HO 4^.^ i^^^^-^^— t/M^i^^U-^/JW / ^ f O THE JAPANESE EMPIRE HIGHWAY FKOM UTSUXOMIYA TO NIKKO. Frontispiece. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE AND ITS ECONOMIC CONDITIONS BY JOSEPH D'AUTREMER LECTURER AT THE SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL LANGUAGES, PARIS TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH WITH A MAP AND 20 ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK: CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN 1910 {All rights reserved.) CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE . 17 18 19 20 21 28 I. The Empire of Japan . II. Geographical Situation ; Development of Coasts ; Superficies ; Population in. Climate .... IV. Atmospheric Humidity . V. Geographical System ; Volcanoes VI. Hydrography; Rivers and Lakes CHAPTER n I. Aborigines and Conquerors . . . . .33 II. Chinese Influx; Mongols; Ainus . . . .34 III. Present-day Japanese Type . . . . .35 rV. Before and After the Revolution of 1868; Aristocracy and People .... ... .35 V. Japanese Constitution; the Government . . .37 VI. Justice; Courts . . .... 40 Vn. Law of Finance ; Budget . . . . .41 Vni. Electoral Law . . . . . . .42 IX. Emperor and Patriotism . . . . .42 X. The Nation: its Smile and its Dissimulation; Character of the Japanese . . . . . .43 ZI. Religion and Superstition . . . . .46 Xn. Foieigners in Japan . .... 49 CONTENTS CHAPTEE III I. Provinces and Districts .... PAGE . 51 n. The Three "Shi" . . 52 m. The Forty-five " Ken " . . 55 IV. Eed Tape Administration. . 61 V. Principal Ports ..... CHAPTER IV . 62 I. Land and Sea Routes from Europe to Japan ; the Siberian Railway; the Navigation Companies which carry on the Service . . . . . . . .66 n. Price of Passages ; Japanese Coasts in. Inner Sea to Kobe; from Kobe to Yokohama . 69 71 rv. Route from America and Companies making the Service of the Pacific . . . . . . .76 V. Sad Aspect of the Japanese Towns for those Disembarking . 77 CHAPTER V I. Native Life ; Food . . . . . .79 II. Cost of Life in Japan : Dearness of Living and Rent . 80 III. Hotels in the European Fashion . . . . .81 IV. The Japanese Family, its Constitution and Manners ; Situation of the Women and Children . . . . .82 CHAPTER VI I. Population : Its Density ; Expansion II. Some Figures III. Distribution of the Population . IV. Towns above 100,000 Inhabitants V. Emigration to Hokkaido (Isle of Yezo) . 97 . 98 . 99 . 102 . 102 CONTENTS CHAPTER VII I. Tokyo, the Capital II. Localities to Visit III. Environs of Tokyo IV. The Fuji-yama V. Sendai and the Towns of the North VI. Nagoya, Kyoto, Nara VII. Osaka and the Towns of the South PAGE . 104 . 105 . 106 . 108 . 109 . 110 . 112 CHAPTER VIII I. Weights and Measures .... . 115 n. Currency ...... . 117 III. Posts ...... . 117 IV. Telegraphs ..... . 121 V. Postal, Telegraphic, and Telephonic Condition on December 31, 1907 . 122 VI. Public Education .... . 123 VII. Press : Journals and Reviews . . 125 VIII. Courts and Tribunals .... CHAPTER IX . 125 I. Army: French and German Instructors 127 II. Navy : French Instructors and Engineers ; English Pro- fessors ........ 128 III. System of Recruiting ; Latest Modifications ; Present-day Reorganisation ; Increase of the Divisions and of the Artillery . . . . . . .128 IV. Present State of the Navy : Building Projects . . 138 V. Conclusion ....... 140 8 CONTENTS CHAPTER X I. Agriculture : Area of Rice-fields II. Total Production in Cereals III. Different Kinds of Rice .... IV. Haricot, Maize, Potatoes, DifEerent Vegetables V. Spices and Condiments .... VI. Divisions of the Land .... VII. Silk and Culture of the Mulberry VIII. Tea Culture ..... IX. Horses and Cattle .... X. Fruits ...... XI. Isle of Yezo (Hokkaido) and the Colonisation FÂGB . 141 . 142 . 143 . 144 . 146 . 146 . 147 . 148 . 149 . 151 . 153 CHAPTER XI I. Fisheries . II. Fishing Boats : the Takings III. Fish Prizes in the High Sea IV. Marine Fish V. Salt and Salines . VI. Forests . VII. Some of the most Common Woods in Japan VIII. The Forest of Kisogawa, Crown Land IX. Camphor ...... X, Mushrooms . . . . . . 155 . 158 . 159 . 160 . 161 . 162 . 164 . 169 . 170 . 171 CHAPTER XII I. Industries in the Past . II. Silk: Its début in Japan 178 174 CONTENTS m. Weaving and Spinning of Silk . rV. Industry of Dyeing V. Pottery ..... VI. Faience of Satsuma ; Porcelain from Owari Vn. Metal Industry .... VIII. Lacquer ..... IX. Fans, Screens, Sculpture on Wood and Ivory X. Japanese Art . . . . . PASS . 175 . 177 . 178 . 180 . 181 . 183 . 191 . 191 CHAPTER Xin I. The New Industries II. Industrial Societies existing To- m. Difierent Forms of Enterprise IV. Principal Weaving Districts V. Ceramic Industry; Lacquer; Matches VI. Leather . VII. Preserved Foods; Paper Vni. Manufactories of the State IX. Japanese Eivalry; Employment Country X. Wages and Salaries XI. Retrospective Sketch of European Capital . 193 . 194 . 195 . 196 . 198 . 199 . 200 . 202 in the 202 205 207 CHAPTER XIV I. Trade of Japan with Foreigners ; Habutai, Kaiki, Silk Depots . . . . . . .211 n. Export of Tea . . . . . . .215 in. Export of Rice . . . . . . .216 IV. Japanese Coal ....... 217 10 CONTENTS V. Copper ..... VI. Camphor, Straw Mats, Sake, Cigarettes VII. Cotton ..... FAGB . 218 . 218 . 221 VIII. Importation of Eaw Cotton, woollen things, mousselines de laine ; the situation of Prance relatively to the impor- tation of this latter ; Rice in Indo-Ohina ; Metals and Machines ....... 222 IX. French Imports .... X. The Japanese Trader . . . XI. Imports and Exports of the Principal Ports Xn. Japanese Merchant Service XIII. French Steamships XIV. Custom Tarifi .... . 226 . 228 . 228 . 231 . 231 CHAPTER XV I. Routes; Railways ...... 234 II. State V. Companies; Purchase of Lines by the State and Nationalisation of the Railway .... 238 III. Principal Lines . IV. Tramways V. Tariff of Railways 2U 245 247 CHAPTER XVI I. Mines ; in Antiquity ; in the Fifteenth Century II. Geology; soil .... III. Exploiting of Mines IV. Some Coal Mines V. Petroleum .... VI. Various : Graphite, Sulphur, &c. . 248 . 250 . 251 . 252 . 255 . 256 CONTENTS 11 VII. Miners ; Regulations of Mines VIII. Administration of the Mines .... IX. The Mines in 1908 ; Socialism amongst the Workmen X. Yield of Copper and Coal .... PAGE . 257 . 261 . 262 . 264 CHAPTER XVn I. Japanese Finance ; Generalities II. Organisation of To-day III. The Budget and Taxes IV. Public Debt ; Loans V. Local Finance VI. Banks VII. Assurance Companies VIII. Doctors; Public Hygiene; Public Assistance 267 268 269 275 276 277 279 CHAPTER XVIII I. Political Japan and its Future . II. Commercial and Industrial Japan and its Future 281 284 CHAPTER XIX I. The Japanese Colonies; Formosa . 287 II. Finance ..... . 293 III. Monopolies . 296 IV. Banks ..... . 297 V. Trade ..... . 297 VI. Agriculture and Industries . 298 VII. Saghalien and Kwang-Tung . 299 12 CONTENTS CHAPTER XX FÂOB I. Korea of Former Times and To-day ; the Establishment of the Japanese Protectorate ..... 301 n. The Resident General and his Powers. . . . 304 III. Financial Reform ; Taxes ; Banks .... 304 IV. The Japanese in Korea; Agricultural and Industrial Societies; Culture and Breeding ..... 307 V. Korea; Its Industry and Future . . , 309 VI. Trade ; Imports and Exports for 1908 . . . .310 Ikdez ........ 318 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Highway feom Utsunomiya to Nikkô , . Frontispiece TO FACE PAGK Paek at Hakone (See page 32) . . . . .17 Haiey Ainus . . . . . . . .33 The Loweb Chambee op the Diet (House of Representatives) . 41 The Buddhist Image at Kamakuea . . . . .47 Entrance op the Temple op Kiyomiza at Kyoto . . .78 A Meal ... . . . . 88 A Buddhist Puneeal en Humble Life . . . .94 In the Gaeden op an Ancient Buddhist Temple . . .94 View op Kyoto ....... 97 View op Fuji peom Atami ...... 108 The Castle op Nagoya ...... 110 ToEii AND Pagoda bepoee the Peecincts op Ieyabu . . 114 "Hall op the Theee Buddhas," Nikkô .... 114 A Swoed-makeb ........ 181 A MouiiTAiN Village . . . • . . . . 234 Rooms in an Inn, pormerly a Daimyô's Residence . . 234 Gate Leading to the Peecincts op Iemitsu . . . 245 Lake Chusenji . ...... 245 Nikkô : Avenue op Buddhist Tombs ..... 280 13 PRINCIPAL GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS Yama = mountain. San = mountain. Take or dake = summit. Saki = café. Toge = peninsula. Kawa or gawa = river, stream. Hara = plain. Ura = bay. Nada = basin, gulf. Seto = straits. Umi = sea. Shima or jima = island. PRINCIPAL MEASURES 1 Chô = 358 feet or ^'-^ of a mile ; 36 chô = 1 ri. 1 Ri = 2-44 English miles. 1 Ken = 6 feet; 60 ken = 1 chô. 1 Shaku = 1 foot (nearly). 1 Sun = about 1 inch ; 10 sun = 1 shaku. 1 Bu = î'ô of 1 sun. 1 Jo =10 English feet. LAND MEASURE 1 Tsubo = 4 sq. yards English. 1 Chô = 2^ acres and 1 ri sq. = 6 sq. miles (approximately). 15 16 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES CAPACITY 1 To = "10 sho = nearly J a bushel, or for liquids 4 gallcms. 1 Koku = 10 to = fraction less than 5 English bushels. WEIGHT Kin = IJ lb. avoir. Momme About 120 momma = 1 lb. avoir. Kwan or Kwamm = 1,000 momme = 6| kin = 6 J lb. PARK AT HAlv(.iN"K. (See page 32.) The Japanese Empire and Its Economic Conditions CHAPTEE I I. Empire of Japan — II. Its geographical situation ; development of coasts, area, population — III. Climate — IV. Atmospheric humidity — V. Orographic system, volcanoes — VI. Hydrography, rivers and lakes. The Empire of Japan remained unknown to Europe until the 13th century, when Rubruquis and Marco Polo discovered its existence ; but it was not till after the arrival of the Portuguese Jesuits in the Japanese Islands, chat is, in the 10th century, that the country became a little more familiar to Western peoples. It is not my purpose here to trace the history of Japan ; it will be sufficient to say that since 1852, when the United States enforced its demand for open doors, down to our own day, Japan has undergone such trans- formations, and so effectively shaken off its old Chinese civilisation in adopting the European mechanism, that it has become a mihtary and economic, but above all a military, factor that cannot be ignored but must be reckoned with. 2 " 18 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE The foundation of the Japanese character being very warlike and martial was instrumental for a long time in turning the nation to things appertaining to fighting ; since the earliest ages the education of a young Japanese of good family has chiefly been of a military kind. II Japan is situated lengthways on the north-west of the Pacific Ocean. It consists of four large islands : Nippon or Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, Yezo or Hokkaido ; of a number of small ones, amongst the most im- portant of which are : Sado, Oki, Awaji, Tsushima. The little archipelago of Eyûkyû also counts as an integral part of the Empire ; although the inhabitants are not Japanese as a matter of fact. In addition, at the conclusion of the war against China, Japan conquered the island of Formosa and the Pescadores ; and following its campaign in Manchuria against Eussia, it was successful in getting reassigned the southern portion of the island of Saghalien or Karafuto, which it had ceded to Eussia in 1875, On the extreme north of Yezo, Japan possesses the Kuriles or Chishima, and in the Pacific the Bonin group — Ogasawara in Japanese. The whole Empire is comprised between 156° 32' and 120° east longitude, and 22° and 51° north latitude (east of Greenwich). It is separated from Korea on the north-west by the Sea of Japan. The principal islands — Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and Yezo (more familiar to the Japanese under the name of Hokkaido), with the Kuriles, the islands of Sado, Oki, Awaji, Aki, Tsushima, the Eyûkyû, and the THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 19 Bonin (or Ogasawara) Islands, have a coast extension of 17,000 miles, with Formosa and the Pescadores, 17,423 miles. Up to the present, precise recordings of the Japanese portion of Saghalien (Karafuto) have not been made. The area of the Japanese territory is about 170,000 square miles. In 1906 (39th year Meiji) there was a population of 47,674,471 inhabitants, of which 24,047,953 were men and 23,626,518 women. On December 20, 1908, there were 49,232,822 inhabi- tants, 24,864,385 being men and 24,368,437 women. Ill Japan is very long and very narrow. The climate is affected by this configuration, and whilst in the north the winter is very severe, in the south, on the contrary, the heat in summer is excessive; generally speaking, how- ever, the climate is temperate, but extremely enervating for Europeans, especially for women. Suicide and neuras- thenia are comparatively frequent amongst the white population. From the physical standpoint Japan can be divided into three zones : Northern Zone, island of Yezo and the north of Honshu to the bay of Sendai ; Central Zone, from the bay of Sendai to Yokohama and the bay of Yedo ; the Southern Zone, from the bay of Yedo to the extreme point of Kyushu. The Northern Zone, as I have just indicated, is very cold in winter ; snow falls in abundance then and ice is permanent. The Central Zone is more temperate, but the seasons are not as clearly defined as in Central Europe, and there is always, even in winter, a certain humidity ; the summers are exceedingly hot except upon 20 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the heights; thus in the plain of Tokyo the thermometer reaches to 99°.* As to the Southern Zone, it is distinctly less cold in winter and much hotter in summer; in its extreme southerly portion, that is to say, towards Nagasaki and Kagoshima, it is unbearably hot in summer. rv All three zones are subject to the rainstorms of the south-west monsoon, and the months of July and August are generally as wet there as in the Tropics ; the harvests are often devastated by inundations. Thus the average rainfall is considerable. Per cent. Per cent Kagoshima .. 76 Tokyo ... 73 Kochi .. 75 Kanazawa ... 79 Osaka .. 73 Aki ... 78 Nagasaki .. 75 Ishinomaki ... 80 Shimonoseki .. 77 Hakodate ... 77 Saikyo .. 80 Nemuro ... 81 As shown by the table below, one may tabulate the rainfall of the country thus : — Kagoshima TTnphi Osaka ... Nagasaki Shimonoseki Saikyo ... Tokyo ... Kanazawa Nagano Âkita ... .. Number of Eainy Days. 178 Clear Weather 61 146 49 145 40 168 36 174 34 225 23 134 54 235 23 176 30 224 11 * The atmospheric pressure having been reduced to the average sea- level and corrected by the variation in gravity. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 21 Ishinomaki Hakodate Nemuro Number of Rainy Days. 174 203 140 Clear Weather. 36 29 46 This record is for 1906.* It is clear, then, that for the European, Httle accus- tomed to a humid soil, the climate of Japan, in spite of all that has been said of it, is not the climate par excel- lence ; it is notably inferior to that of China. Euro- peans who have resided for a length of time in Japan and reached old age there are much more rare than in China. From the picturesque point of view, however, for beauty of luxuriant and blooming landscape, Japan is greatly superior to China. In the following table is given the maximum and minimum temperature recorded in 1906 : — Kagoshima Kochi . . . Osaka ... Nagasaki Shimonoseki Saikyo ... Tokyo ... Kanazawa Nagano ... Âkita Ishinomaki Hakodate Nemuro... Maximum. Minimum 33° t l°t 35 5 35 3 33 2 34 6 32 4 32 4 34 5 33 16 33 15 30 11 28 19 28 21 An essentially mountainous country, Japan is traversed from north to south by a system of mountain chains * The days of snow, frost, &c., are not taken into account here. t Centigrade. 22 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE and peaks, some of which, fairly elevated, ramify in all directions. The principal chain divides in the north of Honshu, and stretches over Tokyo, and from there over Kyoto and Shimonoseki, cutting, so to speak, in two the great island and dividing its control of the waters by two well-marked watersheds — west-northerly, east- southerly— in the direction of west to east from Aomori, at the extreme north-east point, down to Akamagaseki, at the south-west extremity of the province of Chôshû. From this main chain secondary ranges detach them- selves, one of which runs towards Izu (almost an island), at Cape Irozaki ; another towards Wakayama, at Cape Shiomisaki (south of the island) ; whilst a third stretches towards Noto by Cape Eokkezai (on the Sea of Japan). The southern islands, Shikoku and Kyushu, are alike divided along their whole extent into two parts by a chain of mountains, which slopes into Shikoku from the north-east (Tokushima) to the south-west (Cape Ashizurimisaki) ; and in Kyushu from the north (Kokura) to the south, where it divides into two branches (Cape Nomo on the west and Cape Satami on the east). The great island of Yezo presents the same moun- tainous character to be found everywhere else in the Empire. But the chain of mountains traversing it does not divide into two sharply-defined declivities, but into what might be called four slopes, taking as the central point the summit of Tokachidaké (10,000 feet, roughly). From Tokachidaké a chain extends bearing northwards at Cape Soya ; this chain includes Mount Ishikari, the second height in the island (8,000 feet). Another chain extends from the same point in a north- easterly direction, where it separates into two branches, terminating in Capes Shire-ko-zaki and Noshafuzaki ; THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 23 finally, a third chain, starting also from Tokachidaké, extends towards the south and terminates in Cape Yerimisaki. Westwards, between Tokachidaké and the town of Sapporo, there lies the plain of Sapporo, formed by a deep depression, where the major part of the Japanese emigration up to now has gone. West of Sapporo by Cape Kamoimi-saki the ground rises, and then extends from this cape right to Hakodate, the extreme southerly point of the island, another range of mountains cutting into two parts this portion of the island. The whole extent of this mountain system is marked by elevated peaks, both in the north and south, some of them attaining the height of between 6,000 feet and 9,900 feet. In the north of the province of Mutsu (district of Tsugaru) may be mentioned Iwaki-san (5,260 feet), called also "Tsugaru no fugi," or " Fugi of Tsugaru," because of its resemblance in shape to the Fuji ; it is famous throughout the district. Tateyama, in the province of Kikuchû. Osore-zan (the mountain which creates fear) is an active volcano in the province of Mutsu, district of Kitagori. Chokai-zan (4,308 feet), in the province of Ugo, district of Akumi. Gwassan (5,610 feet), province of Uzen, district of Tagawa. lide-san (3,960 feet), a chain rather than a peak extending through the provinces of Iwashiro and Echigo. Nikkô-zan, the mountains of Nikko, have a height of nearly 6,600 feet, and with the Fuji and the Asama are the most celebrated mountains of Japan. 24 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE They are the highest mountains in the province of Shimotzuke, and they are also known as Futaharayama or Kurokamiyama. They are crowned by their chief height, the Nantai-zan, situated on the north-west of the district of Kami-tsugi-you ; on the north-east the Nyoho-zan continue the chain ; and upon the eastern slope, which is almost sheer, are to be found the seven cascades (nana taki) from which the Inarigawa takes its source. The two plateaux of 0-manago and Ko-manago lie between these two points. North of 0-manago the solitary peak of Taro-zan rises, and east of Nyohô-zan the Akanagi chain extends. Bear- ing away from this chain, upon the northern bank of the Inarigawa, the hill called Toyama can be discerned, which whilst not being particularly elevated has a character of its own, as it stands solitary and isolated in the centre of the group. East of it is found the Ogurayama ; the Konosuyama rise to the south of the river Daiyagawa, and west of this river the raised plateau of Nakimushi is discernible. Towards the middle of this chain the plateaux of Tsukimi, Matsutate, Ni no Mya extend in a straight line. Half-way up the Futaharayama there is a temple, and the ancient temple of Chusenji is to be found about nine miles from the foot of this mountain. The lake there, which is very cold and very deep, is named the Lake of Happiness (Sutsu no umi) ; it is very famous, and the largest lake in the environs of Nikkô. In the east of the lake the water falls perpendicularly, forming the cascade, and the torrent in which it issues forth is the Daiyagawa itself. On the north-west of the Futuhara mountains the Yugatahe rises, with thermal springs lying at its base (Yu=warm waters). What has been THE JAPA:NESE empire 25 enumerated above forms the inner chain system of the group of mountains of Nikko. Outwards on the north the Koshin-zan rises, and the two Shirane bordering Kotzuke and Shimotzuke at the pass of Konsei-toge (Inaye=in front, oku= behind). North-east of these latter the Kinunuma mountains lie, with numberless lakes and pools. It was in these mountains, with their fine scenery and native splendour, that two of the Shoguns * desired to be buried. This explains why a countless number of temples and monasteries are to be found there to-day. The Tsukuba-zan, though of moderate height, are peculiar in formation. They overlook the districts of Tsukuba, Nubari, and Makabe in the province of Hitachi. The Bandai-san mountain, which rises north of Lake Inawashiro, was for a long time believed to be an extinct volcano, but on July 14, 1888, it became active and destroyed numerous villages, the inhabitants of which were buried beneath.! The Fuji-san or Fujiyama mountain is 12,400 feet high. This mountain might well be called the sacred mountain of Japan. Graceful and regular in form (with the exception of a slightly-broken outline on one side), it has been at all times the object of worship and adora- tion by all Japanese. Though extinct at the present moment, the mountain has had several eruptions in earlier periods, notably about 799 a.d., and also in 863. The last eruption took place in the fifth month of the • A Shogun is a general-in-chief, lieutenant of the Mikado. It was to him Europeans gave the name of Tai-kun, and with whom they made their first treaties. t The effect of the eruption made itself felt as far distant as Tokyo, where I was staying at the time, the town having been violently shaken. 26 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Hoei period (1706). It was owing to this that the name of Hoei-zan was given to the Httle elevation upon one of the mountain sides (to the south-east) indicated above. The crater assumed its present form at the same date, in belching forth great volumes of ashes, which the wind carried as far as Yedo. Every summer during the month of August Fuji is a much-frequented place of pilgrimage ; millions of men and women draped entirely in white garments make the ascension of the mountain, armed with a stick. The mountains of Hakone and the Amagi chain, of fair height, strike off from the Fuji group. The most celebrated of the active volcanoes is Asama- yama (8,280 feet). At the present time only thick smoke and ashes issue forth from its crater, but it has had at times terrible eruptions, and at any moment a recurrence of the phenomena may be expected. In 1783 notably, the eruption destroyed quantities of villages and human lives. The Tateshi-yama (7,590 feet) and the Yatsugadaki (8,910 feet) lie to the south of Asama. The San Ontake overlooks the three provinces of Shinano, Mino, and Hida. Tateyama (6,600 feet) is in the province of Etchu. Hakusan (9,900 feet) commands a very extended view over the provinces of Kaga, Echizen, Mino, and Hida. The Sanshogatake is in the province of Yamato ; it is the highest peak in the chain of mountains of Yoshino. The ramifications branch off to join the chain of moun- tains of Kumano and Koza in the province of Kii. Unsengatake (4,950 feet), in the province of Hizen, is an active volcano. In its neighbourhood are found THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 27 the sources of the thermal springs, which are greatly resorted to. In the island of Sakurajima, in the province of Osumi, the active volcano Sakurajimagatake is found. At the period of geological formation, the volcanic action must have been extremely violent, and from that time forward this action has continued to manifest itself in modern times. Hundreds of mountains now quies- cent were formerly sheets of burning fire. The annals of Japan are full of the terrible outbursts of ashes, fire, and lava vomited forth by the mountains, north and south, east and west ; millions of lives were destroyed in an instant and villages swallowed up. At the present period the Japanese reckon that their country contams still about twenty volcanoes in activity, and one hundred which are in repose, but that may break out at any moment with appalling intensity. In 1874 the Taromai volcano, in the island of Yezo, whose crater having long remained cool was thought inoffensive, broke into eruption, threw up to some distance the crust enclosing it, and rained out ashes to the sea-shore. Asayama-yama, never quiet and constantly throwing out steam and smoke, whilst alternately trembling and thundering, is the terror of the surrounding countries. Fuji itself, the sacred mountain situated so majes- tically in the plain of Subashiri, offers no guarantee of security. The Hakuzan volcano upon the west coast, whose crater towers above the mists, is 9,900 feet above the level of the sea, and encloses within its crater a lake of the purest water ; it once became active, and belched forth fire, smoke, rocks, ashes, and lava. How often on dark nights the Japanese fisherman, a 28 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE little way distant from the shore, can discern the fires of the Oshima volcano. In addition to the numberless fields full of scorise that attest the volcanic character of the Japanese soil, sulphur beds abound everywhere, proving the existence of sub- terranean fires. Satsuma, Kyûkyû, and Yezo are famed for the quantity of sulphur they produce. Enormous blocks of sulphur issue forth down the flanks of Hakuzan ; solfataras exist in almost all the provinces, and finally in the provinces of Shinano and Echigo the peasants light their dwellings and cook their rice with the inflammable gas issuing from the earth, which they utilize for their needs by enclosing in tubes. As a consequence of the volcanic character of the country earthquakes are numerous, and often cause frightful catastrophes. Towns and villages have been, and constantly are still destroyed, and provinces ravaged. The last great earthquake, which took place at Yedo in 1855, was one of the most horrible ever experienced ; the town was almost completely destroyed and burned. Japanese houses are of wood, and the earthquake bringing in its train fire, the latter finishes up what the former has already commenced. In October, 1891, there was another earthquake, which turned out a terrible catastrophe, desolating the country between Nagoya and Kyoto, and numbering about 30,000 victims. VI Japan is irrigated by a fairly large number of water- courses; but owing to the slight extent of the valleys, which are necessarily compressed owing to the extreme THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 29 length and narrow width of the country, the rivers have a very insignificant course, and except in one part, towards their mouth, are invariably unnavigable. I shall, however, give particulars of some of them. The Fujikawa is formed of three rivers, which rise in the province of Kai. It flows in a southerly direc- tion, crosses the province of Suruga, and passes at the foot of Mount Fuji before falling into the sea. The Fujikawa is, correctly speaking, a torrent which during the great summer rains is too frequently the enemy of the cultivator and the destroyer of the crops. The Oi-gawa rises in the border of the provinces of Shinano and Kai, and flows towards the south, forming the boundary between the provinces of Suruga and Tôtômi. The Tenriu-gawa, which is rather more important than the above (60 ri = 150 miles in length),* takes its origin in Lake Suwa. This river debouches in the province of Shinano ; it crosses the province of Tôtômi in flowing southwards. The Shinano-gawa has its source in the province of the same name, under the name of Chikuma-gawa, and flows north-west and then north, traversing the province of Echigo, where it takes the name of Shinano-gawa. It flows into the sea at Niigata. The length of its course is about 100 ri. It is only in part navigable, having rapids, which render its use as a means of transport very little to be depended upon. The Kiso-gawa has its source in the district of Chikuma, province of Shinano, and flows first south-west, then south. It enters the province of Mino, flows in a * The ri represents nearly 2J miles. (See table of length measures at end of the volume.) 30 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE westerly direction, and finally again takes a southerly direction ; it separates into numerous branches, which flow into the sea, crossing the provinces of Owari and Isé. The Abukuna-gawa starts in the district of Shirakawa, province of Iwaki, then, directing itself northwards, enters finally the province of Iwashiro, when it flows eastwards. Changing its course it re-enters the province of Iwaki, flows north as far as the boundary of the province of Eikuzen, then turns towards the east to gain the sea. The Kitakami-gawa makes its start in the district of Iwati, in the province of Eikuchu ; it flows south, travers- ing the province of Eikuzen, and empties itself into the sea at the port of Ishinomaki. The Mogami-gawa has its source in the Dainichi moun- tain, in the district of Oitama, province of Uzen ; it traverses the two districts of Murayama and Mogami, taking a northerly direction, after which the direction is westward to the borders of the province of Ugo, emptying into the sea at Sakata. The Tone-gawa (190 ri,* see table), the most important river of Japan, flows from Nakanodake past Numata, then makes a westward bend at the mountain chain of the Akagis so as to arrive at the large town of Mayebashi (50,000 inhabitants). Below this latter the river flows directly east till it comes to the rising ground of Koga (town with a population of about 10,000), when it goes northwards, and finally east. It flows into the Pacific Ocean north of Cape Inubomisaki. Although it passes for a great river in Japan, the Tone-gawa has none of the characteristics of the rivers of the European continent ; it is not equal even to the Seine, and though some flat-bottomed junks and little steamers with a small * 1 ri = rather less than 2J miles. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 31 draught of water can navigate it as far as Numata, its importance as a commercial waterway cannot be rated highly. Moreover, there is no good harbour at its mouth, and outside the barrage, constantly renewed, the winds beat against the shore, so inclement for ships. The Tone-gawa becomes fork-shaped at Sekiyado, in the pro- vince of Shimosa, and forms the branch called Yedo-gawa, which falls into the bay of Yedo not far from Tokyo. The Sumida-gawa (75 ri), more familiar under the name of Arakawa, at its source in the mainland of Kokushidake and also in its entire upper course, falls into the sea at Tokyo, after having traversed a large part of the town. Like all Japanese rivers, it is only navigable near its mouth. The Baniu-gawa, which is only 18 ri long, is a torrent issuing from the lake of Yamanaka, on the north-east slopes of the Fujiyama. Like the Fujikawa, it often causes disasters in summer. The Yodogawa rises in Lake Biwa, in the province of Omi, takes a southward direction, enters the province of Yamashiro, and then retakes a westerly course. The river in the beginning bears the name of Ujigawa, passes Yodo, from whence it takes its name, and flows in a south-westerly course, separating the two provinces of Kawachi and Setsu. It debouches into the sea, passing by Osaka, and is only 20 ri long. The Go-gawa is formed by two rivers, the first of which, named Mioshi-gawa, originates in the province of Bingo, whilst the second, named Yoshida-gawa, rises in the pro- vince of Aki. Formed thus by the reunion of the two rivers, it flows in a north-westerly direction, and goes into the province of Iwami. At its entrance into this province, irrigating the two districts of Ochi and Naka, it bears the name of Go-gawa, at the same time making a 32 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE slight detour, then it reassumes its north-westerly direction to debouch into the sea. The length of its course is 80 ri. The Yoshi-gawa rises in the district of Tosa, in the province of that name, flows first eastwards, then bends north, and, crossing the province of Awa, receives the lyogawa river, flowing into the sea by numerous mouths. The Chikugo, or Chitose-gawa, is formed by the union of two water-courses, one of which comes from the province of Higo and the other from the province of Bungo. This river first flows in a north-westerly direction to the borders of the provinces of Chikuzen and Chikugo, after which it traverses this latter province, separating it from Hizen. A mountainous and volcanic country, Japan contains a large number of lakes both in north and south. I shall limit myself here to indicating the three principal ones. First, Lake Biwa, not far from Kyoto, in the province of Omi ; it measures about 36 miles in length by 12 miles and owes its name to its configuration, which resembles the Japanese guitar (Biwa) ; steamships offer their services in every direction, and make excellent pro- vision for visiting the places of note comfortably. The little lake of Hakone, which only measures 12| miles round, is very well known and greatly frequented, owing to its situation upon one of the most delightful places in Japan. Lake Chuzenji, in the province of Shimotzuke, is situated upon the summit of the Nikko mountains. It is 20 miles round, and it is upon its shores that the Europeans residing at Tokyo and Yokohama take refuge during the heat of summer. It is owing to the railway, which joins Tokyo to Nikko, that Chuzenji has become the residence of the diplomatic corps during the months of July, August, and September. HAIRY AIXUS. To face p. 33- CHAPTEE II The aborigines and conquerors — II. Chinese influx ; Mongol and Ainu peoples — III. The Japanese type at the present day — IV. Before and after the Revolution of 1868 ; aristocracy and people — V. Japanese Constitution; the Government — VI. Justice, the tribunals — VII. System of finance, budget — VIII. Electoral law — IX. The Emperor and patriotism — X. The nation ; its dissimulation and its smile ; character of the Japanese — XI. Religion and superstition — XII. Foreigners in Japan. By whom was Japan peopled at the dawn of history ? This is a problem which has not yet been solved, and will not ever be in my own opinion. It is extremely probable that prior to the arrival of the conquerors (the present-day Japanese) the islands in the extreme west were peopled in the north by Ainus, Goldes, and Giliaks, Siberian races, of whom traces are still found at Yezo and SaghaHen, and in the province of Amur under control of Eussia. The south appears to have been the home of Negritoes and Canaque tribes, resembling those still found existing in the Philippines, the Bonin Islands, Nouméa, and Tahiti. But from 660 B.c., the date assigned to the first Japanese emperor, these different races have been replaced by numerous Malay peoples. When the warrior chief known by the name of 3 33 34 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Iwarehiko landed with his band on the island of Kyushu, he destroyed or reduced into slavery the natives, and pushing on his conquest in a northerly direction, reached Honshu (Isle of Nippon). Proclaimed emperor in 660 under the name of Jinmu Tenno, he left to his sucessors the task of continuing the occupation of the land, a task they thoroughly carried out. The Malay element, then, is incontestably the con- quering and dominating one of Japan. II Nevertheless, it is none the less correct to say that there has been a Chinese influx, Korea being the inter- mediary. Writing, Letters, and the Arts and Sciences of China were brought to Japan by the natives of the Celestial Empire, and at the different re-conquests the Emperors of Japan brought into the country men and women to teach the arts of metal-working and silk-weaving. There was thus a Mongol intermixture, but there is no doubt that it had no great influence ; and if to-day there are still found Japanese of a purely Mongol type, the bulk of the people present a markedly Malaysian type. The native Ainu type is to be met also, but more rarely, and I have come across, though not often, certain Japanese with abundant hair and thick black beards, who, dressed in the European style, might have passed unchallenged as South Americans. On the other hand one often discovers, notably in the south, the Negrito type — woolly hair, dark complexion, and thick lips. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 35 III Owing to its situation as a group of islands separated from the rest of the world, having no outward relations except with China through the intermediary of Korea, (and that, moreover, only tardily), with all its ports closed to foreigners down to 1617, when the death of leyasu occurred, the country has existed in an isolation that is complete. This has facilitated an intermingling and amalgamation of all the races which have spread themselves over the land of Nippon, and to-day the Japanese type is a truly unique one ; it is characterised generally by small stature, large body, with short legs, and somewhat ugly, though there are feminine types which form the exception ; but, taken as a whole, one may say that the prettiness of the Japanese women is due rather to their dress than to natural physical causes. IV Prior to the revolution of 1868, which re-established upon the throne the descendant of Jinmu Tenno and broke up the power of the Shogun, or Lieutenant- General, for many centuries the true emperor, Japan existed in a state of feudalism, the provinces under the control of the feudal princes or Daimyôs, who were in their turn under the authority of the Shogun. The Shogun appropriated for his own occupation Yedo (the Tokyo of to-day) and the surrounding provinces, which together constituted the Kouan to. To-day this feudalism is destroyed, and the Mikado reigns over a united and centralised country. Mutsu- hito, hundred and twenty-first Emperor of Japan, is 36 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE looked upon as the direct heir in an uninterrupted Hne from Jinmu Tenno ; it is unnecessary to say that this is a myth. For a very long period the Emperors of Japan, according to the most authentic accounts, have not had in their veins a drop of the blood of Jinmu, because with the child emperors who succeeded one another without interruption under theFujiwara, the Taira, and the Mina- moto * (about 800 to 1200 a.d.), and with the system of adoptions which has always flourished in all times in the Imperial family when there has been no male heir, it is quite certain that for a long period the direct line has been interrupted. But the Japanese have preserved the fiction, and their intense patriotism has always disposed them to the belief that their Imperial dynasty descends from the divine Amaterasu, goddess of the sun (Amaterasu mi Kami). The ancient feudal lords, known under the name of Daimyos, have all made their submission to the Emperor, and form one part of the Japanese aristocracy to-day ; I say one part, because the actual aristocracy outside the old families counts in its ranks ordinary plebeians who have been ennobled. The aristocracy, as in England, is attainable by con- ferment. The Emperor confers the title of duke, mar- quis, count, or viscount or baron, on those of his subjects whom he considers to have well served him, whatever may be the humbleness of their origin. Below the nobles come the Shizoku, ancient soldiers and retainers of the Daimyos and the Shogun. The title alone distinguishes them from the Heimin, or people who are next in rank, there being no single point of difference perceptible between them to-day. * Families of the Shogun, or Lieutenant-General. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 37 Great nobles or Kwazoku, little nobles or Shizoku, people or Heimin, they are all on an equality before the Emperor and before the law. The Japanese are a people essentially easy to govern. Habituated under the old régime to an exceptional disci- pline, they have conserved their love of a hierarchy, of authority, and reverence for superiors. A man asking his way in the street from a policeman, approaches him with a respectful timidity, owing to his being the repre- sentative of authority. V Accustomed to obey the orders of the Emperor and his Ministers, the Japanese people knew nothing of the nature of a Constitution. With a view, therefore, of modernising the machinery of government, the Mikado, on the advice of his Ministers, granted a Constitution to the people on February 11, 1889, consisting of an Upper and Lower House. This Constitution is modelled upon that of the German Empire, the Ministers being respon- sible only to the Emperor, and being able consequently to ignore the Imperial Diet when they deem it desirable. The principal articles of the Japanese Constitution can be summarised thus : — 1. The Emperor exercises legislative power in concert with the Imperial Diet; he sanctions laws and orders their promulgation. He convokes the two Houses, closes, prorogues, and dissolves them. 2. When the Imperial Diet is not sitting imperial ordinances have the force of law. It is laid down that the ordinances must be submitted to the Imperial Diet at the following session, which can revoke them if not 38 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE satisfied with them ; but who would dare to announce in the Imperial Diet opposition to an Imperial ordinance ? 3. The Emperor determines the organisation of the different administrations, and fixes the salaries of the civil functionaries and the officers. 4. The Emperor has the supreme command of the army and navy; he declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties. 5. He confers titles of nobility and honours and decorations ; he has the right to grant pardon and amnesty. 6. In the event of being a minor a regent is appointed who fulfils all the duties of the Emperor in his name. 7. The Imperial Diet comprises two Houses — the House of Peers and the House of Representatives. The House of Peers is constituted by the members of the Imperial family, the nobility, and those whom the Emperor judges worthy of being nominated there. The House of Representatives is formed of members elected by the nation in conformity with the electoral law. The two Houses vote on legislation submitted to them by the Government, and they can initiate legislation. A Bill that is rejected by one or other of the two Houses cannot be brought forward again during the same session. 8. The Imperial Diet is convoked every year for three months ; in case of necessity the Emperor can prolong the Session. In the event of urgent circumstances the Emperor can convoke the Imperial Diet. The two Houses sit at the same time, and if the Lower Chamber is dissolved the Upper Chamber is prorogued i^so/ac^o. 9. When the dissolution is pronounced new elections take place, and the new Chamber is convoked within five months. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 39 10. No vote can be taken unless a third at least of the members are present. Votes must be adopted by an absolute majority, the President having a casting vote in the event of the votes being equal. 11. The proceedings are open to the public, but the Government and the Chambers can order the doors to be closed. The Chambers can present petitions to the Emperor, and receive them from the people. 12. The members are inviolable, and cannot be arrested without the consent of the Chambers, except in cases of flagrante delicto, or of offences connected with a state of internal commotion, or a foreign war. Ministers have the right to sit in both Houses. Ministers of State and the Privy Council are superior to the two Houses, and act with them. Ministers of State are responsible to the Emperor, and must countersign all laws, ordi- nances, and Imperial prescriptions of every kind. The Privy Council deliberate upon important matters of State when they have been consulted by the Emperor. Their deliberations are always in secret, and never pub- lished. Here is the composition of the Government, starting from its head, the Emperor : — Nai Kaku (Cabinet). Minister of the Imperial Palace (Ku Nai sho). Minister of the Interior (Nai mu sho). Minister of Justice (Shi ho sho). Finance Minister (0 Kura sho). Minister of Agriculture and Commerce (No sho mu sho). War Minister (Eiku gun sho). Minister for the Navy (Kai gun sho) . Minister for Post Office (Tei shin sho) . 40 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Minister for Public Education (Mom bu sho). Minister for Foreign Affairs (Gai mu shô). Privy Council (Su mitsu in). House of Peers (Ka zoku gi in). House of Eepresentatives (Koku kai gi in). As in Europe, the different administrations are divided into departments, under departments, offices, &c., which it is not necessary to enumerate here. There formerly existed a Minister for Public Works, Ko bu shô, but he has been dispensed with, and the various offices that he administered have been divided between the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce and the Post Office Minister. VI There was formerly in Japan, as is usual in Eastern countries, no distinction between administrative power and judicial power. "When, however, Japan came into line with "Western countries it laid down regulations for the establishment of tribunals in which [the working of the judicatory system could be carried out. 1. Judgments are delivered by the courts of justice established in conformity with the law. 2. The judges are selected from those subjects who possess qualifications according to law. No judge can be removed from his position unless by way of criminal sentence or disciplinary punishment. 3. Trials in court are public, but if the judge considers that the publicity of the trial may be prejudicial to peace, order, or public morality, the court may order the doors to be closed against the public. All matters that do not come into the province of ordinary courts shall be decided by special courts (such as < THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 41 the crimes and offences of soldiers and sailors). And all complaints against the illegal measures, or the abuses of executive authorities, must be dealt with by a special court of administrative litigation. VII The laws relating to finance have been thus re- modelled : — 1. Taxation is fixed by law. National loans and all liabilities contracted in the name of the National Treasury have to receive the consent of Parliament. 2. The revenue and expenditure of the State require the approbation of the Imperial Diet by means of an annual Budget ; all expenditure incurred beyond that covered by the Budget, when this has been passed, has to receive the sanction of the Imperial Diet. 3. The Budget is first submitted to the House of Eepresentatives. 4. The expenses of the Emperor and the Imperial Household are all defrayed out of the National Treasury, but are not submitted to the approbation of the Diet, except when an increase is demanded. Generally speaking, the expenditure of the Emperor and the Imperial Household cannot be reduced by the Diet without the consent of the Government. In case of urgency the Government can pass any financial measures it considers advisable through the agency of Imperial ordinances. When the Budget has not been voted the Government can carry out the Budget of the preceding year. All the financial accounts of the national revenue and expenditure are verified by the Audit Court. 42 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE VIII The provisions of the Electoral Law are as follows : To be an elector one must be a Japanese, twenty-five years of age, must have been resident for one year, and pay 15 yen* at least in direct taxation. Electors are not very numerous ; many of them, not yet knowing what an election is, and caring even less, abstain from voting. Ever since the first election there have been men very much au fait with electoral opportunities who have sold their votes for the highest offer, which has been as much as 25 yen. IX In spite of this shadow of Parliamentarism, it is clear that the political condition of Japan resembles in no particular what we call Constitutional Government. The State is the Emperor, and his person is sacred ; his decisions are looked upon as actually coming from Heaven, whose offspring he is supposed to be. Son of Heaven, Ten shi sama, that is the designation given him by loyal subjects of Nippon. Nevertheless, with all this, some rents are unques- tionably making their appearance in this "/oi de char- bonnier " ; and the Emperor passing along the streets of Tokyo is not infrequently regarded with indifference : he is respected, but there is no longer the old adoration. It has even occurred to me to hear Japanese at a review, awaiting the arrival of the Emperor, become impatient and express themselves with scant courtesy with regard * The yen is worth 2 fr. 55 (about two shillings). THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 43 to the " Emperor who might have been more punctual." There is, however, one thing which will preserve intact for a long time yet the love of the people for the Emperor. This is the intense, indeed barbaric, patriotism animating every Japanese. The Emperor is one with the land, and the Japanese land is sacrosanct. At the elementary schools the children of five years old are taught that there exists no more beautiful country than Japan, that it is the land of the gods of whom the Emperor is the son, and that one must die for country and Emperor. These principles inculcated in a race that is combative, excessively proud and courageous, have produced a nation essentially warlike and brave.* X Below the Emperor, one can justly say that there is but one people, any class distinction being rather in the law * A song found in the elementary reading-books is very characteristic : — " The sabres of the army are like frost ; Cannon-balls are like hail ; In the struggle upon earth Mountains are shaken, rivers tremble ; The warriors of Japan are disciplined and loyal. Break not the ranks ; remove mountains and rivers ; Advance, fix your eyes upon the enemy. The artillery hurtles through the air. The torpedo quivers in the sea. In the naval combat the wind rises, the sea roars ; The warriors are disciplined and loyal ; Draw up in line the fleet ; conquer the white floods ; Advance, fix your eyes on the enemies' ships." Another example is seen in " Song of Children saying Farewell to their Father." " On the departure of the father for the war, the elder brother brings his helmet and the younger brother his boots ; both are calmer than usual. They say to their father, ' Depart, and bring us home as gifts the heads of enemies.' The father makes a sign of assent with his head." 44 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE than in manners ; the sovereign apart, the Japanese is somewhat democratic, as are the Chinese and the Oriental generally ; there does not exist a haughty aristocracy as in England, or autocratic and stiff as in Germany. As a consequence, from the social standpoint there is greater equality in Japan than almost anywhere. The people — by this I mean the peasant and the work- man — are infinitely more polite and better educated than in any country of Europe. One is pleasantly surprised in travelling through the country of Japan to find the people extremely courteous, very hospitable, and generally extremely clean ; in regard to this latter, the comparison with some of our provinces is not always to our advantage. It must not, however, be assumed that because they are polite and hospitable they like Europeans. They do not like us — indeed, they detest us — but they do not let this be apparent. "What more can we demand? In this is to be found one of the great elements of strength of the Japanese character : its dissimulation. Habituated from tenderest infancy to allow neither grief nor joy to be visible on his face, the Japanese preserves an impenetrable physiog- nomy, and it is impossible to guess his thoughts. All his ideas are concealed behind an immutable smile, which is to be discerned everywhere and in all circumstances. It is instructive to reproduce here without approval or commentary a passage which appeared in a Japanese newspaper upon the future of Tonkin, under the signature of " Sujin " : — *' Having only recently emerged from feudalism, the Japanese still submits to the authority of opinion, which is defied by no one. From this arises the collective will, THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 45 whose power has produced an incredible condition — a national dissimulation — following upon a single word of order issued to the entire nation. The humanity which has been shown to prisoners is the attitude imposed by the élite of the nation under the eye of Western observers. In the same way the politeness towards strangers skilfully veils the hatred they inspire. " The heroic spirit of old Japan, even without the new complexity of dissimulation, is very difficult to explain. It involves the disunion of ideas that appear to us in- separable, and vice versa. Thus, contempt of death, chivalrous sacrifice, and loyalty are characteristic virtues of the ^Samurai ; yet a man entitled to be regarded as most brave and loyal will not hesitate to take advantage by treacherous means and strike from behind a disarmed adversary whom he considers it is his duty to hate. A patriot kills himself that he may sign his convictions with his blood, but he will assassinate a Minister whose political activity in his judgment is bad. Such examples have abounded since 1869. "FuTUEE OF Tonkin, May 9, 1909." Does all this harmonise with the introduction of modern ideas ? In this connection it is interesting to learn the opinion of Mr. Kawakami Kiyoshi, one of the leading sociologists of present-day Japan : — " The moral principles, especially the spirit of chivalry, which furnishes the Japanese nation with rules of conduct for their daily life, have been destroyed by the recent revolutions, political and industrial. Envy, hatred, grief, and restrained rage on the part of the poor, extravagant vanity, luxury, and dissipation amongst the rich — these are the symptoms of the great social 46 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE conflict which will certainly take place in Japan at no distant future." XI With respect to religion, the Japanese has none or very little ; but, on the other hand, he is very super- stitious. Formerly the cultured people followed the ethics of Confucius, and the people the precepts of Buddha, both at the same time acknowledging and following Shintoism, or the religion of Shinto gods, ancestors of the Mikado. Originally, at the dawn of the Empire, after the estab- lishment of the monarchy by Jinmu, Shintoism was alone acknowledged ; it was then, and is still to-day, the worship of the Imperial ancestors, and notably of the goddess of the sun, Amaterasu o mi Kami. To the numberless throng of gods or Kami, which I do not propose enumerating here, the Emperors added the names of their predecessors, whom they elevated to the rank of Kami, and it is in this way that Shintoism has become the cult of the Imperial ancestors. Side by side with this there have gradually developed '^ popular superstitions. There is the superstition of the fox, to whom temples are dedicated, and whom the people appease by prayer and sacrifice ; and there is many another in which the gods of wind, rain, and thunder figure. After Shintoism came Buddhism, which has supplanted the former with the people, though Shintoism has re- mained the religion of the Emperor. The people hold it in respect, and when in need go to the Shintoist temple and offer up prayers ; but they have ÏHK BLUUHIST IMAl'.K AT KAMAKL'KA. To face p. 47. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 47 adopted Buddhism because it is more suited to their intelligence and more understandable in its dogmas and ceremonies. Buddhism was introduced into Japan by Korea in the reign of Ken Mei tennô, 563 a.d. There were considerable difficulties in its installation, but, aided by the Imperial protection, it soon took root, and Japan very rapidly became Buddhist. It is the religion which at the present time is the most widely diffused. As a matter of fact, the Japanese have two religions — the cult of the Kami, the old national religion, and the worship of Buddha, imported from India by China and Korea. One constantly sees a Japanese on religious festival days offer up prayers in the two temples, one after the other. In Japan Buddhism is divided into several sects, all of which have their principal temple at Kyoto. At the period of Ota Nobunaga (1553) Kyoto was a regular stronghold of the Buddhist priests, who were con- stantly rebelling against authority. They were often punished, and Nobunaga carried out a terrible massacre there. Eeligion to-day counts for very little in Japan, and it is superstition alone that has taken profound root there. The higher classes, more or less imbued with European ideas, profess the most sovereign contempt for everything rehgious, and maintain nothing beyond the custom of observing Shintoist rites on festival days. On the other hand, I have heard from a trustworthy source, and I have no difficulty in believing the report, that the great personages of the State consult the fates every morning ! The State outside the cult of Shinto in no way concerns itself with the religion of its subjects. It is more tolerant in this respect than many Western 48 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE countries. Catholicism, Protestantism, the Greek Ortho- dox Church can all flourish there in perfect security pro- vided that they do nothing against the laws of the Empire, and as the Empire has issued no special laws against them, it is not a difficult matter for them to keep the general laws. The ancient laws against the Christians have been entirely repealed. From the political standpoint the clergy have no sort of influence upon Japan. Priests of all sorts and monks of all categories live in peace, persecuting no one and being persecuted by no one. The mendicant monks still go up and down the streets in the mornings reciting prayers before the doors and receiving the alms of the faithful. Some of the Buddhist temples are remarkable monuments, though constructed entirely of wood. The visitor to Japan cannot go to Kyoto without visiting Nishi Hongwan ji and Higashi Hongwan ji ; Kio Midzoudera ; Chi on inn. The two first are to be found in the town itself, and do not possess the imposing surroundings of the two others. Elevated upon Hiei-zan, they are framed in verdure and exceedingly fine trees, which enhance their splendour in the eyes of the spectator. In May Kyoto and its temples and palace attract pilgrims from every part of Japan. As an example of a Shintoist temple one must see the temple of Gi on. The Shintoist temples are made of white wood, have no pictures and no ornamentation except a mirror and a sword, legacies given to the first Emperor by the divine Amaterasu. There is no art to be found there, no decoration ; the roof alone, Chinese in form and architecture, though less massive and more slender and elegant, is often a marvel of con- struction. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 49 XII In the beginning of their intercourse with the Japanese the foreigners lived in the island, maintaining their own nationality. They had not, it is true, the right to reside outside the limits fixed by the treaties in the ports of Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka, Kobe, Nagasaki, Niigata, Hakodati. They did not acknowledge the Japanese law, and their consuls could alone judge them and sentence them ; and when they journeyed into the interior it was necessary for them to have a passport given them by the Japanese authorities upon the demands of their Minister ; and they could not deviate from the itinerary inscribed upon the passport under pain of being escorted to the nearest open port. To-day, follovsdng the revision of the treaties (signed for France in 1896), all foreigners resident in Japan must submit to the Japanese laws and regulations. It is true that they can travel through the whole interior of the country vidthout any passport, but their consuls can do nothing for them; they must submit completely to Japanese jurisdiction. Consequently, since the opera- tion of the new treaties many old European residents have quitted Japan. At the present time (December 31, 1906, latest statistics) there is a total of 19,129 foreigners, of whom 13,000 are Chinese and the others Asiatic. Foreigners live in the islands of the Kising Sun upon the same footing as the Japanese, but they have not the right to own the soil ; they are only permitted con- tracts for ninety-nine years. The Franco-Japanese Treaty, signed at Paris, August 4, 1896, and that was put in force four years later, granted to the French ** lasting protection for their persons and 4 50 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE property." It gave them permission to travel, reside and exercise their profession, to acquire, possess, and bequeath by succession their estates, fortune, and per- sonal property of every kind ; guaranteed them free and easy access to the Courts of Justice, and permitted them to enjoy complete liberty of conscience. In everything concerning agriculture and the rights of ownership of landed property it is understood that the French in Japan will enjoy the same advantages as the subjects of the most favoured of nations. For the moment this clause is a dead letter, as no European can possess land in the Empire of the Mikado. The land, as a matter of fact, is supposed to belong entirely to the Emperor, and he cannot alienate it ; he can only allow it to be held on lease. CHAPTEK III Provinces and districts— II. The three " Shi " — III. The forty-five " Kens "—IV. Details of the administration — V. Principal ports. Down to the Mei ji era (1868), the period of the Imperial restoration, Japan poHtically was divided into provinces (Kuni) to the number of eighty- six, arranged in nine groups : — 1. The Imperial provinces (Go kinai), numbering five. 2. Eight large divisions (Do). These last divisions were : Hokuroku-do, Sanin-do, and Hokkaido in the north ; Tôkaidô and Tosando in the east ; Sanyo-do and Nankai-dô in the south ; Sakai-do on the west. The names of the provinces, or Kuni, are no longer used politically, but as they are still used occasionally even officially, the names of them are enumerated here. The Go kinai, or Imperial provinces, comprise five pro- vinces : Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi, Settsu. The Tôkaidô (circling the east littoral) includes fifteen provinces : Iga, Ise, Shima, Owari, Mikawa, Tôtômi, Suruga, Kai, Izu, Sagami, Musashi, Awa, Kazusa, Shimosa, Hitachi. The Tosando (circling the eastern mountains) contains thirteen provinces : Omi, Mino, Hida, Shinano, Kotzuke, 52 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Shimotzuke, Iwaki, Iwashiro, Eikuzen, Eikuchû, Mutsu, Uzen, Ugo. The Hokuroku do (circuit of the northern continent) comprises seven provinces : Wakasa, Echizen, Kaga, Noto, Etchu, Echigo, Sado. The Saninido (small circuit of the mountains) has eight provinces : Tamba, Tango, Tajima, Inaba, Hoki, Izumo, Iwami, Oki. The Sanyo-do (large circuit of the mountains) com- prises eight provinces : Harima, Mimasaka, Bizen, Bi-chu, Bingo, Aki, Suo, Nagato. The Nankai-do (circling the southern littoral) includes six provinces : Kii, Awagi, Awa, Sanuki, lyo, Tosa. The Saikai-do (circuit of the western littoral) consists of twelve provinces : Chikuzen, Chikugo, Buzen, Bungo, Hizen, Higo, Hyiiga, Osumi, Satsuma, Iki, Tsushima, most of the Eyùkyû isles. The Hokkaido (circuit of the north littoral) is com- posed of eleven provinces : Oshima, Shiribeshi, Iburi, Ishikari, Hitaka, Tokachi, Teshio, Kushiro, Nemuro, Kitami, Chishima (Kurile Islands). II To-day Japan is divided into three Shi, or towns, and forty-five Ken, or departments. The three Shi are : Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka. Tokyo, capital of the Empire since the restoration of 1868, formerly Yedo, capital of the Shogun or Lieutenant- General, is the seat of government and the residence of the Emperor. This town is divided into districts (Ku), and contains two millions of inhabitants. The districts are : Kojimachi, Kanda, Nihombashi, THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 53 Kyosbashi, Shiba, Azabu, Akasaka, Yotsuya, Ushigome, Koishikawa, Hongo, Shitaya, Asakusa, Honjo, Fukagawa. The suburban districts are : Ebara gôri ; Higashi tama gori ; Minami Toshima gôri ; Kita to shima gôri ; Minami Adachi gôri ; Minami katsushika gôri. In the Middle Ages the site upon which Yedo is situated to-day was nothing but a sandy beach. In the fifteenth century a warrior named Ota Dôkwan took possession of the village of fishermen situated at the estuary of the Sumida, and called it Ye do (mouth of the river). He constructed a fortress there in 1466. This fortress was seized by Hideyoshi (Taikosama), and it was his successor, leyasu, who in 1603 made it his capital. It became also the capital of the Shogun, whilst Kyoto (Miyato) remained the capital of the Emperors. The Mikado Mutsu nito, then reigning, was installed there in 1868, and in September changed the name of the town to that of Tokyo. "With the exception of the official buildings, such as the administrative offices, the barracks, staff office, and various schools, &c., Tokyo is built of wood. Consequently incen- diaries commit frightful outrages, and often burn a portion of the town, which, however, is rebuilt within fifteen days. The streets are wide and regular, but they have a dreary aspect, owing to the grey colour of the wood, the effect of the inclement weather. The town has not a cheerful appearance at all. Electric tramways run through the principal streets, whilst at the same time the jinrikisha, or carriages drawn by men, move about in all directions. The interesting parts of the town are the parks of Shiba, where two of the Shoguns are interred, and the temples and the gardens surrounding and leading up to 54 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the tomb, which are very beautiful. In the middle of the park the Koyo-kwan, or Circle of the Maple, is situated. It is a very recherche Japanese club, and gives a very good idea of the charming Japanese house. There are also the parks of Ueno, another resting-place of the Shoguns at the side of Lake Shinobazu ; the hill of Atago- yama, from which one commands the whole town ; the moats and the outer gates of the ancient castle of Yedo, which still exist to-day round the Imperial Palace ; the great Temple of Asakusa and the dyke of Mukojima. The parts which have not been too much Europeanised are also picturesque and interesting. The environs of Tokyo are much frequented on fête days ; and more than ever at the present time, owing to the facilities accorded by the railways, the population can conveniently indulge in their excursions round about the town every time that a Buddhist saint has to be honoured. Kyoto, the ancient capital (Miyako) of the Mikado and the sacred city of Japan, is situated in the province of Yamashiro, about ninety-five miles south-west of Tokyo ; it is only three hours by rail from Osaka and Kobe. The town is divided into two parts : Kami Kio Ku, or the high town, and Shimo Kio Ku, or the lower town. In 784 the Imperial dynasty definitely fixed its capital at Kyoto, and it was not till 1868, when the suppression of the Shogunate took place, that the Imperial throne was transferred to Tokyo. At the present moment the town of Kyoto has fallen into decay, and shows no sign of activity. It is held in respect as the religious capital of Japan, and the traveller can easily pass a month there studying Buddhist architecture in all its manifestations. The principal excursions are to the palace of the Emperors, to Higashi Hongwan ji, Nishi Hongwan ji, Chi on In, THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 55 Kiomitzu dera, San ju san guen do, Honkoku ji, the hill of Hieizan, Lake Biwa and the rapids of Arashiyama or Katsuragawa. Kyoto manufactures embroideries, porcelain, and bronze. From a commercial point of view Shi Osaka is really the most important of the three towns. It is situated about 107 miles from Tokyo, and 37^ miles from Kyoto. Numberless boats traverse it in every direction, so that the navigation practicable for transport by water pene- trates to the very heart of the town, the population of which to-day reaches one million inhabitants. The industry of Japan is thus, so to speak, concentrated in this town, well situated near the sea and in the centre of Japan, Osaka is the great commercial market of the Empire, and is in close touch to-day by water and by made roads with every part of Japan. Industries are in a very flourishing condition, and the majority of the population are in easy circumstances. Ill The Ken, or departments, were at first thirty-five in number. 1. Ken of Kanagawa. It is composed of three districts : Tsudzuki, Tachibana, and Kuroki, with a part of the district of Tama, province of Musashi, and also the province of S agami. The headquarters are at Yokohama, the port where formerly most foreigners resided. The principal towns of this department are : Odawara, in the province of Sagami ; Yokosuka, in the same province, not far from Yokohama, is a fortified town and arsenal for the Imperial navy. 2. Ken of Hyogo includes under its administration five 56 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE districts of the province of Settsu and two districts of the province of Tamba, as well as the three provinces of Harima, Awaji, and Tajima. The chief place in Kobe is the province of Settsu. This port, open to outside trade since the first year of Mei ji (1868), is contiguous on its western side to that of Hyogo. To the south-east of Kobe the bay of Osaka lies, and a little further the strait of Tomoshima. The town of Himeji is likewise part of this ken ; it is situated in the province of Harima, about 35J miles west of Kobe. 3. Ken of Nagasaki. Consists of three provinces : Hizen, Iki, and Tsushima. The chief town is Nagasaki, in the province of Hizen, distant from Tokyo some 900 miles. The port of Nagasaki, open for a long period to trade with China and Holland, was only free to other countries in the sixth year of Ansei (1859). It is closed on three sides by mountains ; on the fourth, which is that of entry, it is protected by numerous islands and islets. This port is one of the safest and deepest in Japan. The town of Saga, in the province of Hizen, is about 70 miles north-east of Nagasaki. 4. Ken of Niigata. It comprises the provinces of Echigo (one district of which, Tsugawa, formed part of the Ken of Fukushima) and Sado. The chief town is Niigata, in the province of Echigo, some 225 miles from Tokyo. It has a population of nearly fifty thousand inhabitants. The port of Niigata was opened to foreign trade in the first year of Mei ji (1868), but being situated on the mouth of the Shinanogawa, it is consequently shallow and in- convenient. 5. Ken of Aïchi. It is formed of two provinces, Owari and Mikawa, the headquarters being Nagoya, in the THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 57 province of Owari, situated 235 miles from Tokyo, in the middle of a plain. It has large and lively streets, and is one of the most important Japanese centres. There still exists a magnificent fortress (Shiro), the ancient residence of the Daimyo, The town of Okasaki, in the province of Mikawa, is situated 25 miles south- east of Nagaya. 6. Ken of Ishikawa. It is formed of three provinces : Kaga, Noto, Etchii, as V7ell as seven districts in the province of Echizen. The chief town is Kanagawa, in the province of Kaga. This town is 322 miles from Tokyo ; it is crossed, both in north and south, by two rivers, the Sai-gawa and the Asano-gawa, Kanagawa being almost in the centre of Hokuroku do. The trade is not considerable. The principal towns in this department are : Fukui, in the province of Echizen, and Toyama, in the province of Etchu. 7. Ken of Hiroshima. Composed of the two provinces of Aki and Bingo. The chief place is Hiroshima, in the province of Aki. Situated 625 miles from Tokyo. The soil of the environs is very fertile, and the town is irrigated by several water-courses. The important town of Fukuyama, in the province of Bingo, is found 65 miles east of Hiroshima. 8. Ken of Wakayama. Consists of the province of Kii (several villages in this province lying east of the river Kumano form part of the ken of Miye). Wakayama, about 407 miles from Tokyo, is the chief place. This town lies at the entrance of the bay of Osaka ; on the west it touches the sea, and the north side is irrigated by the Kino-gawa. Being surrounded by hills it is very picturesque. 9. Ken of Sakai. It comprises three provinces : Izumi, 58 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Yamato, and Kawachi. The chief town is Sakai, in the province of Izumi, and 370 miles from Tokyo. Sakai lies on the same coast as Osaka in the north ; it is irrigated by the Yamato-gawa, and quantities of fish are caught there. Sakai was formerly the place where foreign navies anchored. 10. Ken of Miyagi. Consists of thirteen districts of the province of Eikuzen and three in the province of Iwaki. Sendai, in the province of Eikuzen, is the principal town. It is traversed on the south-west by the Hirose-gawa, and it touches Shinogama and Mat- sushima on its east side. The surroundings of this latter form one of the most beautiful landscapes of Japan. The principal commodities are fish and salt. Sendai is 207 miles to the north of Tokyo. 11. Ken of Kochi. Consists of the two provinces of Tosa and Awa. Principal place is Kochi, in the province of Tosa ; it is 577 miles from Tokyo. On the east is the port of Urato ; the Kami-gawa runs north and south. The principal productions are wood and fish. 12. Ken of Kumamoto. Consists of the province of Higo, the capital being Kumamoto, an ancient place of great importance. It is situated 815 miles from Tokyo ; watered on the south by the Shirakawa, and bounded on the north-west by a group of mountains. It is one of the five towns of Saikai-do. 13. Ken of Shimane. Consists of five provinces : Izumo, Hoki, Inabâ, Iwami, Oki. The chief town is Matsué, in the province of Izumo, 57 miles from Tokyo. 14. Ken of Akita. It consists of a part of the provinces of Ugo and Eikuchû. Chief town Akita, in the province of Ugo. 15. Ken of Saitama. Composed of part of the pro- THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 59 vinces of Musashi and Shimosa. The chief town is Urawa, in the province of Musashi. 16. Ken of Chiba. Consists of parts of the provinces of Shimosa, Awa, and Kazusa. The chief town is Chiba, on the gulf, 33 miles from Tokyo. 17. Ken of Ibaraki. Consisting of parts of the provinces of Hitachi and Shimosa. The chief town is Mito, in the province of Hitachi, on the ocean, 77 miles from Tokyo. 18. Ken of Tochigi. Consists of the province of Shimotsuke. The chief town is Tochigi. An important town is Utsunomiya, the place of departure for the road and the railway going to Nikko. 19. Ken of Gumma. Consisting of the province of Kotzuke. The chief town is Mayebashi, 70 miles from Tokyo ; with the towns of Takasaki and Tomioka, Mayebashi constitutes the most important centre in Japan for the silk trade. 20. Ken of Miye. Comprises the provinces of Ise, Iga, and Shima, and a part of the province of Kii, The chief town is Tsu, 282 miles from Tokyo. 21. Ken of Shizuoka. Consisting of the provinces of Suruga, Tôtômi, and Izu. Shidzuoha, in the province of Suruga, is the chief town. 22. Ken of Yamanashi. Consisting of the province of Kai. Kofu is the chief town, 95 miles from Tokyo. 23. Ken of Shiga. Consisting of the provinces of Omi and Wakasa and a part of the province of Echizen. Otsu is the chief town, in the province of Omi. Hikone, a celebrated town, 37J miles north-west of Otsu. 24. Ken of Gifu. Comprises the provinces of Mino and Hida. Gifu is the chief town ; it is renowned for its manufacture of lanterns. 60 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 25. Ken of Nagano. Consisting of the province of Shinano. The chief town is Nagano or Zenkoji. Pilgrims come from all parts of Japan to visit its famous temple. 26. Ken of Fukushima. Consisting of the province of Iwashiro, and a portion of the provinces of Iwaki and Echigo. The capital is Fukushima, and the principal town is Wakamatsu. 27. Ken of Iwati. Consisting of parts of the provinces of Mutsu, Kikuchii, Kikuzen, and Mutsu. Capital is Mo- rioka, in the province of Eikuchù, 350 miles from Tokyo. 28. Ken of Aomori. Composed of parts of the province of Mutsu. Aomori, situated at the extremity of Honshu, is the capital, 477 miles from Tokyo. 29. Ken of Yamagata. Comprises the province of Uzen and a part of the province of Ugo. Capital, Yamagata. 30. Ken of Okayama. Consisting of the provinces of Bizen, Bitchii, and Munasaka. Capital, Okayama, province of Bizen. 31. Ken of Yamaguchi. Comprising the provinces of Suo and Nagato. Capital, Yamaguchi, in the province of Suo, 657 miles from Tokyo. 32. Ken of Ehime. Comprising the provinces of lyo and Sanuki. Capital, Matsuyama. 33. Ken of Fukuoka. Comprising the provinces of Chikuzen and Chikugo, and a part of the province of Buzen. Capital, Fukuoka, 755 miles from Tokyo. 34. Ken of Oita. Includes the province of Bungo and a part of the province of Buzen. Capital, Oita. 35. Ken of Kagoshima. Comprises the provinces of Satsuma, Osumi, and ïïyûga. Capital, Kagoshima, the extreme southerly point of Kyùshyû, 945 miles from Tokyo. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 61 The thirty-five ken or departments have been formed, as one can see, out of the ancient provinces, like the departments in France. Since 1880 ten other ken have been added, some of them having been found too large. Thus in Kyûshyû two new ken have been created — Saga, with the capital Saga ; and Miyazaki, with the capital of the same name. On the mainland the ken of Shimano has been cut in two to create the ken of Tottori ; in the east of Osaka, the ken of Nara has been created; east of the ken Ishikawa the ken of Toyama has been divided off; and in the south that of Fukui, in the island of Shikoku, the two ken of Ehime and Kochi, to compose Kagawa (capital, Takamatsu) and Tokushima (capital, Toku- shima) . Finally, the Eyûkyû Islands have been incorporated with the Empire under the name of Okinawa Ken. The island of Yezo forms a cho or special administra- tion. The country is divided into departments in the same way, but the government of the country, which is regarded rather as a colony than an integral part of the Empire, is strikingly different from that of the rest of Japan. IV The Japanese system of government is minute and intricate in its details. Its red tape methods may be truthfully said to have a resemblance to our own. It must be pointed out that this is not a modern element in the country of the Rising Sun. In former times, under feudalism and the government of the Shogunate, the Government officials were under the surveillance of 62 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE spies, the metsuke, from which arose the practice of making reports on reports, and of accumulating docu- ments, and that quickly became very frequent. The investigation into the infinitely little goes on in every part of the administration in Japan, vidth the result that any one having business with a Japanese Govern- ment office is exasperated by the host of trifling and insig- nificant details. The best thing is to have as little resort to them as possible. In travelling in the interior there is not a day in which you are not supervised by the authori- ties, who morning and evening send the police to know what you are doing and what you have come for if you do not pretty soon depart. Ked tape meets you every moment, and though it is all accomplished on the part of the authorities' agents with exquisite politeness, it is none the less annoying at times. Apart from the globe-trotters, the foreigners residing in Japan rarely go beyond the environs of the trade ports, where they usually live. The trade ports where Europeans can install them- selves are, as a matter of fact, very numerous, but the residents belonging to the different nationalities con- centrate themselves particularly at Yokohama, Kobe, and Nagasaki. Yokohama is situated on the bay of Tokyo, quite close to the Japanese market town of Kanagawa. On the one side, the seacoast side, it is exposed ; on the other, it is backed by a fairly high hill, on which the Europeans have their dwelling-houses, their offices and shops being on the quay and the streets adjacent to it. The quay is one of the charming promenades of the town; the port is poorly sheltered naturally, but protection has now THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 63 been furnished. When the north-east wind is blowing violently there are often severe tempests. Some years ago there was built near the Custom House a landing stage where four packet-boats can be anchored, thus facilitating the embarking and disembarking of goods and passengers. Formerly the port of Yokohama was the great business centre for Europeans ; one found there a numerous society, a club, and racecourse ; after a time women installed themselves there, several families were born there, all of which gave to the town the physiognomy of a small European colony. Meanwhile Kobe, owing to the proximity of Osaka, where the principal manu- factures and industries of Japan are carried on, has been developing rather to the detriment of Yokohama. In respect of geographical situation, Kobe is infinitely more agreeable, as also it is much more picturesque than Yokohama, and its environs are delightful. As to Nagasaki, the first port to which Europeans were ad- mitted (it was there, since 1640, that the Dutch traded with Deshima), it seems to have rather declined; few Europeans reside there and trade has become less and less prosperous. The other open trade ports are : — Osaka ; large steamers do not come right up, but stop at Kobe, as the port of Osaka itself cannot be de- pended upon for anchorage. Building has been com- menced for the provision of a port, but it is a long way off completion so far. As I have already indicated, this great town is the true centre of commercial and industrial activity in Japan. Situated in the middle of the richest provinces of the Empire, with quick communication both by sea and by land with the different parts of the Empire, 64 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Osaka has rapidly become the principal emporium of the islands of the Eising Sun. The great chimneys of the factories rear themselves at the side of the gigantic fortress made of enormous stones (testimony of past ages), and present a striking contrast of the two periods. In addition there are : — Niigata, of little importance ; Yebisuminato, in the island of Sado, unimportant ; Hakodate, in the island of Yeso, a town with 60,000 souls, but not much im- portance from the standpoint of foreign trade ; Kio mizu, province of Suruga ; Take toyo, province of Owari ; Nagoya, which is not, accurately speaking, a port, this being at Miya, and it is at this place one disembarks to reach the town. Large ships, however, cannot even enter the port of Miya, and it is more particularly by small steamships and by railway that transactions are effected. Continuing, we have Li Yokka ichi, in the province of Ise ; Shizaki, province of Bingo ; Shimonoseki, in the province of Nagato, which has not much importance, but is the thoroughfare for all the ships entering the interior sea or departing from it. Moji, province of Buzen, an important port in the north of the isle of Kinshu, the terminus of the railway coming from Nagasaki ; Wakamatsu, province of Chikuzen ; Hakata, province of Chikuzen ; Karatsu, province of Hizen ; Sumi no ye, province of Hizen ; Kuchi no dzu, province of Hizen ; Miike, province of Chikuzen ; Tsuruga, province of Echizen ; Aomori, province of Mutsu; and several other small ports whose names it is not necessary to cite here. Trade flourishes above all at Yokohama, Kobe, OsaJia THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 65 and Nagasaki. Tokyo, though situated on the sea at the mouth of Sumida-gawa, is not a practicable port ; it has no depth, and steamers even of moderate tonnage cannot anchor there. The four great ports named above are furnished with all the modern equipment for embarking and unloading and placing loads in docks. The admini- stration and equipment of these trading ports fulfil every requirement that could be desired by modern shipowners and merchants. The mail-boat lines that sail to Europe and America start from Yokohama; all the steamers with regular service put in at Kobe and Nagasaki. CHAPTEE IV Routes by sea and land to reach Japan. The Siberian Railway ; navi- gation companies having a service — II. Cost of passage. The Japanese seacoast — III. The Inland Sea as far as Kobe ; from Kobe to Yokohama. — IV. American route and companies carrying the Pacific service — V. Melancholy aspect of the Japanese towns for the traveller going ashore. The traveller who wishes to go to Japan has at the present day an embarrassing variety of choice. Eemote from Europe, there were periods not so very far distant when it was necessary to reckon forty-five full days to go from Marseilles to Yokohama, whereas now the Land of the Eising Sun, owing to land communica- tion across the steppes of Siberia, is no more than a twenty days' journey from Paris. Here are the several ways — the Trans-Siberian land routes and the sea routes — by which one can reach Japan. By way of Siberia : Every second day a train leaves Moscow and goes through Perm, Ekaterinburg, and Tioumen. This latter town was the last stopping-place on the Eussian-Asiatic railways at the time the Eussian Government undertook the tremendous task of continuing the line as far as Vladivostok. From Tioumen the line passes over Omsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Irkutsk, where it extends, rounding the Balkans, over Tchita, Nertchinsk, 66 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 67 and penetrating into Manchuria in the direction of Kharbin. From this latter point it splits into two lines : the one over Port Arthur,* the other over Vladivostok, the extreme point of the Russian communications. From this port a service of steamers runs to Japan. This passage is, however, somewhat long. The quickest way is to quit the Eussian train at Kharbin and travel to Dalny (Talienwan Tairen), when the steamer transports the passenger as far as Nagasaki. The Eussian carriages are extremely comfortable ; indeed, from the considera- tion of comfort they leave nothing to be desired, except that the speed might be increased. It must, however, be said that at first there existed but one track, which necessarily retarded the progress of the trains ; and that now the line is still quite new, has been very rapidly constructed, and in some respects prematurely owing to the necessities of the last war, and is not therefore every- where permanent. Time will remedy these small defects, and when the second line is made it will be possible to go by express train from Paris to Pekin in ten days. The cost of the journey is about the same as that by sea. One must reckon first-class fare from Paris to Naga- saki at about 2,000 francs (£79). Eoute from Marseilles by the Indian Ocean : — Several lines start from Marseilles. There is first the Messageries Maritimes, whose ships leave the port on Sundays for Port Said, Aden (alternately), Djibouti (alternately), Colombo, Singapore, Saigon, Hong-Kong, Shanghai, Yokohama. Formerly this Company had a handsome fleet of very comfortable and well-kept boats. • South of this line is held to-day by the Japanese. 68 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Foreigners, particularly the English, came in crowds, much preferring them to the English boats, but unfortu- nately a circumstance occurred which deprived the Messageries of its English clientele and a considerable part of its French also. This arose from the French Government having abolished for the transport of its troops to Indo-China the great vessels which had been constructed and designed for this exclusive purpose, such as the Mytho, the Bienhoa, the Shamrock, and made a contract with the Messageries to carry the officers and soldiers, with the result that the Company was compelled to Û11 its packet boats with troops at every service. It was for this reason that the foreigners quitted it. Quanti- ties of French people paying their own expenses did the same, with the result that at the present day the boats of the Messageries only convey the military and official world. Moreover, the service is greatly inferior to what it was formerly. The Peninsular and Oriental is an English Company making the passage from Marseilles to Japan both by the Indian Ocean and Shanghai, but few people patronise it. It is almost exclusively used by officials and EngHsh merchants from India, although the service is very regular and everything very clean. It is only sufficient to say further that you get "English" comfort, but the food is very inferior, and digestions that are not yet accustomed to the disagreeable English cuisine arrive at Yokohama in a bad condition. North German Lloyd. Everything that has been lost by the Messageries has been secured by this German Company. It is true that the boats do not touch at Marseilles, but as it is not much concerned with a French clientèle, there is no reason for stopping at a French port. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 69 It has, moreover, two places of call in the north, Antwerp and Southampton, and two in the south, Genoa and Naples. At the present time the North German Lloyd is the Company carrying the largest number of passengers for the Extreme East. The boats are very comfortable and well managed, the cuisine is good, and the staff very efficient. There is but one thing there that is frightful, and that is the music, with which one's ears are wearied during meals, and after even. There is too much music ! Nip2)on Yusen Kioaisha. This Company touches at Marseilles. The boats are very fine ones, such berths as there are being most comfortable. But few passengers are taken, and, moreover, the voyage from Marseilles to Japan is very prolonged owing to the lengthy stay they make in the ports. It often happens that they remain four or five days in a port, consequently they are never overcrowded, and only those who do not mind a delayed passage take them, because the cost is considerably lessened. In addition to the lines of boats I have just mentioned, and that have a regular service every fifteen days, there is likewise an Austrian line and an Italian line, but the departures and arrivals are not very regular. II The cost of the passage, except in matters concern- ing the Japanese, Austrian, and Italian Companies, is nearly the same for all classes ; for first class, 1,800 francs (.£71), and for second, 1,100 francs (£44). Upon the French and German packet boats there is a third class, not much patronised, however, as there are no emigrants for the Eastern countries ; there are only merchants, who go first class, and the employés, who go second. The 70 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE English boats of the Peninsular and Oriental have also first and second class, but no third. All the companies issue return tickets, the longest stopping periods being given by the North German Lloyd. Nagasaki is the first Japanese port touched by the mail boats. The entrance to it is wonderful. Many channels are formed by the verdant islands there, and whilst circling the islands (of which the Pappenberg recalls the martyrdom of numerous Christians whom the Japanese threw over the cliff heights rising sheer over the storm-beaten rocks) one can see the hill in front covered with foliage and fields stretching right down to the sea. Here and there the grim rocks rise above the waves, and in places the coast rises sheer, great cedar- trees raise their heads, and amidst them, protected by their shade, little temples are to be distinguished, perched here and there upon places that seem at first sight most inaccessible. Numerous fishing-boats sail the bay. The town, hitherto hidden, reveals itself by degrees as one nears the further end of the bay, and right in front, at the further end, is to be found Deshima, the little tongue of land to which the Dutch were formerly confined, and of which there is nothing to-day to distinguish it from the rest of the town. Behind Deshima, and on either side, the town extends, with its little low houses and narrow streets. It rises abruptly, perching its buildings upon the hill round the great red temple, the view from which commands the whole bay. A little beyond Deshima, on the right of the Japanese town, the European habitations, all built in terraces, are situated : the different Consulates, the Bellevue Hotel, the institutions and Church of the Catholic Mission, of THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 71 the Sisters, and the School of the Marist Brothers. At the base of the hill there is the business street, with the new hotel right on to the quay, and warehouses, banks, business agencies, and all the general storekeepers and ships' chandlers and victualling stores generally. For Japan, Nagasaki is a port of extreme importance on account of the safety and depth of its bay, and of its situation on the southern extremity of the Empire, facing China and Korea. Facing Nagasaki, on the other side of the bay, are installed the foundries and workshops for repairing and building. At the present day Nagasaki has a population of nearly 180,000 inhabitants. Ill On leaving the port of Nagasaki vessels return north by the west coast of the island of Kyushu, and enter the Setouchi, or Inner Sea, by the Shimonoseki channel. This Inner Sea, celebrated throughout the world for the beaaty of its verdant scenery and its numberless little islands sown with temples, built so high up that one has to raount one hundred steps and more to reach them, is neatly subdivided by these little islands into six open spaces called nada (violent current whirlpool), which are called after the provinces whose coasts they wash : Izumi naia, Harima nada, Bingo nada, Mishima nada, lyo nada, Suô nada. The Inner Sea communicates on the south with the great ocean by two passages, one between Honshu and Shikoka, the other between Shikoku and Kyushu. Upon the east it joins the Sea of Japan by the strait separating Kyushu from Honshu, then on the south in Kyushu is the port of 72 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Moji, on the north in the province of Nagato, ken of Yamaguchi, there is the port of Bakan or Shimonoseki. The Inner Sea is navigable in all seasons at night no less than in the day, owing to the system of very com- plete and very perfect beacons erected at every point by the Japanese Government. Nowadays the tides and cur- rents are thoroughly known, and are very regular on the east and west outlets of the Ocean and Sea of Japan ; in some places where the islands are very narrowed, in the interior for instance of Setouchi, they are excremely violent. The traveller should so arrange matters that he sails the Inner Sea of Japan during the daytime. The most practical way is to leave the big mail steamer at Shimo- noseki and take one of the numerous little coasting ships engaged in this trade for the crossing to Kobe. The scenery is more worthy of careful attention than any other in Japan ; not because the nature that one is in the presence of is grand, for on the contrary it is nature which is sweet and attractive, charming by reason of its green- ness, its villages, temples, and flowers, all of them delicate and graceful ; and when the sun is shining upon the whole scene and marking out on the distant blue horizon the hills of Kyushu and Shikoku, one never tires of this landscape, so exquisite and gentle, and that nevertheless nourishes a nation of hardy warriors. About twelve hours' journey must be reckoned on the Inner Sea from Nagasaki to Kobe. If the port of Nagasaki is excellent and entirely safe, the same cannot be said of the port of Kobe or Hyogo. (Kobe is the town in which Europeans reside, Hyogo the Japanese town. They are only separated by a bridge over a dry river.) THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 73 At first vessels were obliged to anchor in the big roadstead, the port having no protection from the open winds, but now the authorities have erected a pier stretching a good way into the sea, which the mail boats may alone make use of (by paying a sufficiently high fee) ; but boats with cargo have to anchor some way out, which is a great disadvantage in the embarking and unloading of merchandise. The European town of Kobe is fairly dainty, and stretches along the seashore. Here are situated the hotels, banks, shops, foreign consulates, also some very elegant houses whose walls are also faced with red brick. Further on, beyond the railway line, the other side of the Sannomiya station, upon a pleasant though not high hill, the Europeans have built their private resi- dences, to which they repair every evening after the closing of their offices. The air there is finer and the quietness more refreshing. Kôbe-Hyôgo has a population of 285,000 inhabitants, according to the latest statistics of the Empire recorded (1908). It is generally reckoned that the sea journey from Kobe to Yokohama takes thirty hours. It is the part of Japan where navigation is at its worst at all times — in winter because of the north-east monsoon with its violent wind, in summer because following on the monsoon come the rains, which are often accompanied by frightful typhoons. Navigation is especially difficult across the channel of Owari ; right up to the entrance of the bay of Tokyo one can distinguish nothing of the coasts, or at most the island of Oshima in the distance, whose volcano is constantly throwing up smoke. The 74 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE entrance to the bay is formed by the two points of Awa and Sagami, and at the heights of Uraga is very much narrowed. Finally the gulf expands and permits of Yokosuka being revealed on the west, and then Yokohama and Tokyo. From the lighthouse of Jo ga shima, opposite Misaki, on the cape of Sagami, the Japanese coast is delightful and attractive right up to Yokohama on the one side and Kamakura and Enoshima on the other. It would be difficult to find more charming places than the bays of Yokosuka and Uraga, and more agreeable shores than those of Kamakura and Enoshima. The Europeans residing in Japan have made these summer stations fashionable, and the Japanese resort there to-day from Tokyo. Yokohama, which is situated upon an old swamp, and was formerly contemptuously assigned to Europeans as their ground, has extremely beautiful environs. The town itself stretches along the coast and is backed at the base by a fairly high hill called, by all Europeans, " Bluff." On the quay and on the two parallel streets at the rear of the quay — Water Street and Main Street — there are situated offices, shops, hotels, banks, and shops of the general store dealers, where everything is sold. The consulates are also established there, and upon the hill are the residential houses, to which the people return every evening directly the offices close. Ever since the opening of Japan Yokohama has always been the great commercial town, and it is there to-day that the colony of the most prominent Europeans and Americans is found. The " United Club " cements them into one brotherhood, and in their reunions there is no question of nationality, it is enough to be a " white." THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 75 Magnificent hotels stand on the quay. The Grand Hotel, established a long time ago by a Frenchman and now in the hands of an American society, is mainly frequented by Americans passing through Japan, the number of whom is always very great. The Hotel Oriental, started and still managed by a Frenchman, is luxuriously furnished and decorated, and has a cuisine which has no equal elsewhere in Japan. Lastly, the Club Hotel, a more modest establishment, but where one can be as comfortable as can be desired. The hill, or "bluff," shows a charming little European town in no way distinguishable from one of the localities in the neighbourhood of Paris, such as Ablon or Savigny- sur-Orge. The little villas, surrounded by gardens, are very pretty, and the streets are extremely clean and well kept, but there is no special characteristic. Beyond the little town there is the race-course, not far from Mississippi Bay, a pretty little bay so designated by the Americans when, in 1852, they arrived in Japan for the first time. The race-course is the great promenade for the residents, and twice a year, in the spring and the autumn, the whole population gathers there. These are the fete days of Yokohama. The surroundings of Yokohama are extremely pleasant, and advantage is taken of holiday times by multitudes of excursionists who, without going far away, want to spend their leisure time amidst the scenery of the little hills which raise their heads all round the bay. Nowadays, thanks to the railway, the immediate environs of the town are somewhat deserted, though one frequently goes further out only to find that the country is less agreeable. 76 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE IV Yokohama is, then, the extreme point for the mail boats that come from Europe, likewise for those coming from America. Many companies rmi a service from this side as well, three of them between the United States and Japan, and one between Canada and Japan. The three companies leaving Yokohama for the United States are : The Occidental & Oriental, which goes to San Fran- cisco ; the American Pacific Mail, which also goes to San Francisco ; the Nippon Yusen Kwaisha, which goes to Seattle. The Canadian Pacific has a Canadian service, which goes to Vancouver. The boats take twelve days from Yokohama to Van- couver, and fourteen from Yokohama to San Francisco — the American boats make a call at Honolulu alternately ; departures take place every fortnight. It takes thirty days by this route from Paris to Yokohama, the periods being : — Prom Paris to London 1 day ,, London to Liverpool 1 „ „ Liverpool to Montreal 8 days ,, Montreal to Vancouver . ... 5 „ ,, Vancouver to Yokohama ... 12 „ Total 27 days But as one cannot travel like a letter, it is necessary to allow three or four days more, as I have said. From Paris to Havre ... ... ... ... 1 day ,, Havre to New York 7 days ,, Now York to San Francisco ... ... 5 ,, „ San Francisco to Yokohama 14 ,, Total 27 days THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 77 In returning, however, the voyage costs more from this side, and one must reckon for first class, 3,000 francs (£119) ; the shortest stay in England and America is expensive, and the charges on the railway restaurants and on the boat are also very high. Consequently, few travellers other than Americans choose this route, which almost doubles the expense of the journey by the Indian Ocean or Siberia. The foreigner must not expect on arriving in Japan to find the monuments, beautiful architectural buildings, towns of granite and marble that are found in Europe and America. After disembarking at Yokohama or Kobe or Nagasaki and strolling through the quasi-European streets edged with bungalows, and villas that have no style, but are just square houses of brick and wood, built without concern for art, simply for comfort, and for the resistance of earthquakes, he is anxious to become acquainted with a native town, hoping that it will be an agreeable surprise in the shape of something smiling and cheerful. Does not Japan for the traveller from Europe represent the charm and colour of Kakémenos ? "Well, he must be undeceived. The aspect of every Japanese town is profoundly sad. Everything is grey. The low houses made of wood faded grey by time and faced with black tiles succeed one another uninter- ruptedly, the people, both men and women, dressed in grey (only children and young girls are dressed in bright colours on fête days) all produce an impression from which gaiety is wholly absent. In the great centres like Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka, 78 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE some huge red temples, with enormous roofs, give certain parts of the towns a peculiar stamp that is not devoid of real grandeur, but the towns themselves are insignificant and dreary. The notable thing in Japan is Nature, always pleasing and gracious in winter no less than in summer, in spring and autumn alike — Nature that is not great and imposing as in Java and India and certain parts of Western China, but smiling, mild, and agreeable. Nature in Japan does not lay hold of you, it is refreshing and agreeable ; even its dreadful volcanoes, the Fujiyama, the Asama, and the Onsengatake, present nothing appalling. The " gigantic " cascades, like those of Kegon at Chusenji or Kirifuri at Nikkô, seem like toy cascades. And the same thought comes always to the mind of the traveller when he has been a little while in this country : how it is that this Nature, gentle and mild on the whole, has been capable of preserving for this people the warlike character of the ancient " men with two swords," the character still per- ceptible to-day through a veneer of Western civilisation, that, to tell the truth, is extremely thin. CHAPTEK V I. The life of the people ; food — II. Cost of life in Japan ; high cost of commodities and rent — III. European hotels — IV. The Japanese family, its constitution and customs ; position of the wife and children. The food in general is very simple. Rice is the staple article, with the fish with which the seas of Japan abound. To-day, however, bread is beginning to be found almost everywhere in the principal centres, and also butcher's meat. Nevertheless, the Japanese prefers his rice, his fish, and his vegetables ; and if you invite him to dinner and he consequently has bread, be sure that on his return home he will eat his bowl of rice, or he will not feel that he has dined. The fish is prepared in a variety of ways, sometimes grilled and sometimes uncooked. It is, however, only on grand occasions that raw fish (carp or dory) is offered ; it is eaten alive, scaled and cut up as it is, the slices being soused in a black sauce called shoyu. At first it seems odd, but one soon gets used to it. Eggs also form a part of the Japanese food ; a sort of omelette is made from them, which is eaten cold. In the way of vegetables the Japanese have the same as our own, and make use of other plants : the bulb of the lily, the roots of the lotus, the young fern stems, the young stalks of the bamboo cane ; they are very fond also of 79 80 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE fruits preserved in a sort of vinegar and of different kinds of herbs preserved in a particular way. On the whole, their régime is mainly vegetarian. At times, however, when they have friends, they kill a fowl and make " torinabe," or chicken à la casserole, cooking it with sugar and liquor from rice (sake). Sweetmeats are much appreciated in Japan ; there are numerous confectionery shops, and sweet vendors in the streets. Every one in Japan, both men and women, smokes ; the cigarette habit has become fairly widespread, and the custom still exists of smoking little metal pipes, which are puffed twice, and constantly refilled with tobacco cut as fine as a hair. It has often been remarked how clean are the Japanese, and I have said the same thing myself. They have bodily cleanliness, but they have not the feeling for cleanliness about things in the same degree that Europeans have. For instance, every Japanese who respects himself takes a hot bath after his dinner ; if he does not possess in his own house a "fouro" (bathroom), he goes to the public baths, where men and women are together, separated by a cord ; but, on the other hand, your servant will wipe with great thoroughness with the same napkin first the bedroom utensils and then your plate. II Thirty years ago the life was normal, that is to say, inexpensive, and a Japanese family could easily live upon fifteen yen a month. Those were good times, but there was no " glory." To-day there is glory, but it costs dear, and life has become so costly that the family which formerly expended fifteen yen must now expend fifty. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 81 It follows that there is frightful poverty to-day in Japan, though it is true that no one complains of it, and that up to now it has been borne without a murmur. Will this continue ? Everything is taxed to the utter- most, and the land yields all that it can yield, because it is poor, and its capabilities are very limited. If the cost of living has thus increased for the native, it is naturally even worse for the European, who is not content with rice and vegetables, but needs meat, bread, wine, oil, vinegar, refined sugar, tea, coffee, alcohol, and the various other goods sold by grocers, in short, a multitude of things that he must import from Europe or America. The purchase, conveyance, and high custom duties combine to send up the price of commodities necessary to a European so excessively, that it is necessary to be very rich to live in Japan to-day in the European style. A Japanese house for which one formerly paid thirty yen * a month is worth to-day ninety ; a servant to whom one paid ten yen, now demands thirty, and everything is in keeping. Ill Formerly, when Japan was thrown open to Europeans, the latter were obliged to live in the five open ports of Yokohama, Nagasaki, Kobe, Niigata, and Hakodate ; they were not allowed under any pretext to reside elsewhere without a passport granted by the Japanese authorities. Later they were admitted to the towns of Tokyo and Osaka, but they were confined to a certain part of the town and prohibited from living * Yen is equivalent to about 2s. 6 82 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE outside fixed boundaries. This régime came to an end with the revision of the treaties, and since 1899 Europeans have the right to reside and travel anywhere in Japan without being disturbed. In all the great centres hotels arranged after the European fashion are found ; they furnish an Anglo-Japanese cuisine somewhat ambiguous in style. Tokyo possesses the Imperial Hotel, a great stone building, several times violently shaken by earthquakes. The Hôtel Métropole, more modest, supplied at one time a satisfactory cuisine when it was under the management of a Frenchman. Kyoto. — The Kyoto Hotel, very well placed in a central part of the town ; the Myako Hotel ; Nakamura rô ; Ya ami Hotel, situated in the Maruyama Park — one can make an agreeable stay there, the charge is about five to six yen per day. Osaka. — The Osaka Hotel at Nakanoshima and the Nippon Hotel. The hotels at Osaka are not very much frequented, because foreigners prefer to stay at Kyoto and Kobe, and only come in passing through Osaka. Nagasaki. — Cliff House, Nagasaki Hotel upon the hill, the Japan Hotel, Hôtel Antonetti, Hôtel de France upon the shore, five, six, and ten yen a day. Kdhe. — The Club Hotel, Grand Hotel, Hôtel Français, Oriental Hotel, Ltd., the oldest hotel of Kobe, and very comfortable, five, six, and ten yen per day. IV It is obvious that the tourist or the merchant who wishes to experience the specific flavour of the locality can always stay in one of the numerous Japanese hotels THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 83 which are rivals for the favour of the traveller all over the Empire. He, it should be remembered, must be careful to draw off his shoes before entering, (Many Europeans refusing to do this have injured the good name of the West, and have closed many native hotels to the foreigner.) He will have to sit upon his heels with his legs folded under him, and he will sleep on the tatami, or large straw mat, in the heavy fouton (wadded quilt). On the whole, it is not disagreeable to spend some time in a Japanese inn, and it yields the opportunity of coming into touch with native life and customs. Notwithstanding the introduction of foreigners into the great towns, it is evident that manners have been in no way modified thereby ; a nation does not change its character in the space of fifty years, and if it has been relatively easy to adopt the material civilisation of the West, it has been more difficult for it to change com- pletely its social system. In Europe the home is created by the woman, the mother of the family ; it is round her that everything centres, and she is the guiding star for every one. In Japan there is no home. The wife does not count, the father alone exists, and is the pivot of the Japanese family ; he is the representative of the race and its heir. Notwithstanding, unlike certain Eastern countries, where the wife is shut up or held in a totally inferior position, in Japan the wife is not relegated to a jealously kept seclusion ; she holds an honourable rank in society, and shares the recreations of her relatives and her husband, although she is never initiated into their affairs. Allowed much freedom, she rarely abuses this liberty, although naturally the Japanese are no more free of certain family " tragedies" than Europeans. 84 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Nowadays the intelligence of Japanese women in certain classes is as highly cultivated as that of the men. Moreover, in former times the education of the women attained a high degree of intellectual culture, and more than one feminine name is to be found amongst the historians, the moralists, and the poets. Without being beautiful the Japanese women are very gay and agreeable companions. They have much grace and elegance of manner, except when they dress them- selves in the European style, when they have an awk- ward air and appear wooden. Formerly the married woman throughout her whole life was, so to speak, in tutelage ; she depended upon her husband, or, failing him, upon her eldest son, and had no legal rights ; her testimony was not admitted. Her husband could introduce at his own discretion as many concubines as he liked under the conjugal roof, and could intimate his intention of divorce just as he chose ; on the other hand, under no circumstances could she demand divorce. The condition of the wife has been changed by law to- day, though, practically speaking, the old system still exists, and the Japanese wife is still treated as a doll rather than a companion and intimate. There is at the same time growing up a Japanese womanhood which is " up to date," and beginning to tread the path of the feminists and suffragettes. The infant is never at birth swaddled, and there is no system of wrapping restraint to hinder his free development. At the thirty-first the boys, and on the thirtieth day the girls, were formerly brought to the temple to be given the name which the priestess in charge of the temple chose. Nowadays the infant is registered at birth by the THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 85 mayor of the district or of the commune as in Europe, and he is given but one name, though in ancient times, and even at a not very remote period, several were chosen for him, which were in addition frequently changed. The child in Japan is greatly indulged. He is allowed to do what he likes, never rebuked and never beaten, all his caprices are gratified, and he is stuffed with goodies and sweetmeats. But from his youth up there is incul- cated in him contempt for death and love of country and Emperor ; he is also taught to be very polite and deferential to those who are old and his superiors. About the age of seven years boys and girls alike go to the elementary schools, where they learn the alphabet and writing, a little geography and arithmetic. Those who wish to pursue a complete course of study are obliged to first commit to memory a certain number of Chinese letters, without which they could not obtain any real education. This seems almost like a wasting of time, but it is not so really ; for at the same time that they are learning the letters, they are learning the history and ancient literature of their own country. The festivals especially dedicated to children are numerous in Japan. The most important of them merit a special description. That for girls is called the festival of Hina no sekku, or Hino no matsuri, and it takes place on the third day of the third month. The festival for boys is called Go gatsu no sekku, and it is celebrated on the fifth day of the fifth month. The first of these fêtes is specially dedicated to girls, and it is the great annual day of rejoicing for them. The Europeans have surnamed it the "Feast of Dolls," because on this day each family exhibits the dolls collected and kept for many generations. 