ifornif
>nal
ty
>E ONLY B
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
MODERN STATE
OF
SPAIN:
EXHIBITING
A complete View of its Topography, Government, Laws, Reli-
gion, Finances, Naval and Military Establishments ; and of So-
ciety, Manners, Arts, Sciences, Agriculture, and Commerce in
that Country.
BY J. FR. \BOURGOING,
LATE MINISTER PLENIPOTENTIARY FROM FRANCE TO
COURT OF MADRID.
TRANSLATED FROJd THE LAST PARIS EDITI.ON OF
1807,
TO WHICH ARE ADEDP,
Essays on Spain ly M. Peyron; and tie Book
of Post Roads.
WITH A QUARTO ATLAS'S OF PLATES.
IN FOUR VOLUMES.
VOL. I.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR JOHN STOCK.DALE, PICCADILLY.
1808.
T. Bensley, Bolt-court, Fleet-street.
^ VA t . % ., A i... .-...; ,\ "..'. ', '
ppj
Z?<U
v. /
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
AT a moment when the eyes of all true
patriots of every nation, are directed with
fa
ghope, not unmixed with solicitude, to a
H
[^country, where the early dawn of indepen-
53
dence encourages the fondest presages of
meridian lustre ; where a Saragossa, a
/^ Bilboa, a Gerona, are emulating the an-
Pcient fame of a Saguntum and a Numantia ;
where the achievements of a Palafox, a
Castanos, and a host of heroes, recal the
v most brilliant eras of the history of Spain ;
Ok
it cannot be deemed unseasonable to pre-
sent the public with the translation of a
work, calculated to afford a correct idea of
that country and its high spirited inhabi-
tants, lately our enemies, but now our cor-
dial allies.
Within the last twenty or thirty years,
various travellers have mven to the world
485311
IV TRANSLATOR S PRFA^E.
the result of their observations on Spain ;
but none of these writers, perhaps, has em-
braced such a variety of subjects of uni-
versal interest, especially at the present
crisis, as M. Bourgoing ; and none of their
productions bears the stamp of such evi-
dent authenticity.
M. Bourgoing certainly enjoyed pecu-
liar advantages and facilities for obtaining
information relative to the country which
he has here undertaken to describe. He
resided several years, and at different pe-
riods, in Spain, in a diplomatic capacity ;
and in addition to his long intercourse with
persons of almost every class of tlie Spa-
nish nation, he applied with great assi-
duity to the study of its language and man-
ners.
The publication of a fourth edition of
his work sufficiently attests the degree of
estimation in which the author's labours
are held among his own countrymen. It
is from this improved and enlarged edition,
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. V
which exhibits a picture of Spain in 1806,
and contains many interesting particulars
relative to some of the principal actors in
the present glorious revolution, that this
translation has been executed. -
M. Bourgoing enters the country by
way of Bayonne, and proceeds through
Biscay and the two C as tiles to Madrid,
taking notice in his progress of whatever
appears worthy of a digression. Having
reached the metropolis, he directs his at-
tention to the various branches of the ad-
ministration ; to the character and manners
of the inhabitants of Spain ; and to every
subject connected with the state of so-
ciety, the arts, sciences and literature, the,
agriculture, commerce and manufactures
of that kingdom. The details that relate
to the naval and military resources of this
ancient and extensive monarchy will not be
perused, at this juncture, without lively in-
terest.
Leaving the capital M. Bourgoing con-
VI TRANSLATOR S PREFACE.
ducts the reader to the southern provinces
of the Peninsula, and back to Madrid. He
then describes several excursions in the en-
virons of the metropolis, and in particular
a visit which he paid to Arragon, and re-
turns to France through the kingdom of
Valencia and Catalonia. Thus it appears
that the various theatres of the arduous
struggle in which Spain is at this moment
engaged, are more especially the objects of
the author's notice.
It is obvious that since the recent attempt
of Bonaparte to usurp the throne of the
Spanish monarchs, and the total change ef-
fected by this atrocious design in the sen-
w O
timents of that nation, and in its rela-
tions with France and Britain ; many of
the political views and observations intro-
duced by the author in the course of this
work, are no longer applicable. This,
however, cannot be deemed any drawback
from its utility, since it must be evident
that those measures, whether of a purely
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. Vll
political or of a commercial nature, which
had either proved, or were likely to prove
in reality, mutually beneficial during its
former connection with our enemies, may,
with equal advantage, be adapted to the
interests of Spain and the British empire,
in the present posture of affairs.
There are, in fact, few classes of persons
but what may derive advantage from the
information communicated in this per-
formance. The traveller, the merchant, the
manufacturer, will find numberless valuable
hints dispersed throughout these volumes ;
while the statesman, recollecting the pru-
dent maxim,
" Fas est et ab hoste doceri,"
may gather from their pages many an im-
portant lesson in the art of conciliating the
affections of our new allies, and cementing
between the British and Spanish na-
tions, a friendship, the durability of which
cannot be too ardently desired.
Till TRANSLATOR S PREFACE.
It only remains to observe that, in com-
pliance with the advice of characters not
less distinguished for rank than for talents
and sound judgment, the publisher lias
added to the work of M. Bourgoing a fourth
volume, comprehending the most inte-
resting portion of M. PEYRON'S Essays on
Spain ; and he has no doubt that this ad-
dition will also receive the sanction of puhr
lie approbation.
November, 180S.
CONTENTS.
( it ji
CONTENTS,
VOL. I.
CHAP. I.
Carriages, inns, and roads. Particulars relating
to the province of Biscay ; its liberties and pri-
vileges;; patriotism of the Biscayans. Bilboa,
Saint Sebastian, Vittoria, &c.
CHAP. II.
Continuation of travels through Biscay. Particu-
lars relating to Vittoria, Pancorro, and Burgos.
Hie canal of Castile. Valladolid. The two
cities of Medina. Excursion to the kingdom
of Leon. Salamanca, Segovia, &c< - 31
CHAP. III.
Wool of Spain. Attempts to naturalize it iri
France. Details respecting the Mesta. Ex-
portation of Spanish wool. Manufactories at
Guadalaxara and Segovia. Journies of the
Sheep. Sheep-shearing. Washing of tlw? wool. 74
CHAP. IV.
Palace of Saint Ildefonso. Etiquette. Titles.
Dignities. Grandees. Orders of Chivalry. 116
VOL. I. 1>
3B - CONTLi >
CHAP. V.
Remains of the Cortes. Council of State. M.
d'Aramla, M. Florida Bianca, an -\ the present
Ministers. Official Departments. - 16$
CHAP. VI.
Diversions of the Spanish Court. Gallery of
Pictures. Looking-glass Manufactory. Hunt-
ing Parties. Convent of Paular. 19J
CHAP. VII.
Monastery of the Escurial. Pictures. Pantheon,
Environs of the Escurial. - - $01
CHAP. VIII.
Palace at Madrid. Buen Retire. Sketch of the
three last Reigns. Walk on the Prado r Bo-
tanical Garden. Cabinet of Natural History.
Academy of the Fine Arts. Plaza Mayor. 2Q
CHAP. IX.
Population of Spain. Principal Churches at
Madrid. Painters. Engravers. Printing-
Office. Pious Foundations - - 26Q
CHAPTER X.
Other Academies. Fate of the New Encyclopedia
in Spain. Justification and literary Merits of
the Spaniards. - - - 278
CHAP. XI.
Present Slate of Spanish -Literature. Education.
Manufactures. Roads. Canals. Patriotic So-
ritics - - - 303
CONTENTS. 2U
|
CHAP. XII.
Council of Castile. Corregidor and the Alcaldes,
* Legislation. Influence of the Monks, more
especially of the Royal Confessors. Authority
of the Roman See circumscribed. Concordat of
1753. Opulence of the Clergy. Progress of
Philosophy in reference to Priests. 315
CHAP. XIIL
Arguments for and against the Inquisition. Enu-
meration of the most recent Auto-da- f is. Ad ven-
tures of M. Olavide. Present state of the Inqui-
sition. Qf the Santa Hermandad. 341
MODERN STATE
OP
SPAIN.
CHAP. r.
Carriages, inns, and roads. Particulars re-
lating to the province of Biscay; its li-
berties and privileges ; patriotism of the
Biscayans. Bilboa, Saint Sebastian, Vit-
toria, 8$c.
IN the month of September, 1777, I visited
Spain for the first time, as Secretary to the
French embassy, but a few months after a
change of administration had taken place
at Madrid, and when it was of importance
to develope and ascertain the sentiments of
the new ministers, on the grand dispute be-
tween North America and Great Britain.*
* It is universally known that there are three high roads
leading from France into Spain ; one from St. Jean de Luz
to Irun; another from St. Jean P:ed-de-Port to Ronce-
valles j the third from Boulou to Jonquiere. But it is far
from being so generally known (and is indeed what I was
\OL. I. 9
2 MODERN STATE
Of the three routes generally pursued, F
determined to adopt that of St. Jean de Luz.
Having arrived at Bayonne, instead of pro-
ceeding by the post road to Orogna, which is
five leagues from that city, and two from the
frontiers, I exchanged my carriage for a less
elegant vehicle, called by the Spaniards cache
de collcras, in which tire traveller, before he
becomes used to it, proceeds with no little in-
convenience and alarm. It is a clumsy
inconvenient carriage drawn by six mules,
which have no other spur or rein than the
voice of their guides. On seeing them har-
nessed together, and to the shafts, merely
by cords, and observing them traversing as
it were at random, the winding and sometimes
myself unncqtiainted with till \JQ5, when I was informed
by an ingenious geographer, who had examined with mi-
nuteness, and actually delineated the different passes or
defiles of the Pyrenees), that from the pass of Bagnouls,
which is the nearest to the Mediterranean, to the val-
ley of Aran, near the sources of the Garonne, there
are no less than seventy-five passes over the Pyrenees,
twenty-eight of which are practicable for cavalry, and seven
for carriages and artillery. One of these last, on the ex-
istence of which it is impossible to entertain a doubt,
is the Col des Orls, in a parallel line with that of Perthns,
on the other side of Bellegarde, as by this route the Spa-
niards, in 1 792, entered St. Laurent de Cerda, and
invaded two of our provinces.
OF SPAIN. 3
unfrequented roads of the Peninsula,* the
traveller at first conceives himself as deriving
all his dependence for safety from the care
and kindness of Providence ; but on the slight-
est appearance of danger, a simple and short
exclamation from the mayoral^ or chief mu-
leteer, restrains and directs these tractable ani-
mals. When their exertions relax, the zagal,
or postilion, darts from the shafts, where he
is stationed as sentinel, exercises his whip, or
animates them with his voice, runs along
with the'm for a considerable way, and then
returns to his station, till some new crisis
calls for a repetition of his efforts, This per-
petual vigilance of the two guides at length
inspires the traveller with confidence, though
he finds it impossible to repress his astonish-
ment, that so hazardous a mode of journey-
ing is so rarely attended with serious acci-
dents. Another difficulty, to which the tra-
veljer cannot easily accustom himself, arises
from the inns of Spain, which are, in ge-
neral, destitute of every accommodation *
* This is the name given by the natives to Spain,
which is well known to be surrounded by the sea on every
side, but that of the Pyrenees. The term was, unques-
tionably, adopted originally when Portugal constituted a por-
tion of the Peninsula, and is inaccurate since that kingdom
recovered its independence.
4 MODERN STATE
tlie apartments, beds, and attendance, are
miserable. In order to obtain the most
homely refreshment, the traveller must per-
sonally solicit the assistance of the butcher,
baker, and grocer. In this respect, however,
a very sensible improvement has taken place
within a few years. Before the ministry of
M. Florida Blanca, no such article existed as
a public stage coach ; there was no road
which would admit of post travelling, unless
on horseback ; and with the exception of the
road throug^ Galicia from Pontevedra, near
the Western Ocean, to Corogna ; of another in
the north of Castile, from Reynosa to the sea;
of those of Navarre and Biscay, for which the
inhabitants are indebted solely to their own ef-
forts and patriotism, there was not a regu-
larly good road for ten leagues together, pass-
able at every season of the year, throughout
the whole kingdom of Spain. That minister,
in consequence of his almost unlimited autho-
rity, had the means of benefiting his country
by the most eminent services; but what he
sometimes presented as decided and matured
plans, appeared, at length, to be only half
measures and temporary inclinations. The
conception of his schemes was ardent, but he
wanted steadiness and judgment for their exe-
cution ; yet, during the fifteen years of his
OF SPAIN. 5
administration, be at least furnished the out-
Jines of several valuable improvements. From
the year 1777 to 1789, lie was by no means
faithful to the French alliance, to which he
nevertheless professed the strongest attach-
ment- 'His irritable temper and national
jealousy: '"hud given us more than one just
cause of complaint Since that period he has
been one of the most determined enemies of
our revolution; and it was not his fault that
it was not strangled in its birth. Were he
still in power, it would, perhaps, be a deli-
cate task to treat his character and measures
with justice and ^impartiality ; as he is in dis-
grace, it becomes an Imperious duty..
In the first place, then, -the, establishment
'/ " *."
of a stage coach for six passengers, which sets
off twice a week from Bayonne for Madrid,
and arrives within six days in summer and eight
in winter, is attributable to this minister. In
the interval between the periods of its de-
parture, the mules belonging to it are employ-
ed in conveying such travellers as have car-
riages of their own, and it was thus that I
was conveyed from Bayonne to Madrid in
the year 1792. This establishment was at
first, in 1789, conducted at the expence and
for the emolument of a private individual, but
in the ensuing year it was taken from him, and
O MODERN STATE
transferred into the hands of government,
During the war it was suspended ; but it is
hoped that it will soon be resumed with full
and unremitting activity. It supplies an easy
medium of intercourse between the indivi^
duals of two nations, who, during their longr
and intimate alliance, entertained a favourable
prepossession for each other ; who have in-
creased this regard even by their mutual gal-
lantry in the field of battle; and who, having
now allayed an animosity, originating in merely
temporary circumstances, can scarcely fail to
entertain for each other a durable and high
esteem. But to return to those useful insti- '
tutions, which M. Florida Blanca had at least
the merit of suggesting for the benefit of his
country.
His principal object was the improvement
of the roads. In 1777 there were no good
roads between Bayonne and Cadiz, with the
exception of those from Biscay, Navarre, and
the roads which lead from the Escurial and
Aranjuez to the metropolis. In 1792 I found
one, truly magnificent, which, beginning from
Irun, continued without interruption four
leagues beyond Bnrgos, and with short inter-
vals only, from that place to Madrid. But
for that check which useful undertakings
ever experience from war, however just or
.OF SPAIN. 7
^successful, these intervals would have been
elso finished : a distance of about twelve
leagues only remain to be completed, to
make the road from the Bidassoa to Madrid
one of the finest ia Europe. V.ery little also
is wanting to complete that from Madrid to
Cadiz. In 1778 this road was in winter al-
most impassable; in 1785 it had undergone a
repair, and the practice ,of posting in car-
riages had been introduced upon it: it is now
very nearly finished, and the communication
between these two cities, the most important
in the whole Peninsula, is at length become
easy and expeditious.*
With respect to inns, notwithstanding the
exertions of the same minister, they are still far
from perfection. The improvement of these
establishments, which he projected and began,
is an attempt of greater difficulty in Spain than
elsewhere. Obstacles are met with in local
circumstances, in the manners, revenue duties,
attd, in a certain degree, in the constitution
* A very rapid mode of travelling, however, but at the
same time extremely expensive, has .existed in Spain for a
considerable time; this is done by ordering relays pre-
viously on the road which the traveller intends to pass.
These relays, consisting of six mules, which are harnessed
ajid fixed to the carriage in an instant, will dispatch a stage
of rive or six leagues ia less time than it could be poted ia
;jny part of Europe.
8 MODERN STATE.
of the country, which sanctions exclusive pri-
vileges and monopolies, and establishes them as
appendages to seignorial possessions. Thus the
right to sell articles of indispensable necessity
is often attached to one individual inhabitant,
with whose privilege no other is allowed to in-
terfere. It was necessary to compromise with
these obstacles, and, as it was impracticable to
remove them, to manage them with as much
delicacy and address as possible ;' and many inns,
at least tolerable, have been recently establish-
ed. On the road travelled by the coach al-
ready mentioned several are to be found, pro-
vided with beds, linen, and even plate, in
which the landlords have permission to supply
provisions to the passengers. On other roads,
likewise, some very respectable inns are to be
met with, and also, in all the principal cities.
In those of every other part of the kingdom,
however, the traveller experiences every in-
convenience and privation, and it is scarcely
possible for him to exaggerate, in his descrip-
tion of them, the disgust which he actually
feels.
The Spaniards can scarcely flatter them-
selves that a complete amelioration on this sub-
ject will for a long time take place. Various
circumstances must concur in forwarding what-
ever constitutes the prosperity of states. With-
0> SPAIN. 9
out good roads, it is impossible that a country
should possess good inns, and where both these
are wanting, it must be absurd to expect an
influx of travellers,, which in its turn improves
both inns and roads. To induce these visits
of foreigners, certain attractions must also be
presented to them, either in the way of plea-
sure or information. They must be encou-
raged to expect the charms of innocent dissi-r
pation, or the re-establishment of health ; and
if a country be situated at one of the extremi-
ties of Europe, they must be tempted to visit
it by its monuments of the arts, by its splendid
and ingenious industry, or its extensive com-
merce ; nor should they look in vain for the
elegancies of life and the polish of society : at
all events they should be enabled to perceive
and to experience the enjoyment of civil and
religious liberty. But few will travel into
Spain purposely to observe in one part of it
admirable roads conducting over barren plains,
as in both the Castiles ; in another the most
miserable roads through countries abounding
in cultivation and industry, as along the roasts
of Valencia and Catalonia ; to find cities ii}
ruins, and nearly deserted, and a court from
which pleasure is almost banished ; to behold,
in short, a country which possesses few valu-
fible remains of antiquity, where the arts are in
10 MODERN STATE
their infancy, where the climate scorches, and
the inquisition excites universal terror !
Spaniards, our estimable allies as well as
neighbours, who are, on so many accounts,
worthy of being intimately known ; go on in
the improvement of your roads, and increasing
the accommodation and number of your inns ;
your country will then be travelled through
with convenience and facility ; yet still, to
induce the traveller to prolong his visit with
perfect satisfaction, it must possess certain re->
commendations, some of which are unfortu-
nately denied by nature, others can only result
from time and perseverance.
Quitting Bayonne, the traveller passes through
St. Jean de Luz, after three long leagues
of road rugged and in very bad repair. He then
passes a bridge over a small arm of the sea,
and immediately beyond the bridge he per-
ceives the suburbs of Sibourra. His next ob-
ject is the church of Orogna, and he is now
only one long league from Irun, the first Spa-
nish village bevond the Bidassoa. This small
o ./
riverf 1 which forms a boundary, became cele-
brated in the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth,
in consequence of an island formed by it,
very near, and to the right of, the place
where it is crossed. It was known by the
name of " the Isle of Pheasants." On be^
OF SPAIN. 11
coming the scene of the interview between
Cardinal Mazarin and Don Louis de Haro,
which terminated in the signature of the peace
of the Pyrenees, it received the appellation of
" the Isle of the Conference." It is small, un-
inhabited, and almost barren, and is indebt-
ed for its fame, like many persons of moderate
talents, but of great celebrity, merely to a for-
tunate and casual circumstance.
Having crossed this river, the traveller en-
ters the province of Biscay. The country
presents an appearance but little varied from
that which he has just quitted, but the differ-
ence between the last roads of France and the
first in Spain was,- in 1793, completely to the
advantage of the latter kingdom.
The roads of Biscay, at least those by which
it is traversed from north to south, may be
enumerated as among the most excellent in Eu^
rope. Few situations presented greater diffi-
culties to be surmounted. The province of
Biscay is contiguous to the Pyrenees (which
on this side are by no means so elevated as to-
wards the center and in the eastern series of
ihem), and appears an immense prolongation
of these mountains, extending even to the bor-
ders of Castile. To the completion of a road
through such a country, precipitous descents or
Craggy prominences opposed, in many places,
12 MODERN STATE
the most formidable obstacles ; to surmount
which, the application of all that skill in the
construction of roads which can be derived
from genius and experience was absolute^ re-
quisite. The three provinces of Biscay, Gui-
puscoa, Vizcaya, and Alava, jointly contri-
buted their exertions for this object, as they
do on every subject relating to their common
interest. Indeed this portion of Spain forms a
striking contrast to the rest of the Peninsula,
and well merits particular attention.
Each of the three provinces just mentioned
possesses its separate local government. In
those of Vizcaya and Guipuscoa, the orders of
the king can be executed only after receiving
the sanction of the provincial administration.
Each, annually, summons its general assembly,
to which the administration delivers an ac-
count of its application of the public money.
This assembly is formed by the deputies from
all the communes which have a right, to send
any. These deputations are chosen by ayun-
tamientos, or municipal corporations, the
members of which are also annually elected
by the whole body of qualified citizens. To
possess this right of election, a certain degree
of property is indispensable.
These principles of democratical and represen-
tative government, though by no means equal
OF SPAIN. 13
to what many modern political writers conceive
desirable, gave rise to the idea, during the inva-
sion of Biscay by the French armies and the
consequent negociations for peace, that the
provinces in which such principles were en-
tertained and acted upon, were adapted, by
policy as well as situation, to form a consti-
tuent part of the French republic. This, how-
ever, was by no means the case. Jealous as
the Biscayans are of their liberty, they are cor-
dially attached to the Spanish monarchy, and
though they would resist to the last extremity
the yoke of a despotic prince, their political
constitutions do not in the least unfit them for
the government of a royal protector. They
possess, indeed, a pride of nobility, if it may be
so denominated, which could not easily recon-
cile itself to our principles of strict and rigorous
equality. Partial to that exclusive possession
which they now have of certain real or ima-
ginary advantages,, they would but little value
a liberty which they must enjoy in common
with twenty-six millions of fellow-citizens.
In reference to their financial circumstances,
they would have experienced still less induce-
ment to the projected incorporation. The three
provinces tax themselves for all the purposes
of their own peculiar expence and advantage,
and pay to the king* no other impost than a
14 MODERN STATE
species of donative, which is but rarely de-
manded, and which> if it were not moderate,
would certainly, be withheld. This donative
is levied by the states among the different
communes, conformably to a ratio which fre-
quently undergoes new modifications.
The three provinces of Biscay are noi in-
debted to nature for any lavishing partiality,
and may attribute to this circumstance their
love of liberty, and that unwearied industry
which is the cause of their prosperity: for,
unless in situations where the influence of a
genial soil and climate is counteracted by par-
particular circumstances, the finest countries
of the globe are inhabited by an indolent,
effeminate, and slavish population.
The provinces of Vizcaya and Guipuscoa
are deficient in the growth of strain. The uro-
O . O *
vince of Alava, however, is sufficiently fertile
to supply with this article, not only these pro-
vinces, but a part also of Castile and Navarre.
In the years 1790 and 1791 its exportation of
this commodity to these districts, produced
a profit of nearly a million and a half of
French livres. This indeed, it must be admit-
ted, is its staple resource ; and it must also be
observed, that Alava, though the largest, is
the least peopled of the three provinces, and
scarcely contains more than seventy thousand
OF SPAIN. 15
inhabitants. The province of Seiiorio ( which
is one of the names of Vizcaja or Biscay,
properly so called) comprizes about a hundred
and sixteen thousand inhabitants, and that of
Guipuscoa, within the compass of a spot six
leagues in width, and seventeen in length, con-
tains more than a hundred and twenty thou-
sand. The whole coast of this last province
is inhabited by fishermen and mariners, its in-
land territory by peaceable and industrious
cultivators of the soil. Until the year 1793,
when transient circumstances created an un-
fortunate animosity, the Guipuscoans lived in
friendly intercourse with the French in their
vicinity. They engaged indeed, particularly
between the ports of Bayonne and St. Sebas-
tian, in various commercial speculations, partly
irregular and illicit, which were attended with
mutual advantage, and which will be ea-
gerly renewed on the return of peace.
The city of greatest consequence in all Bis-
cay is Bilboa, though its inhabitants do not
exceed the number of fourteen thousand. It
has, however, lost much of its ancient opulence
and industry. Its tanneries, formerly so cele-
brated, have fallen into decay, nnce the regu-
lation of government forbidding Spanish Ame-
rican hides to be landed at Bilboa, and sub-
jecting them to heavy duties on their convey-
16 MODERN STATE
ance to that port from any other in the Pe-
ninsula. Its establishments for grinding corn,
which were likewise a source of great prqfit,
are no\v abandoned. The commerce of Bil-
boa, therefore, is at present its sole dependence.,
which, however it must be allowed, is im-
mense. Bilboa receives and exports every de-
scription of merchandize. The greatest part of
the wool sent abroad by Spain is shipped at
this port ; as also a considerable quantity of
iron and chesnuts, the chief produce of the
soil of Biscay Proper, which, with regard to
other articles, is nearly barren. For Bilboa
likewise is consigned almost every commodity
exported from the various countries of Europe
for the use of the northern provinces of
Spain. Its principal connections are with
England, France, and America. It contains
about two hundred commercial houses, ainonjx
which are several Irish,, some German,, and
seven or eight French.*
* Within eight or nine years, Bilboa has experienced
a considerable alteration. Its commerce has not been so
much injured by the war as there was reason to appre-
hend. The demand for Spanish wool has rather 1 increased
than diminished : and that portion of capital which could
not be employed in commerce, has been applied to the erec-
tion and improvement of buildings, from, which the city
has derived no little embellishment.
OF SPAIN; If
Foreigners are not permitted, however, to
rent houses in Bilboa. An austere and jealous
spirit of liberty exercises in this place a species
of tyranny which greatly impairs the interest
felt by the philosopher, on contemplating the
general principles and institutions of the Bis-
cayan government; The province of Senorio
maintains its imperfect, and in some instances
chimerical privileges, against the monarch of
Spain, with the most determined pertinacity, and
will not, without the greatest hesitation, admit
any persons born beyond its limits to enjoy
them. It obliges even those whom it wishes
to receive into its bosom to submit to the most
harassing formalities and" ceremonies; and the
French particularly, before the last rupture
between the two countries, were more strictly
dealt with than other strangers. A foreigner,
for instance, is not suffered to hire a house at
Bilboa in his own name, but is obliged to bor-
row that of one of the inhabitants ; and every
man is considered by the Biscayans as a fo-
reigner who was not born within the limits of
their territory. If any foreigner or stranger, in
this sense of the ternij desires to be naturalized
in Biscay, it is necessary for him, even should
he be a Castilian, to prove what is called his
filiation; i, e. to prove that he is the offspring
of parents who were neither Jews nor heretics,
VOL, i. c
1& MODERN STATE
and who were not engaged in base or servile
occupations ; and, in the opinion of the noble
Biscayans, the catalogue of these occupations
is of no trifling length. To accomplish this
object, commissioners are sent, at the expence
of the petitioner, to the place of his birth, to
inspect his papers and examine evidence, who
find it for their interest to prolong an employ-
ment so easy and profitable. There are, un-
questionably, several methods of evading, or at
least of abridging these ceremonials; but should
envy or malice operate against the candidate,
they are sure to be attended with every possible
rigour, and expence ; and I am acquainted
with more than one instance, in which a can-
didate has experienced the utmost severity.
The right of citizenship, however, is in some
parts more easily procured.
Bilboa is situated near the sea, on the right
bank of a river, which, though its course is
but short, is of sufficient depth for the recep-
tion of large merchantmen. This port is not
the only one worthy of attention on the coast
of Biscay. Those of Passage and St. Sebas-
tian deserve likewise to be particularly men-
tioned.
From Bayonne to Bilboa there is no carriage
road, and along the whole extent of this coast
travelling by land is far from commodious.
OF SPAIN. 19
From Hernani, however, the first considerable
town -met with on leaving Irun, an admirable
road is constructed to St. Sebastian, over a se-
ries of mountains, from the summit of which
the traveller has a full view of the latter place
in his approach towards it. This small city
is connected with the continent by a low
and narrow neck of land. Its port, if that
name can with propriety be applied to an ar-
ti'ficial shelter afforded by a mole for fifteen
or twenty merchant vessels, is commanded by
an eminence, on which is an ancient castle
in ruins. From various points of a sloping and
spiral walk, which conducts to this castle, the
smallness of the port is particularly striking.
St. Sebastian is neatly and regularly built, and
exhibits a scene of extraordinary activity. It
is the capital of Guipuscoa, and the place of
residence of its governor.
From St. Sebastian to Passage the distance is
only one short league. To arrive there, the
traveller must proceed along the shore, at the
foot of mountains, encircling a capacious and
immense bay, apparently surrounded on every
side by land, and exhibiting, consequently, at
the first view, the aspect of a vast lake, instead
of a gulf of the ocean. This is the harbour
of Passage, which must be crossed in order to
reach the city which bears its name. At the
20 MODEftN STATE
moment of embarkation, it is most interestim*
to observe a number of young Biscayans disput-
ing, in their singular language, which the ma-
jority of Spaniards themselves do not under-
stand, who shall obtain the honour of presiding
at the helm during this momentous voyage,
of about half a league only in extent. The
city is built on a very confined spot between
the mountains and the bay, and is commanded
by a castle, which, from one side,, furnishes
a view of this immense basin, and on the other
a prospect of the open sea.
This port of Passage, one of the largest,
and perhaps the most secure in Europe, is of
infinite importance to the prosperity of Bi&
cay ; and the demolition of it, which, if ru
mour may be credited, it was once in contem-
plation to demand from its inhabitants, would
have heen far more injurious to Spain than
beneficiaHa France ; and this observation ap-
plies equally to the port of St. Sebastian, and
to that of Fontarabia, another small port at the
mouth of the Bidassoa. Indeed I must take this
opportunity to remark, that the ambition of con-
quest very frequently leads to erroneous cal-
culations, while enlightened policy extends itf
views into futurity ; possessions thus valuable
to a neighbouring state are often of more
value to ourselves, by being suffered to ce,~
t)P SPAIN. 21
raain in its power, than they would be, were
"they to become ours by actual conquest; a
mode of acquisition of which the insecurity
^becomes obvious, from numerous and strik-
ing examples. If of a neighbouring power we
are at all desirous of creating an ally ; by leav-
ing him in the undisturbed enjoyment of his
possessions, we obtain an additional pledge
of his fidelity, while our conquest and appro-
priation of any of them may reasonably be
expected to operate as a bar to cordial al-
liance and attachment. The cession of Gib-
raltar to the English at the peace of Utrecht,
is, perhaps, the principal guarantee of the al-
liance between France and Spain ; and if we
may credit respectable authority, M. de Torcy
considered the matter precisely in this point of
view.
Continue, then, happy Biscayans, peace-
ably to enjoy those three ports, which are the
grand sources of your prosperity, and let us
unite our hopes that Frenchmen, again con-
nected with you by the ties of cordial amity,
will be employed only in assisting you to pre-
serve them from invasion by a common enemy !
While travelling through the country which
those Biscayans have fertilized, and as it were
animated by their labours, even without the
22 MODERN STATE
co-operation of their Sovereign (who, m
conformity to their views and wishes, divests
himself of the title of King, and is content
with that of Seignior), it is impossible not to
feel a sentiment of respect and admiration.
These three provinces are the asylum of in-
dustry and freedom, by which every ob-
ject is influenced and improved throughout
the whole extent of Biscay ; its hills and
valleys exhibit all the effects of unwearied and
successful cultivation. For the space of thirty
leagues from the Bidassoa to Vittoria, some
new village or hamlet is incessantly present-
ing itself to the view of the delighted traveller.
The towns of VillarFranca, Villa-Real, and
Mondragon, breathe an air of serenity and
cheerfulness. How different the aspect of
this country from that immediately adjacent!
I have no wish to exhibit in a ludicrous
point of view the inhabitants of Castile, for
whose merits I have a high esteem; but they
are as silent and dreary as their plains ; their
dark and austere countenances reflecting only
the image of poverty and misery. In Biscay
there is a different complexion, a different
physiognomy, a different character free, gay,
and hospitable, its natives appear conscious
of their happiness., and desirous that those
OF SPAIN. 23
who are witnesses should also become par-
takers of it.
I shall not easily forget an adventure which,
some years since, occurred to me at Villa-
Franca. On reaching this place early in one
of the fine evenings of autumn, in company
with another traveller, we rambled amidst the
scenery of its environs, admiring their verdant
luxuriance and varied cultivation. Groupes
of peasants, scattered through the orchards,
attracted our attention, as we also awakened
theirs. An impulse of curiosity natural to
strangers, led us mutually to approach. My
friend and myself spoke the Spanish language
with tolerable fluency, and though we knew
that there is no affinity between that and the
language of the Biscayans, we could scarce-
ly persuade ourselves how it was possible, that
in a province so long subject to Spain, the
language of the Sovereign should be totally
unknown. This, however, being unfortunately
the case, we were obliged to have recourse to
the primitive language of looks and gestures,
by which we soon made our new acquaintances
understand that we had a desire to taste
their fruits. They instantly and eagerly
brought us some ; our hands were filled, they
wished also to fill our pockets ; several ran
to procure for us eggs and poultry ; and it
2-1 MODERN STATE
was not without considerable difficulty that
we could prevail upon them to admit our
excuses for declining them ; we regretted
that our gestures were our only interpre-
ters, It was necessary at length to separate.
We had rambled at hazard, and were now un-
able to find our way back to the hotel ; but
po sooner did the Biscayan peasants perceive
the cause of our embarrassment, than they
stepped forward and offered to conduct us.
Those who did not actually accompany us, foU
lowed us with their eyes for a considerable
time. In ours they perceived astonishment
at their assiduous hospitality ; a sentiment
which they evidently considered as unkind.
We bestowed on them some tokens of our gra-
titude, which they received in such a manner
as shewed that their attentions to us had been
perfectly disinterested. We might, in short,
have almost persuaded ourselves that we were
quitting those islanders whom the interesting
narratives, of Cook and Bougainville have
taught us so much to admire : yet we were
only twenty leagues distant from Bayonne.
So different are the Biscayans from the in-
habitants of Castile, that they appear to live un-
der another government. In several respects, in-
deed, their country is considered as beyond the
g-ctual frontiers of Spain. With some few- ex-
OF SPAIN. 25
eeptions, all foreign produce is introduced into
it duty free, and is inspected and taxed only
when it reaches the inland frontier. Biscay
has, besides, several privileges, which are de-
fended with great jealousy, but which have
latterly experienced more than one attack.
The prohibition, for instance, of foreign to-
bacco and muslins has been extended to that
country; so precarious indeed every where
is the possession of liberty. In Biscay, how-
ever, they still preserve many of its forms,
We have already intimated that their con-
tribution for the service of government as-
sumes the name and character of a free gift.
If the King requires a certain number of men
for his army or navy, this is communicated to
the administration of Biscay, by whom the
levies are raised in proportion to the ability of
each commune. The royal authority exacts no-?
thing imperiously, apd i almost on every
occasion obliged to compound with them.
In more than one instance, Biscay has paid
no attention to the commands of the court, nor
tothesupremedecisionsofthecouncilofCastile,
when these decisions hav e been deemed incom-
patible with its ancient statutes. It possesses
also peculiar tribunals of justice. In the province
pf Biscay, properly so called, there is an appeal
from the sentence of the corregjdor to a magis-
26 MODERN STATE
irate with the title of Juez Mayor, who is at
the same time guardian of their privileges. This
magistrate, however, is appointed by the King,
and his only hope of attaining those superior
distinctions to which he uniformly aspires, rests
on his securing the favour of his Sovereign.
The Biscayans maintain what they call
their freedom with an energy highly honour-
able to their character. The policy of the
court with regard to them appears to result
more from esteem and respect than from a fear
of popular insurrection.* It must be admitted.,
however, that, with perhaps more archness and
intrigue than generally attach to the character
of freemen, they have now for more than a
century found means to secure these favours
of the court from their primitive source;
they also constantly take care that some of
their fellow- citizens, in consequence of their
occupying situations in the army, navy, public
offices, or occasionally in the ministry itself,
shall be mediators and advocates for them be-
fore the throne. They shew themselves, how-
* In 1804 the establishment of a new land-tax in Biscay
gave rise to disturbances, of a far less serious character than
was represented in various publications, and which the court
.terminated by banishing from the province many of the
landed proprietors, who were supposed to be principally
concerned in them.
OF SPAIN. 27
ever, notwithstanding this circumstance, wor-
thy of freedom, and for its preservation have
made more than one real sacrifice. Their
aversion to custom-house duties they have
on various occasions shewn to be absolutely
insurmountable. In 1718 the Minister Pa-
tinho had nearly caused an insurrection by
an endeavour to introduce this species of im-
post. In 177b, when the commerce of Spanish
America was thrown open to many ports of the
mother country, those of Biscay might have
been admitted into the number, if the in-
habitants would have submitted to the payment
of customs ; but collectors of revenue they have
always considered as the satellites of despotism,
and the benefits thus proposed to them by their
Sovereign they declined, from a noble jea-
lousy of their freedom. They cannot, there-
fore, freight vessels for America, unless they
are fitted out in the ports of a different
province ; and thus that portion of the Span-
ish people best skilled in navigation, and most
adapted for colonial commerce, is content to
sacrifice one of its most important advantages,
for the sake of preserving at least a remnant of
its freedom. In the same manner, before the war
which terminated in the independence of Eng-
lish America, the whole population of one of
28 MODERN STATE
V
the American slates bound themselves by oath
totally to abstain from the use of lamb as
food, in order to promote that growth of wool
which would supersede any necessity for the
manufactures of the mother country.
The Biscay ans, indeed, since the beginning
of the present century, have possessed an ad-
vantage over the rest of Spain with respect to
American commerce. The Caraccas, or as it is
sometimes called, the Guipuscoa Company,
kept its maga/ines in the port of Passage, and
thence fitted out its expeditions : but during
the last war with England, it experienced dis-
asters which determined the government to re-
Jieve it from a burden which it found intoler
ably heavy, and to discharge the company fro in
various expences attending its establishment,
without excluding it from the commerce of tjis
Caraccas.
Biscay, thus distinguished by its roads, iti
cultivation, and its political privileges, is still
more distinguished by its industry, which is
chiefly exercised on the principal produce of
the country, iron. To complete the art of
raising and working this metal, recourse it
had to foreign correspondence, lectures, and
travels. At Bcrgara, there is a patriotic school,
where the science of metallurgy is taught by
most able masters, some of whom, as QIU?
inestimable fellow-citizen Proust, have been
invited for tbis purpose from neighbouring
kingdoms. Young chemists have been sent
to Sweden and Germany, and from the manu-
factories established in these states, and even
from the bowels of a foreign soil, have drawn
information which they have applied to the
advantage of their country ; a word which in
Biscay is something more than an empty name.
Its inhabitants, insulated by their situation,
their language, and their political establish-
ments, circumscribed within narrow bounds,
and surrounded by their native mountains, are
called both by nature and by policy to the
cultivation of patriotism, and are faithful to
the call. It is this sentiment which has
produced the schools of Bergara., where the
nobility of the country are educated at the
expence of the state, and also those valuable
associations which have operated as models
for the numerous societies of a similar de-
scription, that during the last thirty years have
appeared throughout the whole kingdom of
Spain. From the same sentiment, in short,
has very recently originated a new opening for
the application of Biscay an industry, by the
construction of the port of Deva, between t r
Sebastian and. Bilbou,
SO MODERN STATE
Having thus sketched the situation of Bis-
cay in reference to freedom and political eco-
nomy ; I shall proceed to give an account of
it merely as traveller.
OP SPAIN.
CHAP. II.
Continuation of travels through Biscay. Par-
ticulars relating to Vittoria, Pancorro, and
Burgos. The canal of Castile. Vallado-
lid. The two cities of Medina. Excursion
to the kingdom of Leon. Salamanca, Sego-
via, Sfc.
THE first town after leaving Irun is Her-
nani, surrounded by mountains, separated
from each other by narrow, but verdant val-
leys. It is watered by a small river, the
course of which, on quitting Hernani, is fol-
lowed for a considerable time. At Tolosa, (the
place where the BayOnne stage stops on the
first night of its journey to Madrid) this river
is again perceivable, but is then lost sight of till
the traveller reaches M ondragon. Within this
space he passes and repasses it over a number
of stone bridges, substantially built and ele-
gantly ornamented ; a species of luxury which,
in all works connected with public utility, is
highly gratifying to the Spaniard.
A few leagues from Tolosa, the road lies
through the small city of Alegria, the birth-
32 MODERN STATE
place of many distinguished Spaniards, and,
among others, of Mendizabal, so justly cele-
brated in the navy. Villa-Franca, where the
mules are changed, is the next town, then Villa-
Real, from which there is a long and steep de-
scent on the side of a mountain to Anzuela,
whence a fresh relay conducts to the little
city of Mondragon. Two leagues before we
arrived at this place, the road is divided
into two branches, one of which leads to
Madrid, while the other, in a direction to
the right, extends to Durango, (whence it
terminates) on the road to Bilboa. Beyond
Durango, the road is impassable for car-
riages ; and to go from Bayonne to Bilboa
with convenience, the traveller must pass
through Vittoria. But there is a very tole-
rable road directly from Madrid to Bilboa>
through Orduna, where there is an establish-
ment for collecting what may be called the
inland customs of Biscay.
From Mondragon there are five long leagues
to Vittoria, which, however, may be passed in
less than four hours, .though the steep and
dangerous ascent of Salinas intervenes, in sur-
mounting which so many accidentshave at vari-
ous times occurred. One of these, some years
since, befel a carriage in which one of my
friends was of the party, which merits a par-
OF SPAIN. S3
ticular account, by which the reader will be-
come acquainted with the manners of one
class of people throughout Spain. There are
few muleteers, carters, or coachmen, who, oa
mounting the box, or setting off on their jour-
ney, do not make the sign of the cross, or mut-
ter some prayer, and who do not, indeed, carry
with them some relics or scapularies. By these
prelimiaary ejaculations., and these sacred charms,
they consider themselves as secured from mis-
fortune. The driver of the carriage. in ques-
tion had by no means been inattentive to those
admirable precautions, which, however, were
found ineffecutual. In climbing up the side of
Idlinas, his mules deceived his vigilance, and
drew the carriage over a precipice. The pas-
sengers, however, met with no other personal
injury than what arose from a few bruises, and
the muleteer himself experienced only a little
temporary deformity of features. It might have
been supposed that, in the slightness of this ca-
lamity, he might have perceived a signal proof
of the protection of Providence, and of the an-
gels or saints employed as its ministers; but
this was far from being the case. While the
passengers were rising and extricating them-
selves from their confinement, collecting their
scattered property, and deploring the loss or
damage which they had sustained, the mule-
teer, in a most unholy paroxysm of rage, snatched
VOL. i. D
34 MOPBRN STATE
bis relics aud scapularies from the place of their
deposit, tore them in a thousand pieces, and tram-
pling; them under his feet, thundered out a litany
of his own invention, Al dcmuncs Santa- Barbara/
a los diablus San- Francisco ; al inficrn Nuestra
Seiiora del cannon, $c. fyc. ; and, cursing the
weakness or treachery of all the saints in suc-
cession, whether male or female, whose votary
he had been, most energetically announced to
them, that they had now lost his confidence for
ever. Nothing less than this was sufficient to
restore the coachman to tranquillity, or even to
produce his usual gaiety.
After passing the town of Salinas, we as-
cended the mountains, and on re descending,
on the other side, we observed them gradu-
ally decreasing in elevation, becoming less
frequent and receding from our view. Hav-
ing at length entirely cleared them, we reached
the city of Vittoria, the capital of the province
of Alava. It is situated in the midst of a well-
cultivated plain, abounding in villages. The
greater part of this city is ill built and ill paved,
but it presents indications of great industry and
activity. Within the last few years, it has had
the advantage of a large square, each side of
which presents to the eye nineteen arcades ; and,
notwithstanding some defects which might be
pointed out in this range of architecture, it
would do honour to. a fur more considerable city
OF SPAIN. 35
than Vittoria. The plan was designed by M.
Olarvide, a native of the place, who, in con-
secrating his talents to the embellishment of
the country in which they were produced and
cherished, has exhibited a pleasing and valuable
example for imitation.
Vittoria being the last city of Biscay, on the
Catilian frontier, certain formalities are re-
quired there, which are often severe, and always
disagreeable. Carriages and goods passingthrough
this place to or from the province of Biscay, are
here rigorously inspected ; suspected letters are in-
tercepted; letters in uncommon characters are
decyphered ; the couriers even of government
are sometimes arrested, when they abuse their
passport for the purpose of smuggling, especi-
ally in the exportation of coin, which of all
crimes that can be committed against the revenue
in Spain, is the most unpardonable. In 1792, I
had no opportunity to perceive all these circum-
stances of rigour, though this was the period in
which the animosity of Spain against every thing
connected with the French revolution began to
manifest itself in every possible manner. I fortu-
nately > however, experienced the greatest polite-
ness and civility in all my official transactions.
M. d'Alava, who at that time acted as governor,
undertook to permit my entrance into Castile,
upon the mere exhibition of my passport, though
a formal permission from the court was then re-
D 2
30 MODERN STA/FE
quisite to proceed beyond Vittoria. Agreeably
to a receut law, the object of which is to encou-
rage the manufacture of carriages in Spain, a
tenth part of their value, estimated by a person
skilled in appraising them, is demanded for all
foreign carriages that enter the country, and
this deposit is not returned till the carriage,
of which a certified description is given to the
traveller, repasses the frontiers. By the in-
terposition of an agent, to whom I had a let-
ter of address, and whose services I found of
great value, I was exempted from this trouble-
some tax.
These were not the -whole, nor the most en-
dearing marks of attention I experienced from the
amiable inhabitants of Vittoria. Some monthi
afterwards, my family having arrived from the
north of Germany, took up their residence among
them, waiting until they made arrangement*
for joining me. One of ray children was attacked
with a very severe illness. They shared our an-
guish they lavished upon the child all the trea-
sures of the medical science upon its mother,
all the endearments of consolation: our gratitude
for their excellent conduct is indelibly engraven
upon our hearts. Accept of our homage,
worthy inhabitants of A lava, whose atmos-
phere seems to be sacred to benevolence f Ye
amiable women, mothers of families, who, ia
your kindness of heart, so often regretted that
OF SPAIN. 37
you had no interpreter but a language unknown
to those whom you sought to restore to hope and
life ; and you, Don Antonio, a surgeon whose
sensibility equals your talents, who as it were
adopted that infant with whose loss we were
threatened, and for whose preservation we are
indebted to you Reader, I beseech you pardoa
this overflowing of a paternal heart !
A residence at Vittoria is not without its
charms to those who view as blessings the tran-
quillity of the mind, the enjoyments afforded by
simple nature, with -cheap and abundant means of
subsistence. Tiie climate is temperate, although
the vicinity of the mountains which bound its
horizon, particularly towards the north, renders
the winter severe. The plain which surrounds it
produces every necessary of life, and particularly
fruits and grain of aa excellent quality. The
dissipation and the frivolities of great cities are
here unknown ; but we may enjoy those inno-
cent pleasures which are the delight of hearts
as yet uninfected with the refinement? of civiliza-
tion ; at stated periods of the year, they cele-
brate festivals in which the young men,, the girls,
and the married couples of the place are succes-
sively the prominentcharacters; ceremonies affect-
ing from their simplicity, which at once prove
the purity of their morals and guarantee them
against contamination !
Upon leaving Vittoria, on the right we find
385311
38 MODERN STATE
the river of Arriaza, which i crossed by a stone
bridge. We afterwards pass through the villages
of Puella and Armifion ; after having cleared a
mountain, we have before us a league of straight
and good road, constructed like a causeway,
which leads us to Miranda. Half way on this
road a marble column appear?, the inscription
on which points out tjie limits between 1 he pro-
vinces of Alava and Castile; a monument per-
haps too pompous for the subject.
Miranda, a small town five leagues from Vit-
toria, is divided by the Ebro into two unequal
parts. This river, which formerly served as the
south boundary of the conquests of Charlemagne
as well as of the French in 1795, is one of those
objects which have been magnified by the magic
of history, but do not keep pace with their
reputation. It is true that at Miranda the Ebro
is still very near its' source at the foot of the
mountains of Asturias; but the Ebro, which
traverses from the north-west to the south-east
the greatest part of northern Spain, has been to
our days almost entirely unfit for navigation.
We shall see in the course of this work what has
been undertaken for rendering it useful to the
provinces through which it passes.
At Miranda the Ebro is crossed by a very fine
bridge. We have in front a small stony hill,
surmounted by a ruinous castle which does not
at all embellish the arid district. Soon afterwards
OF SPAIN. 39
\ve perceive the high rocks of Pancorvo, grouped
in a picturesque manner, and which have already
exercised the pencil of more than one traveller.
Two leagues further,, at Mayago, is the entrance
of the narrow and winding valley formed by
these rocks ; and half a league onward, at their
feet, stands the village which bears their name.
In a short space we meet with two others, Santa-
Maria del Cubo and el Cubo, where the misery
and laziness of Castile is shewn in all their defor-
mity. We afterwards traverse vast plains tole-
rably well cultivated, until we reach Bribiesca,
a small town surrounded with walls, having four
gates placed symmetrically. The road leaves
this place on the left.
In 1777 and 1785 I found Bribiesca gloomy
and stripped of its verdure; worthy, in a word,
of the parched Castile; in 1792, however, it
seemed as if it had acquired some gardens and
orchards. This was not the only change for the
better I remarked on my journey.
The road from Irun to Bribiesca was always
good. Almost every where it was adorned with
trees, which, however, in general succeeded but
badly, and on the sides were stone fences occurring
by far too often. The road itself is also in some
places too narrow. In forming it the inhabi-
tants have been too sparing of their ground; they
have less occasion for this in Spain than in France.
From Bribiesca to Burgos is six leagues, and
40 MODERN STATE
the road lies through the most parched and naked
district in Europe; it passes through two of
the most miserable villages in Spain, Monasterio
and Quintana. Near the latter place is a very
iine stone bridge.
Burgos, the capital of Old Castile, is agreeably
situated upon the right bank of the Arlancon,
at the foot of an eminence upon which an old cas-
tle displays its ruins. Formerly this city was re-
markable for its riches, industry, and commerce;
it now presents the perfect image of poverty,
idleness, and depopulation. It does not con-
tain more than 10,000 inhabitants. Its only branch
of trade is now confined to the carriage of wool,
\vhich is sent oft' for embarkation in the north of
Spain. Its manufactures, if we except that of
leather, which is only of twenty years standing,
scarcely deserve to be mentioned. It proves, as
do many other cities in Spain, that the luxury
of the church absorbs and keeps in a state of
stagnation, riches which would be sufficient to
ameliorate an entire district. The magnificence
of the cathedral of Burgos forms a disgusting con-
trast with the rubbish which surrounds it. This
imposing and well preserved edifice, is a chef
d'ceuvre of elegance in the Gothic style. One of
its chapels contains a picture by Michael Angelo,
representing the Virgin clothing the infant Jesus,
who is standing erect upon a table. We recognise
the air of nobleness and grandeur which this
OF SPAIN. 41
painter knew how to give to his figures, with
that vigour and correctness of design to which
he sometimes sacrificed the graces.
The cathedral is almost opposite one of the
three bridges which cross the Arlan^on. On the
other side this bridge in a suburb, is to be found
a miraculous image, which is better known, and
attracts more curiosity than the picture of
Michael Angelo. It is preserved in an obscure
chapel, crowded with ex votis and silver lamps.
Strangers are introduced with a mysterious pomp,
which has something imposing in it, even to peo-
ple not superstitiously inclined. The venerable
crucifix is concealed behind three curtains, which
are drawn aside one after another with an affected
slowness and solemnity, which still adds to the
religious effect. The vulgar believe that the
beard of the image still grows: devotees ascribe
several miracles to it; but unprejudiced eyes
see nothing extraordinary about it.
Burgos is the birth-place of two celebrated cap-
tains, whose fame is not confined to Spain, Fer-
dinand Gonzales and the Cid Campeador. In the
time of Charles the fifth, a triumphal arch of very
good taste was erected in memory of the for-
mer; and latterly Burgos has paid the same tri-
bute to the Cid, by raising a monument upon the
spot where his house is supposed to have stood.
The Spaniards deserve admiration for the honor
they do to the memory of their heroes, of whom
MODERN STATE
they speak with the same reverence that a ruined
nation does of its ancient opulence ; perhaps we
may rather say of the Spaniards, that (hey mention
their ancestors with that tone of ardor which
proves, that the sentiment of what is grand and
beautiful, although it may have disappeared for
a long interval, is not yet extinguished among
them, and that they only wait for occasion to
celehrafe its renovation.
The New Square of Burgos, surrounded by
uniform houses, but small and paltry in their ap-
pearance, deserves to be mentioned, only because
they have placed a pedestrian statue of Charles
III. in bronze in the centre : it is badly designed,
ard worge executed. We should not remark it
on this account, were it not almost the only mo-
nument of the kind in Spain. The Spaniards,
devoted as they are in general to their Sovereigns,
have been less prodigal of this kind of homage
than most oiher nations.
If the interior of Burgos creates unpleasant
ideas in the mind of the traveller, its environs
at least are embellished and fertilized by the
waters of the Arlan^on. This river meanders
through luxuriant meadows, and it has to boast
of three very fine stone bridges within half a
league of each other ; it washes the walls of two
remarkable edifices, situated lower down than
the city : one of them is the monastry of Las
Huelgas, a convent for ladies, -whose abbess has
OF SPAIN. 43
considerable privileges, and a jurisdiction resem-
bling that of a petty sovereign ; the other is the
Hospital del Rey, remarkable for its neatness and
the healthiness of its situation. The Spaniards
may give lessons to the most polished nations by
these monuments of charity. A cruel prejudice
jhas not yet taught them to fear that the wretched
will ever look with repugnance at an asylum open-
ing its gates to alleviate their sufferings.
There is also near Burgos an edifice worthy of
the curiosity of the traveller ; it is the Chartreuse
dc Mirajlores, where King John II. and his Queen
have tombs erected to them, magnificent at least
from their materials, and where there are some
... , ! '%!
pictures remarkable for their gaudy colouring.
In the environs of Burgos there are plenty of
trees as ornaments for its avenues and prome-
nades; but there is a great scarcity of fuel in
this country, which is besides one of the coldest
"in Spain ; a scarcity severely felt in almost all
the interior part of the kingdom. It began to
attract the attention of government in 1753. An
\j i
ordonnance of the Council of Castile enjoined
each inhabitant of the country to plant five trees,
but the execution of the order was intrusted
to men without intelligence. It seemed as if
surrounded by penal enactments, yet the ob]
ject of the government was not obtained. Jn
some places malice, in others prejudice, par-
ticularly throughout Old Castile, dictated an
44 MODERN STATE
insinuation that the trees attracted birds and
other destroyers of grain ; in many places impro-
per attempts rendered the measure inefficacious ;
here trees which began to succeed were cut down
by the passengers, while in other districts they
were transplanted from a soil in which they flour-
ished to another where they perished for want of
care ; almost every where the ordonnance was ne-
glected. At length, towards the latter end of the
reign of Charles III, recourse was had to the most
efficacious of measures, that of example: the King
himself, in the environs of Madrid and at his
palaces; the Infanta Don Gabriel, in his grand
priory of Malta ; many grandees of Spain, and
rich individuals, in what they call their estates ;
some patriotic societies, prelates, and even Cures ;
all were animated by that public spirit which
enjoys by anticipation those benefits of which
Ave lay the foundation without being able to pro-
fit by them ourselves ; all exclaimed, like the old
man in La Fontaine : " Our great-grand-children,
uill be indebted to us for this shade. 1 ' They pro-
ceeded to rear plantations upon a better scale, out
of the reach of the devastations of passengers,
and particularly of animals ; and already do a
few orchards and clumps of trees interrupt the
monotony of the horizon, enlivening with a little
verdure the parched and naked soil of La Mancha
and the two Castiles.
