THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 u 
 
 PRIVATE LIBRARY 
 
 . - OF - - 
 
 ALBERT G. KELLER 
 
 Vol. No. Value
 
 COLLEGE SERIES OF GREEK AUTHORS 
 
 EDITED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF 
 
 JOHN' WILLIAMS WHITE AND THOMAS D. SEYMOUR. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 LANGUAGE AND VERSE 
 
 X 
 
 OP 
 
 HOMER 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS D. SEYMOUR 
 
 HILLHOUSE PROFESSOR OF GREEK IN YALE COLLEGB. 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A.: 
 PUBLISHED BY GIXX & COMPANY. 
 
 1889.
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, In the year 1885, by 
 
 JOHN WILLIAMS WHITE AND THOMAS P. SETMOUB, 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, 
 
 TYPOGRAPHY BY J. S. CUBBING & Co., BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 I'KESSWOKK BY GlNN & CO., BoM-ON, L.fcJ.A.
 
 College 
 Library 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 
 THIS Introduction is not designed to lay stress on Ho- 
 meric language as contrasted with Homeric poetry, but is 
 intended to relieve the commentary of explanations of 
 dialectic forms and metrical peculiarities, and to call the 
 student's attention to the most noteworthy characteristics 
 of Homeric style and syntax. In reading Homer, certain 
 questions, which cannot be avoided, as to the origin and rela- 
 tion of forms, will attract less of the pupil's attention and 
 demand less of the teacher's time in the class-room if the 
 facts are stated in their proper connection ; the grouping of 
 these facts will make them more intelligible and more 
 easily remembered." 
 
 Some peculiarities of form have not been mentioned here, 
 since they occur so seldom that they may be treated in the 
 commentary just as conveniently ; while for divers reasons 
 other anomalies which are no more frequent have been 
 discussed. Nor has the author planned to make the col- 
 lection of examples complete ; the student should be en- 
 couraged to gather illustrations for himself. 
 
 Most of this Introduction is of a nature to be read rather 
 than committed to memory. Much of it is unnecessary for 
 a beginner, but the author hopes that none of it is beyond 
 the comprehension and appreciation of the student. While 
 parts of it can be made fully useful only by a wise teacher, 
 most of it should be helpful to the undirected student. 
 
 YALE COLLEGE, July, 1885. ^
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 I. HOMERIC STYLE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. a. Translations ............. 1 
 
 b. Change of Subject ....... 7 
 
 c. Direct Discourse ......... 7 
 
 d. Principal Clauses ......... 8 
 
 f . Order of Words .......... 9 
 
 n. Epithets ................. 11 
 
 s. Synonymous Expressions . 13 
 t. Epexegesis .............. 13 
 
 \v. Stereotyped Expressions . . 14 
 2. a. Parechesis ............... 15 
 
 e. Comparisons ............. 16 
 
 1. Asyndeton .............. 18 
 
 o. Chiasmus ............... 19 
 
 p. Epanalepsis ............. 20 
 
 r. Litotes .................. 20 
 
 s. Periphrasis ............. 21 
 
 t. Zeugma ................. 21 
 
 u. Hysteron Proteron ....... 22 
 
 v. Later Change in Words. . .22 
 
 II. HOMERIC SYNTAX. 
 
 3. b. Modes ................... 24 
 
 d. Cases ................... 25 
 
 f. Genitive Absolute ........ 26 
 
 g. Dative of Interest ........ 26 
 
 1. Particles ................ 28 
 
 m. Interrogative Particles. .. .29 
 
 n. Parataxis ................ 30 
 
 q. Correlative Construction . .31 
 
 III. HOMERIC DIALECT. 
 
 4. Introductory ............... :}:', 
 
 5. Vowels .................... :'7 
 
 6. Contraction ................ :;'. 
 
 7- Synizesis ................... 39 
 
 PAGE 
 
 8. Crasis 40 
 
 9. Hiatus 40 
 
 10. Elision 41 
 
 11. Apocope 42 
 
 12. Consonants 4-J 
 
 13. Metathesis 4"> 
 
 14. The Diganuna 4"> 
 
 15. Special Case-Endings 40 
 
 16. First Declension 50 
 
 17. Second Declension 51 
 
 18. Third Declension 52 
 
 19. Anomalous Forms .V> 
 
 20. Adjectives 56 
 
 21. Patronymics ">; 
 
 22. Comparison of Adjectives . . .-">! 
 
 23. Numerals 60 
 
 24. Pronouns <>:> 
 
 25. Augment and Reduplication . (5o 
 
 26. Verb-Endings 07 
 
 27. Subjunctive Mode 70 
 
 28. Optative Mode 70 
 
 29. Contract Verbs 70 
 
 30. Future and First Aorist 72 
 
 31. Perfect 73 
 
 32. Middle Voice 74 
 
 33. Passive Voice 7"> 
 
 34. Verbs in -/j.i 75 
 
 35. Second Aorist without Varia- 
 
 ble Vowel 77 
 
 36. Iterative Forms 77 
 
 37. Prepositions 78 
 
 38. Adverbs 79 
 
 IV. HOMERIC VERSE. 
 
 39. Heroic Hexameter 81 
 
 40. Cacsural Pauses 83 
 
 41. Quantity 86 
 
 INDEXES, 95.
 
 HOMERIC STYLE. 
 
 1. a. TRANSLATIONS. Matthew Arnold enumerates 
 four essential characteristics of Homer's poetry: 1 "Homer 
 is rapid in his movement, Homer is plain in his words and 
 style, Homer is simple in his ideas, Homer is noble in 
 his manner. Cowper renders him ill because he is slow 
 in his movement and elaborate in his style ; Pope renders 
 him ill because he is artificial both in his style and in 
 his words ; Chapman renders him ill because he is fantastic 
 in his ideas ; Mr. Newman renders him ill because he is odd 
 in his words and ignoble in his manner." Or in other words : 
 " Between Cowper and Homer there is interposed the mist 
 of Cowper's elaborate Miltonic manner, entirely alien to the 
 flowing rapidity of Homer ; between Pope and Homer there 
 is interposed the mist of Pope's literary, artificial manner, 
 entirely alien to the plain naturalness of Homer's manner ; 
 between Chapman and Homer there is interposed the mist 
 of the fancifulness of the Elizabethan age, entirely alien to 
 the plain directness of Homer's thought and feeling ; while 
 between Mr. Newman and Homer is interposed a cloud of 
 more than Egyptian thickness, namely, a manner, in Mr. 
 Newman's version eminently ignoble, while Homer's manner 
 is eminently noble." 
 
 If poets and masters have thus failed, it is evident that it 
 is no easy achievement to translate Homer well, to be at 
 the same time rapid, plain, simple, and noble. ov TTOJ? 
 
 1 Essays in Criticism, Boston, 1865, pp. 284 ff., or Studies in Celtic Literature 
 and on Translating Hunter, Macmillan, N.Y., 1883, pp. 138 ff.
 
 2 HOMERIC STYLE. [ 1, . 
 
 Trdvra Bwrfo-eai avro? e\<r0ai. The beginner can at least be 
 simple ; he should aim to attain the other qualities also. 
 
 It is instructive to compare different translations of a 
 famous passage, @ 555 if. : 
 
 &>9 B' or' ev ovpavw dcrrpa (fraeivrjv ap<$>l aekrfvyv 
 <j>aivT dpnrpeTrea, ore T' eTrXero vijve/j,os aldijp" 
 K T e<f>avev iracrai cricoTrial Kal Trpcaoves atcpoi 
 Kai vaTrat ovpavo0ev 8" dp 1 vTreppdyrj ao-Trero? 
 TTavTct Be T eiBerai da~Tpa,' ye r yr)0e Be re (fjpeva 
 rocrcra fjLe&r/yv vewv r/Se > Kdv8oio podcav 
 
 KaiOVTWV TTVpd <f)aiVTO 'I\l60l 7Tp6. 
 
 dp* ev TreSia) Trvpd Kaiero, Trap Be etcda-Ta) 
 etaro Trevr^Kovra (re\ai TTU/JO? aWofievoLo. 
 ITTTTOL Be Kpi \evicov epeTTTopevoi Kal o\vpa<;, 
 eoradre? Trap 1 6^ea-<f>iv, evQpovov 'Hw p.ip,vov. 
 
 This is translated by Chapman : l 
 
 1 The. Iliads of Homer, Prince of Poets, never before in any language truly 
 translated, with a comment upon some of his chief places, June according to the 
 Greek by George Chapman. Of this translation, A-B, H-A were published in 
 1598. The first twelve books of the Iliad were published in 1610, and the 
 other twelve in 1611. The first half of the Odyssey was published in UH4, and 
 the rest in 1615. Chapman was about six years older than Shakespeare. The 
 reader will notice that the metre is the " common metre " of our hymn-books. 
 Chapman says in his "Preface to the Reader"- "Alwaii-s conceiving how 
 pedanticall and absurd an affectation it is, in the interpretation of any Author 
 (much more of Homer) to turn him word for word ; when (according to Horace 
 and other best lawgivers to translators) it is the part of every knowing and 
 judiciall interpreter, not to follow the number and order of the words but the 
 material things themselves, and sentences to weigh diligently ; and to clothe 
 and adorne them with words, and such a stile and form of oration as are most 
 apt for the language into which they are converted. If I have not turned 
 him in any place falsly (as all other his interpreters have in many, and nut 
 it' Ins chiefe places;) if I have not left behind me any of his sentence, ele- 
 gancie, height, intention and invention . if in some few places ... I be somthing 
 paraphrastic-all and faulty; is it justice in that poore fault (if they will needs 
 have it so) to drowne all the rest of my labour." 
 
 Pope criticises Chapman's translation as "loose and rambling," and for its 
 ' frequent interpolations." " He appears to have had a strong affectation of 
 extracting new meanings out of his author. . . . But that which is to be allowed 
 him, and which very much contributed to cover his defects, is a daring, fiery
 
 j 1, .] HOMERIC STYLE. 3 
 
 " Fires round about them shinde 
 
 As when about the silver Moone, when air is free from winde, 
 And stars shine cleare ; to whose sweete beames, high prospects, 
 
 and the brows 
 
 Of all steepe hils and pinnacles, thrust up themselves for showes ; 
 And even the lowly vallies joy, to glitter in their sight, 
 When the unmeasur'd firmament, bursts to disclose her light, 
 And all the signes in heaven are seene, that glad the shepheards 
 
 hart ; 
 
 So many fires disclosde their beames, made by the Trojan part, 
 Before the face of llion; and her bright turrets show'd. 
 A thousand courts of guard kept fires ; and every guard allow'd 
 Fiftie stout men, by whom their horse, eate oates and hard white 
 
 come, 
 And all did wilfully expect, the silver-throned morne." 
 
 Pope's translation l follows : 
 
 " And beaming fires illumin'd all the ground, 
 As when the moon, refulgent lamp of night ! 
 O'er heaven's clear azure spreads her sacred light, 
 When not a breath disturbs the deep serene, 
 
 spirit that animates his translation, which is something like what one might 
 imagine Homer himself would have writ before he arriv'd to years of discretion." 
 1 Pope's translation of the Iliad was published in 1715-20. It is said that 
 the great Bentley (see 14 d R.) remarked to Pope " that it was a very 
 pretty poem but that he must not call it Homer." It is in such simple narra- 
 tive as quoted above that Pope's style is worst ; it is best in descriptions of 
 action. 
 
 Pope says in his preface : " That which in my opinion ought to be the 
 endeavour of any one who translates Homer, is above all things to keep alive 
 that spirit and fire which makes his chief character. In particular places, 
 where the sense can bear any doubt, to follow the strongest and most poetical, 
 as most agreeing with that character. To copy him in all the variations of 
 his style and the different modulations of his numbers. To preserve in the 
 more active or more descriptive parts, a warmth and elevation ; in the more 
 sedate or narrative, a plainness and solemnity ; in the speeches, a fulness and 
 perspicuity ; in the sentences [sententiae], a shortness and gravity. Not to 
 neglect even the little figures and turns on the words, nor sometimes the very 
 cast of the periods. Neither to omit or confound any rites or customs of 
 antiquity. ... To consider him attentively in comparison with Virgil above 
 all the ancients, and with Milton above all the moderns."
 
 4 HOMERIC STYLE. [ 1, a. 
 
 And not a cloud o'ercasts the solemn scene ; 
 Around her throne the vivid planets roll, 
 And stars unnumber'd gild the glowing pole, 
 O'er the dark trees a yellow verdure shed, 
 And tip with silver every mountain's head ; 
 Then shine the vales, the rocks in prospect rise, 
 A flood of glory bursts from all the skies : 
 The conscious swains, rejoicing in the sight, 
 Eye the blue vault and bless the useful light. 
 So many flames before proud Ilion blaze, 
 And lighten glimmering Xanthus with their rays : 
 The long reflections of the distant fires 
 Gleam on the walls, and tremble on the spires, 
 A thousand piles the dusky horrors gild, 
 And shoot a shady lustre o'er the field. 
 Full fifty guards each flaming pile attend, 
 Whose umber 'd arms, by fits, thick flashes send, 
 Loud neigh the coursers o'er the heaps of corn, 
 And ardent warriors wait the rising morn." 
 
 Cowper's translation 1 follows : 
 
 " As when about the clear bright moon, the stars 
 Shine in full splendour, and the winds are hush'd, 
 The groves, the mountain-tops, the headland-heights 
 Stand all apparent, not a vapour streaks 
 
 1 Published in 1791. 
 
 Cowper says in his preface : " My chief boast is that I have adhered closely 
 to the original, convinced that every departure from him would be punished 
 with the forfeiture of some grace or beauty for which I could offer no sub- 
 stitute. ... It has been my point everywhere to be as little verbose as possible. 
 ... In the affair of style, I have endeavoured neither to creep nor to bluster, 
 for no author is so likely to betray his translator into both these faults as 
 Homer, though himself never guilty of either. . . . The passages which will be 
 least noticed . . . are those which have cost me abundantly the most labour. 
 It is difficult to kill a sheep with dignity in a modern language, to flay and to 
 prepare it for the table, detailing every circumstance of the process. Difficult 
 also, without sinking below the level of poetry, to harness mules to a waggon, 
 particularizing every article of their furniture, straps, rings, staples, and even 
 the tying of the knots that kept all together. Homer, who writes always to 
 the eye, with all his sublimity and grandeur, has the minuteness of a Flemish 
 painter."
 
 l,a.] HOMERIC STYLE. 5 
 
 The boundless blue, but ether open'd wide 
 All glitters and the shepherd's heart is cheer'd ; 
 So num'rous seem'd those fires between the stream 
 Of Xanthus, blazing, and the fleet of Greece, 
 In prospect all of Troy ; a thousand fires, 
 Each watch'd by fifty warriors seated near. 
 The steeds beside the chariots stood, their corn 
 Chewing, and waiting till the golden thron'd 
 Aurora should restore the light of da}*." 
 
 Professor F. W. Newman's translation l follows : 
 
 ' ' And as around the shining Moon | the stars aloft in heaven 
 Glister with radiance distinct, | when all the sky is breathless, 
 And every lofty peak is shown, | and headland edge and forest, 
 And from behind the cloven sky | unfathom'd heaven gleameth ; 
 Nor hidden any star may be ; | and joyful is the shepherd ; 
 So many fires betwixt the streams | of Xanthos and the galleys, 
 Shone then in front of Ilion, | by hands of Troians kindled. 
 A thousand fires along the plain, | I say, that night were burning, 
 And close to every glaring blaze | sat fifty men in armour. 
 And by their chariots the steeds | rye and white barley munching, 
 Stood waiting till the Queen of Morn | fair-thron'd should rise 
 before them." 
 
 Lord Derby's translation 2 follows : 
 
 " As when in Heav'n, around the glitt'riug moon 
 The stars shine bright amid the breathless air ; 
 And ev'ry crag and ev'ry jutting peak 
 
 1 Published in 1856. 
 
 This has received perhaps undue distinction from the criticisms of Matthew 
 Arnold. The translator says: "To the metre which I have myself adopted, 
 I was brought by a series of argument and experiment, and was afterwards 
 gratified to find that I had exactly alighted on the modern Greek Epic metre. 
 It is also the metre of the American Yankee Doodle, which some have ignor- 
 antly made an objection : as if the metre of the Frogs and Mice and of the 
 Margltes, were not that of the Iliad. Of course no metre can be popular, 
 without being applicable to low treatment ; indeed without being liable to 
 degenerate into doggrel in unskilful hands." 
 
 2 Published in 1865.
 
 HOMERIC STYLE. [ 1, a. 
 
 Stands boldly forth, and ev'ry forest glade ; 
 Ev'n to the gates of Heav'n is open'd wide 
 The boundless sky ; shines each particular star 
 Distinct ; joy fills the gazing shepherd's heart. 
 So bright, so thickly scatter'd o'er the plain, 
 Before the walls of Troy, between the ships 
 And Xanthus' stream, the Trojan watchfires blaz'd. 
 A thousand fires burnt brightly ; and round each 
 Sat fifty warriors in the ruddy glare ; 
 With store of provender before them laid, 
 Barley and rye, the tether'd horses stood 
 Beside the cars, and waited for the morn." 
 
 Bryant's translation * follows : 
 
 " As when in heaven the stars look brightly forth 
 Round the clear-shining moon, while not a breeze 
 Stirs in the depths of air, and all the stars 
 Are seen, and gladness fills the shepherd's heart, 
 So many fires in sight of Ilium blazed, 
 Lit by the sons of Troy, between the ships 
 And eddying Xauthus : on the plain there shone 
 A thousand ; fifty warriors by each fire 
 Sat in its light. Their steeds beside the cars 
 Champing their oats and their white barley stood, 
 And waited for the golden morn to rise." 
 
 Tennyson translates : - 
 
 "As when in heaven the stars about the moon 
 Look beautiful, when all the winds are laid, 
 And every height conies out, and jutting peak 
 And valley, and the immeasurable heavens 
 Break open to their highest, and all the stars 
 Shine, and the shepherd gladdens in his heart : 
 So many a fire between the ships and stream 
 Of Xanthus blazed before the towers of Troy, 
 A thousand on the plain ; and close by each 
 
 1 Published in 1870.
 
 1, c.] HOMERIC STYLE. 7 
 
 Sat fifty in the blaze of burning fire ; 
 
 And champing golden grain, the horses stood 
 
 Hard by their chariots, waiting for the dawn." 
 
 Matthew Arnold translates the last verses in hexameters : 
 / / / / 
 
 " So shone forth, in front of Troy, by the bed of the Xanthus, 
 
 netween that and the ships, the Trojans' numerous fires. 
 
 In the plain there were kindled a thousand fires : b}* each one 
 
 There sat fifty men in the ruddy light of the fire : 
 
 By their chariots stood the steeds and champed the white barley 
 
 "While their masters sat by the fire and waited for Morning." 
 
 b. CHANGE OF SUBJECT. Homer composed for quick- 
 minded hearers, who were ready to apprehend a change of 
 subject even when it was marked by no pronoun, as tf ol ap 
 aWo/tevas &ai$a$ (frepe icai e fj,d\icrra \ S/J.a)da>v (frtXeecnce, Kal 
 erpe(f>e rvrOov eovra a 434 f. she bore for him the burning 
 torch and (i.e. for) he loved her most of all the female ser- 
 vants^ and (i.e. for} she was his nurse when he teas a child ; 
 e%ev 7rd\ai to? tOwev SP 871 he (Meriones) long had been hold- 
 ing ivhile he (Teucer) was taking aim; irpiv 7' r/e Karaicrdjj,v 
 r)e KCUT aKp^ | "l\iov alireivrjv e\eetv KrdcrOai re iro\ira<$ 
 O 557 before either we slay the Greeks or they capture 
 lofty Ilios and the citizens are slain. Still more striking is 
 the change in {3ov\oi/j,Tjv /ce . . reOvdpev rj rd&e . . ep*/ 1 6pd- 
 aadai, \ %eivovs re arv(})e\iofj,evov<i S/Awds re <yvvai/cas \ pvcrrd- 
 ovra$ decK\t(0s Kara Scofiara Ka\d, | Kal dlvov Siacfrvcra'Ofj^vov, 
 Kal a-irov e&ovras IT 106 ff. / should rather die than see these 
 deeds, guests struck, suitors abusing the maids, wine ivasted, 
 suitors devouring the food, where the poet was sure that his 
 hearers would not construe pva-rdovra<> and eSovras with 
 %eivov<s, but would supply ^vrjar^pa^ from the context. 
 
 c. DIRECT DISCOURSE. Like the writers of Holy Scrip- 
 ture, and as in the simple style of ballads and fairy tales and 
 the conversation of children and uneducated persons, the 
 Homeric poet avoids the use of indirect discourse ; he has no
 
 8 HOMERIC STYLE. [ 1, d. 
 
 long passages in oratio obliqua, in the manner of the reported 
 speeches in Caesar's Commentaries. He passes quickly from 
 indirect to direct discourse, 1 as eVet TT/OO ol eiirop^v 
 avrov KTeiveiv fJLrjre f^vdaadai aKOtnv, \ etc yap ' 
 
 ea-crerai tcr\. a 37 ff. since ive told him beforehand not to 
 slay the man himself and not to woo his wife, for from Orestes 
 shall (for should) vengeance come, etc. Contrast o jap f}\6t; 
 Ooas 7rl vfjas 'A.%ai(ov \ . . /cat XtVcrero Trdvras 'A^atoi><? | 
 . . vfj.iv fj,ev Oeol Boiev 'O\u/i7rta Sa)fj,aT* e^ovres | etcTrepaai 
 Tlpid/Jioio 7r6\iv, ev Bi 1 oitcaB* itcecrQai | 7rai8a S' e/iot \v<rane 
 <f)i\i]v ra $' aTTOiva Be%cr@ai, \ d^opevoi AiO9 vlov, KT)jSo\ov 
 ' A.7r6\\6)va A 12 ff. with its paraplirase which uses indirect 
 discourse, e\8cbv 6 lepevs eij^ero eiceivois fiev rov? Oeovs Sovvat, 
 eXoi/ra? rrjv Tpotav avrovs awOrfvai, TTJV Be Bvyarepa oi Xixrat 
 Segafievovs aTroiva Kol TOV Oeov aiSea-Oevras KT\. in Plato Rep. 
 Ill 393 E. 
 
 d. PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. Similar to this avoidance of 
 indirect discourse is the poet's frequent and ready transition 
 from a subordinate to a principal clause, as o? peya iravratv | 
 'A.pyeio)v tcpareei icai ol ireidovrai J A.%atoi A 78 f. who rules 
 with might over all the Argives and him (for whom} the 
 Achaeans obey ; o? paXa 7ro\\d \ ir\d'y)(6' r ) tro\\d S' o 7' 
 eV TTOVTW Trddev aXyea a 1 ff. who was driven on many ivander- 
 ings . . and he suffered many woes upon the sea ; Mevnop 09 
 p 'QBvcrrjos dfJ,v[J.ovo<t rjev eralpos | /cat ol (Mentor) liiiv ev vrjv- 
 <rlv eTrerpeirev (sc. Odysseus) oitcov ajravra /3 225 f., oS eirc 
 TroXXa fjioyrjcra, B6<rav Be fioi vies 'A^ataii/ A 162. 
 
 e. Thus the poet deserts the participial for a finite construc- 
 tion, as r/ E/cTopa 8* ev ireBia) iBe Keip-evov dfj,<f>i 8' eralpot \ e'taro 
 O 9 f. he saw Hector lying on the plain, while his comrades were 
 
 1 So in other early poets as Ijpf' om S^vrt irtirovOa, K$m \ Syfaf Kd\rjfj.t, \ 
 KOTTI ft.oi /toAierTo Ot\o> yfVfffOai | fj.aiv6\a 6v/j.(f riva $ri?>Tf TltiBw \ pats Ayijv is 
 aav <t>i\6rara, -ris ff' <L \ Vdir<]>' aSucna: Sappho I 16 ff. thou didst ask me what I 
 suffer and why I call thee, . . whom dost thou desire that Persuasion should lead 
 to thy love, etc.
 
 i, A.] HOMERIC STYLE. 
 
 seated around him (for KOI eraipovs 
 pedovro | ecr#V dyopevovres, Katca Be </>pecri ftv crcroSo/ief ov p 65 f . 
 (for /3vo-<To&of4vovTs planning in the depth of their hearts). 
 Of. yovvdo/MU . . | eorrdfievai icparepws, pyBe rpwjra<r6e <o- 
 /Soi/Se O 665 f. I beseech you to stand stoutly, nor turn to flight; 
 lolaiv re nrvcTKOfJievoi \decrai T' e{3aX\ov F 80, where re . . re 
 mark the imperfect as correlative with the participle. 
 
 f. OEDER OF WOEDS. The simplicity of the Homeric 
 order of words is most clearly seen by comparing a passage 
 of Homer with a similar passage of a later Greek poet or of 
 Vergil. Many verses of the Iliad and Odyssey can be trans- 
 lated into English, word for word as they stand, as or^o/ietf' 
 e? r)ftriv leprjv 7ro\ii> 'Heriowo?, | rrjv Be BieTrpaBo/^ev re real 
 
 evOaBe irdvra. \ . . etc 8' e\ov 'ArpeiBy XpvarjiBa tca\\i- 
 KT\. A 366 ff. When the order differs essentially 
 from the English there are generally rhetorical or poetical 
 reasons why the order is what it is ; no one should suppose 
 that the metre compelled the poet to adopt an arrangement 
 of words that was not natural .and did not please him. The 
 verse gave prominence not merely to the first word but often 
 to the word before the principal caesural pause ( 40). 
 
 g. The thought of each Homeric verse is somewhat more 
 independent than is the case in later poetry. Other things 
 being equal, a word should be construed with words in the 
 same rather than in another verse. Rarely does a descriptive 
 adjective at the close of one verse agree directly with a noun 
 at the beginning of the next (as xpe/j,eriov eV aicpw \ ^et'Xet 
 e^eo-raore? M 51 f. or etXero Ka\rjv \ d%ivr]v ev^a\Kov N 611). 
 
 h. A noun at the close of one verse often has an adjective 
 apparently in agreement with it at the beginning of the next 
 verse, but this adjective may be regarded as in apposition 
 with the noun ; it frequently serves to form a closer connec- 
 tion with a following amplifying clause, as pfjviv deiBe Bed . . \ 
 ov\ofjLvrjv, r) p,vp'C 'A^aiot? aA/ye' eOrjicev A 1 f., where the rela- 
 tive clause explains ov\oftevifv : the wrath was mortal, deadly.
 
 1 HOMERIC STYLE. [ 1, '. 
 
 because it brought ten thousand woes upon the Achaeans. 
 So a few verses later, vovaov ava arparov wpcre KaKijv, 6\efcovro 
 Be \aoi A. 10, the position of the adjective Kateijv is explained 
 by its connection with the thought of the following clause. 
 Cf. viJTrioi 01 Kara /Sous "Tirepiovos r/eXioto | Jjadiov a 8, the 
 companions of Odysseus were fools in that they devoured the 
 cattle of Hyperion ; <j>dn<; . . | lirtfXif, %alpovcnv Be Trarrjp KCU 
 Trorvia prjrrjp 30 ; vvv avre fuv vies 'AftCUW | ev 7ra\d/j.7js 
 <f>opeov<ri BtKacnr6\ot 01 re tfe/ucrra,? | Trpo? Ato<? elpvarai 
 A 237 if., where Sucaa-TroXoi is explained by the following 
 clause. Sometimes a word is reserved for the beginning of a 
 verse in order to mark a contrast with what follows, as aurap 
 eVet 8rj ret^o? eireao'vuevov's evoyaev | Tpwo.?, arap kavawv 
 yevero la^ij re <o/3o<? re O 395 f., where the order of the 
 words sets Tpwa<? into an antithesis with Aai/awv, d/x^ore- 
 pa? . . p^etpa? efiapTrrev | a/caty, Se^irepfj 8' ap' UTT' a>fia>v aivvro 
 Toa <& 489 f. avTov thus often contrasts a man with his 
 companions or possessions, as UTTO /j,ev <f>i\a e'l^ara Bva-(a | 
 avrov Be K\aiovra 0oa<; eTrl vfja<; a<f)i](ra) B 261 if. ; 7^09 ftev p 
 ea-rrjcre . . | avnjv S' e? 9povov elcrev a 127 ff. 
 
 i. The first words of successive verses occasionall} r carry 
 the burden of thought, as FXaO/co? . . | 'I<f>lvoov /SaXe . . | Aem- 
 Sijv . . | wfAov H 13 if. Grlaucus . . hit IpJiinous . . son of Dexias 
 on the shoulder. 
 
 j. The subject of the sentence usually precedes its verb. 
 Almost every exception to this remark is found either at the 
 close of the verse, or less frequently before the principal 
 caesura (where the same metrical freedom was allowed as at 
 the end of the verse, 41 a 3). 
 
 k. In order to give prominence to an important word, it is 
 sometimes placed before the relative word of the clause to 
 which it belongs, as o-acurepo? <w? ice verjat A 32 ; KeWi Be fi 
 &><? 7repa<reie 297. This is especially frequent when the sub- 
 ordinate clause precedes the principal sentence, as"Er&)p B' 
 &>9 /cam<? re TruXa? . . 'iicavev | ap,$> apa fj.iv . . deov fcr\. Z 237.
 
