UC-NRLF $B 30b ^\ KERL'S ELEMENTAEY ENGLISH GRAMMAR. t>i. m NEW YORK: IVISON, PEINNEY,.BLAKEMAN & CO., CHICAGO: 8.' 0. GRIGGS- A CO. 1864. K& £Z.^-&. /6, /f 22. ft • emtEitv LIBRARY UNIVERSITY Of GU.HOWWA mactTioM imb* // Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/elementarygrammaOOkerlrich AN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. BT SIMON KERL, A.M. TWENTY-FIRST EDITION. JOHN S. PRELL Civil & Mechanical Engineer. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. NEW YORK: IVISON, PHINNEY, BLAKEMAN k CO., CHICAGO : S. C. GRIGGS & CO. 1808. KER J_.'S SERIES OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS. Kerl's Elementary English Grammar.— In the rapidity of its sales, this little treatise, according to its age, has surpassed every similar book ever published in this country. It contains, in a very compact and sys- tematic form, about as much grammar as the majority of children have time to learn in our common public schools. It is, at the same time, so nearly identical with the first part of the large Grammar, as to enable the pupil to begin that book at Part Second, or even on p. 122. Pages, 164; well printed and bound. Kerl's Comprehensive English Grammar.— This book is designed to be a thorough Practical Grammar, for the use of Common Schools. Nearly all that it contains beyond what the generality of Grammars have, will be new and useful. To its sections on Verbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Parsing, Analysis, Versification, Punctuation, Capital Letters, Rhe- torical Figures, and False Syntax, particular attention is directed ; and also to the arrangement of matter and to the copious Illustrations and Exercises. 375 pp., 12mo. Kerl's Common-Seliool Grammar. — This book is of an inter- mediate grade between the two foregoing ones ; and it contains, besides, the most important historical elements of the English language. It is, however, so elementary, and yet so comprehensive, that it does not require either of the other books. Great care has been taken to make it, in matter, method, arrangement, and typography, as good as it can be made. About 300 pages. Nearly Kerl's Treatise on the English Langiiagc. — This book is designed for High-Schools, Colleges, and Private Students. Large 8vo. In preparation. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S62, By Simon Kerl, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court lor the District of Columbia. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, By SIMON KERL, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. Electroyped by Smith & MoDougal, 82 & 84 Beckman-street. Add to Lib* dTTTT JOHM S. PRELL no Civil & Mechanical Engineer, /V3? SA1 ¥$WWx CM - /ft* Tins little book is designed for beginners, far Public Schools, and as an intro« « / duction to the Comprehensive Grammar. IjM It is the result of much labor and care, and of considerable experience in teaching. In proportiou to its size, it contains more grammar, with all the neces- sary illustrations and exercises, than any similar book with which the author is acquainted. It affords the pupil ample facilities for mastering all the parts of speech for analyzing plain sentences, and for correcting the common errors of language. ' The arrangement of matter is unusually simple, progressive, and logical Ac- cording to the present system of teaching the English language, the main object of an English grammar should be, to show the construction of the language, and to correct the popular errors, which, from ignorance or carelessness, natural^ grow out of this construction. Hence I have first presented the etymological properties, attended below by a set of exercises running parallel with the text; then the syntactical properties, with exercises; then the etymological and syn- tactical properties combined, first, in the whole circuit of right construction, called Parsing, and, secondly, in the whole circuit of misconstruction, called False Syn- tax ; then the construction of language on that grander scale which is called Analysis; and, lastly, under the head of Prosody, whatever is needed, as finish and ornament, to complete the subject. I have endeavored to make the study of grammar as interesting and practical as it can possibly bo made; to simplify and abridge definitions and classifica- tions ; to simplify Parsing and Analysis, by removing all superfluous machinery, and making them more of a self-evident and common-sense affair; to follow everywhere the natural order of things, except where the pupil's limited ability requires variation; and to introduce difficult subjects by familiar and striking explanations, without requiring the pupil to learn a series of questions and answers from which he can but guess the principles. The catechetic system has been adopted to some extent, because it seems to be the best for beginners ; but care has been taken not to abuse it. The arrange- ment of qiteslion, answer, and illustrations, is simple and direct. The labor of the pupil, too, can be thus often lightened, by throwing the less important matter into the question, and burdening his mind with not more than the chief idea. "Where definitions seem rather long, it will generally be found that they are enumerative, or consist of contrasted parts, and are therefore more easily learned. We should show to children not merely the essence in an apothecary's bottle, but take them to the bush on which the roses grow. The examples to illustrate the text are therefore numerous and prominent, and the parts referred to are mado obvious by means of Italics and small capitals. This mode of presenting the sub- ject is not unlike the approved method of teaching by " object lessons." Since difficult words could not always be well avoided, most of them have been explained on the lower margins of the pages. To understand fully what we are to learn, is the first great requisite in studying ; pupils can not, therefore, acquire too soon the habit of referring to a good dictionary for the meaning of every word which they do not understand. Sometimes words are explained a little before the pago to which they belong, and sometimes the exercises are a little beyond the page to which they belong ; but all the related parts have been arranged as nearly together as typography would allow. This little book is made so nearly identical with Part First of the Comprehen- sive Grammar, that, when the pupil has learned the Elementary Grammar, he may begin the Comprehensive at Part Second, and use Part First as a review of the smaller treatise. 206 SYNOPSIS. 1. Introductory View, or an Outline. — Letters, syllables, words, subjects, predicates, phrases, propositions, clauses, sen* tences. 2. Nouns and Pronouns. — Classes : ?iouns, proper and common ; pronouns, — personal, relative, and interrogative. Properties : genders, — masculine, feminine, common, and neuter; persons, — first, second, and third ; numbers, — singular and plu- ral ; cases, — nominative, possessive, and objective. Declension. Exercises. 3. Articles. — Kinds ; definite and indefinite. How a and an should be used. Exercises. 4. Adjectives. — Classes: descriptive, and definitive with sub-classes. Degrees of comparison / positive, comparative, and superlative. List of adjectives that are not regularly com- pared. Exercises. 5. Verbs. — Classes: verbs finite, participles, and infinitives ; regular verbs, irregular verbs, list of irregular verbs ; transitive and intransitive. Properties : voices, — active and passive ; moods, — indicative, subjunctive, potential, imperative, infinitive ; tenses, — present, past, liiture, perfect, pluperfect, future-perfect, with forms — common, emphatic, progressive, and passive; persons and numbers. Participles and infinitives. Auxiliary verbs. Formation of the tenses. Conjugation. Exercises. 6. Adverbs. — Their chief characteristics. Large list, care- fully classified. Exercises. 7. Prepositions. — Their chief characteristics. Adjuncts. List of prepositions. Exercises. §. Conjunctions.— '■Classes ; coordinate, subordinate, cor- responding. List of conjunctions, classified according to their meanings. Exercises. 9. Interjections. — List, classified according to the emotions. 10. Rules off Syntax. — The relations of words to one an- other, in the structure of sentences. Exercises under eaeli Rule. 11. Parsing. — Formulas, models, and examples. 1 2. False Syntax. — Examples to be corrected, under the Rules and other principles of grammar. 13. Analysis off Sentences. — Principles, with exercises. Formulas. Sentences analyzed. Thought and its expression. The six elements. Exercises. Gray's Elegy. 14. Prosody. — Punctuation, figures, and versification. ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. .♦►*-•- I. INTRODUCTORY VIEW. "What is language t Language is the medium by which we express oar thoughts. Of what does language consist ? Of a great variety of sounds, which are used as the signs of our ideas, and are called words. To what may all these sounds be reduced ? To a small number of simple sounds, which are made intelligible to the eye, as well as to the ear, by means of certain marks called letters. Language thus becomes both spoken and written. What is a letter f A letter is a character that denotes one or more of the elementary sounds of language. Examples : A, b, c ; age, at, art, all ; bubble ; cent, cart. 53^° Always read the examples carefully, reflecting upon each, so that you may learn clearly and fully what is meant by the definition. Oram mar is the science which teaches us to speak and write correctly. English Grammar teaches how to speak and write the English language correctly. Grammar may be divided into five parts ; Pronunciation, Orthog'- raphy, Etymology, Syn'tax, and Pros' ody. (Spelling, pronunciation, and derivation, should be learned chiefly from spelling-books.) Words Explained*— Grammar is derived from the Greek word gramma, a letter, aud thence writing ; because the need of a knowledge of language isgreatest, or most felt, when we undertake to write it, and hence language became an object of study chiefly with a view to writing it. A sci'ence is a branch of knowledge put together in some proper order. M-e-mentf-a-ry, simple, what we begin with ; con- taming what is most important. IrUroducftory, leading in. Lanfguage, from the Latin lingua, tongue ; because the tongue is thechief organ of speech. Mef-dl-um ; that through which a thing passes, or by which it is conveyed. Ide'a ; the picture or notion of a thing, in the mind. Intel' lig idle, such that it can be understood. Character, a mark or sign. Emm'ple, what shows or proves, a pattern. Re- fecting, thinking back upon. Definition ; a short description of a thing, to dis- tinguish it from different things, by telling what it is. 2 INTRODUCTORY VIEW. flow many elementary sounds has our language, and how many letters to represent them ? About forty elementary sounds, and twenty-six let- ters to represent them. Into what two classes are the letters divided ? Into vowels and consonants. "What is a vowel ? and what is a consonant t A vowel is a letter that denotes pure sound only ; a consonant is a letter that generally denotes a contact of some of the organs of speech. "Which are the vowels ? A, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. Wor y is a consonant, only when it is followed by a vowel sound in the same syllable j as in water, young, away, Bunyan. What is a syllable? A syllabic is a letter, or two or more combined, pronounced as one unbroken sound. Ex. — A, I, on, no, not, stretched, barb'dst, a-e-ri-al, pro-fu-sion. What is a word ? A word is a syllable, or two or more combined, used as the sign of some idea. Ex. — Man, tree, sky, pink, beauty, strikes, well, fair, alas, because. How are words classified accordiug to their syllables ? Into monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables. Exercises. Tell which of the following letters are vowels, and which are consonants : — A, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z; bar, bed, kind, fond, turn, Baltimore. JW*ords Explained, — Hep-resent' ', to stand in the place of, to show. Class f things put together because alike, or because alike in certain respects. Con'- so-nant, sounding with, sounded with a vowel ; a consonant can be sounded only with a vowel. Organs of speech; the glottis, palate, tongue, teeth, and lips. Combined', put together. Con'tact, a touching, junction Clas'sijied, put into classes. Monos, alone, one ; dis, double ; tri, three ; polys, many. Pronunciation treats of sounds ; Orthography, of letters ; Ely- onology, of words; Syntax, of sentences; and Prosody, of the finish and ornaments of sentences. INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 3 Define these classes. A monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; a dis- syllable, of two ; a trisyllable, of three ; and a poly- syllable, of four or more. Ex. — I, song ; baker ; ornament ; customary, incomprehensibility. How are words classified according to their formation ? Into primitive, derivative, and compound. Define these classes. A primitive word is not formed from another word ; a derivative word is formed from another word ; and a compound word is composed of two or more other words. Ex. — Primitive: Breeze, build. Derivative : Breezy, builder, re- build. Compound: Sea-breeze, newspaper. How are words divided according to their meaning? Into nine classes, called Parts or Speech. Name them. Nouns, Pronouns, Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, Ad- verbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. Familiar Explanation. — I might present to your mind, by words alone, all that I have ever seen or experienced. To do this, I should have to use nouns and pronouns, to denote objects ; articles, to aid the nouns ; adjectives, to express the Exercises. Tell which are monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, polysyllables, and why : — Pink, lily, daffodil, ordinary, gold, silver, golden, silvery, book, grammar, grammatical, grammatically, arithmetic, behavior, punish- ment, home, mother, relative, relatives, unassisted. Whether primitive, derivative, or compound, and why : — Play, playing, play-day, snow, snowy, ball, balls, snowball, snow- balls, noble, nobly, noble-minded, plant, transplant, planter, planta- tion, tea-plant, water-melon, he, hero, heroic, nothing, nevertheless. VTords Explained,— Prim'-i-tive, first, simple. Pe-riv'-a-4ive,draY,n from. Com'pou/id, made up of others. Denote', to stand as the sign of. Ot/ject, any thing that can be thought of as being something. Express', make known. Exercise, a drilling to give us a better or practical knowledge of something. Pronunciation treats of the sounds of letters and syllables, and of accent. The word is derived from the Latin words pro, forth, and nuncius, a messenger ; uttering forth aloud. Orthography treats of the forms of letters, and of spelling. From the Greek orthos, correct, and graphe, writing; correct writing or spelling. 4 INTRODUCTORY VIEW. qualities, conditions, or circumstances of objects ; verbs, to express their actions, or states of existence ; adverbs, to describe their actions, or to show the nature or degree of their qualities ; prepositions, to express their positions or relations to one another; conjunctions, to continue the diseourse, or to connect its parts; and interjections, to give vent to any feeling or emotion springing up suddenly within me. Ex. — 2To uns : In spring, the sun shines pleasantly upon the earth, leaves and flowers come forth, and birds sing in the woods. n -r, . , . , -, the roses adorn tho window. Pronouns: Eoses encircle my window, and ^ adorn it Articles : The church stands on a hill. Adjectives: Ripe strawberries are good. That man owns two farms. Verbs : Rivers flow, stars shine, men work, and boys study and play. Adverbs : Below us, a most beautiful river flowed very smoothly. Pr epositions : There are cedars on the hill beyond the river. Conjunctions : John and James are happy, because they are good. Interjection: All seek for happiness; but, alas 1 bow few obtain it. Suggestion to the Teacher. — Take a walk with your class, during some leis- mre interval, and teach them the parts of speech, from the surrounding scenery. Of what, at least, must every thought or saying consist ? Of a Subject and a Predicate. What is meant by the subject t The subject denotes that of which something is affirmed. Ex. — The cannons were fired. The leaves and flowers in the garden have been killed by the frost. What is meant by the predicate ? The pa-edncate denotes what is affirmed. Ex. — The cannons were fired. The leaves and flowers in the garden have been killed by the frost. Exercises. Tell which is the subject, and which is the predicate, and why : — Birds sing. Flowers bloom. Cats catch mice. The dew re- freshes the flowers. The stars gem the sky. The Indians' tents Jf^Ofds Explained* — Subject^ from 8ubjectu8, thrown under, because viewed as being the foundation on which the proposition or sentence is based. Predicate, from prcedico, I speak or say. To affirm, in grammar, means to assert positively or negatively, to ask, or to command. Etymology treats of the true roots and meanings of words, and of the true or right forms of words to be put into sentences accord- ing to Syntax. From the Greek etymos, true, and logos, a word or discourse ; the right words or forms. INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 5 How are subjects and predicates classified ? Into simple and compound. Define simple subjects and compound subjects. A simple subject has but one nominative to which the predicate refers; a compound subject has more than one. Ex. — Simple : " TJie boy learns; 1 ' u The boy who is studious, learns." Co mp ound: " The boy and his sister learn ;" " The boys and girls who are studious, learn." Define simple predicates and compound predicates. A simple predicate has but one finite verb referring to the subject; a compound predicate has more than one. Ex. — Simple: "Boys study;" "Boys study the lessons which are given to them" Compound: "Boys study, recite, and play;' 1 * u Boys study and recite the Itssons which are given to them." "What is a phrase f A phrase is two or more words rightly put to- gether, but not making a proposition. Ex. — In the next place. Biding on horseback. To gather roses while they bloom. Exercises, stood along the river. John caught a fish. The fish was caught by John. William studies his lesson. A guilty conscience needs no accuser. The grass is growing. The bird has been singing. In a few years, these tribes will have disappeared. The subject and Die predicate, and why ; wlieiher simple or compound, and why : — The stars twinkle. The sun and moon shine. The sun rises and sets. Emma was gathering roses. Trees and flowers grow, flourish, and decay. The troubled ocean roars. Honeysuckles and roses overspread our portico. Laura brought a fresh rose, and gave it to me. A dark cloud hides the sun. The sun is hidden by a dark cloud. You and he may go and recite. The soldiers* horses were in the pasture. The cannons which the soldiers brought, were captured in the battle. Do well, but boast not. (Supply tliou.) ■Pf^ord* Explained.— Norn? inative, naming, chief word in meaning. Refers, hangs to in sense. Fi'nite, not free, drawn to some particular thing ; * finite verb has a particular form (called its person and number), which confines it to a par- ticular kind of subject. Phrase, from a Greek word that signifies to speak or say. Syntax treats of the relations and arrangement of words b the formation of sentences. From the Greek st/n, together, and taxis, a placing ; placing together. 6 IXTRODUCTOKY VIEW. What is a proposition t A proposition is a subject combined with its predicate. Ex. — Stars shine. And if J my hopes must perish. A proposition is an expression viewed as having a subject and a predicate ; a clause is a proposition viewed as making but a part of a sentence. What is a clause t A clause is any one of two or more propositions which together make a sentence. Ex. — The morning was pure and sunny, the fields were wliite with daisies, the hawthorn was covered with its fragrant blossoms, the bee hummed about every bank, and the swallow played high in air about the village steeple. — Irving. Thi3 sentence has five clauses, separated by the comma. What is a sentence ? A sentence is a thought expressed by words, and comprised between two full pauses. Ex. — Every man is the architect of his own fortune. Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? A sentence is simple, when it consists of but one simple proposition ; it is tompound or complex, when it can be resolved into two or more propositions. Exercises. WJiether a phrase or a sentence, and why : — Far away. The dark storm approaches. John's slate. Many small pieces. John's slate is broken into many small pieces. The rising sun. The snn is rising. A large red apple. Give me a large red apple. To write a letter. 1 wish to write a letter. Whether a simple sentence or a compound, and why ; and if compound, mention the clauses : — Hope gilds the future. True praise takes root and spreads. The rain is pouring down heavily, and the river is rapidly rising. The sun illuminates the distant hills. Billows are murmuring on the hollow shore. Gold can not purchase life, nor can diamonds biing back the moments we have lost. God has robed the world with beauty. From flower and shrub arose a sweet perfume. Prosper- ity produces wealth ; and wealth, corruption. VW*ord$ Explained.— Proposition, from the Latin fro, before, and positio, placing* something placed before a person's mind to be thought upon. Clause, something that fills up or closes the sense. Sentence is derived from the Latin word senten'tia, a thought or an opinion. Com'plex, knit together, tangled; con- sisting of parts closely connected. Prosody treats of punctuation, figures, and versification. From the Greek pros, to, and ode, tone added ; and thence, whatever is added to unadorned language to make it clearer or more expressive. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 7 3. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. "What is a noun ? A »o qui is a name. Ex.~God, Mary, man, George Washington, sky, sun, city, St. Louis, street, flower, soul, feeling, sense, motion, behavior. Names are given to persons, to spiritual beings, to brute animals, and to things. The word objects may be used as a general term for all these classes. There are two kinds of nouns ; proper and common. What is a proper noun ? A proper noun is the name given to a particular object, to distinguish it from other objects of the same kind. Ex. — George, Susan, William Shakespeare, Now York, Mississippi, Monday, January; the Robert Fulton; the Intelligencer ; the Azores. What is a common noun ? A coBUBiion noun is a name that can be applied to every object of the same kind. Ex. — Boy, tree, house, city, river, horse, chair, ink, bird, blackbird. All the objects in the world may be divided into a limited number of classes; as, rivers, valleys, hills, cities, leaves, flowers. A few of these classes — namely, Exercises. Thfi nouns, and why : — A house of marble. There are lions and ostriches in Africa. John and Joseph drove the horses to the pasture. There are roses, pinks, lilies, and tulips in our garden. The groves were God's first temples. Love and kindness go together. Col. Thomas H. Benton died in the year 1858. There was much Indian fighting in the settling of this country. I like apples. I like to skate. A home on the rolling deep. Learn the how and the why. You is a pronoun. Why he did not go, is obvious. (What is obvious?) I know that you are wrong. (I know what ?) The pear and quince lay squandered on the grass ; The mould was purple with unheeded showers Of bloomy plums ; — a wilderness it was Of fruits, and weeds, and flowers ! — Hood, JV*ords Explained. — Spiritual beings, such as God and angels. Brute animals, all the animals of the earth except man. General term, a word that denotes different things. Prop'er noun, a name that belongs toa person or thing just as private property belongs to its owner. Common, belonging to every one, found everywhere. Applied, given to. Distinguish, to set off so that we may know from others. Limited, within reach or command. 8 NOUNS A.ND TKONOUNS. persons, places, months, days, ships, boats, horses, oxen, rivers, mountains, and some others — are of so much importance to us in our daily affairs, that wo havo an extra name for each object of the class ; as, Thomas, Smith, Chicago, Mis- souri. The names of the former kind are common nouns ; those of the latter, proper nouns. The common noun rather tells what the object is ; and the proper noun, who or which it is. A proper noun begins with a capital letter. What is a collective noun ? A collective noun is a common noun that always denotes, in the singular form, more than one object of the same kind. Ex. — Family, army, swarm, multitude, congregation, class. Sub'stantive is often used as a general term to denote either a noun or a pro- noun, or whatever is used in the sense of a noun. What is a pronoun? A pronoun is a word that supplies the place of a noun. Ex. — "William promised Mary that William would lend Mary William's grammar, that Mary might study the grammar," is expressed more agreeably by saying, " William promised Mary that he would lend her his grammar, that slie might study it" Pronouns enable us to avoid disagreeable repetitions of nouns. What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? The antecedent of a pronoun is the word or expres* sion which it represents. William, Mary, and grammar, above, are the antecedents of he, she, and it. Exercises. The nouns, and why ; whether proper or common, and why : — Girl, Susan, boy, George, country, day, Europe, Saturday, month, September, holiday, Christmas, bird, blackbird, parrot, Polly, river, Mississippi, mountains, Andes, island, Cuba, chain, Jane, Louis, Louisa, Louisiana, state, city, New York, year, 1860, soil, mind, hope, army; Mrs. Amelia Welby ; the prophet Jonah; Cape Lookout. Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, enabled Columbus, a Genoese, to discover America. The clamor of most politicians is but an effort to get the ins out and the outs in. JW*ords Explained,*— CoUec'tive, gathering together or into one. Sub'- stantive, from sub, under, and stans, standing ; standing under, upholding qual- ities : this* word is applied to nouns and pronouns, because objects, denoted by them, have a sort of independent existence; while qualities and actions are in a manner dependent on objects. Pro means for, or in stead of; hence pronoun means for a noun. Antece'dent, from ante, before, and cedens, going ; going before : the antecedent of a pronoun generally precedes it. NOUNS AND rKONOUNS. 9 There are three chief classes of pronouns; personal, relative, and interrogative. What is a personal pronoun ? A personal pronoun is one of that class of pro- nouns which are used to distinguish the three gram- matical persons. Ex.— I told you he was not at home. We told him who you are. Persons, in grammar, are properties of words to distinguish the speaker, what is spoken to, and what is spoken of, from one another. Which are the chief or leading personal pronouns ? /, thou or you, he, she, and it. What is a relative pronoun ? A relative pronoun is one whose clause generally relates to and describes a preceding word, and is always a dependent part of the sentence. Ex. — "There is the man whom you saw;" "From the side of a mountain gushed forth a little rivulet, which lay, like a silver thread, across the meadow ;" "I do not know who took your hat;" " No one knows what ails the child." Observe that the Italic words with what follows each, can make sense only in connection with the other words, and hence the relative clauses are said to be dependent. Which are the chief or leading relative pronouns ? Who, which, what, that, aftd as. Relative pronouns may be divided into common and responsive. "Who came?" " I do not know who came." (Responsive relative.) "I dc not know the man who came." (Common relative.) Observe that the second sentence dif- fers, in meaning, from the third. Who came, of the second sentence, is the pre- ceding question made responsive; but since the clause is dependent, and not interrogative, its pronoun may be classed with relatives rather than with inter- rogatives. Exercises. Mention the pronouns and their antecedents ; also put nouns for the pronouns ;— The tree has shed its leaves. Liberty has God on her side. Let every man take care of himself. John, you, and I, must learn our lessons. John and James know their lessons. Neither John nor James knows his lesson. Henry, you must study. And there her brood the partridge led. f Words Explained.— Rel'ative, referring. Dependent, hanging to something else for support— in grammar, for complete sense. Respon'noe, an- swering. Grammatical, belonging to grammar, or right according to grammar. 10 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. What is an interrogative pronoun ? An interrogative pronoun is one used to ask a question. Ex. — Who took my hat ? Which is yours ? WMt ails the child ? Which are the chief or leading interrogative pronouns ? Who, which, and what. What other words are frequently used as pronouns ? One, ones, oneself, none ; other, others : that, those; each other, one another. Ex. — " Take this horse, and leave the other one ;" i. e., other horse. " The course of life is short; that [the course] of glory, eternal." " They deemed each other oracles of law." — Pope. What is a compound pronoun ? A compound pronoun is a simple pronoun with self, selves, ever, so, or soever annexed to it ; or it is a pronoun consisting of two words. Ex. — My, myself; them, themselves; who, whoever; each other. What properties have nouns and pronouns ? Genders, persons, numbers, and eases. Just as every apple, for instance, must have size, color, flavor, etc. Exercises, Put nouns for tlie pronouns : — John knows his lesson. Mary has lost her bonnet. He met her. I saw him and you. He showed them the lesson, that they might learn it. The girl went with her father, and the boy went with his mother, and they were good children. Who knows who he is ? ( What person * * * that man, etc.) Bad boys spoil good ones. Take what you like. The pronouns, and why ; what kind, and why : — He saw me. We love them. She deceived herself. Know thyself. When a dandy has squandered his estate, he is not apt to regain it. The lady who had been sick, received the peaches which were ripe. This is the same marble that you gave me, and it is the best one that I have. Who came ? Who is he ? Which is he \ What is he ? We bought only such mules as we needed. ( — those mules which — ) Love what is worthy of love. ( — the thing which — ) This apple is neither yours nor mine, but hers. ( — your W*ords Explained.— Interrogative, asking. Annexed', joined to the end. D'ef'-i-nite, particular, exact. Prop'erty, what belongs to a thing, or is a part of its nature. