose to the sun, 
 
ARTISTIC PRINTING. 75 
 
 constantly moving your mask up and down, also sideways ; 
 never hold your mask too high above the horizon point, out 
 rather move it an eighth of an inch or so below. As it is easy 
 to observe, from time to time, the effect of your printing, you 
 can manage the mask, raising it higher, lower, or corner wise, 
 according to requirement. The result will be, after a little 
 practice, a perfect blending of the two negatives. 
 
 It will be advisable to secure cloud-negatives on larger plates 
 than those used for the landscape. By placing the print in 
 different positions, a variety of cloud effects can be obtained 
 from the same cloud-negative. 
 
 In conclusion, let us warn the young photographers never to 
 print the full size of their negatives when they use lenses of 
 very short focus, as f. i., the wide-angle lenses, for the reason 
 that only about two-thirds of the center is in true perspective 
 and the borders outrageously exaggerated. Even with nega- 
 tives made with long-focus lenses it will be advisable to make 
 some sacrifice for the benefit of a more artistic result. The 
 printing of landscapes in medallion and vignetted form give 
 most charming effects, and many a faulty negative may yield 
 excellent results by this mode of treatment. 
 
LESSON XL 
 TRIMMING AND MOUNTING THE PRINTS. 
 
 TRIMMING. 
 
 The albumen prints, having been thoroughly washed, and the 
 last traces of hypo having been eliminated from them, they may 
 be dried and trimmed or cut to appropriate sizes and shapes pre- 
 paratory to mounting. For economical reasons, many photo- 
 graphers trim their pictures before toning and fixing, and 
 collect the paper clippings containing small amounts of silver, 
 to recover by chemical processes the precious metal. 
 
 Prints should be dried spontaneously, and not by heat. They 
 are hung up two by two and back to back with clips and strung 
 on a line. 
 
 LOCKWOOD'S CLIP. 
 
 The trimming of the photograph should always be neatly 
 and carefully done. The edges should be untorn and the form 
 or shape should be true. A knife is often used with a glass or 
 metal form, but the invention of Mr. S. M. Robinson, known 
 as the Robinson Trimmer, has almost displaced the knife. 
 These trimmers are made in two forms, the one illustrated by 
 Fig. 1 being constructed so as to revolve in a socket in order 
 
TRIMMING AND MOUNTING PRINTS. 
 
 77 
 
 to follow accurately an oval or round-cornered metal " guide," 
 and the other, in Fig. 2, known as the " straight-cut," is for 
 trimming straight edges, a metal guide being used with it also, 
 or a glass form. 
 
 The theory of these trimmers is that instead of cutting they 
 pinch off the surplus paper, thereby giving a nicely bevelled 
 edge to the print, and they are far superior to the knife or 
 scissors, if held or used as indicated in the drawings. 
 
 To trim the print well it must be laid upon a hard surface. 
 Many use a glass, others again trim upon a sheet of zinc. 
 With the former, the cutting tool is very soon dulled, and with 
 the latter, the metal is cut up and roughened so much that a 
 clean cut soon becomes an impossibility. A better mode is to 
 paste a sheet of well-sized paper on the glass, which, when 
 dry, gives sufficient resistance to the trimmer without injuring 
 its sharp edge, and the surface, not being so slippery as glass, 
 allows the print to rest well upon it during the manipulation. 
 
 FIG. l. FIG. 2. 
 
 ROBINSON'S TRIMMERS. 
 
 Before mounting, the prints are wetted again in clean water,, 
 and when perfectly pliable laid upon blotting paper in several 
 thicknesses face down, and piled upon each other in such quan- 
 tities as to allow of convenient pasting. 
 
 MOUNTING. 
 
 A very durable and adhesive mountant is the S. P. C. parlor 
 paste. 
 
78 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Another good paste, easily made by anybody, is the following : 
 
 Good laundry starch If ounces. 
 
 Sheet gelatine or white glue 80 grains. 
 
 Put the starch into a small pan, add one ounce of water, and 
 mix thoroughly with a spoon or the ordinary mounting brush, 
 until it is like a thick cream, then add fourteen ounces of 
 water and the gelatine, broken into small fragments. Boil for 
 four or five minutes, set aside until nearly cold, then add one 
 ounce of alcohol and six drops of pure carbolic acid. We have 
 now fifteen ounces of a very good and durable paste that will 
 keep well, in stoppered bottles, is smooth as cream, and with- 
 out lumps or grit. 
 
 Previous to applying the paste all superfluous water is 
 squeezed from the pile of prints with a slight pressure between 
 blotting paper, after which the mounting can be commenced. A 
 flat bristle brush is dipped into the paste, and then drawn with 
 slight force over the print laying on top of the pile. It is drawn 
 several times, and in opposite directions, over the back of the 
 print without leaving more paste than is necessary for adhe- 
 sion. The print is then lifted up with the point of a knife, 
 and placed in proper position upon the mount. With a stout 
 piece of paper and an ivory paper cutter, or similar tool, the 
 the print must be laid flat, all air bubbles expelled from under 
 it, and when adhering uniformly to all parts of the mount, 
 laid aside for drying, with the face side down. Care must be 
 taken to apply no more paste than is needed to fasten the 
 print to the mount. Highly glazed mounts, at present so much 
 in vogue, are, on account of their greasy enamel, quite difficult 
 to mount upon. To make photographs adhere to them uni- 
 formly, it is best to add. and mix well with the fifteen ounces 
 of paste, one-half ounce of ammonia. A part of the ammonia 
 saponifies the greasy matter, the rest evaporates. The method 
 is very easy to work, and is not injurious to the picture. 
 
 Blue prints and photographs on plain paper are similarly 
 mounted, but do not require to be wetted; it is probably 
 better to paste them when in a dry state. 
 
 Permanent bromide prints may be mounted wet or dry ; the 
 
TRIMMING AND MOUNTING THE PRINTS. 79 
 
 prints should not be dried between blotters like albumenized 
 paper, but should be hung over a line, or laid back down upon 
 glass or clean paper. To mount, brush over the back some 
 thin starch paste, lay the print on the mount and rub into con- 
 tact with a soft cloth. 
 
 For very large pictures, cover an artist's stretcher frame with 
 a piece of common white muslin, by stretching it tightly, while 
 dry, and tacking it on the outside edges. Give the cloth a coat 
 of starch paste, rubbing it well in and avoiding streaks and 
 lumps, lay over a smooth table a piece of rubber sheeting, lay 
 the wet print on the rubber cloth, face down, and with a rub- 
 ber squeegee scrape off the water. Give the back of the print? 
 as it lies on the rubber cloth, a coat of paste, and then lay the 
 stretcher, face down, upon it, and rub the muslin into contact 
 with the back of the print, using a thin paper-knife to reach 
 under the edges of the frame. Lift the frame and rubber cloth 
 from the table together, and peel the rubber off from the face 
 of the print. This will leave the print on the stretcher smooth 
 and flat. When dry it will be tight as a drum head. 
 
 Albumenized and other paper photographs may be mounted 
 on muslin similarly. Should it be required to mount them 
 back to back with a muslin support between them, trimming 
 had better be deferred until after mounting and drying. The 
 muslin should, however, be well stretched. 
 
 To prevent mounted pictures of large dimensions from curl- 
 ing up, the mounts should be dampened before the pictures 
 are laid upon them. They are then dried between blotting- 
 paper and under a slight pressure, the blotting-paper being 
 changed occasionally. 
 
 To mount in an album without cockling, let the photograph 
 be ironed with a hot iron on the back till it is perfectly smooth, 
 then place it under pressure till quite flat. A large book ans- 
 wers the purpose admirably. To prepare for mounting, lay the 
 flattened print face downwards on a smooth board or piece of 
 glass, and upon it place a piece of clean, stiff paper, an eighth 
 of an inch less all round than the photograph, upon the ex- 
 posed edge of which rapidly and sparely brush some liquid 
 glue (as little as possible) to cover it. Herein lies the secret. 
 
80 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Avoid making the paper wet. The album being conveniently 
 placed the position the photograph is to occupy being pre- 
 viously marked with a pencil carefully raise the photograph 
 with a point of some kind, to avoid soiling the fingers with the 
 
 THE ALBUM. 
 
 glued edge making it non-adhesive in the parts where such 
 glue would be removed, and lay it down in the proper place. 
 At once lay a piece of clean paper over % it, and rub it down 
 firmly with a soft rag, and close the album. In half an hour 
 the face will be dry and the print perfectly flat, and it will re- 
 main so. 
 
LESSON XII. 
 SPOTTING AND BURNISHING THE PRINTS. 
 
 SPOTTING. 
 
 Careless or excessive negative retouching, faults or impur- 
 ities in the glass supporting the gelatine film, foreign matter 
 which has accidentally found ingress between negative and paper 
 during printing, dirt upon the surface of the negative plate, 
 and a variety of other causes, produce white spots of unexposed 
 paper on albumen prints. These faults or spots must be taken 
 out or touched away by an operation termed " spotting," by 
 photographers. 
 
 Simple as the operation may appear at the first glance, it 
 requires, nevertheless, a steady hand, an eye well educated to 
 judge correctly of color, and some mechanical skill. Only the 
 white spot should be covered with the retouching medium, and 
 its color must harmonize strictly with the general tone of the pho- 
 tograph. If the spot is large, interrupting different shades, the 
 touching must be done in such a manner as not to break up the 
 harmony, or to present tones in variance with its surroundings. 
 With " blue " prints or those on plain paper it is comparatively 
 easy to do this. Albumen paper, on account of its gloss and 
 hardness, repels aqueous colors and India ink, and the paint or 
 color must be prepared to work easily on the paper. 
 
 Take 
 
 Gum arable 10 parts. 
 
 Glycerine 1 " 
 
 Alcohol 5 " 
 
 Water 34 " 
 
 Dissolve the gum in a mortar by rubbing it well with the 
 solvent, add the other ingredients, mix well, and keep in a 
 well-stoppered bottle. 
 
 Take, further, a half-part of dried and pulverized ox-gall and 
 mix well with ten parts of the above solution. 
 
82 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 A mixture of neutral tint, carmine and Prussian blue, can be 
 made to match any photographic tone. Such a mixture com- 
 bined with the ox-gall preparation is eminently useful for re- 
 touching or spotting out albumenized paper prints. A fine 
 camel's-hair brush slightly moistened with the color solution 
 will do the work. For larger spots washing may be employed, 
 but it is better to do the work by stippling. 
 
 Bromide prints are best spotted with a very soft lead pencil, 
 Faber's BBB. 
 
 BURNISHING. 
 
 The very high polish on photographs, now so popular, is 
 attained by propelling the picture over a heated burnishing 
 tool contained in a little machine constructed especially for the 
 purpose. 
 
 The burnishing tool should be uniformly heated, and this is 
 done either by two or three alcohol flames, or by gas pass- 
 ing through a perforated tube, which is attached to the ordinary 
 gas-burner by means of a rubber tube. Petroleum or oil lamps 
 must never be used, as by any imperfect combination of the 
 fuel, carbon is separated in the shape of smoke or soot, which 
 will soil the picture and the hands of the manipulator. 
 
 BURNISHER. 
 Preparatory .to burnishing, the mounted, dried and spotted 
 
SPOTTING AND BURNISHING THE FEINTS. 83 
 
 print is lubricated, to promote its free and uninterrupted 
 passage over the tool. This is done by rubbing over its face 
 an alcoholic solution of Venetian or Castile soap, or finely- 
 scraped solid soap. 
 
 A print to be burnished should not be dried too much, as the 
 swell of the card bends the picture backwards. Let the picture 
 dry until the contraction of the paper just commences to bend 
 the picture forwards. It will be found that the picture in this 
 stage is about three-fourths dry, and it is absolutely necessary 
 that it should not be allowed to dry any further until after it 
 has gone through the burnisher. 
 
 This is best done by arranging the pictures in one or two 
 piles, and placing them under a weight. They should be care- 
 fully taken from the pile and spotted out, and immediately 
 placed in another pile under a weight. The same precaution 
 should be taken in applying the lubricator to the print. The 
 reason for this method of procedure will be evident to anyone 
 who has observed with what a number of irregular lines the 
 surface of a picture becomes broken when allowed to become 
 perfectly dry in the usual manner. When these man-ings 
 have once appeared in a picture, there is no method for again 
 uniting the broken surface. When burnished by the above 
 directions, the picture will be found to be very compact and 
 hard when cool, and neither alcohol nor water will destroy 
 the gloss thus obtained. It is advisable to put, first, the 
 picture through the burnisher lengthways, curling it up back- 
 wards around the roller ; afterwards put it through sideways, 
 thus straightening it, and thereby also raising a much higher 
 polish. 
 
 If, occasionally, a cabinet or card picture will not take the 
 gloss, breathe upon it freely before running it through the 
 burnisher. Should the enamel not be produced the first time, 
 repeat the operation after the picture has become cool; the 
 desired result will then be obtained. 
 
 It is imperative to keep the burnishing tool in a good condi- 
 tion. Rust or scratches are its greatest enemy, and if they 
 should occur, a re-polish can be given to the burnisher by 
 rubbing it well with an oiled leather file and the finest emery 
 flour. 
 
84 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Unmounted photographs are often required to be burnished. 
 The trimmed and spotted picture is lubricated as usual, laid 
 smoothly upon an ordinary card-board, larger than the print, 
 in the same position as if it had been mounted thereon, 
 and passed over the tool. The manipulation does not differ 
 from that of mounted prints, but care must be taken not to 
 allow the print to slip from its position. 
 
 When mounted on muslin, the burnishing of prints is quite 
 easy, but it is advisable to place a card-board between the 
 rough roller and the print, so as to prevent an impression of 
 the corrugated surface of the muslin. When burnishing prints 
 that are mounted back to back, either with or without paper 
 or muslin support between them, the card-mount protector 
 must again be employed ; burnishing the one side of the double 
 print first, then the other in the usual manner. Often pictures 
 are seen which present a much higher and more beautiful gloss 
 than can be obtained with the burnisher. These are called 
 " enamels " or " glaces." The method of enamelling is a little 
 more complicated, but nevertheless is quite easy. It is done 
 in the following manner : 
 
 ENAMELLING. 
 
 Sprinkle the surface of a glass plate with powdered French 
 chalk, rub it evenly over the surface with a tuft of cotton wool, 
 continuing to lightly rub it until the chalk is all removed, then 
 coat the glass with the following 
 
 COLLODION. 
 
 Soluble gun cotton 48 grains 
 
 Alcohol 4 ounces 
 
 Sulphuric ether 4 ounces 
 
 As soon as the collodion is well set lay upon it the print, 
 previously soaked in a warm solution of one-half ounce gelatine 
 in ten ounces of water, to which a few drops of glycerine have 
 been added. Expel all air bubbles from beneath the print and 
 squeegee it into absolute contact with the collodionized glass. 
 
 After drying, the print can be peeled off from the glass and 
 the face will present a polish almost as high as the surface of 
 the glass from which it has been removed. The print is then 
 
SPOTTING AND BURNISHING THE PBINTS. 85 
 
 ready to mount, as follows : Moisten the face of the mount 
 with a damp sponge and lay upon it the pasted print ; rub 
 down with a soft cloth and put under pressure to dry. 
 
 The addition of five per cent, of glycerine to the paste will 
 prevent the print peeling off the glass as it dries. 
 
 For enamelling bromide prints the same collodion substratum 
 as mentioned above may be employed. 
 
 As soon as the collodion is well set, slide the plate face up 
 into a tray of water, in which is floating, face down, the per- 
 manent bromide print, which has just been fixed and washed 
 grasp the plate and print by one end and lift together from the 
 water, avoiding bubbles and draining the water from the oppo- 
 site end ; squeegee the print into contact with the plate and 
 set away to dry. Before the print is quite dry apply a coat of 
 starch paste to the back. 
 
 Another method is to squeegee the wet print, face down, on 
 a polished piece of hard rubber or ebonite ; when dry the print 
 will peel off with a fine polished surface. The print should be 
 slipped on to the rubber plate under water to avoid air bubbles. 
 
 Cyanotypes and plain paper photographs do not assume 
 gloss so readily under the burnisher as do albumen prints, but 
 they, too, may be enamelled to a considerable extent. 
 
 Great richness of tone and depth, transparency and detail in 
 lights and shadows can be given to them with encaustic paste, 
 which secures also their permanency, this paste being a pre- 
 ventative against the action of moisture and injurious gases. 
 
 The formula for the paste is as follows : 
 
 Pure virgin wax 500 grains. 
 
 Gum elemi 10 ".j 
 
 Benzole 200 " 
 
 Essence of lavender 300 
 
 Oil of spike 15 
 
 Melt the whole thoroughly on a water bath, and strain 
 through muslin. A simpler plan is to dissolve the elemi in 
 the solvents as described, and, after filtering, mix with the 
 melted wax, as the filtration, which is chiefly intended for the 
 gum elemi, is more easily managed before the wax is present. 
 This, when finished, forms a stiff paste. By increasing the 
 
86 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 proportion of essence of lavender, it can be made thinner, 
 which in winter may be desirable. The encaustic paste is put 
 on the print in patches in three or four parts, and then rubbed 
 with a light, quick motion, with a piece of clean flannel, until 
 a firm, fine surface is obtained. If a rich, thick coating of the 
 encaustic be desired, a very light pressure in rubbing is neces- 
 sary, so that a polish may be acquired without rubbing off the 
 paste in the operation. If a print is retouched, more care 
 must be taken to use the hand lightly in applying the paste. 
 
 Finishing a photograph properly is of as much importance 
 as the developing or printing of it. A badly mounted, spotted 
 or burnished picture may spoil all the good work previously 
 done, arid the tyro must, therefore, never neglect to give the 
 final manipulation his undivided and careful attention. 
 
LESSON XIII. 
 PORTRAITURE. 
 
 THIS important and most difficult branch of photography 
 can hardly receive sufficient attention within the short space 
 of a Chautauqua lesson. A mere outline only can be given to 
 the student in describing the construction of the studio, or the 
 uses of back-grounds and accessories, the lighting and posing 
 of subject, or the arrangement of groups ; although this should 
 be considered in more detailed form. It is impossible to give 
 concisely all that upon which innumerable artists have written 
 volumes with more or less success. 
 
 Before any degree of proficiency can be attained, art-pho- 
 tography requires much practical exercise, close observation, 
 and diligent reading. It is, therefore, advisable to supple- 
 ment the studying of this chapter by the reading of a good 
 book on the subject.* 
 
 The studio or skylight room must be of first consideration. 
 It is well to have plenty of space to move about in and to con- 
 tain the necessary furniture, apparatus, and accessories. The 
 length may be partly determined by the size of the pictures 
 intended to be made, and it will be found that if the room is 
 to be long enough to allow a cabinet portrait to be taken of a 
 full length standing figure with sufficient space for back- 
 ground, camera, and contingencies, twenty-eight feet will be 
 quite sufficient. In width, if we allow enough space for fur- 
 niture, head-rests, additional cameras and utensils, fourteen 
 feet will give room enough in which to work comfortably. 
 
 *"The Studio, and What to Do In It." By H. P. Robinson (Scovill 
 Manufacturing Company, Publishers). Price, 75 cents. 
 
88 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Various opinions exist among the experts as to the best 
 shape and position of the skylight. There are certain rules 
 and facts, however, which should not be disregarded. Con- 
 trast between light and shade is a point of the utmost import- 
 ance, and the results deriving from their management are ob- 
 vious. If all the light comes from one point, the contrast 
 will be too violent, whereas two lights, equally strong from 
 opposite directions, will place the subject to disadvantage, 
 destroy contrasts, produce flat pictures, without roundness 
 or solidity of effect. The light thrown on the subject should be 
 diffused and soft. The direct light of the sun must be 
 avoided. It is well to remember that, if the skylight faces 
 east, the rising sun will stream in ; a southern light admits 
 the sun immediately before and after noon, while a western 
 light is equally objectionable on account of the afternoon sun. 
 It is only from the north, then, that the direct sunlight can be 
 avoided; hence every skylight should face the north. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that a skylight suitable for one 
 style of work is not always the best for another class. Thus a 
 low light is generally better for standing or entire figures, and 
 gives brilliancy to all parts of the picture, while a higher light 
 is better suited for head and bust pictures, it being softer and 
 more subdued. Therefore, it is an essential point to so con- 
 struct a skylight as to adapt it as near as may be to the pro- 
 ducing of general work. When it is impracticable to have a 
 side light, the top light should have considerable slope, and 
 thus give different heights, but when it is practicable, top 
 light should be combined with a side light. The side light 
 should rise in an elevation from thirty to thirty-five inches 
 above the floor, be not less than six feet and not more than 
 eight feet high, and not less than ten feet and not more than 
 twelve feet long. The top light, rising from the side light at 
 an angle of 35 deg., should be of the same length as the side 
 light, or one-fourth more. 
 
 At certain periods of the year, when the sun reaches a 
 high elevation, its rays will be apt to intrude themselves 
 through the top light, to avoid which, to a certain extent, two 
 poles may be erected, furnished with cross bars, along which 
 a canvass curtain may be drawn. 
 
PORTRAITURE. 89 
 
 The sashes should be fitted with white glass, and the panes 
 be as large as practicable to avoid too often repeated lappings. 
 
 To regulate light effects at the will of the operator, to con- 
 centrate it at some points, to exclude it or subdue it in others, 
 we resort to movable screens or shutters. A plan to be recom- 
 mended is to provide two or three shades on spring rollers, 
 whose combined widths are the width of the top light, the 
 spring rollers being attached to the highest point of the top 
 light. These may be made of some stiff material, and of a 
 light neutral color ; and if a double set of curtains is preferred, 
 the other can be of thin white muslin. The side light may be 
 curtained similarly, but should be movable from side to side. 
 
 The color of the interior of the studio had also best be of a 
 light neutral tone. The floor should be level and steady ; it 
 may be painted of a light-brown or other suitable color. 
 
 Carpets and oilcloth are objectionable for several reasons. 
 
 Back-grounds are essential parts of the studio, and should be 
 properly selected. If plain and uniform in tone, the effects 
 produced by them are plain and uniform. A carefully grad- 
 uated back-ground relieves certain parts of the picture, and 
 contrasts well with others ; thus the lights in the figure should 
 be relieved by the darker shades in the back-ground, and vice 
 versa. Fancy painted back-grounds are always dangerous 
 experiments, except in the hands of an expert. Absolutely 
 avoid heavy columns, pedestals or balustrades; they rarely 
 contribute to the beauty of the picture. The introduction of 
 a gracefully falling curtain, with good taste and in keeping 
 with the subject, may occasionally be permitted to relieve 
 what otherwise might appear too monotonous, or to form a 
 balance line, which may be requisite. 
 
 In the introduction of accessories, such as rocks, stumps, 
 gate-ways, shrubbery, etc., these should be faintly but dis- 
 tinctly reproduced to give life and harmony to the back-ground, 
 representing a landscape or garden scene, with graduated sky 
 of delicate and broken clouds. 
 
 For interiors, the back-ground might be in panels of grad- 
 uated tints ; if painted to represent the light streaming in from 
 a casement, be very careful that the light falls on the sitter 
 from the*same direction. 
 
90 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 The nearer the subject is to the light the stronger will be 
 the shadows. A reflecting side-screen will subdue excessively 
 strong shadows on the face. It should be covered with light 
 gray material, and be placed obliquely towards the sitter, and 
 at a distance to soften the shadows, but not near enough to 
 destroy them entirely. 
 
 How to light the sitter can be treated in general terms 
 only. Lighting the subject in special cases is a question 
 which can be solved by the operator alone when the subject is 
 before him. He must see that the light and shade fall so as to 
 produce the most agreeable effect before the sensitive plate is 
 exposed, and wrfh the capacity of seeing this, the power of 
 modifying is usually accompanied. 
 
 As a general principle a high side light, a little in advance 
 of the sitter, is the best direct light ; excess of vertical light is 
 in most cases to be avoided ; nevertheless, it may be useful at 
 times in giving form and brilliancy to flat common-place faces. 
 But where the sitter has heavy brows, sunken eyes, or promi- 
 nent features, the least possible vertical light should be em- 
 ployed, or these features will look more marked and heavy. 
 With such faces the side light, well in advance of the sitter, 
 will give the most soft and harmonious effect without risk of 
 flatness. The top front light will generally serve to illumine 
 sufficiently the shadow side of the face without having to resort 
 to the reflecting side-screen, which, however, under some cir- 
 cumstances, will not only be useful but necessary. As a rule, 
 a mild and soft light is what is required. Strong illumination 
 produces lights and shadows of much intensity, giving black 
 and white pictures. 
 
 There are other influences beside the amount of space through 
 which the light is admitted. The aspect of the day, the period 
 of the year, the quality of light, the situation of the studio, and 
 the quality of the plate ; for a very sensitive plate seems to 
 require a greater contrast of light and shade than a slow one. 
 
 The true test of good lighting is roundness. This can only 
 be obtained by securing delicacy in the half tones ; there should 
 be no broad patches of light and shade, but gradation every- 
 where. The operator must educate himself to see these half 
 
PORTRAITURE. 91 
 
 tones, and he must see them in his model without looking at 
 the ground-glass. Get the right effect in nature and the rest 
 will follow. 
 
 A few remarks on the imperfections of the human face 
 may be appropriate. 
 
 Every face has, artistically speaking, two distinctly different 
 sides, and it is for the operator to select for his portrait the best 
 view. With gentlemen, as a general thing, the hair is parted 
 on one side, and that side is usually preferred, if there be no 
 reason for choosing the reverse. Often the head is rather bald 
 towards the beginning of the parting ; in such cases, perhaps, 
 the opposite side might be preferable. Light yellow or red 
 hair should be powdered, unless a color-sensitive plate is to be 
 exposed. 
 
 In cases of a too high forehead, the latter may be foreshort- 
 ened by raising the camera. Blue and light eyes should, as a 
 general rule, be turned from the light. Deeply sunken eyes 
 require considerable front and very little top light. Where 
 the eye is defective, you will, of course, turn that side away 
 from the camera as much as is necessary, to lose sight of the 
 defect ; or even a profile may be taken. Where one eye is 
 smaller than the other, it is generally preferable to take the 
 larger one more prominently. Where one eye is higher than the 
 other, if no other objection offer, take the higher eye. In the 
 case of small and partially closed eyes, make them look up- 
 wards, or if desired that the portrait look at you, depress the 
 chin a little. For very large and staring eyes make them 
 look lower. 
 
 In a full face the eyes may look straight forward, being 
 careful to turn the body to one side, more or less ; never have 
 chest and head presented exactly in front of the camera. 
 
 The direction of the eyes is important. Never allow the 
 head to turn in one direction and the eyes in the opposite; 
 nothing can be worse than this. In the case of short-sighted 
 persons wearing spectacles, beware of false reflections. An 
 improperly placed side-screen will reflect so much light that 
 the eyes are entirely obliterated. 
 
 In but very rare cases do we find a perfectly straight nose. 
 
92 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 If it turn to the left or right, the two sides of the face 
 will appear materially different ; when twisted towards the 
 left, a view taken from that side will shorten the nose, 
 apparently, whereas the opposite result takes place from the 
 other side. If the nose be very long take the face rather full. 
 In the case of a turned-up nose, raise the camera as high as 
 possible; with a round and rather flat or fat nose, take it pretty 
 well from the side. 
 
 For high cheek bones, with hollow cheeks, be very careful 
 of a too strong top light, and take the face rather full, well 
 lighting up the cheeks. In frequent cases the profile is the 
 better view. Should one cheek be swollen, perhaps it might 
 be better to avoid that side ; if not practicable to do this rest 
 the cheek upon the hand. 
 
 Old and wrinkled faces require a strong front light without 
 much shadow, and are generally best taken in full, front views. 
 
 Small and narrow mouths may be taken rather full ; pursue 
 the opposite course with large mouths and fat lips. 
 
 It is very difficult to secure pictures of large open mouths 
 with protruding teeth. Closing the lips by force distorts the 
 chin and all chance of obtaining a good likeness is lost. En- 
 gage the sitter in conversation and expose the plate when 
 mouth, chin, and cheeks are in the most favorable position. 
 
 Full or three-quarter length figures are more difficult to 
 manage than head and bust. A pictorial back-ground may 
 then be employed, and furniture or other accessories appro- 
 priate to back-ground and the costume of the sitter are admis- 
 sible. 
 
 For a lady there is nothing better than a simple attitude, 
 without attempt to pose artificially ; let the hands join in front, 
 or, for variety's sake, rest one upon a chair or other suitable 
 piece of furniture. Throwing one hand behind the back gives 
 in some positions very pretty effects. When furniture is used 
 to assist in making the position, a piece of lace or nicely folded 
 drapery is of great value to conceal some parts or bring others 
 into better relief. Sitting figures are more easily posed than 
 standing ones ; more action can be brought into the picture, 
 and employment can better be given to the hands, thus obtain- 
 
PORTRAITURE. 93 
 
 ing life and expression for the whole composition. A fan lends 
 itself admirably to the purpose, so does a book, sewing, writ- 
 ing, or similar employment, answers well. 
 
 No difficulty occurs more frequently in portraiture than 
 the posing of hands. Arms and hands should be rather re- 
 tired, both in position and tone ; if they must come in the pic- 
 ture, endeavor to turn the edge of the hand towards the cam- 
 era, and avoid leaning the arms too heavily against anything 
 which will distort the natural form. Care should be taken 
 that the fingers curve gracefully. Hands appear frequently too 
 large, and to prevent this they must be placed in a plane with 
 the face. In some positions a hand looks much larger than in 
 others. Especially is this apparent when its broad back is seen. 
 When the fingers are interlaced the effect is similar. A well- 
 formed hand is a beautiful object, and while in the composition 
 of a portrait, first consideration is given to the head as the prin- 
 cipal object, the second place the artist should give to the 
 hands. 
 
 Group pictures are likewise not easily made, and none present 
 so many difficulties as the family group, in which, frequently 
 three generations are represented, thus offering material of 
 various kinds, from which to compose a whole, harmonious in 
 all respects. It is in all cases necessary that each individual 
 of a group should be an equally well-lighted portrait and per. 
 feet likeness ; and while one of the first art-principles and good 
 taste tell us that one or more of the component parts of a 
 picture should be given prominence, and others be subdued 
 in light-effect, a variety of difficulties here naturally occur. 
 Groups should always be arranged in pyramidal form, and in 
 such a manner that the whole appears to be composed 
 of several minor pyramids. The same refers to smaller groups 
 of but a limited number of persons. For two, let one stand, 
 the other sit ; while, in a group of three, two had better be 
 sitting and one standing. By no means should the persons 
 composing a group stare at the camera ; let every one of them 
 select a point to look at, according to the turn of the head, and 
 on a level with the eye. 
 
 Out-door groups frequently represent a mass of figures, 
 
94: THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 without any attempt at artistic arrangement. This latter 
 disposition is caused by the impossibility of getting assistance, 
 from the nature of the ground or place where the photograph is 
 taken ; but it should be the operator's task to utilize to best ad- 
 vantage the material offered. He should look out for, and 
 take advantage of, any spot that would afford him aid to break 
 up monotony, and to give variety to the general form. A 
 picturesque set of steps often gives such aid in a high degree, 
 and more appropriate appear groups when a motive for the 
 gathering of so many persons is represented in the picture ; 
 prominence should be given to the most important persons, 
 and action thrown into each individual and the whole. 
 
 In selecting a back-ground, it should be endeavored to secure 
 one with a broad expanse of light, if not too blank. Much 
 detail is objectionable, as it interferes with the figures. The 
 worst back-ground, but the one that is oftenest used for out- 
 door groups, consists of foliage of large, shining leaves. The 
 effects of the white spots caused by the glittering leaves, espe- 
 cially when out of focus, is very disagreeable. 
 
 The introduction of animals is in most cases dangerous. A 
 cat or a dog have often totally spoiled an otherwise quite per- 
 fect group. 
 
 The photographing of children was, with the old, slow pro- 
 cessess, the bete noir of the operator. Thanks to the rapid 
 emulsion plate, the young members of society are comparatively 
 quite easily managed now. Posing and lighting them, how- 
 ever, requires, under all circumstances, much patience and 
 perseverance, a tranquil mind, and a certain self-possession, 
 which, unfortunately, is not always displayed by the operator 
 when a young babe is presented before his camera. 
 
 To make portraits with limited amateur outfits, and in our 
 own homes, with the command of light emanating from one 
 window only, is easily accomplished. Place your sitter at an 
 oblique Bangle toward one window of the room, allowing its 
 full force of light to illuminate the subject. To avoid a con- 
 fusion of light-effects, screen the other window or windows 
 with a white-muslin shade or tissue paper, by which means 
 harmony is established and sufficient illuminating force secured. 
 
PORTRAITURE. 
 
 95 
 
 If the shadows cast are too abrupt or too opaque, reflect light 
 from the opposite side ; a clothes-horse, covered with a sheet 
 or table-cloth, answers quite well for the purpose. 
 
 For photographic portraiture, a different kind of lens is con- 
 structed, possessing more luminous power, and, consequently, 
 working more rapid than the single landscape lens. Of these, 
 however, we shall treat in the lesson on lenses. 
 