 1, p.] HOMERIC STYLE. H 
 
 1. Adnoruinal genitives, like adjectives, generally precede 
 their noun, except at the close of the verse or before a caesu- 
 ral pause, but there are many exceptions to the rule in the 
 case of adjectives, principally perhaps where the adjective 
 and substantive are closely connected. A preposition often 
 stands between the adjective and noun, as ^pvcreo) ova <TKIJ- 
 15, 0oa<; ^Trl vfja^ A 12; ^/iere/jw evl oiiccp A 30; or 
 Ti j\a(j>vpd<f F 119. The infinitive generally follows 
 the verb on which it depends. 
 
 m. When a noun is modified by two adjectives, it fre- 
 quently is preceded by one and followed by the other, as Oofj 
 Trapa vr)l p^\aivrj A 300 ; iroXvv ofifBpov a6i<T<$>aTOv K 6. So 
 in English poetry "human face divine," "purest ray serene," 
 "old man eloquent." 
 
 n. EPITHETS. Often three or more epithets are used with 
 one noun, as etXero 8' aXtcifiov ey^o? aicayjievov ogei ^aX/co>, | 
 /zeya crnftapov a 99 f. ; ov ri 7repnr\T)Or)<> \itjv rocrov, 
 yadr] p,ev, \ evftoTos eu/iT/Xo?, olvo7r\ijOr)<; iro\V7rvpo<; 
 
 405 f. (But in the first three books of the Iliad as many 
 as three adjectives are rarely found with one noun.) Often 
 two of the epithets begin a verse, as e? Opovov elaev aycov . . | 
 KaXov 8at8d\eov a 130 f. ; <j)6pfiiyyi \iyeirj | Ka\fj 8aiBa\er) 
 
 1 186 f . ; KaXa 7reBi\a | apPpocria %pvo-eta e 44 f. ; e? 6d\a- 
 fiov KareftricreTO KrjwevTa | tceSpivov v^lropo(j)ov H 191 f. 
 
 o. As is seen from the foregoing examples, the poet does 
 not use Kai to connect epitlieta ornantia. 
 
 p. These ornamental epithets frequently have reference to 
 the most marked natural characteristics of an object rather 
 than to a particular occasion. The ships are sivift (Boat) 
 even when they are drawn up on land (A 300 and passim) ; 
 clothing is a-vyaXoevra even when it is soiled ( 26) ; Aegis- 
 thus is called honorable, blameless (apvputv, a 29) in the very 
 breath in which he is rebuked for wooing Agamemnon's wife 
 and killing the king of men himself; Polyphemus lifts his 
 hands to the starry heaven (et<? ovpavov acrrepoevra t 527) in
 
 HOME KIT STYLE. [ 1,7. 
 
 broad daylight. The sea is 
 drpvyeTos, ddecrfaros, iro\n], j\avKij. Rarely would one of 
 these epithets be used to give a characteristic of the sea at a 
 special time. It is in imitation of Homer that Theocritus, 
 Id. I 58, calls milk XeuKo'i/, of course, not to distinguish 
 white milk from milk of another color but to bring the object 
 vividly before the mind by mentioning a quality of it which 
 all would recognize as belonging to the nature of the object. 
 The choice among these stereotyped conventional epithets 
 was often determined by the convenience of metre or rhythm 
 (see 4 b f.). It should be noted that of the epithets of the 
 sea only two (arpv^eros, evpinropos) have the same metrical 
 value. 
 
 q. Almost every prominent person in the poems has some 
 special epithet or epithets. Pope calls these "a sort of 
 supernumerary pictures of the persons or things they are 
 joined to. We see the motion of Hector's plumes in the 
 epithet Kopv6aio\os" No one but Athena is y\avK(07ri<> and 
 the adjective becomes virtually a proper name, as 7 135. 
 She bears this epithet 90 times, generally in the phrase 6ea 
 yXavKWTTi? 'AOjjvr). She is HaXXa? 'A0rjwtj 41 times. Zeus 
 is v<j>e\r]yepera Zev? 30 times, eply&ovTros Troops "Hp?;? 7 times, 
 evpvoTra Ztv<$ 20 times, fjujriera Zevs 19 times, aljLo^o^ (gen- 
 erally in the genitive, alyio^oio') 54 times, Trarrjp dvSpwv re 
 Oewv re 15 times. Poseidon is yair]o%os evvoa-iyaios 8 times, 
 HocreiSdwv evoa-i^Owv 24 times. Hera with a few mortal 
 women shares the by-name Xev/ccoXe^o? (24 times, generally 
 in the phrase #ea Xet>/eei>Xez/o<? "Hprj^), and she is /3oa)7r*<? ironna 
 "Hpy 14 times. The Achaeans are evKv^fiiBe^ 'A^atot 36 times, 
 Kfipr) rco/j,6a>vT<> 29 times, in the genitive \\.%ata)v ^aXfco^iTcavwv 
 24 times, fie? ^A^aiwv 64 times, Xao? 'A^aiwv 22 times, tcovpot 
 *\X<ii(t)v 9 times. Agamemnon is ava% dv&p&v forty-five times 
 in the Iliad and thrice in the Odyssey, while this title is given 
 to only five other chiefs, once to each. Achilles is 7ro8dpicr)<; 
 409 'A^tXXeu? 21 times, Tr68a<; &>/ei"? 'A^tXXev? 30 times,
 
 1, (.] HOMERIC STYLE. 13 
 
 7ro8(OKo<; Aiaicioao 10 times, 7ro8(OKea TlrjXelwva 10 times. 
 Odysseus is TroXurXa? 8109 'OSi/o-creu? 42 times, Trokvfnjri^ 
 'O8i/o-creu9 78 times, 'OBvcra-fjos Oeioio 27 times, Aae/3Tta&ea> 
 'O8uo-?709 11 times, TroXu/A^ai/' 'OSuo-creO 24 times. Iris, the 
 messenger of the gods in the Iliad, is 7ro8ijvepo<; eo/cea * 
 9 times. Hector is Kopvdalo\o<; 37 times, <ai'8ty 
 30 times. f. 'jt?ms ^Leweas,' '/cfas Achates.' 
 
 r. The situation of the moment seems sometimes to con- 
 tradict the epithet, as rov 8e I8a)v piyrjae fiorjv dyaQbs Ato/Aj;^^ 
 E 596 at sight of him Diomed good at the war cry shuddered. 
 
 s. SYNONYMOUS EXPRESSIONS. The poet is fond of a 
 cumulation of synonymous or nearly synonymous expres- 
 sions, many of which remind the reader of redundant legal 
 expressions, as <f>a)vij<ra<; Trpoa-ijvSa A 201 lifted up his voice 
 and addressed her; eiro? r' e<f>ar eic r ovo/Ma^ev A 361 spoke 
 a word and called upon him; e'/teu wz/ro9 teal eVt "xjdovl 
 SepKOfJ,voio A 88; aTrptdrrjv avdiroivov A 99, TWV ov TI 
 rpeirr) ov& aXeyi^eis A 160, TroXe/iot re [Ma%ai re A 177, 
 pev Kpareeiv e6e\ei irdvrea-cn S' dvdtro-etv, | iraat Be 
 A 288 f., our' eipoftai ovre yu-eraXXw A 553, o-^reai et K e6e\r)<r6a 
 /col ei KCV rot, ra pepjjXrj A 353, rjjrfropes rj8e fieSovres B 79, 
 dj3po/J,oi avia%oi N 41, 6'X/3a> re TrXouro) re H 536, aicrros 
 a-TTUo-ro? a 242, viyrrevde? T' a%oXoz/ re B 221, apprjicrovs aXurou? 
 6 275. Sometimes the same stem is repeated for emphasis, 
 in a different form, as 6^np,ov 6tyire\ecrrov B 325, icelro fieyas 
 fjL i ya\wcrri 2, 26, aTrcoXero \v<yp<a o\e6pw 7 87. 
 
 t. EPEXEGESIS. A clause is often added epexegetically, 
 to explain a preceding clause or word, as vij^eprea j3ov\r)v, | 
 votrrov 'O8i'(ro'>)o9 ra\a<ri<f)povo<>, 0)9 tee verjrai a 86 f., where 
 voarov is in apposition with ftov\r)v and is itself explained 
 by o>9 Ke verjrai, trarpofyovfia . . o 01 Trarepa K\vrov efcra 
 a 299 f. ; prjviv . . ov\o/j,evijv r) pvpC 'A^atot9 0X76' edijtcev 
 A 1 f . ; ret^;o9 dpeiov o K dvSpdcri \oiyov dfivvai O 736 a better 
 wall (namely, one) which would ward off destruction from the 
 men ; yiyvop^vw . . ore piv reice fMijrijp ij 198; rd re Soip' '
 
 14 HOMERIC STYLE. [ 1, /. 
 
 r) re KO/JLTJ TO re etSo? F 54 f . ; dperrjv <rr)v (fraivejiev fj 
 roi 07rr)&i 6 237 ; el fj^v Brj vvv rovro <f>\ov /j-atcdpea-a-i 0eol- 
 ffiv, | voo-rfja-at, 'OBv<rf)a 7ro\v<f>pova ovSe SopovSe rcr\. a 82. 
 For explanatory asyndeton, see 2 m. 
 
 u. The species often follows in apposition with the genus, 
 as KVfiara /j,aicpd QaXda-cnjs \ irovrov 'Iicapioio B 144 f . ; Ipijf; \ 
 Kipicos v 86 f . ; /9ou9 | ravpos B 480 f. ; (ruo? Kcnrpov P 21 ; opvc- 
 &iv alyvTTioia'iv H 59. Of. eicrodev a\\a)v \ /J,irr]cmjpc0v a 132 f. 
 apart from the others, the suitors, and the epexegetical use of 
 the infinitive, as eptSt, gweyKe /j,d^ea-daL A 8 brought together 
 in strife, to contend. 
 
 v. Thus also the part of the mind or body which is em- 
 ployed or especially affected is mentioned, as OVK 'AyajMepvoi'i 
 rjvbave Ovfjua A 24, %(i)6/Mvo<; Kijp A 44, Ke^apoiaro dv^w A 256, 
 ev o<f>6a\[ioio'iv opdcrdai F 306, Trocrt ?rpo/3ty8a9 N 158, irddev 
 a\yea ov Kara OVJJLOV a 4. 
 
 w. STEREOTYPED EXPRESSIONS. The same expressions 
 recur under similar circumstances. We find a stereotyped 
 description of a feast and of the preparations for it, of the 
 breaking of day and of the approach of night, of doffing or 
 donning sandals and armor; there are conventional expressions 
 for setting out on a journey, for an attack in battle, for the fall 
 and death of a warrior, for lying down to rest. Speeches are 
 introduced and followed by set verses, as icai piv (or o-^>ea?) 
 (fxavr/o-a? e-Tre.. irrepoevra Trpoa-ijvSa A 201, and in fifty other 
 places ; o a-(f>iii ev <j>povea)v dyopij<raro teal jiereenrev A 73 and 
 in fourteen other places, while the second hemistich is found 
 several times in other combinations ; ^ rot o 7' o><> eiTrwv icar 
 ap e&ro, roia-i 8' dvevrrj A 68, 101, B 76, H 354, 365, ft 224. 
 These stereotyped verses have been compared with the fre- 
 quently recurring "And Job answered and said," "Then 
 Eliphaz the Temanite answered and said," of the book of 
 Job, and with the set form in which the reports of the mes- 
 sengers were brought to the man of Uz, each of the four 
 reports ending " and I only am escaped alone to tell thee.''
 
 2, e.] HOMERIC STYLE. 15 
 
 2. a. PARECHESIS, ONOMATOPOEIA, etc. The poet seems 
 to have looked with indifference on the similarity of sound 
 in neighboring words. He does not appear to have designed 
 the rhyme in itceo-Oai, Be^eadai A 19 f., Saxrei, d,Tr<acrei A 96 f., 
 ^eovca, reK.ov<ra A 413 f., epvcraav, ravvcrcrav A 485 f., or in 
 instances like E 9 ff., where three successive verses rhyme, 
 ending eoto, nrTroSa/ioto, eoto, or between the two hemistichs 
 of a verse, as eairere vvv yu-oi MoOuat 'OXu/iTrm Sw/iar' e^of- 
 aai B 484. 
 
 Most examples of parechesis (Trap^cm) and alliteration 
 are probably accidental, as 7ro\\ecov CK TroXtW B 131, e? TroXe- 
 fiov TroiXrjo-eaL E 350, /ceti/o? ye ecu/con Kelrcu a 46, d/J><j) 'O&vcrfjt, 
 &ai<j)povi 8airai rjrop a 48, Saaadf^evot Saivvvr epiKvSea Balra 
 7 66, Trarpi re <rw /Aeya Trrj/^a 7ro\r)i re TTCLVTL re SIJ/AW F 50. 
 
 b. Occasionally an onomatopoetic (oi/o/iaroTron'a), imitative 
 expression is used, giving a kind of echo in the sound, as 
 rpi^dd re teal reTpa^Od F 363, of the breaking of the sword 
 of Menelaus ; 7roX.\a &' avavra fcdravra irdpavrd re &6%/jLid 
 r rj\6ov W 116, of the men and mules going up hill and 
 down, over a rough road for wood ; e'/c Se Xpucr?;^ ^05 {3f) 
 TrovroTTopoio A 439, where a vivid imagination may perhaps 
 hear the measured steps of the damsel as she leaves the ship, 
 with a quick rush at the close; Kv/jiara 7ra<f)\dovra TTO\.V- 
 
 OaXdao-t}*; N 798 ; aims eireira TreSovBe tcvXivSero 
 \ 598, of the rolling back of tV a -stone which 
 Sisyphus in Hades was continually urging to the summit of 
 a hill. 
 
 c. The poet plays occasionally on the names of his heroes, 
 as Hpo#oo? #069 rjyefjiovevev B 758 (" swift by nature as well as 
 by name ") ; TX^TroXe/ioy . . . r\i]fjiova 6vp,ov e^wv E 668 ff. ; 
 EiVTreldei TrelOovro w 465 f. ; f/ E/crop . , 0^9 irov drep \awv TTO- 
 \iv e^e/jiev E 472 f., and e^es S" d\,6^ov<; iceSvds KOL viJTrta re/cva 
 fl 730 (Andromache is grieving for her dead husband), where 
 e^e^ev and e'^e? seem to be selected with reference to the 
 assumed etymology of "E/crw/a. Possibly there is a play on
 
 16 HOMERIC STYLE. [ 2, d. 
 
 the name of Odysseus in ov vv T 'OBv<r<rev<; . . ri vv 01 roa-ov 
 wBvcrao Zev a 60 ff. ; his name is explained (with doubtless 
 incorrect etymology) where his grandfather bestows it upon 
 him, 6BvcrcrdfJ,vo$ roS' licdvw . . ro> 8' 'O8ucreu9 ovo^C ecrro) eV&>- 
 VVJAOV T 407 ff. ; <?f. oSucrai'To jap avrm (Odysseus) | Zeu? re 
 real 'He\to9 T 275 f., wSe IIocretSa&>z> evoai-^Owv \ eoSi/crar' e'/CTra- 
 y\6)9 e 339 f. 
 
 d. The trick is well known which Odysseus played on 
 Polyphemus by assuming the name O5rt?, i 366, 408 ; cf. 
 the pun on JJMJ rt? and /x^rt?, t 410, 414 : el fj,ev 8rj p,-q rt? ere 
 (Sid^erai . . e/toi/ 8' eyeXacrcre (f)i\ov Krjp \ w? OVO/A e^aTrdrrjcrev 
 e/j,bv teal /A^T49 dpv/jLwv. Another celebrated passage is con- 
 cerning the ivory and horn gates of the dreams : o? fj,ev [oi/et- 
 poC\ K eXdwo-i Bta TrpiaTov e\,e(f>avTO<;, \ o'f p \e<f>aipovrai, . . 
 01 Be Bta %(rT(ov rcepdcov e\,6a>aL Ovpa^e, \ 01 p erv/jua Kpaivowi 
 T 564 ff. But it is improbable that the similarity of sound is 
 intentional in e'ero (Helen) &' ev /cXtcr/icS, UTTO Be Oprivvs Trocrlv 
 (J'or the fe.eC) r].v. \ avrtica S' rj 7' eVeecrcrt irocriv (Jiusban(T) 
 epeeivev e/cacrra B 136 f., or \etcro (counted*) B' dpidfMov . . ejreira 
 Be Xefcro (lay down) xal auro9 B 451, 453. 
 
 e. COMPARISONS. A notable characteristic of Homeric 
 style is the comparison. This is designed to throw into high 
 relief some point in the action narrated ; it often relieves 
 the monotony of the description of a battle. But the poet 
 is not always satisfied to illustrate the particular point for 
 which the comparison is introduced ; he often completes the 
 picture by adding touches which have nothing to do with 
 the narrative, and is sometimes drawn on to add a new point 
 of comparison, as N 492 ff. There the Trojans are described 
 as following their leader, as sheep follow their bell-wether. 
 This scene is completed by adding to the original com- 
 parison the thought of the joy in the shepherd's heart as 
 he watches his orderly flock, and this suggests the second 
 comparison : " So Aeneas rejoiced at seeing the soldiers fol- 
 low him."
 
 2, .] HOMERIC STYLE. 17 
 
 f. Illustrations are furnished by all experiences of life, from 
 the lightning of Zeus and the conflict of opposing winds, 
 from the snow-storm and the mountain torrent, to a child 
 playing with the sand on the seashore, and a little girl cling- 
 ing to her mother's gown ; from lions and eagles, to a stub- 
 born ass which refuses to be driven from a cornfield by chil- 
 dren, and to a greedy fly ; from the evening star to women 
 wrangling in the street. The lion is a special favorite, and 
 appears in comparisons thirty times in the Iliad. The Iliad 
 has but few illustrations drawn from the actions of men, such 
 as weaving (^ 760 ff.), tanning (P 389 ff.), or the grief of a 
 father for his dead son (W 222 ff., cf. the delight of children 
 at their father's recovery from wasting disease, e 394 ff.) ; 
 and but one from the operations of the mind (O 80 ff.), 
 where a traveler thinks of different places in rapid suc- 
 cession. 
 
 g. Homer, like Milton, could not think of an army in 
 motion without thinking of its resemblance to something 
 else. Just before the Catalogue of the Ships, the movements 
 of the Achaean armies are described by six detailed com- 
 parisons, B 455-483 : the brightness of their armor is com- 
 pared with the gleam of fire upon the mountains ; their noisy 
 tumult, with the clamor of cranes or swans on the Asian 
 plain ; in multitude, they are as the innumerable leaves and 
 flowers of spring-time ; they are impetuous and bold as the 
 eager flies around the farm buildings ; they are marshalled 
 by their leaders as flocks of goats by their herds ; their 
 leader (Agamemnon) is like to Zeus, to Ares, to Poseidon. 
 he is preeminent among the heroes as a bull in a herd of 
 cattle. 
 
 h. The Iliad has 182 detailed comparisons, 17 briefer (as 
 nraicrlv eoLKores -tyyopdaade \ vr}7rid%oi<} ot<? ov n /LteXet TroAe/^m 
 eprya B 337 f.), and 28 of the briefest sort ; the Odyssey has 
 39 detailed comparisons, 6 briefer, and 13 very brief. The 
 first book of the Iliad has only two comparisons, and those
 
 18 HOMERIC STYLE. [ 2, i. 
 
 of the briefest, 6 8' rfie VVKTI eoiK&s A 47, ->}VT 6fjLi^\rj A 359. 
 All the other books of the Iliad contain detailed compari- 
 sons ; II and P have 20 each, N and O have 15 each, A has 14. 
 
 i. In comparisons, the poet sometimes makes reference to 
 customs that do not seem to have prevailed in the siege of 
 Troy: to riding on horseback (O 679), to the use of a kettle 
 for boiling meat (< 362), to the use of the trumpet in war 
 (2 219). This seems to imply a consciousness of change of 
 customs between heroic and Homeric times. 
 
 j. Comparisons are introduced by <u<? re, o>9 el, o>? ore, OK 
 jrep KT\. 
 
 Praepositive o><? is not used in comparisons. In the briefest 
 comparisons, postpositive w? is often used, generally length- 
 ening the preceding syllable ( 12 Z, 41 w). 
 
 k. The aorist indicative (the so-called Gnomic aorist) is 
 often used in comparisons. The imperfect is found but 
 twice (O 274, 4> 495). 
 
 1. ASYNDETON. In the Homeric period more frequently 
 than in later Greek, sentences were left unconnected by 
 conjunctions, i.e. asyndeton (H. 1039) was allowed more 
 freely. It has been noticed above that ornamental epithets 
 are not connected by /eat', and sometimes in animated dis- 
 course the poet uses no conjunction between clauses or 
 words, as cnrpiaTrjv avdiroivov A 99. 
 
 m. Asyndeton of sentences is most frequent where the 
 second sentence explains the first and is in a kind of apposi- 
 tion with it, repeating the thought in a different form : d\\d 
 KOI &>9 0e\(o Sofjievai TraXtv i TO 7' a^ivov ' \ ^ov\o[jC eyo* 
 Xabv CTOOV e/jifAvai rj aTroXecrOat, A 116 f., o TTOTTOI, 7) fieya irev- 
 #09 'A^aa'Sa <yaiai> iKcivei | f) tcev yrjdtja'ai TlptajAo 
 re TratSe? A 254 f., a\V 08' dvrjp 0\L trepl "jrdvrwv 
 aX\Q)v, | irdvTwv yikv Kpareecv 0e\t TravTecrcri 8' dvdcra'eiv 
 A 287 f. In B 299, rXfjre (f>i\oi /cat p^ivar eVi %povov gives 
 the sum of the preceding sentence, and the asyndeton marks 
 the speaker's warmth of feeling. Thus the second sentence
 
 2,o.j HOMERIC STYLE. 19 
 
 may express the result of the former, as geive /ca/cw? dvBpwv 
 Togd^eat (therefore) ovtcer deff\a)v \ a\\a)v avrida-ets % 27 f. 
 An adversative relation is occasionally expressed by asynde- 
 ton, especially with 76 fiev in the second clause, as B 703, 
 E 516, H 642. 
 
 n. The absence of a conjunction often gives rapidity to 
 the style and thus is found often where the second sentence 
 begins with avriica or altya, as el ' aj prjv Treipijcrat, . . al^Jrd 
 rot alp,a KeXaivbv epfoijcrei Trepl Sovpi A 302 f., avriica tcepro- 
 fj,ioi(TL Ata K.poviu)va TrpocrrjvBa A 539, cf. B 442. For the 
 tone of rapidity thus given to a narration, cf. BovTrvjcrev Be 
 Treatov, dpdfirjcre Be rev^e* eV aura> | afyuvri ol Bevovro icopai 
 KT\. P 50 f . 
 
 Conjunctions are often omitted in excitement, as when 
 Achilles sees the flame flickering among the ships of the 
 Achaearis and calls to Patroclus opaeo Btoyeves 
 . . | \ev<r<ro) Brj Trapa vtjva-l irvpos Brjioio lwr]v | 
 eXcocri . . | Bvcreo rev^ea Oaaaov II 126 fT. 
 
 o. CHIASMUS. 1 For emphasis, the poet sometimes so ar- 
 ranges the words of two clauses that the extremes, as also the 
 means, are correlative with or are contrasted with each other, 
 as TraiBd re crol aryepev, ^>o//3o> & leprjv eKaT6/j.j3r)v A 443, 
 where TraiBa and eKaTOfiftyv, <roi and 4W/3p respectively are 
 contrasted. Cf. &>? 'A^tX^a | rt/xjfo-T;? o\e<rr)<; Be vroXea? A 
 5.58 f., Bva-fjLevecnv (lev ^apfjia, Karr^^ei^v Be crol avrw F 51, apv ', 
 erepov \evtcov, ereprfv Be f^eXatvav^ \ F$ re KOI 'He\i&) F 103 f., 
 where the black lamb was for Trj and the white for 'He\to<?, 
 /SacrtXeu? T dyaOos tcparepos r' at^/iT/r?;? F 179, where the 
 adjectives are brought together ; avrov T' la-^avdacrKov eptjrv- 
 
 1 The name is given from the Greek letter X, there being a crossing of 
 
 ideas as /SunAcfe ^ & y a 86 s 
 
 Kparfpds ^ft* O,IXJJ.I)TIIS T 179. 
 
 It should be noticed that this chiastic arrangement is often the most simple 
 and natural, as in the first example above, where <ro( at ones suggests the 
 other person interested,
 
 20 HOMERIC STYLE. [ 2, p. 
 
 ovro re \aov O 723. Of. Milton's " Sweet is the breath of 
 morn, her rising sweet," Par. Lost IV 641, " Adam the good- 
 liest man of men since born His sons, the fairest of her 
 daughters Eve," Par. Lost IV 323 f. 
 
 p. EPANALEPSIS. Sometimes a word (generally a proper 
 name) or a clause is repeated in the same sentence at the 
 beginning of a new verse, as a\V 6 p*v AiWo7ra<? /tere/aatfe 
 rtj\60' eovras, \ AlOioTras rol Si%0a SeSaiarat KT\. a 22 f. (the 
 only example in the Odyssey) ; ro3 ' eyon dvrios et/u Kal el 
 
 TTVpl %?,pa<j OIKV, | 66 TTVpl ^et/m? OIK, flVO<S &' CU0WVI (TlSlJpO) 
 
 T 371 f. but I will go to meet him even if his hands are like to 
 fire, if his hands are like to fire and his might is like to bright 
 iron; ov fiev TTW? vvv ea-rtv . . | raj 6api%fJ.vai, a re irapOevos 
 77<,'#eo9 re, | Trapdevos rjiOeos T' oapi&rov a\\tf\ouv X 126 ff. 
 it is in no way possible notv to chat tvith him as a maiden and 
 a young man, a maiden and a young man chat together. Cf. 
 Milton's Lycidas 37 f. "But O the heavy change, now thou 
 art gone, Now thou art gone and never must return." The 
 name is repeated at the beginning of three successive verses 
 (Nipev? . . Ntpey? . . Ntpey?) B 671 ff. Of. also B 838, 850, 
 871, Z 154, H 138, M 96, < 80, 158, 642. The name when 
 repeated is attracted into the case of the following relative 
 pronoun in ^AvSpo^d^r), dvydnjp /j,eya\7]ropo<; 'HenWo?, | 'He- 
 TiW o? evaiev viro ITXa/cw vXyea-a-rj Z 395 f. Andromache 
 daughter of the great-souled Eetion, Eetion who dwelt at the 
 foot of woody Placus. 
 
 q. Similar to epanalepsis is the so-called eVtTrXo/cT;, where 
 the finite verb is repeated in a participle, as pei&rjo-ev 8e /9ow- 
 7rt<? Tr6rvia"Hpr), \ fj,ei&ij<Ta<ra 8' eireira ec5 eyxdrOer 
 222 f. ; TeO/cpo? 8' otp^dtj /ie/^ao)? airo rev%ea &v<rai, \ " 
 8" opprjOevros dtcovria-e Sovpl (fraeiva) N 182 f. Teucer rushed, 
 eager to strip off his armor, but at him as he rushed, Hector 
 hurled his shining spear ; "Ei/crajp a)pfjLt)drj . . \ Am? 5' opurjOev- 
 ro9 op^aro"^icropo<; N 188 ff. 
 
 r. LITOTES (\ir6rijs or /zet'axm), a simplicity of language,
 
 2, t.] HOMERIC STYLE. 21 
 
 or understatement of the truth, is common to all languages ; 
 Milton's "unblest feet" is stronger than cursed feet. Ho- 
 meric examples abound, as OVK 'AyapefAvovt ijvSave Ovfia) A 
 24 it was not pleasing to the soul of Agamemnon, i.e. it ivas 
 hateful, etc. ; a-^r 8* e<? tcovXebv were /ieya a/>o<? ovS* diriOrja-ev \ 
 pjOw 'A#77vat779 A 220 f. back into the sheath he thrust his 
 great sword nor did he disobey the word of Athene, i.e. he 
 obeyed ; r/ E/cTa>p 6' ov rt Beds 7709 rjyvoirjcrev B 807 ; ov tcaicov 
 ear iv | reipofAevots erdpoicnv d/Awe/iev alrrvv o\e0pov S 128 f., 
 i.e. it is a noble thing, etc. ; ov /JLIV dcpavporaros /3a\' 'A.%aiwv 
 O 11. 
 
 s. PERIPHRASIS. Certain periphrases occur frequently, 
 as aere Be Hpidpoio ftiijv F 105 bring the might of Priam, i.e. 
 the mighty Priam; /u,ereet<' iepr) t? TrjXefjid^oio fi 409 the 
 strength of Telemachus, etc.; Ha<f>\ay6va)v 8" r^yetro TlvXat- 
 (j,eveo<i \da~iov K?jp B 851 j &><? eTreo-' "E/cropo? eo/ca %a/^at pevos 
 H 418 ; e\.0a>v <ydp p etcdtcaHre ftir) 'HpatcXijeiT) A 690, where the 
 gender of the participle shows that fify 'Hpa/cXijeir) is equiva- 
 lent to 'Hpa/eXe???, which ( ^ ) was not suited to dactylic 
 
 verse ; roiov <ydp \eo9 ea-6\ov diruitecrav f)vt6%oio ^ 280, for 
 TOIOV i>K\ela fyrtoypv KT\. ; rd reipea iravra . . TO re crdevos 
 'flpttovof S 485 f. all the constellations . . the force of Orion ; 
 rj ejrei tovrjcraf KpaSl^v Aio? rje Kal epjw A 395. 
 
 Sov\iov rjfjiap Z 463 is simply a poetic expression for slav- 
 ery, eXevBepov rj^ap T 193 for freedom, 6\edpiov rjpap T 294 
 for destruction, rjpap opfyaviKov X 490 for the state of orphan- 
 age, voa-TifjLov rjftap a 9 for return. 
 
 t. ZEUGMA. Sometimes two connected subjects or objects 
 are made to depend on a verb which is appropriate to but 
 one of them, as 77 fiev eTreira \ el? oka d\ro . . \ Zet9 Be eov 
 7rpo9 Swfjia (sc. e^rf) A 531 ff. she then leaped into the sea, but 
 Zeus went to his own house ; r)%t eKdarov \ 'ITTTTOI, dep<ri7roSes 
 teal 7roiKi\a reu^e' e/cetro F 326 f. where the high-stepping 
 horses of each were standing and the bright armor ivas 
 lying; eSova-i re iriova p,r)\a | olvov r eifairov fjie\itj8ea M
 
 22 HoMKKir STYLE. [ 2, 
 
 319 f. ; KvK\a)7T(i)v 8' 65 jaiav \.ev<7<rofj.ev eyyvs eovrwv, 
 
 t/oj/ T' avrwv re <f)0o<yyr)v oiwv re ical aiywv i 166 f.; ecro-aro ' 
 
 efcroadev pivov 7ro\ioto \VKOIO, \ icparl 8' eVt tcri&erjv Kvverjv 
 
 K 334 f. (//". Shakespeare, Sonnet 55, 7 " Nor Mars his sword, 
 
 nor war's quick fire shall burn | The living record of your 
 
 memory." 
 
 u. HYSTERON PROTERON. Occasionally the more impor- 
 tant or obvious object or action is mentioned before another 
 which should precede it in strict order of time, as ap.a rpd<f>ev 
 rj&e <yevovro A 251 were bred and born with him (cf. Shake- 
 speare Twelfth Night I ii "For I was bred and born | Not 
 three hours' travel from this very place."), yafieovri re yei- 
 vopeva) re B 208 to him as he is married and born, etp.ard r 
 dfji<f>i(Ta(Ta 6v(i>Bea ical Xovaao-a e 264 putting about him per- 
 fumed garments and bathing him, "^Kalvdv re %tra)vd re evvvr' 
 'OSv(r<rev<> e 229 Odysseus put about him cloak and tunic, av- 
 TOU<? T' apftaiveiv dvd re Trpv/Mvtjcria \vcrai, i 178 both themselves 
 to embark and to loose the stern hawsers, o'l & dvecrdv re TrvXas 
 Koi cnrwcrav o^fja<j <J> 537. 
 
 v. LATER CHANGE IN WORDS. The student must be 
 watchful to apprehend the exact Homeric meaning of words 
 which are used in a slightly different sense in later Greek. 
 Thus dyoptf and djcov are used in Homer of an assembly, 
 gathering, not of market and contest. 'At'STy? is always the 
 name of a person, not of a place. doiSos, dotSt], are used 
 for the Attic TTO^T^?, 741/09, 77-05 is used for Xoyo? (only 
 O 393, a 56) i #60740? for 1/0/405, /coo-/4ew for rdaa-w. Seivos 
 means terrible, not skillful. SeiTrvov is the principal meal of 
 the day, whenever it is taken. 7^05 means spear, never 
 sword. ^p&>5 is used of all the warriors; it does not mean 
 a hero in the English sense. Ova is used not of sacrifices in 
 general, but of the burning of the dirap-^ai ("first fruits") 
 or BvrjXai to the gods, dav^d^w often means only watch in- 
 tently. icpiva) is select, discriminate, rather than judge, voew 
 often has the sense of aivOdvopai (which is not Homeric),
 
 2, y.] HOMEKIC STYLE. 23 
 
 perceive, ovopai is not blame in a general way, but think 
 not enough, insufficient, ovrd^w is wound with a weapon held 
 in the hand, not with a missile, irepirw is escort, attend, as 
 well as send ; cf. TropTnj convoy, 7ro/i7ro<? a guide, and TrofATrij, 
 in Attic, procession. 7ro\e/zo<? is often battle rather than war. 
 7r/37;crcr&) is carry through rather than do as in Attic. a-^eSov 
 is near, of place, not almost, cr&yia is used only of a dead 
 body, Sepas being used of the living form, and avros and 
 Trepi ^pot taking some of the Attic uses of o-oyta. rd%a 
 always means quickly, never perhaps as in later Greek. 
 TiOvfti is often used like TTOICCO make. <o/3o<? is not fright 
 but flight; <f)o/3eo/j,ai is not fear but flee ; <pv^a is flight with 
 the added notion of fear or shame. <f>pd(0 is point out, not 
 say. &><? does not mean since. 
 
 w. The accent of some words is not the same as in Attic, 
 as fSe P 179 for the Attic ISe; in tcro<? (Attic 0-09) and (f>dpos 
 (Attic (j>dpo<;~), this results from the difference in quantity 
 ( 41 / 7). The ancient grammarians call erot/io?, eprjjios, 
 ofMoios, <ye\oio<; opjvia the Homeric and older forms for erot- 
 yuo;, eprj/j,os, KT\., and opyvid. Of. pvpia countless number, for 
 the Attic pvpia ten thousand. 
 
 x. aldtjp is feminine in Homer, as H 365; masculine in 
 Attic. Kicav is sometimes feminine, as a 127 ; sometimes 
 masculine, as 6 66. "I?uo<? is feminine in Homer (except per- 
 haps O 71), but neuter ("IXtoi/) in prose. 
 
 y. The absence from the Homeric vocabulary of alcOdvo- 
 pai, \6yos, TToirjTtfc, rdcrcrw, vpvos has been noted above. To 
 this list may be added dvSpaTroSa (only H 475), apro? (only 
 p 343, a- 120, elsewhere o-tro? is used instead), /3a/9/3a/oo<? (but 
 /3ap{3ap6<f)a)vos B 867), Bel (only I 337), SoOXo? (but 
 F 409, 8 12, Sov\ocrvvr) ^ 423, 8ou\iov rjp^ap thrice, 
 co 252), eTTi^eipco, ecnrepa (but ecnrepos and ecnrepio^, 
 KvvrjyeTws (only t 120, elsewhere d^prjrrfp), /xepo? (/iotpa takes 
 its place), p,era^v (only A 156, elsewhere /Macniyv<;~), ^LaG^a, 
 /j,iae(i) (only P 272), 7-evirj (only ^ 157, Trei/t^po? 7 348). Tropev-
 
 24 HOMERIC SYNTAX. [ 3, a. 
 
 ofj,ai, <ro<o9, a-o^lrj (only O 412), a-ireipw (but (nrep/^a once, 
 e 490), raft?. 
 
 HOMERIC SYNTAX. 
 
 3. a. In syntax as in forms, where the Homeric dialect 
 differs from the Attic, it may be presumed that the Homeric 
 usage is the earlier. The language was less rigid ; custom 
 had not yet established certain constructions as normal. 
 There was greater freedom in the use of the modes and the 
 cases, of prepositions and conjunctions. 
 
 b. It is impossible to bring the Homeric uses of the modes 
 under the categories and rules that prevailed in the Attic 
 period. Intermediate in force between the simple future and 
 the potential optative with av were 
 
 (1) the subjunctive as a less vivid future, as ov ydp TTW 
 rotou9 tBov dvepas ov8e iSw/Aat, A 262 I never yet saw such men 
 nor shall I see them ; 
 
 (2) the subjunctive with rcev or av, as a potential mode, 
 as e/ &e K /JLT) SWOMTLV eyo) Se Kev auTo? eXco/iat A 137 but if 
 they shall not give it, I myself will then take, etc.; T&V Kev TIS 
 roS' eyricrw eVet, 6dve 8409 'OSfo-crev? a 396 of these some one 
 may have this honor since divine Odysseus perished; OVK av 
 T04 xpaia-fjLr) KiOapis F 54 the cithara would not in that case 
 avail thee ; 
 
 (3) the potential optative without civ, as pela 6e6s 7' e#e- 
 \wv KOI rrj\66ev avBpa crawa-ai 7 231 easily could a god if he 
 wished bring a man home in safety even from a distant land. 
 
 Examples of the future indicative with av are rare and 
 the correctness of the text is doubted. Thus Kev /M\ij<rei 
 P 515 may have been an error of the scribe for KCV f^\ija-rj in 
 transferring from the old alphabet ( 4 i).
 
 3, d.] HOMERIC SYNTAX. 25 
 
 c. a. Homer prefers el with the subjunctive to ei tcev (at 
 KGV) or el av with the subjunctive, el av is not used in gen- 
 eral conditions. 
 
 /9. el tcev is rarely used with the optative (29 times in all) ; 
 never in the expression of a wish, el av is used with the 
 optative but once, el irep av avral \ fj,ovcrai delbotev B 597 f. 
 
 7. ei with the optative to express indefinite frequency of 
 past action, is found but once, aXX' el TI'<? pe Kal aXXo9 evl 
 lie<ydpoi(Tiv eviTrroi fl 768 but if (whenever^) even another in 
 the palace upbraided me. 
 
 B. The optative in indirect discourse is used for the in- 
 dicative in direct discourse only in questions, except elireiv, 
 o>9 eKdoi Kal t/coir' e9 TrarpiBa <yaiav o> 237. 
 
 e. In six passages the optative with tcev is used in the 
 apodosis, where Homeric and Attic usage alike lead us to 
 expect av with a past tense of the indicative, as Kal vv icev 
 ev6' d-TToXotTO ava dvSpwv Aii/eta?, | el fjirj dp' o^v voqa-e Ato? 
 Bvydrrjp 'A<f>poSiTr) E 311 f. " Aeneas would have perished 
 if Aphrodite had not perceived," etc. 
 