The Arlan$on is once more met with, after
OF SPAIN, 45
leaving Burgos, nor is it lost sight of until wft
come to Villadrigo, a miserable village, al-
though agreeably situated upon the right bank,
at the bottom of a vast plain, upon which some
wretched vineyards are scattered. We after-
wards arrive at the Pisuerga, another small
river which flows from north to south, the wa-
ters of which were meant to be incorporated with
the canal of Castile, projected and commenced
under Ferdinand VI, and afterwards almost en
tirely abandoned, to the great prejudice of Old
Castile, to which it was of importance for the
carriage and increase of its produce. It was to
have commenced at Segovia, coasted along the
Eresma, which flows into the Douro, and then
northwards towards Reynosa, receiving the wa-
ters of the rivulets upon its route. It is only 20
leagues from Reynosa to the port of Saint- Andero.
A fine road was made here, which would have
facilitated the improvements intended for Old
Castile, but which will be in ruins ere the canal
be finished. In 1792 the grand road upon which
I travelled from Irun terminated at the village
of Estepar; ithas since been carried several leagues
beyond Valladolid.
On the banks of the Pisuerga, and after hav]
ing passed two rugged mountains, the bases of
which are washed by this river, we find Quintana
de la Puente, near a stone bridge with 18 arches;
afterwards Torquemada, one of the dirtiest and
46 MODERN STTE
most miserable places in Spain ; at the entrance*
into which we again pass the Pisuerga upon an-
other bridge of 26 arches, very solid, and recent-'
ly in a great measure rebu It ; we then see
the village of Magaz, near which the Arlanza'
joins the Arlancon ; a little further on, at the
approach of the Dueiris, these two rivers are
united to the Pisuerga, and then to the Carrion.
It is the junction of these four rivers w Filch, un-
der the continued name of Pisuerga, skirts Val-
ladolid, before falling into the Douro or Duero.
"Were it not for the banks of the Pisuerva, mark-
ed here and thereby clumps of trees, there would
be few landscapes more dismal or more monoton-
ous than the route between Villadrigo and Due-
Has. Before we ascend the eminence u;.on which
this last town is situated, we remark on the left
a large convent of Benedictines, called 8an Isi-
dro, in front of which is a new road begun irt
1784- by the intendant of Palencia, and one of
the best perhaps in Europe.
This road, undertaken when the project was'
scarcely entered upon of rendering the grand route
of France practicable, was constructed at thd
expence of the neighbouring communes, and 1
may serve as a model to other countries. It
proves, as M. Turgot had formerly done in*
Limousin, that an intendant may, in some cir-
cumstances, be extremely useful. I shall add
OF, SPAIN- 47
that it also proves, perhaps, that a fruperin-i
tendant, continued for some time in oflice, is
better able than any temporary administrator,
however well chosen, to carry into execution
plans of a certain extent, and to bring into action
that activity, and that desire of approbation,
which alone can secure success, and even to exer-
cise that economy which will admit of multiply-
ing useful enterprizes.
Palencia is indebted for other embellishments,
and for other ameliorations, to the cares of the
intendant of the province., aided by the chapter
of the diocese. Situated in the centre of a coun-
try renowned for its fertility (la Tierra de Cam-
pos), like many other provinces, it has greatly
fallen from its ancient splendor, and is now only
remarkable by the dirtiness of its streets, the
magnificence of its cathedral, and its manufactures
of woollen coverlets, flannels and serges, whicji
are in full activity.
Duefias, which is only two leagues from Palen-
cia, although agreeably situated, is nevertheless one
of the most remarkable places in this route for its
dirty and gloomy appearance. Some years ago
it could boast of an inn which travellers delighted
to cite as an exception from the general rule:
that which the diligence stops at is, on the con-
trary, one of the most inconvenient in Spain.
Duefias, however, is not without-some appearance
of industry. Besides other articles, they manu-
48 MODE TIN STATE
facture here a species of wine tuns, which are the
only casks used in the country.
After having descended the hills of Dueiias,
"we traverse the most naked and uninteresting
country in the world, until we come within sight
of Valladolid. The steeples of this city are
discovered on leaving Cabezon, and its large stone
bridge. On this side Valladolid appears to ad-
vantage, having an avenue of approach half
a league in length, which has cross walks, and
serves as a promenade.
In 1777, the first time I saw this city, I was
disgusted with the filthincss which every where
appeared, hy which all the senses were in turn at-
tacked. Eight years afterwards I was less so, and
in 1792 I found Valladolid, not only much
cleaner, but greatly embellished. They have late-
ly formed some agreeable plantations along the
Pisuerga, upon the square called the Campo
Grande, situated at one of the extremities of this
city, remarkable for its immense size, and the
thirteen churches which may be reckoned with-
in its walls.
Valladolid has another very regular square,
with three rows of balconies, where it is
asserted that 24,000 persons may be seated. I
judged of its capaciousness when, travelling for
the first time in Spain, I arrived at Valladolid
precisely at the moment when they were celebrat-
ing a bull fight, an event which occurs only
OF SPAIN. 49
once in three years. An amateur could not have
been more fortunate. I was struck with the
prodigious concourse of the curious which this
fete attracted from several leagues around. The
celebrated Torreador Pepeliillo, whom I after
wards met with so often,, had been sent for on
purpose from Madrid. He did homage to the
ambassador whom I accompanied by immolating
several bulls, a respect commonly paid to per-
sons of quality ; each of these bloody tributes
was a signal for several pieces of gold being
thrown from the box of the corregidor in which
we were seated upon the theatre of Pepeliillo's
exploits ; he had certainly no need of this en-
couragement., for I never saw him more adroit
or more fortunate.* Every thing in this scene,
which lasted nearly three hours, the spectacle,
the kind of reception we experienced, the dress,
the manners, and the language, all was new to
us. At the end of the fete, the lodge of the
corregidor was transformed into a hall dc refresco.
Glasses of water, chocolate, and sweetmeats of
all sorts and colours were handed about; we
were at a loss how to avoid the obliging importu-
nities with which we were overwhelmed ; and ges-
tures rather than language expressed our gratitude.
* He perished, however, in 1802, having been literally torn in
pieces by a bull which was destined to fall a victim to his dex-
terity.
VOL. I. T,
50 MODERN STATE
This exhibition gave us a strong idea of the affa-
bility of the Castilians, and of their taste for de-
licacies.
Valladolid, among other remarkable churches,
has that of the Dominicans,, and of Saint Benedict,
which have to boast of the kind of beauty pecu-
liar to almost all the sacred edifices in Spain ;
that is to say, they are spacious, and filled with
altars surcharged with decorations and gilding ;
they besides contain some tombs of white marble,
sculptured with admirable care. The works of
sculpture, whether in wood or marble, in groups
or in bas-relief, may be referred to the era of the
restoration of the arts in Spain, an age which
produced Juan deJuni, Berraguete, Becerro, and
other artists little known beyond the Peninsula,
but who would have done honour to more en-
lightened times. The new cathedral of Valla-
dolid is described by the Abbe Pons as a splendid
monument. I saw nothing in it but a mass of
brown dirty-coloured stones, a doric order of the
worst kind, which reigns in pilasters around the
nave, a high wall which forms the back of the
choir, and conceals from those who enter it the
view of the rest of the church. The good Abbe,
who travelled in the character of an amateur artist,
frequently lavishes eulogium and criticism upon
objects undeserving of both.
Valladnlid is one of the most considerable cities
in Spain ; it is the residence of a bishop, the seat
OP SPAIN. 51
of an university, of a patriotic society, of one of
the seven great colleges of the kingdom, a.nd of
one of the supreme tribunals which are called
Cancilleria ; and not withstand ing this it does not
contain more than 20,000 inhabitants. In the time
of Charles the Fifth they amounted to 100,000.
There were to be found in it all the necessaries
of life, besides an active industry and commerce ;
but indolence, and the enormous multiplica-
tion of priests and monks have made all these
advantages disappear. The court which was
sometimes fixed there, having been finally esta-
blished at Madrid under the reign of Phillip III,
carried in its train all the opulent families.
On every side were to be seen houses abandoned by
their inhabitants, and mouldering into ruins :
nothing now remains of its former opulence but
a prodigious number of sacred edifices. Out of
the town, in spite of the fertility of a country
adapted for every kind of culture, and abound-
ing in rivers, all is nakedness and misery :
\vithin the .city, the same baneful want of indus-
try is observable* The only manufactures which
have an appearance of success, are those of wool-
len cloths. The goldsmiths and jewellers have ac-
quired renown, and they deserved it; there are still
a great number of them in one of the most fre-
quented places of the city, but these are not above
mediocrity.
It has been attempted within these few years
52 MODERN STATE
to rouse Valladolid from the state of lethargy into
which it has fallen. A school for drawing,
and an academy of mathematics were established ;
several of the streets were improved by the
establishment of a police ; its environs by pro-
menades and by plantations of chesnut trees.
On coming out of Campo Grande where new al-
leys have been lately planted, there are twc*
legues of excellent road towards Madrid, and
eight towards Palencia, through a naked coun-
try ; for the scarcity of wood which forced Phi-
lip III to abandon Valladolid, has even increas-
ed since his time.
The admirers of the fine arts go a league out
of this city to the convent of Fuensaldagne to-
see three pictures by Rubens, which may be com-
pared on account of the freshness of their colours
with any thing he ever produced. Simancas,
which is still the principal depot of the archives
of the mouarchy, is only two leagues from Val-
ladoHd.
Madder is successfully cultivated in a part of
its environs, as well as in the provinces of Bur-
gos and of Segovia, in the Asturias, Andalusia,
Arragon and Catalonia. This plant, which is well
known to be peculiarly adapted to the climate of
Spain, did not attract the attention of government
until 1742. Its culture, in which considerable
progress has been already made, produces to Spain
a saving of ten millions of reals, which she for-
OF SPAIN, 53
merly paid to the Dutch. The madder of Spain
is better and cheaper than that of any other
country. Foreigners begin to appreciate its va-
lue ; and even during the American war the
English brought it from Medina del Campo, and
from Ciudad Rodrigo, by the ports oft Portu-
gal. This new branch of industry is so much
the more valuable, as the indigo manufactures
are daily increasing in several parts of Spain :
and in order to encourage the [cultivation of
madder in the year 1782, a tax of forty-two
reals on each quintal of foreign madder was im-
posed.
That part of Castile which lies on the right in
going from Burgos to Segovia, is a deserted
country, and rarely visited by the modern tra-
veller; it contains, however, two cities which
deserve a particular mention, were it only for the
sake of contrasting their present state with their
past prosperity.
Medina de Rio Seco, formerly celebrated by
its manufactures, is reduced from a population
of about thirty thousand souls to fourteen hun-
dred houses. Its fairs were such a source of
opulence, that the Spaniards surnamed it In-
dian Chica, the Little Indies. Nothing now
remains but the ruins of its castle, which was
strongly, but unsuccessfully, besieged by Henri
de Transtamare, in his war against the king, Don
Pedro.
4 MODERN STATE
A more poignant subject of regret is to be
found in another city of the same name, Medi-
na del Campo. Formerly the residence of se-
veral monarchs, the theatre of great events., and
of very extensive commerce, peopled with sixty
or seventy thousand souls, it cannot now boast
of above a thousand houses. Its celebrated fairs,
its commerce in bills of exchange, its great depot
for the cloths of Segovia, the beauty of its edifices,
the neatness of its streets ; all these have ceased
to exist, except in the annals of history. That
which the ravages of accumulated ages, joined
to the calamities of those long and terrible wars
which overturn whole empires, has scarcely pro-
duced upon ancient cities which have enjoyed
some renown ; two centuries of idleness and of
bad administration have effected upon Medina
del Campo, and some other cities in Spain. Time
seems to have flown with tenfold rapidity over
them ; and from the depth of the tomb, in which
they are as it were swallowed up, we almost be-
lieve their splendor to have been contemporary
with that of Persepolis and Palmyra. An ex-
ample, unique perhaps in the history of Eu-
rope ! a subject worthy the profound cogita-
tions of her philosophers.
Next to the churches, which the opulent and
the slothful so largely contribute to keep in re-
pair, the finest edifice of Medina del Campo is
the Shambles. Philip the Third, whose extrava-
OF SPAIN 55
ant enterprises contributed so much to the de-
generation of Spain, has left this city at least a
monument of his good will.
The two Medinas bring us in contact with the
kingdom of Leon, of which we shall say a few
words before resuming the route to Segovia.
This country is one of the most parched and de-
sert belonging to Spain. Upon the road from Pa-
lencia to Leon, its capital, we meet with the canal
of Campos, commenced under the administration
of Ensenada, and destined to reanimate Castile
and the kingdom of Leon ; as yet there are but
twelve leagues completed, and that in two se-
parate places of six leagues each in extent. It
was intended to flow into the Douro by Palencia
and Due^as ; but it was interrupted for a long
time, resumed by the minister Florida Blanca,
and once more abandoned for enterprises of more
magnitude indeed, but perhaps less useful. It is
not by such oscillations in national improve-
ments that the regeneration of an empire is ef-
fected.
Leon, a city pleasantly situated, important
also when the kingdom bearing its name was
united to the crown of Castile, has not a popu-
lation exceeding fifteen hundred inhabitants, for
which there are thirteen churches and nine con-
vents. Its environs are fertile, however, and em-
bellished with plantations. It has some cloth
manufactories, which have not full employment
56 MODERN STATE
throughout the year, and even of these a parl
has lately fallen into decay.
Salamanca, the second city in the kingdom of
Leon, deserves more particularly to be mentioned.
Attracted by the reputation of this city, so
famous in romances, and in the history of Spa-
nish literature, I visited it during my first re-
sidence in Spain. The court was then at St. Ilde-
fonso, a distance of twenty-seven leagues from,
Salamanca.
Although the Spaniards themselves, and parti-
cularly the Abbe Pons, complain of the depopula--
tion of this part of Spain, I did not perceive it in
my journey. I remarked, for instance, that in
the environs of Arevalo we could discover twelve
villages from one point of view. All this dis-
trict, although naked and poor, is yet fertile,
and even well cultivated, because the estates and
farms are not so extensive here as in several other
provinces of Spain.
After having passed Segovia, of which we
shall presently speak, I arrived at Santa Maria de
Nieva, a village of six hundred houses, possess-
ing the singular privilege of having a bull fight
every year, which attracts all the amateurs
in its vicinity.
From the eminence on which it is placed we
discover a fine country, if we can say so much
of a vast district which has neither running wa-
ters,, verdure, nor country houses; and which
OF SPAIN. 7
only presents the dismally uniform aspect of im-
mense fields of wheat.
After passing a fir wood, the country again
becomes naked and perfectly uniform. In spite
of its aridity, it is extremely well cultivated to
the gates of Arevalo, a town which must have
been formerly a very considerable city. Its mas-
sive gate leads to a bridge, the solidity of
which may brave the ravages of torrents, and
almost those of time. This double monument
does not seem undeserving of one of those pom-
pous inscriptions of which the Spaniards are so
lavish. It informs the traveller, that the com-
munes for thirty leagues around contributed to-
wards its erection. In the interior of Arevalo is
seen, with a surprise mixed witk disgust, remains
of antique columns, upon which miserable bar-
racks and half rotten balconies are supported.
The clergy alone preserve their riches in the midst
of the poverty which surrounds them.
From Arevalo to Pearanda, the country
abounds with fertile and well cultivated plains.
Their inhabitants, however, are not the less free
from indigence : reduced, like the greater part
of the population in the interior of Spain, to the
enjoyments of pure necessity, they disdain those
of convenience. Deprived of all communica-
tion with strangers, and of objects of compari-
son, they seem to have neither the desire nor the
knowledge of the comforts of life. It never
58 MODERN STATE
occurs to them to ornament their estates. A gar-
den of potherbs is to them an object of luxury,
which their parsimony denies. Indolence sub-
jects them to privations, and habituation to pri-
vations encourages indolence in its turn; and in
this state they must remain until roads, bridges,
canals, and the more easy means of carriage, have
made them acquainted with the advantages of
commerce. Travellers, who judge of the Spa-
niards from such specimens as these, ought to be
excused for treating them a litte harshly.
We are reconciled to this country on enter-
ing Pe^aranda, a pretty little town, consist-
ing of about one thousand houses. It contains
also some architectural ruins, which prove that it
was formerly more considerable.
Its inhabitants have great confidence in a mira-
culous image of the Virgin. Without its assist-
ance they are convinced they must frequently have
fallen into serious misfortunes. Happy illusions,
which modern philosophy has the cruelty to turn
into ridicule, and which it is, perhaps, necessary
to keep up for the consolation of the poor, even
where vigilant and enlightened authority retains
the means of suppressing the abuses of supersti-
tion! These illusions are certainly innocent;
they are even valuable, had they no other effect
than that of nourishing in the breast of the unfor-
tunate, sentiments of patience or of hope ! 4he
inhabitants of Peiiaranda, like those of most of the
OP SPAIN. 59
Spanish provinces, seemed to me to stand in need
of these two resources. They are loaded with taxes:
they gain with much toil the little they possess, and
their distress stifles their industry. Their land-
lords, who are sometimes even ignorant of the
geographical situation of their estates, by aban-^
doning the management of them to stewards,,
treasurers, and alcaldes, not unfrequently draw
upon themselves the execration of those beings,
\vho perhaps would bless them if they saw their
real superiors residing among them.
I shall not quit PeiJaranda without saying that
its inn 'is perhaps the 'neatest and the most com-
modious I have seen in Spain. Contrary to the
usage of the country I found the landlord com-
plaisant, and he was willing to furnish me with
some provisions.
I afterwards traversed a district where they
assured me there were herds of cows, the male
calves of which were destitute of horns. The
fact at that time appeared absurd. I began to be-
lieve it, however, when I learnt that in our own
days Dr. Johnson, in returning from the He-
brides, found some oxen without horns, near
Auchinleck in Scotland. I have also learnt
that there are whole breeds of them in Norway
between Christiana and Frederickshall ; that they
also exist in England ; and I even saw in a field
near Altona, a bull of one of these breeds, which
Assuredly did not seem to have been of a degene-
60 MODERN STATE
rated breed, as some travellers suppose, who have
met with similar animals.* We may even presume
that the ancients were aware of this singularity,
since Tacitus says, in speaking of the Germans :
Ne ar mentis quidcm suns lionos aut gloria
frontis.
\Vhatevcr may be the truth respecting the ex*
istence of these animals without horns near
Penarauda, I learned that the labourers there had
at least some means of acquiring competence ; I
found that the greatest part of the cows were
farmed out to them upon the simple condition
of giving the proprietor the fourth or there"
abouts of the crop, taking the whole expence
of cultivation upon themselves. It is con-
solatory to meet with this valuable class of men
sometimes, profiting by the disinterestedness.,
if not by the carelessness of their landlords ;
but these examples are as rare in Spain as in any
other country.
From Peiiaranda, after having passed Ventosa,
a miserable village upon an eminence, I arrived afr
the town of41uertai where I observed for the first
time, a custom which is in many respects worthy
of imitation. I found affixed to the door of the
inn a placard, in which the Alcalde prescribes to
* In the spring of ] 800, I found near Altona, several de*
scendants of this bull provided with horns, although their pro-
genitor never had any ; a phenomonen which is certainly not
new.
Gl
the hostess the manner in which she is to treat
strangers, with the price she may charge for
their lodging, entertainment of their cattle, &c.
Thus far there is nothing unreasonable; but the
foresight of the placard proceeds to forbid the
landlady to " keep pigs or poultry, to allow any
forbidden games to be played, and to receive arm-
ed men and women of a loose description." From
such restrictions as these, which without benefit-
ing morality destroy every comfort and conve-
nience, Spain will long have to regret the want
of good inns; while those of a contrary descrip-
tion must banish the distinguished traveller,
however, in other respects, the country may be
inviting.
On leaving Huerta, the towers of Salamanca
are distinctly seen. At a certain distance, the
position of this city upon the banks of the Tor-
mes, is very picturesque; and if the country was
less naked., it would resemble that around Tours.
For one half of the road I traversed one of these
waste pasturages, known by the name of Vuldios,
which are but too common in Spain, but not
covered with that brilliant verdure which forma
the finest ornaments of the fields. A large herd
of bulls, all horned, were feeding in this meadow.
I was then in one of the districts which supply
the arenas of Valladolid and Madrid. After
having frequently witnessed their bloody con-
flicts, it was not without emotion I saw mvself
62 MODERN STATE
surrounded by these courageous animals; but
they were at liberty; they were not provoked, and
they seemed to have laid aside their cruel ferocity.
Nature has formed but very few of her creatures
to be wicked. Some become so, when they have
received her commands to feed or to defend them-
selves. Do men always wait for these powerful
motives, ere they delight in seeing the agonies]of
an irritated bull, or the fury of the tiger ?
On entering Salamanca, dirty, narrow,- and
ill-peopled streets would bespeak it to be one
of the most gloomy cities of Europe ; and it
will easily be believed that its population, for-
merly numerous, is reduced to two thousand eight
hundred houses; but we are greatly surprised
upon arriving at its modern square, equally re-
markable for the neatness and regularity of its
architecture. It is adorned with three rows of
balconies, which follow each other without inter-
ruption. Ninety arcades form its foot pavement.
In the intervals between the arches are placed
medallions of the most illustrious persons Spain
has to boast of. On one side is to be seen all the
kings of Castile, up to the reign of Charles III. ;
on the other, those of the best known Spanish he-
roes, as Bernard del Carpio Gonsalvo de Cor-
dova, and Ferdinand Cortez. The niches on the
eastern side are still empty. Will these be soon
filled ?
The cathedral of Salamanca, although con*
OF SPAIN. 63
temporary with the age of Leo X., is in bad
taste ; the boldness of its nave, however, and
the finish of its Gothic ornaments, make it one
of the most remarkable edifices in Spain. When
we know that Salamanca, besides this cathedral,
has twenty-seven parish churches, twenty-five
convents for men, and fourteen for ladies, we
need not be astonished at its poverty or depopu-
lation.
Until the reign of Philip the Third the repu-
tation of the university attracted students, not
only from all parts of Spain and Portugal, but
also from France, Italy, England, and Spanish
America. This celebrity has a little declined,
although, according to the last form which was
given to it by the Council of Castile, the univer-
sity of Salamanca has still sixty-one professor-
ships, and a college for the Hebrew, Greek, and
Latin languages ; and although it has to boast of
some eminent professors, who are occupied in
pursuing, into its most mystical labyrinths, the
pretended philosophy of Aristotle.
Another establishment, more modern than the
university of Salamanca, and more celebrated in
our days, is that of the Great Colleges, or Cole-
gios Mayores. There are in Spain seven houses
of education which bear this name, and Sala-
manca alone contains four of them.
These edifices are at least astonishing from
their mass. The most ancient, that of St. Bartholo-
64 MODERN STATE
mew, has been recently rebuilt ; its facade and
principal court deserve the attention of the con-
noisseur.
It contains a rich library of manuscripts. Se-
veral eminent scholars have issued from it; such
as Alphouso Tostado,* whose immense erudition
and prodigious fertility of genius, still serve as a,
proverb among the modern Spaniards.
In the midst of the crowd of sacred edifices
which Salamanca contains, I was recommended
to visit the church of the Dominicans, the fa$ade
of the Augustins, and the church of San Marcos.
In the first I remarked a Gothic facade,
wrought with much care, a vast nave, and cha-
pels richly decorated ; but I sought in vain for
the beautiful pictures which had been so highly
extolled. The roof of the choir is painted in fresco
by Palomino, who, in writing the lives of the
Spanish painters, has given lectures on the fine
arts. It appears that, at Salamanca at least,
he has not added example to precept.
Instead of chef-d'oeuvres in painting, I was
shewn an immense magazine of relics. They
pathetically invited me to touch them with my
rosary, but I was not provided with this charac-
teristic of Spanish Catholicism. It was necessary
to make up for the want of it, however, by at
* When if is intended to give an idea of the fertility of a wri-
ter, they say in Spanish, Ha escrito mas que el Tostado : " He
has written more than Tostado."
OF SPAIN. 65
least paying the tribute of respect, of which an
example was given me by all present, and which
it would have been, perhaps, dangerous to refuse:
I mean bending the knee before these vene-
rated objects.
I shall not enumerate all the sacred treasures
which were passed in review before me. I cannot
omit mentioning, however, the Bible of the famous
anti-pope Benedict XIII., who was born in Spain,
and deposed by the Council of Constance. " I be-
seech you," said our conductor, "do not confound
him with a pope of the same name, who belonged
to the order of the Dominicans, and who was
the true pope." Thus it is with all countries
and conditions : like Moliere, they say : Vous
ctcs Orftvre. J\L Josse.
I saw nothing remarkable in the gate of the
Augustins, but the ornaments with which it
is loaded. It faces a castle or palace of the
Duke of Alva, part of whose estates is situated
in the neighbourhood of Salamanca. These
estates and castles seem to feel the continual
absence of their lords ; a reflection which a
tour in Spain will suggest at every step. While
the opulent proprietors do not enliven their do-
mains, at least by their occasional presence, the
patriotic societies, the establishment of manufac-
tures, the encouragements to draining, and a
thousand other salutary measures will only be
Vain palliatives of the evils which have been for
TOL. i, F
66 MODEKN STATE
two centuries undermining the Spanish monar-
chy. It is, perhaps, one of the inconveniences of
a monarchical form of government, when the so-
vereign has more vain-glory than true wisdom. He
draws around him, by lavishing his favours, all
.those who can add to the splendor of his throne,
.or who might endanger his security by the exer-
cise of their power, or the display of their luxury,
at a distance from the court. His vanity prompts
him to wish that they should only shine for him,
and through him. His jealousy trembles lest they
should exhibit their splendor out of the royal
presence. Such was the system of Richelieu.
Such has been that of the kings. of Spain since
the days of Charles the fifth. They have gained
the stability of their own power at the ex pence
of the prosperity- of their country.
The third church, of which so much has
been said, is the old college of the Jesuits, now
given to a fraternity of regular canons, un-
der the name of the church of San Marcos. It
has nothing remarkable, except a magnificent por-
tico of the Corinthian order. The old seminary
of the Jesuits was devoted, in 1778, to the edu-
cation of thirty young ecclesiastics. The cere-
mony of their admission has been represented in
a. fine picture, by Bayeux, one of the most emi-
nent pupils of Meugs.
Before quitting Salamanca, an ancient Roman
Ijfidge of twenty-seven arches is worthy of inspec-
OF SPAIN, 6?
tion, over which, at an outlet of the city, the
traveller must pass the small river Tormes.
Seven or eight leagues to the northward of Sa-
laraanca, and upon the right bank of the Douro,
is Zamora, which, although situated in the old
kingdom of Leon, has been for a long time the
seat of the military government of old Castile;
ft is not however the more opulent on that
account.
Fifteen or eighteen leagues to the south-east of
Salamanca, and net far from the Douro, is a
walled town, formerly flourishing} situated irk
a country adapted to every kind of culture,
but at present poor, depopulated, and without in-
dustry. Roads almost impassable on every side>
vestiges of many destroyed village's, tlie worst
Inns in Spain> are Objects the traveller must ex*
pect on approaching Ciudad-Rodrigd.
I presume I have now said enough upon the
ancient kingdom of Leon, to prevent any person
from undertaking a journey to it. Let us re-
turn to the route from Burgos to Segovia;
Eight leagues of a sandy waste separate Vallo-
dolid from Oviedo. In this route there is no ver-
dure, except a dismal forest of pines and sornd'
brushwood. Half way we pass through Val-
destillas, a town with two hundred inhabitants. I
lodged there, in 1792, with a farmer, whose va-
nity and consequence would have made him an
excellent character in a comedy. His : nobility, btf
68 MODERN STATE
told me, wasiucontestible. He shewed me the proof
contained in a kind of brevet, which his grand-
father, transplanted from Biscay into this place,
had obtained from the chancery of Valladolid ;
for these tribunals have, among other functions,
the right of pronouncing upon the validity of ti-
tles of nobility, and to expedite in consequence
a certificate, which is called cxecutoria. There
is even in each of them a chamber allotted
solely to this description of business, and which
for that reason is called sala de hijos dalgo ( lite-
rally, " son of something" ) ; an expression
corrupted into hidalgo, which in Spanish is
equivalent to noble. My illustrious host did
not omit to tell me that there were at Valdcstillas,
twenty inhabitants, hidalgos like himself, but who
had not their papers so 'well in order. He did not
scruple, however, to entertain me with an account
of the revenues of his master's estate, which, like
many others in the same neighbourhood produced
wine in abundance. A nobleman, who owns any
other master than the King ! it is so, however, in
Spain, as well in other countries ; vanity recon-
ciles itself extremely well with meanness. No
other circumstance than the above could have
induced me to mention the name of Valdestillas.
Olmedo is situated upon an eminence, in the
midst of a boundless plain, except towards the
north, where some scattered hills appear. This
place formerly strong, has still a thick wall
OP SPAIN. 69
for about three quarters of a league in ex-
tent. Its interior announces a ruined city, desti-
tute of population and of industry, and exhibit-
ing- symptoms of degradation and misery. Seven
churches and seven convents, some brick-kilns,
some kitchen-gardens under the shade of the old
walls, compose the whole fortune of the inha-
bitants.
From Olmedo there is a road to Madrid or to
Segovia, according as we turn to the right or to
the left. In the former case, after having passed
through seven or eight miserable villages, we
halt at Sanchidrian, one of the stations of the di-
ligences, where, in 1792, I found a very decent
inn. The road, which was always bad until
we reach Sanchidrian, is afterwards in excellent
order all the way to Madrid, that is to say, for
the space of fifteen leagues. But until we ar-
rive at Guadarrama, it runs through one of the
most savage countries in Europe, being the rocky
district separating Old and New Castile. In this
gloomy journey, before clearing the most un-
couth part of these enormous mountains, we stop
a short time in a new hotel, called the Diver sorio
de San Rafael. A little farther on is the village
of Villacastin, where the country begins to
grow more sterile and rocky. Upon attain-
ing the summit of the hills we discover the vast
plains of New Castile. Soon afterwards we meet
with an office where travellers pay a toll for keep-
70 MODERN STATE
jng up the road. We afterwards descend a long
bill, which conducts to the town ofGuadarrama.
We are then little more than seven leagues from
Madrid, and perceive on the right, two leagues
forward, the celebrated convent of the Escurial.
The castle of St. Ildefonso is seven leagues from
this. It is situated at the foot, and on the other
side of the chain of mountains we have quitted,
which are prolonged by sinuosities on the left.
There is nothing else about Guadarrama that an-
nounces it to be near the capital, a^nd two of the re-
sidences of the kings of Spain. To see the distri*
bution and the nakedness of its inns, one would
say, that Spain is only frequented by pilgrims
and muleteers. But before entering upon this
city, we shall resume the route of Segovia, which
.we quitted at Olmedo.
Eleven leagues separate these two places. This
(iisfrict is, perhaps, the poorest and the most de-
populated of any in Spain. We. pass through
several large towns, however ; such as San Gi-
uste, and Santa Maria de Nieva, which have been,
mentioned already. We perceive at a distance
the towers -of the castle of Segovia, and the stee-?
pies of the cathedral (See plate I.). The pa-
tience of the traveller is nearly exhausted before
he arrives at the spot. How many windings be-
fore he reaches the square of Segovia ! On ap-
proaching he sees, on the right, an old castle, at
the summjt qf q, rugged precipice. On the
OF SPAIN. 1
left he plunges into a valley, which a rivulet
waters, and clothes with verdure. For the sake
of some picturesque points df view, he forgives
the parched and naked country he has traversed,
and which he meets ' with again oo leaving
Segovia.
This city, formerly celebrated by more than
one title, is still worthy of the traveller's atten-
tion, in p!te of its dirtiness and want of popula-
tion. Its principal edifices are the cathedral
and the castle, or dlcazar.
The cathedral exhibits a mixture of the
Gothic and Arabic style ; the interior is
vast, and of majestic simplicity ; the great al-
tar, recently rebuilt, is decorated with the finest
Grenada marbles.
The Alcazar, formerly inhabited by the Go-
thic kings, is an edifice in good preservation.
Charles III. established a military school here
for artillery officers ; they receive a very good
education under the inspection of the director-
general of the artillery.
The Alcazar was long used as a prison for
the Barbary corsairs who fell into the hands
of the Spaniards. No person could see without
compassion these robust Mussulmcn condemned
to a state of idleness, more painful to them than
their captivity ; they were occupied in sedentary
employments, unworthy of men destined for
other purposes ; never, however, were they treat-
72 MODERN STATE
cd with rigour. About twenty-five years ago the
court of Spain restored them to their country,
having concluded an alliance with the Emperor
of Morocco.
Segovia contains nothing else worthy of notice
except its aqueduct.
This city is built upon two hills, and in the
valley which separates them, a situation by which
a great part of the inhabitants are deprived of
water. With this useful article they were supplied
at a very distant period ( said by the learned to have
been in the reign of Trajan ) by an aqueduct, which
is still one of the most astonishing and best
preserved Roman antiquities (See Plate II.).
Upon a level at its origin with the rivulet which
it receives, and supported at first by a single
stage of arcades, which are only three feet high.,
it proceeds to the summit of the hill, at the
other extremity of the city, and gradually rises
in height in proportion as the ground sinks
over which it runs ; in its highest parts we
think we perceive a bridge thrown across an
abyss ; it has two branches which form an obtuse
angle relatively to the city. At the commence-
ment of this angle the aqueduct becomes truly
grand; its two rows of arcades rise majestically
above each other, and the spectator is terrified on
comparing their diminutive base with their height.
The solidity of the aqueduct, which has braved the
effects of more than sixteen centuries, seems in*
OP SPAIN. 73
explicable, when the simplicity of its construc-
tion is more closely observed; it is built of square
stones resting opon each other, without exter-
nal appearance of mortar,, either from having in
reality been united without it, and solely by
the art with which the stones are shaped and
placed, or from the cement having mouldered
away through the effects of time. We are shocked
with the appearance of miserable houses fixed
against the pillars of the arcades, seeking in
these proud ruins a support for their own weak-
ness, and repaying the obligation by degrading
the monument which supports them ; they are
scarcely raised however to one third of its height,
and serve at least to exhibit to still greater ad-
vantage the grandeur and nobleness of its forms.
A small convent has had the presumption to ex-
hibit some pitiful architecture at the angle form-
ed by its two branches : but in what country do
we not meet with similar profanations ? French-
men, ye who revolt at such scenes, it is not long
since you were guilty of similar outrages against
the amphitheatre of Nismes !
The inhabitants near whose mansions this
bounteous aqueduct passes, lay it under contri-
bution on paying a certain tax. It was of
great benefit to the houses, formerly more nu-
merous than at present, when it was used for
washing and dyeing the woollens of Segovia,
the most valuable in Spain, as ;will be seen
from the following chapter.
74 MODERN STATE
CIUPTEIl III.
Wool of Spain. Attempts to naturalize it in
France. Details respecting the Mesta. Ex-
portation of Spanish wool. Manufactories at
Guadalaxara and Segovia. Jonrniesof the Sheep,
Sheep-si tear ing. Washing of the wool.
THE best wool in Spain is that furnished by
the country round Segovia, by the district of
Buytrago, seven or eight leagues to the eastward;
by Pedraza, to the northward of Segovia ; and
by the lands towards the Douro. The connec-
tions which I formed,* as well with the people of
* Among those whose names I ought not to omit is M. Le
Blanc, an eminent farmer at Mareuil-le-Port, near Epernay,
lately deceased, to whose care were entrusted forty-five sheep,
sentfrom Spain to Rambouillet, and who was zealously occupied,
in the breeding of animals for the sake of their w6ol ; M. de
Cramayel, near Lieursaint, M. Flamen d'Assigny/]of Sury, near
Jsieversj M. Frenilli, proprietor of a prosperous flock of
Spanish sheep at Bourneville, near Ferte-Milon ; and M. Cha-
bert, who on one of his farms near Cbarenton keeps a flock of
Spanish sheep. All these gentlemen are gratified in being able to
refute every objection of scepticism or malevolence ; andean
vouch for the success of the Spanish breed in France. To the
members of the commission of agriculture and the arts the
country is also under great obligations on this subject ; but a
particular praise is due to Gilbert, who had the management
of the flock at Rambouillet, for the intelligence, zeal, and as-
siduity with which he managed the department committed u>
his care.
OF SPAIN. 75
Spain as with my own countrymen, who have
for several years prosecuted the breeding of Spa-
nish sheep in France, have enabled me to collect
some details on the subject, which the most fri-
volous of my readers will consider as at least in-
teresting ; those of a different turn of mind
will give me thanks for my trouble.
At first there was an opinion, and it is still
credited although opposed by several intelligent
Spaniards, that the wool of Spain is indebted for
its fineness and other qualities, not so much to
the temperature, climate, or nature of the pas-
ture, as to the custom they have of making the
sheep travel from place to place ; but what incontes-
tibly proves that the Spanish sheep do not onljr
furnish fine wool without the assistance of perio-
dical migrations, or even of the soil or climate, to
which their precious fleece has been ascribed, is,
that the flock which came originally from Spain,
and was kept for upwards of thirty years by M.
Daubenton, and sent by his Catholic Majesty in
1785, through my means, to Louis XVII, for
his possessions at Rambouillet, have constantly
furnished wool which the connoisseurs have not
been able to distinguish from real Spanish wool,
taken from sheep which had never left their own
country.
The flock of Rambouillet suffered from their
change of climate and regimen in another way : of
360 sheep sent from Spain under my care about
60 perched on the road, although the Spanish
76 MODERN STATE
shepherds to whom I had entrusted them had
driven them by very short journics, and although
they passed the winter near Bourdeaux, in order
to inure them insensibly to the climate of France.
But this great mortality is the common effect
of all the emigrations which take place from
south to north, and mankind are not less exempt
from it than animals.
In the first year after the flock had reached
Rambouillet forty of them perished ; this was at-
tributed to the sheep-rot, which appeared soon
after their arrival. The loss was inconsiderable
the following years, if we except one season,
in which about a twentieth part of the flock pe-
rished ; but this ought to be ascribed to some par-
ticular cause, since almost all the flocks in the
country were that season attacked, and fell off in
a still greater proportion.
The flock at Rambouillet, so well preserved,
experienced no care but that which every intelli-
gent cultivator, prompted by self-interest, is able
to bestow. At first it was attempted to keep them
constantly, as in Spain, in the open air; it was
then that the influence of the change of climate
was observable. These animals, brought from a
much warmer country, were sensible of the cold,
the winds, and particularly the rains, with
which their close and greasy wool was in truth
with difficulty impregnated, but which was also
long in drying. Without prolonging this ex-
periment, they hastened to remedy the evil ; the
OP SPAIN. 77
flock was confined in large and well aired sheep-
cots ; and much advantage was derived from the
change. Some lambs perished with cold during the
rigorous winter of 1793-1794, even in these cots.
This arose from a circumstance in which Spain has
an advantage over France, and in which the latter
can never participate: in Spain the lambs are born
in the month of October, while in our climate
they come into the world in the month of Janu-
ary; but we can infer nothing from an excess of
cold which does not occur perhaps more than four
times in a century.
The change of food hasnotdeteriorated the flock
at Rambouilletj or its progeny. The soil on which
sheep usually feed in Spain, both in Castile and
Estramadura, is in general dry and stony, and
the grass is short and fine. It would be difficult
to find a country the climate and herbage of which
forms a more striking contrast with those of Spain
than Rambouillet : the greatest part of the park
is covered with wood ; the soil is almost every
where clayey, tough, watery, and cold. The
fortunate results of this first trial have deceived
the predictions of all the cultivators of the coun-
try, and proved that flocks of the Spanish
breed may succeed any where. Besides, we know
that in Saxony, Wirtcmberg, Denmark, and
Sweden,* where they have tried to naturalize
* Of this I was convinced, both from occular demonstra-
tion and from authentic reports, during ray residence in the two
fetter kingdoms, I saw at^Fredericksburg, a palace of the king
78 MODERN STATE
them, they have never degenerated. But with
respect to France, it has only been very lately that
these attempts have been followed up, so as to in-
sure a future national benefit from the breeding
of Spanish sheep.
f Denmark, a flock of the Spanish breed, which was then ia
the fourth generation, and had not degenerated. It is true
that the original flock was chosen in Spain by a Dane who
was well versed in agriculture, and in the management
f cattle, and who was as experienced on the subject as tha
best Spanish shepherd. This was M. Nilson, inspector of the
king of Denmark's stud, and one of his majesty's most useful
subjects. I was also assured in Sweden chat some proprietors
have had, for these several years past, sheep of the Spanish
race under their care with equal success. I ought to mention
in particular the respectable name of Dr. Schuitzenheim,
whose flock of pure Spanish sheep I have seen a fsw leagues
Distant from Upsala, consequently in the.fiOth degree of north
latitude. This gentleman allowed me to take front one of his
rams (a descendant of those sent from Cadiz in 1795) a lock
of wool which does not yield, in point of length, fineness^ and
elasticity, to any other taken in Spain 'itself from an animal of
the country.
Those who desire to be better informed as to the Spanish
sheep transplanted into northern countries, are referred to
a work published by M. Lasteyrie in 1802, upon his return
from Denmark and Sweden ; it is entitled Histoire de I'introduc-
tlon des Moutons a lawefim tl'Espagne. More recently Messrs.
Violet and Lullin, of Geneva, have published two books on the
same subject. These three works, and that of M. Landrin>
which preceded them, should be read by all who wish to be-
come acquainted with the economy of the Spanish sheep )
they will remove every, uncertainty, and set aside all prejudices
oa th subject,
OP SPAIN, 79
For some years past success has attended all
the undertakings of this kind made with rams
and ewes bought at the sale annually made by go-
vernment at Rambouillet. These animals have al-
ways brought a very high price,* as well as their
wool ; and this circumstance is a security for
their preservation. We find proofs of this among
all those intelligent farmers who have attended
to tfois branch of industry a pacific conquest,
much more precious than any acquisition
which can result from our military successes
against Spain ; a conquest also which our
treaty of peace with this power has embraced,
by securing to us a new flock of these valuable
animals, which are rigorously prohibited by the
government from being exported to other couu-
* With the exception of the year 1/97, when a taste for
simplicity, dictated by the necessity of economy, and some other
more afflicting and less temporary causes, lowered the price of
sheep, and even that of wool, the dealers in which offered
but twenty sols for the pound uncombed, while in 1/92, it was
sold for eight livres ten sols, and our common wool sold for thirty
sols. In 1/95, the wool dealers would give no more thau
one hundred sols for the former. Within these eight or ton
years, reason and experience have triumphed over prejudice and
jealousy. Theprice of the wool of these newly introduced Spanish
skeep, now called Merinos, has beeJn fixed at a medium be
tween the two extremes. During the years 1 803 and 1 804, it has
constantly kept between forty- five and fifty sols for the pound,
uncombed, and wool from the Rambouillet flock even sold for
fifty-four sols. The manufacturers in France have now no hesita-
tion in purchasing the wort of the French Merinos when it i*
equally fine with that which they import from Spain.
80 MODERN STATE
tries.* The only measure which could ulti-
mately secure these advantages to France, has
been adopted : it has been agreed that the Ram-
bouillet flock shall be freely sold at high prices.
Every other method would have been of no avail :
the French being more the slaves of custom than is
* Various obstacles have retarded for more than three years,
the execution of the treaty of Basle, by which the King of
Spain granted the French Government permission to export
five thousand ewes and five hundred rams. It was not until
1798 that Gilbert was instructed to proceed to Spain for the
purpose of buying and choosing these animals. He succeeded
in procuring about twelve hundred ; but he sunk under the fa-
tigues of the journey. After his death a committee of thirty
merchants was charged with the fulfilment of the work thus be-
gan. In each of the two subsequent years, they brought from
Spain about a thousand sheep, which they divided among them-
selves, or 'sold in the various departments. During the year
following the government took the charge of the greatest part
of the Merinos imported from Spain, but the above com-*
mittee claimed its privileges, and towards the end of 1804,
they expected to obtain on their own account the thousand sheep
still remaining to complete the original number agreed upon.
This is the precise state of the undertaking at the moment of
my writing this (1805). Its success, although slow, is of in-
finite importance to France. The number of Merinos thus pro-
cured is already considerable 3 the quantity of wool they pro-
duce is, however, far from being sufficient for the consumption
of our manufacturers. It must be several years before the na-
turalization of the Merinos will be well established in France j
but as it is sufficiently proved that they do not degenerate,
and have preserved their race pure in more than a hundred
places, subsequent importations will perhaps be unnecessary
to secure to us the possession of this advantage.
81
generally imagined. The country people in parr
ticular are averse from innovations. The rams and
ewes of Spain distributed gratuitously, as at first
attempted, would have infallibly perished for want
of care, in the hands of ignorant and prejudiced
persons. These animals have nothing attractive
in their first appearance. Their dirty, com-
pact, and frizzled wool, their small stature and
uncouth form, presents to the simple inhabitants
of the country nothing which in their ideas is
the characteristic of beauty. The resolution of
selling these animals at a high price has been
judged the most certain of all methods, be-
cause it places them in the hands of true ama-
teurs, and of connoisseurs, whose interest and
pleasure it is to preserve them. With respect to
interest, the most aukward or the most obstinate
cultivator will soon be convinced that his
advantage will be great from the adoption of
these Spanish sheep, whether pure or crossed
in the breed. They require no more care thau
what is necessary for the sheep of France when
we wish to keep them healthy and clean. They
accommodate themselves to the same climate,
the same soil, the same food, and merely require
a little more attention on account of their fleece
being thicker and more greasy ; it however sells
for double the price, and is at least twice the
weight of common wool. \Ve know that the
medium weight of our common wool is from
VOL.1. 6
82 MODERN STATE
three to four pounds for each sheep;* that of the
Spanish breed whether pure or crossed is, however,
from seven to eight. Some well attested examples
prove the extreme difference between the weight
of the fleeces of the wool of our common sheep
and that of the original Spanish sheep. lu
one of his last shearings, M. de Lamerville,
near Bourges, found one of his fleeces from
a Spanish sheep to weigh eleven pounds and a
half, and six years ago, M. Chabert shewed me
one which weighed nearly twelve pounds, f and
came not from a sheep of the pure Spanish
breed, but from one of a crossed breed of the
third generation. The proprietor of the same
flock has even had two rams of the pure race,
which for three years successively, yielded hinv
from thirteen to fourteen pounds of the finest
wool, possessing if not the same degree of fine-
ness, at least all the elasticity and other qualities
of that of Spain. Here then is a double profit
secured to those cultivators who renounce their
* I do not speak of some districts where sheep of even a
middling quality give from ten to twelve pounds of wool.
f The medium weight of the fleeces of the Merinos intro-
duced into France was from seven to eight pounds. Such, for
instance, was the result of the shearing at Bourneville, in 1804.
The wool produced sold for 47 sols per pound in its grease.
The price of horned rams from fifteen to eighteen months old,
was from 250 to 300 livres, and the ewes averaged 1OO
livrrs.
OF SPAIN. 83
prejudices, and it is not easy to reply to such an
argument.
There are in a word, few departments where
these Spanish breeds have not been introduced.
Since they have sold at high prices, they have
Succeeded every where, because they have met
with that attention which animals imported al-
ways require at first. That part of France where
the climate and pasture seems to agree best
with the Spanish sheep, Roussillon, was the
Tery province where this happy innovation was
adopted with most difficulty. They thought that
their wool required no amelioration ; but ex-
perience has triumphed over prejudice here as
well as in other parts ; and there is now at Per-
pignan a very fine flock of Merinos, which the
government has formed out of a part of those
brought by Gilbert from Spain.
But it may be asked if these transplanted
animals, and their progeny produce wool equally
fine us in their native country ? To answer this
question with scrupulous fidelity, it must be con-
fessed that at first, for about fifteen years, when
the government caused the wool of a small flock
of Spanish sheep to be manufactured at Abbe-
ville by Van Robais, the cloth was then neither
to fine nor so beautiful as that made from ihe Spa-
nish wool; in short, it did not possess that softness
and pliability which characterises the true Spanish
kind. This experiment is perhaps less favourable
84 MODERN STATB
from having been made on this particular flock.
However it results from all the other experiments,
that if the French wool of this pure Spanish
race is not quite so pliable as that of Spain, it u
equally fine ; that it acquires a little more length
without losing its principal quality, and that
this additional length renders the wool peculiarly
fit for the manufacture of cloth. In short, spe-
cimens which have been presented every year
since the arrival of the flock at Rambouillet, will
prove to the most incredulous, that it has un-
dergone no alteration for the last eighteen years.
It cannot be said that the experience of eigh-
teen years is not sufficient for affirming that the
wool of the Spanish sheep does not degenerate
after a lapse of time. If this degeneration must
take place, we should have perceived some indica-
tions of it before now. Besides, the flock of M.
Daubenton removes all doubt, since it has been
-kept up in all its purity for thirty years upon a
most ungrateful soil, and this " worthy man ha*
published certificates from our chief manufac-
turers, who attest, that having indiscriminately
used wool coming directly from Spain, and that
of his flock, they found not the smallest possible
difference. M. Le Blanc, of Mareuil-le-Port,
assured me, in the latter end of 1796, that for
ten years past, he had cloth manufactured
with wool from his own flocks of the pure
breed, out of the Rambouillet flock, and the ma-
OF SPAIN. 85
nufacturers he employed made no distinction
between this wool and that of Spain, observ-
ing only that the latter had a little more ?ierve.
We may here remark, that this slight infe-
riority, as to the pliability of the wool, is per-
haps the only effect which results from the change
of climate ; this quality, arising chiefly from the
great perspiration which the climate of Spain fa-
vours, and hence arises the very unctuous grease '
with which the wool of the transplanted sheep is
impregnated. It is also to be observed, that it is
not the transplanted sheep alone which give these
results: those which are produced from them by
crossing with French breeds furnish, down to
the fourth generation, a wool as beautiful as that
of the absolutely pure breed, provided they re-
move all the males belonging to the crossings,
and admit of the mixed females to have inter-
course with rams of a pure breed only, and well
chosen ; it being ascertained that the rams in-
fluence more than two thirds of the propagation;
provided also that these delicate animals are not
squeezed into narrow, low, and suffocating sheep
cots; and taking care that they are entrusted
to vigilant and intelligent shepherds, like those
of M. Chabert, at Maisons, who is a pattern in
that respect. It seems that the ewes thus ma-
naged, produce the same offspring in whatever
part of France they are. The government has
for some time kept a flock at Sceaux, expressly
86 MODERN STATE
for comparative experiments upon the crossing
of rams of the true Spanish breed with ewe
from the various provinces. But these triali
liave not as yet been sufficiently multiplied to
serve as a basis of positive assertion. We cau
only assert that the Spanish race, crossed with
our coarse woolled ewes, yield even further down
than the fourth generation, productions equal to
the pure race ; that if we couple this race with
ewes of a large make, and well covered with
wool, we attain much more slowly the degree of
purity desirable, but we have a breed well co-
hered with wool ; that if we make the crossing
with fine woolled ewes, like those of Roussillon,
Sologne, and Berry ; we have in fact superfine
fleeces, but much lighter the Spanish wool.
It seems therefore to be well ascertained, that
the so much boasted quality of the Spanish
wool, does not exclusively depend upon soil
or climate. It is not less proved, that the wan-
dering sheep, called tras humantes, or ganado
merino, are not in the least improved by their pe-
riodical journies. The Spaniards need not
seek in France for a proof of these' assertions,
they are well known in their own country. It
is incontestible that there are permanent flocks
in Estramadura, the wool of which does not
sensibly differ from the best of these wandering
sheep. It is equally certain, that in the environs
of Segovia there are small flocks which never
OF SPAIN. 8/
leave the spot, the wool of which is also
equally fine. I was assured in that province,
that out of twenty thousand arrobas of fine
wool collected there, one third is furnished by
the stationary flocks. Whence arises the cus-
tom,, therefore, so troublesome in every respect,
of constantly driving through all parts of the
kingdom several millions of these animals ?*
It proceeds from every thing that causes,
propagates, and consolidates these abuses which
have originated in Spain, the ruinous privileges
of the Mesta.
The Mesta is a society of large proprie-
tors of flocks, composed of the heads of rich
monasteries, grandees of Spain, and opulent
individuals, who find their advantage in feed-
ing their sheep at the public expence at all
seasons of the year, and who have sanctioned, by
phort sighted regulations, a practice at first in-
'troduced by necessity. In distant times, the
* In the sixteenth century, the number of wandering sheep
exceled seven millions. Under Philip the third, this num-
ber fell to two millions and a half. Ustariz, who lived at the
beginning of the last century, computed them at four millions.
The general opinion at present is, that they do not exceed five
millions. Jf we add to this eight millions of these animals
always stationary, we shall have an aggregate of thirteen mil-
lions of sheep conspiring against the prosperity of Spain for
the advantage of a few individuals ; for the proprietors of the
stationary flocks have privileges nearly similar to those of tlie
members of the Mesta.
88 MODERN STATE
mountains of Soria, and of Segovia, condemned
by their precipices, and the nature of iheir soil,
to eternal sterility, -were, during the summer, the
asylum of some of the neighbouring flocks; be-
fore the approach of winter, their temperature
was no longer supportable by these delicate ani-
mals. They went in search of a milder climate
in the neighbouring plains. Their possessors
soon converted this convenience into a right, and
farmed a community, which alter some time was
increased by all those who, upon acquiring flocks,
became desirous of enjoying the same preroga-
tives. The theatre extended as the actors became
more numerous, and the excursions of the flocks
gradually stretched towards the plains of Estra-
madura, where they found a temperate climate and
abundant pasture : the abuse at length became in-
tolerable, but it was too deeply rooted to be easily
overthrown, and all that was powerful in the
kingdom was interested in its continuance. For*
more than a century, a constant struggle took
place between the associates of the Mesta on the
one hand, and the Estremenos, or inhabitants of
Estramadura, on the other, the latter having on
their side all those who felt an interest in the
public good.
How indeed could they repress their indigna-
tion on seeing, in the month of October in each
year, millions of sheep descending from the moun-
tains of Old Castile upon the plains of Estrama-
OF SPAIN. 89
dura and Andalusia, where they continued un-
til the following May, feeding both on their
coming and returning upon the fields of the in-
habitants; and the ordonnances of the Mesta
fixing a breadth of forty toises as a road through
which theywereto pass, while the pasturages kept
on purpose for them were let at a very low rent,
which the proprietors sought in vain to increase.
Thus the unfortunate province of Estramadura,
which is about fifty leagues in length by forty
in breadth, and which could provide subsist-
ence for two millions of men, scarcely contains
an hundred thousand inhabitants. Nor can it be
doubted that this depopulation must be ascribed
to the scourge of the Mesta, since the provinces
which are not visited by these baneful privileges,
such as Gaiicia, the Asturias, Biscay, and the
mountainous parts of Burgos, are very populous.
This shameful abuse has been attacked by se-
veral enlightened Spaniards as well in our days
as in the preceding centuries ; by Leruela, Us-
tariz, Arriquibar, and even by the laughing phi-
losopher Cervantes, who under the mask of
amusement has given such profound lessons to
his fellow citizens and to mankind. The subject
has also been recently taken up by Don Antonio
Ponz, by Count Camppmanes, &c. &c. but their
voices have hitherto been " crying in the desert."