LESSON XIY. 
 RETOUCHING THE NEGATIVE. 
 
 NEGATIVES of portraits, and in frequent cases of landscapes, 
 as well, require certain corrections before satisfactory prints 
 can be made from them. In faces there are wrinkles and 
 heavily-shaded folds to be subdued, warts or scars to be re- 
 moved, freckles obliterated, broad shadows lightened, and very 
 often whole features to be remodeled. In landscapes, we can 
 assist with pencil and brush to establish better harmony ; we 
 lighten up shadows, correct broken lines, add or remove 
 objects, either wanted in the picture or objected to, introduce 
 high lights, strengthen up distances, and, when practical, intro- 
 duce a clouded sky. 
 
 It is the function of the retoucher to improve negatives by 
 judicious and careful work, to give them artistic effects when 
 wanted, but not to overdo his task and merely smooth the plate 
 down mechanically, as the joiner planes down a board. Re- 
 touching must be done well, and if the effects aimed at cannot 
 be reached, it is far better to print from an un-retouched 
 plate, with all the objectionable features in it. The retoucher 
 should be a photographer and an artist ; that is, he should be 
 able to judge of the quality of the negative to enable him to 
 know where to employ the pencil and where not. He can 
 make a work of art from an average good negative, but he 
 can never be able to render a positively bad negative service- 
 able for printing. Retouching is an aid in photography, and 
 should never be considered of main importance when making 
 negatives; nor should the operator rely upon the pencil to 
 supply wants that the plate and camera have refused to give. 
 
 Therefore, it cannot be laid down too clearly that retouching, 
 even when done by a real artist, should be considered only as a 
 
RETOUCHING THE NEGATIVE. 97 
 
 necessary continuation of very careful work ; not that the part 
 of the retoucher is inferior to that of the operator, but that the 
 two should work so well together that the final result will be 
 arrived at through the cleverness of both. 
 
 It is not everybody who can retouch well. It is a work 
 requiring a great deal of taste, lightness of hand, close applica- 
 tion, and great patience, all of which qualities few 'people 
 possess. But every photographer is capable of correcting in 
 his negatives some faults which may occur, no matter how 
 skilled as an operator he may be. 
 
 -The first thing required is an easel on which to work. This 
 should be a piece of fine ground-glass in a frame, on which the 
 negative is placed. The bottom of this frame has hinges as 
 well as the top, which retains a cover of wood kept open 
 by means of small supports, lying on the sides of the 
 frame of the ground-glass. The 
 necessary slant is given to this by 
 means of two other supports, en- 
 tering at will into some notches 
 on the edges of the surface of a 
 flat and square box, of which the 
 middle is covered by a looking- 
 glass reflecting the light under 
 the negative. Several carriers 
 same size as the ordinary photo- 
 graphic glasses, and fitting one 
 
 into the other, completely stop the light around the negative. 
 A little movable rule goes up and down in front of the ground- 
 glass and serves as a rest for the hand of the retoucher. This 
 easel should be put upon a table before a window, with a north 
 light. As there should be no light except that which illumi- 
 nates the negative, a black blind should be thrown over the 
 top and allowed to fall down closely on each side. There are 
 easels sold purposely, and provided even with wooden shutters, 
 which are kept open by hooks fitting into the top shutter. 
 The retoucher is thus inclosed in a box, and gets no light 
 except that which comes through the negative. 
 
 The choice of pencils and brushes is very important, the 
 
9$ THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 great desideratum being one with a rough texture yet capable 
 of taking a fine, hard point. Such an one is the best octagonal 
 black-lead pencil of Faber, which in contrast with many is, 
 as a retoucher once observed to us, " almost capable of doing 
 the retouching itself." 
 
 It is desirable to have three or four different degrees of 
 hardness of pencil, so as to suit every class of work, the HH, 
 H, F, and HB being the most suitable. The H is for general 
 work ; the HH (the hardest of the four) for very fine and 
 delicate execution and where little labor is required. The F 
 and HB are suitable for heavier penciling when the shadows 
 are heavy and considerable opacity is needed. It is customary 
 to point them in a manner quite different from that usually fol- 
 lowed. The lead is laid bare to the extent of almost an inch, 
 and a more or less fine point given to it, according to the nega- 
 tive under treatment. 
 
 The brushes should be sable, and very soft. It is very diffi- 
 cult to get good brushes, so they should be chosen with great 
 care. They must be pretty thick, not too long, and with a 
 very good point. All this will be easily found out by dipping 
 them in water and bending them about. If a brush, then, at 
 once makes a fine point, it is a good one. 
 
 The two colors most required in negative retouching are 
 India ink and light blue. The first is the most opaque color, 
 but as the latter tint is the nearest to the negative, it will permit 
 of finer work. 
 
 Finally, stumps of different sizes, and a very soft camel's- 
 hair brush for dusting the surface during the operation, will 
 complete the list of necessary implements for the retoucher. 
 
 Gelatine negatives can be retouched upon without being var- 
 nished, although a varnished surface is often preferred. In 
 any case the film requires a previous preparation, to allow the 
 pencil to " take." This is done by rubbing over the parts to be 
 retouched a few drops of the S. P. C. retouching fluid, either 
 with the finger or a small tuft of cotton wool. The fluid should 
 be rubbed in well, but not to complete dryness, allowing a 
 slight cuticle of it to remain, which, after an hour or two, will 
 be dry enough to work upon. After a negative has been var- 
 
RETOUCHING THE XEGA'UVE. 99 
 
 nished, the same application can be made, provided the varnish 
 is dry. 
 
 The method of deadening the varnish gloss by rubbing over 
 it finely-powdered cuttle-fish bone has been entirely abandoned, 
 as upon such surface the pencil works gritty and irregularly. 
 After having retouched upon the gelatine film, the negative 
 may be varnished, and if, as it occurs at times, certain parts 
 have not attained, sufficient opacity, the varnished plate can be 
 retouched over again. 
 
 The negative being placed on the frame, as described, the 
 light should be regulated according to its density the greater 
 the density of the negative the stronger the light required 
 taking care always to use the lowest degree of illumination 
 consistent with the complete visibility of all detail and half- 
 tone. If too strong a light be used, the retouching will show 
 more forcibly than appears in the negative, and will ruin its 
 delicacy. The aperture in the retouching easel should not be 
 too large, or there will be a flood of light running into the eyes 
 that will not only dazzle and tire them, but render the lighter 
 and more delicate tones invisible. 
 
 The pencil is to be pointed in the manner described, the final 
 "sharpening" being given by a piece of emery paper or 
 cloth, a little care being necessary to avoid breaking the long 
 and fine point. The easiest and surest method is to work the 
 point by repeated strokes away from the body, and not to rub 
 it sideways or backward and forward. This hint will be found 
 very useful, as the breaking of half an inch of point is very 
 irritating. 
 
 First take out of faces all freckles and marks, blotches of 
 unequal color, etc., and then very carefully make the smallest 
 possible amount of alteration in what is usually termed the 
 "modeling'- that is, softening very heavy shadows and in- 
 creasing the prominence of some of the leading lights. This 
 is done by delicate " dabs " or dots, so to speak, with the point 
 of the pencil, which must be made of the right intensity at 
 once, as the depth cannot be increased by successive washes of 
 color, as in painting, though if the retouching be done in very 
 fine dotting or stippling, extra depth may be got by carefully 
 filling-in between the first pencilings. 
 
100 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 The terms "stippling" and "hatching," as they are often 
 employed, may be briefly described as dotting and lining, re- 
 spectively. When there are transparent parts requiring a con- 
 siderable amount of intensity given to them, it will be found 
 next to impossible to do it at once, and then the only plan is to 
 make a first retouching upon the unvarnished negatives as deep 
 as possible ; varnish, and retouch again. After the spots are 
 all taken out by stippling, the modeling may be done by hatch- 
 ing, making small lines only, as regular in size and distance 
 apart as possible, and, as much as can be done, causing them to 
 follow the lines or contours of the features, or those particular 
 facial developments that are being worked upon. It is import- 
 ant that the hatching should be done in a regular manner, or a 
 very scratchy and uneven effect will be produced. Great care 
 must be taken to avoid crossing the lines, or make two strokes 
 touch one another, this being a fertile source of "lumpy" or 
 " scratchy " work, as it is forcibly called. 
 
 It will be found of great use, if not an actual necessity, to 
 have a magnifier for especially delicate work not to be made 
 use of from beginning to end, but merely for particular por- 
 tions of the work, and to aid a general scanning of the whole 
 when completed, so as to pick out any un evenness or rough- 
 ness. If used all through it causes the work, strange as it may 
 appear, to be less real and flesh-like, and, we might almost say r 
 less delicate. The glass should be of good width, so that both 
 eyes can be used, and it is better if it can be affixed to a per- 
 manent support which will hold it at one distance from the 
 negative; and this will materially lessen the fatigue of the- 
 eyes in using it. 
 
 The hatching may be suitably begun at the forehead and 
 finished at the lower part of the face, working from the high- 
 est lights to the shadows, and not vice versa. Every face will 
 impart hints as to the leading lights and shadows under vary- 
 ing modes of illumination. 
 
 We conclude by pointing out some alterations which may 
 be made or avoided with advantage. One of the commonest 
 faults of .a photograph is the stern or " cross " expression so 
 frequently seen, which is caused by a too strong light. One 
 
RETOUCHING THE NEGATIVE. 101 
 
 of the chief seats of this expression is between the eyebrows. 
 It is not caused by the perpendicular line or lines, more or less 
 pronounced, always seen there in persons somewhat advanced 
 in life, but is produced by the contraction of the eyebrow, 
 which at the end nearest the nose will be found, when under 
 this expression, to have taken an angular form, and produced 
 a decidedly darker shadow underneath in the orbit. If the cor- 
 ner of this angle be taken off, and the heavy, dark shadow be 
 slightly lessened, the effect at times is almost magical ; and yet 
 any one can see, by looking at a retouched negative, that very 
 few retouchers are aware of this simple expedient, it being 
 generally thought that the upright furrows cause the frown. 
 
 The portion of the cheek nearest the nose should be most 
 carefully and thoughtfully done; there is often a delicate 
 shadow which is liable to be taken out by the unskilled re- 
 toucher, with the effect of producing a swelled cheek. The 
 line often found running down from the wings of the nostrils 
 should be carefully lightened with the aid of the knowledge 
 which should be obtained *by a slight study of the artist's own 
 face in a mirror. The difference between a smile and a sneer 
 is caused by an almost imperceptible difference in the shading 
 of this furrow that cannot be conveyed in words. 
 
 And there is the corner of the mouth, where much may 
 often be done if it be borne in mind that in a smile the corner 
 of the lip is slightly turned up, and in a serious, grave or 
 crying expression it takes an opposite direction. The hands 
 may often be improved by taking out the swollen veins they 
 frequently present in the photograph, though it often happens 
 that this can only be done on each individual print. 
 
 In landscape negatives, as well as in other negatives, all hard 
 shadows should be softened, and the lights strengthened ; but 
 all the work should be done on the back of the glass. In foli- 
 age, negatives taken with a bright sun, the nearest trees are 
 often wanting in detail, while the more distant ones are quite 
 sharp. Prints from these negatives have an unpleasant effect, 
 the different lines of distances being too distinctly marked ; 
 this may be improved by touching with a brush, not too 
 pointed, and India or blue ink, representing some leaves ac- 
 
102 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR, 
 
 cording to the lights which are already indicated. It is impos- 
 sible to distinguish the trees retouched in this way from the 
 others finely obtained on the negative. 
 
 Finally, if there are any strong lights to be put on negatives 
 for obtaining effects of snow, it is best done on the back of the 
 negative, either on tissue paper or white varnish. 
 
 The same thing may be done in negatives of clouds which 
 are sharply lighted by sunlight. If the shadows are too trans- 
 parent, and the lights too hard, put in some half tones, and 
 remove the varnish from the lights. If, on the contrary, the 
 light parts are weak, strengthen them either with a stump or 
 brush, and remove the varnish from the shadows. For posi- 
 tives and enlargements the same work has to be done, and 
 always in the same way. 
 
 It will be seen, then, that in the art of retouching negatives 
 it is only in the first step that any difficulty is to be met with, 
 because, being the most important, all the rest follows from it, 
 and is, so to speak, only the same thing differently applied. 
 Therefore, with the knowledge of these few various methods, 
 and a little taste and practice, one may be almost certain of 
 accomplishing good results. 
 
LESSON XY. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIORS AND INANIMATE 
 OBJECTS. 
 
 INTERIORS. 
 
 During the cold months of winter, when the earth is cov- 
 ered with snow, and the trees are devoid of their foliage, the 
 landscape photographer finds fewer attractive subjects for his 
 camera than in the seasons when nature wears brighter gar- 
 ments, and presents more varied scenes. There are frost and 
 snow pictures, to be sure, and many of exquisite beauty ; but 
 they are difficult to find with the camera, and, when discov- 
 ered, require a peculiar skill in the photographer to be justly 
 reproduced on his plate. At this season of the year, then, to 
 what shall we turn our attention 1 
 
 Portraits and in-door groups, copying, and the photograph- 
 ing of interiors, at once suggest themselves as suitable and 
 pleasant work for the winter m,onths ; and of all these, the 
 photographing of interiors can be pursued with perhaps the 
 greatest real satisfaction and pleasure. 
 
 Few are the homes that have not, at least, one room that will 
 make an attractive photograph when properly lighted and ar- 
 ranged. Indeed, the pleasant mystery often is, how so pretty 
 a photograph could be made of " our very plain library." But 
 in a photograph even an ordinary appearing room acquires a 
 certain dignity, and we instinctively think of palace halls and 
 stately mansions. 
 
 Especially attractive do one or more rooms appear when 
 seen through doorways or arches, with portiere-draped back. 
 And then there are so many corners in a house, mantels and 
 fire-places that make pretty vignette photographs. Not only 
 
104 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 are such photographs of the greatest interest to the owner when 
 made in his own home, but those of churches, theatres and 
 famous buildings, and even of private dwellings, possess not 
 a little architectural value. 
 
 The first requisite for making interiors is a good, perfectly 
 rectilinear, wide-angle lens, and of as short a focus as will per- 
 fectly cover the plate used. A forward-focus camera is very 
 convenient sometimes in photographing interiors, for often it 
 is necessary to crowd well up into a corner in order to get a 
 good field. Use always as quick a plate as can be obtained, for 
 with the room properly lighted, and using a small diaphragm, 
 so as to obtain the greatest of amount of detail possible, the 
 exposure is long enough, even with the quickest plate, to 
 satisfy the most obstinate advocate of slow emulsions. 
 
 The lighting is, perhaps, the cause of most failures. No 
 direct sunlight must be admitted, but as much diffused light as 
 possible, and the more the better. If possible, light the interior 
 from the rear and sides ; but if it is impossible to avoid a 
 window in front of the lens, it must be carefully closed with 
 its shutters and a curtain drawn over them. If this precaution 
 is not taken, " halation " is sure to follow " that appearance 
 of halo dark in the negative, light in the print which makes 
 its appearance around very bright objects in photographs," 
 which Prof. Burton describes. "When the sun shines directly 
 through the rear or side windows, its light can be diffused by 
 drawing the shades over the windows, if they be white ; if not, 
 white sheeting, or even paper, answers well. But an over- 
 cast day, if it be not too dark, is the best for photographing 
 interiors. 
 
 Halation is also caused by light which is reflected from the 
 back of the plate. The greater part of the transmitted light 
 strikes the back of the plate. That traveling in a direction at 
 right angles to or forming a large angle with the back of the 
 glass, is transmitted through it ; but those rays which strike the 
 back of the glass at the angle of total reflection are sent back 
 to the front surface, where they pass into the emulsion. 
 
 The means of avoiding the objectional appearance caused in 
 this way is, of course, to back the plate with some substance 
 
PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIORS AND INANIMATE OBJECTS. 105 
 
 which absorbs light. Bitumen answers well for this purpose, 
 also black carbon tissues moistened with glycerine. Plain 
 paper of a dead black surface, cut into the proper size, does 
 very well, and is easy to obtain and adjust. 
 
 By the use of paper films, instead of glass plates, for making 
 interiors, one cause of halation is largely removed ; but even 
 with them an even and harmonious light is absolutely neces- 
 sary in order to be perfectly free from this annoyance. 
 
 Do not strive after effects of chiaro-oscuro. We must 
 depend on our arrangement and the development of the nega- 
 tive alone for artistic effect in the work. With a soft, even 
 light over the entire room the best and only successful interiors 
 can be made. 
 
 The exposure must be ample. An over-exposed plate on an 
 interior can be treated with far greater chances for success than 
 one which has been under-timed ; indeed, an under-exposed 
 negative had best be thrown into the waste-pile, and the devel- 
 oper, time and patience of the operator saved for less hopeless 
 attempts. 'No definite time can be given as the correct one 
 for an exposure on an interior, for so much depends on the 
 amount and degree of light, which is ever changing. By 
 experience one acquires the judgment which is necessary to 
 decide the proper length of exposure, and the illumination 
 on the ground-glass soon becomes a sure sign to the practiced 
 eye. 
 
 Development, fixing and washing is proceeded with in the 
 usual manner, and, if the exposure be correct, will be found 
 to present no new difficulties. In this, as in everything else, 
 *" practice makes perfect," and by practice alone can we hope 
 to attain perfection. 
 
 INANIMATE OBJECTS. 
 
 A variety of mercantile articles, such as machinery, inventors' 
 models, etc.. are often brought before the photographer. A 
 few hints regarding the treatment of such objects may, there- 
 fore, also be mentioned in this Lesson. 
 
 Fabrics, Paper Hangings, Embroideries, etc. If it is the 
 object to photograph them for commercial purposes, they 
 
106 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 should be stretched upon a plain board or screen, in order to 
 present a plane surface. The nature of their colors invariably 
 demands orthochromatic plates. 
 
 Laces should be placed similarly, but in order to show 
 the delicacy of the structure they should be fastened upon 
 a ground of sharply-contrasting color. White upon black, 
 or vice versa. 
 
 Glassware. Ornamented or cut plates are copied against a 
 dark ground, to make the transparent parts appear black upon 
 the photograph. 
 
 Hollow Glassware, Cut or Engraved, may be filled either 
 with a colored opaque fluid, or, as in the case of globes or 
 lamp shades, be lined with dark muslin. They should receive 
 such an illumination as to produce distinct lights and shadowy 
 without which the photograph will not be plastic. 
 
 Porcelain or Delf should be similarly lighted. The objects 
 being generally white and glossy, a proper exposure is impor- 
 tant to obtain brilliant lights and fine shadows. 
 
 Bronzes. On account of their non-actinic color and high 
 gloss, lighting requires good judgment. To obtain the best 
 general effect, a slight over-exposure is not only admissible but 
 sometimes necessary. 
 
 Silver or Plated-ware. Owing to their high polish these 
 articles can be photographed only in very subdued light. To 
 avoid inartistic reflections, the skylight or windows should be 
 covered with a thin, white fabric or white tissue-paper, and side 
 screens be used to subdue or control the light. In order to do 
 away with the reflected image of camera and operator, often 
 quite visible upon larger objects, a screen of neutral color 
 should be placed immediately in front of the camera, allowing 
 merely an aperture for the lens. 
 
 Machinery, when taken out of doors, is quite easy to man- 
 age, but much trouble occurs when the object is to be photo- 
 graphed in the shop, store, or warehouse, whose light is gen- 
 erally poor, and the distance from the position the camera can 
 occupy perhaps insufficient. All available light should then be 
 admitted, and as heavy machinery cannot be moved at the will 
 of the operator, he should be provided with several lenses of 
 different focal length. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHING INTERIORS AND INANIMATE OBJECTS. 107 
 
 Models. The inventor directs from what point they are to 
 be taken, and he knows exactly what he wants to show in the 
 photograph. The United States Patent Office prescribes a 
 particular size, 7x11 inches, with sufficient margin. Only this 
 size is acceptable. 
 
 Plaster of Paris Cornices, Centre Pieces, Brackets, etc., 
 must be fastened to a white ground and be placed in a light 
 falling obliquely upon them, to secure distinct and transparent 
 shadows and brilliant high lights. 
 
 Marble Statuary and Similar Works of Sculpture require 
 illumination very much as portraits do, allowing, however, for 
 their white color. The technical part offers no difficulties, but 
 it is highly important to preserve a good balance between lights 
 and shadows. 
 
 Furniture and Cabinet Articles. The photographer is al- 
 ways- inclined to place them in a perspective position, never 
 quite satisfactory to the manufacturer, whose demands should be 
 respected at least in this respect. The difficulty occurring here 
 is to make the quality of the wood show distinctly as well as 
 the upholstery and form. 
 
 Flowers and leaves, when nicely arranged, make very inter- 
 esting and beautiful photographs. As a correct representation 
 of color values is one of the first conditions, we must in- 
 variably photograph them upon orthochromatic plates. 
 
 All these, and kindred objects, must be perfectly sharp ; very 
 small stops should, therefore, be employed when photograph- 
 ing them. Besides, they must be correctly exposed and care- 
 fully developed, for they are satisfactory only when free from 
 blemishes. 
 
LESSON XYI. 
 COPYING, ENLARGING AND REDUCING. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHERS are almost daily called upon to copy not only 
 photographs, but also paintings in oil or water colors, engrav- 
 ings, and the like. The mode of operating does not differ 
 much from that heretofore described, but several important 
 points must be observed, to which our attention has not yet 
 been directed, and without which this work will give but little 
 satisfaction. 
 
 Reproductions are made either in the natural size of the 
 original, enlarged or reduced. In any case, the proportions of 
 the original must be preserved. To do this the apparatus must 
 be placed directly opposite the object to be photographed, and 
 at right angles to it. Obliquity results in incorrect pictures, no 
 matter how superior the lens may be. The object to be copied 
 should receive a direct front light. If the work is to be done 
 under the skylight, camera and object may be placed upon an 
 elongated platform, movable upon a pivot with ball and socket 
 arrangement, so as to place the original in a position oblique 
 to the floor, but parallel with the skylight. If the object be 
 very large, side-screens may be required to reflect light, or to 
 subdue it before an uniform illumination can be attained. 
 
 We have seen, in practice, that the farther away the object is 
 from the camera the smaller the picture will be, and, by reversing 
 the axiom, we find that a very much enlarged picture can be 
 made only by bringing the camera close to the object to be 
 copied. The lesson, " Printing on Bromide Paper," speaks of 
 enlargements ; the principles laid down there may be adhered 
 to in all other methods of enlarging. For portraits, when the 
 central part of the picture the head is the main object, an 
 ordinary portrait lens may be used ; while landscapes, architec- 
 
COPYING, ENLARGING AND REDUCING. 109 
 
 tural views, drawings or engravings, in which equal sharpness 
 all over the picture is demanded, rectilinear lenses must be 
 used, like the Morrison copying lenses, the Wale, " Universal," 
 the Gundlach rectigraph, or the Steinheil aplanat. 
 
 A new apparatus, the Scovill Enlarging, Reducing and 
 Copying Camera, is well adapted for the work. Its form of 
 construction is made apparent by the illustration here given : 
 
 It is principally intended for the copying of negatives or glass 
 positives ; but by removing the kits in the front, the lens can be 
 inserted into the same opening, rendering the apparatus capable 
 of copying other objects as well. To copy a negative in the 
 natural size, place it in the kit on the front of camera and 
 button it in. Attached to the centre frame of the camera is a 
 division upon which, on the side towards the camera front, a 
 lens is mounted. Suppose this to be a quarter-plate portrait 
 lens, the focal length of which we will suppose to be four 
 inches ; draw back the centre-frame and the lens to twice the 
 focal length of the lens, slide the back-frame with ground-glass 
 the same distance from the centre-frame. To enlarge with the 
 same lens to eight times the size of the original, the centre of 
 the lens must be four and one-half inches from the negative, 
 and the ground-glass be thirty-six inches from the centre of the 
 lens. To reduce in the same proportion, reverse and have 
 thirty-six inches from the center of the negative, and from 
 centre of lens to ground-glass four and one-half inches. These 
 examples will furnish a key to the following : 
 
110 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 TABLE FOR ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 Taken from the " British Journal Almanac for 1882." 
 
 Focus OF LENS. 
 
 TIMES OF ENLARGEMENT AND REDUCTION. 
 
 In. 
 2 
 
 1 
 In. 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 In. 
 6 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 In. 
 8 
 23^ 
 
 4 
 In. 
 10 
 2^ 
 
 5 
 In. 
 12 
 2f 
 
 6 
 In. 
 14 
 
 *i 
 
 7 
 In. 
 16 
 
 2f 
 
 8 
 In. 
 18 
 *i 
 
 2K 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 ly* 
 
 3% 
 
 10 
 3 
 
 12^ 
 3^ 
 
 15 
 3 
 
 17| 
 
 2H 
 
 20 
 
 2f 
 
 22^ 
 HI 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 4K 
 
 12 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 334 
 
 18 
 3f 
 
 21 
 3i 
 
 24 
 3f 
 
 27 
 3| 
 
 3^ 
 
 7 
 7 
 
 ^ 
 5k 
 
 14 
 *f 
 
 1?K 
 4^1 
 
 21 
 4i 
 
 24| 
 Si 
 
 28 
 4 
 
 3H 
 3lf 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 12 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 5k 
 
 20 
 5 
 
 24 
 4f 
 
 28 
 4f 
 
 32 
 
 4* 
 
 36 
 4| 
 
 4K 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 13K 
 
 
 18 
 6 
 
 22^ 
 
 5% 
 
 27 
 5f 
 
 ^ 
 
 36 
 
 5| 
 
 40 
 
 5 T V 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 ^A 
 
 20 
 61 
 
 25 
 
 6k 
 
 30 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 5f 
 
 40 
 5f 
 
 45 
 5f 
 
 5K 
 
 11 
 11 
 
 16K 
 
 8k 
 
 22 
 
 w* 
 
 27K 
 6^ 
 
 33 
 6K 
 
 38i 
 % 
 
 44 
 6f 
 
 49^ 
 5ft 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 18 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 80 
 
 ?K 
 
 36 
 
 n 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 48 
 6f 
 
 54 
 6f 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 14 
 
 21 
 10K 
 
 28 
 9 
 
 35 
 
 8% 
 
 42 
 
 8f 
 
 49 
 8| 
 
 56 
 
 8 
 
 63 
 
 71 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 16 
 
 24 
 12 
 
 32 
 lOf 
 
 40 
 10 
 
 48 
 t 
 
 56 
 9i 
 
 64 
 9| 
 
 72 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 13K 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 45 
 Ilk 
 
 54 
 
 lOf 
 
 63 
 10i 
 
 72 
 -10f 
 
 81 
 10i 
 
 It is assumed that the photographer knows exactly what the 
 focus of his lens is, and that he is able to measure accurately 
 from its optical centre. The use of the table will be seen from 
 the following illustration: A photographer has a carte to 
 enlarge to four times its size, and the lens he intends employing 
 is one of six inches equivalent focus. He must, therefore, look 
 for 4 on the upper horizontal line, and for 6 in the first vertical 
 column, and carry his eye to where these two join, which will 
 
COPYING, ENLARGING AND REDUCING. Ill 
 
 be at 30 7. The greater of these is the distance the sensitive 
 plate must be from the centre of the lens ; and the lesser, the 
 distance of the picture to be copied. To reduce a picture any 
 given number of times the same method must be followed, but 
 in this case the greater number will represent the distance be- 
 tween the lens and the picture to be copied ; the latter, that 
 between the lens and the sensitive plate. This explanation will 
 be sufficient for every case of enlargement or reduction. 
 
 If the focus of the lens be twelve inches, as this number is 
 not in the column of focal lengths, look out for 6 in this column 
 and multiply by 2 ; and so on with any other numbers. 
 
 Reproductions require proportionally much longer time of 
 exposure than portraits or landscapes, and in this particular 
 point frequent errors are made, generally towards over-expos- 
 ures. The operator must learn by practice how much time to 
 give, probably with the loss of a few plates, before the required 
 experience can be attained. 
 
 As with the full aperture of the lens, enlarged pictures will 
 appear upon the ground-glass with a want of definition, small 
 stops become necessary to retain the original sharpness. 
 
 Oil paintings demand almost invariably a direct front illumi- 
 nation. If, from the glossy varnish, reflections occur, they must 
 be counteracted by a dark side screen ; naturally with loss of 
 much light. Aquarelles or pastelles appearing brighter are 
 easier to copy. 
 
 Daguerreotypes or pictures under glass must, on account of 
 their reflecting properties, be placed so that reflections of light 
 are overcome. Daguerreotypes often show buff marks upon 
 polishing the metallic plate. It is better to copy them by di- 
 rect or reflected sunlight. Photographs when highly burnished 
 or enamelled receive the same treatment as other pictures with 
 glossy surfaces. Ordinary photographs generally copy very 
 well, with the exception, perhaps, of those very much enlarged, 
 when the grain of the paper shows rather too strongly. 
 
 Plates may be developed as described in Lesson Y, or with 
 any of the standard formulae for developers. 
 
 For line work, when a negative in black and white only is 
 desirable, and when no half tones or modulations are to be pre- 
 
112 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 served, we resort to the ferrous oxalate developer described in 
 the Lesson on " Printing on Permanent Bromide Paper. " 
 For that class of work, time of exposure is even more important 
 than for ordinary copying, as by a probable reinforcing, or long- 
 continued developing, the sharpness of lines is often consider- 
 ably damaged, making the negative utterly worthless if a relief 
 plate is to be made from it. Referring to the formula de- 
 scribed before, we take three ounces of the solution of oxalate 
 of potash and add to it one ounce of the solution of sulphate of 
 iron. If more iron is used, the mixed solution will turn turbid 
 and separate a yellow precipitate ; in such a state it should not 
 be used. The perfectly clear and transparent red solution is 
 poured over the plate, and the appearance of the image closely 
 watched. If the image comes with anything like rapidity, pour 
 the developer off, wash slightly, and flood the plate with a solu 
 tion of pure oxalate fora minute or two, pour off, and without 
 washing, continue with the original developer. If the effects 
 of over-exposure are still apparent, restrain with 
 
 Iodine 15 grains 
 
 Alcohol 3J^ ounces 
 
 to which, after being dissolved, add three and a quarter ounces 
 of water. 
 
 From fifteen to twenty drops of this compound added to the 
 developer will secure the intensity and clearness of the lines 
 desirable in black and white negatives. 
 
 Whenever legal documents, autographs, commercial papers, 
 etc., are to be reproduced, this method will prove to be per- 
 fectly reliable. 
 

 'LESSON XVII. 
 
 ORTHOCHROMATIC, OR COLOR-SENSITIVE 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 WHEN we subject a photograph to critical examination, and 
 compare the effects which colors have produced upon our plate, 
 with their appearance of brightness or value of tone in the 
 original, we find that our reproduction is very far from a correct 
 representation of what the eye has seen. While form, light and 
 shade have been photographed in perfect correspondence with 
 the original, colors have not been so reproduced. Our plates 
 copy the bright yellowish-green of vernal foliage quite dark, 
 and the far-distant blue mountains in a landscape so extremely 
 light, that most careful development is not capable of render- 
 ing them harmoniously with the general aspect of the scene. 
 The bright scarlet blossom of the geranium copies like the 
 green leaves of the plant; the crimson tulips, seamed with 
 yellow, show no color contrast ; and the dark blue hyacinth 
 appears nearly white in the ordinary photograph. 
 
 The cause of this untruthfulness in photography was well 
 understood by the earliest experimenters, they knowing very 
 well why different effects could not be expected. 
 
 All light does not act upon a photographic surface, but only 
 certain parts of light. 
 
 The force or power that causes photographic, or photo-chem- 
 ical action, scientists have called actinism / and the active rays, 
 actinic. 
 
 Actinic rays are those found at one end of the spectrum, the 
 violet and blue, called most refrangible by spectrum analysts. 
 Eed, orange and yellow, at the other end of the spectrum, do 
 not act at all, or but very feebly. The latter rays do not de- 
 viate so much from the path of undivided light, as blue and 
 violet do, and are, therefore, called less refrangible. 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 If we expose an ordinary photographic plate at the solar' 
 spectrum, these effects will show to perfection how differently 
 the two ends of the spectrum work. Violet and blue will give 
 very pronounced impressions, but they will diminish more and 
 more, until, at the other end of the spectrum, no effect is 
 visible. 
 
 This is exactly what we notice in every-day photographs. 
 Yellow and orange copy much too dark ; some reds do not 
 impress the plate at all ; and blue and violet, no matter how 
 dark they may be, invariably come too light ; and the variety 
 of colors in fabrics, embroideries, paintings, and many natural 
 objects have thus given endless dissatisfaction to the photog- 
 rapher. 
 
 For many years it was considered as impossible to remedy 
 these defects, as we now think it impossible to photograph colors 
 themselves. 
 
 With orthochromatic or color-sensitive plates we overcome 
 these difficulties, and produce effects nearly correct in their 
 value of brightness. 
 