 . KCV is used four times as frequently as av. av is more 
 common in negative than in affirmative sentences. 
 
 d. The cases retained more of their original force than in 
 Attic and had less need of a preposition to make the con- 
 struction distinct (it was once thought that the poet omitted 
 the preposition for the convenience of his verse), as the abla- 
 tival genitive in Tpoia? apvve veS>v O 731 he was warding 
 off the Trojans from the ships, ep/co? 'A^atoia-tv TreXerat TroXe- 
 fj,oio /caKOLo A 284 is a bulwark for the Achaeans from (to 
 keep off) evil war, ap7ra\i/A&)9 dve&v vroXi?}? aXo? T/UT' O/U'^XT; 
 A 359 swiftly she rose as a mist out of the hoary sea. The 
 dative of place is often found without a preposition, as TO' 
 wpoiGiv %a)v A 45 having his bow upon his shoulder. 
 
 The prepositions still retained much of their adverbial 
 nature, and had not become fixedly attached to the verbs 
 which they modified ( 37). It was once thought that the
 
 26 HOMERIC SYNTAX. [ 3, . 
 
 occasional separation of verb and preposition was a poetic 
 license, and (considered as a surgical operation) it was called 
 tmesis. 
 
 e. In the Homeric period certain constructions were only 
 beginning to appear definitely in use, as the accusative with 
 the infinitive and the genitive absolute. The infinitive was 
 assuming more and more the character of an indeclinable 
 noun, but is not found with the article, wo-re with the in- 
 finitive of result is found but twice, and these passages are 
 thought to be corrupt ; this construction is found but four 
 times in Pindar's odes. 
 
 f. a. The genitive absolute is more frequent with the 
 present participle (52 examples, 28 in Iliad and 24 in Odys- 
 sey, not quite half being temporal) than with the aorist 
 participle (21 examples, 17 in Iliad and 4 in Odyssey, 
 only 7 being strictly temporal). The genitive absolute with 
 omitted subject is particularly rare, and is denied by most 
 scholars ; but an approach to it is made in expressions like 
 
 p 489 f., where the participle agrees with 'OSuo-^o? to be sup- 
 plied, as genitive of cause. The participle sometimes seems 
 to be used with omitted subject when it really agrees with 
 the genitive implied in a preceding dative (#. 7 below). 
 
 /3. It is often impossible to say categorically whether the 
 genitive is in the absolute construction or rather depends on 
 some other word, as VTTO Se Tpoie? Ke%d8ovro \ dvSpos aKOvria- 
 a-avros A 497 f., where the position of the genitive at the be- 
 ginning of the verse gives it greater independence, but it was 
 probably influenced by the verb: the Trojans drew back from 
 the man as he hurled his javelin ; cf. eic\ay$;av 8' dp' oia-rol 
 TT' &ILWV %a)0p,voio \ avrov KiVTjOevros A 46 f. 
 
 7. Sometimes a preposition is used where the genitive 
 absolute would be used in Attic prose, as d/j,<f>l Be vrjes \ o-jj-ep- 
 &a\eov Kovdftrja-av avcrdvrwv VTT' 'A.^atwv B 333 f. 
 
 g. a. The dative of interest is often used with the verb
 
 3, A.] HOMERIC SYNTAX. 27 
 
 where the English idiom prefers a possessive genitive with a 
 noun, as Betvo) Be ol oa-ae <pdavdev A 200 terribly did her (lit. 
 for her the) eyes gleam ; 6ed Be ol e/c\vev apfjs & 767 the god- 
 dess heard her prayer (lit. for her the prayer) ; or is used 
 instead of an ablatival genitive with a preposition, as Aai/aoi- 
 <TIV deiKea \oiybv aTrwcrei A 97 will ward off ignominious de- 
 struction from (lit. /or) the Danai^ or instead of a genitive 
 with verbs of ruling and leading, as TrdvTeaa-i B 1 dvda-a-eiv 
 A 288 to reign over (lit. be the king for) all ; (Zet") 09 Trdo-t 
 dvrjroicri teal ddavdroicnv dvdcrarei M 242 ; or instead of the 
 dative with a preposition, as roia-i 8' dvea-rrj A 68 for them 
 rose (not to be taken as a local dative, among them), while 
 in ev 'Apyeloicriv dvacrrd<f T 175 the poet presents the same 
 general idea from another point of view. 
 
 /3. This dative of interest is used even of things, as /eeXcra- 
 crrjcri Be vijv(rl Kadei\,ofiev icrria Trdvra (, 149 when the ships 
 were beached (lit. for the ships when they were beached) we 
 lowered all the sails. 
 
 y. This dative was felt to be equivalent to the genitive, 
 and is often followed by a participle or adjective in the geni- 
 tive, as rjfuv B' avre KaTK\d<Tdri (f)i\ov rfrop | Beicravrtov (f>@6y- 
 yov re fiapvv avrov re 7re\wpov i 256 f. our dear hearts sank 
 within us, as fear came upon us, etc., where Becaavrtav agrees 
 with the r)fj,wv implied in rjplv. 
 
 h. a. The dative is used with avv or aytta, corresponding 
 to /iera with the genitive in Attic prose ; in this sense even 
 ^tera is occasionally used with the dative (almost always 
 plural), as eTrerovro fierd Trvoiys dvefioio /3 148 they Jlew (i.e. 
 kept pace) with the blasts of the wind ; cf. apa Trvoiys dvepoio 
 a 98, the simple dative of association Trerero TTVOL^ avtpoio 
 M 207. 
 
 /3. eVt is used with the dative in the same sense of hostility 
 as with the accusative in Attic, as wpa-ev eV 'Ap-yeiotcrt M 293 
 roused him against the Argives ; cf. eirea-dat, eVt /3a<Ti\ea Xen. 
 An. I 4. 14,
 
 28 HOMERIC SYNTAX. [ 3, i. 
 
 7. VTTO is used with the dative in almost the same sense 
 as with the genitive in Attic, as eBdprj VTTO %e/3crt TroSco/ceo? 
 AlatciSao B 860 he was slam by the hands of the swift-footed 
 Aeacides, with perhaps more of the original local force of the 
 preposition. 
 
 i. Some constructions were used more freely and con- 
 stantly than in later Greek. Certain of these were always 
 looked upon as poetic, as Oeiy TreBioto Z 507 shall run over 
 the plain; eTrerovro KOV t'oi/re? TreBioco 0122 flew hastening (cov- 
 ered with dust) over the plain (genitive of the place to which 
 the action belongs, H. 760 ; G. 179, 2) ; 7rvpo<> Oepew p 23 
 warm at the fire; fj,vr)<rTrjpa<; d(f>itcTO a 332 she came to the 
 suitors. 
 
 j. A neuter noun in the plural is the subject of a plural 
 verb more frequently than in Attic. The imperfect is more 
 freely used in narrative, to describe an action as in progress. 
 The historical present is not used, e'crri is not always a 
 mere copula, and is occasionally modified by an adverb as 
 a true verb of existence, cf. eVei vv rot alaa pivwQd jrep, ov 
 TI /j,d\a Brjv A 416 since thy appointed time of life is brief, etc., 
 with pivvvOa \ rjpewv ecrcrerai 77809 A 317 f. brief shall be the 
 good from us, and pivvvOa Be 01 yeveO' opfj,rj A 466 but brief 
 was his onset. 
 
 k. xpij is still a noun, construed like %/oetco, %/3e&) with a 
 genitive of the thing needed and occasionally an accusative 
 of the person (the accusative of limit of motion with some 
 verb like ifcdverai or yiyverai supplied in thought) ; cf. reo 
 <re %pij B 463 of what hast thou need, with riva %peia) rocrov 
 tKi y8 28 and e'/ze Be %pe<u yiyverai avrij^ B 634. 
 
 %pf)vai, xpecov, e^pf/is, *xpv)v KT\. are not Homeric ; Bel is 
 found only I 337. While verbals in -ro<? are more freely em- 
 ployed than in Attic, verbals in -reo? are not used. 
 
 1. a. PARTICLES. The beginner in reading Homer is per- 
 plexed by a large number of particles that are often difficult 
 to render by English words. Their force can often be best
 
 3, m.] HOMERIC SYNTAX. 29 
 
 given by the order of the words in the translation or by the 
 tone of voice in reading ; to translate pd as was natural (or 
 even you see) or 76 at least, often throws upon the particle 
 very disproportionate emphasis. The student can most easily 
 and clearly appreciate the force of a particle by comparing a 
 number of examples which have become familiar to him ; he 
 will then see the importance of these particles to the char- 
 acter and tone of a speech or of the narrative. 
 
 /8. It is to be noted that in Homer 77 may stand at the be- 
 ginning of a clause, re is used far more freely than in Attic 
 prose ; a single re often being used to connect single notions, 
 as KvveacrLv \ olwvolcri re A 4 f . The poet does not use OVKOVV, 
 tcairoi, rotvw, Sfjra, BfjOev, elra (but eTreira), or the causal 
 are. &>?, Sij, and ye are less frequent than in Attic. 
 
 7. OTTO)? is rare as a final particle, occurring only about a 
 dozen times ; o<]>pa is the usual particle to introduce a final 
 clause. 
 
 m. a. INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. The general interrog- 
 ative particle in Homer is f), but in a double question (where 
 the Attic Greek uses rrorepov . . 77)' 77 or rje stands in the first 
 member, 77 or rje in the second, as TOUT' dyopevcrov . . | 776 veov 
 ftederreis, 77 /cat Trarpcotot ecrcn \ eivo<s a 174 ff. tell me this . . 
 whether thou art come for the first time or whether thou hast 
 been a guest of my father; cf. A 190 ff., F 239 f. Where the 
 questions are less closely connected, 77 may introduce each, 
 as M ^elvot, TtW? ecrTe ; rroOev 7rXet$' vypa K\evda ; \ 7; n Kara 
 Trprjgtv ; 77 yLien|rtSi'a>9 d\a\.rja-0e \ old re \ijicrTripes 7 71 ff. 
 Strangers, tvho are ye? Whence sail ye the watery ways? 
 Sail ye on trade ? Or are ye wandering idly like pirates? 
 
 /3. When 77 introduces a single question, it is rarely used 
 as in Attic, as a mere interrogation point; it regularly im- 
 plies emotion of some kind. This 77 SiaTroprjrtfcos (of inter- 
 rogation) is still closely allied with the 77 /3e/9atom/co9 (of 
 asseveration), but the 77 SiaTropijTiicos must be carefully dis- 
 tinguished from the 77 Sia^evicriKos (disjunctive).
 
 30 HOMEKIC SYNTAX. [ 3, n 
 
 7. The interrogative apa is not Homeric. 
 
 n. PARATAXIS. The Homeric language is far less distinct 
 than the Latin or the English in the expression of logical 
 relations, and gives less prominence to the logical forms of 
 syntax ; but it is seldom difficult to appreciate the ancient 
 idiom if an attempt is made to find the Homeric point of 
 view. 
 
 The Homeric poems contain many survivals of the simplest 
 form of sentences. In the earliest stage of the Greek lan- 
 guage clauses were not combined with each other as second- 
 ary and principal ; they were simply added one to the other. 
 To use the technical terms, coordination or parataxis (jrapa,- 
 Tai?) was the rule, not subordination or hypotaxis (UTTO- 
 ragis). Hypotaxis was not possible until the language had 
 relative pronouns or subordinate conjunctions to serve as 
 joints to connect the clauses; but originally the relatives 
 were demonstratives, and relative sentences have been called 
 parenthetic demonstrative sentences. Thus Be was used in 
 the apodosis of relative and conditional sentences ; this was 
 especially frequent when 'the relative or conditional clause 
 preceded, as el Be ice /j,r) Boiwcriv, eya> Be KCV airro? tX&yiat A 
 137 but if they shall not give it, (but) I myself shall then take, 
 etc. ; elo<? o ravff 1 wppaive . . ^\0e & 'AOrjinj A 193 f. while he 
 was pondering this . . (but) Athena came; oiij Trep fyvbXwv 
 yeveij, Toirj Be ical dvBpwv Z 146 as is the race of leaves, (but) 
 such is also the race of men. So aurdp and a\\d are used 
 with stronger emphasis than Be, as el Be <rv Kaprepos ecrai, 8ea 
 Be ere yeivaro /jitjrtjp \ aAA.' oBe <f>epTepo<? ecmv eVel 7r\eove<rcriv 
 dvdcrcrei A 280 f. but if thou art mighty and a goddess is thy 
 mother, but, etc., where the apodosis is really contrasted with 
 the protasis, cf. A 81 quoted in the next paragraph. 
 
 o. Compare with the foregoing the use of icai in the con- 
 clusion of relative sentences, to mark the connection of the 
 clauses, as dAA,' ore rerparov rjXdev ero? . . ( KOI rare Brj Ti<? 
 eenre 107 f. but ivhen the fourth year came (and) then some
 
 3, q.] HOMERIC SYNTAX. 31 
 
 one told etc. ; ?}/i09 S' r/ptyeveia <f)dvr] po8oBdtcTV\os 'H<w<>, | fcal 
 TOT eyow dyoprjv depevos KT\. 1 170 f. but when Dawn appeared 
 . . (awe?) then I called together etc. Thus also re was freely 
 used in subordinate clauses, as 09 tee #eot<? eTrnrelOijTai paXa r 
 etc\vov avTov A 218 whoever obeys the gods, (and) himself the 
 gods readily hear; and re re is found in both protasis and 
 apodosis, marking their correlation, as el irep yap re %6\ov . . 
 KaraTre-^rrj, | d\\d re teal pueTOTnadev e^et KOTOV A 81 f. for 
 even if he should restrain his ivrath, but even hereafter etc. 
 
 p. The first part of a paratactic sentence may introduce the 
 cause or reason for what follows, as in Andromache's words 
 to Hector, "EttcTop aTap crv p,oi ecrcri TraTrjp tcdi TTOTVIO, /jiijTrjp, | 
 7)Se ttaa-iyvijTos, crv Be ftot QaXepos trapaKoiTt]^ | oXX 1 dye vvv 
 eXeatpe /cal avTov fj.ip,v evrl Trvpyw Z 429 ff. But thou, Hector, 
 art my father etc., which implies "Hector, since thou art 
 my all." 
 
 q. CORRELATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. The Greek language 
 was always fond of a parallel or antithetic construction, a 
 contrast, a balance, where the English subordinates one 
 thought to the other ; but the adversative relation, where 
 the English idiom would use a subordinate clause introduced 
 by for, although, when, while, or since, is more frequent in 
 these poems than in later Greek, as o? 01 ir\ria-iov le //.aA,t<rra 
 8e fiiv (friXeecrKev TJ 171 who sat near him for (lit. but) he was 
 his favorite ; d\\d Triffecrd' d^w &e veu>Tepa> ecrrov e'ycteto A 
 259 ; petd r dptyvaiTrj vreXerat, tca\al 8e re Tracrat ^ 108 she is 
 easily recognized although (lit. but) all are beautiful ; 'Ho><? Be 
 /3007re7rXo9 etciSvaTo Trdcrav eV alav | 01 S' et<> CLCTTV e\a>v 
 fl 695 f. Dawn was spreading her rays over the whole earth 
 when (lit. but) these drove into the city ; (cf. Bva-eTo r' ^e\to<? 
 teal TOL K\VTOV a\(To? IKOVTO % 321 the sun set and these came 
 etc., for as the sun set etc., a construction which is not rare 
 in English or in later Greek, as /cat 77877 re 771; Trepl TrXrj- 
 Oovcrav dyopdv teal ep%ovTai Trapd /3ao-tA.ea>9 /cal Tio-(rac}>epvov<} 
 Xen. An. II i. 7 "when it was about the time . .
 
 32 HOMERIC SYNTAX [ 3, r. 
 
 heralds come " etc.^) ; <f>v\\a ra p^v r' aVe/u.o< 
 rtAAa 8e $' #X?7 | rr}\e06coa-a <f)vei, eapos 8' eTrtyiyverai 
 Z 147 f. . . t0Aew the season of Spring comes on ; fj oi>x aXt<? 
 a>? TO TrdpoiOev eKeipere 7ro\\a Kal ecrd\d \ Krijfjiar' efid, jjuvr)- 
 trrfipes, eyon ' eri VIJTTUX; rja ft 312 f., where the last clause is 
 equivalent to efiov en VIJTTIOV 6Vro9, r^^kv 8ij TTOT' eyu-eO Tra/ao? 
 K\ve<f ev^afjievoio . . 77$' ert /cat i/Ov /AOI roS' eTTiKpTJTjvov ee\8cop 
 A 453 if. as Aow c?eWsi hear my former prayer so now also 
 fulfil this my desire; Kpeia-a-wv IMZV Zeu? . . tcpeUrtrmv avre Aio? 
 yever) KT\. <& 190 f. as Zeus is mightier than the rivers, so is 
 the race of Zeus etc. 
 
 r. avrdp also is used where a causal particle would be used 
 in English, as o&vvrja-t TreTrapnevos avrap OICTTOS \ w/itw evl 
 <rri/3apq> r/\rj\aro E 399 f. thrilled with pains since the arrow 
 was fixed in his stout shoulder. 
 
 In these contrasted clauses, av, avre, avrdp, drdp, aXXo, as 
 well as 8e, may be used in correlation with fiv. 
 
 s. A copulative conjunction is sometimes used where the 
 English uses a disjunctive or, as rpnr\fj rerpaTrXfj re A 128 
 threefold or (and) fourfold, in which prominence is given to 
 the second member, as in Se/ca/a? re Kal et/cocra/ct? I 379 ; cf. 
 eva Kal Bvo B 346, %8id re Kal irpwi^d B 303, rpi^Od re Kal 
 rerpa%8d F 363, Trevrderes ye Kal e^deres 7 115, rpls /ia/cape? 
 Kal rerpaKis e 306 ( terque quaterque beati, Verg. Aen. I 94). 
 Cf. ev re Kal %elpov Thuc. II 35 better or worse, bis terque 
 Hor. A. P. 440, rarus duabus tribusque civitatibus conventus 
 Tac. Agric. 12. 
 
 t. The Homeric poet sometimes puts into an independent 
 clause the incidental thought which in later Greek would be 
 expressed regularly by a participle, as \aol 8' rjpija-avro #eoi<? 
 I8e ^etpa<? dve<T%ov F 318 the people prayed to the gods with 
 uplifted hands (lit. and lifted their hands) for 
 <r%6vr<;, cf. /j,eyd\' ev-^ero, ^elpa<^ dvaa"%(ov A 450 ; 
 nrfptfc a>9 'A^tX^a) rif4tj<rr), o\e<rr) Be TroXea? e 
 B 4 was pondering how he might honor Achilles by destroying
 
 4, a.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 33 
 
 (lit. and destroy} etc. ; /3fj pi' ifiev et? dyoprfv, 7ra\dfj,rj 5' e^e 
 %d\Kov 67^09 /3 10 for /rfr; ^X a)v KT ^--> c f" ^-de (freptav, %a)v 
 A 12 f. ; aXA,' dtceovcra KaOrjcro, e/zc3 8' eirnreideo pvdw A 565 
 for e'/i&S Trecdofjievrj pvdw, rovSe \icrcrovro <yepovres \ A.iTa)\a)i> 
 TrefjiTrov Be dewv teprjas I 575 " they sent the priests of the gods 
 to supplicate him " ; ovB' e\aO' Aiavra . . | Zevs, ore 8rj Tpto- 
 ecrcrt SiSov erepa\Kea vitcrfv P 626 f. for ov& e\a0 8i8oi><i KT\. 
 See 1 . 
 
 u. This use is sometimes striking in comparisons, as w? re 
 (T^>f)Ke^ . . oltda TronjcrtovTai 680) CTTI 7rat7ra\oecro-r), | ou8' airo- 
 \eiTTovcnv . . ciXXa pevovres . . dfAvvovrai Trepl TCKVOW M 167 ff. 
 as wasps build their houses near a rocky road, nor do they 
 abandon them, but remain and defend their children, where 
 the point of comparison lies not at all in ottcia Troitja-covrat 
 KT\. but wholly in the ouS' aTro\.eiirov<Tiv KT\. See 2 e. 
 
 v. Conversely, the participle, as in later Greek, often con- 
 tains the principal idea, as pvpofMevoicri Se Tolcn (frdvri poSoSd- 
 /cruXo? 'Hoi? ^ 109 " they wept until Dawn appeared " ; roia-i 
 Se TepTTOfievoia-t /xeXa? eVt ecrTrepo? rf\,6ev a 423 ; o<f)pa Xetyavre 
 KIOLTTJV ft 285 ; Karevevcrev | "IXtoi/ e/cTrepcraj/r' euret^eoi/ djro- 
 veea-Oat B 113 promised that I should sack llios and return; 
 but in the very next verse is the English idiom, vvv Be rcatcrjv 
 dfrdTr}v /3ov\evcraTO, Kai yu-e /ceXevet | SvcricXea "Apyos iKeadai 
 B 114 f. planned an evil deceit and bids me go etc., for d-n-d- 
 ySouXeuera?. The two constructions are interchanged in 
 /3a\o!)v O 581 and ru^^cra? /9e/3X?;/cei A 106 ff. 
 
 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 
 
 4. a. The dialect of the Homeric poems is in one sense 
 artificial: it was spoken at no place and at no time. But it 
 is not a mosaic composed of words and forms chosen capri- 
 ciously from the different Greek dialects ; it is a product of
 
 ;U THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 4, I,. 
 
 natural growth. It was developed under the influence of 
 the dactylic hexameter by successive generations of bards 
 who preserved obsolete or obsolescent words, phrases,, and 
 forms which were suited to their verse, and who adopted also 
 from the common speech of their own times what was avail- 
 able for their use. Thus older and newer forms subsisted 
 side by side, just as the English poet can choose between 
 loveth and loves, lovSd and lw\l, aye and ever. The poets 
 unconsciously excluded all that was not adapted to dactylic 
 verse, but they did no violence to their language ; they did 
 not wantonly change quantities or introduce new termina- 
 tions. " The dialect did not spring from a formless linguistic 
 dough kneaded in the trough of the verse." 
 
 b. This conservation of old forms together with the intro- 
 duction of new forms was very convenient for the verse ; 
 e.g. for the infinitive of the verb be, Homer could use l/^te- 
 vai as dactyl, _ w w ; epevat as anapaest, w w _ ; efi^ev as 
 
 trochee, _ ^ ; epev as pyrrhic, w w ; elvai as spondee, 
 
 Xaturalty, the choice being offered, metrical convenience de- 
 termined which of these forms should be used. Metrical 
 convenience often or generally decided between the use of 
 'Ajftuol or 'Apyeioi. 
 
 c. The same is true in the case of synonyms and stock epi- 
 thets or phrases ; Homer uses BIOS as a disyllabic, 0eio<f (better 
 written $6*09) where he wishes a trisyllable, as Sto? 'OSuo-o-eus, 
 but 'OSi>CT-cr?7o<? Oetoio at the close of a verse. The most fre- 
 quently recurring epithets of Odysseus are iro\vr\a<i, TTO\V- 
 /j.rjri<f, 7ro\vfjLifyavos, Ta\a<ri<j>pu>v, TroiKiXofiijTrjs, all of dif- 
 ferent metrical value. ava% dvSpwv ' A.ya/j,efj,va>v is used after 
 the feminine caesura ( 40/) of the third foot, but evpv 
 
 ' A.yafJ,e{Avo)v, *A<ya/j,e/jLvovo<; 'Ar/oet'Sao, or ' Xya^jJivo 
 \awv after the masculine caesura of the same foot. Hi)\r)id8eo> 
 'A^tX^o? is used after the penthemimeral caesura ( 40 e), TTQ- 
 Sa<? aiicix; 'A^tXXeJ? after the hephthemimeral caesura ( 40 #), 
 but TroSdpfcr]*; Sto? 'A^iXXey?, TroSco/ceo? Aia/ctSao or
 
 4,/.] THE HOMEiUC DIALECT. 35 
 
 AlaKiSao, TToSdpicei HijXelwvi, TroSaj/cea Hrj\eio)va, dpjfLova H rj- 
 XetWa, or 'A^iXXqa TrroXi-jropdov, after the feminine caesura 
 of the third foot, with Sio? 'A^t\Xeu<? as a tag when the verse 
 is filled up to the Bucolic diaeresis ( 40 A). Of. the epithets 
 of Apollo, etcdroio A 385 w w _. w, eterj/SoXov A 14 w _ w w, 
 
 etcdepyos A 479 w w __ w, eKarrjftoXov A 370 w v^ w ^, Karrj- 
 
 ftekerao A 75 ww_ww_w See 1 . 
 
 d. The convenience of the verse decided whether the poet 
 should say to? <j>dro (before a consonant) or w? efya-r (before 
 a vowel), eTatpos or erapo? ( 5 7i), irdvvv^o^ or 7ravvv^io<f, 
 /topt/xo? or fiopcrifjios, /ceivos or e/ceti/o?. ata is used as well as 
 7ata, but only at the close of the verse, where other old forms 
 are preserved, as UTTO Trarpi'So? any? a 75 ; cf. e's TrarpiSa yalav 
 B 174 ; while 7*7 is used half a dozen times, as F 104. In 
 this way the Homeric poems doubtless had considerable in- 
 fluence on the language, assisting in the preservation of old 
 words and forms and in the establishment in use of new 
 words and forms which were metrically convenient. 
 
 e. The dialect is essentially Ionic and seems to have origi- 
 nated among the lonians of Asia Minor, influenced possibly 
 by the speech and certainly far more by the old poems of 
 their Aeolian neighbors. The oldest form of Greek Epic 
 songs seems to have been Aeolic, but the lonians brought 
 Epic poetry to perfection. Even the Pythian priestess de- 
 livered the oracles of Apollo in Epic verse and Ionic dialect, 
 and the Dorian Spartans sang about their camp-fires the 
 Ionian songs of Tyrtaeus. Homer, however, does not have 
 certain marked Ionic peculiarities, as <<?, Kore for TTW?, Trore. 
 
 f. A considerable number of Aeolisms is found in the 
 poems, especially in certain phrases and in certain feet of 
 the verse, as a\\vSis aXXo<?, vTratda. This traditional Aeolic 
 influence appears still more marked in the survival of the 
 digamma ( 14) which in the Homeric age was nearly or 
 quite obsolete in the ordinary Ionic dialect ; no trace of it 
 appears in the poems of Archilochus of Paros in the seventh
 
 36 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 4, g. 
 
 century B.C. Aeolic forms are found in the Homeric poems 
 even where the metre does not require them, as o< 
 ft 334 for o<f>ei\t,v, epeftevvr) E 659 (e'pe/Secr-yo?), 
 F 141 (dpyea-vo?) , <fyr}p<riv A 268 for Orjpa-iv, <f>\fyeTai p 221 
 for #A,n/rerat. The general formulaic character of these Aeo- 
 lisms indicates that they were borrowed from earlier poems 
 rather than from the Aeolians of the Homeric age. Aeolic 
 form or coloring is found also in some proper names, as %epcri- 
 7-779 (found also in a Thessalian inscription of 214 B.C.), from 
 the Aeolic form of Odpa-os insolence, daring, pcri\o- 
 , ' AX4#e/3<r779, NavcriKaa (Ionic 1/771)9), and perhaps Bed god- 
 dess (Ionic 77 #609). Another Aeolic peculiarity is the use 
 of the smooth breathing as in 77809 pleasure (cf. 7781^9), aoyit- 
 1/09 glad (cf. dvBdvo), eaSov^ ; see 12 m. 
 
 g. Some forms seem to be borrowed from other dialects ; 
 but it must be remembered that when the poems were com- 
 posed, there was less difference between the dialects than at 
 the earliest period when we have monumental evidence con- 
 cerning them. Thus the forms linrora, firjriera KT\. ( 16 6) 
 seem to be ancient rather than specifically Aeolic; that they 
 were not introduced simply metri causa is shown by the use 
 of v(f>\ijypeTa Zevs A 511 where ve^eX^jeperr}^ is metrically 
 admissible. 
 
 h. Some anomalies of form (as of verse) are as yet unex- 
 plained, but it may be assumed that all which remain either 
 (1) were justified by the usage of the people and might be 
 explained by more complete knowledge of the history of the 
 language, or (2) followed the analogy of what was in use, or 
 (3) are errors which have found their way into the text dur- 
 ing the course of transmission to the present time. As the 
 poems were handed down among the Greeks at first orally, 
 and afterwards still uncritically for centuries, errors unavoid- 
 ably crept in and there was a gradual assimilation of what 
 was obsolete to later and more familiar forms, when the older 
 forms were unprotected by the metre, eijv&ave 7 143 is prob-
 
 5, a.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 37 
 
 ably an ancient assimilation to Attic usage for edvSave (efdv 
 Save, 14, 25 i). 
 
 i. Doubtless also mistakes were committed in the process 
 of transferring the poems to the later alphabet (in official 
 use at Athens from the archonship of Euclides, 403 B.C.) 
 from the earlier alphabet in which E was used for e, TJ, and 
 the spurious diphthong et (which arises from compensative 
 lengthening or contraction, Hadley 14 b), and O was used 
 for o, a), and the spurious diphthong ov. Thus 4>OOS of the 
 old alphabet could be interpreted as <oo? (the form interme- 
 diate between the earlier <ao<? and the Attic <&>?, as TTOO-O-I 
 is intermediate between TroS-a-i and TTOO-I) or <oo><?, but the 
 latter form seemed more natural to those who said <&>?, and 
 it was introduced into the text, as B 49. EOS might be ^o<? 
 (or eto<?) or e&><?, but the latter as the familiar form is found 
 in the Mss., even A 193, where the metre demands the earlier 
 form ; and euu? is found where the rational form ^09 (or elo?) 
 could stand. EEN might be yev, rJ7)v, eev, erjv. The last 
 form was thought to be " by Sie/crao-is " for fy (as eijv, the 
 possessive pronoun, for r/i/), and seems to have been often 
 substituted wrongly for eev ( 34 #). Since cnreovs was the 
 Attic genitive of o-Treo?, o-Tretou? seemed more natural than 
 o-Treio? (or o-rreeo?), as viro a"ireiovs' jrepl KT\. t, 141 (see 
 18 n). epo? K 315 is protected by the metre, and is sus- 
 tained by the oblique cases epa> and epov ( 18 e), but the 
 Attic epax; has supplanted it in F 442, E 294, where a con- 
 sonant follows. 
 
 VOWELS AND VOWEL CHANGES. 
 
 5. a. 77 is regularly used for a, as dyopij, o/tot?/ ; except 
 in 6ed goddess, Xao? people, and some proper names (as 
 AiVeta?, Nafcrfaa, 4 /). Occasionally, as B 370, /*ai/ is 
 found instead of the less frequent pijv (the strong form of 
 pev). d\ro A 532 (from aX,Xo/wu) is another instance of d, 
 unless it is to be written aXro.
 
 3S THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [5,4. 
 
 b. Sometimes, especially in abstract nouns, ?? represents 
 Attic a, as evTrXoiTjv I 362, dXrjdei'rjv ij 297. 
 
 c. The final d of the stem is retained in the genitive end- 
 ings -do and -dwv of the 1st declension, as \\.rpei8ao A 203. 
 
 d. do is often changed to e&> by transfer of quantity : 
 \\rpel8ao, . 'ArpeiSeco. Cf. /3acrtX?}o<? with Attic /?acrtXe'&K. 
 But the frequent Xao? never has the Attic form Xe&><?. 
 
 e. Compensative lengthening is sometimes found where 
 it is not in Attic, as feu>o<? (ei/fo?), el'vetca (Lesbian evve- 
 KO), Kovprj (fcopfa), /AoOVo?, ovpos (op/To?), Sovpos. It is 
 omitted in ftoXerat A 319 (ftovXerat, Aeolic /SoXXerat, cf. /SeX- 
 TIOV) ; and in three compounds of Troy? (TTO&-), as aeXXoTro? 
 6409. 
 
 A vowel seems to have been borrowed from the following 
 
 syllable in %etf>, X et P^ fr m a stem x P 1 '' anc ^ ^ n 7rov '^v* 
 (Attic TroXy?, 20/> 
 
 f. Diphthongs occasionally preserve i where it is lost in 
 Attic before a vowel: alei, atero?, ereXeiero ( 29 i), olvofta- 
 peiaiv, o\oiij, TTVOiij, xpva-eios. Cf. aKOvrj with Attic dtcorj. 
 
 g. But i is lost before a vowel in &>/ce'a (w/ceta) 'I/ai? B 786, 
 Alveas N 541(AtVe/a<?, cf. tcpeiwv with the proper names K^etuv 
 and Kpeovo-a), in -oo for -oto as genitive-ending of the 2d 
 declension ( 17 c) and in e'/ze'o for e/xeto, etc. ( 24 e) ; cf. 
 
 6\or) <& 83 with O\OIT) p.olpa X 5, %pvcrelois A 246 with 
 A 15. With these examples may be compared Attic 
 Troeiv (Trotetf), eXda (eXata). As in Attic, the penult is some- 
 times short in uto? (as A 489, A 473) and olo? (as y 312, 
 S 105). (?/". efjLTralov v 379, xdfutlevvd&es K 243. 
 
 CJf. also the loss of u in Xoe K 361 (IXoue), e^eai/ S 347 
 (e^euav), aXeacr^e 8 774 (aXeuacr^e), vrjecrcn from I/T/V?, ftacri- 
 X/)o? from /3ao-tXeu9, Tu8eo9 from TuSey?. See 41 o. (7f. 
 ^/XBO? C 303. 
 
 h. erai/jo? (eTa/3-to<?) is not a dialectic variation of erapo? 
 but is derived from it as AiV&iXio? A 399 from An-wXo? A 527, 
 ^ a 443 from Trdvw^o^ ^ 218. CY. 19 b.
 