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. H a. The pupil should constantly bear in mind, that language is mado to suit the world, and not the world to suit language. The properties of words ariso generally from the nature or relations of objects. We can readily observe that the objects around us are either males, females, or neither ; and to enable us to be sufficiently definite in these respects, words have what grammarians call genders. "What, then, is gender 1 CJendcr is the meaning of a word in regard to sex. There are four genders ; the mas'culine, the fern'- inine, the common, and the neuter. What does the masculine gender denote ? The fiiiasc uli ne gender denotes males. Ex. — Man, Charles, brother, horse, ox, drake, instructor, he, his, him. What does the feminine gender denote ? The ieaninifiic gender denotes females. Ex. — Woman, Susan, niece, cow, duck, instructress, she, her. What does the common gender denote ? The common gender denotes either males or fe- males, or both. Ex. — Parent, child, cousin, people, animal, I, we, thou, your, who. Sometimes the sex may be ascertained more definitely from some other word in the sentence, and then the words should be parsed accordingly; as, "The child and his mother were in good health." Here child is masculine, as shown by his. Exercises. apple nor my apple, but her apple.) By others' faults, wise men correct their own. (By other men's faults, etc.) None are com- pletely happy. (No persons are, etc.) He loves no other land so much as that of his adoption. ( — as the land — ) Whatever comes from the heart, goes to the heart. Do you know who he is ? Teach me what truth is. The personal pronouns : /, my, mine, myself, me ; ice, our, ours, (ourself) ourselves, us ; — thou, thy, thine, thyself, thee ; you, ye, your, yours, yourself, yourselves ; — he, his, him, himself ; she, her, hers, herself ; it, its, itself; they, their, theirs, them, and themselves. The relative pronouns : Who, whoever, whosoever ; tvhose, whomever, whosesoever ; v)hom, whomever, whomsoever ; which, which- ever, -whichsoever; what, whatever, whatsoever ; that; and a.?. Whoso and whatso are sometimes found as shortened forms of whosoever and whatsoever. fiords Explained*— Grammarians, persons that make grammar their business, or understand it well. Gender is a property of words, but se.c is a prop- erty of objects ; hence there can be but two sexes, yet there may be four geuders. Common, as applied to gender, means applicable to either sex ; neuter, to neither eex. Applicable, may be given to. 12 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. "What does the neuter gender denote ? The neuter gender denotes neither males nor fe- males. Ex. — Book, rock, rose, wisdom, cloud, happiness, it, what, flocks. A collective noun that denotes a group of persons or other beings as one thing, is neuter ; as, " The army was checked in its desolating career." How is a word naturally neuter, sometimes regarded by personification t As masculine, if the object is noted for size, power, or domineering qualities; as feminine, if the object is noted for beauty, amiability, productiveness, or sub- missive qualities. Ex. — Now War aloft his bloody standard bears. The sun seemed shorn of his beams. The ship, with her snowy sails and flaunting banner. In what three different ways do we commonly distinguish the sexes ? By the use of different words, by difference of end- ing, or by prefixing a distinguishing word. Ex. — Boy, girl ; actor, actress ; 7*e-bear, she -bear. What are the most common endings that denote females. Ess, ix, ine, and a. Ex. — Lion, lioness ; administrator, administratrix ; hero, heroine ; Cornelius, Cornelia. Exercises. TJie gender, and why : — Brother, seamstress, Julius, Julia, parent, father, mother, son, daughter, child, duck, gander, robin, snow, book, mouse, he, him, hymn, she, hers, it, they, we, I, eye, you, it, its, himself, herself, themselves, nations, party, clergy, game, person, corpse, spirit, who, which, what ; lady's hand ; lady's-slipper. Hope enchanting smiled, and waved her golden hair. John is a noun, and she is a pronoun. Give the feminine to each masculine term, then the masculine to each feminine term : — Boy, girl • brother, sister ; beau, belle ; bridegroom, bride ; buck, doe ; hart, roe ; stag, hind ; bull, cow; bullock or steer, heifer ; drake, duck ; father, mother ; friar or monk, nun * gander, goose ; gentleman, lady (formerly, gentlewoman) ; lord, lady ; landlord, landlady/ horse, mare; husband, wife; king, queen; lad, lass; male, female; madwoman; master, mistress; master, miss; nephew, W*ords Explained, — Personification is a lively mode of speaking, in which objects that are not persons, are spoken of as if they were persons, or as males or females ; as, " All /Switzerland is in the field ; she will not fly, she can not yield." Domineering, ruling, tyrannical. Submissive, yielding, obedient. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 13 b. In speaking, we may refer either to ourselves, to something spoken to, or to something spoken of, and there are no other ways of speaking ; hence words have what grammarians call persons. "What, then, is person 1 Person, in grammar, is that property of words which shows whether the speaker is meant, what is spoken to, or what is spoken of. There are three persons ; the first, the second, and the third. What does the Jirsi person denote 1 The first person denotes the speaker. Ex. — I Andrew Jackson, President of the United States. 1 Paul have writ- ten it. We, the people of these colonies. What does the second person denote ? The second person represents an object as spoken to. Ex. — Thomas, come to me. Gentlemen of the jury. Happiness I our being's end and aim. Thou, thou, art the man. What does the third person denote ? The third person represents an object as spoken of. Ex. — The stars shone out brilliantly from their blue depths. He knew it was what she wanted him to buy. I am a friend to you. Exercises. niece ; ram or buck, ewe ; sir, madam y uncle, aunt y wizard, witch ; youth, damsel or maiden ; bachelor, maid y Charles, Caroline. Abbot, abbess ; actor, actress y ar'biter, ar'bitress y bar'on, bar' on- ess ; benefac'tor, benefac' tress ; count or earl, countess y duke, duch'' ess/ emperor, empress; enchant'er, enchant' ress ; gov'ernor, gov'- erness; heir, heiress; host, hostess y hunter, huntress; instructor, instructress ; Jew, Jewess ; lion, lioness ; marquis, marchioness y negro, negress ; patron, patroness ; peer, peeress ; poet, poetess ; priest, priestess ; prince, princess y prior, pri'oress ; prophet, prophet- ess y protector, protectress y shep'herd, shep'herdess y sor'cerer, sor'- ceress y tiger, tigress y tutor, tutoress y vis'count, vis' countess y widower, widow y administrator, administratrix y exec'utor, execu- trix y testa'tor, testatrix y he'ro, her' dine y Joseph, Jo'sephine y don, donna, y sign'or, signo'ra y sultan, sultana or sul'taness y tzar, tzari'- na y Augustas, Augusta. tfords Explained.— Person, from the Latin persofna, a mask ; bor- rowed from stage- playing, in which different masks, or styles of dress, enabla th« Baine person to represent different persons or characters. 14 NOUNS AND PRONOUJTS. C. There are more than one of almost every kind of objects ; and in speak- ing we are continually referring either to one object or to more, of the different kinds with which we have to do ; hence wcrds have what grammarians call numbers. What, then, is number t Number, in grammar, is that property of words which shows whether one object is meant, or more than one. There are two numbers ; the singular and the plural. What does the singular number denote ? The singular number denotes but one. Ex. — Desk, leaf, boy, Arthur, swarm, I, thou, yourself, he, she, itself. What does the plural number denote ? The p Sural number denotes more than one. Ex. — Desks, leaves, boys, swarms, we, our, ye, they, them, themselves. How ia the plural number of nouns generally formed ? By adding s to the singular. Ex. — Glove, gloves ; chair, chairs ; chimney, chimneys ; nation, nations. Exercises. He-goat, she-goat; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; cock-sparrow, ken- sparrow ; man-servant, maid-servant / male descendants, female descendants / Mr. Reynolds, Mrs. Reynolds, Miss Reynolds. The person, and why : — I, you, he, we, my, myself, us, thee, yourselves, mine, thine, thy- self, himself, themselves, it, she, hers, others ; a drooping willow ; my dictionary ; your grammar. I am the captain, sir. We pas- sengers have poor fare. Then said I to him, " Well, my little friend, how fare the schoolboys ?" My mother ! when I learned that thou wast dead, Say, wast thou conscious of the tears I shed ? Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son, Wretch even then, life's journey just begun ? I heard the bell tolled on thy funeral day, . I saw the hearse that bore thee slow away, And, turning from my nursery window, drew A long, long sigh, and wept a last adieu ! — Cowper. dhange into the other persons : — John writes. The girls study. Henry, you may play. I William Ringbolt hold myself responsible. Shall Hannibal com- pare himself with this half-year captain ? The number, and why : — Book, books, rose, roses, partridge, partridges, geese. f amily, fam. ilies, scissors, ashes, letters, love, swarm, hay, honey, molasses, I, we, NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 15 To what nouns must es be added, to make them plural ? To nouns ending with s, as, z, sh, or soft cli j and also to nouns ending with i, 0, % or y, preceded each by a consonant. Ex. — Glass, glasses ; fox, foxes ; to'paz, to'pazes ; bush, bushes ; church, churches; al'kali, al'kalles ; negro, negroes; gnu, gnues ; story, stories. (Fia changed to i. See page 153.) Proper nouns, foreign nouns, and unusual nouns, to prevent the liability of mistaking them, are changed as little as possible, and hence often assume s only; as, Leary, the Learys ; Peri, Peris ; canto, cantos ; " several fos" [or to's]. Owing to their foreign tinge, we still find, in good use, cantos, duodecimos, frescos, grot- tos, halos, juntos, mementos, octavos, pianos, porticos, quartos, salvos, solos, tyros, zeros, in stead of cantoes from canto, grottoes from grotto, etc., winch are also coming into use. How is the plural of compound words generally expressed ? By making plural that part of the word which is described by the rest. Ex. — Mouse-trap, mouse-traps ; spoonful, spoonfuls] brother-in-law, brothers- in-law ; commander-in-chief, commanders-in-chief. "When the title Mr., Miss, or Dr., is used with a name, how is the whole term made plural ? By making plural the title only. Mr. Harper, Messrs. Harper ; Miss Brown, the Misses Brown ; Dr. Lee, Drs. Lee. When the title is Mrs., or when the word two, three, etc., stands before the title, the latter noun is made plural. " The Mrs. Barlows.' 1 — Irving. " The two Miss ScoUs had been gathering flowers." — Irving. Exercises. yon, thou, him, themselves, they, his, several, one, ones, none, ono another, our, ours, my, a, an, each man, either man, every man, neither road, two, a two, two twos, a twin, twins, a pair, two pair. Spell the plurals of the singulars, then the singulars of the plurals : — Man, mew; woman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen; foot, feet ; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice; louse, lice; cow, cows or kine ; this, these ; that, those ; I, we ; thou, ye; he, they. Brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same so- ciety) ; die, dies (stamps for coining), dice (small cubes for gaming) ; fish, fishes (individuals), fish (quantity, or the species) ; genius, ge- niuses (men of genius), genii (spirits) ; in'dex, in'dexes (tables of ref- erence), in' dices (algebraic signs) ; penny, pennies (pieces of money), pence (how much in value) ; staff, staves (sticks — better, staffs), staff*, officers ; flagstaff, flagstaff's ; distaff, distaffs. Beef, beeves ; calf, calves ; elf, elves ; half, halves ; knife, knives; leaf, leaves; life, lives; loaf, loaves; self, selves; sheaf, sheaves; shelf, shelves; thief, thieves; wife, wives; wolf, wolves; wharf, wharfs or wharves. Other words ending withy or fe, assume merely i : Fife, fifes ; skiff, skiffs. 16 NOUXS AND PRONOUNS. How are words adopted from the Latin or Greek language, made plural ! The ending us is generally changed into % i um or on, to a; is, to es ; a, to ce ; and # or ex, to ces or ices. Ex. — Stimulus, stimuli ; arca'num, arca'na ; crisis, crises ; vor'tex, vor'tices. Some nouns do not change their form, to express either number ; as, Deer, sheep, swine, vermin, grouse, head (cattle), sail (ships), pair, dozen, series, species, appara'tus, corps, means, news (generally singular), alms, wages (generally plural), odds, amends, ethics, mathematics, etc. Some nouns, denoting generally objects that consist of two or many parts, are nearly always used in the plural number only ; as, Tongs, scissors, snuffers, ashes, stairs, dregs, pincers, lungs, trousers, drawers, hose, bowels, annals, ar' chives, ides, chops, clothes, thanks, riches, goods, bitters, victuals, oats, vetches, aborig 'ines, mammalia, etc. How do you determine the number of a collective noun that is singular in form ? A collective noun is singular, when we regard the entire collection as one thing ; plural, when we refer to the individuals composing the collection. Ex. — The committee was large. The committee were not unanimous. Exercises. Atlas, atlases; halo, haloes; folio, folios; torch, torches; monarch, monarchs ; story, stories ; money, moneys ; German, Ger- mans ; Mussulman, Mussulmans ; larva, larvae ; lam/ina, lam'ince ; minu'tia, minu'tice ; alum'na, alum'nee ; alum'nus, alum'nl ; ma'gus, magi; ra'dius, ra'dil ; to' cus, fo'cl; nu'cleus, nu'clel ; arca'num, arca'na ; da'tura, da'ta ; memorandum, memoran'da or memoran- dums ; stratum, strata ; phenomenon, phenom'ena ; sta'men, stain' - ina ; ge'nus, gen' era ; axis, axes ; crisis, crises ; oasis, o'ases ; the'sis, the'ses ; pha'sis, phases; ellip'sis, ellip'ses ; em'phasis, em' phases ; hypothesis, hypoth'eses ; paren'thesis, paren! theses ; synop'sis, synop'-. ses ; syn'thesis, syntheses; appen'dix, appendices ; beau, beaux ; monsieur, messieurs ; cherub, cherubs or cherubim ; seraph, seraphs or ser'aphim ; bandit, bandits or bandit' tl; brother-in-law, brothers- in-law; sister-in-law, sisters-in-law ; court-martial, courts-martial; aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp ; billet-doux, billets-doux; cupful, cupfuls ; spoonful, spoonfuls ; man-servant, men-servants ; ignis fatuus, ignes fatul ; Miss Warner, the Misses Warner; Mr. Hunter, the Messrs. Hunter ; Dr. Hunter, Drs. Hunter. Words Explained.— Singular, single, odd. Plural, from the Latin pit's, more; more than one. Mr. is abbreviated from Mister; Messrs., from the French Messieurs. Case ordinarily means state or condition. delation, how one thing is to another. Sense, meaning. Von'strued, arranged according to the sense. Independently, having nothing to do with others. Ab'solutely, absolved, freed from something. Address, speak to. Exclaim, cry out. Participles and infin* Wives, forms of the verb. Verb t 8 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. What does the possessive case denote? The possessive case denotes possession. Ex. — John's horse. My slate. The children's books. Boys 1 sports. Possession may be past, or future and merely intended, as well as present and actual; as, "Webster's Dictionary;" "Men's boots for sale here." The former example implies origin ; the latter, fitness. What is the regular sign of the possessive case ? An apostrophe, or comma above the line, followed by the letter s. Ex. — Mary's slate. Burns's poems. Men's affairs. Is the possessive * always expressed ? It is omitted from plural nouns ending with s, and sometimes also from singular nouns ending with s, or an s-sound. Ex. — The soldiers' camp. For conscience' sake. A singular noun ending with an s-sound, should generally have the apostrophe and s, ; as, "Dennis's Works." — Pope. "Louis's reign." — Macaulay. "Charles's affairs." — Prescott. It is often better to use of, or to make the possessive word an adjective; as, "The death of Socrates;" " Lucas Place." "For conscience' sake," "For goodness' sake," etc., are rather idiomatic exceptions to the rule, than fair illustrations of a general principle. What does the objective case denote ? The objective case denotes the condition of a noun or pronoun that is used as the object of a verb or preposition. Ex. — This stream turns a mill. (Turns what ?) The water flows over the dam. (Over what ?) I saw her with him f (Saw whom ? with whom ?) The object of a transitive verb or of a preposition, is the noun or pronoun required after it to make sense ; as, " I rolled a stone down the hill." Here stone ia the object of the verb rolled, and hill is the object of the preposition down. Exercises. The noun or pronoun, and why ; then the case, and why : — John found Mary's book. Lucy's lamb nips the grass. Fair blooms the lily. He wrote his name in his book. John shot some squirrels in your father's field. Sweet fountain, once again I visit thee. The Greeks were more ingenious than the Romans [were]. The plough, the sword, the pen, and the needle, — how W*ords Explained,— Idiomat'k, peculiar, formed by custom without regard to rules. Principle, a rule or law, a truth that applies to many particulars. Objective, denoting an object ; and object, something thrown in the way, something aimed at or affected. Prep-o-si'-tion, from pre, before, and positio, placing ; a word piaced before others to show position or relation. Repetition^ telling again. Explanation, telling what a thing is. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 19 "When must a noun or pronoun agree in case with another noun or pronoun ? When it is but a repetition of the other, or when it denotes, by way of explanation, the same thing. Ex. — I, 1, am the man. Friends, false friends, have ruined me. Smith is a barber. Smith the barber is my neighbor. How can the different cases of nouns be distinguished ? By their meanings : or, the nominative may be found by asking a question with who or what before the verb ; the objective, with whom or what after the verb ; and the possessive is known by the apostrophe. Ex. — "Mary plucked flowers for John's sister." Who plucked? — plucked what ? — for whom ? — ' ~. » e. Having now shown yuu what properties nouns and pronouns have, I Bhall next show you, briefly and regularly, how the different nouns and pronouns are written to express these properties. This process is called declension. What, then, is it, to decline a noun or pronoun ? To decline a noun or pronoun, is to show, in some regular way, what forms it has to express its gram- matical properties. Observe that nouns sometimes remain unchanged, and that pronoun3 are sometimes wholly changed, to express their properties. Exercises. mighty ! To retreat was to lose all. (What was what ?) I know that you can learn. (I know what?) Why he went, is plain. (What is plain ?) Promising and performing are two different things. On that day of desolation, Lady, I was captive made ; Bleeding for my Christian nation, By the walls of high Belgrade. — Campbell. Spell the possessive singular ; then the possessive plural, if the word can have it :— Sister, (thus : S-i-s-sis — t-e-r-apostrophe-s-ter's — Sister's,) John, day, Sparks, prince, horse, St. James, John Henry Thomson, he, one, who, other, she, it, court-martial, brother-in-law, bookkeeper ; the duke of Northumberland ; Allen and Baker ; Morris the bookseller ; Morris, the bookseller. JW*ord8 Explained.— Decline', to chauge from one state or form into another. Supersede' } to take the place of, because preferred. Style, mode of writing or speaking. Authority ; right to govern from greater merit, or through power derived from others. Emphat'ic, expressing an idea with greater force. JZeflex'ive, turning back upon itself, that the act or relation reverts to the subject. 20 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Nouns. Singular. Nominative. Possessive. Boy, boy's, Man, Lady, Fox, John, 1st Pers. 2d Pers. mans, lady's, fox's, John's, boy; man; lady; fox; John. Plural. Nominative. Possessive. Objective boys, boys', boys, men's, men. ladies', ladies. men, ladies, foxes, foxes'. foxes. Pronouns Mm. i, Singular. Poss. Obj. Nom. my or mine, me ; we, Thou, thy or thine, thee ; ye, ) You, your or yours, you ; you, J Plural. Poss. Obj. our or ours, us. your or yours, you f Mas. He, his, him 3d Pers. \ Fern. She, her or hers, her ; J- they, their or theirs, them. C Neat, It, its, it ; 1. 2. 3. Nom. or Obj. Myself (or ourself) ; Thyself or yourself; Himself, herself, itself; Nom. or Obj. ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj. One, one's, one ; Other, other's, other ; ones, others, ones', ones, others', others. or Plur. • ' Who, whose, Which, whose, That, whose, What, As, . None, whom. which. that. what. as. none. ( — ever or soever.) u Sing. K Decline oohn, man, boy, lady, fox, farmer, Benjamin, city. Decline /, thou, you, he, she, it, myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself one, other, who, whoever, whosoever, which, whichever, what, that, as, none. Thou is now superseded, in common usage, by you. Thou is still pre* ferred in addressing the Deity, and often in Scriptural or poetic style. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 21 We may include, with the speaker, the person addressed, and the person spoken of. You may include, with the person addressed, the person spoken of. You, he, and I*=*we ; thou or you and he*=you. Editors, in speaking of themselves editorially, generally prefer we to I. This use of the plural pronoun denotes greater modesty or authority ; for it implies that the speaker is not alone in his opinion. Owr§, yours, Iters, etc., are each equivalent to the simple possessive pro- noun and a noun ; as, " This is my hat, and that is yours," i. e., your hat. It sometimes denotes merely the state or condition of things; as, "It snows;" "It was moonlight on the Persian sea;" "It is too dark here to read." Sometimes it introduces a sentence, and is explained by a following word, phrase, or clause; as, " It is he ;" " It is she ;" " It was they ;" " It is mean to take advan- tage of another's distress ;" "It is perfectly plain that a straight line must be tiie shortest distance between two points." (What is plain ?) It is sometimes applied to creatures whose sex is not obvious or not impor- tant ; as, " We found a young fawn, and caught it." The sex, most gramma- rians say, is disregarded in such instances, and the words are neuter. But, sinco the nouns must, in such cases, be nearly always of the common gender, and since we can say, "It is he," "It is she," it may be as well to say it is of the common gender. ("The tiger broke its chain," seems less proper to me than, "The tiger broke his chain.") The compound personal pronouns of the first and the second person are composed of the simple possessive pronouns and self or selves ; those of the third person, of the objective pronouns and self or selves. These pronouns are used only in the nominative and the objective case, and they are either emphatic or reflexive in sense ; as, " Ho himself waited on his guest ;" " She deceived her- self." To express possession emphatically, own is used with the ample posses- sive pronoun ; as, " This is my own affair." None (no-one) may be used either as singular or plural. Each other properly relates to two only ; one another, to more. Exercises. What is the objective corresponding to — I ? — thou ? — we ? — ye ? — he ? — she ? — it ? — they % — you ? — who ? What is the nominative corresponding to — Me ? — us ? — thee ? — him ? — whom ?— -her ? — hers ? — them ? — ■ themselves ? — herself? — it ? — which ? Form the compound pronoun : — My, our, thy, yourj him, her, it, oue, them, who, which, what. Of what gender, person, number, and case is each of the following pronouns ? — Him, his, its, he, them, it, I, you, thy, their, she, thou, me, your, us, they, my, mine, thine, yours, it, hers, others, theirs, we, thee, our, ours, ye, myself, ourself, themselves, ourselves, thyself, yourselves, yourself, himself, itself, herself, one, none, one's, ones', other, others', who, what, which, whatever. 2 22 ARTICLES. 3. ARTICLES. If 1 say, "Givo me a book," you understand that any book will answer my purpose ; but if I say, " Give me the book," you understand that I want somo particular book. If I say, " Missouri is north of Arkansas," I mean States ; but if I say, " The Missouri is north of the Arkansas," I mean rivers. These little words, a and the, which often have so important an effect on the sense of nouns, are called articles. What, thon, is an article f An article is a word placed before a noun, to show how the noun is applied. Ex. — Man is made for society ; but a man naturally prefers the man whoso temper and inclinations best suit his own. How many articles are there, and what are they ? Two : the, the definite article ; and a or an, the indefinite article. What does the definite article show ? The definite article shows that some particular object or group is meant. Ex. — The horse, the horses, the stage, the Connecticut ; the green meadows j the iron-bound bucket ; the brave Pulaski. What does the indefinite article show ? The indefinite article show3 that no particular one of the kind is meant. Ex. — A bird, a mouse, an apple, a cherry, a carriage ; an idle boy. now do a and an differ ? In application only ; in meaning, they are the same. Where is an used ? Before words beginning with a vowel sound. Ex. — An article, an enemy, an inch, an urn, an hour, an honor. Exercises. The article, and why ; whether definite or indefinite, and why ; and to what it "belongs : — The roses in the garden. The rose is a beautiful flower. A fish from the river. A daughter of a duke. The daughter of the duke. A daughter of the duke. An eagle's nest. Words Explained,— Article, joint ; because, in the Greek language, from which the word is taken, it sometimes encloses a noun on each side, as two joints enclose a limb, or as that encloses man in the expression, " that man that I saw." Understand', see with the mind. Definite, setting bounds to, Indefiyr ite, not definite. Application, a putting to something else. ADJECTIVES. 23 Where is a used ? Before words beginning with a consonant sound. Ex. — A bgnquet, a cucumber, a dunce, a fox, a horse, a jug, a king, a lion, a youth, a university, a eulogy ; a one-horse carriage. 4. ADJECTIVES. The nouns and pronouns, as you remember, denote objects. But our regard for objects depends not a little on their qualities and circumstances ; and hence there is a large class of words to express these, for all the various purposes of life. The word apple, for instance, denotes something that may be red, large, ripe, mellow, juicy. And when I say, " that apple, this apple, every apple, four apples, the fourth apple," the slanting words show, without expressing quality, more precisely what I mean. These qualifying and designating — these descrip- tive and definitive words, which generally add an idea to that of the noun, are therefore called adjectives. What, then, is an adjective t An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun. Ex. — Green, good, lazy, tall, wise, religious. A bay horse ; a sharp knife ; a sharper knife ; a bright day ; golden clouds ; a gold watch ; Missouri apples ; a rustling aspen ; that sun-tipped elm ; a boy nine years old, who is sick. Adjectives may be divided into two classes ; de~ scriptive and definitive. In stead of these words, qual- ifying and specifying may also be used. What is a descriptive adjective ? A descriptive adjective describes or qualifies. Ex. — A rapid river ; the blue sky ; a modest woman. She is beautiful, amiable, and intelligent. The rippling brook ; waving woods ; a broken pitcher. The last three adjectives, and others like them, are called participial adjectives. Exercises. Place the proper indefinite article before each of the following words or phrases : — Razor, house, knife, humming-bird, chicken, ounce, insult, unit, ox, ball, hundred, African ; interesting story ; humble cottage; use- ful instrument ; honest man ; honorable deed. Jf^&yds Explained.— Ad'jective, from the Latin ad, to, and jectus, thrown ; thrown or joined to something else, adding an idea to. Quality, tfc b nature of a thing for a long time. Condition, the nature of a thing for a short time. Circumstances, surroundings, what accompanies the main thing ; thus, when an act is done, the time, place, manner, moans, etc., are its circumstances. Designating, pointing out. Descriptive, telling what something is. Definitive, showing which or how many. Limits, sets bounds to the meaning. Modifies, affects or varies the meaning. Principal, chief. ADJECTIVES. "What is a definitive adjective ? A definitive adjective merely limits or modifies. Ex. — Four peaches; all peaches; some peaches; this peach. Which are the principal definitive adjectives ? All, any, both, certain, each, every, either, else, few, many, many a, much, neither, no, one, other, own, same, some, such, that, this, very, zvhat, which, and yon or yonder. Also, one, two, three, etc. ; first, second, third, etc. Nearly all the adjectives of the first class are usually called pronominal adjec- tives, some of them being occasionally used as pronouns ; and those of the sec- ond class are called numeral adjectives. Since we may refer to objects definitely, indefinitely, or distributively, the pronominal adjectives are accordingly, some of them, definite or demonstrative, as this, that, yonder ; some, indefinite, as any, some, other ; and some, distributive, as each, every, either, neither, many a. And since we may either count or number, some of the numeral adjectives are called cardi- nal, as one, two, three ; and the others, ordinal, as first, second, third. Either and neither properly relate to one of two ; any, any one, or none, should be applied to more. This refers to the nearer of two ; that, to the more distant. Since the same quality may exist in different objects, and in the same degree or in different degrees, — as, " red cheeks, red rose3, red hair, redder cheeks, the reddest roses," — adjectives have what grammarians call the degrees of comparison. "What, then, is meant, in grammar, by comparison ? Comparison, in grammar, denotes the forms in which adjectives and adverbs are expressed, to show the quality and its degrees. There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. Exercises. The adjective, and why ; whether descriptive or definitive, and why ; and to \ohat it belongs : — The blue sky. The sky is blue. An aspiring man. A modest and beautiful woman, with eyes bright, blue, and affectionate. The night grew darker and darker. That field has been in cultiva- tion four years. The first car is not full, having but one man in it. The landscape was fresh with dew and bright with morning light. The rosy -fingered Morn. The star-powdered galaxy. The apples W*OI* awoke.* been, born, borne. | Beat, Become, Befall, Beget, Begin, beat, became, befell, begot, begat,* began, Perfect Part, beaten, beat. become. befallen. begotten, begot. begun. IWords Explained,*— Prefer it, from the Latin prater, past, and itus, gone ; gone by or past. Perfect, from the Latin per, through, and fectus, made ; made throughout, finished. The present is either the present indicative, or the present infinitive without to. According to Greek and Latin dictionaries, it is the former ; according to Teutonic or old English dictionaries, it is the latter. Registered; put in order, so as to be easily found. Cat'alogue, a regular list. Ancient, used long ago. Poet'ic, used by poets. Defective, wanting. Re-dun' -dant, overflow- ing, having more than enough. Be was formerly used for am, are, is, etc. * In using irregular verbs, we are liable to error for the most part only in the use of those whose preterit anil whose perfect participle arc not alike. Those verbs have therefore been given first, and separate from the rest, that they may be learned perfectly. R. denotes that the regular form may also be used in stead of the other. * denotes that the form under it is seldom used, being either ancient, poetic, or of late introduction. The form supposed to be of the best present usage, is placed first. The second form of some verbs is preferable, when applied in a certain way ; as, "freighted with spices and silks," "fraught with mischief;" "thunderstruck." u sorrow -stricken."— Commit to memory the unmarked forms only. 30 VERBS. Present. Preterit, or Past. Perfect Pari. Present. Preterit, or Past. Perfect Part. Bid, bid, bid, Heave, heaved, heaved, bade, bidden. hove, hoven.* Bite, bit, bitten, bit. Hew, hewed, hewn, r. Blow, blew, blown. Hide, hid, hidden, hid, Break broke, broken, Hold, held, held, brake,* broke.* i holden."* Chide, chid, chidden, Know, knew, known. chid. Lade (load), laded, laden, r. Choose, chose, chosen. Lie (repose), %, lain. Cleave cleaved, cleaved. (Lie, speak falsely ; regular.) (adhere), clave,'* Mow, mowed, mown, r. Cleave cleft, clove, cleft, proved, {split), clave, cloven. Prove, proved, proven.* Come, came, crowed, come. Rend, rent, rent, R. d * rode, Crow, crew, crowed. Ride, rode, ridden. Dare dared, b rang, (venture), durst, dared. Ring, rung, rung. (Dare, challenge; regular.) Rise, rose, risen. dived, Rive, rived, riven, r.* Dive, dove,* dived. Run, ran, run. Do did. done. Saw, sawed, sawn, r. (principal verb), See, saw, seen. Draw, drew, drawn. Seethe, seethed, seethed, drunk, sod, sodden. Drink, drank, drank.