86 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE For days before the fête one can see in all the shops collections of pretty dolls measuring from 8 to 25 inches, more or less richly clad. Every family that has had a child born during the year buys a couple of dolls to be given her as playthings. The little Japanese girl takes great care of the dolls bought on the day of the festival of Hinasama, and when she is grown up and marries her dolls follow her into her new abode. She gives them to her own daughters, and adds to the collection every time a girl is born. On the third day of the third month all the dolls of the family are exhibited in the finest room for every one to see. The dolls, made of wood, represent the Emperor and Empress ; the old nobility of Kyoto or Kuge, with their wives and daughters ; the Court musicians, each one of whom is carefully represented with his instrument. Sometimes also the dolls embody the Kami (Shintoist gods), or mythological and historical personages. Nor is it sufficient to merely set up rows of high dignitaries and sacred personages. Great pains have been taken to sur- round them with all the articles necessary in daily life — little lacquer tables, miniature household utensils, bowls, cups, travelling trunks, &c. — everything proportioned to the size of the dolls. Then rice water and rice and dry fish (katsuobushi) are offered to the Emperor and Empress, and the young daughters with their mother and friends surrender themselves to the joys and pleasures of the festival. The fifth day of the fifth month is the great day for boys. Here we are in all the paraphernalia of war. Indeed, for some time prior to the fifth of the month the shops in the town display a number of wooden effigies and statues of demi-gods and heroes clad in shining THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 87 armour, and generals and soldiers of bygone days; warriors who have covered themselves with glory, notably Taiko Sama and Kato Kiyomasu, some on foot, some mounted on gaily caparisoned horses. Everywhere red predominates in the flags and banners hung in profusion from the roofs of the houses. The shop windows are dressed with lances, bows and arrows, and swords arranged in special racks. Every family in which a son is born makes a point of collecting soldiers and arms, so much so that it is difficult for certain families on the fête day to find a room large enough to contain the display. In addition to the exhibi- tion, each family to whom a son has been born during the year has an immense fish of inflated paper attached to a long bamboo rod waving from the top of the house, so that every year also on the fifth day of the fifth month a countless number of enormous paper fishes waving in the wind from the tops of the houses are to be seen. The idea is most original. The fish represented is the carp, supposed by the Japanese to breast the torrent with ease, and symbolising that man must struggle against and subdue the storms of life itself. The Japanese house is not in reality a house ; it has a roof open to the four winds, without walls or beams to support it. The only enclosed place is represented by the to, a sort of doors that slip into grooves, and that are closed at night when the family have retired to rest. In the rooms there is nothing, no furniture, not even a seat. Only on the floor are to be found some mats of fine texture, though strong, upon which the people sit with their legs folded under them. In this way they eat, talk, and smoke, sitting round a pan with burning charcoal. For meals the servant (or wife in households of the 88 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE people) brings small tables bearing everything that is needed: soup, fish, vegetables, a large wooden bucket of very clean white wood containing the hot rice, from which every one takes as much as he wishes in a bowl. Rice there is what our bread is to us. As a rule the Japanese has three meals a day. He makes a good meal on rising, not contenting himself with our one cup of coffee ; he eats also in the middle of the day and in the evening. The middle day meal is the least substantial ; in the evenings they often take a little sake or rice water. In the evening after dinner the Japanese takes his bath. To plunge into a tub of boiling water of 40° and even 45° of heat after a good dinner is a custom which amazes the Europeans who have lived in Japan. Families in good circumstances have a tub in their own homes ; as to the people, they go, as I said above, to the public baths. After this the Japanese, red like lobsters, make preparations for the night. From out of the cupboard, concealed in a side of the boards, they draw the great mattress, named a fouton, which is stretched on the floor over the mats. Every one sleeps in this way without any covering, and with just a cotton kimono serving as nightgown. This experience has often happened to me when hunting or travelhng. In Tokyo to-day there are to be found European houses, built by distinguished personages and some of them by wealthy Japanese. Contiguous to them, and often even attached to them, the Japanese house stands, and it is in the Japanese house that one lives. The European house serves for those occasions when one holds a reception of foreigners, or wishes to indulge in the luxury of a reception in the European style. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 89 The Emperor himself lives in a Japanese palace sumptuously decorated, which I was able to visit, as it had just been finished, although the Emperor had not then taken possession of it. The European palace at the side is used for receptions to Europeans. All officials and officers hasten directly evening has set in to divest themselves of their frock-coats or uniforms and don the national costume. Although the home does not exist in Japan in the sense that we understand the word, it must not be assumed that all intimacy is unknown in the Japanese family. During the winter evenings, when the to are securely fastened up and the stove or hibatchi is warming frozen hands almost too overpoweringly, the little children with their parents gather round the red- hot charcoal and listen eagerly to the stories and tales of fairies that the grandmother relates. Eor the Japanese folklore abounds in stories as charming as the tales of Perrault. There is called up Momotaro, the young hero who came out of a fish and was found by an old woman whilst washing her clothes in the river, and became rich and powerful ; the old man who made dead trees bloom, thanks to the genius of his dog, wickedly killed by a jealous neighbour. There is the story telling of the mirror of Matsuyama, in which the young mother, dying, gives the mirror to her daughter, telling her that she will always see her image there, and the young girl is so like her mother that she believes she sees in it the picture of her beloved dead. Yet another story of the fight between the monkey and the crab, and of the sparrow whose tongue was slit, and of the old man and the demons, and there are I know not how many more tales ! 90 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE The grandmother (o ha san) delights her audience, and the httle people open wide their eyes and ears that they may the better take in these wonderful things. The old stories that have come from India and China, the famous deeds, the exploits of Yamato dakenomikoto and the warriors of remote ages, are also retailed for the enter- tainment of these intimate evening parties, as well as the misdoings of Eeynard, who can change himself into a woman to cheat men, and vice versa. The fox (kitsune) is more feared than any other animal in Japan, probably owing to his metamorphoses, therefore they shut the to securely up so that Master Eeynard should not come and work his wicked tricks in the house. When the age for marriage arrives (the Japanese marries young) a wife must be found for the son and a husband for the daughter. The search is simplified because, as a rule, the families have had an under- standing for a long time before. When agreement has been come to, some of the friends of the prospective bridegroom, and the same number of friends of his -fiancée, are appointed to make the necessary prepara- tions and arrange the ceremony. Then the happy day for the first meeting of the engaged couple is fixed upon, and the day of the marriage settled. The young man then sends presents to his Hancée, in harmony with the degree of his fortune, and these presents she offers to her parents as a token of gratitude before quitting for ever their dwelling, where she has passed her youth, sur- rounded by devoted care. The parents furnish the trousseau and the household necessities, as is also the custom in China. The marriage ceremony is celebrated either in the house or in a restaurant specially chosen. I had the opportunity on arriving at a restaurant at Osaka THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 91 to be very genially invited by the proprietor to the marriage of his daughter, and I thus took part in the whole ceremony. The lady vfore on her head a long white veil, and was accompanied by two of her friends, who conducted her into the apartment in which the ceremony was to take place. Her fiancé was already there, sitting in the midst of his relatives and friends. A table of gold lacquer, magnificently decorated, and bearing a fir-tree, a flowering plum-tree, and a crane and a tortoise, was placed in the centre of the apartment. These things are all emblems — the fir-tree of the strength of the husband, the flowering plum of the grace of the wife, the crane and the tortoise of a happy and long life. Upon a little table at the side were placed a cup and a bottle of sake. After various rites the friends of the young girl, acting as maids of honour, conducted the plighted couple to the lacquered table, and presenting to them the cup, now filled, each in turn drinks, holding hands the while. It is by this act of drinking out of the same cup that the marriage is consecrated. The invited guests now arrive with congratulations, then every one sits down and partakes of the feast. I shall always recall with pleasure this ceremony, to which I was so prettily invited, and treated in a way which could not have been more felicitous. As will be understood, there being at the present time in Japan a civil state, the marriage must be registered at the Town Hall. The reverse of the medal is the facility with which divorce is obtained. Several new laws have been passed with regard to it, but custom is still more powerful, and the total number of divorces still reaches a large figure. 92 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Though in intimacy and family life the Japanese is, as a rule, fairly gay and unconstrained, in society he is always reserved and formal. The Japanese are always distant and grave in their intercourse and conversation, but at the same time there is a sort of fixed smile upon their lips. They have the same smile even if in distress from the loss of wife or child. From infancy they are habituated never to permit their joy or grief to be apparent. Women often receive their friends and men theirs about four or five in the afternoon to drink usu cha and talk and smoke pipes. Usu cha is a kind of tea in powder, and for its prepara- tion there is a complete ceremonial. There must first of all be special earthen cups, which are generally grey and odd, and highly esteemed in Japan. There is also indis- pensable a number of little implements, each of which is destined for a special purpose. One has to be initiated into the way to take hot water from the kettle, and to pour it out in a particular way ; and it is essential that you should receive the cup from the hands of the person offering it with a certain position of the hands at the level of the head, and drink the contents and return the cup strictly in accordance with the rites. And it is all done with great seriousness, without the faintest trace of a smile on the face. Men also often invite one another to a banquet at a restaurant that is fashionable, where things are done in a different style altogether. The guests, after having drunk sake, attended by young artistes, musicians, and dancers, are begged to have no ceremony, and the evening is spent merrily, in the course of which the newest dances and the most choice plays entertain the guests. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 93 Only men meet in this convivial way; vv^omen are never admitted to these gatherings. Japanese music to our ears sounds frightful ; in their sounds there is not one which we should consider either musical or rhythmic ; it is a wailing with some likeness to the cries of many cats. Meanwhile there are at the present time bands of musicians playing European music, but one feels that the execution of the music is mechanical, and that they neither understand nor care for our musical art. The Japanese are also card-players, and they have adopted all the Chinese games — cards, dice, chess. They are very fond, too, of fights between cocks and quails, a taste bequeathed them by their Malay ancestors. In summer they delight in picnics in the country, especially to any part where there is water and hiring boats placed at the disposal of the visitors. They are not satisfied till they have found an agreeable place in the shade com- manding a charming view. The fete of Eiogoku bashi at Tokyo gives a good idea of their water entertainments. For several days the boats filled with people line the river, and in the evening the fireworks and the illumina- tions of the restaurants and houses on the shore rival in brightness the delicate and elegant lanterns of Gifu, the light of which burns on the top of the boats. After this sketch of Japanese life we may suitably mention here the manner in which a human being ends his career in the isles of the Eising Sun. In the funeral rites, more probably than in anything else, the ancient forms are most rigidly preserved. When a Japanese dies, his relatives and friends wash the body and clothe it in a white garment, upon which a priest has previously inscribed some sacred characters, generally the posthu- mous name of the defunct (in the Buddhist religion each 94 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE of the dead has a name by which he is henceforth known), and he is then placed in the coffin. The coffin in Japan is a square box or casket, or, rather, the half of a casket, in which the dead person is doubled in such a way that the knees just touch the face. When all the preparations are made, and the family also have put on white mourning, and their naked feet in straw sandals, the funeral procession begins. It is led by a certain number of torch-bearers, followed by the priests. Next follow the servants carrying bamboo rods, to which lanterns and strips of white paper embellished with Buddhist proverbs in Sanscrit characters are affixed. The coffin follows immediately after, borne by four or six men. It is enclosed in a white receptacle, which conceals it from view. Then follow the friends and acquaintances, escorting the men of the family — father, son, brothers, all of them, parents, friends, bearers, and servants of the house and temple, being in full mourning, that is, in white cotton fabric. The ceremony is greatly simplified amongst the poor, and the women often follow the dead to their last resting-place. The women in wealthy and noble families also follow the cortège, clad in white, but they keep exclusively to the rear and the extreme end of the procession. Formerly they went in palanquins, nowadays they drive. At Tokyo I took part in the funeral rites of Prince Arisugawa. His son, clothed in white, his feet in sandals, and a rod in his hand, walked on foot. The interment being a Shintoist one, on reaching the cemetery the body was placed upon a kind of altar, and each person offered to the manes of the prince a branch of the sacred tree, the Sahaki. The Shintoist ceremonies are of a very simple kind. A BUDDHIST FUNERAL IX HUMBLE LIFE. IN" THE GAKUEN OF AN ANCn-;NT BUDDHIST TEMPLE, To face p. 94. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 95 With the Buddhists it is otherwise. The priest here plays a great rôle, and after having recited prayers in the mortuary chamber, he goes through a ceremonial, finally reciting more prayers in the cemetery. Formerly the cemeteries surrounded the temples — as in our villages, v^here they are found adjoining the churches — thus every part of Tokyo has several cemeteries. The Japanese burn or bury their dead, according to the Buddhist sect they follow. The Shintoists always bury. At a place on the outskirts of Tokyo there is placed at the service of those employing cremation a crematory kiln for wealthy persons and a fir-tree pyre for the poor ; when the corpse is reduced to ashes they are collected into an urn and buried. The tombs are all the same. A base in stone supports a small square column, upon the four surfaces of which are engraved all sorts of Buddhist maxims and the post- humous name of the deceased person. The Shintoist poor content themselves with a wooden stake (its four surfaces rough-hewn) , around which are bamboo rods bear- ing small paper and straw flags symbolical of Shintoism. The tombs are not neglected ; on the contrary, they are always adorned with flowers, and in the month of July at the time of " hon,'" or festival of the dead, the multi- tude throng into the cemeteries exactly as we do on All Saints' Day. There is a superstition that after the festival of " &o»," the twenty-sixth day of the eighth month, the moon rises above the horizon in three tongues of fire. Consequently, upon this evening every true Buddhist goes up on to a hill and remains in prayer until the appearance of the three tongues of fire. Each, it is said, represents a Buddhist god, who rises thus above the earth and almost at the same moment dis- 96 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE appears, when the three tongues of fire unite to form the moon. The Japanese who follow the teaching of the dis- sentient Buddhist priest Nichiren, and who form a part of the sect of Hokkekio, have a custom that is genuinely and naïvely poetic as well as delightfully ideal. Every one who has had a sufficiently long experience of the roads of Japan must have come across in the country, near a pool or stream, a cotton sheet hanging by its four corners to bamboo rods which are driven into the ground. Behind this sheet there is a little board with several characters, which are usually, " Namu miô lio ren ge kio." This is, roughly translated, " Glory to the lotus of the good law." And in addition there is a kind of wooden goblet with a long handle resting on the sheet. In the cavity made by the four bamboo poles, flowers, renewed by a pious hand, are often found. At a first glance it is incomprehensible to a European ; here, however, is the explanation that has been given me. Upon the cotton sheet is inscribed the name of the dead person. The devout passer-by, having clasped his hands in prayer for a few instants, takes the goblet and pours water over the sheet, and he must wait till the water is diffused all over the fabric before pursuing his journey; then he makes a bow of reverence and continues on his way. This little ceremony is called Nag are Kanjo, the pi^.^ 3r of the running water. ^V*'' "H ^m A î" 1 '-^H !" Ml mÊ wÊm^ "^ 'h F m I i«.4\iJVi PI »^ 1H ■Il ^5P^ wÊ^ f:^ .Ji m il i 1 j' 9 ■ '"'M^ ^ .- .* i#.'l:. ^■:-;=??A...:j. ^^K ■f. -P '] { y^ ^ !^F »^B 'il ht f 1. 1 -V m K ■Tn: ^ ra w|wi^h|i MB m r'" 1 f m ^ m w ^ -;^ CHAPTEE VI I. The population ; its density ; its expansion abroad — II. Some statistics — III. Assessing the population — IV. Towns with more than 100,000 inhabitants — V. Emigration to Hokkaido (Island of Yezo). The population of Japan increases every year in a manner unknown in Europe, even in Germany and Kussia, where the growth of the population is extremely rapid. It is often stated that it is this continual increase which compels the Japanese to seek other countries where he may live, the country being over-populated. Made in this unqualified fashion the statement is not, I think, perfectly accurate. The Japanese have still all the north of Honshu and the Isle of Yezo to people, and assuredly these two portions of the Empire could support thousands of families; what drives the Japanese abroad is less the need of new land than their spirit of adventure. In fact, before the complete closure of Japan by leyasu, and absolute prohibition of all intercourse with the foreigner, the Japanese junks sailed all over the China seas, and in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries they were found almost everywhere in Asia, in Korea, in Siam, in Annam, in Tonkin, where they traded, became ministers and generals, and in short were greatly appreciated. The old Malay blood, that of sea- 17 97 98 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE pirates, flowing in their veins, created them navigators of the greatest valour at this epoch. The edict of leyasu closing the sea to them caused them to lose their enthu- siasm for the sea, but since the country has been thrown open entirely they have set their ships again afloat and become again what they were once — excellent sailors and unequalled explorers. They are to be seen in China, in America, in the Hawaiian Islands, in the Philippines, in Manchuria, in Korea, even in Peru and Chili. Whatever, moreover, is the reason for their swarming into the seas of the Further East and Pacific, it is certainly true that the statistics of the Japanese population go on mounting higher. From 35,768,584 inhabitants in 1879, it rose to 47,674,460 in 1905, there having been 42,708,264 in 1896. II The table below of the total population of the Empire for the last ten years (the latest census was in 1905, and was taken in the last Statistical Eeport of the Empire) gives the following figures : — Tear: 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 Population. 42,708,264 43,228,863 43,763,855 44,260,642 44,815,980 45,437,032 46,022,476 46,732,876 47,215,630 47,674,460 In the end of December, 1903 (when the last table THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 99 appeared), the way : — Central Honshu Northern Honshu Western Honshu Shikoku Kyushu Yezo total population was distributed in this 1888. 15,331,659 5,992,017 9,096,416 2,828,821 6,103,446 254,805 1893. 16,031,432 6,316,774 9,374,468 2,907,280 7,379,262 379,097 1898. 16,859,998 6,642,917 9,825,722 3,013,817 6,811,246 1903. 17,988,546 7,075,571 10,396,425 3,167,707 7,260,910 610,155 843,717 In fifteen years from 1888 to 1903 the population of Japan has increased by 7,175,642 inhabitants, and from 1903 to 1905 by nearly a million (precisely, 941,584) inhabitants. Ill The population is unequally distributed over the Empire, the most populated parts being those forming Central Honshu, that is, the entire centre of the biggest island, which Europeans are more familiar with under the name of Nihon or Nippon, and called by the Japanese Honshu, or the principal land, Nippon and Nihon having the native significance of Japan generally. The redistribution of the population into Kens or depart- ments on December 31, 1903 (Statistical Eeport of the Empire of Japan for 1908), has resulted as follows : — SHI AND KEN. Honshic (Central). Population. Shi of Tokyo ... 1,668,368 Ken of Kanagawa 866,276 „ Saitama ... ... 1,248,626 „ Chiba ... 1,329,362 „ Ibaraki ... ... 1,205,231 „ Tochigi ... 858,875 „ Gumma ... 850,081 „ Nagano ... ... 1,321,581 100 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Ken of Yamanashi „ Shizuoka ,, Aichi „ Miye „ Gifu „ Shigu „ Fukui ,, Ishika-wa ,, Toyama ... Popnlation. 537,938 1,294,917 1,692,771 1,051,054 1,046,520 789,608 655,714 806,748 814,876 Honshu {North). Ken of Niigata ... Pukushima Miyagi ... Yamagata Akita Iwati Aomori ... 1,882,574 1,145,606 898,531 889,510 834,781 761,281 663,288 Honshu (West). Shi of Kyoto ,, Osaka Ken of Nara ,, Wakayama „ Hyogo ... ,, Okayama ,, Hiroshima ,, Yamagachi ,, Shimane ... Tottori ... 984,285 1,432,982 568,265 721,411 1,776,220 1,181,204 1,517,185 1,082,879 742,844 439,200 Ken of Tokushima ,, Kagawa ... ,, Ehime „ Kôchi Shikoku. 729,951 730,947 1,056,054 660,755 Ken of Nagasaki ,, Saga ,, Fukuoka ,, Kumamoto „ Oita ,, Miyazaki ,, Kagoshima „ Okinawa ... Eyûshû. 878,667 666,158 1,476,528 1,212,187 873,659 490,275 1,194,228 468,208 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 101 By these tables it is easy to estimate the precise manner in which Japan is peopled ; since the census of 1903 the population has, of course, still further in- creased, but no official statistics have appeared since then. At the same time it is quite accurate to say that at the present moment (1909) the Japanese population exceeds 50,000,000 inhabitants (the " Economic Annual " for 1908 gives 49,232,822 as the exact figure). The departments (Ken) which, with the Shi (cities) of Tokyo and Osaka, are the most densely peopled, are those of Saitama, Chiba, Ibaraki, Gumma, Shizuoka, Aichi, Miye, Gifu, in Central Honshu; Niigata, Toku- shima, Hyogo, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamagachi, in "Western Honshu ; Ehime in the island of Shikoku ; Fukuoka, Kumamoto, and Kagoshima in the island of Kyushu. The population of Yezo, more generally called Hokkaido by the Japanese, comprises 435,248 men and 408,469 women, making up the total of 843,717 included in the total of the preceding table. With regard to density, we find for Central Honshu there are 494 inhabitants per square mile, in North Honshu 234 inhabitants per square mile, in West Honshu 496 inhabitants per square mile ; in Shikoku the number is 445, in Kyushu 424 per square mile ; for the island of Yezo only 23 per square mile. These figures yield an average of 353 persons per square mile. It will be seen then that in comparison with the most densely populated countries of Europe — Belgium, for instance — this number is insignificant, Japan being capable of containing a much larger population. 102 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE IV The rural population is very dense, and although in- dustrial activity draws, as everywhere, the young men into the urban centres, there are not, as a matter of fact, to-day more than ten towns having a population of 100,000 souls:— Tokyo Osaka Kyoto Nagoya .. Yokohama Kobe Nagasaki .. Hiroshima Sendai 1,818,655 995,915 380,568 288,639 326,035 285,002 153,293 121,196 100,231 Note that all these figures are taken on December 31, 1903 ; in every case they would be increased to-day. In 1907 the immigration figures for Hokkaido were 66,793 persons, and from these 10,092 must be subtracted to cover those who have left the island. The native population of this part of the Empire, the Ainus, number only about 18,000 persons, there being about the same number of men and women. They tend to disappear entirely before the Japanese invasion, which also is largely contributory to their gradual disappear- ance by supplying them with the pernicious rice alcohol. Apart from the Ainus of Hokkaido, the population of Japan at the present time may be considered homo- geneous. The people form one single race of men, who speak the same tongue and have the same customs and the same manners. It is clear that the isolation THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 103 in which Japan has been for more than two centuries locked up in its islands, with all migration beyond the limits of the seacoast forbidden under pain of death, has powerfully contributed to mingle the diverse con- stituent elements and weld them into one single people. Nor is this the sole reason, for in Europe the different elements — Celts, Gauls, and Anglo-Saxons — which com- pose Great Britain have also been enclosed in islands, but they have never become fused into union. What has undeniably contributed to the realisation of race union in the islands of the Eising Sun is the existence of a single political constitution and admini- stration for the whole territory. The foreign population settled in Japan is not very large; it is estimated at about 19,000 persons. The Chinese are the most numerous, with a total of 12,434 ; then come the English with about 2,000, and Americans from the United States number 1,500. There are from 500 to 600 French and Germans. With regard to other countries, they are represented by a varying number of people, ranging from 1 Greek to 90 Italians and 200 Eussians. CHAPTEK VII I. Tokyo, the capital — II. Places to visit — III. Environs of Tokyo — IV. Fuji yama — V, Sendai and the towns in the North — VI. Nagoya, Kyoto, Nara — VII. Osaka and the towns in the South. The capital of Japan, Tokyo, is situated on the north of the bay of Yedo ; it has a circumference of one hundred square miles, and it is irrigated by the Sumida or Ogawa, which flows across the city, dividing it into two parts : the town, properly speaking, and the suburbs of Honjo and Fukagawa. Tokyo is rather a conglomera- tion of villages round a castle than a genuine town, although in modern times it is becoming more and more centralised. The castle occupies an elevated situation in the centre of the town on the west side ; it is enclosed in double walls and surrounded by a wide moat. Here lived the Shogun or Lieutenant-General. The fire in 1872 (April 3rd) destroyed everything, and it was not till January, 1889, that a new palace was raised for the Mikado, who has resided there ever since. The Imperial gardens, called Fukiage, are situated in the precincts of the castle. The visitor can gain access to them by getting an authorisation from the Minister of the Imperial Household. On the front from outside one can admire the towers on different floors ; they are quad- 104 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 105 rangular, with roofs that are Chinese in style, which have remained owing to being above the gates at the entrance to the Palace. Between the castle and the engirdling walls of the town proper there was an immense space occupied by the numerous palaces of the Daimyos ; but nearly all the feudal constructions have given place to hideous brick buildings erected by European architects, and which serve as monasteries, barracks, and schools of all sorts, &c., with the result that it is difficult to get any conception of what the ancient Yedo was in the time of the Shogunate. There remain, however, some of the old buildings, which have been converted into Government offices ; they are very long wooden build- ings, having only one floor, heavy grey-tiled roofs, and, being painted black, have a most melancholy aspect. Beyond the walls of the town the people's city, densely populated, spreads itself. All the trading is done here. The principal street is of European construction, made of brick ; it is called Ginza, and is continued by the street leading to the bridge of Japan, or Nihon Bashi, from which place all the measurements of the Empire are reckoned. These streets are exceedingly lively, particularly as the Ginza Street is exactly facing the railway station of Shimbashi. These two streets lead to the park of Ueno, where the Imperial Museum is established, which is used for national and art exhibitions. II Amidst places of interest to the foreigner may be cited the great Temple of Kewannon at Asakusa, not far from 106 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Ueno, and the temples of Shiba, of which I have already spoken. Altogether there are nearly two thousand temples in Tokyo, but few of them are worth the trouble of a visit. One of the most frequented is the Temple of Sengakuji at Shinagawa, where are the tombs of the famous forty-seven ronins. The districts of Hongo and Fukagawe are the quiet and pleasant sides of the capital. They are united to the main city by five bridges, Azuma Bashi, Omiya Bashi, Eyogoku Bashi, Hashi, and Ita Bashi (Hashi, called for euphony Bashi, meaning bridge). Tokyo is in the process of transformation, and one can see at the side of the European houses built by the nobles or rich bourgeoisie, the wooden houses of the people. The electric light has been installed in the finest quarters, the rest being lighted by gas or by petrol oil. Electric tram- ways and omnibuses run everywhere, yet the general character of the town is very depressing and cheerless, in spite of the tufts of greenery that spring up above the low roofs. Ill Tokyo itself, though not picturesque, has pleasing suburbs, notably Meguro, Ikegami, Kawasaki, and Kanazawa, which is on the seacoast and one of the most enchanting places in Japan. It has a spot from which one can see eight charming views, which are known under the name of Kanazawa hak-kei. Kamakura, also on the seacoast, now simply a straggling village, was formerly the capital chosen by Yoritomo the Shogun (1185), and still possesses vestiges of its ancient splendour, notably the Temple of Hachiman THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 107 and a colossal bronze Buddha, the head of which is capable of holding a man measuring 6 feet 8 inches. Enoshima, the Sacred Island, has some resemblance to Mont Saint-Michel in France, with its temples and grottoes and caves. It is a place of pilgrimage in summer to which Europeans often come to have a few days' rest and breathe the sea air and the smell of the fir-trees. Yokosuka, a charming little town, situated on a land- locked bay and backed by green hills, is notable for having the first Government dockyard, which the Japanese built with the help of French engineers. At the present time it is one of the most important arsenals, and the greatest activity prevails. War vessels are repaired and even con- structed there, though it is difficult to believe, in view of surroundings so pleasing and a sea so calm, that there is concealed there at the base of the gulf an arsenal for the manufacture of destroyers. Hakone, which is situated on a very clear lake in the midst of mountains, is one of the summer resorts most frequented by the Europeans of Tokyo and Yokohama. It is reached by railway to Kozu, and thence by an old- fashioned tramway drawn by a horse to the foot of the hill of Miyanoshita. This latter seaside village is also much frequented, and there is a delightful European hotel there, provided with every kind of comfort conceivable ; from thence one pushes on to Yumoto with its sul- phurous springs, and from there Hakone is reached. This little town was formerly the entrance to Kwanto (hereditary possession of the Shogun), and the western passes of Hakone, commanding the Kyoto road, were strictly guarded. No one crossed them without a pass- port. Hakone is one of the most lovely places that a traveller can visit who has not time to penetrate far into 108 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the interior. The scenery is beautiful. Great crypto- merias shade the shores of the lake, where the Emperor has a summer palace, and there are enchanting flowers and plants in this district. Atami (the hot sea), which is reached by crossing the mountains of Hakone seawards, is a resort to which the Japanese come for rest and quiet. A warm intermittent geyser is there, greatly patronised by crowds of bathers. IV One of the most delightful excursions a little way out from Tokyo is to Fuji yama, which is reached by climbing the hill of Otome-toge, above Hakone. The climb up the mountain is not excessively arduous, and it affords plenty of novelty if undertaken in the month of August, when all the Japanese pilgrims are bent on the same object. From the summit of the old volcano a glorious view is obtainable, though frequently, owing to mists, nothing can be seen. At this time of the year the humidity of the atmosphere in Japan is so great that it is rare to have a perfectly clear sky. Nikkô. — Correctly speaking, Nikko is not a town, but an assemblage of temples and shrines with a background of beautiful mountains and streams. Bound these temples a little village grew, which, in consequence of the arrival of Europeans became bigger, and before long houses and hotels were erected. Kesident foreigners have gradually grown into the habit of passing their summers there, and at the present time comfortable hotels in the European style are to be found. All the houses and streets are lighted by electricity, but it has to be admitted that owing to this Western invasion Nikkô has lost most of its charm. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 109 However this may be, the traveller should not fail to go there and visit the shrines and temples of leyasu and of lemitsu, the cascades of Kirifuri and Urami, and the beautiful mountains and lake of Chuzenji. These form so striking an ensemble that the Japanese have a proverb about it : "Nikkô mi na kereba kekko to yu na" (" If you have not seen Nikkô you cannot use the word ' marvel- lous ' "). Beyond Nikkô, and in the same region of mountains, there are excursions to Ikao, Ashio, and Asama yama, the latter a still active volcano, constantly ejecting ashes ; the ascent, however, is easy. V Sendai. — There is nothing particularly interesting in this town, and it is only mentioned because the expedi- tion to the bay of Matsushima, considered one of the wonders of Japan, is made from Sendai. Matsushima consists of a host of green islands dotted with pine-trees strewing an open bay ; elegant wood bridges here and there unite two islets, and on the spots most favoured by the Japanese tea-houses have been built. The marvels of nature are thus heightened by the ingenuity of Japanese taste, and combine to present to the eye a most ravishing prospect. Niigata is a dead city, though one of the first ports open to Europeans. The port is not, however, used, being very dangerous, and necessitating anchorage in the roadstead outside. The entire coast is dangerous, especially during the north-east monsoon. Hakodate. — One of the ports formerly open to foreigners, which remains so, and the first town built by the Japanese in the island of Yezo. It has nearly sixty thousand inhabitants, but presents no feature of any interest. 110 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE VI Nagoya. — After the three shi, Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka, this is the third Japanese city. It is not on the seacoast, but reached either by landing at Atsuta no miya — in reahty a suburb, for without leaving its line of houses one gets to Nagoya — or by rail from Tokyo, from which it is a twelve hours' journey. Nagoya is one of the commercial and industrial cities of Japan. Within its area has been preserved the most beautiful of the old feudal castles built in 1615 by the celebrated Katô Kiyo- masa. Under the present régime it is the headquarters of the chief of the Third Infantry Division. There are also several noteworthy temples : Asahi jimmei sha ; Sakura Temmangui ; Da Shu Kwan on ; Chô fukuji. Kyoto. — From the historic point of view Kyoto is the most celebrated town of Japan, though its population is not so large as that of Tokyo and Osaka. Its name sig- nifies "the capital." For more than a thousand years it has been the residence of the Emperors. Kyoto is situated 162 feet above the level of the sea, near the centre of the province of Yamashiro, at the northern extremity of a fertile plain, which is joined on the south side to the great plain of the Osaka Bay. On three sides it is girdled by hills clothed with trees. The highest, on the west side, is Atago; on the north is Kuruma, and on the north-east Hiei-zan; on the east still smaller hills separate it from Lake Biwa. Upon the hills extraordi- nary places and temples are to be found. From the northern hills three streams flow, which unite and form the Kamogawa, a small river irrigating the eastern part of the town. More often, as a matter of fact, the Kamo- gawa irrigates nothing at all, its bed being dry, whilst it THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 111 has the appearance of a wide bed of pebbly sand, with here and there a few sunken depressions filled with water. But during the summer rains the Kamogawa has violent floods, and, overflowing the town and country, causes great destruction. One of the old Emperors was in the habit of saying : " There are three things of which, as yet, I have found no means of making myself master ; throwing the dice, restraining the turbulent monks of Hiei-zan, and regulating the Kamogawa." Two canals communicating with the Kamogawa water the other parts of the town. It is divided into administrative divisions, Kami Kio Ku, or the upper city, and Shimo Kiô Ku, or lower city (southern part). The population is much diminished, and very different from what it was in feudal times, especially in the Middle Ages, when the Court resided there. The founding of Yedo in the sixteenth century and the ascending autho- rity of the Shogun had already struck a blow at Kyoto, and in 1868, when the Emperor fixed his residence at Yedo (Tokyo), he drew with him a large part of the population. Kyoto may be considered to have to-day 300,000 inhabitants. The climate is healthy and usually mild, though rather hot in summer. The mean tem- perature is about 14° C, the maximum being 36° and the minimum 11°. August is the hottest month and January the coldest. There is a suflicient degree of atmospheric moisture, the proportion being 77 per cent. There is an abundant rainfall in July and August. It was not till 794 that Kyoto became the permanent capital and residence of the Emperors, who prior to this epoch never lived in the same city as their predecessors. In 1868, when Tokyo (Jedo) became the capital of the restored Empire, Kyoto was governed by a prefect (fu). 112 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE In 1888, in conformity with the new law of municipal government, Kyoto, like Tokyo and Osaka, was under the administration of a municipality, with a mayor, a deputy mayor, and nine councillors or deputies. The Municipal Council consisted of forty-two members. Kyoto has now lost all its grandeur, but it has always remained the Sacred City, the ancient residence of the Emperors, and artistically it is of great interest. The inhabitants of Kyoto exhibit no essential differ- ence from those of other parts of Japan, except that fashion is more elegant there, the style of coiffure worn by the women more individual and graceful, manners and habits are more refined, and the language more polished. Kyoto should be given the preference for a sojourn by any one who is studying the Japanese civilisation and art; and, indeed, after being there some time one is tempted never to leave it. Besides the temples I enumerated above, the Imperial Palace (Nishi Maru) should be visited. In the neigh- bourhood there are two celebrated places : Nara, with its parks and its immense Buddha, and the rapids of Arashi yama. VII Osaka is the leading town of modern Japan from the commercial and industrial standpoint ; it is entirely Japanese, Europeans residing as a rule at Kobe. The town is well built and has regular streets, which are very clean and full of life. It is a most progressive town, with a "go-ahead" quality that is quite American, and it is extremely interesting to the foreign visitor. It is THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 113 situated in the province of Settsu, and stands on the banks of the Ujigawa, about six and a quarter miles from the sea. The river is only navigable for small boats. The most interesting of the monuments, a relic of ancient days, is the castle built by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. As one examines the square stones, fitting perfectly one upon the other, the question arises how, in the sixteenth century, in a country where there was no other agency but that of human strength, it was possible to erect a fortress of this kind. At Osaka is also the Imperial Mint, where all the pieces of gold, silver, and copper are stamped. Paper money is manufactured at Tokyo. But, above every- thing, Osaka is interesting commercially, and I shall return to this town in the chapter dealing with the commerce and industries of Japan. Kobe, Yokohama, Nagasaki. — These three towns are in no way typically Japanese. I have elsewhere had occasion to refer to the navigation. Hiroshima is in the Inner Sea, at the mouth of the Otagawa. Its situation at the foot of the bay, opposite a host of islands (one of which, Itsuku shima, is very celebrated) renders it interesting and pleasant to visit. During the two wars which Japan sustained in Man- churia it was notable for the presence of the Chief of the Staff of the Japanese Army, who twice fixed his residence there. Consequently, the Emperor himself arrived there, and directed thence the supreme command {pro forma). Kumamoto, in the province of Higo, island of Kyushu, possesses a strong old castle, famous for the victory of General Tani over the rebellious troops of Saigo in 1877. Kagoshima, on the island of Kyûshû, at the southern 8 114 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE extremity of the province of Satsuma, is visited by few foreigners, owing to its distance from the centres of activity of Nippon, constituted by Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka. Nevertheless it is interesting, and the volcano of Sakurajima rising opposite on the island of the same name is worthy of ascension. In conclusion, these Japanese towns should not be visited with the expectation of finding any monuments with the exception of the temples — or in the same spirit that one explores European or American towns ; in fact, when one has become familiar with Kyoto, one has seen the entire art and architecture of Japan. "What, on the other hand, may justly call forth our admiration, are the variety of the scenery and the beauty of nature in Japan. CHAPTER VIII I. Weights and measures— II. Currency— III. Post Offices— IV. Telegraphy — V. Postal, telegraphic and telephonic services, December 31, 1907 — VI. National education— VII. The Press: daily papers and reviews — VIII. Courts and tribunals. Befoee examining matters that have an economic and statistical character, it will be best for me to give my readers some information upon the weights and measures and currency that are prevalent in the Empire of the Eising Sun. With this object I give here the com- parative tables of the Japanese, French, and English systems : — LENGTH MEASURES. Japanese. French. English. Iri .. 3,927 mètres 2J miles Ichô 109 mètres 358 feet 1 ken 1-81 mètre 1-88 yard Ijô 3-03 mètres 301 yards (10 feet) 1 shaku 303 décimètres .. 11-93 inches (1 foot) 1 sun 3*03 centimètres .. 1-17 inch Ibu 3*03 millimètres .. LAND MEASURI 1-43 line ]S. Japanese. French. English. 1 ri square ... 15 kil. 423 sq. mètres ... 6 sq. miles 1 chô squar e 99 ares 17 centiares ... 2| acres 1 tan 9 ares 91 centiares .. 0-24 acre 1 tsubo 3 mq. 30 cq. 4 sq. yards 116 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE MEASUEES OP CAPACITY— LIQUID. Japanese. French. English. 1 koku ... 1 hectol. 80 litres .. 39-70 gallons Ito ... 1 décal. 80 litres .. 3-97 gaUons 1 sho ... 1 litre 80 cl. 1-58 quart Igo ... outre 80 dec. .. 1-27 gill N.B. — I have not taken into account the fractional decimals. MEASURES OP CAPACITY— DRY. Japanese. French: English. 1 koku ... 1 hectol. 80 litres .. 4-96 bushels Ito ... 1 décal. 80 litres .. 1-98 peck 1 sho ... 1 litre 80 cl. .. 0-19 peck Igo ... litre 80 dec. WEIGHTS. .. 0'019 peck Japanese. French. English: 1 kwan ... 3-75 kilog. ,.. 8J lb. avoirdupois, or 1004 lb. troy Ikin ... 6-900 hectog. ... IJ lb. avoirdupois, or 1-60 lb. troy 1 momme ... 3-75 grammes ,.. 2-11 drams, or 2-41 dwts. Japan is a country with a gold currency. The monetary unit is the yen, at present worth 2' 55 francs, or about two shillings in English money. Its exchange value is sometimes 2*60 francs or 2'65 francs (a little above two shillings). Nevertheless gold is never seen in the country, gold being used to pay the interest on the debt and the loans of Government to foreign countries. Equally seldom is seen the money yen, the currency being paper, in pieces worth 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 10,000 yen, and also 50 and 20 sen. The smaller coins, however, are fairly abundant. 1 yen = 100 sen = 2-55 francs (about two shillings) 1 sen = 10 rin 1 rin = 10 mon The rin, like the French centime, is still in use; it is also struck in copper. The mon is an old piece of THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 117 Chinese money (sapèque) which is no longer actually used, but still exists in the current language of certain provincial dialects. II The 5-sen nickel piece still exists. Ill The postal service was formerly carried on by the French, English, and American services established at Yokohama and in the other open ports. The first postal service was organised by the Imperial Government in 1871 between the large towns of the Empire, and six years later, in 1877, Japan took part in the Universal Postal Union ; but in spite of this France and England maintained their own special offices down to 1879, at which period they were definitely given up. At the present time the postal service of Japan is carried out in the same way prevailing in all the other countries of the world — that is, very thoroughly and with great exactness. Local Taxes. Letters 3 sen for 4 momme * or fraction Letter-cards ... 3 sen for i momme or fraction Post-cards 1 sen for J momme For journals, magazines, books, photographs, com- mercial documents, pictures, samples, MSS., cards, &c., the charge is 2 sen for 30 momme. For grain and agricultural produce the charge is 1 sen for 30 momme or any fraction. There exists in Japan a system known as Eapid Distribution for certain specified articles and • See table. 118 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE articles with a stated value. This distribution can be secured by the payment of 20 sen for an article when the address is within a twenty ri * radius of the post- office. Beyond this distance of twenty ri a payment of 15 sen t per ri or a fraction is demanded. If the article to be delivered is addressed to a person on board a ship, payment from the ship is exacted in addition. Charge ; 7 sen each article. With regard to the insurance of jewels and gold and silver articles and precious stones, 15 sen is charged if the declared value does not exceed 10 yen; beyond 10 yen 5 sen is charged for each 10 yen or additional part of same. Local Pakcel Posts. — For the interior of Japan up to 1,600 momme | only (1 lb. avoir. = 120 momme) ; for Formosa and Karafuto (SaghaHen) to 1,500 momme, the charges being 36 and 54 sen respectively. For Japan. Up to 200 momme 8 sen 400 „ 12 „ 600 , 16 „ 800 ,, 20 „ 1,000 , 24 „ 1,200 28 „ 1,400 „ 32 „ 1,600 36 „ For Formosa and Saghalien, Up to 200 momme 80 sen ,, 400 „ 600 800 1,200 1,500 35 40 50 60 70 Only insured packets or those whose value is declared are accepted for the two latter countries. * 1 ri = rather less than 2J miles. f See table. J Ibid. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 119 All the Japanese regulations are applicable to the Japanese ports in Korea and China. Post Office Order Charges. charge of 6 sen For Telegraphed Orders. For 10 yen ,, 20 >) „ 30 )> „ 40 1) „ 50 11 For 10 yen . „ 20 )) ,, 30 )) .. 40 )> „ 50 )» >> 10 n 15 >> 18 22 " charge of 30 sen ,, 35 11 »> 40 45 50 >> The maximum sum which can be sent in both ways is 60 yen. For Foreigners. — Letters weighing 20 grammes, a little less than f oz. (avoirdupois), or any part of same, are charged 10 sen, and 6 sen for each additional gramme or additional part. Post-cards cost 4 sen ; printed matter 2 sen = If oz. Commercial Documents. — For the first If oz. 10 sen, and 2 sen for each additional If oz. or part. Samples. — For 50 grammes (If oz.) 4 sen, and 2 sen for each additional If oz. or part. Begistration. — 10 sen. Special Distribution. — Ordinary post, 12 sen and 20 sen for parcel post. On reception charge of 5 sen. Printed matter and commercial papers must be 2 kilogs. (about 4J lb.) in weight, 45 centimètres (17 in.) in dimension. Kolls must be 75 centimètres (4 in. about) in length, and 10 centimètres {4^ in.) in diameter. Samples must be about 12^ oz. in weight ; in dimen- 120 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE sions 30 centimètres (11| in.) long; 20 centimètres (about 5^ in.) wide ; 20 centimètres (about 8 in.) deep. Eolls must be 30 centimètres (11^ in.) long, and 15 centimètres (5f in.) in diameter. Postal packets are accepted for all the countries com- prised in the Postal Union with a maximum weight of 1,333 momme ; * and at a charge varying from 1 yen 50 sen to 2 yen 50 sen. The Japanese Post Office also accepts post-office orders for the whole of Europe, the United States, and the principal European possessions, the maximum amount for the European Continent being 1,000 francs (= £4:0), and for the United States and Canada 100 dollars (£20, rather over). Charge, 1 sen per 50 francs (£2). The postal service in Japan is admirably carried out. One never loses a letter. If you have changed your address five or six times the letter will follow you with accuracy, bearing five or six little strips of paper whereon the postman has each time recorded your change of address. In this service this meticulous administration triumphs, and it must be admitted that there is no other postal service so reliable for the despatch of letters as the Japanese. Probably a certain description of letters is submitted to delay in transmission, but this does not come within our present province. Certain articles are prohibited in Japan, and are not admitted for postal transmission. Opium and everything ministering to the use of opium, morphine, and the constituents of opium, are absolutely interdicted. Printed matter and documents of any kind having an immoral character, gold or silver pieces, precious stones, jewels, and other similar articles of value, • See table. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 121 and packages of post-cards are not accepted for postal transmission. IV Telegraphic communication extends to-day to every part of Japan, and the foreigner travelling in the country need not find himself isolated at any spot. The principal European languages may be employed, though, as might be expected, English is the language most generally in use. Local charges for a telegram in Japanese (Kana, or alphabetical) 20 sen is charged for the first fifteen letters, and 15 sen for each five letters, or additional fraction of same (for telegrams despatched to the same town the charge is reduced to 10 sen and 3 sen respec- tively). For telegrams in European letters the charge is 25 sen for the first five words, with a minimum cost of 25 sen, and 5 sen for each extra word (for the same town the charge is reduced to 15 sen and 3 sen respectively). The length of a word is limited to fifteen characters ; if there are sixteen it is reckoned as two words. A group of five figures is equivalent to a word. In code languages ten figures are equivalent to one word. A special telegram has to pay three times the ordinary amount. International Charges. Yen. Sen. Yen. Sen. Amoy 78 Pekin 96 Annam 2 10 Souchou 96 Canton 1 04 Wuhu 96 Ceylon 2 06 Siam 2 04 Chifoo 96 Shanghai .. 48 Yang-tse-Kiang 96 The Indies . . 2 02 Hang-chow ... 96 Korea 30 Hankow 96 Europe 2 42 Newchwang 96 Russia 1 40 Ning-po 96 122 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE The United States charge ranges from 1 yen 60 sen to 2 yen 80 sen, according to the town. For South America the tariffs are higher, and vary between 5 yen 10 for the Argentine Republic, and 5 yen 90 for Peru. V A few figures will reveal the situation existing to-day in Japan with regard to the post-of&ce, telegraphic, and telephonic services : — On December 31, 1907, there existed in Honshu 4,698 post-offices ; at Shikoku, 391 ; at Kyushu, 989 ; at Yezo, 345 ; there being in all 6,423 offices, with 54,698 public and private post-boxes ; 676 telegraph offices ; 4 ordinary telephone offices ; and 159 automatic telephone stations. During the fiscal year 1906-1907 there were despatched: — Letters Post-cards Newspapers and Pamphlets Books ... Documents, Proofs, &c. Samples and Seeds Exempted Articles ... Parcels 289,018,836 677,189,063 175,566,958 14,914,868 8,235,025 4,863,018 61,344,088 15,115,872 During the same period, 1906-1907, there were de- livered 13,704,148 local orders, and 12,911 international orders ; there have been despatched vdthin the Empire 23,498,234 telegrams and 644,434 international telegrams. The telephone numbers about 37,000 subscribers. This latter service is the least developed, but when one con- siders the elementary condition of the telephone in France, one can hardly criticise Japan for its backwardness in this kind of communication. VI It is thought proper amongst people who pride them- THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 123 selves on the extent of their knowledge, and who never- theless, speaking generally, have but a very limited knowledge, to state that the illiterate person is unknown in Japan. It was the same sort of public which after 1870 stated that the prussian elementary schoolmaster had beaten the French nation ! In these latter days the Press has extolled Japanese instructors, their methods, &c. Consequently, one has to demolish all these ideas that have been invented or issued forth — how, one does not know — from minds uninformed or ill-informed. At the census of 1908 there existed, in round figures, 55,000 conscripts who scarcely knew how to read or write, and 30,000 who could neither read nor write. And it is Central Japan, the central portion or Honshu, which furnishes the larger part of them. This is the exact truth. It does not follow that Japan neglects the national education. Very far from this. It is perfectly certain that fifteen years ago the proportion of unlettered persons was considerably higher than at the present time, the Government of the Mikado having made liberal requisitions with the view of securing elementary education for every Japanese child. Every village has its school to-day. With regard to higher education, Japan possesses two universities — one at Tokyo, the other at Kyoto. In these, as in all the European universities, instruction is given in letters, the sciences, and the arts. Europeans were the first to instruct the Japanese in the various branches of human science : the German taught the science of medicine ; the French civil and criminal law ; the German commercial science ; whilst the English and the Americans initiated them into the mathemati- cal and physical sciences. 