 7, a.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 39 
 
 6. CONTRACTION, a. Concurrent vowels generally re- 
 main im contracted : aeicwv, ct\.yea, Trdis (in nominative and 
 vocative singular), 0*9 (oft? = ovis, ewe). Attic ev is regu- 
 larly ev before two consonants and the adjective is always 
 evs or i}v<?. Patronymics from nouns in -ey<? form -eiS^, 
 -eiwv, as 'ArpeiSrjs A 7, HijXeicova A 197. 
 
 b. When contraction occurs, it follows the ordinary rules, 
 except that eo and eov generally give ev : Odptrevs P 573, 6i- 
 pevs 77 118, (f)i\evvTa<; 7 221 ; but TrovroTropova^ \ 11, 6/ioO- 
 fiai A 233. 
 
 c. ea are very rarely contracted into 77, as TvBfj A 384 
 (TfSea), aKparf /3 421, cuvoiraBf) a 201. 
 
 d. 776 are contracted into rj in ripy? I 605 (rt/u^e^), rifirjvra 
 i 475, Te^vfjcrcrai TJ 110 (re^yi]ecrcraL). 
 
 e. ta are contracted into t in a/cotrt? /c 7 (d/cotrta?). t and 
 e are contracted in //>, as B 420, and in ipijtces, as e 66. 
 
 f. oe are contracted into ov in \wrovvra M 283. 
 
 g. or/ are contracted into &> in eVt/Swcro/iai, as a 378, oySta- 
 Kovra B 568. 
 
 h. The optative-sign i is sometimes lost in a preceding v 
 ( 28 ft). 
 
 i. It is probable that in the original form of the Homeric 
 poems many vowels were uncontracted which are contracted 
 in the Mss. and ordinary editions. The 01 of tcoi\o<; can be 
 pronounced as two syllables 67 times out of 68 (^ 385 being 
 the exception). So at'Soto? may generally be ai&oios, and 
 #eto? may be deio? (cf. 4 c). The ei of 'Apyeios may always 
 form two syllables. The evidence of rhythm and etymology 
 indicates Xoeo-ev rather than \ovaev. See 18 /, 29^. 
 
 7. SYNIZESIS. a. Vowels which do not form a true diph- 
 thong may be blended in pronunciation into one long sound: 
 ) _ w w _ , deoeiSea F 27, Srj avre A 340, r) OVK diet? 
 
 a 298, /j,r) aX\-oi 8 165, 7roA,to<? B 811, A^yuTTTMW? 8 83, 'Icrrt- 
 
 v^ 
 
 B 537 (in which last three examples i must have had
 
 40 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 7, b. 
 
 very nearly the pronunciation of its cognate j/-sound, 5 g, 
 
 41 o <y, as omnia is often disyllabic in Vergil), <w dpiyvaire p 375. 
 
 ^-s 
 
 The genitives in -e<o are always pronounced with synizesis 
 ( 16 (?), as also tjfiecov and v^ewv and regularly ^p,ea^, <r<^>ea?, 
 and the genitive plural in -ea>v ( 16 rf). %peo> is always a 
 monosyllable. 
 
 b. Synizesis often served the purpose of the later contrac- 
 tion : ruiiwv did not differ in metrical quantity from T^IWI/. 
 It enabled the poet in certain cases to escape the combi- 
 nation _w_ (amphimacer*) which cannot be received un- 
 changed into dactylic verse ( 41 a). 
 
 c. Contraction and synizesis were employed in the last 
 foot of the verse more freely than. elsewhere. 
 
 d. It is probable that in the original form of the poems 
 synizesis was not so common as in our texts ; e.g. instead of 
 HrjXijidBea) 'A^tX^o? A 1, Hr)\r)idSa KT\. may have been 
 
 spoken. For vpZv i^v Oeol Solev A 18, v^pi Oeol pev KT\. has 
 
 \~s 
 
 been conjectured, and 'Ei>uaX/&> jSporofyovTy for 'Ei/faXiw av- 
 
 BpeL<f>6vTTj B 651. For SevSpew e<eo/zei/ot F 152, the Alex- 
 andrian scholar Zenodotus read SevSpei KT\. (cf. the Attic 
 plural SevSpeo-i). For UrjXetiij etfeV A 277, probably 
 
 ' should be read, although the poet elsewhere uses e'#e'X&> 
 not 0e\Q>. 
 
 8. CEASIS is not frequent. It is most common in com- 
 pounds with 7T/30, as 7rpov(f>aiv i 145, 7rpov%ovTo 7 8, which 
 however may be written Trpoefaive, Trpoe^ovro KT\. Note 
 also TOVVGKO, A 291, upta-ros O 384 (6 apicrTos*), (uuro? E 396, 
 raXXa 7 462, ^^/iet? B 238 (/cat j/yLtei?), oy/io? 360. 
 
 9. HIATUS is allowed 
 
 a. After the vowels t and u, as ey%el ogvoevri E 50, TI'<? Se 
 (TV ecrai Z 123. 
 
 b. When the two vowels between which it occurs are sep-
 
 10. r.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 41 
 
 a rated by a caesura (tcadrja-ro eV^i/a/u^ao-a A 569) or by a 
 diaeresis ( 40 K) : seldom (54 times) after the first foot 
 (avrap 6 eyvw A 333), more frequently (96 times) after the 
 fourth foot (ey%ea ogvoevra E 568). This hiatus after the 
 fourth foot is more frequent in the Odyssey than in the Iliad. 
 Hiatus between the short syllables of the third foot is al- 
 lowed nearly as frequently as in all other places together, 
 more than 200 times. This freedom of hiatus emphasizes 
 the prominence of this caesura, 10 e, 40 d. 
 
 c. When the final vowel of the first word is long and 
 stands in the accented part of the foot ( 39 c), as TG> o-e 
 Kauri alarj A 418. See 41 
 
 d. When a long vowel or diphthong loses part of its quan- 
 tity before the following vowel ( 41 o), as rrjv 8' eyw ov 
 \vo-(0 A 29, ft/] w> rot ov ^paiafirj A 28. Here the final and 
 initial vowels may be said to be blended. This is called 
 weak or improper hiatus; it is essentially the same as the 
 following. 
 
 e. When the last vowel of the first word is already elided, 
 as fjivpi 'A^atot? aXye' edijicev A 2. See 10 e. 
 
 f. Hiatus before words which formerly began with a con- 
 sonant ( 12 ?, 14) is only apparent. 
 
 g. The poet did not avoid two or more concurrent vowels 
 in the same word, 6. But these vowels all seem to have 
 become concurrent on Greek soil by the loss of consonants. 
 
 1O. ELISION, a. d (in inflectional endings and in apa 
 and pa), e, I, o may be elided, at is sometimes elided in the 
 verb endings -/iat, -crat (except in the infinitive), -rat, -o-#at, 
 and once in ofetat A 272. 01 is elided seven times in /W, 
 three times in rot, once in <roi A 170 (unless ovSe a-oi oto or 
 ov a-oi 6iQ) should be read there for ovSe <r' otto). 
 
 b. TO, irpo, avri, irepi, ri, and the conjunction on do not 
 suffer elision ; 6Y is for ore (either the temporal conjunction 
 or the relative o with re affixed, 24 5-), T for re or roi. 
 
 c. t is seldom elided in the dative singular, where it seems 
 originally to have been long.
 
 42 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 10, d. 
 
 d. Oxytone prepositions and conjunctions lose their accent 
 in elision ; other oxytones throw the acute accent upon the 
 preceding syllable: tear dp eero A 101, but \evic o<rrea 
 a 161, etfji 'OSvcreu? i 19. 
 
 e. Elision tends to unite the two words between which 
 it occurs; hence it is avoided at the caesura of the third 
 foot, where hiatus seems to be preferred to elision. Hence, 
 also, the poet does not avoid the hiatus which sometimes 
 remains after elision, 9 e, g. 
 
 f. Elision is not left to the reader as in Latin poetry. In 
 the best Ms. of the Iliad (Few. J.), the elided vowel was 
 sometimes written over the preceding consonant, and where 
 the elided vowel bore the accent, a grave accent was placed 
 over the preceding vowel. 
 
 11. APOCOPE, a. Before a consonant, the short final 
 vowel of apa and of the prepositions avd, Kara, Trapd, may 
 be cut off (a-Tro/coTn;, aTro/eoTnvw). The accent is then thrown 
 back upon the preceding syllable (although it might be more 
 rational to consider it lost as it is in elision). 
 
 b. After apocope, the v of avd and T of Kara follow the 
 usual rules for consonant changes : d^Kpep-daaffa a 440, a/zTre- 
 7ra\(t)v F 355, aXXeai <!> 321 (a^aXe^at), arff-ifpdvi) <I> 347 
 (dva^ijpdvrf), icdpftaXev E 343 (/care/SaXey), tcdS B (/cara Se) 
 frequently, aXXt?re X 279, /caKrave Z 164 (/eare/craye) , KCLTT- 
 irecrerriv E 560, Kappe^ovcra E 424, Kacrropvijcra p 32 (rara- 
 <7Topi/ucra), tcaTT (}>d\.apa II 106. 
 
 c. a-n-o suffers apocope in aTTTreV^et 83 ; cf. Latin ab. 
 
 d. VTTO suffers apocope in vfi/3d\.\t,v T 80 ; cf. Latin sub. 
 
 e. avepvaav A 459 is explained as derived by apocope, as- 
 similation, and vocalization of f, from avd and pepvw. dvfe- 
 pvcrav, dpepvcrav, avepvcrav, cf. tcavdj;ais Hesiod Works 666 
 (*aTa^aat<>). For this apocope cf. Kaa-^ede (/care'o-^e^e) A 
 702, and dfivda-ei Pindar Pyth. IV 54 (am/Ai;cret) ; for the 
 vocalization of f , see 14 j.
 
 12, e.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 43 
 
 f. Apocope was no mere metrical license ; it seems to 
 have been common in the conversational idiom of some dia- 
 lects. A Megarian peasant is made to say (Aristophanes 
 Acharnians 732) a/i/Sare TTOT rav paSSav for dvdfBare irori 
 (7rpo<?) rrjv fj.aav, where the poet is certainly imitating the 
 manner of the common people. a/u,/3oicra.<? (di>a/3oj/cra<?) is 
 found in Herodotus I 8, a^Travea-Oai Hdt. I 182, a^o\d^v 
 Hdt. iv 181. More striking examples of apocope and assimi- 
 lation than any in Homer are found in prose inscriptions, as 
 ar ra? for djrb T?}?, er rol for eirl roO, TTOK KL for irorl KI 
 (777)09 TI), Trep rovvveovv ( 24 ??i ) for irepl rwvBetov, in a Thes- 
 salian inscription of 214 B.C., found at Larissa. Cf. TTOT rov 
 0eov Kar jrdrpia 8i&6i>Tcav in a Delphian inscription of 380 B.C. 
 Apocope was the rule in the Thessalian and Boeotian dia- 
 lects. 
 
 CONSONANTS AND CONSONANT CHANGES. 
 
 12. a. Where collateral forms appear, one with single 
 and the other with doubled consonants, the form with two 
 consonants is generally the older or justified etymologically, 
 as TTocrcri, Trocrt (from 7ro8-<rt) ; i/ei/cecrtre, veltcea-e (i/et/co?, vei- 
 Ace<r-), OTTTTft)? (o/c/r&)<?, cf. Latin quis etc.^), 6m, KT\. 
 
 b. Single initial consonants, especially X, /*, v, p y o-, are 
 often doubled (as p is in Attic) when by inflexion or compo- 
 sition a short vowel is brought before them (see 41 j a), as 
 eXXt'o-crero Z 45, epL^aOov, evvvrjros, ecrcrvo, oTTTrtu?, orri. 
 
 c. But sometimes p is not doubled where it would be in 
 Attic, as epega 8 352 ( 25 #), apercrov T 150, wKvpow E 598, 
 Ov/jLopaicrrecov S 220. 
 
 d. Palatal and lingual mutes often remain unchanged be- 
 fore fM, as a/ca^yLtevo?, oSfMr/v, iSfjiev, KeKOpvdptvos. 
 
 e. Lingual mutes are commonly assimilated to a following 
 or, as TTocrcri (7roS-(Ti). a- is sometimes assimilated to p, or v: 
 
 (etz/at) for ea-pevai, evveTre a 1 tell for eVcrevre (Lat.
 
 44 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 12, f. 
 
 insece), dpyevvos white fo.r dpyecr-vos, as dpyevvdcov F 198, ev- 
 for f(T-vvf4i ( 14 #) cf. eitra-o 8 253, epawijv rj 18 lovely, 
 ewij E 659 c?ar&, cf. v Epe/3o<?. (7f. the aorist o^e'XXetei/ 
 334 for 6<f>e\a-iv. See 4/. 
 
 f. <r is frequently retained before o-, as ea-a-o/Mii, ereXeero-e. 
 
 g. Between /* and X or p, /S is sometimes developed (<?/*. 
 the Attic fj,<TT}fjLj3pLa from /zee-?; rjfjLepa, and chamber with Latin 
 camera), as apftpoTos from stem yu-po or /to/3 (Latin ?0r, 
 mortor), while in fiporos mortal and i/u| dftporr) H 78, the /* 
 of the stem is lost; /i/A/9X&)/te from /zXo or /ioX (cf. 1/ioXov), 
 while in TrpoySXtotr/cet^ <^> 239, the yu, of the stem is lost ; 
 /3Xero 4> 516 from /iX<u i 20 ; rj^porov II 336 (cf. 
 
 ^116 and dft paramo fiev K 65). 
 
 h. Ka/jLJ3a\e is found occasionally, as f 172, in the Mss. as 
 a variant reading, a softer pronunciation for /ca/3/SaXe ( 11 ft). 
 
 i. A parasitic T appears in TrroXt?, TrroXe/xo? for 7roXi<>, TTO- 
 Xe/Lto?. (7f. Bi^Bd, rpi%0d with Attic 8t^a, rpi%a, ^Oap.a- 
 Xo? (humilis) with ^a/W (humi). The form TrroXt? is found 
 in Thessalian and Cyprian inscriptions, and was also Arca- 
 dian. The proper names Neoptolemus (Neo7rroXe/io<?) and 
 Ptolemy (IlToXe/Liato?) preserved this T to a late period. 
 TXT/TTToXe/to? is found in an ancient Boeotian inscription ; in 
 this word r could not have been inserted metri causa. 
 
 j. Certain words were losing their initial consonants in 
 the Homeric age : cf. pi/cpos 7 296 with crfUKpfja-i P 757, iJe? 
 o 556 with 0-V9 T 439, tceSaa-OevTes B 398 with <TK&a<rv P 649, 
 A 446 with a-vviTrjv Z 120, ^oinrrja-ev A 504 with 
 av A 45 and epiSovTrra 7 399 with epiy&oviros H 411. 
 
 k. For /r see 14. 
 
 1. Yod (y pronounced as y) occasionally retains the force 
 of a consonant in trjfjn ( 25 A) and generally (37 times) in 
 postpositive w<? i.e.jws ( 41 w), which seldom leaves the pre- 
 ceding syllable short. The constant position of a>? after the 
 noun which it qualifies marks the lengthening as a relic of 
 an earlier age. But perhaps this postpositive w? was
 
 14, a.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 45 
 
 m. The rough breathing (Ji) has no power to prevent eli- 
 sion or weaken hiatus. The smooth breathing is found with 
 several words which have the rough breathing in Attic, as 
 a/uyie? (77/4649), rm-ap (jifjuepd)^ akro (from aXXo/zat), T/eXio? 
 (77X409), 'A/S?79 ("A4&779), 77609 (0)9). See 4:f. 
 
 n. The v movable was written by some ancient critics (e.g. 
 Aristarchus) after the ending -et of the pluperfect, as ySe/9\?;- 
 tceiv E 661, rfvfayeiv Z 170 ; cf. rfcriceiv F 388 (jjcr/ceev^). It is 
 freely used before consonants to make a syllable long by 
 position ( 41 h). 
 
 o. The final a- of adverbs is omitted more often than in 
 prose ; not merely e' and e/e, ourw? and oureo, but also TTCO? 
 and TTCO, 7roXXa49 and TroXXa/w (and similar adverbs in -/a?, 
 even with elision, roacrd')^ v8cop dTroXeo-tcer' \ 586), 
 and drpepa, f^ecro-rjyvf and f^ea-cnjyv, pe^pi^ and f^e^ 
 and a^pt, ayu.^>/9 and a/i^/ (adverbial), are found as collateral 
 forms. 
 
 13. METATHESIS of a and p is frequent : teap&ir] B 452, 
 KpaSlrj a 353 ; Odpcros a 321, dpdcro<; (once) H 416 (while the 
 adjective is always Opaa-vs) ', /capro? 8 415 ^KapTiarroi A 266), 
 paro9 A 509. (7f. eSpaKov from Sep/copai, eBpadov from 
 Odvw, eTrpaOov from Trepdw, rpaTrelof^ev F 441 from 
 -repTTiKepavvos from rpeTrtw. 
 
 For the shifting of quantity from -ao to -e<, see 5 c?. 
 
 14. THE DIGAMMA. a. The following words seem to 
 have been pronounced by the Homeric poet more or less 
 consistently with initial digamma (yau, p, pronounced as 
 English >) : 
 
 break, as E 161 ; cf. xa, daye's X 575. 
 enough, as v 136, B 90. 
 
 be captured, as M 172 ; cf. eoAwv, Aeolic euoAwKev (see 
 j below). Also eiXw press, as II 403, from the same root. 
 ava king, as A 7 and often. 
 avSavw please, as /3 114 ; C/". eaSov and 7;v8aj/ PeavSaveJ y 143.
 
 46 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 14. . 
 
 dpaio's thin, as 2 411. 
 os lamb, as A 158. 
 
 city, as F 245 and often. 
 2, ov, ol him etc,, as A 510, with the possessive pronoun os, ^, o;- 
 (cos KT\.) ; see h below. 
 lap Spring, as r 519 ; cf. Latin ver. 
 eoVa wedding '-gifts, as X 472, perhaps from the same root as 
 
 tribe, as 73. 
 
 twenty, as B 510 ; cf. Latin viginti. 
 yield, as vtrotiKuv Y 266 ; c/. English weak, weaken. 
 cipo> sa^, future epe'w, as A 182 ; cf. Latin ver-bum, English v:ord. 
 , as E 791 ; C/". /Ae'ATron-es eKafpyov A 474. 
 eac/i, as B 449. 
 
 Jf/cupos father-in-law, as F 172; o/. German Schiciegervater. 
 ZKWV willing, as Z 523 ; cf. deKwv, dcKi/rt, d 
 winding, as a 92. 
 
 t, hope, as TT 101 ; C/". toXTra, de 
 
 t) , ctr^i/9, t^u-ara, clothes, as F 392 ; '/". Latin 
 vetfu. 
 
 tTTos icord, as A 652 ; c/. ITTOV (f-ff-ft-n-ov, 25 7i) , and o^ with 
 Latin vox. 
 
 tpyov, IpSo) worfc, as B 436 ; cf. the English word. 
 epuw, ep/Ko. draw, go, as 8 367 ; C/". aTrocpn-e. 
 evening, as p 191 ; c/. Latin vesper. 
 t/ear, as a 16 ; c/. Latin vefus. 
 ? ', as E 270. 
 eri/s companion, as H 295. 
 
 ^Sv's sweet, as A 17; c/". dv8avw and Latin suadeo, snaris (.unirl- 
 vis) . 
 
 r)&o<; haunt, as ^ 411 ; cf. dwftc. 
 
 cry aloud as 8 454 ; c/. j below. 
 
 see, as A 262 ; also 0180, ctSo?. Cf. Latin video, English toft. 
 , HKU a //i //A:e, as A 119. 
 lov violet, as 72 ; cf. Latin viola. 
 is, ?<#>t stri'iKjfh. xineic, as * 191 ; cf. Latin vis, 
 equal, as A 163 ; cf. euros.
 
 14, <.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 47 
 
 ITV; felly, as A 486 ; cf. English withe. 
 
 OIKOS house, as a 232 ; cf. Latin vicus, English War-ivicic, Ber- 
 icick, etc. 
 
 oivos wine, as F 300 ; cf. Latin vinum and the English word. 
 
 b. It is probable that r/pa (eVt, fjpa <f>6pa)v A 572), TXto<?, 
 and '!/<? also were pronounced with initial p. 
 
 c. avSdvw, e, e/cvpos, e and others seem to have begun 
 originally with two consonants, af. 
 
 d. The verse alone affords no sufficient criterion for the 
 former existence of p in any word ; it only indicates the loss 
 of some consonant. This is not conclusive evidence for p, 
 since a- and j (y) were also lost. Which consonant origi- 
 nally was present has to be learned in each case from inscrip- 
 tions of other Greek dialects, from a few notes of ancient 
 grammarians, and from other cognate languages (cf. epyov 
 work, o'i>o<? wine). 
 
 Rem. The Alexandrian scholars did not know of the existence 
 of p in the Homeric language, and consequently they did not use 
 it to explain peculiarities in the Homeric text. The great English 
 scholar Richard Bentley (1662-1742) was the first to discover that 
 its restoration removed many difficulties of Homeric prosody. 
 
 e. The sound of p evidently was going out of use in the 
 Homeric period; it is not infrequently neglected in our 
 texts and sometimes this neglect seems to be due to the poet 
 himself, but p can be restored in many passages by minor 
 changes : tceSva ISvia (ftSvla) has been restored for the Ms. 
 reading xeBv elSvla a 428. For viov eK-r)@6\ov A 21 it is pos- 
 sible to read via peKr)f3o\ov, for r)fti]<rri re fcal -^9 KT\. a 41 it 
 is easy to read 77/8770-77 /cal p^s, and Traaiv 8e favda-o-eiv for 
 Travrecrcri 8' dvdcra-eiv A 288. For eTrraere? 8' r/z/aercre 7 304, 
 eTrraere? 8' edvacrcre may be read ( 25 i). p,evo<$ Ovfiov re 
 peKaarov may have been the original form of /tevo? teal Ovpbv 
 e/cdo-rov E 470. avrovs Se e\(t)pia A 4 became avrovs 8' e\\ca- 
 pta in many Mss. o'i pev olvov a 110 is now read where the
 
 48 THE HOMEK1C PIALECT. [ 14,/ 
 
 Mss. have oi fitv dp olvov. As the Alexandrian grammarians 
 and the copyists had no knowledge of this lost letter in 
 Homer, they were solicitous to fill each hiatus by a v mova- 
 ble, p (/?a), T (re), 7' (ye)* or whatever other addition or 
 change suggested itself, ov <rv 7' aycis p 576 is probably 
 for ov <rv p 1 (/re) dyeis, and 05 aet fl 154 for 09 p" aet 
 ( 41 q). 
 
 f. p was less constantly preserved in derivative than in 
 primitive words : 0*1/09 generally retains its f, but OtVo/tao<? 
 E 706 has lost it ; apvbs preserves its p four times, but apveio? 
 shows no trace of it. 
 
 g. It has been computed that p in Homer assists in mak- 
 ing position 359 times (only in the accented part of the foot 
 or else before the third personal pronoun before eu once, 
 before the enclitic ol 39 times), but prevents hiatus 2995 
 times (2324 of which are after a short syllable, in the unac- 
 cented part of the foot). The force of p is neglected about 
 600 times in ordinary texts (about half of which passages 
 can be readily changed to restore /r). 
 
 h. In later poets, e.g. in the elegiac poets and Pindar, f 
 seems never to make position but often prevents hiatus, 
 poetic precedent allowing hiatus before a word which for- 
 merly began with f. The consciousness of the consonantal 
 initial sound of ol was retained longest and most clearly. 
 Before that word, no attempt was made to fill a hiatus by v 
 movable or by ov% for ou, and before it a short vowel was 
 often long by position ( 41 w). 
 
 i. That the sound of p was still alive in the Homeric age 
 is shown by the accuracy of the poet in its use where com- 
 parative philology shows that it once existed. 
 
 j. p sometimes leaves a trace of its existence in its cognate 
 vowel v : evaoev H 340 for efaBev, avepva-av A 459 for dfepv- 
 a-av ( 11 e), avia^ot N 41 for afia-^oi (a privative and fia- 
 ^77), raXavpivov E 289 for ra\d-pptvov. So doubtless aTrovpas 
 A 356 for airo-ppd?. Gf. the Pindaric avdrav, Pyth. II 28,
 
 15, a.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 49 
 
 for apdrav, and eviSov Sappho II 7 for efiSov. This latter 
 eviSov may have been pronounced often where our Homeric 
 texts have eia-iSov, as ea-tSev seems not infrequently to have 
 been substituted for efiSev. 
 
 Some irregularities of quantity may be explained by this 
 vocalization of p. Thus aTroenrwv T 35 may have been CLTTO- 
 fenrcov pronounced nearly as aTrovenroov. aviaj^oi finds its 
 analogy in yevero la^rj A 456 (761/6x0 vm^). 
 
 k. A neighboring vowel is sometimes lengthened to com- 
 pensate for the loss of f ( 41 t#). 
 
 1. An e was sometimes prefixed to a digammated word and 
 remained after the f was lost, as e\8a>p, eeltcocri, eepyei, ee. 
 
 m. Sometimes the rough breathing represents the last 
 remnant of a lost consonant (especially in the words which 
 once began with C-/T, as avBdvca KT\., cf. c above), as KO>V, 
 6o-7repo<?. Often the same root varies in breathing, as avSavco 
 and r)8vs, but 77^09, eWu/u, but eV#7/<. 
 
 n. For the augment and reduplication of digammated 
 verbs, see 25 h. 
 
 o. For S/ret'&o, 8tfv, see 41, j ft. 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 15. SPECIAL CASE ENDINGS, a. The suffix -^>t(i/), a 
 remnant of an old instrumental case, added to the stem forms 
 a genitive and dative in both singular and plural. It is gen- 
 erally used as an instrumental, ablative, or locative case. 
 The suffix is most frequent in set expressions and in the last 
 two feet of the verse. 
 
 1st Declension, always singular: e' evvrjfav from the couch, 
 rf(f>t /3trj(f>i with his oivn might, dvpijfa at the door. 
 
 2d Declension : etc TTOVTO^IV out of the sea, Satcpv6<f>t with 
 tears, eV eV^apo^ii/ on the hearth. The final o of the stem 
 always receives the acute accent. 
 
 3d Declension, only with a- stems except vavfa and KOTV- 
 \rj8ov6(f)i (which has gone over into the 2d declension), and
 
 50 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 15, b. 
 
 always plural except Kpdrecrfy K 156 : etc (mjQeo-ffriv from the 
 breasts, ope<T<f)iv on the mountains. 
 
 b. Many of these forms are found only where they are 
 convenient for the verse ; e.g. vavfa always stands for wjtov, 
 not for vrjva-L which has the same metrical form as vav<f>i. 
 
 c. This ending is not used with designations of persons, 
 except auro<j>i T 255, T 140, Oeofrv as H 366. 
 
 d. The suffix -61 is added to the stem to denote place 
 where : 0vpr)8i at the door, oitcoOi at home, Kypodi at heart, irodi 
 where, KeWi there (e'/cet is not Homeric), r/w0i in the morning. 
 
 e. The suffix -6ev is added to the stem to denote place 
 whence : "iSrjffev from Ida, ovpavoOev from heaven. It forms 
 a genitive with the pronominal stems e'/ie, <re, e, avro : ep-edev, 
 a-eOev, eOev, avroOev. Sometimes a preposition is used with 
 it, as ef a\66ev 3> 335, cnro Tpoiijdev i 38, eOev ei'veica F 128, 
 Trpo eOev E 96. When affixed to adverbial stems, it may lose 
 its final v: 07rto-#e, dvevffe, irdpoiOe, evepOe. 
 
 f. This ending -0ev has lost its original force in certain 
 adverbs ; eyyvs, <yyv0i, eyyvOev do not differ essentially in 
 meaning; cf. evSov, ev&odi, evSodev, jrpocrOev, oTricrdev, KT\. 
 The Aeolic form of the ending appears in viraiQa 4> 493 from 
 under. 
 
 g. The enclitic -Be is added to the accusative to denote 
 more distinctly the limit of motion : oltcovbe homeivard (also 
 oitcaSe, especially of the return of the Achaeans to their 
 homes) ovSe SopovBe to his own house, a\aSe seaicard, K\I- 
 o-irjv&e to the tent, TpoiyvSe to Troy. So also 'At'Soo-Se to the 
 abode of Hades ; cf. rj/jLerepovSe (t\ Sw/ia) to our house, els 
 '\i8ao. With Hr}\i(avdBe H 338, cf. et9 ' \yafj,e/uLvova H 312. 
 Cf. -8t<? in a\\vBis, afj,v8i$, ^ayu.a8f?, -e in epa^e to the earth, 
 dvpa^e, xa/jLa^e. <f>vya.Se to flight (for <f>vyr)v&e which is not 
 used) is formed as from a noun of the third declension. 
 
 16. FIRST DECLENSION, a. TJ is found for final a of 
 the stem with the exceptions mentioned in 5 a f.
 
 17, c.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. ol 
 
 b. The nominative singular of some masculines ends in 
 -r for -TT;? : ai^ijTa spearman, firjrieTa counsellor. Of. the 
 Latin poetd, nautd. evpv OTTO, far-sounding (perhaps a petrified 
 nominative) is used also as accusative, e.g. A 498. 
 
 All of these words are adjectival (titular) except Sveara 
 B107. 
 
 c. The genitive singular of masculines ends in -do or (by 
 transfer of quantity, 5 d), -e&>. After a vowel this ending 
 may be contracted to -w : evp,p.e\Uo A 47, AtVettu E 534, Bopew 
 ^ 692. The ending -e&> is always pronounced as one syllable 
 by synizesis ( 7). . 
 
 d. The genitive plural ends in -acov or -ew. Oedwv, @ov- 
 \ecav. After i this ending may be contracted, as Trapeiwv H 
 794. After a long syllable (i.e. everywhere except in TruXeW 
 H 1, M 340, and Ovpew <f> 191) synizesis of -etui/ occurs, as 
 
 e. The dative plural ends in -ycri^v') or rarely in -779, as 
 
 v, TreTpT??, in -at? only in three words : Beats e 119 
 (cf. 0ed 5 a), a/crat? M 284, Tracrat? ^ 471. 
 
 f. The short form of this dative ending is rarely used 
 before a consonant ; when it stands before a vowel, it may 
 be said that the final i has been elided. 
 
 17. SECOND DECLENSION, a. The genitive singular 
 has preserved the old ending -to which affixed to the stem 
 vowel makes -oio. 
 
 b. According to tradition this ending does not suffer eli- 
 sion; but elision is metrically possible, e.g. Svcropevov 'TTrepi- 
 oz/o9 a 24 might be SvcrofAevoi' "TTrepiovos. See 7 d. 
 
 c. The termination -oo is indicated by the metre in certain 
 places where all the Mss. give a corrupt form : o-^rireKecrTov 
 oo tc\eo<? ov TTOT' oXeirat, B 325, TLo\v(^rjfjLov oo Kpdros e'crrt fie- 
 yia'Tov a 70, aSeX<eoo (frpevat r/p&x? H 120, 'iXi'oo TrpoTrdpotOe 
 X 6, AtoXoo peyaXiJTopos K 36. It is to be recognized also 
 in Hereto B 552 for Ilereaoo, from IIeTt.aK for Hereao?. It
 
 f>2 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 17, </. 
 
 was probably far more common in the original form of the 
 poems ; e.g. 'OXv/MT^ou ddpooi a 27 might be 'OXu/iTriV aOpooi. 
 
 The Attic ending -ov is more common in the received 
 texts. 
 
 For the loss of t in the change from -oio to oo, see 5 g. 
 
 d. The genitive and dative dual end in -ouv : roiiv, <u/toui>. 
 
 e. The dative plural ends in -oto-t(i') or -ot?. As in the 
 first declension ( 16/) the long ending is the rule, the short 
 ending is very rare before a consonant. 
 
 f. ya\6w X 473 (nom. pi.), \\06w 5 229 (gen. sing.), and 
 KOOJV B 255 (ace. sing.) belong to the so-called Attic Second 
 Declension. But Homer uses Xao<?, vrjot, /caXos, \aya>6s for 
 
 ?, KT\. 
 
 18. THIRD DECLENSION, a. The ending i of the dative 
 singular is sometimes long, as in Latin, and sometimes short. 
 It is seldom elided. It is often long before a single conso- 
 nant, as K.vf](TTi %a\Kir) A 640, JJ.IJTI ' 771/10^09 ^ 318 ; it is 
 always long in Su<f>i\o<;, Att firjriv araXavros, cf. vireppevei 
 4>i\ov B 116, fcpdrei ye H 142. So before words which once 
 began with p, as dvSpl iKe\r] A 86, re/cet w 8 175 ; cf. Att t5? 
 B 781 ( 12 Z). It preserves its length before a vowel in 
 v Seirai 6<f>pa O 285. 
 
 b. The genitive and dative dual are very rare ; perhaps 
 only TToSouv "ty 770, 'Zeipyjvouv p, 52, 167. 
 
 c. The dative plural has the Aeolic ending -e<ren(j/) as well 
 as the Attic -o-t(i/) : Tro&eo-o-t, TTOO-O-I ( 12 e), rroa-i, y9e\e- 
 6(7 cri (for ySeXetr-ecro-t), /SeXeercri, /9e\eo"t, avSp<r(ri, dvSpda-i, 
 Bvyarepecra-t (Attic dvyarpucrt), K\at6vT(Tcri (Attic K\ai- 
 ouo-t), Kvvea-a-i, /cva-i. a-Trearai from o-Tre'o? is irregular ; it 
 can be written everywhere cnreea-i. Sometimes -o-<ri is used 
 after a vowel, vetcvo-a-i as well as veKveo-a-i. As the examples 
 show, sometimes one cr is dropped, but -ecri for -ea-trt (as 
 dvdfCTecriv o 557) is not frequent. The forms in -ea-tri are 
 always accented on the antepenult.
 
 18, /.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. . 53 
 
 d. Forms with -ea-a-i have replaced occasionally in the 
 Mss. forms with -<n, as tfe'XyeoV eTreea-criv 7 264 for fleA/yeovee 
 
 ( 14 a, e), dyavois y3eXee<T<Tti/ 7 280 for asyavoi<ri 
 ( 17 ) 
 
 e. 7e\a>9, e/>&>9, iSpax; have no stems with r, but form dat. 
 
 t8p<w, ace. 7eA&> (or <ye\oi/), epoy, tSpta. p^ew? has 
 ^3009, %po XP a> but a ^ so xptoffa K 575, 'xpoifi H 164, ^pwra 
 0-172. 
 
 f . yew, Secr/Lto?, Sopu, /ca/97;, oC? (which probably should be 
 written oa?, from o5a<?), TrpoacoTrov all have forms from r- 
 stems: yovvaros (youvo? A 547, r 450), jovvacri^ Seo-futra, 8ov- 
 paro9, Soupcm, Sovpara, Sovpacri KT\. /cdpi) has four sets of 
 inflexions: (1) Kaprfro^, tcdprjTi, (2) Kaprjaros, 'KapijaTt, ica- 
 p/jara, (3) Kpaarof, Kpdari, Kpdara, (4) tcparos, tcpari, 
 Kpara, Kpdrwv, Kpa<riv. Kpffdev is used as its genitive IT 548, 
 /cap as accusative singular II 392. All the oblique cases of 
 ot/9 are formed from the stem ovar-, except wo-iv p, 200. 
 