* Shake, 7 shook, shaken. Drive, drove, driven. shaped, Eat, ate, eat, eaten, eat* Shape, shaped, shapen.* Fall, fell, fallen. shaved, Fly, flew, flown. Shave, shaved, shaven. Forbear, forbore, forborne. sheared, Forget, forgot, forgotten, forgot. Shear, Show, shore,* showed, shorn, r. shown, r. Forsake, forsook, forsaken. Shrink, shrunk, shrunk, Freeze, froze, frozen. shrank, shrunken.* Freight, Get, freighted, got, freighted, fraught, got, gotten. Slay, Slide, slew, slid, r., slain, slid den, slid, r. Give, Go, gave, went, given, gone. Smite, smote, smitten, smit. Grave, Grow, graved, grew, graven, r. grown. Sing, sung, sang, sung. (a.) My tongue clave to the roof of my ir cross.— Macav lay. (c.) Beholden ; with ho onth.— Dickens. (&.) This line he dared not ldeu.* (d.) Come as the w nils conio when forests are rended.— W. Scott. VEH ,BS. 31 Present. Preterit, or Past Perfect Part. Present. Preterit, or Past. Perfect Part. sunk, Strow, strowed, Strown, R. Sink, sank. sunk. swore, Sow (scatter), so we 1, sown, r. Swear, sware, sworn. spoke, Swell, swelled, swollen. Speak, spake,* spoken. Swim, swum, swum. Spin, spun, span,* spun. 7 Take, swam, took, taken. Spit, spit, spit, Tear, tore, torn. spat,* spitten.* Thrive, thrived, thrived, (Spit, pierce with a spit ; regular.) throve, thriven. Spring, sprung, Throw, threw, thrown. sprang, sprung. Tread, trod, trodden, Steal, stole, stolen. trode,* trod. strode, stridden, waxed, Stride, strid, strid. Wax (grow), waxed, waxen.* struck, Wear, wore, worn. Strike, struck, stricken. Weave, wove, r., * woven, r.* Strive, strove, r ,* striven, R.* Write, , wrote, written. 2 . The Two Past or tl ie Three Forms Alike. Present. Preterit, or Past Perfect Part. Present. Preterit, or Pas . Perfect Part Abide, abode, abode. Cast, cast, cast. Behold, beheld, beheld. Catch, caught, r.,* caught, r.* Belay, belaid, r., belaid, r. Cling, clung, clung. Bend, bent, r., bent, r. Clothe, clothed, clothed, Bereave, bereft, r., bereft, r. clad, clad. Beseech, besought, besought. Cost, cost, cost. Bet, bet, r., bet, r. Creep, crept, crept. Betide, betided, betided. Cut, cut, cut. betid,* betid.* Deal, dealt, r.,* dealt, r.* Bind, bound, bound. Dig, dug, R., dug, R. Bleed, bled, bled. Dwell, dwelt, r., dwelt, r. blended, blended, dreamed, dreamed, Blend, blent,* blent,* Dream, dreamt, dreamt. Bless, blessed, blest, blessed, blest. Dress, dressed, drest,* dressed, drest.* Breed, bred, bred, Feed, fed, fed. Bring, brought, brought. Feel, felt, felt. Build, built, r., built, r. Fight, fought, fought. burned, burned, Find, found, found. Burn, burnt, burnt. Flee, fled, fled. Burst, burst, burst. Fling, flung, flung. Buy, bought, bought. Gild, gilded, gilt, gilded, gilt 32 VERBS. Present. Preterit, or Past. Perfect Part. Present. Preterit, or Past. Perfect Part Gird, girt, B., girt, b. Reave,* reft, reft. Grind, ground, ground. Rid. rid, rid. Hang, Have hung, r., had, hung, b.* had. Roast, roasted, roasted, roast. t> (principal verb), Sa y, said, said. Hear, heard, heard. Seek, sought, sought. Hit, hit, hit. Sell, sold, sold. Hurt, hurt, hurt. Send, sent, sent. Keep, kept, kept. Set, set, set. Kneel, knelt, R. knelt, b. Shed, shed, shed. Knit, knit, r., knit, b. Shine, shone, b.,* shone, b* Lay, laid, laid. Shoe, shod, shod. Lead, led, led. Shoot, shot, shot Lean, leaned, leaned, Shred, shred, shred. leant, leant. Shut, shut, shut. Leap, leaped, leaped, Sit, Sleep, sat, sat. leapt,* leapt.* slept, clept. Learn, learned, learnt. learned, learnt. Sling, Slink, slung, slunk, slung, slunk. Leave, left, left. Slit, slit, B., slit, E. Lend, lent, lent. Smell, smelt, b., smelt, b. Let, let, let. Speed, sped, b.,* sped, e.* Light, lighted, lit, lighted, lit. Spell, spelled, spelt, spelled, spelt. Lose, lost, lost. Spend, spent, spent. Make, made, made. Spill, spilt, E., spilt, B. Mean, meant, meant. Split, split, B.,* split, R.* Meet, met, met Spoil, spoiled, spoiled, Pass passed, passed, spoilt,* spoilt.* past,* past. b Spread, spread, spread, Pay, paid, paid. Stay, staid, b., staid, B. a Pen penned, penned, . String, strung, strung, B * (fence in), pent, pent. Stave, stove, b., stove, b. (Pen, write; regulan) Stand, stood, stood. Plead, pleaded, pleaded, Stick, stuck, stuck. plead, pled, plead, pled. Sting, stung, stung. Put, put, put. stunk, Quit, quit, b., quit, b. Stink, stank,* stunk. "Rin rapped, rapped, Sweat, sweat, b., sweat, b. .Rap, rapt, rapt.' swet, swet. Head, read, read. Sweep, swept, swept. (r/.) T7an£. hanjred, hansred ; to suspend by the neck icith intent to kill . but the distinction is not always observed, (fe.) Past is used as an adjective or as a noun, (o.) Rap, rapt, rapt; to seize with rapture. (,take % mistook, mistaken; undergo, undenvent, undergone. But behave, engrave, and welcome, are regular. Exercises. Give the principal parts ; and tell whether the verb is regular or irregular, and why : — Form, attack, strip, deny, bow, sow, grow, sew, sin, win, spin, rise, despise, moralize, skim, swim, heal, steal, fling, bring, spread, dread, fold, hold, uphold, close, lose, choose, blind, find, fine, spurn, burn, reel, feel, blend, send, tend, lend, loan, tent, need, feed, blight, fight, wink, drink, slink, squeak, speak, steep, sleep, cleave, weave, leave, reach, teach, fret, get, let, whet, smut, put, agree, free, see, flee, fly, cry, spite, bite, write, take, make, bake, bare, dare, stray, pay, slay, may, trick, click, stick, call, fall, fell, bind, bound, grind, ground, heat, eat, roam, come, welcome, hive, strive, live, give, forgive, undo, undergo, counteract, say, gainsay, will, till, shall, cull, have, shave, land, stand, am, be, rise, raise, tell, toll, quell, die, lie, lay, fit, hit, sir, seat, set. 34 VERBS. What is a transitive verb ? A transitive verb is a verb that has an object. Ex. — John struck James. (Struck whom ?) Cats eat rats and mice. (Eat what ?) I know him. The house has a portico. To run a race. A transitive verb always implies both a doer and an object, and either can be made its subject. If the object is made the subject, the verb must be expressed in what is called the passive voice, and is then often called a passive verb. (See next page.) Describe an intransitive verb ? An intransitive verb does not have an object. Ex. — John walks. The child cries. The rose blooms. "Webster was eloquent. Webster was an orator. Alice reads and writes well. A few of the intransitive verbs, as, be, lie, remain, etc., imply no action or exertion, and are frequently called neuter verbs, as being neither active nor passive. Be is the chief neuter verb, and extends alone farther than all the active verbs together ; for existence is a more general idea than action. What properties have verbs ? Voices, moods, lenses, persons, and num- bers. Exercises. The verbs, and why ; whether transitive or intransitive, and why ; and if intransitive, whether neuter, and why f Men build houses. Dogs bark. The horse kicked the man. The horse kicks. He talks well. He talks nonsense. I knew him, but he did not know me. *The crew captured and sold a whale. We are gathering plums and cherries. She grieves and weeps. The picture hung on the wall. Then arose Lord Chat- ham. Such as I am I have always been, and always shall be. Spare superfluities, to supply necessaries. You might have assisted us. He seated himself. He sat in a corner. He set a trap for a rat. Lay the book where it lay before.. Having written his let- ter, he sealed it. Give him a knife. The fields look fresh and fjreen. Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spake again. Boys ike to play. (Like what ?) Children do not consider how much has been doue for them by their parents. (Consider what ?) Who knows who he is ? ~$ty*ord,8 Explained, — Transitive, from the Latin trans, over, and it>t8 y gone ; going or passing over : a transitive verb generally denotes an act that passes over from the subject to the object. Irdran 1 'sitive, from in, not, and transitive; not transitive. Passive, suffering or receiving. Voice— the voice expresses tone, and thereby our state, whether as acting or as suffering. Id'iom, a mode of ex- Sression peculiar to a language. Classic languages; the Latin, Greek, and sim- ar languages. VERBS. 35 a. A transitive verb can generally be expressed in two different ways ; as, ••John struck James," " James was struck by John :" and hence transitive verba ' are said to have two voices. What, then, is voice f Voice is a property of transitive verbs that shows whether the subject does or receives the act. There are two voices ; the active and the passive. What does the active voice denote ? The active voice represents the subject as acting, or the verb as relating to an object. , Ex. — David slew Goliath. John resembles his father. What does the passive voice denote ? The passive voice represents the subject as acted upon, or the verb as having the object for its subject. Ex. — Goliath was slain by David. This farm was owned by them. When a transitive verb is made passive, the object no longer remains the object, but becomes the subject. Voice, unlike the other properties of verbs, does not extend through all verbs, but belongs to transitive verbs only. A few intransitive vert>3, however, are sometimes passive in form, but they are not passive in sense; as, "He is gone. — Scott. "The melancholy days are come." — Bryant. This is an imitation of a French idiom, in which be is used for have. On the other hand, verbs are sometimes active in form but passive in sense ; as, " This timber saws well" — capacity to receive the act in a certain way. " Your poem reads smoothly." " We could easily see what was doing on the other side of the river." So, "Virgil describes some spirits as purging in fire, to recover the primitive beauty of their nature." — Addison. "You may be sure ho has an ax to grind." — Franklin. This is an imitation of an idiom in the Classic languages. In the following, the object of the preposition is made the subject : " Col. Butler was accordingly written to, and ordered to hasten forward with the volun- teers." — Irving. (Compound passive verb.) Exercises. The verbs, and why ; whether in the active voice or in the passive, and why :— • The water turns the wheel. The wheel is turned by the water. The horse carries his rider. The horse was hitched to the buggy. Mary is reading her book. The book is read. Most people are influenced by their neighbors. You could have learned the lesson. The lesson might have been learned by you. Having taught, hav- ing been taught, to have taught, to have been taught, to have been teaching. Since these men could not be persuaded, it was determined to persecute them. The workmen are building the house. The house is building. Green maple saws well. Ho was never heard of afterwards. S6 VERBS. h. If I say, "I write," I express a matter of fact; " I may or can write," \ express what is not matter of fact, yet may become such; " If I were writing" 1 express a mere supposition; " Write, 11 I request it to be done; M To write? "Writing," I simply speak of the act. These different modes of expressing the verb, grammarians call moods. What, then, does mood express ? Mood expresses the manner of assertion. Most grammarians reckon five moods ; the indica- tive, the subjunctive, the potential, the imperative, and the infinitive. II ow does the indicative mood express the act or state ? The indicative mood affirms something as an actual occurrence or fact. Ex. — God created this beautiful world. The guilty are not happy. "If I am deceived," "If I was deceived," are still in the indicative mood, and not in the subjunctive ; for they assume something as matter of fact. How does the subjunctive mood express the act or state ? The subjunctive mood affirms something as a future contingency, or as a mere supposition, wish, or conclusion. If it rain to-night, our plants will live. Were I a lawyer, I should not like to plead a rogue's case. (But I am not.) 0, had I the wings of a dove. — Cow- per. But if I asked [ should ask] your papa, he would only say you had better [to] stay [it would be better for you to stay] at home. — Bulwer. If conscience had had as strong a hold on his mind as honor, he had still been [would still have been] innocent. — British Essayists. Some of these forms are good old rather than good modern English. Exercises. Change the following sentences so as to make the active verbs passive, and the passive verbs active : — The sun adorns the world. Indolence produces misery. My neighbor has planted some apple-trees. The dog bit the stranger. The distance was measured by a surveyor. Morse invented the tele- graph. The boat was built by Ericsson. Can the river be forded, at this place, by a man on horseback ? He paid for the carriage. iThe ministers speak of peace. He was expected to strike. JW*ords Explained,,— Mood, manner, state of mind ; mood affirms the act or state as real, ideal, contingent, or willed, or else merely assumes it in an ab- stract or modifying sense. Indicative, pointing out, declaring ; subjunctive, joined to; poten'tial, having power; imper'ative,^ commanding ; infinitive, left free. /Subjunctive, joined to ; Decause the clause in which this mooa occurs, is always joined to another, or depends upon it for complete sense. Supposition, what is merely in the mind. Uontin'gency, that which depends on something else, that which may or may not take place. Conclusion / a thought drawn from others, that generally ends the matter. VERBS. 37 What words often precede this mood, or indicate it ? If, though, that, lest, except, unless, provided, etc. What does a verb in the subjunctive mood suggest, when it refers to present or past time ? That the contrary of what is supposed, or some- thing different, is the true state of the case. See p. 36. What other mood does the subjunctive resemble in its form, and what one in its meaning ? In its form, the indicative ; but in meaning, the potential, with which it is also most frequently asso- ciated in sentences. See p. 36. What does the potential mood affirm of the subject ? The potential mood affirms merely the power, liberty, liability, necessity, will, duty, or a similar relation of the subject, in regard to the act or state. Ex. — God can destroy this world. You may play. They who would be fcappy, must be virtuous. Children should obey their teachers. How can this mood be known, or what words are used to express it ? May, can, must, might, could, would, and should. What does the imperative mood express ? The imperative mood expresses command, ex- hortation, entreaty, or permission. Ex. — John, study your lessson. (Command.) Go where glory waits thea (Exhortation.) Oh ! then remember n!e. (Entreaty.) Return to your friends. What is the subject of every verb in the imperative mood ? Thou, you, or ye, usually understood. Ex. — "Know thy self "=Know thou thyself. " My young friends, be pure Exercises. The verb, and why ; then the mood, and why : — William is writing. The rosemary nods on the grave, and the lily lolls on the wave. He caught a fish. It will rain this even- ing. I may command, but you must obey. He could and should have assisted us, but he would not. I wish to go, but I can not. IFVwcfs Eplained, — Potential, implying the power only; expressing what causes the act, but not that the act is produced. Liability, what may be. Necessity, what must be. Duty, what ought to be. Exhortation, advice and" per- suasion to do good. Entreaty, beseeching ; humble yet urgent request. We command inferiors, exhort equals, entreat superiors, and permit in compliance with the will of others. Expressed, put down in the book : understood, not put down, but to be supplied by the mind. 38 VERBS. and cautious"=My young friends, be ye pure and cautious. A verb in tbia mood sometimes has a subject of the 1st or 3d person ; as, " Seek we now some deeper shade." " Lead he the way who knows the spot." How does the infinitive mood express the act or state ? The infinitive mood does not affirm the act or state. It comprises the infinitive and the participle.* Ex. — Be careful to avoid the danger. The clouds dispersing. See p. 28. Which of the moods can be used interrogatively ? The indicative and the potential. Ex. — Who is my friend? Must I endure all this ? How are they made interrogative ? By placing the subject after the verb, or after some part of it. Ex. — " Thou art ho ; " " Art thou he ?" " Can you help us ?" c. Timo may naturally bo divided into present, past, and future; and wo may consider an act or state as simply taking place in each of these periods, or as completed: thus, "I write, I have written ;" " I wrote, I had written;" "I shall write" " 1 shall have writieri n =I'resent, present-perfect; past, past-perfect; future, future-perfect. Hence verbs have what grammarians call tenses. How, then, would you define tense ? Tense is the form and meaning of the verb to dis- tinguish time. Exercises. Do not value a gem by what ii is set in. If William study, he will soon know his lesson. If wishes were horses, beggars would ride. Train up a child in the way he should go ; and when he is old, he will not depart from it. The violet soon will cease to smile, the whippoorwill to chant. May you be happy. O, that he were wiser ! If you are disappointed, blame not me. If you be disappointed, blame not me. This government will fall, if it lose the confidence of the people. This government would fall, if it lost the confidence of the people. This government would have fallen, had it lost the confidence of the people. Let us now turn to another part. Turn we now to another part. Somebody call my wife. (Imperative.) * The infinitive mood is tolerated, only as we tolerate a neuter gender. It implies the absence of all assertion rather than any particular mode of assertion. Prof. Gibbs, of Yale, says, "The infinitive mode so called is the crude form of the verb. It is the verb divested of all modality. It is no mode at all." In this book, we practically ignore this mood; or, when we call a verb a participle or an infinitive, the mood is implied. And we include under the infinitive mood, participle* with infinitives, just as zoologists include uuder th» eat genus not merely cats, but also lions, tigers, leopards, etc VERBS. 39 There are six tenses ; the present, the past, the future, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the future-per- fect In stead of perfect and pluperfect the words present-perfect and past-perfect may also be used. What does the present tense express ? The present tense expresses present acts or states. Ex. — I am writing. It snows. You may commence. Let me see it. This tense is also used to express what is always so from the very nature or condition of things. Ex. — Heat melts ice. Traveling is expensive. People must die. Sometimes the present tense is used to express past or future events more vividly : as, " The combat deepens. On, ye brave !" " The guard never surrenders: it dies .'" Also in speaking of the dead, when judged by their existing works ; as, M Seneca moralizes well." How does the past tense express the act or state ? The past tense refers the act or state simply to past time. Ex. — Bonaparte ivas banished to St. Helena. She died this morning. J soon saw that he could not see. The ship arrived before day. This tense is usually called the imperfect tense, but inappropriately. It may be well to call it the aorist or indefinite tense, in the subjunctive and the potential mood, whenever it does not denote past time. How does the future tense express the act or state ? The future tense refers the act or state simply to future time. Ex. — The ears will come this evening. Merit will be rewarded. How does the perfect tense express the act or state ? The perfect tense represents something as past, but still connected with present time. Ex. — This magnificent city has been built within one hundred years. I have just sold my horse. The mail may have arrived. This house appears to have been a church. I have often read Virgil. (Subject still remaining.) Thus has it flowed for ages. (Act still remaining.) Cicero has written orations. (Object, or result, still remaining.) How does the pluperfect tense express the act or state ? The pluperfect tense represents something as finished or ended by a certain past time. Ex. — I had already sent my trunk to the river, when I received your letter. A. fish had been on the hook. A fish might have been on the hook. Wortls Explained,— Tense, from the French temps, Latin tempus, time. Pe'riod, a going round, as a year ; a portion of time. A'-o-rist, from the Greek a, not, and oristos, marked out ; indefinite. Plu'perfect, from the Latin plus } more, andfectus, finished ; that is, farther back in time than what is only now finished. 40 VERBS. How does the future-perfect tense express the act or state ? The future-perfect tense represents something as finished or ended by a certain future time. Ex. — The flowers will have withered, when winter returns. The three perfect tenses are sometimes called the relative tenses, because they relate from one point of time to another ; and the other three tenses, which havo not this relation, are called the absolute tenses. Every perfect tense, except sometimes a participle, must have what two parts ? Have, or some one of its variations, and the perfect participle of some verb. Ex. — Have written ; having written ; to have written ; may have written ; has been writing ; shall have written ; should have been writing ; had written. How doea the present, the past, or the future tense, sometimes express the act or state ? As something habitual or customary in present, past, or future f time. Ex. — He chews tobacco. People go to church on Sunday. There would he spend his earnings. The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb. When the act or state is expressed as ideal rather than real, as in the subjunc- tive mood, and frequently in the potential, what may be observed of the tenses, in respect to the time of the event ? That they move forward, one tense or more, in time. Ex. — " If I am" — now ; " If I be" — hereafter. " If I was" — at any past time; "If I were" — now. "I had been there" — before a certain past time; " Had I been there" — at a certain past time. " I had paid you" — before a cer- tain past time ; " I might have paid you" — at a certain past time. " Such gov- ernments could not last, if they contained ever so much wisdom and virtue." — P. Henry. At any time. See second definition of present tense. The present and the perfect indicative are sometimes carried into future time, by the words when, as soon as, whoever, etc. ; as, " When he comes home, send for me;" "When he has done the work, I will pay him." In most of the tenses, a verb may be expressed in several different ways : as, " He strikes ;" " He does strike ;" " He is striking ;" " He is struck ;" " He strik- eth." Grammarians usually distinguish these,, by calling them, emphatically, tho forms of the verb — better, the forms of the tenses. What is the common form ? The common form is the verb expressed in the most simple and ordinary manner. Ex. — He went home. Time flies. No man has ever been too honest. JWords Explained. — Future-perfect literally means future- finished. JTibit'ual, what a person does often. Cus'tomary, what is done by many people. lle'al, merely in the mind. Progressive, from pro, forth, and gressive, stepping ; going forth or on. VERBS. 4 1 What i3 tlie empliatie form ? The emphatic form has do or did as a part of the V r erb, to give it greater force. Ex. — I did saij so. Really, it does move. Do come to see me. Do and did are also generally used to express propositions negatively or interrogatively ; but they do not make such propositions emphatic. "What is the progressive form ? The progressive form is be, or some variation of it, combined with the participle that ends in ing. This form denotes continuance of the act or state. Ex. — I wrote ; I was writing. He is drinking wine. (Drinks — habit.) What is the passive form ? The passive form is be, or some variation of it, combined with the perfect participle. This form is generally passive in sense. Ex. — The oak was shattered by lightning. The melancholy days are come. What is the ancient form, or solemn style ? The ancient form has the ending t, st, or est, for the second person singular ; and th or eth, in stead of s or es, for the third person singular ; and generally uses thou or ye in stead of you. This form occurs often in Scriptural or poetic style. Ex. — Thou barVdst the dart. Adversity flatlereth no man. Who chooseth me, must hazard all he hath. Ye are the salt of the earth. Doth is used for the auxiliary does, and dotth for the verb does. Hath and saith are contractions of haveth and sayeth. cl. When I say, "I am, thou art, he is ;" "I write, thou writest, ho writes;" you see that the verb varies with the person of its subject : and when* I say, " lie is, they are /" " He writes, they write ;" you see that the verb varies with the number of its subject. Hence the verb is said to have person and number ; that is, it is so expiessed as to indicate tho person and number of its subject, and Exercises. The verb, and why ; then the form, and why : — Twilight is weeping o'er the pensive rose. It fell instantly. It does amaze me. Ye know not what ye say. Learning taketh away the barbarity of men's minds. The apples are gathered and sold. Onr chains are forging. The improved rifles are being introduced into the army. Thou art the man. The tenses being more difficult, the exercises on them aro deferred till the Conjugation bas been learned. 42 VERBS. thereby tho subject itself. "What, then, is meant by the person and number of a verb ? The person and iiaisiibei- of a verb are its form as being suitable to the person and number of its subject. The term, "a form of the «er7>," signifies, in its widest sense, any mode of expressing it. When is a verb singular? and when plural t It is singular, when its form is proper for predi- cating of a singular subject ; and plural, when proper for predicating of a plural subject. Ex. — The night was serene, and all tho stars were shining. Define singular subjects and plural subjects. A singular subject denotes one object, or more ob- jects taken singly or separately ; a plural subject de- notes more than one, but not taken as one single thing. Ex. — Si ngular : " The boy | is studious ;" " Every tree | is known by its fruit;" " John, James, or Joseph, | 13 studying," "Neither John, James, nor Joseph, I is studying;" " The crowd | was large." Plural: " The boys | aro studious;" "John, James, and Joseph, j are studious;" " The people | are fickle." §ingn!ai* subject: Singular nominative ; singular nominatives, joined by or or nor ; singular nominative or nominatives, modified by each, every, either, neither, many a, or no ; singular nominatives, joined by and, but denoting only one object ; collective noun, presenting all the objects as one thing. Plural subject: Plural nominative; singular nominatives, joined by and; collective noun, presenting the objects individually. In correct discourse, of what person and number is the verb always said to be ? Of the same as its subject or nominative. Ex — " I am." Here am is said to be of the first person and singular num* ber, because its subject, /, is of this person and number. Exercises. Tlie verb, and ivhy ; then of what person and number, to agree ivith .* — I study. We write. He stutters. Grass grows. They were. You might improve. Thou art he. It is. It is I. It is they. Is it he? Thou hast been. The wind has risen. Cows are lowing. The cricket chirps. Sing, heavenly Muse. Seek we the shade. I myself saw him. The general himself was slain. The public are respectfully invited. The country was harassed by civil war. Many a man has been ruined by specula- tion. Either your horse or mine is gone. Both your horse and mine are gone. Neither the woman nor her child was hurt Thou or I am to blame. He, as well as I, is to blame. VERBS. 43 How is the verb varied, to express person and number ? The third person singular of the present indicative is generally expressed, like the plural of nouns, by adding s or es. In most other cases, the verb itself remains unchanged. Ex. — He plans ; ho marches ; ho tarries. I write ; we write ; they write. PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. "What is a participle ? "What is an infinitive ? See p. 28. Participles and infinitives perform three offices in language : they are par- ticiples and infinitives proper ; they combine with the auxiliaries to make most parts of the verb ; they become words of other parts of speech. How many and what participles are there, and how many and what infinitives ? Two of each, — the present and the perfect; and also a third participle, the compound. How does Vat present participle represent the act or state ? The present participle represents the act or state as present and continuing at the time referred to. Ex. — "We saw the moon rising. "Who goes borrowing, goes sorrowing. How does the present infinitive represent the act or state 1 The present infinitive represents the act or state as present, but more often as future, at the time referred to. Ex. — He seems to study. Man never is, but always to be, blest. • I in. tendod to say less ; for I was to speak again. How does the perfect participle or infinitive represent the act or state ? The perfect participle or infinitive represents the act or state as past or ended at the time referred to. Ex. — A fox, caught in a trap. The river appears to have risen. The perfect participle is sometimes present in sense; as, " Ho lives loved by all." The present infinitive sometimes denotes simply the act or state ; and the perfect infinitive, tho completed act or state. What is a compound participle? A compound participle consists of two or more participles; and it is in sense generally a perfect, but sometimes a present, participle. Ex. — Having purchased a farm, he retired to the country. Tho terms being settled, he produced the cash. He, having been previously engaged, and being then engaged, in making const surveys, was appointed. 44 VERBS. How is the participle sometimes used ? As an adjective, and then called a participial ad- jective. Define a participial adjective. A participial adjective ascribes the act or state to its subject as a quality. Ex. — "A leaping and murmuring rivulet." "Written laws." A participial adjective usually stands before the noun which it qualifies. A word is a participle or participial adjective, only when it is derived directly from a verb of the same moaning. Writing and written are formed from the verb write : but unknown, situated, enterprising, are merely adjectives ; for there is no such verb as unknow, situate, or enterprise. Participles and infinitives are frequently used as what other parts of speech? As nouns, and then often called verbal nouns. When should a participle or an infinitive be considered a noun ? When it evidently takes the place, and is used in the sense, of a noun. Ex. — " To live without being annoyed, is pleasant." What is pleasant? with- out what ? — Life without annoyance is pleasant. " Successful studying requires exertion." " To have learned so beautiful an art, will be ever a pleasure to me." " He made no secret of my having written the review." — Irving. " His being there, was the ground of suspicion." " Boys like to play." (Boys like apples.^ " To love is to obey." AUXILIARY VERBS. No complete verb in our language can express all its properties, or be ex- pressed in all its forms, without the aid of certain other little verbs. Thus, to express "strike" in future time, we say, " shall or will strike;" in the potential mood, "may, can, must, might, could, would, or should strike;" in the passive voice, "is struck, was struck, being struck," etc. These little helping verbs are therefore called auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary means helping. How, then, would you define an auxiliary verb ? An auxiliary verb helps another verb to express its meaning in a certain manner or time. Which are the auxiliary verbs ? Be, and all its variations ; do, did; can, could ; have, had; may, might; must; shall, should; tvill, would. Words Explained, — Verbal, formed from a verb, like a verb. Pos- libWity, what can be. Probability, what is likely to be. Reasonableness, the state of being proper. Injunction, request, command. Compulsion, force. Ad- ap-ta'-tion, fitness, suitableness. Pre 1 fix; some letter or letters put to the begin- ning of a word, to vary its meaning. Exem'plified, shown by examples. VERBS. 