 An immense amount of practical work and labor had to be 
 done, before anything worthy of interest was attained, but we 
 cannot deny that the discovery of the process is based abso- 
 lutely upon theories, and has been established by experiments 
 in spectroscopy. These experiments were based again uppn 
 one principle, that is, the addition of some substances, possess- 
 ing the power of absorbing and converting into chemical 
 energy those rays which upon an ordinary plate have no effect. 
 For this purpose, a large number of dye-stuffs were found to 
 be most effective. They are themselves sensitive to light, for 
 they bleach w T hen exposed to it. Bleaching action was found 
 to be strongest on the red end of the spectrum, which has no 
 effect on ordinary plates. The most generally adopted theory 
 for this is, that the energy absorbed in bleaching the dye is 
 transmitted to the silver haloid of the plate, overcoming its 
 passiveness and rendering it capable of development. 
 * Of the many dyes that have been experimented with, only a 
 few have been retained although many more are being added, 
 according to the researches constantly made. It is true, not 
 
ORTHOCHROMATIC, OR COLOR- SENSITIVE PHOTOGRAPHY. 115 
 
 all of these dyes sensitize alike, or for several colors at the 
 same time, and as the spectrum photographer proposes to 
 examine distinct spectrum-regions with distinct media, the 
 practical photographer selects colors that give the best general 
 effect. 
 
 Some of the dyes, known by the name of eosines, answer 
 admirably, though many of them do not, and all of them 
 refuse to reproduce red beyond a certain point. A very happy 
 combination of dyes, belonging to another class, has been 
 made, which cause sensitiveness far into the regions of the 
 spectrum red. This action is due to one of its ingredients, 
 cyanine, or chinoline blue, the most, red sensitive substance 
 known. 
 
 To obtain the best general effects in pigment colors, we 
 employ another dye, the erythrosine, which is also an eosine. 
 "With it the best practical results can be obtained, for it sensi- 
 tizes to perfection up to orange, yellow and green, giving, at 
 times, quite correct reproductions even of red, when that color 
 is not perfectly pure but partly mixed with other colors. 
 And we find but rarely pure red in pictures, fabrics or em- 
 broideries, hence erythrosine has been selected pre-eminently 
 as the sensitizer for commercial plates and every-day work. 
 
 Occasionally, cyanine, in small portions, is added to the ery- 
 throsine to obtain better red-sensitiveness, and it acts then 
 very satisfactory in that combination. 
 
 Violets and blues will, even with these plates, exercise a very 
 violent action, and, to suppress it, a ray filter, principally of a 
 pure yellow color, is employed, it being placed between the 
 lens and the sensitive plate. 
 
 At first, the dye itself was incorporated with the emulsion, 
 and with that the plates were coated. Practical work, and Mr. 
 Plener, with his centrifugal machine, showed that but an 
 extremely small quantity of color was requisite to give effects. 
 In fact, after an emulsion had been colored, he separated from 
 it the bromide of silver, re-emulsified it, and, with the infinites- 
 imal amount of color combined with the silver, obtained the 
 same effects. All this led to the redemption of an almost-forgot- 
 ten process, the staining of ready-coated plates to color-sensitize 
 them. 
 
116 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 This way of working has become more popular than any 
 other method, and although color-sensitive plates, colored in 
 the emulsion, have become an article of commerce, stained, or 
 bathed plates, as they are commonly termed, seem to be pre- 
 ferred by most operators. 
 
 For general work erythrosine has been found to be the most 
 effective, and a preparation known as Flandreau's 8. P. C, 
 Orthochromatic Solution carries it as chief ingredient. 
 
 With this solution any photographer may make his 'own 
 orthochromatic plates, and any good plate may successfully be 
 rendered orthochromatic by simply bathing it with the ery- 
 throsine solution. 
 
 When orthochromatic plates are used for reproductions of 
 landscape work, it is advisable to color-sensitize plates of only 
 moderate rapidity. The Carbutt "B" and the Cramer, of 
 lower grade, answer very well for this purpose, while for 
 shorter exposures the " Eclipse " is better adapted. 
 
 The formulae are as follows : 
 
 PRELIMINARY BATH. 
 
 Aqua ammonia 1 dram 
 
 Water 7 ounces 
 
 COLOR BATH. 
 
 Erythrosine 1*^ drams 
 
 Aqua ammonia 2 drams 
 
 Water (distilled) 5% ounces 
 
 and the directions are simple. 
 
 Immerse a plate of medium sensitiveness in the preliminary 
 bath and allow it to remain therein for three minutes. After 
 removal, drain well, and, without washing, plunge the plate in 
 the coloring-bath, rocking it gently to secure uniform contact 
 with the solution. The plate should not remain in the color-bath 
 longer than seventy-five seconds, as a long-continued exposure 
 to the color-solution will depress the general sensitiveness with- 
 out increasing that for colors. If a large number of plates are 
 prepared with the same solution it is advisable to add, after the 
 eighth or tenth plate, about ten to twenty drops of the eryth- 
 rosine solution. The colored plates must be well drained, 
 reared upon blotting-paper, and dried in the ordinary closet. 
 
ORTHOCHROMATIC, OR COLOR-SENSITIVE PHOTOGRAPHY. 117 
 
 Colored plates may be exposed while still wet, and the 
 general sensitiveness is somewhat decreased thereby. If, how- 
 ever, the object to be photographed requires a very long 
 exposure, it is better to use a dried plate. 
 
 The development of erythrosine plates offers no serious diffi- 
 culties ; but it must be remembered that the plates, being so 
 sensitive to color, especially to yellow, the process must be 
 carried on either in the shadow of a subdued ruby lantern, or 
 in a light obscured by several thicknesses of brown tissue 
 paper. 
 
 To suppress the violent action of blue and violet, a yellow 
 screen is placed between the sensitive surface and the objective ; 
 the best method being to fasten the screen on the back of the 
 front bearing the lens. It being difficult to obtain glass of pure 
 yellow color, photographers prepare these screens themselves 
 by coating a very thin and white plane parallel glass with 
 xanthine collodion. 
 
 The yellow color imparted to the collodion is sensitive to 
 light, and plates prepared with it will fade when exposed 
 unnecessarily for a long time. 
 
 With the interposition of the yellow screen (which is abso- 
 lutely necessary for the copying of objects in which blue and 
 violet predominates), the time of exposure must be increased 
 from three to six times that of an ordinary plate. 
 
 With artificial light of sufficient force the yellow screen can 
 be dispensed with ; a yellow cylinder-globe or shade placed over 
 the source of light answering equally well. 
 
 The yellow glass should be very thin ; if unnecessarily thick, 
 the time of exposure becomes longer. Focus should be taken 
 with it, as a refraction of light may occur, making a perceptible 
 difference. 
 
 The reproduction of oil paintings, aquarells, fabrics and other 
 articles colored highly in various shades, does not require any 
 particular precautions. When much red is present, the exposure 
 should be lengthened ; with the absence of blue, the yellow 
 screen may be dispensed with, neither is it required for general 
 landscape work. Artificial light, rich in yellow and orange 
 light, allows work without the screen. 
 
118 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 As a formula for developing, which gives very good results. 
 we may adopt : 
 
 1. Granulated sulphite of soda 3 ounces 
 
 Water 1 quart 
 
 In this solution dissolve : 
 
 2. Pyrogallic acid % ounce 
 
 Granulated carb. of soda 2 ounces 
 
 Water '. 1 quart 
 
 For normal exposure add 1 ounce of water to 1 ounce of 
 each 'No. 1 and No. 2. 
 
 All orthochromatic plates should receive a full exposure j 
 but if too much time has been given, restrain with bromide 
 of potassium, not with bromide of ammonium. 
 
 Development had better be commenced in total darkness. 
 After the expiration of two minutes, when the color-stuff has 
 been partly washed away, the plate may be examined in a weak 
 red light, and the process may therein be continued. Fixing, 
 washing, intensifying or reducing is accomplished in the same 
 way as with ordinary plates. With some emulsions the color 
 is difficult to wash off the plate ; when this is the case, a little 
 alcohol will remove it more effectually than water. 
 
LESSON XVIII. 
 TRANSPARENCIES, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 
 
 THERE are various methods and processes for making trans- 
 parencies, many of which have passed into history, and, as 
 the object of this lesson is to place before the reader the latest 
 method, combining simplicity of manipulation with perfection 
 of result, it will be only necessary to enumerate the various 
 methods of the past, without entering into a detailed descrip- 
 tion of them. They comprise the albumen ; collodio-albumen ; 
 collodio-bromide ; bathed dry-plate, in which a bromo-iodized 
 collodion -plate is sensitized in a solution of silver nitrate, and, 
 after being washed, is coated with a preservative ; collodio- 
 chloride, wet collodion process, which is still used by profes- 
 sional slide-makers ; carbon, and the Woodbury processes. 
 
 At the present time two processes only are in use in 
 America, viz.: the old wet collodion process and the new gela- 
 tine dry-plate process. The first is limited in its use to those 
 who make lantern-slides mainly for advertising purposes, 
 while the new gelatine dry-plate, of the special kind made for 
 producing transparencies known as Carbutt's gelatino-albumen 
 plate, is almost universally used by amateurs and the profes- 
 sional portrait and landscape photographer. It is in the use of 
 these plates, therefore, that we shall proceed to describe the 
 necessary operations. 
 
 The requisites for contact printing are a deep printing- 
 frame a size larger than the negative to be used, with a flat, 
 glass bottom free from scratches (crystal plate is best); some thin 
 red enameled label paper for masks, a Carbutt " Multum in 
 Parvo" lantern or other artificial light, and transparency plates 
 of the suitable size. Those for lantern -slides are made on thin 
 crystal glass of the now accepted standard size, 3J by 4 inches ; 
 
120 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 for the larger size transparencies they are made on fine ground- 
 glass, which has the advantage over the clear glass, that the 
 image is rendered in its right position when made by contact 
 with the negative, just as a silver print would be, the obscured 
 side of the glass being back of the image, and it only remaining 
 to cover it with a clear glass and mount in a suitable sized 
 metal frame which is sold for that purpose. The transparency 
 need not be confined to the size of the negative ; the image 
 can be enlarged or reduced to suit the taste and circumstances ; 
 nor is it absolutely necessary, for the purpose of enlarging or 
 reducing the image, that a camera be provided, if the use of a 
 small room can be commanded, and the light shut out from all 
 but one part of the lower sash. Over this light must be 
 placed, and covering the entire surface, a sheet of fine ground- 
 glass, which will give an evenly diffused light to pass through 
 the negative ; beneath this a support for the negative should 
 be placed. The same camera and lens used in making the 
 negative can be employed for making the transparency, pro- 
 vided the image is to be reduced in size, and the negative can 
 be held upright in one of the plate -holders. The camera itself 
 may be supported on a board raised to such a height that the 
 lens will center with the center of the negative. Care should 
 be taken, in adjusting it, that the side of the camera and the 
 face of the plate-holder holding the negative forms a perfect 
 right angle. If it is desirable to make an enlarged transpar- 
 ency, say from a 4x5 or a 5x8 negative to an 8x10 plate, 
 the same camera and lens must be used, but the ground-glass 
 of the camera must be removed, so that the magnified image 
 may pass through the camera into the sensitive plate, sup- 
 ported in an upright position at the distance found to be cor- 
 rect. To ascertain this the camera with its lens should slide 
 easily between two strips, for, unless your camera is provided 
 with a front rack movement, you will have to move the cam- 
 era, and with it the lens, to obtain a focus, using a light of 
 glass on which is stretched a piece of white paper to obtain a 
 focus, and placed against a support on the board carrying the 
 camera, and at right angle with the base of it. This is sup- 
 posing you are working in a room in which all light, except 
 
TRANSPARENCIES, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 121 
 
 that passing through the negative, is excluded before placing 
 the negative in the holder or support. If it is desirable to 
 have a margin on the transparency, cut out a mask from the 
 thin, red enamelled paper or tin-foil, and place on the face of 
 the negative, being careful to see that the margin shows 
 equally around the large plate or focusing screen. 
 
 While the foregoing description will enable any one to 
 produce enlarged or reduced transparencies from their nega- 
 tives, it is but a makeshift, and will be found to entail great 
 loss of time and uncertainty in working, which can be 
 avoided by using a properly- constructed camera, such as that 
 made by the Scovill Manufacturing Co.* The writer of this 
 article has had one in use for years. The end holding the 
 negative has adjustments for centering the image, and the 
 extended range of adjustment of the lens enables a lantern 
 transparency to be made from an 8x10 negative, or vice versa; 
 an 8x10 transparency from a 3Jx4J, or other intermediate sized 
 negative. 
 
 Having explained the tools required, let us now proceed with 
 our description of the chemicals required and the making of 
 the proper solutions. 
 
 Of chemicals will be required the following: 
 
 Neutral oxalate of potash 1 pound 
 
 Sulphate of iron 1 pound 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda 5 pounds 
 
 Alum 1 pound 
 
 Citric acid . ^ pound 
 
 Liquor ammonia 4 ounces 
 
 Plain collodion varnish . . 8 ounces 
 
 Too much stress cannot be laid on the procuring of chemi- 
 cals of the greatest purity ; especially is it necessary that the 
 iirst two articles named should be pure. Many have been dis- 
 appointed in their efforts at transparency-making by applying 
 to the country druggist for oxalate of potash and have been 
 supplied with bin-oxalate of potash ; be careful, therefore, to 
 procure the chemicals from a reliable dealer in photographic 
 materials. In compounding the solutions, first prepare, by a 
 thorough cleansing, suitable sized bottles ; for the bulky solu- 
 
 * Described minutely in Lesson XIV. 
 
122 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 tions, nothing is better than the ordinary glass preserve jar ; 
 and for labels, a safe plan is to cut from the circular accom- 
 panying the plates you are to use the formulae, and paste them 
 on the glass jar to contain the solution it describes. Next in 
 importance is the water; clear, soft river or spring water, 
 melted ice or distilled water, as is most convenient, should be 
 used, but never hard water containing lime in solution. 
 
 We shall now describe a very excellent plan that has been 
 used for years in dissolving large crystals a method that does 
 away with the use of a pestle and mortar. After filtering the 
 A solution of following formula, select a one-half gallon glass 
 preserve jar ; and for B solution, a quart jar. Measure into 
 each one the quantity of water required, except that in the B 
 solution a few ounces of the water may be reserved until after 
 solution of the iron salt. To dissolve the salts, so as to need 
 no after-filtering, take a common domestic salt bag, washed to 
 free from salt, and in this place the crystals and suspend it in 
 the w^ater so that the bulk of the salt is just covered by the 
 water ; immediately a stream of denser liquid will be seen 
 falling to the bottom of the jar ; this will continue until the 
 whole of the salts are dissolved and a clear solution is the 
 result ; then remove the bag, give the bottle or jar a shake, 
 and the solution is ready. The same method is to be employed 
 in dissolving the iron and hyposulphite of soda, using a separ- 
 ate bag for each one, and completing one before commencing 
 the other. Having everything ready, carefully weigh out by 
 avoirdupois weight the chemicals, and make solutions as per 
 following formula : 
 
 CARBUTT'S IMPROVED DEVELOPER FOR TRANSPARENCIES. 
 
 a. Oxalate of potash .... 8 ounces 
 
 Water 30 ounces 
 
 Citric acid 60 grains 
 
 Citrate of ammonia solution 2 ounces 
 
 b. Sulphate of iron 4 ounces 
 
 Water .* 32 ounces 
 
 Sulphuric acid 8 drops 
 
 c. Citrate of Ammonia Solution. Dissolve 1 ounce citric acid in 5 
 ounces distilled water, add liquor ammonia until a slip of litmus paper 
 just loses the red color, then add water to make the whole measure 8- 
 ounces. 
 
TRANSPARENCIES, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 123 
 
 Developer, Add 1 ounce of B to 2 of A, and % ounce water and 3 to 
 6 drops bromide solution. 
 
 In the making of transparencies, the first requisite is a good 
 negative, and every effort and care should be taken when pro- 
 ducing it, to insure its freedom from imperfections ; the second 
 requisite is a suitable artificial light for use when making 
 exposures by contact, and we know of none better than 
 Carbutt's "Multum in Parvo" Lantern, designed especially for 
 
 this class of work. It has a safe light in front, to be used 
 when developing negatives or transparencies ; two side doors, 
 that to the left when opened emitting clear, white light ; and 
 a reflector attached to the revolving lamp, which throws 
 parallel rays towards the printing-frame holding the negative 
 and sensitive plate. The door on the right, when opened, 
 reveals a light of opal glass, through which the soft white light 
 allows the negative or positive to be examined. The third 
 requisite is suitable sized developing dishes, and these should 
 be of porcelain or the enameled iron ware, and cannot be used 
 with the pyro developer without risk of staining the transpar- 
 encies, as we use for them the ferrous-oxalate developer only. 
 Having now provided ourselves with the necessary requisites 
 for the work, we can proceed with the making of transparen- 
 cies, beginning with the popular lantern-slide. For convenience 
 of exposing the plate, the lantern should be hung in front of 
 the operator so that the bottom is about twelve inches from 
 
124 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 the work-bench. To the left, and in line with the bottom of 
 lantern, should be fixed a bracket-shelf, so that the printing- 
 frame can be supported at a distance of about twenty inches 
 from the lamp-flame. We now place our negative glass in 
 contact with the glass in a deep printing-frame ; a suitable size 
 is 6Jx8, for that answers for 5x8 and under ; over this place 
 one of Carbutt's thin, crystal, transparency plates, so as to cover 
 the portion of the negative desired ; lay a piece of dark felt or 
 other soft material over it ; close down the back ; turn the lamp 
 of the lantern by the knob underneath, so that the reflector 
 faces to the left door of the lantern ; and allow the clear light 
 to act from ten to fifteen seconds ; close the door of the lan- 
 tern ; remove the plate from the printing-frame ; place in a 
 4Jx5 porcelain dish, and flow over sufficient of the developer 
 to well cover the plate. If correctly timed, the image should 
 appear slowly, taking two or three minutes to complete ; allow 
 the development to continue, however, until the blacks look 
 quite strong, and detail is plainly showing in the high lights ; 
 then wash off the developer, and immerse in a fresh solution 
 of the hyposulphite of soda (pyro-developed negatives should 
 not be fixed in the same solution), made by dissolving 8 ounces 
 of the salt in 40 ounces of water, in the same manner as 
 directed for dissolving the iron salt. Let the transparency 
 remain in the fixing-bath three to five minutes after the white 
 bromide seems cleared from the plate ; wash for half an hour in 
 running water ; then immerse for five minutes in the 
 
 HARDENING SOLUTION. 
 
 Water 36 ounces 
 
 Pulverized alum 3 ounces 
 
 Citric acid Bounce 
 
 Afterwards wash again, and this time for twenty minutes to 
 half an hour ; then carefully go over the surface with a tuft of 
 absorbent cotton, while water is running over it, give a final 
 rinse, and place in a drying-rack to dry spontaneously. Finally, 
 varnish with plain 
 
 COLLODION VARNISH. 
 
 Alcohol 4 ounces 
 
 Pyroxaline 30 to 40 grains 
 
 Sulphuric ether 4 ounces 
 
TRANSPARENCIES, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 125 
 
 When, after shaking, the cotton is dissolved, filter and flow 
 the plain collodion over the dry transparency; then dry, 
 cover with matt and a crystal cover glass, and bind with black 
 binding strips. 
 
 Transparencies for window and door decoration should be 
 made on plates somewhat larger than the negative, so that a 
 suitable margin may surround the image. To do this, cut a 
 mask with rectangular or other opening out of the thin red 
 enamelled paper. For an 8x10 transparency from a 6-Jx8|- nega- 
 tive, take a piece of the mask paper 9x11 with two sides cut to 
 right angles ; make a line with pencil and ruler 1 inches from 
 two sides ; from the side line measure 5J inches, and from the 
 cross line measure Y|- inches ; cut on these lines with a sharp 
 knife through the paper laid on glass or zinc, and remove the 
 blank ; make a x mark on left upper corner, to denote register 
 corner, place this mask in a 10x12 deep printing-frame ; let 
 it register close to the left-hand upper corner, lay the nega- 
 tive film side up and under the mask ; adjust the negative so 
 as to show in proper position through the opening ; over this 
 place a Carbutt A transparency plate 8x10, letting it register 
 in the same corner as the mask ; lay over a pad of black Canton 
 flannel or felt ; close the printing-frame ; expose to the lamp or 
 gaslight ten to fifteen seconds or more, according to degree of 
 density of negative. Develop as directed for lantern-slides, 
 and in every other respect proceed the same. 
 
 The tone, both of lantern and large transparencies, can be 
 varied from a warm brown to a velvety black. Increased ex- 
 posure and weaker developer (adding water) with more brom- 
 ide gives warm brown tones. Short exposure and stronger 
 (undiluted) developer gives dark tones. 
 
LESSON XIX. 
 LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 IT has been said by those engaged in the instruction of 
 youth, that they often find it far more difficult to eradicate 
 from the mind of a pupil the errors of previous training, than 
 to impart and render permanent such knowledge as is re- 
 quired. A false start on the road to knowledge may soon lead 
 to discouragement, and, finally, to overwhelming disaster. And 
 this is just as likely to occur with older as well as with young 
 students in the technical science and art of photography. Few, 
 if any, students, in any department of art have attained a promi- 
 nent position in his or her profession without beginning with 
 the rudiments and thoroughly mastering the first principles. 
 
 First lessons may seem uninteresting, and, to many 
 appear unnecessary a waste of time and material. But, if 
 neglected, it is more than probable that far more time and 
 greater expense will be demanded for correction of the mis- 
 take, besides the worry and regret which is sure to come with 
 the conviction that the beginning has been too hurried and its 
 details too lightly passed over. I)o not expect to at once pro- 
 duce results equal to those of workers who have grown gray in 
 the same field of labor, and if you do have such expectations, 
 do not be discouraged by a few failures. 
 
 It is well to begin with a fixed determination that quality 
 should be the first and most important, and quantity a sec- 
 ondary or unthought-of factor. A good picture of a single 
 tree, shrub or even leaf, a small picture of a corner in the gar- 
 den, a field or bit of water, is far more satisfactory, instructive 
 and valuable than a so-called fair picture, however broad the 
 space shown may be. Do not try to photograph everything 
 you see ; select your subject after consideration, execute your 
 
LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 127 
 
 work with deliberate care, and you may afterward take 
 pleasure in exhibiting the results to your friends. 
 
 First secure good apparatus. Do not define the word good 
 as here used to necessarily mean high priced ; very fine work is 
 often done with comparatively cheap tools. Safety of expen- 
 diture is best secured by intrusting orders to a well-known and 
 reliable firm. Otherwise, purchases of apparatus should be 
 made under the counsel or by the advice of some competent per- 
 son, who has been made acquainted with the requirements and 
 conditions of the buyer. Good, cheap apparatus may be found 
 if properly sought for. But a great deal of apparatus is sold 
 which is dear at any price, having less real value than the raw 
 material from which it has been constructed. 
 
 After determining to procure an outfit, begin study for its 
 use. Select subjects and study them from various points of 
 view, and under different lights of morning, noon, or later in the 
 day. Observe the effect under various conditions of illumina 
 tion. Some of the finest photographs of American landscapes 
 have been made under an obscured or partially clouded sky 
 just before the morning sun appeared above the horizon. The 
 light reflected from such a sky is soft and yet brilliant, while 
 the air usually has less motion than at any other time of day, 
 and the dewy sparkle of the foliage is found only in the early 
 hours of the day. 
 
 In the broad expanse of field and detached woodland, the 
 brighter light of later hours is often most desirable on account 
 of the well-defined shadows which serve to break up the 
 monotony and give brilliancy to such scenes. A herd of cattle, 
 or a flock of sheep which add much to the beauty of land- 
 scape pictures are less likely to be in motion, and are oftener 
 found in picturesque groups in the early morning. ~No land- 
 scape of any considerable breadth should be photographed 
 without the introduction of animals or familiar figures. 
 
 If animal life is represented in the picture, do not place it in 
 the immediate foreground, unless it is to appear the important 
 feature of the scene. Whether the figures used are biped or 
 quadruped, they should be placed at such a distance as will 
 prevent their blocking out other important objects, or giving 
 the appearance of crowding. 
 
128 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Many beautiful landscape pictures may be secured in the 
 late afternoon hours, even up to within a short time of the 
 sun's disappearance below the horizon. This is an especially 
 favorable time of day for fine cloud effects. In scenes made 
 up of large masses of foliage, it will be found necessary to give 
 considerably longer exposure. This increase of exposure is 
 very important in heavily wooded, mountainous districts. The 
 absorption of actinic force and the low power of the reflected 
 green rays are such that considerable care is necessary for 
 producing fine work under such conditions. 
 
 Care should be exercised in setting up the camera for field 
 work. In most instances it is necessary to have the camera 
 horizontal and level, and any desired change in the boundaries 
 of the picture may be made by a proper use of the sliding front 
 or swinging back of the instrument. For more or less sky or 
 foreground, lower or elevate the sliding front or lens board of 
 the box, and, for side changes, utilize the wide swing-back. 
 This last-named motion is very important when a long stretch 
 of shore, river or street view is under treatment. By swinging 
 the end of the ground-glass focusing screen, showing the near 
 objects back or further from the lens, and the end showing the 
 distant objects nearer to the lens, much finer rendering of de- 
 tails is secured. 
 
 When the body of the camera is much tipped up or down, the 
 result is likely to be greatly distorted and give a false character 
 to the picture. It is seldom advisable to photograph landscape 
 scenes from the shadow side. The shadow, unrelieved by il- 
 luminated portions, produces a sombre effect in the work. 
 
 The proper rendering of distant views is best secured in 
 dear, bright weather. Even a slight veil of fog or smoke is 
 quite sufficient to prevent good results, under otherwise most 
 favorable conditions. By clear weather, a cloudless sky is not 
 necessarily meant, but rather such conditions as show the air 
 to be free from smoke or fog, which give to distant objects a 
 dim or hazy appearance. A sky partially obscured by thin, 
 light, fleecy clouds, reflects an excellent light for fine landscape 
 work. The pleasant weather immediately after a heavy rain 
 is also very favorable. At such times the floating particles 
 
LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 129 
 
 have been precipitated or washed from the air, and the dust 
 with which foliage has become coated in dry weather no longer 
 absorbs the light, or prevents reflection from smooth surfaces. 
 
 When photographing a scene including any considerable ex- 
 panse of water, choose some point of view from which the 
 surface of the water does not present a broad, brilliant sheet of 
 unbroken white. This is sometimes difficult if there is neither 
 a fresh breeze nor a flowing current ; and if either of these 
 conditions exist, the picture is apt to be unsatisfactory unless 
 made by instantaneous exposure, and such short exposures 
 often result in hard or inharmonious prints, when considerable 
 expanse of woodland or heavy foliage is included. 
 
 A field of waving grain, or the long, majestic swing of tall 
 forest trees in a heavy gale of wind, are beautiful objects to 
 look upon, but are as yet beyond the reach of photographic 
 illustration, because the light at such times is usually too weak 
 for the rapid exposure required for satisfactory results with 
 moving objects. 
 
 Beginners, and in fact old workers, are apt to commit errors 
 in time of exposures in the open air. This is not mainly due 
 from lack of ability to judge of the amount of illumination, 
 but rather from disregard of the color of the light. During 
 long periods of dry weather the air becomes filled with 
 particles of floating matter, which gives the light a yellow, 
 non-actinic tone, requiring much longer exposures in the 
 camera. 
 
 It is advisable to keep full notes of all work done in the 
 field, as such records often prove valuable in after-work of the 
 same class. Field books for such records may be had from 
 most dealers in photographic materials. Plate-makers and 
 chemical manufacturers are many times blamed for faulty re- 
 sults which are due to lack of judgment, or its proper exercise 
 when the materials are used. 
 
 Great care should be taken to prevent light from reaching 
 the inside of the plate-holder or camera box, except such as 
 passes through the lens, when the exposure is made. It should 
 be remembered that the light under an open sky is much 
 stronger than it is inside a room, and a small leak which 
 
130 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 would be scarcely noticeable in the latter, may be, in the for- 
 mer, sufficient to illuminate the entire inside of the camera- 
 box or plate-holder. A cloth or opaque cover is advisable 
 for shading the camera during exposure in the field. Some 
 have recommended enveloping the entire camera-box in a 
 shield of some light opaque material, made up in the form 
 of a bag sufficiently large to admit of drawing and replacing 
 the slide without removing or opening the bag. 
 
 Every record of field work should state the focus of the lens 
 used and the exact diameter of the stop or diaphragm. To 
 
 state that you used for certain results Mr. S 's lens with 
 
 No. 3 stop, really conveys no information to the listener, unless 
 he is familiar with the lens. But when you say I used Mr. 
 
 S 's eight-inch focus lens with one-half-inch diaphragm, 
 
 your listener can at once understand the conditions under 
 which the picture described was made. 
 
 The development of a landscape plate should, theoretically, 
 not be different from that of other work, but when we con- 
 sider the variety of influences bearing upon the work, among 
 which are principally the varying conditions of light, it will 
 readily be understood that a different procedure must be 
 adopted. 
 
 It may be taken, as a rule, that for timed landscape work 
 no better plate can be found in the American market than our 
 favorite, the Carbutt B, with which we have become familiar, 
 and the fine qualities of which we have had ample opportunity 
 to observe. Time of exposure depends, in landscape photog- 
 raphy, as well as in every other branch of the art, upon the 
 degree of sensitiveness of the plate, the quality of light, the 
 time of day, and the color of the object. Thus, for instance, will 
 dark-green, wooded scenery require a much longer time than a 
 view on the lake shore or ocean beach ; a white marble palace 
 or a white frame cottage much less than a brick or brown- 
 stone-front house. 
 
 The results of the practicing class, 1886 and '87, of the C. S. P., 
 encourage us to continue, for that class of work, with the 
 Chautauqua developer, composed as follows : 
 
 A. Bromide of ammonium 2 drams 
 
 Water 8 ounces. 
 
LANDSCAPE PHOTOaKAPHY. 131 
 
 B. Aqua ammonia 1 ounce 
 
 Water 7 ounces. 
 
 C. Pyrogallic acid 1 dram 
 
 Water. ... 12 ounces 
 
 Nitric acid 5 minims. 
 
 For properly-timed exposures take of 
 
 A 40 minims 
 
 B 20 minims 
 
 C Bounce 
 
 Water 2 ounces. 
 
 For over-exposures restrain the action by adding to each 
 ounce of the mixed developer from three to five minims of A, 
 and for under-exposures accelerated with a few drops of B, be- 
 ing careful not to use it excessively, for then green fog will 
 invariably result. 
 
 For instantaneous exposures, when but rarely the proper 
 time can be approximately estimated, the mode of operating 
 requires modification. 
 
 We return here to the original developer, as described in 
 Lesson Y. 
 
 When, on account of weak light, or extremely rapid speed 
 of the shutter, under-exposure may reasonably be suspected, 
 a good method is to bathe the plate in a diluted alkali solution 
 before proceeding with the development. 
 
 The alkali solution, No. 2 3 of Lesson Y, may be mixed 
 with three volumes of water. After the plate has soaked in 
 this for two or three minutes, it is removed, washed and placed 
 in diluted developer of the normal composition. The strength 
 of the developer may be increased as the process goes on, until 
 a proper amount of density and detail is obtained. 
 
 For instantaneous work, the following formula has found 
 much favor among the students of the corresponding class : 
 
 a. Water 12 ounces 
 
 Pyrogallol 1 ounce 
 
 Gran, sulphite of soda 2 ounces 
 
 Bromide potassium 80 grains 
 
 Citric acid 60 grains 
 
 b. Water 12 ounces 
 
 Gran, sulphite of soda 2 ounces 
 
 Carbonate of potash 3 ounces 
 
132 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 To make the developer, take 3 drains of each a and b to 4 
 ounces of water. 
 
 In our opinion, the finest results can be effected by merely 
 modifying the developer. When a plate shows signs of under- 
 exposure, the normal developer must be at once removed and 
 a quantity of pure water poured into the tray, in which the 
 plate remains while the operator is mixing a new developer to 
 suit the peculiar case. 
 
 All authorities, and the most successful practitioners advise 
 the employment of a weak developer, in cases of under-exposure, 
 at the commencement of the operation. Often it becomes 
 necessary to change the developer several times in the course 
 of one development, each solution being prepared to suit the 
 exact state of the plate in which the previous one left it. Old 
 developers that is, those which have been used once or twice 
 are very serviceable for starting the action on an over-timed 
 plate. 
 
 As the process progresses, it will be seen what treatment is 
 necessary, and a fresh developer, which is rather weak in alkali, 
 perhaps, will be used in place of the old one. A weak developer, 
 if used to the end, will yield but a feeble negative ; it must be 
 strengthened as the development continues. Of course, it re- 
 quires a much longer time to complete development when a 
 weak developer is employed and the process is stopped, from 
 time to time, to prepare new and slightly stronger solutions ; 
 but the result is reasonably sure. With the proper amount of 
 time and patience, a fair printing-negative can be produced by 
 this method of procedure from a plate that was apparently 
 over-exposed. 
 