 7rp6<rc07rov has TrpocrfaTrara cr 192, TrpocrooTracri H 212. 
 
 g. Several stems in -tS form the accusative singular in-a ; 
 yXavtccoTTiSa 373, jXavKwjriv a 156 ; dvd\Ki8a 153, dva\- 
 KLV 7 375, eptSa E 861, eptv 7 136. Of. pda-nya E 226, fj,dcrriv 
 o 182, Attic opvida, opvtv. 
 
 h. Nouns in -rjp have both syncopated and unsyncopated 
 forms : irarpos, Trarepos (jrarpwv 8 687), dv8po<?, dvepo$. 
 
 i. Nouns in -09 and -a9 generally remain uncontracted. 
 -eo9 is rarely contracted to -ei9, as Odpcrevs P 573 ('OSf 0-61)9 
 to 398). Cf. dtcparj (^dicpaea) /3 421, A<o/i^Sea A 365. 
 
 j. The a of a few stems in -a9 is weakened to e: ov8eo<t, 
 ovSei from o5Sa9, icax-cnv from /cwa9 fleece. In the plural the 
 final a is short in yepa, as B 237. 
 
 k. Forms of Xeo9 and adjectives in -/c\^9 are contracted 
 in the Mss. : tc\ea dv&pwv I 189, evK\ela<i K 281, Sva-tcXea 
 B 115, dtc\ea 8 728 ; e/. v-rrep&a P 330. 
 
 1. It is probable that the true reading is K\ee dv8pwv (the 
 trisyllabic can everywhere be substituted for the anomalous 
 disyllabic form), &va-K\e* "A/ryo9, a/
 
 54 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 18, m. 
 
 m. Proper names compounded with /cXeo9 are inflected 
 thus: N. ftirj 'Hpa/cXijeiy (periphrasis for 'HpaK\etj<; which is 
 metrically impossible, 2 s), G. 'Hpa/cXrjo?, D. 'Hpa/cX^t, A. 
 
 n. Probably the 77 or et of the nouns in -09 and -a? should 
 be resolved : a-ireiovs may always be written cnreeos, a-Tnjea-crt 
 may be cnrceetTcri, (o-Treetr-eero-t, see c above), Sclavs may be 
 Seeo9, evppeios may be evppeeos, tcpeiwv may be fcpeda)i>, aya- 
 /cX?}o9 may be ayaic\o<;, a/cXeitw? may be a/cXeeco?, ' H/3a/c\*}o9 
 may always be r Upatc\o<f, etc. See 6 i. 
 
 o. Nouns in -&> and -? are contracted in the Mss. This 
 may be a conformation to Attic usage. Generally it is pos- 
 sible, and often it is rhythmically better, to write e.g. rjoa Slav 
 rather than r)& Slav ( 39 j). 
 
 p. Nouns in -t? and -i>? usually retain t or v throughout, 
 but in its stead may insert e which is sometimes lengthened. 
 
 q. TroXt? is inflected thus : TroXio?, 770X7709, TroXet, 7roX?/i 
 
 F 50, TToXtJ/, 7TOXte<?, 7TOX7;69, TToXttOy TToXieCTO't, TToXta?, TTOXrjaS 
 
 (p 486), TroXet?. 
 
 r. Nouns in -eu? generally lengthen e to 77 in compensation 
 ( 41 d~) for the v which between two vowels becomes p and 
 is lost, as ySacrtXey?, ^acri\fjo<f. Forms with e are found in 
 proper names : TuSeo? B 406, TvSea Z 222, 'OSvaevs o> 398 
 (once) for 'O&vcreo?. 
 
 s. wrjvs (Attic vav^ is inflected thus: 1/7709, 1/609, 1^7 i, ^a 
 (yea only t 283 and doubtful), 1/7769, vees, vij&v, vetav, vav<j>t, 
 vrJ<T(ri, veecra-i, vrjva-i, vfjas, veas. The forms with 77 are the 
 most frequent. 
 
 t. "A/3779 has "A/977 and "Aprjv (E 909) of the first declen- 
 sion ; and "Aprjos, "Aprji, "Aprja as from "Apet/9 (the Lesbian 
 form of "A/0779, cf. the Attic genitive "Ape&>9). With these 
 latter forms may be compared conversely the dialectic col- 
 lateral forms in -779 of Epic proper names in -et>9, as "0^^779 
 ('Op</>eu9), TwS779 (Tu8eu9), from which were borrowed the 
 Latin Ulixes, Achilles, etc.
 
 19,/.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 55 
 
 ANOMALOUS FORMS. 
 
 19. a. As verbs appear in the present system with a 
 variety of collateral forms derived from the same root (cf. 
 r ifcci>, l/caixo, Itcveo^ai, Trevdofiat, TrvvOdvoftat, /MVfa, /u/uz/o), 
 yiu/Wfru), so nouns of different declensions are sometimes 
 formed from the same root and are used without appreciable 
 difference of meaning. 
 
 b. Some nouns have both vowel and consonant stems : 
 d\ K ij T 45, but d\KL E 299 ; aa-rpa 555, but da-r^p Z 295 ; 
 yda-rprjv 2 348, but yaa-Tijp 133 ; ey^eir) H 261, but ey^o<? 
 H 254 ; epiijpos eralpos A 266, but epir/pes eralpot F 378 ; 
 7)1/10^09 A 280, but rjvioxfjes E 505 ; IMKIJ E 740, but IwKa 
 A 601 ; (f>v\aKov$ H 566, but <f)v\atcas K 97 ; cf. Attic Trarpo- 
 <J)6vos with 7rarpo(f)ovt}a a 299, 7rd\,v8aKpvov P 192 (for which 
 however 7ro\vSdKpvos is conjectured) as genitive of TTO\V- 
 Saicpvs (cf. Satcpvo-eif X 499) with 7ro\v8aKpvv F 132, iroKnff- 
 ra<; B 806 with TroX-lrai 77 131. 
 
 c. /jbda-Ti "V 500 and fida-riv o 182 are collateral with fid- 
 (TTiyi E 748 and fjbda-Tiya E 226 ; so also verbs are found 
 from both stems : fida-ne P 622, /mdarigev E 366. 
 
 d. Of t>/o<?, three stems are found: (1) yto?, vlov, vie. The 
 other forms of this declension are very rare ; vlov % 238, vim 
 II 177. (2) i/teo?, vlel, vlea (only N 350 in Homer, frequent 
 in later poets) KT\., as if from vlvt which occurs on Spartan 
 and Arcadian inscriptions, with uu? on an early Athenian in- 
 scription. (3) uto?, vli, via, vie, vies, vldai, via?, as from a 
 nominative ut?. 
 
 In this word the first syllable is sometimes short ( 5 g} , 
 as it often is in Attic and in other dialects. 
 
 e. So also some proper names have forms of both vowel 
 and consonant stems : AWioirfjas A 423 and \i6ioiras a 23 ; 
 ' Avn^>arija K 114 and ^Avrt<pdrr)s o 243 ; HarpoK\rjo<f, Tlarpo- 
 K\rfa, TlarpotcXets, as well as HdrpoK\os, HarpoK\ov KT\. 
 
 f. 'Ai'S??? has 'A (Sao, 'A/Sew, but also "AiSo?, "AtSt as if
 
 56 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 19, g. 
 
 from "At'9 ('AtS-). Of. OlSnroSao \ 271 with the Attic geni- 
 tive OiSi7roS-o>?. A collateral form of 'Ai'&iy? is 'AiSanwifo 
 T 61 with dative 'At&oi^t E 190. 
 
 g. Zei;9 has ZT/I/OS, Z^j^t, Z^i/a, or, at end of the verse, Zijv, 
 as well as Ato9, Ait, Ata. 
 
 h. 2,ap7rr)8(f)v has ZapTrijSovos II 464, 2,ap7rr)Soi>TO<; M 379. 
 
 i. K\v0o$ and KVK\OS are sometimes neuter in the plural. 
 So vevpr) has vevpa A 122, 7r\vpjj has TrXevpd A 468. 
 
 j. Certain names of cities are found in both singular and 
 plural: 'AOrjvrjv rj 80 but 'AffyVas B 546; Mu/eqz/i? A 52, 
 B 569; 3>77p77 E 543, 4>^ ? I 151; 617/8179 A 378, 
 E 804. Cf. MaXetav t 80, MaXetawv 7 287. Instead 
 of the later plural eo-Trtcu, IlXaratat, Homer uses only the 
 singular : Seajreiav B 498, HXdraiav B 504. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 2O. a. Some adjectives of three terminations are used 
 as if of two terminations, i.e. the masculine form is used also 
 for the feminine : l<f>0lfjujv<i ^ri^a? A 3, /cXt>To<? 'iTnroSd^Leia 
 B 742, aypiov arijv T 88, o\o<araro<i oBpij B 442 where 6\oa>- 
 TCLTT] was metrically possible, ijepa irovlujv E 776, &eivb<; aijTrj 
 
 626, acnrcKTios yfj ty 233, Oepfjws avrpij p 369, IlyXoto T)p,a- 
 Ooevros B 77, vXijevrt, ZaicvvGw a 246 but v\rfea-cra Zd/cvvOo? 
 
 1 24, aXos TroXtoto T 229 but 0X09 7ro>u^9 4> 59. 
 
 b. Compound adjectives, on the contrary, often have a 
 feminine form : dSfujrij, adavdrt], dfifaeXio-o-r}, dpi*j\r), da-fte- 
 O-TTJ, iva\iT), cv^ecrrr), TroX.vfj.vi'jcrrr), TroXvffropftr). 
 
 c. The feminine of adjectives in -i>?, ends in -eta (gen. 
 -en??), -ea ( 5 #), or -i) ( 5 J) : fiatieia, fiadeii]?, a)/cea, 
 
 d. ey/3^9 has ace. sing. masc. evpea (in connection with 
 oA.7ro9 and TTO^TOS) as well as evpvv. 
 
 e. ev? ^oo(? has gen. sing, e^o?, gen. plur. edo>v. But for 
 0709, the Alexandrian critic Zenodotus wrote eoto (possessive 
 pronoun) which is perhaps a better reading.
 
 21, <r.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 57 
 
 f. TroXv? (TrotAu?) has in the masculine and neuter both 
 stems TTO\V- (-TrouXi;-) and TTO\\O- (for TTO\VO-, 19 a), with 
 a nearly complete set of forms for each : TroXXo? and 7ro\\6v, 
 vroXeo?, vroXee?, 7ro\e(ov, TroXecrcrt, TroXecrt, TroXeeertrt, TroXea?, 
 with all the Attic forms except TTO\\OV. 
 
 g. 7T/3eo-/3i/9 has feminine 7rpe<r/3a (as from vrpecr/So?), vr/ao- 
 (frpcov has feminine 7rp6<ppacrcra, Oovpos has feminine dovpis. 
 
 PATRONYMICS. 
 
 21. a. Suffixes which originally expressed connection 
 or possession were used to form patronymic adjectives. The 
 original force of these suffixes is occasionally preserved : 
 (deol) Ovpaviwes A 570 is a mere adjective of connection 
 like (deolcriv) 7rovpavloi(ri Z 1 29 ; Homer does not recognize 
 Ovpavo<f as the ancestor of the gods. 'OXu/ATrmSe? p,ovaai, B 
 491 is equivalent to pava-ai 'Q\vfj,7ria Scalar e^ovaat B 484. 
 
 b. The importance which the Homeric Greeks attached to 
 a son's connection with his father is not only indicated by 
 the frequent use of patronymics as proper names (as 'Arpet- 
 Sijs A 7, MevoiTiaBrj A 307, before the names Agamemnon, 
 Patroclus, had been mentioned), but is shown also by K 68 f. 
 where in great fear Agamemnon bids his brother to rouse 
 the warriors irarpodev e'/c yevefjs ovo/j,da)v avBpa etcaa-rov \ TTCLV- 
 ra? KvSaivwv, as in their great extremity before Syracuse 
 Nicias, encouraging the Athenians, rwz/ rpitjpdp^cov eva eica- 
 CTTOV dvK(i\ei, irarpoOev re ovopd^wv Kal <pv\ijv Thuc. VII 69. 
 When a stranger was asked who he was, he gave his own 
 name, that of his father and that of his country ; as a man's 
 official name at Athens included that of his father and that 
 of his deme {jrarpodev KCU rov hjftov ov e/catrro? eari TO ovo- 
 p.a), e.g. ^ijpocrOevr)^ A-rj/jioa-Oevovs Tiaiaviev<; Demosthenes, son 
 of Demosthenes, a Paeanian. 
 
 A. c. The patronymic is formed from stems of the 1st 
 declension by adding -Ba- : 'ApyedBwv H 417, AvyijtdSao B 
 624, 'iTTTToroST/? K 2, or more frequently by adding -ta&a- :
 
 58 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 21, d. 
 
 T 200, 'Ayx*<^ 296, in which the final a of 
 the stem is lost. 
 
 d. This analogy, giving an ending in -4^8779, is followed by 
 stems in -10 of the 2d declension : MevoiTidSrjs I 211. So 
 also by stems of the 3d declension : Tl^TjidSew A 1 (as well 
 as HrjXeiBrjs 316, Hr)\ei(ova A 197), A.ao(Ae&oi>Tid8r)<; O 527, 
 M?7/a<7T77ta&i7? Z 28, even 'OtXtaS^? II 330 from 'OtXeu?. See 
 j below. 
 
 e. The suffix -iBa- is added to stems in o, and the o is lost 
 as in d above: KpoviBrj<;, also to stems in ev, which lose 
 their v between two vowels ( 5 g) : 'ArpeiSTjs A 7, also to 
 consonantal stems, as 'Aya/j,fj,vovi8r)<; a 30. &evKa\{8rj<; (Aeu- 
 tcaXtSao M 117) is formed as from Aeu/eaXo?, instead of from 
 AeuaXtW, and 'AvOepiSrjs A 488 as from "Ai/#e/io? rather 
 than from 'Ai/#e/u.iW (' AvOepiwvos vlov A 473). Possibly 
 Aey/eaXo? was a short form of Aeu/caXiW, as a comrade of 
 Achilles is called sometimes ' AXKipeSwv (II 197, P 467), but 
 sometimes "AX/a/^o? (T 392, O 474), and Aeu/e6A.o<o? Aris- 
 tophanes Frogs 1513 is the same person as A.evKo\o<pi8r)<; 
 Plato Protag. 315 e. Of. S/uz/<9ei/<> (S/ui/fleO A 39) for S/ui/00- 
 <f)66po<? and e/caro? for eKartjftoXos ( 4 c). 
 
 f. Patronymics from stems in -eu, after the loss of the v, 
 do not in Homer suffer contraction of the e of the stem with 
 the i of the suffix. The poet says 'Arpei'S?;?, 'ArpeiW, as 
 tetrasyllables not trisyllables. The verse ictus never falls on 
 the ei. 
 
 g. Female patronymics are formed by the suffix -/.- which 
 loses S before the nominative sign : \pva"r)i8a (ace. of X/ou- 
 0-7/19) A 182, Epia-rjiBa A 184, UrjprjlSes S 38, daughters of 
 Nereus, Tpwia&wv S 122, daughters of Tros, AapBaviSwv S 122, 
 daughters of Dardanus, as the Trojans are called 
 
 ve<; H 414. 'A^au'Se? B 235 corresponds to Kovpot ' 
 A 473. 
 
 B. h. Patronymics are formed also by the suffix -iov- ; 
 Kpoviwv A 528 (with genitive Kpoviatvos or Kpoviovos, cf,
 
 22, 0.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 59 
 
 22 &), 'ArpeiW, HrjXeiwv. In these last forms from nouns 
 in -ei/9 the i is always short. 
 
 i. The corresponding female patronymic is found in 'ABptj- 
 a-rivri E 412, ' AKpHTKowrjs B 319 (gen. of ^A/cpia-icovrj) daugh- 
 ter of Acrisius. 
 
 j. TaXaitw'Sao B 566 is irregular; it seems to be formed 
 by a cumulation of suffixes from TaXao9, cf. 'HeXiou 'Tirepio- 
 vl8ao /J, 176. So AaofieBovTidSijs (Aao/jLeBovridBrj F 250) is 
 formed from Aao/neSfWto? which itself appears as a patro- 
 nymic (in the form AapeSovTios) in a Boeotian inscription ; 
 cf. AaopeSovTte TTOI Eur. Troad. 822. Aias TeXa/iawa&?79 
 838 appears to have the same formation when compared 
 with TeXa//,o>wo9 A?a? M* 842. 
 
 Conversely, for Aeu/caXt8?79 instead of A.evKa\ioviSr)<;, see e 
 above. 
 
 k. Some adjectives in -to? are used as patronymics, as TeXa- 
 /jLfovio<f At'a<? B 528. Cf. TloidvTiov viov 7 190, Te\a/J,(ovi iral 
 Soph Aj. 134, Kpoi/te Trat Find. 01. II 12. This formation 
 appears constantly on Thessalian and frequently on Boeotian 
 inscriptions. Cf. the nomina gentiliria of the Romans. 
 
 1. The patronymics in -779 are far more numerous than 
 those in -LWV ; the former are found in Homer 708 times ; the 
 latter, 148 times. 
 
 m. The patronymic is sometimes derived from the grand- 
 father's name : Achilles is called AiaKtB^ B 860; Priam, Aa/3- 
 SaviSr)<; F 303; the two grandsons of Actor, 'A/croptWe B 621. 
 Thus in later poetry, Heracles is called Alcides 
 from Amphitryo's father 'AXato9 or 'AX/eei/9. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 22. a. Comparatives and superlatives end in -tcov, - 
 more frequently than in Attic : fipaSvs, pdpSivros, ftpdcr- 
 aroiv probably from /3pa%vs, y\VKv<f, yXf /aW, Katc6<f, tca- 
 Kioiv as well as Karccorepos, <t'Xo9, <f>i\ia)v as well as 
 /309, </>/XraT09, -a)u9) W/C60-T09 as well as a)Kvraro<;.
 
 60 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 22, b. 
 
 b. Some comparatives and superlatives are formed from 
 noun stems : /3ao-tXeurep09 I 160, /SaortX-euTaro? I 69, Oeairepai 
 v 111, Kovporepoicri A 316, rcvvrepov 483, tcvvrarov K 503, 
 
 ato-^o?), a\ytov, a\yi<TTO<; (0X709), eX^y- 
 , tcepStov, KepSicrTos (/cepSo?), KIJ&HTTOS (j}8o?), 
 
 KKrTOS (firJKOs), /J.aKpOTpO<?, jJLCLKpOTaTOS, 
 
 piyiov, piyi<rTo<; (piyos). 
 
 c. In some comparatives in -repo9, there is no thought of 
 a greater or less degree but of a contrast, as dyporepdwv 
 (rjfitovmv) B 852 of the field, as opposed to the town ; 6i]\v- 
 Tpai (yvvaiices) 520, female, as opposed to male ; opecnepos 
 (&pd.KO)v) X 93, of the mountain, as opposed to the valley. 
 Cf. J7/Aerepo9, v/j,erepo^, Be^irepof and dpia-repos right and left. 
 
 d. From adverbs are formed: aj^io-rof (aa-crov, a<raorepa)) , 
 u(j>dpTepos, Trapoirepos, Trpbrepos, vTrepraros. 
 
 e. dyados has comparatives dpetcav (cf. api<nos), fteXrepov, 
 \a)iov, \wirepov. 
 
 f. dviijpos has a comparative dvirjpea-repov /8 190. 
 
 g. veo9 has a superlative vearai I 153, veiarov B 824. 
 
 h. 7ro\y'9 has a comparative TrXetW or TrXetuy and in the 
 plural also 7rXee9 A 395, 7rXea9 B 129. 
 
 i. <ae/o9 has a comparative (fxteivorepos, a superlative 
 </>aaj/raro9 i> 93 (for (fraevTaros, cf. <pdav0ev A 200 for e'0a- 
 
 j. &> is found where the Attic rule would require o, in 
 
 iv(orepo<f v 376, Xapa>raTO9 ft 350, oi^vpoarepov P 446. 
 k. The t of -t<uy is regularly short as tpiXtwv r 351 ; cf. 
 the occasional I of the patronymic in -tow, 21 A. 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 23. a. ;/ has a collateral form i'&> Z 422; cf. the femi- 
 nine forms U A 437, % H 173, # I 319, lav % 435. 
 
 7rpft)T09 has a collateral form 7rpam<rro9, cf. irdpTrpwros 
 H 324. 
 
 Of the compound ovSeh (ovS* el9), besides ovSev, only ov-
 
 23, i'.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 61 
 
 Bevi is used (twice, X 459, X 515) ; from /jLij8el<; is found only 
 fAiySev 5 500. 
 
 b. Bva>, Bvo is indeclinable ; it has the following collateral 
 forms : BOKO, Botoi, Bocal, Boid, 804049, Soiovs. 
 
 Bcvrepos has a superlative Sev retro? last of all, while Bevre- 
 pos has the comparative ending as the latter of two. 
 
 c. T/HT09 has a collateral form rpiraros, cf. fiea-craro? with 
 /ie 0-0-09. 
 
 d. Tea-crapes has a collateral form, the Aeolic Trlcrvpes, O 680. 
 Its ordinal is rerparo<^, by metathesis ( 13) for rera/3T09. 
 
 e. OKT&) has the ordinals oyBoaros, 078009. In 77 261, 287, 
 oyBoov seems to have been substituted by error in all the 
 Mss. for oyBoarov. 
 
 f . evvea has the ordinal eu/aro9 (evvaros ?) , ei/aro?. 
 
 g. BcoBetca has the collateral forms Bva>BeKa and BvoKaiBetca. 
 h. evev7]Kovra B 602, has a collateral form lvvr}Kovra r 174, 
 
 witli which may be compared evrjKovra on an inscription of 
 Drymaea in Phocis. 
 
 i. fivpia is not yet used as a numeral for 10,000, but only 
 for a countless (indefinitely large) number.
 
 62 
 
 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 
 
 [ 24, a. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 24. I. PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, a. 
 
 SING. N. 
 
 *yrf, fpi'. 
 
 cru, Tvvi) (6 times). 
 
 
 G. 
 
 <ue:o, tyfo (K 124), 
 
 (T6IO, fffO, fffV, fftOfV, 
 
 eTo (A 400, x 1^), 
 
 
 e/j.fv, /J.tv, fj.t6fv. 
 
 reo?o (0 37). 
 
 eo, tv, tOtv. 
 
 D. 
 
 tfU>(, (tot. 
 
 ffol, TOI, Tftf (5 
 
 ol, ^o?(N496, 838). 
 
 
 
 times). 
 
 
 A. 
 
 e/j.f, /i*. 
 
 ai. 
 
 ?, U (T 171, a 134), 
 
 POSSESSIVE. 
 
 ^UOS (fy'flt ifJiAv)* 
 
 <r6s, Tfis. 
 
 t,,iL 
 
 DUAL N. A. 
 
 vui, vd> (as Ace., E 219, 
 
 (T(pUl, ff<p<0. 
 
 rfi 
 
 
 o 475). 
 
 
 
 G. D. 
 
 viaiv (as gen. only X 
 
 a<f>S>iv, <?<p<fv (8 62). 
 
 ff^wfy. 
 
 
 88). 
 
 
 
 POSSESSIVE. 
 
 vwlrtpos. 
 
 afytalrtpos- 
 
 
 PLUR. N. 
 
 fl/Afts, &/J.fJ.fS. 
 
 6 M ?S, twits. 
 
 ff<p(lwi> (4 times), 
 
 G. 
 
 jlfifltav (4 times), ijft.t- 
 
 vfititav (4 times), 
 
 tr<t>f<ev (4 times). 
 
 
 uv (9 times). 
 
 vp.euv (5 times). 
 
 ir^ci^ (M 155, T 
 
 
 
 
 302). 
 
 D. 
 
 V'"i ^M'"> VM(")- 
 
 I'/uIr, S/iic, K/J./J.I. 
 
 ff$>f<r(v), ff^(v). 
 
 A. 
 
 ^jueas, ^as (T 372), 
 
 vfiifas, f'fJLfMf. 
 
 (T<f)faS, (T(^OS (E 567), 
 
 
 i/z/xe. 
 
 
 r^ (5 times). 
 
 POSSESSIVE. 
 
 fyueVepos, o/t(Jl (7 
 
 {,^r f pos, M*- 
 
 ir^cpos, <r^,o's. 
 
 
 times). 
 
 
 
 b. The oblique cases of jj/iet? and tyz-et? are said to retract 
 their accent to the first syllable when they are unemphatic 
 or when the last vowel is short, as ^/ACK? TT 372, v^ewv O 494, 
 vpiv a 373; but this rule is not observed constantly in the 
 Mss., and editions vary. 
 
 c. The oblique cases of the 3d personal pronoun when 
 enclitic are anaphoric, like avrov KT\. in Attic ; when ac- 
 cented they have their original reflexive use, like Attic eav- 
 rov, e/iain-ou, creai/roO, KT\., which compounds are posthomeric, 
 and are not found even in Pindar. 
 
 p.iv, a-ffxoe, a-^xaiv, cr$i, o-<f>ds, and cr<^e are always enclitic.
 
 24, ('.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 63 
 
 d. The Aeolic forms ayu/te?, a/u/ne, v/tfie?, vpfie generally 
 might stand in the text for 77/^49, rjpas KT\. So, also, perhaps 
 
 and v^o? should be written for the possessive forms 
 v/ao9, to bring them into correspondence with the 
 Aeolic personal pronouns. 
 
 e. For the relation of the form epelo to e'/ie'o, of creto to <reo, 
 KTX., see 5 g. 
 
 f. eo9 seems to stand for o-eFos suus (cf. the old Latin 
 sovos*). Its use is not confined strictly to the third person; 
 it means simply own (cf. $>to<?, only twice in Homer, from 
 the same root), as ov rot eja) ye \ 779 (for e'//%) 7*1079 Bvvapai 
 y\vKp(i)Tpov a\\o iSeaOai i 28 I can see nothing siveeter than 
 my own native land, Sajfiacriv olcriv (for <rouriv) dvdcrcrois a 402. 
 It is with rare exceptions the possessive of ov in its reflexive, 
 not iii its anaphoric signification (see c). As this use of ov 
 became less familiar to the Greeks, it is probable that other 
 words and forms were occasionally substituted for forms of 
 609 in the text of the poems. 
 
 II. INTENSIVE PRONOUN, g. avro? regularly retains its 
 intensive force in the oblique cases, even when not connected 
 with a noun expressed, often marking a contrast which it is 
 difficult to render smoothly in the English idiom. Cf. ~Lhfin. 
 
 The presumption is always strongly in favor of the origi- 
 nal meaning; but all shades of meaning are found from the 
 strict intensive to the simple anaphoric use of the Attic dia- 
 lect. 
 
 h. For aurt9 in the sense of &>a-aura>9, see j below. In 
 this use it has a large variety of meanings, as (a<f>povd T) 
 aijTtix; F 220 a mere (simpleton) ; without cause A 520, ivithout 
 a prize A 133, absolutely B 138, vainly B 342, ivithout chariot 
 E 255. Most of these meanings are derived from in the same 
 iL'ay as before, the connection determining the special sense 
 of each passage. 
 
 III. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, i. The Attic article o, 
 77, TO, generally retains its demonstrative force in Homer, but
 
 64 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 24,/. 
 
 like the intensive pronoun in the oblique cases, appears occa- 
 sionally in its Attic signification. 
 
 In their demonstrative use, 6, r/, ol, at, are best written o, 
 )/, o'i, at. rot, rat', T<9 are used besides o/', ai, w?. 
 
 j. Thus the absence of the article does not mark a noun 
 as indefinite; cf. avBpa fioi evveire MoOcra a 1 with arm a vi- 
 r unique cano. avrrjv 6B6v 9 107 is equivalent to Attic 
 rrjv avrrjv 6B6v, and frequently avroxj is equivalent to Attic 
 (avavTws (9 being the adverb of the article, see k below and 
 38 h) while &>9 B* avrws F 339 is equivalent to Attic ovrw 8' 
 o>crairra>9. 
 
 k. The demonstrative article is often followed by a noun 
 in apposition with it, as 01 8' e^dprja-av 'A^atoi re Tp<we<? re 
 F 111, but these rejoiced, both Achaeans and Trojans, avrap o 
 ftovv lepeva-ev aval; avBpwv 'AyafttfUfW B 402 but he, Agamem- 
 non, king of men, sacrificed an ox. 
 
 1. The forms with initial T often have a relative force, but 
 refer only to a definite antecedent; this is a relic of paratac- 
 tic construction ( 3 n), as is particularly clear in d\\a ra 
 fjiev Tro\io)v ef;7rpd0ojj,v ra BeBaa-rac A 125 but tvhat we took 
 as spoils from the cities, these have been divided. 
 
 m. roLcrBecrcrtv ft 47, ro/crSecrt <f> 93 belong to oBe. They 
 are analogous to the Aeolic rwvBewv of Alcaeus and to the 
 Tovvveovv (for rwvewv, from ove = oSe) of a Thessalian inscrip- 
 tion. 
 
 n. tceivos is often found for e/ceti/09, as the adverb iceiOi for 
 e/ceiOi (only p 10), while eicel is not Homeric. 
 
 IV. RELATIVE PRONOUNS, o. Besides the Attic forms, 
 o is used for 09, oov (better oo, 17 c) for ov, 079 II 208 for 
 779 (where for 779 TO Trpiv, oo irpocrQev has been conjectured). 
 
 p. The forms 09 and o have also a demonstrative use, espe- 
 cially 09 with ovBe, /^tjBe, /cat, aud ydp. 
 
 For the relative use of the article, see I above. 
 
 q. The neuter o is frequently used as a conjunction, like 
 q u o d. So also OTL and o re.
 
 25, e.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 65 
 
 V. r. THE INDEFINITE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 
 have genitive singular reo, reu, dative rew, genitive plural 
 reo>v, dative reouri, neuter plural of the indefinite acrtra only 
 r 218. The stem of reo seems to be distinct in derivation 
 from that of rtVo? but identical in meaning. 
 
 s. In o Tf? for 09 ri$ (cf. 6 for 09, o above), the first stem 
 often remains uninflected; o n<t, on or orn, orev or orreo, 
 oreo), oriva, orewv (&v nvwv not being either Ionic or dac- 
 tylic), oreotcrt, oTLvas, neuter plural ao-cra (oriva X 450, but 
 
 corrupt). 
 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 25. AUGMENT AND REDUPLICATION, a. The augment 
 was for a time considered unessential: whether temporal or 
 syllabic, it may be omitted in the Homeric poems ; the ac- 
 cent is then thrown back as far as possible, as rev^e A 4, oXe- 
 KOVTO A 10, d(JHi A 25, fcdde/j,ev i 72 (^Kadel^ev), avecrav 4> 537 
 
 b. When the augment is omitted, monosyllabic forms with 
 long vowel take the circumflex accent, as /9?; for e/3i;. 
 
 c. Iteratives generally have no augment, 36 a. 
 
 d. Forms without the augment are less common in the 
 speeches than in the narrative. In the narrative, the aug- 
 mented preterits are to the unaugmented as 7 to 10, but in 
 the speeches as 7 to 2. 
 
 e. The Mss. are frequently of less authority than the 
 rhythm of the verse in determining whether a form should 
 be augmented : e.g. at the close of the verse, ^, ^ -- 
 (where the comma indicates the end of a word) was pre- 
 ferred to w w, -- ; hence aA/ye' edrj/cev A 2, not a\yea dffKev 
 ( 40 &) ; reir^e' eKeiro F 327, not rev^ea KCITO. To write 
 eXfopi" erev^e tcvveaaiv A 4, or Be reXeiero /3ov\ij A 5, would 
 create the forbidden caesura between the short syllables of 
 the fourth foot ( 40 111). For the same reason the augment 
 is omitted also when it would interfere with the Bucolic 
 diaeresis ( 40 A), as pla yeivaro MTTIP F 238.
 
 66 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 25, f. 
 
 f. After the augment, initial X, fi, or <r is sometimes doubled 
 (in many instances as the assimilation of an original F or d) 
 as well as initial p : e\\trdveva-a K 481, eXXaySe a 298, l/x/^a^e? 
 a- 362, lo-o-eue A 147 (see 41 j a). 
 
 g. Sometimes initial p is not doubled, as epaTrro^ev TT 379, 
 epea 8 352, epee B 400; cf. eppva-aro icai ecrdwaev O 290 
 with epvcraro KOI ecrdcixrev % 372. See 12 c. 
 
 h. Stems which originally began with a consonant may 
 take the syllabic augment or reduplication, as eenrov, eijice, 
 edfyt), ci\r)Vi eeX-Trero, eoifca, eo\7ra, eopye, ee\p.e9a fi 662. 
 Thus el&ov is for e-FiS-ov, elpirov is for e-aepjr-ov. In ep^arat 
 K 283, this reduplication seems to be lost, cf. eep^aro K 241 ; 
 so Se^arai M 147, e<rcrai &> 250. In TJIKTO, as 8 796, and jjei- 
 8179 X 280, the ?; is the augment lengthened by the following 
 F (ft/c- and ff&-). See 41 d. 
 
 i. In the usual texts, many of these verbs have the tem- 
 poral augment ; this probably was not so spoken in the origi- 
 nal form of the poems, but is a conformation to later usage. 
 8' eavaaae is the rational, more original form for the Ms. read- 
 ing S' rfvacrae 7 304, avSave for rjv&ave A 24, edvSave for e/jvSave 
 7 143, eae for jfte 392, 4aXa> for ^X&> x 230. See 4 Ji. 
 
 j. The second aorist active and middle, of verbs whose 
 stem begins with a consonant, is often found with a redupli- 
 cated stem, as e/ce/cXero, XeXa^wov, dfiTreTraXoov, e7re'</>/>ae, TTCTTI- 
 OoifMjv, erer/xe, rervKOvro. 
 
 k. The so-called Attic reduplication is more common in 
 Homer than in Attic, and its use extends to the second aor- 
 ist where the augment also may be used (cf. Attic rjyayov), as 
 ripape, rjKa^e, aXaX/re, and the peculiar forms epvKa/ce A 352 
 from epvKw, ^viTraire B 245 from evLTrrw in which the final 
 consonant of the theme is reduplicated with a as a connec- 
 tive (eWi/tTre, as a 321, is found more frequently). 
 