The abuse does not rest solely with those in
power ; it may be ascribed to idleness, and to
90 MODERN STATE
v
the miscalculations of interest, in preferring the
feeding of sheep to the encouragement of agri-
culture. Within these hundred years wool has
doubled its value, while corn,, which is so trou-.
blesome and so precarious, has very little in-
creased in price. Ten thousand sheep will pro-
duce in a common year five thousand arrobas, or
five hundred quintals of wool, at the rate of
five livres for each fleece. On valuing the ar-
roba at one hundred reals only, or twenty-five
livres tournois, these 10,000 sheep will be worth
50,000 francs, from which must indeed be de-
ducted their food, the expence of their journies,
the hire of pasturage during winter, the salary
of the shepherds, and other small expences : this
leaves a net profit, however, sufficient to render
this kind of property very desirable.
As to the practice of making the sheep travel
from place to place, besides being- rendered sa-
cred by the laws and by long custom, it is ex-
cusable from the necessity of existing circum-
stances. Either they must diminish the number
of sheep, or they must travel a little. Those
which feed in the fine season upon the mountains
of Soria, Cuenca, Segovia, and Buytrago, would
die with hunger there in winter; and where
would they find a better asylum than Estrama-
dura, a province thinly inhabited, poor in other
respects, its pastures being* its only resource ?
I know well that this argument may be consi-
OP SPAIN. 9l
dered as begging the question, but government
has always held it to be conclusive.
There are some among the members of admi-
nistration who would excuse the custom., even
from the long tolerance which has perpetuated
the practice. Despotic as they are, they feign
some scruples in attacking by violent reforms the
property of the breeders of sheep. And how is
it possible to bring them voluntarily to renounce
a benefit, the management of which is neither
very complicated nor very expensive ; and the
produce of which constantly finds a ready mar-
ket in the avidity with which the wools of Spain
have been hitherto bought up by manufacturing
countries. Besides, the royal exchequer itself is
interested in the support of this branch of in-
dustry ; for the taxes levied upon the export of
wool form an important branch of the revenue.
They have produced within these five years
from twenty-seven to twenty-eight millions of
reals. Such a source could not be checked,
without having at hand a certain and very speedy
method of supplying its place.
There is a slower but more certain method by
which Spain will succeed, perhaps, in spite of
herself, in getting rid of this innumerable host of
animals which devour her, if we may so express
ourselves when speaking of animals, the name
of which alone awakens ideas of innocence and
peace; this method will be the same with what
92 MODERN STATE
has begun to be pursued in France, and to
which the success of that nation may succes-
sively attract others, who have hitherto thought
that wool from Spain was an indispensible com-
modity. Then will the slothful and greedy pro-
prietors of these immense flocks be obliged to
give their industry and their opulence a turn,, less
profitable, perhaps, for themselves, but more ad-
vantageous to their country. Happy Spain, if
foreseeing the effects of such a revolution, she pre-
pares beforehand her territory for a new destina-
tion, by multiplying and improving the roads,
canals, and other means of amelioration which
are still wanting !
In the state in which things are at present, and
in which they may too long continue, their
wool is the principal source of riches, apparently
at least, in Spain. Before the war of 1793, they
exported annually from Bilboa, from 20 to
22,000 bales of wool, most of them weighing
two hundred pounds, and some 250 pounds each ;
and from St. Andero about one third of this
quantity was exported. Now these are the
two ports from which by far the most consider-
able part of the wool of the north of Spain is ex-
ported. If we may judge from the exports of
1792, England received the greater part of this
commodity, Holland next, and France the least.
There were exported at Bilboa, 16,176 bales for
England, 6,180 for Holland, 186 for Rouen, 654
OF SPAIN. 93
for Ostend and 356 for Hamburgh ; and from St.
Andero, there were exported 2,684 for London,
2,314 for Bristol, 1,909 for Amsterdam, and
1,200 for Rouen.
But the year 1792 ought not to be taken as an
average. At this period the commerce of France
felt the effects of the revolution, and of the war
which broke out in May that year. In ordinary
years France consumes more than four times
the quantity of Spanish wool, that is to say, from
eleven to twelve hundred bales, and consequently
more than one half of what comes from the
northern ports. Valuing the bales on an average
at 1400 reals per quintal, (taking into the esti-
mate the price of some very fine leoneses, which
in 1792 were at the price of eighteen or nineteen
hundred reals, and the price of the common wool
which was from 1100 to 1150), and taking the
weight of each bale as at two quintals, we shall
find that annually, before the revolution, we re-
ceived fine wool from Spain to the amount of up-
wards of 32,000,000 of reals *
* As in this calculation every thing is taken in a reduced
way, since the superfine leoneses arc those of which the greatest
number is exported, and as several of the bales of this descrip-
tion weigh 250 pounds, it will not be an exaggeration of the value
to add 8,000,000 to this 32,OOO,OOO of reals. This agrees with
the statement of our balance of trade furnished by M. Flandrin,
from which it appears, that in 1782 we received wool from
Spain to the value of 13,600,000 livres. See M. Flaudrin's
tfork Sur V Education den Moutom, p. 213.
9-4 MODERN STATE
Our manufactories at Louviers, Elbeuf, Reims,
Abbeville, Sedan, and that of Decretot in parti-
cular, could not exist without Spanish ^ool for
their fine cloths; the wool of Champaign and of
Berry, of which they consume a great quantity,
is only used to mix up for common cloth*, and
never in any great proportion entering into the
composition of the finer sorts. There are some
also, as the casimirs, which do not admit of any
mixture, and should be woven with very pure
superfine Leonese. If we succeed, therefore, in
sufficiently extending the propagation of sheep
in France, perfected by the crossing of the true
Spanish breed, we shall free ourselves from an
annual tribute to Spain of twelve or thirteen
millions of livres. Let us hope, therefore, that
the return of public spirit into our companies of
merchants and others, will find in this argument
a motive for turning the speculations of our cul-
tivators towards this amelioration : it is a specu-
lation which indeed requires attention and in-
dustry, but very little employment of capital.
But to return to the subject of the wool trade in
Spain itself.
It is probable that from 32 to 33,000 bales are
exported, weighing from 200 to 2;0 pounds
each. This was the amount of the exportation
in 1792 from the ports of Bilboaand St. Andero,
without reckoning five or six hundred bales of
uncombed wool ; for at present almost all the
OF SPAIN.
Spanish wool is washed. Before the increase of
the customs upon unwashed wool, which took
place in 1787, almost all the fleeces of the Le-
onese and Segovian sheep, and those called Sorias
caballeros, were exported unwashed,* forming a
mass of from 1800 to 2000 bales, of 11 or 12
arrobas, or from 275 to 300 pounds weight each.
With in these thirty years the poverty of theexche-
quer, and the persuasion that manufacturing na-
tions could not exist without Spanish wool, what-
ever might be its price, have induced the Spanish
government to increase the duties on exporta-
tion.
From 1766 to 1787 these duties rose from 42
reals 12 maravedis for each arroba of washed
wool to 66 reals 28 maravedis, and from 21 reals
six maravedis for wool in the grease to 50 reals
four maravedis.
Notwithstanding these successive augmenta-
tions, the exportation of wool has rather increas-
ed than diminished. This operated as one of the
causes, although not the principal one, for the
rise in the price of cloths. The rise was chiefly
owing to the advance of the materials. For
about thirty years the price of wool in the grease,
or in -surge, as it is called, rose from 75 to 80
reals for the arroba of the finest of all the Le-
* Washing greatly diminishes the weight of Spanish wool.
By tie operation it always loses one half in weight. In gene-
ral the loss is nearly two thirds.
96 MODERN STATE
onescs, and from 100 to 120 for wool of an in-
ferior quality. Manufacturing and commercial
countries have not however, diminished their
demands on this account ; on the contrary, at
the beginning of the war which broke out in
Europe in 1792, the exportation of wool from
Spain was on the increase. It is at Madrid, al-
though far distant from the wool districts, that
the most considerable bargains are made. There
are in that capital four or five houses entirely
occupied in the business ; they buy for several
years in advance the fleeces of those proprietors
whose sheep appear to them most eligible.* But
none of the Spanish merchants have either funds
or spirit enough to attempt these speculations,
and they leave the profit of them in a great mea-
sure to commercial nations. The French, the
English, and the Dutch, purchase the Segovian
and Leoncse wool at Saint Andero and Bilboa,
not allowing even the Spaniards a commission
upon the sale. They purchase the wool from the
hands of the shepherd, and wash it on their own
account ; the Dutch in particular take a great
quantity in this way ; not that they employ all
* The Duke cle 1'Infantado, for instance, made a -bargain
In 1791> by v which he alienated for eight years the produce of
his shearings, for the sum of 100,000 common piasters. The
bouse of the Gremios speculated most largely in this way.
Upon the return of peace, they found pOO bales on their
hand*, which ihey disposed of with great difficulty.
Off SPAIN. 97
this quantity themselves, but because the mer-
chants who have not the command of capital, are
sure of having their wants supplied, and are be-
sides accommodated with long credit. For the
wool thus purchased in its rough state, the Dutch
factors pay ready money ; it is then deposited in
their extensive warehouses, and sold again at a
great profit to those who suit themselves with par-
ticular sorts. The manufacturers of Verviers and
Aix-la-Chapelle have in vain attempted to set aside
this practice, and to supply themselves direct from
Spain. They experienced every kind of inconveni-
ence in the attempt ; they were dissatisfied with the
wool which was sent them ; they disputed about
the price, and time of payment, expecting a cre-
dit of fifteen months, and were at length obliged
to return to the old custom.
Notwithstanding all that has been said, it is
difficult to determine exactly the quantity of
fine Spanish wool which is annually exported,
including Seville, where the wool of the south-
ern provinces is shipped. I was assured that in,
1790 the export amounted to 60,000,000 reals.
The following calculation will prove that this es-
timate is below the real value.
Let us fix at ^,2,000 bales only the exports
from Bilboa; from St. Andero 8000; to which add
the 4,500 exported from Seville ; we shall then
have a total of 74,500 bales; and supposing each
bale to weigh only 200 IDS. th amount will be
VOL. i. H
98 MODERN STATK
6,900, 000 Ibs. at ten reals per pound, and this gives
an aggregate of 69,000,000 reals. In this cal-
culation every thing is taken at the lowest rate,
particularly the price of the wool ; for in 1792
the superfine Leoneses were at 1886, and the
common wool at 11 50 reals per quintal ; conse-
quently more than 18 reals per Ib.for the first sort,
and upwards of 1 1 for the latter. There is no ex-
aggeration, therefore, in estimating at 80,000,000
of reals the sum Spain gains every year by the iale
of wool; but a general peace can alone ensure
the continuance of so extensive a demand. Will
France continue to be one of the principal mar-
kets, and to consume, as before the rupture,
more than 10,000 bales per annum ? Yes, un-
doubtedly ; even when the change to which we
look forward is accomplished, when even certain
interested views will not be opposed to its pro-
gress, and when the calculations of avarice shall
have given way to those of patriotism : prejudice
may, however, for a time domineer over reason,
and custom over the real interest of the proprie-
tors. It may be asked, if this change does not take
place, will Spain lose what France gains ? As-
suredly not. The revolution thus insensibly pro-
duced in its political economy, will necessarily
lead to ameliorations, and to the adoption of new
plans by those proprietors who have been de-
luded by their too easily acquired opulence.
Some rich individuals would, without doubt, be
or SPAIN, 99
injured, but the mass of the population would be
greatly benefited.
Spaniards, our allies, do not look with sensa-
tions of uneasiness on the fortunate efforts we
have already made to dispense with the use of
your wool : we are still far distant from the at-
tainment of our objects, which can only be ac-
complished by length of time. Confide in that
versatility of which the revolution has not entire-
ly cured us; trust to the deep-rooted prejudices
of our peasantry ; and consider also that the loss
with which you seem threatened does not appear
formidable to such of your fellow-citizens as are
acquainted with your true interests.* Two of
the most enlightened ministers you have had dur-
ing the present century, Campillo under Philip
the Fifth, and La Ensenada under Ferdinand the
Sixth, considered the immense exportation of your
wool as one of the greatest obstacles to the pro-
* I regret that a Spaniard, whose opinion is entitled to much
respect, has thought otherwise. I know that a Frenchman,
who had procured a few sheep from the Rambouillet flock,
carrisd one of the Spanish shepherds who accompanied them
into France, and presented him to the Spanish ambassador at
Paris, who coldly replied to the congratulations of the French
gentleman in the following manner : " You need not thank
me, Sir, for had I been consulted, a single Spanish sheep
would never have left that kingdom." I do not charge M,
d'Aranda with making this answer; he was more enlightened
as to the true interests of his country, and national jealousies
were altogether beneath him.
w i
H 2
MODERN STATE
gress of your industry ; because, said they, the na-
tions who were the original purchasers, sent itback
manufactured,, and resold it to you at an exorbi-
tant advance in price ; and because the wools of
a coarser quality which remained in Spain were
manufactured there at a great ex pence, your
weavers being desirous to recompense themselves
for the high price and little value of that which
was left them. In short, the most enlightened
persons among you are of opinion, that to concur
in the diminution of your immense flocks of
sheep, would be to acquire a claim upon your
gratitude rather than to inspire a feeling of re-
sentment.
Let it not be imagined, however, that Spain
does not consume a part of this wool in her own
manufactories. For a long period all the com-
mon wool has been worked up into cloth for
uniforms for the troops and the dress of the lower
orders of people,, and the exportation of it i
prohibited.
The greater part of the sheep which produce
it are black, consequently the cloth is of that
colour. Hence the great quantity of brown
mantles is accounted for, which add so much to
the dismal and dirty appearance of the inhabitants
of the country, particularly in the two Castiles.
There is also wool of a second quality, like that
e Valencia, the exportation of which is not pro-
hibited; this wool is employed in many ma-
OP SPAIN. 101
nufactories in Languedoc, but is, for the most
part, made into cloth in the province which
produces it. As to the finer sorts of wool,
they are employed in several provinces of
Spain, and particularly in the manufactory at
Guadalaxara. Strange vicissitude ! this place
owes its existence to two strangers, who made a
most splendid fortune at the ex pence of the
natives.
Cardinal Alberoni, in the year 1718, laid the
foundation of this establishment, and placed it
under the management of Ripperda. At first
cloths of an inferior quality only were manufac-
tured, although the finest wool was made use of.
In the time of Charles the third the manufactory
of San Fernando was removed to Guadalaxara,
where nothing but superfine cloths had been made.
Since that period various manufactories of fine
cloths have been established at Guadalaxara.
In 1783 this was perhaps the most complete
establishment of itskindin Europe: within its walls
was every requisite for the manufacture of cloths,
while the tools and implements used in the work
were all made upon the spot. There were 24 looms
for cloths of the first quality, properly called
San Fernando cloth; one hundred for the second
sort, and 50(5 for serges ; with all these they
expected in a short time to be able to dispense
with supplies from the English, to whom, for
the sole article of woollen cloth, Spain paid an-
102 MODERN STATE
nually two millions of pounds sterling. These
looms were contained in two buildings, and
gave employment io 3825 persons, all paid by
the King ; to these may be added a far greater
number scattered throughout La Mancha and the
Castiles, who are occupied in spinning wool for
Guadalaxara. With the exception of a want of
economy in the administration, a defect which
has been since remedied,, no where could a bet?
ter organised establishment be found. The city
of Guadalaxara also formed a stricking contrast
with those around it. I did not remark a single
beggar, nor even an idle person, among the 15 or
16,000 inhabitants it contained. Such are the ad-
vantages resulting from manufactures, but parti-
cularly those of cloth, which have so many mi-
nute operations connected with them, capable of
being executed by old people and children. Na-
ture having apparently condemned some of her
creatures to languish as a burden upon the arts,
these establishments may be said to furnish a sort
of supplementary labour in favour of enfeebled or
suffering humanity.
The manufactories of Guadalaxara have un-
dergone various changes since the year 1783, un-
der the auspices of different managers. Vallejo
has recently brought them to an additional de-
gree of perfection, although at an immense ex-
pence. His successor, Don Santiago Romero, sa-
crificed less to fame than to utility : he adopted
OF SPAIN. 103
measures to secure new markets for the cloths,
and caused them to be manufactured according
to the taste of the consumers. Already the
Spaniards tell us that their manufactories at Gua-
dalaxara are on a level with those of Abbeville ;
and in this respect they do not perhaps exag-ge-
rate. But will it be credited, although they
have wool from 25 to 36 per cent, cheaper than
we have, although their manufactories are
surrounded by a numerous population, and by
plenty of wood and water, that their cloths were,
before the war, much dearer than ours ? * We
must indeed confess, and it is admitted by unpre-
judiced Spaniards themselves, that they are still
behind us in the arts of dyeing and fulling their
cloths; but if we had, like them, the raw materials,
afew expert workmen in these two branches would
be sufficient to bring our manufactures to the ut-
most perfection. The Spanish government is
not insensible, however, to the means of attain-
ing this object ; all those arts of seduction which
rival states generally contrive to frustrate, but
which they are obliged to pass unnoticed, have
* Cbarlea the fourth, who visited them in 1791 , found 306
looms for fine cloth, and 350 for serges ; they employed
24,000 persons, and manufactured to the annual amount of
J3or 14,000,000 reals. Cloths of the most beautiful colour,
but inferior in point of quality, are sold for 84 reals a yard,
the finest San Fernando at 94, that of Brihuega at 74, and the.
serges at 13. The Spanish yard is to the ell as five is to seven.
10-4 MODERN STATE
been resorted to by the court of Madrid io decoy
workmen and artists from France and England,
to improve tbeir national manufactures. About
the end of the year 1794 I discovered that a ma-
nufacturer from one of our establishments, whom
I shall not name, allowed himself to be seduced
bj the Spanish government upon the offer of
160,000 piasters, to establish a cloth manufac-
tory in Old Castile, and to bring a hundred French
families along with him. The project of course
did not succeed, for I found no trace of it on
my second journey. About the same time, two
of our artists, whom I shall name, Quatremere
d' Isjonval, of the Academy of Sciences, and
Chardron, a manufacturer of Sedan, recehed
proposals of this nature, but rejected them. I
know that similar temptations have since been
held out in England with better success.
The Spaniards, however, have some expert
workmen at home, capable of bringing their cloth
manufactories to the utmost degree of perfection ;
among these they mention with respect Don Gre-
gorio Garcia, the present manager of the works
established by the minister Lerena at Valdemaro,
the place of his birth, situated between Madrid
and Aranjuez, and one of his pupils, Don Pedro
Cuesta, of Segovia.
Guadalaxara is the only place in Spain where
the famous Vigonia cloth is manufactured; it
is made from a precious wool imported from the
OF SPAIN.
colonies of Buenos Ayres and Peru, which is no
\vhere else to be found. An attempt has been made
to weave this wool in France, and those who have
compared our Vigonia cloth with that made at
Guadalaxara, agree that ours is more agreeable
to the eye, but that made in Spain possesses more
durability, either because the Spanish weavers are
better acquainted with the management of it, or
because they keep the finest Vigonia wool to them-
selves. These cloths aie not yet in general use
among the Spaniurds, and cannot consequent-
ly be procured, unless ordered several months
before they are really wanted. Some of these
Vigonias are manufactured at the expence of
the King, who sends them as presents to fo~
reign courts. In the year 1782 Charles the third
sent twenty pieces to the Grand Signior, on the
conclusion of a treaty with the Porte. Upon this
occasion it was said, that the Spaniards were
anxious to inspire the Turks with a taste for their
cloths, and so prevalent was this opinion, that
even the manufacturing countries were some-
what alarmed. How could the Spanish go-
vernment undertake this trade in competition with
rivals who have acquired a kind of prescriptive
right from long usage, and can also boast an ad-
vantage over Spain in the art of manufacturing
woollen cloths ? Would it not be wise in Spain
first to clothe the twenty-two millions of sub-
jects who live under her dominion, from the pro-
106 MODERN STATE
ductions of her own manufactures ? But the
Spaniards are not yet arrived at this degree of
prosperity ; and it will not be by measures like
those attempted in 1788 that they will ever suc-
ceed in attaining it. At that time the managers of
the royal manufactories could find no other expe-
dient to sell off the stock lying in their ware-
houses, to the amount of 200,000 piasters, than
obtaining a decree to prohibit the exportation
to Spanish America of all cloth manufactured
in any foreign country. This decree occasioned
remonstrances from the English and French go-
vernments, and even from the Spanish merchants,
who had a considerable quantity of foreign cloths
on hand. It was accordingly modified in some
respects ; and had not the government consented
to this measure, necessity, generally fertile in frau-
dulent resources, would have found means wholly
to elude the prohibition.
At the return of peace, the manufactories of
Guadalaxara, and those-of Brihucga situated about
four leagues distant, possessing about 400 looms
for fine cloths, were in a flourishing condition,
and sent their goods to markets less fluctuating
than their neighbours. In the course of the year
1796 they had an establishment at Madrid, from
which were sold from nine to ten thousand pieces
per month.
Segovia, celebrated at all times for the good-
ness of its wool, was not less so in former days
OF SPAIN. 107
for the number and perfection of its manufac-
tories. But how has it fallen from its ancient
splendor !
The patriotic society of Segovia has publish-
ed a statement, that in the golden age of that city
it had six hundred looms for fine cloths. . In
1697 it contained only two hundred and fifty, but
during the first half of the last century industry
began to revive. In 1748 there were three hun-
dred and sixty-five looms, .which employed 4300
persons, and consumed more than 50,000 arrobas
of unwashed wool. Of late the government has
been perhaps too strenuously occupied with the
regeneration of the manufactures : in 1785,
however, there was a plan laid down for their
organization, the result of which was, that in
the five succeeding years they manufactured
more than 4000 pieces. With but a few excep-
tions, the manufacturers of Segovia are complete-
ly wedded to old habits, and despise every im-
provement. One person only has deserved the
encouragement of government. Don Laureano
Ortiz established, in 1779, a new manufactory of
superfine cloths, which the King patronized by
granting him some privileges, which were not,
however, injurious to others. Ortiz thus protect-
ed and encouraged, could not fail to prosper: in
1786 he had seventy looms, and employed 2800
persons. He soon accumulated an immense for-
(une for his family, but did not live long to en
108 MODERN STATE
joy it; he died in 1788, and his loss was seriously
deplored by his country. His successor inherited
his zeal and talents, and in 1792 I was assured
that the manufactory had not degenerated. The
manufactory of Ortiz, and that called San Fer-
nando at Guadalaxara, are said to be the only
establishments at present in the kingdom for the
production of superfine cloths: this fact will
appear astonishing, perhaps, when it is considered
that Spain abounds with the finest wool in Europe.
Before leaving Segovia I am desirous to con-
clude my observations respecting the sheep of
Spain. In the mountains adjoining this city
a great part of the wandering flocks pasture
during the summer season. They are seen de-
scending in the course of October, along with the
flocks from the mountains of the ancient Numan-
tia (Soria) quitting those which separate the two
Castiles, and after passing through New Castile,
dispersing themselves in the plains of Estramadura
and Andalusia. Those which are nearer the
Sierra Morena pass the winter there. The length
of their journies is proportioned to the kind of
pasture they obtain. They travel in flocks of
1000 or 1200, under the guidance of two shep-
herds; the chief shepherd is called the Mayoral,
tKe other the Zagal. When arrived at their des-
tinations they are distributed among the various
pasturages assigned to them. They proceed on
their route again in May, and whether from cus-
OF SPAIN. 109
torn,, or from instinct, they travel onward to the
climate best adapted for them at that season; the
uneasiness they seem to feel indicates to their
guides any necessity for a change of situation.
Each flock belongs to one master called a
^}
Cavana, and the whole produce from the wool of
these flocks is called pila. The Cavanas bear the
names of their proprietors. The most numerous
are those of Bejar and Negretti, each of which
consists of 60,000 sheep. That of the Escurial,
the most famous, has 50,000. Prejudice or cus-
tom makes the wool of certain Cavanas more
sought after than the others. At Guadalaxara,
for instance., they employ no wool but that of
Negretti, the EscuriaL, and the Chartreuse of
Paular. In 1785 the ewes and rams sent to
Rambouillet were, as may be supposed, picked
out from the most famous Cavanas ; among
them, besides the above, were the Cavanas ofthe
Marquis d'Iranda, of the Marquis of Perales, of
Manuel de Baibuena, and of Count San Rafael.
Of all these various Cavanas, those of Paular are
supposed to yield the finest wool in all Spain;
and the Negretti* sheep are remarkable for their
strength and the quantity of their wool: ten rami
from these flocks were furnished to France.
* Tliis is the name of the flocks belonging to the Marquis de
Torre-Manzanal, or Count de Campa-Alange, who after having
been several years minister of war, and afterwards ambassador
at Vienna, now fills the same situation at the Court of Portugal.
110 MODERN STATE
They cost from sixty to eighty reals,, and the
ewes from fifty to sixty.
Upon the return of the wandering sheep,
towards the month of May, the shearing is
commenced; an operation of great magnitude in
Spain, because performed upon a large scale in
vast buildings called esquileos, arranged so as to
receive whole flocks of 40, 50, and even 60,000
sheep. The harvest and vintage have nothing so
solemn in their celebration. It is a time of fes-
tivity for the proprietors as well as for the work-
men; the latter are divided into certain classes,
and to each a different branch of the operation is
allotted ; 125 persons are found requisite to shear
1000 sheep. Every animal yields wool of three
kinds, finer or coarser, according to the part of
the body from which it is taken.
When the shearing is finished, the produce is
collected in bales, and carried either to the sea-
port to\vns for exportation, without any other
operation, or to certain places, denominated
washing-stations, in the environs of Segovia,
and throughout the rest of Castile. I mi-
nutely inspected one of the most considerable
of these stations, that of Ortijosa, three leagues
from St. Ildefonso; and I am convinced that this
operation, however imperfect and unnecessary it
may at first appear, (because foreign manufac-
turers repeat it before using the wool) completely
answers the purpose in view, that of preserving
OF SPAIN. Ill
it from being injured in its quality, by too
long keeping. In general about ten thousand
quintals of wool are washed in this single station,
which forms a kind of vast basin, the inner mar-
gins of which are gently sloping meadows, ex-
posed to the sun in every direction.
The wool is brought here in the state in which
it is taken from the sheep,* being in clotted tufts
or flocks ; in this form they give it to the Apar-
tadores, who divide it into three portions of dif-
ferent qualities: and so accustomed are they to
this business, that at the first glance they know to
what part of the animal the flock of wool belongs
which first presents itself. The three qualities of
the wool being thus separated, they are spread
upon wooden hurdles; they are then scattered
about and beaten, in order to clear them from
the dust and filth which adhere to them, and
are afterwards carried to the washing place.
From two large stopcocks fitted into an immense
cauldron, boiling water flows into three square
pits, three or four feet deep. Three men are then
employed to stir the wool in every direction;
* Flandrin, who was sent to Spain expressly to acquire a
knowledge of the history of the Spanish sheep, differs a little
from me with respect to the operations of airing and washing 1
the wool. I shall not attempt to controvert the accuracy of
this respectable cultivator's information, who derived it, like
myself, from the best authority according to time and place,
both may perhaps be right.
112 MODERN STATE
each kind of wool is washed separately, and re-
quires water more or less hot according; to the
fineness of its quality.
When this operation is finished the wool is
again spread out upon hurdles, for the purpose of
extracting the filthy parts which the water has
begun to dissolve. Those which are clotted
with dirt, and unfit for use, are detached with
the hand, laid aside, and the produce converted
into a fund for the benefit of departed souls ; for
in Spain religion is introduced into all the
minutiae of social life. The Spaniards endea-
vour, by this association, to give an air of sanctity
to their occupations, their wealth, and even to
their pleasures.
The hurdles are afterwards placed between the
wells and a narrow aqueduct through which a
current of cold water flows. A man placed at
the head of this water-course receives the wool
and throws it in; it is then taken by five men,
ranged one by one below him, who succes-
sively tread upon it, and transmit it from the one
to the other. Lower down are other workmen,
who also stop it as it passes, and throw it on a
stone shelf where they wring it, and below this
there is a small drain. A grating is placed at
the extremity of this drain to prevent any part
of the wool from being carried off by the cur-
rent.
When the wool is well wrung it is spread upon
OF SPAIN.
the sloping meadows I have already mentioned,
ana exposed to the sun for four (iajs in rder to
dry it completely. When well dried, it is put
into large sacks on which are two marks., one
indicating the quality of the wool and the other
the name of the flock which produced it; In
this state it is exported; so that when we see
bales of Spanish wool in any part of Europe, we
may thus ascertain its quality and the place from
which it came. The. time is perhaps not far
distant when the introduction of wool from Spain
by our roads will cease, when our harbours will
serve only as entrepots for this precious produc-
tion,, and when we shall have no occasion to go
from home to procure wool for our own manu-
factures. Let not Spain look upon our success
with an envious eye, let not her allies be consider-
ed as dangerous rivals. When they have even
deprived her of the exclusive possession of this
advantage, will not many others remain which
she will enjoy without a competitor ? The field
of industry is so wide, and its resources are so
various, that every nation may cultivate it with-
out injury to its neighbours. The deadly feuds
of nations, like lawsuits between individuals,
are best prevented by making mankind acquainted
with each other, or explaining their true interest.
Until this desirable change takes place, Spain
will no doubt continue to export, as usual, abun-
dance of wool. At the period when the peace of
VOL. I. I
114
Basle was concluded, there were in the ports
of Spain sixteen thousand bales of wool, which
could not he forwarded on account of the war.
Since the conclusion of that peace, our manu-
facturers of Sedan, of Louviers, and Elbeuf, and
even some houses in Paris and Orleans, have com-
missioned wool from Spain, but certainly in
smaller quantities than before the war. The
same gentlemen, as well as those of Sedan, Reims,
and Verviers, still continue to order this com-
modity: but Spanish wool, the price of which
has been so much raised by reiterated augment-
ations of the export duties within these few years,
has had to encounter the competition of the wool
of our own Merinos; and if pains are taken to
increase the quantity, and to improve the qua-
lity of the latter, it will, if sold at a moderate
price, soon furnish a substitute for the real Spanish
wool.
England still affords a very extensive market
for Spanish wool; and has even imported a
greater quantity of late years than formerly. In
1788 it was calculated, that in each of the three
preceding years, about 10,000 bales of Spanish
wool were sent to England. In 1800 they
reckoned 16,650. It may be conjectured, how-
ever, that the naturalization of Merinos which
has succeeded in England, as well as in every other
country, will diminish this importation. Should
the case be otherwise, it must arise from ai*
OF SPAIN.
increase in the manufactures of that country,
or from the English wool-dealers refusing to
pay any higher for Merino wool, than for that
of the sheep of the country ; in which case, the
farmers will have little encouragement to in-
crease their stock of Merinos.
116 MODERN STATE!
CHAP. IV
i .
Palace of Saint Ildefonso. Etiquette. Titles,.
Dignities. Grandees. Orders of Chivalry.
WE now quit the subject of Spanish wool,
with Segovia and its environs, in order to con-
duct the reader to the palace of St. Ildefonso,
which is only two leagues distant. We discern
from a great distance the high mountains which
rise behind it, and scarcely has the traveller left
Segovia, when the building itself is plainly distin-
guishable ; the approaches to it do not bespeak
the residence of a powerful court, some miserable
hamlets being thinly scattered upon the barren
plains. Nothing better could indeed be expect-
ed from this part of Old Castile, surrounded as
it is by rugged mountains, and destitute of roads,
canals, or even rivers of any magnitude. But
what contributed, perhaps, more than any
other circumstance to the devastation of thi? pro-
vince, were the numerous herds of deer which
once overspread it, and whose tranquillity was
disturbed during only two months in the year,
by the hunting parties of the monarch and his
family. Scarcely had Charles the Fourth ascended
the throne, when in spite of his hereditary taste
for the sports of the field, he hastened to make
OF SPAIN. 117
regulations for effecting the gradual extermina-
tion of these aaimals> and insured obedience by
his own example.
The nearer we approach St. Ildefonso, however,
the more pleasing the country becomes; rivulets
are seen meandering in the midst of delicious her-
bage, the hills and vallies are covered with herds of
deer, which, from their apparent security, might
be taken for domesticated animals. Some beau-
tiful country-seats occasionally attract the eye,
emerging from clusters of verdant oaks. In addi-
tion to this, the groupe formed by the palace and
its appendages, overtopped by mountains partly
naked and partly covered with trees to their sum-
mits, presents a scene truly picturesque. Ar-
rived at the gate in front of this royal mansion,
and which is separated from it by a large court
in form of a glacis, we have an imperfect image
of Versailles. One would at first suppose that
Philip V, who built St. Ildefonso, delighted to
surround himself with objects which might recal
to his mind the much-loved scenes of infancy. He
seems to have had the same object in view in the
arrangement orchis body guards. Of the ancient
guard of the kings of Spain a company of hal-
berdiers only remains, which may be compared
with the Cent-rSuisses at Versailles. Philip V.
formed three companies of life-guards, each con-
listing of 200 men, modelled, both as to its for-
mation and dress, after those of France. To
118 MODERN STATE
these three companies the present king has added
a fourth by the name of the American Company.
Two regiments which do duty on the outside of
the palace, the Spanish and the Walloon guards,
are also a perfect copy of the French and Swiss
guards. Each of them sends a company to fol-
low the court whenever the place of its residence
is changed.
The posts of commanders of these six military
corps, which form both the external and internal
guards of the sovereign, are given to the most
distinguished persons in the kingdom. The com-
mander of the halberdiers is always a grandee of
Spain. The captain of the Spanish company of
the gardes du corps is chosen from the most illus-
trious families at court ; and a lieutenant-general
has been placed at the head of the new American
company. The commander of the Italian com-
pany is generally an Italian nobleman ; and that
of the Flemish company is a Flemish lord, or at
least a foreigner of Flemish extraction. It is the
same with the colonel of the Walloon guards.
As to the Spanish guards, their colonel is always
chosen from among the most illustrious grandees
in Spain ; the Duke d'Ossuna commands them at
present.*
* The Duke d'Ossuna spent several months at Parisln 1 // j
with his whole family} they exhibited a specimen of the pomp
which surrounds the Spanish grandees of the highest rank,
and at the same time of the simplicity of their manners, of their
OF SPAIN. 119
Philip V. had the strongest partiality for the
residence of St. Ildefonso, and the marks of his
regard still survive him. His ashes are deposited
in a chapel in front of the castle. I visited his
mausoleum more than once ; and it has something
imposing from its simplicity. The sight of the
tombs of the great almost always excites profound
reflections ; how powerful then must be the effect
prod uced by the tomb of a prince whose reign holds
so remarkable a place in the annals of modern
times, and forms the era of the greatest disasters,
and the last exploits of the reign of Louis XIV. ;
of a prince on whose account Europe was con-
vulsed by three wars in less than half a century;
of a prince whom the conquest of the largest mo-
narchy in the world could not render happy, and
whose rooted melancholy, embittering the last
stage of his existence, has left an example to the
world that the most splendid achievements of am-
bition bring nothing in their train but satiety and
disgust !
More pleasing ideas take possession of the
mind on viewing the residence which Philip V.
constructed in the bosom of solitary woods, sur-
rounded by rugged precipices. The palace has
nothing magnificent, particularly in its exterior
affability, and of every thing that tends to heighten the splen-
dor derived from the union of a great fortune with an illustrious
name. The revenues of the Duke d'Ossuna were estimated at
nearly three millions of or francs.
120 MODERN STATE
(See Plate III. ) The garden front has a facjadeof
the Corinthian order, which is not without dig*
nity. Indeed this latter quality reigns through-
out all the king's apartments ; and there is a fine
view over a parterre, surrounded with ma;ble
vases and statues, of a cascade, which, for the
richness of its decorations, equals any thing of
the kind ever produced ; and for the limpidity of
its waters, is above all comparison. Nature was
much more favourable in this point to Philip the
Fifth than to his grandfather. The mountains
which tower above his palace send forth in abun-r
dance the water which feeds the numerous foun-
tains, and invigorates the plai ts in his superb gar-
dens: they are a league in circumference, and the
inequality of the ground exhibits new scenes at
every step. The principal alleys answer to the va-
jrious summits of the neighbouring mountains, one
of which in particular produces a most pleasing
effect ; it opens perpendicularly to one of the
sides of the principal facade ; and from this,
point are seen at once five fountains adorned
with exquisite groups of figures, rising into v
an amphitheatre, the crown of which is form-
ed by one of the mountains. The highest of
these groups is that of Andromeda chained to
a rock. When closely inspected it is perhaps
defective, the rock appearing insignificant com- .
pared to the monster which menaces Andromeda,
add Perseus who is attacking it ; but upon the
OF SPAIN. 121
whole it contributes to the beauty of the perspec-
tive. The most remarkable of these five groups
is certainly that of Neptune ; genius seems to
have presided over its composition, and the
choice of the situation. The God of Ocean is
standing, surrounded by his marine court.
His attitude, his menacing air, and the di-
rection of hisjrident, shew that he is imposing
silence on the boisterous waves ; and the calm
which reigns on the water, the tranquillity which
is produced in the air by the triple wall of ver-
dure with which he is surrounded, announce
that he has not issued his mandates in vain.
How often have I sat, with Virgil in my hand,
on the margin of these tranquil waters, and un-
der the shade of their verdant architecture, re-
peated the famous Quos ego ! .
There are some other fountains which well me-
rit the attention of the curious: such is the foun-
tain of Latona, where limpid streams, some
perpendicular, others crossing in every direc-
tion, issue from the hoarse throats of the pea-
sants of Lycia, half transformed into frogs.,
and are discharged in such abundance that
the statue of the goddess is concealed from view
by one vast mantle of liquid crystal. Of this de-
scription also is Diana bathing, surrounded
by her nymphs: in the twinkling of an eye the
whole chaste assemblage is concealed beneath the
122 MODERN STATE
water ; you imagine that you hear the shrieking
of the aquatic birds, aud the roaring of the lions,
\vho vomit forth by a hundred channels, this tran-
sitory deluge. Such is, lastly, the fountain of
Fame: it is formed of a single jet d'cau, which
rising 132 feet, displays to the distance of several
leagues, the efforts of art to subdue nature, and
falls in gentle dew upon the astonished spec-
tators.
In some particular spots of the gardens of St.
Ildefonso the stranger may catch a view of a
great part of these fountains at once ; he stops
with the most ravishing delight upon a platform
which is above the principal cascade, and which
faces the king's apartments. Two saloons of ver-
dure have been made here ; if you look from
hence through certain openings formed in the foli-
age, you will perceive, when the waters are play-
ing, twenty crystal columns rising as high as the
trees which surround you, mixing their sparkling
white with the verdure of the groves, uniting their
noise with the rustling of the trees, and cooling the
air which you breathe: and if you ascend towards
the great reservoir of these abundant and limpid
waters, after having traversed a superb parterre,
and climbed a pretty steep declivity for a few mi-
nutes, you arrive at a long and broad alley which
Occupies the whole of the upper part of the gar-
dens. From the midst of this alley, on turning to-
wards the palace, an immense and boundless
OF SPAIN. 123
zon meets the eye. The vast gardens which we
have just visited have shrunk -into nothing; al--
leys, parterres, and founta.ins, have all disap*-
peared. We have now nothing before us but a
road, which, under the fo rm of a vessel, in f Jie
prow of which we are p) aced, has its poop re-
presented by the royal 'palace. From the ? ame
point, if we look behi ud, we perceive a f miull
lake, the irregular contours of which are not like
our English gardens., confined to an au'kward
imitation of the chare aing irregularities of nature;
it is nature herself. The alley from which we en-
joy this spectacle joins the two end?, of the
curve embraced \ >y the reservoir. The waters
flowing from the sides of the woody m-ountain in
front ; these waf ers, whose distant murmurings
alone interrupt the silence which reigns around,
unite in this s mall lake, and descend from it
by a thousand i nvisible pipes into other reservoirs,
from which tb ey are again forced out in a thou-
sand different ; forms to refresh the flowery soil.
The waters o f the lake, always limpid, and sel-
dom agitate d, faithfully reflect the images of
the surroun ding woods, and of some straggling
houses, bui It as if by chance under their shade.
The rivuld is which feed this principal reservoir
were ouce lost in the vallies, without affording
profit or pleasure ; but by the assistance of
art they have become both agreeable and use-
ful. /V fter having ascended the pyramidal
124 MODERN STATE
mountain whence these waters derive their source,
we reach the wall inclosing the garden ; which
was before concealed by the thick foliage of
the trees placed in front. Nothing here im-
presses the mind with an idea of exclusive pro-
perty : the woods., the waters, and the majestic
solitude of the mountains, are beauties which
belong; to the whole community.
These rivulets departing from the grand reser-
Toir, are conducted from one platform of the garden
to another by channels, some of which are subter-
raneous and others above, ground. Here they
hastily water the roots of the trees which they
pass in their course ; there they traverse an alley
and bathe more slowly the flower}' ornaments of a
parterre. From the basin of Andromeda they flow
in greater abundance, between two rows of trees,
in a deep and dismal channel, the too rapid slope
of which is retarded by cascades and windings. At
length, after having traversed the garden in every
direction, after having sported in the midst of
gods and nymphs, moistened the throats of tri-
tons, lions, and swans, they humbly disappear
below the ground, but again emerge in order to
water the adjacent vallics.
I should never conclude, were I to enumerate
all the statues and groups, and cascades which
decorate*tbe gardens of St. lldefonso. I shall
therefore merely observe that, with a few excep-
tions, all the articles of sculpture are the. work
OP S*AIN. 125
of French artists of the second rank, such as
Fermiti and Thierry, sent by Louis the Four-
teenth to his grandson, and their pupils, who
were even inferior to themselves. They have
displayed more claims to magnificence than
to taste -in the square of Las ocho calles. Eight
alleys terminate, the one end at this centre,
and the other at one of the cascades dispers-
ed throughout the gardens. Clumps of verdure
occupy the intervals between the alleys, and
against each interval is placed under an arcade
of white marble, the altar of a god or goddess,
each of whom presides over a basin. These eight
altars are decorated with several jets-d'ecm, and
among the rest with two which rise perpendicu*
larly from the two sides of the divinity, and have
a ridiculous resemblance to the two tapers on a
Roman Catholic altar. This cold regularity dis-
pleased Philip the Fifth, who upon visiting his
gardens a short time before his death, reproached
the inventor of the designs in strong language.
This prince had not the satisfaction to witness
the completion of his plans. He died in 1740,
when every thing was but in an imperfect state.
This palace was the most expensive undertak-
ing of his reign. The finances of Spain, so much
dilapidated during the Austrian dynasty, would
have been sufficient, in consequence of the wise
plans of Orry, to have subsidised France, and
above all to have assisted the courageous efforts
of the Castilians ; they would have been sufiicicn.
J26
MODERN STATE
for three long and ruinous wars ; for all the ex-
pences of a monarchy which Pr.iilip the Sixth
had conquered and partly regenerated ; they
would have resisted the attacks of ambition, and
the machinations of politics : but they were
doomed to sink under the ill judged efforts of
magnificence. Sovereigns of other countries,
learn from this example, that your glory, and even
your disasters, sometimes cost your subjects much
less than your pleasures ! Will it be believed
that Philip the Fifth expended forty-five mil-
lions of piastres in building the castle and laying
out the gardens of St. Ildefonso ; and that this
was the precise amount of his debts at the period
of his demise : an enormous sum, indeed, but it
will not appear exaggerated when it is considered,
that the spot occupied by the palace was, at the
beginning of last century, a rugged and broken
mass of rock ; that it was dug out and levelled
in several places, and a hundred channels cut
through it; that earth capable of vegetation,
was brought to every part where it was de-
signed to substitute a luxuriant cultivation for
the natural sterility of the place ; and that
the rocks were to be blown up to make room
for the roots of the trees every where planted
in the greatest profusion. So many exertions
combined could not fail of commanding in a
certain degree the desired success ; in the or-
chards, kitchen gardens, and parterres, there are
OF SPAIN. 127
few flowers, few espaliers, fevr plants, but what
have prospered; but the trees, which from their
naturearedestinedtoattaingreat height, and whose
roots consequently strike deep into the ground, al-
ready attest the insufficiency of art when strug-
gling against nature. The slender roots of some
of these trees being unable to supply the neces-
sary moisture to the trunk, they expose their al-
most naked branches as objects of regret, and
every year the assistance of gun-powder is called
in to hollow out new beds for those which are
brought hither to supply their places : none of
them are covered with that beautiful foliage,
which is to be seen on those only for which a fac-
titious soil has not been created. In a word, ia
the groves of St. Ildefonso are to be found mar-
ble statues, cascades, basins, fountains, limpid
and abundant waters, picturesque situations, and
every thing that art can supply, but the princi-
pal charm, especially in a sultry climate, that of
umbrageous foliage, is wanting.
On the death of Philip the Fifth, the palace
of St. Ildefonso was abandoned by the court of
Spain. His second wife, Isabella Farnese, was
the only person belonging to the royal family
who remained there, and during the whole of
the thirteen years which his successor, Ferdinand
the Seventh, occupied the Spanish throne, this
singular woman led a most retired and quiet life
within the apartments of the palace, having ne-
128 MODERN STATE
vcr once left them, or at least having never
been out of the gardens. This fact, strange
as it may appear, has been attested by several of
the persons who attended her in this retreat.
Her day she divided in the most extraordi
nary manner, sitting up only at night : lost
as it were to the world and to all its enjoy-
ments, her principal care seemed to be the pre-
servation of her health, and to prepare herself
for a participation in eternal felicity. Her son
Charles the Third, then King of Naples, having
however ascended the throne of Spain in 1759,
the dormant flame of ambition, which had but
slumbered in her bosom, rekindled at the news ;
she quitted her solitude, re-appeared at court,
and maintained over her son, to the end of her
life, an influence as unbounded as that she had
formerly exercised over Philip the Fifth, the
weakest perhaps of sovereigns or of husbands.
The new king inherited the partiality of his father
for the residence of St. Ildefonso, and throughout
the whole of his reign, the court sought in the
enjoyment of its refreshing shade, a refuge against
the intense heat of the dog-days. It generally
repaired hither towards the end of July, and
returned to Madrid in the beginning of October.
The palace is situated upon the slope of the moun-
tains which separate the two Castiles, in front of
a vast plain, open at all points to the north winds,
and this circumstance renders it a delightful re-
OF SPAIN* 129
treat during the hottest months of summer. Here
the morning and evening breezes even of a sultry
day are cool and refreshing, and the tops of the
neighbouring 1 mountains are covered with snow
during the greater part of the year. St. tlde-
fonso, however, being upwards of twenty leagues
distant from Madrid, and one half of the road
( that which begins at Guadarama) a tedious and
winding course through a thick cluster of rusrffed
o o oo
and barren mountains, can only be considered as
valuable in the estimation of sportsmen and those
who delight in solitude. The present queen of
Spain, while princess of Asturias, entertained an
aversion to this palace, which she expressed, on
all occasions ; and Charles the Fourth, her hus-
band, having ascended the throne in 1789, it
was imagined that St. Ildefonso would be en-
tirely abandoned. During the five first years
of the reign of this prince indeed the court
never removed thither, the king contenting him-
self with a short visit from time to time. This
repugnance, however, gradually subsided ; the
delightful climate of St. Ildefonso regained
its reputation, and the visits of the royal fa-
mily have become as frequent as formerly.
The court was there on my first introduction,
to it in the year 1775; and there I saw it for
the last time in 1792 ; succeeding events hav-
ing prevented my again appearing there in my
public capacity until the period of my depar-
VOL. i. K
130 MODERN STATE
ture, which was the signal for hostilities betweeo,
the two countries*.
The most brilliant period in the annals of this
palace may be said to have been in the year
1782, when two French princes, the Count
d'Artois and the Count de Bourbon paid a visit
to the reigning sovereign Charles the Third, on
their way to assist at the siege of Gibraltar.
Since the house of Bourbon had ascended the
throne of Spain, this was the first interview
which had taken place with any of the prince*
of the blood-royal of France. The old monarch
who was not a stranger to the feelings of nature,
displayed in this happy meeting all the benevo-
lence of his disposition, as well as the magni-
ficence of his court. He shewed his relatives
the most delicate attentions, which seemed so
* It may not perhaps be amiss to add in this place the short
poetical description of St. Ildefonso, drawn by Delille, in the
last edition of his " Jardins" (canto 1.) when describing the
beauties of this delightful residence.
Toi, surtout, Ildefonse, et tes fratches delices.
La ne sont point ces eaux dont les sources facttces,
Se fermant tout & coup, par leur morne repos
Attristent le bocage et trompent les echos.
Sans cesse resonnant dans ces jardins superbes,
D'intarissables eaux, en colonnes, en gerbes,
S'elancent, fendent 1'air de leurs rapides jets,
Et des monts paternels egalent les sommets :
Lieu superbe od Philippe, avec magnificence,
Dcriait son ayeul et retragaitla France.
OF SPAIN. 131
foreign to the simplicity of his manners. The
Count d'Artois and all his suite, were lodged
in the palace, and the whole of the king's
household was at the command of the young
prince. Care was taken to surround his per-
son with such of the nobility of Spain, whose
manners and language might recal to his mind
at least an imperfect image of the court he
had so recently quitted. In a word, the atten-
tions they received were unbounded, yet did
not impose the smallest restraint upon the royal
guests, who were left at liberty to follow their
own inclinations, an indulgence every way more
gratifying than the vain homage of courtly
parade. Charles the Third, accustomed to lead
a very regular life, had apportioned to various
exercises and duties almost every moment of his
time. Hunting, fishing, the performance of re-
ligious duties, and the transaction of business
with his ministers, were all attended to with that
scrupulous punctuality which the courtiers had
been long accustomed to observe. The duke
de Bourbon who had been introduced under the
title of Count Dammartin, was treated with less
ceremony indeed, but with equal kindness.
Young and inexperienced, strangers to the eti-
quette of the court of Spain, the two princes felt
the necessity and advantage of some person who
was capable of instructing them, and there-
fore put themselves under the superintendence of
ft*
132 MODERN STATE
the Count cle Montmorin, at that time ambassa-
dor from France. This nobleman had been my
benefactor; but alas! he perished by the hands
of those cannibals who disgraced the first stages
of the Revolution. The spirit of party, so preva-
lent at that moment, may have led him into
errors; duty and inclination however compel me
to look only at his misfortunes, and I am incapa-
ble of denying him that tribute of affection and
gratitude which I have more than once paid him
during his prosperity. In my mind the misfor-
tunes of this nobleman have rendered the duty of
doing him justice on my part doubly sacred. I
shall therefore, without hesitation assert, that
during the six years of his embassy in Spain,
he proved, what the Spaniards might perhaps
have been inclined to doubt, that a French-
man also can possess gravity without pedantry,
wisdom without austerity, dignity without pride,
and prudence without timidity. He was treat-
ed by the king and royal family with a regard
which he merited ; he well knew how to con-
ciliate the confidence of the ministers, the con-
sideration of the grandees, and the esteem of
the nation ; and notwithstanding a certain cold-
ness of manner, few persons approached him
who did not retire from hh presence with a fa-
vourable impression of his character.
There is no court in Europe where the ambas-
sadors and foreign ministers appear so much in
.OF SPAIN, 133
public as in that of Spain. During the reign of
Charles the Third., they were even subjected to
the most fatiguing attendance especially the am-
bassadors of the family.* They were expected to
attend the court on its journies to St. Ildefonso,
the Escurial and Araujuez. They appeared regu-
larly at the tables of the king and royal family, and
had even daily an audience of his majesty before
dinner, and immediately afterwards all the foreign
ministers were admitted for a few minutes into
his closet: at present they appear at the palace
only twice in a week. Charles the Fourth, more
simple in" his manners than even his father,
Jias dispensed with many of the useless and unne-
cessary ceremonies of the court, although his life
is remarkable for the same regularity and the
same uniformity. He is as passionately fond of
the chase as his predecessor ; but he has ren-
dered it much less injurious to the neighbour-
hood of his residence. He has also other predi-
lections ; a taste for the fine arts ; a love of
agriculture, which will be shewn in our account
of Aranjuez : a partiality for athletic exercises.,
for which he is peculiarly adapted by his robust
constitution; and a fondness for music, with
which both the queen and himself indulge them-
'.* Oj^i'iffJJ^.'tirM "V' ! '' ;
* These were, at that period, the French and Neapolitan
ambassadors.
134 MODERN STATE
elves in select parties every evening on return-
ing from the chase, and after having transacted
the business of the day with one of his mini-
sters. The present court of Spain, therefore, as
may be naturally inferred from the disposition
of the monarch, is but seldom engaged in public
diversions.
Let it not however be imagined, that although
the business of the court is conducted with so
much regularity, although it even appears soli-
tary, it is destitute of magnificence. Charles the
third, a widower since the year 1761, dined alone,
but always in public, and surrounded by his offi-
cers: the present king dines in company with his
consort. They are each attended by the grand
chamberlain of their household, the grand almoner,
the captain of the guards on duty, and an ex-
empt of the guards; their table is served by
two gentlemen of the chamber, who are gran-
dees of Spain, one of whom has the care of
the table, while the other, upon one knee, serves
liis Majesty with drink The same honours
are paid to the queen by the ladies of the pa-
lace, and to the infants and infantas by the no-
bility attached to their establishment. This de-
grading homage may excite the indignation of
philosophy, but it is not peculiar to the court of
Spain: it will be found in Vienna, where the
royal family are treated with the same respect;
and even in London, where the authority of the
OF SPAIN.
king is so much circumscribed in other respects.
In the number of its gala days, the court of
Spain is prodigal, and on these occasions
the nobility display the utmost magnificence.
There are two sorts, denominated grand and com-
mon galas. During the reign of Charles the
Third, ten grand gala days were every year held
at court, in honour of the king's birth-day and
coronation, the birth-days of the prince and
princess of Asturias, and of the king and queen of
Naples, the one as the son, the other as daughter-
in-law of the sovereign. At present there are
only eight: four for the king and queen, and
four for the prince and princess of Asturias.
The common galas, which are also called demi-
galas, are held in honour of the other princes and
princesses of th,e blood-royal, and are at present
twenty-two in number. These galas require but
little alteration in the dress of those who attend
them; but at grand galas, every person, with the ex-
ception of the prince or princess in whose honour
they are given, must display the utmost magni-
ficence in his apparel. Every officer belonging
to the court, from the grand chamberlain to those
who possess the meanest employment, must on
these occasions be dressed in the habit apper-
taining to their respective offices; hence the
appellation galas con uniforme, which has gene-
rally been bestowed upon them. In the morning
of these court days, all those who have auv
136
MODERN STATE
connection with tlie court, either as attached to
the palace or by their civil, or military functions,
officers of every rank, the superior clergy, with
whom certain monks are always to be seen, assem-
ble in the drawing-room, pass in succession before
the king and the rest of the royal fumily, and
dropping on one knee kiss their hands. This
homage is considered as a renewal of the oath
of allegiance, and ou other occasions is paid to
the sovereign to return thanks for a favour con-
ferred,, or at taking leave on being appointed to
execute any commission.
Republicans who are not philosophers, or
even philosophers who may not be republicans,
will smile perhaps at these grave minutice : yet it
will not be altogether useless to describe them.
They' furnish an additional clue to the knowledge
of the human heart, its pride and its weakness. Hu-
miliations such as these, which without assuming
an unnecessary degree of haughtiness, may be con-
sidered as degrading by those who undergo them,
will not appear to be so revolting when it is
recollected, that our ancient heroes did not dis-
dain to kneel on receiving the honour of knight-
hood, and that in our own days the same cere-
mony is every where observed. A custom still
more singular prevails at the court of Spain,
by which the ladies, even of the most dis-
tinguished rank, are obliged to kiss not only the
hand of the sovereign, but that of all his chil-
OF SPAIN. 1*7
dren, of whatever sex or age; and however ri-
diculous the practice may appear, the most ele-
gant duchess is sometimes seen keeling before an
infant at the breast, pressing with her rosy lips
the hand, mechanically extended or withdrawn,
from this premature homage.