124 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Now all the teaching has passed into native hands, though there are still Europeans to be found here and there, but they are rather in the capacity of advisers in matters of difficulty. There are the higher normal schools at Tokyo and Hiroshima ; the commercial schools at Tokyo, Kobe, and Nagasaki ; the schools for arts and trades at Kyoto, Osaka, Nagoya, and Kumamoto ; schools for foreign languages at Tokyo, employing twelve foreign pro- fessors ; the school of fine art at Tokyo ; the school for the blind and the deaf-mutes at Tokyo ; and, finally, the higher-grade schools called kotogakko, corresponding to the French Lycées. All these schools are maintained by the State, but independent of it there exist a con- siderable number of private schools where law, political, and administrative service are taught. The instruction is permitted, under Government inspection. There are thus three French schools under the direction of the Marianite Brothers, which are highly prosperous, at Tokyo. They have 1,500 pupils at Yokohama, and at Nagasaki 500. The Japanese much appreciate their zeal, and highly placed persons have no hesitation in sending them their sons. The Jesuits themselves will shortly establish a university at Tokyo, with the authorisation of the Mikado's Government. The Japanese women belonging to the aristocratic class or to the wealthy bourgeoisie is beginning to com- pete with the stronger sex in the schools, and to profit greatly from the scientific and artistic institutions now open to them. Numerous museums, botanical gardens, schools of agriculture, &c., have been established to complete the theoretical education. In particular, there are very fine commercial museums at Tokyo and Osaka. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 125 Numberless societies have been founded : the Geographi- cal, Society of Japanese Antiquities, others for Maritime industries, and Agriculture, &c. It would take too long to enumerate all of them ; it is sufficient to say that such societies are as numerous in Japan as they are in Europe, and perhaps even more so. For the Japanese form societies à propos everything and nothing. VII The Press is not exactly free in Japan ; strict regula- tions maintain it in the right path — the path of approval of the powers that be. Some audacious critics, however, criticise the Government itself, but in so doing are very careful to acquit from their criticism the Emperor and the Imperial family, and place this on the Ministers and their colleagues. There is also a Socialist Press, but it is in the back- ground, and still awaits its hour. There are more than one hundred daily, weekly, and monthly journals and reviews in Tokyo, and it is the same at Osaka. In the provinces each department has its journal, and as a rule one portion is printed in easy running characters (hirakana) for those who do not know the Chinese characters. VIII The courts and tribunals which are competent to deal with crime and offences against the law are thus con- stituted : There is 1 Court of Cassation, 7 Appeal Courts, 49 tribunals in the first degree, 310 courts for the Justices of the Peace. The organisation of Justice in 126 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Japan has thus commenced in very efficient fashion throughout the whole Empire. Japan has felt herself under an honourable obligation to conform to the customs and usages of Europe, There is still much to be done before having a perso7inel of the magistrates which is thoroughly efficient, but this is simply a ques- tion of time. The strength of the Japanese lies in the police ; dis- trustful and suspicious, through heredity and education, they are born police, and are indeed astonishing in the métier of the detective. Moreover, if one recollects that in Japan there is a police-agent for 1,247 inhabitants, one can understand that there is a more efficient police in Tokyo than in Paris, and why it is safer to walk at midnight on the Eyôgoku bashi than on the Pont de la Concorde. In the entire Empire it is reckoned there are 731 principal stations or police bureaux ; 737 supple- mentary police bureaux ; 2,746 urban police stations ; 12,558 rural police stations ; 2,337 inspectors and police commissaries ; 38,581 police-agents. In spite of this, there were 985 cases of houses robbed with violence, and 232,854 house robberies without violence, whereas thefts from persons for the same year only amounted to 28,000. CHAPTEE IX I. The Army : French and German instructors— II. The Navy : French instructors and engineers ; English professors — III. System of recruit- ing ; latest modifications ; present reorganisation ; increase of the divisions and the artillery— IV. State of the Navy at the present time ; designs for construction — V. Conclusion. I The Army and Navy deserve a special chapter, for in them is found the Japanese soul. The Japanese has preserved in his traditions a love of the profession of arms, and every Japanese may be said to be a born soldier. In antiquity it was the principal occupation of the Japanese, and fighting thus remained all through the Middle Ages down to the present period. It is true to say that up to now this has been eminently successful. The first instructors of the modern Japanese army were the French, brought in by the Shogun in 1806, although the Eevolution was not entirely accom- plished, and the Tokugawa were looked upon as the sovereigns of Japan by Europe. After the re-establish- ment of the Mikado, in spite of the French disasters of 1870, it was to French officers that Japan turned to form its army, so that France can say without bragging that it has created the Japanese Army. French officers remained there till 1888, and it was only at that period that the Japanese Government sent for Major 127 128 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Meckel, of Berlin, who spent three years at Tokyo as professor in the Military School. To-day the Japanese are independent of all the world, and, owing to the numerous officers that they send to France and Germany, they are accurately au courant with all military knowledge, which, thanks to their remarkable natural aptitude, they assimilate with such rapidity. II With regard to the Navy, the Shogun Government likewise addressed itself to France, and French engineers were the first to construct the Arsenal of Yokosuka. But when the Imperial Government created its Naval School it appealed to the English. It was only in 1884 that M. Bertin, one of the most distinguished French engineers, was requested by the Japanese to come for the space of four years. The Japanese Navy, then, has been created by England. The campaign against China was the first surprise, but the campaign against Eussia excited even more astonish- ment, and Europe and America understood that a for- midable competitor had arisen in the Pacific and in the China seas. Ill To those who had closely followed the military develop- ment of Japan, to those who from living there understood what resources of military capacity and patriotic strength this country contains, the Japanese victories were not unexpected ; and one must bear in mind that in the begin- ning, to oppose the Japanese forces, Russia had a body of troops that were small in number and badly organised. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 129 It is incontestable that the Japanese is a born soldier. In six months he can be fashioned into an excellent war machine ; even a peasant coming straight from his rice fields can be turned into a thoroughly efficient soldier in less time than it takes for a French peasant to get accus- tomed to his new duties. This clearly is due to the fact that the Japanese is still close to the mediaeval period — that is, to his own mediaeval period, which, as a matter of fact, only ended barely forty years ago. Beared amidst the noise of armed combats, duelling and wars between the nobles, the young Japanese was necessarily quickly enamoured of the career of arms. It is this atavism which has enabled him to adopt the mili- tarism of Europe, and to achieve so signal a progress therein. At the present time Japan, far from resting quietly upon its victories, keeps a vigilant eye upon the future, and ever since its settlement of accounts with Eussia has disbursed considerable sums for the reorganising by various changes of its military system and organisation. Without noise, and with a perseverance and tenacity of which it has given more than one example, its activities have been such that within a comparatively short time it can put into action an extremely powerful army. It is very difficult to penetrate the military system of Japan. Everything which concerns the Army equipment and ordinances is kept the closest secret. Consequently it is necessary to say nothing can be known from this side, but what is visible is the incessant work and activity in all the arsenals and establishments for military equipment, the ever-increasing number of regiments, and the sums devoted to the Army and Navy of the Budgets that get larger and larger; in short, the thousand external 9 130 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE manifestations which no one can ignore, and that, more- over, are impossible to conceal. One fact positive and incontestable is that at the present time, ever since its victories, Japan is making V7ar preparations v^ith ever- increasing activity. Already the Army that can be put into action has been doubled since the campaign in Manchuria, and it is no exaggeration to say that in six or seven years from now at the latest, the Japanese Army will have perfectly ready for action precisely the same fighting strength as a good European army. So far as the question of fighting is concerned, the soldier is equal to that of any country in Europe, and is dauntless in facing death. Indeed it appears that the Japanese soldier welcomes death, and with a population of nearly fifty million inhabitants, all willing to undergo the supreme sacrifice, it must be conceded that Japan does not lack material. An anecdote in circulation at the time of the attack on the forts of Taku in 1900 by the Boxers reveals the contempt for life felt by the Japanese. The small warships anchored before the ports were bombarding the latter, when a Japanese colonel, finding that the attack was not going forward quickly enough, hurled his men on to the assault under a shower of balls. They shattered a door and entered the fort, but half the force was on the ground, whereupon a foreign officer remarked to the Japanese colonel that he could have arrived at the same result without losing so many persons. " Oh," was the reply, " there are plenty of persons still left in Japan." "With such men one can venture anything. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 131 Military service in Japan is obligatory upon each citizen without distinction between seventeen and forty years ; the call is made in the year following that on which the young man attains to twenty. Every year the number of citations varies between 515,000 and 520,000, for Japan, not being wealthy, can only enrol under its flag a certain number of men according to the state of its resources. According to the Statistical Eeport of the Empire, the number of young men recruited was, in — 1903 188,822 1904 269,284 1905 310,866 1906 201,714 But this table gives the figures of the men recruited during the war ; since the war the contingent has not attained 100,000 men. The annual contingent remains seven years in the active army, and the reserve ten years in the reserve army, or Ko hi gun, after which he passes into the National Army or Kohu min gun. A part of those who are not called to form the annual contingent, but who are nevertheless efficient for service, receive an abbreviated course of military instruction, and the remainder enter direct into the Koku min gun, and remain there till they are forty years old. In 1907 the War Minister was authorised by Parha- ment to try the experiment of a two years' service. Till then the Japanese soldier had remained three years in the active army. This experiment was only applicable so far to the infantry, but it nevertheless gave the oppor- tunity for the incorporation of a much larger number of conscripts, so that at the present time the annual contin- gent under canvas reaches to the figure of some 130,000 132 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE men. On the other hand, the reserve, which since the legislation of 1905 and 1907 necessitates ten years in place of five, is capable of furnishing a fighting force of 500,000 men. "We must admit that this is a pretty fine figure already, yet it is only the beginning. If, as there is good ground for believing, the War Ministers of Japan do not stop midway (and Parliament and the country will follow them in everything that they desire to accomplish in military matters), before twenty years have elapsed Japan will be capable of putting into the field an army of 1,500,000 men ; it is even possible, if the number of young men now incorporated is increased, that this figure will be reached within ten years. But if from whatsoever cause the annual contingent remains as it is to-day, Japan could put into action in twenty years from now 1,500,000 men completely efficient (active army and reserve) ; 1,000,000 men, consisting of those called the recruiting reserve (in Japanese Ho ju), men who are efficient for service but who have not been incorporated and have received only an abbreviated training ; and 200,000 men belonging to the territorial army. Finally, if appeal is made to the national army, the army of the " country in peril," or Koku mm gun, Japan could have at its disposition 5,000,000 men. And with the spirit of perseverance and activity that characterises Japan in everything it under- takes, the realisation would not be long delayed. The only thing that could hinder the solution of this great military problem would be the lack of funds. Every one knows that Japan is far from being a wealthy country, and it does not possess within itself the sources of wealth necessary to a people that wishes to become great. Nevertheless the military spirit ia so strong throughout the whole Empire that the population THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 133 supports the burden of railitarism without a murmur. The ideal of peace is an unknown thing at Tokyo, and for a long day yet the country can reckon for its defence upon the unanimity of its children. At the same time, in certain centres, notably at Osaka, an actively industrial town and an important centre for workmen of all kinds, anti-militarist ideas are beginning to find fairly favourable ground, and it is recognised by all the Japanese officers that the garrison of Osaka is more undisciplined than any other. This, it is clear, is merely a symptom which is still slight in character, but it is not the less true that the fact exists, and that already steps have been taken to punish severely the persons who are circulating amongst the soldiers pamphlets attacking the Army. The Japanese have not, like us, army corps ; their unit is the division, and it is augmented by a brigade of the reserve. The present-day Japanese Army counts nine- teen divisions, as well as the division of the guard. No doubt other divisions will be created in proportion to the financial resources, and it appears probable that Japan, after its new military organisation is complete, will possess double the number of divisions that it has had since the war against Kussia, these amounting to twelve, with the additional division of the guard. The Cavalry Division and the Artillery will be augmented. This latter includes the heavy artillery for campaigning, and finally the companies of the infantry will number sixteen. There will be eight companies of telegraph operators with one company for wireless telegraphy. According to the different military reviews and journals at the time of the war in Manchuria Japan had 127 infantry battahons, 55 squadrons of cavalry, 89 com- panies of engineers. To-day it possesses already 229 134 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE infantry battalions, 73 squadrons of cavalry, 54 com- panies of engineers. In three years, therefore, as will be seen, the augmen- tation has been considerable, and gives an idea of the rapidity with which the Japanese Government effects the complete organisation of its war machinery. At the same time that it was planning the forming of the new divisions Japan effected great changes in the uniform of its men. These were of two kinds : the winter uniform of cloth and the summer uniform of khaki ; this last was adopted at the close of the Eusso-Japanese War ; up to then the soldiers had gone through the campaign in China and Manchuria with the white costume, the too impracticable character of which had been recognised. The soldier is, however, much less burdened than in France, being accompanied by coolies or porters, who relieve him of much, and he carries nothing beyond what is strictly necessary. The transport and the commissariat are the most com- plex parts of the Japanese Army. As rice forms the principal element of the food (equivalent to European bread), and as its cooking is of a most complicated nature, it is necessary to carry baggage, which is one of the most serious impedimenta of the Japanese Army. This baggage must include, first of all, a big iron pot ; and as there are several pots to a company, it will be seen what this represents. I recollect to have seen defile at the mobilisation for the campaign in China interminable lines of mules and horses loaded with immense cooking utensils placed on each side of the pack-saddle. In the two wars which they have had to sustain recently, the Japanese were in a position to carry out their re-victualling as they chose. In the first instance, THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 135 against China, they had to deal with an enemy which vanished at the sight of them ; in the second, with an army composed of men who were very brave but too heavily burdened, ignorant of manœuvring, and who sub- mitted to be driven from their positions; the Japanese then had all through the advantage. But if they had to face a quicker, more lightly accoutred army with swifter movements, it is possible that their re-victualling could be checked without difficulty. To sum up, the Japanese up to now have made two campaigns in which the winning cards of the game were on their side and they had no great obstacles to sur- mount. Against an enemy thoroughly organised and active they would certainly have the same courage ; but would they have the same success ? Nevertheless, it is essential that Europe should watch the military progress of the people who have given so many proofs of their intelligence, vigour, and unmis- takable sense of method and organisation. Several Governments have already despatched, and are con- tinuing to despatch, every year, officers with the capacity to make themselves familiar with Japanese affairs. I am well aware that this courtesy habit of an exchange of military missions does not lead to much from the standpoint of the military profession, because — and this is natural — one is only shown what cannot be concealed ; but nevertheless it is possible to succeed in understanding something of the habits and customs, the wav of looking at things and handling them, of a people with whom one is living, I do not say one penetrates the soul of the people, for though it may be easy enough to penetrate the soul of the Frenchman transparent and frank (too frank), it is much more difficult, if not impossible, to 136 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE reach to its depths the thought of a Chinese or Japanese. Everything that I have just v^ritten upon the Japanese Army vi^ith regard to recruiting, organisation, and the number of serviceable men, is based upon the nev^ mili- tary laws, which were altered or re-modelled after the war in Manchuria. A few points may perhaps be lacking in absolute exactness (technical things of this kind can only be treated fundamentally by a military man), but they will suffice to give a fairly adequate idea of the formidable war machinery that Japan is in train to raise and wield effectively. The principal regimental garrisons are Tokyo, where the division of the Guard is quartered, Sakura, Sendai, Aomori, Nagoya, Kanazawa, Osaka, Himegi, Hiroshima, Matsuyama, Kumamoto, Kokura. Since the augmentation of the contingent the battalions have been distributed in other towns. For instance, one attacking division is always kept in Korea, and there is some question of increasing the troops owing to the ill reception given by Korea to the introduction of Western civilisation by Japan, Another of the attack- ing divisions is stationed in Manchuria. Hiroshima, situated on the inner sea and well sheltered and well defended, has been, during the two last wars, the headquarters for the general officers and staff, to which the Emperor was personally transported. As I have said in an earlier chapter, the Japanese are of small stature, the men measuring generally, roughly, 4 ft. 3 in. to 4 ft. 4 in. The classification of the recruits educationally was, in 1906, as follows :— The young men finishing their studies at the High THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 137 Schools numbered 492 ; those finishing their studies in the Lycées (Ko to chu gakkô), 8,419 ; those who had finished their studies at the Lycée, and passed the examinations, numbered 9,277 ; the number concluding their studies at the higher primary schools reached 62,717 ; those who had finished their course at the above, 41,442 ; those finishing their studies at the primary school, 145,277 ; men who had finished their course at the above school, 37,536 ; those who could barely read or write, 59,952 ; those unable to read or write, 33,564. It will be seen that there are a considerable number of illiterate persons, as the two latter figures may be joined together, scarcely knowing how to read or write. When this refers to the Japanese tongue it is the equi- valent to knowing nothing at all ; consequently this would give 93,516 illiterate persons. Some idea of the number of young men recruits sent back and exempted can be formed by the following figures, also in 1906, the last published: — In Honshu — that is in the great island — the number of young men recruits was 150,508 ; number of young men sent back, 2,746 ; number of young men exempted from being called, 127,228; number of young men exempted from military service, 24,620 ; which makes a total of 305,102. In the Island of Shikoku — Recruits 15,020 Sent back 256 Exempted from call 9,087 Definitely exempted 2,150 In the Island of Kyushu — Recruited 32,209 Sent back 376 Exempted from call 19,700 Exempted decisively 6,067 138 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE In the Island of Yezo (Hokkaido) — Eecruits 3,917 Sent back ... ... ... ... ... ... 50 Exempted from call... ... ... 3,205 Exempted completely 551 Total for Shikoku, Kyûshû, and Yezo — Recruited 51,206 Sent back 682 Exempted from call 31,992 Exempted entirely 8,768 These different figures yield a grand total of 397,750 conscripts. These, it must not be forgotten, are the recruiting figures after the war against the Eussians (1906). IV Whilst thus developing and increasing in an equally complete manner its land army, its offensive power, it by no means forgets its navy, knowing that sea- strength means the question of life or death ; knowing further that for victory complete and full there must be absolute mastery of the sea, mastery of the China Sea for the moment, and in dreams for the future mastery of the Pacific later on. Therefore it dedicates considerable sums to the work of fitting out and renewing the war- ships, and in giving much encouragement to its mer- cantile marine, which is capable, and under an obligation, of acting as the transport service. Its maritime population contributes a hardy and bold element, and it does not yet lack men to man its number- less boats. Its officers will bear comparison with those of European navies, and they possess that unshakable confidence which ensures a twofold victory. In addition, at the present hour, the Japanese war fleet is one of the THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 139 most powerful that exists in the world, and as time goes on it will increase in size and value. At the present time Japan possesses a squadron of 16 ironclads, 11 cruisers of the first class, 9 cruisers of the second class, of which many are already antiquated (Matsushima, Hashitaté), 30 full sea-going gunboats, 60 torpedo destroyers, 78 torpedo boats. There are on active service 77 admirals, 741 superior officers, 2,126 officers, 7,857 petty officers, 29,667 sailors. With the first and second the number, all told, reaches 39,103 men (not including the officers) (figures for 1908). For building and repairing, the Japanese Navy has four military ports, viz. : Yokosuka, near Yokohama, in the bay of Yedo ; Kure, in the province of Aki, near Hiroshima ; Sasebo, in the province of Hïzen, near Nagasaki ; Maizuru, province of Tango, on the Inner Sea. The Budget for 1907-8 includes the credit accounts extending over 1907 to 1913-14, designed to cover the remaining expenditure of the war, and reaching to ^17,500,000, in addition to a sum of £7,657,700, which it is expected during the same period will replace the fighting units that will have to be erased from the navy list. But this had been calculated without taking into account the disastrous financial situation which did not permit such an immediate strain, and the credits under this heading had to be reduced, the first to £4,581,142, the second to £3,117,813. The ironclads Aki and Satsuma were added to aug- ment the war fleet as new units; the Mikasa, which had shifted and sunk, has been completely re-cast, and the Kussian ships taken at Port Arthur have been modified in modernising them. 140 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE The new cruisers, Tsukuha and Ikumo, were put into service at the same time ; these new constructions were not made in the arsenals, which had already sent to sea the Satsuma and the Aki, and that are in the course of constructing a vessel as perfect as that turned out by any arsenal of Europe or America. The Japanese Navy to-day ranks third in the world after England and Germany ; then comes the United States, and the French Navy, which only a few years ago occupied brilliantly the second rank next to England, is now relegated to the fifth ! I shall add but one reflection to this résumé of the Japanese forces on land and sea. After Japan's war against China, the Emperor William II. sent out his famous picture, showing the Western Powers standing closely ranged shoulder to shoulder to oppose the Yellow Peril advancing by swift steps. Beneath he had inscribed the words : " Peoples of Europe, defend your most sacred possessions." People smiled. But who will predict? The future will give the reply. Has not the present already given some response ? In any case, one cannot deny that Japan, whilst preparing herself in so formidable a manner, has conformed most carefully and punctiliously to the Si vis pacem, para helium. CHAPTEE X Agriculture : Area of rice-fields — II. Total productiveness of cereals — III, Different kinds of rice — IV. The haricot, maize, the sweet potato, the different vegetables — V. Spices and condiments — VI. Division of the land — VII. Silk and the culture of the mulberry- tree— VIII. Tea culture — IX. Horses and cattle — X. Fruits— XI. The isle of Yezo (Hokkaido) and colonisatiou. In the time of antiquity there existed in Japan, as in every other country in those days, two classes — the agriculturists and the soldiers ; this, moreover, is the foundation of all human society : man must nourish himself and defend himself. Industry and commerce only come afterwards. Even to-day Japan may be considered above all an agricultural country : 60 per cent, of the population live on the land. The cultivated land is divided into two kinds : dry-soil districts, analogous to the plains of Europe, which are the less numerous ; and the humid districts, serving exclusively for the culture of rice. According to the most recent statistics (1908), the super- ficial area of the rice-fields is 2,898,792 chô, and that of the other districts 1,813,913 chô. The cultivation of rice and other cereals over the superficial arable land of the Empire is thus distributed : — 141 142 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE THE EXTENT OP THE CULTIVATION OP RICE, BARLEY, OATS, AND CORN. ^■^'i^h^.0... Rice. Chô. Barley. Chô. Oats. Chô. Corn. Chô. Honshu ,. 2,285,453 601,309 325,643 293,475 Shikohu 150,787 5,978 118,620 21,866 Kyushu 441,752 50,474 236,495 118,548 Yezo 19,800 12,075 19,927 9,917 Comparing the area cultivated to-day with that of ten years ago, we shall not find any marked increase. Japan appears to have reached its maximum of rice culture ; all the districts that could have been converted into rice- fields have been done so, and during thirty years the area of rice-fields has almost doubled — from 1,611,130 chô in 1878, it mounted to 2,898,792 chô in 1908. Eice, as a matter of fact, is the foundation of the Japanese food. The other cereals, which in 1878 represented an area of 1,433,913 chô, only reached 400,000 chô more in 1908, making 1,833,913 chô, the reason being that the cereals are in no way indispensable, and are used for other purposes than those of nourishment. II The total cereal production of Japan — that is to say, in rice, barley, oats, and corn ; the corn being of a different kind from what is found in Europe, and a kind of bearded corn with a distinctly squared ear peculiar to Japan — is as follows : — TOTAL PRODUCTION FOR ALL JAPAN. Rice 46,302,530 kokus. J ^, Barley 9,445,238 X//^ Rye 6,957,932 U Wheat 3,962,265 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 143 III There are two sorts of rice — the ordinary rice, called urushi; and the glutinous, or "mochigome," rice (sweet rice). These are again divided into a number of varieties — at least two hundred and fifty the Japanese say — but which we are not able to identify. The rice is grown in the water; a certain kind is, however, planted on the mountains, though only in small quantities, and, more- over, this kind is only found in the parts of the country where there are no means of producing the ordinary rice. It is used, as I have already said, for the daily food. It is also used for making the yeast for "sake" (rice beer) and for vinegar. Keduced to flour it enters into the composition of many different kinds of macaroni, tapioca, vermicelli, &c. The glutinous rice is used in the making of con- fectionery and a kind of sweet liqueur ; it is also used in the process of dyeing as starch. Barley is used in the making of the sweetmeats called a7ne or midzuarne, and for cakes by boiling it and mixing with sugar. From the Japanese wheat a species of macaroni and vermicelli are manufactured and a sort of pâte, called fu. It is used also combined with haricots for the making of slioiju and miso. Two kinds of sauce and confectionery are also made out of it. The rye is used in the same way as the wheat, and contributes also to the food of animals. In addition to these four cereals the Japanese soil pro- duces : — 144 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Haricot Adzuki (a sort of haricot, the phaseolus radiatus) MiUet lye (kind of millet) Kibi (kind of millet) Sarrazin Colza Kokus.* 3,261,881 804,485 1,829,027 205,422 364,269 1,119,108 1,018,644 IV The haricot, or mame, is found in Japan in numerous varieties and is used in an equally large number of ways : for eating it can be cooked, or as flour ; and it is also used for the making of shoyu, miso, and tofu. The shoyu and the miso are two different varieties of sauces, and the tofu is a sort of cake resembling in appearance perfectly new cheese. The skin, the covering, the leaves, and the stalk are used for the food of horses. The different kinds of millet are used in the making of food, principally in the form of confectionery. In addition, Japan produces : — Kwamme.t Potatoes 117,969,598 Sweet potatoes 651,678,486 Cotton 2,145,625 Hemp 2,185,425 Tobacco 10,877,910 Indigo 9,127,480 Maize, or tomorokoshi, has been imported earlier from China, and the Japanese eat it in two different ways : if it is of the corn variety it is simply boiled ; whereas the flour is made into a soup or soft food for infants. When the maize is fresh it is also eaten grilled. This is achieved by placing the grain intact on the top of the * See table. 1 koku = rather less than 5 English bushels. t See table. Kwamme or kwan = a little over 8^ lb. avoir. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 145 fire. In the way of vegetables Japan possesses almost all those of Europe : the onion, eschalot, carrot, turnip, cucumber, melon, pumpkin, spinach, sorrel, and so forth. In addition it has a quantity of vegetables that are native and peculiar, the result of which is that the vegetarian régime is carried to a point unknown in Europe. In Japan one can have an endless variety of vegetarian dishes. There is the lotus, usually cultivated in ponds or in marshy districts ; its root {hasu no ne : root of lotus) is exceedingly good to eat and starchy in composition, whilst the flower is greatly admired. The lotus is the sacred flower of Buddhism. The daikon, a kind of enormous turnip existing in numerous varieties, is eaten cooked or salted. They make out of it a sort of sauer- kraut much appreciated by the Japanese, but very offen- sive in smell to Europeans. The imo or bulbous root comprehends a host of varieties, the names of which cannot be translated into French, because the plant does not exist at all in France. TsuJcu imo, which is cooked for consumption ; its seeds can also be eaten. Naga imo. From this is made a sort of oatmeal eaten with a special sauce, but it must be crushed and pounded. Imo, properly speaking, includes sato imo, tono imo, yatsuga imo, yegu imo, &c., the complete enumeration of which would be too long. All the varieties are eaten in a cooked form. In spring the tubercles of the yegu imo are covered with earth to make them sprout. When the little shoots, which are given the name of no imo, appear, they are eaten ; and there is still another species called hasu imo, whose stem alone can be utilised. Yuri, the lily, is used in Japan exactly as are carrots and turnips ; the sara yuri grows wild ; the 07ii yuri 10 146 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE needs to be cultured ; this latter has a pleasanter taste, and its bulb can be crushed into flour. Na, or spinach, a herb, or perhaps one might translate it as " verdure " ; for in Japan all green plants that are edible, and there are an infinite number, go by the name of 7ia. Metsuba, a kind of water plant (Cryptotsenia cana- densis). Shiso. The leaves are either red or green, and they are salted and eaten after maceration. Takenoko. The young stems of the bamboo, which are first boiled and then when quite tender dressed. V The Japanese is very fond of spiced condiments : he constantly consumes ginger (shoga) either in the raw or preserved form. The young shoots are grown in cellars, the roots being covered by mould and vegetable débris. The wasabi or raifort is likewise much appreciated, also the togarashi or capsicum, the sansho (Xantoxylum piperitum) the seeds of hemp grilled, and so on. VI The whole extent of the land can be analysed as follows : Lands belonging to the Crown Government, &c., 21,394,805 cho.* Land belonging to private persons : 14,172,339 cho. The population occupying the land may be calculated at about 5,600,000 families, that is 64 per cent, of the total population of the Empire, of which some 20 per * See table. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 147 cent, possess a complete agricultural education, 350,000 young men having passed through the special schools. The land is excessively cut up, the greater part of the rice-fields, for example, having only an area of 4*50 ares, about 484-5441 square yards, whilst even those justly called fields do not measure more than 968-1,089 square yards. If in addition we take into consideration the ground that must necessarily be sacrificed round the rice-fields, so that the talus can be elevated to hold the water, it will be evident that for the proprietor of many scattered fields, the labour of culture is difiicult and the losses sufficiently serious. Consequently, since 1900 the Government has undertaken to act with the parties interested, and, advised by qualified experts, to re-adjust properties and to distribute them in a "grouped" form, with the object of bringing them into closer union. The owners, having everything to gain by this, gladly furthered this movement, which seemed excellent in its inception, but owing to a lack of funds, is in abeyance. VII Japan produces a considerable quantity of silk. The names of the districts contributing the greater part are as follows: — Ken of Miya ,, Gnrnma ... ,, Aichi „ Yamanashi ,, Nagano ... ,, Fukushima ,, Saitama ... Gifu Yen. 3,312,490 9,585,254 8,358,883 8,846,864 34,989,371 6,188,107 8,352,784 6,155,458 4,885,739 148 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Mulberry-trees occupy the following areas :- Honshu Shikoku Kyushu Yezo ... Chô. 337,399 8,218 16,839 2,260 The culture of this tree is very successful in Japan, and it sometimes attains a height of from twenty to thirty feet. Its leaves, heart-shaped and notched, are sometimes denticulated : its fruit ripens in summer and is violet coloured. It is planted in rows like the vine in the centre of France, and the branches are cut in place of simply gathering the leaves, with the result that every year in the spring the young branches shoot forth with new vigour. There are two kinds of mulberry-trees in Japan, the one which flowers in March, the other more tardily, which flowers only in April. VIII The extent of the fields devoted to the culture of the tea-plant is as follows: — Honshu Shikoku Kyushu Yezo Total Districts producing the most tea are :- Ken Iharaki ,, Shizuoka Shi Kyoto Ken of Shiga „ Miye ,, Nara Keimamoto C!hô. ... 37,659 ... 3,498 ... 9,299 Unproductive. ... 50,456 Yen. 454,437 3,445,679 739,152 374,932 726,211 376,993 519,106 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 149 I do not propose entering into particular detail with regard to the culture of tea in Japan, as it does not present any interest for Europe. All the tea which Japan supplies for exportation is absorbed by the United States, where it is a speciaHty that would never, I think, be appreciated in Europe. IX The horse of old in Japan was principally used to carry the baggage of the peasants over the footpaths in the country, and also as mounts for the soldiers. The Japanese horse is not an elegant animal; it is narrow-chested, lean, and feeble in the front legs, and a rather poor expedient for carrying heavy burdens. The Japanese Government has made every effort to improve the breed, and taught by the last two wars, it has instituted a special administration for the breeding of horses, under the immediate direction of the Imperial Household, with a Privy Councillor and a former Minister of State at its head. But the peculiar circumstances existing in Japan operate in opposing any rapid develop- ment in the breeding of horses, the chief of which are the lack of tracts of level ground, the existence through- out the country of the rice-fields, and the absolute uselessness of horses for the cultivators of the land and for the public generally, with the result that their breed- ing has always been more or less neglected. The new administration requires to have always at its disposal 1,500 selected stallions from abroad, with the object of distributing them amongst the principal breed- ing centres and allying them with the native mare. The programme is fixed for a period of twenty-eight years, 150 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE starting from 1906, and it is calculated that the expense will be 30,000,000 yen. The principal breeding centres are in the north, the isle of Yezo, the districts of Nambu, Sendai, Miharu and Akita ; in the south, Kagoshima. The Nambu horse is the most famous in Japan ; it is strong, comparatively broad in the chest, and very wiry. The horses of Hokkaido, Sendai, Miharu, and Akita belong to the Nambu species : they are docile and tough ; the Kagoshima horse, on the other hand, is small, lively, vicious, and often in- tractable. The experiment of introducing foreign horses to im- prove the native breed, made by the Japanese Government, has now had a long trial, but up to the present it has not been successful. Handsome and magnificent specimens have come from France, England, America, Hungary, Arabia and Australia, but after two years in Japan they have been either dead or sick ; the humid climate and the lack of pasture land kill them. The Emperor, however, has a stable of Australian horses, but the luckless animals are only shadows of what they were formerly in their own country. Even the Chinese horse, though tough and hardy, is soon attacked with rheumatism in Japan, and rendered un- saleable. A two-year-old colt would cost to-day about 60 yen if native thoroughbred, and about 150 yen if crossed with an alien breed. The horned cattle are likewise very puny. In former times they were only used as beasts of burden ; whereas the Japanese peasant to-day is satisfied to use them for culture purposes and for transport, but he does not rear them for the slaughter-house, in consequence of which THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 151 the meat supplied to Europeans in the ports is of very bad quaHty. The want of good pasture-lands will always hinder the creation of the fine breeds of cattle which are seen in Europe and America ; the milk is scanty and poor in quality, and the butter which has been produced from it detestable. Goats and sheep do not exist. Attempts have been made to introduce them, but success is only achieved with great difficulty, and only in the North ; as a general rule, after a short time, they are attacked with illness and quickly die. It frequently happens that they die suddenly without any apparent cause. It must be the humidity of the climate that prevents their growing to maturity. Pigs and chickens are found in small numbers. The Japanese eat very little pork, and, moreover, they are not very fond of eating birds. X In the matter of fruits, Japan is very poor. There is nothing first-rate but the hiwa, which we have called the medlar of Japan, and that having been transplanted grows on the southern littoral of France and in Algiers ; the kaki, a fruit peculiar to China and Japan, which has eighty-six varieties, and resembles a tomato, and the mikan, a species of orange. Other fruits exist, but they are unpleasant. The plum (sume) cannot be eaten raw ; it is used in the making of preserves, and also a sort of salted preserve, which one eats the first thing in the morning on rising. The flower of the plum is salted and used for making an infusion similar to that of tea. 152 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE The peach (momo) bears a handsome fruit, but it is not eatable uncooked. The Japanese preserve it by boiling it with sugar. The apricot (ansu) is used in a dried form ; raw it is bitter and disagreeable. The nectarine (sumomo), the apple (ringo), the pear (nashi), are most inferior ; they have a watery taste, and are very insipid raw; they are eaten as compose with sugar. The wild quince (kwarin) compares poorly both in size and quality with that of Europe. It is eaten cooked with honey and ginger. In addition to the mikan (orange), which is excellent, there exist in Japan many varieties of the lemon : the koji, the kunembo, the daïdaï, the zabon, the buntan, the bushu kan, the kinkan, the yudzu. All these lemons grow, generally speaking, in the south (isle of Kyushu). The yudzu alone supports cold. The jujube tree (natsume), the nut-tree (kurumi), the chestnut-tree (kuri) are found everywhere, but their fruit is very poor. The wild vine (budo) grows in large quantities, and yields a tolerably pleasant fruit. The cherry (sakura) is only valued for its blossom, which in spring is the joy of Japan. For twenty years the attempt has been made to acclimatise the cherries, apples, pears, grapes, and straw- berries of Europe and America. With pears and apples, the attempt has been fairly successful, likewise with cherries and strawberries, but the plants soon degenerate. The climate of the Japanese islands is too humid, and is clearly the cause of the antagonism which in the veget- able kingdom hinders the normal development of the fruits of Europe, and in the animal the rearing of sheep and goats. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 153 XI Hokkaido (isle of Yezo), in the extreme north, and remote from all communications with the Japan of the past, was for a long time neglected ; it served as a place of exile, and was only peopled by the Ainus, and Hakodate was the only port and station that the Japanese had in the island. The very cold climate did not suit them and, moreover, the journey to get there was too lengthy. Since the Imperial restoration, the Government has essayed to colonise the island of Yezo, more commonly called Hokkaido ; it has, first of all, instituted a coloni- sation bureau, the Kai tahu shi, specially intended for the administration of the country. In addition to the independent colonists, who do not come in large numbers into the cold solitudes, the Government wished to imitate the Kussians in Siberia, and create soldier-labourers, on whom they would bestow land ; in their turn the latter were to become attached to the soil, and when the necessity arose defend it. But all this organisation has produced nothing of any importance. The idea was abandoned, and instead of re-attaching Hokkaido to the general Government of the Empire^ a separate administration was created, a chô, and the island was divided into keji; it was then placed under the authority of the Minister of the Interior. Thanks to the existence of coal-mines in Poronai, and of salmon, herring, and whale fisheries, and also to the increasing birth-rate of the Japanese nation, the island will probably end by being densely populated ; but there is no doubt that the Japanese do not hke J>h.e 154 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE country, and will only expatriate themselves there unwillingly. The State grants land on the following conditions : — Land for cultivating, 500 cho at 4 yen 50 the chô. Land for breeding, 800 chô at 3 yen the chô. Forest land 800 chô at 1 yen 50 per chô. Land given gratuitously, 10 chô. Period of time granted, at the expiration of which the land is expected to be productive of : — Five years for the land given gratis. Eight years for 10 chô. Ten years for 30 chô. For the exploitation of forest land, as for the ex- traction of peat, the period is doubled. The colonist who has fulfilled the conditions exacted has the right to a new contract with the same terms and obligations. Some model farms have been installed, principally in the neighbourhood of Sapporo. One of them belongs to the ShoJcu yetsu shoJcu min Kwaisha, and is situated at Noboro, seven and a half miles from Sapporo. The farm contains 251 families ; in 1906 the company drew a net profit of 5,182 yen. Another belongs to the Marquis Maeda (ancient daimyô of Kaga), is situated near Sapporo, and is divided into an agricultural scheme and one for breeding. The capital employed is about 80,000 yen, and the profit in 1906 was 5,797 yen. CHAPTEE XI I. Fisheries— II. Fishing-boats: the takings — III. Fishing captures on the high seas— IV. The whale— V. Salt and salt fish— VI. Forests — VII. Some of the most extensive woods in Japan — VIII. The forest of Kisogawa, belonging to the Crown— IX. The camphor-tree— X. Mushrooms. The Japanese are undoubtedly born fishermen ; more than three millions of them live by the fishing industry. This latter is characterised by an extreme diversity : owing to the situation of the country, and being hot in the south and very cold in the north, the seas washing them maintain wholly different kinds of fish. In the seas of Hokkaido men catch the herring, sardine, salmon, and whale ; in the south the tunny, the mackerel, the bonito, and, generally speaking, the fish found on the Prench coasts, also quantities of prawns and cray-fish. But Japan, like many other countries, suffers in having a fishing industry too little regulated, and practised with- out method ; the fish diminish, and certain species are becoming rare. The law for the protection of sea and river fish, which has been in force several years, is very little observed. Artificial fecundation is only applied to the salmon at Hokkaido and to the oysters at Hiroshima. The ascending of two marine currents affecting the east and west shores of Japan has naturally a quite special influence upon the marine life of the Pacific and 155 156 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the Sea of Japan. Each of the coasts being subject to the action, more or less strong, of a warm current from the south and of a colder one coming from the north, according to the predominance of the one or the other, the temperature of the sea is affected. Thus along the extent of the northern shore, starting from Kinkasan (Honshu), the mean temperature is below 15° C, and on the coast east of Hokkaido and the Kuriles it is below 10° C, owing to the predominance of the cold currents. From another side, owing to the presence of warmer currents, affecting the whole length of the southern coast from the group of islands at the extremity of Izu to the southern extremity of Kyùshû, the mean temperature is above 20° C, whilst near the Bonin Isles and along the east coast of Formosa it reaches + 23° C. It is comprehensible, therefore, as has been said above, how it is that so great a diversity prevails in the marine fauna and flora of Japan. If it is remembered that the coast towards the Pacific, stretching north at the Kuriles to Formosa on the south, is situated on 29° of latitude, it is not difficult to account for the absolute difference in the marine productiveness of the two extreme regions of the country. Consequently, whilst in the north men fish for herrings, sardines, mackerel, and cod, in the south the catch is more fre- quently the dory, the tunny, the bonito, sole, and shark. One of the most curious scenes to be witnessed in Tokyo is the fish-market at Nihon Bashi at four o'clock in the morning. Quantities of boats during the night have entered the canal, which brings them right up to the market, where they have unloaded all their fish caught the preceding day. A collection of fish of every species and variety is there, from the sardine, held in THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 157 but slight account (it is caught in autumn in large quan- tities in the offing of Tokyo Bay), to the shark and octopus, and in between varieties of fish unknown to our seas, and presenting the most extraordinary and ill- favoured appearance. The consumption of fish by the Japanese is enormous, and they also preserve it. Notably the bonito is dried, and becomes so hard that it is taken for a stone on which to set the knives ; the hatzuohushi is the stand-by of every good housewife, and is scraped into all the soups and sauces. The young shark is greatly appreciated ; the cuttle-fish and octopus are choice dishes. As to the herring, it is largely used for making manure. It is principally caught at Hokkaido, Aomori, and Akita. The fishing season extends from March to May, and the largest hauls are made on the west coast. Enormous quantities of herrings are captured, only a small portion of which is reserved for eating (so small, indeed, that they are never seen in the market at Tokyo), the bulk being used for the manufacture of oil and manure. This manure from the herring is one of the factors contribu- buting to the prosperity of the fisheries in the island of Yezo, although ever since there has been an importation of herring manure from Siberia and sardine manure from the coasts of Korea there has been a diminution of the gains at Yezo. They have, therefore, notably at Akita and Aomori, begun drying and salting the herring for exportation, the preserved form being sent to China and Australia. The sardine, which the Japanese eat fresh, is also very plentiful ; it is the dish of the poor. From it also manure is produced, and attempts have been made to preserve it 158 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE in oil, but the Japanese have not as yet found out the method of doing this in a pleasing form. Codfish and salmon are found in great quantities on the shores of the island of Yezo, and are sold dried and salted, but they are not much Hked by the Japanese. Japan is pre-eminently the country for lobster, prawns, and shell-fish generally. The sea daily furnishes them in such quantities, without any slackenmg, as to appear inexhaustible. Nevertheless it is begirming to be ob- served that there is a diminution in the yield of lobsters, which the Europeans living in Japan consume in immense quantities, and have made à la vwde. II In 1906 (latest statistical report) there existed 426,000 fishing-boats, almost all of which were 30 shaku in length (about 30 feet) ; only 24,000 exceeded this measurement. They had caught in that year : — Value in Ten. Cuttle-fish and octopus 2,902,436 Sardines 4,861,311 Herrings 5,531,136 Bonitos 5,303,302 Shrimps 1,415,263 Mackerel 1,876,865 Tunny fish 1,541,679 Of the variety of fish called — Value in Yen. Yellow-tail 2,823,359 Dory 3,790,119 Various manufactured fish products : — Valne in Yen. Prawns (dried) 816,542 Cuttle-fish (dried) 2,219,150 Bonitos „ 5,095,044 Sardines „ 3,324,872 Sardines for manure 532,942 Herrings for food 888,036 „ for manure 4,643,100 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 159 I have already pointed out that there have been attempts in Japan to make different preservations of fish, but they are badly made, and Europeans find them quite unpalatable. Japan lacks the oil which is essential in this mode of preparation. Ill A navigation bounty was awarded by the Government in 1897 (law was revised in 1905) to ships carrying on fishing on the high seas, and claims for ships built in Japan : — Per gross ton of steel or iron 40 yen ,, combined metal and wood .., 35 ,, „ wood 30 ,, For steam engines : — By horse-power 10 yen For petrol engines : — By horse-power ... 20 yen For ships constructed abroad and flying the Japanese flag:— steam (per gross ton) 22 yen Bailing ,, 18 ,, Boats desiring to participate in the bounty must prove their fishing in deep water ; from 50 to 200 tons for a steamer devoted to fishing, from 10 to 250 tons for a sailing boat using nets for fishing, and from 30 to 250 tons for a sailing boat fishing with a yawl. For bonito fishing, the tonnage would be 10 to 30 tons for a sailing boat fishing on its own account, and 50 to 200 tons for a sailing boat fishing by means of its yawls. For ships engaged in the transport service the tonnage is 160 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE from 80 to 350 tons for a steamship, and from 15 to 150 tons for a sailing ship. The bounty is guaranteed for five years. It is renew- able on examination of the ship and of its equipment. Four-fifths of the crew must consist of Japanese. Up to now the total amount of the premiums granted is 435,389 yen. IV For forty years Japan has held a prominent position in the whale fishery, and every year there arrive on the seas of Japan a number of whalers from Europe and America. But these navigators are so active and so successful that they bid fair to exterminate the cetacean creature. Happily, tired of no longer finding them in sufficient numbers, they have quitted the coasts of Japan, and as the Japanese do not surrender themselves much to this class of fishing, the whale is beginning to make his reappearance in so emphatic a fashion, that the Japanese and Korean waters furnish rich spoils. The most renowned places for whale fishing are in summer the coast between Kinkazan and the extreme point of the Bay of Tokyo, in addition to the coasts of Kyushu, Tosa, and Nagato (the latter in winter). Between 1906 and 1908 an increasingly large number of boats have been employed in this fishing : — March, 1906, 5 steamer 3 captured 434 whales ,, 1907, 10 steamers captured 939 ,, ,, 1907, 1 sailing boat captured 19 ,, ,, 1908, 18 steamers captured 806 ,, ,, 1908, 2 sailing boats captured 22 ,, For 1908 the hauls are furnished only for those taken in territorial waters ; if we add to them those caught in THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 161 Korean waters, the total is considerably larger. More- over, it is not possible to give the full and exact results, for many whalers, not receiving the premium, do not furnish any information as to the number of their cap- tures. The numbers given above and those that follow are stated in the Japanese statistics, notably in the " Japan Year Book " and the " Statistical Eésumé of the Empire." They may be considered fairly accurate, though I have remarked some contradictory figures. VALUE OF THE CAPTURES ON THE COAST OP KOREA. Value in Yen. Total (1906) 2,015,165 „ (1907) 2,225,521 RESULTS OP THE FISHING ON THE COAST OP SAGHALIEN. Value in Yen. Salmon trout 41,544 Herring 19,200 Salmon 10,677 Miscellaneous 11,900 V In a maritime country like Japan, the extraction of the salt is attached to the fishing industry. There exist, in fact, very few salt mines, and it is the sea which almost entirely supplies the salt. Sometimes it is extracted by draining the marshes, conveniently spread out on the sea- shore, through the sun's heat, sometimes by artificial means. The coasts of the Inner Sea are the most produc- tive, but everywhere it is possible to produce a small quantity. Since, however, the annexation of Formosa took place, it has been in this island especially that the salt industry has exhibited so great a development. 11 162 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Down to the last war with Kussia there was a monopoly of salt in Formosa, though its sale was free throughout the Empire. Since the campaign in Manchuria the Government has established this monopoly in every part of Japan. PEODUCTION OF SALT. Koku.* Yen. 2,741,796 5,632,480 1,603,865 2,692,160 521,329 1,889,153 116 407 Honshu Shikoku Kyushu Yezo ... The principal districts furnishing salt are : Hyogo, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Tokushima, Kogawa, Oita. VI Japan from time immemorial has been a country of forests, the wood from them having served for every variety of building and industry. First of all, the houses are made of wood, and generally all utensils for the house and garden. It follows, therefore, that the consumption of wood has been very considerable, but, more long- sighted than its neighbour, China — which has allowed the country to be so stripped that in certain regions not a tree is to be found — wherever the Japanese has hewn down he has always replanted in precisely the same measure, so that at the present time, notwithstanding the pillage of the forests at the time of the Restoration, and the reckless cutting down of numbers of woods, and of the terrible inundations which at times ravage entire portions of the forests, these latter still occupy nearly * See table. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 163 59 per cent, of the territory of the Empire. One can divide them in this way : — Chô. state forests 12,020,218 Crown forests 2,109,099 Forests belonging to the temples and to private persons 7,991,796 Of this aggregate 420,096 chô, forming part of the domain of the State and the Crown, cannot be touched, whilst the remainder — that is, 7,991,796 chô belonging to the forests of private persons and the temples, and 13,709,221 chô belonging to the State and Crown forests — are now under exploitation. The north-east districts of Honshu and Hokkaido (Yezo) abound in forests ; the districts given below have at least 500,000 chô of forest territory : Iwati, Tokushima, Noyata, Yamagata, Gumma, Ehime, Yamaguchi ; the Kens of Nagano, Akita, Gifu, Aomori, which possesses more than 1,000,000 chô; and as for Yezo, the whole island comprises 12,250,095 chô of forests. It is extremely difficult to get the exact figures relating to the private forests, as the owners do not keep any kind of account of the work accomplished and the expenses of the exploitation. With regard to the State forests, the reports for 1906- 1907 state as follows : — Yen. Receipts 9,169,272 Expenses 3,796,862 The assessment of profits might be much larger were it not that in many places the State forests are almost inaccessible, and, on the other hand, the administration disburses large sums for the replanting of the forests. 164 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE VII Japan is very rich in conifers of all sorts, and possesses essences unknown in Europe. To give a list of the principal ones will not be without interest, Sugi, or Gryptomeria japonica, is a green tree attaining a height ranging from 90 to 120 feet. The centre is red, the rest of the wood is whitish. It is employed in architecture, also for making furniture and boxes. One of the varieties of this tree, the yakusugi, comes from the island of Yaku, in the province of Satsuma ; it is found also in the island of Sado. Its wood is very resinous, and its grain very close. The kurohe sugi, which grows in the provinces of Hida and Shinano, is a very handsome wood, with a sinuous grain. The jiudai sugi, which is simply the sugi that has been growing for long under the earth, is found in the lake of Hakone and its neighbourhood. The most beautiful specimens of Gryptomeria still existing are those which stand upon the two sides of the road leading from Ut- sunomiya to Nikko, which were planted there three centuries ago. They are marvellous, and evoke the admiration of the traveller. Some beautiful Gryptomeria are also found at Hakone, round the lake. Hinoki (chamaecyparis obtusa) is also a tree per- ennially covered with leaves. Its wood, which has a very close grain, exhales an agreeable smell. It occupies the first place amongst trees for building, the finest trees being found at Kiso, in the province of Shinano. Sawara (chamaecyparis pisifera or thuyopsis dola- brata) greatly resembles the above, its wood being almost as good as that of the hinoki. It is employed THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 165 alike for the building of houses and manufacture of furniture. Hiba. A variety of the foregoing, a species of Thuy- opsis, resembles the hinoki, but its wood is whiter. It is found in abundance at Nikko. Ahamatsu (pinus densiflora). Usually a gnarled tree with a red bark. The wood is white but has a coarse grain. Kuromatsu (pinus massoniana). Much larger than the trees named, though its grain is analogous. It has a black bark, and being very cheap and capable of being used for different purposes, it is the tree that is most in demand in Japan. Kaya (torreya nucifera) . A tree with perennial leaves, which grows to a great size but is not very tall. Its wood is much sought after by the manufacturers of furniture. It comes from the provinces of Mutsu, Kii, Mikawa, Yamato. Tsuga (abies tsuga). Amongst all the fir-trees, this one yields the finest wood, with a very fine and very hard grain. The best come from the province of Yamashiro. Momi (abies firma) attains usually to a height varying from 60 to 90 feet, and is found in nearly all the pro- vinces of Japan. The rapidity of its growth makes it valuable, and it is employed for all sorts of purposes, both for building and furnishing. Icho (salisbrughia adiantifolia). This tree has cadu- cous leaves, varying sexually. It attains a height of 60 to 90 feet, has a soft wood, though its grain is very close, and is used in the construction of certain parts of Japanese houses and also in the manufacture of furni- ture. It is found everywhere in Japan, particularly near 166 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the temples, and yields a fruit like the almond (gin nan), which the Japanese eat roasted; raw it is poisonous. Kurumi (juglans Mandchurica). Nut-tree from Man- churia. It produces a very handsome wood, which is used for the decoration of houses and for making valuable furniture. Like the tree above, it must have been imported from China. Sawa garumi. Yields a white wood whose grain is much coarser than the one above ; it is used for joinery. The bark of this tree, known under the name of jukohi, is used for the making of those small things which are amongst Nikko's most celebrated productions. Amongst the oaks we find — AkagasM (quercus acuta), with a very close and red- dish grain, used in the isles of Amakusa, where it grows, for making oars. Shirahashi (quercus glauca). Very close and white grain, used for making the handles of forks, and also for charcoal. Native of Kyushu and Amakusa. Shii (quercus cuspidata). Softer wood than the pre- ceding one. Its bark is used for dyeing. Kunugi (quercus serrata). A species of oak whose leaves serve as nourishment to the silkworm yamamai, or wild silkworm. Kashiwa (quercus dentata). The cover of its acorn is used for making a black dye. Kuri (castanea vulgaris) is a tree which, like that of Europe, has caducous leaves, and attains to the same height as in France. Its wood is used for the con- struction of buildings and in the manufacture of furniture. It is found in almost all the provinces. Keyaki (planera japonica, planera acuminata, zelkowa Keyaki) is a tree bearing caducous leaves and attains an THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 167 average height of 49 feet. It yields a very handsome and hard wood which is greatly prized. It is used in the building of houses and in the manufacture of valuable furniture. A variety of this wood is found with an annulary grain that is called joriu ; it is em- ployed in sculpture and for panels for decoration. This tree grows at Kyushu, Nagasaki, in Honshu, Hakone, and Kokura, in the environs of Tokyo, Yokohama, and Yokosuka. Enoki (celtis sinensis). A tree with caducous leaves, growing to a height of 60 feet. The grain is coarse, but it serves for joinery, Tsuge (buscus sempervirens) . Never attains a great height. Its wood is excessively hard and yellow, the grain being very close; it is used for making women's combs, and plates for engraving and artificial teeth are also made from it. It grows in the islands of the province of Izu. Eiri (paulownia imperialis). Grows very rapidly and attains a height of 33 feet in ten years. Its wood is very light and soft ; its grain coarse, but it is much prized by carpenters, who use it for the guétas, or wooden sandals, for men and women. A variety of this wood bears the name of Shimagiri, and comes from the province of Izu. The grain of this wood is finer and closer than that of the Kiri. Awogiri (firmiana platanifolia) has a white wood, a coarse grain, and is employed in carpentering. Pro- duction of Kyushu. Urushi (rhus vernicif era) . Yields a very beautiful yellow wood with a very fine grain. It is used for marquetry and similar work; from it are also made weavers' shuttles and buoys for fishing-nets. This tree 168 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE grows 'principally in the north. Its sap is used in the composition of the lacquer polish. It is extracted by means of excisions made in the tree, then put into a large wooden basin, and finally it is turned up to the sun by means of a large spatula, so that the excess of water may be got rid of, after which it is ready for working on. Hagi (rhus succedanea) greatly resembles the above. Its wood, also yellow, serves for making objects of small dimensions, and its fruit produces honey. It grows in the provinces of the south. Momiji (acer polymorphum or palmatum), the maple- tree, which is very common in Japan, there being over one hundred varieties. Kusufioki (cinnamomum camphora), a tree with ever- lasting leaves from which camphor is extracted. Its height reaches 49 feet. Its wood is very close and hard, and it is not affected by contact with water, and is much sought after for the construction of ships. It is much used in the building of certain portions of the Japanese house, and also in carpentry. The root sometimes exhibits strange designs, which are greatly esteemed for the ornamentation of rooms. This tree grows above all at Kyushii and Shikoku, but it is also found in Hongo, in Miyanoshita, Atami, Kanagawa, and in other localities of the Bay of Tokyo. Tsuhaki (camellia Japonica), the ordinary camellia. It clothes the Japanese hills, and it often attains a height of 33 feet. Its wood is hard and it is used in carpentering. The berries are used for the making of oil, with which the women freely plaster their hair. Sarusuberi (lagerstaemia indica) is the tree into which the monkey (saru) slides (suberi). It has no bark, hence its name. It has a very hard wood, a close grain, and is THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 169 used for making the handles of tools. It is not indigenous to Japan, having evidently been introduced from India. Take (bambusa), the bamboo; the most useful and the most serviceable tree in Japan. One may truly say it is used for everything — absolutely everything. It exists in numberless varieties, and is distributed throughout the whole country. It is the tree ^ar excellence, and it grows with such vigour and such rapidity that it is never any- where absent. VIII It is not without interest here to dedicate a few lines to the famous forest of Kisogawa, in the province of Owari, which is one of the most important possessions of the Crown. The forest covers 153,000 hectares, of which two-thirds belong to the Crown. The survey was only finished in 1908, because a considerable portion of it was virgin forest land and the difficulties of access unnameable. The forests are almost entirely filled with conifers, amongst which the hinoki predominates. Every second year the wood is thinned in the most careful manner. The trunks are cast upon the Kisogawa, whose current brings them to Nagoya. The Minister of the Imperial Household derives about 350,000 yen profit every year as the result of this activity. Transport facilities are lacking, and from this cause the full returns hoped for are not obtained, but the railway line of the " Grand Central," which is actually in construction and which will traverse the forest, will change the situation. It appears that after all the dis- bursements have been made to render the cultivation really productive, the profits will rise to 2,000,000 yen, 170 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE which will leave a net profit of 1,300,000 yen every year for the Crown. IX The camphor-tree is one of the trees that deserve a special description, its product being used throughout the whole world, whilst the manufacture of this product, or a considerable portion of it, is carried on in Japan and Formosa. When the Japanese Government estabHshed the monopoly at Formosa, it did so in the belief that the camphor of the island would command the markets of the world. This did not happen, because first Japan and immediately afterwards South China aimed at producing a still more refined quality, and to-day the camphor-trees of Japan have almost disappeared, whilst the Government have applied the system of monopoly to the whole country. But this has not sent up the market price. China continues her competition, and the Americans have found a process by which they can manufacture camphor chemically. The soil of Formosa, it is thought, possesses enough trees to yield camphor for some twelve years, but that is all. Young camphor-trees have been planted, but as it takes at least sixty years for a tree to furnish an adequate crop, this operation " does not pay." At the present time the Japanese are trying another experiment in the shape of plantations of young camphor- trees every year, and the cutting down of the trees at the expiration of five years. The extract of camphor would not be much from each tree, but it would be constant, and would be capable of yielding a certain stock if the plantations were of sufficient area. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 171 X In this humid country, with its stretches of forests, mushrooms flourish in great quantities, and are much liked by the Japanese. The MatsutaJcé (agaricus) springs up, as its name indicates, in the pine forests (matsu), and is eaten boiled or roasted. It can be kept for a long time salted or simply dried. This mushroom is seen in every part of Japan, but that of Kyoto is the most esteemed. The Hatsudake is met with in the forests, and includes two varieties — one which is brownish and the other greenish. The KawataJce springs up in those parts of the forests where the sun's rays do not penetrate. It is dried and kept, and has a very agreeable smell and an exquisite taste. The Kihurage is a mushroom that grows upon different trees. The finest are found upon the mulberry {morus alba) and upon the nire {ulmus campestris), and are preserved and dried. The Shorô is met with in the sandy localities where the pines grow. It resembles a truffle, and is highly prized for its delicate taste. The Iwatake is found growing on the sharp rocks and steep mountains, and is very difficult to procure. It is dried and preserved, and is a species of lichen. These are the principal varieties, but there are a large number of others, for Japan is pre-eminently the land of mushrooms. The natives cultivate a kind — the Shii take {agaricus campestris) , of which they consume large quan- tities. They take a piece of the trunk of a shii {quercus cuspidata), or of another tree of the same family. In it 172 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE they make incisions, then damp the wood and leave it in a place deprived of light. At the expiration of a certain time the mushroom makes its appearance. It is given its name according to the season : Haruko (mushroom of spring), Natsuko (summer mushroom), and Akiko (autumn mushroom). Once it is dried it can be kept a long time. CHAPTEE XII I. Industries in the past — II. Silk : its début in Japan — III. Silk thread and fabric — IV. The dyeing industry — V. Pottery — VI. Crockery of Satsuma ; porcelain of Imari — VII. Metal industry — VIII. Lacquer — IX. Fans, screens, sculpture in wood and ivory — X. Japanese art. From time immemorial Japan has been an agricultm:al and military country rather than an industrial and com- mercial one. Formerly the only industries that existed were in the hands of certain families or corporations who jealously guarded the secrets connected with them. Each worker worked at his own home, and often it took twenty or thirty years to complete a beautiful piece of silk, lacquer- work, or porcelain. It was in Kyoto that the first artists and artisans established themselves. They were given protection by the Court, and all the new things which passed from China into Japan first found an asylum in the palace of the Mikado, for, as with every- thing else, all the industries came from China. Later, when pupils were trained in the different schools, the great feudal lords took under their authority the manu- facturers of objects of the most diverse kinds, and it was under an aristocracy that the expansion of the first Japanese industry took place. I propose, then, first of all, giving a survey of the silk industry which still exists 173 174 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE at Kyoto and other centres, although its character has changed, and every day is still changing, owing to the introduction of European machinery. II The silk industry has existed since ancient days. The buildings in ancient times were naturally primitive, and the silk material was of poor and thin quality. It was towards 192, under the Emperor Chu Ai, that the Korean fabric, which was far superior, was introduced into Japan, forming part of the presents of gauze and satin offered to the Mikado by the King of the Korean kingdom of Shir agi. Then, in 270, under the reign of the Emperor Ojin, the King of the Korean kingdom of Kudara sent to Japan a tissue named Saiso. The Emperor Nintoku distributed through the country some Chinese families, so that they might teach the people how to raise the silkworm and to weave. Finally, in 794, when the Emperor Kwanmu made Kyoto his capital, he created a special administra- tion for the silk industry. Under the direction of Hideyoshi, Chinese workers came to Sakai, the port of Osaka, which was very flourishing, and taught the people the art of weaving gauze brocade, gold brocade, damask, and also pure silk, the silk stuff which was used at that time in China for vestments under the Ming dynasty. The Shoguns of Tokugawa favoured this industry, and many of the Daimyôs did the same, notably those of Yonezawa and Fukuoka. It is in this way that the weaving of silk was diffused in the East as far as Yedo, where it is still flourishing to- THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 175 day. Towards the Tenshô period (1573-1591) a weaver from Sakai came to the quarter of Kyoto called Nishi jin (even to-day the quarter in which the weavers of Kyoto are still found) and offered brocade tissue and other silk fabrics. Very soon Sakai was surpassed by his pupil, and Nishi jin supplied the finest productions. It was there that the silk damask named Aya was created, and brocade, damask, satin, and other tissues for which Kyoto is renowned date from the same period. The velvet was manufactured later, in imitation of that imported by the Dutch (in 1596). The silk crape dates, it is said, from 1156, but the place where it originated is unknown. It was certainly not till 1573 that it made its appearance in Kyoto, whence it was transmitted to Kiryû. At the present time weaving at Nishi jin is still carried on according to the ancient process, although quite recently the introduction of the Jacquard system has been effected. The crape called Kanoko shibori, or kanoko sha chirimen, is a speciality of Kyoto. Embroidery, one of the most ancient arts of Japan, also originated in Kyoto. The robes worn at Court were embroidered there, also the robes of the Buddhist priests, and the collars and girdles of the women's dress, as well as the fukusa, or pieces of silk used for enwrapping the presents that are sent. The embroidery craft is exactly the same as that carried on in France. Ill The beginning of the spinning and weaving of silk dates so far back that it is unknown. During the 176 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE reign of the Empress Suiko (593-628) Chinese civilisation made great progress. Suiko encouraged the crafts, and quantities of pieces for making into silken robes were begun. When Court robes were in fashion, great use was made of a woven silken fabric called hirao, introduced from Korea. The manufacture of this stuff prospered at Nara, the capital town, in the first part of the 8th century, and after the establishment of the capital at Kyoto, became very flourishing. One portion of the palace was assigned to the craftsmen in silk, and was called ito dohoro, or place of spinning thread. Here was produced the thread used in the preparation of Eusudama, a large ball composed of silk threads of all colours interlaced, and suspended in the houses in spring upon a certain day to keep away illness. The Court at Kyoto possessed an atelier for weaving and embroidery. The princesses and the ladies of the Court had their carriages richly decorated with check- strings in gold, silver, and silk. During the 12th century, at the time of the struggle of the Taira and Minamoto, the different pieces of armour belonging to the warriors were bound together by silk cords. The manufacturers suffered greatly during the war of the 15th century, but they took on a new lease of life under the administration of Hideyoshi (Taikosoma). Then under the Tokugawa, as the Daimyôs had to come and render homage to the Shoguns, there was rivalry between them as to who should wear the most richly embellished costume in silk tissue from Kyoto. At this very day the woven tissue is still reckoned one of the accessories of the Japanese toilette. The silken strings for musical instruments date their use from most ancient days. The Emperors Inkio THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 177 (411-453), Monmu (697-707), and Ninmiyo (834-850), were great lovers of the harp (biwa), and encouraged the making of the strings. About 1131 a blind man from the town of Sahai invented the Sliamisen (guitar), for which silken strings were likewise wanted. During the era of Tempo (1830-1844), at a time when the silk craft was in a very flourishing situation, a Corporation of manufacturers of silk thread and tissue established itself. A branch establishment was settled at Yedo, where woven silk was extensively employed in the ornamentation of the hilts of sabres. In 1883 and in 1893 the company was remodelled and reorganised. IV The dye industry was known in very ancient days in Kyoto, and the great skill acquired by its workers attracted those of other localities, who could not, however, attain their finish, the fact being that the superiority of the dyeing process in Kyoto was due to the excellence of the water in Kamogawa. The celebrated dye called Yuzen is one of the branches of commerce in Kyoto. In addition to the old well-known dyes such as indigo (ai), saffron (béni), madder (akana), the Japanese employ a number of other tinctorial plants derived from the tropics. It is not known from what period the art of dyeing in Kyoto dates; but without going far wrong one may assign the date 710 ; for at this time the process of apply- ing wax (rokitsu) to those portions of stuff that were not to be dyed was already known. This industry made little progress till the day that Yuzen, a celebrated priest as 12 178 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE well as an artist, living in one of the numberless monasteries of Kyoto, improved the existing methods, and so widely extended their scope that his name has remained associated with processes in dyeing employed to this day in Kyoto. They consist in covering with Nori (a sort of paste) the portion of the material which is not to be dyed, and in withdrawing this Nori by means of heat as soon as the dye is definitely fixed. The velvets and crêpons of Kyoto, Yuzen genre, are widely known. V Pottery is also one of the industries brought from China that made its first home in Japan at Kyoto. It comprises several varieties, Awata, Kiyomizu, Baku, Kenzan, and Yeiraku. The two latter are no longer manufactured. The Ceramic industry dates even further back; it is mentioned in the historic books published before our era. Two hundred years after Christ ceramic pottery had made progress, and the history tells us that in the year 400 pottery manufactories were established in the five provinces of Yamashiro, Ise, Settsu, Tamba, Tajima. In 720 a priest named Giyogi, a native of the district of Otori, in the province of Izumi, invented the lathe, and from that moment the scope of the ceramic art seems to have been recognised and it rapidly perfected itself. The modes known to the Chinese and Koreans were brought into employment, and great manufactories were founded in the provinces of Kizen, Hizen, Owari. In 1510 there made its appearance, for the first time in Japan, porcelain as we now understand it. Thanks to the manufactories established in the province of Hizen and THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 179 Owari as well as in the town of Kyoto, the art of ceramics made rapid progress. In Japan there are three distinct genres : Awata Yaki, Satsuma YaJà, Awaji Yaki. The origin of the Awata Yaki is not very well known ; but according to tradition it dates from the first years of the Tempo Era (729-748), and seems to have been dis- covered by a Bonze of the village of Yamashina in the east of Awata. At the end of the Keicho period (1596- 1614) a potter named Kiuyemon, living at Awataguchi, stamped "Awata " on all the objects that he manufactured, and from that time all the productions issuing thence have been given the name of Awata. To-day the methods employed in manufacturing have been perfected, and the Awata articles are much valued. The pottery of Komizu was first manufactured at the village of Seikanji, but at the commencement of the 17th century the manufactories were transported to Gojo Zoka, east of Gojo. The colouring and painting in gold were the discoveries of Chawanya Kiubei and Nonomura Ninsei. This latter built a factory at Sanneizaka, where he made very delicate earthenware. At the beginning of the nineteenth century one Kumakichi introduced changes in the manufacture and the painting. The pottery called raku was introduced about 1530 by a Chinese or a Korean who installed himself at Kyoto and did not again leave Japan. His son, Choyu, suc- ceeded him, and in 1588 received from the Shogun, Hideyoshi, instructions to make some pottery in reddish- black colouring, after designs furnished by Eykyu, a famous Master of Ceremonies attached to the person of this general for the Ceremonies of Tea Drinking. Hideyoshi was so satisfied with the result that he made 180 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE a gift to Choyu of a seal bearing the characters raku (satisfaction, joy, pleasure), whence the name of the porcelain, rahu yaki. VI It was Shimazu Yoshihisa, one of the generals sent into Korea by Hideyoshi, who created the Satsuma ware. On his return from the expedition in 1598 he brought seventeen celebrated potters, whom he established in the two provinces of Satsuma and Osumi. Later he collected all these workers in a place named Nayeshirogawa. As these workmen only intermarried with the Koreans they preserved for a long time their manners, their language, and their distinctive type. At the present time one finds at Nayeshirogawa several hundreds of families, forming a total of three thousand individuals, who practise in every particular the craft of their ancestors. In 1630 a celebrated potter named Boku teigo discovered the ShirotsucJii (white earth) in the environs of Nayeshi- rogawa ; this discovery produced a perceptible improve- ment in the manufacture of these articles. It was from this period that gold, silver, and colouring matter were employed in the decoration of the faience ware. The porcelains of Imari (Hizen), of Seto (Owari), of the provinces of Mino, of Kutani (Kaga) came also from China. It was either the Chinese or Korean emigrants who introduced the process of manufacturing ; or it may have been that some of the Japanese, as, for instance, Gorodayu Shunsui from the province of Ise, repaired to China to learn there how to make porcelain, and to con- struct the kilns needed. All the varieties of porcelains flourished in Japan between 1500 and 1600. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 181 Before the arrival of the Europeans in Japan the manufactories of Imari, Seto, and Kutani furnished the Court and the aristocracy with some striking pieces, some of which exhibit a richness of colour absolutely unique. Few of these specimens of earlier times exist and they are no longer produced to-day, or at least only very rarely. The kilns are working for the exportation trade, and in the ports of Yokohama, Kobe, and Nagasaki one finds Imari ware for " globe-trotters," sold at two yen the dozen article. Any one who has travelled in the extreme East has seen at Shanghai and in all the ports of China, Singapore, Eangoon, and Calcutta, the shops in which Japanese knick-knacks are for sale at absurd prices; great vases from Satsuma, pottery from Kyoto, plates from Imari, the products of a Japanese ceramic art that is in its decline. A great quantity must be sold and very cheaply. The big European emporiums also sell the Japanese things very cheaply, to the shame of the artists who were the ancient manufacturers of Nippon. VII The metal industry has been carried on in Japan in most ancient times, the Japanese having shown in this work a dexterity and taste quite remarkable. The introduction of Buddhism marked a new epoch in the advancement of the art of metal work, owing to the entrance of different sorts of ornamentation in the construction of the temples, and also owing to the number of objects made of copper necessary in the ceremonies of the cult. The high degree of ingenuity 182 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE attained by the artists in metal during the reign of the Emperor Shomu (714-748) is plainly attested by the statues, vases, and accessories, and other ceremonial articles preserved in the temples of Kyoto and Nara. The period of internal wars which prevailed without interruption during the twelfth century caused the Buddhist idols to fall into discredit and developed tastes in other directions ; the artists employed their talents in the decorating of arms and armour. The beautifully tempered sabres marked Masamune date from this period, and are known to-day throughout the whole world. The tastes of the artists manifested themselves especially in the embellishment of the helmet, sabre, and scabbard. After the event of Tokugawa and the arrival of peace the weapons industry was patronised by the Shogun and by the Daimyos: to-day the ornamentation of helmets and sabres has give place to other industries of a more important character. "We may truly say that the Japanese are acquainted with every description of ornamentation. From China and Korea they learned the principle of printing, engrav- ing, casting, the welding of different metals, and so forth ; and beneath their dexterous hands the copper, bronze, and iron assumed the strangest forms, and one stands amazed before the extraordinary, bizarre, and, speaking generally, ghastly imagination of the artists. Often one feels inclined to say that the figures and forms issue from some Dantesque hell. The chief substances employed for the casting of ornaments, statues, musical instruments, clocks, &c., are : — Seido : Green copper. Udo : Black copper. Shido : Violet copper. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 183 The first is a combination of copper and lead ; to this is sometimes added tin. The second is a combination of copper, tin, and lead (a variety of TJdo being the sentohudo obtained by the same constituents but in different pro- portions). The third is composed of copper and lead. Schinchu (yellow copper) is made of copper and zinc with sometimes a small quantity of lead. Shakudo is a fusion of copper and gold. Shi bu ichi consists of six parts of copper and four parts of silver. The'polishing of these different combinations is effected by baking them with sulphur, or sometimes sulphate of iron or prune vinegar is used. VIII As in the case of all the other industries, the origin of the preparation of lacquer is not very clearly known : it is said that in the reign of Koan Tennô (392-291 b.c.) there lived a certain Mitsumo Sukune, who appears to have been the ancestor of the families engaged in this industry. Another chronicle reports that one day Yamato dake no Mikoto, son of the Emperor Keiko (71-130 A.D.), was in a hunting expedition when the sap of a certain tree fell on his sleeve and soiled it. Observing how difficult it was to remove the spot caused by this sap, and recognising that it might be employed in protecting articles, he had his armour covered with it : his attendants did the same, and this was the first employ- ment of varnish. It is, however, infinitely more probable that this is a legend, and that lacquering, like the rest, came from China and Korea. Indeed, one must not forget that at a period when China was already advanced 184 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE in civilisation under the dynasty of the Tcheou (1123-246 B.c.) Japan was nothing more than a collection of savage tribes, and that it is due to China and Korea that the tribes have become a civilised nation. Under the reign of the Emperor Kotoku (645-654) a special administration was created to supervise the manufacture of lacquer. Bed lacquer was not known until the reign of the Emperor Temmu (673-695). This lacquer was made, and is still, in the North of China, and that of Pekin is the most celebrated : the red lacquer made in Japan is much inferior. To encourage the planting of trees for lacquer the Emperor Mommu (697-707) accepted the payment of taxes in the shape of the sap of this tree. The lacquer industry made great progress during the first half of the 8th century : different processes of colour- ing were discovered as well as the application of gold. The internal disorders which were repeated during the reign of the Emperor Sujaku (930) arrested the advance of this art as it did that of many other arts ; but the luxurious habits of the nobles of the Court at Kyoto soon gave it again a new impetus, and the artists in lacquers were sent for by the Daimyos in every part of the Empire. When Yoritomo established his capital at Kamakura, a number of craftsmen followed him there, but the centre of the lacquer industry always remained at Kyoto. Some wonderful examples of former centuries can be admired in the museum of Ueno at Tokyo. The Japanese Govern- ment buys at high prices all the beautiful specimens that went abroad at the period of the disturbances connected with the Imperial Restoration. At the present time such thorough work as lacquer is no longer produced. In former days artists put all their THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 185 strength into the creation of their work, whereas in our days gimcrack things are manufactured cheaply for ex- portation and chef d'œuvres are rare. Lacquer is furnished by the sap of the rhus vernicifera. There exist at least a dozen different ways of preparing the glaze, according as to whether it is left pure, or with a mixture of other substances, such as sulphate of iron, tobacco water, oil, vermilion, indigo, or orpiment. The glazes are manufactured in various places, amongst others at Aizu, in the province of Iwashiro ; in the province of Suruga ; in the province of Wakasa ; at Tsugaru ; Wajima ; Noshiro ; in the province of Kii ; at Nikko and at Odawara. None of these towns produce lacquer of a superior quality. Eoughly speaking the best workmen and the finest specimens of lacquer are found in the three towns of Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka. It is the same with the gold lacquer, the process employed varying according to the localities. The following are the principal processes for the preparation of glaze.* One of these consists in collecting the sap of the rhus vernicifera in its pure state in a large wooden basin ; then stirring it, whilst exposed to the sun, by means of a long spatula, with the object of relieving it of its excess of water by evaporation : the kuro me urushi is thus obtained. When the polish thus obtained is passed through a sifter the seshi me urushi is yielded. By mingling kuro me urushi, sulphate of iron, and toshiru there is produced the kii^ro urushi (toshiru is the water, more or less turbid, which is obtained by sharpening the knives used for cutting tobacco on a grinding stone) . According to the nature of the kuro me urushi employed * According to the official publications of the Japanese Government. 186 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the qualities of the combination bear different names, as follows : — Boiro, superior quality, used without being diluted with oil. Hakushita, another superior quality, also employed without oil. Ho7i kuro, medium quality, diluted with oil. IÔ liana, another medium quality. Chin hana, another medium quality. Ye hana, inferior quality. Su umshi. This glaze is composed of kuro me urushi and of the finest vermilion which can be obtained, or of the kinds named sanyoshu and kamiyoshu. The first- named medium quality, and the qualities following, necessitate the employment of oil. For the last-named quality Benigara (composed of red oxide of iron) is used in place of vermilion. Awo urushi. This lacquer is obtained by mingling kuro me urushi with shiwo (orpiment) and aïro (indigo). These two substances are diluted with oil, or employed dry and in the form of powder. Ki urushi. Obtained by a combination of kuro me urushi and shiwo. Nashiji urushi. Similar to the above. Swikei urushi. For this lacquer, kuro me urushi in its pure state is used. Akahaya urushi is used for the intermediary layers. Tamo suni urushi. For the superior quality the Nashi ji urushi is used, and for the medium qualities the kuro me urushi. Nashi ji keshi urushi. Similar to the Nashiji. The substances that enter into the composition of lacquer are : — THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 187 Yi no Jco sabi. Composed of stones ground (awasedo) and pulverised, with a small quantity of seshi me urushi. Kiriko sabi. The same as the preceding named, but finer. TanoTco sabi. Very finely ground stone mingled with seshi me urushi. Nikaiva sabi. The same powder mixed with strong glue. Nori sabi. The same powder mixed with rice paste. This combination, formerly unknown, consists of lacquer and rice paste in equal proportions, to which is added the powder of ground stone. Being less dense it offers but slight resistance to the spatula, and yields a fine colour to the topmost layer of lacquer. This lacquer, however, easily peels off, and is also of very inferior quality. Let us now examine the different methods employed for lacquering articles. Kataji roiro 7iuri, known likewise under the name of kurokise, is thus prepared : A piece of bcehmeria* cloth is taken, which is cut according to the size of the article to be covered, care being taken to apply it in such a way that there is no fold, and covered with a layer of sheshime urushi, so that it may be glued and secured in this condition. Finally, a layer of shiriko sabi is spread on the top so that every trace of the fabric may be oblit- erated. When this coating is dry it is polished by means of a whetstone. This done, a layer of tonoko sabi is placed on the top, which in its turn is polished in the same manner. Finally a coating of Chinese ink is applied, and spread upon this with a spatula a coating of yoshino urushi. After this has been dried, this new * The " ramie " or hempen linen of China, 188 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE coating is repeatedly submitted to polishing by means of water and charcoal, to which the name of koshiwo shinu is given. This operation is effected by taking a little of the charcoal powder in the fingers and polishing with the hand. Finally the whole is covered with a layer of ordinary lacquer, v/hich care is taken to dry immediately. Directly it is dry a layer of roiro urushi is applied, which is likewise rendered dry. It is then given several polishings with the hand, first with charcoal and then with calcined deer's horn. This description will give to the reader an idea of the labour involved in lacquering an article, and we shall therefore be satisfied to enumerate the diverse other descriptions of lacquer, which are as follows : Hana nuri ; handa nuri ; shunkei nuri ; kaki awese nuri ; tame nuri ; seishitsu nuri ; ki uro nuri ; uru mi iro nuri. Tsugaru nuri. This kind of lacquer undoubtedly entails the greatest care in its preparation. This is begun by carefully cutting away the wooden joints by means of a chisel, and stuffing the interstices with kokudzu, a mixture of flour, wood-shavings and rough lacquer, the joints being consolidated by means of pegs. The woodwork is finally covered with a coating of glaze, consisting of calcined clay and rough lacquer mixed with water. The cloth is then spread in the usual way upon the wood with a mixture of flour and rough lacquer, this operation being called nuno kise. After this they apply a combination of coarse lacquer and calcined clay at the joints of the different pieces of cloth ; a first layer of lacquer is spread over all and polished with a large whetstone. This first operation completed, a new combination of carbonised clay and powdered THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 189 whetstone in equal proportions with the same of rough lacquer is applied, the object being to thoroughly weld the lower coating. The whole is then polished with a still finer whetstone, and to efface the traces left by this polishing, a coating of sabi urushi is applied, consisting, that is, of rough lacquer mixed with powdered whetstone steeped in water. This new coating is likewise polished with a still finer whetstone, and bears the name of awoto. The article is then covered with a coating of kuro me urushi, and placed in a cupboard to protect it from any light penetrating. Finally, the list of minute operations is completed by a polishing smooth with a piece of charcoal, and we have in our possession an article as smooth, shining, and flawless as a bit of glass. To obtain the marbled variety the method given below is pursued. The quality of lacquer called yoshino urushi is mixed with diverse colouring substances and the white of egg, the latter yielding greater consistency to the combination, and beaten with a very fine spatula ; the lacquer adheres in portions to the spatula and produces the depressions which form the basis of the marbled lacquer. A layer of lacquer as described above is then applied ; then follows a coating of roiro urushi, which is intended to separate the latter from a new layer that is similar but spread with a brush. Upon this is placed a coating of lacquer of another colour, then one of roiro urushi, and finally two layers of lacquer of different colours. The operation is completed by thoroughly drying the whole object. Thus dried it is polished with three kinds of whetstones, each finer than the last, and finally exposed to the sun for two or three days, which process renders the colour more rich and brilliant. A layer of coloured lacquer is applied to obliterate the 190 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE traces of the last polishing, and again it is polished anew; a new layer of lacquer is again added, and another polishing takes place with a stone called Nagurato. The effect of the sun upon these colours is to enhance their brilliancy. When everything is finished the article is rendered as smooth and as clear as possible by covering with a combination of oil and powdered whet- stone applied with a tampon of cotton wool and rubbed up and down till it begins to sparkle. A wad of cotton wool soaked in raw lacquer is used for rubbing the article, then oil is poured over and powdered deer's horn dusted on to this, and the whole surface is rubbed dry with silk paper, which yields a matchless radiance. Finally there remains the genre of lacquer known as the tsui koJcu nuri, of which it is superfluous to give a description, as it more or less resembles all the others, with the exception that the pattern is traced after several layers of lacquer have been applied. In all these accounts of lacquer, nuri means lacquering and lacquer; nuri mono, the object being lacquered. Urushi is the varnish drawn from the rhus vernicifera, with which the lacquer is made. In former days gold lacquer was the Japanese artist's triumph. What marvels have been thus created in past ages ! To estimate these one must go to the museum of Ueno in Tokyo, where there is a collection of some of the most beautiful specimens of the Japan of the past. Some of the ancient Daimyos also personally owned some very delightful examples. The variety of lacquer that is only found in Japan is called Makiye. At the present time certain Japanese artists have endeavoured to reproduce in gold lacquer some other articles in addition to the boxes, tables, and screens which were made in the time of Kwanmu Tennô (a.d. 782-805), THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 191 but these handsome objects are too costly, and are only purchased by the Court (90 per cent, going to the Emperor) and given as presents. Gold lacquered goods are not the kind of merchandise which " pays," as the EngHsh say, consequently one does not often see them. The Japanese confine themselves to a poor sort of imita- tion cheaply made for the use of Europeans and the common people. IX Fans, screens, wood and ivory carving were also im- ported from China; likewise cloisonné or shippo. This latter never attained in Japan the solid quality of the Chinese cloisonné, though it had greater elegance. At the present day Tokyo and Yokohama manufacture a quantity of cloisonné for exportation, but little of it can be kept without deterioration. Ivory, on the other hand, has been in all ages worked by the Japanese with a skill and taste which have surpassed those of their Chinese masters. The netsiike, for which amateurs of things Japanese have a craze, presents innumerable forms, and exhibits an endless variety of scenes and personages. Moreover, the modern craftsmen have not become degenerate, and one can still discover to-day wonderful specimens amongst the numberless ivories exhibited in the Yokohama shops. X All Japanese art has come from China, and more especially in the divers objects manufactured in bronze, lacquer, and kakémono, the Chinese legends and the 192 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE ancient Chinese root ideas can be discerned. It is at the same time very evident that the Japanese have greatly improved the primitive art of the Chinese ; they have refined it and given it a more elegant and gracie lis form. But one must admit that the passion for Japanese art that exists in Europe and America is simply " snob- bishness " (snobisme). A European who has been fifteen or twenty years in Japan may finish by appreciating the very pecuhar art of the country; but let him return to Europe and find himself in the presence of the master- pieces of French, Italian, Spanish, Flemish, or English art, or enter in spirit into the nobility and grandeur of the works created by Western genius — from the ancient Greeks down to the Christian epoch, in the time of the Eenaissance and in our contemporary epoch ; and he will quickly find all remembrance of bronze vases encircled with dragons, perfume vessels of Satsuma, and ivory netsuké obliterated ! Japanese art does not carry one away ; it is an art of delicate and often very charming details indicating a considerable amount of labour. It is not a highly imaginative art. CHAPTEK XIII The new forms of industry — II. Industrial societies actually in existence — III. Different kinds of enterprise— IV. Principal weaving districts — V. Pottery, lacquered ware, and matches — VI. Leather works — VII. Tinned food ; paper, &c. — VIII. Government manufac- tories — IX. Japanese opposition ; employment of European capital in the country — X. Wages and salaries — XI. Retrospective sketch. After having explained what trade was in ancient Japan, I shall try and give a survey of the industries of Japan as it is now — of Japan transformed. The official publications of the year 1908-1909 furnish the statistics, by the aid of which one can get an idea of the industrial development of Japan, conceived according to modern ideas. The greater part of the new industries, which have grown up under the new form of government, have been inaugurated by the Government ; cotton winding, spin- ning of cotton and silk, shipbuilding, the manufacture of cement, glass, matches, gas, brick, weaving and other industries, are all due to official initiative. Between 1880, the year in which the properties of the State were offered for sale, and 1893, when the spinning mill of Tomioka was ceded to the Mitsui Company, almost all the manufactures of the State passed into the hands of individuals. To-day, except for some special industries, which, for financial considerations, are directed by the 13 1^ 194 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE State under the form of monopolies, and military manufactures, the State controls nothing except the coining of money and printing. II As I have already said, agriculture is the principal wealth of Japan ; trade is still in its infancy- there, and it is not able, in spite of many good publications brought before the eyes of the public, in French, English, and German, to struggle against European trade. What is wanting is capital. The industrial societies which existed in 1906, with a turnover of at least 5050,000, were the following : — Cotton spinning .. 38 Printing and type . 100 Mines and metallurgies .. 54 Silk fabrics . 53 Electric lamps .. 89 Bricks and tiles . 45 Shipbuilding .. 16 Oil . 24 Petroleum wells .. 37 Grain-refining . 107 Paper works .. 45 Copper and iron manufactures 28 Gas .. 8 Rolling-stock . 3 Coal mines .. 32 Flax and hemp threads . 2 Spinning, other than cotton . .. 7 Salt . 29 Sugar refineries .. 8 Saw-mills . 50 Unbleached silk .. 263 Knitting machines . 17 Sake (rice alcohol) .. 225 Cotton fabrics . 85 Cement .. 17 Ice (for drinking) . 19 Beer .. 5 Other fabrics . 50 Rope and thread .. 13 Coke . 8 Chemical productions ... .. 11 Dyeing and cleaning . 32 Manure .. 44 Mills . 21 Woollen fabrics .. 11 Matches . 40 Leather .. 13 China and crockery ware . 31 Vinegar, shoyu, and miso .. 120 The industries enumerated above were only installed for the most part after the revision of the treaties which opened the whole country to foreign trade (1899) . Those which existed previously are : sugar refineries, the THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 195 manufacture of unbleached silk, of spirituous liquors and shoyu, and different kinds of textures (except woollen), the manufacture of paper and things made out of paper, tanneries, tile factories, dye works, tobacco factories, salt refineries, oil works, china works, mines, and quarries. The capital actually employed in these different enter- prises, that is to say, the capital turned over, was 131,314,400 yen, equal to ^13,131,400. The total number of manufactories on December 31, 1906, was 10,361, of which 5,705 only employed manual labour, and 4,656 were worked by steam. The total number of people employed was at this period 611,521, of which 242,288 were men and 369,233 women. Ill The different kinds of trades were thus divided : — Workmen Trades. By steam. By Hand. per Day. Textiles : Spinning ... 2,237 390 150,626 „ Winding ... 199 45 86,030 ,, Weaving ... 304 2,300 84,315 ,, Plaiting ... 33 84 4,076 Machinery : Manufacture of machines ... 221 34 24,543 ,, Shipbuilding ... 25 29 19,535 ,, Various tools ... 153 115 11,751 ,, Foundries ... 47 62 3,148 Chemicals : Pottery ... 89 474 20,332 „ Gas 7 — 432 „ Paper manufacture ... 49 43 6,255 „ Dyeing ... 43 138 5,739 ,, Leather ... 11 14 573 „ Explosives ... 62 201 22,328 ,, Manure ... 20 2 1,564 „ Drugs ... 45 39 3,040 ,, Various ... 49 40 2,442 Poods : Breweries ... 82 654 16,223 ,, Sugar Refineries 5 4 1,320 „ Tobacco manufactures ... 152 62 23,750 „ Tea ... 19 13 1,270 ,, Lemonade, ice, mineral waters ... 10 — 200 196 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Workmen Trades. By Steam. By Hand. per Day. Foods : Flour and grain refining ... ... 132 6 2,670 ,, Eeady-made clothes ... 14 23 913 ,, Tin ware ... 21 16 943 „ Various ... 19 78 1,971 Not classed : Printing ... 145 128 12,207 >> Paper objects ... 14 69 2,582 >> Wooden and bamboo objects ... 137 142 9,199 >> Leather articles 5 14 1,031 )> Objects made of feathers 5 21 2,282 )) Eeed and straw plaiting 1 110 18,589 9) Stone-cutters 4 5 366 >> Lacquer-goods 1 16 322 5) Various ... 40 188 8,597 Specialities : Electricity ... 26 2 976 „ Metallurgy ... 154 125 58,611 ,, Coal 21 6,422 IV The principal weaving districts are the Ken or pre- fectures of : Aïchi, Chiba, Ehime, Fukui, Fukuoka, Fukushima, Gifu, Gumma, Hiroshima, Hyogo, Ishikawa, Kyoto, Miye, Nara, Niigata, Okayama, Osaka, Saitama, Shiga, Shizuoka, Tochigi, Tokushima, Tokyo, Toyama, Wakayama, Yamagata, Yamaguchi, Yamanashi. The most important factories for the production of cotton are these : — Saitama to the value of Aichi ,, ,, Ehime ,, ,, Miyo Tochigi ,, ,, Those which produce most silk are Fukushima, to the value of Fukui ,, Kôyto ,, Ishikawa ,, Gumma ,, Tokyo ,, Niigata „ Yen. 5,766,000 12,226,000 7,241,000 5,700,000 5,094,000 Yen. 4,987,000 21,397,000 14,029,000 12,082,000 9,532,000 5,111,000 4,854,000 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 197 Silk and cotton fabrics are sent out principally from the factories of : — Ten. Saitama, to the value of 979,000 Kôytô ,, ,, 6,888,000 Tochigi ,, ,, 3,563,000 Gumma ,, ,, 3,517,000 Aïchi ,, ,, 174,100 Gifu 1,118,000 Linen and cloth are only represented by a low figure ; but the factories of Shiga produce 1,399,000 yen (hemp), and those of Wakayama 1,081,000 yen (wool). Yamanashi does not produce hemp, but, to make amends for that, produces 4,330,000 yen worth of woollen fabrics ; it is the only district where wool-weaving is of any importance. The following table shows the value (in yen) of the production of different fabrics, silk, cotton and silk, cotton, linen, wool in ten years, from 1896 to December 31, 1906. One sees that the progress made is constant, except during the years 1903 and 1904, at the time of the war against Eussia : Year. Silk. Silk & Cotton. Cotton. Linen. Wool. 1896 46,361,000 10,281,000 37,053,000 1,965,000 — 1897 62,663,000 11,727,000 42,032,000 2,903,000 — 1898 73,045,000 16,216,000 47,996,000 2,967,000 — 1899 84,147,000 18,546,000 45,577,000 3,161,000 3,384,000 1900 74,578,000 20,275,000 57,745,000 2,851,000 5,034,000 1901 70,061,000 12,180,000 45,607,000 2,775,000 5,083,000 1902 60,904,000 20,538,000 53,030,000 2,420,000 4,040,000 1903 36,710,000 13,459,000 45,945,000 2,1.34,000 4,280,000 1904 45,503,000 9,933,000 50,651,000 2,044,000 6,760,000 1905 60,384,000 15,371,000 72,844,000 3,528,000 10,047,000 1906 93,606,000 20,253,000 86,474,000 3,390,000 6,630,000 198 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE The ceramic industry has increased from 5,063,000 yen in 1897 to 13,385,000 yen in 1906, with a total export of 7,942,000 yen, or £794,200. These products, except for some remarkable pieces, are generally those we see in Japanese shops all over the world, where they sell, to the amateur who knows nothing about them, the Kaga and Imari of recent date for ancient ones, for which he pays dear. The principal centres of this industry are Aïchi, Fukushima, Gifu, Ishikawa, Kanagawa, Kyoto, Saga, Ehime, Hyogo, Miye, Nagasaki. It is the same with the production and export of lacquer. The people no longer make beautiful and unique things as in ancient times, when the manufacture and its secrets were the property of a few families, of which, often, one of the members began a work which was finished by another, because this work required thirty or forty years of patience and labour. The specimens of lacquer, even those of gold lacquer, which we actually see, are quite inferior ; it is work for export. In 1906 1,721,000 yen worth of lacquer goods were exported, the total production being in value 6,809,000 yen. Ishikawa, Fukushima, Shizuoka, "Wakayama, are the districts which employ most workmen in this industry. Swedish matches, without sulphur or phosphorus, are quickly becoming a Japanese speciality. The whole of the Far East, except French Indo-China, depends on Japan for this kind of produce. From India, Burmah, and Siam, to China, Korea, and Manchuria, boxes of Japanese matches are always found, even in the distant provinces of Western China, such as Yunnan and Kan Sou. And they are so cheap that one wonders how THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 199 the manufacturers make their profit. One only under- stands when one is acquainted with the starvation wages given to the Japanese workers, generally girls, who make the boxes. The latter are made in a very clever way. For instance, those which are exported into China are covered with a yellow label, on which a dragon or a phœnix makes hideous contortions ; on both sides is the name of the manufacturer in Chinese characters. Often, instead of the dragon, Chinese children are represented, Chinese religious ceremonies, or some celebrated Chinese historical character. For India, Burmah, and Siam it is the same : each box of matches bears some picture representing something characteristic of the country, and the name of the firm is always inscribed in the language of the country. In French Indo-China they have established, in imitation of the metropolis, a monopoly of matches ; thus one pays a few pence at Hanoi for what one buys at Bangkok, Kangoon, Bombay, or Shanghai for a penny. From 24,038,000 gross in 1897 the production has increased to 54,802,000 gross in 1906, and of this number 38,618,000 gross was exported, to the value of 10,915,000 yen, or ^1,091,500. VI One of the industries in which the Japanese have been equally successful is the leather trade. They are beginning to produce, and cheaper than in Europe, all kinds of leather goods : saddlery, boots, trunks, bags, in fact, all the leather goods made in Europe. But here again their inferiority is palpable : they have not the solidity and durability of European manufacture. It is, as they say in Germany, hillig aber schlecht : cheap and nasty. 