45 For what are the auxiliaries te and its variations used ? They are used to express the verb progressively or passively. Ex. — The farmer is ploughing his field. Tlie field is ploughed. For what are the auxiliaries do and did used ? They are used to express the verb with emphasis, and often negatively or interrogatively. Ex. — I do believe it He did say so. He did not go. Did you go f What do can and could imply ? Power or ability. Ex. — I can lift the stone. I can learn the lesson. I could not give my consent. What do have and had imply, and for what are they used ? They imply possession, and are used to express the act or state as finished or ended at the time referred to. Ex. — I have gathered the plums which the wind had blown down. What meaning is conveyed by may and might ? Permission, possibility, or probability; sometimes reasonableness. Ex. — You may go to play. But remember the horse may die. It may rain this evening. But the question might be asked, Is the tax legal ? What do must, shall, and should denote ? Duty or injunction : but shall, more frequently compulsion ; and must, generally necessity. Ex. — Wo should care for others. Thou shalt not swear. Ho shall go- You must not look for mo before next week. Pupils must obey. What do wiU and would denote ? Willingness, adaptation, or tendency. Ex. — lie would pay if ho could. This will do. Weeds will grow where there is no cultivation. Roses will fade. Generally speaking, §liall foretells in the first person, and threatens in the second and third persons ; will promises or consents in the first person, and foretells in the second and third persons. In dependent or interrogative proposi- tions, these words often reverse or vary their meanings. For what purpose are all the auxiliaries more or less used ? To express the verb interrogatively. For this pur- pose, they are placed before the nominative. Ex. — "You are wounded;" "4 r ., for Passive Form. t Observe that the verb, like the nouns and pronouns in their declension, remains some- times unchanged, is sometimes partly chanced, and is sometimes wholly changed, to express its different properties; and that it sometimes calls in the help of the auxiliary verbs. so VEKBS. RELATIVE Singular. Perfect First Person. Second Person. T]iird Person. I You He have — Aavc — has — Pr. p been, row ed, been row ing, been rower?, been, rowed, been rowing, been rowed, been ; rowed ; been rowing ; been rowed ; c. Pr. P. tak en, been tak ing, been tak en. taken, been taking, been taken, Singular. taken ; been taking ; been taken ; Pluperfect I You had — He been, been, been ; a Pr. P. row ed, been row ing, been row ed, rowed, been rowing, been rowed, rowed ; been rowing ; been rowed ; a Pr. P. tak era, 5eerc tak ing, been takew, taken, been taking, been taken, Singular. taken ; been taking ; been taken ; Future -Per feet I You He shall or will have- been, been, been ; a Pr. P. row ed, been row &m<7, been rowed, rowed, been rowing, been rowed, rowed ; been rowing ; been rowed ; C. Pr. ft tak en, #eerc taking, been tak e^, taken, been taking, been taken, taken ; been taking; been taken ; VE11BS. 51 Tenses. Tense. Plural. (Present-Perfect.) First Person. Second Person. Third Person. We You They have — have — have — been, been, been. rowed, rowed, rowed. been rowing, been rowed, been rowing, been rowed, been rowing, been rowed. taken, taken, taken. been taking, been taken, been taking, been taken, been taking, been taken. Tense. Plu ral (Past-Perfect.) We You had — They been, been, been. rowed, rowed, rowed. been rowing, been rowed, been rowing, been rowed, been rowing, been rowed. taken, taken, taken. been taking, been taken, been taking, been taken, been taking, been taken. Tense. Plural. (Second-Future.) Wfi You shall or will have—- They been, been, been. rowed, rowed, rowed. been rowing, been rowed, been rowing, been rowed, been rowing, been rowed. taken, taken, taken. been taking, been taken, been taking, been taken, been taking, been taken. 52 VERBS. SUBJUNCTIVE a. E. Pr. P. a E. PrJ P. a K Pr. P. a M Pr. P. a Pr. P. O. Pr. P. First Person. If I be, row, do row, be row ing, be row ed, take, do take, be taking, be taken. If I were, row ed, did row, zvere row ing, icere rowed, took, did take, were tak ing, were tak en, If I been, xowed, been row ing, been vowed, tak en, been tak ing, been taken, Singular. Second Person. If you be, row, do row, oe rowing, be rowed, take, do take, be taking, be taken. Singular. If you were, rowed, did row, were rowing, were rowed, took, did take, were taking, were taken, Singular. If you had— been, rowed, been rowing, been rowed, taken, been taking, been taken, Present Third Person. If he be; row ; do row ; be rowing; be rowed ; take; do take ; be taking ; be taken ; Fast We can also say, "Were I," "Were "Had I been," "Had you been," etc., If he were ; rowed ; did row; were rowing ; were rowed ; took; did take ; were taking ; were taken ; Pluperfect If he been ; rowed ; been rowing; been rowed ; taken ; been taking ; been taken ; you," "Were he," eta, "Be it ever so fine, 1 VERBS. 53 MOOD. Tense. Plural. Mrst Person. Second Person. Third Person. If wb If you If they be, be, be. row, row, row. do row, do row, do row. be rowing, be rowing, be rowing. be rowed, be rowed, be rowed. take, take, take. do take, do take, do take. be taking, be taking, be taking. be taken, be taken, be taken. Tense. Plural. (Imperfect.) If we If you If they were, were, were. rowed, rowed, rowed. did row, did row, did row. were rowing, were rowing, were rowing. were rowed, were rowed, were rowed. took, took, took. did take, did take, did take. were taking, w r ere taking, were taking. were taken, were taken, were taken. Tense. Plural. (Past-Perfect.) If wb If you If they had — been, been, been. rowed, rowed, rowed. been rowing, been rowing, been rowing. been rowed, been rowed, been rowed. taken, taken, taken. been taking, been taking, been taking. been taken, been taken, been taken. would not buy it f 1 for, "If 1 were," "If you were," "If 1 had been," "Though it be ever so fine, 1 would not buy it." 54 VERBS. POTENTIAL Present Singular. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. I You may, can, or must- He be, be, be ; a row, row, row ; i-v. p. be row big, be rowed, be rowing, be rowed, be rowing; be rowed ; o. take, take, take ; Pr. P. be taking 9 be taketi. be taking, be taken, Singular. be taking ; be taken ; Past be, You He might, could, would, or should — be, be ; a Pr. P. row, be row ing, be rowed, row, be rowing, be rowed, row ; be rowing ; be rowed ; 0. Pr. P. take, be taking, be taken, take, be taking, be taken, take; be taking ; be taken ; Singular. Perf ec t I You He may, been, can, or must have- been, % been ; C. Pr. P. row ed, been rowing, been rowed, rowed, been rowing, been rowed, rowed ; been rowing; been rowed ; 0. Pr. P. tak en, been taking, been taken, taken, been taking, been taken, taken ; been taking; been taken ; Does the subjunctive mood vary, iu its forms, through the different persons and numbers ? VERBS. 55 MOOD. Tense, Plural. First Person. Second Person. Third Person. We You may, can> or must — They be, be, be. row, be rowing, be rowed, row, be rowing, be rowed, row. be rowing. be rowed. take, be taking, be taken, take, be taking, be taken, take. be taking. be taken. Tense. Plural. (Imperfect.) Wk You They might, could, would, or should — be, be, be. row, be rowing, be rowed, row, be rowing, be rowed, row. be rowing. be rowed. take, be taking, be taken, take, be taking, be taken, take. be taking. be taken. Tense. Plural. (Present-Perfect.) We You They may, can } or must have — been, been, been. rowed, been rowing, been rowed, rowed, been rowing, been rowed, rowed, been rowing, been rowed. taken, been taking, been taken, taken, been taking, been taken, taken. been taking, been taken. Can you show how some of the forms of the subjunctive mood duTer from tho corresponding forms of the indicative mood ? 56 VEK13S. Singular. First Person. Second Person. You He mighty could, would, or should have — Pluperfect Third Person. a Pr. P. C. Pr. P. been, row ed, been row ing, been row ed, tak en, been tak in g, been takew, been, rowed, been rowing, been rowed, taken, been taking, been taken, been ; rowed ; been rowing; been rowed ; taken ; been taking ; been taken; IMPERATIVE MOOD Present Tense. Singular. C. Be, or be thou ; E. Do be, or do thou be ; C. Row, or row thou ; E. Do row, or do thou row; Pr. Be rowing, or be thou rowing; P. Be rowed, or be thou rowed ; C. Take, or take thou; E. Do take, or do thou take ; Pr. Be taking, or be thou taking ; P. Be taken, or be thou taken ; P lu ral. be, or be ye. do be, or do ye be. row, or row ye. do row, or do ye row. be lowing, or be ye rowing. be rowed, or be ye rowed. take, or take ye. do take, or do ye take. be taking, or be ye taking. be taken, or be ye taken. Exercises. The verb, and why ; then the tense, and why : — The tree blossoms, has blossomed ; blossomed, had blossomed ; will blossom, will have blossomed; may blossom, might blossom. The moonlight is glimmering on the water. Hushed now are the whirlwinds that ruffled the deep. The storm had ceased before we reached a shelter. The storm ceased before we reached a shel- ter. He who is a stranger to industry, may possess, but he can net enjoy. Men must be taught as if you taught them not. How bright yon pearly clouds reposing lie ! He sank exhausted on the How many and what tenses has the indicative mood ? — the subjunctive ? — the potential ? — the imperative ? What participles are there ? — what infinitives ? In what mood and tense do you find do? — did? — have? — had?— shall or will? — shall or will have? — may, can, or must? — may, can, or must have? — might, could, would, or should ? — might, could, would, or should have ? VERBS. Tense. Plural. (Past-Perfect.) First Person. We Second Person. You Third Perso * They been, mighty could \ wouldy or been, should have — been. rowed, been rowing, been rowed, rowed, been rowing, been rowed, rowed, been rowing, been rowed. 1aken, been taking, been taken., taken, been taking, been taken, taken. been taking, been taken. 5repositions ; because preposition means placing before, and prepositions must generally be placed before nouns, to make the latter capable of being used as descriptive words. What, then, is a preposition ? A preposition is a word used to govern* a noun or pronoun, and show its relation to some other word. Ex. — In, on, under, above, over, around, at, from, to, through. A rabbit in a hollow tree. (What in what ?) How sweetly bloom the violets on yonder bank 1 Two prepositions are sometimes combined, and some phrases are constantly used in the sense of prepositions. The former expressions may be called complex prepositions ; the latter, prepositional phrases ; or both may be termed simply prepositions. See the List, Exercises. The adverbs, and why ; of what hind, and what they modify: — Wisely, now, here, very. The horse runs swiftly. G-od is everywhere. Never before did I see her look so pale. These things have always been so. I have been too idle heretofore, but hencerbrth I will study more diligently. Your book is more beautiful. He was lately here. You do not know him as well as I do. The hall was brilliantly illuminated, and densely crowded with hearers. Compare late, soon, early, much, little, well, ill, long, far, proudly, heroically. * Govern, to have such influence upon as to cause the case or form of. PREPOSITIONS. 03 What does a preposition usually join to some other word or part of the sentence ? A substantive denoting the place, time, possessor, cause, means, manner, or some other circumstance. Ex. — The apples hang ON the tree. We have snow in winter. He was stabbed by a volunteer, with the sword of a Kentuckian. To write with ease. What is an adjunct ? An adjunct* is a preposition with its object, or with the words required after it to complete the sense- Ex. — The wind glides in waves \ over the bristling barley. IIow are adjuncts related to adjectives, adverbs, and possessives ? They are their equivalents ; they often relieve them, or supply their deficiency ; and they are probably the richest group of descriptive expressions in language. Ex. — " A man of wisdom and virtue 1 ' 1 =K. wise and virtuous man. " To stand here"=To stand in this place. "The beauty of Absalom 1 '=•= Absalom's beauty. " A land of liberty." No adjective. " To sail to New England." No adverb. Adjuncts show where, when, how, how long, of what kind, by whom, etc. Is the preposition always expressed ? It is sometimes understood. Ex. — "Give him his book"=Grive his book to him. " I stood near him"=l stood near to him. " He is like his father"=Ho is like to or unto his father. A preposition without its object becomes an adverb, sometimes an adjective. See p. 60. A preposition is sometimes so blended with a verb or participial noun, as to become a part of it; as, "Ho was laughed \ at" i. e., ridiculed." "Our country is worth fighting \for." List of Prepositions. A, bating, ere, respecting, up, atween, aboard, before, behind, except ? round, upon, atwixt, about, excepting, save, versus, cross, above, below, for, saving, withj dehors, across, beneath, from, since, within, inside, after, beside, I in, through, without. maugre, against, along, amid, ) amidst, f besides, into, throughout, minus, between, betwixt, notwith- standing, till, to, Not Common. outside, plus, beyond, of, touching, Abaft, sans, among, ) amongst, | but, off, toward, ) towards, j adown, than, by, on, afore, thorough, around, concerning, over, under, aloft, via, aslant, despite, past, pending, underneath, alongside, aloof. withal, at, down, until, withinside. athwart, during, per, unto, aneath, Aboard of, as for, from before , from out, according to, as to, from betwixt, from under, contrary to, because of, from bevond, out of, along with, from among, from off, round about. Can you repeat tlie prepositions that begin with a ?—b ?— c ?—d f—e ?—/?— i f-~ n ?—o?—p ?—r ?—s t—t ?—u ?—v ?—w t * Ad'junct, from the Latin ad, to, and junctm, joined ; what is joined to something else. 64 CONJUNCTIONS. 8. CONJUNCTIONS. When I sey, "John and James write ;" " John writes and ciphers ;" " John spilt his ink on the desk and on the floor ;" " John writes twice every day, and I generally look at his writing ;" you see that the word and brings on something more to what has been said, or joins together two words, two phrases, or two propositions ; and as conjunction means joining together, this word, and others like it, have been called conjunctions. "What definition, then, may bo given of a con- junction 1 A conjunction is a word used to connect other words, and show the sense in which they are connected. Ex. — Grain will be cheap, and perhaps unsalable. Grain will be cheap, for the harvest is abundant. He rides, if he is sick. He rides, though he is sick. He rides, because he is sick. Two conjunctions are sometimes combined, and certain phrases are some- times used in the sense of conjunctions : as, " His health, as well as his estate, is ruined ; and yet he still persists in his course." The former expressions may be called complex conjunctions; and the latter, conjunctive phrases; or both may be termed simply conjunctions. What is a coordinate conjunction ? A coordinate conjunction connects parts of equal rank, or parts of which one does not modify the other. Ex. — And, but, or. " The woods are sprouting, and the dove is cooing." nere and connects clauses which do not depend on each other, and therefor© they are said to be coordinate, which means of equal rank. What is a subordinate conjunction ? A subordinate conjunction connects parts of un- equal rank, or parts of which one modifies the other. Ex. — Tf, that, since, because. " I will work for you, if you pay me." Here if connects two clauses, of which one depends on the other, and therefore the dependent one is said to be subordinate, which means ranking under. Exercises. Mention the corresponding adverb : — True, new, sure, good, (well,) glaring, studious, ardent, bad, patient, noble, lazy, profuse, slavish, richer, (more richly,) richest, plainer, severest, necessary, graphic, critic, order, grammar, history, arithmetic, geography. With vigor; in a careless manner; without care; in what place; from what cause; in this place; in that place; at all times; at the present time: in the lowest degree ; at that time ; one time ; from instinct ; by the year. The prepositions, and why ; and between what they show the relation : — Flowers are growing along the rivulet. I saw him, through a window. The bear was attacked by the dogs, and chased through a cane-brake into the river. My dinner is in my^ basket under the bench. Beneath the oak lie acorns in abundance. The hog never looks up to him who thresl'es down the acorns. By assisting me you will confer a favor on me. Tt happened since corning, and before eleven o'clock. They were rowing up the river • but we, down. CONJUNCTIONS. 65 What is a corresponding or correlative conjunction ? A corresponding conjunction suggests another con- junction, and assists it in connecting the same parts. Ex. — I will neither buy nor sell. Though he reproves me, yet I esteem him. By examining the beginning of this section, what words would you infer may be connected by conjunctions? Words of almost any part of speech. Where are conjunctions mostly used? In connecting the parts of long sentences. Are conjunctions ever understood ? Sometimes they are ; and other words are generally understood after them. Ex. — "Rout, [and] ruin, [and] panic, scattered all." "I knew [that] ho had lost it." " You may first read this sentence, and then [you may] parse it." How may adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions be distinguished, or what is the chief characteristic of eaeh class ? Adverbs modify or limit ; prepositions govern sub- stantives in the objective case ; and conjunctions connect. Ex. — u He took but one apple" — adverb. " I saw all but him" — preposition. u I saw him, but he would not come" — conjunction. List of Conjunctions. !• Conjunctions implying continuance or addition, simply or emphatically : And, as well as, again, also, besides, both, moreover, furthermore, even, nay, so (=»also). (Copulative conjunctions.) 2. Separation or choice : Or, nor, either, neither, or else. (Alternative or dis- junctive conjunctions.) 3. Contrariety, restriction, or reservation: But, yet, still, however, howso- ever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, unless (==»but not. . . if), except, that, save. (Adversative or restrictive conjunctions.) 4. Comparison: Than, as. (Comparative conjunctions.) 5. Concession : Although, though, even if, even though, notwithstanding, albeit; and perhaps, what though (—although). (Concessive conjunctions.) 0. Condition or doubt : If, unless (=if not), whether, provided, provided that, in case that, so, except, lest. (Conditional or contingent conjunctions.) 7. Cause or reason : Because, for, since, as, seeing, inasmuch as, forasmuch as, whereas. (Causal conjunctions^) 8. Consequence or inference : Then, so, therefore, wherefore. (Illative con- junctions.) 9. Purpose, motive, or statement : That, so that, in order that, lest, so as. 10. Corresponding conjunctions: Either — or; neither — nor; whether— or.* if— then ; though, or although — yet ; both — and ; as — so j as — as. GO INTERJECTIONS. Conjunctions aro son\3timcs accumulated, or tako adverbial particles, merclj to strengthen or to modify slightly the connection between the parts. Somor times, phrases even, or adverbial particles, may be treated simply as conjunctions, unless great accuracy is required; or else they may be analyzed more rigidly otherwise, especially by supplying such words as can bo reasonably supposed to have been omitted. The conjunctions of the first three classes are chiefly coordinate ; the others, to the tenth class, subordinate. The former rather indicate the movements and turns of thought; the latter subjoin parts that aro used more or less in tho sense of parts of speech. Can you mention two copulative conjunctions? — two alternative? (Pass thus through tho list.) 9.. INTERJECTIONS. • In every language, there are certain words used when the mind is suddenly or greatly excited, in order to give vent to some strong feeling or sudden emo- tion ; as, Oh ! alas ! These words are called interjections, a word that means thrown among; because interjections are so loosely combined with the other words of a sentence, that they seem thrown among them, or seem to be thrown into discourse by the force of passion, without regard to syntax. What is an interjection ? An interject ion is a word that expresses an emo- tion only, and is not connected in construction with any other word. Ex. — Alas! fie I 0! oh 1 hurrah! haill adieu! Grave! where is thy victory! Ah! Terentia, I am worn out with grief. Pshaw ! never mind it. As the heart is susceptible of many different emotions or feelings, the inter- jections may be divided into various classes. List of Interjections. 1* Of sorroio, grief, or pity : Oh! alas! ah! alack! hoo ! welladay 2. Of earnestness or joy : 1 eigh ! hey ! eh ! ha ! 3. Of surprise, wonder, or horror: Hah! ha! what! h'm! heigh! strange! indeed! hey-dey! la! whew! zounds! eh! ah! oh! hoity-toity! 4. Of contempt or aversion : Pshaw! pish! tut! tush! poll! fohl bah! humph/ faugh! whew! off! begone! avauntl 5. Of exultation or approbation : Aha ! ah ! hey ! huzzah ! hurrah 1 good ! bravo! 6. Of attention or calling : Ho! lo! behold! look! see! hark! la! heigh-ho! soho! hollo! halloa! hoy I hold! whoh! halt! 'st! 7. Of silence: Hush! hist! whist! 'st ! aw! mum! 8. Of interrogating : Eh ? hern, or h'm ? (The opposite of the preceding class.) 9. Of detection: Aha! oho! ay-ay! 10. Of laughter : Ha, ha, ha ! he, he, he ! 11. Of saluting or parting : Welcome ! hail ! all-hail ! adieu / good-by ! and perhaps good-day ! good-night! good-morning! good-evening 1 It is difficult to make a satisfactory Classification of interjections ; for some of them are used in various senses. When the learner meets with an interjec- tion, it is perhaps best that he should determine its meaning from the spirit of the sentence or discourse. Can ijou mention two interjections of grief? — two of joy ? (Pass thus through the List.) EULES OP SYNTAX. 67 If a man cultivates the earth, he may be styled a farmer ; if the same man should engage in the business of buying and selling goods, a merchant ; if in preaching the gospel, a preacher : even so the same word, according to its use, is sometimes of one part of speech, and sometimes of another. Ex. — " A black horse ;" " To black boots ;" " Black is a color." See p. 152. The first black is an adjective ; the second, a verb ; and the third, a noun. lO. RULES OF SYNTAX. THE RELATIONS OF WORDS TO ONE ANOTHER, IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. Words are used to express thoughts ; but every thought requires two or more words to be associated or grouped together, in order to express it. Almost every word, therefore, is so made or modified, or is of such a nature, that it looks to some other word for complete sense, and would be as unmeaning and useless by itself as a detached piece of a steam-engine. Ex. — ' 'The white house gleaming on yonder hill, was built long ago for mo and my family to live in it." The relates to fiouse, showing that some particular one is meant; white relates to house, describing it; home relates to was built, the thing said of it; gleaming relates to house, describing it; on relates to gleaming and hill, showing where ; hill relates to on, showing on what ; was built relates to house, showing what is said of it ; long ago relates to was built, showing when ; for relates to was built and me and my family, showing the purpose; me and my family relates to for ; and connects me and family, showing that the two are to be taken together; my relates to family, showing what family ; to live relates to me and family, showing what we do; in relates to it and to live, showing where; and it relates to house as the thing meant, and to in as denoting where. This illustration may teach you, to soma extent, what the following Rules mean, UjT" The teacher may show the relations of words in sentences still better, by writing the fore- going sentence, and the most suitable of the following sentences, on the blackboaid, and then joining the related words by connecting lines druwn above and below. Exercises. The conjunctions, what they imply, and what they connect : — Him and her we know ; but who are you ? It ran around the house, and under the floor. You must study, if you would be wise. He is neither edu- cated, nor naturally wise. I will either come or send. Tlie interjections, and why ; then of what kind : — 01 oh ! alas ! welcome ! ho ! ah ! tush 1 hurrah ! Deluded hopes I — oh, worse than death 1 Tut! such aristocracy 1 Adieu! adieu! dear native land. Supply the words omitted : — A man and woman were drowned. You may write, and then cipher. Give him his book. He is like you. A book of my sister's. John knows moro than Rufus. The first tree and the fourth are dead. I have lost the letter you wrote. Who bets, should be willing to lose. The door opens to whoever knocks. ( — any one who — ) Here are the marbles: take which is youis. Let it be. Arm, soldiers! How now, Tubal; what news from Genoa? Sweet the pleasure, rich the treasure. Strange indeed. Soon ripe, soon rotten. Change the position of the words, without changing the meaning : — After a painful struggle, I yielded to my fate. Swe§t songs wore heard the leafy dells along. Me glory summons to the martial seene. Various, sincere, and constant are the efforts of men to attain happiness. Gone, for ever gone, are the happy days of youth. (See Gray's Elegy, 4th stanza, p. 131.) 68 RULES OF SYNTAX. Rule I.— Nominatives. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. J* am. We are. He is. (Who is?) They are. Were I. Shall you go? G-o thou, hence. Thou dar'st not. She sings well. Yonder comes the powerful king of day. Come ye in peace here, or come ye in war ? There is a calm fur those v)ho weep. Wheat, corn, and tobacco, are the principal productions. Largo quantities of hides and tallow are exported. The man who is industrious, can earn what he needs. (Who can earn ? Observe that the nominative relative is the subject of the verb next to it^ and its antecedent, of the verb beyond.) Who is he? (He is who?) Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he, who first broke peace in Heaven ? / have less than he [has]. Talent is full of thoughts; bud Genius, full of thought. To lie is disgraceful. That liars are not believed when they tell the truth, is a just part of their punishment. * / is a pronoun, in the nominative case to am, according to Rule I. (Repeat it. Pass thus through all the examples under each Rule-; and, at some future tiuie, parse the words.) Rule II.— Nominatives. A n!)un or proii3M?i used independently or abso- lutely, must be in the nominative case. Independent. — By direct address: Go, Tubal* go. Plato, thou reasonst well. By exclamation : Three thousand ducats! 'lis a good round sum. To be — or not to bj, — that is tin question 1 (Life or death, — that is the question!) By pleonasm or specification : The Pilgrim Fathers, — where are they? My banks they are furnished with bees. Worcester's Dictionary, Unabridged. (Title.) Absolute. | — Before a participle: The rain having ceased, the sun reap- peared. Tho steed [being] at hand, why longer tarry ? (Being is often understood.) After a participle or an infinitive : The vanity of being a belle. To bo a good Ciristiai^wm his highest ambition. No one suspected his being a foreigner. * Tu'tnl is a noun ; an I it Is in the nominative case independent, by direct address, ac- cording to Rule II. t '• Sine.} yon are alone, I will return ;" " He has becom e a lieutenant f " There is no doubt that he is a patriot; "There I*. no doubt that he is patriotic, etc. 3ftanga these finite verb* into participles and infinitives, and the Italic words are absolved, or set tree, from their former dependence. Rule III.— Possessives. A noun or pronoun that limits the meaning of an- other by denoting possession, must be in the possessive case. John's* horse. (That is, not any horse, but the one that belongs to John.) Sir Walter Scott's works. Whose book is it, if not mine [=my book] ? Fultoii's invention. (See p. 18.) Boys' clothing. Smith's [store] and Barton's store. S.nith, Allen, and Barton's store. Call at Smith's, the bookstlhr.\ (That is, at Smith's house or store.) The captain of the Neptune's wife. (Whose wife, — the captain's or the Neptune's ? See p. 89.) Evidence of their having quarreled. * John's is a noun, in the possessive case, governed by 7to>se, according to Rule II L t Bookseller is in the possessive case, and agrees with Smith's, according to Rule VII. Rule IV.— Objectives. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a transi- tive verb, must be in the objective case. I caught them* He shot a deer. The soil produces cotton, rice, and sugar. I saw him, and he saw me. " Whom did you hit ?— John." (Supply "I bit") Whom therefore ye ignorautly worship, him declare I unto you. I hid myself RULES OF SYNTAX. 69 Teach us. Teach us grammar. (See Oomp. Gram., pp. 14S, 149.) Teach me to feel another's woe. G-ive us our daily bread. (.Supply to.) They crowned him king. (See Rule Til.) The lightnings flashed a brighter curve. He talked himself hoarse. Having made the law, enforce it. By reading good boolis, you will improve. To see green fields, is pleasant. I knew him well, and every truant knew. He rode the horse ; and I. the mule. Most children like to play — like sleighing and skating. Do you know when to send ? No one knows how much the fellow is in debt. The sentry cried out, " Who goes there V " Has Mary come ? — How can I tell ?" (Supply " whether she has come:' 1 ) * Them is a pronoun, in the objective case, being the object of the verb caught, accord- ing to iiule IV. Rule Y— Objectives. A noun or pronotm used as the object of a prepo- sition, must be in the objective case. It was sent by me* to him. (That is, we could not say, when spoaking cor- rectly, "It was sent by I to he") A melon for three pears and five peaches. By reading in good books, you will improve. Come, walk with me the jungle through. Lend me your knife. (Supply to.) Here he had need all circumspec- tion. " Of whom did you buy it ? — Jones." The river flowed from under the palaces. Sin never comes except to scold. The question of what are to be the powers of the crown, is superior to that of who is to ivear it. * JTe is a pronoun, in the objective ease, governed by the preposition by, etc. Rule VI.— Objectives. A noun or pronoun used without a governing word, but limiting like an adjunct or adverb some other word, must be in the objective case. The street is a mile* long, and forty feet wide. (Long and wide to what ex- tent?) He remained five days. {During five days. A preposition can generally be supplied. These objectives are abridged adjuncts without the preposition, just as - in vain, in short, etc., are abridged adjuncts without their objects.) The horsa ran six miles. It is a ton heavier. I do not care a straio. The milk is a little sour. The knife is worth a dollar. (Here worth is an adjective — valuable to ih& extent of a dollar.) He went home. I was taught music, and she was taught it. "Ho has been hero five timesP And perhaps, " Five times/owraro twenty." Most nouns under this Rule denote some estimate of space, time, weight, or value. * Mile is a noun, and in the objective case, limiting long, according to Rula VI. Rule VII.