I must observe, however, that, the laws of eti-
quette appear in some measure to have been
relaxed in favour of the ladies ; and that if the
gentlemen perform the ceremony of kissing hands
(besamaiws) in public, the ladies go through
it in a private apartment; and none but those
who immediately belong to the palace are re-
quired to observe this custom -with the whole of
the royal family. This compliment is paid only
to the queen and the princess of Asturias, by
the grandees who have no place at court, and by
all females who are styled titled ladies. This
term must not be taken in the sense formerly
attached to it in France, and will necessarily
lead to some observations on the titles and dig-
nities of the court of Spain.*
* Readers of more than ordinary severity may perhaps con-
sider the details entered into on this subject as at least su-
perfluous. I can freely permit the philosopher to receive them
with a smile of disdain, but my book is not addressed alone to
him, and there is doubtless a numerous class of readers to whom
these observations will not be displeasing. A publication
which should be interesting to every class of men must be very
138 MODERN STATE
Till of late the appellation of princes of the
blood,* was wholly unknown in Spain. Next
to the infants, infantas,, sons, grandsons, or
nephews of the sovereign, come the grandees
of Spain ; and the dukes of Medina Celi, the
immediate and legitimate descendants of the
infants of La Cerda, and consequently of royal
>hort indeed, nor could even the most celebrated works un-
dergo this ordeal. In the work of Raynal, for instance, of
what importance to merchants are the philosophical declama-
tions which have immortalized his name ? and what interest
will the rest of the world take in the calculations with which
his book is filled ? In the immortal works of Montesquieu,
profound reasoners are of opinion that epigrammatic points are
too prevalent ; while women and frivolous readers would wil-
lingly dispense with his learned dissertation upon the establish-
ment of the Franks in Gaul. /
* Till very lately, there has been no example (and in-
deed this is observed in a subsequent passage) of gentlemen of
Spanish origin having borne the title of prince. There are, it
is true, at this moment several persons of quality in the service
of the king of Spain who are called princes ; such as the
princes of Castelfranco, Masserano, Monforte, &c. but all of
them are Italians, or of Italian origin. The two children male
and female of the unequal match contracted by the infant Don
.Louis, in 1//5, with the approbation of his brother Charles the
Third, seem to have produced a new question. Legitimate be-
yond a possibility of doubt, ought they to be considered as ju-
nior branches of the royal house? This difficulty has been
fortunately removed. The son has become an ecclesiastic, and
has been for some years archbishop of Toledo and Se-
ville, and a cardinal. His sister is married to the Prince of the
Peace.
OF SPAIN. 139
origin, are considered merely as grandees of
Spain. These personages are divided into three
classes, in which there is so slight a shade of dif-
ference, that it is scarcely worth mentioning.
All grandees, to what class soever they be-
long, bear the title of Excellence, and have a right
to appear covered in the presence of the king.
When a grandee passes through the guard-room,
a stamp with the foot is a signal to the centinel
on duty to carry arras. To these marks of re-
spect are the privileges of the grandees reduced,
no other honours being paid to their quality. They
do not form a distinct body, as did formerly the
dukes and peers of France. It would appear
that their kings, unable to deprive this order of
their hereditary dignity, had determined to hold
its members in complete subjection, and to
keep them dependent on the royal favour for all
further honours.
None of the places at court are exclusively
filled by grandees, except perhaps those of
grand-master, and master of the horse ; that of
Sumiller de Cors (a place similar to that of grand
chamberlain), and the post of captain of the hal-
berdiers : and even these places, like most of the
others, are usually granted at the king's pleasure.
There are but few situations about the court,
which as a matter of course entitle the possessor
fp nobility.
140 MODERN STATE
The gentlemen of the chamber (gcntilhommes
dcla chambre avec exercice) are for the most part
grandees ; but there are also some who are people
of quality although not noble. Indeed none
of the latter are attached either to the person of
the sovereign,, or of the heir-apparent ; the
queen and the princess of Asturias can only be
served by grandees of Spain.
The queen is attended in the interior of the pa-
lace by a number of young ladies of distinguished
though poor families, called cameristas.
With respect to the nobility of both sexes, who
hold pi aces about the person of the king and queen,
and the prince and princess of Asturias, they are
taken indiscriminately from any of the three classes.
Many of the individuals of the most ancient and
honourable families, who belong only to the third
class of nobility, are nevertheless equally respec-
ted. Philip the Fifth, who created a great num-
ber of grandees, did not confer a single title of
the second or third class. He had lone: struggled
to obtain a throne, his right to which had been,
disputed not only by foreign powers, but also by
a great proportion of his future subjects ; an4
when at length he obtained possession of the
kingdom, and consequently the power of con-
ferring honour and dignities, he distributed them
among his adherents as rewards for the signal ser-
vices they had rendered him whether military or
OF SPAIN. 141
political, and no doubt he thought himself bound
to proportion his acknowledgments to the im-
portance of those services : or perhaps, the lofty
dignity which he had brought from Versailles to
Madrid, induced him to believe, that it would de-
rogate from his greatness, if those who had the
honour of being employed in his service should
not all at once obtain the most illustrious rank.
i
Whatever were the motives of this prince, he
was imitated by Ferdinand the Sixth: but Charles
the Third revived an almost imaginary and nearly
obsolete distinction, by creating in the latter pro-
motions among his nobility several grandees of
the second class.
The prerogative of wearing the hat in the pre-
sence of the sovereign is not enjoyed by all the
nobility until after they have been presented at
court, or have attended the king upon s,ome
public ceremony : the distinction indeed does not
belong to them exclusively ; they share it with
the nuncios of the pope, ambassadors of the
family, and some heads of religious orders, who,
while they retain their dignities, enjoy also the
title of Excellence, and are, from these two cir-
cumstances on a level with the grandees of Spain.
Thus there is not a single invention of human va-
nity that the humility of the clergy has not sanc-
tioned by appropriating it to themselves.
There are also titles of nobility which become
extinct on the death of the possessor : and some
142 MODERN STATE
persons obtain these dignities for themselves and
their descendants. These gTants confer upon
the parties the title of Excellence, but not the
right to remain covered in the presence of the
king. A still greater distinction observable in the
different classes of nobility, which has its founda-
tion not in law, but what is sometimes much
more imperious, custom, is that which is made by
the grandees of ancient families between themselves
and those of more modern or less illustrious ex-
traction. The first use the word tlwu to each
other on all occasions, whatever may be the dif-
ference of their age, or the places which they
occupy. I have frequently heard certain gran-
dees belonging to this class, still very young, and
who had not )et risen to the rank of colonels,
employ this term of apparent familiarity in
speaking to the war minister, who was then a
grandee of Spain. They would have respect-
fully given him the title of Excellence, if his
extraction had been less illustrious. They used
the word thou to him, because, by his birth,
he was on a level with themselves : another proof
of this trivial, though undoubted truth -that
extremes meet. An insurmountable aversion
to every kind of distinction, and the desire of
levelling all ranks, induced the French at the
commencement of the revolution to adopt, even
to command the use of the second person sin-
gular : with the grandees of Spain this mode
OF SPAIN. 145
of expression has become the most subtle distinc-
tion which could have been invented by vanity,
and they have placed it at the summit of the py-
ramid of nobility : but these privileged orders are
not very prodigal of this honourable familiarity
In their conversation, and in their epistolary cor-
respondence with those whom they do not con-
sider as their equals, they give and exact very
ceremoniously the title of Excellence, These
new grandees of Spain study to obtain the ho-
nour of being thou'd as they would the greatest
favour, and if they finally succeed, it becomes
for them a matter of triumph. Of this I wit-
nessed a striking example during my first resi-
dence in Spain. The old duke de Losada, at that
time SumiUar de Cors, and who was perhaps the
only true friend Charles the Third could ever
boast of, had accompanied him in his youth,
when he left Madrid to take possession of the
duchy of Parma, and afterwards of the kingdom
of Naples. He was then of the ordinary rank
of nobility only, but was subsequently loaded with
dignities and made a grandee. Returning after-
wards to Madrid with the same prince, upon his
accession to the crown of Spain, it was with great
difficulty, notwithstanding all the favour he en-
joyed, that he succeeded in causing himself to be
tlwiCd by the grandees of ancient standing. The
monarch himself, in order to carry this point,
was obliged to interpose^ not his authority, for
144 MODERN STATE
that \Tonlil have been unavailing, but the solici-
tations of friendship. In other circumstances,
<his distinction is sometimes spontaneously grant-
ed by the most distinguished grandees to the
offspring of some illustrious houses, who have
not as yet received the honour of grandezza,
though they think themselves entitled to it, and
who are designated, by the epithet of casas>
agravioftas, oppressed? families.
The sovereign and his family use the pronoun
tliou to all their subjects who approach their per-
sons ; it is at the same time a token of good-will
and of superiority. Every distinction disap-
pears in their presence, and Spaniards of every
denomination, of whatever station, age, or sex,
grandees', magistrates, prelates, women, young
or old, are all thou'd by the royal family ; and
they would think themselves almost disgraced
if these august personages were to address them
by those honorary titles to which their birth or
their rank give them a claim.
Nobility in Spain is hereditary in the female,
as well as the male line, provided the letters of
creation do not formally express the contrary.
Several titles may be united in one person, with-
out however adding any thing to his dignity.
There are families who, by intermarriages with
the heiresses of grandees, have accumulated
even ten or twelve hats, the style in which
the dignity of grandee^ is designated by the vul-
OF SPAIN. 145
gar ; but the heads of these families do not pos-
sess the power of distributing these honours
among their children : the law of primogeni-
ture universally obtains. There are but very few
families where the second son enjoys a title. The
eldest sons of grandees receive the honorary dis-
tinction of Excellence) but younger brothers do
not, and merely bear the family name., preceded by
their Christian names,* in the same way as in Eng-
land the brother of Lord Chatham was styled
William Pitt, and the brother of Lord Holland,
Cnarles Fox.
This observation ought not to be lost sight of
by a stranger who does not wish to be deceived by
the words count and marquis, several grandees of
Spain bearing no other titles. That of duke is
not even illustrious. The king gives it at plea-
sure when he confers the honour of nobility even
of the second class, of which there are some
recent examples : the patent is only a little more
expensive.
The title of prince until lately was peculiar
to the heir apparent. The duke de la Alcudia,
who, upon the signing of the peace with the
French republic, was denominated Prince de la
* In this way the brother of count de Fuentes, a grandee ef
Spain, who was ambassador in France, was styled Don Kamou
Pignatclli j and the brother of the duke de Uceda, simply bears
the name of Don Manuel Pacheco, although personally filling
one of the highest offices at court.
VOL. I. L
146 MODERN STATE
Paz, presents the first example of a Spaniard
having received this title from the king;. Is it to the
importance of the service which he rendered to
his country that we are to ascribe this departure
from the general rule ? or is the favourite of a
prince always sure to attain the summit of his
wishes in defiance of law and custom ?
In the order of titled nobility there existed for-
merly a kind of hierarchy. In the lower rank were
placed tbefomws (who are not to be confounded
with the ancient varoncs) still to be met with in
some provinces, and especially in Arragon. The
viscounts follow, then the counts, and last of all
the marquises. Originally it was indispensable
that a person should have been a viscount be-
fore he could attain the rank of a marquis of Cas-
tile. But all these distinctions have disappeared,
and individuals, even of common families., now
obtain the rank of counts and marquises without
having passed through the intermediate grada-
tions ; for it must not be supposed that all these
titled gentlemen are grandees. There are many
titles well known in Spain by the appellation of
titulos, or Cast Hi an titles ; but these titles prove
only the good-will of the sovereign, who has
thus chosen to reward some important service.
The person ennobled has the option to take
his title either from his estate, or from his fa-
mily name, and sometimes a designation is add-
ed to distinguish the service thus recompensed.
It was in this manner that Philip the Fifth
OF SPAIN. 147
rewarded admiral Navarre, who commanded
the Spanish squadron at the battle of Tou-
lon, who was named Marques de la Vittoria,
and thus the person who .carried Charles III.
in 1759, from Naples to Barcelona, was called
Marques del Reed Transporte. In this way also,
during the preceding reign, Galvez, the minister
of the Indies, assumed the title of JMarques de la
Sonora, from the name of a colony which he had
organized, and secured from the incursions of the
savages : and a magistrate, named Garrasco, re-
ceived the title of Marques de la Corona, as a re-
compence for services rendered to the crown in
recovering some lands which had been unjustly
withheld. Similar to this, also, is the practice of
some Spanish grandees, who add to these titles
names commemorative of some glorious or im-
portant achievement in which they had the princi-
pal share. The duke de Crillon, who had taken
Mahon, added the name of that fortress to his other
titles. Of this description also is the title of the
Prince of the Peace, who is indebted for this dis-
tinction, as alread}' mentioned, to the most impor-
tant, and perhaps the most fortunate act of his ad-
ministration. These honorarydignitics have some-
thing noble, or, if I may be allowed the expression,
something Roman in their object; and if they
sometimes flow from the caprices of fortune, they
proceed less than other rewards, perhaps, from
mere favouritism.
L2
148 MODERN STATE
The titles of Castile confer on those possessing
them, and their wives, the title of lord and
lady, Vuestra Sc"oria, which by contraction is
converted into Ussia. They \vould be shocked
were these appellations to be denied them on oc-
casions of ceremony ; but they have rarely the
vanity to exact them, or even to permit them to be
used by their equals in the ordinary intercourse
of society. Their inferiors, however, are pro-
digal of these titles when addressing them, for it
cannot be denied that all ranks have their pa-
rasites; those, however, who are most particu-
lar in paying them this petty honour, are the
persons who enjoy the title of Excellency, and
who are fond of having their own ears tickled
with it in return.
There is an intermediate title between this last
and that of Lord, being the appellation of most
illustrious lordship, ussia illustrissima ; it is be-
tsowed on archbishops, bishops, and other principal
members of the council of Castile and of the
Indies, called Camaristras, and on the presidents
of the two supreme tribunals, called Cancettarias.
Not only is there no revenue attached to the dig-
nity of grandees of Spain, or to the titles of counts
and marquisses of Castile, but they are never even
bestowed gratuitously. Those who obtain them
pay a fine, known by the name of demi annates,
unless it is formally dispensed with. The demi
annates paid by grandees of Spain, amount to about
OF SPAIN. 149
25,000 livres. This fine is higher or lower ac-
cording to the degree of affinity of the person
succeeding to the title. There is another tax an-
nually paid by the grandees of Spain under the
denomination of lanzas. This is a faint vestige
of the military service formerly rendered by the
great vassals of the crown, who were required to
furnish a certain number of lances. Grandees
who are not natives of Spain are exempt from
this contribution.
By an arrangement agreed upon between the
courts of Madrid and Versailles, since the house
of Bourbon filled the two thrones., the grandees
of Spain were put on a level with the dukes and
peers of France, but the equalization of these
dignities was not accomplished without strong
opposition on the part of the former. In the
beginning of the reign of Philip V. when this
question was in agitation, the duke of Arcos, in
the name of the grandees of Spain, declared that
they considered their dignity as compromised by
an assimilation with the peers of France. At
their own court, he said, the grandees had be-
tween them and the throne only the son of their
sovereign, while the peers of France yielded
precedency to the princes of the blood, to ille-
gitimate sons and foreign princes ; nay, even to
those who, although descendants of sovereigns,
were in the service of France, such as the dukes
150 MODERN STATE
of Lorraine, Bouillon, &c. The grandees, on tlie
contrary, formed the first order in Spain imme-
diately after the royal family. He. quoted ex-
amples of kings of Spain, and even of emperors,
who had treated them as on an equality with
Italian and German princes. He proved, that the
grandees had always been considered on a level
with the princesof sovereign houses if they were not
royal ; that when the courts of France and Spain
bad named representatives, and those of France
were princes of the blood, those of Spain were
grandees, and each party treated the other upon
a footing of perfect equality. From all these
proofs the duke of Arcos concluded that the dig-
nity of grandee of Spain equalled that of the
princes of the blood in France, and was superior
to that of the peers.
This conclusion was not relished by Philip,
who had imbibed a taste for despotism at the
court of his grandfather. Without giving any
reply, he sent word to the duke of Arcos that
he would do well to signalize his zeal with the
army in Flanders. The duke obeyed, and upon
his return, on passing through Paris, he was
the first to relinquish the claim he had set up :
he paid the princes of the blood the first visit, be-
stowed upon them the title of highness without
receiving it in return,, gave the dukes and peers
the title of excellency without exacting any thing?
OF SPAIN. 151
higher for himself; and thus the claims of the
grandees vanished for ever.
The number of grandees in Spain increases
daily, that dignity having been conferred on se-
veral foreign noblemen ; and as almost every
thing loses its value in proportion as it becomes
common, the repugnance formerly felt by the
first-class of nobility to their being placed on a
level with dukes and peers has gradually subsid-
ed : not, 'however, because the Spanish gran-
dees, who can trace their dignity back to the
reign of Charles V. have ceased to think them-
selves superior to the rest ; as in Germany, the
princes' of ancient houses assume a superiority
over those who have been created by Ferdinand II.
and his successors ; but because this difference,
which vanity cherishes in silence, has no ex*
isteuce in the public opinion, and particularly
in that of the sovereign.
To conclude, these grandees,, although per-
haps a little haughty in their pretensions, are in
general affable and condescending. They are
far from possessing that haulcur ascribed to them
throughout Europe : many of them, on the
contrary, substitute all the exteriors* of polite*
ness for that repulsive dignity so often assumed
by the great lords in otber courts. This does not,
however, arise from the want of what, though
it cannot justify, may at least excuse a haughty
152 MODERN STATE
demeanor, exalted situations, illustrious rank, or
immense fortunes. In this last respect they may
claim pre-eminence over the most opulent in any
other country, and particularly France, even be-
fore the revolution. With the exception of the
princes of the blood, there were not in France
any fortunes to be compared with those of the
duke de Medina Celi, the duke of Alba, the
duke d'Ossuna, count Altamira, and the duke
de PInfantado : but the style in which they live
rarely keeps pace with their riches. They do
not ruin themselves by elegant houses, villas,
entertainments, or English gardens ; splendor
in dress and furniture is almost totally un-
known among them : their luxury is more ob-
scure, but perhaps not the less expensive on
that account. Numerous studs of mules, rich li-
veries which are exhibited but five or six times
a year, an astonishing multitude of domestics,
are the chief articles of expence among them.
The management of their affairs is also expen-
sive : they have stewards, treasurers, and offi-
ces, arranged like those of petty sovereigns.
They maintain not only those servants, who have
grown old in their employment, but even the
domestics of their fathers, and those belong-
ing to the persons whose estates they inherit, and
also provide for the subsistence of their whole fa-
milies.
OF SPAIN, 153
The duke of Arcos, who died in 1780, main-
tained in this way 3000 persons. This magni-
ficence thus covered by the veil of charity, has
more than one inconvenience : it encourage*
idleness, and brings along with it a profusion, the
ramifications of which are so minutely subdivided
as to elude the strictest vigilance. Notwithstand-
ing these causes of disorder, however, fewer
great houses are ruined in Spain than in any
other country. The simplicity of their manners,
their dislike to habitual ostentation, the infre-
quency of sumptuous entertainments, all contri-
bute to prevent a derangement of their finan-
ces. But when they are inclined to imitate the
great personages of other courts, they yield to
none in point of splendor : a convincing proof
of this is afforded in the magnificence which
some of the grandees have displayed at foreign,
courts when they thought the national dignity
required it. Till our own times the Spanish
nobility have but rarely endeavoured to dis-
tinguish themselves in the different pursuits
which were open to their ambition. In the
beginning of last century, when they were di-
vided between the two princes who were compe-
titors for the throne, their passions, roused into
activity, produced a display of exertions and of
talents, which were not indeed always conse-
crated to that cause which success had rendered
MODERN STATE
the best, but proved, at least, that the latter
reignsof the Austrian dynasty had not completely
paralysed their faculties. A torpor of half
a century succeeded this transitory fermenta-*
tion.
Under the reign of Charles III. however,
they awoke from their lethargy, and endea-
voured to prove that subjects of the most il-
lustrious rank are not always the most useless
members of the state. They began eagerly to
embrace the profession of arms, which, till then,
had but few charms for them, as this service
imposes much greater restraints on courtiers than
it did in France. At present, out of one hundred
lieutenant-generals, there are about twenty gran-
dees ; and the general, count de la Union, who,
after several defeats perished gloriously in the field
of honour fighting against France, was also of
this class. In the diplomatic career, during the
reign of Charles III. they could boast of some
distinguished characters ; among others, count
d'Aranda, \A hose loss is still deplored ; count de
Fcrnan-NuFiez, who died at the moment when
peace would have again brought him into France;
the duke de Villahermosa, &c.
Some years ago the duke d'Ossuna, was ap-
pointed ambassador to the court of Vienna, and
the duke del Parque to that of Petersburg!], but
their nomination was not carried into effect. At
OF SPAIN. 155
this moment only three grandees of Spain are em-
ployed abroad: the count de Campo-Alange,
ambassador at Lisbon; the prince de Castel
Franco at Vienna ; and the duke de Frias at
London ; the first of these was but lately raised
to the rank of grandee, and the second is a Nea^
politan lord.
Until lately, thtf ambassador to the court of
France has been uniformly a grandee of Spain,
and generally been invested with the order of
the Holy Ghost. The last five ambassadors
from Spain previous to the storms of the re-
volution, were the duke of Alba, don J*.ymes
Massones (of the house of Sotomayor), count
de Fuentes, count d'Aranda, and count de
Fernan-Nunez. The latter was obliged to
leave France before the object of his mission
was accomplished. Since the renewal of a
good understanding between the two countries,
we have successively seen the embassy from Spain
filled by the marquis del Campo, who had been
ambassador at London, after having been long at
the head of the office for foreign affairs; the
chevalier Azara, who had been previously known
at Paris as an enlightened character, and an ac-
complished statesman, and who died in 1804;
admiral Gravina, a Sicilian of an illustrious
family, who was prematurely recalled to Spain
by the exigencies of hjs adoptive country,
lo MODERN STATE
to the great regret of all \\bo knew him in
France; and who, in 1805, was replaced by the
prince de Masserano, a grandee of Spain of the
first class, but of Italian origin.
The grandees of Spanish extraction are thrrefoi <\
in general, but little employed out of their own
country. It even appears to have long been one.
of the secret principles of the court, never lo
entrust the Spanish grandees with places of
great power, and that, except in particular ca-r-
ihis principle has been seldom departed from.
There is scarcely an example of one of the vice-
royalties of America, which for pomp, influ-
ence, and authority, are equivalent to real so-
vereignties, and for the means of enriching the
holders, legally or illegally, are equal to the
most lucrative offices under any government ;
it is, I say, almost without example, that so im-
portant a post has been confided to a grandee
of Spain, whether it be that the throne has al-
ways dreaded this accumulation of wealth and
power; or else, that the sovereigns of Spain have
been unwilling to send from home, those \\ho
contribute to that splendor with which they are
surrounded.
There are also very few individuals of this
description in the church, the dignities of which
are not, as in other countries, the exclusive
patrimony of great families. The only cede-
OF SPAIN. 157
siastical dignity, at present, held by a Spanish
grandee, is that of the patriarch of the Indies,
who performs the functions of grand almoner at
the court of Madrid. This place keeps him
by whom it is filled constantly about the person
of the sovereign.* No other grandees continue
near the person of the king except those in ac-
tual employment ; all the rest are stationary
at Madrid, which they leave but for short
intervals when they go to court. A few
only reside in the capitals of the provinces: I
never knew any who lived constantly on their
estates.
The rank of grandee is not distinguished by
any exterior mark; those grandees who are gen-
tlemen of the bedchamber carry a gold key,
like the lords of the bedchamber of other coun-
tries. Besides the order of Malta, there are six
orders of knighthood in Spain, but none to which
t!u; grandees have an exclusive right. The most
distinguished order is that of the Golden Fleece,
founded by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy,
and which the court of Vienna still continues to
confer in conjunction with that of Madrid, al-
though it was renounced by the former inthetreaty
:: ':>. -
* 1 he patriarch of the Indies, and grand almoner to the
court for several years past, has been cardinal Sentmanat, a
descendant of marquis de Castel dos Rios, who was ambassador
at the court of Louis XJV., when the will of Charles II.
arrived, and was the first grandee created by Philip V.
158 MODERN STATE
which put an end to the important contest be-
tween Philip V. and the Archduke. The num-
ber of knights of the Golden Fleece is very limit-
ed in Spain. Into no order in Europe \vas it
more difficult to obtain admission without the
essential requisite of noble blood ; and it is but
lately that this dignity has been conferred on some
ministers of state who were not of illustrious birth.
Besides the Golden Fleece, there are four
military orders in Spain, the foundation of which
may be traced to the time of the Crusades; the
grand masterships of these orders were united
to the crown by Ferdinand the Catholic. They
are denominated the orders of Santiago, Cala-
traTci, Monieza> and Alcantara. The three first
arc distinguished by a red, and the last by a green
ribband. To each of these orders are attached
commanderies, which are conferred by the king.
Santiago has eighty-seven, the highest of which
is valued at upwards of 200,000 reals a year.
*Calatrava has fifty five, one of which produces
more than 358,000 reals. Monteza has only
thirteen ; and Alcantara thirty-seven. The com-
manderies of the two last orders are much less
considerable.
For a great length of time these four orders
were indiscriminately conferred upon citizens of
all ranks, provided they could adduce the re-
quisite proofs. Charles III. restored them to
the spirit of their primitive institution, and
OF SPAIN. 159
limited them to military officers alone. Art
honorary distinction was then wanting for the
rest of his subjects, which he supplied in 1771, by
creating; a fifth order, which bears his name, and
is dedicated to the Conception of the Virgin. It
consists of two classes, that of grand- crosses, and
that of simple knights. The grand crosses
wear as a scarf a sky-blue cordon with a white
border : on days of ceremony, they are habited in
a long blue and white mantle, and over this they
wear a collar, the rings of which are formed
of the arms of Castile and of the king alter-
nately.
By the statutes of the order, the number of
grand crosses is limited to sixty; at present
there are ninety- five, including the royal family
and some foreign princes. At the creation of the
order they were all taken from among the grandees,
with the exception of two of the grand officers
of the order. A short time afterwards, the king
dispensed with this law in favour of the minister
of the marine, the marquis de Castajon ; and at
length this prince and his successor extended the
exception. They have not, however, bestowed
the grand order of Charles III. upon any
but persons of eminence, distinguished by their
services, or objects of their especial favour.
The common knights of this order oujrht
Cj ^ w-
not to exceed the number of two hundred, and
they have each a pension of 4000 reals. Some
160 MODEHN STATE
years after tlie institution of this order, the king
of Spain granted the small cross of his order
to some Frenchmen who were not included in
these two hundred. He even departed, in their
behalf, from the article of the statutes,, which
declares that it cannot be held with any foreign
order.
Amidst the establishment of so many orders for
the gentlemen, the fair sex was not forgotten. In
the year 1792, the queen created an order named
after herself, the order of JWaria Luisa, which
she conferred upon sixty ladies, mostly grandees
of Spain. Favour alone seemed to have decided
her in this first choice. There are now one hun-
dred ladies, including the princesses, who are
decorated with this order.
Proofs of nobility are requisite for the inferior
order of Charles III., as well as for the four
military orders. This may appear doubtful,
however, from the facility with which they are
obtained. It is true that it does not require any
great efforts of intrigue to elude this law, and be-
sides it is not difficult to establish a claim to no-
bility, in most of the provinces of Spain. It is
sufficient if the claimant can prove that he and
his ancestors have lived nobly without exer-
cising any of the very few professions declar-
ed by the prejudices and the laws of the
country to be degrading. He is then reputed
of noble birth, Hidalgo, for in Spain thej
OF SPAIN. 161
tlo not acknowledge that nobility can be con-
ferred. It has been asserted that there are
whole provinces every inhabitant of which is
a gentleman; but in this there is a little exag-
geration. It is true that Philip II. ennobled
all the Biscayans; it is also true that all the
Asturians are regarded as descendants of the
ancient Goths, who took refuge in the mountains
of their province, and never submitted to the yoke
of the Moors, and on account of this praise-worthy
circumstance are considered as noble: but it
would appear very absurd, if two or three hun-
dred thousand men, distributed over a small pro-
vince, were all noble in a rigorous acceptation of
the term. If all men were of the same size, the
relative terms of giants and dwarfs ought to be
erased from our dictionaries : the distinction of
nobility implies a class of commonalty much more
numerous than the nobles themselves, not ab-
surdly condemned, as in other countries, to a
kind of perpetual degradation, but merely ob-
scure inhabitants, who give way, in point of
wealth or respectability, to the smaller number,
forming the class of nobles. Thus it cannot be
denied that Biscay and the Asturias like the
rest of Europe, have their distinguished families,
marked by the public esteem on account of their
riches, or from having held some place of conse-
quence in their native provinces; and whatever
may be the pretensions to nobility among the ob-
VOL. i. M
162 MODERN STATE
scur-e inhabitants, those distinguished families afc
feet a superiority, which is acknowledged at
least by certain marks of deference. This ac-^
know lodgment does not prevent the individual*
who make it from cherishing ideas of a kind
of nobility far preferable to the chimerical no-
bility of blood ; so that, if some fortunate oc-
currence places them in- a high situation, they
seem to think that it has only restored them to
their proper sphere. Hence they are in ge-
neral less insolent and less intoxicated with,
good fortune than most upstarts ia other coun-
tries.
I have more than once Remarked this distinctive
trait among the inhabitants of the Asturias and
Biscay, even of the lowest rank: in their beha-
viour they have something noble, and are much
less submissive in the homage they pay, and
wealth and titles inspire them with but little awe.
A person in power in their estimation is merely
a fortunate man, who has gained a prize in the
lottery of life, in which all have tickets, the
drawing of which may raise every man from his
present condition in his turn : this prejudice,
ridiculous as it may appear, preserves them
from falling into mean actions and degrading
crimes. The same observation is also more
or less applicable to all the other provinces
of Spain, where the hidalgos are numerous,
and where the members of the third estate
OF SPAltf*
{peclieros) are not distinguished by any
liating subjection ; so that nobility there ex-
cites less envyj, and the desire of overthrowing
the power of the nobles is less likely to become a
motive of general insurrection, than in any other
country.
Although the gradations which separate the
nobility from the commonalty in Spain are almost
imperceptible,, there is nevertheless an appearance
of severity displayed in exacting proofs of noble
birth under certain circumstances ; but even
here, as well as in other countries^ money and in-
fluence are at no loss to find compliant genealo-
gists. In short, we may venture to make an obser-
vation with respect to the nobility and titles in
Spain, which ought to apply to all countries,
namely, the less a monarchy is limited, the more
arbitrary are these distinctions, and the more
fugitive are the shades of nobility. In despotic
governments, even when not tyrannical, the fa-
vour of the prince forms the principal distinc-
tion among his subjects. Unlimited monar-
chies exercise this kind of influence in a greater
or less degree: and there are few countries where
the authority of the crown is more absolute than
in Spain.
The ancient form of government greatly cir-
cumscribed this power, and it has been insensi-
bly altered without being overturned. The in-
termediate ranks scarcely exist even in name.
164 MODERN STATE
The supreme councils, and that of Castile the chief
of all, sometimes attempted to present remonstran-
ces when they foresaw that certain measures would
prove disastrous, or were contrary to the laws;
but all the members are nominated, and may be
dismissed by the king: from him alone they ex-
pect their advancement hr the career of magis-
tracy; and as the enrolment in their registers of
the royal decrees is a mere formality which they
have no legal means of resisting, they have not,
like the parliaments of France of old, a Tis inertias
to oppose to the will of the sovereign.
Very lately, however, the council of Castile
Svas consulted on a question of great importance:
and the members are said to have given their
opinion boldly, and as it appears, not without
success.
-
'
OF SPAIN. IG5
CHAP. V.
Remains of Hie Cortes. Council of State. M.
d'Aranda, J\l. Florida Blanca, and the present
Ministers. Official departments.
THE Cortes would be the only rampart capa-
ble of resisting the eruptions of despotism.
It is well known how much influence this sort
of States-general once had over all the great ope-
rations of the government; but for a great length
of time the Cortes have been assembled merely as
a matter of form; and the kings of Spain without
resorting to violent measures, or even positively
rejecting their intervention, have succeeded in
eluding it. They however still render them a
kind of ironical homage, when they promulgate
from the throne certain ordinances called Prag
malic, the titles of which import " that they
shall liaxe the same force as if published in the
assembly of \he Cortes." They are now no
longer assembled, except when a new king
ascends the throne, in order to take an oath of
allegiance to him in the name of the nation,
and to receive his in return. At such times let-
ters of convocation are sent to all the grandees
166 MODERN STATE
and to the titulos of Castile, to the prelates, and
to the cities (cindades) which have a right to %
seat in the Cortes. Of these four classes, the
two first represent the nobility; the prelates sit
on behalf of the clergy, and the cities, which de--
pute one of their magistrates, represent the com-
mons.
The Cortes were assembled for the last time in
1789, at the coronation of the present king.
They sat nearly three mouths, and the presi-
dent was count Campomanes, who received for
this purpose the* title of Governor of the Coun-
cil of Castile ; the functions of which he had
fulfilled for several years. The Cortes at that
time consisted of about one hundred members
at most ; for all the Spanish provinces did
not send deputies. Galicia has separate Cortes,
That portion of old Castile known by the name
of Mont anas de Sant Ander, is represented by
the city of Burgos, which disputes precedency
at the Cortes with Toledo. Navarre, the lord-
ship of Biscay and Guipuscoa have their own
Cortes, and these several provinces take the oath
of fidelity to the new sovereign by deputies sent
to court for the purpose.
This national assembly imperfect and incom-
plete as it is, was once animated with a sense
of its power, and was upon the point of ma-
nifesting it. Already were some intrepid ora-
tors prepared to express their grievances and to
OF SPAIN. 167
complain of some of the most intolerable abuses.
This might perhaps have been the signal for a re-
volution. The court foresaw it, as if from a presen-
timent of what was about to take place in France :
the Cortes were politely dismissed, and tfie mem-
bers retired quietly to their respective abodes.
With the exception of these convocations,
which have onlv occurred thrice in the last cen-
/
tury, and which are attended only with vain
ceremonies, and excite nothing but painful re-
collections of better times, the Cortes of the
whole monarchy have not been assembled since
1713, when Phi-lip V. convoked them in order
to ratify the Pragmatic Sanction, which changed
the order of succession to the throne.
This prince knew, that by virtue of a law, the
origin of which it would be perhaps as difficult
to point out as that of the pretended Salic law
in France, women succeeded to the throne of
Castile, when called to it by the proximity
of blood; and this kind of succession is known,
by the name of Castilian, or cogjwtic in op-
position to that called agnatw, and which
absolutely excludes females from the throne.
Philip V. being desirous in future to assimi-
late the order of succession in Spain with that
hereditary right to the tlirone under which he
was born, thought proper, notwithstanding his
predilection for despotism, to summon the Cortes
*e sanction this act of Jus will. He was in posses-
168
-
sion of immense power, ho conquered his king-
dom after a war of twelve yca.s; he saw the whole
of Spain unequally divideo* between loyal subjects
who could have no intention to resist him, and a
discontented people whom he wished to subdue:
but he trusted to the blind servility of the Cortes,
and he was not deceived. The Cortes recognized
the new order of succession, by which heic's male
were to inherit the throne to the exclusion of fe-
niales, whatever might be their degree of propin-
quity,, and which did not admit the t ight of females
except on the total failure of male issue belonging
to the reigning family. There is something, how-
ever, stronger even than the authority of absolute
monarchs: public opinion, and the indelible affec-
tion of a people to their ancient laws and customs.
The attachment to the old order of succession still
lives in the hearts of the greatest part of the peo-
ple of Spain, and it is probable, that should a
question at any time arise between this old order
of succession and the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713,
the decision would not be given in a quiet and
peaceable manner. Happily for Spain, however,
this event is far distant, since out of the six children
of the present king, three are males. During my
first residence in the country, there was a period at
which this delicate question began to be agitated.
The present king, then prince of Asturias, saw al-
most all his male children perish in the cradle, and
threatened with a progeny of females. Had
OF SPAIN. 169
Ills fears been realized, we should have seen the
eldest of the infantas called to the throne by
the old Castilian order of succession, while
the new order of 1713 would have seated upon
it one of the two brothers of the present king, or
one of their male descendants; and Europe would
have perhaps been deluged with blood in order
to decide the quarrel.
But let us now return to the Cortes and ob-
serve how little remains of their ancient authority.
They are still consulted in some cases when, for
example, it is proposed to grant letters of natu-
ralization to a foreigner: but in this case the
members correspond with each other in writing
without any regular assembly. There exists,
however, a feeble image of them in a body which
resides constantly at Madrid, by the name of Di-
putados de los Reyno.s, (deputies of the king-
dom). When the Cortes separated in 1713, it
was enacted that they should be represented by a
permanent committee, whose functions were to
superintend the administration of that part of the
revenue known by the name of millones. They
had formerly granted their consent to this impost
under Philip II. but upon conditions which
this monarch swore to observe, and the diputados
were appointed to watch over their fulfilment.
These deputies were also charged in the name
of the Cortes, with the application of the
millones. In 1718, cardinal Alberoni, whose
170 MODERN STATE
Jiaughty mind could brook no restraint, trans-
ferred these functions of the deputies into the
hands of the sovereign. From this period they
have had no concern with any of the revenues of
the state, excepting the small portion set apart for
the payment of their own salaries. They are eight
U7 number, and are chosen in the following manner.
It must be observed., that the division of Spain,
into kingdoms and provinces, as Galicia, the As-
turias, the kingdom of Leon, the kingdom of
Valencia, Andalusia, &c. &c. as laid down in
books of geography, and in maps printed in foreign
countries, are scarcely known in practice. Modern
Spain presents a medley, perhaps, more compli-
cated than France did before the Revolution.
The three provinces of Biscay, Navarre, un-
der the .title of kingdom, and the Asturias under
thatuf principality, form separate states, \vhich
have neither custom-houses, intendants, nor scarce-
ly any thing connected with the collection of taxes.
With respect to this branch of the administration,
the rest of the monarchy is divided into twenty-
two provinces for the crown of Castile and four
for the crown of Arragon. These twenty-six
provinces, which differ greatly from each other in.
point of extent, since the whole of Catalonia,
filming part of the kingdom of Airagon, is con-
sidered only as a single province, while some
other prouuce of the crown of Castile is per-
OF SPAIN. 171
haps only ten or twelve leagues in any of its di-'
mensions ; these twenty-six provinces, I say,
have each an intendant, and may be com-
pared with much propriety to our ancient gene-
ralships.
The twenty-two provinces of the crown of
Castile,, are the kingdom of Galicia, the provinces
of Burgos, Leon, Zamora, Salamanca, Estre-r
madura, Palencia, Valladolid, Segovia, Avila,
Toro, Toledo, LaMancha, Murcia, Guadalaxaia,
Cuenca, Soria, and Madrid ; lastly, Andalusia,
comprising four of these provinces still dignified
with the name of kingdoms, as in the time of the
Moors, viz. the kingdoms of Seville, Cordova,
Jaen, and Granada.
The four provinces of the crown of Arragon,
are the kingdom of Arragon, the kingdom of
Valencia, the principality of Catalonia, and the
kingdom of Majorca.
These are not the only divisions of Spain.
It is also separated into thirteen military govern-
ments, twelve of which have chiefs who take the
title of captains-general of the province. The
governor of Navarre, alone, has the title of
viceroy. Besides all these, Spain is divided into
dioceses, which have different limits from the
provinces, and into the jurisdictions of civil tri-
bunals, as will be afterwards explained.
f he chief of all these divisions, however, although
1~'2 MODEHN STATE
it does not include the whole of the monarchy, its
that which separates Spain into provinces of the
cruwn of Castile, and provinces of the crown
of Arrjigon; two great portions, differing froin
each other with respect to their interior adminis-
tration, and the form of levying the taxes. This
distinction is as ancient as the period when Cas-
tile and Arragon were united hy the marriage of
Isabella with Ferdinand the Catholic. It is ac-
cording to this general division that iliediputados
dc los rcynos, the feeble remains of the Cortes
are chosen. All the provinces of the crown of
Castile collectively nominate six; Catalonia and
Majorca one; and the kingdoms of Valencia and
Arragon name the eighth. The deputies sit for six
years only, when a new nomination takes place.
All that they enjoy of their primitive rights is,
that they are members of the Council of Fi-
nances, through which the sovereign makes
known to the nation the necessity of laying on
a new impost ; and the consent these deputies are
supposed to give to the royal resolution, is a sha-
dow of the consent of the Cortes, without which
formerly the taxes could not be increased. It is
obvious how feeble a barrier is opposed to the
pr xvcr of the crown in this handful of citizens,
\vithout personal dignity or consideration, who
are besides in expectation of advancement from
the ministry, and after all represent only a small
portion of the people.
OF SPAIN, 173
The provinces of Biscay and Navarre, which
have peculiar states and privileges, also on some
occasions send deputies to court, but they do not
form part of the Diputados de los Reynos, and
their constituents can fix as they please the term
and object of their temporary mission.
It will thus appear how little the authority of the
king of Spain is limited. The councils are the or-
gans of his pleasure, and the depositaries of the
laws emanating from him, by the agency of his
ministers ; and during the greatest part of last cen-
tury these have been the only persons whom he
lias deigned to consult. It is customary for him to
transact business with each of them individually.
In arduous circumstances he assembles them in
junta, in order to have the benefit of their joint opi-
nions. Previous to 1718, their influence had been
counterbalanced by the Council of State; at this
period, the ambitious Albcroni thought he could
rid himself of an inconvenient check. The Coun-
cil of State continued to be the most distinguished
body in the nation, but ceased to assemble. The of-
fice of Councillor of State, from that time became
only an honorary and lucrative situation, which
served as a recompence for long or eminent ser-
vices, and it was commonly conferred, in the
course of a few years, on those who had filled
offices in the administration.
But in the month of February, 1792, a few
days after my arrival at Aranjuez, count Florida
174 iVIODEHN STATE!
Blanca, who had long been on bad terms with the*
queen, and who had been so injudicious, or s6
hatigi.ty, as to neglect the young duke de la Alcu-
dia, whose influence with the royal pair was ra*
pidly increasing; Florida Blanca, whose thought*
less audacity precipitated his country into a war
without a motive or even a specious pretence,
having been suddenly disgraced, although in per-
fect security the evening before, was replaced by
M. d'Aranda, who was most unexpectedly re-
stored to favour, and appointed prime minister.
Although this nobleman was a most experienced
minister, he had not so much dependence upon
his own energies as to sustain alone the whole
weight of the administration at such an eventful
crisis, and he called in the asssistance of the
Council of State, of which he was immediately
appointed president. Notwithstanding these wise
precautions, M. d'Aranda was blamed for having
accepted the office of prime minister, and for having
relied upon the duration of an apparent favour,,
the instability of which he might have foreseen,
had he been acquainted with what was passing at
court. His friends thought he would have done
himself more honoui by a. noble refusal, than by
accepting a place, the lustre of which could not
add to his glory. His enemies, and his rivals, the
miuisteis of powers already secretly leagued
against France, for which he was supposed to
entertain a partiality, all prophesied his speedy
OF SPAIN. 175
^ to which they doubtless contributed.
Many are of opinion., and posterity will per-
haps think so too, that in order to preserve hi*
reputation, M. d'Aranda, ought to have done
himself justice, and not to have revealed, at the
age of seventy-three, the secret of his incapa-
city to all Europe. For my part, having
been near his person during the seven months
of bis ministry, I feel it incumbent upon me to
observe, Sthat while he preserved a dignity, some-
times bordering upon harshness, he employ-
ed both his time and exertions in removing the
scourge of war from his country: I cannot there-
fore concur in opinion with those who think that
this last scene of his political career -has lessened
his claims to public esteem.
Supplanted in the month of October, by the
duke de Ja Alcudia, under the pretext that his great
age rendered repose necessary, he supported the
mortification with the serenity of a philosopher.
He was suffered to retain the office of president
of the council of state, and he continued to exer-
cise its functions, until having declared his opin-
ion at one of its meetings with regard to tbe war
against France, with that rigid candour which
was peculiar to his character, and which his ex-
perience at least ought to have excused, he was
exiled to Jaen, a city of Andalusia, as the reward
of his zeal. On the restoration of peace the
king banished him for ever to the distance of
176 MODERN STATE
thirty leagues from the court and capital, and
thus gave him an opportunity of retiring to his
estates in Arragon, whore he died in 1802.
At present the Council of State is composed
of thirty-seven members, twelve of whom are
absent from Madrid for various reasons. Eleven
other distinguished individuals, who in general
are likewise absent, without forming part of the
council, enjoy its honours, as they are called ; but
these ure limite 1 to the mere title of Excellency.
The title of Councillor of State, now reduced
to a mere honorary distinction, even with those
who enjoy it in the fullest extent, is the highest
favour that can be granted by a king of Spain.
Personal merit, long services in the diplomatic or
other ministerial departments, were once the only
recommendations to this dignity; but within these
few years it has been conferred, as a matter of
course, upon the ministers of state. The Spanish
ministers are six in number :
1. The Minister for Foreign Affairs, was al-
ways considered as the Prime Minister ; he al-
ways bears the title of First Secretary of State.
2. The Minister at War, possesses but a limited
authority ; he presides, indeed, over the Council
of War, but it is rather a Court of Justice than
a Board of Administration; and the inspectors
of the infantry, the cavalry, the dragoons, and
the provincial militia severally manage the affairs
of the corps entrusted to their administration.
6F SPAIN. 177
The minister of war merely presents their re-
ports to the king.
3. The Minister of the Marine, has no coadju-
tors. He appoints the heads of the three depart-
ments of the marine, the inspectors of the navy,
subject to the approbation of the king. The regu-
lations for the naval department drawn up by
him have occasion only for the sanction of the
sovereign.
4. The Minister of Finance, ought, properly
speaking, to be under the controul of the superin-
tendant general of the finances, but the two of-
fices were some time ago united, their separation
having been found to impede the measures of go-
vernment, without producing any real advan-
tage. Charles III. had three ministers of
finance during his reign ; Squilaci, who was dis-
graced in consequence of some popular discon-
tents, was succeeded by Musquiz, and Lerena,
both of whom died in office, It is unnecessary
to mention that the financial department of Spain
was uniformly well conducted under these three
ministers ; but would they have derived any ad-
vantage from a superintendant ? The board of
finance appears but a feeble barrier against the
acts of the minister of this department. The
place of president, or governor, has long been
filled by this officer himself, and is at present held
by an uncle to the Prince of the Peace.
VOL.1. N
178 MODERN STATE
5. The Minister of the Indies had formerly the
most extensive department in the government un-
der his controul ; the whole civil, military, eccle-
siastical and financial government of Spanish
America was exclusively entrusted to him, and
most assuredly there never was a minister in the
political world whose influence was more power-
ful : the immense regions between the gulph of
California and the straits of Magellan acknow-
ledged his jurisdiction. Formerly the Council of
the Indies was the only check upon this minister,
but within these few years the presidency of the
council, and the place of minister of the Indies
have been held by the same person.
Charles IV. continued the council of the
Indies as it had existed since the conquest of
America, but he divided the office of minister of
the Indies among the five other ministers. The
greatest share in this distribution fell to the lot of
the Minister of Mercy and Justice.
6. The minister last mentioned, has always con-
ducted whatever relates to the magistracy and the
ecclesiastical affairs of Spain, and since the func-
tions of the minister of the Indies have been
transferred to several individuals, the Minister of
Mercy and Justice has superintended the magiste-
rial and ecclesiastical departments of South Ame-
rica also. His authority in Europe is circum-
scribed by the grand chamber of the council of
Castile, and the council of the Indies operates
OP Sf AIN. 179
as a check upon his administration of Spanish
America.
In 1796, there were only five ministers. The
department for foreign affairs was filled by Don
Manuel Godoy, who was created duke de la Al-
cudia, in 1792, and who, after putting an end to
the war, which he had certainly undertaken with
regret, received the appellation of Prince of the
Peace. I have enjoyed opportunities of observ-
ing him closely, and under various critical circum-
stances. I shall neither undertake to be his censor
nor his apologist, but merely observe, that there
are few examples in history of an exaltation so
rapid and so prodigious. By birth a plain
country gentleman of Estremadura, with a slen-
der patrimony, he is now one of the most opu-
lent nobles of Spain, and unites in his own per-
son, almost every dignity, and a great number of
honorary distinctions. He is invested with the
grand order of Charles III., of the Golden Fleece,
of St. Januarius, of St. Ferdinand, of Christ, and
of Malta. He is a grandee of Spain of the first
class ; he has the title of Prince, which no noble-
man of Spanish origin ever enjoyed before him; he
is prime minister, member of the council of state,
inspector and commandant of the four companies
of body guards, generalissimo of the armies by
land and by sea ; a rank created expressly for him,
and which gives him precedency over all the cap-
tains general ; and as the source of all these fa-
ISO MODERN STATE
Tours he is on terms of the most intimate friend-
ship with the king and queen. Finally, nature
concurring with fortune in lavishing upon him
whatever seems calculated to confer happiness,
has given him a handsome and elegant person,
and what is far superior,, a sound judgment, and
a capacity for business, which required only ex-
perience to make them transcendant.*
In 179,% the minister of the finances, was
Don Diego Gardoqui. From Bilboa, where he
had a commercial establishment, he was sent in
1781, as charge dcs affaires from Spain to the
United States. He was afterwards appointed
consul-g'eneral in England, and latterly called to-
the head of the financial department, upon the
death of Lerena. To succeed a minister, who
had rendered himself so odious, that his funeral
procession was interrupted by a burst of popular
indignation, was a fortunate introduction for M .
Gardoqui. It required some address, at least, to
enable him to retain his place amid the embar-
* In 1708, the French government conceiving that it had
reason to complain of him, exerted its influence to obtain
his removal from the office of minister for foreign affairs, but
without success. It was unable to shake his credit with
die royal pair, who have always been strongly attached to him.
His influence has even increased since that period, and without
possessing the title, he is at present the real prime minister and
invisible director of all the departments of administration. All
who have seen him of late years, even his enemies, acknow-
ledge that he has a quick perception, uncommon sagacity, and
an unusual turn for business.
OF SPAIN. 181
rassments in which he found his department, and
not a little courage to sustain the burden of the
war with France.
After having conducted for nearly six years,
with more good fortune, perhaps, than ability,
the vessel of finance through dangerous quick-
sands, he was appointed ambassador to Turin, and
was succeeded by M. de VarcSa, who was re-
cently promoted to the ministry of the marine,
but shewed himself better qualified for the eco-
nomical than for the military department.
Both these ministers being now dead, the finan-
cial department is at present managed by don
Miguel Cayetano Soler, who had been for several
years governor of the small island of Ivi^a, one
of the Baleares, and which he had enlivened by
establishments dictated by wisdom and spirit.
Upon his return, he was recommended to the
Prince of the Peace by Valkenaer, the Dutch
ambassador, a man of spirit, and capable of ap-
preciating merit in more departments than one.
The details he furnished on the subject of his
petty government, and the enthusiasm with which
he described the plans of amelioration he had
conceived, determined the Prince of the Peace to
exhibit his talents upon a more extensive theatre,
and he was promoted to the head of the financial
department. I know not, however, whether the
application of the following line to M. Soler,
be founded in envy or justice :
" Tel brille an second rang, qui s'cclipse au premier."
182 MODERN STATE
In 1792, the ministry of the marine was in the
hands of M. de Valdez, who since the death of
Castejon, had conducted it with wisdom and fide-
lit}*. The court and the nation could have wished
during the war with France, that he ha4 joined to
these qualities that degree of activity which cir-
cumstances required. Upon the return of peace,
he obtained leave to resign, which he had long so-
licited, and was succeeded by Don Pedro Varela,
who had acquired a considerable degree of expe-
rience in the administrative department of the
navy. He had several acts of negligence to repair;
and he proceeded at his outset with a circumspec-
tion bordering upon tardiness. His promotion
to the ministry of the marine did not meet the
approbation of all parties, and it soon pro-
duced discontents among the most distinguished
naval officers, which were dangerous at the com-
mencement of a maritime war. In short, it was
thought that he was better calculated for the de-
partment of the finances, and that of the navy was
given to admiral Don Juan de Langara, who, not-
withstanding the kind of disgrace which he had
incurred in consequence of the check * received
by a Spanish squadron under his command in
1780, had acquired the general esteem of the na-
tion for his talents and loyalty. At that time he
* This cJieck, as it is termed by the author, with the charac-
teristic modesty of his nation, was attended with the capture
and destruction of seven Spanish ships of the line by the immor-
tal Rodney. (Translator.)
OF SPAIN. 183
commanded the Cadiz squadron ; he did not long
retain the ministry although called to it by the
public. He is at present captain-general of the
navy, and counsellor of state; he lives at Madrid
in tranquillity, and respected as he deserves.*
Upon his retiring from office, the situation
vtas held ad interim by Don Joseph Antonio Ca-
ballero ; but at the beginning of 1802, an admi-
ral, high in the public estimation, Don Domingo
Granddlana, was appointed to the ministry of
the marine. From him it was transferred in
1805 to Don Francisco Gil de Lemos, an experir
enced general officer of the navy, and whose
Dame was celebrated in the preceding wars.f
The office of minister of war, upon the death
of Lerena, was entrusted to the Count de Campo
Alange, who held it until the conclusion of the
peace with France ; he was then appointed am-
bassador to Vienna, and some years afterwards
to Portugal. His immediate successor, as mi-
nister at war, was Don Miguel Joseph de Asanza,
a soldier of distinguished merit, who, after hav
ing been employed in foreign negotiations, had
filled the place of intendant of Valencia with
general approbation. Soon afterwards he made
* Since the above was written Langara's death has been an-
nounced by the public prints. (Translator.)
f His predecessor, M. de Grandellana, was sent to FerroJ
as comptroller of the navy in that port.
184 MOpERN STATE
room for Don Juan Manuel Alvares, uncle to
the Prince of the Peace, in consequence of be-
ing sent as viceroy to Mexico on a difficult
emergency, but not above the reach of his talents.
A kind of fatality, however, rapidly removed him,
from this new destination, and he now lives at
Madrid in retirement, but not in disgrace. He
has lately been mentioned as likely to be appoint-
ed to some important missions.
The \var department did not long continue
under the controul of Don Juan Manuel Alvares ;
his successor, ad interim, was the same Don
Joseph Antonio Caballero, who already held thq
departments of mercy and justice, and of the
marine. Thus, for some time, he had the
most business to transact of any minister in Eu-^
rope, and he would have been the ablest also, if
his talents had been equal to this prodigious task.
The ministry of mercy and justice, which in
1792 I found iu the hands of a priest, Don Pedro
d'Acuna, a friend of the duke de la Alcudia,
was afterwards transferred to Don Eugenia de
Llaguno, an enlightened and modest man, whom
I had long known at the head of the office for
foreign affairs, and who was placed near the per-
son of the duke de la Alcudia to assist him with his
experience, when that young nobleman was ra-
ther prematurely promoted to the administration
ofthatdepartment. <M. JLlagunodid not long retain
the ministry of mercy and justice, which perhaps
OF SPAIN. 185
required a more active man : he retired as a
counsellor of state to enjoy the otium cum digni-
tate and died soon afterwards.
His immediate successor is one of the most en-
lightened Spaniards I ever knew ; this was Don
Caspar Melcliior de Jovellanos, one of those
whom I had mentioned at the conclusion of my
second edition, as a man of merit who languished
in obscurity. It has been said that he disappoint-
ed the expectations formed of him : he has been
accnsed of attacking with more boldness than
dexterity certain inveterate abuses, and parti-
cularly those of a description which will be long
formidable in Spain. Be this as it may, the
dismissal of M. de Jovellanos quickly followed
his attempts at reformation ; and his disgrace was
as rapid as the justice done him had been slow.