 Never force an under-timed negative by increasing the 
 amount of alkali in the developer; it can only result in failure. 
 A developer which is very strong in soda or potash fre- 
 quently causes a plate to frill, besides yielding a hard and 
 glassy negative. If too much ammonia is used, the result is 
 green fog. Forcing an under-timed plate invariably results in 
 a foggy negative. The temperature, too, is an important con- 
 dition to be observed when preparing a developer. In summer 
 and warm weather considerably less alkali is needed than in 
 colder weather. 
 
LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 133 
 
 The drop-shutter which is an indispensable instrument for 
 instantaneous exposures explains itself by the simple mode of 
 construction and easy way of attachment as shown in the cut. 
 
 A more complicated arrangement is found in the Prosch 
 Duplex." 
 
 PROSCH DUPLEX. 
 
 SCOVILL'S 
 UNIVERSAL SAFETY SHUTTER. 
 
LESSON XX. 
 STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 THIS class of photographic work, so far as the making of the 
 negative is concerned, is the same in all its details as the 
 negative -making already described. 
 
 The only difference in apparatus is found in the use of two 
 lenses, in all respects exactly alike, and placing in the camera, 
 exactly in the centre, a partition of such length and width as to 
 keep the images thrown by the lenses from interfering the one 
 with the other. The usual 5x8 camera is well suited for this 
 style of work ; better yet, so far as economy is concerned, is 
 the size known as 4rx(v. 
 
 The cut illustrates fully the style of camera required for 
 this work ; in it may be seen the central division and the two 
 lenses. 
 
 It is self-evident that, by the use of this camera, two nega- 
 tives are made of the same view at the same time, one differing 
 
STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY. . 135 
 
 from the other sufficiently to give the relief needed when the 
 print is made, mounted and viewed through the instrument 
 known as the stereoscope. 
 
 The difference in the two pictures is well illustrated by 
 holding a book directly in front of the left eye, at the same 
 time closing the right eye. By thus placing the book, the 
 back only will be seen by the left eye ; now open the right 
 eye, upon doing which the whole of the right side of the book 
 will be seen, thus relief or solidity is given to the object. 
 
 Nothing need be here written as to choice of subject, direc- 
 tion of light, development, or any of the manipulations already 
 given, for the reason, as first stated, that all are the same. 
 
 After printing, we meet with the important part of this 
 work in the mounting on card-board. Of this the best size is 
 4x7. When you are ready to mount the pictures, before 
 cutting, turn each one over and mark the one that is at your 
 right hand with an L, for left, and the other with an R, for 
 right, for when mounted on the card the one that is to the 
 right, as printed, is to be placed to the left on the card ; keep 
 each pair together, otherwise you will have different shades 
 of toning on one card. 
 
 Before cutting out you should have a piece of glass prepared 
 to trim by, to measure 2f inches wide and 3f inches high ; 
 some workers make it 3 inches wide. As a rule, the tirst- 
 named width is the best. Some people have difficulty in 
 viewing the pictures when too widely separated. This piece 
 of glass may be cut on top at a right angle to the sides, or may 
 be rounded, as suits the fancy, but it must be smooth along the 
 edges to render the cutting-out clean ; it may be had of the 
 dealer if you do not choose to bother with the making. 
 
 The trimming may be done with the Robinson Trimmer 
 before described, or with a knife that has a rounding point, 
 and that is perfectly smooth and absolutely free from any 
 roughness on the edge, otherwise it will tear and make ragged 
 the edges of the print. 
 
 Place upon a sheet of glass the print to be cut ; upon the 
 print place the glass pattern by which the print is to be 
 trimmed, hold the pattern firmly and pass the knife closely 
 
136 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 along the sides of the pattern with a steady but quick move- 
 ment. 
 
 In placing the pattern, be careful to have the base-line the 
 same in both pictures, and use on one side or the other the 
 same object, so that each may contain exactly the same view. 
 This, with a little practice and care, can easily be done. 
 
 Yiewed in the stereoscope, the picture, if properly mounted, 
 will be most charming ; the distance, quite perfect. 
 
 There are views without end, anywhere and everywhere, 
 that are suited to this sort of work little bits, wooded lanes, 
 forest paths, waterfalls, brooks over-hung with trees that pos- 
 sess little charm in a single view, but which are just suited for 
 this style of picture. 
 
 Always avoid having the negative very intense ; avoid pure 
 whites in the print, for the effect will be snowy ; plenty of 
 detail (full exposure) ; even if the print seems dark, the stereo- 
 scope will bring it all out ; while if " hard," as we term it (black 
 and white), the effect is not good. 
 
 In this style of picture, have, if possible, something prom- 
 inent in the fore-ground. From this the stereoscopic effect is 
 plainly seen; a bush, a log, in fact any object so placed, 
 seems to lift the whole picture into relief. 
 
LESSON XXI. 
 
 LIGHT AND LENSES. 
 
 LIGHT is deflected from its straight course when passing 
 through transparent media. If a stick is dipped into water, 
 it appears to be bent out of its known straightness. A ray of 
 light entering glass is bent, and the bending varies with the 
 density of the medium which it enters. "Water bends or re- 
 fracts more powerfully than air, glass more than water, and 
 different qualities of glass, varying in density, refract light 
 with different power. 
 
 If a light ray passes through a pane of glass, it is" bent 
 from the perpendicular when entering, and towards it when 
 emerging. 
 
 .Refraction takes place at the surface of the transparent 
 medium, where the ray enters, but it does not bend when 
 passing perpendicularly to the flat surface. 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton has shown that a ray of sunlight is not 
 homogeneous, but that it consists of several colored rays 
 united, or intermingled, which can be demonstrated by throw- 
 ing a pencil of sunlight upon an angle of a "prism." An 
 oblong image is then formed and may be received upon a 
 screen. The light passes the prism not in its undivided state 
 
138 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 it is broken up into its primary, prismatic colors, and each of 
 these has its own separate degree of bending tendency or re- 
 frangibility. 
 
 Violet. 
 
 Jndigo. 
 
 Differently-colored rays refract unequally. Red rays emerg- 
 ing from the prism form an angle with the vision; they 
 diverge. Yiolet rays are more deflected from their original 
 than the red, and are called most refrangible ; the red are the 
 least so. Green rays are more refrangible than red, and less 
 than violet, because spectrum green is situated between red 
 and violet. 
 
 In ordinary photography it would be quite natural to sup- 
 pose that the most powerful luminous light acted moit strongly 
 upon sensitive plates, but if the light is at all yellowish, how- 
 ever bright it may be, its chemical force or actinic power will 
 be but very small. In this way we explain the superiority of 
 the morning sun over that of the afternoon, or the want of 
 chemical action when the setting sun has sunk behind a bank 
 of golden clouds. 
 
 The elementary rays of the spectrum can be reunited into 
 white light. If the sun spectrum, emerging from a prism 
 passes through a glass lens, and is then projected upon a 
 ground-glass or white screen, the single rays will combine to 
 make white light. 
 
 The deflecting power acts upon the surface of bodies. 
 While the light ray bends on entering and leaving the trans- 
 parent body, it continues in a straight line when in its 
 medium ; hence, it is evident that by modifying the surface 
 of refractors, the rays of light may be diverted at pleasure. 
 
 Two prisms, placed base to base cause rays, parallel before 
 entering, to meet in a point, and conversely, prisms placed 
 
LIGHT AND LENSES. 
 
 139 
 
 edge to edge, to divert them. These phenomena are observed 
 upon curved as well as upon plane surface. Lenses, that is, 
 glasses ground of a curvilinear form, show the same refractive 
 power. 
 
 Lenses constructed for the purpose either of concentrating 
 or scattering rays of light, are, in general, made of glass, and are 
 ground with spherical surfaces ; the axis of the lens being the 
 line joining the centres of the spheres, and, therefore, a line 
 with respect to which the lens is symmetrical. Regarding the 
 curves in their combination, we distinguish lenses which are 
 called : bi-convex, plano-convex, concavo-convex, or, more fre- 
 quently, " meniscus," concavo-plane, and double-concave. The 
 first three of these are thicker in the middle than at the edge, 
 and are called " converging glasses" because they cause pen- 
 cils of light that are refracted through them to converge more 
 than they did before ; the others are thicker at the edge than 
 in the middle, and are called " diverging lenses" because they 
 diverge rays of light when being refracted through them. 
 
 The rays of light proceeding through a converging lens from 
 
 an illuminated object, cross each other when emerging, and 
 the image formed is necessarily inverted ; thus rays transvers- 
 
14:0 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 ing centre or axis of the lens pursue a course either coincident 
 with or parallel to the original. 
 
 When an object is placed at some distance in front of a lens, 
 an image is formed smaller than the object, but if the object is 
 advanced nearer to the lens the image increases in size, the 
 focus at the same time receding to a greater distance from the 
 lens. A lens of short focus, placed at a given distance from an 
 object, forms a small image, the rays of light being then strongly 
 refracted. The image becomes larger when the lens is brought 
 nearer, but the lens will be " strained " when going beyond a 
 certain point, and distortion or misdrawing of the picture will 
 result. Therefore, long-focus lenses are constructed to obtain 
 large images. Lenses for taking large photographs have usually 
 a considerable diameter, but it must be understood that the size 
 of the lens has nothing whatever to do with the size of the 
 image. With long-focus lenses, the aperture is increased to 
 admit more light. 
 
 A ray of light passing through a lens is analyzed into its 
 prismatic colors, and will give on the ground-glass screen an 
 image with colored fringes. This defect of lenses is called 
 chromatic aberration. To remedy this, media of different den- 
 sities are employed in the manufacture of lenses, so that 
 different refractive power will establish a balance, by which 
 practically correct work can be done. Such corrected lenses 
 are called achromatic meaning, without color. 
 
 Achromatism is the first necessity in any and all photographic 
 lenses. A single non corrected glass lens possesses achromatic 
 and spherical aberration. This second disturbing force is caused 
 by dirTering refraction of differently-colored rays falling upon 
 various portions of the lens surface. The rays falling pn^the 
 lens near its edge are bent more suddenly than those that pass 
 tUrough it near the centre, so that each portion of the lens will 
 bring the ray to a focus at different distances. To remedy 
 this, the curvature of the lens is modified ; the form showing 
 the greatest amount of this defect the double-concave, i. e., 
 convex or rounded on both sides is but rarely used in photog- 
 raphy, the meniscus form, convex on one side and hollow on 
 the other, is 'much preferred. 
 
LIGHT AND LENSES. 14:1 
 
 To meet the chromatic or color aberration, and still further 
 counteract spherical aberration, lenses for photographers are in 
 reality built up of two, and in some cases of three, single lenses, 
 of different degrees of refractive power and quality of glass, 
 cut in carefully-calculated curves, to correct or achromatize the 
 instrument. If the lens is a doublet, like the rectilinear, or 
 portrait, each component part is constructed in this way. Not 
 only the complete instrument is thus achromatized, but also 
 each main component. 
 
 The practical result of working with non-corrected lenses 
 will be that the focus is not where it appears to be. In such 
 lenses there are really two foci, the visual and the actinic or 
 chemical focus. The extent of such difference is ascertained 
 by experiment whenever the fault exists. Our modern photo- 
 graphic lenses are, however, so constructed that both foci in- 
 variably coincide. 
 
 The image given by a lens is not a plane, but tends more or 
 less to a shape like i the section of a hollow sphere. To get it 
 as flat as possible, or to approximate in section a straight line, 
 is one of the chief aims of the optician. With a view to this, 
 the proper kind of glass is selected, and the lenses ground ac- 
 cording to elaborate calculations, without which another evil, 
 known as astigmatism, may be introduced, by which the defi- 
 nition towards the edge is materially injured, bending the lines 
 of an originally square or right-angular object inwardly or out- 
 wardly. 
 
 Spherical aberration is also overcome, to a great extent, by 
 placing "a diaphragm or stop in front of the lens. Oblique and 
 central rays can, by passing through it, be brought approxi- 
 mately in focus on a plane at right angles to the axis of the 
 lens. 
 
 The diaphragm has a further purpose, in that it allows the 
 focus of a" distant object and one nearer to the lens to be 
 brought towards one plane. The nearer the object, from which 
 light proceeds, is to the lens, the longer will be the focus. 
 
 It will be observed that by placing the diaphragm either in 
 front or back of the lens, the effects will be equal, and also 
 that on the aperture of the diaphragm the brightness of the 
 
14:2 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 image will depend. Hence the smaller it is, the less light is 
 admitted, and the time of exposure must be increased. In 
 either position of the diaphragm distortion may occur ; in the 
 one case of being in front, the lines forming the square will be 
 turned inwards, and be reversed when the diaphragm is placed 
 on the back of the lens. But by placing a lens on either side 
 of it, the distortion may be entirely obviated. Upon this prin- 
 ciple doublet lenses, with central stops, are constructed. When 
 very small diaphragms or stops are used, say of an aperture 
 equal to the fortieth part of the focal length of the lens, allow- 
 ing a distance of four feet for every inch of focal length, 
 everything beyond that distance will be pictorially sharp. If 
 the lens of a camera, producing pictures of 4x5 inches, having 
 a focus of six inches, and a small diaphragm is then used, the 
 depth of pictorial delineation is such that everything beyond 
 twenty-four feet from the camera will be well defined, when 
 an object at that distance is sharply focused. From this it 
 will be seen that the shorter the focus of the lens the greater 
 will be the pictorial depth. 
 
 The compound achromatic meniscus lens is the form gener- 
 ally used for landscape work. It is constructed of a bi-convex 
 lens of crown glass, and a bi-concave of flint glass, the contact 
 surfaces being of equal radius are joined with a cement, gen- 
 erally Canada balsam. To this class of lenses belong the 
 " Waterbury series," an instrument of the highest order for 
 landscape work. In it the diaphragm is placed in front, al- 
 lowing to pass those rays only by which a perfectly sharp pic- 
 ture can be secured. 
 
 Some opticians construct single lenses of flint glass of dif- 
 ferent degrees of density or refractive power, establishing 
 achromatism by that means, while others obtain the same effect 
 by the use of crown and flint glass of special composition. 
 These instruments are doublets, and are formed by a symmetri- 
 cal pair of achromatic lenses, the concave surfaces of which 
 face each other. The diaphragm is placed centrally between 
 the two. They work sharply with an aperture equaling about 
 one-seventh or one-eighth of the focal length, and are well 
 adapted for the photographing of groups, single portraits, land- 
 
LIGHT AND LENSES. 
 
 143 
 
 scapes and reproductions. The Wale " Universal " belongs to 
 this class. 
 
 By making the lenses much thicker and giving them, also, 
 shorter radii of curvature, and placing them closer to each 
 other, a very wide angle of view (from 90 to 110 degs.) is ob- 
 tained. Wide-angle lenses consist of a symmetrical compound, 
 each achromatic lens of which is composed of a plano-convex 
 crown, placed in contact with a bi-convex flint, the concavity 
 of the side of which next to the crown glass being only very 
 slight. 
 
 The Morrison Wide-angle Lens consists of an achromatic 
 meniscus as the "front, and a single meniscus as the back lens ; 
 the front one being over-corrected to an extent sufficient to 
 counter-balance the non-correction for achromatism of the back 
 lens. It includes an angle of great width. 
 
 Wide-angle lenses are mainly used for interior views. 
 
 Of portrait lenses it is required that they transmit the greatest 
 
144 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 possible amount of light, so that by a short exposure a detailed 
 negative can be made ; and they should give extreme sharp- 
 ness with a large opening. The relation existing between 
 the working aperture and the focal length of the lens is termed 
 angular aperture, and it is essential that it be very great in a 
 
 good portrait lens. Professor Petzval discovered the means for 
 establishing these conditions, and his lens consists of a plano- 
 convex (or nearly so) form, with the convex side near the 
 object to be taken. The inner or contact surfaces of the con- 
 stituents are not of the same radius of curvature, and, besides, 
 are separated from each other to a slight extent. This 
 produces negative spherical aberration, or aberration of an 
 opposite nature to the positive aberration, which produces 
 the effect of lengthening the oblique rays and thus flattening 
 the field of delineation. 
 
 Newer portrait lenses are principally constructed upon the 
 Petzval plan. 
 
 Several opticians, among them Mr. Morrison, have lately 
 constructed lenses with a back combination differing from that 
 described above ; the negative aberration, necessary for flatten- 
 ing the field, is obtained by the non-concentricity of the con- 
 tact surface, by which a meniscus of air is always interposed 
 between them. Unless the two back lenses are kept screwed 
 closely together, a sharp picture cannot be obtained. A separa- 
 tion of the lenses introduces a degree of aberration inimical to 
 sharp definition. 
 
LIGHT AND LENSES. 
 
 145 
 
 In choosing a photographic lens, the purpose for which it is 
 required must be kept in view. A portrait lens has properties 
 which are not essential for landscape work, and which even 
 might prove detrimental. 
 
 Several differently-constructed lenses are now made which 
 answer the requirements for all photographic work. 
 
LESSON XXII. 
 PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. 
 
 PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY is the art of making enlarged images 
 of microscopical images by photography. 
 
 Micro-photographs, on the contrary, are microscopical photo- 
 graphs, or reduced images, of large pictures or objects, and 
 have little value, as a rule, excepting as curiosities. 
 
 In the production of photo-micrographs, the object to be 
 photographed is always illuminated by transmitted light. Solar, 
 electric, magnesium, or ordinary gas or lamp-light may be 
 employed, and are of value in the order stated, sun-light being 
 best. 
 
 Inasmuch as the actinic power of the light employed is 
 weakened, directly as the image of a given object is magnified, 
 only the more brilliant illumination will be suitable for the 
 higher amplifications of the microscope. 
 
 Microscopical enlargements are usually stated in diameters, 
 that is to say : If the image of an object one-hundredth of 
 an inch square is made to appear one inch in diameter, it is 
 said to be magnified one hundred times (XlOO) only, notwith- 
 standing the apparent superficial area has been increased ten 
 thousand times. This is for convenience and brevity of ex- 
 pression in writing. 
 
 Microscopical objects for photographical enlargement are 
 invariably of the utmost thinness, and pictures therefrom pos- 
 sess little or no perspective ; and, while the image is expressed 
 in outline, this does not preclude the possibility of the exist- 
 ence of very great detail. 
 
 The chief obstacle lies in this : That objects to be pictured 
 must be generally translucent, in order to secure illumination 
 by transmitted light, and, as a consequence, the details of 
 
PHOTOMICROGRAPHY. 14:7 
 
 structure are of only varying degrees of translucency, and so 
 the contrasts in the projected image are weak. 
 
 The essentials of the apparatus are : 
 
 (a) Arrangement for securing the light. 
 (5) Means of concentrating the last. 
 
 (<?) Mechanism for adjustment of the image forming com- 
 bination. 
 
 The principles of photo-micrography are best conveyed by 
 first employing the most simple apparatus and being content 
 with moderate magnification. Such an apparatus is provided 
 in the ordinary magic lantern attached to the compound 
 microscope. 
 
 The source of light here selected is that from a single-wick 
 kerosene burner. 
 
 The flame must be placed edge-wise in the optical axis of 
 the apparatus. This is important, in order that the full in- 
 tensity of the light may be secured without interference of 
 the feebly-illumined outer portions. 
 
 The concave mirror, if supplied with the lantern, must be 
 removed, inasmuch as the rays reflected from such surface 
 would not be focussed coincidently with the rays directly im- 
 pinging upon the condensing lenses. 
 
 A thin, blackened, metal plate with a half-inch circular 
 perforation should be placed between the edge of the flame 
 and the condenser, and close to the former, for the same reason 
 as indicated in second paragraph preceding. 
 
 The rays from the flame are collected by the lantern con- 
 densers, and thereby concentrated upon the object upon the 
 stage of the microscope. 
 
 The centre of the lamp-flame must be in the exact optical 
 axis of the condensers and of the microscope body; other- 
 wise, the object will be obliquely lighted. 
 
 The heat-rays, which are now concentrated upon the ob- 
 ject, to its detriment, should be intercepted by placing a 
 vessel with plate-glass sides, containing a dilute solution of 
 ammonio-sulphate of copper, in the path of the light and near 
 the stage of the microscope. This improves the definition by 
 intercepting certain illuminating rays which possess the actinic 
 
148 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 power. The blue cell may be removed while focussing, if 
 found necessary, in consequence of its cutting off too com- 
 pletely the visual rays. 
 
 If the microscope be provided with an achromatic sub- 
 stage condenser, its use will improve the illumination. A half- 
 inch objective may be employed as a condenser with excellent 
 results. 
 
 In selecting objects for photo-micrography, secure such as 
 present sharp outlines and clear detail. Minute insects, or por- 
 tions of larger ones, diatoms, and some animal and vegetable 
 histological slides will be preferred. Potato-starch makes an 
 excellent object, and may be prepared as follows : Scrape the 
 freshly-cut surface of a raw potato, and convey the merest 
 speck of the fine scrapings to the centre of a glass slip. Add 
 a single drop of clean water and drop on a thin-cover glass. 
 The glasses must be scrupulously clean. The cover will adhere 
 sufficiently without cementing and will not slip when the 
 whole is placed upon the vertically-positioned stage of the 
 microscope. The starch granules present concentric markings* 
 which afford a good test for the defining power of the higher- 
 power lenses (such as the one-fifth inch). 
 
 Any good microscope objective may be employed for 
 photographical purposes. Begin with the one-inch lens and a 
 small insect a flea, for example mounted as a translucent 
 object. It is not necessary to have lenses specially-corrected 
 for photography. The objectives of our first-class opticians 
 almost invariably give good photographic results. Do not 
 waste time with inferior, poorly-corrected French lenses. 
 
 The image formed by the objective should be received 
 directly upon the focussing-glass of the camera. Be sure that 
 the connection between the camera and the microscope is abso- 
 lutely light-tight. This is best effected by tying a velvet tube 
 around the microscope body. 
 
 Remove the eye-piece ; it will amplify the image without 
 increasing the definition. Aim to secure a sharp negative, 
 with good contrasts, and of medium size. The half-plate is 
 
 * Practical Microscopy. (New York : William Wood & Co.) By Maurice 
 N. Miller, M.D. Describes the method of preparing objects like the 
 above, besides animal tissues. 
 
 I 
 
PHOTOMICROGRAPHY. 149 
 
 sufficiently large, and the quarter will indeed be very satisfac- 
 tory in most instances. Enlargements upon bromide paper will 
 be much more satisfactory than the results of attempts to am- 
 plify directly. 
 
 The size of the image upon the focussing-screen depends upon 
 (a) the focus of the objective ; (b) the distance between the last 
 and the focussing-plate. As has before been stated, the illumin- 
 ation will decrease according as the camera-bellows is drawn 
 out. Commence with a medium distance say twelve inches. 
 
 If the amplification be considerable and the contrasts 
 feeble, the image connot well be focussed upon the ground- 
 glass. Substitute a piece of plate-glass, having first thinly 
 smeared one side with tallow. Focussing should invariably be 
 done with a magnifying lens. 
 
 The light must be adjusted for centrality. This is done 
 once for all if the lamp can be fixed in the lantern. 
 
 Exposing must not be done by drawing the slide of the 
 plate-holder, as the adjustments are thus disturbed. A piece 
 of blackened card-board, interposed between the lantern-con- 
 denser and the microscope-stage, should be removed for expos- 
 ing. This avoids all danger of jarring during the action. 
 
 The period of exposure can only be determined by ex- 
 periment. Construct a table of exposures from actual trials, 
 noting (a) the objective used ; (5) the character of the object 
 photographed as to translucency, color, etc. ; (<?) whether with 
 or without the secondary sub-stage condenser; (d) the 
 length of the camera, or distance between the microscope 
 objective and the sensitive plate. 
 
 The definition must be perfected by attention to the 
 stage diaphragm and the position of the secondary condenser. 
 The rule regarding the employment of the diaphragm is : The 
 higher the power employed, the smaller the opening used. 
 The illumination must be perfected by racking the sub-stage 
 condenser until the best effect is secured. If the picture 
 develops unevenly* quickly in the centre and slowly around 
 
 * This may result if the inside of the tube (body) happens to be left 
 by the negligence of the maker bright, so as to reflect the peripheral 
 rays upon the sensitive film ; and it may be corrected by introducing a 
 tube made of blackened paper. 
 
150 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 this the field has been improperly illuminated, and the con- 
 denser must be racked to and fro until the light appears of 
 equal intensity in the different parts of the field. 
 
 Microscope objectives, capable of adjustment for thick- 
 nesses of cover-glass, are invaluable for purposes of photo- 
 micrography, and the adjustment does not differ from the same 
 when the lens is employed for ordinary visual work. 
 
 Immersion objectives may be used as well with the 
 microscope body in the horizontal position. 
 
LESSON XXIII. 
 PHOTOGRAPHING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT. 
 
 DARK days, cloudy weather, a desire frequently, even the 
 necessity, to obtain photographs of but sparingly-illuminated 
 objects or of localities in total darknesss, have led to extensive 
 experiments with a variety of artificial-light sources. Among the 
 many methods proposed as substitutes for day-light are the elec- 
 tric arc and incandescent lights, light resulting from the burning 
 of magnesium, the calcium, oxy-hydrogen, Bengal pyrotechnic 
 white fire, the ordinary gas, and petroleum flames. Wherever 
 long exposures are required, and the cost of installing an elec- 
 tric system is of but secondary consideration, the arc-light has 
 held its own. For quick and instantaneous work, for the 
 amateur and # scientist, magnesium has gained an immense 
 popularity over all other artificial lights, because of its cheap, 
 ness, its simplicity, and the brilliancy and highly-actinic quality 
 of its light. Early and very successful experiments with 
 magnesium wire or ribbon had shown the enormous light- 
 force emanating from this burning metal, but owing to its 
 then very high price, the photographer was debarred from 
 using it in daily practice ; still, it was occasionally resorted to 
 in urgent cases. 
 
 After it had been learned how to reduce the metal from its 
 natural combinations by electrolytic processes, its high price 
 suddenly fell, and it became available to the photographic 
 public. The actinic force of the magnesium flame is increased 
 by burning the metal with the aid of oxygen directly. To do 
 this efficiently, magnesium, reduced to powder or fine filings, 
 was mixed by many experimenters with purveyors of oxygen, 
 more or less explosive and otherwise dangerous, but realizing 
 the desire of obtaining a more perfect light. 
 
152 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Most of the substances furnishing oxygen, being poisonous 
 and giving rise to the evolution of dangerous and obnoxious 
 gases, necessarily raise just objections against their use. 
 Others again do not contribute to perfect combustion of the 
 whole metal, and reduce the light-force; while gun-cotton, 
 used as a fusee, imparts a decidedly yellow color to the flame, 
 making it non-actinic. 
 
 The instructor of the Chautauqua School of Photography 
 prepared a magnesium flash-light compound, and demonstrated 
 its practical use with perfect success. It is absolutely safe in 
 every respect, and of enormous luminous force. Divided into 
 charges of about 20 and 40 grains, respectively, it is pre- 
 pared and sold in form of little card-board cartridges, and 
 ignited by a burning match through a fusee reaching the 
 centre of the cartridge. 
 
 Scovill's Magnesium Cartridges. 
 
 The compound is consumed completely within the thirtieth 
 part of a second. For single portraits, groups of from five to 
 eight persons, or the interiors of parlors, library, etc, a single 
 cartridge of 20 grains furnishes sufficient light at a distance of 
 from twelve to twenty-five feet. With a Wale Universal or 
 a Gundlach Rapid Rectigraph of ten inches focal length, and 
 /^ stop, or a Waterbury B with -f$ diaphragm, perfect expos- 
 ures are obtained with this light. 
 
 For larger groups, in localities of more extended dimensions, 
 or for interiors of churches, lecture and school-rooms, the 
 quantity of the magnesium powder must be increased propor- 
 tionately. 
 
PHOTOGRAPHING BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT. 153 
 
 To light a portrait with taste, and to give it roundness and 
 plasticity, the magnesium light demands more care and judg- 
 ment than day-light. One can make a good portrait say of 
 the size of a cabinet, with the objectives generally used for 
 portraits, by placing the light at a distance of from five to 
 eight feet from the subject. The student should remember 
 that, " the nearer to the source of light, the stronger and 
 sharper will be the shadows cast" Hence, we must soften 
 the shadows by removing the light, with, of course, a sacrifice 
 of some of its force. The light being comparatively powerful 
 at as near a distance as five, six or seven feet, we can reduce 
 its force, and diffuse it over a large space, by interposing 
 between it and the subject a screen of white tissue-paper, or a 
 thin fabric (gauze). On account of the close proximity of the 
 light, the subject must be removed so far from the back- 
 ground as to avoid shadows of the sitter to fall upon it. The 
 light, placed towards the sitter at an angle of 30 degrees, must 
 be so far removed from the apparatus as to prevent light from 
 entering the lense, but not so far as to destroy plastic effects 
 upon the subjects. Strong shadows will occur with day-light 
 as well as with the magnesium flash, on that side of the 
 subject opposite to the light-source, and to counteract this 
 effect, we resort to the side-screens described in the lesson on 
 Portraiture. 
 
 To find sharp focus in a room, lighted by ordinary gas or 
 petroleum lamps, is sometimes quite difficult. But the task 
 may be facilitated by placing a burning candle or taper in 
 close proximity to the sitter's face, and by then focussing on 
 the flame. In large rooms or halls, the same method can be 
 made available ; but there it will be better to distribute a series 
 of lights over the space desired sharp in the picture, and focus 
 on them. 
 
 Focus having been secured, the lens is capped, and the slide 
 drawn from the plate-holder ; all lights are then extinguished, 
 the cap removed, and the magnesium cartridge or othe 
 preparation is ignited. The lightning-like flash which follows 
 endures about one-thirtieth of a second ; after which the lens 
 is recapped, the slide inserted, the room relighted, and the 
 plate carried to the dark-room for development. 
 
154: THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 The only perceptible product of the burning of magnesium 
 is oxyd of magnesium, identical with the well-known calcined 
 magnesia; it rises in a white cloud, but is soon dispersed. 
 Before the smoke has entirely been dissipated, it is not advis- 
 able to proceed with another exposure. The finely-divided 
 particles of magnesia suspended in the air are apt to cause an 
 impression (fog) upon the plate. 
 
 As a developer for plates, exposed by the magnesium flash- 
 light powder, the student is referred to the formula appended 
 to Lesson XIX on landscape photography. The precautions 
 required by all instantaneous exposures should be carefully 
 observed in this work as well. 
 
LESSON XXIV. 
 
 EMULSION MAKING. 
 
 WE have necessarily gone through a variety of operations 
 in learning how to make photographs ; but the basis of all our 
 various productions on paper, glass, and other substances is, as 
 we have seen, the negative made upon a glass plate, coated 
 with a substance called bromide of silver gelatine emulsion, 
 the preparation of which we still have to learn. 
 
 It is not the purpose, in this lesson, to give a full account of 
 how to prepare light-sensitive gelatine emulsions, and how to 
 coat plates with them to be ready for the amateur's work, for 
 good and extended works already exist on this subject which 
 are at the disposal of students* ; it is merely intended to show 
 what gelatine emulsion is, and to give an outline of the opera- 
 tions necessary to produce a light-sensitive plate, in the modern 
 sense of the word. 
 
 Before we enter into this description, it may be well to 
 mention that, previous to the year 1880, photographers pre- 
 pared their own plates, as occasion demanded ; a glass plate, 
 coated with mediums, carrying within them metallic iodides, 
 bromides and chlorides, were subjected to the action of a 
 solution of nitrate of silver, thus producing combinations of 
 iodine, bromine, or chlorine with silver, and a light-sensitive- 
 ness of the film resting upon the glass support. By exposure 
 to light and development, good printing negatives were se- 
 cured from these films. Starch, gums, gelatine, albumen, but 
 principally collodion (a solution of gun-cotton in alcohol and 
 ether), were the mediums adopted to carry the sensitive salts. 
 
 * Photography With Emulsions, by Capt. Abney ; and Dry Plate Making 
 for Amateurs, by Dr. Geo. L. Sinclair. 
 
156 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 It was then suggested to mix the nitrate of silver in solution 
 with the bromides, iodides or chlorides (haloids, as they are 
 termed collectively), of alkaline metals, mixed intimately with 
 a solution of gelatine, so as to keep the correspondingly-formed 
 silver haloid suspended, in the form of a milky liquid or 
 emulsion. 
 
 To Dr. Maddox* is due the credit of having first prepared 
 a serviceable gelatine emulsion. The silver haloid which he 
 originally used was the bromide, but later reseaches, mainly 
 those of Victor Schumann and Captain Abney, have proved 
 that the addition of iodide to the bromide of silver increases 
 the sensitiveness of the plate and contributes much to perfect- 
 ing the final result. 
 
 Probably all writers on modern photography, and scores of 
 practitioners, have made emulsions successfully. The opera- 
 tion is interesting and instructive enough to attract the atten- 
 tion of the studious amateur to try his hand at emulsion- 
 making. 
 
 For our purpose, it will be sufficient to describe the making 
 of emulsion, according to one or two formulae which have 
 given entire satisfaction wherever they have been adopted. 
 