200 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE The manufacture of leather-paper, which the Japanese make in imitation of that of Cordova, is most interesting. They have been very successful in this class of manu- facture, and one sees beautiful leather-paper, ornamented with original and artistic designs taken from the manu- factures of Insatsukioku (the State printing and stationery works). From 2,522,472 yen in 1900 the production of leather has risen to 10,882,984 yen in 1906. This article is used entirely in Japan and is not exported. The principal centres of production are : Hyogo, Nara, Osaka, Tokyo, Wakayama, but especially Osaka and Hyogo. They use the skins of cows and calves, and also horses. In 1906, 7,481 skins of cows and calves were used in the five above-mentioned towns, and 2,770 horse-skins. VII Japan has also wished to make preserved foods. They tried first with milk and sardines, and owing to the fact that Japanese cows give very little and poor milk, the result is very mediocre; and also, as I have already pointed out, Japan does not produce the quality of oil required to preserve the sardine, the article sold as " Sardines à l'huile " being detestable. They have also tried the preserved beef and fruit, but there is no chance of these preparations competing with the famous " corned beef" of Chicago, or with the bottled fruits of California or Australia. Everything they make of this kind, more- over, is consumed in the place or exported to China. The Japanese are great paper manufacturers. This is largely used in Japan for all kinds of things, and Japanese paper, besides, is very useful for serviettes, handkerchiefs, THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 201 and tablecloths. A Japanese man or woman always carries about with him or her a thick packet of soft white sheets of paper. Also from ancient times, since the manufacture of paper was made known through the medium of the Chinese, they have made paper in Japan. Quoting only recent figures, the production of Japanese paper, which was worth 12,261,000 yen in 1897, rose in 1906 to 15,480,000 yen. It has not varied much, but what has varied is the production of European paper, which the Japanese now use for all official documents, reports, books, journals, and of which schools use an ever increasing quantity. It is cheaper than Japanese paper, and also easier to write on ; students of mathe- matics, physical, and natural science, and medicine, &c., could not use Japanese paper. Thus from a production valued at 2,901,000 yen in 1897 it rose to 14,157,000 yen in 1906. The principal European paper manufactories are : Insatsu Kyoku, or imperial paper factory ; the factories of Oji, near Tokyo ; Fujii Seishi, Yokkaichi ; the Mitsubishi Company ; Itagami (Tokyo) ; Nishimari Seishi ; Senju Seishi ; Kyushu Seishi. Indigo comes from Tokushima, and in 1907 produced 1,702,000 yen. Mint (peppermint) comes chiefly from Kanagawa and Hyogo; the manufacture produced 245,000 yen at Kanagawa and 197,869 yen at Hyogo in 1906. Besides the various industries enumerated above, bamboo objects to the value of 2,171,000 yen are manu- factured, fans 1,581,000 yen, cement 6,111,000 yen, felt hats 1,042,000 yen, soap 2,764,000 yen. All these products, apart from those which are essentially Japanese, such as bamboo objects and fans, are of very inferior quality. 202 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE VIII The Japanese Government directs and sets in motion different factories and arsenals. The following list may be of some interest : — A printing office with 4 machines. A type foundry with 2 machines. A paper factory with 21 machines. A mint with 17 machines. Tobacco manufactories with 52 machines and 17,000 workmen. The Tokyo arsenal with 207 machines and 23,000 workmen. The Osaka arsenal with 426 machines and 28,000 workmen. The wool factory at Senju with 15 machines. The arsenal at Yokosuka with 36 machines |and 3,000 workmen. The arsenal at Kure with 109 machines and more than 10,000 workmen. The arsenal at Sasebo with 30 machines and 1,500 workmen. The arsenal at Maizuru with 14 machines and 1,200 workmen. The powder mill of Shimose ; the dock of Takeshiki ; Ominato dock ; Bako dock ; steel factories employing 30,000 workmen with 28 machines ; and the manu- factory of railways at Shimbashi, Omiya, Kobe, and Iwamigawa, which employ altogether 2,000 workmen. IX Of industries acquired from the foreigner, that of cotton has most quickly risen to success in Japan, and THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 203 to-day the importation of cotton cloth into the country has decreased in formidable proportions. Thus in 1887 Europe imported into the Japanese islands 24,630,000 pounds of cotton ; in 1906 only 5,652,000 were imported. To-day Japan inundates China with cotton products of all kinds, and so cheaply that it is impossible to compete with it, even in Germany. In the ports of Yangtsie, Kiukiang, Hankow, Ichang I have bought Japanese socks at twopence halfpenny a pair, Japanese towels at a penny a piece ! It is true that when one knows the starvation wages of the Japanese factories one is less astonished. All this Japanese imitation is execrable, but for the Chinese who has not the means to pay dear it is precisely what he wants. One of the great questions which agitate the European economists is that of knowing if Japan is going to become a dangerous competitor from the industrial point of view. There have been long dissertations in the most important European and American journals and reviews, and "Hippocrates says yes if Galen says no." Personally I do not believe that we need be afraid, at least, for a very long time, of the industrial yellow peril. Trade is still in its infancy in Japan, and the machine has not yet supplanted hand labour everywhere ; on the contrary, the latter is most largely used. Apart from cotton manufactures, which are, however, still far from equalling those of Europe, other industries have remained in many ways what they were before. And since money is scarce, large capital is rare in the country. The Japanese tries to lure capitalists, and he makes many propaganda in publications on the industries, commerce, and finances of the Empire. Many of these publications are in EngHsh, in French, 204 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE and in German, in order to give every facility to the reader. In reality the industrial and financial situation of the Japanese Empire is far from being what it appears from the reading of these monthly and weekly documents, published by the banks, the industrial and commercial societies. The Japanese makes great efforts, efforts which one cannot but admire, but he requires, necessarily, more time to attain to the high and brilliant position to which he aspires. As to emplojdng foreign capital in Japanese affairs, it is not yet, perhaps, the moment for it : we ought to recognise that the Imperial Government facilitates and encourages this kind of investment, but the people are not yet sufficiently enlightened in certain parts of the provinces. At Osaka a Frenchman has installed a brush factory which seems likely to prosper, but which, if one can believe late accounts of it, has met with very great difficulties. Another Frenchman, in another business, entered into partnership with an old French resident, a civil engineer, and brought capital with him. These two Frenchmen had obtained the right of cultivation of an immense forest in the South, at Kyushu, and they had set up machines, built houses, outhouses, and shops ; French workmen and foremen had been engaged ; in fact, every- thing went well and seemed likely to prosper. Two Europeans of high position had interested themselves in the business and had put capital into it. A company was formed, and there was nothing to be done except to put it into working order. The first results announced THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 205 were satisfactory, when on June 8, 1908, a Japanese mob of fifteen hundred to two thousand men invaded the premises, broke up the machines, set fire to the houses, and destroyed everything. In this affair it is clear that one must consider the ignorance of the poorly enlightened and badly educated mob entirely responsible for the havoc wrought. The authorities of the country are the first to disapprove of these acts and to suffer from them ; business is ruined and capital lost. X Although Japan has very quickly assimilated European industries, and makes great progress in this direction every day, I do not believe, for all that, as I have already remarked, that the West need fear serious competition for a long time. Moreover, one must consider that Japan does not at present know how to put itself on the same rank with the manufacturing countries of Europe with regard to the finish and durability of its productions ; and the proof of it is that for constructions which it has most at heart, and for which strength is required — as, for example, for warships — it imports the steel and principal parts from Europe and America. Where it will compete with Europe (and it has done so already), is in China with its cotton trade. It is evident that neither Manchester nor Bombay will supply the Chinese so cheaply with what he wants. It goes without saying that the moment has not yet come when Japan will have the monopoly of the cotton trade in China ; but it has already begun by ousting English productions from Manchuria, and it is known that the market of Shanghai has suffered much from 206 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE competition in Japanese stuffs and threads, and numbers of European houses have found themselves in a difficult position. For the time being it is in this direction that the Japanese industrial and commercial efforts are directed. The métallurgie industry will have its turn also with- out doubt, but for the moment it has not yet attained to the zenith of its existence. In order to arrive at the colossal development which the manufacture of metals has acquired in Europe and the United States, time and money are necessary. One need only consult figures to realise that Japan is far behind all the metal-producing countries. Thus the factory of Wakamatsu, directed by the Government, produces hundreds of thousands of tons of cast-iron, while France, which produces least of all the great industrial States, produces 4,000,000 tons more ; and Germany alone, without bringing England and the United States into the question, produces about 12,000,000 tons of the same metal. Thus there is a good margin. The following is a table of the average wages of every class of workman per day : — Carpenters Plasterers Stone-cutters Beapers Slaters and thatchers Tilers Bricklayers Brickmakers Mat - makers and plaiters Screen-makers Paperhangers Joiners Per Yen. Day. Sen. ... 60 ... 60 ... 66 ... 59 ... 55 ... 65 ... 75 ... 55 straw- ... 51 ... 55 ... 56 ... 55 Per Day. Yen. Sen. Coopers Makers of wooden shoes and goloshes Shoe and boot makers Saddlers, harness-makers... Wheelwrights Tailors of Japanese clothes ,, ,, European ,, Makers of snuff - boxes, tobacco-pouches, purses, pocket-books, &c. Dyers Cotton thrashers 45 42 67 62 51 47 64 57 32 41 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 207 Per Day. Per Day. Yen. Sen. Yen. Sen. Blacksmiths ... 55 Farm labourers [women) ... 20 Jewellers ... 52 Breeders of silkworms Makers of metal utensils ... 53 (men) 29 Pottery makers ... 46 Breeders of silkworms Makers of lacquer ware ... 49 (women) ... 23 Varnishers ... 38 Makers of textile fabrics Oil pressers ... 42 (men) ... 34 Paper makers ... 32 Makers of textile fabrics Tobacco cutters ... 54 (women) ... 18 Compositors ... 42 Silk spinners 22 Printers ... 38 Confectioners 34 Ship's carpenters .. ... 64 Fishermen ... 42 Gardeners ... 55 Rice washers 32 Farm labourers (men ) ... 32 Labourers ... 43 Per Month. Per Month Yen. Sen. Yen. Sen. Makers of rice-alcohc )l(sake) 10 37 Servants ... 3 22 „ .. ., shoyi 1 ... 7 16 Maid-servants ... 1 79 Per Year. Per Year. Yen. Sen. Yen. Sen. Farm labourers (men) ... 37 54 | Farm labourers (women) ... 20 13 The yen being the equivalent of about 2 shilHngs English money, a farm labourer is paid about £3 16s. and a woman about £2 wages per year. When we consider these wages, the heaviness of taxes, the military expenses out of proportion to the financial resources of the country, we cannot be astonished at the misery which reigns in Japan. XI The encouragement and protection given to industrial enterprise and to manufacturing concerns do not date from the present time. Even before the Imperial Kestoration, the three Daimyos, or territorial lords of Satsuma, Mito, and Saga, had established in the era of Kayei (1848-1853) an 208 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE arsenal in the European style, and begun to cast cannon. The Daimyo of Satsuma, inspired by the Dutch manu- facture, had set up a porcelain factory, and in 1861 he had even imported from England machines for spinning. The Daimyo of Mito, on his side, had set up at Ishikawajima (an island at the mouth of the Sumida,in the Bay of Tokyo) a dockyard for the construction of ships ; the Shogun Tokugawa, during the Ansei era (1864-1859), had like- wise set up a dockyard like that at Akuura (Hizen) and another also at Yokosuka (Sagami) ; but this last was only completed after the Imperial Kestoration ; it was, moreover, ceded to the marine department, and it became one of the principal building and repairing works in the Japanese naval war. It was the Mitsu- bishi Company which, in 1884, took possession of the docks of Hizen, which it still holds to-day, and which are known by the name of the Docks of Naval Con- struction of Nagasaki. The movement, originated by the feudal princes and Shoguns, was carried on by the Imperial Government. A silk-spinning factory, set up according to modern principles, was installed at Tomioka in 1872, under the direction of Monsieur Brunat, assisted by French foremen and workmen ; then, in 1877, another spin- ning-mill for waste silk was opened at Shinmachi. A wool-spinning mill was opened soon after at Senji, a suburb of Tokyo, at Government expense, and ten years after this official example, wool factories were set up by private societies at different points of the territory. In 1881 and 1883, in the districts of Aïchi and Hiroshima, the Government imported from England machines for cotton weaving ; then the weaving of THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 209 hemp began to be developed at Hokkaido (Yezo), where the Government installed foremen and workmen from Lille. In 1875 a cement factory was set up at Fukagawa (a suburb of Tokyo), and, in 1876, the first glassworks made its appearance at Shinagawa (another suburb of Tokyo). However, beside these different establishments built and directed at the State expense, other private estab- lishments were started, directed by societies and com- panies. When the impetus was thus given, the Imperial Government gradually got rid of these works, and sold all its manufactories, keeping only the cloth works of Senji, where they make cloth for the troops. When one sees in how few years the Japanese has arrived at the degree of industrial activity which he shows to-day, one cannot help recognising his extreme aptitude for imitation, his capacity for work ; and although all the European articles he produces are very inferior to those which are made in Europe, one must admit that he has great skilfulness and a great reserve of patience. In order to be able to advance without the aid of Europeans, it was necessary to have a staff of well- trained and enlightened engineers. This the Imperial Government understood at once, and about 1871 it established the higher college of engineers (Ko bu dai gakkô), under the direction of English professors (to-day this college is attached to the University of Tokyo). There they were taught mechanics, shipbuilding, the science of electricity, architecture, chemistry, all science in general necessary to the engineering profession, be it civil engineering or mine engineering, or electric. There came out from these establishments well trained young 14 210 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE men, of whom the most distinguished went to continue their studies in France, England, Germany, or the United States. In 1881, the Polytechnic at Tokyo was established, where they were taught painting, weaving, ceramics, &c. Similar schools were opened almost everywhere by the provincial authorities, so that to-day in Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka one counts three higher schools of engineering, and in the provinces one finds more than twelve hundred technical schools. At the present time, apart from some rare exceptions, European instructors have disappeared. To this account of Japanese industries I would add that the Japanese Government has enacted laws and regulations relating to patents and trade marks ; but it is a matter which is not of much account in the country, and the trade marks are still to-day outrageously and unskilfully imitated. CHAPTEE XIV I. Japan's foreign trade : habutai, kaiki, silk factories — II. Tea export — III. Rice export — IV. Japanese coal — V. Brass — VI. Camphor, mat- ting, rice-alcohol, cigarettes — VII. Cotton^VIII. Imports : Eaw cotton, woollen goods, wool muslin ; the position of France in relation to the import of this last article ; rice from Indo-China ; metals ; machines — IX. French imports — X. The Japanese merchant — XI. Import and export duties for the principal ports — XII. Japanese steam merchant service — XIII. French vessels — XIV. Custom duties. Japan's foreign commerce consists largely of silk exports : raw silk, which is sent to the United States, France and Italy ; silk waste, which is scarcely bought except by France ; habutai, which goes to France, to the United States, England, British India, Australia ; pongé, glacé, or kaiki, bought by the United States ; and lastly, silk handkerchiefs, which are sent to the United States and England. The habutai, or pongé, is manu- factured chiefly in the six provinces of Japan, which are, roughly speaking, the places for silk manufacture. Echizen, the capital of which is Fukui, is the centre of the trade and the place of inspection of the textile fabrics after the operation of ungumming. By reason of the importance of the transactions, and the little confidence it is possible to place in the inter- mediate merchants, especially with regard to contracts, which they accept and which they do not carry out, if 211 212 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE their market price becomes unfavourable, a certain number of European houses have their ov^n factories at Fukui, and carry out their own transactions. The fabrics are offered for sale by public auction, taking place daily, and in several parts of the town. They naturally become the property of the highest bidder. The market price undergoes frequent changes, showing easily enough the relation between supply and demand. The number of looms existing in Fukui and in the suburbs was 19,959 at the end of December, 1904, and the production, from July 1, 1904, to June 30, 1905, was about 1,200,000 pieces, say an average of 60 pieces per loom during a period of twelve months. One may say that at the height of the season 4,000 or 5,000 pieces are put every day on the market, and thanks to the special organisations of local banks consenting to generous advances on manufactured fabrics which are delivered to them as security, payments can be made in cash, and, so to speak, at the same moment as the merchandise passes into other hands. Similar organisa- tions also exist in other provinces. The district of Kaga, the capital of which is Kana- zawa, an important town of more than 200,000 in- habitants, only manufactures flimsy materials, and more than half of its production is destined for the United States of America, which, by reason of the high custom duties, requires more especially light fabrics. The best manufactured articles attain a very high price, compared with the others, by reason of these American purchases, where fabrics of ordinary quality only find a poor sale. One understands, then, that the weavers do their utmost to keep up the quality and improve their manufacture, which is in a general way attended to. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 213 The province of Kaga numbers 14,500 looms, and the production has been from about 750,000 pieces from 1904 to 1905. Toyama, in the province of Etchu, is a centre of manu- facture of medium importance ; there are 5,500 looms v^ith an annual production of 150,000 pieces ; Uzen 1,200 looms ; annual production 42,000 pieces. The textiles manufactured in the province of Kawa- mata have acquired a bad reputation in recent years, owing to the fact that in most cases they add weight to them after the process of ungumming. In order to attain this end, they leave them in a bath of magnesia, the increase of weight varying in proportion to the dura- tion of the operation. In this way they add to the weight of the fabrics more than 40 per cent, of the weight of pure silk. This treatment does not add to the quality of the material ; on the contrary, it completely does away with its brightness and fulfils no object but to deceive the purchaser. Such proceedings were not long in injuring the progress of trade in this region ; and its production was almost abandoned when the provincial Government, realising the gravity of the situation, decreed in November, 1904, that on and after April 1, 1905, only unadulterated goods should be sold. Severe measures having been adopted, the new regulations are now strictly observed. The province of Kawamata numbers 5,300 looms with a relatively important production of 260,000 pieces. Joshu was the birthplace of habutai. It was there, in fact, that some pieces of a similar article, made in China, were for the first time imitated in Japan about twenty- five years ago, and the other provinces, in view of the 214 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE demand, gradually learned the processes employed by their neighbours, and, in modifying them according to their capacity, succeeded in originating this important industry. Joshu is at the same time a very important centre for the manufacture of silk material used for Japanese kimonos. Without taking account of looms used for this latter, there exist in this region : 503 looms for plain material, annual production 15,000 pieces ; 800 looms for made-up habutai, annual production 40,000 pieces ; 2,000 looms for silk goods, annual production 60,000 pieces. Kyoto and Gifu produce an equal amount of silk stuffs, of which only a small quantity is exported, nine- tenths (about) being destined for home consumption. At Gifu weaving is confined to crêpe de chine, while at Kyoto they make stuffs of all kinds, from taffetas to grand striped or flowered gold and silver materials. It is at Kyoto that one finds the only large factory worth mentioning ; it is an anonymous society with a capital of £100,000, and possesses 275 mechanical looms and 100 hand looms, as well as all the machines for winding, taking up, warping, folding, glossing, &c. Its factories for dyeing thread, pieces, and trimming, and everything in general which is used in this industry, assure it a complete independence, and help to place it in the first rank among establishments of this kind existing outside Europe and America.* For the year 1908 the export of silk was to the value of £9,040,000 as compared with £11,040,000 in 1907; there was an equally serious diminution in habutai. * Commercial and Consular Reports, 1905. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 215 In other respects the total commerce of Japan for 1908 suffered a diminution of .£11,295,000. Table of silk exports since 1904 : — Yen. 1904 138,300,000 1905 113,460,000 1906 157,955,000 1907 160,237,000 II Tea is also one of the exports of Japan ; but the whole amount is absorbed by the United States. Japanese tea does not in any way resemble Chinese tea, and generally Europeans do not appreciate it. It is green ; it has a bitter taste. The Japanese consume a great deal ; it is their customary beverage. Outside Japan, America alone consumes Japanese tea : it was exported — Yen. In 1904 to the value of 12,833,000 „ 1905 „ „ 10,584,000 ,,1906 „ „ 10,767,000 ,, 1907 „ „ 10,618,000 From 1896 to 1903 an annual subsidy of 70,000 yen was accorded by the Government to the " Tea Syndicate," which had tried to compete with Ceylon tea, by treating Japanese tea with certain preparations so as to make it fit to be exported into Europe ; but the venture was not successful, and the subsidy was with- drawn in 1903. In that year the Government again granted a subsidy of 35,000 yen, then it stopped all pecuniary help. Japanese tea could never compete with Chinese or Ceylon tea ; this is probably due to the 216 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE climate, which gives it this special flavour, little appreci- ated by Europeans, even by those who have lived in the country for a long time. Ill Japanese rice is one of the best species of rice grown on the face of the globe. They export a certain quantity of it. The principal markets for Japanese rice are : Australia, which consumes it to the value of about 2,000,000 yen; Hawaii, 8,000,000 yen ; England, 800,000 yen ; Korea, 5,000,000 yen ; Asiatic Eussia, a very vari- able quantity— in 1903, 445,765 yen ; in 1904, 17,621 yen ; in 1905, 306,025 yen ; in 1906, 472,870 yen. The demand of the United States has been decreasing lately, which is explained by the fact that the cultivation of rice in Texas has extended largely and has been most successful, as it has been in Louisiana. In reality, rice reaped in these two States is sold cheaper than Japanese rice, and Japanese settled in California themselves eat American rice. Sometimes the crops in Japan are not sufficient, and the Government is obliged to import rice, say from Bangkok, or Saigon, or Eangoon ; but generally the rice from these countries is little appreciated in Japan ; the grains are smaller, and they are much less white when cooked. In 1908 the crops were very good; they reached, in fact, 51,897,233 koku, or 259,486,165 bushels. They were exceptionally good, better even than those of the year 1904, which had been considered the best harvest known in Japan, and which rose to 51,401,497 koku, or 257,007,485 bushels. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 217 This table shows the export of Japanese rice for the three years 1906, 1907, 1908 (in kokiis) :— Country. 1006. 1907. 1908. ... 03,583 296,460 113,379 Hong-Kong 1,3G5 — — Korea 57,877 63,647 63,372 Asiatic Russia 472,870 253,809 155,205 England 416,179 230,374 626,681 France 58,352 14,089 415 Germany 35,834 746 168,206 Belgium 92,871 — — Austria Hungary 57,363 — — Holland 25,536 — — United States... 463,016 744,556 410,892 Dominion of Canada... 288,050 532,708 356,230 Australia 274,701 139,039 78,542 Hanoï 928,975 1,375,729 1,364,057 IV The export of coal is always on the increase ; from 14,828,000 yen in 1904, it has risen to 16,280,000 yen in 1906, and to 19,052,000 yen in 1907. Japanese coal is actually exported in small quantities into all the Asiatic ports ; however, it is not utilisable in the pure state, and steamships, especially warships, only use very little and mixed with Cardiff coal. Japanese coal heats boilers, and produces an intense, very black smoke. It is used in the form of compressed briquettes, and in this form it seems to be useful, but it will never replace English coal, and all the warships, including the Japanese men-of- war, as well as the great steamship companies, avoid using Japanese coal. The export of this product is as follows : to China, 7,689,000 yen in 1907 ; to British India, 368,000 yen in 1907 ; to Hong-Kong, 5,439,000 yen in 1907 ; and to the Dutch Colonies in the Malay Peninsula, 430,000 yen in 218 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 1907. The United States of America represent a sum of 1,163,000 yen in 1907 ; but it is probable that this figure represents coal brought into the ports from California, for the use of Japanese vessels sailing from San Francisco to Seattle. Japan is, with the United States, the greatest pro- ducer of copper, and its production tends to increase constantly. In 1902 it was 28,015 tons ; in 1903 it increased to 32,436 tons, and in 1904 the production was estimated at 35,000 tons. The increase continued to 1907 and 1908, when it reached 38,000 and 39,000 tons. The total production for 1898 gave a market value of 26,302,000 yen. With regard to export, China alone absorbed, in 1907, 10,310,000 yen of copper ; Hong-Kong, 4,782,000 yen ; England, 4,514,000 yen; France, 2,364,000 yen; Ger- many, 2,309,000 yen. The export of this metal, which produced a total of 25,110,000 yen in 1906, rose to 29,260,000 yen in 1907— that is, an increase of 4,150,000 yen. In 1908 it appreciably diminished ; that year, besides, was very bad for Japan from the commercial point of view, as I remarked at the opening of this chapter. VI Formerly, Japan properly speaking produced a great deal of camphor ; but to-day the territory of the Empire hardly produces any, and the island of Formosa exports most of this commodity. There was exported (fiscal year 1907-1908) as much from Japan as from Formosa, THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 219 to the value of 7,945,000 yen ; of this sum 2,919,000 yen accrued to Formosa, which, one sees, exports relatively more than Japan, considering its size. These are the countries which have bought most : — the Yen. British India 1,069,000 Great Britain 158,000 France 604,000 Germany 1,301,000 United States 1,689,000 Matting. — Formerly Japanese matting had no opposi- tion in the whole of the Far East, by reason of its fineness and the care bestowed on its manufacture ; the quality has deteriorated considerably to-day, and the exportation shows it. The Japanese proceeds in the same way in everything, and it is difficult now to pro- cure as carefully made goods as formerly. In matting, competition is making itself felt in a small degree, and if the manufacturers of matting at Namdinh persevere, they will certainly succeed in ousting Japanese matting completely. Matting from Tonkin is competing so much with Japanese matting, that Japanese merchants at Hong- Kong and on the Chinese coast, as well as in the United States, are selling Tonkin matting for Japanese matting. It is the United States which absorb the greater part of this product : every year they buy goods to the value of almost 6,000,000 yen. Matches. — The match trade always prospers, and is valued at between 10,000,000 yen and 11,000,000 yen. China, Hong-Kong, the Straits Settlements, Korea, are the greatest purchasers ; Siam, Burmah, and British India follow next in succession. 220 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE In 1907-1908 China has bought matches to the value of 4,250,000 yen. Yen. British India 849,000 Hong-Kong 2,469,000 Korea 2,000,000 (about) Straits Settlements 1,000,000 It is one of the principal Japanese articles of export in the countries of the Far East, and the import trade of European matches has become insignificant owing to this fact. Sake. — Japanese rice-alcohol is scarcely exported any- where but to Korea and China ; or rather it would be better to say it was exported at the time of the Manchurian campaign ; to-day, as the Japanese have regained posses- sion, the export tends to diminish ; however, it continues in these two countries to the value of 800,000 yen to 1,000,000 yen. Porcelain and Pottery. — It is the United States which buy most of these articles from Japan. On a total of 7,942,927 yen in 1906, and 7,216,000 yen in 1907, they have taken up nearly 4,000,000 yen each year (in 1906 exactly 4,332,584 yen, and in 1907 3,816,000 yen). China comes next, then Korea, and last England and Hong- Kong. France only buys from Japan about 110,000 yen worth of porcelain, while Germany buys 450,000 yen worth. Cigarettes are only exported into China and Korea : China, 1,228,000 yen worth in 1907; in Korea, in the same year, 800,000 yen ; but it is likely that this article of export will fall rapidly, for the Chinese have begun to manufacture cigarettes exactly like Japanese cigarettes, and Chinese smokers buy them in preference. Maritime Products. — Cuttlefish, sea-spades, vegetable THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 221 glue, and seaweed go mostly to China and Hong-Kong. This last port buys about 2,000,000 yen of cuttlefish, and China the same value of seaweed. VII Cotton, from every point of view, is one of the great exports of Japan, and China buys up most of it, a portion going to Hong-Kong and Korea. Thread, blanketing, flannels, crêpe. Nankin, grey shirting, towels, and serviettes, all go to the Chinese market ; the latter takes as a rule from 30,000,000 yen to 35,000,000 yen for thread every year, and from 3,000,000 yen to 4,000,000 yen for grey shirting. Bath towelling is beginning to be much appreciated by the Chinese, especially as the price is very low ; they pay for an ordinary towel about 500 or 600 piastres, about three-halfpence. The principal exporters of cotton are the following spinning-mills : — Osaka Boseki with 1,110 workmen and 4,500 women. Setsu , 1,300 4,000 Osaka Godo , 1,000 4,000 Fukushima 450 1,500 Nihon 420 2,000 Tcmma 40 205 Nagai 300 1,200 Odzu Hoseito 180 800 Kobayashi 40 110 Sakai 200 770 Kishiwada 250 1,110 Wakayama 280 1,500 Koriyama 880 900 Amagasaki 270 1,250 All the above-mentioned mills belong to the region of Osaka; of the 35,000,000 yen exportation they number 28,000,000 yen to 29,000,000 yen ; that is to say, that the cotton trade is concentrated in the two towns of Kobe 222 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE and Osaka and the surrounding regions. It is evident that the Japanese will end by furnishing the whole of the Chinese market with the cotton which it requires. The proximity of the country, the very cheap hand labour, the few requirements of the Japanese, make it impossible for European cotton in all its forms to compete with it ; evidently the Japanese product is very inferior, but that is not the point with the Chinese purchaser ; cheapness is necessary for him, even if the quality is not of the best. VIII For importation, Japan requires first of all raw cotton for its spinning-mills. It gets this from China for an average sum of 25,000,000 yen to 30,000,000 yen (24 to 3 million pounds) (in 1904 it was 30,678,242 yen, in 1907 23,465,000 yen) ; From British India, which has always occupied the first place in the importation of this article into Japan (except for an eclipse in 1904), and which has supplied during the last few years, in 1905, 53,553,000 yen; 1906, 41,383,000 yen; 1907, 57,574,000 yen; From the United States, which import to the value of 28,000,000 yen to 30,000,000 yen; From Egypt, which supplies 3,000,000 yen to 4,000,000 yen. Soft raw cotton, in pods or not in pods — raw material, in a word — is on the increase as an import ; it is evidently a sign of the activity of the Japanese mills. As to other products made from cotton, Japan imports less than formerly, since it makes them itself. Neverthe- less, it still buys threads, ticking, linen, printed linen, satin, velvet, grey shirting, double-milled shirtings, and THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 223 waterproof cloth. It is England which supplies almost exclusively the last-mentioned article. Woollen goods, raw wool, threads, Italian cloth, delaine, cloth, cotton cloth, counterpanes, are imported to the value of £2,000,000. England, Australia, and Germany are the chief im- porters, France has for a long time had the monopoly of the importation of wool muslin ; it imported 1,235,000 yen worth in 1901 ; 2,315,000 yen in 1903 ; 1,175,000 yen in 1905 ; but the figures fell in 1907 to 478,000 yen. German competition, and, above all, Swiss, is the cause of this decline in the French muslin trade ; but they must blame also the indolence of their manufacturers, who never send travellers to study seriously the tastes of their clients and the changes to make in their products. Eice. — In spite of the good years of harvest which it generally enjoys, Japan imports rice. This is because the Japanese, knowing the superiority of their rice, keep it in order to export it when prices are high, and eat less good tropical rice themselves : thus it is that India sends to Japan 13,000,000 yen to 15,000,000 yen worth of rice (coming almost entirely from Eangoon, Burmah); French Indo-China almost the same value, and Siam about 5,000,000 yen. Sugar. — Dutch India imports 16,000,000 yen to 17,000,000 yen (in 1907, 16,691,000 yen) ; China, 600,000 yen; the Philippine Islands, 1,000,000 yen (in 1907 1,218,000 yen). The above applies to raw sugar; refined sugar comes from : — Yen. Eussia (about) 2,000,000 Hong-Kong 1,500,000 Germany 1,000,000 Austria-Hungary 1,000,000 224 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Metals. — Metallurgy has much to hope for as an import into Japan; the Japanese mines are still very insufficiently worked, and there is a lack of capital with which to set up the great métallurgie industry as in Europe ; it is true Japan actually makes in the foundry of Wakamatsu and in the arsenal of Kure material for war and projectiles ; but it is still dependent on Europe and America for wrought metal. Iron ingots : Japan has imported £1,485,600 worth from England in 1907; £317,600 from Germany: £116,200 from the United States; £697,300 from Belgium. Kails : in 1907 from England, £48,300 ; from Germany, £157,900 ; from the United States, £137,100 ; from Belgium, £37,200. Bars of iron, iron plates, and sheet iron, iron pipes, nails, tinfoil, telegraph wires, steel, lead, tin, zinc ; all these kinds of metals find a ready market in Japan. Machines and locomotives in 1907 were imported : — From England, value £1,638,000 „ Germany, „ £333,300 „ Belgium, „ £16,800 ,, United States „ £1,024,100 Petroleum comes almost entirely from the United States, which imports it every year to the value of about 10,000,000 yen (in 1907, 9,507,000 yen). Coal is imported from England for the Japanese navy. In 1904, when, on account of the war, Japan bought in large supplies, it imported coal to the value of 12,199,885 yen from Cardiff; but at ordinary times it is not the same, and in 1905 the import fell to 5,467,705 yen, remaining finally at about 500,000 yen. Thus everything connected with metallurgy is imported THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 225 from England, Germany, Belgium, the United States. As to France, it imported in 1907 about 410,000 yen worth of machines. IX French importation in Japan is not of much value, but it ascends; in 1906, it was 4,997,000 yen; in 1907, 7,024,000 yen. It is true that Japanese exports valued 40,228,000 yen in 1906, and 42,592,000 yen in 1907, but it is because Japan buys silk, a dear commodity. It leaves Japan with money in exchange for silk, but it does not profit by Japanese commerce, since it has little or no import trade. These are the principal articles which France sells : — Spy-glasses and telescopes, silver watch-cases, the works for clocks, butter, Antipyrine, chlorate of potash, drugs and medicines, amorphous phosphorus, yellow phosphorus, logwood, pig-bristles, copper tubes, lead, books, cigarette papers, delaines, bottled wines, casks of wine, champagne, brandy, other liqueurs, corks, toilet soap, ordinary soap, perfumery. As I have said above, France's principal article of production, mousseline de laine, is little by little being taken away from her. Beside Swiss and German com- petition, there is also a Japanese fabric, which is in process of production, not as good as the French, but sufficiently " made in Japan " to satisfy the taste and purse of its purchasers. With regard to wines, if France imports a total of s616,000, including red and white wines, wine in casks and bottles, champagne, sparkling wines, that is all. The Japanese, like the Chinese and all other Orientals, 15 226 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE do not drink wine. With the few barrels of red wine which he sends for, the Japanese will mix treacle and sugar, and will thus make " vin Japonais," the delight of the gourmets in the restaurants of Tokyo. Needless to say, this unspeakable production is horrible to a European palate. With regard to brandy and liqueurs, the French import £6,400 worth ; that is for the consumption of the Euro- pean colony. X As one sees, France has not any great trade with Japan, and it is difficult to increase it. It cannot compete with other nations in supplying Japan with what it needs most : raw cotton, metals of all kinds, and machines. It is beginning to see that its delaines are on the decline, and that its principal article of import, wine, is not appreciated. France cannot any longer count upon things designated ** Parisian," as for example Paris goods, fashions, hats, &c., for they are little used by the natives, and those, moreover, which are found in Japan are Parisian goods made in Germany ; they are imported to Japan at such a price that the dearness of the raw material and the French workmanship do not allow France to compete. It is evident that there is no use in making much effort in this direction. Japan is not one of France's clients, not even for luxuries, indisputably superior to all others ; for it is poor, and when it wants a luxury it comes from Berlin at a more advantageous rate. The Japanese trader has not the reputation of being serious and true to his word. The authorities have made laudable efforts to convince their compatriots of the THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 227 necessity of sincerity in business, and there is reason to hope that these efforts will not be in vain. But the Japanese is much less commercial than the Chinese, and all those who have had anything to do with the two races are unanimous in preferring the Chinese. More- over, all the great European houses established in Japan, and all the banks, have Chinese managers and assis- tants, never Japanese. The Japanese merchant has no scruple in not receiving merchandise if during the trans- action the market value has altered to his detriment ; he knows that the European will still prefer to have his mer- chandise in hand rather than to lose time in the process. I have happened to discover, often, in the bales of silk sent from the interior to Yokohama for export, the presence of bricks and stones carefully covered up with hanks, and there was a time when silk exporters were obliged to examine every bale without exception, seeing the impossibility of trusting to the good faith of the native merchant. As I have already said, the total trade of Japan for 1908 has suffered from a decrease of dÊll, 297,000. Perhaps this is the result of the Eusso- Japanese War ; perhaps an economic crisis has arisen which has pre- vaiL5 everywhere, and has made itself felt in Japan as everywhere else. We shall see. In any case, it is quite certain that Japan is disgusted : it wished to run, and to run quickly ; it has no longer the means. The journals show a lassitude and a general discouragement ; only the Japanese Chronicle is not discouraged, and says that if Japan feels the effect of the burden borne during the recent war, and of a fiscal system not less heavy, it hopes, nevertheless, to see it recover itself ; but, it says, that will he slowly. 228 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE XI The following table shows the figures for export and import for each port for the year 1907, the most recent list published : — Yokohama .. Kobe Osaka Nagasaki Hakodate Niigata Shimonoseki Yokohama Kobe Osaka Nagasaki ... Hakodate ... Niigata Shimonoseki Exports. Yen. 205,888,000 Moji ... 106,668,000 Otaru ... 60,037,000 Mororan 4,654,000 Wakamatsu 2,268,000 Kuchinotsu 206,000 Yokkaichi 4,364,000 Tsuruga Imp( DETS. Yen. 172,485,000 Moji ... 223,437,000 Otaru 34,451,000 Mororan 16,280,000 Wakamatsu 673,000 Kuchinotsu. 1,067,000 Yokkaichi 2,480,000 Tsuruga Yen. 19,049,000 6,012,000 1,924,000 3,179,000 4,908,000 3,908,000 1,895,000 Yen. 26,413,000 122,000 1,000 962,000 307,000 9,026,000 880,000 XII There entered into the ports of Japan in 1907, 8,770 Japanese steamboats, 57 Chinese, 6,267 English, 390 French, 1,858 German, 154 Austria-Hungarian, 324 Russian, 64 Danish, 385 Norwegian, 1,618 American from the United States ; 317 of different flags — a total of 20,199 steam vessels of all countries, of which 8,770 were under the Japanese flag. In 1895 there was a total of 1,749 ships, of which 63 were Japanese. The first Japanese steam navigation company was formed in 1877, under the name of Yubin Risen Mitsubishi Kwaisha, that is to say, mail steamers of the THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 229 Mitsubishi Company ; in 1882 appeared the Kiôdô uniu Kwaisha, or Union of Maritime Transports ; and in 1884 the Osaka Shôsen Kwaisha, or Maritime Navigation Company of Osaka. The Steam Merchant Service v^as created ; it v^as necessary to maintain and develop it. In 1885 the first two companies, after a desperate competition, v^^ere united under the name of Nippon Yûsen Kwaisha, or Company of Japanese mail steamers — a company to which the Government of the Mikado offered all the necessary moral and financial support ; then the laws on navigation and shipbuilding, according a high enough premium, gave a new impetus to the steam merchant service. According to navigation law, a Japanese steam vessel of at least 1,000 tons, and of at least 10 knots, and destined for a long voyage, is qualified to receive a fixed premium according to the distance traversed and the tonnage of the boat. This premium, for a steamship of 1,000 tons, rises to 25 yen per ton and per 10 knots, and is perhaps increased by 10 per cent, for each 500 tons extra, and by 28 per cent, for each knot of increased speed per hour. For a vessel of at least 6,500 tons and 18 knots the maximum limit of premium will be that accorded to a vessel of 6,000 tons and of 17 knots. In order to have the entire premium, the vessel must not be older than five years ; above this age the premium diminishes by 5 per cent, every year. The premiums for the budget 1907-1908 rose to 11,170,255 yen, or £1,117,025. Special grants are besides granted to different com- panies ; thus the Nippon Yûsen Kwaisha receives for the budget year 1908-1909, 4,283,707 yen plus 220,000 yen ; 230 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the Toyo Kisen Kwaisha receives 1,013,880 yen plus 750,000 yen ; the Japan China Steam Navigation Com- pany receives 800,000 yen only ; the Osaka Shosen Kwaisha receives 491,000 yen plus 100,000 yen. The premiums for shipbuilding amount to 1,995,440 yen. A nation of sailors encouraged in this way by the Government cannot fail to create a great merchant service, and at the present time the Asiatic seas are ploughed by Japanese boats : — The line from Yokohama to Shanghai ; line from Yokohama to Tientsin, passing by the ports of Korea; line from Nagasaki to Vladivostock, passing by the ports of Korea ; line from Yokohama to Shanghai and to the different ports of Yangtsen, to Hankow and Itchang ; line from Tsuruga to Vladivostock ; line from Yokohama to Bombay. To Europe and America : — Line from Yokohama to Marseilles, London and Antwerp ; line from Hong-Kong to San Francisco ; line from Hong-Kong to Seattle. To Australia : — Line from Yokohama to Melbourne. The Toyo Kisen Kwaisha had created in 1905 a biennial service to America from the South, but it abandoned its regular plan of navigation from this side. These different companies are far from paying their expenses, and it is the premium granted by the State which maintains them. The Nippon Yusen Kwaisha possesses a capital of 22,000,000 yen ; the Osaka Shosen Kwaisha, a capital of 16,500,000 yen ; the Toyo Kisen Kwaisha, a capital of 6,500,000 yen ; and finally the Japan China Steamship Company a capital of 8,100,000 yen. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 231 These are the four principal steamship navigation companies making long voyages ; there are also a con- siderable enough number of small companies for coasting trade, which I do not think it necessary to mention here. XIII The only French vessels which touch at Japanese ports are those of the Messageries Maritimes ; the number of their entries and departures is naturally the same ; here as elsewhere, the insufficiency of the French navy manifests itself. The trading companies have tried timidly for some years to establish a line of cargo boats for the Far East, but there are too small a number of them. On the other hand, on account of French maritime regulations obliging shipping com- panies to use maritime registers and to have a fixed number of officers and French sailors, the freights are dearer on their vessels than on the others, and thus it is that in the whole of the East, in Japan as elsewhere, French productions arrive under the English flag of London and under the German flag of Antwerp. This ancient law of registers has indeed had its day ; it is necessary to let the companies choose their employees with freedom ; and also to modify the regulations relating to the personnel of French nationality. XIV The general Japanese tariff, put into force in 1899, after the revision of the treaties, is very heavy for products of European importation ; the Japanese 232 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Government, it is true, has accorded a conventional tariff for certain products to France, England, Ger- many, and the United States, but in some cases on certain articles the duty is prohibitive. Cattle pays 10 to 30 per cent. ; dried peas, 40 per cent. ; preserved fruits, 45 per cent. ; chicory, 45 per cent. ; spices (pepper, &c.), 18 yen per 100 lbs. ; mustard, 45 per cent. ; ham, 14 yen per 100 lbs. ; butter, 27 yen ; cheese, 17 yen ; meat extract, 77 yen per 100 lbs. ; comestibles in general, 40 per cent. ; juice of fruit and syrups, 45 per cent. ; honey, 50 per cent. ; jams, jellies, 13 yen per 100 lbs. ; bottled wines, 80 sen per litre (more than 2 shillings) ; wines in casks, 30 sen per litre. For France there is a conventional tariff for the import of wines : — Wines not exceeding 16° pure alcohol, 1 yen 24 sen per hectolitre (in casks or barrels) ; 67 sen per case of 14 half-bottles or 12 bottles ; exceeding 16° and not exceeding 24° : 92 sen (in casks or barrels) ; 68 sen per case of 24 half bottles and 24 bottles. Champagne, 2 yen per litre ; French champagne always pays 1 yen 55 sen per case of 24 half bottles or 12 bottles; all alcoholic drinks, 90 sen per litre ; alcohol, 65 sen per litre. Horsehair pays from 7 to 55 and 98 yen per 100 lb. Pharmaceutical products are very dear. Cotton threads, 12 per cent, and 25 per cent, per 100 lb. ; sewing cotton, 29 yen per 100 lb. ; hemp thread, 30 per cent. For the importation of cotton cloth there is a con- ventional tariff with England — they pay generally 10 per cent. ; grey and white delaine, 1 sen 5 rin, and 1 sen 8 rin per square yard ; other kinds, 2 sen 1 rin ; hand- kerchiefs, counterpanes, carpets, curtains, and other THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 233 fabrics of this kind pay 40 to 50 per cent.; shirts, vests, shawls, braces pay 40 to 50 per cent. Precious metals and jewels, 50 to 60 per cent. Metals in general pay less dearly, for Japan imports a great quantity and it lets them come in with reasonable duties. Mechanical objects such as microscopes, lorg- nettes, watches, telescopes, phonographs, sewing machines, tool machines, springs, &c., pay 15 to 20 to 40 per cent. On the whole one may say that the Japanese custom- house rate is one of the highest known, and the custom officers exact the duties with great severity. CHAPTEE XV I. Roads — II. Railways, State and Companies. Purchase of the lines by the State and nationalisation of the railway systems — III. Principal lines — IV. Tramways — V. Tarifis of the railways. Communication in Japan is effected in two manners : by the roads and by the railways. "Water transit is practically non-existent owing to the lack of navigable rivers. At the mouths of certain rivers some navigation is practicable, and also in their lower courses. Interior navigation such as exists in Europe, and parallel to the means of communication by land, is not employed in Japan, and could not be, owing to the orographic system of the country and the slight length and breadth of its water-courses. The roads are infrequent and badly kept, for it appears that the Japanese Government does not much occupy itself with them, and for some long time there has been no Minister for Public Works. There exists no body of engineers for bridges and roads, and each prefecture and each village and town maintains its roads somewhat according to its own desires. For this reason one does not travel in carriages in Japan, though formerly the great nobles and the rich 23^ A MOUNTAIN VILLAGE. 1 1 1 r i ROOMS IN AN INN, P'OKMKK'LY A DAlMYo's KESIDENCE. To face p. 234. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 235 people went about in carrying-chairs. The people rode on horseback or went on foot, and a narrow path between the rice-fields sufficed them for getting along. Since the introduction of railways all the world takes the train, and in developing its railway system it has not occurred to Japan to develop its system of road transit. It must not be thought, however, that there are no roads in this country ; but in addition to their being inadequate both in number and size, they are even more inadequate from the standpoint of maintenance, and during the rainy season in certain provinces it is impossible to get even a jinrikisha through. I give here the principal transport roads of any size, and first of all the Imperial Highways, which since olden days have existed for the purpose of connecting the principal centres of the Empire. The best known to Europeans is the Tôkaidô, running from Tokyo to Kyoto, and 325 miles long. It is celebrated for its designs by Hiroshigé, and it was the road most frequented formerly by the cortèges of the Shoguns and the Daimyos when they repaired to Kyoto to render homage to the Emperor; now it is greatly deserted, owing to the construction of the railway line, which stretches uninterruptedly its whole length, and it has lost the animated and bustling character that it still retained twenty years ago. It starts from Niho7n-bashi (the bridge of Japan), the central point from which all distances are calculated, branches from Tokyo to nearly all the extremities of the Empire, and after having traversed numerous towns and villages, of which the most important are Fujisawa, Odawara, Hakone, Shizuoka, Hamamatsu, Atsuta, Yokkaichi, and Otsu — reaches Kyoto and terminates at the bridge of Sanjo Ohashi. 236 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE The Nakasendo, the Imperial Highway, also branches from Tokyo, and ends at Kyoto, but it crosses the central portion through the Ken of Nagano (Zenkoji), whilst the Tôkaidô follows the sea. The Nakasendo has a total extent of 345 miles, and from Nihom-bashi runs towards Omiya and Takasaki (40,000 inhabitants) ; then at Kutsukake enters the Ken of Nagana, and going through Shimo-no-Suwa and Fukushima, descends at Ochiai, Ken of Gifu, ending at Kyoto at the bridge of Sanjo Ohashi, after having crossed Sekigahara and Otsu. The Biku u Kaidô, also called Oshu Kaidô or Ou Kaidô, extends from Tokyo to Aomori (northern ex- tremity of Honshu). This road is 500 miles long; it starts from Nihom-bashi, passes near Tokyo at Senji, and at Soka reaches the Ken of Saitama ; at Nakada it crosses the Ken of Ibaraki, and at Nogi, the Ken of Tochigi. It passes Nihommatsu, a pretty little town with 15,000 inhabi- tants, in the Ken of Fukushima, province of Iwashiro, then reaches Sendai, Ken of Miyagi, province of Eikuzen, an important town with more than 100,000 inhabitants. From thence continuing north it passes by Morioka, Ken of Iwati, province of Eikuchû, the town having 40,000 inhabitants, and finishes finally at Aomori, Ken of Aomori, province of Mutsu, chief town of the Ken, with 20,000 inhabitants. The Akita Kaidô has a length of 377 miles from Tokyo to Akita. It separates into two portions, the one going from Tokyo (Nihom-bashi to Yamagata, with an extent of 237 miles), the other from Yamagata to Akita, and 140 miles long. The Imperial Highway, Akita ken michi, 130 miles in length, joins Akita to Aomori. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 237 The ChîiJcoku Kaidô, Imperial road, starts from Osaka and reaches Akamagaseki at the south-western extremity of Honshu, Ken of Yamaguchi, its length being 350 miles ; it crosses Himeji, Ken of Hyogo, province of Harima (35,000 inhabitants) ; Okayama, Ken of Oka- yama, province of Hizen (80,000 inhabitants); Hiroshima, Ken of Hiroshima, province of Aki (121,000 inhabitants), ending at Akamagaseki, a small town with 35,000 souls. The Ehime Kaidô connects Osaka to Matsuyama, and is about 237 miles long. The Fukui Kaidô, Imperial road, joins Tokyo to Fukui (Ken of the same name). Its length is 340 miles. From Nihom-bashi to Atsuta this road joins the Tôkaidô ; after Atsuta it passes Nagoya, an important town with 290,000 inhabitants, and after having traversed some twenty-five or twenty-six little towns and villages, finishes at Fukui, chief town of the Ken of Fukui, a town with 50,000 inhabitants. The IshiJcawa Kaidô connects Tokyo with Kanazawa (Ken of Ishikawa). It divides into three branches : from Tokyo (Nihom-bashi) to Atsuta, 227 miles long ; from Atsuta to Fukui, 112 miles long ; from Fukui to Kana- zawa, 55 miles long. The Kagoshima Kaidô, Imperial road, starts from Kokura, in the north of Kyushu, and reaches Kagoshima, skirting Kumamoto ; its length is 245 miles. A second road leaves Kohura and extends to Kagoshima, but passes by Miyazaki, and is 290 miles long. The Kôchi Kaidô connects Osaka with Kochi (35,000 inhabitants), and is 222 miles long. The Kôshû Kaidô, Imperial road, greatly frequented and 238 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE usually in very bad condition ; it connects Tokyo to Kofu and has an extent of 87 miles. The Nagasaki Kaido, Imperial road, begins at Kokura and reaches Nagasaki, with a length of 157 miles. It goes across a country that is extraordinarily rough. The two Imperial highways from Tokyo to Niigata are named Niigata Kaido. One skirts Shimotzu and is 220 miles long ; the other passes Nagano (Zenkoji) and is 280 miles long. Such are the chief great roads of Japan accessible on foot and on horseback, but absolutely impracticable in certain countries through which they extend for carriages and automobiles. Sometimes for a certain length in the vicinity of a large town the road is in good condition, and somewhat resembles a fine road in France, but one can- not go a great way without getting into ruts and bogs. The road system itself and its branches through the Empire are not badly maintained, but for the most part it is not a question of roads but of tracks, sometimes wide, but narrow at other times. II The care that the Japanese have neglected to bestow upon their system of roads has been entirely consecrated to their railway system. At the present time Japan is covered with railways, for the Japanese are constantly travelling, and move from one place to another with the greatest ease. It was in 1869, following on the Imperial Bestoration, that the Government decided to apply itself to the work of investing Japan with iron roads, and it charged the Department for Civil and Financial Affairs (suppressed to-day) to prepare the plans. The first track THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 239 was constructed in 1872, between Tokyo (Shimbashi) and Yokohama, and almost immediately after Kobe was connected with Osaka and Kyoto by another line. The Japanese tracks are at a distance of 3^ feet apart. For many years these two lines, the Tokyo-Yokohama and the Kobe-Kyoto, were the only two railroads existing in Japan ; then in 1881 the Railway Company of Japan (Nippon Tetsudo Kwaisha) obtained the authorisation to commence the Tokyo-Aomori line. The enterprise at this period was not lacking in courage, for it was difficult to find the workmen, the ordinary workmen not being sufficiently experienced in this class of labour, and moreover the length of the line necessitated a considerable outlay of money. In spite of all difficul- ties the work was commenced in 1882, between Tokyo and Mayebashi, the Government having decided to guarantee the loan and to give every facility to the Company, and in 1883 the Tokyo (Ueno)-Kumagaye section was opened for traffic. This acted as a spur, and competition was at once started, and private railway companies, in conjunction with the State, began to establish lines everywhere with feverish eagerness. In every province associations were formed for the construc- tion and working of railway lines, which at times were of no great length. Since 1903 there have been in existence 1,226 miles of line belonging to the State, and 3,010 miles belonging to private associations. Amongst the latter, the Railway Company of Japan possesses 857 miles ; the Railway Company of Kyushu, 416 miles ; and the Railway Com- pany of San-yo (Kôbe-Yamaguchi) , 334 miles of railway extension. I give below an explanatory table, so that 240 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the reader can see at a glance with what rapidity the railway lines in Japan have been developed : — Tear State Lines on Dec. 31st. (In English miles). Companies' Lines. 