He was at first exiled to his own province
(the Asturias), where he cultivated literature
and the useful sciences. New charges pur*-
sued him to his retreat, and he was soon after-
wards immured in a convent in the island of
Majorca.
He was succeeded by the same Don Joseph
Antonio Caballero, so often mentioned, and who
then filled three important situations of the ad-
ministration, that of mercy and justice, of war,
ad interim, and that of the marine, the functions
of which he discharged until the appointineut of
Admiral GrandeUana.
186 MODERN STATE
At this moment (1805) there are four minis-
ters in Spain : Don Pedro Croallos, for foreign
affairs ; Don Miguel Cayetano Soler, for the fi-
nances ; Don Joseph Antonio Caballero, for the
department of mercy and justice, arid for that
of war ; and Don Francisco Gil de Lemos, for the
marine.
The stability of the ministry was one of the
most remarkable circumstances of the reign of
Charles the Third. When this prince once
granted his confidence, neither incapacity nor
want of success could induce him to withdraw it.
His ministers were almost certain of dying in
office, and this security so valuable in several
respects, was by no means a stimulus to their ac-
tivity. If it allowed them scope to put into ex-
ecution the plans they conceived, it enabled them
also to commit peculations with impunity, and
afforded time for abuses to take deep root. May
they not however have fallen into the opposite
extreme in the present reign ? The office of
prime minister passed into three different hands
in the year 1792 alone; and it was with three
successive ministers of different characters and
opinions that I had to conduct the most intricate
negotiations.
Five years afterwards the ministry of foreign
affairs was given to Don Francisco Saavedra.,
who was called to it by the voice of the public,
OF SPAIN. 187
and who had my good wishes also. Bad health
was the real or affected cause of his speedy re-
tirement, and he was succeeded by Don Louis
Mariano de Urquijo, a young man who., after
having displayed some talents at foreign courts
in the diplomatic career, was appointed to direct
the officefor foreign affairs. Hewasin great favour
at the time of his appointment, but he appears to
have abused it : his imprudence was punished by a
mortifying disgrace. He was at first confined in
the castle of Pampeluna, and afterwards obtained
permission to retire into Biscay; but upon the
occasion of some disturbances which broke out
in that province in 1804, he was ordered into
confinement at Burgos.
The office he had held was ultimately conferred
upon Don Pedro Cevattos, descended from an
ancient family of Old Castile. After having
prepared himself by study at Valladolid for an
official department, he was sent as secretary of
legation to Lisbon. Upon his return to Madrid
he married a relation of the Prince of the Peace,
and was afterwads appointed minister plenipo-
tentiary at Naples, but some differences between
the two courts prevented him from proceeding to
execute his functions. So far as we have hither-
to been enabled to judge of this minister, hi*
modesty and prudence seem to form a striking
contrast with the conduct of his predecessor. We
188 MODERN STATE
cannot, however, refrain from observing that in
less than four years of the reign of Charles the
Fourth there have been six ministers for foreign
affairs, while his father had only three in the
space of twenty-nine years, two of whom, M.
Wall and M. de Grimaldi, retired of their own
accord, and the third survived him.
Under the present reign, the other departments
of the administration have undergone less fre-
quent changes.
The Spanish ministers have more leisure al-
lowed them for business than those of any other
court. Nothing can exceed the regularity in
which they pass their lives, riding or walking
being their only recreation. While seated in
their cabinets their views extend to the extre-
mities of the globe ; when they come abroad you
would suppose that their sphere did not exceed
half a league in diameter. Their chief society
consists of their clerks, who constantly dine
at the same table. This reciprocal constraint
has its inconveniences, but it produces a closer
union between the head of the department and
his subalterns, and more regularity in the dis-
patch of business. Those, however, who conduct
official business under the eye of the minister arc
not mere clerks, they may rather be compar-
ed with the principal secretaries in the offices
of our government. Before a person can b
OF SPAIN. 189
nominated to these places he must have pre-
viously displayed talents in some other con-
fidential situation. In the office for foreign af
affairs, for instance, almost all the principal se-
cretaries have been attached as such to some
diplomatic mission, and from the foreign office
they frequently are promoted to the situations of
plenipotentiaries or ambassadors. There are at this
moment six of this description, who are the re-
presentatives of the Spanish court with foreign
powers, a remarkable circumstance in a despotic
monarchy, where it has generally been suppos-
ed that all places are procured by intrigue or
favour, and which may, in this respect, serve as a
model to more than one free government.
I have frequently met with an appearance
of distance and incivility in the Spanish offices,
but this frequently disguises the most oblig-
ing dispositions : they are accessible at all
times to equity and justice, and whatever may
be said to the contrary, I have reason to be-
lieve that corruption is as rare in them as dis-
cretion is common.
I may also add, that there are few countries
where the agents of government, with some ex
ceptions, better deserve the confidence of their
fuperiors, or have a stronger claim to the
esteem of those with whom they have busi
ness to transact. They are not all equally con-
190 MODERN STATE
descending and easy of access ; their decisions
are seldom hastily given, but examples are
tcarcely to he found where they have acted from
malevolence, or have been inaccessible to rea-
son.
OF SPAIN.
CHAP. VI.
Diversions of the Spanish Coiirt. Gallery of
pictures. Looking-glass manufactory. Hunting
parties. Convent of Paular.
IN the article of diversions, the residences of
the Spanish court (Sitios) afford a very scanty
supply. There are no theatrical amusement?,
no public games, no grand assemblies, except
on gala days; they are also peopled only by re-
tainers of the; court, whose attendance is requir-
ed by their official situations, except during the
gay season of the royal excursions to Afanjuez.
The palace of St. Ildefonso is almost entirely
desolate ; and the society of the royal person-
ages is chiefly confined to the circle of thoir do-
mestic officers. During that period when the
queen was princess of Asturias, she passed the
whole of her time, with the exception of a few
hours alloted for excursions abroad, in the in-
terior of the palace, where she enjoyed no other
amusement than conversation, which she knew
how to enliven ; and music, of which she was
passionately fond. Her consort never once quit-
192 MODERN STATE
led her apartment except to accompany his
royal father to the chace, which frequently oc-
curred twice a day. Since their accession to
the throne, no material change has taken
place in the dull uniformity of their lives. They
have only relaxed, in some measure, the severe
discipline of etiquette. Sometimes they conde-
scend to honour the entertainments given hy the
Spanish grandees with their presence; but they
seldom or never repair to any public spectacle,
not even to the bull fights. During his father's
life-time, the king was a patron of the fine arts,
'having made a choice collection of good pictures
by different masters, besides one of the most
costly and superb galleries in Europe, which
was bequeathed to him as a legacy. It is assert-
ed that this Spanish treasury of the fine arts is
second to none except those of France and of the
Elector of Bavaria. It is chiefly deposited in the
Escurial and and at Madrid. Many pictures
were formerly to be found in the palace of St.
Ildefonso, but recently the palace at Madrid and
Aranjuez have been enriched w r ith its spoils.
Enough, however, are remaining to arrest the
curiosity of an amateur for a few hours.
In the first antichamber adjoining to the royal
apartments } r ou traverse a sort of historical
gallery, where you behold a superb portrait of
Louis XIV. by Rigaud, one of Louis XV. in
his infancy, another of the regent duke de Ven-
OF SPAIN.
dome, those of the last duke of Parma of the
house of Farnese, and of his consort, the por-
trait of Charles III. at the period of his depar-
ture for Naples to take possession of that king-
dom, of Philip V. on his arrival in Spain, and
of his rival the Archduke. The chamber ad-
joining affords a perspective of the finest cas-
cade in the gardens ; it is ornamented with se-
veral pictures by Murillo, by Solimena, &c. In
the adjoining apartments, you behold a fine St.
Sebastian by Guido, a Flemish family by Rubens,
a picture by Poussin, two heads by Mengs, the
portraits df the great Conde and Turenne, upon
the same canvas, by Vandyke, &c.
In a gallery which occupies the whole front
towards the gardens, there are many fine pictures,
and two fine heads in Mosaic, besides a con-
siderable number of antiques, most of which
were purchased in Italy by Philip V., and for-
merly made part of the cabinet of queen Chris-
tina. The most worthy of attention are a cylin-
drical altar, on which the procession of Silenus
is engraven in basso relievo ; a colossal Cleo-
patra; a statue of Jupiter tonans ; several Ve-
riuses, as large as life ; eight muses, somewhat
mutilated, in which the unskilful hands of some
moderns have attempted to repair the ravages of
time, and whose draperies are remarkably deli-
cate. There are likewise two groups, which
have modestly taken up their station in a corner,
VOL. I. O
MODERN STATE
hring indelicate allusions in mythology; and also-
two of the illicit amours of Jupiter, a Leda, and
a Ganymede,, caressing without any mistrust the
lascivious birds whose figure the god had assum-
ed. But the relics of antiquity which more
especially challenge the admiration of a connois-
seur, are the young faun carrying a kid,, and the
group of Castor and Pollux, two original master-
pieces, in a state of perfect preservation, copies
of which are every whereto be found by the side of
the Venus deMedicis. and of the ApolloBelvidere*
One of the apartments of the gallery which we
traversed is a spacious hall, where the finest
marbles of Spain seem to vie with those produc-
tions which antiquity has transmitted to us; but
notwithstanding their modern splendor, they
only serve as a foil to render the superiority of
the latter still more manifest. A small corridor
adjoining to this gallery contains a confused as-
semblage of curiosities, which the gallery w r as
not capacious enough to contain. Here you be-
hold Egyptian statues, fragments of columns,
bas-reliefs, busts, and other antiques, moulder-
ing in the dust, consigned a prey to insects, and
whatever accelerates the ravages ef time.
In the environs of the palace of St. Ildefonso,
the activity of the monarch has been very con-
spicuous, since the year 1781, in making im-
provements and decorations. The count de Flo-
rida Blanca, a mau eminent for his benevolence
OF SPAIN. , 193
and knowledge,, was much concerned to behold
a number of women and children wandering
about the district of St. Ildefonso, without any
regular occupation, and a nuisance to society.
In order to furnish them with employment, he
instantly conceived a plan for establishing a linen
manufactory. In the early part of 1781 no ves-
tiges of this manufactory were visible; but since
the summer of 1783 (an instance of dispatch un-
heard of in Spain ! ) there were upwards of twenty
looms employed, and two great machines for
pressing and washing the linen. An able manu-
facturer, who had the direction of a considerable
establishment at Leon, was invited to St. Ilde-
fonso, since which time the manufactory has ad-
vanced rapidly towards perfection.
Near this rising manufactory for articles of ne-
cessity, there is one of luxury, begun' in the
reign of Philip V. This is a manufactory of
looking-glasses, the only one of the kind in Spain.
It was at first only a common glass manufactory,
which still exists, and produces tolerably good
bottles, and white glass, which is there cut ex-
tremely well. This was merely a prelude to a
more splendid undertaking. The manufactory
of looking-glasses at St. Ildcfonso is one of the
first establishments in its kind. It was begun in
1728 by a native of Catalonia, and was brought
to higher perfection in the reign of Ferdinand
VI. by Sivert, a Frenchman. For more than
*
MODERN STATE
thirty years past looking-glasses of all dimen-
sions have been run here ; they are perhaps-
inferior in whiteness and polish to those of Ve
nice and St. Gobin, but no country, till lately,
ever produced any of such magnitude. In 1782
I saw one cast which was one hundred and thirty
inches by sixty-five. The enormous plate of brass
destined for the reception of the liquid matter
weighs nineteen thousand eight hundred pounds,
and the cylindrical roller superadded to this, to
dilate and smoothen the same, weighs twelve
hundred. In the spacious and elegant building
appropriated to this operation, of which the
whole process is worthy of an accurate detail^
there are two other plates of a size somewhat in-
ferior, and twenty ovens into which the glasses^
still red-hot, are conveyed, where they remain
hermetically inclosed for the space of fifteen ta
twenty- five days, until they gradually cool. All
those that are cracked, or have any imperfections,
are cut for looking-glasses, for panes of windows,
or glasses for carriages. The maintenance of this
establishment is attended with a very great ex-
pence to the king. I have calculated, that if
we would form a just estimate of the cost of the
large glasses which are in a sound and perfect
condition, making allowances for the general ex-
pences of the establishment, and the average
losses, there are some which would come to up-
wards of 160,000 reak
OF SPAIN. 197
In a long gallery adjoining to the manufactory
they are ground, by a manual operation, \vhich
consists in rubbing them against each other, put-
ting between them water and sand, more or less
fine, according to the progress of the operation.
The upper plate of glass, which is ia a state of
perpetual motion, whilst that underneath remains
immoveable, is much sooner ground, insomuch
that five of the former are reduced to a requisite
thickness before one of the lower glasses. This
is a tedious and monotonous process, for one
single glass frequently furnishes one workman
with employment for the space of two months.
When they are sufficiently ground on both
sides, eight or ten days are employed in polishing
the glasses on both sides also, in the following
manner : when they are of a first rate size this
is performed by the hand in the same workshop ;
Those of a middling size are conveyed to a ma-
chine, in which thirty polishers are set in motion
by water ; they are a kind of square boxes placed
perpendicularly over the glass, and covered un-
derneath with a smooth felt, containing internally
a plate of lead, and impelled in a horizontal di-
rection by a wooden handle which is attached to
them. The glass is first rubbed by the hand with
emery, which is furnished by a quarry in the
vicinity of Toledo. This emery is divided into
three sorts ; the coarsest is first used, then the
middling sort, and lastly the finest; after this
198 MODERN STATE
the glass is covered with a reddish earth (alma-
gro} and placed under the polishing machine.
An experiment was made to introduce mecha-
nical powers as a substitute for manual labour
in grinding the glass. For this purpose, ma-
chines were conveyed from France to St. llde-
fonso ; but the directors of the establishment per-
ceiving that this method,, although more expen-
sive, was not much more expeditious than the
old one, abandoned it altogether.
The glasses being ground and polished by this
process, are finally conveyed to Madrid to be cut.
The king keeps the finest to decorate his apart-
ments ; of others he makes presents to the courts
most intimately connected with that of Spain. In
1782 Charles III. sent to Naples some of them,
which measured one hundred and thirteen inches
by fifty-four. Some time afterwards, he added
fifteen of the same dimensions to other presents
which he sent to the Ottoman Porte.
The produce of the manufactory at St. Ilde-
fonso is sold for the king's account at Madrid and
in the provinces. In vain, in order to insure a
sale for the produce of this manufactory, has he
prohibited the importation of foreign glasses of
every description, within the distance of twenty
leagues. But we may easily suppose that the
profits he derives from his splendid manufactory
are far from being adequate to the expences of
such a considerable establishment, which, with
OF SPAIN. 199
the exception of wood,* is so far from the raw
materials which it consumes, being in the inte-
rior of the country,, in the midst of mountains, at
a great distance from canals and navigable rivers ;
consequently it may be regarded as one of those
ruinous whims of princes, which, while they add
to the splendor of the sovereign, impoverish the
subject.
Within a quarter of a league of this palace
runs a little river, the Eresma, which afforded
Charles III. one of his favourite diversions, that
of fishing. Having found its banks rugged and
winding, he caused them to be levelled and pav-
ed ; in some places, where the nature of the
ground appeared to require it, steps of stone
or turf are introduced. This large rivulet is
immured between two ridges of rocks, piled
above each other in the most romantic manner.
Its limpid waters sometimes dash with hoarse
murmurs against the rocks, and sometimes fall
in gentle cascades, or form small basins for trout,
which are very plentiful here. In some parts,
little meadows intervene between the river and
the plantations of holm-oaks, with which this
* They are, however, obliged to go every year to a greater
distance in quest of wood 3 and although it is procured in fo-
rests belonging to his majesty, the carriage of each cart-load-
costs from forty-four to fifty-four reals ; and the manufactory
of St. lldefonso consumes annually two hundred thousand cart-
loads.
200 MODERN STATE
district abounds. In others, tufted shrubs are
seen upon the tops of the rocks, or overhang their
sides.
During the reign of Charles III. the court
was accustomed once a year to affright the peace-
ful naiads of the Eresma with the tumult of a
general deer-hunting. The rendezvous was
about a league from the palace. Some days pre-
vious to this diversion, a number of peasants
stationed in the woods and upon the neighbour-
ing hills, drove before them the game, with which
they abounded. The enclosure in which the deer
were confined was contracted by degrees until the
time for the diversion arrived. It was a trulj
amusing spectacle to behold the deer running
along in small herds on ail sides, then suddenly
retreating again, when they beheld the danger
which awaited them ; then facing about and
endeavouring to brave the running fire of mus~
quetry ; but being seized with a sudden panic,
and baffled in all their attempts, at length rushing
into the fatal defile, where the king arid the in-
fants were planted in ambush. Their agility then
became their only resource. Out of several thou-
sands which crowded into this defile, about one
hundred generally fell victims to their temerity :
some dropped down dead upon the spot, others
mortally wounded fled to the thickets to expire
under thviii shelter. Their bodies, yet palpitating,
were brought forward, and laid in rows upon the
OF SPAIN. 201
field of battle. With a cruel sort of self-com-
placency, which would make a philosopher blush,
but is very excusable in sportsmen,, they were
counted over and over again. The whole court
and foreign ambassadors took part in this diver-
sion, which was repeated towards the conclusion
of every visit to the Escurial. In 1782, the king
gave one of these chaccs in honour of the count
d'Artois and the duke de Bourbon, on their re-
turn from Gibraltar. Possibly they might have
desired a less easy victory, being accustomed to
run down these timid animals, but not to slaugh-
ter them in cold blood ; but the forests at Com-
piegne and Fontainebleau had never afforded
them such a magnificent spectacle of fleet herds,
filing off by thousands before them.
Under his present majesty these diversions
have not been periodical as formerly, but are be-
come much more frequent, their professed object
being to destroy those numerous herds of deer
which infest the country adjacent to the royal
domains. In the very first year of his reign,
Charles IV. destroyed above two thousand of
these animals, by decoying them within the range
of batteries charged with grape-shot, and I ob-
served in 1793 and 1793 that this salutary plan
had been effectually executed in the environs of
his palaces.
There is likewise another district in the vicinity
of St. Ildefonso, whither the late king of Spain
202 MODERN STATE
used once a year to carry those alarms which ac-
company the noisy pleasures of sportsmen, I
mean the environs of Paular, a monastery of
Carthusians, situate at the foot and on the op-
posite side of those steep mountains which over-
look the palace of St. Ildefonso. Paular, one of
the most wealthy convents in Spain, famous for
its fine wool, stands in a delightful valley, ir-
rigated hy a large rivulet, which gently glides
through groves and vast meadows. This stream
drives a paper-mill, the noise of which, is the
only sound that interrupts the solemn tranquillity
of the district. A Frenchman superintends this
manufactory for the benefit of the Carthusians,
and in this remote corner seems to have forgot-
ten both his country and his native language.
There is nothing remarkable in the Carthusian
monastery of Paular, except a large cloister, in
which Vincent Carducho, a celebrated Spanish
painter, has delineated the principal events in
the life of St. Bruno.
I cannot conclude my observations on St. Ilde-_
fonso, without taking notice of the palace of
Riofrio, .which is three leagues distant from it.
Charles III. visited this place once a year in order
to amuse himself with the diversion of hunting,
in his own way, that is, without stirring, the
herds of deer which peaceably wandered all the
rest of the year in the adjacent woods. The
palace of Riofrio is situated in a sandy desert, on
OF SPAIN. 203
which account the strange predilection of Queen
Isabella for this place appears absolutely incom-
prehensible. She was the founder of this palace,
where she intended to pass the remainder of her
days. That it might recal to her memory the new
palace at Madrid, in which neither she nor her
husband had the good fortune to reside even one
single day, she caused it to be built upon the
same plan, but on a smaller scale. The acces-
sion of her son Charles III. caused her to relinquish
her scheme of retirement, and before it was
finished, the palace of Riofrio was abandoned
for ever.
204 MODERN STATE
CHAPTER VII.
Monastery of the Escurial. Pictures. Pantheon.
Environs of the Escurial.
LET us now quit St. Ildefonso and prosecute
our journey towards the Escurial. About three
quarters of a league from St. Ildefonso, you cross
the Eresma by a stone bridge, and arrive at Bal-
sain, a village situated in a hollow,, surrounded
by thick woods. The Spanish monarchs had for-
merly a hunting seat here, \vhich was visited oc-
casionally by Philip V., and where he first con-
ceived the idea of building the palace of St. llde-
fouso in this wild country, which was congenial
with his taste for solitude and hunting. The
French ambassador resided at this old castle be-
fore the king built a house for his accommodation
in the village of St. Ildefonso.
On quitting this place, you ascend for two
leagues the rugged declivity of those lofty moun-
tains which separate the two Castiles. The road
is shaded by large pines, whose tops are fre-
quently lost in the fogs which rise from the bo-
som of the deep valleys. As you approach the
summit of the mountains, the atmosphere becomes
OF SPAIN. 205
gradually more bleak, and when you are at length
arrived at the height of the seven cliffs (los siete
picos), which, when viewed from St. Ildefonso,
have the appearance of an immense battlement,
another splendid scene attracts the eye of the de-
lighted traveller. He expatiates over the wide
plains of New Castile, and discerns Madrid con-
siderably within the bounds of the horizon which
bewilders his sight. It is a different country, a
different soil, another climate. Often leaving
behind him dense clouds, to which the mountains
seem to serve as boundaries, he passes all at once
into a serener atmosphere. He now prosecutes
his journey along a road which was formerly in
many places an abrupt declivity, but since 1785
has been made more level, and then drops, rather
than descends, from this magnificent Belvidere,
and having traversed the space of two leagues,
he arrives at the town of Guadarrama, through
which passes the great road from Paris to Ma-
drid. This road he crosses on his way to the
Escurial, where the court passes the latter part
of the season.
This famous nonastery is situate about mid-
way of the ascent of the chain of mountains which
boundOldCastile. (See PI. IV. ) The choice which
Philip II. made of this sandy and rugged situa-
tion coincides with the savage, morose character
which history ascribes to that prince. We must,
however, pay some deference to the memory of
206 MODERN STATE
this monarch on our approach towards this royal
convent, where he is styled our holy founder,
where his ashes repose and his image frequently
recurs. It is well known that the foundation of
the Escurial was in consequence of a vow he
made on the day of the battle of St. Quentin, at
which, however, he was not present. It is also
known that he consecrated it to St. Lawrence,
as it happened to be the day of that saint. In
Spanish it likewise bears the appellation of San
Lorenzo, and every object in the Escurial re-
minds you of the instrument of his martyrdom.
You not only behold it on the doors, windows,
altars, rituals, and sacerdotal robes, but the very
edifice of the Escurial has likewise borrowed its
figure. It is a quadrangular building, with the
principal front to the west, behind which is a
mountain ; the opposite side, which faces Ma-
drid, forms the shortened handle of a gridiron re-*
versed, and the four feet are represented by the
spires of four little square towers, which rise at
the four angles.
I do not pretend, with the Abbe de Vayrac
and Colmeuar, to present an exaggerated esti-
mate of all the doors, windows, courts, &c. of
this celebrated convent. Such a prodigious pile
has unquestionably a very imposing air, but it
by no means conies up to those ideas which its
reputation might suggest. The architecture is
oot splendid ; it has rather the grave simplicity
OF SPAIN.
suitable to a convent than the magnificence
of a royal mansion. The west front is the
only part which has an elegant portico, con-
sisting of massy columns of the Doric order,
half sunk into the wall, and on each side is a.
large door of noble dimensions. Through this
portico, you pass into a square court, at the bot-
tom of which is a church. This principal entry
is never thrown open to the Spanish monarchs or
the princes of the blood, except on two solemn
occasions : one of these is, when they are carried
to the Escurial after their birth ; and the other,
when their remains are carried out to be deposit-
ed in the vault which awaits them; a striking
emblem of the gates of life and those of eternity.
On this side the door of the church is ornamented
with a fine colonnade, which is crowned with
colossal statues of six kings of Israel, which are
poised, as it were, upon slight pedestals. These-
six kings all had a share in the construction or
renovation of the temple at Jerusalem, as we
learn from the inscriptions engraven upon the
base of their statues. The two in the middle are
David and Solomon, to whom the sculptor has
endeavoured to impart the likeness of Charles V.
and Philip II. his son, so ingenious is flattery,
in all ages, in accommodating features to its own
purposes.
The south front is entirely destitute of or-
naments, but there are nearly three hundred
208 MODERN STATE
windows in the four stories, reckoning the sub-
basement, which the inequality of the ground
rendered necessary on this side. The two prin-
cipal doors which form the common entrance
are in the opposite front. The whole edifice is
of hewn stone, being a species of bastard granite>
embrowned by time, which gives an air of solem-
nity to this monument of architecture.
The quarry from which it was extracted is in the
vicinity of the Escurial, and this circumstance
is said to have been one of the motives for
choosing this situation. It furnished blocks of
such dimensions, that three stones were sufficient
to form (he cases of the largest doors, and every
step of the principal staircase is composed of no
more than one of them.
M hen the court does not reside at the Escu-
rial, it is merely a prodigious convent, inhabited
by nearly two hundred Jeronymites. On the ar-
rival of the court this convent is metamorphosed
into a palace. The monks are obliged to take up
their residence in the apartments on the south and
west side, and the principal cells are reserved for
the use of the royal family and their suite. The
monarch has his apartment in the confined space
which forms the handle of the gridiron.
Philip II. seems to have chosen this as a pla e
of retirement, where the majesty of the sovereign
might repose under the shade oiLaltars, and be-
come familar with the image of the grave ; and
OF SPAIN. 209
his successors, imitating his humility, are con-
tent with this modest residence. It communi-
cates by a staircase with the church and sacristy,
where all the arts have concurred to display their
magnificence.
The church is in the form of a Grecian cross,
surmounted with a dome. The whole building
rests upon pillars, perhaps somewhattoo unwieldy,
in the substance of which altars have been form-
ed. Its architecture is simple but majestic. On
the vaulted ceiling of the dome, the magic pen-
cil of Luca Giordano has painted in fresco se-
veral subjects from holy writ, and some sa-
cred allegories. The high altar, to which you
ascend by a flight of twenty steps, contains three
different orders of architecture, ranged one above
another, in the form of a truncated pyramid ; no
ex pence has been spared in its decoration. Rich-
ness and elegance are united in the tabernacle.
Its columns are of the most costly marble ; the
intermediate spaces are enriched with paintings
by Lucas Cambiaso and Pellegrino Tibaldi.
Yet the whole has something diminutive in its
appearance, which forms a contrast with the
majesty of the edifice. On the contrary, the
two monuments erected here, are really beauti-
ful ; they perfectly correspond with the first
order, .which consists of fluted Doric Columns.
On one side is that of Charles V., on the other
that of Philip II. These two inonarchs are re-
VOL. I. F
210 MODERN STATE
presented in the attitude of kneeling and paying
their ohcisance to the King of kings. They
occupy the fore part of a sort of chamber, which
opens towards the altar, and is lined in the inside
with hlack marble. These two monuments com-r
bine at once the properties of magnificence and
solemnity. On beholding them, a species of re-
ligious awe insensibly steals upon you, suggest-
ing to you the vanity of worldly greatness, and
the abyss in which it is sooner or later over-
whelmed. These reflections have still greater
weight, when applied to two monarchs, who
during their lifetime harassed the universe with
projects of ambition, and are now consigned to
everlasting repose, by the only law whose man-
dates they could not disobey.
The two altars adjoining to the high altar, are
those of the Annunciation and St. Jerome, which
have beauties of a different kind, which can be
relished only by devotees and goldsmiths. Two
large doors, upon which are two indifferent paint-
ings by Lucas Cambiaso, expose to the dazzled
eye an immense quantity of relics, preserved in
cases of silver and vermilion, and enriched with
precious stones. You are likewise shewn a large
St. Lawrence of solid silver, on the bosom pf
which are some of the spoils of that martyr,
which his disciples doubtless saved from the
flames.
The church likewise contains some good
OF SPAIN. 11
paintings by artists of the second order; but in
the two sacristies, the chef d'oeuvres of painting
are crowded together in such profusion as to
fatigue the admiring eyes of connoisseurs. In
the first, which is not well lighted, there are
three by Paul Veronese,, one by Titian, two by
Tintoret, one by Rubens, and one by Spagno-
letto. The principal sacristy contains a much
greater number, and would alone suffice to give
the Escurial the reputation which it enjoys. I
shall only mention such paintings as attract the
attention of spectators less accustomed to judge
of the productions of art. The most striking of
all is the painting of the altar by Claude Coello,
a Portuguese ; it represents a scene which took
place in this same sacristy. Charles II., accom-
panied by the nobles of his court, is represented
kneeling before the Holy Sacrament which is
held by the prior of the monastery ; he comes to
make reparation for the profanation of a host,
mangled by impious hands, and avenged by a
miracle. Unquestionably there are better paint-
ings in the Escurial, but there is not one which
makes a deeper impression on vulgar minds.
True connoisseurs, and those who have a predi-
lection for great names, will give a preference to
a fine Virgin by Guido, to two pieces by Van-
dyke, one the Woman taken in Adultery, the
other St. Jerome naked to the middle, and writ-
212 MODERN STATE
ing as from the dictation of an Angel, whose
freshness of complexion produces the most agree-
able contrast \vith the sallow hue of the aged
viiut.
There is a very large painting by Tintoret, in
which the artist has given full scope to the ec-
centricity of his imagination, in representing
the Lord's Supper. There are likewise an Assump-
tion by Annibal Caracci ; several paintings by
Titian, among which two are conspicuous, one
representing St. Sebastian as large as life ; the
other, Jesus Christ interrogated by a doctor of
the law ; three by Raphael, one called the
Pearl, on account of its superior excellence, re-
presents a Holy Family, in which there is a
grace, a justness of expression, and a correctness
of design peculiar to this great master ; and a
Visitation, in which the modesty of the Virgin,
and her embarrassment on appearing before Eli-
zabeth, with the unexpected and evident symp-
toms of her pregnancy, are most admirably de-
picted.
Artists of inferior note have likewise furnished
contributions towards the decoration of this sa-
cristy. We shall only mention two : the Cheva-
lier Maxirne and Romanelli. The first has ex-
hibited the beauty of Guido's forms in a painting,
where Jesus Christ holds a disputation with the
Priests ; and another by Romanelli, representing
OF SPAIN. 213
the Virgin in a sitting attitude,, caressed by the
infant Jesus and John the Baptist, possesses all
the suavity and grace of Albano's pencil.
It may be imagined, without being expressly
mentioned, that this sacristy contains, in huge
drawers, the most costly sacerdotal ornaments,
chandeliers, sacred vessels, &c. which evince the
magnificence rather than the piety of the Spa-
nish monarchs.
The same may be said concerning the Pan-
theon, their sepulchre, to which you descend by
a door, in the passage conducting from the
church to the sacristy. The staircase leading
into the Pantheon is entirely covered with mar-
ble, as r is also that building itself. It is divided
into several chambers, each of which is appro-
priated to some particular purpose. One is
called Podr icier o, or the place of putrefaction.
Here the bodies of kings and their families
are consigned to the first ravages of corruption.
In another are deposited the bodies of all the
Spanish princes and princesses who have not
ascended the throne. In this august and melan-
choly assemblage, the remains of the Duke de
Vendome are deposited, as were those of M.
de Turenne at St. Denis. I have ascertained this
fact by consulting the register of the monastery,
which mentions the arrival of his corpse on the
9th September, 1712.
The real Pantheon is exclusively consecrated ass
MODERN STATE
thelast asylum for the kings and queens of Spain :
a dim light illumines this chilling receptacle.
The deficiency of light is supplied by a superb
lustre suspended from the cupola,, which is only
lighted upon extraordinary occasions; but ge-
nerally a torch assists the inquisitive traveller in
exploring this dumb and motionless assembly of
sovereigns. By its wavering light you discern,
opposite *to the principal entry, an altar and a
crucifix of black marble, on a pediment of por-
phyry. The whole is in a style of mournful
magnificence. The cases which contain the
corpses of the kings and queens, are arranged on
each side of the altar in three rows, one over
another, in different compartments formed by
fine fluted pilasters of marble. These cases are
of bronze, of a simple yet noble figure. Several
of them, still empty, are ready to open and receive
their deposits. A salutary yet awful lesson
which kings have not refused to receive from
the bold designs of an able architect.
Philip II. reposes in the highest tomb of the
first division. It was this prince who laid the
foundation of the Pantheon, but it was not com-
pleted until the reign of Philip IV. It has only
afforded a receptacle to three sovereigns of the
house of Bouibon ; the young k : ng Louis I. who
ascended the throne in 1724, and died the same
year ; Queen Amelia, consort of Charles III. and
Charles III. himself. Philip V. and his consort
OF SPAIN. 215
are interred at St. Ildefonso ; Ferdinand VI. and
Queen Barbara at Madrid., in a convent which
they founded.
The following well known line, cannot be ap-
plied to this temple of death :
Le temps, qui detruit tout, en affermit lesmurs.
The ravages of time, aided by the damps, have
not spared even the solid marble. This furnishes
us with a twofold lesson on the frailty of man, how
exalted soever his condition may be, and the pe-
rishable nature of his works, which, in his pride,
he would fain stamp with the image of immor-
tality.
The choir of the monks of the Escurial, is
above the great door of the church, and opposite
to the high altar. Fresco paintings, the subject
of which relate to St. Lawrence and St. Jerome,
decorate its walls. The pulpit, notwithstanding
its unwieldy dimensions, turns upon a pivot
with surprising facility. Behind the choir, a
masterpiece of sculpture arrests your attention.
It is a Christ in marble, of the natural size, and
executed by Benvenuto Cellini, by whom the
constable de Bourbon was killed on the walls of
Rome.
On either side of the choir, begins a gallefy
which runs along the two fronts of the church,
and communicates by four doors with the first
story of the monastery ; it is intersected by seve-
16 MODERN STATE
ral spaces between the pillars which contain a part
of (he congregation during divine service. Mere
I have often been deeply impressed with those
devout sentiments with which minds, the least
tinctured with fanaticism, are overpowered on
beholding a majestic temple. That of the Escu-
rial, above all others, is apt to inspire solemn me-
ditations. The solidity of this enormous pile,
which has akeady flourished for two centuries,
and will survive its founder who rests within its
walls twenty more ; the memory of that haughty
monarch, who for a long time has received no
other homage than funereal orisons, whose shade
appears to haunt the gloomy monument of his
fear and piety; the sounds of a hundred voices
which make its vaults reverberate the praises of
the Eternal : all this induces a solemnity of
soul and a melancholy which are far more pleasing
than the idle dissipations of the world,
We must now take a survey of the other beau-
ties contained within the monastery of the Escu-
rial. On quitting the gallery, which runs along
two sides of the church, you traverse a long cor-
ridor, called the Hall of Battles, because some
of the old Spanish combats with the Moors are
here painted in fresco. Good judges are accus-
tomed to admire the natural delineation of the
costume, and the life and glow of the colouring.
I must now call the attention of the reader to
the two great cloisters, their marble pavement^
OF SPAIN. 217
and their magnificent proportions. The fresco
paintings of the lower cloister have perhaps been
more warmly applauded than they deserve. The
laws of perspective are not well attended to, and
in this particular, a spectator will be disappoint-
ed. I$ut if you admire heads full of expression,
or those large and vigorous forms of the school -
of Michael Angelo, you must frequent .this
place more than once, in order to behold the prin-
cipal traits in thd life of our Saviour delineated
in gigantic figures by Peregrino Tibaldi.
The passage to this place lies through narrow
and dark corridors. The most obvious defect
in the architecture of the Escurial, is that the
principal objects are misplaced, and of course do
not produce a proper effect.
The portico and the great staircase are only,
as it were, accidentally discovered. There is a
very fine interior court, ornamented with two
ranges of arcades, in a style at once simple and
majestic. In the centre there is a small temple,
which is, perhaps, the most regular piece of ar-
chitecture to be found in the Escurial ; but it
appears to have been purposely concealed from
the eyes of inquisitive strangers.
The great cloister below communicates with
the hall of the chapter, which is filled with mas-
terpieces of painting. There are several by
Titian; one by Velasquez, representing the
children of Jacob bringing to him the bloody
218 MODERN STATE
clothes of their brother Joseph, a painting full
of expression. There is also a Blessed Virgin
by Raphael, a St. Jerome by Guercino, three
pictures by Rubens, and three by Spagnoletto ;
three capital performances of Guido challenge
particular admiration.
The great cloister below also communicate*
with the old church of the monastery. Here are
/
three capital paintings by Titian, three by Spag-
noletto, and one by Raphael, which surpasses all
the others without exception, in the beauty and
majesty of the figures, the correctness of the de-
sign, in short, in a combination of all the excel-
lences which characterize the works of that ini-
mitable artist. I have seen connoisseurs con-
templating this grand masterpiece with rapturous
enthusiasm and tears of delight; their extacy not
being in the least disturbed by the strangeness of
the subject; for here you behold the Blessed Vir-
gin, the infant Jesus, St. Jerome in the dress of
a cardinal reading the Bible to them, whilst the
angel Raphael ushers into the presence of the holy
group young Tobias, who, with an humble at-
titude, comes to offer them the tribute of his fish.
This last circumstance has given this picture the
appellation of Madonna del Pez (our lady of the
fish).* It is inconceivable how the genius of
* The engraving, which Selma, one of the ablest Spanish
artists, published of this painting in 1782, although it is well
designed, is however but a faint copy of the majestic harmony
which pervades this magnificent performance.
OF SPAIN.
Raphael could stoop to such a heterogeneous
composition, or how the execution should bear no
marks of compulsion, as it was doubtless a task
dictated to him. If his exquisite taste was not
disgusted by a dissonance which is offensive to
men of a less refined genius., what must become
of the rules of art and the precepts of reason ?
Another admirable composition,, after the Ma-
donna del Pez, is a grand Lord's Supper by Titi-
an, which occupies the whole breadth of the re-
fectory of the monks.
In the upper cloister, among several indifferent
paintings, we may remark some by Spagnoletto,
one in particular, representing Jacob tending his
flocks ; and another by Navarette, also known
under the appellation of Muet, whom Philip II.
called the Titian of Spain.
The principal staircase, leading from the tower
to the upper cloister, is also worthy of notice.
The four sides of the frieze, and the ceiling are
painted in fresco by Giordano, who had delineated
the battle of St. Quentin, the performance of the
vow of Philip II., and the arrival of that prince
at the celestial court.
At the first landing-place of this staircase,
there is a little cloister conducting to the library
of the Escurial, which is less aluable for the
number and choice of its books than for the
beauty of its decorations, and the number of
Greek and Arabic manuscripts which it contains.
All the arts have furnished contributions towards
220 MODERN STATE
its embellishment; its only defect consists in being-
surcharged with ornaments. Paintings occupy
the whole space left vacant by the books. Its
vaulted ceiling is ornamented with arabesques,
and figures for the most part colossal. There
Tibaldi, the preceptor of Michael Angelo, has
displayed the vigour of his pencil, which, how-
ever, sometimes degenerates into extravagance.
His unnatural attitudes resemble contortions ; his
figures are gigantic and almost monstrous. The
shelves containing the books, which are of costly
wood beautifully carved, appear diminutive un-
der the colossal paintings of Tibaldi. Beneath
them are paintings in fresco by Bartolomeo Car-
ducci, which also lose by the contrast. The sub-
jects, taken from sacred and profane history,
relate to the science treated of in the works
ranged upon the shelves above them. Thus the
council of Nice is delineated above the books
treating on theology; the death of Archimedes
at the siege of Syracuse is represented above those
relating to mathematics.
The middle of the library is furnished with
tables and globes. Amongst other things, you
behold a small equestrian statue of Philip IV.,
and a little temple of solid silver, ornamented
with lapis lazuli, and precious stones, and sur-
rounded with the ancestors of Queen Anne de
Neuburg, consort of Charles II.
In the intermediate spaces between the shelves^
;
OF SPAIN.
you remark the portraits of Charles V., and of
the three Philips, his successors on the Spanish
throne. Let us pause for a moment, if you please,
whilst we contemplate the portrait of Philip II.,
delineated with much precision by Panteja de la
Cruz ; let us notice his melancholy and austere
countenance, in which the history of his life is de-
picted. We must, however., be careful not to
communicate the result of our observations to the
monks who accompany us ; for this would be a
bad recompence for the civilities we receive at
their hands. If any traveller has brought along
with him prejudices against the Spaniards in gene-
ral, or against the monks in particular, the Jero-
nymites of this monastery will soon remove all
his unfavourable impressions. He will presently
be convinced, that even under the monastic habit,
the Spaniard frequently conceals true politeness
and genuine cordiality. For the truth of this
assertion, I can appeal to two Danish literati,
who visited the Escurial in 1783, in order to
make researches there, and were very hospitably
entertained by the monks, notwithstanding the
difference of their manners, their language, and,
above all, of their religion.* They were provided
* These were Mr. Moldenhauer, at present the chief libra-
rian of the royal library at Copenhagen, and Mr. Tyschen,
professor at the university of Gottingen. Both have enriched
German literature with the result of their enquiries at the Escu-
rial.
2J2 MODERN STATE
with lodgings in the convent, and all their wants
were supplied with the most liberal hospitality.
All the treasures of the library were thrown
open to them, and (hey spent two months in
examining and making extracts from all the ma-
nuscripts which attracted their curiosity. The
civilities they experienced on this occasion were
the more extraordinary, as these nanuscripts
were unknown to the public, except from some
extracts published by Cassiri, a Spaniard, in two
folio volumes, which are far from completing
the extensive scheme which this scholar had pro-
jected.* One of the monks of the Escurial is
engaged upon a continuation of his work.
These manuscripts are not deposited in the-
great library, which is open every morning and
evening during the residence of the court at the
Escurial, but in a spacious hall, always kept
shut, and situate above the former, to which all
books proscribed by Spanish orthodoxy are
* In 1802, there appeared at Madrid, a complete translation of
an Arabic manuscript on Agriculture, belonging to the library
of the Escurial, which was printed at the expence of the king of
Spain. This translation was begun in 1751, and was finally
completed and published by Don Joseph Bangueri, interpre-
ter of the Arabic language to his catholic majesty. It is re-
markable in more respects than one. We learn from it, for in-
stance, that at the time of the Moors, agriculture was in a very
flourishing condition in Spain, and that they were acquainted
with many plants, both curious and useful, of which no ves-
tiges at presenf remain.
OF SPAIN. 223
banished. This hall is hung round with the por-
traits of Spaniards who have distinguished them-
selves in science and literature, who are much
more numerous than foreigners might perhaps
suppose.
On your entrance into the library of the Escurial,
you are rather surprised to see the books placed
the wrong way, with their titles inscribed on the
edge of the leaves at full length. I frequently
inquired into the reason of this custom., which
appears somewhat singular. I was told that
Arias Montanus, a learned Spaniard of the six-
teenth century, whose library served as a foun-
dation to that of the Escurial, had arranged and
inscribed all his books after this manner, which
probably appeared to him the most commodious
position ; that he had subsequently introduced
his own method at the Escurial, which, for the
sake of uniformity, has been followed with all the
other books. This explanation only serves to
shew the whimsical humour of an individual, and
the general attachment to old established customs,
even when they are indifferent in themselves.
In a little hall adjoining to the large upper
cloister, you are agreeably surprised by the sight
of an Annunciation by Paul Veronese, a Na-
tivity by Tintoret, a Descent from the Cross,
and a St. Margaret terrified by the appearance
of a dragon, by Titian ; but what eclipses all the
reat, is a painting by the same master, which is
'2'J 1 MODERN STATE
stylod the Glory of Titian, either on account of
its excellence, or because it represents Charles V.
and Philip II. admitted to a participation of ce-
lestial glory, in- the presence of the principal
patriarchs of the Old Testament.
A little cabinet, contiguous to this hall, con-
tains several relics : one of the miraculous urns
used at the marriage of Cana, an old manuscript
of the life of St. Theresa, written by herself, &c.
I might likewise mention several chef d'oeuvres
to be seen in the passage leading from the king's
apartment into the church ; such as a Descent,
from the Cross by Spagnoletto ; a large painting
by Chevalier Maxime, representing Lot, his wife,
and daughters, one of the most striking pieces
in the Escurial ; besides another small one by
Rubens, in which a group of several martyrs is
represented in a suppliant attitude around the
throne of the Virgin.
Near the little hall which contains this last
painting, is the door of an apartment in which,
according to the traditidn of the monastery, the
unfortunate Don Carlos ended his days, not
by the sanguinary orders of Philip II. but by
starving himself to death in a paroxysm of
despair, which we are told is to be attri-
buted rather to the violence of his ungovern-
able temper, than to the severity of his father.
We may "easily suppose, however, that we aie
not to expect to find at the Escurial the real clue
>P SPAIN.
to this tragedy, which brands the memory of its
holy founder with infamy.
I should never conclude, were I to enter into
a minute detail of all the remarkable paintings
contained within the Escurial. Those who de-
sire a more detailed catalogue of the curiosities
of this monastery,, may consult the description
given by father Ximenes, one of the monks resi-
dent here, and also the work of the Abbe Ponz,
an intelligent amateur, recently deceased, who
has published a tour of Spain, in seventeen
volumes, one of which is wholly occupied with
a description of the Escurial. "What I have al-
ready said may suffice to shew my readers that it
chiefly owes its reputation to its collection of
paintings ; that if it were stripped of this valu-
able portion of its treasures, or that if the court
did not annually display its magnificence here,
it would be nothing more than a prodigious con-
vent, more remarkable for its enormous 'bulk and
massive proportions than the elegance and mag-
nificence of its decorations. Two of its sides are
skirted by a narrow terrace, which commands a
very extensive but monotonous view of the coun-
try towards Madrid. The Abbe de Vayrac and
Colmenar take very particular notice of its im-
mense park ; for my part, I have seen nothing
in the environs of the Escurial but thinly scat-
tered woods, full of small rocks, intersected with
meadows, which are rarely green, and peopled
TOL. I. Q
226 MODERN STATE
with deer, but there is no walled enclosure, no
park properly so called, and nothing exhibiting
that character of pomp and grandeur by which
you might be apprized of your approach to a
royal habitation.
From the terrace you descend by a flight of
steps to a garden, which is neither large, ele-
gantly laid out, nor carefully cultivated. At one
end of this terrace is an outhouse adjoining to
the principal edifice, but of much more elegant
architecture. Behind it communicates with a
new building parallel to the principal front of
the convent, and destined for the reception of
the Infantas.
This edifice, being situated at the foot of the
mountains, and opposite to the defiles through
which the winds rush with violence, contributes
in some measure to assuage their impetuosity,
but cannot altogether prevent their being sen-
sibly felt, especially during the season when the
court resides at the Escurial. They are the
more troublesome as they blow in the direction of
the north front., and sweep the oblong space which
separates this w big from the habitations allotted
to the ministers and part of the offices, and which
you are obliged to cross in going from the village
to the monastery. If we were to credit the ac-
counts we hear, these outrageous winds not only
arrest foot passengers,, make them stagger, nay
even thro wthem to the ground, but sometimes thy
OF SPAIN. 227
attack carriages drawn up before the palace with
such violence, that they sometimes remove them
from their places, and drive them to a great dis-
tance. I have not witnessed any of these miracles
during my different journeys to the Escurial. It is
however true, that tornadoes frequently fage in
a passage called Lonja, leading from the village to
the royal convent. In order to render it less in-
convenient to foot passengers, a subterraneous
corridor has been introduced underneath, Tault-
ed with hewn stone, which is called la JVLena,
where travellers going to, or returning from the
palace, may bid defiance to the fury of the ele-
ments, and laugh at the blast of Boreas howling
over their heads. It was first projected by Don
Jayme Massones, a Spanish grandee who was
ambassador in France, and had been at the con-
gress of Aix-la-Chapelle ; and has acquired him
a species of celebrity at a cheap rate.
The situation of the Escurial render the cir-
cumjacent walks very rugged ; you may wander
however with pleasure in a valley between the
.south front and a mountain which projects its
steep and woody peak. The uneven ground
brings new prospects before you every instant,
and accelerates the fall of several rivulets which
meander through the groves. A gentle melan-
choly steals upon you, whilst you listen to t^ieir
distant murmurs, blended with the rustling of
trees, agitated by furious winds, and the lowing
228 MODERN STATE
of deer, which during their rutting time arc rest-
less, and continually roving about beneath their
shades. This valley is continued by a gradual
descent from the Cazin of the Infant Don Ga-
briel, to that which the present monarch caused to
be built when he was prince of Asturias. These
two little villas have been fitted up internally in
a style of splendour, which their simple outside
does not teach us to expect. That called the
prince's contains the choicest and most finished
productions of the art of the statuary, gilder, and
cabinet-maker. Charles IV. had likewise formed
there a vast collection of paintings, many of which
both on account of their subjects and their mag-
nitude are certainly misplaced in this pretty re-
treat. Such, for instance, are the large heads of
the apostles, the grave master-pieces of Spagno-
letto, whose pencil seems to have been dedicated
exclusively to penitentiary subjects. This dimi-
nutive palace would have been more suitably em-
bellished had it retained only some beautiful land-
scapes, some copies in miniature of the bestpic-
tur"es at Madrid, and two sea-pieces by Vernet, of
which Lewis XVI. made a present to the prince
of Asturias, who had expressed a wish to pos-
sess at least one of the performances of that great
master. Vernet has likewise embellished with
his pencil all the pannels of a cabinet, the dimen-
sions of which were sent him by the prince. All
the paintings are admirably expressive of the un-
OF SPAIN. 229
rivalled talents of this painter, and those who do
not know that they were ordered in 1782, will
take them for the productions of his best time.
The villa of the Infant Don Gabriel, who be-
queathed it to his brother, Don Antonio, is
greatly inferior in size and decorations to the for-
mer. You likewise observe here, what you
would admire more in another place, several chef
d'asuvres of the grave Spagnoletto, especially a
St. Peter, replete with truth and expression ; but
you are chiefly delighted with two enchanting
heads, full of grace and sweetness, the one by
Correggio, the other by Murillo. The Infant
Don Gabriel, who combined the knowledge of
a critic with the zeal of an amateur, who not
only patronized but also himself cultivated the
arts, furnished one of the cabinets of his little
mansion with drawings by the greatest masters.
230 MODERN STATE
CHAPTER VIII.
Palace at Madrid. Rum Reliro. Sketch of the
three last Reigns. Walk on the Prado. Bo-
tanical Garden. Cabinet of Natural History 1
Academy of the Fine Arts. Plaza Mayor.
WE must now take leave of the mountains, the
rocks, and solemn beauties of the Eseurial, in
order to prosecute our journey to Madrid, along
an excellent road which passes through the most
sandy region that is to be found in Europe. As
you descend the hill, on which the monastery is
situated, you cross a small forest of ash-trees
(fre&nera) which exhibits several charming points
of view. During the reign of Charles HI., you
were gratified with the spectacle of oxen, horses,
and vast herds of deer grazing-" together on this
spot, without being alarmed by the rattling of
carriages. The plan adopted by Charles IV.
has diminished their numbers, and rendered them
more timid. In crossing the forest, you have a
glimpse of some ponds, through the trees which
have an agreeable effect. Farther on a solitary
dwelling offers an asylum to travellers who have
lost their way ; it is a farm-house, belonging to
the monks of the Escurial, whose opulence, not-
231
withstanding their politeness, is, methinks,
almost a subject of euvy. A calculation drawn
from authentic sources, estimates their annual
revenues at seven hundred thousand livres.
On leaving this forest, you see no more trees
till you approach the Man^anares. This small
river runs at some distance under the heights on
which Madrid is situated ; it is almost shallow
enough in all parts to be forded by carriages.
It has, however, two large bridges, one at Se-
govia, and the other at Toledo. It was jocose-
ly observed, concerning the first built by Phi-
lip II., that this fine bridge wanted nothing
but a river. However both epigram and pa-
negyric are misplaced here. These dispro-
portioned bridges occur very frequently in
Spain, and may be accounted for in a very ra-
tional manner. Spain is intersected in almost
every direction by ranges of mountains, the
summits of which, notwithstanding the heat of the
climate, are frequently covered with snow. The
brooks and rivers running down their sides, are
generally very shallow on account of the frequent
drought in the provinces through which they
pass, but when swoin by copious rains, or
a sudden melting of the snows, their beds are con-
siderably enlarged, because their depth is shallow,
and they carry along with them a great quantity
of sand. In estimating the dimensions of the
bridges, the architects have consequently provided
MODERN STATE
for such emergencies, although they are not fre-
quent. Their solid construction is meant to
withstand a sudden swell of the river,, and their
apparent!) disproportionate length to obviate the
inconvenience which might arise from an inun-
dation. We ought not to tax whole nations
with folly, because we cannot, at first sight, dis-
cover the reasons of certain customs or regu-
lations.
Madrid has a good appearance, when ap-
proached on the side of the Escurial. (See pi. V. )
After having passed the Man^anares, we prose-
cute our journey on a fine road planted with
trees, which leads to Prado, a royal seat within
two leagues of Madrid, where the court usually
resided two or three months during the reign of
Charles HI. but which is now only visited by
his successor at stated times for the convenience
of hunting in the woods which encompass this
gloomy palace. The road runs for some time
along the banks of the Man^anares, and on the
opposite shore you behold la Casa del Campo, an
ancient villa of the Spanish monarchs, which has
been rather neglected by the present dynasty.
The gate of San Vicente, which forms the en-
trance on this side, is new, and built in a good
style. You advance afterwards by a steep ascent
towards the new palace, which stands detached
upon an eminence, without a terrace, a "park, Qr
a garden, and bears a greater resemblance to a cj-
OF SPAIN. 233
tttdel, than to the habitation of one of the most
powerful raonarchs in the Universe. But, on a
nearer survey, your opinion of this palace will be
greatly changed. It is of a square form ; spacious
porticos encompass the inner court. The offices and
apartments assigned to the principal persons at-
tached to the cour^ occupy the ground floor.
You ascend by an elegant marble stair-case, the
balustrade of which is highly ornamented. The
royal apartments are of the most magnificent di-
mensions. The hall in which the throne is
placed,, denominated el salon de los reynos, ex-
torts admiration even from those who have seen
the gallery at Versailles. Tiepolo, a Venetian,
has depicted the different costumes of the Spanish
monarchy on the ceiling. Beautiful vases, little
statues, and antique busts are ranged on all the
tables. Almost all the furniture is of Spanish
manufacture ; the mirrors, perhaps the largest in
Europe, and the glass of the windows came from
St. Ildefonso. The tapestry was made in a ma-
nufactory near the gates of Madrid. The va-
rious quarries of the peninsula furnished the
marble for the tables and walls. The next apart-
ment is the dining hall of his majesty. Mengs
has transfused all the grace and energies of his
pencil into the gods and goddesses of Olympus
painted on the ceiling. During the summer the
tapestry is removed, and these apartments are
hung with large portraits of Philip II., of Phi-
MODERN -STA'I K
lij> HI. and his consort; of the Count Duke de
Olivare/, ail five on horseback, painted by Velas-
quez, and those of Philip V. and Queen Isabella
Farnese, by Charles Vanloo. It is not requisite
to be a connoisseur, in order to remark the supe-
riority of the former over the latter. The ele-
gant, proportions of the charger of Philip the
fourth, the attitude and the life which seems to
animate his \vhole body,, are truly admirable.