 1. In the perfect, the vowel after the Attic reduplication 
 is not always lengthened, as aXaX^at, while it is never 
 lengthened in the aorist ( 31/).
 
 26,/] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 67 
 
 m. A reduplicated future is formed from the stem of some 
 of these reduplicated aorists, as rce/caS^a-ec <f> 153 from the 
 stem of KetcdSovTO A 497, TreTnOrfaw X 223, Tre^iBijaerat ft 158. 
 
 n. The reduplication of pepwirapeva 59, etcrfjo-Qai I 402, 
 is not according to Attic usage. SeiSe^arat (from SetWu/u), 
 SeiSoiKa, and SetSia have irregular reduplication; probably 
 the last two are to be explained as for SeSfot/ca, SeSfta 
 
 (>!*>. 
 
 o. efjifjiope (from ^eipo^ai) and eaa-vfiat (from treutu) double 
 the initial consonant and prefix e as if they began with two 
 consonants ( 41 j a). 
 
 26. ENDINGS, a. The singular endings, -/it, -a-0a, -<ri, 
 occur more frequently than in Attic ; especially -fit and -ert 
 in the subjunctive, as i'S&>//.t, dydjaj/jn,, e8e\r)cri, fSaXyai. These 
 endings are rare in the subjunctive of the contracted pi- 
 forms, as Sya-i A 129, $8$ V 805, fjn O 359. 
 
 b. -a6 a is used three times in the optative, as ftd\oicr6a 
 O 571 ; 29 times in the subjunctive, in 12 verbs, as eiTryaQa 
 T 250, Trddycrda H 551 ; 8 times in the present indicative, in 
 five verbs, as <f>f)a0a <J> 186. 
 
 c. In three verbs -rov is used for -TTJV as the ending of the 
 third person dual imperfect: erev^erov N 346, SKOKCTOV K 
 364, \a<j>va-o-eTov 2 583. -rr)v would have made an amphi- 
 macer ^ See 41 a. 
 
 d. The third plural of the perfect active ends in dai (for 
 -aim) ; acri is found only in 7r(f>vKd<Tt r) 114, \e\6yicda-i 
 X304. 
 
 e. In the pluperfect, the older endings -ea KT\. are pre- 
 served, as $Sea E 71, TreTroi'tfea B 434, 776^9 X 280. The 
 third singular ends in -ee(y) or -eti/, as fieftijfceiv A 221, rjBee 
 B409. 
 
 f. The second and third persons singular of the first aorist 
 optative active end in -eta?, -eie(z/), as /^etWta?, tca\eo-iev. 
 The second person in -at? occurs very rarely ; the third per-
 
 68 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 26, g. 
 
 son in -ai is more common, as <yr)0ija-ai A 255, aeipcu H 130. 
 The third plural with but two exceptions (/c^euey, Krepia-aiev 
 n 38) ends in -eiav, as rtaeiav A 42, dfcovcretav B 282. 
 
 g. The third plural optative active of /it-verbs ends in -iev 
 (except crTattja'av P 733), as elez/, 8a//,etey, Boiev. 
 
 h. The second singular imperative ending -Ot is retained 
 in some presents, as farjOi 7 380, SiScaBi 7 380, opwQi *& 585 ; 
 and in some perfects, as reOvadi X 365, rerXadi A 586. 
 
 i. The third plural imperative ends in -row, -a-dcw (never 
 /, -<r$<ucrai/), as ecrrwv A 338, fawyovrcw I 47, Xe^a- 
 I 67. 
 
 j. a. Active infinitives (except in the first aorist) fre- 
 quently end in -/xei/at, which is sometimes shortened after a 
 short vowel to -pev, as e/jL/jievai, efjifiev, e\6ep,ev(aC), reOvd- 
 
 yS. The shortening of -/xei/at to -fiev occurs generally before 
 a vowel, where it may be called elision. 
 
 7. The ending -vai is found only after a long vowel, as 
 Sovvcu, Si&ovvat n 425. 
 
 k. The ending in -epev is clearly preferred to that in -eiv 
 before the Bucolic diaeresis ( 40 Ji) ; even before the diaere- 
 sis at the end of the first foot of the verse, the ending -epev 
 could stand ten times as often as the ending -eiv is required. 
 
 1. The second aorist active infinitive in 12 verbs, and the 
 future active infinitive in 9 verbs, have the anomalous end- 
 ing -eeiv, which probably stands for -epev or -eei/, which may 
 be restored. 
 
 m. Aorist passive infinitives end in -pevai or -vai, as 
 pevat T 266, Saprivai 4> 578 ; fit^O^evai A 438, 
 Z 161, fjLiyrjvat \ 306. 
 
 n. The perfect participle has the inflection of the present 
 in KK\r)<yovTe<; M 125. See 31 J, e. 
 
 o. Some second perfect participles retain in the oblique 
 cases the co of the nominative, as reOvywros a 289, 
 e 130.
 
 26, v.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 69 
 
 p. The second singular of the middle generally remains 
 uncontracted ( 6), as o&vpeai, IStjai F 130, /SaXXeo A 297, 
 otSvo-ao a 62, epdpvao % 228. Contracted forms are used 
 occasionally, as p^erarpeTrrj A 160, ryvwcrr) B 365, KeK\tj(7rj T 
 138; once in the imperfect, e'/cpe/xtu O 18. 
 
 q. In the perfect middle, -<rai regularly loses its <r ; but 
 fiie/jLvrio-ai W 648 is found as well as fie/jLvrjai, 3> 442, 
 O 18 (for pe/jivearcu, as if from p,ep,vop,ai). 
 
 -o-o retains its a- only in the imperative, as eaa-o, 
 
 r. The first person dual of the middle once ends in - 
 TrepcSto/AeOov "*& 485 (cf. XeXet/A/ie#oi> Soph. El. 950, opp,a>p,e6ov 
 Phil. 1079) but the metre would admit jrepiSco/jLeda with hia- 
 tus at the Bucolic diaeresis (95). 
 
 s. The first plural middle often ends in -pea-Oa (which is 
 found also in the tragic poets), as iicopeaQa 7 61. 
 
 t. The third plural of the perfect and pluperfect indicative 
 middle often, and of the optative middle always, ends in 
 -arai, -aro for -vrai, -vro, as SeBalarai a 23, 7re<o/3?7aTo <!> 206, 
 yevotaro a 266. Before these endings, smooth labial and 
 palatal mutes are aspirated, as optwpe^arat II 834 from opeya), 
 TTpd(f>aTo K 189 from rpeTra). 
 
 Attic prose writers use these endings sporadically in the 
 perfect and pluperfect ; but the tragic poets use this ending 
 only in the optative (as jvaxrolaro Soph. 0. T. 1274, cf. Ajax 
 842, El. 211; Segaiaro 0. G. 44, cf. 945; cf. also Oeiaro 
 Aesch. Suppl. 665). 
 
 u. 6" seems to be inserted in the forms a/e^e&mu P 
 637 (aa^/&>), e\7j\e8aTO 77 86 (eXaww), eppdSarai v 354 
 (palvopai^. These forms probably came from collateral 
 verb-stems which contained S, cf. pda-a-are v 150 (paivo- 
 /j.ai for paSvja)^). 
 
 For eXT/XeSaro, Dindorf and Nauck read the less anomalous 
 form e\tj\earo, La Roche reads eX^XaSaro. 
 
 v. The third plural indicative of the aorist passive gener- 
 ally ends in -ev instead of -rfaav (46 forms in -ev to 15 in
 
 70 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 26, w. 
 
 -rjo-av), as ijyepOev A 57, <f>dav6ev A 200, rpdfav A 251, Ster/xa- 
 7 ez> A 531. 
 
 w. Similarly, v is used for the later -a-av in the imperfect 
 and second aorist of /it-verbs, as gvviev A 273, ecrrdv, crrdv, 
 efiav, tyvv 6 481, T\av <S> 608. 
 
 For the optative ending of ^u-verbs, in -iev not -njaav, see 
 g above. 
 
 27. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. a. The variable vowel (" con- 
 necting vowel ") of the subjunctive is generally short in the 
 iirst aorist, second aorist of /it-forms, second aorist passive, 
 second perfect of primitive formation, as fi/jcropev, dyeipopev, 
 lo/jiev, Oeiofjiev, rpcnreiofMev, Sa/ieiere, eiop,ev, TT7roi9op,ev. 
 
 This short vowel is found before the endings -/*ei>, -rov, -re, 
 and in middle forms. 
 
 b. A few forms of the first aorist have a long vowel fol- 
 lowing the analogy of the present, as S^XT/O-^TCU F 107. 
 
 c. There are no certain examples of the short mode-vowel 
 in the present of verbs in -&>. (For Pov\ercu dvTido-a<> A 67, 
 fiovXrjr* dvTida-as may be substituted, etc.*) 
 
 Rein. The forms of the first aorist subjunctive are easily con- 
 fused with those of the future, with which they are identical iii 
 appearance. 
 
 28. OPTATIVE MODE. a. For the optative endings, see 
 2B5,/,$r,t 
 
 b. After t or u, the optative sign disappears: Batvvro H 
 665, 8vij a 348, e'/cSO/xei/ II 99, \e\vvro a 238, <f>difjLr)v tc 51, 
 (frdlro X 330, Baivvaro a 248. 
 
 c. d\<}>oiev is contracted to a\<f>oiv v 383. 
 
 29. CONTRACT VERBS. I. a. Verbs in -a&> exhibit un- 
 changed, assimilated, and contracted forms ; the poet's choice 
 between contracted and uncontracted forms seems to have 
 been determined largely- by the rhythm. The vowels are 
 regularly contracted when the second is in a short syllable.
 
 29, A.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 71 
 
 b. Uncontracted forms without assimilation occur rarely 
 (in only 21 verbs), as dva/j,ai^dei T 490 (with long a as in 
 Si\lrd(i)v X 584, ireivawv F 25), vaierdovai 153, doiSidei K 227, 
 ovrae % 356 (jovra, A 525 and often, is a second aorist, see 
 35), KpaSdwv H 213. 
 
 trao) imperfect, <> 238, and imperative, v 230, is a /u-forni, 
 as if from craw/u. 
 
 c. The vowels of the uncontracted forms are generally 
 assimilated, a prevailing over a following e or 77 but being 
 assimilated to o, &>, or ov. These forms are intermediate be- 
 tween the original and the contracted stage, as opoaxriv 6 173 
 (opdovcriv, opwcriv), rj/Swovres H 604, eXdav 7 484 (eXa-ey, eXai/). 
 aXotu e 377 seems to be for aXae-o contracted to d\d-o (cf. h 
 below), with assimilation of vowels aX&>-o, and by transposi- 
 tion of quantity aXo-&>. 
 
 d. One of the vowels is usually lengthened in the text of 
 the Mss., as opoatvre? rf 145. Sometimes this appears to be a 
 conformation to Attic usage ( 4 A). 
 
 e. Dual forms follow the analogy of Homeric verbs in -/it, 
 as a7ri\r)Tr)v X 313, Trpoa-avSyjTijv A 136. Cf. j below, and 
 opiyat 343 as from opr^u. 
 
 f . A few verbs in -a&> have collateral forms in -ew, as tfvreov 
 H423. 
 
 II. g. Verbs in -e&> generally remain uncontracted ; except 
 ee, which is generally contracted in the Mss., but often the 
 uncontracted forms are metrically possible, eo is very rarely 
 contracted except in the participle ending -evjjbevos (where 
 contraction occurs to prevent a too frequent recurrence of 
 short syllables, 41 g). ew is never contracted but is often 
 pronounced as one syllable by synizesis ( 7). 
 
 h. Sometimes the variable vowel e is contracted with e of 
 the stem instead of with the termination, as ai&eio 12 503 
 (cuSeo--e-(7o) , pvOelai 180, crirelo K 285. (nrelo seems to be 
 formed on the analogy of alSelo. One of these vowels is 
 sometimes dropped, as djroaipeo A 275, e'/cXeo H 202, /j,vdeai
 
 72 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 29, i. 
 
 /S 202, TT(o\eat & 811. The accentuation of these last three 
 forms is uncertain. 
 
 i. The older form of these verbs, in -et&>, is sometimes pre- 
 served, as ereXeiero A 5, veitcetTjcri A 579. See 5/. 
 
 j. Some verbs in -aw and -e<u have a present infinitive in 
 like /^t-verbs, as dptfaevai % 322, Ka\ijfjievcu K 125, 
 
 110, (f>i\ijfAevai X 265. See 34 b. 
 <f>opeo) forms (fropeeiv A 144, (frop/j/Mevai O 310, <f>oprjvai B 107. 
 III. k. Verbs in -o&> are generally contracted. Sometimes 
 they have forms with the double o sound, like verbs in -a&>, as 
 i 108 (poou<Tti>, apoOcrti/), virvtoovras 48, earparo- 
 F 187 (which might be written ea-rparoovro'), bijioaev 
 8 226 (87/tootei/?). 
 
 TENSES. 
 
 3O. FUTURE AND FIRST AORIST, ACTIVE AND MIDDLE. 
 a. Pure verbs which do not lengthen the stem-vowel in the 
 formation of the tenses, often have double a in the future 
 and first aorist, active and middle, as atBea-trofiai 388, icd- 
 Xeo-<ra II 106. 
 
 b. In the future the cr of the before-mentioned verbs often 
 disappears, as Kd\eovcra T 383, avnofov a 25. tcopeei @ 379 (for 
 teopecrei, from Kopevvvp.C)^ Safida X 271, /cpefj,6a) H 83, cf. KOJJLLU) 
 o 546 ; o\ecrcri /3 49, oXecrto v 399, oXcirai B 325. 
 
 c. Stems in 8 often show double a in the aorist. 
 
 d. Most of these forms with o-a may be explained as origi- 
 nal or assimilated, as veitcea-cre from the theme vei/ceo- (cf. vel- 
 KO?), Kojj,i<r<raTo for rco/iiS-craTo (cf. KOfJuSfy. Thus the stem- 
 vowel of these verbs was not final originally, and hence is 
 not lengthened in the future and aorist. 
 
 e. The asigmatic future of liquid verbs is inflected like the 
 present of verbs in -ecu, as ySaXeet K 290, o\ee<r#eu O 700. See 
 29 II. 
 
 f. Some stems in \ and p retain the cr of the future and 
 aorist (as some do in Attic), as dpaas (dpapia-Kca) a 280,
 
 si, c.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 73 
 
 e\crat A 409, dep<Top,evos r 507, Kvp<ra<; F 23, &ia(f>0ep<Ti N 625, 
 etc&ffapev i 546, <yp<re A 10. For 6(f>\\eiev /3 334, see 12 e. 
 
 g. The so-called Doric future with tense-sign a-e, is found 
 in eo-aeiTcu B 393, 7re<TeovTcu A 824. This is an archaism, not 
 a Doris m. 
 
 h. Some verbs have a future without tense-sign, as S^et? 
 291 shalt find, ei/u, tceia) T 340 shall lie {KcucKeiovTes a 424 
 to lie doivn), eSopai, irCopui, avvw, epva), /3eo/j,cu O 194 (/3et'o- 
 /Ltat X 431). Some of these verbs are old presents which 
 acquired a future signification ; et/u is not always future in 
 Homer, cf. B 87. 
 
 i. Some verbs form the first aorist active and middle with- 
 out <r, as rjveitcav 8 784 (Attic rfveyrca), e-^vev /3 395 and e^eev 
 Z 419 (from e^ea for e%eua), eWeva E 208, Tj\evaro X 274 and 
 d\eacr8e B 774, eKtja A 40, subjv. Kr]o^v H 377 (from KCU'OO). 
 
 j. The first aorist often has the variable vowel of the 
 second aorist /e> as *Z OV 7 ^ ^" eT fi ^88. So in the im- 
 perative, as /3ij<reo E 109, 6'pcreo F 250, aere F 105, oto-ere 
 F 103, 6S/reo-0e H 704; infinitive, olo-epevai F 120; participle, 
 Sva-opevoio a 24 and probably eTriftrjcrofMevov H 343. 
 
 k. Verbs in -&> often have themes in 7 and thus futures 
 and first aorists in -G> and -fa, as efaXavrafai A 129, fJ^ppi]- 
 ptge /3 93, TTToXeyu-tfo/iey B 328. 
 
 1. The future optative is not found in Homer. 
 
 31. PERFECT, a. The so-called first perfect in -tea is 
 formed only from 20 vowel-stems. It is almost as rare as 
 the first aorist in -/ca (e'Sw/ca, erjKa, eOrjica). Forms without 
 K are derived even from vowel-stems, especially participial 
 forms, as /ce/c/x^/ca? Z 262, but KeKprjd)<f "^ 232 ; Trefyvicaa-i rj 
 114 but 7T(f)va<Tiv rj 128 fj,7r(j)vvia A 513 ; reOwrjicev a 196, 
 reOv^Kvlav 8 734, but redvrjora P 402. 
 
 b. The final mute of the stem is not aspirated. 
 
 c. The endings are affixed immediately to the reduplicated 
 verb-stem in /3e/3aa<rt, yeydao-i, SelSiOi, SeiSi/iev, eBelSicrav, eyprj-
 
 74 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 31, d. 
 
 <yop0e, eitcrov, eiXi]\ov0fJiv, iBfJiev, Keicfjirjws, /j-e^arov, 7re7rocr$e, 
 7T7ri,0i^v, ecnare, rer\airj, TT\a0i, reOvaa-av. 
 
 d. rjvwyov (as 216), pe/JujKov (as t 439), yeywve (as 6 305) 
 are inflected as imperfects ; cf. eppiyya-i F 353, o\a)\r} A 164, 
 which have the force of present subjunctives. 
 
 e. d\a\ijfj,evo<>, d\d\r)cr0at, dtcax/)[Ai>os, aKa^Tjcrdai, ecra-v- 
 /jifvos are accented irregularly as presents. See 26 n. 
 
 f. The second perfect often has a long vowel in the stem 
 where the second aorist has a short vowel, as dpy'ipy e 361, 
 dpdprj H 212 ; opcope H 374, wpope B 146. 
 
 g. In the feminine participle the short form of the stem 
 appears, as ap^p&i? K 553 but dpapvia 267, Tedrj\(t)<? p, 103 
 but reOakvla 293 ; hence etKvla not el/evia F 386, etc. 
 
 VOICES. 
 
 32. MIDDLE, a. The active and middle forms opav 
 (about 40 times) and 6pdo-0ai (about 20 times), ISelv (more 
 than 200 times) and iSea-Oai (90 times), are used often with- 
 out appreciable difference of meaning; cf. tyaro /3 267, $77 
 377. 
 
 b. The first aorist middle is sometimes used without dif- 
 ference of meaning from the second aorist active, as /3ij<reTo 
 77 135, eftij a 427 ; e&vcrero F 328, eSv F 36 ; Ki^aaro A 385, 
 
 Kl%V 7 169. 
 
 c. The future middle is sometimes used as passive, as 8iap- 
 paicrea-Oai O 355, jrepcreraL H 729, reXeW&u B 36. Of. e. 
 
 d. The aorist middle is sometimes used with no distinc- 
 tion of meaning from the passive, as Koi^aavro A 476, KOI- 
 fjMJ6r}lJLv i 559; ^o\o)cra/iJ^7 F 413, %o\a>6el<> A 9; eSvvij(raTO 
 H 33, BvvdcrBr} e 319 ; ^tjparo H 270, ^dptj F 76 (cf. K%apoi- 
 aTO A 256) ; aTrevda-craro B 629, vda-drj H 119 ; dyepovro B 94, 
 ijyepdev A 57 ; \vp,T)v <& 80, \vdev S 31 ; dfi^e^vro B 41, yu,<^e- 
 XvOrj B 716 ; cf. Krdadcn, O 558 be slain, Krap,evoio F 375 ; 
 and \e\ix0r}<rav E 497 they rallied, OwpirxOfivai A 226 arm 
 himself, i0w0)]TT)v II 475.
 
 34, rf.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 75 
 
 e. Homer has only apvrja-aa-dat, rjpaa-dfi^v, rfaaro, opegaro, 
 never the corresponding passive forms. 
 
 33. PASSIVE, a. For the ending of the aorist passive in- 
 finitive, see 26 m. 
 
 b. For the ending of the third plural indicative, see 26 v. 
 
 c. The second aorist subjunctive passive usually remains 
 uncontracted, and follows the rule of /it-verbs ( 34 d). 
 
 d. In the second aorist subjunctive, the passive suffix is 
 often long (and the mode-vowel short in the dual and in the 
 first or second person plural, 27 a), as Baeia> i 280 (from 
 stem Sa-, cf. Bar/vat), BafJ,rjr)<; T 436 (Sayu^/cu), a-aTTijrj T 27 
 
 , Ba/Aijere H 72, Tpairiop,v F 441 (re/37ro), 13), but 
 B 475 (/At<r7<w). 
 
 e. Homer has only two futures from passive stems, Saijo-eat 
 7 187, fjLi<yijcrecr0at K 365. 
 
 f. Some verbs have botli first and second aorists passive, 
 as e/3\ti<f>0Ti<Tav 387, e/3\a@ev V 461 ; e>t^^ E 134, 
 
 T 445 ; TniyQev @ 298, -rrdyev A 572 ; erep^re p 174, 
 57, erdpTTTjcrav H 633, rpajreiofiev F 441, with 
 ^V 10 in the same sense. 
 
 VERBS IN -ML 
 
 34. a. Some verbs in -/u have forms in the present and 
 imperfect indicative which follow the analogy of contract 
 verbs : riOel a 192, BiSoi B 237, BiBovcrt a 313, ielcri F 152, eBi- 
 Bov X 289, eriOei ft 390 ; so Bctfj,va X 221, Trirva <& 7, e/clpva 
 T) 182, o>pwe <f> 100. 
 
 b. Verbs in -JM sometimes retain the long vowel of the 
 stem where it is short in Attic, as Ti0rjpevai W 83 (for ride- 
 vac), cf. <f)i\rff4vai X 265 ; TtOtffj,i>oi> K 34 (for riOep^vov). 
 BiBtoaofJiev v 358 (JixixTopAv) and BiBovvai fl 425 are irregular. 
 
 c. For the ending -v for -a-av, see 26 w. 
 
 d. The second aorist subjunctive active generally remains 
 uncontracted. The stem vowel often appears in its long
 
 76 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 34, . 
 
 form with short mode vowel in the dual and in the first and 
 second plural (<?/. 27 a, 33 <T)> as 6eiw a 89 (better fl^w), 
 yvaxi} 118, (TTrjrjs P 30, Swrjcriv A 324, 7rap<TTijeTOv cr 183, 
 6eio/jLv A 143 (better dtjofiev^, yvaxiMri A 302, epeiofjiev A 62 
 (better eptjo^ev, as from an eptj^t^). 
 
 e. t77/u senc? has the following not-Attic forms: lela-t (Idai), 
 (/#) 'tev (I'ecraz/), ie/Aevai (JevaC), dve&ei (di^cret), etjica 
 ), KuQefiev (/ca^et/iev), ecray, etcra-t' (f)Kav), 
 
 f. a. e?/u ^o or s^aW ^ro is aoristic except in the present 
 indicative. It has the following not-Attic forms : elaOa 
 (thrice for et), ijia, dvtjiov (j?a), rfie, ye, ie(v) (?7^^) ITTJV 
 
 yopev, I/JLCV (j/jMev), rjiaav, icrav, rfiov (gcrav), trjada 
 nG'W (^) lopev, lopev (Jwpev), leiri (tot), tjiev^ai) 
 (levai), fut. eUaofjiai, aor. eia-aro, e'etVaro. 
 y8. Perhaps ijifMev, ijicrav should be read for rjopev, tfiov. 
 
 g. a. dpi am has the following not-Attic forms : eV<rt, 
 eh (also enclitic, somewhat less frequent than e'oW, which 
 consists of the original stem eV- and the original ending of 
 the second person -o-i, which generally can be substituted for 
 
 i \ /- ^\ >/ / > /\ v_ /">/N * " " /*\ " a 
 
 it) {t), i/4v {ecrfjiev), eacri (^eicn), ija, ea, eov (,*jv)> erjaua 
 (rja-Oa), r/ev, er)v, rjrjv (f)v), ecrav (rjcrav), eo>, /ieretw (co), e?;?, 
 yaw (179), eajo-i (wcrt), eot? (et"?;?), eot, (eirj), ecrcro, a form of 
 the middle voice, as also Sappho i 28, (t'<r^t)> epfievfai), by 
 assimilation for ecr-p^vai, epev(at) (eZi/at), ewi', eovcra KT\. (wv, 
 ova-a KT\.), ecra-erai, eaa-elrai (twice, for co-rat). Iterative 
 
 eCTKOV, <TK. 
 
 /3. t]v, r)T]v (f)v), probably should be written eev, Tjev. 
 
 7. Forms without the root-vowel e (remnant of e'<r-) are 
 very rare, as po-tv T 202, axri H 274, to 491, ova-^ r 489, ov- 
 ras 77 94 ; fy is more common but often can be written eev. 
 
 h. <f>r)fti say has the following not-Attic forms: <J>f)<r0a 
 ((779), e<f)av, <f>dv (e(f)a<Tav), $>')'[), <f>f)(riv (<$) Middle forms 
 are common, but not in the present indicative : e^a/i^v, <f>aro, 
 <f>avTo, imperative <f>do, fyda-dw, infinitive (f>d(r6ai, participle
 
 36, 6.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 77 
 
 Iterative e^aa/cov KT\. Trefyaa-pevov 3 127 may 
 come from <f>aivw. 
 
 i. Keipal lie has the following not-Attic forms: Kefarai, 
 Karai, Keovrai (icelvTai), Keiaro, icearo (eiceivTo), KTJTCU (from 
 Keerat for Keyrai). Iterative Kea-tcero. For the future teeica, 
 Kio)v, tceiovres, see 30 h. 
 
 j. a. ^fiai sit has c'larai, carat, (^i/rat), etaro, earo (^I/TO 
 
 ri53). 
 
 $. ^areu and ijaro are more rational forms than eiarat and 
 etaro, which are found in the Mss. 
 
 k. ol8a know has the following not-Attic forms: o'Sa? 
 (only a 337, for ol<r6a), iSftev (toyiey), rjSea (^77), rjeiSrjs (see 
 41 6?, for rj8rjcrOa), ijei'Sei, $$ (^Sei), i'cray (rjcrav), t8/iei/(at) 
 (elSevai), I8vla (et'Si/ta). Future elSijo-fo as well as 
 
 1. ^p/; in Homer seems to be a noun. See 3 k. 
 
 35. SECOND AORISTS WITHOUT VAKIABLE VOWEL. 
 Many second aorists, active and middle, are found without 
 variable vowel, following the analogy of verbs in -/it, as e/cra 
 a 300, e/craro O 437 (from Kreivw, stem tcrev-, /era-) ; a\<ro 
 n 754, aXro A 532 (aXXo/iat) ; afjxvai 3> 70 (ao>) ; 7eWo @ 43 ; 
 H 148, 777/^9 P 197 (ynpdv) ; 71/6) A 199 ; SeVro B 420 
 ; /3X*7To A 518 (y8a\X<w) ; /cXOfl* /S 262, /cXOre B 56 
 (Xua>) ; efjiiKTo a 433 ; o^ra Z 64, ovrapevai t 301 ; TrX^ro 
 2 50 ; eVeTrXft)? 7 15 (7rXa>&>) ; ecrcruro B 809 (o-euca) ; e<f>6iTo 
 2 100, <f>0ia-0ai ft 183, <f>0i/ju-vo<; B 359 (^eivw). 
 
 ITERATIVE FORMS. 
 
 36. a. Iterative forms of the imperfect and aorist indi- 
 cate the repetition of a state or action. The augment is 
 generally omitted. These forms are characterized by the suf- 
 fix -<TK and have the inflection of the imperfect of verbs in 
 -w. They are confined to the Ionic dialect. The iterative 
 idea is frequently waning and occasionally is lost. 
 
 b. Verbs in -co add the endings -crtcov or -O-KO^V to the
 
 78 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ 36, r. 
 
 e-form of the stem of the present or second aorist, as e^ecrKov, 
 eXeer/ee, etVecTAce, t'Seovce. 
 
 c. KpvTrraa'Ke 272 probably should be KpvTrrea-Ke. ptV- 
 racrfce 6 374 probably should be pfyaaKe, although both may 
 be considered as formed according to mistaken analogy. 
 
 d. Iteratives from the first aorist are peculiar to Homer, 
 
 (e\avva>), fj.vijcrda'Kero (pifjuvrjcnca)) , Ope^aa-Kov (rpe- 
 
 e. The suffix is sometimes added without variable vowel 
 to themes which end in a vowel, as eacr/ce? T 295, wOeo-ice X 
 596, <j>dveo-tc X 587 (the only example of a passive). 
 
 f. Verbs in -/u add the endings -cricov or -O-KO^V directly 
 to the theme: e^aatcov, BOO-KOV, Bva-Kev, tceo-icero (/cei/i<u), 
 <TKOV (for ecr-cricov, et/u). 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 37. a. Prepositions often retain their original adverbial 
 force (as ev be but therein, Trapa Be and beside him). They 
 may be placed after the verbs or nouns with which they are 
 connected. See 3 d. 
 
 b. a. The preposition is often separated from the verb 
 which it modifies, as Trap Be Ke^aXX^wi/ ayu.01 o-r/^e? OVK 
 aXcnraSvai \ earaaav A 330 f., where Trap modifies etrracraz/. 
 In ev Be trvpl Trprjaavres H 429, ev is to be construed adver- 
 bially, while Trvpi is dative of means. 
 
 /3. Sometimes the preposition, like other adverbs of place, 
 governs a genitive where in its prepositional use it would be 
 followed by another case, as rov no%\bv VTTO (nroBov rjXacra 
 i 375 1 drave the bar under the ashes, where VTTO cnroBov would 
 be more regular. 
 
 7. Similarly other words which were separate in the Ho- 
 meric age were welded together in later time : ov <yap en 
 became ovtcert >ydp, Bca B' a^irepe^ A 377 became Bia^Trepes Be. 
 So in old English to us ward was used where the later idiom 
 requires toward us ; be thou ware for beware !
 
 38, a.] THE HOMERIC DIALECT. 79 
 
 c. AJSASTROPHE. a. Disyllabic prepositions, when they 
 immediately follow the word with which they are construed, 
 take the accent upon the penult, except ap-^i, avri, ova, Bid. 
 ava Z 331 stands for dvaa-rrjOi. evi is used for eveiai or eve- 
 o-Ti, 7n for e-Treort, /aero, for fj,T<TTi. a?To is used for airoOev 
 far from. Trepi is used for 7re/H<rcr&)9 exceedingly. 
 
 /9. Elided prepositions suffer anastrophe only when they 
 as adverbs modify a verb to be supplied, as ITT' F 45 for 
 eTreor-n, or by way of exception, in order to avoid ambi- 
 guity, as e<' A 350, to show that the preposition is to be con- 
 nected with the preceding word ; so irdp 2 191, KO.T p 246. 
 
 7. This so-called retraction of the accent to the first sylla- 
 ble is only a conservation of its original position, from which 
 it was moved when the adverb lost something of its inde- 
 pendence by its close connection with a verb or noun. 
 
 d. a. ev has the parallel forms elv, eivi, evi. elv stands only 
 in the part of the foot which receives the ictus, and its use 
 is nearly confined to certain phrases, as elv dyopfj, elv 'At'Sao 
 Sofioia-iv. elvi is used but half a dozen times and only in the 
 second foot. 
 
 /3. The poet uses both e'<? and e/<?, Kara and icarai (in 
 KaTaiftaral v 110), Trapd and irapai, 777)09, Trpori, and TTOTL, 
 VTTO and vjrai, vTrep and inrelp. 
 
 7. The forms in -ai seem to be old locatives, cf. %a/^at 
 (humi). 
 
 e. e' receives an accent when, following its noun, it stands 
 at the end of the verse, as Oewv e p 518, or is in danger of 
 a wrong construction, as dewv eg eppope T//% e 335 from the 
 gods she has received a share of honor. 
 
 f. a/u<t, dvd, and yaera, are used also with the dative. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 38. a. a. A predicate adjective is often used where the 
 English idiom has an adverb or an adverbial phrase, as %04o<? 
 e/3?; A 424 went yesterday, r/epirj A 497 early in the morning,
 
 80 THE HOMERIC DIALECT. [ RR. b. 
 
 Travrj/jLepiot A 472 all day long, TraiW^to? a 443 through tin- 
 whole night, fjieraBopTrtos B 194 after supper, evvv^ioi A 683 by 
 night, evBioi A 726 at midday, etnrepioi 344 at evening, 
 vrjs E 58 (^pronus) on his face, 7rofj,<f>d\iov H 267 (eV 
 XoS) on the boss, Be^iov K 274 on the right, ^rw-mov II 739 on 
 the forehead, 7reo<? H 438 on foot. 
 
 /?. Similarly /ceo'o? O 412 ^Aere, OUTO<? K 341 here, and fre- 
 quently oSe, as ?7/iet9 ot'Se a 76 we here. 
 
 7. Trp6<f>p(ov willing is used only predicatively, where the 
 English idiom uses willingly. 
 
 b. Adverbs ending in -a are common : \iya (but \iyew? is 
 more frequent), <rd<f>a, rd%a (about 70 times, but ro^e'co?' only 
 v/r 365), u/ca. These seem to have been originally neuter 
 cognate accusatives, and many are such still ; cf. TroXX' eVe- 
 reXXe, vroXX' r/pdro, peya vtJ7ri, /xeyaX' ev-^ero, rX. 
 
 c. Adverbs in -Brjv and -&ov (originally adverbial accusa- 
 tives from stems in -8a and -So) are : afij3o\aijv, fid&rjv, eVt- 
 ypdfi&rjv, eTTiX.iyBrjv, 7ricrrpo(f}dBrjv, K\ifiijv, tcpvftBrjv, 
 
 fj.dBrjv, 6vopaK\ijBr)v, TrapajSXi'iSijv, TrpOTpoTrdSrjv 
 (all having the signification of the participle of the corres- 
 ponding verb), dye\,f}S6v, dva<f)av&6v, dva- (aTro-, evrt-, 
 (3orpv86v, SiatcpiBov, /XaSoi/, /cara</>uXa86i/, 
 , TravOvpaSov, <f>a\ayyr)B6v. 
 
 d. Adverbs in -Ba are rare, as dva(j>avBd, dirocrra^d, 
 
 e. Adverbs in -Bt<; are : aXXuSt?, dfj,oi/3rjBi<;, 
 
 f . Adverbs in -i are : dfjLoytjri, dvaif^wri, av&parrC, dvovrrjri, 
 
 (IVMHTTl, daTTOvBi. 
 
 g. Adverbs in -| are : yvv%, eVt/i/f , Kovpi%, X|, 68<z^, Tryf . 
 
 h. Adverbs in -&><> are not common ; they are most fre- 
 quent from o-stems : OI/TCD? (OUTO?), &W (o), auTG)? (auro?), 
 /ca/cw? (/ca/co?). to-&)? and o/iotco? are not found, /caXw? only 
 yS 63, </X&>9 only A 347. 
 