 A very popular method is that of Mr. Henderson's, as 
 modified by Chas. Scolik, which was described as follows in 
 the Photographic Times : 
 
 The Henderson emulsion is indeed excellent, particularly 
 in the results, giving absolute clearness, beautiful high-lights, 
 and well-defined shadows. With all these good qualities, it 
 shows a sensitiveness of from 20 to 21 deg. Warnerke, which 
 is equal, therefore, to all commercial instantaneous plates. 
 
 We prepare our emulsion in the following way : In a 
 Florentine flask of 1 litre capacity f we dissolve from 3 to 4 
 grams Heinrich's gelatine in 150 c.c.m. of distilled water, at 
 a temperature of 50 deg. C., and add 1 gram crystallized citric 
 acid (recently citric acid has been omitted). After perfect 
 dissolution, 7 grains of carbonate of ammonium, previously 
 
 * See Appendix of History of Photography, by W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S. 
 
 f We retain the decimal weights and measures in order to give the 
 formula without the least deviation from the original. 
 
EMULSION MAKING. 157 
 
 reduced to a fine powder, is added, which causes a violent 
 effervescence; further add 45 grams bromide of ammonium 
 and 8 c.c.m. of a 10 per cent, iodide of potassium solution, and 
 finally 420 c.c.m. alcohol (92 per cent.) mixed, with 18 c.c.m. 
 ammonia (0.91). 
 
 In another flask we dissolve 60 grams nitrate of silver in 
 300 c.c.m. of distilled water. The two solutions, prepared in 
 day-light, must now be removed to the dark laboratory, when 
 the silver solution is added in small portions, and by constant 
 agitation, to the alcoholic bromide solution. During the first 
 two hours the mixture is frequently shaken up, the flask 
 being closed with a well fitting stopper to prevent the vola- 
 tilization of the ammonia during the ripening. Allow it to 
 stand over night, and, on the following morning, swell 
 84 grams of Heinrich's gelatine in just enough water to cover 
 it; strain off the superfluous water, melt the gelatine, and add 
 it to the silver solution, warmed to 35 deg. C., mix well 
 together, and pour finally in a flat porcelain dish. When 
 allowed to stand for a long time, the emulsion, on account of 
 the alcohol, is rendered a hard and tough mass ; it is better, 
 therefore, to chill only for two or three hours, according to 
 the temperature. If too hard, it is difficult to reduce to shreds 
 or press them into nodules. Afterwards wash for three or 
 four hours in from ten to twelve changes of water, press out 
 the water in a linen bag, and melt in a beaker glass, filter and 
 coat. 
 
 Of the highest importance in emulsion-making is the tem- 
 perature. In our laboratory we ripen emulsion in ten hours, 
 at a temperature of from 25 to 28 deg. C. in summer, and 
 in winter by from 16 to 22 deg. C., in eighteen to twenty- 
 three hours. Dr. Stolze has correctly observed that, at a 
 temperature of less than 20 deg. C., only IT to 18 deg, 
 Warnerke can be reached. With the proportions of time and 
 temperature employed by us, 20 to 22 sensitometer numbers 
 can be easily obtained. 
 
 It is an interesting fact that alcoholic emulsions digested or 
 ripened at higher temperatures, about 40 or 50 deg., will never 
 give satisfactory results. Alcohol favors ripening when alkali 
 
158 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 (ammonia) is present. But at a temperature beyond 25 or 30 
 deg. C., a variety of perplexing difficulties occur. It is not 
 safe to attempt ripening a Henderson emulsion at a tempera- 
 ture near 50 deg. In fact, it is almost impossible to do so. 
 Granulation of the emulsion, fog, feeble and flat negatives are 
 the results. 
 
 It is equally necessary and important to consider the amount 
 of water used for swelling. Not more than is absolutely 
 requisite should be taken up. Swell for fifteen to thirty 
 minutes, and no longer. Remove carefully all water not 
 absorbed, and add only very small quantities at a time to the 
 silver solution at moderate heat. 
 
 Quick and perfect chilling is essential. This is best done 
 by placing the vessel containing the emulsion upon ice. 
 When shredding, the particles should appear to be compact 
 and solid; if not sufficiently chilled, the wash water will froth, 
 and the emulsion will become soft and slippery in consequence 
 of having taken up too much water. Such emulsions granu- 
 late, and their sensitiveness decreases materially. 
 
 The same must be said of diluted emulsions. It is erroneous 
 to say a diluted emulsion retains the original sensitiveness. 
 If, after washing, all superfluous water has been thoroughly 
 removed, plates may be prepared with a thin coat. This dries 
 more rapidly and offers advantages in operating which can 
 hardly be sufficiently estimated. 
 
 Another emulsion, which is very popular in America, is that 
 of Prof. Dr. Joseph M. Eder, and is prepared as follows : 
 
 Dissolve in a Florentine flask 
 
 Bromide of ammonium 20 grams 
 
 Bromide of potassium 24 grams 
 
 Solution of iodide of potassium 1 :10 5 to 10 c.c. m. 
 
 And add, in winter, 
 
 Hard winterthur gelatine 45 grams 
 
 Heinrich's gelatine 45 grams 
 
 In summer, 
 
 Hard winterthur gelatine 65 grams 
 
 Heinrich's gelatine 25 grams 
 
 With sufficient water to allow the gelatine to swell. 
 
EMULSION MAKING. 159 
 
 Into another flask place 
 
 Nitrate of silver cryst 60 grams 
 
 Distilled water 550 c.c.m. 
 
 And, when thoroughly dissolved, add sufficiently strong 
 ammonia till the brownish precipitate formed is re-dissolved, 
 being careful not to use more ammonia than is absolutely 
 necessary. Both of these operations may be performed 
 in day-light ; afterwards remove to the dark-room. Both of 
 the solutions are then heated to 150 deg. F., and the silver 
 solution, in very small portions, drop by drop, and by constant 
 agitation, added to the gelatine, thus effecting a uniform and 
 very fine precipitate of the silver haloids formed. The silver 
 flask is rinsed with 100 c.c. warm distilled water, and the 
 rinsings added to the rest. 
 
 The entire mixture, or emulsion, is then digested upon a 
 water-bath of a temperature of 100 deg. F., till a small portion 
 of it, spread upon a glass plate, shows a blue color when 
 viewed by the transmitted light of a candle-flame. 
 
 The emulsion, being now complete, is poured into a flat dish 
 or tray, allowed to cool or chill, and to stand for twenty-four 
 hours, during which time ripening continues. 
 
 Emulsions made by either of the two-mentioned formulae 
 contain the results of the decomposition of the soluble haloids 
 and the formation of the insoluble silver salts, i. 0., nitrate of 
 ammonia and nitrate of potassium, an excess of free nitrate 
 of silver, and the insoluble sensitive silver haloids. While 
 the latter remain, the former soluble substances must be 
 removed that is, the emulsion requires washing. To do this 
 the chilled gelatinous mass is cut up into shreds by means of 
 a horn or bone paper-knife, or pressed into nodules, through 
 coarse canvas. 
 
 Swelled gelatine, or the tremulous emulsion, being soluble 
 at about 80 deg. F., the operation of nodule-pressing must be 
 performed under iced water. Shreds or nodules are then 
 washed for several hours either in repeated changes of ice- 
 water, or in a running stream of it, till all soluble matter is 
 removed. 
 
160 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 A very convenient method to wash small quantities of 
 emulsion about as much as an amateur will take in hand 
 is to place the shreds in an ordinary earthenware tea-pot, tie a 
 coarse hair cloth over the opening, place the lid upon it and 
 attach to the spout a rubber hose, through which ice water is 
 allowed to run. 
 
 Washing completed, the emulsion-shreds are spread upon a 
 coarse canvas, fastened to a tentacle, and all water is allowed 
 to drain, which may take hours ; collected in a beaker-glass, 
 re-melted by moderate heat, and filtered. To remove mechan- 
 ical impurities, and to keep out coarse particles of silver 
 haloids, filtering becomes an absolute necessity. A variety of 
 ingeniously-devised filters for emulsions have been constructed, 
 but for our experiments, on a small scale, perfect filtration 
 can be effected by pressing the melted emulsion through a 
 clean piece of chamois leather, or by allowing it to run 
 through flannel tow. Of course, a tolerably high temperature 
 must be maintained in order to keep the emulsion in liquid 
 form. If the emulsion has been kept for any length of time 
 before coatin,g on the glass plates, an antiseptic is required to 
 keep it in good condition. Small quantities of thymol or car- 
 bolic acid in alcohol do this very well. 
 
 The glass plates to be coated must be scrupulously clean. 
 Wash them in a strong solution of soda, and, after allowing 
 them to stand in diluted nitric acid 1:3, rinse them off well 
 and dry upon a rack. 
 
 Before coating, the plates must be furnished with a substra- 
 tum. Gelatine alone, or when mixed with a trace of bichro- 
 mate of potassium, and exposed to light; pure albumen, or 
 albumen with a little chrome-alum ; a thin solution of potas- 
 sium water, glass in water, or rubbing the glass in the same 
 solution till dry, have been recommended, and are used with 
 success. 
 
 The coating and drying-room must be absolutely free from 
 dust, and be well ventilated, sufficiently dark, and heated to 
 70 or 75 deg. The plates must remain in the room long enough 
 to assume its temperature before they are coated with the 
 emulsion, which is heated higher than the temperature, of the 
 
EMULSION MAKING. 161 
 
 room. To coat plates of the same size uniformly, the emul- 
 sion must be measured out for each individual plate, half an 
 ounce being enough for an 8x10 plate. If the emulsion refuses 
 to run smoothly over the plate, assist it with a glass rod. 
 
 After coating, the plates are laid upon a cold marble slab, 
 perfectly leveled, and allowed to chill, after which they can 
 be set on edge for drying. This requires from eight to ten 
 hours. 
 
 Longer drying is likely to produce fog. 
 
 As exposure to ruby light, when extended for a very long 
 tiine, naturally affects the plates, they should be dried in 
 an absolutely dark closet, through which a strong current 
 of dry and cool air is allowed to pass, and in which the plates 
 are set up with sufficient space between them. 
 
 It is never advisable to open the drying-closet before the 
 plates are presumed to be perfectly dry. The slightest change 
 of air and temperature will have a marked effect upon them. 
 Dried gelatine emulsion plates are best kept in grooved wooden 
 boxes, well shellacked inside and out. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 ON THE NATURE AND USE OF THE VARIOUS CHEMICALS AND 
 SUBSTANCES EMPLOYED IN PHOTOGRAPHIC PRACTICE. 
 
 BY PROF. CHARLES EHRMANN, 
 
 Instructor of the Chautauqua School of Photography. 
 
 Acid, Acetic, the acid of vinegar, gets its name from the 
 Latin word acetum, vinegar. It is prepared from wine and 
 other alcoholic liquids by exposure to air at a high tempera- 
 ture. The alcohol, by oxydation, is entirely changed in its 
 composition, and converted to its acid derivative. The acid is 
 produced in large quantities by a destructive distillation of 
 hard wood oak or beach ; but, owing to a great variety of 
 incidental products and impurities, lengthy processes are re- 
 quired to obtain it in a pure state and concentrated form. It 
 is generally made by distilling it from the crude acetate of 
 soda or acetate of lead. 
 
 Pure acetic acid should leave no residue after evaporation, 
 and give no precipitate with either the nitrate of silver or the 
 chloride of barium. 
 
 The acid of commerce, or when in the most concentrated 
 form, "glacial acetic acid," is employed in photography to 
 liquify gelatine ; as a restrainer, principally in the wet-collodion 
 process ; to eliminate iron from the paper support of gelatine 
 emulsion films ; and for various other purposes, especially when 
 in connection with the bases. 
 
 Acid, Boric or B oracle, occurs naturally in the waters of 
 volcanic lagoons. It crystallizes in transparent, colorless plates, 
 
164 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 and dissolves in 25 parts of water. It is one of the most pow- 
 erful restrainers in alkaline development. 
 
 Acid, Chromic, consists of oxygen and a metallic element, 
 " chromium," named thus on account of the beautiful colors of 
 its many salts. 
 
 Chromic acid, in its pure state, is used in Obernetter's pro- 
 cess to reproduce negatives from negatives (see The American 
 Annual of Photography, Yols. I and II) ; and, in combina- 
 tion with potassium or ammonium, in the photo-mechanical 
 printing methods, where it acts as a powerful oxydizer upon 
 organic bodies. 
 
 It crystallizes in fine, red needles, which are deliquescent 
 and very soluble ; is sensitive to light, and is decomposed by it 
 with the liberation of oxygen. 
 
 Acid, Citric, is found in the juice of limes, lemons and several 
 other fruits, from which it is extracted by combining the acid 
 with carbonate of lime and liberating the acid from the citrate 
 formed with sulphuric acid, by evaporation and crystallization. 
 
 Citric acid is a white, crystalline body, permanent in dry air, 
 but attracting moisture in dampness. It is easily soluble in water, 
 also in alcohol. The aqueous solution will get mouldy after 
 a short time. If adulterated with tartaric acid, which it very 
 much resembles, a sumptuous addition of carbonate of potash 
 to its solution will cause a white precipitate of bi-tartrate of 
 potassium, or cream of tartar. 
 
 Citric acid, like other organic bodies, rich in carbon, has the 
 property to reduce the oxides of precious metals. 
 
 It is used in combination with the pyrogallol developer; for 
 the preparation of durable silvered albumen paper ; to clear 
 bromide prints from adhering iron ; and, in combination with 
 bases, for various other purposes. 
 
 Acid, Gallic, from which pyrogallol is most frequently made, 
 is a true acid, is soluble in 100 parts of cold water, and easily 
 soluble in alcohol. Its action as a developer is not as powerful 
 as its derivative, pyrogallol, but has been frequently recom- 
 mended to intensify feeble negatives when combined with 
 acetic acid and a trace of nitrate of silver. Kecently it has 
 been proposed as a slow-acting developer for the production of 
 black and white negatives, with very promising results. 
 
APPENDIX. 165 
 
 Acid, Hydrochloric, commonly called muriatic acid, is com- 
 posed of two elementary gases chlorine and hydrogen. The 
 acid is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid upon common 
 salt, chloride of sodium, and the evolved gas, when cooled, is 
 -absorbed by water. In olden times, sea-salt was exclusively 
 employed for the purpose, hence the name, " muriatic," from 
 the Latin muria, brine or salt water. 
 
 Hydrocholoric acid, when pure, is colorless, of a pungent, 
 suffocating odor. It leaves no residue on evaporation, and 
 should give no precipitate or opacity with dilute solution of 
 chloride of barium. Its use in photography is very extensive. 
 As a solvent for metallic bodies, in combination with nitric 
 acid to prepare chloride of gold and chloride of platinum ; to 
 precipitate chloride of silver from waste solution or wash 
 waters ; as an addition to the alum clearing-bath ; and when- 
 ever a free mineral acid is required, the nature of which is a 
 matter of indifference, since it is not liable to alter bodies by 
 oxidation, as nitric acid will do, nor to form insoluble com. 
 pounds, as occurs with sulphuric acid. For the cleaning of old 
 bottles, funnels, or other glass and earthen-ware, as trays or 
 evaporating dishes, it is an invaluable medium. It is not a 
 bleaching agent, but decomposes in sunlight, with the separa- 
 tion of free chlorine. 
 
 Acid, Nitric, is composed of nitrogen and oxygen. In very 
 small quantities, it can be formed directly by passing a series 
 of electric sparks through a mixture of 7 volumes of oxygen 
 and 3 volumes of nitrogen. Bound to bases, the acid is found 
 naturally in enormous quantities, as saltpetre, nitrate of potas- 
 sium, Chili or cubic saltpetre, nitrate of sodium, etc. It is 
 manufactured, on a large scale, by allowing sulphuric acid to 
 act upon any of these nitrates. 
 
 The pure, concentrated acid does not attack copper, lead, tin 
 or silver, but when mixed with water, or when containing 
 nitrous acid, or still lower oxides of nitrogen, a dissolution of 
 the metal takes place speedily, and red vapors of nitrous 
 acid are evolved. The metal is thus oxidized, the oxide com- 
 bining with the nitric acid in excess, and forming the corre- 
 sponding nitrate. Nearly all the nitrates are soluble, neutral, 
 and not capable of forming double salts. 
 
166 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Nitric acid is extensively employed in photography. "With 
 it we prepare the nitrate of silver, copper, lead, etc. ; we use it 
 to make gun-cotton, or pyroxyline, when it is combined with 
 sulphuric acid ; with it we clean glass plates preparatory to 
 coating them with sensitive substances ; for the preservation of 
 pyrogallic solution ; in various developers ; and as natural 
 nitrates in many other operations. 
 
 One volume of nitric acid and two volumes of hydrochloric 
 acid constitute the nitro-muriatic acid, formerly known as 
 Aqua Megia, capable of dissolving gold, as when we prepare 
 chloride of gold. The process taking place is probably due to 
 a liberation of chlorine gas, which, in statu nascenti, combines 
 with gold, while nitrous acid and water are simultaneously 
 formed. 
 
 Arid, Nitrous, constitutes principally the red fumes arising 
 when metals are dissolved in dilute nitric acid. Combined 
 with bases, the acid forms nitrites. Nitrite of silver is formed 
 sometimes when nitrate is being fused. Of other nitrites, 
 none need be mentioned in connection with photographic 
 operations except the potassium salt, which is used for pre- 
 paring ready- sensitized paper. 
 
 Acid, Oxalic. Combined with potassium, this acid is found 
 naturally in a little plant, growing in shady forests, and known 
 by the name of wood-sorrel (pxalis acetosella). It is com- 
 bined there in excess of the potassium, as a bin-oxalate. This 
 acid, having found extensive employment in chemistry and 
 the mechanical arts, and its natural source being but extremely 
 limited, chemists have resorted to prepare it by artificial means 
 and produce it by treating sugar, starch, gum, rice, and other 
 substances with nitric acid. At present, it is largely made by 
 heating saw-dust with caustic potash to 400 deg. F., and a sub- 
 sequent treatment of the resulting mass with carbonate of lime 
 and sulphuric acid. 
 
 It is a colorless, crystalline substance, resembling Epsom 
 salts in its appearance, but is very poisonous. Care should, 
 therefore, be taken whenever it is handled by inexperienced 
 persons. 
 
 In its pure state, it is used to acidify the oxalate of potas- 
 
APPENDIX. 167 
 
 slum solution, with which the ferrous-oxalate developer is 
 prepared ; it is added to the alum clearing-bath ; pyrogallic 
 acid solutions are renewed with it ; and stains on the fingers, 
 caused by pyro-developer, may be removed by it; and it is 
 very valuable for cleaning brass or copper implements. 
 
 Combined with potassium, and eventually with iron, it is a 
 constituent of the oxalate developer, used largely by all pho- 
 tographers not English or American. 
 
 Acid, Pyrogallic, or pyrogallol, a substance which is em- 
 ployed in enormous quantities as a developing agent, is, properly 
 speaking, not an acid, because it shows no acid reactions, not- 
 withstanding its capability to form feeble combinations with 
 some bases, a property common to several of the indifferently- 
 acting organic compounds. For this reason, the name of pyro- 
 gallol has been substituted for pyrogallic acid. 
 
 It is prepared by subjecting gallic acid, or other substances, 
 to dry distillation or sublimation, but can be made also by sub- 
 jecting finely-pulverized Aleppo galls to a similar process 
 Pyrogallol is a white, voluminous and crystalline substance, 
 easily soluble in water, alcohol and ether, and very poisonous ; 
 two grains of it will kill a dog. 
 
 Owing to a property, which it also shares with many other 
 organic bodies, to reduce precious rnetals, like silver, from their 
 combinations, to de-oxidize them, it is a powerful developing 
 agent. With the wet-collodion process it is used with citric 
 acid ; with dry gelatine-emulsion plates, whose development is 
 the result of true chemical action, alkalines are added to its 
 solution, to make it active. 
 
 Up to a certain point the addition of ammonia, soda or 
 potash accelerates ; beyond that it results in gray, red or green 
 fog, according to the kind of alkali taken, and reduces even 
 the silver of the emulsion so far as to give the plate a perfect 
 metallic lustre. To prevent pyrogallol in solution from de- 
 composition, we add to it sulphites, sulphurous, or other acids. 
 A pure, aqueous solution turns black speedily by exposure to 
 air and light. Ferric salts turn it yellow ; ferrous salts, bluish- 
 black (ink); chlorine also blackens it, but iodine has no in- 
 fluence. 
 
168 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Acid, Salicylic, is a white, crystalline, voluminous powder; is 
 obtained from the bark of certain species of the willow-tree. 
 It has been used to preserve gelatine emulsion, and, for a like 
 purpose, it is added to pyrogallol solutions. 
 
 Acid, Sulphuric, composed of sulphur and oxygen, is made 
 by burning sulphur and oxidizing the resultant vapors of sul- 
 phurous acid by means of nitrous acid. The operation is 
 performed in a series of lead chambers till the acid obtained 
 has gained sufficient concentration. 
 
 It is a dense, oily, colorless, inodorous liquid, and strongly 
 corrosive, acting destructively upon organic tissue. 
 
 Pure sulphuric acid is used to acidify sulphate of iron solu- 
 tion ; otherwise not very extensively, excepting when com- 
 bined with bases or in the preparation of other chemicals, like 
 gun-cotton, etc. 
 
 Acid, Sulphurous, a gas, is prepared by heating sulphuric 
 acid, water and charcoal, and absorbing it b} T water, of which 
 40 volumes will take up about 1. 
 
 This solution of the acid in water is known by the name of 
 sulphurous acid water. 
 
 The commercial article is a clear, colorless liquid, with a 
 strong odor of burning sulphur, and, owing to its great attrac- 
 tion for oxygen, will readily turn into sulphuric acid when 
 exposed to the air. 
 
 Sulphurous acid prevents the decomposition of pyrogallol in 
 solution, and is very valuable as an agent to bleach pyro- 
 stained negatives. 
 
 Acid, Tartaric, occurs naturally in many kinds of fruit, but 
 principally in unripe grapes. It is a white, crystalline solid, 
 of strong acid properties, and, if diluted with water, of very 
 agreeable taste. It is easily soluble in water, also in alcohol. 
 
 Its photographic use is but limited, though* it has been of 
 late successfully employed as a restorative to spent ferrous- 
 oxalate developer. 
 
 Albumen is a substance largely found in the animal and 
 vegetable kingdoms. That separated from the blood of quad- 
 rupeds is occasionally used ; much more so, however, the 
 whites of birds' eggs. It is soluble in water, but becomes 
 
APPENDIX. 169 
 
 insoluble or coagulates when exposed to the temperature of 
 boiling water. Heated at a low temperature, it evaporates to 
 a yellow, friable mass, which is again soluble in water. 
 Alcohol, and some of the metallic salts, coagulate it also. 
 With nitrate of silver, it forms a white precipitate, albuminate 
 of silver, with the property to turn red in sunlight. 
 
 Albumen is used for various photographic purposes. With 
 it substrata for sensitive collodion or gelatine plates are formed, 
 and enormous quantities are expended in preparing albumen- 
 ized paper. In combination with bichromates it is employed 
 in several photo-mechanical printing methods, and with it are 
 made, to the present day, the sharpest and most delicate 
 lantern-slides and transparencies. With sensitized albumen 
 the first negatives were made upon glass, long before collodion 
 was thought of. 
 
 Alcohol is a product of various fermentations. When certain 
 vegetable juices, containing sugar or starch, are exposed to a 
 moderately high temperature, a decomposition takes place ; 
 carbonic acid is discharged, and alcohol is formed; it remains 
 in the liquid, however, and must be separated from it by 
 distillation. It is a colorless, volatile liquid, of agreeable 
 taste and odor, very inflammable, burning with a bluish flame, 
 and mixing in all proportions with ether and water. Alcohol 
 is capable of dissolving a great many substances, hence its 
 extensive use as a solvent in many photographic operations. 
 It is employed in the manufacture of varnishes ; to dissolve 
 pyrogallic acid ; to prevent or arrest frilling ; to extract water 
 from wet gelatine plates, in order to effect rapid drying ; and, 
 in combination with ether, is a solvent for gun-cotton. 
 
 Alcohol, Methylated, often mentioned by English authors, is 
 pure alcohol mixed with wood-spirits. On account of its dis- 
 agreeable taste and odor, it is not fit to be used for the manu- 
 facture or adulteration of alcoholic beverages, and, therefore, is 
 exempt from taxation within the British empire. When a 
 formula prescribes methylated alcohol, Americans use the 
 ordinary 95 deg. alcohol. 
 
 Alum is derived from the metal aluminium. Sulphate of 
 aluminia will combine with the sulphates of potassa, soda and 
 
170 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 ammonia, forming cry stall izable double salts, the alums of 
 commerce. Alum was used in former times to harden albu- 
 men films in the printing upon wood-engravers' blocks, but 
 with the advent of the gelatine emulsion processes, it entered 
 the laboratories of the photographers, to be there largely used. 
 The potassium alum is used now to turn or harden gelatine 
 films before or after fixing. It is also believed b} 7 many to 
 remove the fixing-agent from plates or paper prints, but this 
 has been proved by diligent researches not to be the case. 
 
 Alum, Chrome, is a double salt, isomorphous to alums, and 
 consists of the sulphate of oxide of chromium with the sul- 
 phate of potassa or ammonia. It dissolves in water with a 
 violet color, and is used with albumen or gelatine as a sub- 
 stratum for gelatine plates, or for hardening films in aggra- 
 vated cases. 
 
 Ammonia^ composed of nitrogen and hydrogen, is an ex- 
 tremely pungent and irrespirable gas; known to photog- 
 raphers in its aqueous solution ; termed by them aqua ammonia, 
 liquor ammonia, or forti (stronger) or caustic ammonia. It is 
 prepared by heating chloride of ammonium in a retort with 
 slacked lime. The gas evolved is absorbed by water in the 
 receiver, which, when saturated, should show a specific gravity 
 of 0.875. It must be kept in well-stoppered bottles, for when 
 in contact with air, carbonic acid is absorbed and carbonate of 
 ammonia formed. Liquor ammonia is used as an addition to 
 the alkaline pyrogallic acid developer. Portrait photographers 
 claim to be able to obtain with it better plasticity and detail 
 than with either potassa or soda. Ammonia dissolves chloride 
 of silver, and has been, therefore, recommended as a fixing- 
 agent for prints. It is a test to distinguish the silver haloid 
 from that of barium. After previous application of bichloride 
 of mercury, it is used for intensifying gelatine negatives. 
 With it we prepare ammonio-nitrate of silver for certain 
 printing processes, and for Dr. Eder's gelatine emulsion. As 
 a fuming agent for silvered albumen paper it is invaluable. 
 With freshly-sensitized paper, the ammonia and free nitrate 
 of silver adhering, forms a better sensitive compound than 
 ordinary chloride of silver, and, with washed or permanent 
 
APPENDIX. 171 
 
 paper, it acts as a chlorine absorber, when the reduction of 
 metallic silver is effected by light, and thus acts beneficially to 
 the printing process. . 
 
 Ammonium, a hypothetical metallic radical, consists, like 
 the ammonia, of nitrogen and hydrogen, and is capable of 
 forming salts like the oxides of metals. It has not yet been 
 obtained in its pure state, the nearest approach to it being an 
 amalgam with mercury. 
 
 Ammonium Bichromate, made by neutralizing chromic acid 
 with ammonia, is, on account of greater solubility than the cor- 
 responding potassium salt, which it resembles in appearance, 
 much preferred to it in some of the mechanical printing 
 processes. 
 
 Ammonium Bromide is made by neutralizing hydro-brornic 
 acid with ammonia. It is a white, crystallizable salt, soluble 
 in alcohol and water, and is used to restrain alkaline develop- 
 ment, for the sensitizing of collodion and gelatine emulsions. 
 
 Ammonium Carbonate, a colorless, crystalline salt, is made, 
 by sublimation, from chalk and chloride of ammonium. It has 
 been used occasionally as an addition to the developer, in 
 place of the aqua ammonia, and, by sprinkling its powder over 
 the backs of printing-pads, it has been substituted for the 
 fuming of sensitized albumen paper. 
 
 Ammonium Chloride, or sal-ammonia, is the oldest ammo- 
 nium compound known. The ancients termed it sal-ammonia, 
 for it was then prepared in the Syrian desert, near a temple of 
 Jupiter Ammon, and made by subliming camel's dung. It is 
 a white, translucent, fibrous salt, of pungent taste, very soluble 
 in water, and is made now by neutralizing ammoniacal gas 
 liquor with hydrochloric acid and subsequent rectification. It is 
 principally used for salting albumenized and plain paper, and 
 for the preparation of chloride of silver emulsions, when it 
 converts the nitrate salt into chloride of silver. 
 
 Ammonium Iodide is a coarse, white, crystalline powder. 
 It may be made by adding carbonate of ammonia to iodide of 
 iron, but more easily by neutralizing hydro-iodic acid with 
 ammonia. It is much used for making sensitive collodion, and 
 is also added to gelatine emulsions. 
 
172 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Ammonium Oxalate has recently been recommended for the 
 preparation of paper in the platinum printing process. It is 
 made by neutralizing oxalic acid with ammonia. 
 
 Ammonium Sulphide, better known as hydrosulphate of 
 ammonia, is used extensively by process workers to intensify 
 black and white collodion negatives, after Dr. Eder's method, 
 with nitrate of lead, or a previous intensification with bromide 
 of copper. It is obtained by saturating ammonia with hydro- 
 sulphuric acid in excess, when it forms a, yellow liquid of very 
 disagreeable odor. Applied to the negative silver deposit, it 
 forms the permanent sulphide of silver, and produces absolute 
 opacity. 
 
 Ammonium Sulpho-cyanate, the rhodan-ammonium of the 
 Germans, is a compound of sulpho-cyanic acid and ammonia ; 
 extremely poisonous; a fixing agent; and, in combination with 
 gold chloride, is used for toning gelatine and chloride of silver 
 prints (aristotypes). 
 
 , Arrowroot is the starch obtained from the roots of maran- 
 tha arundinacea, a plant growing in southern climes. That 
 coming from Bermuda and Florida is considered to be the 
 best. It is used for sizing plain printing paper and for making 
 photographers' paste. 
 
 Asphaltum, or the bitumen of Judsea, is a mineral fossil. 
 That coming from Asia Minor, owing to greater purity, is 
 preferred by photographers. Asphaltum, of which only a part 
 is sensitive to light, is used for copying negatives in line or 
 stipple upon zinc plates, preparatory to etching. Previously 
 the non-sensitive part is removed by digesting the whole in 
 ether; the purified remnant is dissolved in benzole free from 
 water ; spread upon the plate ; is then exposed to light under 
 the negative. Asphaltum prints are distinguished by superior 
 sharpness. 
 
 Bromine^ a dark red, volatile fluid, of penetrating odor. In 
 its chemical properties it resembles chlorine and iodine. All 
 the combinations with metallic radicals are of the highest 
 importance. It unites with them very energetically, and is 
 able to displace oxygen from many of its combinations. 
 
 Bromine, in pure state, is occasionally added to positive 
 
APPENDIX. 173 
 
 collodion (ferrotypes) ; was used extensively to sensitize 
 Daguerreotype plates ; and attempts have been made to 
 unite it directly with silver for the bromide of silver gelatine 
 emulsion. 
 
 Cadmium is a salt resembling tin in appearance and zinc in 
 chemical properties. Its iodides and bromides were, at one 
 time, used in the wet collodion process. Owing to their tend- 
 ency to thicken, collodion process workers have now abandoned 
 them. 
 
 Calcium, another metal of importance, occurs naturally in 
 enormous deposits, as lime-stone, chalk, marble, gypsum, phos- 
 phates, and fluor spar. Its oxyd lime finds employment for 
 various chemical and manufacturing purposes. In photog- 
 raphy, it is little used. Lime-water, pure or with sugar, i& 
 sometimes added to alkaline developers. 
 
 Calcium Carbonate, or chalk, neutralizes the acidity of the 
 perchloride of gold in various printing methods. 
 
 Calcium Chloride, for its great energy in attracting moisture, 
 is used as a preservative for dry plates, sensitive paper, and as 
 an exsiccator for various purposes. It has also been used in 
 collodion, without showing, however, decided advantages over 
 other chlorides. 
 
 Calcium Hypochlorite, the chloride of lime of commerce, is 
 also added to certain gold toning-baths. It is supposed to give 
 absolutely black tones. More extensively we employ it for 
 making the hypo-chlorites of zinc, sodium and potassium, or 
 hypo-eliminators. It should be employed only when perfectly 
 dry, exhaling a strong odor of chlorine. 
 
 Chlorine, an elementary gas, of greenish-yellow color, irre- 
 spirable, and of penetrating odor, is made by heating 1 part of 
 peroxide of manganese with 2 parts of hydro-chloric acicL 
 The gas evolved is absorbed in cold water, and thus kept in 
 solution. It must be kept in the dark, as, under the influence 
 of light, hydro-chloric acid will form. Its affinity for hydro- 
 gen is very great, and is the only body which unites directly 
 with gold and platinum. The combinations of chlorine with 
 other elements, excepting oxygen and hydrogen, are termed 
 chlorides, and are mostly soluble in water. Those with alka- 
 line metals are used for the preparation of chloride of silver. 
 