— Same Cases. A noun or pronoun used for explanation or em- phasis, by being predicated of another, or put in appo- sition with another, must be in the same case* This Kule embraces two kinds of construction: same case, by predication ,* and same case, by apposition. When two substantives refer to the same person or thing, and an intransitive or passive verb joins them, the latter or explanatory Bubstantive is said to be predicated of the other, and is called a predicate nomina- tive or substantive; as, "Jackson was the general who was _ elected President." When no verb joins them, the substantives are said to be in apposition, or the latter is called an appositive; as, " Jackson, the general, was at Lake Ponlchartrain." Miscellaneous: Taxes, endless taxes, are the consequences of corruption. Ho, feeing the eldest son, inherited the estate. She looks a goddess, and she walks a queen. They made him captain. He was made captain. If we whip the enemy, it is a victory ; if we do not, we call it strategy. Tea is the dried leaves of a Chinese shrub. Our liberties, our greatest blessing, wo shall not surrender. I 4 YO EULES OF SYNTAX. nm the man.. Hail,. Sabbath 1 thee I hail — the poor man's day. Yo scenes of my childhood. Explain tne terms reason and instinct. They bore each [one] a banner. They legard winter as "the season of domestic enjoyment. I myself wont. It was I. What is lie ? (Ho is what ?) Whom do you take me to be ? Which is which ? (Which is the right one ?) It is easy to spend money. It ia not known how the Egyptians embalmed t'teir dead. * One Eule. Compare with " A good boy," " The boy is good '*— also one Rule, t Ilud* son is a noun, in the objective case, tj agree with river, according to, etc. Rule VIII— Two Cases. The relative tvhat, or a like term when its form allows them, may supply two cases* I took what suited me.f Whoeve?- sins, shall suffer. I will employ xuhom soe ver you recommend. Tako whichever horse you like. Tho lion will kill whatever man touches him. * This Rule is merely a convenience ; for it can be dispensed with, by applying two other Rules, t What is a relative pronoun, representing thing and which; and it is used here as the object oitoofc and tho subject of suited, according to Rule VIII. Rule IX.— Pronouns. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, in gen- der, person, and number* Mary lost her book.f Tho best throw with tho dice, is to throw them away. Liberty has God on her side. John and James know their lessons. (What makes a singular or plural subject, makes also a singular or plural antecedent. Seo p. 42.) Neither John nor James knows his lesson. Every heart best knows its own sorrows. You, Henry, and I, must weed our garden. Pupils, obey your teachers. The people and their rulers The mob and its leader. And there her brood the partridge led. (The antecedent sometimes follows tho pronoun.) Too low they build, who build beneath tho stars. (A relative may refer to a different pronoun as its antecedent.) Who that knaws him, would trust him ? You are very sick, and I am sorry for it. (The antecedent may bo a phrase or clause.) You wrote to me, which was all you did. Said Joseph to his brother, " I will go with you." * This Rule is applied, only when it is definitely known what the antecedent is. t Her is a personal pronoun, of the feminine gender, 3d person, and singular number, to agree with Mary, etc. Rule X.— Articles and Adjectives. An article or an adjective belongs to the noun or pronoun to which it relates. Articles. — Bring a* | rose from the | garden. A \ gardener's wages. Once •upon a summer's day. A j noun and pronoun. (Supply a.) The | house and lot. An | industrious people, having a | great many curious inventions. (The ar- ticle relates to the entire phrase after it.) Adjectives. — Tins apple is ripe. I am sorry that you are not letter. Tho clay burned white. The story is interesting. A thick stone wall. Every \ seven days. (Every relates to the phrase.) The truly good [people] are happy. To live comfortably, is desirable. (What is desirable ?) Note X. — An adjective is sometimes usea absolutely after a participle or an infinitive. To be good is to be happy. (Goodness is happiness.) Tho way to be happy, is to ha good. The dread of being poor. (This Note can often ha dispensed with, by regarding the phrase as a noun, or by supplying a nonn. See Comp. Gram., p. 18S.) * A is an article, and belongs to rose, according to Rule X. RULES OF SYNTAX. *l\ Rule XI.— Finite Verbs. A finite verb must agree with its subject, in per- son and number. Hew.* (Who is?) They am Thou art lam. Tea and silk are brought^ from the East. (See p. 42.) A week or a month soon passes^ away. Every horse and mule was taken. You, he, and I, are allowed^ to go. (We.) You of I am mistaken. (You are, etc.) Our people are\ enterprising. No nation is at war with us. Down went the ship and her gallant crew. Down went the ship, with her gallant crew. The saint, the father, and the husband, prays. (One person.) The "Pleasures of Hope" was written by Campbell. (One thing.) To turn and fly was now impossible. For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory. (Repeat thine is.) John, as well as his brother, was drafted. Believe [thou J and obey. Read, John. He that seeketh, findeth. To write ten lines a day, | is sufficient. That so many are ruined in large cities, | is owing to bad examples. All work and no play, makes Jack a dull boy. (To have all, etc.) * Is is a verb, in the 31 p., s. n., to asrree with He, according to, etc. t Say,— "and in the 3d pcrs., plur. n., toa^ree with Tea and silk, a plural subject," etc. J Say, — "to agree with week <>r month, a singular subject," etc. § Say.— "to agree with You, he, and /, equivalent to We." I Say,—" to" agree with people, a collective noun that expresses a plural idea," etc. Note XT. — In a few peculiar expressions, finite verbs are used without a suitable subject, or without any subject. Ex. — " Methinks." And perhaps, " God said, Let us make man in our image." " Forthwith on all sides to his aid was rim By angels many and strong." — Milton's P. L., B. VI. Rule XII.— Participles and Infinitives. A participle relates to the noun or pronoun which is the subject of the act or state. An infinitive relates to an expressed or indefinite sub- ject ; and it may besides modify the meaning, or complete the construction, of some other part of the sentence. The last clause of this Rule often applies also to participles. The subject of a participle or an infinitive, is the noun or pronoun denoting the object to which the act or state belongs ; and it may be in the objective case, as well as in the nominative. Columbus became wearied* and disheartened by impediments thrown in his way. The Passions oft, to hear her shell, thronged around her magic cell. We walked out to see the moon rising. Now is the timo to sell. A mountain so high as to be perpetually covered with snow. * Wearied is a participle, and it relates to Columbus, according to, etc. t To hear is an infinitive that relates to Passions as its subject, and to thronged, as showing the purpose, according to, etc % To tett- relates to an indefinite or unexpressed subject, and modifies time, — by showing what time it is, — according to, etc. Note XII. — A participle or an infinitive is sometimes used absolutely or independently. To go prepared, is necessary. Generally speaking, young men are better for busi- ness than old men are. To "go about, seeking employment, is irksome. But, to proceed : It has been frequently remarked, etc. Every man has, so to speak, several strings by which he may be pulled. (Suitable words cangenerally be supplied, to avoid the necessity of using this Note.) [The infinitive is the most irksome element in syntax. I therefore offer to teachers the following Rule for trial, as one that will reach all constructions of participles and infinitives, and whose truthfulness most examples strikingly attest. Rule XII. — A participle or an infinitive, being apart of the ver\ relates to an expressed or indefinite subject ; and it may besides have the sense of a noun, an adjective, an adverb, or a clause] 12 EULES OF SYNTAX. Rule XIII —Adverbs. An adverb belongs to the word or words which it modifies. A most* beautiful horse galloped very \ rapidly up the road. There was nothing there that I wanted. When will you go? The cooler the water, the better I liko it. " Did you see him ? — No." (No relates to the question. See p. 59.) I con- sulted him once or twice, not \ oftener. (Supply words.) Secondly, we could wait no | longer. " Will you go therel — I go there? Never." You have perhaps not noticed quite all the adverbs in the sentence which I have just read. • Most is an adverb of degree, modifies beautiful, and belongs to it, according to, etc.- Note XIII. — A conjunctive adverb joins on something that usually expresses the time, place, or manner ; or that is used in the sense of an adverb, an ad- jective, or a noun. Ex. — " Go when you please." " The grave where our hero was buried." (What grave ?) " I know how you got it." (Know what ?) " He did as I said." (How ?) In stead of this Note, the Eule can be applied, by parsing the adverb as relating to the verbs in both propositions. Eemark XIII. — An adverb appears to be sometimes used independently. Ex. — " Well, I really don't know what to do." " Why, that is a new idea." Adverbs thus used partake somewhat of the nature of both conjunctions and in- terjections. Yes, nay, amen, etc., are usually parsed as being independent, though they nearly always relate to the preceding sentence or discourse. Eule XIV.— Prepositions, A preposition shows the relation between two terms, and governs the latter in the objective case. The antecedent term may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a verb, an adverb, or even a phrase ; the subsequent term must be a substantive. A man \ of* \ wisdom spoke. The man spoke \ of \ wisdom. Parrhasius stood gazing upon the canvas. (What upon^what?) The trees most beautiful in. spring, blossomed along the bank on the other side of the river. He took tho slate from him and me, and gave it to her for whom he had bought it. Oranges grow, like apples, on small trees. He is too old for service. He came from be- yond Jordan. Tlirough glades and glooms the mingled measure stole. (Terms inverted.) She has nothing to live for. (For which to live.) * Of is a preposition, and shows the relation between spoke and toisdom, etc. Analysis will always help to show between what words the preposition shows the relation. Eule XV.— Conjunctions. Conjunctions connect clauses or sentences; and also ivords or phrases in the same construction. Weeds \ and \ briers now grow in the field, because it is not cultivated. A long and cordial friendship had existed between him and me. //you desire it, I will both write to him and speak to him about the matter. And so it may be that infancy is a happier period than manhood, and manhood than old age. (Sup^. ply words.) Eule XVI.— Interjections. Interjections have no grammatical connection with other words. Ah me ! (Ah ! woe to me !) Oh ! luckless [am] I. Aha I caught at last. Can you repent Rule 1st ?—2J?—M ?— 4th ?— Sthf— Oth ?—lih?—mt—9th ?— 10*/t f— llth f—12th t—lUh ?—Uth ? - \bth t—lMh f SUMMARY. 73 SUMMARY OF PARSING. 1. A noun is a name. is a proper, common, or collective noun ; of the masculine, feminine, common, or neuter gender ; the first, second, or third person ; the singular or plural number; and the nominative, possessive, or objective case. Rule I, II, III, IT, V, VI, VII, or VIII. 2. A pronoun is a word that supplies the place of a noun. is a personal, relative, or interrogative pronoun;* of the masculine, fem- inine, common, or neuter gender ; the first, second, or third person ; the sin- gular or plural number; (Rule IX, if the pronoun has an antecedent;) (declen- sion ;) and in the nominative, possessive, or objective case. Rule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, or VIII. * There may also occur demonstrative, distributive, indefinite, or reciprocal pronouns. 3. An article is a word placed before a noun, to show how the noun is applied. is the definite or indefinite article. Rule X. 4. An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the mean- ing of a noun or pronoun. is a descriptive or a definitive adjective ; (compare it, if it can be com- pared ;) in the positive, comparative, or superlative degree. Rule X. 5. A Verb is a word used to affirm something of a subject. is a regular or an irregular verb ; transitive or intransitive ; (if transi- tive) in the active or the passive voice ; in the indicative, subjunctive, potential, or imperative mood ; the present, past, future, perfect, pluperfect, or future-perfect tense, and the common, emphatic, progressive, or ancient form ; (conjugation ;) in the first, second, or third person, and the singular or plural number. Rule XL A participle is a form of the verb, that merely assumes the act or state, and is generally construed like an adjective. is a transitive or an intransitive, active or passive (if transitive), present or perfect, or compound present or perfect participle, from the verb . Rule XIL An infinitive is a form of the verb, that begins generally with to, and expresses no affirmation. is a transitive or an intransitive, active or passive (if transitive), present or perfect infinitive, from the verb . Rule XII. <>. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. is an adverb of manner, place, time, or degree. Rule XIII. 7. A preposition is a word used to govern a noun or pro- noun, and show its relation to some other word. is a preposition, showing the relation between . Rulo XIV. 8. A conjunction is a word used to connect other words, and show the sense in which they are connected. > is a copulative, adversative, alternative, distributive, comparative, con- ditional, corresponding, etc., conjunction, or a conjunction expressing purpose,' conclusion, statement, etc. ; and it connects . Rule XV. 9. An interjection is a word that expresses an emotion only, and is not connected in construction with any other word. is an interjection of grief, joy, surprise, contempt, etc. Rulo XVI. u EXERCISES. INTEODUCTOKY EXERCISES. Analysis is the resolving of a sentence into its clauses, phrases, and words, according to the sense in which they are put together. Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its parts of speech, and telling their grammatical properties. Sentence Building. Sentences are made of words. The core or chief combination of words, in making sentences, is predication. 1. Simplest Combination of Subject and Predicate. Soldiers fight.* Dogs bark. Time flies. Wolves howl. Hens cackle. Doves coo. Jewels glitter. Bells are tolling. Bees were humming. Mary was chosen. We shall return. Analysis. — * This is a simple sentence. The subject is Soldiers, and the pred- icate is fight. (The teacher should ask such questions, and require such reasons to be given, as he may deem most instructive to the pupil.) Pausing. — Soldiers is a common noun ; of the masculine gender, third person, plural number; and in the nominative case to fight, according to Rule I. (Repeat the Rule.) Fight is an irregular intransitive verb; its principal parts are, present fight, past fovght, present participle fighting, perfect participle # /0w0^; and it i3 in the third person, plural number, to agree with its subject Soldiers, according to Rule XI. We is a personal pronoun ; of the common gender, first person, plural number ; and in the nominative case to shall return, according to Rule I. 2. Object added to the Predicate- Verb. Dogs bite strangers.* Wolves catch lambs. Lightning strikes trees. Raccoons steal corn. Misers love gold. Mer- chants sell goods. Horses draw carriages. I shall see him. Analysis. — * This is a simple sentence. The subject is Dogs. The entire predi- cate is b ite strangers; the predicate-verb is bite, which is limited by the object strangers. (Bite what ? A word limits or modifies another, when it completes or fixes its meaning. A modifying word or expression is called a modifier.} Parsing. — Dogs is a common noun; of the masculine gender, third person, ?lural number; and in the nominative case to the verb bite, according to Rule I. Ute is an irregular transitive verb; its principal parts are lite, bit, biting, bitten; etc., as above. Strangers is a com. noun; of the c. g., 3d p., p. n. ; and in the ob- jective case—because it is the object of the verb bite — according to Rule IV. 3. Article or Adjective added to the Subject or the Object. The vessel was wrecked.* John found a knife. Leaves cover the ground. Sweet music rose. The young lady wrote a good composition. Tall and beautiful poplars fringe the river. . Analysis. — * This is a simple sentence. The entire subject is The vessel; the subject- nomi native is vessel, which is modified by the article Tlie. Was wrecked is the predicate. Parsing. — The is the definite article ; and it belongs to vessel, according to Rule X. (Parse vessel like Dogs above.) Was wrecked is a regular verb, in the passive voice ; prin- cipal parts, wreck, icrecked, wrecking, wrecked ; and it agrees with vessel, in the third person and singular number, according to Rule XI. Sweet is a descriptive adjective, in the positive degree; positive sweet, comparative sweeter, superlative sweetest ; and it belongs to music, according to Rule X. And is a copulative conjunction, connecting tall and beautiful, according to Rule XV. EXERCISES. 75 4. Adjective or Nominative added to the Predicate-Verb. Lead is heavy.* Most people are ambitious. A bad com- panion is dangerous. The wind blew cold. Flies are insects.* The rose is a famous flower. It was you. Analysis. — * This is a simple sentence. Lead is the subject Is heavy is the predicate; is is the predicate-verb, and it is limited, or has its construction completed, by the adjec- tive heavy. Or say. Is is the predicate-verb, and it is limited by heavy, an attribute of the subject. 'See p. 116. (Analyze are insects in like manner.) Parsing. — (Parse Lead like Soldiers.) Is is an irregular intransitive verb; its principal parts are be or am, was, being, been; and it agrees with its subject Lead, in the 3d p. and 6. n., according to Rule XI. Heavy is a descriptive adjective, in the positive degree ; (com- pare it;) and it belongs to Lead, according to Rule X. (Parse Flies and are like Lead and is above.) Bisects is a common noun ; of the c. g., 3d p., p. n. ; and la the nominative case, to agree with Flies, according to Rule VII. 5. Adverb added to the Predicate- Verb. John comes frequently.* Good pupils study diligently. The procession moved slowly. The eagle flew round and up- wards. Flowers are peeping out everywhere. I was there. Analysis.—* This is a simple sentence. The subject is John. The entire predicate Is comes frequently ; comes is the predicate-verb, and it is modified by the adverb frequently. Pausing.— Frequently is an adverb of time: and it belongs to comes, according to Kule XIII. 6. Adjunct added to the Predicate-Verb. The mountain is clothed with evergreens.* The wind glided over the grass. Our troubles are aggravated by imaginary evils. My cousin went to your house, at noon, in a carriage. Analysis. — *This is a simple sentence. The entire subject is The mountain , 'the subject- nominative is mountain, which is limited by the article The. Is clothed with evergreens is the entire predicate; is clothed is the predicate-verb, which is modified by the adjunct with evergreens. Pausing.— With is a preposition, showing the relation between is clothed and evergreens, according to Rule XIV. Evergreens is a common noun ; of the n. g., 3d p., p. n.; aud in the objective case— it is the object of the preposition with— according to Rule V. 7. Adjunct added to the Subject or the Object. A wreath of rose-buds encircled her head.* She brought a basket of fruit. The old oak is loaded with a flock of singing blackbirds. The path through the woods is cool and pleasant. A nalysi!*.— * This is a simple sentence. The entire subject is A wreath of rose-buds ; the Bubject-nomhiativc is icreath, which is limited by the article A and the adjunct of rose- buds. Encircled her head is the entire predicate ; encircled is the predicate-verb, which is limited by the object head, and head is limited by the possessive her. Pakrynu. — Of is a preposition ; showing the relation between wreath and rose-buds, ac- cording to Rule XIV. Rose-buds is a c. n. ; of the n. g., iid p., p. n. ; aud in the objective case— it is the object of the preposition of — according to Rule V. 8. Possessive or Appositive added to the Subject or the Object. I My hat is new.* Mary's eyes are blue. Our neighbor's bees left their hive. Rogers the poet was a banker.f Lake Erie is a beautiful sheet of water. We visited Rome, the capital of Italy. Analysis.—* This is a simple sentence. The entire subject is My hat; the subject-nomi- native is hat, which ?s rodified by the possessive My. (Analyze is new like is heavy above.) t Thin is a rimple sentence. The entire subject is Rogers the poet; the subject-nomi- native is Rogers, nhich is limited by the appositive poet, and poet is modified by the article the. Pakkincj. — My is a personal pronoun; of the common gender, first person, singular num- ber ; and in t'.ie possessive cise, limiting hat, according to Rule III. Poet is a c. n. ; of the m. g., Sd p., s. a ; and iu the nominative case, tc agree with Rogers, according to Rule VII. 1Q PARSING. 11. PARSING. General Formula. — The part of speech, and why ; the kind, and why; the properties, and why ; the relation to other words, and according to what Rule. Articles. Formula.— An article, and why ; ir ^l^ ite [ and why ; to what it belongs, and according to what Rule. " The river." " The" is an article, — a word placed before a noun to show how it is applied : definite, it shows that some particular river is meant ; and it belongs to " river," according to Rule X : " An article belongs to the noun to which it relates. 1 ''* Abridged. — The is the definite article; and it belongs to river, etc. "River" is a noun, it is a name; common, it is a name that can be applied to every object of the same kind ; neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular number, it means but one. Analysis. — Tlie river is a phrase. The principal word is river, modified by the article The. (All the following exercises may be first analyzed, and then parsed, if the teacher deems it best to do so.) In like manner parse the following phrases : — The man. The men. A rose. An arrow. The horse. The horses. A melon. An island. The child. The children. A uuiversity. An uncle. " A man's hat/' " A " is an article, — a word placed before a noun to show how it is applied • indefinite, it shows that no particular man is meant ; and it belongs to "mart's, according to Kule X. (Repeat it.) Abridged. — A is the indefinite article ; and it belongs to man's, etc. " Ma n ' * " is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a name common to all objects of the same kind ; masculine gender, it denotes a male ; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular number, it means but one ; and in the possessive ease, it limits the meaning of" hat," according to Eule III. (Repeat it.) " Hat" is parsed like " river." Abridged. — Man's is a common noun, of the masculine gender, third person, singular number ; and in the possessive ease, governed by hat, according to, etc. Analysis. — A man's hat is a phrase. The principal word is hat, modified by man's, showing what hat ; and man's is modified by A, showing that no particular man is meant. In like manner parse the following phrases : — A neighbor's farm. The boy's book. An Indian's hatchet. The boys' books. The sun's splendor. Women's fancies. Adjectives. Formula. — An adjective, and why ; J^y™ 6 ' [ an< * why ; whether com- pared or not, and how ; the degree, and why ; to what it belongs, and according to what Rule. * It is not necessary, in parsing, to repeat more of a Eule than the example requires. PARSING. 77 " A beautiful morning, with a refreshing "breeze." " Beautify V is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun ; descriptive, it describes or qualifies the morning ; compared pos. beauti- ful, comp. more beautiful, superl. most beautiful ; in the positive degree, it expresses the quality simply ; and it belongs to " morning,'" according to Rule X. (Repeat it.) Abridged. — Beautiful is a descriptive adjective, in the positive degree (pos. beautiful, comp. more beautiful, superl. most beautiful) ; and it belongs to morning. " Refreshing" is an adjective, — a word, etc. * * * participial, it ascribes the act to its subject as a quality ; and it belongs to " breeze," according to Kule X. (Repeat it.) Abridged. — Refreshing is a participial adjective, from the verb refresh ; and it belongs to breeze, according to Rule X. (Repeat it.) Analysis. — A beautiful morning, with a refreshing breeze, is a phrase. (Give defini- tion.) The principal word is morning, which is modified by the article A, the adjective beautiful, and the adjunct with a refreshing breeze. Breeze is modified by the article a, the adjective refreshing, and joined to morning by the preposition with. Descriptive Adjectives. A a ripe melon. A whiter rose. The fairest lady. A dark night. Purling streams. The black-winged redbird. An early riser. Ground corn. The red- winged blackbird. Delightful scenery. The best gift. Flowery meadows. A most ingenious story. Mahogany furniture. The least troublesome servant. A more beautiful day. Webster's most eloquent speech. John's bay horse. The obedient, cheerful, and in- The worst condition. dustrious pupil. A good boy's- mother. A man bold, sensible, sensitive, A large, threatening cloud. proud, and° ambitious. " All men." " Five dollars." Formula. — An adjective, and why; the kind, and why; to what it belongs, and according to what Rule. "All " is an adjective,— a -word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun . definitive, it limits or modifies the meaning of " men, ;" and it belongs to " men," according to Rule X. (Repeat it.) Abridged. — All is a definitive adjective, and belongs to men, according to, etc. "Five" is an adjective, — a word, etc. * * * numeral, and of the cardi- nal kind, because it expresses number and shows how many ; and it belongs to " dollars," according to Rule X. (Repeat it.) Abridged.— Five is a numeral adjective, of the cardinal kind, and belongs to dollars, according to Rule X. Definitive Adjectives. Yonder house. These trees. Every fourth man. This tree. Each pupil. Those two benches. That barn. Such a person. The lawyer's own case Twelve Spartan virgins, noble, young, and fair, With violet wreaths adorned their flowing hair. — Dryden. (a.) "yl" shows that no particular " ripe melon" is meant, (o.) To be omitted in parsing. (b.) Say, in stead of comparison, " It can not be compared with propriety." 4* 78 PARSING. Nouns. Formula. — A noun, and why; *LJ!Z\ n f an( l "why; collective, and why; gender, aud why ; person, and why ; number, and why ; case, and Rule. " Snow is falling." "(S'aow)" is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is the common namo of a sub- stance; neater gender, it denotes neither male nor female; third person, it repre- sents an object as spoken of; singular number, it means but one ; and in the nom- inative case — it is the subject of the verb is falling — according to Rule I. (Repeat it.) Abridged*. — Snow is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third person, singu- lar number ; and in the nominative case to is falling, according to Rule I. Analysis. — Snow is falling, is a simple declarative sentence. Snow is the subject, and is falling is the predicate. Parse the articles, the adjectives, and the nouns : — David slew Goliatli a . Jones e the saddler's f wife. Cattle eat grass. TheDukeof Wellington's* forces. Cats catch mice. Mr. Smith taught Ida a music a . In golden ringlets b . Give John h the book. With Sarah's pen. James the coachman' is sick. Edward Everett's orations. George is a gentleman 1 . Allen's d and Brown's store. Bancroft the historian was made Allen and Brown's store. chairman J. Alice k , bring your books, slate, and paper. The boy 1 — ! where was he ? My mother 111 being sick, I remained at home. To become" a scholar 111 requires mind and labor. The canal is 4 feet° deep, and 36 feet wide. To advance 11 was now utterly impossible. Thou shalt not stealp, is the eighth commandment. Sweet clime of my kindred, blest land of my birth | The fairest r , the brightest, the dearest on earth ! C/r."> " Goliath' 1 '' is a nonn, it is a name ; proper, it is the name of a particular person, to distinguish liim from other persons, etc. *** and in the objective case — it is the object of the verb "slew'* — according to Kale IV. (&.) " Itinglets"" is a noun, etc. * * * and in the objec- tive casj — it is the object of the preposition In — according to Rule V. (c.) "Edward Everett's" is a prober noun, (d.) — and in the possessive case — it limits the meaning of store, understood — according to Rule III. (e ) — and in the possessive case — it limits the meaning of " tcife" by showing whose wife she is — according to Rule III. (/)— and in the possessive case- -to agree with '■'Jones'" — according to Rule VII. (g.) — and in the objective case — it is the object of the preposition "o/"'— according to Rule V. (h. )— and in the obj. dive case- it is the object of the preposition to, understood— according to Rnle. V. (i.) — and in the nominative case — to agree with James — according to Rule VII. (?.) — and in the nomina- live case — to agree w\Xh "•Bancroft"' — aecordingto Rnle VII. (fc) — and in the '.nominative case independent, by direct address, according to Rule II. (I.) Rule II. (m.) — and in the nom- inative case absolute, according to Rule II. (71.) "To become" 1 is an infinitive, used here as a noun of the neuter gender. 3d person, singular number, and nominative case to " requires" ac- cording to Rule I. (o.)— and in the objective case, limiting "deep" according to Rule VI. {p.) Thou shalt not steal, is a clause, used here as a noon of the neuter gender, 3d p., s. n. ; and in the nominative case to is, according to Rule I. Parse each word, (r.) Supply land,. * Parsing is usually abridged, hy simply omitting the reasons. TAKSIXG. 79 P r o ii o wit s , personal, ) Formula. — A pronoun, — definition; relative, >and why; gender, and interrogative, ) why; person, and why; number, and why; case, and Rule. " I myself saw John. and his brother." "/" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; personal, it is ono of the pronouns that serve to distinguish the three grammatical persons; of the common gender, it may denote either a male or a female , first person, it denotes the speaker ; singular number, it mean? but one ; and in the nominative case — it is the subject of the verb " *aai" — according to Rule I. Nom., /; poss., my or mine, etc. Abridged. — /is a personal pronoun, of the common gender, first person, singu- lar number ; and in the nominative case to the verb saw, according to Rule I. "Myself" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun; compound, it is compounded of my and self; personal, etc. * * * and. in the nominative case, to agree with " I," according to Rule VII. Abridged. — Myself is a compound personal pronoun, of the common gender, etc. " His" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun; personal, it is one of the pronouns that serve to distinguish the three grammatical persons ; of the masculine gender, third person, and singular number, to agree with " John," according to Rule IX; (repeat it;) and in the possessive case, it limits the meaning of "brother," according to Rule III. (Repeat it.) Abridged. — His is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, 3d pers., s. n., to agree with John, according to Rule IX; (repeat it;) and in the possessive case, governed by brother, according to Rule IIL Awaltsis.— This is a simple declarative sentence. The entire subject is / myself; l'\% the subject-nominative, which is modified by the emphatic appositive myself. Saw John and Ms brother, la the entire predicate ; saw'is the predicate-verb, which is modified by tha objects John and brother, which are connected by and, and the latter of which is modified by his. (For Analysis, henceforth, see pp. 108-11.) Parse the articles, Vie adjectives, the nouns, and the pronouns : — Personal Pronouns. We caught him.* Art thou 1 the man 7 ? Albert dressed himself 944 . Martha and Mary have recited With me s . 