 Adverbs in -w? are formed also from d<f>paBijs
 
 39, c.] HOMERIC VERSE. 81 
 
 (ra% eta?), re^z^et? (re^T/ezmo?) , and from the participles 
 (used like adjectives) eTnardiievos, eVcru/ie^o?. 
 
 These adverbs in -w? are little used also by the lyric poets : 
 w5, fcaicaxi, i'cra><?, aXXta? are not found in Pindar. 
 
 HOMERIC VERSE. 
 
 39. THE HEROIC HEXAMETER, a. The poems are to 
 be read with careful attention to the metrical quantity of 
 each syllable, as well as to the sense of the passage. There 
 are six feet (bars or measures) in each verse ; hence the 
 name hexameter. The part of each foot which has no ictus 
 (the arsis') should receive as much time though not so much 
 stress as the ictus-syllable (the thesis). The rhythm would 
 be called time in modern music. The English hexameter 
 (found e.g. in Longfellow's Evangeline) is generally read as 
 of f time. 
 
 b. The written word-accent is to be disregarded in read- 
 ing Homeric verse. Occasionally (as avSpa poi ewe-Tre, fiova-a, 
 TroXvrpoTrov 09 /AXo, TToXXa a 1) the verse-ictus and word- 
 accent may coincide, but the word-accent seems to have had 
 no influence on the formation of the verse. 
 
 c. The dactyl (J ^ ^ or _v>^), with the ictus on the 
 first syllable, is the fundamental and prevailing foot of Ho- 
 meric verse. It is often replaced by a spondee J or heavy 
 
 dactyl ( J J or ) . In three verses of the Iliad (B 544, 
 
 A 130, ^ 221) and in three of the Odyssey (o 334, <f> 15, x 
 192) each foot is a spondee, but a restoration of older, un- 
 
 1 This name was derived from the use of this slow solemn measure in the 
 hymns which accompanied the libation (ffirovS-n) to the gods; c/. two brief 
 hymns of the Lesbian Terpander, about 700 B.C., to Zeus : ZC ir<ivra>v apx<^> \ 
 irdmtav ay^rup, | Zev, ffoi ffirevSia \ ravrav vuvwv apxav, and to Apollo and the 
 Muses : Xvbtttfuat rats Mi'auas | iraifflv Mdffais \ Kal r<p Maxrapxv | AaroCs vie?.
 
 82 HOMERIC VERSE. [ 39, d. 
 
 contracted forms would give at least one dactyl to each of 
 these verses ; 'A.rpel8r)<; TO> &' avr e'/c Sttypov <yovvae<r0i)v A 
 130 may be read with two dactyls 'Arpeift??? TO> 8' ain e'/c 
 &i(f)poo ( 17 c) yovvaea-0rjv. 
 
 Dactyls are about three times as frequent as spondees in 
 the Homeric poems. 
 
 d. Verses in which each of the first five feet is a dactyl 
 are far more common in Homer than in Vergil: there are 
 160 in the first book of the Iliad alone. Many frequently 
 recurring verses have this rhythm ; as TOV S' a7ra^L^op.evo^ 
 Tro&a? eo/cu9 'A^tXXei;?, 01 &' eV oveiaff' eroijua Trpo- 
 %etpa<; ia\\ov, avrap eVet Trocrios ical eSrjrvos e' 
 epov evro. Many other verses have but one spondee (gener- 
 ally in the first foot) among the first five feet; as 77/^05 8' 
 rjpiyeveta <j>dvr) poSoSdrcTV\os 770)9, ^09 &' ?)eXto9 tcareSv KOI 
 
 e. Spondees are most common in the first two feet; they 
 are more and more avoided in each foot toward the close of 
 the verse, except perhaps in the fourth foot where the great 
 Alexandrian critic Aristarchus preferred a spondee. But 
 very many of these spondees in the first and fourth feet of 
 our texts can be and doubtless should be resolved into dac- 
 tyls ; thus uytjpaov B 447 is now read for the dytjptov of Aris- 
 tarchus. 
 
 f. The first foot allows more freedom than any other. A 
 short vowel there more frequently retains its natural quan- 
 tity before a mute and a liquid, and yet is more frequently 
 lengthened in the unaccented part of the foot ( 41 h 7) be- 
 fore that combination. At the close of the first foot, hiatus 
 is allowed ( 9 b). 
 
 Similarly the first foot of the iambic trimeter of Greek 
 tragedy and of English poetry has exceptional freedom. 
 
 g. The Bucolic diaeresis ( 40 A) is seldom immediately 
 preceded by a word of three long syllables. Before this 
 diaeresis, a dactyl is strongly preferred, and is to be restored
 
 40, c.] HOMERIC VERSE. 83 
 
 in many places where the Mss. have the contracted form. 
 Certain dactylic forms, as /ST/Vero, are preserved there more 
 frequently than elsewhere in the verse. 
 
 h. Verses which have a spondee in the fifth foot are called 
 spondaic verses (eV?; cnrovSei cuca) . They are more common 
 in Homer than in the Latin poets, about 4 per cent, of the 
 verses of the Iliad being spondaic. 
 
 i. These spondaic verses seem especially frequent at the 
 close of emphatic sentences or of divisions of the narrative 
 (cf. A 21, 157, 291, 600) and in descriptions of suffering and 
 toil, but often no rhythmic effect is sought ; the convenience 
 of the verse determined the measure. 
 
 j. The last two feet of the verse must not consist of two 
 spondaic words : thus 'Hco Slav i 306 should be 'Hoa Biav, 
 SijfAov $?}/u9 239 should be S?//ioo </>77/u<?. 
 
 k. The last foot in each verse is a spondee, but the final 
 syllable may be short ; the deficiency in time is then made 
 up by the slight pause which follows at the end of the verse 
 ( 41 a, p a). A heavy or consonantal ending is preferred; 
 hence the ^movable is often used. 
 
 1. The student need not concern himself about elision as 
 in Latin poetry; that is already done in the text; but he 
 must be watchful for synizesis ( 7). 
 
 CAESURAL PAUSES. 
 
 4O. a. Each verse has one or more caesural pauses (cae- 
 sura = rofjii] cutting), pauses within a foot. 
 
 b. The principal caesura of the verse is always a pause in 
 the sense, and is often emphasized by punctuation, as in each 
 of the six successive verses H 10-15 ; but occasionally com- 
 mas are found where no pause is necessary. 
 
 Of course there can be no pause immediately before an 
 enclitic, since this is closely connected with the foregoing 
 word. 
 
 c. A caesura is almost always found in the third foot;
 
 84 HOMERIC VERSE. [ 40, d. 
 
 only 185 verses of the Iliad and 71 of the Odyssey have no 
 pause there. It occurs either after the ictus-syllable (as 
 fjrfjviv aetSe Bed /\ TlrjX.ijid&eco 'A^tX^o? A 1 w w I w ^ I 
 A_l_^/w|_ww| I) or between the two short sylla- 
 bles (as dv8pa poi evv7T MoO<ra /\ Tro\vrpoirov 09 /xaXa TroXXa 
 
 a 1, w w I w v> I w A w I w w | w w | |). These 
 
 two caesuras are about equally frequent; but the second 
 slightly predominates and seems to have been preferred. 
 
 d. The importance of the caesura in the third foot is 
 marked not only by the freedom with which hiatus is al- 
 lowed there ( 95), and by the evident avoidance of elision 
 at that point ( 10 e), but also by the large number of tags 
 of verses which are suited to follow it ; as jrarijp dvSp&v re 
 
 re, y8o<U7Tt<? 7roTZ/a f/ Hp7;, 0ed \Vicd)\vo<; "Hpty, 0ed j\av- 
 
 Ovydrtjp ' 
 
 /cdpr) 
 
 MeveXao?, ava dvSpwv 'A^ayu-e/ivwj/, ftorjv 
 dya0o<i Ajo/z?;S?7<?, Teprjvios iTnrora Xecrrtyp, KT\. all of 
 which must be preceded by the feminine caesura (see/) of 
 the third foot ; while 'A^ayu-e/x^oyo? 'Arpei'Sao, evpv Kpeiw 
 'AyajjLe/jLvwv, 77777x0/369 r)Be /ie8oi/T9, dTrafJ-eiftero (fxavrj&ev re 
 KT\. must be preceded by the masculine caesura of the third 
 foot. See 4 6, e, d. 
 
 e. The pause after the first syllable of the third foot is 
 called the penthemimeral caesura (TreVre, 77;^-, yu.e/oo9) because 
 it comes after the fifth half-foot; it divides the verse into 
 2 -I- 3 feet. The pause between the two short syllables of 
 the third foot divides the verse into 2f + 3 feet. 
 
 f. The pause after an ictus-syllable is called a masculine 
 caesura because of the vigorous tone which it gives to the 
 verse ; the pause between two unaccented syllables is called 
 a feminine caesura. 
 
 g. Sometimes the principal pause of the verse is the mas- 
 culine caesura of the fourth foot. This is called the hephthe- 
 
 caesura (e-Trra, i/p-i-, /ze/309). This is somewhat more
 
 40, m.] HOMERIC VERSE. 5 
 
 common in the Iliad than in the Odyssey. It is frequent 
 after a feminine caesura of the third foot. It gives an ener- 
 getic movement after a penthemimeral caesura, when the 
 verse is divided into 2 + 1 + 2|- feet. 
 
 h. Sometimes the pause of the verse is at the close of the 
 fourth foot; this is called the Bucolic diaeresis (a diaeresis 
 being a pause at the end of a word between two feet) or cae- 
 sura, since it is most evidently aimed at in the bucolic or 
 pastoral poetry of Theocritus. Occasionally there is a tran- 
 sition at this point to another part of the story, as A 318, 
 348, 430. This Bucolic diaeresis with the penthemimeral 
 caesura divides the verse into 2f + 1 -f 2 feet. 
 
 i. The importance of the Bucolic diaeresis is marked by 
 the large number of tags of verses which are ready to follow 
 it, as &io<? 'O8ucr<7eu9, eptcos 'A^ateu*/, iinroTa Ne<7T<up, 0y8pt/u,o>? 
 "A/a?;?, (f>ai8i/J,o<; f/ E/cr&>p, <ot/3o<? 'ATroXX&w, IlaXXa? ^A.6rjvrj, 8ia 
 6edwv, fj,r)TLTct Zeu?, laodeos e^w?. See 4 c. Hiatus is al- 
 lowed here occasionally. See 9 b. 
 
 j. A slight pause occurs after the first short syllable of the 
 first foot about 50 times in 100 verses. 
 
 k. A slight pause occurs about as often, after the first 
 short syllable of the fifth foot. The poet prefers to close the 
 verse with the rhythm ^, ^ (where the comma repre- 
 sents the end of a word) rather than _ ^ w, ,_; hence oure 
 TeXecrcra<> A 108, not ovr e'reXeo-tra?. See 25 e. 
 
 1. The principal pause of the verse is almost never at the 
 close of the third foot ; this would divide the verse into two 
 equal parts and cause monotony. A word ends there not 
 infrequently, but is accompanied by a more prominent cae- 
 sura in the third or fourth foot ; as evda iSov TrXeiVrou? 3?pv- 
 70? avepas F 185, where the last two words are so closely 
 connected that no caesura is felt between them. But see 7 34. 
 
 m. Even a slight pause is rare between the two short syl- 
 lables of the fourth foot. In /cat eTreidero jj.v&< A 33, the 
 objectionable pause might be avoided by omitting the aug-
 
 86 HOMERIC VERSE. [ 40, n. 
 
 ment, but the conjunction is connected with the verb so 
 closely that no caesura is felt. 
 
 n. It has been remarked that the forbidden caesura is next 
 in position to the favorite Bucolic diaeresis ; while the for- 
 bidden diaeresis at the close of the third foot is next to the 
 favorite feminine caesura of the third foot. 
 
 o. No sentence ends with the second foot. 
 
 p. The pause in the third foot gives to the rest of the 
 verse an anapaestic movement, from which it is often recalled 
 by the Bucolic diaeresis. Similarly the Roman Saturnian 
 verse (as Dabfint malum Metlli /\ Naevi6 potae) is at first 
 iambic, but is trochaic at the close. 
 
 q. The varied position of the main caesura, and the minor 
 pauses in different parts of the verse, give perfect freedom 
 from monotony without detracting from the grace and dig- 
 nity of the measure. 
 
 QUANTITY.* 
 
 41. a. Metrical convenience or necessity often determined 
 the poet's choice among synonymous words ( 4 a-c?) ; since 
 afj,(j)tSe^io<f ambidexter was not suited to dactylic verse, Trepi- 
 Segios was used <I> 163. The poet in general preferred the 
 light dactyls to the heavy dactyls or spondees, and retained 
 
 1 The beginner will find it convenient to remember concerning a, i, v, the 
 vowels whose quantity is not clear at the first glance, that 
 
 (1) they are short in the final syllable of any word when the antepenult 
 has the acute or if the penult has the circumflex accent ; 
 
 (2) they are regularly short in inflectional endings, as ndxyvi, '^p<aa, rpf- 
 irovffi, TfdvijKa, in the final syllables of neuter nouns, as Supa, fip.ap, jteAi, 
 SaKpv, in suffixes, except where v has been lost before <r, as <f>vff1s, $o\lr)s, 4>o/- 
 viffffa, in particles, especially in prepositions, as avd, irtpt, vird, dpa, tn, 
 and generally in the second aorist stem of verbs ; 
 
 (3) they are long in the final syllable when the penult is long by nature 
 and has the acute accent ; 
 
 (4) they are long when they are the result of contraction, as MfjiA. from 
 tripae, 'lp6v from Itp&v, vtKvs from vfKvas, and as the final vowel of the stem of 
 nouns of the first declension.
 
 41,c.] HOMERIC VERSE. ft- 
 
 in the Epic dialect a large number of dactylic forms which 
 were afterwards contracted. An amphimacer ( ^ , d/i</>/, 
 paicpov) was avoided often by means of apocope, synizesis, or 
 elision. 
 
 Most exceptions to the rules of quantity are only apparent. 
 The poet, for example, did not lengthen a short syllable by 
 placing the ictus upon it. If an apparently short final syl- 
 lable stands where a long syllable is expected, it is probable 
 either 
 
 (1) that the final syllable was originally long, and later 
 lost part of its quantity, as irpiv, nouns in -i<j (/SXocrtyjwTn? 
 ea-T(f)dva)To A 36), and the dative singular ending of the 
 third declension ( 18 a) ; or 
 
 (2) that the following word has lost an initial consonant 
 which would have made the preceding syllable long by posi- 
 tion (see m below) ; or 
 
 (3) that the pause (musical rest) of a caesura or diaeresis, 
 fills out the time occupied by the foot, allowing the same 
 freedom as at the end of the verse ( 39 &). 
 
 b. A considerable number of anomalies, however, remain 
 unexplained. Prominent among the unexplained anomalies 
 of quantity is the I of certain abstract nouns, as vTrepoTrXtya-i 
 A 205, Trpo6vpir)(Ti B 588, aTipiya-i v 142. This i receives no 
 ictus, hence no satisfaction could be gained even from the 
 obsolete doctrine that a short syllable might be lengthened 
 by the poet if it were made the ictus-syllable of the foot. 
 These abstract nouns form such a definite class that it may 
 be assumed that there was some explanation, perhaps physio- 
 logical, for them all. 
 
 c. Doubtless when the poems were recited musically, it 
 might have been easy for the bard in his intonation to hold, 
 and thus to lengthen, a syllable which was usually short, or 
 to slur over a long syllable and treat it as short. But it is 
 not found that Homer or any other poet availed himself of 
 this license.
 
 88 HOMERIC VERSE. [ 41, d. 
 
 d. Many apparently irregular variations of natural quan- 
 tity, as well as apparent freedom in allowing hiatus, and vari- 
 ations of quantity made by position (see m below), are to be 
 explained by the loss of a consonant, e.g. UTTJ or ddry was 
 originally dparrj (see 14/); the loss of p and the conse- 
 quent lengthening of one of the neighboring vowels (cf. 
 /3a<TtXe/ro9, /9acrtX?}o9, /3aortXea>9), explains aaad^v I 116 and 
 dacraro I 537, as compared with dao-as 237 ; devapev (dpe- 
 o-a/xey, from lava)') y 151 but aeaav 7 490 ; v AiSo<? F 322 but 
 -AtSt A 3, from a-fiB ( 14), cf. fati^ X 280 for efet'% ; 
 pe/jiaa-av B 863 but yu,e/aaore9 B 818 (/ie/ia/"ore<?). In ey/c^Xos- 
 A 554 (eKri\oi E 759), the form may have been favored in 
 popular use by a supposed connection with the adverb e, 
 which seemed so natural in eva&ev H 340 for efaSev. 
 
 e. It may be supposed that the bards followed poetic prece- 
 dents in allowing hiatus or lengthening before certain sylla- 
 bles in which but a minimum of the original sound remained ; 
 sometimes, by false analogy, they may have treated in the 
 same way other syllables which really had lost no consonant. 
 
 f. a. A syllable which contains a long vowel or a diph- 
 thong is long by nature. Final at and 01 are metrically long, 
 although short as concerns accentuation. 
 
 /3. The quantity of some vowels is not fixed, as : A7roXXo>- 
 yo<? A 14, -ATroXXw^ A 380 ; *Ape<?, "Ape? E 31 (if the text is 
 right); ZlSoves V 743, ZlSoviov? B 84; cf. ^iovvaov X 325 
 with Aio>yuo-o5 Z 135 (which remained the usual form in 
 Boeotian dialect, as it is in Pindar) ; vSwp a 110, vSwp a 146. 
 
 7. Most of these vowels with variable quantity were origi- 
 nally long and were becoming short, as the Homeric '0-09, 
 /coXo<?, and (f>dpos, became tcro<?, /caXo<?, and <a/309 in Attic 
 poetry. The penult of dviij was long in Homer but occa- 
 sionally short in Attic poetry, feiapivo (cf. atprj eiapivf] B 
 471), Attic eapti/09, is found on a Boeotian inscription. It 
 is evident that every vowel which at first was long and after- 
 wards became short must have had at some time a metrical
 
 41, <7.] HOMERIC VERSE. 89 
 
 quantity which could be treated either as long or short, i.e. 
 its quantity was variable. 
 
 S. A trace of the original d in the ending of the neuter 
 plural remains perhaps in edvea el<n B 87, where the hiatus 
 is justified as weak ( 9 d). 
 
 e. For the length of final t, in the dative singular of the 
 third declension, see 18 a. irpiv in irplv avr Z 81 retains 
 its original length, as a contracted comparative. 
 
 . So in Latin, the vowels of certain words had lost so 
 much of their original quantity in the time of Plautus that 
 he employed them sometimes as long, sometimes as short, 
 while in later Latin poetry they became definitely short. 
 Analogous to this, also, is the fact that a short vowel before 
 a mute and a liquid is generally long in Homer, while in 
 Attic it is generally short. 
 
 t]. With this variation of natural quantity may be com- 
 pared the double forms employed in Homer, one with a 
 single consonant, another with two consonants, as 'A^tXXev? 
 A 54, 'A^iXeu? A 199 ; 'OSvoW? A 430, 'OSva-evs A 494 ; 
 B 729, Tpitcrp A 202; OTTTTW? A 344, OTTGX? A 136; 
 F 266, pea-ov A 481, KT\., many of which doubled con- 
 sonants are known to be justified etymologically. 
 
 g. Sometimes a naturally short vowel was lengthened (not 
 by the poet, but in the speech of the people) in order to 
 avoid the too frequent recurrence of short syllables. This 
 is illustrated by the rule for the use of o or o> in the compari- 
 son of adjectives (o-o^corepo? but /cou</>oTejoo<?), by the pains 
 shown by some of the Greek orators (as Demosthenes) to 
 avoid an uninterrupted succession of several short syllables, 
 and by the words which have a vowel similarly lengthened 
 in the Attic dialect (as dddvaros, irpocnfaopos, vTrrjpeTTj^. We 
 find dvrip but dvepes (dv>]p M 382), cf. r/vopey (Pindar dvrjp, 
 dvopea) Hpia/io? but HjOta/xtS?;?, dvydTtjp but 6v<ydrepa (with 
 v in all forms of more than three syllables), aTroveovro, ayo- 
 but dyoprf, dOdvaros but dOaTrros, cf. r/vepoevra from 
 
 S, 67T/TOt'09 p 423.
 
 90 HOMERIC VERSE. [ 41, h. 
 
 h. a. In Homeric verse a syllable which contains a short 
 vowel is long by position when the vowel is followed by a 
 double consonant (, , i/r) or by two or more consonants, 
 whether these are in the same or in the following word or 
 are divided between the two words. 
 
 /?. This rule holds good also in case of a mute followed 
 by a liquid. This combination rarely fails to make position 
 within a word, and generally makes position when it stands 
 at the beginning of a word (as virare Kpeiovrcov a 45), espe- 
 cially when this word is closely connected with the preceding. 
 
 7. The influence of the metrical ictus on quantity is no- 
 where else so clear as in strengthening this so-called weak- 
 position before a mute and a liquid : before this combination, 
 a short vowel is always lengthened (more than 2600 times) 
 in the ictus part of the foot ; while lengthening of an ultima 
 in the arsis is found 105 times, 48 of which are in the first 
 foot (as ex &e Xpva-rjl-i A 439, cf. 39/) and 47 in the second 
 foot (as e' ov Sr) ra irpwra A 6). Of course a short vowel 
 remains short only in the unaccented part of the foot. See 
 i ft below. 
 
 i. a. Sometimes a vowel remains short before a mute fol- 
 lowed by A, or p, as ^A^poBirr) T 380, a^l^por^ B 389, apfyl- 
 &pv(f>ijs B 700, TrporpaireaOai Z 336, vevcre Kpoviwu A 528, 
 /3d\e Hpia/J,l&ao F 356, yap pa. }\.\VTai/J,vtjerTpr)<; A 113. These 
 words and phrases could not have been brought into the 
 verse if the mute and liquid must make position, and the 
 history of the language shows that this combination of mute 
 and liquid was losing its weight (cf.f 7 above). Similarly, 
 the syllable musfc be short which precedes ftporwv, Trpoa-rjvSa, 
 
 /3. Of about 570 examples in the Homeric poems of a 
 vowel remaining short before initial mute and liquid, it is 
 said that 202 are in the first short syllable of the third foot 
 (as &)<> o'l fJiev roiavra TT/OO? a\\tj\ov 9 ayopevov E 274), 278 are 
 in the first short syllable of the fifth foot (as /cat piv </>eui/r;cra9
 
 41,j.] HOMERIC VEKSE. 91 
 
 eirea Trrepoevra Trpoo-rjvSa A 201), 28 are in the first short syl- 
 lable of the first foot (as TJKCL TT/JO? aXA^'Xou? F 155), 27 are 
 in the first short syllable of the second foot (as o? S' ore Tt<? 
 re BpaKovra F 33) ; while only 34 are in the second short syl- 
 lable of a dactyl, 25 of these being in the first foot (as KOI 
 /Sa'Xe HptafMiBao F 356), and only one of the 34 being before 
 a sonant mute followed by a liquid (TO, Be Bpdypara A 69). 
 It is evident that the numbers in such computations differ 
 with different texts. 
 
 7. That a mute and liquid do not always make position 
 is explained by the ease with which the combination can be 
 pronounced at the beginning of a syllable, leaving the pre- 
 ceding vowel short. 
 
 8. In dvBporijra H 6, a remains short before three conso- 
 nants ; but it is probable that this word has replaced some 
 obsolete synonymous word which suited the metre. 
 
 e. Before four words, two of which begin with the double 
 consonant and two with the two consonants a/c (not a mute 
 and a liquid), the preceding vowel remains short: 01 re Za- 
 Kvvdov B 634, o'i Be Ze\eiav B 824, Trpo^eovro ^.Ka/j,dvBpiov B 
 465, eTreird crrceTrapvov e 237. Two of these words, ZatcvvOos 
 and 'S/cd/jiavSpos (although the gods called it Eai>#o<?, T 74), 
 might seem essential to the poet's story, and might be ex- 
 cused by the greater freedom which is allowed to the treat- 
 ment of proper names in verse ; but there are indications of 
 possible collateral forms with a single consonant ; cf. tclBva- 
 fuii with o-KiBvapai (which is always used where the metre 
 permits), /u/cpo? with o7u/e/>o<? ( 12/). Perhaps Ad/cwOos 
 should be substituted for ZdicvvOos, cf. a#eV A 38 with 
 Ba(f)oiv6<; B 308, Aeu^iTrTro? in a Boeotian inscription for Zeu- 
 ftTrTro?, Aa7\?7 on coins for Zar//c\ij. It is noteworthy, how- 
 ever, that Zd/cwOos was also the Greek name of Saguntum 
 and in that word Z may often have been pronounced nearly 
 like 2. 
 
 j. a. A single X, JJL, v, p, <r, at the beginning of certain
 
 92 HOMERIC VERSE. [ 41, 
 
 words, may make position (cf. 12 6) : iro\\a 
 X 91 -- I _ w w I _ (cf. eXX/Wero Z 45, T/nXXto-To? @ 488, 
 7ro\v\\i<TTov e 445, ouSe *ara fiolpav II 367 (cf. a^opov Z 
 408, Bie/jLoiparo 434, e^ope A 278, e'ljiapro e 312, of which 
 the form of reduplication indicates that the stem was treated 
 as if it began with two consonants, 25 0), e-rrea z/t<aSeo-<rt 
 F 222 (cf. ayd-vvi<j)ov A 420 and English snow*), oa-a pe^eaKov 
 % 46 (cf. fepyov, ivork, ivroughf), v\rj re crevairo W 198 (cf. 
 eVcreiWro B 808, eTnao-evea-Oat, O 347, Xaoo-croo? N 128). 
 
 /3. So also 8 makes position in the stem 81- (bela-ai fear) 
 and always in &ijv long, as 77/iet<? Se SetVai/re? t 236, eSeia-ev 8' o 
 yeptov A 33, cf. ^eouS^'? ^121 god-fearing (for Oeo-Spij?') ; ou 
 rt /iaXa 8771; A 416. 
 
 7. A short vowel before a liquid is lengthened most .^e- 
 quently when it is in the ictus-syllable of the seconc" or 
 fourth foot (seldom in the third or fifth foot) and generally 
 before words which begin with two short syllables, as eVt 
 fj-eydpoieri <yeve&\.r) E 270. 
 
 k. It is stated that a short vowel is lengthened 123 times 
 before p (91 times, not counting repetitions), 70 (51) times 
 before X, 320 (111) times before /A, 58 (30) times before v, 
 44 (29) times before B, 9 times before a. 
 
 1. a. Cognate languages and collateral dialectic forms 
 show that most words which in the Attic dialect began with 
 p, once began with <rp or pp. This explains the doubling of 
 the p after the augment and in composition, as well as its 
 power to make position in Homeric verse. 85 per cent, of 
 the instances of lengthening before p are known to be justi- 
 fied etymologically. 
 
 /?. The stem of the verb Sela-at is found on a Corinthian 
 inscription as Bpi. In the Homeric time, if the p was not 
 still pronounced by the lonians of Asia Minor, doubtless the 
 8 was thickened in pronunciation by the disappearing p. 
 
 7. Of the instances of lengthening before yu,, most are only 
 physiologically explained ; the //,-sound being easily continued
 
 41,o.] HOMERIC VKKSK 93 
 
 until it is T rtually a double consonant; but this lengthening 
 occurs onh before certain stems, not before i^d^ea-dai, jieveiv, 
 
 fJLOVVOS KT\ 
 
 in. One of the consonants which made position has often 
 been lost, as yptjl Se IAIV petKvla T 386, Trdpenroav A 793 (jrap- 
 14) ; /3eXo< e%e7revKe<; A 51, yap fyov T 49, irdp- 
 T 113, from the stem &%-, cf. o-vz/e^e? i 74 (for a-vva-e- 
 ; 6>ec? w? F 230 (for 0eo9/9, 12 Z), <?/. * *w 9 B 190, 
 des o) : F 2, 7reXeU9 w? F 60, o/ S' ap' Tcrai/ a><? et re B 780. 
 Both consonants which made position are occasionally lost, 
 especially in the stem of the third personal pronoun ( 14 c, A), 
 as apd P 196 for apa crfM, UTTO eo T 261 for TTO apeo. But 
 
 - 14 y. 
 
 <f) seems to be used as a double consonant in Zetfrvptij 
 w w _, 8<j>tv M 208 _ w, Tri$>ai>(TKu> K 478 (although 
 'ere the reduplication 77-4 may be considered long by nature, 
 cf. ^lavfos Z 154). o7r</9 is now written for o</u<? in Hip- 
 ponax Frg. 49, and is justified etymologically ; cf. Stt7r</>&> 
 from the stem of <ro(/>o9, "Iar^o? from ta^co, OK^OV (p^ov) Pin- 
 dar 01. vi 24, (fraidxiTwves Aesch. Choeph. 1047. 
 
 o. a. A long final vowel or diphthong in the arsis of the 
 foot is shortened before a following vowel : 'Ar/jei'iSat re KOI 
 a\\oi evKij(j,iSs 'A^atot A 17, rrjv 8' 70) ov \vcru> A 29. The 
 shortening of a long vowel is essentially the elision of half 
 the vowel ( 9 d). 
 
 ft. The most frequent exceptions to this rule occur in the 
 first foot, less often in the fourth foot, before the diaereses 
 where hiatus is most common ( 96). 
 
 7. Final at, o<, et are most frequently shortened before an 
 initial vowel. Final 01 is shortened eight times as often as 
 final 77. 
 
 8. The diphthongs with v seem to have been more firm in 
 retaining their quantity than those with i. This is explained 
 perhaps by the greater permanence in the language of poverj. 
 
 e. This shortening of diphthongs seems to indicate a ten-
 
 94 HOMKHIC VKUSK [ 41. p. 
 
 dency of the final i or v of the diphthong to go into its cog- 
 nate y (j) or ' (ff) sound and disappear (cf. 5 #). In 
 Pindar, also, a final diphthong is shortened far oftener (live 
 times as often) than a long final vowel. Of course there wa> 
 no hiatus as long as the.? or p was spoken. 
 
 . Final a> and 77 are shortened before an initial vowel more 
 rarely than other diphthongs. 77, 77, &>, w, ev are shortened 
 more frequently than elsewhere when they are in the first 
 short syllable of the first foot. &> is seldom shortened except 
 before an e or (less frequently) an a. 
 
 p. a. Before a pause (as before the close of the verse, see 
 39 &), a short vowel may be used in place of a long vowel : 
 
 exTrepcrat TIpid/J,oio TTO\IV A 19 I ww| ^ vy | i^ A, fav- 
 
 y(o/J,ev eri yap KT\. K 269 I w A w w | , etar' dtcovovTes 
 
 6 KT\. a 326 _ ^ w I I w A. Not infrequently thus the 
 
 short final vowel of a vocative takes the place of a long syl- 
 lable, even vie Ylerecoo A 338 ; in such cases the nominative 
 form frequently could be used. The pause in the rhythm 
 occupies the remainder of the time which would be spent in 
 pronouncing a long syllable, ^ i I = I L Before a pause, 
 also, a long final vowel may preserve its quantity although 
 the following word begins with a vowel. 
 
 ft. This pause, which allows hiatus and prevents the short- 
 ening of a final vowel, gives prominence to the syllable before 
 it, as ex jap 'OpeVrao /\ria-i<; eva-erai a 40, 01 p-ev Bva-ofjuevov A 
 'T-TrepiWo? a 24. 
 
 q. A few verses seem to begin with a short syllable, as 
 eTrei&T} TO irpwrov B 13 (probably eVfet), </u'Xe Kaa-iyvrjre 4> 308 
 (cf. <f>T\ai E 117, e<pl\aro E 61), 09 aei fi 154 (for 09 p aet = 
 o<? pe aei, cf. 09 cf a%ei O 183), o? 77877 rd T' eovra A 70 (for 
 o? ^61877, 14), ae/877 p 519 for dpeify (see d above) ; ftoper)? 
 I 5 is in all Mss. for fioppijs (Thuc. VI 2). For Ze^vpnj ?/ 
 119, see n above ; for a-vve-^e^ M 26, see m above ; for eVtVo- 
 yo?, see g above ; but Sm p.ev acrir&os F 357 seems to have 
 been used on the analogy of 8t' \\<f>po&tTi] KT\.
 
 GREEK INDEX. 
 
 [The references are to pages.] 
 
 diTaro, 88. 
 
 atxjiTjTd, 51. ava|, 45. 
 
 dppOTagofwv, 44. 
 
 dKaXTjV V s> 74. dva| dvSpwv, 12. 
 
 d$poTT|, 44. 
 
 oKax^'vos, 43. dvSdvai, 45, 47. 
 
 dvcvywp.1, 6 1 . OKTjx^ociTai, 69. 
 
 avSpccra-L, 52. 
 
 'AYajAtnvoviSTiS) 58, dxXc'a, 53. 
 
 dvSparrJTO, 91. 
 
 d<ydvvi4>ov, 92. 
 
 dvcoiTiS) 39. 
 
 dvearav, 65. 
 
 oYiipaov, 82. 
 
 OKOVT], 38. 
 
 dvrio'wv, 72. 
 
 aYKpe|icxaracra, 42. 
 
 dxov'creiav, 68. 
 
 gT, 73. 
 
 a-yvxjfj.1, 45. 
 
 dxparj, 39, 53. 
 
 doioo's, 22. 
 
 dY^npdvrj, 42. 
 
 'AKpwritovTis, 59. 
 
 dirciXrjrqv, 71. 
 
 dyopT], 22. 
 