174 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Collodion is a solution of pyroxyline or gun-cotton in ether- 
 alcohol ; has been, and is, to the present day, employed as a 
 carrier of alkaline iodides, bromides and chlorides, with which 
 corresponding silver salts are formed, when brought in contact 
 with a solution of nitrate of silver. 
 
 Plain or normal collodion forms the substratum from which 
 American film negatives are stripped, and it assists, in a similar 
 manner, in enamelling prints. A modification (leather collo- 
 dion) contains a few drops of castor oil to the ounce, and is 
 preferred for stripping films. 
 
 Copper, in its pure, metallic state, is of a rose-red color, and 
 can be obtained thus by electrolytic processes. Helio or photo- 
 gravures are photographs etched upon copper plates with acids 
 or perchloride iron. In Obernetter's photo-copper-plate en- 
 gravings, chloride of silver, into which the photographic silver 
 deposit has been converted, affects, indirectly, etching. Photo- 
 engraving blocks are multiplied in copper or electrotyped, and 
 upon silvered copper-plates were made the first helio-graphic 
 pictures, the Daguerreotypes. 
 
 The salts of this metal have found but limited application 
 in photographic work. Copper nitrate or sulphate in the iron 
 developer gives high intensity to a collodion negative ; with 
 the bromide salt, extra high intensity is gained after develop- 
 ing and fixing, and chloride of copper has been added to 
 gelatine emulsions. Solutions of ammonio-sulphate of copper 
 in interposed cells, are used in photo-micrographic work. 
 
 Cyanine, or chinoline blue, is a dye-stuff derived from alka- 
 loids of the Peruvian bark. It is a greenish, crystalline 
 powder ; dissolves in alcohol and water with intense blue color. 
 Being the most red-sensitive substance known, cyanine is 
 much used in ortho-chromatic photography. 
 
 The compound dye, azaline, consists partly of cyanine. 
 
 Eosine, the potassium salt of tetra-bromo-fluorescein, is, 
 owing to its yellow sensitiveness, also used in orthochromacy. 
 
 Erythrosine is extremely sensitive for general color-effects 
 in reproducing colored objects, but mainly for green, yellow 
 and orange ; is a dye belonging to the group of eosines and the 
 sodium salt of tetra-iodo-fluorescein. 
 
APPENDIX. 175 
 
 Ether is a very volatile, colorless liquid, of agreeable odor ; 
 is prepared by distilling alcohol with sulphuric acid and recti- 
 fying the result over slacked lime. It dissolves fatty and 
 essential oils, resins, alkaloids and the chlorides of gold, plat- 
 inum, iron and uranium. With alcohol, it dissolves gun-cotton, 
 resulting in collodion. 
 
 Ferric Salts are all yellow, red, or brown ; the ferrous 
 green, or bluish-green the oxalates making exception, ferric- 
 oxalate being green, and the ferrous of yellow color. 
 
 Ferrous-sulphate is used in large quantities to develop wet 
 collodion plates. Ferrous- sulphate and ammonia, a more 
 stable salt, is oftentimes substituted for it. In emulsion-plate 
 photography ferrous-sulphate is only used for the preparation 
 of the ferrous-oxalate. 
 
 Fluorine resembles iodine, bromine and chlorine in chemical 
 properties. Fluoride of silver has been frequently recom- 
 mended as an addition to sensitive substances, not giving, how- 
 ever, the expected result higher sensitiveness. 
 
 Gelatine, or glue, is extracted from bones, tendons and other 
 refuse matter of mature quadrupeds. Chondrine, a similar 
 substance, made from cartilages or the bones of young animals, 
 cannot be used for photographic purposes. All commercial 
 gelatine contains more or less impurities, and must be purified 
 before it can be used. This is done by soaking the gelatine for 
 twenty-four hours in several changes of cold water, dissolving 
 at a low temperature, and adding a trace of acetic acid. Then 
 mix intimately the white of one egg with every pint of the 
 solution, and heat rapidly till the albumen coagulates ; filter ; 
 allow to cool, and press through coarse canvas into a vessel 
 holding ice-water ; change the water several times ; collect the 
 jelly, and spread it upon nets to dry. Such gelatine is suffi- 
 ciently pure for all photographic purposes. 
 
 The more soluble the gelatine, the finer will be the film, but 
 the more likely to frill. That used for emulsions should not 
 lose its form by soaking in water. 
 
 Glycerine is a component of fats and fatty oils. It is a 
 syrupy, colorless liquid, of sweet taste. It has a great affinity 
 for water, with which it mixes in all proportions, and is 
 
176 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 employed whenever any substance is to be kept moist for a 
 length of time. For this reason, it is added to silver-baths, 
 when collodion plates made sensitive in them have to be 
 exposed for a very long time ; but, as nitric acid decomposes 
 glycerine speedily, such silver-baths must be acidulated with 
 acetic acid. 
 
 Glycerine is added to the gelatine skins or solution for strip- 
 ping films, in order to keep them flexible. 
 
 Gold occurs naturally in a tolerably pure state. To obtain 
 it free from other metals, like silver or copper, it is pre- 
 cipitated from its solution in nitro-muriatic acid with proto- 
 sulphate of iron, and the resulting brown powder (chemically- 
 pure gold) is carefully washed, re-dissolved, evaporated, crystal- 
 lized, or kept in solution. The 
 
 Gold Chloride, or ter-chloride, more proper, thus obtained, 
 forms yellow-brown crystals ; is very deliquescent ; soluble in 
 ether, alcohol and water, and is the basis for all photographic 
 toning-baths for paper prints, and occasionally, also, for dia- 
 positives. 
 
 Gold, Chloride and Sodium, is a crystallizable double 
 salt ; as it does not contain free acid, and is not deliquescent, it 
 can be much easier handled, and is, therefore, preferred by 
 many. 
 
 Gold, Salt of (Sel d* Or), the hyposulphite of gold and sodium, 
 is formed by adding a weak solution of chloride of gold to a 
 weak solution of hyposulphite of soda, and evaporating. This 
 salt was used for toning or gilding Daguerreotypes, and is 
 occasionally employed for toning paper prints. 
 
 Iodine, like chlorine, which it closely resembles in chemical 
 properties, is disseminated all over the earth, but is never 
 found in large quantities. In the mineral kingdom it occurs 
 but rarely, but is frequent in mineral springs and saline waters. 
 It is made from kelp, the ashes of certain deep-sea fungi, and 
 other marine plants, where it usually occurs united with 
 sodium. It is a solid, of gray color and metallic lustre, resem- 
 bling graphite, with which it is occasionally adulterated. At 
 high temperatures, it becomes liquid, and is resolved into deep, 
 violet vapors. 
 
APPENDIX. 177 
 
 Iodine is one of the most important substances for the 
 forming of light-sensitive bodies. With it Daguerre prepared 
 his sensitive silver plates, and ever since it has been used to 
 make sensitive papers, films or plates. It combines energetic- 
 ally with metallic and non-metallic bodies. In free state, it is 
 used as an alcoholic solution or tincture, and sometimes in 
 aqueous solution, when it is rendered soluble by the addition 
 of potassium iodide. Tincture of iodine is added to freshly- 
 prepared collodion to ripen it, and the operator removes silver 
 stains by its use. The iodide of silver forming, being after- 
 wards dissolved with hyposulphite of soda or cyanide of 
 potassium. 
 
 Dilute tincture of iodine added to cold, boiled starch gives it 
 an intensely blue color. This compound has been found to be 
 an extremely sensitive reagent for hyposulphite of soda, and 
 is, therefore, used to detect its presence in prints or negative 
 films. A mere trace of hypo destroys the blue color with 
 great energy. 
 
 Iron, in different combinations, is an important factor in 
 many photographic processes. 
 
 Iron Chloride, per-chloride, or ferric-chloride, is in frag- 
 ments, of a crystalline structure, of orange -yellow color, in- 
 odorous, and of strong styptic taste ; is deliquescent, very 
 soluble in water, alcohol and ether. With ferro-cyanide of 
 potassium (the yellow prussiate of potassium), it forms an 
 intense blue precipitate. 
 
 Per-chloride of iron is used in photography to arrest frilling 
 of gelatine plates ; with it, also, is removed green fog, by con- 
 verting the negative deposit into chloride of silver, and re- 
 developing with ferrous-oxalate ; for the preparation of ferric- 
 oxalate and potassio-ferric oxalate which, in combination with 
 hyposulphite of soda, is a fine reducer for over- developed 
 negatives. 
 
 Iron Citrate and Ammonia is in garnet-red, translucent 
 scales, having a slightly styptic taste ; is deliquescent in air, 
 and very soluble in water, forming a clear, ruby-colored solu- 
 tion. With ferri-cyanide of potassium (the red prussiate of 
 potassium) and exposure to light, it gives us the cyanotype or 
 blue print. 
 
178 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Iron Iodide, a crystalline substance of greenish-black color, 
 was, at one time, used as an accelerator in the wet-collodion 
 film. 
 
 Iron Oxalate, or ferrous-oxalate, is precipitated when a solu- 
 tion of oxalic acid, binoxalate, or neutral oxalate of potassium 
 in excess is added to proto-sulphate of iron (ferrous-sulphate). 
 It forms a pale yellow powder almost insoluble in water, but 
 dissolves readily in a solution of neutral oxalate of potassium, 
 forming with it a double salt (the common ferrous-oxalate 
 developer). When an excess of sulphate of iron is added to 
 the oxalate of potassium, it cannot be kept in solution and the 
 yellow oxalate of iron precipitates. Such developer is unfit 
 for use. Allowing ferrous-oxalate developer to stand for 
 some time under the influence of air, it becomes oxidized, 
 separating from the solution potassio-ferric oxalate in the form 
 of beautiful green crystals. Partly oxidized developer may 
 be profitably used as a restrainer, or restored to its origina] 
 force by the addition of small particles of tartaric acid and 
 exposure to direct sunlight. 
 
 Iron Proto-sulphate, sulphate of iron, or ferrous- sulphate, is 
 in the form of transparent crystals, efflorescent ; is of a pale 
 bluish-green color, styptic taste and acid reaction. It is de- 
 composed by tannic, gallic, and pyrogallic acid, forming a 
 bluish-black compound (ink). When efflorescing it loses a 
 part of its water of crystallization, and is entirely deprived of 
 it by exsiccation. In such states the iron salt should not be 
 employed for photographic purposes ; neither is it fit to be 
 used when, after long standing, a brown or red crust covers 
 the crystals. That denotes a higher oxidation, which to pre- 
 vent in our sulphate of iron solutions, we add a trace of sul- 
 phuric acid to them. 
 
 Kaolin, or porcelain clay, consists for the most part of sili- 
 cate of aluminia. 
 
 It is used for decolorizing the silver sensitizing bath. 
 
 Lead. Not many of the salts of this metal have been 
 entered upon the list of photographic chemicals. 
 
 Lead Acetate, at one time considered to be a perfect hypo- 
 eliminator, is now done almost entirely away with, its deleteri- 
 ous effects having been conclusively shown. 
 
APPENDIX. 179 
 
 Lead Nitrate was recommended by Dr. Eder as an intensi- 
 fier for black and white collodion negatives, and is now largely 
 employed as such. When nitrate of lead and ferri-cyanide of 
 potassium are acting upon a negative deposit, the ferri-cyanide 
 is deoxidized to ferro-cyanide, forming, with the lead, ferro- 
 cyanide of lead, an insoluble compound, which is subsequently 
 blackened with hydro-sulphate of ammonia. 
 
 Litmus is a coloring matter derived from r^ocella tinctoria, 
 
 O / 
 
 and other lichens. It is used as a test for acids and alkalines, 
 and is employed either in tincture or bibulous paper colored 
 with it. When acidity is present the blue color turns red, 
 and is restored again to blue by alkaline solutions. 
 
 Magnesium is a white malleable metal which burns with a 
 a brilliant flame of highly actinic power, furnishing to the 
 photographer a very useful artificial light. Since, with the 
 presence of oxygen, the flame becomes still more actinic, the 
 metal reduced to a fine powder is mixed with purveyors of 
 oxygen and then ignited. Instantaneous exposures can thus 
 be made in total darkness. 
 
 Magnesium Chloride is sometimes used for the salting of 
 paper, and the iodide was at one time considered a most ex- 
 cellent sensitizer for negative collodion. 
 
 Magnesium Sulphate, or Epsom salts, a white crystalline 
 salt, of bitter taste, is an excellent anti-frill, because it has 
 the property of hardening gelatine and similar substances. 
 
 Mercury is the only liquid metal in existence. It is vola- 
 tile even at such moderate temperatures as 70-80 deg. F. 
 By means of mercurial vapors the Daguerrean plates were de- 
 veloped. 
 
 Mercury Bichloride, mercuric chloride, or corrosive sub- 
 limate is a colorless, crystalline, semi-transparent mass, of 
 metallic taste, and is very poisonous. It is soluble in water, 
 alcohol, and ether. 
 
 When a photographic deposit is washed with a solution of 
 mercuric chloride, a white double chloride of mercury and 
 silver will form, which is insoluble in water. Upon this 
 action are based most processes of intensifying ; the white 
 image being afterwards blackened with ammonia or sulphite of 
 
180 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 sodium. Positives on japanned tin-plates are whitened with 
 the mercuric chloride (alabastrines) and the silver is bleached 
 from drawings to serve the photo-engraver. Paper photo- 
 graphs bleached out with mercury can be restored again by 
 hypo-sulphite of soda or ammonia (" magic " photographs). 
 With mercuric chlorides we remove silver stains from our 
 garments and fingers, or when in very dilute solution restore 
 yellow prints to their original whiteness. 
 
 Mercury Nitrate in solution is a test for hypo, with which 
 it forms a brown-black precipitate. 
 
 Platinum is a precious metal of dull, grayish-white color, of 
 less lustre than silver, not affected by mineral acids. Like 
 gold, it combines with chlorine, and to effect its solution aqua 
 regia, or nitro-muriatic acid, alone can be used. The resulting 
 platinum chloride is a dark-brown solution. 
 
 Platinum Potassio-chloride, a double salt of bright yellow 
 color, is used in the different platinum printing processes. 
 
 Potassium is the metallic radical of all the salts bearing its 
 name. Its oxyd, 
 
 Potassium Hydroxyd, or caustic potash, is a deliquescent 
 and easily soluble substance, occasionally used as an accelera- 
 tor in developing gelatine emulsion plates. 
 
 Potassium Bichromate, orange-red, anhydrous, prismatic 
 crystals, soluble in ten parts of water, not soluble in alcohol, 
 of strong acid reaction, is very poisonous. All chromates are 
 indirectly sensitive to light. Their behavior towards light 
 when mixed with organic matter, gelatine, or albumen, is 
 of the highest interest, for upon it are based most photo- 
 mechanical printing processes. Light changes the chromates 
 and oxydizes the organic matter, making it insoluble in water. 
 
 Potassium Bromide. This salt forms white, cubical crys- 
 tals which are very soluble in water, but sparingly so in 
 alcohol. For the preparation of bromide of silver, in the 
 emulsion process, it is better adapted than any of the other 
 . bromides. For that purpose it is important to use it in a 
 state of absolute purity. 
 
 The presence of iodide can be detected by the yellow color 
 of the precipitate, when a trace of nitrate of silver solution is 
 
APPENDIX. 181 
 
 added to a solution of the bromide. Iodide is denoted when 
 the precipitate has a yellow color. Bromide of potassium is 
 used extensively to form bromide of silver in emulsions for 
 sensitizing collodion, and is the most popular restrainer in 
 developing emulsion-plates. 
 
 Potassium Carbonate is usually made from the crude pot- 
 ash. A very pure article, sufficient for developing purposes, 
 is prepared by incinerating cream of tartar bitartrate of 
 potassium lixiviating the ashes and evaporation. It is a 
 white, deliquescent salt, very soluble in water, has a strong 
 alkaline reaction and effervesces with acids. With carbonate 
 of potassium are prepared the most energetic developers for 
 instantaneous exposures. 
 
 Potassium Bicarbonate. The ordinary carbonate united 
 with another equivalent of carbonic acid. Saleratus is an 
 impure bicarbonate. It is soluble in water but not in alcohol. 
 It is used to neutralize acid solutions and to soften gelatine in 
 some of the photo-mechanical processes. 
 
 Potassium Chlorate has of late found photographic employ- 
 ment in furnishing oxygen to the burning magnesium of its flash- 
 light compounds ; but, on account of its explosive properties, 
 the salt has been almost entirely abandoned. It has no other 
 use in photography. 
 
 Potassium Chloride closely resembles common salt (sodium 
 chloride) in appearance, assuming the cubic form of crystalliza- 
 tion. It is but rarely used. 
 
 Potassium Cyanide. The commercial article comes in white, 
 opaque, amorphous masses, of sharp, alkaline, bitter taste, and 
 alkaline reaction ; exhales the odor of hydro-cyanic acid, and 
 is very poisonous. For collodion plates it was much used for 
 fixing purposes. It might be used for gelatine plates, also, 
 for the same purpose ; but, it being adulterated very fre- 
 quently with hydrate and carbonate of potassium, these salts 
 would weaken the gelatine film very much. Except to remove 
 with it silver stains from hands and fingers, the article is but 
 rarely used since gelatine plates have superseded the collodion. 
 
 Potassium Sulpho-cyanide, analagous to the ammonium salt, 
 is white and crystallizable, resembling the taste of nitre ; soluble 
 
182 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 in water and alcohol, and very poisonous. It has been employed 
 as a fixing- agent, and, in combination with the chloride of gold, 
 in toning-baths. 
 
 Potassium Ferri-cyanide, known as red prussiate of potash, 
 is obtained by passing chlorine gas through a solution of 
 potassium ferro- cyanide. It forms beautiful red crystals, which 
 are converted by light into the yellow potassium ferro-cyanide ; 
 the solution produces a dark-blue precipitate with ferrous salts, 
 and a brown color with ferric salts. 
 
 It is used in the cyanotype process. Potassium ferri-cyanide, 
 being sensitive to light, its solutions should be kept in the dark. 
 If the solution has assumed a greenish or blue color, it is unfit for 
 use. With hyposulphite of soda, it forms Farmer's solution 
 for the reduction of intensity, and, with nitrate of uranium, 
 Selle's intensifier, recently used for toning bromide prints or 
 transparencies on gelatine plates. 
 
 Potassium Ferro-cyanide, or yellow prussiate, is obtained 
 by heating refuse animal matter with iron filings and potassium 
 carbonate. It is soluble in water, but not in alcohol. It forms 
 very beautiful yellow crystals. With ferrous salts it gives a 
 pale, blue precipitate, while, with ferric salts, a precipitate of 
 Prussian blue ensues. Because of this property, it is also used 
 in some of the blue print methods, especially in one by which 
 positives from positives are obtained. 
 
 Potassium Hypochlorite, in solution, is the well-known eau 
 de javelle, which is an excellent hypo-eliminator. 
 
 Potassium Iodide is prepared by adding iodine to a solution 
 of hydrate of potassium, and, after evaporating, by gently 
 heating the solution to decompose the iodate formed simultan- 
 eously with the iodide. It forms white, cubical crystals, which 
 are very soluble in water and alcohol. With nitrate of silver 
 the solution produces a bright, yellow precipitate of iodide of 
 silver. 
 
 Iodide of potassium is extensively used for sensitizing collo- 
 dion, and is now invariably added to bromide emulsions to 
 increase sensitiveness. 
 
 Potassium Nitrate, saltpetre or nitre, a white salt, of sharp, 
 cooling, bitterish taste ; crystallizes in long, striated, six-sided 
 
APPENDIX. 183 
 
 prisms, permanent in air. It is devoid of water of crystalliza- 
 tion; soluble in water, but not in alcohol. In combination 
 with sulphuric acid, photographers use it in the making of 
 gun-cotton ; as an addition to the developer for collodion posi- 
 tives (Spiller & Crooker) ; as a restrainer in alkaline develop- 
 ment. 
 
 Potassium Oxalate. There are three combinations of potas- 
 sium with oxalic acid the neutral salt, the bin-oxalate, and 
 the quadroxalate of which the neutral salt alone concerns the 
 photographer. It is colorless and efflorescent, of bitter taste, 
 and poisonous. 
 
 The neutral salt of commerce reacts more or less alkaline, 
 in which state it will, in the oxalate developer, produce hard 
 and glassy negatives. Hence oxalic acid is added to its solu- 
 tion in quantities sufficient to slightly redden litmus paper. It 
 should, also, be free from chlorides. 
 
 Potassium Permanganate forms crystals of dark purple 
 color ; its solutions are red. Manganates and permanganates 
 are decomposed by organic matter acting upon them as oxi- 
 dizers. Hence the salt is used to rectify silver baths over- 
 charged with organic substances. Permanganate solution 
 should be added as long as the roseate color remains. Sun- 
 ning the bath afterwards is advisable. An excess of the salt 
 makes the solution alkaline, which requires after-acidulation. 
 
 Potassium Silicate, which is ordinary glass, can be made in 
 a soluble modification when silica is melted with twice its 
 weight of carbonate of potassium or sodium, and the product 
 treated with water, which dissolves the greater part. This 
 preparation, known as water-glass or soluble glass, is used as a 
 substratum for gelatine emulsion plates and in making Licht- 
 druck plates. 
 
 Potassium Sulphate is a white, hard, semi-transparent salt, 
 soluble in water, but not in alcohol ; is claimed to give collo- 
 dion positives a white metallic lustre when added to the iron 
 developer. 
 
 Potassium Sulphide, sulphuret, hepar sulphuris, or liver of 
 sulphur, is the substance with which photographers precipitate 
 silver from waste solutions. It is a solid, amorphous mass of 
 
184 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 liver-brown color, and very soluble in water. The solutions, 
 when exposed to air, oxidize, form sulphate of potassium, and 
 separate sulphur. When dry, it is inodorous; in the moist 
 state, its odor is very disagreeable. The sulphide is also used 
 to intensify collodion negatives. 
 
 Pyroxyline, or gun-cotton, dissolved in ether- alcohol, consti- 
 tutes the photographic collodion. It is prepared by subjecting 
 white cotton, free from greasy matter, to the action of nitrate 
 of potassium and sulphuric acid, or a mixture of sulphuric and 
 nitric acid, washing till v all acid is removed, and then spontane- 
 ously drying. It should be perfectly white, without exhaling 
 the odor of nitrous acid, and should be soluble without sedi- 
 ment. Gun-cotton of long fibre, producing a crackling noise 
 when being pulled out, is generally preferred for negative col- 
 lodion ; when in a powdery state, it is asserted to be better 
 adapted for positives (ferrotypes), 
 
 Sal-soda is of high value in the photographers' laboratory, as 
 a medium for the cleaning of glass plates, preparatory to 
 coating them with sensitive substances. 
 
 Silver is found naturally in large quantities occasionally in 
 a very pure state. In combination with chlorine, bromine, or 
 iodine, it is the most important factor in all photographic 
 operations, for it forms the photographic image, when reduced 
 to metallic silver by a variety of processes. 
 
 Silver Acetate. When the silver bath, in the wet collodion 
 process, is acidulated to a great extent with acetic acid, very 
 small crystals of the nearly insoluble acetate of silver will sepa- 
 rate, settle upon the sides of the bath-dish ; even upon the 
 surface of the collodion film to be sensitized. These crystals 
 interfere greatly with the operation to be performed, and their 
 presence makes the bath useless. 
 
 Silver Bromide, an insoluble haloid, of grayish-white color, 
 is formed when a solution of an alkaline bromide is added to a 
 solution of nitrate of silver. Bromide of silver is known to 
 exist in five modifications of different sensitiveness and aggre- 
 gation. That employed in photography is easily blackened by 
 light, easily soluble in cyanide of potassium and hyposulphite 
 of sodium, but sparingly so in ammonia. Silver bromide is 
 
APPENDIX. 185 
 
 , / 
 
 the active principal in our negative emulsions ; the addition of 
 a certain percentage of silver iodides increases their sensitive- 
 ness. The various kinds of bromide of silver paper have 
 superseded all other positive enlarging processes, and, to some 
 extent, contact printing upon other sensitive paper also. 
 
 Silver Carbonate. When, to a solution of nitrate of silver, 
 carbonate of soda is added, a yellowish-white precipitate will 
 deposit, which is carbonate of silver. This precipitate, allowed 
 to settle, and after being well washed, when added to a silver- 
 bath, is the best means to keep it in a constant state of neu- 
 trality. Acidity formed in a printing-bath, after repeated use, 
 will be neutralized by keeping some of the solution in the 
 stock bottle. 
 
 Carbonate of silver, thrown down from old solutions or 
 wastes, is converted again into chemically-pure nitrate by dis- 
 solving it carefully in dilute nitric acid. 
 
 Silver Chloride is prepared similarly to the bromide by 
 bringing a solution of nitrate of silver in contact with an 
 alkaline chloride. Horn Silver, as this preparation was called 
 in ancient times, gave the first impulse to the researches on 
 the action of light. Chlorine gas is liberated, when it is 
 exposed to light, leaving a residue of metallic silver intimately 
 mixed with undeveloped chloride. It is soluble in hypo- 
 sulphite of soda, ammonia, cyanide of potassium, and more or 
 less in a great many soluble chlorides. The main substance 
 upon which all photographic printing depends is chloride of 
 silver, for when salted, plain, or albumemzed paper is floated 
 upon a nitrate of silver solution, chloride of silver is formed. 
 
 Chloride of silver emulsions are popular. With collodion, as 
 a carrier for the sensitive' salt, are made aristotypes ; with gela- 
 tine, it is used in the various opal, transparency, and other pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 Silver Hyposulphite and /Sodium, argento-sodium hyposul- 
 phite, is a double salt, formed during the fixing of a plate or 
 print. Being sensitive to light, it is advisable to conduct the 
 fixing operation in a dark room, or in subdued light. At a 
 certain point of the fixing this salt is formed, but it is dis- 
 solved again in an excess of the hyposulphite of soda. If, 
 
186 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 before its dissolution, the plate or print is exposed to light, 
 sulphides form with the separation of sulphur, and the film 
 turns yellow. Such stains it is impossible to remove. To 
 obviate entirely such occurrences, it is commendable to employ 
 in all fixing operations a second freshly-prepared hypo bath. 
 The injurious double salt being soluble in hypo, & fresh fixing 
 solution, not contaminated with dissolved silver, is the best 
 safeguard against fading or yellowing. 
 
 Silver Iodide, resembling the two other silver haloids, is of 
 a decidedly yellow color. With iodide of silver the Daguer- 
 reotype was made. It was the sensitive medium of the 
 Talbotype, and mainly that of the American (W hippie's) nega- 
 tive albumen process. Collodion was sensitized solely with it, 
 until bromide became its associate. When in the preparation 
 of iodide of silver an excess of nitrate of silver is present, the 
 precipitate is of a decided yellow color and highly sensitive, 
 but when the alkaline iodide prevails, the resulting deposit is 
 of a pale color and absolutely non-sensitive. It is but spar- 
 ingly soluble in ammonia, but cyanide of potassium and hypo- 
 sulphite of soda dissolve the iodide with great energy. The 
 addition of a small percentage of iodide of silver to the 
 bromide emulsion increases sensitiveness and gives brilliancy to 
 the negatives ; passing that point, the negative becomes feeble, 
 and the plates fix slowly and with difficulty. Pure iodide of 
 silver gives the best results in the "black and white" collodion 
 copying processes. 
 
 Silver Nitrate is prepared by dissolving pure metallic silver 
 in dilute nitric acid, evaporating the solution to crystallization 
 point, and crystallizing the salt. If evaporation is carried on 
 so far that the mass in the bowl begins to flow like an oil, and 
 is then poured into forms, or upon a cold marble slab, we have 
 fused nitrate of silver. For photographic use the crystallized 
 salt is preferable ; by long-continued heating the nitrate is par- 
 tially reduced to nitrite, injurious, at least, in the collodion 
 process. 
 
 Nitrate of silver comes in colorless, transparent crystals, 
 sometimes of considerable size, when they have a metallic ring. 
 It is soluble in its own weight of water and in four parts of 
 
187 
 
 alcohol. When its solutions are precipitated with a soluble 
 chloride or hydrochloric acid, the supernatant liquid should 
 not leave a residue after evaporation, and the precipitate be 
 perfectly soluble in ammonia. That is a proof of the purity of 
 the salt. 
 
 From the nitrate of silver are derived all the silver haloids 
 used in photography. 
 
 Ammonia causes a precipitate in nitrate of silver solutions, 
 but the precipitate re-dissolves in an excess of the precipitant. 
 Ammonio-nitrate of silver thus formed is used in Dr. Eder's 
 gelatine emulsion and various printing methods on plain or 
 albumenized paper. Fuming of sensitized paper is based upon 
 the reaction of ammonia. 
 
 Sodium, a silver-white metal, oxidizing rapidly in air, is the 
 radical of all the salts bearing its name. It is found in enor- 
 mous quantities, and is distributed all over the world ; in solid 
 crystalline masses, in the waters of the ocean, and many saline 
 springs. 
 
 The hydrated oxide is occasionally used to accelerate alka- 
 line developing. 
 
 Sodium Acetate is a white salt, crystallizing in long, striated 
 prisms, of sharp, bitterish taste. It is soluble in water and of 
 neutral reaction. As an addition to the gold toning-bath, 
 neutralized with bicarbonate of soda, it is invaluable for the 
 producing of the much-desired proper tone of albumenized 
 prints. 
 
 Sodium B or ate, Bi-borate, or Borax, exists native in sev- 
 eral localities of America and Europe. It is a white, crystal- 
 line salt, reacts alkaline, and possesses a bitter, alkaline taste. 
 On account of its alkalinity it is employed in many toning 
 methods, where it is claimed to give black shades. 
 
 Borax is a strong restrainer in the alkaline development, and 
 is, furthermore, an aid in dissolving shellac in water. Such 
 shellac solutions are occasionally employed as varnishes for 
 gelatine negatives, but their principal use is to give gloss to 
 Lichtdrucks and photo-lithographs. 
 
 Sodium Bromide and Iodide are but rarely used in photog- 
 raphy at present. 
 
188 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Sodium Carbonate. The crystals of this extensively-used 
 and well-known salt (sal-soda) dissolve rapidly in water, are of 
 disagreeable taste and strong alkaline reaction. We use this 
 salt as an accelerator to the developing of emulsion plates with 
 pyrogallol. Exsiccated that is, deprived of its water of crys- 
 tallization its strength is about doubled ; hence half the quan- 
 tity only should be taken when a formula prescribes the crys- 
 tallized salt. 
 
 Sodium Bicarbonate, a preparation similar to the corre- 
 sponding potassium salt, is milder in taste and does not act as 
 forcibly as the simple carbonate. Its use to neutralize the 
 acidity of the chloride of gold, for the purpose of toning, is 
 quite universal, 
 
 Sodium Chloride, the common table salt, occurs in enormous 
 quantities all over the world. For the salting of printing 
 papers it is but rarely used, the corresponding ammonium 
 chloride being generally preferred. 
 
 Sodium Citrate, a white, crystalline salt, of saline taste and 
 easily soluble in water, is a most energetic restrainer. Its 
 action, when employed in a 10 per cent, solution, is so ex- 
 tremely forcible that plates believed to be hopelessly over- 
 exposed will result in serviceable negatives by its use. 
 
 Sodium Hypochlorite, or Labarraque's solution is, like the 
 potassium hypochlorite, used to destroy chemically the last 
 traces of hyposulphite of soda in print or plate. 
 
 Sodium Hyposulphite, large, colorless, transparent crystals, 
 of saline taste and neutral reaction ; is very soluble in water, but 
 not in alcohol. Its solution dissolves the haloids of silver, and 
 it is, therefore, of the highest value in all photographic opera- 
 tions, for it dissolves from plate, film or paper all those parts 
 of the silver salt upon which light and the developer have not 
 acted ; it " fixes " them, as it improperly is called. The hypo- 
 sulphite of soda of commerce is pure and neutral enough 
 to use for all our purposes; the addition of alkalis to its 
 solution is of no use whatever, excepting, perhaps, in a few 
 particular cases. Sulphuric, muriatic or other strong acids 
 added to the solution separates sulphur and causes sulphurous 
 acid to evolve. The salt is thereby distinguished from the 
 
APPENDIX. 189 
 
 sulphite, which, with acid, evolves likewise sulphurous acid 
 but without precipitating sulphur. 
 
 Hyposulphite dissolves iodine and destroys the blue color of 
 iodide of starch. Hence iodide of starch is a valuable test for 
 hypo. 
 
 This salt, a valuable assistant, is also a great enemy to the 
 photographer when improperly used. It is easily decomposed, 
 resulting in sulphuration. 
 
 In extremely weak solutions it accelerates the f errous-oxalate 
 development. If too strong, a lustrous deposit of metallic 
 silver will result. 
 
 Sodium Nitrate, cubic or Chili saltpetre, called so from its 
 crystalline form and native source, is but rarely employed. 
 Owing to its great ease of crystallization it has been refused as 
 a nitrifier in the making of gun-cotton. 
 