9 their 3 lessons. Among themselves. A dutiful son is the delight 7 of Thou 2 majestic Ocean 7 . his parents. Ye golden clouds. John, 3 you* are wanted. * In these and all future parsing lessons, a number placed overii word, indicates thoKul* Vo be applied to it; and a caret (A ) shows where words are to be supplied. "Read thy doom in the flowers, which, fade and die." "Which" is a, pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; relative, Its clause relates to and describes a preceding word, and is dependent ; of the neuter gender, third person, and plural number, to agree with u flowers," according to Rule IX ; (repeat it;) and in the nominative case — it is the subject of the verbs "fade" and " die" — according to Rule I. Abridged. — Which is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third person, aDd plural number, to agree with flowers, according to Rule IX; and in the nom- inative case to the verbs fade and die, according to Rule I. u James reads what pleases him." "What" is a pronoun — a word that supplies the place of a noun* relative, it makes its clause dependent on another; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither ft male nor a female ^ third person,, it represents an object as spoken of ; singular num- 80 PARSING. her, it means but one ; and it is here used as the object of " reads" and the subject of "pleases" — because it takes the place of that which or thing which, — according to Eule VIII : " The relative what may svpply hvo cases." Abridged. — What is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and it is here used as the object of reads, etc. "Nature deigns to bless whatever man will use her gifts aright." " Wh a te ve r " is an adjective, — a word that qualifies or limits the meaning of a substantive; definitive, it limits or modifies the meaning of "man," and it belongs to ' ' man," according to Rule X. "Man" is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a generic name, etc. * * * and it is used here as the object of " to ite" and the subject of " will -use," — because the phrase whatever man, takes the place of any or every man that,— according to Eule VIII. Abridged. — Man is a common noun, of the m.g., 3d p., s. n., and is here used as the object, etc. " I do not know what he is doing." " What he is doing," is «\ clause used in the sense of a noun, of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and in the objective case — it is the object of " do know" — according to Rule IV. " What" is & pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; relative, it makes its clause dependent on another ; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor a female; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singvlar number, it means but one ; and in the objective case — it is the object of the verb is doing — according to Rale IV. Abridged. — What is a responsive relative pronoun, of the n. g., 3d p., s. n.; and in the objective case, governed by is doing, according to Rule IV. Belative Pronouns. • I saw your brother 4 , who 941 It was I 7 9 that lb went. was well. What 8 costs nothing, is worth 10 She 9 who 1 studies her 3 glass, nothing 6 . neglects her heart. Take whatever 8 you like. He was such a talker 9 as la We shall leave what is useless. could delight us all 10 . I am his 3 .). To apply Rule VII to "tfJw, would stive a different meaning to the sentence. (/'.) Say, "Mine" is here used for " my horse." My is a pronoun, etc. (Parse the two words as usual.) (d.) " Mich other"'' is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; compound, it consists of two words ; of the corn, gen., etc. (e.) "-Hope" 1 has the entire member after it as its ohject. (Hope what ''.) Verbs, Finite Verbs. Formula. — A verb, and why ; principal parts ; ™^Quiar f and why * transitivi, with voice, ) and , tho ^ and wh the fc and h tntranntive, or neuter, ) " J ' • ' with form (empliatic or progressive), and why; the person and number, to agree with its subject , according to Rule XI. " My father is ploughing the field which was bought last year." " la ploughing" is a verb, — a word used to affirm something of a subject ; principal parts,— pres. plough, past ploughed, pert", part, ploughed ; regular, it as- sumes tlie ending ed ; transitive, it lias an object (field), — and in the active voice, because it represents its subject as acting ; indicative mood, it affirms something as an actual occurrence or fact ; present tense, it expresses the act in present time, — and progressive form, it represents it as continuing ; third person and singular number,— to agree with its Bubjeet/a^e/', — according to Rule XI. (Repeat it.) Abridged. — Is ploughing is a regular transitive verb, from the verb plough} (principal parts, — pres. plough, past ploughed, perf. part, ploughed ;) in the indica- tive mood, present tense, progressive form; and in the third person and singular number, to agree with its subject father, according to Rule XI. First person, I am ploughing ; second person, You are ploughing, etc. "Was bought" is a verb, — a word used to affirm something of a subject; principal parts, — pres. buy, past bought, perf. part, bought; irregular, it does not assume the ending ed ; transitive, but in the passive voice, because it affirms the aco of the object acted upon ; indicative mood, it asserts something as an actual occurrence or fact ; past tense, it refers the act simply to past time ; third person and singular number, — to agree with its subject which, — according to Rule XI. Abridged. — Was bought is an ir. pass, verb, from the verb buy ; (principal parts, — pres. buy, past bought, perf. part, bought ; in the ind. m-, past t., and c. f. ; and in the 3d p., s. n., to agree, etc. 82 PARSING. Parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and verbs : — Regular Verbs. Columbus discovered America. John regretted his loss. Fortune worries men. Irregular Verbs. They struck me. Birds fly. It was I 7 . Joseph has lost his hat. Transitive Verbs. Horses eat corn. The Indians shunned us. We armed ourselves. Voices. She broke the pitcher. The pitcher is broken. They named her 4 Mary T . She was named Mary 7 . Intransitive Verbs. Bright leaves quivered. Eivers flow, and winds blow. John will become rich. Horace struts a dandy 7 fieuter Vcrhs. The rose is beautiful. Fierce was the conflict. The house stands firm 10 . Moods. Robert sold his horse. Were he rich, he would be lazy. Can you spell "phthisic" f Be sincere. (Be thou sincere.) Man is made to mourn. Tenses. The distant hills look blue. Have you been sick ? The soldiers will be attacked. Your coat will have been finished. You must write a composition. We should love our neighbors. Did you go ? The apples might have been eaten. The lady may have been handsome. Had I but known it. Do you venture a small fish, to catch a great one. Forms. The tall pines are rustling. I do protest against it. Thou hast a heart of adamant. Persons and Numbers. Reckless youth makes rueful age. ITow are the mighty a fallen! The Rhine and the Rhone rise b m Switzerland. Monday or Tuesday was 6 the day. Yonder lives u a hero and patriot. His family is e large. The multitude pursue f pleasure. Every house has a garden. You? or he is in fault. You, he, and I, are invited* 1 . I say, be your own friend. To scorn meanness, is heroic. That weak men should seek strength in cunning, is natural. (a.) Supply men, or parse mighty as a noun. (b.) Say,—" and in the third person, plural number, to agree with ' Rhine and Rhone — a plural subject, because it consists of two nomi- natives joined by and — according to Rule XI." See p. 42. (6-.)— and in the third person, singular number, to agree with '■'Monday or Tuesday" — a singular subject, because it con- sists of two singular nominatives joined by or — according to Rule XI. (d.) — and in the 3d p., s. n., to agree with " hero and patriot"" — a singular subject, because the two words denote but one person — according to Rule XI. (e.) — and in the 3d p., s. n., to agree with its subject family — a collective noun that expresses the idea of unity, or presents all the objects as one thing — according to Rule XI. (/.) — and in the 3d p., p. n., to agree with its subject multi- tude, a collective noun that is plural in idea — according to Rule XL (g.) — and in the nomi- native case to are, understood, according to Rule I. (h.) — and in the 1st p., p. n., to agree with its subject " You, he, and 2," equivalent to We, according to Rule XI. Participles and Infinitives transitive, -with xoice, Fo™».a.-i/^& : - d -"y; S£=Uor^ \ ■»* **y; -perfect, and why ; with, form, and why ; to what it relates, and according to what Kule. In parsing a present participle, omit form ; and in general omit of the Formulas whatever is not applicable. PARSING. 83 " The traveler, having been robbed, was obliged to sell his horse." 11 Ha ving been robbed" is a participle, — a form of the verb, that merely assumes the act or state, and is generally construed like an adjective ; compound. it consists of three simple participles ; passive, it represents its subject as acted upon ; perfect in sense, it expresses the act or state as past and finished at the time referred to ; and it relates to " traveler" according to Eule XII. (Bepeat it.) Abridged. — Having been robbed is a compound, passive, perfect participle, from the verb rob, robbed, robbed; and it relates to traveler, according to Kule XII. " To s ell " is an infinitive, — a form of the verb, that begins generally with to, and expresses no affirmation ; transitive, it has an object ; active voice, it repre- sents its subject as doing something ; present, it denotes the act simply ; and it re- lates to " traveler" and completes the sense of " was obliged," according to Eule XII. Abridged. — To sell is a transitive, active, present infinitive, from the verb sell, sold, selling, sold ; and it relates to traveler as its subject, and limits was obliged, showing as to what, according to Kule XII. " To betray is base." u I insist on writing the letter." u To betray" is an intransitive, active, present infinitive, from the verb betray, defrayed, betraying, betrayed. It is here used also as a noun of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and in the nominative case — being the subject of the verb is — according to Rule I. " Writing" is a transitive, active, present participle, from the verb write, wrote, written. It is here used also as a noun of the neuter aender, third person, singular number ; and in the objective case — being the object oi the preposition era —according to Eule V. " It affords us pleasure to have seen the rising sun attended by so many beautiful clouds." "To have seen" is & transitive, active, perfect infinitive, from the verb see, saw, seen. It is here used also as a noun of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and in the nominative case, to agree with " It," according to Eule VII. "Rising" is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a substantive ; participial, it is a participle — from the verb rise, rose, risen — ascribing the act or state to its subject as a quality ; and it belongs to " sun" according to Eule X. "Attended" is a participle, — a form of the verb, that merely assumes the act or state, and is generally construed like an adjective ; passive, it represents its subject as acted upon ; perfect in form, but present in sense, for it represents the act or state as present and continuing at the time referred to ; and it relates to " sun," according to Eule XII. Aerdged. — Attended is a passive participle, from the regular verb attend, at- tended, attended ; it is perfect in four, but present in sense, and relates to, etc. Jjgr' The second Eule for participles find infinitives, which is given on page 71, can be applied to all the foregoing and all the following participles and infinitives. Parse all except the adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections : — Participles. The Indians fled, leaving their mules tied to the bushes. He went trudging 3 - on foot, wearying himself, and wasting his time. The machinery, being oiled, runs well. The war 2 being ended, prosperity revived. Time and thinking tame the strong- est grief. Of making many books, there is no end. Jnfinitives. And fools, who came to scoff, b remained to pray. He is anxious to go. c We are never too old to learn.* 1 The right of the people to instruct 8 their representatives, is generally admitted. 84 PARSING. Here was an opportunity to grow f rich. I ordered him? to be brought. She is wiser than to believe 1 * it. The weather was such as to render 1 any military movement difficult. The story was considered so improbable as to obtain k no credit. I ought to have written. In order to do 1 this, 10 it was necessary to travel one hundred and twenty miles. To err 1 is human ; to forgive, divine. I forgot to tell 4 him' the story. Delightful task ! to rear 7 the tender thought. To die,* — it is an awful thing. It is knowledge enough for some people, to know 7 how m far they can proceed in mischief with im- punity. Miscellaneous Examples. O silvery streamlet of the fields, that flowest full and free. Now May, with life and music, the blooming valley fills. Let Love have 11 eyes, and Beauty will have ears. It had been useless, had he done it. That a belle should be vain, is not to be wondered at. Accordingly, a company assembled 11 armed 13 and accoutred 15 , and, having procured 12 a field-piece, appointed 11 Major Harrison commander 7 , and proceeded 11 to accomplish 12 their design. The sun hath set in folded clouds, — Its twilight rays are gone ; And, gathered in the shades of night, The storm comes rolling on. (a.) Trudging nlso modifies went adverbially. See remark tinder Rule XTT. (b.) To 8C0f relates to fools for its subject, and also limits came, (c.) To go relates to he for its sub- ject, and also modifies anxious, (d.) To learn relates to We for its subject, and also limits too old. (c.) To instruct relates to people for its subject, and also modifies right. (/.) That is^ — " an opportunity for Mm or any person to grow ricb". To grow relates to an indefinite subject, and modifies opportunity. In regard to rich, see Note X. (#.) The pbrase him to be brought, is the entire (or logical) object of ordered ; him is the grammatical object. To be brought relates to him for its subject, and it also modifies or limits ordered. (h.~) To be- lieve relates to she for its subject, and also completes the construction of than. Or parse to believe as a verbal noun, the subject of is wise, understood, (i.) To render relates to weather for its subject, and witb its modifications completes the construction, or is the complement, of the correlative pbrase such as. Or say, if greater simplicity is desired, " To render relates to weather for its subject, and also depends on the correlative phrase such as, according to Rule XII." (fc.) To obtain relates to story for its subject, and completes the construction, or is the complement, of the correlatives so and as. To obtain no credit, in this sentence, could also be parsed, though somewhat clumsily, as the subject of might be considered indicative of its improbability, understood. (I.) To do relates to an indefinite subject, and completes the construction of the phrase in order. In order serves, in reality, only to strengthen the sense of purpose expressed by to do ; and if so parsed, to do should be parsed as depending on the predicate icas necessary. To travel, etc., is a phrase explanatory of it; Rule VII. One hun- dred and twenty is a numeral adjective, (m.) How far they can proceed, etc., is the object of to knmo. See p. SO. (n.) That is, " Do thou let Love (to) have, etc. Have is a transitive, present infinitive, without the sign to, because used after let. It relates to Love for its sub- ject, and dependa on Let, according to Rule XII. (o.) Subjunctive mood. See p. 34. Adverbs. Formula. — An adverb, and why ; if it can be compared, say so, and how ; ofwJiai kind; to what it belongs, and according to what Kulc or Note. " The trees are waving beautifully." " B eaut ifu I ly " is an adverb, it modifies the meaning of a verb (" are wav* PARSING. 85 ing") ; it can be compared, — pos. beautifully, ccmp. more beautifully, superl. most beautifully ; it is an adverb oi manner or quality; and it belongs to the verb "'are waving" according to Kule X11I. (Repeat of the Rule as much as is applicable.) Abridged. — Beautifully is an adverb of manner, can be compared, modifies the verb are waving, and belongs to it according to Rule XIII. " Gather roses while they bloom." " WJiil e " is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an ad- jective, or an adverb ; it is a conjunctive adverb of time; and it belongs to both the verb " gather''' and the verb " bloom," according to Rule XIII. Or say, — " W hi le " is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an ad- jective, or an adverb ; conjunctive, it connects its own clause to another to express the time, according to Note XIII. Abridged. — While is a conjunctive adverb of time, modifying the verbs gather and bloom, and belonging to them according to Rale XIII. Or say, While is & conjunctive adverb of time, that joins a dependent clause to another clause ad- verbially, or to express the time, according to Note XIII. u Can not you go too ?" 11 IVo t " is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjec- tive, or an adverb ; it is an adverb of negation;* and it modifies the verb " can go" with reference to " you" and therefore belongs to them, according to Rule XIII. (Repeat it.) Abridged. — Not is a negative adverb, modifying the verb can go with reference to its subject you, and therefore belonging to them, according to Rule XIII. Parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adverbs : — 1. Adverbs Modifying Verbs. The horse galloped gracefully. My father has just come. The birds sung sweetly. The leaves must soon fall. God rules everywhere. Lofty mountains successively appear. Mary sews and knits well. Here will I stand. 2. Adverbs Modifying Adjectives.. Her child was very young. lie is perfectly honest The music rose softly sweet. My hat is almost new. John is most studious. The wound was intensely painful. 3. Adverbs Modifying Adverbs. Some horses can run very fast. Thomas is not very industrious. He stutters nearly always. The field is not entirely planted. You must come verv soon. She had been writing very carefully. 4. Miscellaneous Examples. Smack a went the whip, round went the wheels. Sadly and slowly we laid him down. 13 In vain we seek for perfect happiness. 5 We carved not b a line, we raised not a stone. He lay like a warrior taking his rest. You have advanced not far enough yet. These scenes, once so d delightful, no 13 longer please him. Hold up 13 the flag. When will you come ? The dew glitters when the sun rises. As a you sow, so a you shall reap. Study while young. He is almost*" a poet. 86 PARSING. Evens from the tomb the voice of nature cries. Not even h a philosopher can endure the toothache patiently. Even' as a a miser counts his gold, Those hours the ancient timepiece told. — Longfellow. Vainly but well that 10 chief had fought, He was a captive 7 now ; Yet pride 1 that 4 fortune humbles not, Was written on his brow. — Bryant. (a) Manner, (b.) " Not" limits the meaning of "carved" in respect to "a line." (c.) Or Rule VI. (d.) Degree, (c.) " While going" •= While you are going. (/.) "Almost" is an adverb, modifying the predicate " is a poet." (g.) "Even" modifies the adverbial adjunct "from the tomb ;" or, rather, it modifies the verb " criea" with reference to the phrase "from the tomb.' 1 '' Adjuncts «= adverbs or adjectives; hence adverbs can modify them, and not, as some grammarians teach, the preposition only. (See p. 60.) (h.) Always consider cirefully on lohatthe mtwiing of an expression bears, and dispose of the expression accord- ingly. Therefore say. The adverbial expression " Not cczn" is used here in the sense of an adj ;ctive, modifying "philosopher" with reference to other subjects. (Compare with "No philosopher, 1 " etc.) Or else follow the parsing of "Can not you go too f" given above. Or else Bay, " Eosn" is an adverb modifying the entire proposition after it ; and " Not" is an adverb modifying the entire proposition beginning with " even." This last parsing may seem best to rigid disciplinarians ii grammar, (i.) "Even" modifies the entire clause after it; or, rather, it modifies " told" with reference to this clause of manner. Prepositions. Formula. — A preposition, — definition ; between what it shows the relation ; Eule. " The water flows over the dam." " Over" is & preposition, — a word used to govern a noun or pronoun, and show its relation to some other word ; it here shows the relation of *■* flows" to " dam," according to Rule XiV. (Repeat it.) Abridged. — Over is a preposition, showing the relation between flows and dam, according to Rule XIV. Parse all the words except the conjunctions : — I found a dollar in the road. In spring, the leaves borne forth. We should not live beyond our means. He struggled, like a hero, against the evils of fortune. An eagle rose near 10 the city, and flew over it far away beyond the distant hills. We went from New York to Washington City, by railroad, in eight hours. As to the policy of the measure, I shall say nothing. The river is washing the soil from under the tree. I caught a turtle in stead of a fish. There stood a forest on the mountain's brow, Which overlooked the shaded plains below 10 ; No sounding axe presumed those trees to bite, . Coeval with the world, a venerable sight. 7 — JDryden. Conjunctions. Formula. — A conjunction, and why ; its peculiar nature ; what it conn3cts ; Rule. " The meadow produces grass and flowers." " And" is a conjunction, — a word used to connect other words, and show the sense in which they are connected ; it implies simply continuance, or that soui* PAKSING. 87 thing more is added ; and it connects the words qrass and flowers, according to Rule XV. Abridged.— And is a copulative conjunction, connecting grass and flowers, ac- cording to rule XV. "You must either buy mine or sell yours." "Either" is a conjunction, a word, etc. * * * it corresponds to "or" and assists it in connecting two phrases, according to Rule XV. u Or" is a conjunction, etc. * * * it is alternative, or allows but one of the things offered, to the exclusion of the rest; it here corresponds to "either," and connects two phrases, according to Rule XV. Parse all the words : — Words Connected. Learn i lg refines and elevates the mind. It is our duty 7 to cultivate our hearts and minds. She is amiable, intelligent, and handsome. The silk was light-blue, or sky-colored : it should have been white or black. I, even 16 I T , went. Phrases Connected. Through floods and through forests he bounded away. Death saw the floweret to the desert given, Pluoked it from earth, and planted it in heaven. Clauses or Sentences Connected. Eagles generally go alone, but little birds go in flocks. Italian music's sweet because 'tis dear. I know he is in debt, for he said so. If it rain to-morrow, we shall have to remain at home. Sin may give momentary pleasure, yet the pain is sure to follow. Again, every man is entitled to compensation for his services. Whether my brother come or not, I will either buy or rent the farm. Though he is poor, yet he is honest. I will pardon you, inismuch as you repent. He was always courteous to wise and gifted men ; for he knew that talents, though in poverty, are more glorious than birth or riches [are 1 . I have no mother, for she died When I was very young ; But her memory still around my heart, Like morning light, has hung. Interjections. Formula. — An interjection, and why ; of what kind ; Rule. " Alas ! no hope for me remains." A las is an interjection, it expresses an emotion only, and is not connected in construction with any other word; it here implies grief or dejection; and it is used independently, according to Rule XVI. Abridged. — Alas is an interjection of grief ; and it is used independently, according to Rule XVI. Parse all the words. O, young Lochinvar is come out of the West. Ah ! few 10 A shall part where many ,0 A meet ! O Desdemona 2 ! Desdemona ! dead ? Dead ! Oh ! Oh ! Oh ! (Supply art thou and thou art.) 88 FALSE SYNTAX. 12. FALSE SYNTAX. Nouns and Pronouns.— Rule I.— Nominatives. Him and me* are in the same class. You and him had a long dispute. Thee art most in fault. Them are my gloves. I have tasted no better apples than them are. Them that seek wisdom, will find it. Him I accuse* ha3 entered. He whom, etc. Were you and her at the party? "Whom, would you suppose, stands head in our class ? He promised to employ whom- soever should be sent. I do not think such persons as him [is] competent to judge. There is no better housekeeper than her [is whom] you have dismissed. Did not you see it, as well as me ? He is taller than me, but I am as tall as her. Who made the fire? — John and me [made it]. Who swept the room ?— TJa girls. Who rode in the buggy? — Him and Jane. The advice of those whom you think are hearty in the cause, must direct you. — Washington. A reward was offered to whomsoever would point out a practicable road. — Walter Scott. Truth is greater than us all. — H. Mann. And goodly sons grew by his side, But none so lovely and so brave As him who withered in the grave. — Byron. * Incorrect : him and me, in the objective case, should be he and J, in the nominative case, — to the verb are, — according to Rule 1st. (Repeat it.) Observation. — The object of the active verb, and not that of the prepo- sition, should generally be made the subject of the passive verb. I was offered a seat* He was offered the control of the school. He waa left a large estate by his uncle. We were shown a sweet potato that weighed 15 pounds. You were paid a high compliment by the young lady. Mr. Burke was offered a \evy lucrative 'employment. — Prof. Goodrich. * Incorrect : not I, but scat, should be made the nominative to was offered, according to the Observation under Rule 1st. (Repeat it.) The sentence should be, A seat wan offered me. Eule II.— Nominatives. Me* being sick, the business was neglected. Him who had led them to battle being killed, they retreated. Them refusing to comply, I withdrew And me, — what shall I do? Her being the only daughter, no expense had been spared in her education. There is no doubt of its being him. He had no doubt of its being me. — that it was I. Whose gray top shall tremble, Him descending. — Milton. * Incorrect: me, in the objective ense, should be /, in the nominative case, — being used absolutely before being, — according to Rule 2d. (Repeat it, and then always state what the corrected seutence should be.) Rule III— Possessives. A mothers* tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for man's advan- tage. His misfortunes awaken nobody's pity, though no ones ability ever went farther for others good. Six months interest remained unpaid. How do you like Douglas' bill? I like Macaulay much better than Alison's style. He disobeyed his father as well as his mother's advice. Do you use Webster or Worcester's Dictionary ? Brown, Smith, and Jones's wife, usually went shop- ping together. I have no time to listen to either John or Joseph's lesson. He was averse to the nation involving itself in war. His father was apposed to him going to California. (Is it proper to write Ws, her's, our^s, or their's?) His curse be on him. He, who knoweth Where the lightnings hide. — Mrs. Sigoumey. FALSE SYNTAX. 89 * Incorrect : mothers should be mother's (with an apostrophe before the *), according to Rule 3d. (And state how the possessive case is properly formed.) Obs. 1. — The possessive sign, and the word of, should be used to relieve each other in such a way as will make the sentence most clear and agreeable. Essex's death haunted the conscience of Queen Elizabeth. Socrates's life and death. Demosthenes' — Demosthenes's orations. For Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife. John's brother's wife's sister married a mechanic. The extent of the prerogative of the King of England. Daniel Boone of Ken- tucky's adventures. The Governor of Pennsylvania's message. He is Clay the great orator's youngest son. The opinionative man thinks his own opinions better than any one's else opinions — any one else's opinions. * Incorrect : Essex's death should rather be, The death of Essex, according to Obs. 1st, under Rule 3d, etc ♦ Obs. 2. — When two or more words, taken together, denote but one possessor, or when the same object belongs in common to two or more possessors, the possessive sign is annexed but once, and to the word im- mediately before the word or phrase denoting what is possessed. These works are Cicero's, the most eloquent of men's.* Jack's the Giant- killer's wonderful exploits. Call at Smith's, the bookseller's. South of Ma- son's and Dixon's Line. Send me Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Grammar. Send me Pope and White's Shakespeare. Morrison's and Price's farms are the next two on the road. Morrison's farm and Price's are, etc. Bond's, Bush- nell's, and Woodward's stores, occupy the next three buildings. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great calamities. Allen's, Thom- son's, and Hardcastle's store is opposite to ours. Allen, Thomson, and Hard- castle's stores, are not joint possessions. * Incorrect : not men, but Cicero only, should have the possessive sign, according to Obs. 2d, under Rule 3d. (Repeat it, and state what the corrected sentence should be.) Rule IV.— Objectives. Let him send you and I* to the spring. Let thou and I the battle try. Having dressed hisself, he went to church. Who do you want? Who shall we send ? She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. He and they we know, but ye we do not know. Who did you mean? Who did you see? But who have we here ? They that treat me kindly, I will treat so too. He who is guilty, you should correct ; not I, who am innocent. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend ! — Addison. * Incorrect : I, in the nominative case, should be me, in the objective case,— being one of the objects of the verb send, — according to Rule 4th, etc Rule V.— Objectives. There is some pudding left for you and I.* Who is that boy speaking to ? To whom, etc. Who was it sent to? Who were you talking with? They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. There was no one in the room, except he. I gave it to somebody ; I have forgotten who. I do not know who she went with. Who did he send for? — We. Who does he look like in that dress ? — Marlowe. * Incorrect : /, in the nominative case, should bo me, in the objective case,— being one of the objects of for, — according to Rule 5th, etc. Rule VII.— Same Cases. They slew Yarns, he* that was mentioned before. They slew Yarus, who was him that was mentioned before. It wasn't me ; it was him or her. It 90 FALSE SYNTAX. was them that said so. It could not have been him. I knew it was her. Whom do you think it was? Whom do men say that I am? Who do you take mo to be? It is not me he is in love with. — not I that — Who was it? — Me. Was it him, or me, that you called? Is it him whom you said it was? I knew it was him. I knew it to be he. * Incorrect: he, in the nominative case, should be him, in the objective case, to agree with Varus, according to Rule 7th. (Repeat it, and state the corrected sentence, as usual.) Rule IX.— Pronouns. (Whatever makes a singular or a plural subject, makes also a singular or a plural antecedent. See p. 42.) Every person should try to improve their* mind and heart. Nobody will ever entrust themselves to that boat again. A person who is energetic and watchful, will be apt to succeed in their undertakings. Will some one of you lend me your umbrella ? Many a man looks back on the days of their youth, with melancholy regret. The generals, each in their turn, walked round the coffin. If you have any victuals left, we will help you eat it. I like molas- ses, when they are clean. The cuckoo lays his eggs in the nest of other birds. The hen looked very disconsolate, when it saw its whole brood rush into the pond. If we deprive an animal of instinct, he will be no longer able to take care of himself. When a bird is caught in a trap, they of course try to get out. Each of the sexes should keep within their proper bounds. To persecute a truly religious denomination, will only make them flourish the belter. The people can not be long deceived by its demagogues. I have no interests but that of truth and virtue. Every herb, every flower, and every animal, shows the wisdom of Him who made them. One or the other must relinquish their claim. If any boy or girl be absent, they will have to go to the foot of the class. — he or she — Coffee and sugar are imported from the West Indies ; and large quantities of it are consumed annually. Each occupied their several premises, and farmed their own land. — Thos. Jef- ferson. — his own — It is our duty to protect this government and that flag from every assailant, be they whom they may. — Senator Douglas. * Incorrect : their should be his, to agree with person, according to Rule 9th, etc. Obs. a. — Wlio 13 applied to persons, and generally to personified objects. WJiich is applied to all objects except persons, and sometimes to persons in asking questions. That is used in speaking of both persons and things, after the super- lative degree, after same, after the interrogative who, or wherever who, which, or what, would be less proper. Those which* are rich, should assist the poor and helpless. So I gave the reins to my horse, who knew the way much better than I did. The horse and rider which w r o saw, fell in the battle. Was it the wind, or you, who shut the door ? It is the best which can be got. Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testament. It is the same coach which stopped at the church. I am the same as I was. I gave all what I had. I sent every thing what you ordered. Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of light green? Who of those ladies do you like best? Of all the congregations whom I ever saw, this was certainly the largest. (A congrega- tion is a thing rather than a person.) This lubberly boy we call Falstaft; who is but another name for fat and fun. The heroic souls which defended the Alamo. Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. With the return of spring came four martins, who were evidently the same which had been bred under those eaves the previous year. — U. S. Reader. * Incorrect : which should be who, according to Obs. a, under Nouns and Pronouns, etc. (Repeat so much of the Observation as is applicable.) FALSE SYNTAX. <>1 Obs. b. — Nouns and pronouns should be correctly used in gender and number, according to the sense, and the proper form of the word. She is administrator.* He was married to a most beautiful Jew. The room is eighteen footf long, and sixteen foot wide. I measured the log with a pole ten foot long — with a ten-feet pole. The teamster hauled four cord of wood and three ton of hay, in nine hours. Several chimnies were blown down. Some of the first familys. Several potatos. His brother-in-laws were educated at the same college. The Drs. Hunters and the Misses Bartons. The Old and the New Testaments — the Old and New Testament, in one largo volume, called the Bible. You may learn the ninth and tenth page — the ninth and the tenth pages, and review the first or second pages. The farm is a long ways from market. We encamped behind a small woods. Let us make a memoranda of it. It was for our sakes that Jesus died upon the cross. Few persons are contented with their lots. The Lee's were distinguished officers in the Revolution. The heathen are those people who worship idols. — Webster 's Spelling -Booh. * Incorrect : administrator, the masculine word, should be administratrix, the feminine, — for it evidently denotes a female, — according to Obs. ft, under Nouns and Pronouns, etc. t Incorrect : foot, in the singular number, should be feet, in the plural number, to agree with eighteen, according to, etc. But singular in compound adjectives; as, "A two-foot ruler." Obs. C. — Politeness usually requires, that the speaker shall mention the addressed person first, and himself last. I, Mary, and you,* are to go next Sunday. If James and you take the horses, I and Martha shall have nothing to ride. Mother said that I and you must stay at home. * Incorrect : 1, Mary, and you, should be, You, Mary, and I, according to, etc. Obs. d. — Nouns and pronouns should be so construed with other words as not to leave the case or relation uncertain or ambiguous. The settler here* the savage slew. (Which slew the other?) I would rather give her to thee than another. If the lad should leave his father, ho would die. (Repeat the noun.) John told James that his horse had run away. (Vary the sentence.) Lysias promised his father, that he would never forsake his friends. The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, who had never before been guilty of so unjust an action. Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated, a pause will be proper. Wliere the sense has nothing that requires, etc. When a man kills another from malice, it is called murder. — the deed is called murder. This rule is not strictly true, and a few examples will show it. — as a few examples will shoio. The law is inope- rative, which is not right. ■ — and that it is so, is not right. And thus the son the fervent sire addressed. — Pope^s Homer. The lord can not refuse to admit the heir of his tenant upon his death ; nor can ho remove his present tenant so long as ho lives. — Blackstone. * Incorrect : the sentence is ambigaous. It should be, Here the savage slew the settler,-— which was the meaning of the writer,— according to, etc. Articles. Obs. 1. — Articles should be chosen or omitted with great care, in order that the proper meaning may be expressed. A common noun, without an article, denotes the class generally, a part indefinitely, or merely the kind oY thing. The shows that all are meant, or that a particular one or part is meant. A points out but one indefinitely, and implies that there are others. 92 FALSJS SYNTAX. A pine is a species of a tree.* The pine is a species of tree. (For how can one tree be a species, or a species a part of one tree !) What kind of a man is he? Such a man does not deserve the name of a gentleman. The highest officer of a State is styled a Governor. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. The Tennessee, the Missouri, and the Mississippi, are all the names derived from the Indian languages. The whites of America are the descend- ants of the Europeans ; but the blacks are the descendants of the Africans, and the Indians are descendants of the aborig'ines. When a whole is put for the part, or the part for a whole ; a genus for the species, or the species for a genus ; a singular for a plural, or a plural for a singular, — the figure is called a synecdoche. Sometimes one article is improperly put for another. A pro- noun is a part of speech used for a noun. A violet is an emblem of modesty. The profligate man is seldom or never found to be the good husband, the good father, or the beneficent neigbor. He received only the fourth part of the estate. A winding stairs led us to the Senate Chamber. A flight of, etc. The child was not a three weeks old when it died. The Jews returned to their country after a seventy years captivity in Babylon. — a captivity of sev- enty — The ancients supposed the fire, the air, the earth, and the water, to be the elements of all other material things. Drunkenness makes a man of the brightest parts the common jest of the meanest clown. The original signification of knave was a boy. — Webster's Spelling-Booh. A librarian is the person who has charge of a library. — Id. The work is de- signed for persons who may think it merits a place in their libraries. — Preface of Murray's Grammar. The violation of this rule never fails to displease a reader. — Blair's Rhetoric. * Incorrect : pine here denotes all, or the species ; and therefore the should he used hefore it. Tree refers to the class generally, and therefore no article should be used hefore it. (Re- peat, of the general Observation, only what is applicable to the example which you are cor- recting.) Obs. 2. — A should be used before consonant sounds. ( IT long, en, w, o in one, and y articulated with a vowel after it, have each a consonant sound.) An should be used before vowel sounds. (That is, before a, e, i, o, u not equivalent to yu, y articulated with a consonant after it, silent k, and h faintly sounded when the next syllable has the chief accent. See Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar, pp. 173 — 81.) He had a interest in the affair.* It is an universal complaint. Argus is said to have had an hundred eyes. There was not an human being on the place. An African or an European. A erroneous conclusion. A adjective belongs to the noun which it qualifies. A humble request. Is it an i, or an u f I would not use such an one. An hero. A heroic action. A hered- itary feud. An hyacinth. A hyper'bole. At — hotel on Broadway. An ubiquitous quack. — Edgar A. Poe. An useful exercise. — N. Y. Teacher. * Incorrect: a should he an; because interest — the -word immediately after it — begins with a vowel sound, and according to Observation '2d, under Articles, An should, etc. Obs, 3. — "When the repetition of the article would suggest more ob- jects than are meant, the article should be omitted. When the omission of the article would not suggest all the objects that are meant, the article should be repeated. The Old and the New Testaments * The Old and New Testament. There is another and a better world. My friend was married to a sensible and an amiable woman. Everett, the scholar, the statesman, and the orator, should FALSE SYNTAX. 93 be invited. She is not so good a cook as a washerwoman. Fire is a better servant than a master. The figure is a globe, a ball, or a sphere. The white and black inhabitants amount to several thousands. A beautiful stream flowed between the old and new mansion. Give the possessive and the objective cases of who — the possessive and objective case of who. The sick and wounded were loft at this place. — Life of Jackson. * Incorrect : the, repeated, improperly suggests here, that there are several Testaments, in stead of two ; therefore it should not have been repeated, according to, etc. (Vary the formulas whenever the example requires a variaton.) Obs. 4. — A participial noun generally requires an article before it and of alter it, or else the omission of both the article and the preposition. A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles.* Great ben- efit may be derived from reading of good books. It is an overvaluing ourselves, to reduce every thing to our own standard of judging. I shall oppose the grant- ing this company any more privileges. — the granting of any more 'privileges to — He left off building of Ramah, and dwelt in Tirzah. — Bible. The best busi- ness now is the opening farms and rearing stock. — Agricultural Journal. * Incorrect : showing, having the before it, should also have of after it, or else both the and of should be omitted, according to, etc. Adjectives. Obs. 1. — Adjectives implying number must agree, in this respect, with the nouns to which they belong. You have been playing this two hours.* How do you like those kind of carriages? "We have been intimate friends this ten years. I never liked these sort of bonnets. I think that were the very words he used. * Incorrect : this should be these, to agree with hours, according to, etc Obs. 2. — Double and all other improper comparatives or superlatives Bhould be avoided. A farmer's life is the most happiest.* A more healthier place can not be found. I never before lived in a more healthier and pleasanter neighborhood. She is the most loveliest one of the sisters. Nothing can be more worse — worser. The lesser quantity I remove to the other side. I think the rose is the beautifullest of flowers. It was the curiousest thing I ever saw. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man, and should be his chiefest desire. Cotton is most principally raised in the Southern States. The heath-peach is more preferable than the Indian peach. — is preferable to — . Against the envy of less happier lands. — Shakespeare. After the most strictest sect of our religion I lived a Pharisee. — Bible. By silence, many a dunderpate, like the owl, the stupidest of birds, comes to be considered the very type of wisdom. — Washington Irving. * Incorrect : happiest is itself a superlative, and most happiest would therefore be a double superlative, which is improper, according to, etc. Obs, 3. — The superlative degree must be used when three or more objects are compared, and the comparative is usually required when but two are compared. The largest of the two boys goes to school. . The youngest of the two sis- ters is the handsomest, Which is the largest number, — the minuend or the subtrahend ? His wife is the best manager"; therefore let her rule him. The 5 94 FALSE SYNTAX. latter one of the three boys had lost his books. "Which do you like best, — tea or coffee ? * Incorrect : largest, in the superlative degree, should be larger, in the comparative degree, — because but two objects are compared, — according to, etc. Obs. 4. — The superlative degree represents the described object as being a part of the others. All comparisons without the superlative degree do not strictly represent the object denoted by one term as being a part of those denoted by the other. The word other, and similar terms, imply two distinct parts and yet but one class. China has the greatest population of any other country on earth.* Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. Youth is the most important period of any in life. There is nothing so good for a sprain as cold water. — nothing else — He was less partial than any historian that -ever wrote on the subject. None of our magazines is so niteresting to me as Harper's. No other one of, etc. These people seemed to us the most ignorant of any we had yet seen. — N. Y. Herald. Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the flood. — Webster's Spelling- Book. (They could not have outlived themselves.) * Incorrect.: China is here absurdly represented as being one of the countries with which it is compared ; therefore the greatest of should be a greater than, according to Obs. , etc Verbs. Obs. 1 — Our own voluntary actions are expressed by will, and our con- tingent ones by shall ; the contingent actions of others are expressed by- will, and their compulsory ones by shall. A foreigner, having fallen into the Thames, cried out, " I will be drowned ; nobody shall help me."* "We will have to take our coats, or we will suffer from cold. Will I find you here when I return ? Were I to go with }-ou, I would get a whipping. Would wo hear a good lecture, if wo would go? Whoever will catch him, will be rewarded. I was afraid I would lose my money. If I wished him to come, I would have to write to him. We will then find that this confiscation bill was impolitic ; and we will have to suffer for our folly, in the protraction of this war. — Crittenden. * Incorrect : this sentence implies that he wished to be drowned, and wanted no one td help him ; will should therefore be shall, and sliall should be will, according to, etc. Obs. 2. — The preterit is the proper form for affirming, without an auxil- iary verb, past acts or states. The perfect participle, and not the preterit, should be used after have, he, and their variations. I seen him yesterday.* I had saw it before. I done so. They done the best they could. He has took my hat. He run all the way. They begun well, but ended badly. He drunk but little. They been here a whole day. I seen the boy when he done it. I might have went last Saturday, and ought to have went. The river is froze over. My coat is completely wore out. The tree had fell, and all its branches were broke. The apples were shook off by the wind. I knew he had wrote it ; for it was well writ. Write to him. — I have done wrote. — have already written. You have chose the worse. — Washington Irving. * Incorrect : seen, the perfect participle, should be saio, the preterit, according to tho first part of Observation 2d, under Verbs, etc. FALSE SYNTAX. 95 Obs. 3. — Verbs should not be made transitive, intransitive, or passive, contrary to their general use, or contrary to analogy. He had fled his native land.* Pharaoh and his host pursued after them. San Francisco connects with the sea, by an entrance one mile wide. It now repents me that I did not go. / now repent, etc. Well, I suppose we aro agreed on this point. "We had just entered into the house. My friend is re- turned — is arrived. He is possessed of great talents, —possesses — His estate will not allow of such extravagance. It must be so, for miracles are ceased. — Shakespeare. * Incorrect : fled is here improperly made transitive ; therefore from should be used after it, to express its proper relation to land, according to, etc. Obs. 4. — In mood and tense, the verbs of a sentence should properly correspond, and also be consistent with the other words. The indicative mood, in conditional clauses, expresses doubt only j but the subjunctive mood, both doubt and future time, or mere suppositions. In the indicative mood, general truths must be expressed by the present tense. The perfect infinitive denotes something as past at the time referred to ; and the present infinitive, as present or future. The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away.* I know the family more than twenty years. I am now two years in this city. Next Christmas I shall be at school a year. He that was dead, sat up, and began to speak. The Glenn family will try and requite tho favor. — try to requite — I wish I was at home. He talked to me as if I was a widow. If the book be in my library, I will send it immediately. If the book is found in my library, I will send it immediately. If the book was in my library, I would send it im- mediately. If the book were in my library, some one must have taken it. If these remedies be applied, and the patient improves not, the case may be con- sidered hopeless. He said it was forty miles from Baltimore to "Washington. No one sus- pected that he was a foreigner. Our teacher told us that the air had weight. Plato maintained, that the Deity was the soul of the universe. A late writer on horses supposed, that a horse could perform tho labor of six men. I intended to have written to him. I hoped to have met several of my friends there, but was disappointed. It was your duty to have assisted your friend. He is supposed to be born about three centuries ago. This was four years ago next August. — School Report. They were not able, as individuals, to have influenced the twentieth part of the nation. — Jeffer- son. Tho most glorious hero that ever desolated nations, might have mould- ered into oblivion, did not some historian take him into favor. — Irving. * Ticorrecfc : the giving and the taking could not have been both at the same time ; there- fore hath given should be gave, etc. (Give, also, the definitions of the tenses.) Ob's. 5. — The compound participle should not be needlessly made a part of a compound verb, or used to express the act in the progressive sense. Wheat is now being sold for a dollar a bushel. — is now selling — ,My predictions are now being fulfilled. Another church was being built in tho upper part of the city. My coat is now being made by the tailor. The tailor is now making, etc. His anticipations are now being realized. Dramshops are now being closed on Sundays. — are closed — More than 20,000 children aro being gratuitously educated in this city. — are receiving gratuitous educa- 96 FALSE SYNTAX. Hon — Such a poem is worth being committed to memory. — committing — » "Whatever is worth being done, is worth being done well [Magazine. Here certain chemical mysteries are being secretly carried on. — Harper's Remark. — This clumsy form is rather an innovation ; but the newspapers of our civil war will probably establish it. "With a little care, a better expression can trenerally be found. Verbs denoting momentary or mental acts, seldom admit the form. The form is used only in the present and past indicative, and in the past subjunctive. It is made by putting the word being into the common passive verb, between the auxiliary and the participle. Ex. (To be conjugated.) — Indic. Pres. Sing. 1. I am being defeated, 2. You are being defeated, 3. He is being defeated ; Plur. 1. We are being defeated, 2. You are being defeated, 3. They are being defeated. Past. Sing. 1. I was being defeated, 2. You were being defeated, 3. He was being defeated ; Plur. 1. We were being defeated, 2. You were being defeated, 3. They were being defeated. Subjonc Past. Sing. 1. If I were being defeated, 2. If you were being defeated, 3. If he were being defeated ; Plur. 1. If we were being defeated, 2. If you were beiug defeated, 3. If they were being defeated. Rule XI.— Person and Number. I called at your house, but you was not at home. "Was you there ? My outlays is greater than my income.f Thou heard the storm ; did thou not ? Thou shall go. I always learns my lessons, lefore I goes to school. There is ten cords of wood in the pile. Every one of the turkeys were caught by a fox. Every ten tens makes one hundred. Not one of us have seen your hat. "Wheat and rye is sowed in fall; but oats is sowed in spring. Ashes are always used in the plural number. Tion are pronounced shun. Two parallel lines denotes equality. Five dimes is half a dollar. Nothing but offices are sought by most politicians. The molasses are excellent. What signifies fair words without good deeds ? Six is too many to ride in the canoe at once. Six months' interest are due on the bonds. The sum of twenty thousand dollars have been spent on the bridge. A hundred thousand dollars of revenue is in the treasury. The public is respectfully invited. Generation after generation pass away. Mary and her cousin was at our house last week. Neither Mary nor her cousin were at our house last week. There was hay and corn in plenty. How is your father and mother ? Where is your slate and pencil ? Such is the tales his Nubians tell, Who did not mind their charge too well. — Byron. In Mauchline there dwells six proper young belles. — Burns. • Incorrect: was should be were, to agree with you, according to Rule 11th, etc. t In- correct: is should be are, to agree with outlays, a plural subject, according to, etc. (See p. 42.) • ♦ Obs. 1. — The promiscuous use of different forms of verbs in the same connection, is inelegant. He giveth, and he takes away.- — Harper's Magazine. Does he not behave well, and gets his lessons as well as any other boy? Did you not borrow so much of me, and promised to return it ? To profes3 regard, and acting differ- ently, discovers a base mind. Professing regard, and to act differently, dis- covers a base mind. Educating is to develop the mind. Spelling is easier than to parse or cipher. Thou who didst call the Furies from the abyss, And round Orestes bade them howl and hiss. — Byron. • Incorrect: giveth should be gives, or takes should be takelh, according to, etc. Obs. 2. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the active rerb» FALSE SYNTAX. 97 bid, make, need, hear, let, see, feel, dare, and the auxiliaries ; and sometimes after a few other verbs that are like some of these in sense. If I bid you to study, dare you to be idle ? We made her to believe it. To go I could not, but to remain I would not. That old miser was never seen give a cent to the poor. We ought not speak ill of others, unless there is a necessity for it. Will you please answer my letter immediately ? In a few modes of expression, the to must be retained; as, " I feel it to be ray duty ;" " I can not see to write the letter," etc. Adverbs. Obs. — Adjectives should be used to qualify nouns or pronouns; and adverbs, to qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. See p. 64, Exercises. We landed safely, after all our misfortunes.* She sews good and neat. It is near done. Speak slow and distinct. I am only tolerable well, sir. I never studied grammar ; but I can talk just as good as them that talk grammat- ical. Velvet feels smoothly. I felt bad about the matter. You have be- haved very bad. I can easier raise a crop of hemp than a crop of tobacco. Abstract principles are best learned when clearest illustrated. Hindostan is a remarkable fine country. — Lord Jeffrey. * Incorrect: safely, the adverb, qualifies we rather than landed ; and therefore it should be safe, the adjective, according to, etc. Prepositions. Obs. — In the use of prepositions, great care should be taken to select the most appropriate. Into, from outside to inside ; in, inside only ; at, indefinitely in or about ; in, definitely within; between, two only; among, , three or more; a taste •/' what is enjoyed, a taste for what wo wish to enjoy; disappointed ofvAmt is not obtained, disappointed in what fails to answer our expectations after it is obtained ; die of disease, — by an instrument ; compare with, for ascertaining merits, — to, for illus- tration. Abhorrence of; accuse of; adapted to ; agreeable to ; aspire to ; capacity for ; confide in; dependent on; independent of; derogation from ; differ, different, from; diificulty in; diminution of; eager in; followed by ; founded on; in- fluence over; made of; need of: occasion for / omitted from ; prejudice aqainst ; profit by ; quarrel with ; resemblance to ; rely on ; reconcile with ; swerve from. Do not let the dog come in the house.* These bonnets were brought in fashion last year. He died with the typhoid fever — for thirst — with the sword. He was accused with having acted unfairly. In some of these derivative words, the e is omitted. Religion and membership may differ widely with each other. This is a different dinner to what we had yesterday. This case has no resemblance with the other. I have little influence with him. He camo of a sudden. The sultry evening was followed with a storm. The soil is adapted for hemp and tobacco. I have been at France. I board in the new hotel. The space between the three lines is the area of the triangle. — within — < I was disappointed in the pleasure of meeting you. • Incorrect : in should be into, because the sense is not " inside only," but from " outside to inside," which is best expressed by into ; and according to Obs., etc. Miscellaneous Precepts. Obs. 1. — When two negatives destroy each other's effect, one should be omitted to express denial. * I will never do so no more.* We didn't find nobody at home. I don't know nothing about your affairs. I never said nothing about it. Death never spared no one. She will never grow no taller. Neither you, nor no one else, can walk ten miles in one hour. 98 FALSE SYNTAX. No skill could obviate, nor no remedy dispel, the terrible infection. — Goldsmith. • Incorrect: the two negatives, never and no, contradict each other; and therefore one should be omitted or changed, to express denial, or the meaning intended, according to, etc Obs. 2. — Adjectives, adverbs, and adjuncts, should be so placed in the sentence as to make it correct, clear, and elegant. The bad position of adjectives and adjuncts is generally improved, by bringing them nearer to what they qualify ; and adverbs should generally bo placed before the adjectives or adverbs which they modify, after verbs in the simple form, and "between the auxiliary and the rest of the verb in the compound form ; but they are seldom allowable between to and the rest of the infinitive. I have bought a new pair of shoas and a black bolt of cloth.* The congre- gation will please to sing tho throe first and the two last stanzas of the hymn. The dress had rows of silk fancy green buttons. I only recited one lesson. (Only what ?) I only bought the horse, and not the buggy. I have bor- rowed this horse only, yet I intend to buy him. Men contend frequently about trifles. They became even grinders of knives and razors. All that wo hear, we should not believe. They wero not such as to fully answer my purpose. A lecture on the methods of teaching geography, at ten o'clock. Wanted — a young man to take care of some horses, of a religious turn of mind. At that time I wished somebody would hang me a thousand times. After he had gained five thousand dollars, by speculation, he lost more than half of it. Every man can not afford to keep a coach. — Webster's Spelling- Booh. An improper triphthong is one in which all the vowels are not sounded. — Butler. * Incorrect ; not the pair is new, but the shoes are so, etc. Obs. 3. — No needless word should be used. That there apple is better than this hero one. He died in less than two hours' time. Where is William at? I was not able for to do it. I have got to go. The passion of anger is tho cause of many evils. John he went, James he went, and Mary she went ; but the rest they all staid at home. These lots, if they had been sold sooner, they would have brought more money. If these lots had been sold sooner, etc. Whatever she found, she took it with her. A child of ten or twelve years old. These savage people seemed to have nti other element but that of war. It is equally as good as the other. If I mis- take not, I think I have seen you before. Old age will prove a joyless and a dreary season, if we arrive at it with an unimproved or with a corrupted mind. Our debts and our sins are generally greater than we think for. — Franklin. Obs. 4. — No necessary word should be omitted. The sale of one farm or several will take place to-day. We were at the fair, and saw every thing there. Yonder is the place I saw it. He was a man had no influence. I approve your plan so far as relates to him. Why do what is not lawful to do ? He did it for your and my friend's welfare. Neither my house nor orchard is injured. Both the principal and interest. Money is scarce, and times hard. I never have and never will assist such a man. (A part, relating to two or more before it, must suit each.) They might, and probably were, good. Meadows are always beautiful, but never so much as in the opening of spring. — so much so — The remark is worthy the fool that made it. There is nothing to prevent him going. White sheep are much more common than black. There is no situation so good anywhere. Obs, 5. — All the parts of a sentence should so correspond as to be con- FALSE SYNTAX. 99 sistent ; and the words ana their arrangement should be the most appro- priate in which the meaning can be expressed. The wounded had laid on the ground all night. — Philadelphia Inquirer. After laying awhile, he raised up. We were all setting round the fire. What do you ask for them peaches ? Tbe business will suit any one who enjoys bad health. It is useless trying. — to try — No one likes being in debt. Com- promising conflicting opinions will be ever necessary in a republic. To compro- mise, etc. Such cloaks were in fashion five years since. — ago — (Since properly reckons forward from a past point of time ; and ago, back from present time. Since is daily misused.) A wicked man is not happy, be he never so hardened in sin. Neither our position, or the plan of attack, was known. I will see if it snows or no. — whether * * * or not. She is such a good woman. — so good a woman. The book is not as accurate as I wished it to be. This is none other but the gate of Paradise. — than — A corrupt government is nothing else but a reigning sin. A conjunction connects words, phrases, and sentences. There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. — no douU that — There are few things so difficult but what they may be overcome. Cedar is not so hard but more durable than oak. — so hard as oak, but more durable. It is different and superior to the old. lie confides and depends upon me. I cart not find one of my books. A diphthong is where two vowels are united in one sound. — is the union of — (For it is not place.) A diphthong is when two vowels are united. Fusion is whilo a solid is converted into a liquid by heat. At the same time that men are giving their orders, God is also giving his. While men, etc. Ho drew up a petition where he too freely represented his own merits. — in which — The poor man who can read, and that has a taste for reading, can find entertainment at home. — and ivho — Policy keeps coining truth in her mints — such truth as it can tolerate; and every die except its own, she breaks, and casts away. These evils were caused by Catiline, who, if he had been punished, the republic would not have been .exposed to dangers. so great. — the punishment of wlwm would have prevented tlie republic from being exposed, etc. The horses had scarcely crossed the bridge, than the head of the third battal- ion appeared on the other side. — Harper's Magazine. — when — fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted 1 — Mdton. By intercourse with wise and experienced persons, who know the world, wo may improve and rub off the rust of a private education. — Spectator. My father had just presented me with a knife. — K Y. Teacher. Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions; how, then, can you tell th3 ono from the other? — Small's Gram. We lay things, and then they lie ; we set things, or they sit or jU well; but we ourselves sit Do not say hadn't ov/jht to for ought not to ; them books, them cups, them boya, etc., for those books, those cups, t'wse boys ; had liave Jmd for had had ; guine for going ; fat or jest for just ; sich for such; disremember for forget Do not say yourn, hern, hissen, ourn, thcirri, nor write your\s, her's, our's, their' s, for yours, hers, Ids, ours, theirs. Do not say a great ways, a little ways, somewheres, nowheres, anywheres, for a great way, a little way, somewfiere, nowhere, anywlicre. Do not say mighty Utile, great big, a good deal, a nation deal, in a bad fix, for very little, very large, much, in a bad condition. Do not say got to go for must go; aiat for am not, is not, or are not ; chaw for chew ; a licking for a beating ; unbe- knoion for unknown ; ary me for either one or any one ; nary one for neither one or no one ; shet for shut ; to get shet of for to get rid of. Do not speak of doing things a heap for doing things much. Do not say the school takes up for begins ; nor say used up for worn out or destroyed ; nor picked up for deceived ; nor cracked up for praised or represented; nor fixed up for repaired, dressed, or ready. 100 FALSE SYNTAX. Miscellaneous Examples- 1. To say that a person is consequential, is the same thing as saying they aro not of much consequence. — Jane Taylor. We have simply to go to work, each m our places, and do our work. — Sec. Cliase. Marius ordered a low temple to be built to Honor, thereby intimating that humility was the true way to honor. Lempriere. Neither of these States are entitled to bounty. — Hall. What avails all our toil and care in amassing what we can not enjoy. — N. Y. Teacher. It would have been no difficult matter to have compiled a volume of such prec- edents. — Cowper. 2. He is one of the preachers that belongs to the church militant, and takes considerable interest in politics. Every body seemed to enjoy themselves. I thought it to be him, but it was not him. The book is her's. Toasts -were [drank ? or drunk ?] It was such a sound that I never heard before. It is the same man who stood on the portico. Every thing whatsoever he could spare, he gave away. (Rule VIII.) There is no man knows better how to make money. It is more easier to pull down than to build up. There is the n ost business done in New York of any c'ty in the Union. He is one of the most influential and richest men in the city. (Apparently, most richtst. Change tho order.) A large reward and pardon lias been offered. m 3. The least of two evils must be preferred. — Washington. I hoped there •would have been no further cause of uneasiness. — Id. We have been prcvtnttd marching to-day by the rains. — Id. Some were employed in blowing of glass, others in weaving of linen. — Gibbon. We have marched eight days, laid in water, and ate any thing we could get. — Phil. Press. A large portion of ihem continue to secretly cherish a love for the Union. — lb. Which phrase, if it mean anything, means paper money. — Atlantic Monthly. Among these islanders, no feeling is so deep as veneration for the tombs of their ancestors. — Asiatic Islands. 4» She looks beautifully in her new silk dress. You did the work as good as I could expect. The offer was no sooner made but he accepted it. I would have been obliged to him, if he had have sent it. The three first classes have recited. He has seen as much, perhaps more, of the world, than I have. (Com- plete the construction of tho first part. — as much of * * * as I have seen, and perhaps more.) He can and ought to give more attention to his business. The cost of the carriage was added to, and greatly increased, my expense. No one ever sustained such mortifications as I have done to-day. I, you, and he, must go. Do like I did. (As, manner ; like, generally resemblance.) 5. The religion of Christ has taught us to look upon such crimes as were often committed by the Persian kings with horror and disgust. — Peter Parley. I shall be happy always to see my friends. — Ec Magazine. Let them the State defend, and he adorn. — Gowley. A proper fraction is less than 1, because it has less parts than it takes to make a unit. — Golburn. — fewer — Three fourths is more than on© half. — Bullions. An hospital is an asylum for the sick. — G. Brown. A word modifying either of the three principal parts of a sentence, is an adjunct. Who ever achieved any thing great in letters, arts, or arms, who was not ambitious ? 6. In thee is our hope and strength. Four and two is six. and one is seven. No hope, no power remain. What is its person and number? Every tree and steeple were blown down. Every boy's cap and coat was stolen. Books ; and not company, occupies his mind. (Determine Which is the subject, and make the verb agree with it.) Company, and not books, occupy his mind. The crown of virtue are peace and honor. His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy. The father, and his son too, in the battle. The legist lalure have adjourned. The railroad company was rather uneasy — were rather unsafe. To advance or to retreat were equally dangerous. (Equally re- quires and.) Between him and I. FALSE SYNTAX. 101 7. "Washington was given the command of a division. — Irving. The greater part of the forces were retired into winter-quarters. — Id. Were Aristotle or Plato to come among us, they would find no contrast more complete than be- tween their workshops and those of New York. — Bancroft. (Supply also that.) The cunning of the hunter and the old buck were often stationed against one* another. — Hall. — that of * * set * * each — It was not me that you saw. — Clark. John arrived as soon as me — a little earlier than me. — Id. 8. He should not marry a woman in high life, that has no money. The man brought the whole package, which was more than we expected. Religion will afford us comfort, when others forsake us. We saw the lady while passing down the street. (Who passed ?) What do you think of [us ? or our ?] going into partnership? (See p. 44.) That very subject which we are now discuss- ing, was lately decided in Kentucky. (This implies nearness, or has the sense of latter ; that implies distance, or has the sense of former.) These very men with whom you traveled yesterday, are now in jail. Religion elevates man, irrcligion degrades him ; that binds him to the earth, this raises him to heaven. 9. The use of which accents [Greek and Roman] we have now entirely lost. — Blair. (We never had them to lose. Say, is lost.) Our pronunciation must have appeared to them [the Greeks and the Romans] a lifeless monotony. — Id. (They neve» heard it. Say, would have appeared.) A large portion of the valley of the Amazon is annually overflown. — Stephens. We should like to know whether we will be allowed to retain our arms and flag. — N. Y. Times. The United States having thus become the [proprietor ? or proprietors?] of what [is t or are ?] called the public lands, the nation was rescued from many evils. — flail. 10. Please walk in the setting room. Whom shall I say called? Who did you vote for ? I doubt if it be true. She looked as though she knew. — as if — Let us worship God, he who created and sustains us. Do you thus speak to me, I who have so often befriended you ? (Better omit I alto- gether.) It was to your brother, to whom I am most indebted. He insists on it, that he is right. I wonder that none of them never thought of it. ' I ain't got no book. A participle is a word derived from a verb, and which ex- presses action or being. If I bid you to study, dare you to be idle ? She was made believe it. Tins measure is taking a bold step. E has a long and short sound. A little flowing rivulet. Mr. John Dorriss, Esq. (The latter title supersedes the former.) The neck connects the head and trunk together. Said client believes said judge prejudiced to his cause. My brother's being sick was the cause of his absence. My brother's sickness teas, etc. The ver- mins were so numerous that we could raise no fowl. I live to home with my mother. (Error common in New York and New England.) Disputed. — " To-morrow will be Saturday." Correct. "To-morrow is Satur- day." Allowable ; mere predication. Sometimes also the present tense is used to express future events more vividly. "I feel [badt or badly t] about the mat- ter." Analogy is in favor of bad ; but custom is in favor of badly. See Kerfs Comp. Gram., p. 248. " On page twenty -fifth." Correct. " On page twenty- five." Allowable. 25 is here a noun, representing, by synecdoche, page, and put in apposition with it. Compare with "The year 1862." In discussing a subject by numerical divisions, whether we should say, " First, secondly, thirdly" etc., or, " First, second, third," etc., will depend on the sense, or whether we refer to the verb or the divisions. "A hotel" — Noah Webster; "An hotel" — Russell, Kinglake, and English writers generally. "Our forces were to have advanced last Tuesday." Generally condemned ; but it means, they did not advance. "Our forces were to advance last Tuesday." And perhaps they did advance ; we have no news from them as yet. " I would rather be in his place." Correct " I had rather be in his place." Good old English, aud allowable col- loquial modern English. See p.. 36 ; also Cowper's Works. 5* 102 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 1* ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Discourse is a general word denoting either prose or poetry* Discourse ma} 7 be divided into paragraphs. Paragraphs are composed of sentences. All sentences may be resolved into propositions. Every proposition must have a subject and a predicate. Every subject must be a nominative, or have a nominative. "Every predicate must be a finite verb, or have a finite verb. Sentences are divided into simple, complex, and compound. A simple sentence has but one predicate. A complex or compound sentence has two or more predicates. A complex sentence must have at least one proposition that is de« pendent, or that is used in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A compound sentence must have at least two propositions of which neither is dependent, or used in the sense of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A compound sentence may consist of complex sentences or mem- bers. Exercises. Tell whether the sentence is simple, complex, or compound, and why ; mention the propositions or clauses, and why ; mention the subjects and the predicates, and why ; and whether simple or compound, and why : — The flowers are gemmed with dew. The maple on the hillside has lost its bright green, and its leaves have the hue of gold. As you come near, they spring up, fly a little distance, and light again, f Suspicion ever haunts tii€ guilty mind. Hard things become easy by use; and skill is gained by little and little. The weight of years has bent him, and the winter of age rests upon his head. He touched his harp, and nations heard entranced. The union is the vital sap of the tree; if we reject the Constitution, we girdle the tree; its leaves will wither, its branches drop off, and the mouldering trunk will be torn down by the tempest. The good times, when the farmer entertained the traveler without pay; -when he invited him to tarry, and join in the chase; when Christmas and Fourth of July were seasons of general festivity,— have passed away. % "Thy worldly hopes," said the hermit, "shall have faded, thy castles of ambition crumbled, and thy fiery passions subdued, ere thou hast reached the meridian of life." § Read this Declaration at the head of tho army, — every sword will be drawn from its scabbard, and the solemn vow uttered, to maintain it, or to perish on the bed of honor. (Construe both the infinitive phrases with each of the two clauses just before them in the same member.) What * A sentence is merely so much of discourse aa makes a complete thought in the view of the person uttering it; ii])>' 2^sitioii is a single combination of such words as make a predi- cation, judgment, or thought ; and a phrase is merely two or more words rightly put together for thought, without expressing a predication, t When ? % What kind of times ? § S.id what ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 103 costs nothing, is worth nothing. That ho must fail, is certain. 'Tis liberty alone that gives the flowers of fleeting life their 'lustre and perfume. Go, and assist him, that the work may be finished. He who is false to God, is not true to man. Though thy slumbers may be deep, yet thy spirit shall not sleep ; there are shades that will not vanish, there are thoughts thou canst not banish.- To dress, to visit, to gossip, and to thrum her piano, are the chief employments of the modern belle. Every proposition is either declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. Every sentence is the same, or a composite of these. A declarative proposition expresses a declaration ; an interroga- tive proposition, a question ; an imperative proposition, a command ; and an exclamatory proposition, an exclamation. Ex.— "John rides that wild horse." "Does John ride that wild horse? 1 ' ** John, ride that wild horse." " John rides that wild horse !" An exclamatory sentence is merely a declarative ? an interrogative, or an imperative sentence, ut- tered chiefly to express the emotion of the speaker. Exercises. The propositions ; and whether declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclama- tory^ and why : — A waving willow was bending over the fountain. Rise, and defend thyself. Shall I assist you? How beautiful is yonder sunset! If James has a hun- dred marbles, why does he never show us any of them ? Men may, I find, be honest, though they differ. Now Twilight lets her curtain down, and pins it with a star. . Green be the turf above thee, friend of my better days. What shall I say? What a piece of work is manl She is busy in the garden, among the posies. The spreading orange wave3 a load of gold. Hear him I hear him! There can be no study without time; and the mind must abide, and dwell upon things, or be always a stranger to the inside of them. The fly sat upon the axle-tree of the chariot- wheel, and said, " What a dust do I raise!" Every proposition is either independent or dependent. An independent proposition makes complete sense by itself. A dependent proposition depends on another for complete sense. The clause of a complex sentence on which the other clauses depend, is often, called the principal or leading clause; its subject and predicate, the principal or hading subject and predicate ; and the dependent clauses, subordinate clauses. Exercises. The propositions ; and whether independent or dependent, and why: — The morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. The dew glistens, when the cun rises. I would not enter, on my list of friends, the man who needlessly seta foot upon a worm. Stillest streams oft water fairest meadows; and the bird that flutters least, is longest on the wing. The path of sorrow leads to the land where sorrow is unknown. If the mind be curbed and humbled too much in children r -if their spirits be abased and, broken much by too strict a hand over them, — they lose all their vigor and industry. Come ye in peace here, or come ye in war? In one place we saw a gang of sixty-five horses ; but the buffaloes seemed absolutely to cover the ground. "Come," says Puss, "without any more ado; 'tis time to go to breakfast: cats don't five upon dialogues." 104 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Every proposition may be divided into the entire subject and the entire predicate. The entire subject must have one or more subject-nominatives to the same verb or verbs. The entire predicate must have one or more finite verbs agreeing with the same subject, which may be called the predicate-verbs. Hence both subjects and predicates are either simple or compound. The subject-nominative may be a word, a phrase, or an entire clause ; the predi- cate-verb is simply a verb, or a principal verb with its auxiliaries. Most grammarians call the entire subject the logical subject ; the entire predi- cate, the logical predicate ; the subject-nominative, the grammatical subject ; and the predica(£-verb, the grammatical predicate. This mode of naming is not so simple as the one we have given. Exercises. The propositions ; the entire subjects, and then the suljcct-nominatives ; the entire predicates, and then the predkate-verbs : — Men work. Most men work daily. The leaves rustle. The leaves rustlo in the passing breeze. Leaves and Mowers must perish. Flowers bloom and fade. Leaves and flowers flourish and decay. Poplars and alders ever quiv- ering played, and nodding cypress formed a fragrant shade. In youth alone, unhappy mortals live ; but, ah ! the mighty gift is fugitive. The same errors run through all families in which there is wealth enough to afford that their sons may be good for nothing. Depart. In concert act, like modern friends, since one can serve the other's ends. That it is our duty to be kind and obliging, admits of no doubt. The division and quavering which please so much in music, have a resemblance to the glittering of light, as when the moon- beams play upon the water. It is often the. fault of parents, guardians, and teachers, that so many persons miscarry. (Here either "It" or the clause " that so many," etc., may be considered the subject of "is," and the other term may be parsed as agreeing with the subject in case.) It is hardly practicable for the human mind to obtain a clear and familiar knowledge of an art, without illustra- tions and exemplifications. Ah mel the blooming pride of May, and that of beauty, are but one. The parts into which sentences are divided in analysis, are called elements. Subject-nominatives and predicate-verbs are the principal elements ; and they may be modified by words, j)hrases 7 or clauses. A part that modifies another, adds something to its meaning, or takes away something. What modifies, is either explanatory or restrictive. Ex. — " The town lay at the foot of a hill, which we climbed.' 1 ' 1 " The town lay at the foot of the hill which we climbed.' 1 '' Whatever modifies a substantive, is an adjective element. Ex. — " Solomon's Temple." What temple i " David, the king and psalmist.""' "What David? " The land of palms." What land? "A hill crowned with ma- jestic trees.'''' What kind of hill ? "A proposition to sell the farm." What pro- position ? " The store which is on the corner.'" What store 'i " A request that you will go with us" What kind of request ? What modifies, may itself be modified. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 105 A noun may be modified — 1. By an article. " Tte man is intelligent." 2. By an adjective. "A beautiful rose;" "A rose, red and beautiful" 3. By a possessive. "John's horse;" "My slate." 4. By an appos'itive- " John the saddler ;" " The poet Milton." 5. By a participle, with what belongs to it. " A law relating to taxes." 6. By an infinitive, with what belongs to it. "A path to guide us." 1. By an adjunct. " A man of wisdom." 8. By a clause. " The willow which stands by the spring;" " A request that fjou will go with us to-morrow." A pronoun may be modified in the same ways, except not by a possessive. A modified word has frequently several modifications at once. *»■ Exercises. Tlie nouns and pronouns, and by what they are modified : — A dewy rose. The hind of oranges. Lurking evils. Evils lurking near. Evils that lurk near. A house situated on the river. An opportunity to study. The sen's beams. Milton the poet. The deer which ran out of the field, and which I shot. A bright morning, fresh and balmy, that refreshed us all. The calumet was produced, and the two forlorn powers smoked eternal friendship between themselves, and vengeance upon their common spoilers, the Crows. The silence of the night ; the calmness of the sea ; the lambent radi- ance of the moon, trembling on the surface of the waves ; and the deep azure of the sky, spangled with a thousand stars, — concurred to heighten the beauty of the scene. With loss of Eden, till one greater man restore us, and regain the blissful seat. Numerous small lakes lie inland, round which, on beaten trails, roam herds of red deer. Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright, the bridal of the earth and sky. Ex.— " The house was sold yesterday. 11 "When ? " The house contains much urnlture." Contains what? " The house was a mere cabin." Was what? " The lo-ge fell, crushing its inmates." Fell how? "The house was sold to pay the ■ ■ ." Wh ' "Whatever modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, or may be given in answer to an interrogative adverb, or as the complement of a predicate, is an adverbial element. 9»v/>tr's debts." Wny? "The house was sold because the owner was in debt." Why? •A. modified verb may be a finite verb, a participle, or an infinitive. A verb may be modified — 1. By an objective. " Men build houses." "I knew it TO be him." 2. By a predicate-nominative. " John has become a farmer." 3. By an adjective. " To be wise ;" " James is idle."* 4. By an adverb. " The horse ran fast." 5. By a participle-^-. " The stone rolled thundering down the hill." 6. By an infinitive-\-. ** I have concluded to remain with you." • Owing to a slight radical difference in the modes of classifying, there is sometimes an apparent incongruity between Parsing and Analyst*. Thus, in parsing, idle is referred to James, because James denotes the object to which the quality belongs; but, in analyzing, it is referred to is, because it makes with is the predicate. 106 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 7. By an adjunct. " Apples grow on trees." 8. By a clause. " She thinks he is rich? "He studies that he may learn." Exercises. The verbs, and by what modified : — A light beaming brightly. He writes with ease. Cast not pearls before swine. He became a partner. She is industrious. I intend to go. I be- lieve ho will succeed when he makes a vigorous effort. Among the flowering vines is one deserving of particular notice. Each flower is composed of six leaves about three inches in length, of beautiful crimson, the inside spotted with •white. Its leaves of tine green are oval, and disposed by threes. This plant grows upon the trees without attaching itself to them. When it has reached the topmost branches, it descends perpendicularly, and, as it continues to grow, ex- tends from tree to tree, until its various stalks interlace the grove like the rig- ging of a ship. Nature from the storm shines out afresh. Not even a philoso- pher can endure the toothache patiently. There never yet were hearts or skies, clouds might not wander through. Chaucer said, " If a man's soul is in his pocket, he should be punished there." An adjective may be modified — 1. By an adverb. " She is foolishly proud." 2. By an infinitive. " The fruit is GOOD to eat." 3. By an adjunct. " He is careful of his books." Exercises. TJie adjectives, and by what modified : — She was uncommonly beautiful. He is poor in money, but rich in knowl- edge. ' Be quick to hear, but slow to speak. The visions of my youth are past — too bright, too beautiful to last. How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood 1 That father, faint in death below, his voice no longer heard. Wise in council and brave in war, he soon became the most successful leader. An adverb may be modified — 1. By an adverb. " The horse ran very fast." 2. By an adjunct. * He has acted inconsistently with his professions." Exercises. The adverbs, and by what modified : — It is very badly done. She studies most diligently. You can not como &>o soon. He has written agreeably to your directions. When a dependent clause is abridged into a phrase, having a nominative absolute, the phrase retains the modifying sense of the clause. Some grammarians call such also independent phrases, though perhaps need- ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 107 Exercises. The absolute phrases, and what they modify : — My trunk being packed, I sent for a carriage. (Sent why or when ?) The sun having set, we returned home. His father having been imprisoned, he went to rescue him. Along he sauntered, his musing fancies absorbing his whole soul. Nominatives independent, or the phrases containing them, and interjections, are independent elements. Exercises Point out the independent words or phrases : — Liberty! can man resign thee, once having felt thy glorious flame I "Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, maid of Inistore ! Milan ! the golden bells which oft at eve so sweetly tolled ! Alas, alas 1 fair Ines, she's gone into the Wost. The land of the heart is the land of the West ; oho boys 1 oho boys ! oho! Hist, Romeo, hist! My stars! what a fish! Ha, ha, ha! a fine gentleman, truly. i Connecting words are conjunctions, prepositions, relative pronouns, and some adverbs. Sometimes phrases. Sometimes connectives are omitted, or the connection is sufficiently obvious«by the position of the parts. Exercises, Point out the connectives, tell of what hind, and what they connect : — The sun has set, and the moon and stars begin to appear. He took the horse, which was neither his nor mine When I behold a fashionable table set out, I fancy that gouts, fevers, and lethargies, lie in ambush among the dishes. Ho that knows not how to suffer, has no greatness of soul. Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. The moment I touched it, down it fell. The deeper the water, the smoother it flows. (Connected by the correlative sense of the clauses.) To be happy is not only to be free from the pains and diseases of the body, but also from the cares and diseases of the mind. Who steals my purse, steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing ; 'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands: But he who filches from me my good name, Robs me of that which not enriches him, And makes me poor indeed ! ♦ Propositions are sometimes elliptical or inverted. Exercises, Point out the elliptical parts, supply the omitted words, and restore the logical ar~ rangement : — And jokes went round, and careless chat. No mate, no comrade, Lucy know. Oh, how damp, and dark, and cold 1 " Then, why don't you go," said I. Pride costs us more than hunger, thirst, and cold. The woman (strange circumstance !) remained obstinately silent. Out of debt, out of dan- ger. On the cool and shady hills, coffee-shrubs and tamarinds grow. Alas for love, if thou wert all, and naught beyond, earth ! Of all the thousand stirs not one. " Sir, I can not. — What, my lord? — Make you a better answer." Sentences, propositions, and phrases, may be analyzed according to the following 108 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Formulas. A sentence, and why ; simple, complex,, or compound, and why • declarative, inter* rogative, imperative, exclamatory, or a composite of, and why. .a phrase; the chief word . modified hv au independent phrase ; the independent substantive • y ~ is the entire «g£„ the $^£Zgf** is ~ • — *• * — — '• «- ««re J^ . the $%££*£$** are-, connected by-, and modified by~. ANALYSIS EXEMPLIFIED. Simple Sentences Analyzed. " Sin degrades." This is a sentence, it is a thought expressed by words ; simple, it contains but one proposition ; declarative, it expresses a declaration. Sin is the subject, because it denotes that of which something is affirmed ; and degrades is the predicate, because it denotes what is affirmed of sin. Sin is also the subject-nominative ; and degrades, the predicate-verb. " My friend, were these houses and lands purchased and improved by our old senator, David Barton ?" This is a sentence, it is a collection of words making complete sense ; simple, it contains but one proposition, or but one subject and one predicate ; interrogative, it asks a question. My friend is an independent phrase, because it has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. Friend is the principal word, and it is modified or limited by the possessive My. The phrase these houses and lands, is the subject, because it denotes that of which something is affirmed. The phrase were purchased and improved by our old senator, David Barton, is the predicate, because it denotes what is affirmed of the subject. Houses and lands are the subject-nominatives, connected by the word and, and modified by the adjective these. Were purchased and [ivere] improved are the predicate-verb3, connected by and and modified by the phrase by our old senator, David Barton. Our old senator is modified by David Barton ; old senator is modified or limited by the possessive our ; and senator is modified by old. Or thus : Was is the copula ; purchased and improved are the attributes, modi- fied by (as before). Complex Sentences Analyzed. i: A man who saves the fragments of time, will accomplish much in the course of his life." This is a sentence, — it Is a thought expressed by words, and comprised betwecu two full pauses ; complex, it contains two propositions, of which one depends on the other, or is used in the sense of an adjective ; declarative, it expresses a declaration, A man who saves the fragments of time, is the entire principal subject, be- cause it denotes that of which something is affirmed ; and will accomplish much »•» the course of his life, is the entire predicate, because it denotes what is af- ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 109 firmed of the subject. Man is the subject-nominative ; and it is modified by the articled, and the clause who saves the fragments of time : will accomplish is tho predicate-verb, and is modified by the object much and the adjunct in the course of lis life. Who saves the fragments of time, is a proposition connected to man, by the rela- tive who, as a subordinate clause performing the office of an adjective. Who is the entire subject and the subject-nominative : saves the fragments of time, is the entire predicate ; saves is the predicate- verb, and is modified by its ob- ject fragments, which is itself modified by the article the and the adjunct of time. " What pleases the palate, is not always good for tlie constitut- ion." This is a sentence, it is a collection of words making complete sense ; complex, it contains two propositions, one of which is dependent on the other ; declarative, it expresses a declaration. What is equivalent to that which. What, or that which, pleases the palate, is the entire principal subject ; and is not always good for the constitution, is the entire predicate. That is the subject-nominative, and is modified by the clause which pleases the palate ; is is the predicate-verb, and is modified by the adjective good, which is itself modified by the adjunct for the constitution and the adverb always, and always is modified by the adverb not. Which pleases the palate, is a proposition connected to that, by the relative which, as a subordinate clause performing the office of an adjective. Which is the entire subject and the subject-nominative ; pleases the palate, is the entire predicate ; pleases is the predicate-verb, modified by the object palate, which is itself modified by the. [" Who were the robbers of the house, has not yet been ascer- tained." This is a complex declarative sentence, having the incorporated clause, Who were the robbers of the house, as the entire subject and the subject-nominative. Has not yet been ascertained, is the entire predicate, etc. Who were the robbers of the house, is a subordinate clause incorporated into the sentence as a substantive in the nominative case. Who is the entire subject and the subject-nominative, etc.J " My son, if thou wouldst receive my words, and hide my com- mandments with. thee, so that thou mayst gain wisdom; yea, if thoii wouldst seek it as silver, and search for it as hidden treasure, — then live in the fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of God." This is a sentence, it is a collection of words making complete sense ; complex, it consists of several propositions, some of which are dependent ; a composite of declarative, or conditional declarative, and imperative clauses, or rather an imperative eentence, for its chief aim is to express a command or an exhortation. " My son," — This is an independent phrase, because it has no grammatical connection with