 OKTOCS, 51. 
 
 diro, 79. 
 
 * ' r*n 
 
 'AKTopuove, 59. diroaipco, 71. 
 
 aYwv, 22. 
 
 aXaSt, 50. 
 
 diroEiiraiv, 49. 
 
 dS<X4>Eo'o, 51. 
 
 dXaXr|fj.aL, 66. 
 
 o-irovtovTo, 89. 
 
 'ASpr]<rHvT], 59. 
 
 dXaXrlfxcvos, 74. 
 
 dirov'pas, 48. 
 
 dcXXo'tros, 38. 
 
 dXdXijo-Oai, 74. 
 
 diririp,\|/ci, 42. 
 
 'A6o'w, 52. 
 
 dXeaxrdc, 73. 
 
 dpaids, 46. 
 
 dSavaTT), 56. 
 
 aXis, 45. apapfl, 74. 
 
 ala, 35. 
 
 dXKt, 55. 'Ap-yttos, 39. 
 
 AlaKiSrjs, 59. 
 
 "AXKijios, 58. 
 
 dp-ycvvdwv, 36, 44 
 
 al-yfoxos, 12. 
 
 aXXcgai, 42. 
 
 dpcKTov, 43. 
 
 At-yvirriovSi 39. 
 
 aXXvSis aXXos, 36. 
 
 *Apes "Apes, 88. 
 
 atStio, 71. 
 
 dXdw, 71. 
 
 "Apt]v, 54. 
 
 a t8 o-cronai, 72. 
 
 dXro, 37, 45, 77. 
 
 dfnfpg, 74. 
 
 'Ai8-r|s, 22, 55. 
 
 dXwvai, 45. 
 
 ipvo's, 46. 
 
 atSoIos, 39. 
 
 aX4>oiv, 70. 
 
 dpo'wo-iv. 72. 
 
 "A'i8osi 88. 
 
 afipporos, 44. 
 
 apo-as, 72. 
 
 'A'iSo'o-Sc, 50. 
 
 . afievai, 77. 
 
 ao-(jivos, 36. 
 
 A'iS(A>vv$i 56. 
 
 
 
 dfjifJies KT\., 45, 63. 
 
 cunreurios yr\t 56. 
 
 aUf, 38. 
 
 d>nopov, 92. 
 
 acrcra, 65. 
 
 aUrds, 38. duo's KT\., 62 f. 
 
 do-cra, 65. 
 
 aietjp, 23. djiireiraXwv, 42, 66. 
 
 currpa, 55- 
 
 Alvtiw, 51. d|uj>(s, 45. 
 
 ao-rv, 45. 
 
 atvoTraOt], 39. dva, 7'.'. 
 
 dTi|iiT)<n, 87. 
 
 AloXoo, 51. , dvoKTco-iv, 52. 
 
 'ArptCSao, 38.
 
 Ofi 
 
 (JHKKK INDEX. 
 
 'ATpet8T)s, 57 f. 
 
 yXauKtoms, 12. SovXiov rj^-ap, 21 
 
 'Arpetwv, 59. 
 
 yvawo-i, 7(i. SV'TJ, 70. 
 
 drpt |xa, 45. 
 
 Sarjcreai, 75. 
 
 ovVero, 73. 
 
 AvyriiaSao, 57. 
 
 Saivvaro, 70. 
 
 ouo-KXe'a, 53. 
 
 avt'pxio-av, 42. 
 
 Saivvro, 70. 
 
 Svo-ofie'voio, 73. 
 
 auCaxoi, 48. 
 
 Saxpuocju, 49. 
 
 Siotri, 07. 
 
 avrcip, 32. 
 
 Sa^cuj, 72. 
 
 c KTA., 46. 
 
 avTo'Oev, 50. 
 
 8a)xeiev, 06. 
 
 eavt], 66. 
 
 auro's, 63. 
 
 Aap8avi8T|s, 59. 
 
 eaXrjv, 00. 
 
 avTo'4>i, 50. 
 
 AapSaviSaiv, 58. 
 
 eap, 46. 
 
 ai'Tcos, 63. 
 
 AapSavCcoves, 58. 
 
 fturtftc T^ 
 
 ctytei, 05. 
 
 8a4>oivos, 91. e'arai, 77. 
 
 'A^aiiSeS) 58. 
 
 8e' in apodosis, 30. P*v, 70. 
 
 'AxiXev's, 89. 
 
 -8e, 50. eprja-eTO, 7 1 . 
 
 PaXXeo, 69. 
 
 SeSaCarai, Oil. e'pXapev, 75. 
 
 PdpSio-ros, '. 
 
 SeiSe'xarai, 67. e'-ySouinjo-av, 4-1. 
 
 pacriXeu'repos, 60. 
 
 SeiSia, 67. e'ypTJ'yopOe, 7-'). 
 
 pao-iXrjos, : ' s 
 
 SttSoiKa, 67. 
 
 e'YX"1i &j. 
 
 Pepaiira, 68. 
 
 Stiovs, 54. 
 
 e"YX<>s 22. 
 
 pepTJKeiV, 67. 
 
 Seiirvov, 22. 
 
 eSeierev, 92. 
 
 pepXTjKeiv, 45. 
 
 8eio-ai, 92. 
 
 e'Sva, 46. 
 
 p6iofj.cu, 73. 
 
 Se'KTo, 77. 
 
 e'SpaKov, 45. 
 
 peXe'eo-o-i, B2. 
 
 8t|iov, 80. 
 
 e8v<reTo, 74. 
 
 p'op.ai, 7-i. 
 
 AevKaXCSi];, ; ">S j'. 
 
 eeKOo-t, 49. 
 
 prjcreo, 73. 
 
 Sevraros, 61. ee'X8u>p, 49. 
 
 PT] 'HpaKXtjUT), 21, 54. 
 
 Sc'xarai, 00. 
 
 e'e'XireTO, 00. 
 
 pXrJTO, 77. 
 
 STJ, 29. 
 
 eijKe, 0(5. 
 
 poXerai, 38. 
 
 8i] avre, 39. 
 
 e'rjvSave, >(!, 00 
 
 Bope'w, 51. 
 
 Sijsis, 73. 
 
 e'rjos, 50. 
 
 POVS ravpos, 14. 
 
 STJIO'COCV, 72. 
 
 e'^s, 64. 
 
 Bpio-r)i8a, 58. 
 
 STjXrjo-tjTai, 70. 
 
 e'Oev, 50, (!2. 
 
 Pporo's, 44. 
 
 8lj(lOV <)>TJ(AIS, 83. 
 
 eOvos, 40. 
 
 ^aiTfoxos, 1-'. 
 
 8ijv, 92. 
 
 aapivrf, 88. 
 
 yaXo'a), 52. 
 
 8iappai(re<r0ai, 7 1 . 
 
 eiaro, 77. 
 
 yao-Tptjv, 55. 
 
 SiSovvai, 68, 75. 
 
 etSov, 00. 
 
 ye, 29. 
 
 SiSovo-L, 75. 
 
 tiKocri, 10. 
 
 ye'Xws, 53. 
 
 8i8w, 7.",. 
 
 eiKvia, 71. 
 
 yevoiaro, 09. 
 
 Sujioipdro, 92. 
 
 etKw r 46. 
 
 ye'vro, 77. 
 
 Sie'Tjta-yev, 70. 
 
 Cl'uCLpTO. 1*. 
 
 ye'pa, 53. 
 
 8iicj>i.Xos, 52. 
 
 elv, 79. 
 
 YT|, ' ) - 
 
 8ix9d, 44. 
 
 elvai KT\., 34. 
 
 vtiGricrttL 08 
 
 SitoKerov, 07. 
 
 etvC, 79. 
 
 yripas, 77. 
 
 Aiuivuo-os, **. 
 
 clo, 02. 
 
 yXavKwiri8a, 51). SoioC KT\., (il . 
 
 cios, .'!7.
 
 GREEK INDEX. 
 
 97 
 
 elpirov, u!i. fWE-ire, 43. EanrEpoSj 40. 
 
 Eipio, 46. t'vvTJKOvra, 61. EVcra, 44. 
 
 sts, 76. 
 
 EVW|ii, 44, 46. 
 
 EO-O-CU, 66. 
 
 Elo-0a, 76. EVVV'XIOI, 80. 
 
 sVo-Eirai, 73, 76. 
 
 tKaep-yos, 35. EVTO, 76. 
 
 Eo-o-Eua, 73. 
 
 E'KCIS, 46. E", 46 f. 
 
 E'O-CTEVOVTO, 02. 
 
 EKOOTOS, 46. 
 
 E-g, 79. 
 
 Eoro-i, 7G. 
 
 K(XTT]PEXTCM>, 35. 
 
 aXaira|ai, 73. 
 
 EO-O-O, 60, 7i>. 
 
 EKa-rqpo'Xou, 35. 
 
 eoi, 02. 
 
 ecrcrofxai., 44. 
 
 JKCXTOIO, 35, 58. 
 
 EOIKO, 66. 
 
 EOTO-UflEVOS, 74. 
 
 e'tcSufiEV, 70. 
 
 loXira, 66. 
 
 EO-O-VJW'VWS, M. 
 
 EKEtOl, 64. 
 
 EOp^E, 66. 
 
 O"O~UTO, 77. 
 
 SKE'KXETO, 60. 
 
 E'O'S, 63. 
 
 Eo-rav, 70. 
 
 6KT)a, 7t). 
 
 EIT', 79. 
 
 EO-rparo'toin-o, 72. 
 
 EKllPo'XoV, 35. 
 
 EirE'irXtos, 77. 
 
 E'OTWV, 68. 
 
 4'xXEo, 71. 
 
 eiT'<j>pa8, 66. 
 
 E'o-xapo'<}>iv, 40. 
 
 KpC|M>>> 69. 
 
 Eiri, 70. 
 
 Eratpos, 38. 
 
 iKTa, 77. 
 
 EirCpt](ro|iEVOv, 73. 
 
 E rapes, 35. 
 
 EKTrfcrOai, 67. 
 
 f'iri[3cocro(j.ai, 39. 
 
 ETEXEIETO, 72. 
 
 4'Kupos, 46 f. 
 
 Eirwro-vE(r0ai, 92. 
 
 ETETJiE, 06. 
 
 C'KWV, 46. 
 
 EirwrraiiE'vcos, 81. 
 
 E'TEV'XETOV, 67. 
 
 eXaav, 71. 
 
 EITITOVOS, 89. 
 
 ETtJS, 40. 
 
 eXacracrKe, 78. 
 
 eirojwjxiXiov, 80. 
 
 ETOS, 46. 
 
 E'XEO-KE, 78. 
 
 ?iros, 22, 40. 
 
 ExJaSev, 48, 88. 
 
 sXe-u'SEpov T]|iap, 21. 
 
 EirpaOov, 45. 
 
 EviSov, 49. 
 
 EX^XE'SaTo, 60. 
 
 EpaSs, 50. 
 
 \)K1]XoS, 88. 
 
 i'Xi^, 46. 
 
 Epavi^tjv, 36, 44. 
 
 EuicXEias, 53. 
 
 i'XXa.pe, 66. 
 
 Epairrofwv, 66. 
 
 EVKVTlVlSES, 12. 
 
 E'XXuro-TO, 02. 
 
 Efryov, 46. 
 
 EVfl|lEXl(0, 51. 
 
 EXXiToLvExicra, I',:'.. 
 
 EpEpEWT,', 30, 44. 
 
 evvT)({>iv, 49. 
 
 E'X-n-is, 40. 
 
 >t, CO. 
 
 EvpEa, 56. 
 
 i'Xo-ai, 7:;. 
 
 EpElOfWV, 76. 
 
 vpolos, 54. 
 
 >'ev, 50, 62. 
 
 ?pE|a, 43, 00. 
 
 upv'oira, 51. 
 
 E'JJLEIO, 02 f. 
 
 E'pfySowos, 12, 44. 
 
 ECJ)*, 79. 
 
 E'JW'O, 02. 
 
 E'piSoviru, 44. 
 
 EXEVEV, 73. 
 
 EfjiiYTiv, 75. 
 
 ?pos, 37.' 
 
 Zoucweos, 91. 
 
 E(ji|jitt0s, 66. E'pp<i8aTai, 69. 
 
 ZEVjwpiT!, 93. 
 
 (i|iv(ai) h-T\.,34,43,7 '. epvKaKE, 60. 
 
 ZTJVO'S KT\., 56. 
 
 Efiiraiov, 3S. ipvtra.ro, 66. 
 
 if, TIE, ^, TJE, 29. 
 
 (iir4>vuia, 73. 
 
 e'pvco, 46. 
 
 TJPOVTS, 71. 
 
 EV SE', 78. 
 
 IpXCM-ai, 66. 
 
 TJ-y^P^tv, 70. 
 
 EvSioi, 80. 
 
 "pws, 37, 53. 
 
 T]8\Js, 46. 
 
 EVE'VIITE, 66. 
 
 <rav, 76. iiEiS^s, 60 f., 88. 
 
 EVI, 70. 
 
 ECTTTEplOl, 8H. ^E'XlOS, 45.
 
 (JltEEK INDEX. 
 
 TJpiT], 80. 
 
 9v)iopaiorTca>v, 4-'!. 
 
 Kclfmcrroi, 45. 
 
 1100S, 46. 
 
 6vpU)V, 51. 
 
 Kcurropvvo-a, 42. 
 
 VJIKTO, 00. 
 
 0vpT|0i, 50. 
 
 Kourx0> 42. 
 
 7]XvaTo, 73r 
 
 UvpTl<plj '!. 
 
 KBIT', 7'.'. 
 
 t]X&j, 66. 
 
 0vw. _. 
 
 Karaiparai, 79. 
 
 rjfiap, 45. 
 
 Oajp^xOVjvai, 74. 
 
 K8a<r0VTs, 44. 
 
 ? fCI 
 
 rjfias, 02. 
 
 ta (CT\., 60. 
 
 Kl0l, 50. 
 
 TJ|i|3poTov, 44. 
 
 leixu, 46. 
 
 Ktvos, 80. 
 
 T]fJ,Tpo'v8<, 50. 
 
 lS*Iv, 46. 
 
 KKaSTJcri, 67. 
 
 il v, 37, 76. 
 
 tSrjai, 69. 
 
 KcxXTJ'yovTfs, 68. 
 
 T]'vSav, 66. 
 
 "ISTjOev, 50. 
 
 KKOpv0)ie'vos, 43. 
 
 ijvfiKav, 73. 
 
 iS[iv cu , 43, 77. 
 
 KeTKTO, 77. 
 
 TJvioxTjes, 55. 
 
 ispws, y>. 
 
 KT)'euV, 68. 
 
 TJviirairt, 00. 
 
 UiT), 76. 
 
 KT]O}1V, 73. 
 
 7]VuryiV, 45. 
 
 Uwri, 75, 70. 
 
 KT)po'0l, 50. 
 
 rjvaryov, 74. 
 
 iKfXos, 46. 
 
 KIUJV, 23. 
 
 tfc, 66. 
 
 i\t]8i, 68. 
 
 KXaio'vT<rcri, 52. 
 
 tf oik, 39. 
 
 'IXioo, 51. 
 
 KXvT, 77. 
 
 Tfpa, 47. 
 
 "IXios, 23, 47. 
 
 KVTJcrn, 52. 
 
 cr ^ oo 
 1]puX>S, OO. 
 
 I|ov, 73. 
 
 KoiXos, 39. 
 
 VfpttS, 22. 
 
 tov, 40. 
 
 Kojiicro-aro, 72. 
 
 VjOTKClV, 45. 
 
 'I-mroTaSTjs, 57. 
 
 Kope'ei, 72. 
 
 i]4>i PIT)<|>I, 49. 
 
 Ipa, 3!. 
 
 KopvGaioXos, 12. 
 
 'Ha> Slav, 83. 
 
 (pT)KS) 39. 
 
 Kocr|u'<i>, 22. 
 
 rjwOl, 50. 
 
 tpt| KlpKOS, 14. 
 
 KorvX^Sovo'^i, 49. 
 
 Oap<rvs, 39, 53. 
 
 'Ipis, 47. 
 
 Kovpou 'Axaiwv, 12. 
 
 Oaunt^w, 22. 
 
 ts, t|>i, 46. 
 
 Kpaara h-T\., 53. 
 
 Ofo, 37. 
 
 t<rav, 77. 
 
 KpaT<r<|)i, 50. 
 
 Cais, 51. 
 
 lo-os, 23, 46, 88. 
 
 Kpit3v, 54. 
 
 0w, 70. 
 
 'lo-rieuav, 39. 
 
 Kpc|u>(i>, 72. 
 
 -0v, 50. 
 
 lTvs,47. 
 
 Kprj0V, 53. 
 
 ?COl&Ea, 39. 
 
 bp, 60. 
 
 Kpivw, 22. 
 
 Ctov&ijs, 92. 
 
 KcippaXev, 42. 
 
 Kpoviuv, 58. 
 
 Oeo'^iv, 50. 
 
 KoS Sc, 42. 
 
 KpV1tTCUTK, 78. 
 
 Ceptvs, 39. 
 
 KQKKIOVTS, 7:1. 
 
 KTap.c'yoio, 74. 
 
 0p<rTT)s, 36. 
 
 KaKoglVWTfX>S, 60. 
 
 KVVTpOV, 00. 
 
 Ot'oririav, 56. 
 
 KOKTavt, 42. 
 
 Kvpo-as, 73. 
 
 CTjXvTfpai, 60. 
 
 KaX'ow<ra, 72. 
 
 AatpTiaSrjs, 57. 
 
 -Oi, 50. 
 
 KjiXXr, 42. 
 
 Aaofj.8ovTia8T]s, 58 f. 
 
 CovpiBa, "7. 
 
 KdXo's, 23, 88. 
 
 Xdo's, 37. 
 
 SpcwroSi 45. 
 
 TT ' V _J.) 
 
 Xa<xreroos, 92. 
 
 6p*'fao-Kov, 78. 
 
 Ka-ir 4>aXapa, 42. 
 
 Xopwraros, 60. 
 
 Ovyarf'pa, 89. 
 
 KOpt] KTA.. ".:',. 
 
 Xa<j>wro-TOV, 07. 
 
 6v<rra, 51. Kapp'yovcra, 42. XfXaxwo-i, i',t;
 
 GKKF.K INDEX. 
 
 99 
 
 XtXvvro, 70. o, 6's, KT\., 64. OVTO, 23. 
 
 XcvKioXcvost 12. 
 
 d-ySo'aTOS, o-ySoov, 61. OVTOS, 80. 
 
 Xo'-yos, 22. 
 
 ovSuJKovra, 39. o4>'XXi<v, 36, 44. 
 
 Xo, 38. 
 
 6'8, 80. 
 
 6'4>iv, 93. 
 
 Xwiov, 60. 
 
 d8|i7]v, 43. 
 
 o<j>pa, 29. 
 
 XWTOVVTO,, 39. 
 
 'OSwo-svs, 89. o4/eo-06. 73. 
 
 (lav, 37. 
 
 'O8wrvs, 54. irdis, 39. 
 
 p.d<rTi, 55. 
 
 OlSi-n-o'Sao, 56. iravT]|iepioi, 80. 
 
 fuOc'iMV, 76. 
 
 ol!Ko0L, 51 ; olKo'vSe, 50. iravvvxios, 80. 
 
 fip.do'Ts, 88. O!KOS, 47. irapd 8t, 78. 
 
 p.|i(3XTO, [i(xpXwK, 4 1. "OiXidSr]?, 58. 
 
 irdp", irapaC, 79. 
 
 uc'uvTio'CLit (59. olvos, 4 1 . 
 
 irapi<3v, 51. 
 
 MVoiTid8r|s, 57 f. 
 
 6'is, 39. 
 
 irdpt'xtl. 93 - 
 
 lXp|XTJplg, 73. 
 
 olo-p.vai, 73. 
 
 irapo-TTjTOV, 76. 
 
 fwVerov, 89. 
 
 dX<r0ai, 72. 
 
 irda-ais, 51. 
 
 |Xra, 79. 
 
 dXcOpiov Tifxap, 21. 
 
 XlarpoKXcis, 56. 
 
 (iTa8o'pirios, 80. 
 
 oXoij, 38. 
 
 jra.Tpo<j>ovTJa, 55. 
 
 lUTarpc'irti, 69. 
 
 'OXu|nrtd8Si 57. 
 
 irarpuv, 53. 
 
 fJLTtCO, 76. 
 
 " OA 
 
 OflOU|J.CH,, OV. 
 
 ir^o's, 80. 
 
 (itTuimov, 80. 
 
 6'vSc So'fiovSc, 50. 
 
 ircivdcov, 71. 
 
 IAIJ dXXoi, 39. 
 
 ovojiai, 23. 
 
 ir|xiro>, 23. 
 
 |AT)SV, 61. 
 
 oo, 51. 
 
 n-firi0TJo"w, 67. 
 
 (xriri, 52. 
 
 oov, 64. 
 
 irin0ot(iT]V, 66. 
 
 (AiirUra, 51. 
 
 oirirws, 43, 89 ; oirws, 'J'.). 
 
 irEpiSe't-ios, 86. 
 
 LXtV CO^tVjiitVTl(r(rvClt) i *' 
 
 dpdv, dpourOai, 74. 
 
 irt pi8u5(it0ov, 69. 
 
 LJLLU.VOLLCO) DO. 
 
 dp(TTpos, 60. 
 
 n-0-ovrai, 73. 
 
 P.IV, 62. 
 
 6>o-4>i.v, 50. 
 
 HcTfwo, 51. 
 
 (ioiivos, 38. 
 
 6'pT]cu, 71. 
 
 irv0o|iat,, 53. 
 
 (iuSe'ai, (Jiv0iai, 71. 
 
 opvicriv alYvir(oi<riv, 11. ir<j>i8TJo-Tai, 67. 
 
 (iupa, 61. 
 
 opcreo, 73. 
 
 IlT|Xt<ov, 59. 
 
 Navo-iKaa, 37. 
 
 dp4>aviKov V]|xap, 21. 
 
 IlT]Xiwvd8c, 50. 
 
 va(ic|>i, 49 f . 
 
 6'pCJp, 74. 
 
 irurvpas, 61. 
 
 vtiarov, 60. dpcopcxarai, 69. 
 
 iri<j>avcrK(i>, 93. 
 
 V6lKlT)0-l, VlK(r<T, 72. 6V, 41. 
 
 TlXdraiav, 56. 
 
 v=iK<r<ri, 43. 
 
 OTOlO-l, OTV, 65. 
 
 irXf'as, irXS, 60. 
 
 VC'KUO-O-I, 52. 
 
 6'riva, OTTO, 65. 
 
 irXfvpd, 56. 
 
 vevpa, 56. 
 
 ov yap Ti, 78. 
 
 iroSdpKTjs, 12, 34 f. 
 
 V<t>Xtl-ypTa, 36. 
 
 ot&fv, 60. 
 
 iroSouv, 52. 
 
 NTipVSfs, 58 - 
 
 o\i5eos, 53. 
 
 7ro0T)Hvai, 72. 
 
 VT]VS, 54. ovjio's, 40. 
 
 iroXc'as, 57. 
 
 vo(i>, 22. OvpavCwvcs, 57. 
 
 iroXo-o-i, 57. 
 
 voo-rijiov iffxap, 21. ovpos, 38. 
 
 ' iroXiT]Tas, 55. 
 
 |jivos, JiS. ovs (oas), 53. 
 
 iro'Xu>s,39; irdXis /crA.64. 
 
 u'viV, 70. ovra, 71, 77. iroXXaiu, 45.
 
 100 
 
 GKKEK INDEX. 
 
 iroXXo's, 57. r, 41. -uireip, 79. 
 
 iroXvXXurrov, 92. ToXa'ioviSao, 59. inrcpSea, 53. 
 
 iroVTOiropov'crrjS, 39. 
 
 raXavpivov, 48. 
 
 'YirepioviSao, 59. 
 
 ft i(\ 
 
 raXXa, 40. 
 
 \5irepoirXiTjori, S7. 
 
 iro<r<ri, 37, 43. 
 
 Tax')S, 81. 
 
 virvwovras. 72. 
 
 ircm, 79. 
 
 T, 29. 
 
 4>dav9ev. ~ { ' 
 
 irovXv's, 38, 57. 
 
 Te'6va6i, 68. 
 
 <j>aeiVTaTos, 60. 
 
 irpc'o-pa, 57. 
 
 T0VT|WTOS, 68. 
 
 4>dveo-K, 78. 
 
 -irp^vris, 80. 
 
 T\ap.u>vidST)G, 59. 
 
 4>do, 76. 
 
 IlpiafiCSiis, 89. 
 
 TeXafiiuVLOs. 59. 
 
 cjxipos. 23, 88. 
 
 irptv, 89. 
 
 TOIO. 62. 
 
 4>eufo'vTwv, 68. 
 
 irpopXuxrKciv, 44. 
 
 Tfoio-i, 65. 4>T)p<riv, 36. 
 
 irpoOvjiiTjo-i, 87. 
 
 TepiriKc'pauvos, 45. 
 
 <j>e^oriv, 67. 
 
 irpoo-auStJTTiv, 71. 
 
 rcrXaOi, (is. 
 
 <}>0tflT]V, 4>01TO, 70. 
 
 irpoo-cairaTa, 53. 
 
 TTpd<|>aTo, 69. 
 
 -4>i, 49. 
 
 irpori, 79. 
 
 TfTVKOVTO, 66. 
 
 4>iX(ivTas, 39. 
 
 irpov4>aivc, 40. 
 
 rtv, 65. 
 
 4>iXiifivai, 72. 
 
 irpovxovro, 40. 
 
 TcxvVvrws, 81. 
 
 <j>Xi4eTai, 36. 
 
 irpo'4>pao-<ra, 57. Txvrj!r<rai, 39. 
 
 4>o'pos, 23. 
 
 irpo'<}>pv, 80. rt'wv, 65. 
 
 <JK>pVjvai, 72. 
 
 TTpWTKTTOS, 60. Tl0l, TlOTJfWVOS, 75. 
 
 (j>da>s, 37. 
 
 n-roX|i.t|onV, 73. 
 
 Ti0T)|ii, 2:1. 
 
 <t>v-yaS, 50. 
 
 irro'X|ios, 44. 
 
 Tip.^"s, 39. 
 
 j>v'^a, 23. 
 
 irro'Xis, 44. 
 
 rfcrciav, (is. 
 
 <j>uXaicovs, 66. 
 
 iruXs'wv, 51. 
 
 roC, ra(, vrA., 64. 
 
 Y ClXKOY ITWVWV 1 . 
 
 irojXe'ai, 72. 
 
 TOlCr8(TlV, <i4. 
 
 Y LLLCllVVClScS} oS. 
 
 pa, 29. 
 
 TOir8(ro-iv, 64. 
 
 Xip, 3S. 
 
 pcur<raT, C9. 
 
 TOUTI 8' dveVrt], 27. 
 
 ' - tit 
 XTj(J.i.S, 40. 
 
 < / , i 
 
 Totmica, 40. 
 
 X0to's, 79. 
 
 plirraa-Kt, 78. 
 
 Tpairo|xev, 45, 75. 
 
 Xpu5, 40. 
 
 o-aa), 71. 
 
 rpcujuv, 70. 
 
 Xptj KT\., 28. 
 
 o-0V, 50 ; <rio, 62 f . 
 
 rpiXXurros, 92. 
 
 Xpv<rT]i8a, 5S 
 
 2ciptivoi.iv, 52. 
 
 Tpix0<i, 44. 
 
 w dpi-yvwTt, 40. 
 
 2Kap,avSpos, 91. 
 
 TpwiaSiov, 58. 
 
 w8v<rao, 69. 
 
 SfjuvOeC, 58. 
 
 Tv8Vj, 39. 
 
 W0CTKC, 78. 
 
 crimo, 71. 
 
 TV'VT], 6'J. 
 
 WKIO-TOS. 59. 
 
 a-irtiovs, 37. 
 
 vppoiXXeiv, 42. 
 
 lOKVpo'u), -13. 
 
 (rirt'<r<ri 52 
 
 vUs 'Ax<uwv, 12. 
 
 uipio-ros, 40. 
 
 cnrri<r<ri, 54. 
 
 vio's, vlos, KT\., 55. 
 
 wpop, 7-4 ; topcrt, 73. 
 
 CTTT[80-<j)lV, 50. 
 
 VULLCOV. (52. 
 
 <is (postpositive), 44 
 
 truvtxt's, 93. 
 
 VLLULCS, K"TA., 63. 
 
 Jis, 64. 
 
 cruos Kairpou, 14. 
 
 vp.o's KT\., 62 f. 
 
 <Ss 8* OVITCOS, '"'4. 
 
 cr<t>. 62. 
 
 vira, 79. 
 
 uw-Tt with inf., 26. 
 
 oriofia, -'.I. iiiraiOa. 35. "iii 
 
 WUTOS, 40.
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 [The references are to pages.] 
 
 Adjectives, 56 f. 
 
 Adjective in apposition with noun, 0. 
 
 Adverbs, 79 f. 
 
 Accent of words, different from At- 
 tic, 23. 
 
 Aeolic elements in Homeric dialect, 
 35 f. 
 
 Alphabet, transfer from the earlier, 37. 
 
 Alliteration, 15. 
 
 Amphimacer, 87. 
 
 Anastrophe, 79. 
 
 Anomalous forms, 55 f . 
 
 Apocope, 42 f. 
 
 Arnold, Matthew, 1, 7. 
 
 Article, 63 f. 
 
 Asyndeton, 18 f. 
 
 Attic reduplication, 66. 
 
 Attic second declension, 52. 
 
 Augment, 65 f. 
 
 Bent ley, 47. 
 
 Bryant, 6. 
 
 Bucolic diaeresis, 85. 
 
 Caesural pauses, 83 ff. 
 
 Cases retain original force, 25. 
 
 Changes in meaning and use of words, 
 22 f. 
 
 Change of subject, 7 f. 
 
 Chapman, 2 f. 
 
 Chiasmus, 19. 
 
 Comparisons, 16 ff. 
 
 Comparison of adjectives, 59 f. 
 
 Consonants, 43 ff. 
 
 Contraction, 39. 
 
 Contract verbs, 70 ff. 
 
 Convenience of verse, 34, 86 f . 
 
 Conventional epithets, 11 ff. 
 
 Copulative for disjunctive conjunc- 
 tions, 32. 
 
 Correlative constructions, 31 f. 
 
 Cowper, 4 f. 
 
 Crasis, 40. 
 
 Dactyls, 81 f. 
 
 Dative of interest, 26 f. 
 
 Dative with M, inrt, avv, or &pa, 27 f. 
 
 Demonstrative pronouns, 63 f. 
 
 Derby, Lord, 5 f. 
 
 Digamma, 45 ff. 
 
 Diphthongs shortened, 93 f . 
 
 Direct discourse, 7 f. 
 
 Elision, 41 f. 
 
 Epanalepsis, 20. 
 
 Epexegesis, 13 f. 
 
 tViirA.o/f^, 20. 
 
 Epithets, 11 ff., 34 f. 
 
 Errors in transmission of text of 
 
 poems, 36 f. 
 Feminine caesura, 84. 
 First aorist active and middle, 72 f. 
 First declension, 50 f . 
 Future active and middle, 72 f. 
 Future passive, 75. 
 Genitive absolute, 26. 
 Genitive in -oo, 51. 
 Hepthemimeral caesura, 84. 
 Hexameter verse, 81 ff. 
 Hiatus, 40 f. 
 Hysteron proteron, 22. 
 Indefinite pronoun, 65. 
 Infinitive with ace., 26. 
 Infinitive with &CTT, 26. 
 Intensive pronoun, 63. 
 Interrogative particles, 29. 
 Interrogative pronouns, 65. 
 Ionic dialect, 35. 
 Iterative forms, 77 f. 
 Jod, 44.
 
 10-2 
 
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 Litotes, 20 f . 
 
 Long vowels shortened, 93 f. 
 
 Masculine caesura, 84. 
 
 Meaning of words changed, 22 f. 
 
 Metathesis, 45. 
 
 Middle voice, 74. 
 
 -/it, verbs in, 75 f. 
 
 Mute and liquid make position, 90. 
 
 Newman, F. W., 5. 
 
 v movable, 45. 
 
 Numerals, 60 f . 
 
 Old and new forms side by side, 34. 
 
 Onomatopoeia, 15. 
 
 Optative mode, 24 f ., 70. 
 
 Order of words, 9 ff. 
 
 Parasitic r, 44. 
 
 Parataxis, 30 f . 
 
 Parechesis, 15. 
 
 Participial construction deserted, 8. 
 
 Participle has principal thought, 33. 
 
 Particles, 28 f . 
 
 Passive voice, 75. 
 
 Patronymics, 57 ff. 
 
 IVnthemimeral caesura, 84. 
 
 Perfect, 73 f. 
 
 Periphrasis, 21. 
 
 Personal pronouns, 62 f. 
 
 Pope, 3 f . 
 
 Possessive Pronouns, 62 f. 
 
 Prepositions, 25, 78 f. 
 
 Principal clauses, 8. 
 
 Pronouns, 62 ff. 
 
 Quantity, 86 ff. 
 
 Reduplication, 66. 
 
 Relative pronoun, 64. 
 
 Relative not the first word in its 
 clause, 10. 
 
 Rough breathing, 4">. 
 
 Second aorist without variable vowd. 
 77. 
 
 Second declension, 51. 
 
 Short mode-vowel in subjunctive, 70, 
 75, 76. 
 
 Single consonant makes position, 91 f . 
 
 ff movable, 45. 
 
 Special case-endings, 49 f. 
 
 Spondaic verses, 83. 
 
 Spondees, 81. 
 
 Stereotyped expressions, 14. 
 
 Subjunctive mode, 24, 70. 
 
 Sj-nizesis, 39 f. 
 
 Synonymous expressions, 13. 
 
 Tennyson, 6. 
 
 Third declension, 52 ff. 
 
 Variations of natural quantity, 88. 
 
 Vau, 45 ff. 
 
 Verb-endings, 67 ff. 
 
 Verbal adjectives, 28. 
 
 Vocalization of p, 48 f. 
 
 Vowels and diphthongs, 37 f. 
 
 Words lacking in Homeric vocabu- 
 lary, 23. 
 
 Zeugma, 21 f. 
 
 Yod, 44.
 
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