From this apartment you pass to the audience
chamber of the monarch. The Apotheosis of
Hercules, painted on the ceiling, is one of the
masterly performances of Mengs. The Annun-
ciation, his last piece, upon which he was em-
ployed at Rome, when a premature death de-
prived the fine arts of this great painter, has been
deposited in this hall. The Virgin has a remark-
able sweetness and modesty of expression ; but it
were to be wished, that the physiognomy and at-
titude of the angel Gabriel were more suitable to
his mission. There is also a painting in this
ball, called the Homage of the Shepherds, by
the same master, which is a very finished piece,
full of grace and expression. His works formed
the chief ornament of the bedchamber of Char-
les III. who took particular delight in the pro-
ductions of this great painter. There is, in par-
ticular, a most admirable Descent from the Cross*
which connoisseurs consider as his master-piece.
A spectator is never weary of contemplating
OF SPAIN. 235
the expressive sorrow of the beloved disciple, the
sublime attitude of the Virgin, whose uplifted
eyes implore heaven for some alleviation of her
unspeakable anguish, and the milder but not less
moving affliction of Magdalen, whose beauty
is not impaired by the general grief which she
shares ; and lastly the body of Christ, which the
Chevalier Azara, an intimate friend of the author,
and an excellent connoisseur in paintings, could
never sufficiently admire, on account of the na-
tural expression, the divine character, and the
beauty of the flesh, which Mengs has taken care
not to exhibit, like most other painters, mangled
and shrunk by long continued sufferings.
The chamber adjoining to the hall of the
throne is full of master- pieces of the Italian
school. Among more than a dozen capital paint-
ings by Titian, you distinguish a Venus blind"
folding Cupid ; and its counterpart, the subject
of which, a group of two beautiful women, with
a warrior standing between them, is also to be
found in the French museum ; a Venus at her
toilet ; a Sysiphus; a Prometheus ; but above all,
the picture of Adam and Eve, which has for a
counterpart the copy executed by Rubens, which,
however, in the opinion of Mengs, only serves
to render the inimitable excellence of the original
more conspicuous.
In the same apartment you are likewise grati-
fied with the sight of two paintings by Paul Ve-
236 MODERN STATE
ronesc, of several by Bassano, a Judith by Tin-
toret, and in a contiguous chamber you behold
some by Giordano, and one by Spagnoletto.
The next apartment is likewise furnished with
paintings. Me shall only mention tw.o capital
performances by Velasquez, one repres
Vulcan's forge, the other a Spanish general
ceiving the keys of a town.
In the adjoining chambers, amidst a multitude
of pictures by the first artists, you remark the
Homage of the Kings by Rubens, and a Christ
bearing the Cross by Raphael, two pieces which
are alone equivalent to a valuable collection.
Into the first, Rubens has transfused all the magic
of his pencil, all the richness of his draperies, and
all the magnificence of his composition. How
admirably is the majestic air of one of the three
kings depicted I His carriage, attitude, and re-
tinue, appear to announce that he is delegated
by the universe to congratulate its divine author,
upon an event of the greatest importance to the
human species. But how truly affecting and
sublime is the expression which animates the
painting of Raphael '. The Saviour of the world
sinking beneath the pressure of his cross, rather
than that, of his grief, preserving in the midst of
his persecutors who overwhelm him with abuse
and derision, the most admirable composure and
serenity, which, of itself, might suffice to disarm
their cruelty ; regardless of his own sufferings^
OF SPAIN, 237
but administering consolation to his afflicted mo^-
ther, who strives to mollify the rage of liis per-
secutors, attended by a retinue of women bewail-
ing his fate. The impression produced by these
two grand compositions, diverts our attention
from several pieces by Titian, Vandyke, nay
even from some by Raphael himself, and two mas-
terly performances by Correggio.
The apartments formerly occupied by Maria
Josephina, sister to his present majesty,* contain
an assemblage of paintings of a different kind ;
this is the profane part of the palace of Madrid.
In an anterior hall, you behold with interest an
imitation of the manner of Rubens by Giordano,
who has represented that artist engaged upon the
portrait of a princess, several voluptuous paint-
ings by that master of the Flemish school ; a com-
bat of gladiators, in which you recognize the
energy of Lanfranc's pencil ; but above all, a
capital piece by Poussin, the subject of which
forms a striking contrast, with the devout chef
d'oeuvres we have just noticed. This is a dance
formed by a group of nymphs around the statue
of the god of gardens. The diversity of their
attitudes, equally graceful and expressive, the
elegance of their shape, and the beauty of their
forms, depict the pleasures of youth and love.
* This infanta died in 1801, universally regretted, on ac-
count of the simplicity of her manners, and her amiable dispo-
sition.
238 MODERN STATE
Some of them encircle the statue of the lascivious
god with garlands, others but we will
draw a veil over this part of the picture, which
the modesty of the painter has purposely thrown
into the shade.
The adjoining apartments are furnished with
paintings of inferior merit, if we except one
grand composition by Paul Veronese, and ano-
ther by Lan franc.
The large room where the infanta dined in
public, is solely embellished by the indefatigable
pencil of Giordano, whose fertility of invention
at first produces astonishment, but ultimately
lassitude. In an adjoining cabinet you find some
more paintings by Rubens, and an excellent
portrait of Charles V., painted below the knee,
by Titian. It has been engraved by Selma, one
of the most celebrated artists at Madrid.
I might likewise notice several other pictures^
in the apartments formerly occupied by the two
infants, the brothers of the king, and in particu-
lar, some by Rubens, in which the freshness of
his colouring, and the vivacity of his imagina-
tion are exhibited in all their splendour. But I
am apprehensive lest I should tire the reader by
a dry catalogue. I have already said enough to
convince him that the collection of the Spanish
monarch is one of the most valuable in Europe.
It contains few paintings of the French school,
but abounds in the masterly pieces of Italy, of
OF SPAIN. 239
Flanders, and of Spain. The Spanish school,
inferior in celebrity to the two first, deserves to
be better known. Beyond the confines of Spain,
we scarcely hear of the names of Navarette,
Alonzo Cano, Zurbaran, Zerezo, Cabezalero,
Bias de Prado, Joanes, &c. ; but \vho enjoy
among their countrymen a reputation to which
they are in many respects justly entitled. In
France, the names of the more celebrated Spanish
masters, are known merely by hearsay. Such,
for example, are the names of Rivera, surnamed
Spagnoletto, who, although a Spaniard by birth,
belongs rather to Italy than to his native coun-
try ; of Velasquez, famous for correctness of de-
sign, and fidelity in perspective : of Murillo,
one of the first artists in the world for the beauty
and freshness of his carnation, and sweetness of
expression ; the same Murillo, whose perform-
ances have been so long a desideratum in France,
and have at length found a place in the museum
a< Paris.*
* In France, where almost all 1-jrcign names arc disfigured,
he is known by the appelation of Morillos. There are but
three of his performances in the museum Napoleon : one of
these is a Virgin, the drapery and colouring of which produce
a magical effect, but whose figure is deficient in dignity ; the
second is a holy family ; and the third a young beggar looking
for the vermin in the folds of his ragged garments. More than
one Spanish painter has employed his pencil in the delineation
MODERN STATB
The palace of Madrid is entirely new. The
former palace, occupied by Philip V, having
been consumed by fire in 1734, that prince was
desirous to have it rebuilt in the same place. A
Piedmontese architect presented a magnificent
plan, the model of which is preserved in a neigh-
bouring building. Philip V. startled at the
magnificence of the design, adopted a more
simple plan, which, however, proved equally
expensive in the execution., and is not yet finish-
ed. For more than twelve years past, they have
been employed in building two additional wings
to the palace, which will give it a less massive
appearance, but will likewise hide the principal
front.
On your way to this front, you traverse a
large irregular place, at the extremity of which,
is the armeria, or arsenal, comprizing a collec-
tion of ancient and foreign arms, disposed in fine
order, and preserved with great care. The ar-
mour of the ancient American warriors is more
worthy of attention than the wrought armour
set withjprecious stones, or the complete suit of
mail of some of the kings of Spain, and in par-
ticular of St. Ferdinand. The persons who ex-
of disgusting objects. These three pieces, in our opinion, are
calculated to afford but a very imperfect idea of the superior
talents of Murillo.
OF SPAIN. 241
liibit these curiosities never fall to give the tra-
veller a special detail of them all, and if he even
be a Frenchman, they would on no account omit
shewing him the sword worn by Francis I. at
the battle of Pavia.
The kings, of the Austrian dynasty seldom re-
sided in the palace bordering upon the Manca-
nares, and the site of which is occupied by the
new palace. They spent the greatest part of the
year at a villa situated on an eminence at the
other end of the town, which was denominated
Buen Retiro. For this villa Philip V. conceived
an extraordinary partiality. After the destruc-
tion of the old palace, the Retiro was his sole re-
sidence at Madrid until the period of his death.
It was likewise the only palace pf Ferdinand VI.,
and Charles III. passed the first years of his reign
at this place, to the no small dissatisfaction of
his queen, Amelia, a Saxon princess, who was
constantly contrasting the magnificent landscapes
of Naples, which she had left behind her, with
these barren regions. Never had a royal resi-
dence less the appearance of a palace than Buen
Retiro. It is a very irregular building, and ex-
hibits nothing majestic in any one point of \yiew.
It comprehends, 'however, a long suite of apart-
ments, which at a small ex pence might be made
commodious. The gardens which they over-
look are ill supplied with water, in a ruinous
condition, a'nd serve at present for a public walk.
VOL i. u
MODERN STATE
In these gardens, however, there are some sta-
tues deserving* the attention of inquisitive travel-
lers ; for instance, that of Charles V. trampling
upon a monster, which is supposed to be the
emblem of heresy ; but above all,, an equestrian
statue of Philip IV. executed by Peter Taeea,
an able Florentine statuary" (See Plate VI). The
palace of Retiro likewise contained a great num-
ber of valuable paintings, the best part of
which have been removed to the new pakce.
The apartment called the Cason is remarkable
for the magnificence of its decorations, and espe-
cially for its ceiling, on which Luca Giordano
has given an allegorical representation of the in-
stitution of the order of the Golden Fleece.
We shall only mention two other paintings in
this palace: one of them represents Philip V.
advanced in years, seated beside his consort, and
surrounded by his children. The decorations of
the apartment in this picture by Charles Vanloo,
are overcharged. The brilliant colouring of
the furniture makes the figures appear dull. We
cannot, however, remain unconcerned spectators
of an assembly of princes and princesses, who
have acted a conspicuous part on the theatre of
the world.
The other piece is less remarkable for the me-
rits of the composition, than for the scene it deli-
neates. It is a faithful representation of the last
solemn Auto-da-fe held in 1680, in the Plaza
OF SPAIN. 243
Mayor at Madrid, in the presence of the whole
court of Charles II. The balconies are crowded
with spectators, attracted by motives of pious
curiosity. The tremendous tribunal appears
elevated in the middle of the square. The
judges there await their victims, who with hag-
gard and disfigured countenances, being dressed
out in the emblems of their punishment, approach
to hear their doom. Some are attended by
monks, who administer their last exhortations ;
others are seen staggering and fainting on the
steps of the tribunal. A number of gloomy re-
flections overwhelm the mind of the spectator.
Let us turn our eyes from this tremendous pic-
ture, and fix them upon more agreeable objects.
The theatre of the Retiro is in a good state of
repair : the pit is small, but planned with much
taste. The theatre, which is very spacious,
opens at the further extremity upon the gardens
of the palace, with which it stands on a level. This
frequently afforded an opportunity of heighten-
ing the effect of theatrical illusion, by extending 1
the view to an immense distance, and permitting
the display of troops of cavalry. But all these
illusions are vanished, the house is forsaken, its
decorations are mouldering in the dust ; and this
theatre, which, during the reign of Ferdinand
VI. re-echoed with the most harmonious sounds,
is now doomed to mournful silence, which for
244 MODERN STATE
the space of seven years, has not been interrupted
more than thrice.
Such are the revolutions of courts, according
to the taste and caprice of their sovereign. That
of Ferdinand VI., magnificent, and fond of diver-
sions, had naturalized in Spain the fairy scenes
of the Italian theatres, under the direction of
Farinelli the musician, who owed to his talents
the extraordinary favour which he enjoyed, and
which excited no murmurs, because he never
abused it. Under Charles III. Euterpe and
Terpsichore lost their influence. This monarch,
more simple in his manners, more uniform in his
taste, indifferent to profane amusements, banish-
ed them from his abode, and confined his patron-
age to the dumb arts and sciences. A stranger
to love, and equally insensible, during a reign
of thirty years, to friendship, if we except the
Marquis Squilaci, who had well nigh cost
him dear, and Pini, an Italian valet de cham-
bre, who only acted an obscure and inferior
part, he had not one professed favourite ;
and Jbeing forti-fied by superstition against the
allurements of sense, he passed twenty-nine
years of his life without, either a wife or a mis-
tress, an example perhaps without a parallel in
the history of kings. Libertines were constrained
to disguise their sentiments in order to obtain ac-
cess to thfe throne; and never was a court less
noted for gallantry than the court of Charles III.
OF SPAIN. 245
That of Charles IV. is of a complexion less
austere than that of his father, and is by no means
inimical to pleasures, but enjoys them without
show ; and if the system of favouritism prevails
here, it is however very venial, because it is rha-
nifested with dignity, it is exercised with gene-
rosity, and creates as little discontent as possible.
This court is, in one particular, more popular
than the three former, because the royal favour
is chiefly bestowed upon Spaniards; and the
queen, although a native of Italy, has for a long
time adopted the national sentiments ; whereas,
iii the three former reigns, court favour was al-
most entirely in the hands of foreigners. This
circumstance alone would suffice to counteract a
revolution., which some other measures might
appear to foment. Lastly, in order to conclude the
parallel of the four reigns of the house of Bourbon,
in Spain, for we say nothing of that of Louis I.
which did not last a year, we may affirm that
they present us with a very rare picture of an
uninterrupted succession of four kings not en-
dowed with any shining talents, but distinguish-
ed for their probity, their humanity, and sin-
cere piety ; who have perhaps not always be-
stowed their favours with discernment, but have,
at least, never wilfully done wrong.
Within the circuit of the gardens of Buen
Retire, is a china manufactory, to which every
person has hitherto been denied access. This
2U) MODERN STATE
prohibition is doubtless owing to a wish that this
manufactory, which has not yet produced any
finished specimens of art,, may silently make ud-
rances towards perfection, before its productions
are exposed to the view of the curious. They
are only to be seen in the royal palace, and at
some Italian courts, to which they have been sent
as presents. Charles III. tacitly acknowledged
the superiority of the French manufactures of
this description, by excluding the court of Ver-
sailles from any share in his donations, although
the latter for a considerable time punctually
transmitted every year some of the finest speci-
mens of the manufactory of Seves to the princess
of Asturias. Louis XV. had established this cus-
tom from a partiality to his grand-daughter, and
his successor did not think it right to discontinue
the practice.
In the same edifice in which this china manu-
factory is established, people are employed, with
the most profound secrecy, in preparing certain
articles of inlaid work, hitherto but little known
in Europe. Generally speaking, the Retiro, its
apartments, and" gardens, are almost entirely for-
saken by the court ; but Charles III. made great
improvements in its environs.
This ancient palace commands a view r of the
fashionable walk of the Prado, so long celebrated
in the novels and dramatic compositions of Spain,
renown has been cheaply bought ; for the
OF SPAIN. 247
place was formerly in itself of little consequence,
but derived its reputation from having been the
stage upon which several remarkable scenes have
been exhibited. The proximity of the palace,
the shady retreats, nay even the inequality of the
grounds, were propitious to intrigues, and also
to perilous rencounters. But Charles III. has
transformed it into a magnificent walk, which
niay be frequented with safety and satisfaction at
all seasons of the year, partly by levelling the
ground and planting it with trees, and partly by
illuminating the alleys ; by adorning it with
fountains and statues, some of which, for ex-
ample that of CybeJe, are executed in a very fine
style. It occupies the space of half a league,
and forms part of the interior of the city. Some
of the principal streets terminate here. That of
Alcala, one of the jnost spacious streets in Eu-
rope, crosses it, and then runs along the gardens
of the Retiro, and finally terminates at a gate of
the same name, which, although rather heavy,
is however one of the finest monuments of the
metropolis.
From every quarter, the citizens crowd to the
Prado, both on foot and in carriages, mingle to-
gether, and, under the shade of long alleys, in-
hale a salubrious air, attempered by the waters
of the fountains, and perfumed with the fragrant
exhalations of the flowers. The crowds assem-
bled here are sometimes prodigious. I hare be-
MODERN STATE
hold a procession of four or five hundred car-
riages, advancing in the greatest order, and sur-
rounded by an immense multitude of pedestri-
ans, a sight indicating at once great wealth and
a numerous population, but which would be still
more gratifying, if the equipages displayed more
taste and diversity. In the room of that motley
variety of apparel and head-dresses, -which in
other public places of Europe, agreeably diver-
sify the scene, you only behold on foot at the
Prado, women dressed . in an uniform style,
muttledup in long veils, black or white, which
conceal part of their faces ; and men, for the
most part, wrapped up in huge cloaks of a dark
colour; insomuch that the Prado,* liowever
beautiful it may be, seems, in a peculiar sense,
to be the parade of Castilian gravity. This is
jiiore especially conspicuous every evening ; when
the first solemn sounds of the angelus invade the
ears of the pedestrians, they instantly uncover
their heads, make a sudden stop, as if arrested by
some invisible hand, abruptly breaking off the
most tender discourse, and the most serious dis-
cussions, in order to devote a few minutes to
prayer. Woe betide the profane individual who
should dare to disturb this hallowed interval of
silence, which impiety may peri&aps deride, but
which never fails to make an awful impression
even upon a philosophic observer. The prayers
of the angelus being ended, the company resume
OF SPAIN. 249
their walk,, and the conversation is begun afresh.
A whole people have just worshipped their Crea-
tor,, under the canopy of the heavens. Of what
cortsequence is it whether the Virgin Mary of-
ficiated as a mediatrix on the occasion ; their
homage was certainly not less sincere, nor were
the dispositions of their minds less pious.
The botanical garden serves greatly to height-
en the beauty of the Prado.* It was formerly
situated on the road leading from Madrid to the
palace of the Prado. Some years before his de-
mise, Charles III. assigned it another site, on
one side of the public walk, and' encompassed
it with an enclosure which is so low, that it serves
as an ornament to the garden, without concealing
it from view. Every day adds something to its
embellishments. Any one may easily obtain leave
to spend a few hours here, and even those who
have no tase for botany, will find it a most de-
lightful retreat, overshadowed with trees, and
abounding with plants from all the quarters of
the globe. The productions of the vegetable
kingdom are arranged in squares, conformably to
the method of Linnaeus. The names of the plants
are inscribed on tickets, enclosed in little tubes of
tin, and placed at the foot of each of them ; which
is a contrivance Very useful and convenient for
* The learned Cavanilles, who died in 1803, was director of
this garden for a number of years.
250 MODERN -STATE
those who are not adepts in the science. It is
evident that the Spanish monarch has it in his
power to form in the vegetahle kingdom,, in par-
ticular, the most valuable collection in the world;
that monarch whose vast dominions occasioned
fbis beautiful line of Piron :
El I'Espagne fst par tout, ou luit Vastre dujour.
With such a diversity of soil and climate, this
vast monarchy must needs produce all the various
trees, shrubs, and plants which grow on the sur-
face of the earth, Till within these twenty-eight
years, no effort has been made to improve these
signal advantages. At the commencement of his
administration of the Indies, Galvez earnestly
recommended to all officers, civil, military, and
ecclesiastical, within the whole circuit of the
Colonies, to transmit to Spain, whatever appear-
ed worthy of notice in the three kingdoms of nar
ture. His directions have been complied with,
at least, in respect to the vegetable kingdom.
Scarcely a year elapses without announcing the
arrival from the Spanish Indies of some new
plants, which augment the collection of the me-
tropolis, or at least the importation of seeds, of
roots and slips, which they endeavour to natu-
ralize in the botanical garden at Madrid. Young
botanists, whom the court maintains in Mexico,
Peru, and elsewhere, transmit, along with their
consignments, a description of the plants imme-
OF SPAIN.
fdiately within their observation, of the soil and
atmosphere that appear most congenial with
them, and of the culture they require. Con-
formably with these instructions, the professors
of botany, with Don Casimir Ortega at their
head, deposit the germs, transmitted to them in
the earth, and attended by their disciples, they
watch with the most wistful solicitude their dif-
ferent appearances during their growth, in order
to compare the properties of these exotic plants
with the description that has been sent to them.
I have more than once been present at their lec-
tures, which are highly amusing and instructive.
I have seen with what fidelity nature ad-
heres to her laws, even at intervals which asto-
nish the imagination, and have witnessed her be-
nevolence in communicating to ajl mankind the
treasures which she has scattered over the surface
of the earth. At these meetings, questions fre-
quently occur, which are difficult to be resolved.
More than one exotic plant makes us sensible of
the incompetence of the methods invented by our
European scholars, and sometimes it is not easy
to classify them without an arbitrary procedure.
The same experiment which has been tried in
the department of plants with so much success,
I have often been- tempted by a sportive imagina-
tion to extend to all the three kingdoms of na-
ture, by appropriating the space left vacant by
the botanical garden, along the Prado, to a pro-
MODERN ST%TE
\
joct which is doubtless unrivalled in its kind
throughout Europe, and which could only be
accomplished by the monarch of Spain.* "Where-
fore, for example, might he not parcel out this
tract into as many subdivisions as there are
nations subjected.to his sway ? Here he might
domieiliate a Peruvian, a Mexican, a Califor-
uian family. ; there one from Paraguay, another
from Cuba, a third from the Phillipines. Each
of them might here retain its native style of dress
and of living ; each of them might construct its
own habitation, after the model of those it has
forsaken ; they might cultivate here the trees and
shrubs which overshadowed their primitive
dwellings, or the plants which administered to
their early wants; they might fancy themselves
with more truth than de Bougainville's young
Potaveri, still resident in their mother country.
"With what delight would the inquisitive ama-
teurs of Europe flock to see this living cabinet
of natural history, a cabinet unrivalled in its
* 1 understand that M. de Czernichew, after having read
the first edition of my work at London, thought the wish I ex-
pressed here might not perhaps appear altogether chimerical to
the Empress of Russia, renowned for her predilection for ex-
traordinary undertakings, and who, amidst the variety of man-
ners and climates abounding within the.circumference of her
vast empire, might find nearly the same resources as the King
of Spain, in domiciliating some of her provincial subjects on
the banks of the Neva. This plan was actually presented to
'Catherine II. but I know not what reception it met uith.
OF SPAIN. 253
kind., in which the objects themselves would be
the Ciceroni of a traveller ? Without crossing
the ocean, he would there behold the Mexican.
gathering from the leaves of his native nopal,
those valuable insects which communicate their
rich dye to our European dresses ; he would
behold the inhabitant of Guatimala cultivating
O
bis indigo., and the native of Paraguay., the herb,
which constitutes the principal source of his
wealth. He would behold the Peruvian accom-
panied by that faithful animal, which shares his
labours, which supplies him with food and rai-
ment; and the Luconian plying" those various la-
bours, in which he was heretofore engaged in
his native isle. Thus the proud inmate of the
metropolis, without once leaving the capital,
might explore, as it were, on a topographical
chart, all the colonies to which his sovereign,
gives law. The native of the colonies himself,
would here become inured to an exile, the hard-
ships of which every thing would conspire to al-
leviate; and his countrymen, from whom he is
separated by boundless oceans, being made ac-
quainted through him, with the munificence and
grandeur of their common monarch, would con-
ceive more exalted notions of his power, would
feel a pride in being his subjects, and be gradually
persuaded to consider the Spaniards of the old
world as their countrymen, instead of iheir op-
pressors; a gradual aud pacific revolution of
254 MODERN STATE
sentiments,, \vliich might serve to obviate,, or at
least to retard the miseries and dangers attendant
on a more violent political schism.
Till this project,, which may., perhaps,, be re-
garded as romantic, shall be realized, the Spa-
nish monarchs have in the mean time, founded a
cabinet of natural history, which is already one
of the most complete collections in Europe in
metals, minerals, marbles, precious stones, corals,
madrepores, and other marine productions. The
classes of fishes, of birds/ and chiefly of quadru-
peds, are still very defective ; but the measures
adopted of late years by government, are calcu-
lated, although perhaps by a slow and gradual
progress, to render this cabinet as copious as
possible.
One of the most valuable donations, it has re-
ceived from Spanish America, was transmitted in
1782, in a great measure, through the laudable
zeal of a worthy and enlightened Frenchman,
whose enterprising spirk and adventures are de-
serving of notice.*
M . Dombey, a young physician, who was on
* I was personally acquainted with M. Dombey. He
made mo the confidant of his distress, which I sought to
alleviate ; but the narrative inserted here, I have chiefly ex-
tracted from an interesting account of his life and labours pub-
lished in the Annals of the Museum of Natural History for
1804, by a scholar, (M. Deleuze) equally estimable for his
genius and science, and much more competent than myself to
appreciate -his merits.
OF SPAIN. 255
terras of intimacy with Jean-Jaques Rousseau,
about that period, when the latter was amusing
himself with the study of botany, was selected in
1775 by M. Turgot and M. de Jussieu; to under-
take a voyage. to Peru, in order to make a col-
lection of plants unknown in Europe. He ar- .
rived at Madrid in November,, 1776. Two
young pupils of Don Casimir Ortega, professor of
botany, Messrs. Ruiz and Pabon, were given him,
as assistants. After a perilous voyage, they ar-
rived in Peru, in April, 1778.
In his first excursion to Quito, Dombey took
accurate drawings of three hundred plants, many
of which were new to the old world. His salary
was very moderate ; nevertheless, he gave pro-
fessional advice gratuitously ; but his good sense,
and the confidence he acquired amongst the Pe-
ruvians of both sexes, supplied him with re-
sources. He was even useful to government by
his counsel, and also by pecuniary donations,
during the formidable rebellion at Tupacamaro
in 1780.
The vessel which conveyed the first specimens
of his industry to Europe, was taken by the Eng-
lish, but ransomed at Lisbon by the Spanish
court, which transmitted to Paris, duplicates of
the dried plants and seeds he had collected, but
not the vases, the dresses, and other curious ar-
ticles whicIT were intended for the king of
France.
MODERN STATE
In 1782, he went to Chili. On his arrival he
found that country desolated by an epidemic
distemper. He did not hesitate to endanger his
personal safety, and proved so fortunate as to sub-
due the contagion. He was adored as a tutelary
deity. In the mean time he prosecuted his la-
hours with indefatigable assiduity. He filled
twenty chests with plants., minerals, and shell-
fish. At Coquimbo he opened afresh a mine
of quicksilver, which had been abandoned for
fifty years : he discovered a new gold mine, and
performed other services. In Chili he found a
valuable tree, denominated by M. de la Marck,
Dombcya, and by M. de Jussieu, Arancaria.
He fell dangerously ill, whilst he was making his
last collection, consisting of seventy three chests.
On his recovery he set sail for Europe in 1784,
after a residence of six years in South America.
His passage to Europe was very boisterous; and
he was obliged to put into Rio Janeiro, where the
viceroy presented him with a fine collection of
stuffed birds, of insects and shells. He employed
his stay at the Brazils to the best advantage, and
collected there two hundred new plants. On the
^2d February, 1785, he arrived at Cadiz, where,
new and unexpected disappointments awaited
hin\r The collection made by the two Spanish
botanists whom he had left in Peru, had been put
on board the ship St. Peter d'Alcantara, which
was lost, together with the whole cargo. The
OF SPAIN.
collection he brought with him in the Peruviano,
was his own exclusive property. It, however,
fell a sacrifice to malicious ignorance, and he
himself was persecuted by the cruel jealousy of
some subaltern officers, whose conduct was cer-
tainly not countenanced by superior authority.
His chests were opened in the most negligent
manner, and a large portion of their contents was
damaged. As a compensation for this loss, for
which he could not be responsible, he was en-
joined to surrender one half of his collection to
the Spanish court. Fortunately, however, he
superintended this division himself, and as the
commissioners nominated by the Spanish govern-
ment were not as intelligent as himself, the por-
tion which fell to the share of France, proved to
be the most valuable. Thus he was detained for
six months at Cadiz, without money or credit,
nay even without meeting with that respect which
he so amply deserved in many respects. After
so many fatigues and disappointments, his me-
mory was impaired, and his intellects were for
some time disordered. - At length he embarked
for Havre with his chests, and arrived at Paris
greatly disheartened by his misfortunes. A pro-
mise had been previously extorted from him not
to publish any thing before the return of the
Spanish botanists to Europe, and it was his de-
sign to fulfil this engagement with the most
VOL. i. s
258 MODERN STATE
scrupulous fidelity. M. de Buffon advanced him
a sum of money sufficient to discharge his debts.
He consigned his herbary to M. I'Hcritier, one
of our ablest naturalists, in order to prepare it
lor the press. But the court of Spain claimed it,
and M. de Buffon was commissioned to enforce
the recovery. JW. I'Heriticr, however, effected
his escape, and conveyed Dombey's herbary to
England. But the storms of the re volution over-
o
took him in the midst of his labours, and Dom-
bey died * without having enjoyed the satisfaction
of seeing the public derive any benefit from his
labours. I/Heritier himself miserably perished
before he had brought his undertaking to a con-
clusion. In the mean time about the year 1788,
the two Spanish botanists, Don Hypolito Ruiz,
and Don Joseph Pabon returned to Europe. In
1794, they published a prefatory work, entitled,
Florae Peruvicnsis et Cliilensis prodromes; in
which they give an historical account of Spanish
* He died in prison in 179^, in the island of Montserat,
after having been taken by the English on his way to North
America, impelled by a restless zeal for the advancement of
natural history. Amongst other pleasures the amateurs of
gardens are indebted to him for the importation of that elegant
Peruvian shrub, whose handsome blossoms have such a deli-'*
cious fragrance, that the Spaniards, at a loss under what class
it ought to be specified, named it Louisidora, in honour of tke
Queen of Spain, but which our naturalists have discovered
to be a variety of the Vervain, and have denominated Verves*
triphylla.
botany. Four years after this appeared their
Systcma vegetaMium Flora Peruviance ct Chi-
lemis ; and last of all, in 1799, their splendid
work in two folio volumes, entitled, Flora Peni-
"viana et Chilensis, a most valuable monument
erected to botany, by a nation wrongfully sup-
posed to be behind-hand in all the sciences. But
might not this have been accomplished many years
before by the excellent and industrious Dombey ?
And would it not have been the case, had he not
been the sport of the most malignant persecu-
tion ? M. de Humboldt, another scholar, not in-
ferior in courage, but superior in fortune and
erudition, during his ever- memorable travels in
South America, has experienced the greatest ci-
vilities both from the government and natives of
Old and New Spain. On his arrival at Madrid,
in 1799, he requested permission to make obser-
vations in that immense continent, which, in a
scientific point of view, has hitherto been so
little known to its conquerors and its inhabitants.
His request was granted with the politeness which
characterizes a government zealous for the ad-
vancement and circulation of knowledge. The
king condescended to forward his undertaking,
and his example was followed by all his agents
in Spain and America. M. de Humboldt expe-
rienced every where and upon all occasions, th
roost cordial reception, the most effectual aid,
I?
MODERN STATE
and a benevolent patronage, by \vhich the Spa-
iiiards have acquired tbe bighest claims upon
his gratitude, and also deserve the thanks of all
enlightened men, \vho are about to reap the fruit
of his labours.
But how comes it to pass, that a short inter-
val of twenty years should produce such a revo-
lution in their character? Why should M. Dom-
bey have had to encounter so many thorns, where-
as M. de Mumboldt has gathered nothing but
roses ? Have twenty years made such a prodi-
gious change in the character of the Spanish
nation ? No ; during both periods, that nation
\vas equally noble, generous and hospitable. A
few individuals substituted in the room of others,
will suffice to explain this difference.
But to return to the cabinet of natural history,
which has occasioned this digression. The
edifice comprising this collection, which, toge-
ther with the custom-house, was built by
Charles III. constitutes the chief ornament of
the street of Alcala, and is likewise appropriated
to the meetings of the academy of fine arts ; a
destination which is very happily expressed by
the following inscription : Carolus III. naturam
el art cm sub uno tccio in publicam utilitatem con-
*ocia\i( anno M.DCC.LXXIV.
^ Philip V. however is the real founder of this
academy ; but Ferdiuand VI, having conceived
OP SPAIN. 261
a peculiar affection for it, gave it, in honour of
his patron, the appellation of the accademy of
San Fernando; and Charles III. deserved well
of it by assigning it a more appropriate edifice.
The minister of foreign affairs is the president,
who, every third year, distributes the prizes
among those young pupils, who have produced
the best specimens of sculpture, of painting, and
also the best models of architecture. Although
it contains several members eminent in the three
arts, we must confess, however, that its master-
pieces are but few in number, and that the prizes
distributed are rather encouragements than re-
wards. But the court of Spain likewise main-
tains a number of hopeful pupils at Rome ; and
some members of this academy are employed in
executing engravings of the numerous chef
d'ceuvres which adorn its palaces of Madrid.
This academy not only contributes towards
the improvement of the fine arts in Spain, by the
formation of pupils; it is also the supreme tri-
bunal, to whose decision, the plans of all the edi-
fices, both sacred and profane, constructed within
the kingdom are submitted. This institution' is
well calculated, in process of time, to substitute
good taste in the room of those barbarous relics
which are conspicuous in the major part of these
monuments, and which are also observable in
some of the gates, in the ancient fountain*, and
262 MODERN STATE
in most of the churches of the capital ; rude es-r
says emanating from the cradle of the arts, \yhen
more pains were taken in conjuring up monsters,
than are now displayed in the production of
master-pieces. The modern edifices sufficiently
attest the revolution which architecture has un-
dergone under the dynasty of the Bourbons.
Besides the new palace at Madrid, we might
adduce in proof of this, the gates of Alcala and
St. Vincent, the custom-house ; and above all,
a superb edifice bordering the Prado, beyond
the gardens of the Retiro, which was begun ten
years ago. It is designed for a museum, whither
the cabinet of natural history will be transferred,
and where the meetings of several academies will
be held. The building has been interrupted by
the war, but will be resumed on the return of
peace. This beautiful monument will surpass
every other in the metropolis, and will add not
a little to the fame of its architect, Villa--
nueva.
Besides these, there are few edifices at Madrid
which are worth the attention of a traveller. This
capital is upon the whole well laid out. The streets,
without beingstraight, are wide, and not verycrook-
cd ; it is about three leagues and a half in circum-
ference, and three quarters of a league at most
in length, or breadth. The infrequency of rain,
and the vigilance of the police, render it one of
OF SPAIN. 263
the cleanest cities in Europe; but, except the Prado
and its avenues, this metropolis cannot boast any
handsome quarters. The Plaza Mayor, which
the Spaniards are accustomed to extol, does no
credit to their enthusiasm. It is of a quadrangu-
lar, but irregular form, environed by buildings,
five or six stones high, of uniform architecture,
but without any decorations, and under which
are long piazzas. It is illuminated on solemn oc-
casions, and at such times, it exhibits a spectacle
truly grand. Formerly, the auto da-fes were
held in this place, with all their tremendous ap-
paratus. It has long been the theatre of the
bull-fights, which are celebrated during the pe^
riod of those festivities of the court known by
the appellation of Fiestas Reales. Here is a
tolerably handsome edifice, where the academy
of history holds its meetings, and containing its
library, its museum, manuscripts, and medals.
In this square, provisions and merchandize of
all descriptions are exposed for sale. All these cir-
cumstances combined, have made it the most re-
markable spot in the capital, and have conferred
on it a reputation which it might herhaps have
deserved when it was originally built, but which
must now be annihilated, since architecture has
arrived at such perfection in other quarters of
Europe, as to have created forty squares more
elegant than the Plaza Myaor. This square has
C()4 MODEM N STATE
been greatly disfigured by a fire, which, about
nine years ago, reduced one of its sides almost
entirely to ashes. Its beauty is likewise impaired
by a vast number of booths, by which it is in
some places rendered impassable. It is however
the quarter of Madrid which conveys the most
favourable conceptions of the population of this
metropolis, and if we may judge from the con-
course of people assembled at all hours of the day
in this square, and in the adjacent streets, in-
cluding in our estimate the Puerto, del sol, a.
transverse street, which is the rendezvous of all
the loungers and newsmongers, we should scarce-
ly be able to persuade ourselves that Madrid did
not contain more than 155,672 domiciliated in-
habitants, according to the computation of 1787.
According to a more recent estimate of the popu-
lation of Madrid by Don Thomas Lopez, it
amounts to 130,980 souls, exclusive of the gar-
rison, the hospitals, and the foundlings. Ac-
cording to the same geographer, Madrid contains
7100 houses, 77 churches, 44 convents of males,
and 31 of females.
The administration published about three
or four years ago, a new estimate of the popula-
tion of Spain, made by order of his majesty in
1797, which is declared in the official Gazette to
be more complete than that of 1787, digested
by Count de Florida Blanc a. We shall lay her
OP SPAIN. 265
fore the reader the result and most prominent fea-
tures of this calculation.*
* I am as yet unacquainted with the details of the enumera-
tion of 1/97- The population of Spain will, however, be
hereafter as accurately known as that of other European coun-
tries, the curates throughout the whole monarchy having been
enjoined to transmit, regularly every month, to government,
a list of the births, deaths, and marriages within their re-
spective parishes, beginning with the first year of the present
Century.
566 MODERN STATE
CHAP. IX.
Population of Spain. Principal churches at
Madrid. Painters. Engravers. Printing-
Office. Pious foundations.
IN 1768, the Spanish government had caused
an enumeration to be made, which it had reason
to suppose defective, as it had not been executed
with proper care, and the people, having erro-
neously conjectured that the object of this regu-
lation was a fresh taxation upon houses, endea-
voured to impose upon the commissioners by false
reports. The first calculation, therefore, did
not produce more than 9,159,999 souls, whilst
that of 1787, executed with more accuracy on
the one hand, and more security on the other,
gave a product of 10,268,150, which makes a
surplus of 1,108,151.
The strictness of government produced a still
greater disparity.
In 1787, the undermentioned classes were found
Jess by the numbers prefixed to each than in
1768.
OF SPAIN.
1 1,044 religious persons of both sexes.
17,213 ecclesiastics, or persons be-
Jonging to the clergy.
6,829 persons attached to monastic
professions, or to the order
of the Cross.
242,205 hidalgos, or noblemen.
Sum total 277,291, all of them persons who, by
usurping titles, or making false reports were in-
corporated with the privileged orders, and thus
obtained an exemption from personal imposts.
In 1768, the estimate of population was made
by bishoprics ; in 1787, by governments, or pro-
vinces. The following table will serv-e to illus-
Jrate the difference in these two enumerations.
Results of the enumeration Results of that
0/1768. 0/1787.
fboys, bachelors, and
widowers - 2,809,069 3,l62,00/
girls, unmarried fe-
males, and widows. 2,911,853 3,215,482
I married men and wo-
t men - 3,439,0/2 3,891,661
Total 9,159,999 10,269,160
268
MODERN STATE
Results of the enumeration
0/1768.
Results of that
0/1787.
cities, towns, and vil-
lages
parishes
church dignitaries,
vicars, &c.
convents for men
convents for women
monks
nuns
persons attached to
Number of <j the clergy
syndics of religious
orders
pensioners of the mili-
tary tribunal
pensioners of the king
dependents on the
order of the Cross
dependents OH the in-
quisition
hidalgos, or nobles
16,427
18,/l6
18,106
18,072
51,048
42,/0/
2,004
2,019
1,026
1,048
55,453
.57,515
27,665
24,559
25,248
16,376
8,552
4,127
89,393
27,577
4,248
2,645
722,794
77,884
36,405
2.705
480,589
From this enumeration, we also learn the pro-
portions of the different orders and professions.
There were found 145 cities, bearing the ap-
pellation ofCiudades, besides 4,572 towns, simply
denominated --villas, 12,732 villages, 007,197
husbandmen, 964,571 day-labourers, 270,9$9
0* 1 SPAIN,
mechanics, 280,092 domestics, 50,994 students
39,750 manufacturers.
We learn, moreover, the relative population
of each of the provinces, and discover, what
would otherwise barely amount to a conjecture,
that the resources derived from the vicinity of
the ocean, perhaps also the quality of the food
supplied by that vicinity, provided these two ad-
vantages be associated with a fertile soil, will suf-
fice to counterbalance the inconveniences of a bad
administration ; because Galicia, half of which
is monopolized by the clergy, being destitute of
canals, of navigable rivers, and almost of roads,
having no other sources of industry than the ma-
nufacture of linens, navigation, and fishery; Ga-
licia, I say, which has a soil adapted to every
species of culture, being encompassed on two
sides by the ocean, and exempt from that fatal
scourge, the mesta, is beyond comparison the most
populous province of Spain, although it is far
from being the most extensive. In 1787 its po-
pulation was computed at 1,345,803 souls; where-
as Catalonia, with a territory almost twice asexten-
sive, and where industry is much more flourishing,
only contains 814,412 inhabitants ; Arragon only
623,808 ; and lastly, Estramadura, the surface
of which exceeds that of Galicia by one-fourth,
scarcely comprizes 417,000 souls.
With regard to the population of Madrid, we
270 MODERN STATE
mnst take into the account that this capital has
a regular garrison of six to ten thousand men,
that it is moreover the rendezvous of persons who
have any thing- to solicit of the government from
all parts of Spain and of the Indies, besides a
considerable number of foreigners ; so that it
\vill Ire no exaggerated estimate if we compute its
standard population at one hundred and eighty
thousand souls.
The sacred edifices have nothing remarkable
in their architecture, although the Abbe Ponz
bas filled nearly a whole volume with a descrip-
tion of these monuments. Many of them, how-
ever, contain valuable collections of paintings,
which are even calculated to excite admiration
in persons who have seen those of the Escurial
and of the new palace.
The little church of San Pasqual, on the Prado,
incloses within its narrow com pass and smoky walls
two paintings by Titian, several by Spagnoletto,
one of the best pieces of Bassano, two by Guer-
cino, &c. The church of St. Isabella also con-
tains some masterpieces of Spagnoletio, more
especially the Assumption on the high altar, a
capital performance, of which there is an en-
graving. But no church at Madrid comprizes
a larger and more select gallery than that of the
barefooted Carmelites, in the street of Alcala.
How often have I repaired to the spacious sacristy
OF SPAIN. 271
of these monks, the most wealthy of any at Ma-
drid, in order to contemplate with a mixture of
envy and admiration treasures so egregiously
misplaced and undervalued. Amongst other
paintings, there are many by Spanish artists,
whose deserts entitle them to a reputation far
greater than they enjoy ; by Zurbaran, Zereza,
Spagnoletto, Murillo, Giordano ; Charles V.
haranguing his soldiers, by Titian ; a Lord's Sup-
per, by Vandyke; several paintings by Rembrandt;
and in particular, a Tobias, seated in a pen-
sive attitude, beside a hearth, the reflection of
which casts a dim light upon his person.
Independently of their pictures, these three
churches scarcely deserve attention. An absurd
taste prevails in their architecture, as in almost
all the religious edifices at Madrid. The only
exception is the church of St. Isiciro, formerly
belonging to the Jesuits, which has a very hand-
some portico, although it is not altogether free
from defects. Its interior is not without beauty,
and amongst other paintings of greater or less
merit, there is a large piece by Mengs, and an
Adoration by Titian.
There is another church of a much more mo-
dem date, which has something imposing at first
sight, and which also contains some fine paint-
ing*. This is the church of las Salesas, or of the
Visitation, founded by Ferdinand VI. and Bar-
272 MODERN STATE
bara, his queen. The ashes of this royal pair arc
deposited under two superb mausoleums, which
are placed back to back. That of the king 1 , in
particular, has an inscription which appears to
be a model of the lapidary style. The Spaniards
themselves have expressed their own opinion con-
cerning the edifice in these words : Barbara
Rcyna, Barbara Gasto, Barbara Obra ; a play
upon words, the sense of which can only be fully
interpreted in their language,, in which the ex-
pression, Barbara, is equally applicable to the
name of the foundress, to the enormous expences
and absurd taste of the foundation. Its object,
however, is very laudable : a certain number of
young ladies are educated here at the expence of
the king ; it is an appendage to the seminary of
nobles, a species of military school, which has
been for some tune under the direction of that
famous academician, Don George Juan.
In modern times, immense sums have for a
number of years been expended on the construc-
tion of a convent of Franciscans, which was ex-
pressly designed to be one of the most masterly
specimens of architecture in the metropolis. It
was finished not long ago, and after all, it is an
edifice more remarkable for its solidity than its
elegance. The church, however, in the form-- of
a rotunda, ornamented with pilasters, is very
striking at first sight. The best masters of the
6F SPAIN. 2*75
modern Spanish school,, have furnished the paint-
ings of its chapels. In general they are worthy
pupils of Mengs ; such as Messrs. Maelia and
Bayeux, also called el AragonCs, whose colour-
ing and style of design remind us of the manner
of their master. The other contributors are Don
Antonio Velasquez, Don Andres de la Colleja,
Don Joseph Castillo, Don Gregorio Ferro, who
excels in the art of imitating the best pictures of
the greatest painters ; Don Francisco Goya *
who possesses a peculiar talent for giving an ac-
curate representation of the manners, the diver-
sions, and costume of his native Country. Among
the modern painters, we may likewise notice Car-
nicero, who, with much discernment, copies in
miniature those chef d'ceuvres with which the
King has thought proper to embellish his smaller
apartments, and also the young Aparicio, whose
picture of Athalia, remarked at the grand exhi-
bition of the Louvre in 1804, is a sufficient
ground for high expectations.
The modern architecture of Spain can boast
of the names of Don Ventura Roderiguez, of
Villanueva, of Arnal, of Preach extraction ; and?
* Goya likewise excels in portraits as wfell as /iciemv' and'
Esteve. With regard to historical subjects, we may distin-
guish Don Francisco Ramos, who has realized the expectations,
which he raised about twenty years ago by the paintings hw
sent from Rome to the Academy of Fine Arts at Madrid'.
VOl. I T
MODEItN STATE
of Don Franciscd Sabattini, an Italian, who
died some years ago, after having been for
some time superintendent of the royal buildings,
and chief of the corps of military engineers.
In the department of engraving, there were
several distinguished persons ; at their head, we
may rank Don Salvador Carmona, married to
the daughter of Mengs, who has in a great mea-
sure inherited the graceful pencil of her father
lie is honourably known in France, where he
has gained several prizes offered by our academy
of painting. Were we disposed to be censorious,
we might say that his talents, either from too
little or too late encouragement, have not accom-
plished the expectations they excited in their
early dawn. Several other engravers, as, for ex-
ample, Messrs. Ferro, Muntaner, Fabregat, Bal-
lester, but more especially M. Selma, have de-
monstrated, by very successful specimens, that this
art continues to make advances towards perfec-
tion in Spain. In 1780, a superb edition of Don
Quixote appeared in four volumes, quarto, which
were embellished with engravings. But these
plates, which do not rise above mediocrity, are
not answerable to the excellence of the work,
which is equally remarkable for the beauty of
the paper, the quality of the ink, and the neat-
ness of the type, and may be compared with the
most finished performances of this kind which
other nations have produced. It would alone
OF SPAIN.
suffice to immortalize the printing office of
Ibarra. It is a truly national work, by which
the Spaniards have undeceived all Europe, which
supposed that among them., the arts were in their
cradle. The ink is a composition invented by
Ibarra himself, from whom our printers have fre-
quently endeavoured to obtain the secret. The
characters were cast by a Catalonian. The pa-
per is likewise of Catalonian manufacture. The
learned preface and analysis of Don Quixote pre-
fixed to the work, are the composition of Don
Joseph de Guevara, member of the academy of
language. The binding itself, although some-
what inferior to the rest, proves that the Spa-
niards are strangers to nothing which has a refer-
ence to the art of typography.
Don Quixote is not the only specimen of abi-
lity which they have exhibited in this depart-
ment. All amateurs are acquainted with the edi-
tion of Sallust, translated into Spanish by the In-
fant Don Gabriel, which ranks higher than any
thing executed by Barbou or Baskerville, and is
almost equal to the performances of Didot, to-
gether with several other typographical works,
from the printing-office of Ibarra at Madrid, and
from that of Benedict Montfort at Valencia.
Among these typographical specimens, are
Mariana, Solis, Garcilasso, the Poem on Music,
the Parnasso Espanol of Sedano ; and above all
the masterpiece of Benedict Montfort, the learned
276 MODERN STATE
work of Bayer, preceptor to the Infant Don>
Gabriel, which is entitled : De nunnnis hebrceo-*-
samaretanis, 2 vols. folio.
Of late the Spanish engravers have been busily
employed upon the portraits of about twenty il-
lustrious persons, kings, generals, and celebrated
writers : and many of the Spanish grandees, who
have galleries of paintings, whence the public de-
rived no advantage, and which appeared wholly
useless towards the advancement of art, have
for some years allowed a portion of them to
be copied by the best engravers at Madrid. But
what is still more praiseworthy than the patron-
age afforded -to the arts, is the number of those
monuments of beneficence and charity, compre-
hended in the single city of Madrid, which
exalt it to a superior rank among the capitals of
Europe. Here are charitable foundations which
deserve to be held out as models of imitation ;
two fraternities, the funds of which arc dedicated
to the succour of the unfortunate ; a Mont de
Putt, which advances sums of money to paupers,
and which, from 1724 until the conclusion of
1794, has expended more than one hundred and
eleven millions of rials, (about 625,000/. sterling);
moreover a foundling hospital (inclu&a} which,
in 1803, contained one thousand three hundred
and eighteen individuals, and three hospitals, of
which the following is an account for the yea*
1803
OF SPAIN, 2/7
li. The general hospital for men ; a spacious
.edifice, which was rebuilt about twenty or
twenty-five years ago, close to, but without the
gate of Atocha, ojieof the chief gates of the city,
at the entrance of the public walk of las Delicias.
In 1803, In 1801.
Admitted, - - - 21,395 patients; 14,45
Of whom died, - 2,713
Recovered, -, - - 18,180
II. The hospital known by the name of the
Passion, for females.
Admitted in 1803, 7,400; in 1801, 5,297
Died, - - - - 1,144
Recovered, - - - 6,197
III. The hpspital of San Juan de Dios, for
venereal disorders.
Admitted of both sexes, 3, 966; in 1801, 3,271
Died, ----- 73
Recovered, - - - 3,613
General statement of the three hospitals.
In 1803. In 1801.
Admitted - - - 32,762 22,823
Died, - - - - 3,930
Recovered - - - 27,992
278 MODERN STATE
CHAPTER X,
Other Academies. Fate of the JVew Encyclo-
pedia in Spain. Justification and literary Me-
rits of the Spaniards.
THE Academy of the Fine Arts,, is far from being
the only one which exists at Madrid. We may
even affirm., that if a multitude of literary esta-
blishments would suffice to demonstrate the ad-
vancement of science and intellectual refinement,
this capital would be one of the most learned and
most enlightened cities in the universe. It com-
prizes an academy of medicine, an economical
society of the friends of the country, with which
is associated a junta of ladies, eager to testify
their zeal for the public welfare, besides some
other juntas, the exertions and titles of which
are less conspicuous, but which serve at least to
demonstrate the existence of a patriotic enthu-
siasm, that for some time past has been enkindled
among all ranks. There is moreover an aca-
demy of Spanish and public law ; another of
jurisprudence, both theoretical and practical; a
third of the sacred canons; a fourth of jurispru-
dence, civil, canonical, and patriotic ; besides the
Latin academy of Madrid, &c. But the follow-
OF SPAIN. 279
ing are the only establishments of this kind, which
are more particularly deserving of notice.
I. The Academy of Language, founded by
Philip V. which has constantly been regarded by
the French academy as a sister institution. The
dictionary which it has published, has, ever since
its first edition, been accounted, even by the con-
fession of the most skilful grammarians, the most
finished performance of the kind, which has ap-
peared in any language. The Abbe Marillo,
librarian to this academy, has been commissioned
to make an abridgment of this dictionary, in
one volume, which will suffice for ordinary use.
This academy consists of only twenty four or-
dinary members, but the number of supernume-
rary ones is not limited. For several years it
had for its president a Spanish grandee, the
Marquis de Santa Cruz, governor of the Prince
of Asturias ; in which instance, it was not an
empty compliment paid merely to his rank and
birth. After his death his place was filled by his
brother, Don Pedro de Silva, a man of still supe*
rior talents, who is honored with the title of per*-
petual director.
II. The Academy of History, founded and en*-
do wed by Philip V. in 1738, had for its first pre-
sident Don Augustin Montiano, a man of emi-
nence in literature, although little known out of
Spain. Towards the conclusion of the eighteenth
century, the president of this academy was the
(Count de Campomanes, a man respectable no(,
only for his erudition and patriotism., but likewise
ibr the rank he occupied in the courts of judica-
ture, in which he went through all the inter-
mediate degrees from the profession of a common
pleader to the high dignity of governor of the
council of Castile. lie was always one of the
most indefatigable members of this academy,
even when his official avocations afforded but few
moments of leisure. Full of years and of claims
jjpon the public esteem., he resigned all those of-
ficial situations, which required laborious at-
tendance, and withdrew to the council of state,
where he enjoyed a respect that was due to his
merit, until he terminated in 1802, a life which
had been dedicate^ to purposes of public utility.
His contemporaries have been instructed by his
literary productions on the education of the
people, pn national industry, on many subjects
of history ami of political economy. His heirs
Jiave certainly found amongst his papers several
valuable documents relative to the state of Spain,
during the government of the Moors ; having
been emplo}ed during a considerable part of his
life, in collecting materials on that subject,
which if published, may serve to throw much
light upon one of the most obscure and impor-
tant subjects of modern history.
At all times the Spaniards have paid great
Attention tp the history of their country. Therg
QF SPAIN. 281
is not a single town of any note,, which has not
its particular history or chronicle. Oflate years,
they have been engaged in reprinting their best
historians. About twenty years ago, they pub-
lished, for the first time, several works of Sepul-
veda, amongst others, one which is entitled,
De rebus gestis Caroli Quint I. It is almost thirty
years since they began to publish all the ancient
chronicles relative to Castile, many of which had
never appeared before. They are all enriched
with notes, which demonstrate the sound criti-
cism and erudition of their authors, the chief of
whom are Don Francisco Cerda, Don, Jtfiguel
Florez, Don Eugenio de Llaguno, and some other
members of the academy of history. This academy
contains in its apartments a valuable collection
of all patents, charters, and other documents re^
lating to the towns, communities, churches, chap-
ters, &c. throughout Spain ; the whole arranged
with great care in chronological order, and con-
sequently well adapted to furnish the most co-
pious fund of authentic materials in all the de-
partments of Spanish history. From these im-
mense archives, the members of the academy of
history have procured the materials for a Geo-
graphical Dictionary of Spai?i, which is of a
modern date, and has gone through several edi-
tions. It has been augmented with several addi-
tions, the last volume of which appeared in the
month of June, 1796,
82 MODERN STATE
Other individuals have undertaken the task of
publishing the catalogue of the Greek manu-
scripts in the library of Madrid. This under-
taking^ which is conducted by the librarians,
was begun by Don Juan Iriarte, an amiable and
ingenious scholar, who died, leaving three ne-
phews behind him, to confer a more durable repu-
tation upon his name, in the different paths of
literature which they followed. One of them,
Don Thomas, died a few years since, crowned
with literary laurels ; another, Don Domingo,,
after having ratified the peace of Basle, and
having been subsequently nominated ambassador
lo France, was suddenly snatched from his coun-
try, and from a circle of friends he had acquired
amongst our countrymen. Don Bernardo, the
eldest of the three, is still living, and dedicates his
time partly to the arts to which he is attached,
and partly to the duties of administration.
Father Florez, a monk, began an ecclesiasti"
cal history, which, under his auspices, was, in
fact, nothing better than an undigested compila-
tion ; but it has assumed a more elegant form,
ince it has been committed to the management
of father Risco, who has continued this history.