 Sodium Silicate, soluble sodium glass, like the analagous 
 potassium silicate, is used similarly as a substratum for emulsion 
 films. 
 
 Sodiiim Sulphite is in the form of white, transparent 
 crystals, very soluble in water. It is deliquescent ; when 
 exposed to air it attracts oxygen, forming itself into sulphate. 
 Sulphite is a preserver of pyrogallol, sulphate is not. Hence, 
 when in pure state, it is employed extensively for the purpose 
 stated. If, however, the salt is not what it pretends to be, it 
 becomes useless. 
 
 The granulated or exsiccated sulphite is safer to employ, 
 because it is more constant than the crystallized salt ; still, it 
 must be remembered that it loses about 50 per cent, of its 
 weight by exsiccation, and, if a formula calls for a certain 
 amount of the crystallized salt, half the quantity of the granu- 
 lated will be approximately correct. Many virtues and faults 
 have been ascribed to the sulphite, but, besides its pyro- 
 preserving properties, no other advantages have been dis- 
 tinctly proved. 
 
 Sodium Tung state, a rare salt, of neutral reaction, is said to 
 give positive black tones when used with the gold toning-bath. 
 
 Strontium is a metal resembling calcium in appearance and 
 chemical properties. 
 
190 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 Its nitrate is used in the preparation of chloride of silver, 
 collodion emulsions, and similar processes. 
 
 Uranium Nitrate is produced by dissolving the metal ura- 
 nium, or either of its oxides, in nitric acid. The salt forms 
 bright, yellow crystals with a greenish cast ; is very soluble in 
 water and alcohol. In combination with ferri-cyanide of 
 potassium it is used as a mechanical intensifier for gelatine and 
 collodion plates, positives and negatives alike. Its action is to 
 give the plate a non-actinic, brown color, by which printing is 
 retarded. A very dilute solution of cyanide of potassium 
 removes the color without injury to the silver deposit. 
 
 With nitrate of uranium a great variety of tones on paper or 
 glass can be made. It is sensitive to light. 
 
 Varnish. Most photographic varnishes consist of alcoholic 
 solutions of shellac, resins, or resinous gums. Gelatine, being 
 extremely hygroscopic, all moisture must be expelled from its 
 films before varnish is applied. When moisture is present the 
 shellac will precipitate upon the film in the form of white, 
 granular deposits. A wash with alcohol will remove these 
 deposits, after which varnishing can be accomplished. 
 
 Water is a transparent liquid without color, taste, or odor, 
 consisting of oxygen and hydrogen. By reason of its great dis- 
 solving power, it is always more or less contaminated with 
 foreign matter, carbonic acid, carbonates, chlorides, ammonia, 
 and organic substances. Carbonic acid and other gases ab- 
 sorbed in water cause blisters upon albumenized paper ; car- 
 bonate of lime in water forms a precipitate with the oxalate of 
 potassium ; and chlorides precipitate silver. For most photo- 
 graphic operations, purified or distilled water is absolutely 
 necessary. Ordinary water boiled for some time and allowed 
 to cool is free from calcareous matter, and absorbed gases are 
 expelled, hence it is comparatively pure, and may be em- 
 ployed for photographic use. 
 
 Zinc is a bluish-white metal, brittle, and of crystalline struc- 
 ture. It is added, occasionally, when reduced to a fine pow- 
 der, to the magnesium flash-light compounds. It burns with 
 a bluish-green, quite actinic flame, and may be used profitably 
 in this connection when long exposures are required. With 
 
APPENDIX. 191 
 
 polished zinc plates or rods, it precipitates metallic silver from 
 waste solutions by mere immersion, and in photo-mechanical 
 printing methods zinc plays a highly important part. Upon 
 finely polished zinc plates, coated with asphaltum or bichro- 
 matized organic substances, are printed the photographs pre- 
 paratory to etching them into high reliefs for the ordinary 
 typographic press. 
 
 Zinc Bromide is occasionally added to sensitive collodion. 
 
 Zinc Hypochlorite, prepared by decomposing chloride of 
 lime with zinc sulphate, is a perfect and absolutely safe hypo- 
 eliminator, because the salts resulting from the contact of 
 hyposulphite of soda with hypochlorite of zinc are very solu- 
 ble in water and harmless to the photographic silver deposit. 
 
192 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 
 
 SOLID MEASURE. 
 
 20 "Grains = 1 Scruple = 20 Grains. 
 3 Scruples = 1 Dram 60 
 
 8 Drams = 1 Ounce = 480 
 
 12 Ounces = 1 Pound = 5760 " 
 
 FLUID. 
 
 60 Minims = 1 Fluid Dram. 
 8 Drams = 1 Ounce. 
 20 Ounces = 1 Pint. 
 
 unces = int. 
 8 Pints = 1 Gallon. 
 
 -- 
 
 The above weights are those usually adopted in formulae. 
 
 All Chemicals are usually sold by 
 AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 
 
 Grains = 1 Dram '= 27^ Grains. 
 16 Drams = 1 Ounce = 437| 
 16 Ounces = 1 Pound = 7000 
 
 Precious Metals are usually sold by 
 TROY WEIGHT. 
 
 24 Grains = 1 Pennyweight = 24 Grains. 
 
 20 Pennyweights = 1 Ounce 480 
 
 12 Ounces = 1 Pound = 5760 
 
 NOTE. An ounce of metallic silver contains 480 grains, but an ounce 
 of nitrate of silver contains only 437^ grains. 
 
APPENDIX. 193 
 
 THE METEIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND 
 MEASURES. 
 
 The meter is a measure of length equal to 39.370 English 
 inches, or 39.368 American inches, a standard of linear meas- 
 ure supposed to be the ten-millionth part of the distance from 
 the equator to the north pole, as ascertained by actual meas- 
 urement of an are of the meridian. 
 
 This system, formed on the meter as the unit of length, has 
 four other leading units, all connected with and dependent 
 upon this. Hence, we have : 
 
 1. The meter, which is the unit of measures of length. 
 
 2. The are, which is the unit of surface, and is the square 
 of the meters. 
 
 3. The litre, which is the unit of measures of capacity, and 
 is the cube of a tenth part of the meter. 
 
 4. The stere, which is the unit of measures of solidity, hav- 
 ing the capacity of a cubic meter. 
 
 5. The gram, which is the unit of measures of weight, 
 and is the weight of that quantity of distilled water at its 
 maximum density, fills the cube of a hundredth part of the 
 meter. 
 
 Each unit has its decimal multiples and submultiples, that 
 is weights and measures ten times larger, or ten times smaller, 
 than the principal units. The prefixes denoting multiples are 
 derived from the Greek and are : deka, ten ; hecto, hundred ; 
 kilo, thousand, and myria, ten thousand. Those denoting sub- 
 multiples are taken from the Latin, and are deci, ten ; centi, 
 hundred (like in centigram or centimeter) and milli, thousand. 
 
 The metric system has been adopted by many nations, the 
 English excepted. In America its use has been made optional, 
 but is legalized by CoDgress. All photographic formulae re- 
 ceived from the continent of Europe express values and quan- 
 tities with metrical weights and measures. To utilize them 
 direct without translating into the expressions of the English 
 system, the student is advised to procure gram weights and 
 cubic centimeter graduates, and substitute them for those de- 
 noting quantities according to the old plan. 
 
 As an assistant to those who cannot acquire these aids, we 
 annex tables taken from the "British Almanac of Photog- 
 raphy," which convert grams and cubic centimeters into 
 English grains, drams, and ounces, sufficiently correct for 
 practical purposes. 
 
194 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 FRENCH FLUID MEASURES. 
 
 THE cubic centimetre, usually represented by " c.c.," is the unit of the 
 French measurement for liquids. It contains nearly seventeen minims of 
 water; in reality, it contains 16'896 minims. The weight of this quantity 
 of water is one gram. Hence it will be seen that the cubic centimeter and 
 the gram bear to each other the same relation as our dram for solids nnd 
 the dram for fluids, or as the minim and the grain. The following table 
 will prove to be sufficiently accurate for photographic purposes : 
 1 cubic centimetre 17 minims (as near as possible). 
 
 2 cubic centimetres = 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 3 = 
 
 51 
 
 
 4 ' = 
 
 68 
 
 or 1 dram 8 minims. 
 
 5 = 
 
 85 
 
 4 
 
 1 " 25 " 
 
 6 ' = 
 
 102 
 
 
 1 " 42 " 
 
 7 = 
 
 119 
 
 
 1 " 59 " 
 
 8 " = 
 
 136 
 
 
 2 drams 16 
 
 9 = 
 
 153 
 
 
 2 " 33 " 
 
 10 = 
 
 170 
 
 
 2 " 50 " 
 
 20 " = 
 
 340 
 
 
 5 " 40 " 
 
 30 " = 
 
 510 
 
 
 1 ounce dram 30 minims. 
 
 40 
 
 ' 
 
 680 
 
 
 1 " 3 drams 20 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 850 
 
 
 1 " 6 " 10 
 
 60 
 
 ' n: 
 
 1020 
 
 
 2 ounces 1 " 
 
 70. 
 
 ' 
 
 1190 
 
 
 2 " 3 " 50 
 
 80 
 
 ' 
 
 1360 
 
 
 2 " 6 ' 40 
 
 90 
 
 < 
 
 1530 
 
 
 3 " 1 " 30 
 
 100 
 
 < 
 
 1700 
 
 
 3 (< 4 " 20 
 
 1000 . = 
 
 1 litre 34 fl. ounces nearly, or 2-g- pints. 
 
 THE CONVERSION OF FRENCH INTO ENGLISH WEIGHT. 
 
 ALTHOUGH a gram is equal to 15*4346 grains, the decimal is one which 
 can never be used by photographers ; hence in the following table it is 
 assumed to be 15| grains, which is the nearest approach that can be made 
 to practical accuracy : 
 
 15f grains. 
 301, 
 
 L * * 
 
 If grain. 
 17 grains. 
 321 
 
 47: 
 
 40 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 195 
 
 a b 
 11! 
 
 d 
 
 .So 
 S 
 
 S= 
 53 
 
 I- 
 
 CO , 
 
 .So 
 
 g 
 
 *| 
 
 
 
 .So 
 
 e 
 
 C D ** 
 
 ^H 
 
 .So 
 
 a 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 III 
 
 It! 
 
 si 
 
 "SI* 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
196 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC INSTRUCTOR. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 tW* 5 Cl 
 
 O - cg'5 
 
 fall 25 If 
 
 o \> ^ 02 
 
 * 
 
 o 
 
 1 3" 
 3 
 
 I ! 
 Bl 
 
 Hi 
 
 P Is 1 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 . 
 
 1* 8 -!!H fi 
 
 * 
 
 oS5g.S 
 
 N H=.rH 
 
 1S 
 
 ^l2SS 
 
 jg y 
 
 H 
 
 s P 
 
 22 -g-g 
 
 
 ' O 03 
 
 I 3| .- 
 
 I .S| '5 i 
 
 ? 5- 
 
 3 2.g - : . 
 
 2 H 
 
 II 
 
SPECIMEN OF "MOSS-TYPE" ENGRAVED BY THE 
 MOSS ENGRAVING CO, 535 PEARL STREET, NEW YORK. 
 
SPECIMEN OF "MOSS-TYPE" ENGRAVED BY THE 
 MOSS ENGRAVING CO., .535 PEARL STREET, NEW YORK. 
 
John (?. Njobs, Prtst 
 
 p. ^. NJ08B. SUP/ 
 
 N^OBS. Trmmrrf. J E. Ramsey. Secreiury. 
 
 . A JacUson. ^a< Secy 
 
 Send green stamp (or circular. Send photograph, drawing or print, for estimate. 
 
 OUR SPEQIALTY. 
 
 Firje Illustrated Circulars by our fvjogg-Type 
 
GUNDLACH OPTICAL Co., 
 
 ROCHESTER, N. Y., 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 THE HIGHEST GRADE OF 
 
 Photographic Lenses. 
 
 The Rapid Rectigraphic. The most popular Lens in the 
 
 market for general use. 
 
 Tho a A WIDE-ANGLE LENS, for a n classes 
 
 I IIC 
 
 work ; has an aperture of { ; cuts sharp withv 
 the full opening, and is perfectly rectilinear. 
 
 It is the most rapid wide-angle lens in the market. 
 
 Tho UflHo An&lD ^ s P ecial Lens, having an extreme wide 
 I llC VtlUC M||Q!O. angle for use in confined situations, and 
 wide-angle work in general. 
 
 Tho flrthnennno A NEW PORTRAIT LENS of superior 
 
 I IIC UlillUOUUpC. optical quality, for the highest grade of 
 
 artistic portraiture, large groups, copying, 
 
 enlarging, and general gallery work. 
 
 For sale by the Scovill M'fg Co., and Dealers generally. 
 
 Send for Descriptive Price list. 
 
 i 
 
If you contemplate buying a Lens for any purpose 
 whatever, send for 
 
 PRICE LIST AND TESTIMONIALS 
 
 OF 
 
 SUTER LENSES, 
 
 THE BEST IN THE WOULD. 
 
 If your stock dealer doesn't keep them, or recom- 
 mends any other, send direct to 
 
 Sole Agents, 
 
 14 & 16 East Lamed Street, 
 
 Detroit, Mich, 
 
THE UNRIVALLED 
 
 STEINHEIL LENSES, 
 
 In six different Series, and over forty numbers, for every description 
 
 of work. 
 
 SERIES I. Antiplanatic Portrait Lens. Rectilinear and very rapid. 
 Designed for Portraits and Enlargements. 
 
 SERIES II. Antiplanatic Group Lens (see cut). Entirely new in 
 
 principle and construction. 
 Remarkable for its rapidity, 
 powerful and even illumin- 
 ation, and perfectly correct 
 delineation. The most rapid 
 Lens now in the market, 
 outside of the regular and 
 expensive portrait combin- 
 ations. Designed for Por- 
 traits in studio and open air; 
 Groups, Architecture, Land- 
 scape, Instantaneous Work, 
 and Enlargements. Unex- 
 celled for Flash-light Pho- 
 tography. 
 
 SERIES III. Aplanatic Lens. Guaranteed equal to the best rapid 
 rectilinear combinations in the market, although somewhat lower in price. 
 Designed for Portraits, Groups, Landscape, and Instantaneous Work. 
 
 SERIES IV. Landscape Aplanat. Rapid Rectilinear Wide-Angle 
 Lens (angle 75). Designed for Landscape, Architecture, and Copying. 
 Recommended for Flash-light Interiors, with full opening, in confined 
 situations. 
 
 SERIES V. Ordinary Wide-Angle Aplanat (angle 100). De- 
 signed for Interiors and Architecture. 
 
 SERIES VI. Wide Angle Aplanat, for Copying. Designed 
 specially for Photo-mechanical Work, Copying Maps, Charts, Engravings, 
 Drawings, and Paintings, for which purpose they are conceded to be with- 
 out a rival. 
 
 Instantaneous and Time Shutters, of any make, can be fitted to all 
 of the above Lenses. 
 
 For full illustrated Catalogue and Price List, write to your dealer, 
 or to 
 
 H. G. RAMSPERGER & CO., 
 
 SOLE AGENTS, 
 
 No. 1 80 Pearl St., New York. 
 
 iv 
 
WILLIAM C. CULLEN, 
 
 AGENT FOB 
 
 PERKEN, SON & RAYMENT'S 
 
 CELEBRATED 
 
 
 Or 1 1 iM \J O CAMERAS Etc. 
 
 ROSS LENSES, 
 
 Hoover Dry Plates, 
 
 PURE CHEMICALS, 
 
 Of All 
 
 v 
 
HEADQUARTERS 
 
 FOR 
 
 Photographers' 
 
 REQUISITES. 
 
 OUTFITS, 
 
 In All Sizes, a Specialty. 
 
 SEND FOR CATALOGUE, 
 
 Firmest 
 
 Xjsjsru.eca.. 
 
 vi 
 
Established 1865. 
 
 JOHN G. HOOD, Chairman. WM. D. H. WILSON, Treas. 
 JOS. P. CHEYNEY, Sec'y. 
 
 Largest and Most Complete Stock 
 
 Itf PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 United States Agents for 
 
 ROSS 
 LENSES. 
 
 Can supply a 
 Complete Outfit 
 AT ONCB. 
 
 Price Lists 
 FREE, 
 
 ALL 
 
 ORDERS 
 FILLED 
 PROMPTLY. 
 
 Only such goods as 
 you order, and al- 
 ways at prices that 
 you will approve. 
 
 Send to us your orders for 
 
 Photographic 
 Materials 
 
 OF ALL KINDS 
 
 OUTFITS 
 
 & 
 
 AMATEURS 
 
 A SPECIALTY. 
 
 vii 
 
A. H. COLLINS 
 
 No. 527 ARCH STREET. 
 PHILADELPHIA, 
 
 MANUFACTURE EVERY VARIETY OF 
 
 Cards 
 
 Cardboards 
 
 FOR 
 
 Photographers' Use, 
 
 WHICH THEY OFFER TO THE TRADE 
 
 At Prices which are Low 
 
 FOR SUCH STANDARD GOODS. 
 
EASTMAN'S 
 
 SPECIALTIES. 
 
 EASTMAN-WALKER ROLL-HOLDERS. 
 
 AMERICAN FILMS. 
 
 Sample Film Negative by mail, 4c. 
 
 PERMANENT BROMIDE PAPER. 
 
 Eastman's Transferotype Paper. 
 
 Sample Transferotype Print by mail, 6c., stamps. 
 
 Eastman's Enlarging Cameras, 
 
 Eastman's Enlarging Easels, 
 Eastman's View Cameras, 
 
 Eastman's Dry Plates. 
 
 Send for Circulars. 
 
 The Eastman Dry Plate and Film Co,, 
 
 BRANCH OFFICE, 
 
 115 OXFORD ST., LONDON. 
 
THE AMERICAN OPTICAL COMPANY'S 
 
 APPARATUS, 
 
 INCLUDING ALL STYLES OF 
 
 Cameras ; Enlarging, Reducing, Copying and Multiply- 
 ing Boxes ; Tripods ; Plate-Holders, for Wet or 
 Dry Plates ; Printing Frames ; Amateur 
 Outfits, etc., etc., has long been 
 
 UNRIVALED FOR BEAUTY OF DEW, 
 UNEQUALED FOR DURABILITY OF CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 AND 
 
 UNAPPROACHED FOR FINENESS OF FINISH. 
 
 THEY ALWAYS GIVE UNQUALIFIED SATISFACTION, 
 
 FOR SALE BY ALL 
 
 Reputable Photographic Dealers, 
 
 AND v THE 
 
 SCOVILL MANUFACTURING CO., 
 
 423 BROOME STREET, 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 W. IRVING ADAMS, Agent. 
 
 Send for Latest Catalogue. 
 
 xi 
 
REflDY-PIfflED SOLUTIONS 
 
 FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS' USES. 
 
 French Azotate (For Toning Prints). 
 
 Price, per bottle, $0 25 
 
 Flandreau's S. P. C. Toning Solution. 
 
 Per set, ....:... 1 00 
 
 S. P. C. Pyro and Potash Developer. 
 
 Price, per package, 60 
 
 S. P. C. Carbonate of Soda Developer. 
 
 Price, per package, 50 
 
 Hairs Intensifier (For Strengthening 
 
 Weak Negatives). Price, per bottle, ... 75 
 
 Flandreau's S. P. C. Reducing Solution. 
 
 Large bottle, 75 
 
 Small bottle, 50 
 
 Flandreau's S. P, C. Hypo Eliminator 
 
 (For Removing every trace of Hyposulphite of 
 Soda from Negatives and Prints). Price, per bot- 
 tle, with book of testing paper, .... 50 
 
 Flandreau's S. P. C. Orthochromatic 
 
 Solutions, by which any plate may be rendered 
 color-sensitive. Price, per package, . . . 1 50 
 
 Flandreau's S. P. C. Retouching Fluid 
 
 (For Varnished or Unvarnished Negatives). Price, 
 
 per bottle, . ... 25 
 
 For sale by all dealers in Photographic Requisites, and by the 
 
 SCOYILL IANUFAOTTJRIM COIPAIT. 
 
PRACTICAL * INSTRUCTION 
 
 Is now made possible to every beginner and student in the Art-Science 
 
 through the 
 
 eF? 00 ! F 
 
 Either by direct personal instruction at the CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY GROUNDS, 
 in Summer ; the local classes at the School's Headquarters, 423 Broome Street, 
 New York City, during the Autumn, Winter and Spring ; or by the correspond- 
 ing classes, through printed lessons and the Organ of the School. 
 
 The Summer School opens at Chautauqua on or about July 1st with two 
 classes. 
 
 SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 PORTRAITURE, LANDSCAPES (Timed and Instantaneous), ORTHOCHROMATIC 
 
 METHODS, BLACK AND WHITE NEGATIVES, PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY, 
 
 ENLARGING AND REDUCING, PRINTING METHODS, ALBUMEN 
 
 PAPER AND READY-SENSITIZED, PLAIN PAPER, 
 
 BROMIDE OF SILVER PAPER, OPALS, TRANS- . 
 
 PARENCIES AND LANTERN SLIDES, 
 
 TRA NSFEROTYPES. 
 
 POPULAR LECTURES ON PHOTOGRAPHIC TOPICS. 
 
 Course of Ten Lessons, $5.00 
 
 Half Course, 3.00 
 
 Special Lessons, .......... i <0 o 
 
 Students are admitted to the Corresponding Classes at any time from 
 October 1st to May 1st. 
 
 The Local Classes at New York are announced in season. 
 
 For further particulars, address 
 
 PROF. CHAS. EHRMANN, INSTRUCTOR, 
 
 423 Broome Street, New York City, 
 liii 
 \ 
 
WATEEBUHY OUTFITS. 
 
 THE WATERBURY CAMERAS, introduced in 1885, are like other cameras 
 and apparatus made by the American Optical Company unapproach- 
 able ! 
 
 They are made of mahogany, are well polished, have rubber bellows, 
 folding platform, patent latch for making bed rigid instantaneously, 
 single swing, vertical shifting front, and are as light, and compact as 
 substantial cameras can be constructed. 
 
 Fitted with 
 Eastman- Walker 
 
 Roll-Holder. 
 
 1887 Model, 
 
 with 
 Automatic Tall/ 
 
 4x5 Waterbury Outfits, Complete ......... $12 OO 22 OO 
 
 CONSISTING OF 
 
 1 Single Swing Camera, described above. 
 1 Scovill Double Dry Holder, with Patent Registering Slides. 
 1 Wooden Carrying Case. 
 1 Improved Taylor Tripod. 
 1 No. A Waterbury Lens with a set of Stops. 
 LATEST ( 4x5 Waterbury Outfit, complete ......... $14 00 
 
 SIZES i4x6i '" " " ......... 15 00 
 
 INTRODUCED (5x7 " " " ......... 16 00 
 
 5x8 Waterbury Outfits, Complete ........ $16 5O 29 OO 
 
 CONSISTING OF 
 
 1 Single Swing Camera, described above. 
 1 Scovill Double Dry Holder, with Patent Registering Slides. 
 1 Wooden Carrying Case. 
 1 Improved Taylor Tripod. 
 
 1 No. B Waterbury Lens with revolving diaphragm. 
 5x8 Waterbury Stereoscopic Outfit. 
 With one B and a matched pair of A Waterbury Lenses, 
 
 Price, complete, $23. OO. 
 6Xx8* Waterbury Outfits, Complete ____ $21 OO 37 OO 
 
 CONSISTING OF 
 
 1 Single Swing Camera, described above. 
 1 Scovill Double Dry Holder, with Patent Registering Slides. 
 1 Wooden Carrying Case. 
 1 Improved Taylor Tripod. 
 
 1 No. BB Waterbury Lens with revolving diaphragm. 
 For sale by all dealers in Photographic materials, and by the manufac- 
 
 turers, SCOVILL MANUFACTURING CO. 
 
ST. LOTTIS 
 
 REVERSIBLE BACK CAMERAS. 
 
 (PATENTED.) 
 
 The St. Louis Reversible Back Cameras have the patent reversible 
 back, the rack and pinion movement, patent latch for making the bed rigid 
 instantaneously, and the ground-glass so arranged that the holder may 
 be slid in front of it, as shown in the illustration. 
 
 Each Camera is supplied with one Daisy Holder with patent Registering 
 Slides and canvas case. 
 
 ST. LOUIS REVERSIBLE-BACK CAMERAS. 
 
 No 
 
 For View. 
 
 Swing^back. 
 
 Double 
 Swing-back. 
 
 110 4 
 
 x5 
 
 $25 00 
 
 $29 00 
 
 111 4J. 
 
 i^A 
 
 ; 26 00 
 
 30 00 
 
 112 4) 
 
 i^A 
 
 \ 30 00 
 
 34 00 
 
 113 5 
 
 x7 
 
 32 00 
 
 35 00 
 
 114 5 
 
 x8 
 
 34 00 
 
 38 00 
 
 H5_ (jj, 
 
 / x gi/ 
 
 ; 36 00 
 
 40 00 
 
 116 8 
 
 xlO 
 
 40 00 
 
 44 00 
 
 11711 
 
 x!4 
 
 . 60 00 
 
 64 00 
 
 Fitted with Eastman-Walker Roll Holder. 
 1887 Model. 
 
 Double 
 Swing-back. 
 
 $39 00 
 
 Single 
 Swing-back. 
 
 $35 00 
 36 00 
 40 00 
 44 50 
 46 50 
 52 00 
 60 00 
 90 00 
 
 40 00 
 44 00 
 47 50 
 50 50 
 56 00 
 64 00 
 94 00 
 
 Not made above 11x14 size. 
 
 For automatic tally on Roll Holder add $5.00. 
 
 Canvas cases to contain Camera with more than one Holder made to 
 order at extra price. 
 
 For sale by all dealers in Photographic materials, and by the manu- 
 facturers, SCOVILL MANUFACTURING CO- 
 
 XV 
 
Revolving-hack Camera. 
 
 (PATENTED.) 
 
 (FRONT FOCUS^PATTERN.) 
 
 REDUCED PRICE LIST. 
 
 Revolving-back Cameras, each incased in a canvas bag, with handle, 
 
 and above 14x17 size, with two handles. 
 
 No. 120. 
 121. 
 
 122. 
 123. 
 124- 
 125. 
 126. 
 127. 
 128. 
 I3 9 . 
 130. 
 131. 
 132. 
 
 REVERSIBLE. 
 
 For View 4 x 5 
 
 in. 
 
 5 
 6*, 
 
 x 7 
 x 8 
 <\ 8V^ 
 
 8 
 
 J /Z 
 X IO 
 
 10 
 
 X 12 
 
 II 
 
 x 14 
 
 14 
 
 X 17 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 X 20 
 X 22 
 
 20 
 
 x 24 
 
 witu detachable test 
 
 With 
 
 Reversible 
 
 Single Doable Back and 
 
 Swing. Swing. Holder Extra 
 
 $27 oo $32 oo 
 29 oo 34 oo 
 31 oo 36 oo 
 33 oo 38 oo 
 35 oo 40 oo 
 40 oo 45 oo 
 45 oo 50 oo 
 60 oo 65 oo 
 65 oo 70 oc $90 oo 
 75 oo 80 oo 105 oo 
 85 oo 90 oo 115 oo 
 
 95 oo ico oo 130 oo 
 
 115 00 120 00 150 00 
 
 These Cameras are fitted with Daisy Dry-plate Holders. 
 
 Please state, when ordering any size below 10x12, whether front or 
 back focus is desired. 
 
 Revolving-back Cameras, front focus, not made above 8xio size. 
 Canvas cases to contain Camera with more than one Holder made to 
 order at extra price. 
 
 For sale by all dealers in Photographic materials, and by the manu- 
 facturers, SCOVILL MANUFACTURING CO. 
 
 XVI 
 
coVill Selective 
 
 Back. In answer to the popular demand, a Swing Back 
 has been devised for the SCOVILL DETECTIVE CAMERAS, which is 
 simple and effective. It is readily adjusted from the bottom of the case, 
 where all of the outward mechanism of this instrument is placed. 
 
 Adapter for Two Senses. This devise enables one to use 
 interchangeably, at pleasure, by simply moving the focusing lever, a wide 
 angle and a group lens of quite dissimilar focus. This does away with 
 the necessity of unscrewing the flange of one lens in order to put on the 
 flange belonging to the other lens. 
 
 ^oil-Holder 1 Detective 
 
 It followed naturally upon the introduction of the Roll-Holder that it 
 should be applied to the SCOVILL DETECTIVE CAMERA, and this 
 has been done in a manner that displays the greatest ingenuity. 
 
 Attached to each is the Patent Automatic Tally, to record the 
 number of exposures made. No Roll-Holder Camera is complete 
 without this. 
 
 All of Scovill Detectives are fitted with three Patented Double Dry 
 Plate Lightweight Holders, except where a Roll-Holder is flitted, and 
 then only one Double Dry Plate Holder is given. We give the prices for 
 all styles of Lenses, but we recommend and guarantee Morrison's and 
 Wale's which are made especially for these boxes. 
 
THK 
 
 SIZE OF PLATE. 
 
 4x5. Two Double Lightweight Holders (patented) 
 
 and Wale Lens (special) ........................ $25 00 
 
 4x5. One Patented Roll-Holder, Wale Lens (special) .......... 35 00 
 
 5x7. Two Double Lightweight Holders (patented) 
 
 and Wale Lens (special) ......................... 40 00 
 
 5x7. One Patented Roll-Holder, Wale Lens (special) .......... 58 00 Automatic 
 
 tally, roll- 
 holderand 
 
 THK SCOVIIiIi. Sw' e t 
 
 holder, 
 
 SIZE OF PLATE. Without With With With With add to 
 
 Lens. Optimus. Morrison. Beck. Ross, foregoing 
 
 ln ' weight Holders Ligh '" f ^ ' 46 ' 58 ' 58 ' 65 
 
 43 - 51 > 63 < 3 00 ' 70 "00 
 Swing Back and Pat. Lens^j 
 
 Motl^dlCbtef 00. 86 00. 98 00. 9800.10500 
 Light-weight Holders. J 
 
 SIZE OF PLATE. 
 
 4x5. 
 
 55 - 580 - 700 - 750 - 790 1300 
 6000 - 6300 ' 7500 ' 800 - 840 ^00 
 
 Single Swing, Pat. Lens Ad-] 
 
 J Le"s, r and1 d Do uble E&pES 
 Holders. ] 
 
 SIZE OF PLATE. 
 
 95 
 
 ' weigh' Hoders. 6500.7000.8000. 8500.10100 1300 
 
 m - 85 - ^ 00 13 00 
 
 Single Swing, Pat. Lens Ad-"") 
 
 weight Holders. 
 
 SIZE OF PLATE. 
 
 5x7. 
 
 3 Hour's 
 
 
 105 00. 110 00. 190 00. 125 00. 14! 00 13 00 
 
 . ^ \ ^ < ^ "0 00. 121 00 15 00 
 W 00- WO 00. 105 00. 115 00. 126 00 15 00 
 
 Single Swing, Pat. Lens Ad- } 
 
 juster and 1 additional Mor- V 127 00. 135 00. 140 00. 15) 00. 161 00 15 00 
 
 rison Lens. ) 
 
 The prices of Light-weight Double Dry Plate Holders (patented) for 
 the above are as follows : 
 
 For 31^x414 plates... $1.10. I For 4^x6^ plates. ..$1.25. 
 " 4 x5 "... 1.25. " 5 x7 " ... 1.30. 
 
WATERBURY LENSES. 
 
 The unprecedented success which has everywhere resulted 
 from the employment of the Waterbury Lenses, for 4x5 and 
 5x8 plates respectively, induced the Scovill Mfg. Co. to extend 
 the series of this favorite objective. The popular C Waterbury 
 Lens gave opportunity for producing 8x10 and even 10 x 1# 
 photographs with the sharpness, "detail and brilliancy of the 
 smaller sizes, but after its advent there was still a gap between 
 the 5x8 and 8 x 10 sizes. The desire to see the Waterbury 
 series complete has led to the production of the B B Waterbury 
 Lens, which covers 6-|x8J (the ever-popular 4 4 size) to the 
 extreme edges. In future, revolving diaphragms will be supplied 
 with all of the Waterbury Lenses. In them, are cut (with mathe- 
 matical accuracy) openings in value F /i5 F Ao 725 F /35 Veo 
 respectively. 
 
 The Waterbury Lenses are composed of a bi-convex crown 
 glass lens cemented to another lens of the plano-convex form, 
 made of the best selected flint glass. 
 
 Owing to the great advances in the sensitiveness of emulsion 
 plates, the Waterbury Lenses are now commonly used for groups 
 and for instantaneous views, with the Scovill Safety Shutters, 
 described on another page. No better testimony can be given 
 to the excellence and reliability of these objectives, and the 
 mathematical accuracy with which they are made, than that 
 deduced from the recent test made of 392 lenses of the C series, 
 in which large number only two lenses differed at all in focal 
 length or luminous power from the others. 
 