1872 68 — 1877 65 — 1882 170 — 1887 300 293 1892 550 1,320 1893 557 1,381 1894 580 1,537 1895 593 1,697 1896 631 1,875 1897 661 2,287 1898 768 2,652 1899 832 2,806 1900 949 2,905 1901 1,059 2,966 1902 1,226 3,010 I have already stated that the railways are constructed at a gauge of a little over 3 feet. The carriages are com- fortable enough for the Japanese, but the sleeping-cars, for instance, are wholly useless to a European of reasonable height. The only practical and comfortable carriages in Asia are those of the Indo-Britannic Line. I will pass over in silence those of Tonquin, where there are no conveniences for passing the night. The stock of locomotives and carriages can be estimated to-day at 1,500 locomotives, 5,000 passenger carriages, and 21,000 goods carriages. According to the reports of March, 1903, the capital subscribed for the railway industry amounted to 520,830,963 yen (^520,830,096). Of this sum the State figured for 247,655,963 yen, and the private companies for 273,175,000 yen. But these sums do not represent the capital invested ; THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 241 they represent the nominal capital. The capital invested towards the end of 1903 can be stated thus : — state Railways : 144,395,060 yen. Railways of the Companies : 231,808,970 yen. In January, 1905, at the time when the Saionji Cabinet attained to power, the Government, after pro- longed and deHberate consideration, presented to the Chambers a project for the purchase by the State of all the railway lines. Presented to the Chamber of Repre- sentatives on March 3rd, the project was adopted on the 16th of the same month by a very large majority. In the Chamber of Peers the number of companies to be bought out at first was reduced from 32 to 17, but ulti- mately both Chambers ratified the law of purchase for all the railways, and thereby for the nationalisation of the railway system of the Empire. Immediately a special bureau charged with the effecting of the purchase, and first of all of drawing up the conditions under which the purchase should take place, was created by an Imperial Ordinance, number 117, dated May 23, 1906; in prin- ciple the purchase of the 17 companies to be bought out had to be effected in ten years ; but this long delay looked as if it would have the effect of slackening progress in the construction and development of the railway systems and of occasioning great financial loss. The Government consequently determined to carry out the purchase with as little delay as possible, and on July 20, 1906, the fol- lowing lines were designated for the first redemption : — Line belonging to the Coal Associations of Yezo, October 1, 1908. Kobe line, October 1, 1906. Nippon line, November 1, 1906. Gan yetsu line, November 1, 1906. San yô line, December 1, 1906. Nishinari line, December 1, 1906. 16 242 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Later, on the 3rd of April, 1907, the following lines were designated for purchase, which consequently was effected as below : — Kyùshû lines July 1, 1907 Hokkaido lines July 1, 1907 Kyoto lines August 1, 1907 Hankaku lines August 1, 1907 Hokuyetsu lines August 1, 1907 So Bu lines September 1, 1907 BÔ So lines September 1, 1907 Nanao lines September 1, 1907 Tokushima lines September 1, 1907 Kwansai lines ... October 1, 1907 Sangu lines October 1, 1907 All these lines were thus bought out in 1906 and 1907 for the sum of 720,878,360 yen, according to the settled price of purchase, increased by 61,519,076 yen as supplementary purchase for construction, material in stock, &c., which makes the sum total 782,397,435 yen or £78,239,743. This figure shows that the Japanese railways are a long way from attaining the value of the European railways. In addition to the lines above that have been pur- chased by the State and that constitute the principal railway systems of the Empire, there still exist several small lines which continue to operate outside State control, and that are in the hands of particular associations. These are the lines of Bisei, 15 miles; principal station, Tsushima (Ken d'Aichi) ; Chugoku, 48 miles; departure station, Okayama ; Chuyetsu, 83 miles ; departure station, Shemoseki (Toyama) ; Hakata Wan, 15 miles ; chief station, Fukuoka Ken ; lyo, 26 miles ; chief station, Matsuyama ; THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 243 lobu, 24 miles ; chief station, Saitama Ken ; Kanan, 10 miles ; principal station, Osaka Fu ; Kawagoye, 18 miles ; principal station, Kawagoye (Saitama) ; Kotsuke, 21 miles ; headquarters, Takasaki ; Koya, 17 miles ; chief station, Mukai (Osaka) ; Mito, 12 miles ; chief station, Mito ; Nankai, 42 miles ; chief station, Osaka ; Narita, 45 miles ; chief station, Narita (Chiba Ken) ; Ome, 13 miles ; chief station, Ome (Tokyo) ; Omi, 12 miles ; chief station, Shiga Ken ; Riugasaki, 2 miles ; chief station, Riugasaki (Ibaraki) ; Sano, 9 miles ; chief station, Tochigi Ken ; Tobu, 42 miles ; chief station, Tokyo ; Toyokawa, 17 miles ; chief station, Toyohashi ; Zuso, 10 miles ; headquarters, Tokyo. The construction of the different lines has cost 997,250,000 yen. In a general way the carriages are built in Japan, only the material of iron or steel is bought abroad or manufactured either at the works of the company for constructing trucks at Osaka, or at those of Nagoya, or Amano, near Tokyo. The loco- motive machines and all the delicate portions come from abroad, either from Germany, from Bourg in Berhn, or the Berlin Machinery Company, Ltd. Or from the United States of America : Brooks Loco. ; Cooke Loco. ; Pittsburg Loco. Or from Belgium : the John Cockerill Society. Or from England : North British Loco. Co. ; the Vulcan Foundry ; Kitson and Co., Leeds. No material is furnished by France, the reasons for which it is not difficult to understand. It will be sufficient to state one of them : this is, that the cost of production of her manufactures is so much higher than 244 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE that of other industrial countries that she is not in a position to sell to the foreigner. Ill At the present time the traveller can go right round Japan by railroad : there are no places that cannot be reached by it, or at least to which one cannot approach by this mode of locomotion. If we take Tokyo as the central point with the object of going in a northerly direction, we can make use of the great line from Ueno (station of the Northern railway at Tokyo), to Aomori, which passes Sendai and Morioka, and serves a number of localities in the course of its extension. From Aomori the line curves inwards in a southerly direction and makes a descent again on the western side of Akita. On the south the line from Tôkaidô leaves Shimbashi (station of the Southern railway at Tokyo) and goes to Kyoto, passing by Nagoya and serving a certain number of important towns, such as Numazu, Shiznoka, Hamamatsu ; from Kyoto the track extends to Osaka and Kobe, and from this latter port it extends as far as Yamaguchi on the south-western extremity of Honshu. By crossing the arm of the sea separating Shimonoseke from Moji, one can get on to the line running up to Nagasaki. Thus from north to south in its whole length, Japan is served by a railway line that forms a sort of immense " skeleton " for all the secondary lines running in different directions to all the extreme points of the country. Thus there are transverse lines running from Tokyo through Takasaki to Niigata and starting from Kyoto through Komehara to Kanazawa and Fukui. Likewise GATE LEADING TO THE PRECINXTS OF lEMITSU. LAKE CHISEXJL To face p. 245. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 245 from Tokyo a central line going to Fukushima and thence to Akita rejoins Aomori and the line from Sendai-Tôkyô. The island of Yezo has some lines which render the journey across the country much less arduous than formerly ; from Hakodate to Otaru and Sapporo, thence to the centre of the isles at Asahigawa, from there to Tokachi, and other extensions are in project. So far the island of Shikoku is not very well provided with railways ; two small lines alone exist at Takamatsu and Tokushima. Travelling by railway in Japan is always very pleasant, » as the landscape through which one passes is picturesque and animated, and when one has journeyed through the greater part of the Empire of the Rising Sun in this way at the cherry season or the chrysanthemum season, in the midst of a smiling nature and people, one yields oneself captive to this charm, until one has learned to know it more deeply. The European traveller who does not care to eat the buffet hento {hentô — that is déjeuner — consists of a clean little white box cootaining rice and condiments, sold at the station buffets) should bring provisions with him. But this is really an unnecessary complica- tion: it is quite easy to habituate oneself to eating à la Japanese, and what is served is always very clean and appetising. IV The electric tramways in the towns and outside them have for some time undergone great extension, and at the present time there are eight electric tram companies, each having a capital of 500,000 yen at least : the total capital invested amounting to 37,075,000 yen. Also other com- panies, whose capital is respectively below 500,000 yen, and 246 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE together compose a total figure of 40,143,110 yen, have been formed ; but many of them are no longer in active operation. To give, however, an idea of the relatively large number of electric lines engaged in transport in the whole of Japan, I add this complete list : — Company of electric trams in Tokyo. ,, in Kei Hin (Tokyo, Yokohama). ,, ,, Yokohama. ,, ,, Odawara. „ ,, Hanshin. ,, „ Kyoto. „ Nagoya. ., ., Ise. All these lines are open for traffic ; lines in construction but not yet open for traffic are the following : — Company of electric trams in Kobe. ,, ,, Tokyo Narita (Kei-Sei). ,, ,, Kyoto-Osaka (Kei Han). ,, ,, Kei-so. >i » Oji. „ „ Gan-Hau. ,, ,, Musashi. „ „ Mito. ,, ,, Mino-o. ,, ,, Buso. ,, ,, Nara. M „ Awaji. » ., Niigata. ,, ,, Shimonoseki (Bakan). ,, ,, Hachiman (Kyoto). ,, ,, Mino. „ „ Ina. „ ,, Yawata (Pukuoka). „ ,, Horinouchi. ,, ,, Shingu. ,, ,, Otsu-Kyôto (Kei-Shin). „ ,, Jômô. ,, , ,, Shintatsu. ,, ,, Okayama. ,, ,, Shiobara, „ „ Môji. ,, ,, Maizuru. „ ,, Toban. „ ,, Ot-su. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 247 The length of these lines extends from 13 to 45 English miles ; the electric tramway company of Kyoto, for example, is 15 miles long, and that of Tokyo 45 miles. The tariff on Japanese railways is not very high ; it is, however, a little higher than the French tariff. To a distance of 50 miles the traveller pays 1 sen 65 centièmes (less than one penny) ; up to 100 miles the rate is 1 sen 40 centièmes a mile ; up to 200 miles it is 1 sen 10 centièmes a mile ; up to 300 miles the rate is 0"20 centièmes; and below, 0"82 centièmes (rather less than a halfpenny). This is the tariff for third class ; to obtain it for second-class you must add one- fourth to the charge made for third class, and for the first-class rates add three-fourths of the third-class charge. Each traveller by first class has the right to take 100 lbs. (Japanese ; kin = 1^ lbs.) of luggage ; each second-class traveller, 60 lbs. (kin) ; each third-class passenger 30 lbs. free of charge. For the transport of goods, speaking roughly, the tariff is from 2 to 5 and 7 rin (10 rin = 1 sen) per ton, but for grains, forage, sugar, flour, beer, oranges, charcoal, potatoes, the tariff ranges from 2 sen per ton up to 50 tons, to 1 sen per ton beyond 300 tons, with an inter- mediary rate of 1 sen 7 rin for 100 tons, and 1 sen 4 rin for 200 tons. CHAPTEE XVI Mines in antiquity ; in the fifteenth century : in the modern epoch — II. Geology, soil — III. Working of the mines — IV. Some of the coal mines — V. Petroleum — VI. Various sorts, plumbago, sulphur — VII. — Miners aud miners' regulations — VIII. Administration of the mines^IX. The mines in 1908: Socialism of the workmen — X. Yield of copper and coal. At the same time that maritime traffic, railways, and industry generally were being developed, the special industry of mining became also one of the most important factors of the national wealth. Nothing definite is known concerning the origin of the mining industry in Japan, but history records that ever since the seventh or eighth century, gold, silver, copper, coal, and petroleum were discovered and drawn from the earth. At the commencement of the ninth century, the gold mines of Ikuno, the silver mine of Handa, the argen- tiferous lead mine of Hosokura, and the two copper mines of Yoshioka and Osaruzawa had been opened. In the fifteenth century and in the time of the Shogun Toku- gawa, important mines were being exploited, amongst others the gold and silver mines of Sado, Innai, Kamioka, Mozumi, Serigano, Yamagano, and Shikakago ; the silver and copper mine of Kosaka, the copper mines of Ashio, 248 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 249 Besshi, Ani, Arakawa, Hibira, and Omodani ; the antimony mine of Ichinokawa ; the argentiferous lead of Km-atani ; the tin mine of Taniyama ; the iron mine of Kamaishi ; and the coal mines of Miike, Takushima and Akaike. It will be understood that in the remote epochs, the working of mines was carried out in a very rudimentary fashion and no one concerned himself with the investing of it with any kind of method. It was only after the Imperial restoration in 1868 that the mining industry made any real progress in Japan. The Government, as a matter of fact, perceiving truly with what utility and profit for the State the extraction of the wealth in the subterranean soil might be accompanied, protected and encouraged the development of the mining industry and furthermore secured from abroad mining engineers, geologians, and experts. At the same time the Government undertook at its own cost the working of the principal mines, applying to this working Western methods, with the object of rendering their mines models for those who wished to conduct mining industries on their own account. Since this time great progress has been accomplished, and the yield of the mines has not ceased to increase, notably the gold and silver mines of Sado and Ikuno, and the silver mine of Innai. When the private companies achieved a sufficient development the Government passed over to them a certain proportion of the mines under its control, only reserving to itself those adjudged necessary for the national enterprises. Finally it issued laws and regula- tions which were put into practice in 1892, definitely fixing the rights of proprietors and exploiters of mines, and ensuring them aid and protection. Young engineers who had returned from Europe with special knowledge of 250 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the different departments were placed at the head of the various mining services, and they achieved rapid progress in this branch of Japanese industry. II The geological formation of Japan may be indicated as below, taking 100 as total. I. Formation op the Soils. Azoic period 3"78 Paleozoic period 10'24 Secondary period ... 7"95 Tertiary period 45'84 II. Igneous Eocks. Ancient period 1V21 Modern period 20-92 Total ... 10000 In other terms, the proportion of sedimentary soils in relation to igneous rocks is that of 2 to 1 for the total superficies, whilst in the sedimentary formations — those which belong to the tertiary period — they are in the proportion of 1 to 2. The geological formations of the Japanese islands could be defined as the arc of a circle extending from the island of Yezo on the north-west to Kyushu on the south-west : by the Ryûkû chain and the mountainous system of Formosa : the arc of the north-south circle and the chain of the Ryûkû incline towards the south- west. The exterior line of the curve, that facing east, is comparatively perfect, from the standpoint of geological formation, the lands composing it being distributed in symmetrical fashion. The inner side of the curve — that which faces west — is THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 251 very complex in its geological formation and abounds in crevasses, in displaced strata and eruptive rocks. Owing to these circumstances, the distribution of valuable ores and the position and state of the deposits are peculiar to each side of the arc. Speaking generally, veins of mineral are found in the region situated inside the curve, and also in the volcanic rocks or the strata crossing it, whilst mineral strata are found in still larger numbers in the exterior region of the arc. At Formosa the outer curve faces east, and the formation is comparatively symmetrical except in the north, however, where it spreads itself out owing to a steep incline which separates it from Eyûkù : it is in this northern district that numerous veins of ore are to be found. Several layers of ore show themselves clearly defined in certain districts level with the sea. Ill The principal mines in working order to-day are : — Gold mines. — Hashidate, in Echigo ; Yamagano, at Satsuma ; Zuihô and Kinkwaseki, in Formosa. Auriferous Silver Mines. — Aikawa, at Sado ; Ikuno, at Tajima ; Innai, at Ugo ; Ponshikaribetsu, in the island of Yezo. Copper Mines. — Ashio, in Shimotzuke ; Osaruzawa, Ani, and Arakawa, in Ugo ; Okoya, in Koga ; Obiye, at Bitchu. Lead Mines. — Hosokura, in Rikuzen ; Kamioka, in Hida. Antimony Mines. — Ichinokawa, at lyo. Tin Mines. — Taniyama, in Satsuma. Of all the mines in Japan productive of metals, the copper mines are the richest, and new ones are discovered fairly frequently. Japanese copper is peculiar in the sense that it contains more or less gold and silver. 252 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE The principal mines other than those producing metals are coal and petroleum. Japanese coal is, as a rule, bituminous, the principal veins being found in the tertiary soils. At the same time some anthracite is extracted from secondary strata in the provinces of Nagato, Kii, and Higo, but they are insignificant in quantity and value. The rich deposits of coal are found in the new strata of the tertiary soil, the principal being those of the island of Kyushu and the island of Yezo and of the provinces of Hitache and Iwaki. The carboniferous deposits of Kyushu include the provinces of Chikuzen and Buzen, Chikugo (Miike) and Hizen. IV Hokkaido (island of Yezo). — The coal mines of Sorachi were the first discoveries in the basin of the Ishikari. In the memoirs of Matsura, who made a complete exploration of Hokkaido and the other regions of the north of Japan in 1855, he makes mention of the trace of a coal mine on the banks of the Sorachi river. Some three years later an individual named Kimura discovered another carboniferous bed at Poronai, where he was occupied in cutting the trees. But it was an American, Mr. Lyman, who was entrusted with definite prospecting. In 1876 the Direction of the Colonisation of Hokkaido entrusted to this engineer the task of prospecting in the coal districts of Sorachi, Poronai and the neighbourhood. His report announced the presence of coal in the district of Yubari. In 1879 they made an excavation at Poronai, but it was not till the end of 1883 that the extraction THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 253 was regularly commenced. From this time onwards till 1890 the Government worked the mine on its own account ; but in this year it sold the mines of Sorachi, Ikushum- betsu, and Yubari to the Eailway and Coal Company of Hokkaido (Hokkaido Tanko Tetsudo Kwaisha) which had just been formed. Ever since this company has carried on the working. Coal mines exist in the two districts of Yubari and Sorachi, in the province of Ishikari. The largest veins are at Yubari : they extend to the length of 5 miles, with a depth ranging from 6 to 25 feet. At Sorachi they found there were 13 veins existing, each measuring 6 feet in depth. At Poronai twenty beds were discovered of different length and depth, but only five of them could be worked. The yield is of good quality, and that of Sorachi and Yubari can be utilised for the making of gas and coke. These mines are worked in the European way and employ about 4,000 workmen. The coal is brought to the ports of Otaru and Mororan, when four steam- ships belonging to the company transport it to its destination. Chiku Ho. — The coal mines of Chiku Ho produce more than half of the coal of the whole Empire. The coal is of medium quality and bituminous. In certain places, owing to the presence of volcanic deposits, the coal has been changed naturally into coke. Although the exact date of the discovery of these mines is not known, it is extremely probable that they have been known for at least two hundred years, although it was not till the 254 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE middle of the nineteenth century that the working of the coal was started. At this period the working was limited to the upper layer, and it was not till 1881 that a machine worked by steam was installed at the Katsuno Mine, and the extrac- tion begun upon the European method. This method was successfully applied in the mines of Namozada, Shin nin, Meiiji, and Akaike. In 1889 certain parts of the coal mines at Tagawa and Kurate were reserved to the State. Then the Minister for Agriculture and Commerce, by whom the employment in mines was controlled, issued regulations to encourage the formation of big companies to undertake their working. Ultimately the railway traversing the island of Kyushu created valuable facilities for bringing coal to the ports of Moji and Wakamatsu. The coal mines of Chiku Ho stretch over the five districts of Tagawa, Kurate, Kaho, Onga, Kasuya, and measure 28 miles from north to south, and from 9J miles to 15J miles from west to east. But the coal extracted is not of superior quality. Miike. — The discovery of the coal mines dates back four hundred years. From 1873 to 1887, the Government undertook the working, but in 1890 the Mitsui Company obtained the concession and worked the mine with an assiduity that has not slackened to this day. This latter extends to a length of 9^ miles north-south and about 2^ miles east-west in the two prefectures of Fukusha and Kumamoti. The coal is a little superior to the preceding one described, and can be used for the making of gas and coke. The mine employs 6,000 men, and it is able to furnish 4,000 tons in twenty-four hours. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 255 Takashima. — The coal deposit of Takashima has been known for two centuries. In 1817 the mines were in the hands of the Daimyô of Saga, but at this period no one troubled himself about coal mines, because of ignorance of their use. It was not till 1867 that an attempt was made for the first time to explore the mine properly. Six years later the Government repossessed the mine, and handed it over to Count Goto. In 1881 it was bought by the Mitsui-bishi Company, who are still in possession of it. It started with a yield of 1,200 tons, and then began to decline, but in 1898 new veins were discovered at Hajima. The galleries are found for the most part below the sea-bed, which necessitates constant ventilation. The ventilators at Takashima furnish the mine with 50,000 cubic feet of air a second ; and those of Hajima, 120,000 cubic feet. The mine is situated in the district of Nagasaki, and includes the three little islands of Takashima, Hajima, Nakanoshima, situated 7 miles from the port of Nagasaki. Since 1881 it has supplied more than 7,000,000 tons of coal. V Petroleum in Japan is found almost exclusively in the territories of the tertiary formation, at Hokkaido, and in the provinces of Echigo, Shinano, and Tôtômi. The principal centre of production is the province of Echigo, which includes the six principal mines at Higashiyama, Nishiyama, Amaze, Niitsu, and Kubiki, the two first of which are the most important. 256 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE At Higashiyama the oil is generally found at a depth of from 66 feet to 99 feet. The wells of Amaze are 2,562 feet deep and have the best quality of oil, but unfortunately the supply is beginning to diminish greatly. Nishiyama produces an inferior oil to that of Amaze, the layer of petrol being found at a depth of 660 feet. Petrol was discovered in the province of Echigo in the seventh year of the Emperor Tenchi (a.d. 668). The chronicles relate that at this period " burning earth'' and " burning water" were presented to the Imperial Court, but it was not known what use could be made of them. It was only in 1875 that the mines of Kubiki and Niitsu assumed a com- mercial importance. The Japanese Company for petrol started in 1890, extracting oil according to the European process. They then discovered the beds of slate in Naga- mine, Kamada, Hire, and Urase, which enabled them to develop their enterprise and to succeed in obtaining, in 1902, about 500,000 barrels of petroleum. VI Plumbago in Japan exists in the slaty rocks in sheets, or in blocks in the stratified rocks, and it has been somewhat overlooked up to now, although there is undoubtedly a large quantity of it. Japan, being an essentially volcanic country, is very rich in sulphur and immense deposits of it are to be found. The principal sulphur mines are found in the province of Eikuchu at Tsurugizan, and in Hokkaido at Iwaonobori and Ransu. The alluvial deposits are of two kinds : gold in the districts of Yesashi, in Hokkaido, and iron at Chûgoku. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 257 The former is loosened from auriferous quartz rocks belonging to the Secondary Period and deposited in the beds of the rivers ; the second arises from the decomposi- tion of iron ore. VII There are probably approximately in Japan at the pre- sent time 250,000 miners. This figure includes miners, porters, diggers, smelters, the men employed to attend to the machines, fires, and pumps. The majority of them are content with their lot ; they generally belong to the district in which the mine is situated. There are, however, a certain number of them who have come from distant provinces with their families and are installed there for the rest of their days. With the incessantly increasing population in Japan, there is never any lack of manual labour. As a rule the miners live in houses supplied by their employers ; those having families in separate rooms, and the single ones in a kind of large dormitory. Needless to say these installations are very swiftly made and that the workmen and workwomen are exceedingly badly lodged and even worse fed. The food, which is very inadequate, is sold to them by the mine authorities — it must be admitted at a very low cost — but they are prohibited from purchasing food elsewhere. The object of this is to prevent their demanding higher wages, which the workmen would be compelled to do if they purchased their food properly in the open market, as the wages they are actually receiving would not be sufficient for this. Here, then, as in the industrial world, the sweating system is in force in its full strength, and it must be due to the fact that the Japanese population are 17 258 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE literally starving, that they submit to it without a murmur. They will finish, probably, by revolting, and the outburst of anger which manifested itself two or three years ago at the Ashio mines, when the manager was overpowered, was undoubtedly the beginning of a general movement against the system that is imposed upon the workmen. It is not that the proprietors do not guarantee against the risks of accident and sickness, nor charge themselves with the cost of the funeral in the event of death : but they take only the minimum of responsibility, from which it would be exceedingly difficult to escape. The able-bodied workmen and working women are shame- fully oppressed and receive barely enough to subsist upon. Up to 1890 the Government reserved to itself the right of working a mine under its own control, or of assigning the mining concession to any one guaranteeing an annual rental ; but since then the system of per- manent concessions has come into force : and it is in this way, owing to the formation of big mining companies, that mining exploitation has seen an ever-growing development. In the beginning a foreigner was prohibited from work- ing a mine in Japan : he could not even take part in a Japanese mining society, with the result that the privilege of exploiting was exclusively reserved to Japanese subjects. The law was modified in 1900, and a foreigner was allowed to form a mining company either alone or in conjunction with the Japanese, provided, naturally, that the company formed with a view of exploitation was in conformity with Japanese laws and regulations. I do not think that Europeans have ever THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 259 profited by this concession. Japanese law does not recognise the right of priority of discovery ; and the right to begin boring operations is granted to the person who has first presented the demand. It is in force for one year and is renewable for another year if required. And finally, the right of assaying can neither be assigned nor mortgaged ; it is only the concession that can be sold or mortgaged. Formerly, the concession was only granted for fifteen years. This circumstance, added to the impossibility of mortgaging the mine which at that time prevailed, operated in stultifying the development of the mining industry. But now that the two legislative defects have been removed, the concessioners and capitalists are in a position to invest large sums in subterranean exploitation. The area of a mining concession extends to 10,000 tsubo (1 tsubo = nearly 49 yards), for coal, and 3,000 tsubo for other minerals ; and in both cases it can be extended to 600,000 tsubo. In the event of there being more than two concessioners in association, the maximum limit may exceed 600,000 tsubo. The granter is obliged, before beginning drilling opera- tions, to submit his plans to the head of the Department for the Inspection of Mines. The concession can be with- drawn by the Minister for Agriculture and Commerce if operations are suspended for more than a year. Every six months the concession-holder is obliged to furnish a report upon the condition of the mines, and everything connected with the addition or distribution of the conces- sion must receive the approval of the Inspector of the Mining Department. 260 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE With regard to the owner of the land npon which the mine is situated, he has to receive a fair compensation for the hire of the ground and an indemnity for the installation of wells, machinery, tramways, railroads ; he can demand the repurchase of his land at the end of three years. If difference arise between him and the con- cession-holders, the dispute is first carried to the Inspector of the Mining Department, then to the Minister of Agri- culture and Commerce, and finally to the courts. With the view of protecting public and private interests, special regulations concerning the administration of mining have been issued and are put in force by the Mining Department Inspector and by the Minister for Agriculture and Commerce. The principal articles are as follows : — The safety of the buildings inside the mine and outside it. Protection of the life and health of the workmen. Protection of the surface and of public interests. Everything that might be injurious to the interests of the public can be suppressed by order of the Inspector, under penalty of suspension. The use of explosives, the arrangements for ventilation, the subterranean operations, the construction of chimneys, boilers, foundries, &c., are subject to the strictest regulations for the avoidance of accidents. In addition a special protection is granted to the workers ; the nature of the work, the hours of work, the labour of the women, and the miners, are all most minutely regulated, and the concession holder is com- pelled (at least on paper) to conform to the decision of the Inspector of the Department of Mines. The taxes that have to be paid on mining concession THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 261 are of two kinds : a concession tax and the tax on the raw material. The former is 30 yen per 1,000 tsubo, and the second is 1 per cent, of the value of the material. This latter is fixed according to the price ruling in the principal markets. There is, however, an official quota- tion for gold, silver, copper, lead, antimony, coal, and petroleum. The search for ore in the alluvial sand is subject to a somewhat different regime. Here, as a matter of fact, the right of priority is accorded to the owner of the land in which the ore is found. But if the owner does not wish to work the ore he is compelled to give permission to those willing to, on condition, of course, that he shall be properly remunerated. Only Japanese subjects are allowed to conduct their investigations in the alluvial soil; no European, whether on his own account or on account of a company, is [permitted to undertake this operation. YIII The administration of the mines exhibits naturally special characteristics which are strikingly different from the administration generally of other industries. The officials who are in charge of matters connected with the management of the mines must possess special and expert knowledge upon all the questions relating to them. They must know in effect — The regulations concerning the maintenance of a concession ; its withdrawal, right of transfer, and the pecuniary responsibilities for the concession. The regulations relating to the drilling operations, the 262 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE approval of plans, the shutting down of the surface, and to the association of various concession holders, or to the division of one concession amongst various companies. The regulations relating to the specific management of mines, those, namely, referring to the interests of the public and those of the vsrorkmen ; to the safety of the mines and to the solidity of the buildings. They must also be prepared to judge impartially all the disputes v^^hich may arise between the owners of the ground and the concession holders of the mines. The administration of mining affairs is divided into two sections : — I. The central government of the mines attached to the Minister for Agriculture and Commerce. II. Five directions of a local kind, controlled by five inspectors nominated by the same Minister. The local administrations have the power to supervise all mining matters within their jurisdiction, and they deal with them all either on their own responsibility or by referring them to the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, according to the gravity of the case. IX The total number of demands for mining concessions in 1908 was 4,663. This was considerably less than in the preceding years, and included in this number there are many demands for concessions that have come to nothing. The total figure for mining productions for this same year was 103,167,395 yen, a diminution of 3,657,626 yen on the preceding year. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 263 Coal : 14,468,669 tons, with a value of 61,963,500 yen ; Copper: 67,805,639 lb., with a value of 2,242,983 yen; Petroleum : 1,639,357 koku (1 koku = a little less than 5 English bushels, capacity), 6,475,460 yen; Silver : 31,259 kwamme ; value, 4,265,717 yen ; Gold : 829 kwamme, value 4,147,485 yen ; Iron— Pig : 39,983 tons, and steel 1,668 tons, yielding 1,927,245 yen; Sulphur : 53,815,077 lb., yielding 766,816 yen. The number of mining companies at the end of 1908 reached 205, with a total capital of 175,809,650 yen (capital invested, 119,390,800 yen). There were the beginnings of a strike in the coal- mines of Takashima, and also in some other mines ; but they were without importance, although it cannot be denied that the mining workmen at the present time are beginning to imitate their confrères in Europe, and demand higher wages and better conditions of life. Socialism has made its debut in Japan, and so far its prospects are not brilliant ; but there is no doubt that the people in general and the working man in particular are suffering financially from the burdensome results of two wars sustained in the course of ten years. Glory is expensive, and Japan is not rich. The workman was the first to strike, and indeed his lot is a most lamentable one, and the Japanese, who are not wilfully blind, are the foremost in recognising this. The director of the School of Industry at Tokyo, for example, does not hesitate, in a long article published by the Ghu ô ho ron Bevieiv, to demand that there should be more protection, and better measures for the preservation of health and morality for the working classes. In two hundred communities of workmen which he examined he found frightful corruption and deplorable morals. The protection of minors, especially of young girls, did not exist. Every 264 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE one lived anyhow, like animals. The working women are penned up in big rooms, and often forbidden to go out more than once a week ; the men are herded together in other rooms. They are all treated like a lot of wretched cattle, and live accordingly. The married working men who live in the towns seem to show very little concern for their own belongings. Socialism has already penetrated the Army. Having found well-prepared ground in the case of the wretched toilers, it has now reached the barracks, and has com- menced the distribution of subversive pamphlets to the recruits. The desertion of soldiers in groups has already taken place. As Japan becomes more and more an industrial country it will ere long possess a large working-class population, with which it will be compelled to reckon. This multi- tude at present lacks a leader, everything being in process of formation, but when the day arrives that they become conscious of their strength, and have a leader who is intelligent and practical, the working classes will be able to impose their own conditions. Will they at this moment be wise and calm, or carried away, as so many others in Europe, by fallacious and vain promises, or use violence to bring about the golden age which has been promised them? ("Future of Tonkin," 1909). In 1907, the most recent year for which we have com- plete statistics, the productiveness of the copper- and coal- mines, the two descriptions of mines that may be con- sidered as the most important in Japan, was distributed as follows : — THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 265 Copper. Mines. 500 grammes = rather mor Arakawa (Akitaken) ... Ani Ashio (Toehigi) Beshi (Gheme) Dôgamaru (Shimane) Furogura (Akita) Hebera (Miyazaki) ... Hidate (Ibaraki) Hiragama (Gifu) Hisaichi (Akita) Homansan (Shimane) Ikuno (Hyôgo) Innai (Akita) Itsuki (Kumamoto) ... Kano (Fukushima) ... Komaki (Akita) Kosaka Kusakura (Niigata) ... Nidzusawa (Iwate) ... Nagamatsu ( Yamagata) Oharasawa (Iwate) ... Obie (Okayama) Okoya (Ishikawa) Omodami (Fukui) Omori (Shimane) Otori (Yamagata) Osarazawa (Akita) Sasagaya (Shimane)... Takane (Gifu) Takura (Yamaguchi) Tsubaki (Akita) Yakuki (Fukushima) Yoshioka (Okayama)... Yusenji (Ishikawa) ... Productiveness Belonging to. in Japanese lbs of 600 grammes. oir.) ; 600 grammes = 1 lb. 3è oz. Mitsubishi .. 1,256,428 Furukawa ... 2,089,321 — .. 10,660,029 Sumitomo ... 8,911,895 Hori ... 807,943 Furukawa 772,652 Naito ... .. 1,435,755 Kuhara .. 1,355,280 Yokoyama .. 1,050,331 Mitsubishi .. 1,201,908 Hori ... 528,933 Mitsubishi .. 1,511,289 Furukawa 433,954 Itsuki... 249,820 Kano ... 720,167 Mitsubishi 101,443 Fujita .. 12,041,857 Furukawa 501,445 — 850,036 — 460,698 Suito ... 200,025 Sakamoto .. 1,176,751 Yokoyama . .. 1,078,402 Mitsubishi 383,459 Furukawa 390,396 — 199,925 Mitsubishi .. 1,937,183 Hori ... 235,388 Asada ... 175,377 Mitsubishi 249,821 Takeda 270,882 Yakuki 298,328 Mitsubishi .. 1,435,755 Takenouohi 718,264 Consequently Japan produced in 1907, 54,697,242 Japanese pounds of copper, or 23,232 English tons. After the United States of America this is the greatest contribution that is known throughout the globe, copper 266 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE being one of the principal products of exportation in Japan. Coal. Poronai (Hokkaido) ... Yubari Sorachi Iriyama (Fukushima) Uchigo (Fukushima) Onoda Ojô Takashima (Nagasaki) Akasakaguchi (Saga) Wochi Yoshitani Kitakara Kamiyamada (Pukuoka) Otsuji Miike Onoura Shin iri Fujidana Mannoura Yoshio Namadzudu Yamano Meigi Tadakuma Kaneda (Fukuoka) ... Hokoku (Pukuoka) ... Tagawa (Pukuoka) ... Akaike (Pukuoka) Otô (Pukuoka) Futase (Pukuoka) ... Furukawa (Pukuoka) Belongs to. Hokkaido Co, Iriyama Iwaki Co. Ojô Oo. Mitsubishi Takatori Mitsubishi Yoshitani Co, Mitsubishi Kayejima Mitsui... Kayejima Mitsubishi Mitsui... jima Ase Mitsubishi Mitsui... Yosukawa Sumitomo Mori ... Hiraoka Mitsui... Yasukawa Hara ... Government Furukawa Production in Tons. 163,013 480,803 202,930 204,537 145,515 188,951 86,289 183,816 139,273 163,013 219,858 86,840 90,186 212,629 1,482,451 593,154 438,572 96,321 207,372 216,207 244,463 138,850 416,421 67,195 271,328 161,920 486,478 182,469 179,130 366,128 376,681 I have only given here the production of the principal mines, those producing more than 100,000 tons. Japanese coal is very inferior in quality to all other known coal, and its consumption will always be limited to the Chinese Sea ; and this will be at an end if the dis- covery is made, which will probably be the case, of mines of superior coal in Chinese and Indo-Chinese territories. CHAPTEE XVII I. Japanese finance : General statements — II. Present-day organisation — III. The Budget, taxes — IV. National Debt : loans — V. Local finances — VI. Banks — VII. Assurance Companies — VIII. Doctors, public hygiene, public relief. In the chapter dealing with finance we have now come to the most difficult side of Japanese economics. Here all, indeed, is very vague ; for the Japanese, who conceal whatever they can from Europe, conceal their financial afi'airs more than their military secrets. Japan is poor, extremely poor; the necessities of life are lacking through- out the country, and money which may be found there is used to pay for the coupons of the National Debt and the purchases from foreigners. Yet according to the Japanese publications the financial situation is very satisfactory. Now, we must take into consideration a peculiarity unsuspected by those who do not know Japan :* the inhabitants of the islands of the Eising Sun will deprive themselves of everything, and will submit to the payment of the heaviest taxes in order to help the Government to show Europe that Japan * All the Japanese submitted to voluntary privations during the war against Russia ; a great many, indeed, deprived themselves of necessities in order to contribute to the war expenses. 267 268 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE is in a prosperous condition. Japanese patriotism, it must be admitted, is animated by no foolish pride, but what it desires most of all is to be able to cut a fine figure in the sight of Europe. But the strained cord breaks at last, and already it has been found necessary to increase the Budget of 1908-1909 by a super-tax on beer and sugar and the consumption of petrol. The Japanese have been playing this game for a long time, and the power of paying these taxes is rapidly diminishing. On the other hand, how is a new loan to be obtained ? What guarantees would the Japanese Government give if it were obliged to have recourse to the foreigner for money? II The Japanese financial system, as it exists to-day, does not date from far back ; naturally the financial system soon after the Imperial Kestoration was extremely compli- cated, and there existed no regular method of financial administration. The old system, under which each Daimyo had his own financial arrangements and taxes, had to be swept away entirely. Here, as in all other administrations, centralisation was necessary ; and this was no easy matter. However, in 1871, the unification of the financial system was established by the decision that all the accounts of the different ministerial bodies and public administrations should be published hence- forth under the direction of the Treasury ; and that the various departments should no longer have, as was formerly the case, their own accounts independent of one another. Then, in 1875, an account of receipts and expenditure was drawn up, the first real Budget THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 269 of the Empire. In 1880, the Court of Expenditure was created, under the direct control of the Emperor. All these changes were not made without considerable upsets and disturbances, and it was the glory of the earlier statesmen that they had carried through a reform so grave and so important for the country as financial reform. Two more years were required after the creation of the Treasury and the Court of Expenditure to establish on a solid foundation the system of central- ised accounts and auditing. However, by the beginning of 1882, all irregularities had disappeared, and the foundation of the Bank of Japan (Nippon Ginko) completed the work of reorganisation. By 1886 the Budgets were published, and at the time when the Constitution was promulgated in 1889, the law dealing with finances was amended, and thenceforward the Budgets had to be drawn up by the Minister of Finance and approved of by Parliament. Ill The ordinary Budget of the year 1908-1909 amounted to 619,958,339 yen, with an extraordinary and supple- mentary Budget of 3,839,331 yen, making a total of 623,797,670 yen — a figure never before reached. The ordinary Budget was as follows : — Eeceipts 611,043,048 yen Expenditure 615,958,339 „ Deficit 4,915,291 „ This deficit was covered by increased taxation under three heads : — On sake and beer 545,343 yen On sugar 2,819,444 „ On the consumption of petrol ... 1,550,504 „ Total 4,915,291 yen 270 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Here are the different taxes and revenues of the Empire which go to make up the National Budget.* Land Tax. — The land tax is proportional to the value of the land taxed. The value is determined on the following basis : Capital is calculated according to the net revenue or the rent of the land, and then it is written down in the official registers of the Land Survey. The land tax is paid as follows : On mortgaged land by the mortgagee. On land let on lease for a period of more than 100 years by the leaseholder, who has acquired all rights to the land ; on all other land by the owner of the property. The annual assessment of the land tax is fixed at 2| per cent. (1 per cent, in Hokkaido) of the value of the land, calculated as described above. But the laws of 1904 and 1905 have added for the different classes of landed properties the following super-taxes : — Urban properties which are built upon, 17^ per cent, of their value. Kural properties which are built upon, 6 J per cent, of their value. Properties not built upon, 3 per cent, of their value. Tax on Incomes. — The present state of the law which regulates the Income Tax may be summed up thus : The tax is payable by : — {a) Persons who have their domicile, or have resided at least one year, in any part of the Empire where the said law is in operation. (6) Persons who, without being domiciled in Japan, or residing there, have property or a business, either indus- trial or commercial, or who have an interest in the public • According to the Financial and Economic Year-book of Japan, pub- lished by authority of the Ministry of Finance. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 271 funds or hold shares in the localities to which the law applies. These persons, however, are only liable for the tax in respect of the income derived from these particular sources. The amount of the tax is fixed according to the follow- ing scale : — First class : On incomes of persons of legal age, 2^ per cent. Further (a) Joint-stock companies and co-operative joint-stock societies, having at least 21 shareholders or shareholders and members, pay from 3| per cent, to a total of 6^^^ per cent. (6) Other persons of legal age : — Incomes below 5,000 yen, 2 per cent, up to 4J per cent. From 5,000 to 10,000 yen, 2J 10,000 to 15,000 15,000 to 20,000 20,000 to 30,000 30,000 to 50,000 50,000 to 100,000 2à 3 5| 7à , 100,000 and beyond 10 Second Class : Interest on bonds in public loans or shares in companies established in the localities where the law is in operation at the rate of 2 per cent. Third Class : Incomes derived from sources other than those referred to above : — 100,000 yen and above, 20^ per cent. 50,000 17 30,000 iqi9 20,000 111 15,000 Q 9 ' 10,000 7J 5,000 6 3,000 Hx. " 2,000 I 3x*{n> >i 1,000 » 3 2% „ 500 Ol 3 1 ^ÏZ » 300 » > 2 272 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE The following are exempted from taxation : — {a) Soldiers' and sailors' pay in time of war. (6) Gratuities and pensions granted to the widows and orphans of soldiers and sailors, and the pensions of soldiers and sailors. (c) The expenses of travelling incurred by students, students' bursaries, and other sums received from the State. {d) The income of an adult who does not carry on a business for actual profit. (e) The chance profits which do not properly accrue from a business carried on for profit. (/) The incomes that are derived from estates, busi- ness, or industrial concerns and other professions, either abroad or in localities where the law is not in operation — with the exception, however, of the income of an adult who has his principal place of business in a locality sub- ject to the operation of this law. ig) Premiums and dividends paid by a person of legal age who is already taxed according to the present law. Special laws exempt from income tax interest derived from shares in the National Debt, as well as interest from Treasury Bonds issued, or hereafter issued, in conformity with the law of 1904 regarding Treasury Bills. Licences. — These taxes, first levied in 1896, apply to all classes of industry and commerce. As the tax is levied according to the value of the business, the nature and quality of the business have to be taken into careful con- sideration. Thus, in order to insure the equitable assess- ment of the tax, the assessment is based upon the amount of capital engaged, the total amount of sales, the rental value of the buildings, the number of clerks, artisans, workmen, the sum total of commissions and contracts. In the year 1908-1909 this tax yielded 21,854,307 yen. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 273 Succession Duties. — The law which regulates succession duties was promulgated in January, 1905, and came into operation in the April following. According to this law succession duties apply, whenever succession takes place, to all the property constituting the estate which is situated in a locality where the law is in operation, and there is no need to trouble about finding out whether the place overture of the succession is or is not in Japan, or whether the de cujus is or is not a Japanese subject. But the nature of the property subject to the tax and the rate of valuation of this property vary according as the domicile of the de cujus is or is not in a locality where the law is applicable. These dues yielded 1,530,814 yen in 1908-1909. In 1908-1909 the following returns were yielded : Drink tax 71,809,684 yen Shoyu tax 4,070,184 „ Sugar tax 16,293,911 „ Tax on consumption of petrol 1,563,089 „ Tax on drugs used in trade 204,640 „ Tax on mines 2,041,193 „ Tax on exchange 2,041,643 „ Tax on use of bank-notes 1,168,234 „ Tax on passengers by train, boat, and electric tramways 2,337,834 „ Tax on textiles 19,462,196 „ The last-named tax was imposed in 1905, and is levied in the following manner : On woollens 15 per cent, of the value ; on all other materials 10 per cent. Tonnage duties, at the rate of 5 sen per ton, yielded 528,027 yen. Custom Duties. — In 1859, when the^. first commercial treaties were concluded with the Western Powers, custom- houses were established and duties were levied for the first time in Japan, in certain open ports chosen for this 18 274 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE purpose. The customs tariff of this period was entirely determined by the treaties, but it was only in force for a very short time, for the whole tariff was entirely revised in 1866. This revised tariff, which continued the Japanese custom duties, lasted for thirty-three years without any modification, for it was in operation until the year 1899, a period when the commercial and navigation treaties with foreign Powers were in force, and to-day it still operates. The system of customs duties which it inau- gurated had a serious influence on Japan's policy and national finances. The putting into force of the commercial treaties, revised by the foreign Powers in 1899, made it possible to bring into operation the general tariff, which, combined with the new treaty tariffs, formed the Japanese customs tariff. It was at this period that export duties were entirely abolished. In 1904 the need of money led to the imposition of super-taxes on the customs duties as well as on other duties, and from October 1, 1906, the tariff in the case of many articles applies to specific duties. For the period 1905-1906 the customs duties yielded the sum of 41,410,920 yen. Apart from receipts under the above headings, there are others, such as the revenue from timber, which yielded for the period 1908-1909 the sum of 20,393,538 yen. Then there are monopolies : the monopoly on tobacco yielded for the same period (1908-1909) the sum of 41,723,003 yen, that on camphor 62,387 yen, on salt 13,193,163 yen. The revenue from the State railways was formerly included in the general Budget ; since 1908 it has been separated and a special account for the railways has been THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 275 established. This is divided into three sections : capital account, revenue account, reserve account. IV In order to face its liabilities incurred by its innumerable enterprises for the national rebuilding and the adoption of European ideas, Japan has been obliged to contract various loans. In 1908 the total amount of these loans was 2,243,000,000 yen, that is, £224,300,000— a considerable burden for the country, considering its resources. The National Debt (internal debt) amounted to 1,078,194,000 yen, and the foreign debt to 165,701,000 yen. The Eussian War was the principal cause of these Japanese loans. Indeed, before the war the public debt was 535,459,000 yen, and after the war it was 1,530,263,000 yen. As Eussia refused to pay any war indemnity whatsoever, Japan was obliged to bear all the expenses of the expenditure, and hence it is still obliged to borrow. The last loans contracted with foreign countries were as follows : 4 per cent, loan, issued in London and New York in March, 1905, £30,000,000 sterling, underwritten at £90 per £100 share at par, capital to be paid in fifteen years by lottery from February 14, 1910, to February 15, 1925 The payment of the loan is guaranteed by the Government on the net profits from the tobacco monopoly. The second loan, of £30,000,000 sterling at 4| per cent., was issued in London, New York, and Berlin in July, 1905 ; it is repayable, like the preceding loan, in fifteen years, from July 9, 1910, to July 25, 1925, and likewise guaranteed by the tobacco monopoly, the earlier loan having a prior claim. 276 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE A loan of £25,000,000 sterling at 4 per cent, was issued in November, 1905, in London, Paris, New York, and Berlin, at £90 per £100 share, repayable at par between January 1, 1920, and January 1, 1931. A loan of £23,000,000 sterling at 4 per cent, was issued in March, 1907, in London and Paris, at £99 10s. per £100 share, to be paid back at par in twenty-five years between March 12, 1922, and March 12, 1947. If we add to these the loan for the redemption of the railways, the loan to consolidate the debts on the railways purchased by the State, the loan for extraordinary expenses, the loan in 1897 for expenses in connection with the construction of railways, Treasury Bills issued at the time of the Eussian War, the redemption of the hereditary pension of the former régime, the loan for Public Works, the loan for the railways of Hokkaido, the various other national loans, it is clear that the financial situation of Japan is deeply involved. Its ideas of glory and military greatness have carried it too far. However, it seems that Japan has considered the matter, and it now declares that it requires nothing but peace to develop its wealth and re-establish its finances. V According to the law now in force departmental expenses are defrayed by means of departmental contributions, grants from the Treasury, and from various taxes. The departmental contributions are obtained by additional taxes on direct taxes, or by taxes on certain articles selected for this purpose. To the first class belong the land tax, income tax, licences ; to the second, taxes on rents and various taxes. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 277 The towns and the communes make over for the pa5rment of their expenses the revenues accruing from their lands, rents, taxes and various other receipts, and if these receipts are not sufficient, municipal or communal taxes may be levied, or payments in kind imposed. When a local Assembly decides to raise a loan, it must at the same time arrange the terms of the loan, the rate of interest, and the mode of liquidation. The redemption of loans contracted by towns and communes should begin, at latest, three years after the date of their issue, and the loan should be entirely redeemed in thirty years. In order to contract a loan the local Assemblies, the municipalities, or the villages must obtain the authorisa- tion of the Minister of Finance and the Minister of the Interior. VI The regulations relating to banks, promulgated in November, 1872, were based upon the system in force in the United States. Four national banks were created in conformity with the new regulations, which stipulated, among other things, the redemption of bills in money at par ; but the scarcity of money and the excessive number of bills (or bank-notes) issued soon caused the latter to fall far below par. The Government then conceived the idea of altering the regulations in 1879 and of authorising the banks to use, as guarantee of notes, the bonds of the Hereditary Pensions, increasing these immediately to the amount of 170,000,000 yen, the bank-notes of these banks thus becoming redeemable by State bonds. This arrangement succeeded, and in the course of a few years 153 banks were established, designated by the numbers 1 to 153. 278 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE In 1880, at the time when the Bank of Japan (Nippon Ginko) was established, the 153 national banks were deprived of the right to issue bank-notes ; most of the banks were then closed; some were converted into private banks which still exist. The Bank of Japan was founded in 1882 ; its authorised capital was at first 10,000,000 yen, to-day it is 30,000,000 yen. It possesses the privilege of issuing bank-notes to the amount of 120,000,000 yen, guaranteed by the reserve fund of gold and silver which it possesses and by Government Bonds. It is highly probable that this reserve in coin only exists on paper, all the money that Japan has passing into the hands of foreigners. Consequently the bank-notes of the Bank of Japan have no value except that given to them by the confidence of the citizens of Nippon. The principal banks are Yokohama Sho Ki'n Ginko Bank — a cash bank, founded in 1880 with a capital of 24,000,000 yen; the Nippon Kogio Ginko Bank; the Industrial Bank of Japan, with a capital of 17,500,000 yen ; the Mortgage Bank of Japan, with a capital of 10,000,000 yen; the Bank of Formosa; the Bank of Hokkaido (on the island of Yezo). Besides these large establishments there also exist a certain number of special banks, notably the First, Third, Fifteenth, Twentieth, Twenty-seventh, Hundredth, Three-hundredth Bank — survivals of the 153 National Banks of which mention has already been made, which have become private establishments. Then there are the Kawasaki Ginko, established by M. Kawasaki ; the Imamura Ginko ; the Meiji Shôgiô Ginko ; the Tel Koku Shôgiô Ginko, &c. Several European banks have been established and THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 279 carry on business in Japan : the Anglo-Japanese Bank, the offices of which are at Yokohama ; the Chartered Bank of India, AustraHa, and China at Yokohama, Kobe, and Nagasaki ; the German Asiatic Bank at Yokohama, Kobe, and Nagasaki ; the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation at Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki ; the International Banking Corporation at Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki ; the Kusso-Chinese Bank at Yokohama and Nagasaki. There was formerly a French bank, the Comptoir d'Escompte of Paris ; but the regulations for the French banks are so strict that it is impossible for them to carry on business in the East, and the Comptoir d' Escompte long ago closed its branch establishment. VII The first Japanese insurance companies came into existence in 1881, but it was not until 1890, after the promulgation of the commercial code, that regulations were drawn up for the inspection and control of such companies. In 1900 a law came into operation which enacted that an association or society of this kind must have a capital of at least 100,000 yen; at the same time regulations were issued concerning the inspection of European insurance companies established in Japan and dealing with Japanese business. All these offices are English or American, namely, the Union Assurance Society, Guardian Assurance Company, North British and Mercantile Insurance Co., Phoenix Assurance Co., Yorkshire Insurance Co., Sun Fire Insurance Co., Scottish Union and National Insurance Co., Hong Kong Fire Insurance Co., Equitable Life, New York Life. One French company — the Union — figures in the list. 280 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE VIII There are about 40,000 doctors in Japan, who all employ European methods. The diseases of Japan are almost the same as those in Europe, except dysentery, which rages with almost absolute regularity every summer. Hygienic methods are most skilfully applied by the authorities, and in epidemics I do not believe that any other country takes so many precautions as Japan, or applies sanitary regulations with so much punctuality and attention to details. Those travellers who have disembarked at the ports of Kobe and Yokohama during an epidemic of plague or cholera know something about this matter. Many of the Japanese die of consumption, and that is why the north of Japan is not much populated. The Japanese endures the heat better than the cold, and his temperament would incline him towards the equatorial regions whence his Malay ancestors have come. The hospital system and system of public relief are in very good order, and the hospitals managed in European fashion are very clean. Works of charity at first were generally in the hands of Christians, either foreigners or natives ; in spite of the interest shown by the Imperial Court and especially by the Empress herself, in all good works, the Buddhists and Shintoists were long in directing their efforts towards the well-being of their miserable countrymen. However, among the charitable societies of all kinds a few Buddhist societies are being established in different parts of the Empire. CHAPTEK XVIII I. Political Japan and its future. — II. Commercial and industrial Japan and its future. Japan, thanks to labour and effort, has to a great degree incorporated Western civilisation. Above all, it has comprehended and adopted, as being of first importance, the military mechanism, because its temperament, its atavism, and its education have all contributed to this result ; and it has become the principal factor in the peace or wq,tc of the extreme East. It has secured a footing on the continent. Will it remain there? It seeks clearly the domination of Eastern Asia, and it is with this aim that it augments its military force. And are not still more battleships in course of construction? And is not its Intelligence Service extended all over Asia in the most extraordinary way from India to Mongolia ; I have seen Japanese in Tonkin, on the frontiers of Kouang-Si, at Yunnan, in Burmah. I have seen them at Bhamo, Foo, rejoining compatriots who had arrived at Yong Tchang by way of Siam and the Thai countries. 281 282 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE All the routes of Asia are as well known to them as those of their own country.* But it is possible that the insular situation of Japan may prevent it from carrying out its grand schemes suc- cessfully. History shows us that it is impossible for an insular people to establish itself in a continent when the enemy is resolute in preventing this, and the English, who so long trampled upon the soil of France, at the close were driven off it. Once China has become awakened (and she is beginning to open her eyes), she too will not stop till she has driven the Japanese to the sea. Moreover, will the Japanese Government always have its hands free, will it not first of all be hampered by * Japan pursues unswervingly the aim upon which it has deter- mined, to become a great World Power, the greatest in Asia. It has planted a foot in this continent and the enterprise is thoroughly to its taste. Listen to what the War Minister, General Teraoutchi, addressed to Parliament in March, 1908 : " I am profoundly convinced that a con- flict between the Great Powers will take place, not in Europe, but East of India and in the west and north of Japan. Would it be fitting for the Japanese people to remain passive spectators in the presence of such an event? " The Minister added: "In everything concerning the troops occupying Manchuria, I maintain that it would be, for us, tantamount to an evacuation if we confined ourselves to our present limits." It is not far from that to transport and maintain a considerable part of its army upon the continent. It is true that at this moment the Russians, French, and English are friendly to Japan — as, indeed, who is not ? But what are promises and treaties worth ? Let us remember the beginning of the last war, and, above all, not forget the ease with which Austria violated the Treaty of Berlin. . , . Force appears more than ever to be the exact meaning of right, which is not without some irony in these days of conferences, arbitration, and international brotherhood. Apostles of peace and propagandists of disarmament, ye are the lambs and will be devoured. Never was the old axiom more true — " Si vis pacem para bellum." Japan wishes for war and prepares for it. " Military France," April 26, 1 09.) THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 283 internal disturbances, such as strikes and Socialism, and finally by the European and American Powers, who have their interests and mean to have some voice upon the subject of Asiatic questions ? Socialism, it is true, has not so far made much progress in the Japanese Empire ; nevertheless, it exists incon- testably and to the extent that the commanders of the Army Corps are obliged to take measures to prevent the distribution of Socialist and anti-military pamphlets in the barracks. The working class is increasing, and their conditions are not always enviable ; everything is by no means for the best in the world of the Japanese toiler ; and in the event of a leader in earnest making his appearance, a man who knew how to utihse the mal- contents, with one stroke the Socialist party, still chaotic, would be effectively created. Moreover, the year 1909 was marked by numerous strikes ; some of them being sufficiently serious to necessitate the presence of the troops to re-establish order. In these conflicts between capital and labour, in almost every case capital emerged victorious, and the workers, without organisation or money, had to submit ; but this is only the beginning, and proves, in any case, that Japan, no more than any other country, takes quickly to new ideas. In addition to internal difficulties, Japan will no doubt encounter others in the collision of its interests with those of the Colonising Powers, the first of which will be Great Britain, the leading one, who, in spite of the treaty of alliance which binds her to Japan, will probably find herself under the necessity of opposing the too lofty ambitions of her vigorous and energetic ally. Complications have already arisen, and may do so again. 284 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE of an ever graver kind between Japan and the United States and England on account of the unceasing immi- gration of the Japanese * into Canada, Australia, and California, where they constitute strong and disturbing communities. II If we turn from political possibilities and examine the commercial future are we confronted with the likelihood of an ever-widening interchange of trade and an ascend- ing figure for the volume of trade. I think not. Japan has nothing to sell to the foreigner but silk, entirely absorbed by France, the United States, and Italy ; tea, exclusively absorbed by the United States; copper, a little rice, and various artistic accessories; and it only purchases raw cotton, certain kinds of woollen stuffs, and more particularly various metals and supplies for its army and navy. The imitation things of the European factory, distributed in China, Indo-China, and India, are not suited to Europe and America. It is not, then, a customer of any importance, and in Asia is a competitor. As for the French, they cannot entertain any hopes of developing commercial relations with Japan. Their woollen cloth, formerly purchased in large quantities, is imitated to- day in Germany and Switzerland, and sold much more cheaply by these two countries ; they have even begun to reproduce it in Japan ; wines, one of the chief French productions, are not appreciated by the people and the quantity sold is insignificant. • Consult on this subject Dr. H. Loir, " Canada and the Canadians" (chap, xvi., " The Yellow Invasion!"). — Library Oriental and American, edited by E. Guilmoto. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 285 So far as the metal trade is concerned, France cannot supply it, owing to her manufacturing and selling more expensively than England, Germany, Belgium, and the United States, who carry out the contracts for Japan at present. Japan will naturally more and more develop its trade, and it will more and more become the purveyor for the Asiatic markets, notably the market of China, which needs goods at low prices ; and, on the other hand, it will become less and less a good customer for Europe and America. ** Trade in those quarters is getting worse and more difficult," a Frenchman, who knows the country well and has been established there forty years, wrote to me not long ago. " Japan is cer- tainly not lacking in the qualities of courage, patience, and perseverance, and what it has accomplished in so short a space of time is certainly remarkable, though perhaps not quite so wonderful as is generally thought, if we consider that it had everything at its own disposal and had only to take what it wanted, whilst both Europe and America assisted it with all their strength and in every way. It did not have to seek out for itself, every- thing being supplied by others ; it was simply for Japan to imitate and adapt ; * but it deserves praise for having invested its transformation with a strength of will, know- ledge, and perseverance of an extraordinary kind." Considering its great facility for imitating and adapt- ing, its precise memory and the minute care it puts into everything it undertakes, one must give praise to Japan for the efforts it has employed to raise itself to the level • For if we reflect upon this subject, it wOl be apparent that it is not excessively difficult to imitate the material civilisation of the West, It was a question of patience and method. 286 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE of superior humanity, and it is but fair to recognise what it has done ; but much is still lacking to bring it up to the level of Europe. An elect number have succeeded in transforming themselves more or less completely, and adopting Western standards, but the mass of the population have not moved ; and when the traveller has quitted the various ports or cities in which foreigners reside to penetrate into the interior, he still finds the Japanese as he was fifty years ago. CHAPTER XIX I. The Japanese Colonies : Formosa — II, Finance — III. Monopolies— IV. Banks — V. Commerce — VI. Agriculture and industries — VII. Saghalien and Canton. Japan is not exclusively to-day confined within its islands; it has overflowed, and after two fortunate wars become a Colonial people. I have therefore to pass in review the different possessions which by the hazard of war have fallen under its domination. In the first place there is Formosa, in Chinese and in Japanese, Tai Wan. This great island, situated on the south-east of China, formerly belonged to the mainland province of Fukien ; it measures 250 miles by 87^ miles. One chain of mountains intersects the island from north to south, and has many volcanoes. The Chinese estab- lished themselves there in 1430 ; the Portuguese visited it in the 16th century, and gave it the name of Formosa owing to the beauty of its climate. The Japanese and the Dutch founded colonies there in the beginning of the 17th century; but in 1661 the famous pirate Kochingo seized it, and remained master of it till 1683, at which period the Chinese recaptured it. Before entering more fully into the statistical and 087 288 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE economic condition of modern Formosa, it is of interest to trace the picture given of ancient Formosa by the Jesuit, du Halde. "I ought to say something about this island; and owing to its having remained unknown for a long time even to the Chinese — though not far distant from them — and that it was only under the last Emperor Kang-hi (1662-1722) that they effected their entry there, and to the fact that the government, manners, and customs of these islanders are very different from those of the Chinese, a somewhat detailed account is due, as well as to the means by which the latter made themselves masters of the island. " The whole island of Formosa is not under the domination of the Chinese. It is divided into two parts, east and west, by a chain of mountains beginning at the south of Cha Ma Ei Teou and ending properly in the northern sea of the island. Only the part west of these mountains belongs to China. " The eastern portion, if we are to believe the Chinese, is only inhabited by barbarians. The country is moun- tainous, uncultivated, and wild. The character of the people, according to them, scarcely at all differs from that of the savages of America. They depict them as less brutal than the Iroquois, more chaste than the Indians, naturally gentle and peaceable, loving one another, and mutually helping one another, and in no v/ay interested in or deriving any use from the gold and silver of which it is said they have many mines ; but they are extremely revengeful, are without government, law, or police, living on the flesh of animals and fish, and have no worship or religion. ** Even before they had subjugated Formosa, the THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 289 Chinese knew that there were gold mines in the island. No sooner had they compelled this submission than they sought on every side for the mines; and as they were not to be found on the western side, of which they were masters, they resolved to seek for them on the eastern side, where they had been assured they would be found. They equipped a small sea-boat so as to go there by sea, not wishing to endanger themselves in the unknown mountains, where they would have run the risk of their lives. They were kindly received by the islanders, who generously offered them their houses, provisions, and all kinds of assistance. The Chinese remained there about eight days, but all the efforts they made to discover the mines were useless, whether owing to the lack of an interpreter who could explain their design to the people, or whether from fear and policy, not wishing to give offence to a nation that had good ground for fearing Chinese domination. Whichever the cause, of all the gold they had set out to seek they only discovered some ingots lying in the cabins and little regarded by the poor folk. Here was a dangerous temptation for the Chinese. Little pleased with the ill-luck of their expedition, and eager to have the ingots l3ring before their eyes, they resorted to the most barbarous stratagem : they equipped their ship and the kindly people furnished them with all that was necessary for their return. Finally they invited their hosts to a grand repast, which they had prepared, they said, as a proof of their gratitude; they then gave the poor creatures so much drink that they became intoxicated, and when they were plunged in the sleep caused by drunkenness, the Chinese killed them, seized the ingots, and took to flight. This cruel action did not 19 290 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE remain unpunished; but the innocent had to bear the punishment which the guilty deserved. No sooner had the news spread throughout the eastern part of the island, than the islanders entered armed into the northern part belonging to China, and pitilessly massacred any one they encountered, men, women, and children, setting fire to numberless Chinese dwellings. The port of Formosa, which the Chinese possess, certainly merits the name they have given it ; it is a very beautiful country with a pure and soft climate ; all sorts of grain flourish, irrigated by a number of little rivers into which the mountains separating it from the eastern parts descend ; corn and rice, &c., also grow in abundance. Most of the fruits of the Indies are found there — oranges, bananas, pineapples, guavas, papaws, cocoa. There is reason to believe that the earth would also be favourable for our European fruit trees if they were planted there ; peaches are found, also apricots, figs, grapes, chestnuts, and pomegranates. They cultivate a sort of melon;* tobacco and sugar grow extremely well there." This description of the luxuriance in Formosa applies equally to the northern part of the island, where the Portuguese landed in 1580 and founded their settlement of Ki Long. But the western side does not present any good harbour, and ships with a large broadside are exposed to the double inconvenience of a bad anchorage and a very bad reception from the natives, whilst the eastern side has nothing but steep shores and streams whose outlets are closed by alluvial sand. Towards the end of 1620, the first year of the Emperor Tien-Ki, a Japanese squadron came to Formosa. The officer commanding it found the country entirely un- • Du Halde, " Description of the Chinese Empire." THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 291 cultivated. As it was quite suitable for the establishment of a colony, he took the resolution of seizing it, and with this object left a part of his force there with the order to take all the steps necessary for the execution of his project. About this same time a Dutch ship, either going to Japan or returning from it, was, owing to a storm, cast on Formosa ; they found there the Japanese, who were not in a position to take offence. The country appeared delightful to the Dutch, and advantageous for their trade. They had the pretext of needing refreshment and the various things necessary for the repairing of their ship, injured by the storm. Some of them penetrated into the country, and after having examined it returned on board. During the absence of their companions, the Dutch did not touch their ship, and it was only upon their return that they began to think of refitting it. They begged the Japanese, with whom they did not wish to embroil themselves for fear of injuriously affecting trade relations, to allow them to build a house upon the edge of the island or at one of the entrances of the port, which would be of assistance to them in their trade intercourse with Japan. At first the Japanese rejected the proposition, but the Dutch urged them so much, assuring them that they would only require enough ground to contain the flesh of an ox, that at last the Japanese consented. The Dutch then took the flesh of an ox, which they cut into very small and very thin slices, arranged them end to end, and made use of them to measure the ground they wanted. At first the Japanese were a little angry at this trickery, but after reflection they were amused with 292 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the thing, and, being appeased, allowed the Dutch to do what they liked with the land, and it was on this land that they built the fort called Castel Zelandia. However, in 1661 they were driven out by Tching Tching Kong, son of Tching Tehi Long, a wealthy merchant of Tonkin, who, after equipping a fleet, invaded Formosa, burned four Dutch vessels and per- mitted another one to withdraw with the Europeans. He then constituted a sort of independent kingdom in the island; but in 1682, under the reign of the Emperor Kang hi, Formosa definitely became a Chinese possession. The island produces maize, potatoes, fruits, tobacco, indigo, sugar-cane, rice, and tea ; its principal articles of exportation are camphor and coal ; sulphur and petroleum are also found. The Japanese, having at the same time as the Dutch come into contact with the inhabitants of Formosa, also withdrew and ceased relations with the island. In 1874 a Japanese vessel wrecked on the east coast was pillaged by the natives and the sailors were massacred. The Govern- ment of the Mikado, through the intervention of its Minister at Pekin, M. Soyeshima, demanded the punish- ment of the guilty persons, but Tsong li ya men replied that China disavowed any interest in the matter, and the Japanese Government was at liberty to punish the savages. An expedition was then determined upon, and General Saïgo Tsukumichi placed at the head of the troops ; the struggle lasted but a short time ; the natives at once capitulated and made peace with Saïgo. But China then changed her mind and entered on the scene, and with a view of getting rid of the Japanese consented to an indemnity for the families of the massacred sailors. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 293 As we have seen, for long Japan had fixed her eye "upon Formosa, and at the close of the war against China in 1894-1895 the island passed into her control. In April, 1896, the military régime gave place to a civil administration, and about the same period the Japanese Government drew up a programme, part of which was to subjugate the aboriginal tribes, whilst the other part organised the methods of communication, finances, and monopolies. Ever since, the application of this programme has been pursued uninterruptedly. The finance of the island has become independent since the 1905-1906 administration — that is, the revenue of the Government of Formosa suffices for the administrative expenditure without any pecuniary assistance from the central Treasury : and even more, the revenue of the island has even permitted the defraying of the cost of certain public works, which they had to provide against by means of loans. During the following years, notwith- standing many changes supervening in the character of the national revenue, this latter has gradually increased, and the finances of the island are in a satisfactory condition. II Since the 1897 to 1898 Budget, a special exchequer has been assigned for the finance of Formosa : it served the Government as the basis for projecting, and then realising, the financial autonomy of the island. The central Treasury must furnish the large sums to cover the deficit of the Budget of the island, and it is believed that this subsidy will be diminished every year. Thus the annual sum has been fixed on a decreasing scale, with 294 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE the calculation that the 1909-1910 Budget will see the financial system of Formosa absolutely independent. During the 1899-1900 administration, and simultaneously with the commencement of the works cited above, monopolies in camphor and salt were created ; the steam- ship service between Formosa and Japan and the extent of the coasts was augmented, which facilitates the execu- tion of Government and private enterprise ; finally, a regular service of steamers between Formosa and China has been established. Whilst in 1900 and 1901 the administration dedicated its activities to developing the productions and the in- dustries of the island and elaborated laws for an extension of the lines for steamboat navigation, during the suc- ceeding year it took measures to perfect the sugar industry, and it undertook the task of studying the old customs. During 1902 and 1903 it was occupied in introducing improvements into .the making of tea and paper. During the two administrations, 1903-1904 and 1904-1905, the land survey register having been accomplished, a public loan was issued of rather more than 4,080,000 yen, designed to make up for the tax payable to the principal proprietor of an estate, and the revenues accruing from the land tax increase it by a million yen ; then, when the law for the special ex- ceptional taxes was put into force to meet the cost of the war with Russia, an excise tax was imposed on sugar in Formosa, and upon woven fabrics there was a tax on the finished goods ; and in this way they]succeeded in realising equality in the imposition of taxes and in securing for the isle, as compensation for those that ought to be received from the Central Government, the funds destined to meet the deficit in its finances. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 295 In the year 1905-1906, the Government of Formosa was in the position to resign a sum of about 6,100,000 yen, the] approximate amount of the subsidies which it had the right to receive from the Central Government, to cover the deficit accruing since the same administra- tion to that of 1909-1910. It decided, as a matter of fact, to pay out of the revenues of the islands, without having recourse to the public loan referred to above, the expenses of building the railway and port of Kelung, enterprises whose cost ought to have been met by increasing the loan. From this time forth the deficit in the annual revenues was to be met by a change in the land tax and by the adoption of a tobacco monopoly. Thanks to these measures the special exchequer of the Government of Formosa gradually passed from a state of independence that was theoretical and legal to that of a real independence. During the financial year 1908-1909 plans were drawn up for the erection of works, for utilising the watercourses, for regulating the Port of Taku, improving the production of camphor, opening up new territories for culture, for developing the exploitation of timber, and constructing rail- roads. For these enterprises a Government loan of 38,990,000 yen furnished the necessary sum. It was decided that the undertakings should be commenced during the administration of 1908-1909 and finished by 1923-1924, and that the loans should be repayable in the eleven years following their achievement. The great north-south artery of the railway running from one extremity of the island to the other was finished in April, 1898, the total length either for the principal nne or for the branch system being 277J miles. 296 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE As the progress of the sugar industry affects the economic development of the rural classes no less strongly than the prosperity of the general finance of the country, the Government is occupying itself with largely increasing the extent of the land consecrated to the grov^ing of the sugar-cane ; and the formation of new com- panies after the Kusso-Japanese War, added to the aug- mentation of capital of the existing companies, makes provision for the annual production of 10,250 tons of sugar from the beginning for 1908-1910. To assure also to the industry an ample supply of raw material, the Government has increased the subventions and allocations designed to benefit the sugar industry, to obtain new lands for its culture in the region of the aborigines, to promote the navigation between the island and the metropolis, and to erect new buildings. This increase of expenditure will be equalised by the revenue from the excise tax on sugar, from the railways, and the surplus sums of the preceding Budget. Ill The first monopoly introduced into Formosa was that of opium, followed later by that of salt, camphor, and tobacco. These monopolies were not solely due to financial neces- sities. They were created with the " view of safeguard- ing the public health, of reviving industry, and of endow- ing the island with an effective commercial capability." So far as opium is concerned, it is easy to see what were the issues of the national health involved, but one is not clear with regard to salt, camphor, and tobacco. With regard to the developing of private initiative in THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 297 industry and commerce by the creation of these monopo- lies, this quahty is not apparent, and probably never will be, for the very existence of a monopoly kills the energy and initiative of individuals. IV Although at the time of the cession of Formosa no organised monetary system existed in the island, no great inconvenience resulted in the currency of the chief towns, owing to the smallness of the transactions. But with their development there arose the necessity of creating banks as the medium of the money system, and the Bank of Formosa (Tai Wan Ginkô) was established. Then the Bank of the South, the Savings Bank of Tai Wan, the Shokâ bank, and the Kagi bank. In 1904 and in 1906 the Japanese Government reformed the old monetary system, and at the present time there is the same circulation of the Japanese currency as in Japan. V Formerly the trade of the island was entirely in the hands of the Japanese. Owing as a matter of fact to the proximity of the province of Fukien there was constant communication by means of junks between the two coasts. By the treaty of Tien Tsin the ports of Taku, Anking, Tamsui, and Kelung were opened to foreign trade, and this event was the starting-point for the trade of Formosa with Western nations. In 1895, after the treaty of Shimonoseki and the sur- render of the island to Japan, the Japanese commenced to establish themselves there. 298 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE During 1908 the export trade reached to 71,700,000 yen, being an increase of 13,300,000 yen on the preceding year. In this figure the exports to Japan account for 24,400,000 yen, and those to foreigners to 9,300,000 yen. The total exportation reached therefore 33,700,000 yen. The imports from Japan amounted to 20,900,000 yen, and those from foreign countries to 17,000,000 yen, yield- ing therefore a total of 37,900,000 yen. The surplus in exports was due to rice, sugar, and tea, and notwithstanding the diminished quantity of camphor. The increase in imports comes from an advance in the duty on sugar, machinery, rails, cement, and the materials for building. VI As the island of Formosa is situated in part in the torrid zone, and as its soil is fertile, it is rich in natural productions of all sorts. Eice grows everywhere except in the mountainous districts, and it yields two crops every year. The progress of the irrigation works and the perfecting of the methods of culture have contributed to a greatly increased extension of the rice-fields. The quan- tity of rice sent to Japan in 1908 represented 10,000,000 yen, as against 6,000,000 in 1907. The sugar-cane culture has greatly developed, and numberless refineries have been established. The value of the sugar conveyed to Japan in 1908 rose to 9,400,000 yen. The virgin forests which cover the entire centre of the island have not yet been exploited. They contain cryptomerias, coniferae of all sorts, also the kinoJci, or THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 299 chamaecyparis obtusa, a tree that is greatly esteemed in Japan. Summing up, the island is hardly beginning to emerge from its long slumber. Time is needed, and, even more, money, to work its natural wealth, and in the year 1908-1909 the returns of the Government of Formosa were 33,871,328 yen — that is say, the Budget exactly balanced. These figures are furnished by the financial reports of the Japanese Minister, and I give them without comment. VII The island of Saghalien, in Japanese Karafuto, was formerly wholly a Japanese possession. She was ceded to Kussia in 1875, consequently at a recent epoch. After the war against Eussia the southern portion of the island was retroceded by this Power to Japan by the treaty of Portsmouth (United States). Saghalien has especially as resources the sea and the forest. Nothing has so far been undertaken in this island, and it is in the observing, searching, and groping stage. A million Japanese families have been transplanted to Karafuto. They have been supplied with grain and cattle, and it looks as if a large area of the Japanese part of the island is suited for cultivation and pasturage. Gold and coal abound, but their working seems to be reserved to a far-off future. The peninsula of Kwang Tong. This part of the Chinese territory, at the southern extremity of which is situated the fortress of Port Arthur (Lui chouen keou, kio jun ko), is now under the control of Japan, as a consequence of the defeat of the Eussians. The 300 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE latter had taken the peninsula of Kwang Tong with the fortress of Port Arthur on lease for a period of ninety- nine years from China, and the Japanese have been their successors in assuming the lease. The single port of this territory is Dalny (Tairen), declared a free port. The Chinese Maritime Custom House is installed to collect the duties on goods quitting the free zone to enter China. The total amount of the exportations has risen to 34,726,896 yen, and that of imports to 31,355,647 yen, being a total exchange of 66,082,543 yen. CHAPTEE XX The Korea of to-day and yesterday. The establishment of the Japanese Protectorate — II. The military Eesident and the departments — III. Financial reform ; taxation ; the banks — IV. The Japanese in Korea ; moral and industrial societies ; breeding and cultivation — V. Korean trade : its future — VI. Commerce, importation, and exporta- tion for 1908. The kingdom of Korea at the present time is a real dependency of Japan, although up to now it has pre- served its King and Court. The Government of the Mikado exercises its authority there by the inter- mediary of a Eesident General representing the Pro- tectorate. Korea is a large peninsula which projects in the form of a cape into the Eastern Sea (Tong Hai) between China and Japan. The Sea of Japan washes it on the east, the Gulf of Leao Tong separates it from the provinces of Pe tche li and from Chan Tong on the western side. On the north it borders on the Man- churian countries : on the south it is limited by the Great Sea, and finally the river Yalu on the north-east separates it from Leao Tong. It was formerly inhabited by different peoples and was divided into numerous small kingdoms ; the three principal were those of Kao li (Koraî), Sin lo (Shinra) and Pe tsi (Hakusai) so often mentioned in Japanese history. 301 302 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE In the third century a.d. the Japanese Empress Zingu (Zingu Kôgô) invaded the three kingdoms, and they submitted to a tribute which was punctually sent every year from the port of Fusan to the Court of the Mikado, then to that of the Shoguns. But China regarded the Korean kingdoms as one of her dependencies, and in 1392 she intervened, having always done this whenever there were internal revolutions, and placed on the throne of Korea — become by this time a centralised country — the dynasty of Han. Eelations with Japan consequently weakened, and finished by completely ceasing in the middle of the 15th century. The Japanese, nevertheless, recalling the great deeds of their empress twelve centuries earlier, dreamed always of invading the peninsula, and it was the famous Hideyoshi (Taikosama) who, in 1592, undertook a new expedition. For six years the unhappy country of Korea was delivered over to murder and pillage, the Japanese having advanced very far north, and they occupied all the strong positions. At last China rose — she had not then wholly lost her military and warlike spirit — flew to the aid of the Koreans, drove the Japanese southwards, and, in 1598, back to the sea. The relations of Korea and Japan were thus again broken off. They were resumed at intervals up to 1868, when a Japanese Ambassador arrived to inform the regent of the kingdom of Korea (the Tai wen Kun) of the Imperial Kestoration and of the revolution which had just accomplished itself in Japan. The Ambassador was coldly received. In 1872 M. Hanabusa, and in 1874 M. Moreyama, were sent to Séoul to endeavour to renew negotiations, but they were not successful. Where diplomacy and persuasion failed, force, as ever. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 303 succeeded. In effect, a small Japanese warship, the U7iio Kwan, was attacked opposite the large island of Kang noa : the Japanese demanded reparation and addressed themselves to China. The latter, otherwise occupied, and having, further, disavowed the Formosans in 1874 and dis- avowed Korea in 1875, declared that she had nothing to do with their affairs. The Japanese, thus reassured, con- cluded with the King of Korea a treaty which, first and foremost, declared that Korea was an independent country equal to China. The ports of Tchemulpo, Fusan, Gensan were opened to Japanese trade : the capital Séoul received a Japanese Resident and the subjects of the Mikado immediately established themselves in the country, then open to their activity, in considerable numbers. In 1882 the news suddenly arrived in Japan that M. Hanabusa, the Eesident Minister, had been driven out of Séoul, the Japanese Legation attacked, several officials killed, and that the whole colony had taken refuge at Tchemulpo. A new Japanese intervention, but also a new Chinese intervention : the two countries finished by coming to an understanding, and Japan arranged affairs with Korea, signing a commercial treaty that was very advantageous and stipulating that a large indemnity must be paid. From 1884 to ] 894 the Court of Korea was permanently in revolution. The Queen, Tai wen Kun, the King and a certain Kim ok Kiun, a revolutionist and innovator, occu- pied the stage. Kim ok Kiun raised bands of combatants — the Tong hak — who ran over the country, spreading over it fire and blood. China and Japan sent troops ; there was a conflict, and in 1894, in the month of August, Japan declared war on China. China was defeated, recognised the independence of 304 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Korea, and withdrew her troops, leaving the country under the exclusive influence of Japan. But Russia entered the lines and there were Russo-Japanese negotiations which were abortive ; and the war and the Treaty of Ports- mouth are events which I need not recall here. Japan has arrived at the goal it pursued : it is master of Korea. II By a convention concluded in August, 1904, Korea undertook to make reforms in its administration. In 1905, another convention regulated in more effective fashion the Japanese protectorate by establishing the Residency-General and the Residencies of the Provinces. Prince Ito was pronounced Resident-General of Japan in Korea. The Resident-General is directly responsible to the Emperor of Japan in all that concerns foreign affairs. He communicates direct with the Minister for Foreign Affairs and the President of the Council, who submit the reports to the Emperor. The foreign Consulate in Korea receive their autho- risation from the Japanese Government. The Resident- General brings forward the reforms to be executed, the works to be undertaken — in a word, all the threads of the Korean administration are in his hands. Japanese residents are established in all the chief towns of the provinces. in The first thing to be done was to put into order the finances of the country, then on the verge of ruin, or at least in a state of complete chaos. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 305 The diminution of the productions of every kind, the absence of a fixed Budget, the very heavy taxes which were deducted with a stupid and excessive violence, had all impoverished the Korean nation. At the end of a convention concluded in 1907, Japanese officials were assigned to official positions in the Korean adminis- tration, so that they might work in conjunction with the Korean functionaries to bring about a good ad- ministration of the finances. A regular Budget was established for the first time in 1905. It yielded a sum of 7,480,287 yen, and that of 9,556,836 yen for expendi- ture. The last Budget, that of 1909-1910, announced the receipts had reached 21,434,723 against 22,268,255 yen for expenditure. The system of taxation followed for many centuries in Korea is very faulty. In default of any proper basis for the assessment of taxes, the Government found itself in the position of being unable to foresee the total amount anticipated ; and on the other hand the officials individually charged with the recovery of the tax had recourse frequently to the most unjust extortions. They not only allowed themselves to be corrupted, but they levied supplementary taxes of an illegal kind for their own advantage. Under such conditions the population could only become more and more impoverished. It was indispensable, then, that there should be immediate reforms upon this point, that a new system of levying taxes justly should be established, and the finances of the State placed upon a solid foundation. The results yielded from the collection of taxes during the last administration were assigned as follows : — 20 306 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE Yen. Tax on land 5,628,575 „ „ houses 357,884 ,, ,, marine products 7,584 „ „ salt 8,958 „ ,, mines 34,601 Custom-house duties 3,179,888 Duties on tonnage 91,951 Tax on steamers 6,649 ,, ,, slaughter-houses 28,674 ,, ,, money-lenders ... ... ... 503 ,, ,, Ginseng 621 Arrears of taxes in preceding administration 163,166 Other taxes 13,183 Total 9,521,587 The monetary system of Korea has become in every respect similar to the Japanese, and the reform, effected in a convenient way, without suppressing Korean money too violently, has succeeded admirably. In former times and up to recent years there were no banks, properly speaking ; the reform of finance has naturally necessitated the establishment of the financial medium being con- stituted in a regular way. The regulations for the organisation and control of banks were promulgated in 1906, and at this period a Korean bank was installed. At the present time three Korean banks are operating. Kanjo Ginko, Ten itchi Ginko, Kan itchi Ginko, with their headquarters at Séoul and branch establishments at Su Won, Ton Maku, Ma Po, Nam Tai Mun; and banks designed to aid agriculture and industry have been established in various towns : at Séoul, Chung Chu, Kai Jyou, Kong Chu, Kan Gyou, Chung Jyu, Kai Syong, Syang Chu, Shin Chu, Masampo, Yong Pyen, Chinampo, Hai Chu, Poku Chon, Sari Nan, Nam Noa, Choi Chu Do, Pol Kyo Po, Yong Sam Po, Ham Heung, Kyong Song, Hoi Eyong, Chong Jin. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 307 In addition there are three Japanese banks established in Korea : the Dai itchi Ginko, whose " bureau central " is at Tokyo ; the Dai Ju Hachi Ginko at Nagasaki ; and the Dai go ju hachi Ginko at Osaka. IV The Japanese did not wait for a protectorate of their country over Korea before installing themselves in the southern part of the peninsula round Fusan. Ever since the first treaty in 1876, a fairly large Japanese emigration had taken place to this part, so much so that after some years Fusan has a curious resemblance to a Japanese town. At the present time many of the Mikado's subjects have undertaken farming and breeding on a large scale in the provinces of Kyung San and Chulla, and instead of contenting themselves with the little kitchen-gardens which formerly satisfied them, the Japanese colonists set themselves to acquiring vast domains, some quite remote in the interior of the country. In addition to farming and culture, the silk industry is very successful in Korea. The climate there is dry and the rains are not excessive. The only danger is in the shape of the parasitic worms, which are terribly formidable, to the degree of causing considerable loss. (In Japan this loss at times is not less than 15 millions of yen every year). Nevertheless, in spite of these unwelcome beings and the want of skilfulness of the Korean breeders, the cocoon pays well : and it will pay even better, and for a more adequate reason, when the Japanese engaged in silk culture have introduced scientific methods. An associa- 308 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE tion of Korean and Japanese ladies has already established a centre for the rearing at Séoul, and are meeting with great success. The experimental culture of cotton, which was tried in 1905 by several eminent Japanese, many of them members of the Government and representa- tives of the Chamber, has at the end of three years yielded very satisfactory results. Experiments were carried on at Mokpo, Chi Nam Po, Yong Sam Po, Lagu, Konju and Kun San. Two varieties were planted, the native cotton and the American cotton, and the former yielded the best profits. It is reckoned that the super- ficies planted in cotton is 120,000 hectares, and it is believed that when all the land capable of receiving cotton is valued, a yield of 100,000,000 Japanese pounds (Kin =600 grammes) will be secured for Korea. Sup- posing the individual consumption of two pounds per head, the total for 14,000,000 Koreans would be 30,000,000 pounds, leaving a stock of 70,000,000 pounds to export. The mines, with the exception of the alluvial gold- mines in the north of the peninsula, are not yet sys- tematically worked, whilst the fisheries are entirely in the hands of the Japanese. A company was formed in 1908, with the object of exploiting the riches of Korea, with a capital of 10,000,000 yen, divided into 200,000 shares of 60 yen. The Korean Government took 60,000 in return for the concession it made of a certain area of land, and the rest was subscribed by the Japanese. The company was intended to aid the Japanese colonists as well as the Koreans themselves. Its rights are taken out for one hundred years, and renewable with the consent of the Japanese and Korean Governments. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 309 The native industries are entirely primitive, and the decorative industries that formerly flourished have long sunk into complete decline. On the other hand, there are still productions that deserve attention. For instance, paper, leather, hides, tobacco, and rice-beer. The Koreans are very skilful, and their straw matting is excellently manufactured, and everything that is woven is cleverly done in Korea. According to the investiga- tions that have been carried out with the object of finding out what kind of industries would succeed in Korea, it has been generally admitted that there is a great future for the dressing of leathers and hides, the manufacture of paper, straw matting, and iodised chemi- cal products. The matting, notably that of the provinces of Hwanghai and Kyongki, is much appreciated, and they have a well-established reputation. The pasturage of cattle in the north of the peninsula has also been promoted, with the view of creating the industry of preserved beef ; but it is permissible to doubt whether, if this industry were ever installed in Korea, it would offer serious rivalry to the corn/pressed, cooked, corned heef of Chicago. The coasts of Korea furnish perennially an abundant crop of sea-wrack and other sea plants, and there is no doubt that a quantity of iodised products could be extracted from them. With regard to minerals, copper, coal, and plumbago are abundant there. The most considerable deposits of coal are found upon the shores of the River Tadong- Kang (in Chinese Ta Tong Kiang) ; the seams are richly supplied, and have a thickness of from about 310 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 27 feet to 33 feet. The yield possible is estimated at 10,000,000 tons; the quality of the coal is similar to that of Karatsu (Kyûshû). Gold yields an annual production of about 4,000,000 yen ; copper is likewise extracted in considerable quantities. VI For the last five years the trade of Korea has given the following figures : — 1904 Exports. Yen. ... 7,530,715 1905 ... 6,916,571 1906 ... 8,902,387 1907 ... 17,002,234 1908 Imports. ... 14,113,310 1904 ... 26,805,380 1905 ... ... 31,959,582 1906 ... 29,721,579 1907 ... ... 41,436,653 1908 ... 41,025,523 The countries which have the largest commercial relations with Korea are naturally Japan, to a leading extent, then China. Japan in 1908 comes with a total export trade of 10,963,363 yen, and an import trade of 21,040,465 yen. China follows, exporting to the value of 2,247,458 yen, and importing to the value of 4,882,246 yen. The United States and England are next in order with import trade amounting to 5 and 6 millions, the figures representing their exports being the insignificant ones of 5,716 yen for England, and 45,106 yen for the United THE JAPANESE EMPIRE 311 States. Germany realised in trade with Japan about 400,000 yen; France did no trade at all. Korea has everything to gain by remaining under the protectorate of Japan. The method and patience of the Japanese will succeed in organising and developing this State, which up to the present time has remained in a profoundly chaotic condition. It is, moreover, certain that the countries which have been annexed by force of arms to the Empire of the Eising Sun will play their part in its civilisation, and participate in its industrial and commercial progress. The Government and the Japanese people have shown what tenacity in labour and intelligence in organisation can effect. Formosa, Korea, Karafuto, the Chinese Kwang Tong, are in process of development and expansion under the aegis of their conquerors. The Japanese population has already emigrated in consider- able numbers to this country, and thanks to the activity and energy of the new colonists, these lands, which up to now were uncultivated and abandoned, are being drawn into the orbit of the general civilisation. Japan has the capacity to accomplish the task successfully. INDEX Abukuna-gawa, 30 Agriculture, 141 Aîchi, 56 Ainus, 33 Akama-gaseki, 22 Aki, 52 Akita, 58 Amaterasu, 36 Arashy-ama, 55 Area, 19 Army, 127 Arsenals, 202 Asakusa, 54 Asama-yama, 26 Ashizurimi-saki, 22 Atsuta, 237 Awaji, 56 Bamboo, 140, 169 Bandai-san, 25 Banks, 277 Barley, 143 Biwa Lake, 55 Bizen, 52 Boat service, 67 Buddhism, 47 Budget, 41, 269 Bungo, 52 Camphor, 170 Capes, 22 Cattle, 150 Ceramics, 178 Cereals, 142 Character, 36 Chiba, 101 Chikugo, 52 Chikuzen, 52 Chishima, 52 Chokai-san, 23 Chûzenji, 24 Climate, 19, 20 Coal, 217, 252 Colonies, 287 Commerce (see Trade) Conifers {see Trees) 313 314 INDEX Copper, 264 Corn, 141 Cost of living, 81 Cotton, 194, 203 Cruisers {see Navy) Cryptomeria, 164 Currency, 27, 116 Custom House, 59, 64, 68 {see Tariffs) D Daimyos, 36 Daiya-gawa, 24 Duties, Custom, &c., 273 Dye industry, 177 B Echigo, 52 Echizen, 52, 210 Education, 122 Ehime, 101 Electoral law, 42 Embroidery, 176 Emperor, 43 Engineering, 206, 209 Enoshima, 107 Etchû, 52, 57 Exports, 211 F Family life, 83 Festivals, 85 Finance, 267 Fisheries, 155 Pood, 91 Foreign trade, 211, 226 Foreigners, 49 Forests, 162 Formosa, 287 Franco-Japanese Treaty, 49 Fruits, 151 Fuji-kawa, 29 Fuji-San, 25 Fukui, 212 Fukushima, 56 Fukuyama, 57 Funerals, 94 Futahara-yama, 24 G Garrison {see Army) Geography, 18 Geological formation, 250 Gifu, 59 Government, 37 Government factories, 202 Habutai, 211 Hachiman Temples, 106 Hakodate, 23, 109 Hakone, 26, 32, 107 Haku-san, 27 Haricot, 144 INDEX 315 Hida, 51 Higo, 52 Hikone, 59 Hiroshima, 57, 113 Hitachi, 51 Hitaka, 52 Hïzen, 52, 56 Hôei-zan, 26 Hokkaido, 18, 153, 252 Hokuroku-dô, 50 Honjo, 53 Honshu, 18 Horse, 149 Hotels, 75 Hyôgo, 65 Ibaraki, 59 leyasu, 53 Iga, 51 lide, 23 Imperial Diet, 37 Imports, 225 Inabâ, 52 Inari-gawa, 24 Industries, 173, 192 Inner Sea, 72 Insm-ance, 279 Ironclads, 139 Irozaki, 22 Ise, 51 Ishikari, 52 Ishikawa, 57 Islands, 18 Iwaki, 30 Iwaki-san, 23 Iwami, 52 Iwashiro, 52 Iwati, 60 Izu, 51 Izumi, 51 Japan (commercial), 281 Japan (future of), 281 Japan (political), 280 Jinmu Tennô, 34 Justice, Courts of, 40 K Kaga, 212 Kagoshima, 113 Kai, 51 Kamakura, 106 Kami, 47 Kamo-gawa, 110 Kamoimi-saki, 23 Kana-gawa, 57 Karafuto {see Saghalien) Ken, 55 Kii, 52 Kiso-gawa, 29 Kobe, 63, 73 Kochi, 58 Koga, 30 316 INDEX Komango, 24 Konsei-toge, 25 Korea, 302 Kôtsuke, 51 Kumamoto, 58 Kuriles, 18 Kyobashi, 53 Kyoto, 52, 53, 54, 55, 109 Kyùshû, 22, 61 Lacquer, 183 Land, 146 Leather, 199 Living, cost of, 80 Loans, 275 Lotus, 145 M Mail boats, 65 Maize, 144 Malay, 33 Malting, 219 Marine life, 161 Marriage, 84 Matches, 219 Matsushima, 109 Matsutate, 24 Mayebashi, 30, 59 Messageries Maritimes, 231 Metal Industry, 205 Military service, 128 Mines and Mining, 249 Mino, 51 Mito, 52 Miyagi, 58 Miye, 59 Mountains, 21 Mukôjima, 54 Mulberry, 148 Musashi, 52 Mushrooms, 171 Mutsu, 23 Myanoshita, 107 N Nagasaki, 56 Nagato, 52 Nagoya, 56, 109 Navigation Laws, 159, 228 Navy, 138 Negritoes, 33 Nihombashi, 235 Niigata, 56 Nikkô, 108 Nikkô-zan, 23 Nippon, 34 Nosafu-saki, 22 Oats, 142 Ogasawara, 19 INDEX 317 Oigawa, 29 Oita, 60 Oka-yama, 24 Omanago, 24 Osaka, 52, 55, 112 Osami, 52 Otsu, 59 Owari, 51 Paper, 290 Peoples, 33 Pescadores, 18 Petroleum, 255 Pigs, 151 Plumbago, 256 Police, 126 Population, 99 Poronai, 153 Ports, 49 Post-office, 117 Pottery, 178 Preserved foods, 200 Press, 125 Provinces, 51 R Railways, 234 Recruiting, 135 Religion, 46 Rice, 143, 216 Rikuchû, 52 Rikuzen, 52 Riogoku, 93 Rivers, 28 Roads, 235 Routes, 76 Rubruquis, 17 Ryûkyû Islands, 52, 61 Sabres, 182 Sado, 56 Sagami, 51 Saghalien, 19, 299 Sakai, 57 Sait, 161 Sanshôgatake, 26 Sapporô, 23 Satsuma, 28, 52 Sendai, 58 Settsu, 51, 56 Shi, 52 Shiba, 53 Shiga, 59 Shikoku, 22 Shima, 51 Shimane, 58 Shimodzuke, 52 Shimoniseki, 23 Shimosa, 51 Shinano, 29 Shinano-gawa, 56 318 INDEX Shintoism, 46 Shirane, 25 Shire-ko-saki, 22 Shizuoka, 69 Shogun, 35 Silk, 174, 211 Socialism, 264 Soya, 22 Spinning-mills {see Cotton) Steam Navigation Co., 67 Sumida-gawa, 31 Suô, 60 Sutsu-no-umi, 24 Suwa, 29 T Tajima, 52, 56 Takasaki, 52 Tamba, 52 Tango, 52 Tariff, 232 Tateshi-yama, 26 Tateyama, 23 Taxes, 40 Tea, 215 Tea ceremonial, 92 Tea-plant, 148 Temperature, 19 Temples, 105 Tenriu-gawa, 29 Tochigi, 59 Tokachidaké, 22 Tôkaidô, 51 Tokushima, 22 Tokyo, 52, 53, 54, 104 Tone-yawa, 30 Tosa, 52 Totomi, 51 Toyama, 57 Trade, 285 Tramways, 245 Trees, 164 Tsugawa, 23 Tsuruga, 51 U Ugo, 30 Unsengatake, 26 Usen, 52 Utsonomiya, 59 Vegetables, 145 Volcanoes, 27 W Wakamatsu, 206 Waka-yama, 57 Weaving, 175 INDEX 319 Weights and Measures, 115 Whale fishery (see Fishing) Women, 84 Workmen, wages of, 205 Yamagata, 60 Yamaguchi, 60 Yamanashi, 59' Yamashiro, 51 Yatsugatake, 26 Yedo, 53 Yezo, 22 Yokohama, 55, 74 Yokosuka, 55 UNWIN BEOa?HEES, LIMITED, WOKINQ AND LONDON. y AA 001022 453 'im\m\' THE WHITE HOUSE VR*PHAllWtlUiCD,i»t./