Several other writers, conversant in the affairs
of their country, have endeavoured to explore
the labyrinth of history, and to communicate in-
formation to their countrymen, upon economic
OF SPAIN. 283
cal and political subjects. They have incorpo-
rated with their language, those productions of
England, France and Italy, which were tolerated
by Spanish orthodoxy ; not only works relating
to the arts and to mechanics, but also such as
treat on general subjects of literature and philo-
sophy. It is now more than twenty years since
they began to translate the writings of Linnseus
and of Buffon. At present, their literati are
more zealously occupied than ever, with transla-
tions, but they are not always happy in their
choice or arrangement. They frequently couple
the most insipid French novel with Clarissa Har-
lowe, and associate translations of our most ig-
norant church disciplinarians with the essays of
Maupertuis on moral philosophy, with the works
of Bernardin de Saint Pierre, or with those of
Condillac.
Of late, certain persons have even attempted to
make the Spanish literati acquainted with the
philosophical history of Raynal, a work which
incensed the Spanish government to such a de-
gree, that I have often seen Galvez, minister of
the Indies, burst into a violent passion at the
mere mention of the author's name, regarding
those who had endeavoured to introduce some
surreptitious copies into the Spanish colonies in
the light of criminals guilty of high treason
against God and man. The Duke de Almodo-
281 MODERN STATE
Tar* one of the small nnmber of Spanish gran-
dees who cultivate polite literature, has given an
extract rather* than a translation of this work,
taking care to omit all those passages of the
philosophical history which contain invectives
against despotism and superstition, and has rec-
tified several errors relative to the Spanish co-
lonies, into which Raynal had fallen.
Some time before an attempt wjts made to trans-
late the French Dictionnaire Encyclopedique, by
subscription ; and it was no small matter of asto-
nishment to behold the grand inquisitor himself
at the head of the subscribers. Towards the
end of my first residence in Spain, a pretty nume-
rous list had been already collected., for the
Nouvcllc Encyclopedic par ordre de matures,
when unfortunately., one of our writers, to whose
management the article in the geographical sec-
tion, treating of Spain, had been committed, ad-
vanced in the most unreserved manner, many
heavy accusations against a country, which, on
account of her political relations with France,
ought to have been treated with deference and
delicacy. The Spanish government conceived
itself authorized to require satisfaction. The
* He had been minister of Spain in Russia during the reign
of Peter III., was subsequently ambassador in Portugal, and
last -of all, in England, until the period when Spain took an ac-
tive share in the American war. He died a few years ago.
OF SPAIN. 285
expostulation was favourably received by the
French court, and the author, the censor,
and printer, were severely reprimanded. la
Spain the sale of the Nouvclle Encyclopedic
was suspended. Shortly afterwards, however,-
the government revoked this decree, but in order
to expunge all errors and invectives which might
hereafter creep into the French work, it directed,
that in future, every number, before it was de-
livered to the subscribers, should be revised and
examined by the Council of Castile. The coun-
cil actually nominated a committee to which the
examination was delegated, whose dilatory pro-
ceedings retarded the sale of the work. The
committee themselves neither possessed inclina-
tion or leisure, nor sufficient knowledge to exe-
cute their task. More than three hundred sub-
scribers were obliged anxiously to await their de-
cision. But matters grew much worse, when
the holy office, influenced by a spirit of intrigue
rather than religious zeal, added "new obstacles to
the circulation of the numbers ; in the first in-
stance, by prohibiting the agent whom Panc-
koucke had sent ( to Madrid, from receiving any
more subscriptions ; then by extorting a promise
from him not to deliver any more copies, and last
of all, by a violent seizure of all the numbers in
his possession. The ruin of the agent, and a
great loss to Panckoucke, were the consequence
f these violent measures. The storms of the re-
286 MODERN STATE
volution, and the subsequent war., prevented the
injured parties from obtaining redress.
Throughout this whole transaction, the Spa-
nish government was to blame in many respects.
Ought it to have interfered in a quarrel which
belonged exclusively to the department of litera-
ture, or ought it to have been incensed at the ac-
cusations of ignorance ? Do the reputation or
honour of a nation depend upon the loose asser-
tions of an obscure writer ? To make a parade of
authority in such cases, is not to refute but to
confirm obloquy, at least to give it more pub-
licity. Spain ought to have delegated to her own
professional literati the task of demonstrating
that she was not so entirely destitute of scientific
knowledge, or of claims upon the esteem and
gratitude of Europe as had been asserted by
Masson de Morvillers. This is the only ven-
geance that a great nation should take. The
French and English have long since furnished an
example of this kind. They have not only been
accustomed in times of peace to treat each other
with unexampled severity, but foreign nations
have frequently overwhelmed them with bitter
sarcasms and invectives. Their governments have
never dreamt of contemplating such national
wrongs in the light of political concerns. A
magnanimous pride, a consciousness of intrinsic
excellence, will suffice to render a nation invul-
nerable to such petty attacks ; and the genius of
the Spaniards is so happily constituted., that they
OF SPAIN. 287
may with safety oppose this shield to the malig-
nity of their adversaries. It was not requisite
that the court should stimulate them to under-
take their justification. The Abbe Cavanilles,
who had resided some years at Paris,* of hi*
own accord, undertook to vindicate his country
against this imprudent writer in the Encyclopedic ;
but his countrymen themselves are of opinion,
that his intemperate zeal hurried him beyond the
precise limits of his design. He was more lavish
in panegyric than the French author in malig-
nant aspersions. The one denied every shadow
of merit, the other dealt out with an unsparing
hand every species of excellence ; insomuch that,
in order to support his assertions, he was obliged
to quote a long catalogue of authors, of scholars,
and artists, who were for the most part unknown,
even to the Spaniards themselves.
A more recent and anonymous apologist en-
tered upon the vindication of his country, with
not less warmth, but, however, in a more plau-
sible way, and sent me his manuscript.
In this performance, he takes a survey of all
the various departments of science and literature,
and demonstrates that the Spaniards are not un-
acquainted with any one of them; he particularly
extols their proficiency in the military art. " Are
not the works," says he, " of the Marquis de
Santa Cruz, translated into all languages ? Arc
* The same who lias since acquired ? reputation by some
verv valuable botanical works.
283 MODERN STATE
not the French themselves accustomed to quote
the dissertation! of Louis Collado, and of Chris-
topher Lechuga, on artillery ?"
But what more particularly provokes the spleen
of our jaionymous author, is this passage of Mas-
son deMorvillers : "For what has Europe been in-
debted to Spain for these two centuries,, nay, for
these two thousaml years ?" The following is the
substance of his answer to this impertinent qucs-
1wn : cc This ignorant Frenchman/' says he,
<c has probably forgotten / nay, perhaps never
knew, that Ferdinand the Catholic, expelled the
Saracens from Granada, whilst Isabella patron-
ized the discovery of the new world ; that
Charles V. triumphed at Pavia, whilst Magellan
passed those streights to which he gave his name,
and explored the coasts, the rivers, the harbours
of South America; that Cano was the first who
circumnavigated the globe and defined its extent
and figure; that Cortez, in Mexico, that Pizarro,
in Peru, fought, conquered, and secured the
possession of the valuable productions of the two
Americas to the remainder of Europe ; that the
Spaniards introduced into this new hemisphere
domestic animals, the use of iron, and all those
branches of industry, whence so many advantages
accrue to the present possessors of the colonies ;
that they analyzed the productions of the coun-
try, and established the cultivation of sugar, from
whicb France and England have derived such
OF SPAIN. 289
a great accession to their commerce ; moreover,
that thej improved, and augmented the growth
of cocoa, of indigo, of cochineal, tobacco, and
cotton ; and lastly, that they discovered the vir-
tues of peruvian bark, of balsams, of sarsaparilla.,
and of many other medical plants.
" About the middle of the sixteenth century,
whilst some of their countrymen, under the con-
duct of Don John of Austria, and Bazan, tri-
umphed at Lepanto, others advanced as far as
the Philippines ; another division of Spaniards
coasted along the country of California, ascer-
tained its peninsular figure, and discoverd New
Mexico ; whilst others again traversed the vast
extent of South America.
" They instructed millions of Americans in
their religion, their manners, and their language,
transformed them into husbandmen, mechanics,
and soldiers, made them by patriotism fellow-
citizens of the mother country ; whilst other na-*
tions taught those Indians with whom they came
in contact the destructive use of fire-arms, and'
intoxicating liquors, cultivating no other com-
merce with the natives, than a paltry traffic in
furs, and making them adepts, both by precept
and example, in the practice of deceit.
" Let us compare with the condition of these
Spanish colonies, the subject of so much idle
declamation, the deplorable aspect of Cayenne ;
let us comtemplate the misery to which Louisiana
VOL. i. t
MODERN STATE
\vas reduced, notwithstanding the boasted mag-
nanimity of the French., at the period when
it was ceded to Spain. Shall the English be ad-
duced as proper standards of imitation ? When
they usurped our settlements on the coasts of
Campeachy and Honduras, did they civilize their
inhabitants ? Have they done any thing towards
promoting their happiness ? No ; they have suf-
fered them to continue in a state of disunion and
rude barbarism, and have uniformly exercised
before their eyes the infamous arts of smuggling
and piracy. Admitting that the colony of Suri-
nam, under Dutch government, has attained to
a certain degree of prosperity, what shall we saj
concerning the remainder of Dutch Guiana ?
" And yet these nations are reputed the most
industrious, the most powerful, the most com-
mercial states in Europe. Such, however, is the
result of what they have done towards promoting
the welfare of the two worlds !
" If they censure the Spaniards for having
usurped part of America, or for having commit-
ted wanton acts of cruelty there, let this be their
answer :
fe Have these English, French, or Dutch, a su->
perior right to the colonies which they subju-
gated ? What arc become of the Caribbees of
their Antilles ? Have they displayed more huma-
nity than the Spaniards ? Did they not seek to
derive every advantage from the successful de-
OF SPAIN. 291
predations of the savage Buccaneers ? What
infamous arts of oppression did they not exercise
in India, in order to monopolize the commerce,
the industry, and even the personal liberties of
the unfortunate natives ? It was not a gang of
adventurers, discountenanced by their native
country, who committed this devastation ; they
were supported by the politics of the most power-
ful cabinets in the midst of the most enlightened
age, in countries of a Milton and of a Newton,
of a Montesquieu, and of a d'Alembert."
Inthis manner did our anonymous author reply
to the accusations of Masson de Morvillers, and
of that numerous tribe of declaimers, of whose
sentiments he was the interpreter. Generally
speaking, these recriminations only serve to de-
monstrate that no modern nation has any just
ground or colour to censure others, on account
of the abuse of supreme power, or on the score
of a perfidious policy, but they supply no deci-
sive arguments, in favour of Spain, with respect
to her advancement in civilization, in science or
literature. This part of the apology devolved
upon the Abbe Cavanilles. It is, however, a
question whether he has accomplished his pur-
pose.
In our days, two other Spaniards have gone over
the same ground again, in such a prolix manner
as would seem scarcely compatible with the sub-
ject. Lumpillas has filled six volumes with a
v 2
MODERN STATE
catalogue of the treasures of modern Spanish lite-
rature ; and Don Juan Sempere published some
years ago a work, in six volumes octavo, entit-
led, <c Essay towards a Spanish collection of the
best writers- in the reign of Charles III." Ta
judge from the titles of these two hooks, might
we not suppose that the Spanish nation is the
most prolific in great writers, the most learned
and enlightened in Europe ? Truth, as on
every other occasion, is also, in the present in-
stance, to be found in a just medium between
the extravagant accusations of the French im-
peacher, and the vain- glorious ostentation of the
Spanish vindicators. Unquestionably there ex-
ist in Spain a much greater number than is gene-
rally supposed of learned men, who cultivate ia
silence the abstruse sciences ; of scholars, who
are profoundly conversant in the history and ju-
risprudence of their country ; of eminent literary
characters, and of poets, glowing with the fire
of genius, and gifted with a brilliant and prolific
imagination. But, even by the confession of
unprejudiced Spaniards themselves, the present
state of science and literature can by no means
sustain a comparison with that of the age o
JWendoza, of Ambrose JMorales, Herrera, Saa-
Tedra, Qucvedo, Garcilasa, Calderon, JLopez
de Vega, Villcgas, Cemantes, Mariana, Sepul-
'ieda, Soils, &c. The universities of Spain da
not enjoy the same reputation as formerly. The
OF SPAIN. 293
industry and population of the country are far
from what they were under Ferdinand the Catho-
lic and his two successors. The three last mo-
narchs have endeavoured to revive that illustrious
aera ; but frequent wars, a derangement in the
finances, and other still more powerful causes*
have obstructed their endeavours,, and retarded
the progress of science. Intellectual refinement
is, however, far more universally diffused than it
was about fifty years ago. The reign of Charles
III. can boast of eminent characters in the vari-
ous departments of science end literature ; such
as father Feijoo, known by his Theatro Critico,
in which he began to make his countrymen more
familiarly acquainted with the just ideas, and
even with the daring flights of modern philoso-
phy-
Father Sarmiento, author of some good criti-*
cal performances.
Don Jorge Juan, a skilful mathematician,
chiefly conversant in the art of ship-building.
Don Juan Iriarte, known by several literary
publications, highly creditable to his learning,
and even t his taste. All the four abovemen-
lioned, died about twenty-five years ago.
Among those scholars whom Spain has re-
cently lost, the most conspicuous are :
Father Isla, a Jesuit, author of several works
replete with wit and philosophy, particularly the
Fray Gerundio, in which performance he has ri-
MODERN STATE
diculed bad preachers in the same facetious man-
ner in which Cervantes has lashed the follies of
knight- err ants.
Don Francisco Perez Bayer, preceptor of the
Infant Don Gabriel, who has enriched Spanish
literature with several works full of erudition.
Several poets., who, if they did not possess the
fancy and fecundity pf their predecessors, have,
however, exhibited specimens of a refined taste,
from which the latter have in many instances devi-
ated ; such, for exam pie, are Cadalialso, Lahuerta,
Don Thomas Iriarte, known even beyond the
confines of his country, by a poem on Music,
by some pretty fables* and comedies.
Among living authors, or those lately deceased,
we may distinguish the Count de Campomancs, a
learned historian and lawyer, and one of the first
Spaniards who directed the attention of their
countrymen towards the means of promoting; na-
tional industry.
Cardinal Lorenzana, archbishop of Toledo, a
prelate equally eminent for his knowledge ana;
for his benevolence, f
* Some of his fables have been imitated by M. de Florian.
Jn 1 S04, they were all translated by M. i'Homandie ; but it
must be allowed, that in French they have not had the same suo
cess as in the original Spanish. The French journalists, especi-
ally the Decade, treated both the translation and original with
some degree of asperity.
f Towards the cqnclusion of the reign of Pius VI. he was
OF SPAIN. 295
The Chevalier Azara, whose name is respected
.by all those whom their affection for the fine arts
conducted to Rome ; the elegant editor of the
works of Mengs, whose friendship he enjoyed
besides which, he published an excellent trans-
Jatioo, in four volumes, of Cicero's life, by Mid-
dleton, which he illustrated -with a preface, and
several engravings, selected from his own cabinet
of antiques. *
Don Joseph Guevara, Don Murillo, Don
Francisco Cerda, and many other learned men,
sent to that pontiff, as if to console him under his misfortunes by
this striking proof of the sympathy of the first catholic mo-
narch. Cardinal Lorenzana remained with his holiness until
he was removed to France. Afterwards he continued to reside
in Italy ; a circumstance which demonstrates that the unex-
pected mission which obliged him to quit his diocese, was not
solely occasioned by a zeal to administer consolation to the so-
vereign pontiff. Tlie archbishopric of Toledo has been since
transferred to the son of the late Infant Don Louis, who has
the title of Count of Chinchon. Cardinal Lorenzana died in
3 803.
* He died at Paris in 1804. He resided there some years as
ambassador of Spain; but his embassy was interrupted by
many feuds. The austere frankness of his character involved
him in many disagreeable circumstances. He died soon after
the last disgrace which he experienced. In the Moniteur of
1804, is inserted an historical account of his life, in which
there are some interesting details concerning his character,
his knowledge, his taste for the arts, and the uniform patron-
age which he conferred on those by whom they are cultN
vated.
MODERN STATE
who deserve to be much better known than they
actual \y are.
Don Eugcnio Izquierdo, a natural philosopher,
whose worth our literati have had opportunities to
appreciate, and who is at present director of the
cabinet of natural history.
Don Casimir Ortega, a botanist, and member
of the Royal Society of London.
. Don Antonio Joseph Cavanilles* another bo-
lanist, who enjoys a greater reputation abroad
than the preceding, having published, in 1791, the
first volume, and in 1794, the third of a very valu-
able work, entitled, Icones et de scriptioncs planta-
rum, quce aut sponte in Hispania crescunt, aut in
liortishospitantur, in which one hundred and thir-
ty-six plants of the botanical garden are described
and engraved, besides one hundred and fifty-six
from the kingdom of Valencia, and a great num-
ber that are found in the environs of Madrid.
Ruiz and Pabon, two other botanists, whom
we have noticed above.
Don Villalba, who has lately attracted
public attention by his History of the Epidemic
Distempers of Spain.
Lastly, the Spaniards possess at present some
poets in the department of comedy and tragedy,
whom we shall notice in the section on the the-
atre; and likewise some authors of fugitive poems.
* He died in June 1804, much lamented by all amateurs of
natural history.
OF SPAIN. 297
There are also some Spaniards who have re-
moved to France, in order to augment the sphere
of their knowledge in science and art,, and they
have done honour to us bj their scientific acqui-
sitions. InlS04,twoyoungpupilsofour most skil-
ful chemists,, Messrs. San- Christoval and Garrigcf
y Buach, published at Paris, in the Spanish lan-
guage, a work entitled, Curso de Qwmica gene-
red, applicada a las Aries, which at least demon-
strates that the Spaniards know how to derive ad-
vantage from their travels.
In like manner, Don Benito Pardo, a Spanish
general, after a residence of some years at Paris,
published in that capital a book in his native
language, in two sections ; the first of which
contains an Analytical Examination of the picture-
of the Transfiguration, the other comprizes OZ>-
scrvatious on the Painting of the Creaks.
Generally speaking, literature has for some
time past, been more assiduously cultivated by-
the Spaniards than is commonly supposed. Al-
though their exertions are still cramped by the
shackles in which they are confined, they are,
however, not destitute of the means requisite to,
obtain information, concerning every thing of
interest that occurs either abroad or at home. In
the first years of the French revolution, nay even
during the war, they always read the French
journals with great avidity, and found means to
298 MODERN STATE
procure them in spite of all prohibitions. They
also possess some periodical works of their own.
Besides the Court Gazette, which appears
twice a week, and gives a very brief account of
all new works, they have a Mer curio historico y
politico, which has, for a considerable time,
made its appearance every mouth, and gives a
well digested summary of all the political trans-
actions in Europe. This work was long edited
by Clavejo, who is well known by the memoirs
of Beaumarchais, and is entitled to reputation in
other respects. This task has since devolved
upon M. de Penalver, and the journal has sus-
tained no detriment by the change.
The Spaniards have likewise another periodi-
cal publication, entirely literary, which, since
1784, has made its appearance with scarcely any
interruption, every month, under the title of
/Memorial Literario. Don Joaquin Ezqucrra
was for some time author of this publication, but
the present conductor is M. O laves, who gives
an interesting account of all new works, and
subjoins fragments of morality, of literature, of
political economy, and even of philosophy.
For some years past, there has been a periodi-
cal work, under the title of Espiritu de los ma-
jores diarios de Europa, which, in H98, was
supplanted by the Anales dc litcratura,
& artes, or Miscellanea insfructim y
OP SPAIN. 299
which contains extracts from the best foreign
journals, and many original pieces on statistics
and geography.
We may likewise place in the same class, a
journal upon the plan of the English Spectator,
which formerly appeared every month, since
April 1795, under the title of Seminar to erudito
y curioKo de Salamanca ; but which was not long
since suppressed.
Were we to descend to minute particulars,
we might mention the Reganon, or Snarler, a
new journal, which, however, has not hitherto
been very popular ; the Corres mercantil de
Espaiia ij de sus Indias, which, since 1792, has
appeared every week ; besides many other perio-
dical papers, published in different provinces or
chief towns, but which, out of Spain, are of
little interest.
Foreigners are likewise unacquainted with the
useful and finished performances which the
Spaniards possess on every subject relating to their
native country. We shall just mention the prin-
cipal of them.
The most skilful grammarians of other coun-
tries have already for some time appreciated the
intrinsic excellence of their dictionary of the Cas-
tilian tongue. The Spaniards also possess a good
Grammatica castellana, the fourth edition of
which was about eight years since published by
the academy. They reprint their best national
300 MODERN STATE
works ; such, for .example, arc the Biblioiliecei
retus hispanica, and the Bibliotheca nova hispa~
nica, by Nicolas Antoine, two works which have
long held a high rank in the estimation of scho-
Jars.
They possess a Geographical Dictionary of
Spain, by Monpalau, which has gone through
four editions, and in point of accuracy, is almost
faultless.
They have lately finished their Maritime Atlas
vf Spain, which conies nearer to perfection than
any of the maps of the interior of Spain. That
published in 1792, by Don Thomas Lopez, con-
tains several vacancies, and many inaccuracies,
which I have remai'ked during my long tour in
Spain since its publication. Natives, well in-
formed upon this subject, have however assured
me, that the principality of the Asturias was
delineated upon this chart with remarkable ac-
curacy.
Of late, the Spaniards have been very assidu-
ous in cultivating the study of their native coun-
try, in all its various bearings and relations. In
,1784, an Historia critica de Espana, began to
appear; the author, J. Fr. Masdeu, although a
Catalonian by birth, wrote in Italian ; but his
work has been translated into Spanish. It goes
back to the earliest ages, is full of learned and
curious researches, and displays much erudition
and sound criticism.
30i
The same encomium is applicable in a still
higher degree to the brothers JMohedano, two
monks of superior genius and knowledge, but
somewhat led astray by their patriotic enthusi-
asm. Their work, entitled, Hist or ia Litter ariti,
de EspaTia, was begun in 1779. It was already
extended to nine quarto volumes, and excited the
greatest expectations, when unfortunately it hap-
pened in 1786 to incur the displeasure of the in-
quisition, and was discontinued.
A work inferior in point of composition, be-
ing very prolix, but more useful, is the produce
tion of Don Eugcnio Laruza, who has already
published about twenty volumes, entitled, Me-
tnorias politicas y economicas sobrc la industria,
las minas, etc. de Espaiia. This work contains
the most circumstantial details concernins: the
natural productions, and manufactures of every
kind, in the different provinces of Spain. It
demonstrates at least that the Spaniards are ac-
quainted with their natural and artificial trea-
sures, and that they are intent upon the means of
multiplying these resources.
The major part of the patriotic societies, also
publish interesting memoirs on the same sub-
jects.
The taste for the arts and sciences has extend-
ed from the metropolis to the provinces. At Se-
ville, and at Barcelona, there exists an academy
of belles-lettres ; at Saragossa and Valencia there
302 MODERN STATE
is an academy of the fine arts ; at Valladolid, one
of geography and history; at Granada, one of
mathematics and drawing, &c.
A more modern establishment exhibits an ad-
ditional proof of the zeal of government in pa-
tronizing useful knowledge, and of the alacrity
of the Spanish nation to second its laudable
efforts. This is a corps of cosmographieal en-
gineers formed in 1796. The director is Don
Ximenes Salvador, a man of ability,, and con-
versant in every particular relating to geography,
astronomical, terrestrial, and maritime. This
corps has already entered upon the discharge of
its duties with much success, by publishing some
charts of the coast, as well as maps of the inte-
rior of Spain, delineated from recent observa-
tions.
F SPAIN. 303
CHAPTER XI.
Present State of Spanish Literature. Education.
^Manufactures. Roads. Canals. Patriotic
Societies.
THE foregoing chapter contains an estimate of
the chief literary merits of modern Spain. It
may perhaps serve to exonerate the Spaniards
from the charge of sloth and ignorance.
We must, however, be careful not to exceed
the limits of veracity. In many particulars their
literature is still very defective.
They possess some works relating to the pro-
gress of the arts ; such as the art of dyeing, the
veterinary art ;* several on Spanish jurispru-
dence ; an elementary Treatise on Mathematics,
by Joseph Radon ; a summary History of Arra-
gon, till its incorporation with Castile ; a chro-
* One in particular by Sigismundo Malats, who resided,
some time in France, where be extended his knowledge in
this art, at the school of Alfort, the best institution of its kind.
On his return to Spain, he published his Eltmentos del Artt
Itterinaria, He is at present chief director of the school esfe-
Wished at Madrid in 17
SOI MODERN STATE
nological History of the Spanish Nobility ; Lite-*-
rary Information concerning Spain, by Meudel ;
numerous versions from the Latin, from the
Greek,* from the French, and English ; some
novels, in which class, three published by fa-
ther Montengon, a Jesuit, who has withdrawn
to Italy since the suppression of his order, claim
the precedence : El Anterior, or de la crianza de
un Principe (on the education of a prince) ; La
Eudoxia, or the education of a lady ; but, in
particular, El Euscbio, a work in four volumes,
chiefly formed upon the model of the Emilius of
Jean Jacques Rousseau.
But in the department of true philosophy, they
do not possess any one valuable production ; oil
the contrary, they have a prodigious catalogue of
books of devotion, both original and translated.
This is an abstract of the modern productions of
Spanish literature.
But let us be candid enough to acknowledge,
that mighty obstacles prevent this dawn of the
arts and sciences in Spain, from being followed by
the refulgent blaze of broad daylight; which
seemed to be approaching since the commence-
ment of the last century.
l f Those who cultivate the arts and sciences,
* Among the translations from the Greek, we must notice
those of Anacreon, of Theocritus,, and B ion, by Coude.
OP SPAIN* 305
do not enjoy that portion of public estimation,
which serves to exalt and encourage genius.
2. They find themselves still encumbered with
the formidable shackles of fanaticism and he,r
agents, whose persecution is doubtless not so vi-
rulent as it was in former ages, but whose pre-
sence and number would alone suffice, to prolong
this species of religious terror, even when their
active functions are suspended.
3. Education is still by far too much ne-
glected, or what is worse, it has a direct ten-
dency to instil erroneous principles and prejudices,
and to smother those generous dispositions of na-
ture w ith which the Spaniards, perhaps ujpre
than any other nation, are liberally endowed.
Will it be believed, that the expulsion of the
Jesuits only served to deteriorate this essential
branch of the administration ? At that period,
the dangers of committing the care of youth to
religious corporations were, if possible, exagge-
rated. The Piarists, known in Spain by the ap-
pellation of Escolapios, were the only fraternity
permitted to retain the management of some
schools ; and these were by no means the worst
conducted. In every other instance the func-
tions of the Jesuits were delegated to the profes-
sors, who were promiscuously laymen of ecclesias-
tics, but who were not embodied into a corpora-
tion, and did not live under one roof. The Jesujtg,
besides the possessions belonging to their society.
VOL. i. x
306 MODERN STATE
had also particular endowments for different
professorships. This is the only fund which has
been appointed for the maintenance of new pro-
fessors. It would suffice for a corporation of
monks living together in a community, but it is
an inadequate pro vision for the new order of things.
Professorships so badly endowed will only be
sought after by men of inferior abilities. Hence
the education of youth must sustain a material in-
jury ; and this is an inconvenience for which go-
vernment cannot too soon provide a remedy.
Some feeble attempts have however been made
towards introducing a partial reformation into
some few of these seminaries of education. There
have long been in Spain seven principal col-
leges (Colegios may ores), in which young men
of the first distinction in the monarchy, have
been and still continue to be educated. These
were nurseries for those persons who subsequent-
ly occupied places under government. This
prerogative, together with many others, pro-
duced a vast number of abuses, administered
food to idleness and arrogance ; and discouraged
seminaries of education, which were the rendez-
vous of the poorer classes of pleaders and law-
yers. These last, however, obtained the ascend-
ancy in their turn, in the reign of Charles III. ;
they obtained the most lucrative appointments
under government, and subsequently employed
their influence to obviate the glaring defects of
OP SPAIN. 307
the great colleges. At their instigation, govern-
ment made a reform in the whole establishment
of these colleges, from which the most beneficial
result was expected ; but it has not hitherto taken
place.
The administration is, however, sedulously,
and not unsuccessfully, employed with military
education. Charles III. himself founded four
institutions of this kind ; a school of artillery at
Segovia, one of engineers at Carthagena, one of
cavalry at Ocana, and another of tactics at Avila,
whence it was subsequently transferred to Port
St. Mary. At first all four prospered, to the
great advantage of the different corps to which
they belonged. The two last fell to the ground,
with the credit of their founders, the generals,
Ricardos and Oreilly, who died a few years since,
the one while fighting, and the other on the eve of
taking a command against the French. The two
other seminaries at Segovia and Carthagena are
still in existence, and continue to produce per-
sons eminent in the science of artillery, and in
ship-building.
From all that we have said on this subject, it
will be seen that scientific knowledge, and the
means of acquiring it, are by no means so rare
in Spain as is generally supposed ; moreover,
that literature, the sciences, and the fine arts,
are far from being neglected in that conntry,
x 2
308 MODERN STATE
but that they are encumbered with many shackles,
and require more encouragement.
With regard to national industry, the admi-
nistration lias been assiduously employed, with
tolerable success, ever since the commencement
of last century, in reviving those manufactures
which the Austrian dynasty left in the most de-
plorable condition. V^ ith his customary viva-
city, Philip V. embraced this idea ; but he did
not carry it into execution. Ferdinand VI.
found in the Marquis de la Ensenada a minister
who, possessing- great influence, advanced to-
wards the accomplishment of his undertaking
\vith energy and perseverance ; who collected a
number of able assistants, from whose character
and talents he derived advantage.
Among other useful regulations, he established
manufactures of all kinds in Spain; laid addi-
tional duties upon the exportation of raw mate-
rials ; severely prohibiting, in particular, that of
silk, and giving encouragement to expatriated
jtrtizans. From his administration Valencia and
Saragossa date the revival of their industry.
In the two following reigns, -some of these
manufactures have been brought to a still higher
perfection. We have already seen how much
Charles III. improved those established at Sego-
via and Guadalaxafa. There arc flourishing
manufactures of coarse liaens at Escary, in Bis-
OF SPAIN.
cay ; at Bocaircnte, at Ontcnientc, at Alcoy, &c.,
in the kingdom of Valencia ; and at Grazalema,
in Andalusia. There arc many others, which
\ve shall notice in the course of this work.
The silk manufactures (as we shall see in an-
other place), have been one of the principal ob-
jects of the vigilance of administration, which
has been attended with a beneficial result.
The manufactures of lace have of late arrived
at such perfection, that iheie is scarcely any dis-
tinction observable between the laces of Franca
and Spain, There are manufactures of hats at
Madrid, at Badajoz, and Seville ; and for some,
years past, those of foreign countries have sensi-
i>ly felt their rivalshjp.
To the present dynasty Spain is likewise in-
debted for the few roads and canals she possesses.
IVe have already noticed the activity of govern-
ment wii.li respect to the roads. The system of
/canals is yet merely in embryo. There is one in
the vicinity of Madrid which is intended to joiu
the Manc.anares with the Tagus, and thus faci-
litate the communication between the capital and
the palace of Aranjuez. T\vo or three leagues
Iiave been completed, and there they have left
it. The canal of Castile, begun long since, has
been almost entirely abandoned. In treating of
Saragossa, we shall notice the state of the canal
of Arragon. The canal which had been project-
ed in the kingdom of Murcia, according to an
310 MODERN STATE
incorrect survey, which was subsequently rccti*
fied, has been ultimately found impracticable,
after the pompous advertisements soliciting con-
tributions to defray the expences, which were also
collected. The proprietors of shares,, instead of
the profits they were taught to expect, must rest
satisfied with a moderate interest, which the King
of Spain has engaged to pay them.
In 1784, the administration projected a mucrj.
more brilliant and beneficial undertaking than
that which it had been compelled to relinquish;
this was no other than a canal, which, com-
mencing at the foot of the mountains of Guada-
rama, was to communicate first with the Tagus^
then with the Guadiana, and proceed to the
Guadalquivir, below Andujar, which of course
would have enlivened the whole interior of Spain.
One Le Maur, a Frenchman, had projected the
scheme, and was just going to put it into execu-
tion when he died. But the resolution had been
formed, the plans had been drawn, and the funds
secured. The enterprize was entrusted to the
sons of Le Maur, who inherited the projects of their
father, and also a share of his talents. It was
soon after interrupted, owing to some obstacles
relative to the course of the canal ; the war sub-
sequently interposed other difficulties. On the
return of peace, they sought in vain to revive
this project. It appears to have been entirely
relinquished.
OF SPAIN. 311
But what must more particularly conduce to
the welfare of Spain, and yet has not hitherto
been attended with the desired success, is the
establishment of the patriotic societies, known un-
der the title of " Friends of the Country."
The province of Biscay first set the example ;
it has heen followed hy the other provinces, and
by the capital, where a patriotic society was in-
stituted in 1775. About the end of 1788, there
were forty-four of these societies, and sixty-three
in 1804. Their title sufficiently expresses their
object. The members are chiefly occupied with
the advancement of the arts, agriculture, and
manufactures of their respective provinces.
They propose the discussion of questions relative
to these subjects, and adjudge prizes to those who
have handled them with the greatest ability.
They rouse the activity of their fellow-citizens,
rekindle their zeal, solicit the aid of their know-
ledge, afford encouragement to artizans, succour
and counsel to the husbandman, and promote
the circulation of patriotic enthusiasm through-
out all ranks and classes of the people. There
-never did exist a more laudable institution, which,
since its commencement, made a more rapid pro-
gress, or produced a greater sensation. Those
who can never contemplate prosperity without a
mixture of jealousy, those whose habitual supine-
ness spurns at every happy revolution in human
affairs, those whose selfish and morose disposition
512 MODERN STATE
feels itself injured by prosperous events in which
they do not partake ; all such., I say, have en,-
deavoured to make these societies the butt of
their ridicule. They pretend that the members
talk very plausibly and perform very little ; that
they assume vast importance^ and discuss with
great gravity the most insignificant trifles. Un-
questionably, they have not performed every
thing that might have been done. ,The medio-
crity of their funds has circumscribed their ef-
forts; but the main design was to awaken their
country from its lethargy, to stimulate the talents,
of artists, and the labours of husbandmen, to.
spur on their vanity by a prospect of fame, to
urge self-interest by the hopes of profit ; and this
they have accomplished, Government has ap-
plied part of the surplus of a wise economy,
between the peace of 1783 and the war of 1793,
towards augmenting the fund of beneficence.
At their commencement, these establishments hac(
scarcely any other funds than voluntary contri-
butions. Government has added to this sura the
produce of the spolios y vacantes* which has a
near resemblance to tho fund which formerly ex-
isted in France, under the denomination of Caisst
des Ecotwmats.
Charles HI., in spite of his religious scruples,
conceived himself warranted in appropriating
part of the property of the church to the en-
couragement of these societies; during the vacan-
OF SPAIN. 313
cies of episcopal sees, tlieir revenues, for a stated
period, revert to the monarch.
The patriotic societies have been the fountain-
head of various encouragements to industry. En-
lightened by their admonitions, the administration
has revived several laws fallen into disuse. It,
lias prohibited foreign commodities, the rivalship
of which might prove detrimental to the national
manufactures. It has procured a supply of arti-
zaiiS; who introduce the improved processes and
operations. These measures have already beeu
prejudicial, and will hereafter prove still more
so, to other manufacturing and commercial na-
tions. They may excite their fears and murmurs;
they will doubtless redouble their activity and
vigilance; but they cannot fail to be applauded
by all good patriots in every country. Franca
herself might even borrow these useful regula-
tions from Spain. Her new organization would
easily accommodate itself to this change. A
patriotic society in every chief town of her de-
partments, would serye to enliven that industry,
of which there already exist, in some, many mas-
terly specimens, and, in all, the germs of a future
harvest. Such societies would find in France a
soil well prepared and manured. In that coun-
try they would doubtless produce a more early
and abundant crop. Let us prove to our allies,
that if, on many occasions, we know how to cen-
314 MODERN STATE
sure their defects with asperity, we can also., at
other times, imitate their excellencies.
The patriotic society of Madrid differs from the
others only in the more immediate patronage of
government, and in its local situation, which is
more favourable for collecting subsidiary aids and
information. It has perhaps a narrower sphere
of objects for the display of its activity, because
New Castile exhibits less variety in natural pro-
ductions than the other provinces, and its indus-
try is also more circumscribed. This society is,
however, sedulously occupied with the ameliora-
tion of agriculture in the environs of Madrid,
and with providing employment for children of
both sexes, and for the poor in the metropolis.
A perfect equality is a law most inviola-
bly maintained throughout all these societies.
There no distinction of rank is known. The arch-
bishop of Toledo, and the Duke de Medina Celi,
will sometimes find themselves seated beside an
humble artizan ; and information is gratefully
received, from what quarter soever it may be de-
rived.
OF SPAIN. 315
CHAPTER XII,
Council of Castile, Corregidor and the Alcaldes,
legislation. Influence of the Monks, mo^c.
especially of the Royal Confessors, Authority
of the Roman See circumscribed. Concordat
of 1753. Opulence of the Clergy. Progress of
Philosophy in reference to Priests.
As Madrid is the focus of the arts and sciences
in Spain, it is also the central seat of government.
Though the monarch resides there only a few
weeks in the year, and his ministers are always
near his person, this metropolis is, however, the
seat of administration, and of all the supreme
tribunals. Of these last we shall now take a
survey, which will naturally lead us to treat of
the laws, the religion, the finances, and the mi-
litary establishment.
The Council of Castile holds the first rank
among the tribunals and the councils of admini-
stration; for it acts in both capacities. As a
supreme tribunal, it has the exclusive cogniz-
ance of certain causes ; and, in some cases, re?-
ceives appeals from other tribunals,
316' MODERN STATE
Asa council, it superintends all those internal
regulations which aii'cct the public welfare.
It comprizes five chambers, or Salas :
J . The first Sala de govierno is solely occu-
pied with the aflairs of administration,, and re-
ceives appeals made to the council in order
to forward them to the second Sala de go-
vtcrno, or to the court of justice.
2. The second Sala dc govierno takes cogniz-
anca of such appeals as are transmitted by the
first, and chiefly superintends all those concerns
that relate to manufactures, bridges, and high-
roads.
3. The Sala de mily quinicntos, or of the one
thousand five hundred; is so called, because those
\vlio make their appeals here, from the decisions
of the sovereign tribunals, are obliged to deposit
one thousand five hundred ducats, which they
forfeit if they are nonsuited.
4. The Sala dejusticia, has the exclusive cog-
nizance of certain causes, and in cases of impor-
tance, it acts in concert with the other chambers.
5. The &i/ft de provincia takes cognizance of
appeals in all important cases and receives excepr
lions made against the decisions of the two civil
lieutenants of Madrid, and of the Alcaldes dc
corte, in civil matters.
The last also constitute a sixth chamber, der
nominated the Sala de los alcaldes de casa y cortc,
OF SPAIN. SI?
which bears a resemblance to what was called
the Tourndle, in France.
Madrid is divided into a certain number of
districts assigned to the police,, which are sever*
ally superintended by an ^Alcalde de corte. This
magistrate judges in the first instance conjointly
with the civil lieutenants. Appeals are made
from their respective decisions to their whole
body assembled in court, which can only pro*-
nounce sentence in the last instance in Cases sub-
mitted to its cognizance^ It is only upon extra*
ordinary occasions that such cases are referred to
the Council of Castile.
The court of the Alcaldes de cctsa y cortc wa
formerly the tribunal which constantly accom*
panied the court of Spain in all its peregrinations.
Ever since this court has taken up its residence
at Madrid, the tribunal is also established there,
and it has a provincial jurisdiction over the en-
virons of the residence of the sovereign ; it ha*
also a jurisdiction over a certain distance from
the metropolis.
The Council of Castile is the only tribunal
which is recognized by the grandees of Spain,
and all its members enjoy the right of comnlitli*
mus, as did tho^c of the French parliaments;
In reference to the administration of justice,
Spain is divided into two chanceries ; those of
Granada and Valladolid, which have the exclu
tve cognizance of certain causes. Appeal* frort*
MODERN STATE
their decisions to the Council of Castile are only
made on two occasions ; when the persons at
issue chuse to run the risk of making application
to that chamber of the Council, denominated
the mil y quinientos, or in such cases when jus-
tice is denied them. Each chancery exclusively
superintends the criminal causes of the hidalgos
within its own circuit, and all those suits in which
its own nobility are concerned.
Besides the two chanceries, there are eight
audiences for the whole of Spain, exclusive of
the particular tribunal of Navarre, which bears
the title of Royal Council. The four audiences
of the crown of Arragon, are those of Saragossa,
Barcelona, Valencia, and Majorca; and those
of the crown of Castile are established at Seville,
at Corogna, at Oviedo, and in the Canaries.
Each of the audiences, and each of the chan-
ceries, has a criminal hall (Sala de crimen),
which pronounces criminal sentences in the last
instance, and superintends their execution.
With the exception of a few restrictions, these
tribunals, chanceries, and audiences, are equally
absolute. The principal distinction between
them is, that the former, as for example, the
Council of Castile, try causes in the name of the
King. In some instances, appeals can be made
from the audiences at Corogna and Oviedo to the
chancery at Valladolid, and from the audience
at Seville to the chancery of Granada, But from
OF SPAIN. 319
the four audiences of the crown of Arragon, ap-
peals,, in certain cases, are directly carried before
the Council of Castile., where, according to the
laws of Arragon, such suits must be determined.
Generally speaking, the boundaries of these
several tribunals are not ascertained with suffi-
cient precision, to obviate the inconvenience of
frequent disputes about jurisdiction. As the
Council of Castile omits no opportunity to aug-
ment its own jurisdiction, the chanceries and
audiences are incessantly struggling against it
encroachments, in support of their supreme au-
thority. Unless in cases of appeal, which are
rare exceptions to the general rule, there is no
other resource against the decisions of all these
sovereign tribunals, than that of a new trial, which
in Spain is styled supplied. In such cases, ap-
peals are made to the tribunal itself, from its own
antecedent decisions, beseeching it to grant a new
trial.
The heads of the chanceries are called presi-
dents, those of audiences regents.
The head of the Council of Castile has the
title of president, or governor ; two dignities
which differ in no material point, but are merely
titular honours. The president of the Council
of Castile must always be a grandee of Spain :
when he appears in public, he has peculiar pre-
rogatives,
After a long suspension, this high dignity was
$20 MODERN STATE
again restored, in the person of the Coitrtt
d'Aranda, in 1766, at one of those critical junc-
tures, when men of superior minds become neces-
sary for the welfare of the state. Being at the
temc time captain-general of all Castile, this asso*
ciation of the civil and military power invested
liiin with a very extensive authority, which per-
haps he used with too great vigor. He caused
many discontents, and even gave umbrage to the
sovereign. In 1773, he was obliged to resign
his presidency, in order to assume the character
of ambassador to France, which he sustained for
sixteen years.
Notwithstanding what has been reported to
the prejudice of M. d'Aranda during his admini-
stration of seven months, the talents which he
displayed during that period will lojig be remem-
fccred in Spain. The metropolis, in particular,
will not forget how much he contributed towards
its improvement, its safety, and even its amuse-
ments. To his prudence and vigilance Spain is
indebted for the expulsion of the Jesuits, which
\vas planned with the greatest secrecy, and exe-
cuted without disturbance. He made this king-
dom acquainted with the real state of its popula-
tion, which was before but very imperfectly
known. Through his beneficent interference the
dissipation and licentiousness of the monks were
metamorphosed into manners more conformable
to their vocation. The profanation of the
t)F SPAIN* 321
fchurches,, where the most profligate villains fre-
quently found an asylum., was reformed. The
jurisdiction of the secular authority was vindi-
cated against the usurpation of the Holy See. He
retrenched those external ceremonies of religion
(daily processions known by the appellation of
Rosarios) which supine indolence frequently
prefers to genuine devotion. In many instances
he also curbed, as we shall see in another place,
the exorbitant power of fanaticism. He would
have carried his reformation still further, had he
not been prevented by the unlucky interference
of the confessor of Charles III., who in matters
of conscience, counterbalanced the influence of
the Count d'Aranda*
After his compulsive resignation of* the presi-
dency of the Council of Castile> the court, with
a cautious policy, forbore to confer that high
dignity, during a term of eighteen years. M.
D'Aranda was succeeded by Figueroa, a pru-
dent and dispassionate ecclesiastic, who had only
the title of governor of the council. After his
demise, the Count de Campomanes, being se-
nior of the council, was invested with the
functions of governor, but did not acquire
the title until some years afterwards. However,
on my return to Spain in 1792, I found the pre-
sidency of the Council of Castile in the posses-
lion of the Count de Cisuentes, a Spanish gran-
He died the same year, and down to the
TOL. i. Y
322 MODERN STATE
present day he has had four successors, who all
bad only the title of governor. These were, the
Count de la Canada, an old magistrate, long
known by the name of Acedo y Rico : then the
Bishop of Salamanca, who at his death was suc-
ceeded by Don Joseph Eustache Moreno. This
last, a worthy man, rose by a regular gradation
to the highest dignity of the Spanish magistracy.
After him it was conferred on the Count de
Montario, by whom it is now held. He is a
well meaning man, upright and enlightened, who
is deficient in no respect., except perhaps in &
knowledge of foreign countries.
The Camera, or great chamber of the Council
of Castile, consists of magistrates, appointed bj
the king in council, chiefly according to their se-
niority. This is properly the privy council of the
monarch, and is moreover a supreme tribunal in
certain cases, such as the succession of princes of
the blood, and contested rights of cities (Ciuda-
des). Through this medium, likewise, the grants
of royal favour are dispensed. This council pro-
poses to his majesty, through the minister of
mercy and justice, three persons for every vacant
situation in the magistracy, and for every dispos-
able benefice.
No office in the magistracy is to be obtained
by purchase in Spain. This is most assuredly
at first sight, a very laudable institution ; but is
it not, like every other human institution, ae*
OF SPAIN. 323
companied with inconveniencies as well as with
advantages ? In Spain more especially, it leaves,
on the one hand, a wider space open to the ca-
pricious partiality of the monarch and to the
machinations of intrigue, whilst on the other it
certainly proscribes incapacity and ignorance
from the tribunals, and diminishes every tempta-
tion and pretence for making a sale of public
justice. But ought not the integrity of magis-
trates destitute of property to be suspected?
and are not their scanty pensions but a feeble
fence against corruption ? Nevertheless, in spite
of the declamations of disaffected pleaders, 1 have
not remarked, that unjust or partial judges were
more frequent in Spain than elsewhere. The
Escrivanos, however, a species of lawyers, who
in some sort act in the double capacity of attor-
neys and notaries, appear to me richly to deserve
their reputation for rapacity and ingenuity in the
arts of chicane.
There exists a species of hierarchy in the Spa-
nish magistracy, the several gradations of which
are very punctually followed. All the members
of the Camera are old counsellors of Castile:
the latter never arrive at this station, without
having been presidents of a chancery, or an au-
dience, or at least ancient counsellors of one of
these tribunals, or alcaldes de corfe,who themselves
are chosen out of the order of the pleaders, or of
corregidors, or of alcaldes may ores. Out of Spain
MODERN STATE
very erroneous notions have been adopted, con-
cerning the term Alcalde, which I shall endea-
vour to rectify.
In the first place, there arc two classes of ordi-
nary Alcaldes, who reside even in boroughs and
villages. The Alcalde ordinario, judges in the
first instance, where there is no Corrcgidor ; but
wherever there is one, the Alcalde ordinario takei
cognizance only of civil causes, conjointly with
him. Secondly, the Alcalde pcdaneo, who is
usually a person of the lowest class, has no other
duties to perform than to take delinquents into
custody, and to execute the orders of the Corrcgi-
dor, or of the Alcalde mayor.
The election '"of the ordinary Alcaldes is differ-
ent, according to the privileges of the several com-
munities. They are generally elected every year
by the corporations (ayuntamientos). In some
places they are elected by lot ; in others, they are
nominated by the Council of Castile, by the tri-
bunal of the province, or by the lord of the dis-
trict, who selects one out of three persons pro-
posed to him.
The Alcaldes mayores and Corregidors, are
nominated by the King according to the recom-
mendation of the Camera. A striking abuse
prevailed among this class of magistrates, which
was reformed by government about fifteen or
twenty years ago. This office was conferred
upon men in very low circumstances, who after
OF SPAIN. 325
the expiration of three years, returned to their
original state of inactivity, whence they could not
be aroused except by fresh persuasions. Having
just emerged from penury, and beiwgon the point
of relapsing into their former misery, might we not
suppose that they would be tempted to make their
fortune at the expence of the people over whom
they possessed only a temporary authority ? It was
at length resolved, in order to furnish them with
Some motives of emulation, and to confirm their
wavering integrity, that thenceforward they
should hold their offices six years instead of three ;
moreover, that there should be threcclasses ofcor-
regiinicntQs t v/\\\c\i they were to pass through suc-
cessively ; and, after having ascended to the sum-
mit of this hierarchy, they were entitled to what
arc called in Spain the honours of the togado,
that is, the titular honours attached to the rank
of counsellors of superior tribunals. This plan
was conceived by M. de Campomanes, and car-:
ried into execution by M. dc Florida Blanca,
when he became minister of mercy and justice.
In this instance, the wisdom of the minister tri-
umphed over his jealousy and rivalship. These
two men, who were once colleagues, and once ri-
va.ls, were never sincere fricnde,*
* During that period, when M. de Florida Blanca, then
known by the appellation of Don Joseph Monino, was sent
from Madrid to the court of Rome, upon the arduous mission
relative to the suppression of the Jesuits, he was, together witji
326 MODERN STATE
Besides the three classes specified above, there
is also another denomination of Corrcgidors. I
piean those of Madrid and Seville ; two cities
which have a magistracy of their own, of a pe-
culiar description. Their corregidors arc ap-
pointed for life, and must not be professional
lawyers. They are simply overseers of the po-
lice, and, in this capacity, they superintend the
city corporation, the bull-fights, and the public
acts of the city. The tenientes de villa exercise a
jurisdiction independent of their authority, but
they occasionally act as their official substitutes.
At Madrid and Seville there are likewise regi-
dores, a species of sheriffs, who are also overseers
of the police, coinjointly with the corregidor.
In every quarter of Madrid, there is an Al-
calde de barrio, a sort of local commissary, who,
acting under the controul of the Alcalde de corte,
immediately superintends the maintenance of
public order. Lastly, there is a magistrate, in-
vested with the title of Superintendente, who
is specially entrusted with the management
of the police, conjointly with the Alcaldes dc
corte, the Corregidor, the tenientes de villa, and
the regidores.
M. de Campomanes^iscaJ, that is, attorney general of the coun-
cil of Castile. Charles III. hesitated some time in selecting
one of these two colleagues, as they were both men of supe-
rior attainments. The notion he entertained of Monino's pre-
possessing address, which he justified in the sequel at Rome,
turned the scale in his favour.
OF SPAIN. 327
This post, which has a great resemblance to
that of the former lieutenants of police at Paris,
communicates to its possessor very extensive
powers, by which means he not only becomes a
formidable scourge to all disturbers of the pub-
lic tranquillity, but also occasionally alarms by his
preposterous and jealous vigilance, the peaceful
habitations of honest citizens. Those who re-
sided at Madrid towards the conclusion of the
reign of Charles III., will recognize, on reading
this observation, the character of Canter '0, di-
rector of the police, who, for more than ten years,
was more formidable to the unbefriended poor
than to delinquents. Notwithstanding this com-
plex organization of the magistracy at Madrid,
which frequently occasions disputes about juris-
diction, we must, however, confess, that there are
few capitals in Europe where the police is better
regulated, where greater personal security prevails,
or where criminals less frequently escape the
arm of justice.
But, it will be asked, according to what code
is justice ad ministered at Madrid and in the pro-
vinces ? We may affirm upon good authority,
that the Roman laws are in a great measure inva-
lidated. There exist even some ancient statutes^
which prohibit them from being quoted as legal
precedents, under severe penalties. However,
in practical points, they are frequently consult-
ed, and lawyers derive from the Roman laws,
328 MODERN STATE
precedents and information, without regarding
them as absolutely infallible.
The method of framing the statement of a legal
suit is executed in Spain according to the Ro-
man jurisprudence., with some fe\v variations
only, in terms and in the application of documents.
The referendaries are commonly professional law-
yers, whose situations being lucrative, are in great
request. In extraordinary cases, a member of
the council is nominated to examine the proce-
dure, and to make his report to the tribunal.
The only authentic laws of Spain are com-
prized in the codes promulgated by her ancient
monarchs. Such, for example, are the ley de las
siete partidas, Hiefuerojuzgo, and tliefuero real.
The principal code and that most in use, is known
under the appellation of recopilacion. It is a
collection of various statutes of the Spanish mo-
narchs, from the most remote ages to the present
day. Of this a new edition is published from
time to time, in which are inserted all t]\e laws
enacted since the appearance of the preceding.
It has been asserted that Charles III. designed
to give Spain a new criminal code. This is a
mistake; for the Council of Castile had simply
proposed to the monarch, the revision and re-
formation of the old criminal laws, some of which
were obsolete and absurd, and committed the
execution of this plan to a committee of magis-
trates., of which M, de Campomanes was
OF SPAIN. 329
dent. This labour, which, I believe, is not yet
concluded, occasioned at that time a treatise on
the penal laws, the production of Lardizabal, a
lawyer, which may be perused with pleasure
and instruction, even after the treatise of Bec-
caria.
The name of this Italian philosopher serves to
Femind us of the tremendous punishment of the
rack, which is not yet formally abolished in Spain ;
nay, it has even found several staunch advocates in
thatcountry. It is not more than twenty years ago,
that one Castro, a priest, undertook a professed
justification of the torture. His arguments
were combated, and triumphantly refuted, to the
great satisfaction of all enlightened Spaniards.
The canon law is adopted in Spain in all eccle-
siastical suits. The court of Madrid is, however,
by no means so completely subjugated by the
Holy See as we might be led to imagine from the
conspicuous figure still made in Spain by those
numerous and disciplined legions of modern
Rome, which, imitating the example of their an-
cestors, aim at universal dominion. Unquestion-
ably religion and her ministers are held in high
veneration. Priests, nay, even monks, procure
admittance and ascendancy in many families of
distinction, engage in secular intrigues, and
frequently abuse the confidence reposed in them
by bigotry. These radical abuses have been in a
great measure redressed, even during the devout
330 MODERN .STATE
reigns of the last rnonarchs, after having been
countenanced by their example in the early part
of the last century. The reader will recollect
the dangerous ascendency acquired by father
Daubcnton and his spiritual successors over
Philip V. ; the influence obtained over Ferdi-
nand VI. by father Rabago, who was the last
Jesuit that discharged the functions of confessor
to the Spanish monarchs. A Franciscan friar
was long confessor to the late king ; he was cre-
ated bishop of Osina ; and, at a later period,
would gladly have condescended to accept the
honours of the Roman purple. Though of an
austere and sullen disposition, he was remarka-
bly complaisant to his royal penitent ; but he
seldom interfered, whatever may be asserted to
the contrary, in affairs foreign to his ministry.
Notwithstanding the devotion of Charles III. he
could not have made such an attempt with im-
punity; for that monarch, whilst he uniformly
honoured him with his confidence and esteem,
more than once repressed the intemperate sallies
of his zeal. During the early part of my first
residence in Spain, when the theatre of Saragossa
was destroyed by lightning, the father confessor
endeavoured to represent this accident to his ma-
jesty as a signal proof of the divine abhorrence
of all profane spectacles, and even sought to
persuade him to suppress them throughout the
whole kingdom. By his repeated exhortations
OF SPAIN. 331
on this subject, he so harrassed Charles III. that
this prince, although not of an irascible temper,
enjoined him to silence with a sternness which
was nearly akin to anger. M. de Florida
Blanca, who, during a long residence at Rome,
had collected a more copious stock of philosophi-
cal than of religious notions, frequently com-
bated the gloomy scruples of this ghostly moni-
tor, on which account, he forfeited his esteem.
The confessors of the present reign are not in-
fluenced by such blind fanaticism. The king's
confessor is a Franciscan friar, who has been ele-
vated to this confidential station through the
interest of his fellow-citizen, the Prince of the
Peace, and has, with all convenient speed, su-
peradded an archbishopric to his dignity. The
Queen's confessor has been longer in possession
of his office. Both of them are said to possess
genius and address. They are both upon a foot-
ing of intimacy with the royal pair ; but their
influence, like that of all others, is eclipsed and
annihilated in the presence of the favourite, the
source and channel of all the royal benefactions.
During the greatest part of the reign of
Charles III. his confessor was very assiduously
consulted respecting the disposal of ecclesiastical
dignities, in the gift of his majesty, and he might
have been regarded as minister for the affairs of the
church. But M . de Florida Blanca, having obtained
he appointment of minister of mercy and justice,
332 MODERN STATE
to which office the presentation belongs in such
cases, put a period to the usurpations of the con-r
iessor.
This prerogative of nomination to the high
church benefices in their dominions,, has been
exercised without opposition by the kings of
Spain, only since the year 1753, the sera of the
ratification of the concordat between the court
of Madrid and Rome. Till then, the gift of
benefices had been frequently the subject of al-
tercation. They at length had recourse to ajn
amicable negotiation, which, on the part of Spain,
was entrusted to the management of the Abbe
Figueroa, a man of mild and insinuating temper,
whom I have since seen at the head of the Coun^
cil of Castile. The result of these consultations
was the concordat, by which the relations subsist-
ing between Spain and the court of Rome, were
established upon a permanent arid irrevocable
basis.
In this compact, the Holy See confirmed their
catholic majesties in their ancient right of no-?
minating to all consistorial benefices.
The principal difficulty related to the benefices
of permanent residence and the simple benefices.
The popes insisted upon their right to the gift
of those which became vacant during the aposto-
lical months. The concordat enumerated fifty-two
nominations which should belong to the Holy
See, under the restriction of conferring them only
OF SPAIN. 333
pon Spaniards. It was moreover stipulated,
that these benefices should be exempt from pen-
sions, and that the dignitaries should not pay
any cedillas bancarias. These cedulas were a
species of contracts signed with the apostolic
chamber, by which the candidate made himself
responsible for the payment of a certain sum of
money. Now it frequently happened that he
could not command a sufficient sum to discharge
his obligation. In that case, the Holy See ad-
vanced him the money atan enormous interest, and
kept agents in Spain to enforce the performance
of the obligation. This abuse, which it is a matter
of astonishment to behold rearing aloft its hydra
head in the middle of the eighteenth century; this
abuse, I say, drained all the Spanish benefice*
of nearly one-fifth of their revenues, which was
transferred to the exchequer at Rome.
But this is not the only abuse abolished by the
concordat. Formerly the popes had the disposal
of the property of defunct prelates, and- of the
revenues of vacant benefices, The administra-
tion of these funds was consigned to a board
composed of Italians, who were so expert in the
exercise of their calling, that one-fourth of the
produce of these benefices was embezzled by their
rapacious hands. The Holy See has resigned its
claim upon this source of revenue, with the sin-
gle proviso, that the administration of the spolios
y vacantes should only be entrusted to an ecclcsi-
334 MODERN STATE
astic, which does not,, however, prevent the
Spanish monarchs from disposing of them as they
think proper. The administrator expends a con-
siderable portion of these funds in loans to the
new prelates, in order to enable them to support
their dignity by a suitable establishment. To the
honour of the high church dignitaries of Spain, it
must be confessed that these loans have been re-
gularly repaid.
Although the concordat stipulates that the
produce of the spolios y vacantes shall be ex-
clusively dedicated to religious purposes, the
monarch appropriates part of them to the encou-
ragement of industry, and even the remuneration
of military services. But the chapters usually
commissioned with the management of the effects
of deceased prelates, or with the administration
of the large vacant benefices, sometimes reduce
the net produce of their temporary stewardship
to one- fourth of its value. As the concordat de-
prived the Holy See of part of its revenues, the
court of Madrid, by way of indemnification, en-
tered into a contract to pay the latter, on the one
hand, the sum of 600,000 Roman crowns ; and
on the other, 310,000, for which it was to pay
interest at the rate of three per cent. By the
same concordat, the Holy See also obtained this
concession : that the bull of the crusade, of which
\ve shall make mention under the head of imposts,
should he perpetual. Independently of the con-
335
tributions paid by Spain to the Holy See, which
were greatly diminished by the concordat, this
court still enjoys the produce arising from mar-
riage licences, which may be estimated at fifteen
hundred thousand francs per annum.
Since that period, the court of Madrid has
continued strenuously to vindicate the rights of
sovereign authority against the usurpations of
the Holy See. It will be recollected what a re-
ception it gave to the remonstrance of Clement
XIII. against the Infant of Parma. The Coun-
cil of Castile immediately bought up all the co-
pies of the remonstrance, and issued orders that
the same measure should be observed respecting
all letters, bulls, or briefs, which were deroga-
tory to the royal prerogative, enforcing afresh
the ancient statute of capital punishment, and
confiscation of property, against all notaries or
attorneys who should bring them into circula-
tion.
On this occasion, the Council of Castile, of
which Count d'Aranda was then president, again
urged all that the kings of Spain, since the time
of Charles V. had done to prevent the introduc-
tion of the bull, in Coena Domini, insisting that
it was derogatory to the sovereign authority, and
to the jurisdiction of the temporal tribunals, and
enjoining all archbishops and bishops of the king-
dom to suppress its publication aud observance
\vithin their dioceses,
336 MODERN STATE
Against the encroachments of the cotirt of
Rome, Spain has likewise another resource in
her so called " Appeals as against abuses." In
1784, a Spanish publication on this subject made
its appearance under the title of jWaximas sobre
recursos dc fuerza y protection. The clergy,
and the holy office in particular, the ancient con-
stitutions of which the author had subjoined to
his work, endeavoured to suppress the publica-
tion, but the Council of Castile and the ministry
openly protected the author.
During the reign of Charles III. the privileges
of nuncios in Spain were also circumscribed. In
opposition to various statutes of former kings>
the nuncios frequently abused the devout sub*
mission of the Spaniards, in order to enlarge their
own powers.
Under the reigning dynasty, they had made
such attempts, which; however, did not suc-
ceed.
At length, in 1771, the court of Madrid ob-
tained a brief from Pope Clement XIV. which
reformed the department of nuncios, substitut-
ing instead of the auditor of the nuncio, the
sole umpire of this tribunal, a rota, constituted
according to that of Rome, consisting of six ec-
clesiastics, nominated indeed by the sovereign
pontiff, but proposed by the king of Spain.
With regard to the independence of the regal
prerogative, we must likewise notice, that Spaia
OF SPAltf.
long since adopted maxims, in many respects si-
milar to the four famous articles sanctioned by
the assembly of the French clergy in 1682, to
which all subjects, upon their instalment in a pub-
lic office, are obliged to taketheoath of obedience.
A great abuse, however, still prevails in Spain,
which originates from wrong conceptions of re-
ligion : I mean, the exorbitant wealth of the
clergy and of the monks. Since the secularisa-
tion of the great ecclesiastical principalities in
Germany, the most opulent benefices of the Ca-
tholic church are to be found in Spain. The
archbishops of Toledo, of Seville, of St. Jago, of
Valencia, ofSaragossa, &c. &c. have more am-
ple revenues than any of ours ever possessed.
There are monasteries, particularly Carthusian
convents, the landed estates of which occupy the
principal part of the districts in which they are
situated ; and these religious foundations, be-
sides depopulating and impoverishing the cir-
cumjacent country, augment its misery, and pro-
duce idleness by the blind charity with which
they encourage it.
The government, however, which becomes
gradually more enlightened, endeavours to obvi-
ate the consequences of this mischievous system.
In the first instance, the sage policy it adopts in
the choice of prelates, proscribes the ostentatious
parade of this scandalous luxury, which, by giv-
ing ofl'cncc to the poor, diminishes their respect
VOL. i. z
333 MODERN STATE
for religion; and although among this class there
still exist some fanatics, they are, however, col-
lectively, eminent for their henevolence, and for
the sobriety of their manners. Their constant
residence in their benefices, obliges them to spend
all their revenues in the country whence they are
derived. They all appropriate a large portion
to charitable purposes. Some of them devote a
part to the encouragement of industry ; and this
is not the only way in which the wealth of the
clergy is conducive to the welfare of the state.
We shall see under the head of taxes, that
ample contributions are derived from the clergy.
Moreover, the court of Madrid has obtained
permission from the Holy See to levy pensions
upon all large benefices, amounting to one-
third of their revenues. This power was enlarged
by a brief in 1783, and extended to all simple
benefices of two hundred ducats ( about five hun-
dred and fifty livres) ; and, during the war,
which was terminated by the peace of Basle, and
occasioned an augmentation of taxes, the church
estates, with the connivance of the court of
Rome, were assessed in a much higher propor-
tion than those of the laity.
Spain has been more thoroughly convinced than
any other Catholic country, of the absurdity of
inaintaining religious orders, the generals of
which reside out of the country. Accordingly
the Carthusians of Spain, notwithstanding the
OP SPAIN. 339
representations I was commissioned to make in
1785, were released from their dependence on
the chief establishment of that order; on which
occasion, the minister Florida Blatica assured
me, that there were only two monastic orders in
all Spain, the generals of which resided at Rome ;
and that it was intended, on their demise, to
emancipate these orders from such a dangerous
subordination. It does not, however, appear that
this design was put into execution.
This minister, being in some respect a philo-
sopher, we must admit, that on particular sub-
jects, l>e had adopted very enlightened notions.
If e had closely inspected the Holy See for many
years ; he had observed on the spot all that
gives it such an imposing air, and learned at
Rome to appreciate the objects of the veneration
of unenlightened Catholics. Roda, his predeces-
sor in the ministry of mercy and justice, had also
long resided at Rome in the capacity of auditor
of the rota. On his return to Madrid, although
generally encompassed with priests and monks,
he ventured to divulge opinions concerning the
usurpations of the court of Rome, which, how-
ever bold they might appear, were nothing more
than just, and he regulated his ministerial opera-
tions accordingly. If Spain had an uninterrupted
succession of ministers like these two, or like
some other modern statesmen, she would soon be
emancipated from that spiritual bondage, in
340
MODERN STATE
which she has been enchained during a period of
two centuries.
In the present age., more especially, she has
made a rapid progress towards this goal. There
are other proofs of this besides those which we
have just adduced. The severity of the court of
Madrid towards the society of Jesuits ; the per-
severing assiduity with which it prosecuted at
Rome the total suppression of this order ; the
tranquillity of the people,, who were calm specta-
tors of these measures : all this, I say, will de-
monstrate that Spain is by no means so complete-
ly subjugated, as is generally supposed, by super-
stition, and by the absolute dominiou of the
monks.
OF SPAIN. 341
CHAP. XIII.
Arguments for and against the Inquisition.
Enumeration of the most recent Auto-da-fe s.
-Adventures of M. Olavide. Present State of the
Inquisition. Of the Santa Hermandad.
IN Spain there still exists a religious institution
which extorts a tear from philosophy, when she
beholds this kingdom groaning beneath its cruel
bondage. I allude to the holy office,, a tribunal
which has long since acquired the character and
attributes it deserves, and which in Spain is still
sustained by the powerful aids of policy and re-
ligion.
The candour with which I explained tny sen-
timents concerning the inquisition,, in the first
edition of this work, has exposed me to different
kinds of censure. On the one hand, some Spa-
niards, men, in other respects, of liberal senti-
ments, accused me of having overcharged my
picture of the holy office with too glaring co-
lours. On the other hand, some Frenchmen, af-
ter the perusal of my disquisition, compliment-
ed me with the title of a simpleton ; nay, almost
MODERN STATE
with the ruder epithet of an impostor. Between
these two dangerous shoals, what course am I to
steer ? To relate what I have seen, and to com-
municate my sentiments on the subject, is what I
have already done, and shall once more attempt
to do.
The vindicators of the inquisition pretend that
it is a salutary medium, by which the sovereign
authority commands respect ; that by overawing
the conscience of the subject through a whole-
some species of terror, it affords additional secu-
rity for his obedience ; being, moreover, an an-
tidote to those endless variations and ambiguities
in the religious creed, by which the repose of
the community has been so frequently disturbed.
Hence, they affirm, religion derives her unity
and purity ; and they, moreover, ascribe to the
inquisition, the tranquillity which Spain has en-
joyed, whilst other Christian countries of Eu-
rope were distracted with religious feuds, and
with the turbulent zeal of innovators.
Others proceed to still greater lengths. It will
scarcely appear credible that Macanaz, a magis-
trate, otherwise eminent for his knowledge, the
very same who addressed to Philip V. a spirited
remonstrance against the usurpations of the holy
office ; that this Macanaz, I say, wrote in 1736
a work which was not published till 1788, and
which is entitled Defensa critica cle lei Inquisition,
III this performance., Macanaz says, that even
OP SPAIN. 343
by the confession of heretics themselves,, the holy
office never takes any person into custody except
his delinquency has been proved by five witnesses,
and never condemns him except from his own
confession, or when the former evidence is con-
firmed by two other witnesses ; that on the first
or second occasion, if the delinquent sues for
mercy he is absolved ; that the holy office only
passes sentence upon heretics,, according to the
advice of the most enlightened scholars ; that the
delinquent is well used in prison; that he obtains
a hearing whenever he requires one ; that the
heads of the accusation are read to him,, and no-
thing is concealed from his knowledge but the
names of the witnesses ; but if any heresy be
proved against him, and he does not recant, then
the secular power inflicts the punishment de-
nounced by the law.
There is certainly a great deal of truth in this
representation, which, were it perfectly accurate,
would not howeverdiminish the abhorrencewhich
we cannot help feeling for the inquisition. It ap-
pears authenticated (as far as circumstances can
be ascertained, which those concerned are com-
pelled to conceal under the most tremendous
penalties) ; it appears authenticated, I say, that
the prisoners of the inquisition, although inac-
cessible to all external visitors, are treated and
fed well enough ; that the torture, said to be in-
flicted upon them, is a mere invention, suggested
344 MODERN STATE
by resentment, and propagated by credulity,
which ever delights in things which are extraor-
dinary, or that it is at least very rarely applied.
Macanaz adds, that even by the confession of
the most inveterate enemies of "the inquisition;
those persons who voluntarily acknowledge their
errors and repent, are treated with lenity ; that
even those who are taken into custody, obtain
pardon if they recant ; that it is calumny to sav
that the inquisition confiscates the property of
criminals from a rapacious disposition ; because
all property so confiscated belongs to the king.
But what are we to think of Macanaz, or of
the design of his apology, when he acquaints us,
with a sort of mock gravity, that the inquisition
does not inflict any punishment upon those who
persevere in their heresies, and makes no other
request than that the lives of the guilty should
be spared ; that, after their conversion, it only
inflicts canonical punishment upon them ; but
that the sword of justice, which the king has de-
posited in the tribunal for the chastisement of de-
linquents, is nevertheless frequently stained with
the blood of the guilty ; That even in such cases,
it is only done with the pious design of convert-
ing many bv the death of one individual, which
also frequently happens ? 1 shall abstain from
all comment. Silent indignation is the only fit
reply to such absurd contradictions from the pen
OF SPAIN. 345
of a magistrate ! of one who is held up as a phi-
losopher, and that in the eighteenth century !!
One of the chief defensive weapons which
Macanaz employs is recrimination. He pour-
trays, ef course,, a hideous picture of the persecu-
tion during the reign of Elizabeth ; he even
quotes the cruelties committed in France against
heretics. In his opinion, the procedure of the
inquisition is a pattern of just ice and lenity, when
contrasted with those dreadful examples of bar-
barity. Thus, according to Macanaz, or rather
according to those who have printed and re-
printed his work, because our ancestors were
blind and sanguinary, those who are not quite
so barbarous in our days, or rather those who in
cold bood veil the cruelty of fanaticism under
the mantle of justice, and who are the more cul-
pable, because they cannot even plead the phrenzy
of passion; such men, I say, have claims upon
our respect and esteem ; and because they do not
extirpate whole nations, like Pizarro, they must
of course be the genuine models of humanity like
Fenelon !
The ancient and modern antagonists of the in-
quisition maintain, on the contrary, that it has
uniformly banished intellectual reiinement from
Spain ; that it has cherished superstition in that
country; has kept the souls of the Spaniards in a
tame and servile state of subjection, which natu-
rally suppresses those daring flights of genius
"46 MO DEUX STATE
that arc alone competent to produce what is
great in every department; that,, by pre-occupy-
ing all the avenues of the heart with fear, it ex-
cludes the gentle sentiments of confidence and of
friendship, and blasts all the joys arising from
the nearest and dearest connections ; in short,
that, during a period of two centuries, it has
doomed Spain to ignorance and barbarism.
This picture is by no means greatly over-
charged ; but, as I propose to abstain from decla-
mation, 1 will venture to assert, notwithstand-
ing my abhorrence of the inquisition, that it has
been somewhat affected by the universal revolu-
tion in manners which has taken place. If this
revolution has not essentially altered the original
constitution of the holy office, it has, however,
produced an abatement in its severity ; it has
rendered the examples of its cruelty less conspi-
cuous, and less frequent. Those times are elaps-
ed when Anto-da-fes, more or less frequent, were
pompous festivals, the solemnity of which, under
the pretence of doing honour to religion, was an
insult to humanity ; when the eyes of the people
were feasted with the torments of victims consign-
ed to merciless butchers, and to the maledictions
of the rabble ; when the whole nation crowded
to this spectacle as to a triumph ; when the mo-
narch, surrounded by his courtiers, imagined
that by his immediate presence he was perform-
ing an act highly acceptable to the Deity ; when
OF SPAIN.
all the circumstances of these savage festivals, the
conspicuous figure which an individual had made
on this sanguinary theatre ; nay, even the plea-
sure received from them, were recorded with ex-
ultation in the literary productions of the day.
After the Auto-da-fe in 1680, a pamphlet ap-
peared containing a circumstantial narrative of
this ceremony. The author appears to rejoice
upon the occasion, as if it were some scene of
public triumph. ef He is going," he says, " to
give an accurate and interesting account of all
the circumstances attending this glorious triumph
of the faith, together with a catalogue of the
grandees who had honoured it with their pre-
sence, and the substance of the sentence pro-
nounced against the delinquents."
The censors of the press applaud this pamphlet
in the most emphatic manner ; cc It ought," say
they, " by reason of the sublimity of the subject,
not only to be conspicuously displayed to Spain,
but also to the view of the whole world."
The examiner goes still further than the cen-
sors.
" The author/' says he, " has fully answered
the expectations entertained of such a desirable
undertaking ; at a m<mient when public curiosity
was wholly occupied with this subject, and when
all true believers only lamented its procrastina-
tion with pious impatience." In short he cannot
be praised too highly for having described, with
348 MODERN STATE
scrupulous accuracy, the details of this wondcr-
fnl ceremony.
In the course of his narrative, the author fre-
quently applauds the pious zeal of the monarch,
who was present at the Auto-da-fe.
" This prince," says he, " having signified
that it would give him great satisfaction to he
present at the celebration of a general Auto-da-fe
the council of the inquisition was desirous to give
him a signal proof of their regard., hy affording
him an opportunity of following the illustrious
example of his august father Philip IV." Here-
upon the grand inquisitor went to kiss the hand
of his majesty, assuring him " that he was has-
tening to make the needful preparations towards
the speedy accomplishment of a work which was
so agreeable to him."
(C It was a great consolation," says he, to-
wards the conclusion, " to all zealous catholics,'
a cause of confusion to all lukewarm believers,
and of astonishment to all the spectators
to witness a patience worthy to be admired in
future ages. From eight o'clock in the morn-
ing his majesty was seated in his balcony, with-
out regarding the sultry heat, or being incom-
moded by the concourse of people, or wearied
by the long duration of the ceremony. His de-
votion and zeal were so superior to fatigue, that
he did not even retire for one quarter of an hour,
to take refreshment; and at the conclusion of the
OF SPAIN.
ceremony, he enquired whether all was over, and
whether it was time to retire."
The modern Spaniards are far from discovering
that cold-blooded cruelty which renders the heart
callous to pity ; and they may at least lament
with impunity the small number of victims which
still experience the severity of the inquisition.
Such examples became rare in the past cen-
tury, which did not witness even a single
general Auto-da-fe similar to that which I have
just noticed.
In 1714, some monks, whose convent was
contiguous to a nunnery, were convicted of hav-
ing abused the ascendency they had acquired
over the nuns, and of having seduced them to
some irregularities, which they sought to disguise
under the cloak of religion. The holy office con-
demned the principal offenders to death., and ac-
cording to ancient practice, delivered them to
the secular power.
Eleven years afterwards, the inquisition exer-
cised another act of severity, the enormity of
which cannot be extenuated. It discovered a
family of Moors at, Grenada, peaceably employ-
ed in manufacturing silks, and possessing supe-
rior skill in the exercise of this profession. The
ancient laws, supposed to have fallen into disuse,
were enforced in all their rigour, and this
wretched family was burnt alive.
In 1756, the inquisition pronounced judgment
350 MODERN STATE
upon seven delinquents, who bad been confined
in prison. One of them having been wrong-
fully accused, was acquitted. The three false
witnesses, who had informed against him., one of
whom was his own wife, were condemned to an
exile of eight years, and to receive two hundred
lashes, which, however, were not administered.
Another delinquent suffered this punishment : his
sentence declared him to be a heretic, an apostate,
and one who 'was inclining to the Jewish religion,
and ivavering in his doctrine ; four qualifications
which cannot well be reconciled. The only crime
of one of these seven, was his having assumed
the title of freemason. His sentence was perpe-
tual exile, and the confiscation of his property.
This sentence bore the stamp of ignorance ra-
ther than that of cruelty. But in 1763, there
was a private auto-da-fe at Lerena, in the course
of which some obstinate heretics were committed
to the flames.
The obscurity of these unfortunate victims
prevented their fate from acquiring much publi-
city ; and the universal terror, inspired by the
mere name of the inquisition, seemed to be dimi-
nished. In 1762, the monarch himself had cir-
cumscribed the powers of this tribunal. The
grand inquisitor having, contrary to the express
Trill of his majesty, published a bull, which prd-
scribed a French book, he was banished to a
convent, within thirteen leagues of Madrid. la
OF SPAIN. 351
this exile, he sought to justify his conduct, by
pleading an ancient usage from time immemorial,
by which the holy office was invested with the
exclusive privilege of prohibiting dangerous
books. In the course of a few weeks he was
again restored to favour, but, by the advice of his
ministers and the council of Castile, the king is-
*ucd a decree to the following purport: That
hereafter the grand inquisitor should not pub-
lish any edicts whatsoever, unless they were
transmitted to him by the king.
That whenever he received any briefs, by which
books were prohibited, he must, in such cases,
conform to the laws of the country, and publish
the prohibition, not by quoting the brief, but by
virtue of the authority derived from his station.
Lastly, that before the holy office should con-
demn any book, it must previously summon the
author before its tribunal, in order to hear what
he had to say in his defence.
This petty triumph was, however, of short
duration. The royal confessor caused the de-
cree of 1762 to be repealed in the following
year. But M. d'Aranda procured a revival of
this decree, by obtaining the support of a mixed
council, consisting of magistrates and bishops,
which had been appointed On occasion of the
expulsion of the Jesuits.
This was not the only attempt he made to-
352 MODERN STATE
wards circumscribins: the powers of the holy,
office. He long entertained hopes of annulling
/ its right to appropriate to its own use the pro-
perty of condemned criminals ; but it was ob-
jected, that the revenue derived from this privi-
lege, formed a great part of the salary of the of-
ficers of the tribunal ; it would be therefore re-
quisite, in order to cover this deficiency, to pro-
vide a fund of six hundred thousand francs. The
proposed reform was deferred
He was more successful in another attempt.
Being president of the council of Castile, which
was always distinguished by its zeal in vindicat-
ing the rights of sovereignty, and attaching more-
over the same prelates to his cause, by the ascen-
dency of his genius and by flattering their secret
aversion to a tribunal enriched with the spoils of
episcopacy, he obtained at length, in 1770, a
royal decree, which confined the jurisdiction of
the inquisition to the criminal cases of contuma-
cious heresy and apostacy, prohibiting the same
in future from committing any of his majesty's
subjects to a dishonourable imprisonment unless
their crimes were evidently proved. By this
modification it was circumscribed within very
narrow limits. In Spain, this victory gave of-
fence to none but a small number of weak and
bigotted , minds. It was commemorated and
even exaggerated abroad. The important crisis
was supposed to have arrived., when that hideous
OF SPAIN. 353
monster which philosophy had long been in pur-
suit of, would finally be laid prostrate.
This illusion was not dispelled by the removal
of M. d'Aranda, which followed soon after,
because enlightened citizens, who, notwithstand-
ing their respect for religion, had imbibed the
same principles, still continued at the head of
the administration. Personal security was re-
established; it was moreover guaranteed by
the benetolence and moderation of the mo-
narch, and by the tolerant maxims of the prin-
cipal officers to whom he had delegated his au-*
thority. The period of inquisitorial terror seem-
ed to be past ; the holy office appeared in a pro-
found lethargy; when all of a sudden> in 1777>
it marked its resuscitation by the sacrifice of an
illustrious victim. Along with the holy office,
terror and fanatic zeal were aroused in Spain, and
beyond her confines was enkindled the indigna*
tion of the apostles of a wise toleration.
Don Pablo Olivade, a native of Peru, had
been raised by his abilities to one of the first em-
ployments in the state, that of intendant of the
four kingdoms of Andalusia, and Assistente of
Seville. The distinction he acquired in this high
dignity, had excited envy as well as admira-
tion and gratitude, when a fresh occasion offered
to signalize his patriotic zeal.
The king conceived a plan to bring into cul-
VOL. I. A A
354 MODERN STATE
tivation, and people that part of the Sierra Mo-
rena, through which passes the road from
Madrid to Cadiz, a district formerly inhabited
and cultivated^ but since overgrown with wood,
and become the haunts of robbers and of wild
beasts. This commission was intrusted to M.
Olivade ; he accomplished it with consummate
ability; but he could not avoid the rock
on which great enterprizes usually split. He
created enemies. He exposed himself in parti-
cular to the animosity of father Romuald, a Ger-
man capuchin, who being provided with a pa-
tent from the director general of his order, by
which he wasdeclared prefect of the newmissions,
affected the most absolute authority in every
thing that had the most distant reference to reli-
gion. His designs were strenuously opposed by
M. Olivade, who gave him however a polite re-
ception, and received him upon a footing of inti-
macy. The disappointed ambition of the monk
meditated revenge. Some expressions, which
had inadvertently escaped M. Olivade, furnish-
ed the means of vengeance. He fomented the
discontents of some of the settlers, who were his
own countrymen, and employed them in order
to discredit the new establishment and its direc-
.
tor. The memorials which they transmitted to
the council of Castile, contained the most griev-
ous accusations against M. Olivade. The latter
OF SPAIN.
was suddenly recalled to court in the month of
November, 1775, to confer concerning different
objects relative to his mission.
Whilst he resided at Madrid in the most per-
fect security, he accidentally discovered the snares
that were laid to entrap him. He learned from
intercepted letters, that father Romuald had
concerted his ruin, and that he was buoyed up
with expectations of patronage from a great
court.
Through another channel he was informed,
that this vindictive monk had preferred an accu-
sation to the prime minister against him, of having
manifested a contempt of religion, and of having
forbidden books in his possession ; nay, that he
had even made a similar report to the inquisi-
tion.
His repose was, however, not disquieted by this
dis overy. He sought protection near the
throne. He repaired to the grand inquisitor,
made solemn asseverations concerning the purity
of his faith, with a proposal to retract any im-
proper expressions which might have escaped
him. During his residence at Madrid for more
than a year, his conduct had been highly exem-
plary ; but nothing could hush the storm which
was impending over his head.
On the 14th of November, 1776, a Spanish
grandee, acting in the capacity of alguazil mayor
of the inquisition, accompanied by the ministers
356 MODERN STATE
of 'justice, came to arrest and conduct him to
the prisons of the holy office, whilst at the same
time, his effects, hooks, and papers, were seized at
Carolina, where his wife resided, and at Seville,
his ordinary residence. 'From that instant he
was altogether lost to his wife, to" his relations,
and friends. During a period of two years they
were totally ignorant in what part of the world
he resided, or whether he was yet alive, and they
relinquished all hopes of ever beholding him
again.
On my first arrival in Spain, this transaction
was quite recent. I was an eye-witness of the
various sensations it produced. The rivals of
Olivade, those who were jealous of his fortune,
some honest bigots, misguided by their furious
zeal for the cause of God, contemplated this
event in the light ofatriumph. Many citizens
of an austere character, regarded it as the just
chastisement of indiscretion, which ought per-
haps to have found other judges, but ought not
to go unpunished. Consternation, however, was
the prevailing sentiment. Every one began to
tremble for his own safety, being apprehensive
lest, among his most intimate connexions, he
might find spies and accusers. All minds were
overawed by jealousy and dismay, \\hat rea-
sonable hopes could they cherish of indulging
hereafter, within their own dwellings, the gene-
rous sentiments of friendship and of confidence ?
OF SPAIN. 357
What man could pretend to such a share of pru-
dence, as to be always master of himself, nicely
to balance all his actions, or to sift all his ex-
pressions, in order not to furnish any subject of
criminal accusation to an enemy lurking* in am-
bush, to a perjured domestic, to a friend, or to
a son misguided by religious scruples ? The holy
office is perhaps influenced more by justice than
by the dictates of cruelty, but its constitution is
formidable. How can we avoid those thunderbolts
\vhich are silently forged in the dark recesses of
an impervious labyrinth ?
Such were the reasonings suggested by dismay
during the detention of M. Olavide. The ap-
parent lethargy of the inquisition had re-esta-
blished personal security ; this sudden display
of its active functions produced a panic among
all ranks. This early impression was moreover
prolonged by other circumstances. The monks
sup posed, that the auspicious moment was arrived
to recover their dominion. No sooner was M.
Olavide arrested, than information arrived that
some Capuchin missionaries were indulging all the
extravagance of their zeal, and furiously declaim-
ing at Seville against profane theatres. In the
mean time, the provincial inquisitions shared in
the triumph of their sister tribunal in the capi-
tal, and made a trial of their renovated energies.
The tribunal at Cadiz was seen commemorating
again, with the greatest solemnity, a ceremony
358 MODERN STATE
which had been laid aside for half a century, but
which is repeated annually at Madrid ; I mean
the solemn rehearsal of all the decrees of the
holy office, of those hulls which are the pillars of
its power, and of all those anathemas which it
hurls like the thunderbolts of vengeance against
the guilty heads of heretics. It seemed as if the
holy office' was resolved to outrage the feeliugs of
the public.
In the mean time, the judicial proceedings
against M. Olavide, were conducted with the
most profound secrecy. At length his fate was
decided, after a close imprisonment of two years
and seven days, during which period his inter-
course with the world was wholly suspended.
On the 21st of November 1778, a convocation
was held in the hotel of the inquisition, to which
were invited forty persons of different orders^
among whom were several Spanish grandees^
some general officers, priests, and monks.
The delinquent made his appearance apparelled
ia yellow robes, carrying a green wax taper in his
hand, being accompanied by two ministers of the
holy office. All the details of the procedure were
read before him. The most interesting document
was a circumstantial narrative of his own life,
which he had composed himself. In this narra-
tive, he frankly confessed that on his travels he
had cultivated the society of superior geniuses, of
Voltaire and Rousseau in particular; moreover..
OP SPAIN. 359
that he returned to Spain strongly tinctured with
prejudices against the clergy, and persuaded that
the opinions and privileges of the Romish church
were hostile to the welfare of nations ; that, since
he had superintended the colonies of the Sierra
Morena, he had frequently, in a rash and incon-
siderate manner, declared his sentiments concern-
ing the obstacles which retarded their progress
concerning the infallibility of the pope, and the
tribunals of the inquisition.
Next came the depositions of seventy-eight
witnesses, who accused him of having frequently
held the language of free-thinkers; of having
ridiculed the fathers of the church, &c. &c.
The delinquent confessed many of these accusa-
tions, and denied others ; alleging, moreover,
that the expressions imputed to him were derived
from the purest of motives ; that, in some in-
stances, his object was to arouse the industry of
the colonists committed to his care, whose indo-
lence often disguised itself under the external
rites of religion : lastly, that, when he declaimed
against the inconveniences of celibacy, his sole
view was to encourage population, which is so
necessary to the welfare of the state.
This method of exculpating his conduct ap-
peared neither conclusive nor respectful. He
was also accused of having employed every arti-
fice in order to mislead the justice of the holy
office, by intercepting its letters, aod by per-
360 MODERN STATE
suading witnesses to retract their evidence ; and
these charges were proved by his own hand-
writing.
Ip fine, the tribunal judged him guilty of all
the crimes laid to IMS charge., and pronounced
sentence upon him., by which he was formally
declared to be a heretic. He interrupted the
ceremony in order to appeal against this deno-
mination. This was the last struggle of his
fortitude ; he fainted away, and fell from the
bench on which he was seated. On the re-
covery of his senses, the reading of the sentence
\vas continued. It denounced the absolute con-
fiscation of all his property, .declared him inca-
pacitated from holding any office, banished him
to within twenty leagues of Madrid., from the
royal residences, from Seville, the theatre of his
lost power, from Lima, his native country ; it
condemned him to be confined for eight years in
a monastery, where he was to read certain godly
books, which would be prescribed to him, and
to make confession to the priest once a month.
After this, he made a solemn recantation, and
was absolved from the censures he had incurred
with all the formality prescribed by the canons.
The spectators, who, as we may well suppose,
were all staunch believers, assert that he mani-
fested unequivocal signs of contrition, and resig-
nation, and could not forbear feeling some emo-.
of pity.
OF SPAIN. 361
It is asserted that the monarch, nay even that
the grand inquisitor mitigated the rigor of his sen-
tence ; some of the judges having voted for death,
and others for at least a public and opprobrious
punishment ; that the royal confessor, in parti-
cular, had supported the alternative of severity,
consistently with his ferocious and bigotted dis-
position, which inclined him to suppose that this
crime could not be otherwise expiated than by a
signal vengeance.
It was, however, a matter of infinite difficulty
to ascertain all these facts. Fear had repressed
indiscretion on the one hand, and curiosity on the
other. A conjecture or a question might have
been misconstrued, and have embittered the life
of him from whom it proceeded The picture
delineated by Tacitus, in his Life of Agricola,
was now realized : ademplo per inquisitiones et
loquendi ct audiendi commercio ; or rather one of
a more modern date, although not less tremen-
dous.
It must nevertheless be confessed that this cri-
sis was not of long duration; the minds or* the
public presently recovered their wonted serenity:
it was known that Charles III. had merciful dis-
positions, and also that the minister whom he had
just appointed was no apostle of fanaticism.
The peculiar circumstances of the victim con-
tributed also to diminish the apprehensions of
t}ie public. His talents and success had excited
362 MODERN STATE
envy even before they attracted the animadfcr-
sion of the holy office ; and the citizens, haying
now in a great measure recovered their tranquillity,
fondly indulged hopes that their obscurity would
be a sufficient safeguard against the severe scru-
tiny of this tribunal. The sequel, in fact, de-
monstrated that its severity was only temporary,
and that the councils of the monarch were swayed
by more merciful maxims.
Scarcely had M. Olavide entered upon his
confinement, in a convent of La JVLancha, when
a representation of his impaired health procured
him permission to visit the mineral waters in the
\icinity ; soon after, he was allowed to make
an excursion to those of Catalonia, which be
thought would be more efficacious. These, being
near the frontiers, he easily eluded the vigilance
of his guardians, a circumstance which was
doubtless foreseen, and bidding adieu, as he sup-
posed, for ever to his country, he went to France,
where his reputation had long preceded his ar-
rival, and where he was received as the martyr
of intolerance.*
* On his arrival, he was hospitably entertained, courted by
philosophers, and celebrated by poets. Roucher, towards the
conclusion of his poem on the seasons, which appeared about
this time, alludes to him in the following lines :
Qne de 1'Ibere enfin la pieuse furie
Fletrissait un vieillard, 1'honneur desapatrie,
Et solennellement replagait aux autels
L'hydre ayide de Tor et du sang drs n}ortel?
OF SPAIN. 363
Some months after his flight, the king of
Spain, nominally yielding to the suggestions of
his confessor, whose appetite for persecution was
not yet appeased, demanded his surrender from
the court of Versailles. A conciliatory answer
was sent in return, that the offences of Olavide,
however heinous they might appear in Spain,
were not included among those political crimes,
the authors of which are mutually delivered up
to each other by civilized nations ; and the court
of Madrid did not persist in its demand.
Immediately after his escape, he found an asy-
lum at Thoulouse, whence a false alarm induced
him to retire to Switzerland. In the sequel, he
fixed his residence at Paris, where, under the
name of Count de Pilos, he led a tranquil and
happy life, in the bosom of friendship and of the
arts, which must soon have made him am-
ple amends for the loss of his official employ-
ments and popularity. Ten years afterwards,
the French revolution, which he had doubtless
foreseen, and regarded as a desirable event, ex-
hibited, towards the close of his life, a pheno-
menon of a new kind. He heard the thunder
rolling around him ; he was himself for some
months in danger of being shivered by its bolts.
Having passed the ever-memorable epoch of
terror, under the most cruel and well-founded
Apprehension, he learned, what he could not
possibly suspect fifteen years before, that there
364 MODERN STATE
was something under the sun more formidable
than the inquisition. He afterwards retired to
a rural seat near the banks of the Loire, where
his lively and turbulent genius became sedate
and tranquil, without extinguishing the fires of
his soul. A religion more liberal than that to
which he had fallen a sacrifice now supplied him
with a fund of co eolation; literature opened its
treasures, and solitude her fountain of delights ;
insomuch, that by a strange coincidence of events,
the inquisition created, for the first time, a \vise
and a happy man.*
* When I wrote \his in l/97> M. Olavide entertained no
hopes of revisiting a country where he had been proscribed,
and whence he had made his escape like a fugitive} but age,
misfortunes, and great examples, had led him back to that
religion which he had been accused of despising. He not only
made a frank profession of Christianity, but also dedicated his
leisure hours to its vindication, in a voluminous work, which
was no sooner known in Spain than it confirmed a belief in
the sincerity of his conversion, and produced a more general
sentiment of enthusiasm there than his pretended offences had
excited of indignation. He found patronage near the throne;
nay even, what was far more difficult, among the retainers of
that formidable tribunal, which now, for the first time, recol-
lected that the divine legislator, of whose vengeance it assumes
the delegated agency, does not desire the death of a sinner,
but that he should be converted and live. M. Olavide obtained
permission to return to Spain ; and in 17Q8, he appeared
again in the same metropolis which, about twenty years before,
had witnessed his condemnation. But the sentiments of am-
bition and of resentment were alike extinguished in his soul.
OF SPAIN. 363
Since the period of his condemnation, the holy
office, on one particular occasion, confirmed
those jealous fears which it had excited, by a
more tragical example, which, however, did not
produce an equal sensation. 1 still shudder when
I recollect that, in 1780, a poor woman at Se-
ville, convicted of sorcery and witchcraft, was
condemned by this tribunal to be burnt alive, and
this sentence was accordingly put in execu-
tion.
With the exception of this tremendous exam-
ple, the inquisition has confined the exercise of
its authority to a few individuals, who expiated
irreligious expressions by a recantation, and by
slight punishments.
In 1784, I witnessed a scene of this kind,
which was acted at Madrid, and exhibited a
proof that this tribunal, notwithstanding the
dread inspired by its constitution, is sometimes
less severe than secular tribunals.
A mendicant, who took up his station at the.
porch of a church, had dedicated his leisure to
the invention and composition of a species of
powder, to which he ascribed marvellous quali-
ties. It was a mixture of ingredients, the bare
Soon after, he retired to Andalusia, to one of his female rela-
tives, the only one of his ancient friends, who had survived
his long exile. Here he ended his days, in 1803, after hav-
ing alternately tasted the pleasures, and encountered the dan-
gers, of prosperity.
' MODEtiN STATE .
mention of which would offend the modesty of
inv readers. He had invented certain strange
spells, which were to he pronounced during the
application of the remedy. That it might have
a proper effect, he prescribed certain corporeal
attitudes, which are more easily imagined than
described. It was a new kind of those philtres
which so long ahused the credulity of our igno-
rant ancestors.
This nostrum was said to have the quality of
restoring the appetite of a satiated lover, and of
softening the heart of an obdurate mistress.
Every thing which inflames our passions, has
likewise an ascendancy over our credulity. The
impostor did not fail to make proselytes among
that description of people over whom the mar-
Tellous has a powerful influence. Some acci-
dental successes gave reputation to his nostrum.
He entered into partnership with some women,
who assisted its circulation. His powders, how-
ever, as we may well suppose, were sometimes
ineffectually employed. Most of his dupes, more
confounded than exasperated by their disappoint-
ment, kept the matter a profound secret ; others
broke silence, and their complaints at length
reached the ears of the holy office. The mendi-
cant was taken into custody, and brought to the in-
quisition, together with his accomplices, where a
legal process was instituted against them in due
form.
his examination, the imprudent empy-
367
he confessed the whole ; he delivered up his re-
ceipt and his spells. This produced one of the
most strange judicial proceedings that was ever
instituted before any tribunal.* At length the
day of punishment arrived : the judges, the de-
linqucntV. and a crowd of spectators of all ranks,
assembled in the Dominican church at Madrid.
Divine service was performed ; it was interrupted
by the recital of this extraordinary judicial pro-
cess. They were not apprehensive of profaning
the temple of the Lord by a repetition of the
most obscene particulars. Such were the regu-
lations of the holy office, and they were not even
dispensed with in compliment to some young
ladies of distinction, who concealed their con-
fusion behind their fans. But this was not all :
the nuns themselves, more tenacious of the pri-
vileges of their church than of their scruples,, did
not lose any part of this ceremony, and their
modest ears were assailed with these scandalous
details. Sentence was pronounced and executed
at the conclusion of the mass.
The mendicant was declared arraigned and con-
victed of sorcery, of profanation, and impos-
ture, and was condemned to perpetual imprison-
ment, after having been scourged through the
principal streets in the town. Two women,
his accomplices, were however, treated with more
indulgence.
Accordingly, the three delinquents were seen
368 MODERN STATE
taking their departure from the Dominican
rhurch, mounted upon asses., and arrayed in a
Sanbciiito, decorated with diabolical figures, and
other symbols. On their heads, they bore that
ominous cap in the form of a sugar-loaf, which
is styled coroza. The man was naked down to
his waist., and displayed an embonpoint, which
could only be ascribed to the great demand for
his powders. The procession was headed by the
Marquis de Cogolludo, eldest son of the Duke
de Medina Celi, who presided at this ceremony
as alguazil mayor; he was followed hy several
Spanish grandees, familiars of the inquisition,
and several other officers of the same tribunal.
A multitude of spectators occupied all the win-
dows, and filled all the streets. The spectacle
which raised their curiosity to such a pitch, did
not, in other respects, wound their sensibility.
Never was a just sentence executed with more
lenity. Every now and then the mendicant halt-
ed, the executioner made a gentle application of
the whip to his shoulders, and a charitable hand
administered a glass of Spanish wine to recruit
his strength, and to enable him to act his part to
the end of the farce. It were to be wished that
the holy office might never have to exert a greater
degree of severity.*
* In 1804, the Spanish capital witnessed an Auto-da-fe si-
milar to that we have just described. A girl of low extraction,
who had amused herself from her twentieth year with visions
OF SPAIN; 369
In reality this tribunal, as I remarked in 17S9,
and now repeat in defiance of criticism for the
fourth time in 1805, is far from being so for-
midable as is supposed in foreign countries. I
will not undertake the odious office of an apolo-
gist, or say that our Icttres cle cachet, under the
old government, were of a stamp equally revolt-
ing. Neither will I say, that in the age of phi-
losophy, amidst a nation regarded as the most
enlightened and humane, we have beheld the most
tremendous acts of judicial enormity that were
e\er committed on the surface of the globe, per-
petrated before our eyes. It is no excuse for acts
of barbarity to produce others still more heinous
and outrageous. I will even confess, that the
constitutional forms of the inquisition are calcu-
lated to inspire even those with terror who confide
most in its equity. The judicial proceedings
against delinquents are conducted with the great-
est secrecy. The person granted them as counsel
is not permitcd to converse with them except in
the presence of the inquisitors. But what is
more especially odious in these judicial forms,
is this, that when they communicate the evidence
and amorous philtres, was sentenced to be confined e ; ght years,
and to count over her beads every day. Previous to the execu-
tion of this sentence, she did public penance, with a cord about
her neck, during a solemn mass performed on the first Sunday
in Lent.
VOL. I. B !i
370 MODERN STATE
to the accused parties, they carefully conceal
from them the names of the authors. How can
Spain suffer a practice to continue in one of her
tribunals, of which all the modern codes of juris-
prudence have felt the inconvenience, and which
is not even essential to the original object of its
institution ?
If the holy office conducted the proceedings
against delinquents in a more public manner ; if
it acquainted them with their accusers, and con-
fronted them together ; if it allowed them all the
means of defence, would its laws be less scrupu-
lously observed ? Would the sacred trust comr
mitted to its charge, be fulfilled with less fide-
lity ? Let us not be told, that if they were de-
prived of the assurance of secrecy, most of those
who give evidence would be deterred by a false
shame, by a dread of public indignation, and
of the resentment of the accused. Is the holy
office apprehensive lest the numbers of its victims
should be diminished ? Has the Deity whom it
serves such a voracious appetite for the blood of
human victims ? If that be its religion, there
never was a more horrible scourge let loose upon
mankind.
To those who regard it as the only true reli-
gion, I will make this concession, that the purity
of religious principles, and a veneration for reli-
gious worship, are the main pillars of social hap-
OF SPAIN. 371
piness and tranquillity ; that those \vlio openly
militate against them, ought to be curbed and
chastised. But gratitude to benefactors ; the
fidelity of servants to their masters ; a charitable
indulgence towards the failings of our fellow-
creatures: Inquisitors, say, are these virtues less
acceptable in the eyes of your Divinity than or-
thodox opinions ? Would his interests be less
consulted, if such laudable motives prevented a
number of judicial accusations ?
Moreover, have other tribunals no other means
of discovering the guilt of delinquents ? Will
not the public officers, commissioned with the
prosecution of crimes, suffice to detect those
whose punishment is necessary for society or
religion ? Or do these crimes frequently escape
the sword of justice ?
W ith regard to those which would remain un-
noticed, without the dishonourable disclosure of
a witness, is not their publicity more injurious
to religion than their impunity ? And when that
Gpd whom you serve, J had almost said whem
you betray, pronounced a curse upon the man by
whom offence cometh into the world, did he not
also mean to designate him by whom it is propa-
gated, as well as the original author ?
This is the language in which I should address
the holy office, were I summoned to appear be-
fore it. But I should likewise confess, from a
BB 2
3?2 MODERN STATE
regard to truth, not in order to deprecate the
anger of the tribunal, that the inquisition,, if we
could possibly be prevailed upon to pardon its
constitutional forms and the object of its institu-
tion, might, even in our days, be adduced as a
pattern of equity. It takes all the precautions
proper to ascertain the accuracy of the evidence
it receives. Let it not be said, on the contrary,
that the resentment of an enemy lurking in am-
bush, will suffice to provoke its vengeance. It
never condemns any person on the sole evidence
of an accuser, or without investigating the
proofs of the accusation. Offences must be ag-
gravated by frequent commission ; they must be
what are styled by bigots grievous offences, in
order to incur its censure; and after a resi-
dence of ten years, my observations teach me
that, with some circumspection in conversation,
and in such particulars as regard religion, any
one may elude the grasp of this tribunal, and
live as perfectly at his ease in Spain as in any
other country of Europe.
i
But I shall venture to assert still more. Dur-
ing my second residence, of more than a year,
I do not remember to have once heard the name
of the holy office mentioned, and I could not
collect any single fact of a recent date to aggra-
vate the abhorrence I had already conceived of
this tribunal ; an abhorrence, although I have
OF SPAIN. 373
been accused of having acted the part of an apo-
logist. It \vas not because about tbis period
(in 1792 and 1793) the tribunal had relaxed in
its severity, but because more important objects
and more imminent dangers, the progress of our
revolutionary sentiments, claimed the attention
of the Spanish government, and seemed to have
wholly absorbed its cares. It was not simply ir-
religious Frenchmen who were watched or per-
secuted ; it was those Frenchmen who had im-
bibed maxims formidable to despotism, and were
anxious to propagate them. The alcaldes, the
corregidors, the commanding officers, the go-
vernors of provinces, were all of them become so
many political inquisitors, more vigilant, nay,
even more formidable, than their colleagues of
the religious order; insomuch that the latter,
relying upon the numbers and industry of these
active substitutes, seemed to have indulged
themselves with a vacation of some few years.
It was, therefore, chiefly during my first resi-
dence in Spain, that I collected the prominent
features of that portrait which I have given of
the Spanish inquisition.
I have still to add, that, among all foreigners,
the French are chiefly the objects of the unceas-
ing vigilance of this tribunal.
The officious zeal of many of i(s provincial
commissaries, has given birth to many pcrsecu-
374 MODEHN STATE
tions, under frivolous pretences, and disturbs th'ff
repose of citizens by the search of houses, in or-
der to confiscate immoral pictures or prohibited
books ; but this zeal is frequently curbed by the
court, or by the grand inquisitor, which office,
during the late and the present reigns, has been
filled by prelates of a wise and temperate charac-
ter. I have witnessed several examples of this
kind, among which the following is one of the
most remarkable :
It is now niore than twenty years, since a
French house at Cadiz, having received a con-
signment of leather from one of our manufacto-
ries, was suddenly honoured by a visit of the
officers of the inquisition. They demanded the
leather lately arrived, and observing that it was
stamped with the image of the Blessed Virgin,
which was the mark of the manufactory, they
exclaimed against this profanation ; .for this lea-
ther being intended for shoes, the image of the
mother of God would consequently run the risk
of being trodden under foot. It was conse-
quently doomed to be confiscated ; and this
sentence was accordingly carried into execution.
The ministers of the inquisition reported their
booty to the supreme tribunal at Madrid. The
evidence was also transmitted, and I had it for
some time in my hands ; for the merchants being
likewise under apprehensions, had presented a
OF SPAIN. 3|5
remonstrance to the Spanish ministry, through
the medium of their ambassador. The govern-
ment and the tribunal treated this complaint as
it deserved. The officers of the inquisition
were enjoined not to molest strangers under
such trifling pretexts ; and the goods were restor-
to the owners.
The ministry and the grand inquisitor halve
more recently protected some peaceable citizens
against the intrigues of subaltern officers belong-
ing to the inquisition. At Barcelona they at-
tempted to molest a French house, because it
was of the Protestant persuasion ; and when it
was represented to them that the English, and
other northern nations, although heretics, were
tolerated in Spain, they replied, that no other
besides the Catholic religion was known in
France. No sooner was the case of this perse-
cuted house, represented to the court than it was
redressed. Fortunately there will never occur
again any such pretence to oppress Frenchmen
in Spain.
Finally, although there may actually exist
more inquisitorial intolerance in the provinces
than in the metropolis, no material inconveni-
ence can ever arise from it ; because the decisions
of the provincial tribunals are only valid wht-n
they are sanctioned by that of Madrid, which,
for this reason, is denominated la suprcma. For
MODERN STATE
several years past, however, the court interferes
more than ever in the administration of the holy
office, and this intervention is by no means cal-
culated to augment its severity. In 1784, it
was ordained, that if the inquisition should have
occasion to try any Spanish grandee, any of his
majesty's ministers, any military officer, any
member of his tribunals, in short any placemen,
the legal proceedings must be submitted to his
majesty for his revision and approbation. By
these means, the principal citizens have obtained
another safeguard against the arbitrary decisions
of the holy office. We have only to lament that
it has been granted to such classes as cannot fail
to find protection, rather than to those whose
complaints, by reason of their obscurity, can
scarcely be heard. But wherever the people have
not at least an indirect share in the promulgation
of laws, they are constantly overlooked, when
they. are not oppressed by their legislators. The
rigorous operation of the laws is strictly en-
forced with respect to them, but they are not
suffered to participate in their indulgence.
Until the present day, the inquisition has en-
joyed the undisturbed monopoly of a duty levied
upon all ships that enter the Spanish ports, in
consequence of the search it is authorized to
make, in order to see that they do not contain
any thing offensive to religion, The search has
OP SPAIN. 37T
long been neglected, but the duty is still levied.
Were this the only grievance alledged against
the holy office, we should easily be reconciled
to it.
In 1789, I concluded this long dissertation on
the inquisition, by expressing a wish that the
kings of Spain might be ultimately induced to
place sufficient confidence in the submission of
their subjects, in the vigilance of their temporal
courts of justice, and in the enlightened zeal of
the Spanish prelates, in order to dispense entirely
with this tribunal. But after the transactions
that have recently occurred in Europe, I am in-
clined to suspect that the accomplishment of this
desirable object remains still far distant. I am
apprehensive lest even the wisest of sovereigns,
jealous of their prerogative, may embrace with a
two-fold affection those stays that still sustain
their thrones, shaken by such a tremendous con-
cussion ; and lest/ from the outrageous excesses
of philosophy run mad, which among us has
broken through all restraints, they may derive
additional arguments in favour of those institu-
tions which prevent the disorders of irreligion by
the maxims of intolerance. More than one ob-
servation appears to confirm these sinister con-
jectures. Since the return of peace with France
the priests have reassumed their ancient ascend-
ancy in. Spain ; the lectures on national right?
MODERN STATE
and public jurisprudence have been suppressed,
and the treatise of Macanaz on the inquisition
has been republished.
We shall presently see \vhether the most effica-
cious means of insuring the obedience of subjects
is to blindfold and to keep them in ignorance ;
whether they are conducted with greater safety
through opaque darkness than by the broad day-
light of reason ; or whether, to employ the lan-
guage of dtespotism itself, a moderate govern-
ment is not best calculated to secure the rulers
themselves against the explosions of liberty.
Before we dismiss this subject, we must just
notice a political body which many people con-
found with the holy office, but which has no re-
lation with it, except that of one common epithet :
1 mean the Sancta Hermandad, which is so fre-
quently mentioned in Spanish novels. It is no-
thing more than a fraternity dispersed in various
districts of the kingdom of Castile, whose sole
object is to watch over the safety of the county,
and to prosecute all disturbers of the public
peace. It is subordinate to the Council of Castile,
from which it receives its regulations. One of
these regulations, most severely enforced, is that
it must make no encroachments upon the juris-
diction of the towns. Its principal stations are
Toledo, Ciudad, RodrigOj and Talavera ;
Let us now resume our observations on the
OF SPAIN. 379
internal administration of Spain. We began
with the Council of Castile, which conducted us
to the administration of justice, to legislation,
and lastly to the tribunal of the inquisition. la
the next volume we shall proceed to take a sur-
vey of the other councils of the monarchy.
OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
T. Gillct, Printer, Crtwi-cwrt t fltet-itreet.
1864
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