 A, Single, for 4 x 5 plate $3 50 
 
 A, Matched pair, stereoscopic 7 00 
 
 B, Single, for 5 x 8 plate. 4 50 
 
 BB, Single, for 6^ x 8% plate 6 00 
 
 C, Single, for 8 x 10 plate 8 00 
 
 For sale by all dealers in Photographic materials, and by the manu- 
 facturers, SCOVILL MANUFACTURING CO. 
 
Tie Scovill Eilarpg, Muting and Copiini Cameras. 
 
 When ordering, please specify number and sizes of kits, also 
 style of Holder wanted. 
 
 No. 61 .-Size, 6x8i, Price, $30.00 I No. 64.-Size, 11x14, Price, $GO.OO 
 " G2. " 8x10, " 35.00 " 65, " 14x17, " 72.00 
 "63. " 10x12, " 48.00 1 "66. 17x20, " 90.00 
 No. 67. Size, 20 x 24, - - $110.00. 
 Special sizes and styles made to order. 
 
 Magnesium Flash-light Photographs. 
 
 C$ ince the introduction of the Scovill Magnesium Gart- 
 s5fa ridges, photographs are made instantaneously 
 Sc-x which could not otherwise be secured without 
 v great expense, trouble, and danger, in caves, tun- 
 nels, mines, and other places where daylight does not 
 penetrate, and what is 
 
 Equally important and of more general interest, 
 
 Instantaneous Photographs of Family Groups in the house ; 
 Merry Guests at the festive board ; 
 
 Theatre, Fancy Dress, and Card Parties, Etc., 
 
 are now made in the evening, with the valued surroundings, under the 
 
 happiest auspices which but a short time ayo the most skilled 
 
 photographer would not have thought possible to secure. 
 
 Full directions for making portraits, interiors and other instantaneous 
 photographs in the dark by means of Magnesium light are given in the 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC TIMES. 
 
 Read it carefully each week in order to keep posted on the latest ad- 
 vances in this and every other branch of Photography. 
 
 MAGNESIUM CARTRIDGES 
 
 from 
 
 PATENT APPLIED FOR 
 
 Before lighting the fuse uncover the box. unless used m wind or ran 
 
 PRICE LIST OF SCOVILL'S MAGNESIUM CARTRIDGES. 
 
 Per Pkg. Per Gro. 
 SMALL SIZE, in packages of six ......................... $0 30 $6 50 
 
 LARGE " " " .......................... 40 850 
 
 xxii 
 
That the substitution of a pneumatic release for the or- 
 dinary trigger on a wood drop-shutter greatly enhances its 
 value, "goes without saying." 
 
 The Scovill Time and Instantaneous Shutter 
 
 Is Fitted with Pneumatic Attachment* 
 
 which may be worked at a considerable distance from the 
 Camera, thus enabling the operator to form part of a group 
 or to be included in a view he is photographing. This 
 Shutter may be used for either timed or instantaneous ex 
 posures ; the change is made by simply moving a switch. 
 
 SCOVILL UNIVERSAL SAFETY SHUTTERS. 
 
 This Shutter is styled Universal, not only because more 
 of the Scovill Safety Shutters are in use than of any other 
 pattern, but because it can be arranged with a variety of 
 openings, from % to 2 inches at the center, as shown by Scovill Safety 
 the dotted lines of the accompanying illustration. Uni- Shutter, with 
 form distribution of light over the plate is insured by the Time and Instan- 
 form of opening. 
 
 The brakes on all of these Shutters 
 make them safe to use, by preventing a 
 recoil with the resulting double expo- 
 sure, and the jarring common to many 
 Shutters, which in time breaks apart the 
 glasses of a Lens where cemented to- 
 gether hence the designation "Safety 
 Shutters " 
 
 JPH.ICK 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Univer 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Safety 
 
 sal Tim 
 
 No. 
 
 Width of 
 Opening 
 in Slide. 
 
 Scovill 
 Uni- 
 versal 
 Shut- 
 ters. 
 
 Shut- 
 ters, 
 with 
 Pneu- 
 matic 
 
 Seovill 
 Safety 
 Shut- 
 ters. 
 
 Shut- 
 ters, 
 with 
 Pneu- 
 matic 
 Re- 
 
 and In- 
 stanta- 
 neous 
 Shuttei 
 with 
 Pneu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lease. 
 
 matic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Release. 
 
 1 
 
 VA ins. 
 
 $2.70 
 
 $4.20 
 
 $1.20 
 
 $2.70 
 
 $4.70 
 
 a 
 
 \\4> ' ' 
 
 2.80 
 
 4.30 
 
 1.30 
 
 2.80 
 
 4.80 
 
 3 
 
 1M " 
 
 2.90 
 
 4.40 
 
 1.40 
 
 2.90 
 
 4.90 
 
 4 
 
 2 " 
 
 3.00 
 
 4.50 
 
 1.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 5 
 
 2^ " 
 
 3.10 
 
 4.60 
 
 1.60 
 
 3.10 
 
 5.10 
 
 (5 
 
 3 
 
 3.25 
 
 4.75 
 
 1.75 
 
 3.25 
 
 5.25 
 
 Scovill Universal 
 Shutter. 
 
 When orderingthese Shutters, exact diameter 
 of hood of Lens should be given, so that the 
 proper circular opening may be cut out to ex- 
 actly fit hood of Lens. If not stated, the Shut- 
 ters -will be sent without the round opening being 
 cut. 
 
 xxiii 
 
 Scovill Safety 
 Shutter. 
 
Ready Sensitised Albumen Paper. 
 
 This Paper was expressly manufactured for and introduced by us to 
 give to those who have not the skill, time, inclination or appliances to sen- 
 sitize photographic paper preparatory to printing, an article of the finest 
 quality and of uniform sensitiveness. 
 
 PRICE LIST. 
 
 Size. Per Package. 
 
 4x 5 inches, in light-tight packages, 2 dozen $0 40 
 
 5x 8 " " 2 " 75 
 
 6*x8i " ' 2 " 1 00 
 
 8x10 " " 2 ' 1 50 
 
 18x22 " 1 per doz. 3 00 
 
 To save loss, rolls are not broken. 
 
 TIN CASES to hold one dozen 18x22 Sensitized Paper, 30 cents each, 
 three " " " " 50 
 
 For Making Blue and White Pictures, 
 
 Our brand S. P. C. is a sure index of superiority in texture, the 
 paper is better wrapped than any other, and is noticeably free from spots 
 streaks or flaws. 
 
 This paper is extremely simple in its manipulation, and therefore 
 very convenient for making proofs from negatives. It is also adapted for 
 the reproduction of Mottoes, Plans, Drawings, Manuscript, Circulars, and to 
 show representations of Scenery, Boats, Machinery, &c., for an engraver to 
 copy from. The rapidity with which a print can be made with this paper 
 is for numerous purposes, and to men in some occupations, a very great 
 recommendation in its favor. 
 
 Size. PRICK I*ISX. Per Package. 
 
 4x5 inches, in 2 dozen light-tight parcels ................... $0 28 
 
 5 x 8 " 2 " " ................... 50 
 
 ^x 8K " 2 " .................... 67 
 
 8 xlO " 2 " .................... 83 
 
 To save loss, parcels are not broken. 
 In full rolls of 11 yards each, 29 inches wide, $3.50 per roll. 
 
IRVING PRINTING FRAMES 
 
 (PATENTED.) 
 
 The IRVING FRAMES have valuable features which cannot be copied. 
 They are in workmanship, design, and other respects, superior to all other 
 printing frames. 
 
 IRVING PRINTING FRAME, CLOSED IRVING PRINTING FRAME, OPEN 
 
 FRONT VICW. 
 
 BACK VIEW. 
 
 The continuous felt pads made especially to order for us, insure abso- 
 lute protection and uniform pressure throughout. The Irving Patent 
 Catches lock the back, so that when one flap is open there is not the 
 slightest danger of the flaps, paper or negative slipping. 
 
 The springs are cut by dies of specially tempered and tested metal, 
 and are riveted to the backs with washers underneath to protect the wood- 
 work. 
 
 The IRVING FRAMES are made of cherry guaranteed not to warp or 
 crack. Their construction and finish is acknowledged to be superior to 
 that of all other printing frames. 
 
 The tally does not depend upon any other part of the frame to lock it, 
 for the pointer will remain in place no matter what is done to other parts 
 of the frame. 
 
 Prices for Half or Two-thirds Opening Styles. 
 
 3#x4# $ .45 6^x8^ $.70 
 
 4x5 48 8x10 80 
 
 4Mx5V 50 10x12 1.10 
 
 4J|x6^ 55 11x14 2.10 
 
 5x7 60 13x16 2.30 
 
 5x8 65 14x17 2.70 
 
 When made with backs to open lengthways, ten per cent, is added to 
 the foregoing prices, for the respective sizes. 
 
 xxv 
 
"He flitiBfican flmioai of Plot 
 
 icTi 
 
 FOR 1888. 
 
 C. W. CANFIELD, EDITOR. 
 
 IT CONTAINS EIGHT (8) FULL-PAGE HIGH GRADE ILLUSTRATIONS, AND OVER 
 
 NINETY (90) ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS, WRITTEN EXPRESSLY FOR 
 
 ITS PAGES, BY THE MOST EMINENT PHOTOGRAPHIC 
 
 WRITERS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA. 
 
 THE ILLUSTSATIONS COMPSISE 
 
 A PHOTO-LITHOGRAPH, showing an improved new process, by 
 the Photogravure Company of New York. 
 
 A PHOTO-COPPERPLATE ENGRAVING of a Pictorial Land- 
 scape Subject, by Obernetter, of Munich. 
 
 A BROMIDE PRINT of a most artistic subject, by the Eastman Dry- 
 Plate and Film Co. 
 
 A ZINC ETCHING, from the Engraving, which is itself as fine as an 
 engraving, by Stevens & Morris. 
 
 A CHARMING CHILD PORTRAIT, by Crosscup & West's im- 
 proved process. 
 
 THREE MOSS-TYPES of popular subjects. And 
 
 Numerous Cuts, Diagrams, etc,, throughout the Letter-press, 
 
 " It is a solid volume of 329 pages with a generous addition of advertise- 
 ments not inferior in interest to the text." The Nation. 
 
 "It is a striking volume full of photographic exercises, and excellent 
 illustrations." New York Sun. 
 
 " It fully keeps up to the record of this firm in its endeavor to give to 
 professional and amateur photographers a complete compendium of the 
 art of photography." The New Bedford Evening Standard. 
 
 " It will no doubt prove an indispensable hand-book to the enthusiastic 
 photographer whether amateur or professional." The Philadelphia Public 
 Ledger. 
 
 "The photographer who does not quickly own this splendid and useful 
 work neglectshis business most unwisely. " The Philadelphia Photographer. 
 
 "The best Annual for 1888. Its publishers can be justly proud of issu- 
 ing the finest work of the kind published in America, if not in the world." 
 The Photographic Eye. 
 
 " Like its predecessors, it is filled with a great many good things in the 
 line of practical photographic work. Altogether, the volume is well-pub- 
 lished and printed, and is a useful addition to a photographer's library." 
 Anthony's Photographic Bulletin. 
 
 "All English readers interested in the progress of photography should 
 obtain the 'American Annual for 1888.' " The Photographic News. 
 
 "There are useful and suggestive articles by various authors. 
 * * Its general get-up is altogether excellent." The British Journal of 
 Photography. 
 
 " It is a neat volume, full of useful articles, tables, formulae, etc." St. 
 Louis Photographer. 
 
 The size royal octavo and style of binding is uniform with 
 the previous year's issue; and notwithstanding the expense of 
 preparation, the price remains the same. 
 
 Paper covers 50c. | Library Edition $1 00 
 
 By mail, lOc. additional. 
 
 For sale by all dealers in photographic materials, and by the publishers, 
 
 SCOVILL MANUFACTURING COMPANY. 
 
 XXVI 
 
THE 
 
 American Annual of Photography 
 
 AND 
 
 "Photographic Times" Almanac 
 
 For 1887. 
 C. W. CANFIELD, Editor. 
 
 A STANDARD BOOK OE REFERENCE. 
 
 It contains five full-page illustrations : 
 
 AN EXQUISITE PHOTO-GRAYURE, by Ernest Edwards. 
 A BROMIDE PRINT, by the Eastman Company. 
 
 A SILVER PRINT, by Gustar Cramer, of St. Louis. 
 
 TWO MOSS TYPES, by the Moss Engraying Company. 
 
 197 pages of Contributed Matter, consisting of articles on various 
 subjects, by 80 representative Photographic writers of this country 
 and Europe. 
 
 Also, in addition to the contributed articles : Yearly Calendar. Eclip- 
 ses, the Seasons. Church Days, Holidays, etc. Monthly Calendar, giving 
 Sunrise and Sunset for every day in the year ; Moon's phases ; also, dates 
 of meetings of all American Photographic Societies. A list of American 
 and European Photographic Societies. Photographic Periodicals, Ameri- 
 can and European. Books relating to Photography, published 1886. - Ap- 
 proved Standard Formulae for all processes now in general use. Tables 
 of Weights and Measures. American and Foreign Money Values. Com- 
 parisons of Thermometric Readings. Comparisons of Barometric Read- 
 ings. Symbols and Atomicity of the Chemical Elements. Symbols, 
 chemical and common names and solubilities of the substances used in 
 Photography. Tables for Enlargements and Reductions. Equations re- 
 lating to Foci. Tables of Comparative Exposures, Freezing Mixtures. 
 Photographic Patents issued 1886. Postage Rates. All Tables, Formulae, 
 etc., brought down to date and especially prepared or revised for this work. 
 
 Price, per Copy, SO Cents. By mail, We. extra. 
 Library Edition, $1.00. " " 
 
 For sale by all dealers in photographic materials, and by the publishers, 
 
 SCOVILL MANUFACTURING COMPANY, 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC TIMES 
 
 FOR 
 
 December 23, 1887 
 
 IS A. 
 
 DOUBLE ILLUSTRATED HOLIDAY NUMBER 
 
 OF UNUSUAL INTEREST AND VALUE. 
 
 CONTENTS.- 
 
 Page 
 
 Frontispiece Portrait of C. W. Canfleld. 
 
 A Review of the Photographic Year-Edito- 
 rial .... . . . 637 
 
 General Notes Editorial .... 639 
 Tranaferrotypes on Porcelain The Same 
 on Canvas Mr. John E. Dumont Wins 
 Another Prize in England-What is an 
 Amateur Photographer ? How Can the 
 Management and Membership be Brought 
 into Closer Communion ? The Photo- 
 graphic Society of Berlin Dr. Stolze's 
 Recommendation Regarding Magnesium 
 Flash Light Sugared Lime water Better 
 than Caustic Soda for Hydroxylamine 
 Developers Experiments in Bleaching 
 Kaoline Recent Experiments in Paraffin- 
 ing Corks The Reason Why Some Photo- 
 graphs do not Look like the People they 
 are Intended to Represent Retouching 
 Overdone The Number of Photographers 
 in America. 
 
 Letters on Landscape : Addressed to an Amer- 
 ican Friend -No. VIII Illustrated By 
 H. P. Robinson ... . 641 
 
 Gelatine: Its Manufacture, Characteristics, 
 and Practical Uses in Photography By 
 W. M. Ashman 643 
 
 Development of Instantaneous Plates By 
 Robt. E. M. Bain 645 
 
 How to Prevent Mealiness in Prints By J. R. 
 Swain 645 
 
 A Photographic Outing with Mr. E. P. Roe in 
 the Highlands of the Hudson By Rev. 
 W. H. Burbank .... . 646 
 
 " The Old Stone Bridge." Full page Illustration. 
 
 The Meisenbach Editorial .... 647 
 
 Charles W. Canfleld Editorial . . . .648 
 
 American Bibliography of Photography By 
 C.W. Canfleld . . .648 
 
 Page 
 
 John Manson : A Studio Story By W. J. Still- 
 man oov 
 
 Her Photograph Poem- By K. E. C. . . 65t 
 Hydrochinon-By John Carbutt . . .652 
 Making Solutions-Illustrated By Frank La 
 
 Manna 653 
 
 Light for the Dark-Room By Charles E. 
 Willard .... ... 653 
 
 A Rainy Day on Electra By A. . .653 
 
 A Portraits-Poem Shakespeare . . .656 
 The Photographic School at Chautauqua Il- 
 lustrated By Mrs. E. N. Lockwood . 656 
 What the Chautauqua School of Photography 
 
 is-By Prof. Charles Ehrmann . . .657 
 An Effectual Restrainer By C. D. Cheney, 
 
 D.D.S .657 
 
 Why He Failed 658 
 
 Correspondence 
 
 Ten-per-cent Solutions By Dr. H. D. Gar- 
 rison 658 
 
 An "Interesting Philosophical Fact Il- 
 lustrated By Rev. Clarence E. Wood- 
 man. Ph. D/ 658 
 
 Bromide Paper for Making Duplicate 
 
 Drawings By Jno. G. C . . . W 
 Rendering Paper Negatives Translucent- 
 Illustrated By Alex'r Henderson . . 669 
 The History of Photography By P. C. 
 
 Duchochois 659 
 
 Flandreau's Hypo-eliminator By W. H. 
 
 Sherman 
 
 Meetings of Sociefies 660 
 
 Photographic Section of the Rochester 
 
 Academy of Science 60 
 
 Pictures Received 661 
 
 Our Editorial Table 61 
 
 Another Review of the " History " . .662 
 Notes and Queries 662 
 
 Price, same as usual, 10 cents per copy. For Sale by all dealers 
 in Photographic Materials, The American News Co., and all its 
 branches, and by the publishers, 
 
 SCOVILL MANUFACTURING COMPANY. 
 
 xxviii 
 
" It is interesting as a novel and of vastly more value." REV. W. H. BURBANK. 
 
 " It is a book well worth reading, and should be in the hands of every live photog- 
 rapher."- J. R. SWAIN. 
 
 fl Every lover of photography will possess it." The Philadelphia Photographer. 
 
 44 The book is an interesting contribution to the growing list of photographic literature." 
 The Brooklyn Times. 
 
 " The book is well written, well printed, prettily bound, and what is better, contains a 
 complete, true and instructive account of the discoveries and successive improvements of 
 all the processes employed since the beginning of our beautiful art." P. C. DUCHOCHOIS. 
 
 "A HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY." 
 
 Written as "a Practical Q-uide and an Introduction to its Latest Developments. 
 
 (Scovill's Photographic Series, Number Twenty-three.) 
 
 By W. JEROME HARRISON, F.G.S., 
 
 And containing a full-page Portrait of the Author, with a Biographical 
 
 Sketch. 
 
 o CONTENTS. o 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Chapter I. The Origin of Photography. 
 
 Chapter II. Some Pioneers of Photography Wedgwood and Niepce. 
 
 Chapter III. -"-The Daguerreotype Process. 
 
 Chapter IV. Fox-Talbot and the Calotype Process. 
 
 Chapter V. Scott-Archer and the Collodion Process. 
 
 Chapter VI. Collodion Dry-Plates, with the Bath. 
 
 Chapter VII. Collodion Emulsion. 
 
 Chapter VIII. Gelatine Emulsion with Bromide of Silver. 
 
 Chapter IX. Introduction of Gelatino-Bromide Emulsion as an 
 Article of Commerce, by Burgess and by Kennett. 
 
 Chapter X. Gelatine Displaces Collodion. 
 
 Chapter XI. History of Photographic Printing Processes. 
 
 Chipter XII. History of Photographic Printing Processes (continued). 
 
 Chapter XIII. History of Roller-Slides and of Negative-Making on 
 Paper and on Films. 
 
 Chapter XIV. History of Photography in Colors. 
 
 Chapter XV. History of the Introduction of Developers Summing up. 
 
 Appendix. Dr. Maddox on the Discovery of the Gelatino-Bromide 
 Process. 
 
 The book is uniform in size of page and type with the other numbers 
 of Scovill's well-known Photographic Series. Bound substantially in 
 cloth, with gilt imprint. Price, $1.00. 
 
 SCOVILL MANUFACTURING CO., Publishers, 
 
 " It has the rare merit of being 1 both concise and comprehensive." W. H. SHERMAN. 
 
 " The work is a most valuable and interesting addition to our photographic literature." 
 The Photographic Eye. 
 
 " Any one who would like to read the history of one's profession and who would not ? 
 will find much to enjoy in this book, and much of profit as well." The St. Louis Photog- 
 rapher. 
 
 " It presents in a brief and comprehensive way the origin and development of this art, 
 with its consequent theories and experiments, and will be of value and interest." The 
 Independent. 
 
 " The story is told in an interesting style, and with such copious references that those 
 who have the time and inclination can readily enter into more deeply upon the subject, and 
 follow the course recommended." The Philadelphia Public Ledger. 
 
 xxix 
 
'PIlTOGIIPIHf P1IITIJ6 PIETHODS," 
 
 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE PROFESSIONAL AND AMATEUR WORKER. 
 
 Scovill's Photographic Series Number 22, 
 By The Rev W. H. BURBANK. 
 
 I lisa volume of more than 200 pages, uniform in size of page and type with " THE PHO- 
 TOGRAPHIC NEGATIVE" and the other numbers of the Scovill Photo- Series; is neatly bound 
 in cloth, with gilt titling ; and both inside and out makes a most attractive appearance. 
 
 Treating as it does of afield in photographic literature so long neglected, and one 
 which is so important to all practical photographers, this book is almost indispensible. 
 It is the only book in photographic literature to-day, which covers this ground, and it does 
 so completely. 
 
 The chapters which it contains on the following subjects, give an idea of its com- 
 pleteness and practical value : 
 
 INTRODUCTION THEORY OF LIGHT; ACTION OF LIGHT UPON SENSITIVE COMPOUNDS; 
 RESUME OF PRINTING PROCESSES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. PRINTING WITH IRON AND URANIUM COMPOUNDS. 
 CHAPTER II. THE SILVER BATH. 
 CHAPTER III. FUMING AND PRINTING. 
 CHAPTER IV. TONING AND FIXING WASHING. 
 CHAPTER V. PRINTING ON OTHER THAN ALBUMEN PAPER. 
 CHAPTER VI. THE PLATINOTYPE. 
 CHAPTER VII. PRINTING WITH EMULSIONS. 
 CHAPTER VIII. MOUNTING THE PRINTS. 
 CHAPTER IX. CARBON PRINTING. 
 CHAPTER X. PRINTING ON FABRICS 
 CHAPTER XL ENLARGEMENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. TRANSPARENCIES AND LANTERN SLIDES. 
 CHAPTER XIII. OPAL AND PORCELAIN PRINTING. 
 CHAPTER XIV. PHOTO. CERAMICS ENAMELLED INTAGLIOS. 
 CHAPTER XV. PHOTO-MECHANICAL PRINTING METHODS. 
 CHAPTER XVI. VARIOUS METHODS FOR PUTTING PICTURES ON BLOCKS AND METAL PLATES 
 
 FOR THE USE OF THE ENGRAVER. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. RECOVERY OF SILVER FROM PHOTOGRAPHIC WASTES PREPARATION OF 
 
 SILVER NITRATE, ETC. 
 INDEX. 
 
 It also contains TWO (2) FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS, an exquisite Photo-gravure and a 
 Pictorial Bromide Print, which alone are worth the price asked for the complete book. 
 
 PRICE, IN SUBSTANTIAL CLOTH BINDING, $1,00. 
 
 For sale by all dealers in photographic materials, or sent post-paid on receipt of price, 
 by the publishers, 
 
 SCOVILL MANUFACTURING COMPANY, 
 
 423 Broome St., SEW YORK 
 
THE COMPANION VOLUME TO 
 
 " Photographic Printing Methods, 
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR, 
 
 The Rev. W. H. BURBANK, 
 
 ENTITLED, 
 
 (Scovill's Photographic Series No. Twenty-five.) 
 A PRACTICAL 
 
 TO THE PREPARATION OF SENSITIVE SURFACES BY THE 
 CALOTYPE, ALBUMEN, COLLODION, AND GELATINE PRO- 
 CESSES, ON GLASS AND PAPER, WITH SUPPLEMENTARY 
 CHAPTER ON DEVELOPMENT, ETC., ETC. 
 
 It contains a Meisenbach Frontispiece of a pictorial subject from a 
 negative made by the author. Full description of his method for making 
 the Emulsion is given ; also much other valuable information, never before 
 published. 
 
 Profusely illustrated with cuts, two full-page pictorial Mosstypes, and 
 more than 200 pages of valuable reading matter. An indispensable com- 
 panion to "THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING METHODS," as can be seen at a 
 glance at the following complete 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER. 
 
 Preface. 
 
 I. General Remarks on Sensitive Surfaces, etc. 
 
 II. Preliminary Remarks on Exposure, Development, Fixing, etc. 
 
 III. Calotype. 
 
 IV. Sensitive Surfaces on Glass Preparation of the Glass. 
 V. The Albumen Process. 
 
 VI. The Old Collodion Process, Wet Plates. 
 
 VII. The Collodion Process, Dry Plates. 
 
 VIII. Collodion Emulsion Collodio-bromide of Silver. 
 
 IX. The Gelatine Process. 
 
 X. Coating the Plates. 
 
 XI. Development, Fixing, etc. 
 
 XII. Paper Negatives Stripping Films on Paper, Card-board, and Collodion. 
 
 XIII. Failures in the Gelatino-bromide Process. 
 
 XIV. Methods of Stripping Films from Glass Plates. 
 XV. Color-sensitive Plates. 
 
 XVI. Black and White Negatives. 
 
 XVII. Instantaneous Photography. 
 
 XVIII. Touching-up the Negative. 
 
 XIX. Photo -micrography. 
 
 XX. Micro-photography. 
 
 XXI. The Transformation of Negatives into Positives. 
 
 XXII. Obernetter's Method for the Direct Production of Negatives from Negatives. 
 Index. 
 
 Substantially bound in cloth, uniform with its companion volume, and 
 the other numbers of Scovill's Photographic Series. Price, $1.50. 
 
 For sale by all dealers, or sent post-paid, on receipt of price, by the 
 publishers, 
 
 SCOVILL MANUFACTURING CO. 
 
 VV. IRVING ADAMS, Agent. 
 
 xxxi 
 
Wilson's Photographic Publications. 
 
 For Sale by the Scovill Manufacturing Co. 
 
 Price, 
 Per Copy. 
 
 WILSON'S QUARTER CENTURY IN PHOTOGRAPHY.-By EDWARD L. WIL- 
 SON, Ph.D. " The best of everything boiled out from all sources." Profusely 
 illustrated, and with notes and elaborate index $4 oo 
 
 WILSON'S PHOTOGRAPHICS. "Chautauqua Edition," ^srith Appendix. By 
 EDWARD L. WILSON, Ph.D. A most complete photographic lesson-book. Covers 
 every department. 352 pages. Finely illustrated ; 4 oo 
 
 THE PROGRESS OF PHOTOGRAPHY.-By DR. H. W.^VOGEL. Revised by 
 Edward L. Wilson, Ph.D. Gives special consideration to Emulsion Photog- 
 raphy, and has an additional chapter on Photography for Amateurs. Em- 
 bellished with a full-page electric-light portrait by Kurtz, and seventy-two 
 wood-cuts 3 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT IN PHOTOGRAPHY. By H. P. ROBINSON. For the art 
 
 photographer. Cloth, $1.50 ; paper cover i oo 
 
 BIGELOW'S ARTISTIC PHOTOGRAPHY, with photographs 400 
 
 HEARN'S STUDIES IN ARTISTIC PRINTING, with photographs 3 oo 
 
 BURNET'S HINTS ON ART. A fac simile reproduction of the costly original 
 
 edition 4 oo 
 
 PHOTO-ENGRAVING, PHOTO-ETCHING, AND PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY. 
 
 By W. T. WILKINSON. Revised and enlarged by EDWARD L. WILSON, Ph.D. 
 Illustrated. 180 pages. Cloth bound 3 
 
 PRACTICAL GUIDE TO PHOTOGRAPHIC AND PHOTO-MECHANICAL 
 PRINTING. By Prof. W. K. BURTON. Amply illustrated. 348 pages. Cloth 
 bound i oo 
 
 THE PHILADELPHIA* PHOTOGRAPHER. Edited by EDWARD L. WILSON, 
 Ph.D. A semi-monthly magazine, illustrated by photographs. $5.00 a year ; 
 for six months 250 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC COLORISTS' GUIDE.-By JOHN L. GIHON. The 
 
 newest and best work on painting photographs i 5 
 
 WILSON'S LANTERN JOURNEYS. By EDWARD L. WILSON, Ph.D. In three 
 volumes. For the Lantern Exhibitor. Give incidents and facts in entertain- 
 ing style of about 3,000 places and things, and travels all over the world. Per 
 volume 2 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC MOSAICS, 1888. Published annually. Cloth bound, $1.00; 
 
 Paper cover 5 
 
 xxxii 
 
BRANDS AND SENSITOMETEB, NUMBEKS: 
 
 CARBOTT'S1..DRY PLATES 
 * "CELLULOID" FILMS, ' 
 
 "ECLIPSE," Sen. 27. Is extremely sensitive, and specially intended for 
 quick studio exposures, concealed and detective cameras, instantaneous 
 views, and magnesium flash-light photography. 
 
 "SPECIAL," Sen. 23 to 25. For portraits, instantaneous views, outdoor 
 groups, etc. Blue Label. This plate and our Ortho, Sen. 23 to 25, are 
 the best plates for professionals and view work. 
 
 "ORTHOCHROMATIC" Plates, Sen. 16 to 27, give correct color values. 
 The best plates for landscapes, interiors, photo-micrography, portrait- 
 ure in varied-colored draperies, photographing paintings, flowers, etc. 
 
 "B" Plates, Sen. 16 to 20. For landscape views and general photography. 
 Admittedly the finest plate for professional and amateur all-around work. 
 
 "B" PROCESS Plates, Sen. 12. For use by photo-lithographers, photo- 
 engravers, and zinc-etchers in making intense and clear-line negatives. 
 (Made as strippers to order.) 
 
 "A" GELATINO-ALBUMEN Plates. For lantern slides and copying. 
 
 "A" GELATINO-ALBUMEN GROUND GLASS Plates, specially 
 prepared for window transparencies. 
 
 STRIPPING PLATES. For photo-mechanical printers. Emulsions " B" 
 20 and "Special" 23 to 25, kept in stock. "Eclipse" 27 made to order. 
 
 "CELLULOID " FILMS TRANSPARENT Emulsion B," Sen. 
 
 1 2, for producing intense negatives for photo-reproductive processes. 
 
 ' ' CELLU LOI D " FILMS-MAT-SURFACE.-Emulsions"Eclipse," 
 
 Sens. 26 and 27 ; " Orthochromatic," Sens. 23 to 27 ; "Special," Sens. 23 to 
 25; "B," Sens. 16 to 20. 
 
 "CELLULOID" POSITIVE FILMS WHITE AND PINK. 
 
 " A " emulsion. For producing positives by contact, or enlargements by the 
 camera and developing. 
 
 CORRECT WORKING FORMULA IN EVERY PACKAGE. 
 
 CARBUTT'S SPECIALTIES. 
 
 Yellow Color Screens, for use with Orthochromatic plates, made of 
 
 two cemented plate-glass; sizes 2% x 2^, 75 cts.; 3^ x 3^, each $i oo 
 
 Eiko-cum-Hydro Two Solution Developer, two 8-oz bottles . . 60 
 
 "Roxyline" Enamel, for varnishing Fositives, Transparencies, and 
 
 Negatives. Used cold. Price, 4-oz. bottle, 400.; 8-oz. bottle . . 75 
 
 Multum in Parvo Dry Plate Lantern 6 oo 
 
 Keystone Dry Plate Varnish, 8-oz. bottle 
 
 Translucent Ruby Paper, 25 x 20, 250.; by mail 
 
 Concentrated Pyro and Soda-Potash Developer, two 8-oz. bottles 
 in one case 
 
 Lantern Slide Mats, with gilt line around opening, per 100 .... 
 
 Adhesive Binding Strips for Slides, per 100 
 
 Thin Crystal Cover Glass, 3^ x 4, per dozen 
 
 50 
 30 
 
 60 
 oo 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 CIRCULAR INSTANTANEOUS PLATES FOR CONCEALED CAMERA, 
 
 Per doz., 5 ^ -inch diam., $i.ior 6^. inch diam., $1.50. 
 
 CARBUTT'S LANTERN PLATES 55 CTS. PER DOZ. 
 
 On Specially Imported THIN CR YSTAL GLASS, Size 3% x 4. 
 
 For Sale by all Merchants in Photographic Materials. 
 
RETURN TO the circulation desk of any 
 University of California Library 
 
 or to the 
 
 NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station 
 University of California 
 Richmond, CA 94804-4698 
 
 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 
 
 2-month loans may be renewed by calling 
 (510)642-6753 
 
 1 -year loans may be recharged by bringing 
 books to NRLF 
 
 Renewals and recharges may be made 
 4 days prior to due date 
 
 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW 
 
 APR 18 2003 
 
 REC'DPUEL JUL29T0 
 
 Wl 
 
 DD20 15M 4-02 
 

 
 GENERAL LIBRARY -U.C. BERKELEY 
 
 
 
 '1-89255 
 
 " 
 
 UNiVERsrry OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY